TLEAI
      WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 12120 EUR 11/71
    Information Resource:
    Water  Pollution  Control
 in the Water Utility Industry
   U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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          WATER POLLUnON CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of pollution
in our Nation's waters.  They provide a central source of
information on the- research, development and demonstration
activities in the Environmental Protection Agency, through
inhouse research and grants and contracts with Federal,  State,
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial
organizations.

Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should "be directed to the Chief, Publications Branch
(Water), Research Information Division, R&M, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, B.C. 20460.

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         INFORMATION RESOURCE:

        WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

                  IN THE

         WATER UTILITY INDUSTRY
                    by
American Water Works Association Research Foundation
               2 Park Avenue
            New York, N.Y.  10016
                  for the

   ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
          Program Number 12120 EUR

               November, 1971

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                      E!PA Review Notice
     This report  has been reviewed by the Environmental
     Protection Agency and approved for publication.
     Approval does  not signify  that the contents necessarily
     refle.ct the  views and policies of the Environmental
     Protection Agency, nor does  mention of  trade names or
     commercial products constitute endorsement or recommen-
     dation for use.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.50


                               ii

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                            ABSTRACT

This report describes the accomplishments of a program conducted to org-
anize, coordinate, and disseminate information on new or modified sludge
treatment technology for water treatment plant wastes.  The reliable
control of these potential pollutants is of increasing importance with
the enactment and enforcement of more stringent pollution control leg-
islation.  The report contains information on research, engineering,
plant operation, and regulatory aspects of the problem.  A Project Ad-
visory Committee provided recommendations for developmer  of information
resources, and assisted the Research Foundation in structuring an infc-
formation clearing-house.  The report describes current research act-
ivities and new approaches for characterizing and reducing water treat-
ment plant waste volumes.  A program was initiated to evaluate the
applicability of polymers as primary coagulants, coagulant aids, and
sludge conditioning agents .  A Sub-Committee was established to prepare
uniform sampling, analysis, and categorization techniques for water
utility sludges.  Each program is in progress.  Surveys were distributed
to water utilities and regulatory agencies to provide information on
sludge treatment methods and requirements.  The AWWA Research Foundation
plans the continuation and expansion of this centralized information
resource program.

This report was submitted in fulfillment of Program (Project) Number
12120 EUR, under the partial sponsorship of the Water Quality Office,
Environmental Protection Agency.
                                 iii

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                        CONTENTS






Section                                             Page




  I           Conclusions                            1




  II          Recommendations                        3




  III         Introduction                           7




  IV          Advisory Committee Recommendations     15




  V           Information Resources Available        23




  VI          Technology Transfer Results            33




  VII         Survey of Regulatory Agencies          57




  VIII        Water Utility Survey                   81




  IX          New Technological Developments         101




  X           Reference Abstracts                    129




  XI          Information Resource Developments      141




  XII         Acknowledgments                        145




  XIII        References                             149




  XIV         Appendices                             157
                         v

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                             FIGURES

                                                          PAGE
1.   PRIMARY COAGULANTS AND COAGULANT AIDS                 HO

2.   INTERFACE LEVEL VS. TIME                              111

3.   SLUDGE CONDITIONER DATA SHEET                         119

4.   EQUIPMENT FOR STANDARD FILTER COLUMN TEST             121

5.   FILTER COLUMN DATA SHEET                              123
                               vi

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                                TABLES


No.                                                         Page

1.  Processes for Treatment, Disposal, and By-Product         9
    Recovery of Water Treatment Plant Wastes

2.  Utilization of Waste Treatment Parameters                 53

3.  Acceptability of Sludge Disposal Methods                  55

4.  Acceptability of Liquid Waste Disposal Methods            ji

5.  Waste Production and Monitoring                          72

6.  Major Contributors to Support Research                   74

7.  Major Conductors of Research Effort                      75

8.  Acceptability of Discharging Reduced Wastes  to  a         77
    Watercourse

9.  Categorization of Survey Data Parameters                  go

10. Concentration of Basin Sludge                            87

11. Concentration of Filter Washwater                        88

12. Disposal Techniques for Basin and Filter Washwater       90
    Solids, and Liquid Wastes

13. Techniques Employed for Final Disposal of  Solid and      9^
    Liquid Wastes

14. Basin Sludge Concentration Data                          93

15. Filter Washwater Sludge Concentration Data               94

16. Chemical Analysis of Basin Sludge                        95

17. Chemical Analysis of Filter Washwater                    96

18. Chemical and Biochemical Oxygen Demand Character of      97
    Purification Plant Wastes

19. Chemical and Biochemical Oxygen Demand Character of      98
    Softening Plant Wastes

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                               SECTION I

                            CONCLUSIONS


1.  The problem of controlling pollution caused by wastes from water treat-
    ment plants becomes a practical consideration when the discharge of
    of untreated wastes to a watercourse conflicts with the state and/or
    federal legislation prohibiting such action.

2.  The reclamation and reuse of filter washwater has been demonstrated
    at several water treatment plants.  The effects of settling this waste,
    and recovering and recirculating the supernatant must be examined at
    individual plants.  Factors to be investigated in the recovery and
    reuse of washwater should include:  the effects on the bacteriological
    quality of the finished water; on the other system variables and over-
    all treatment efficiency, and on the capital, operating, and mainte-
    nance costs.

3.  The utility of calcining softening sludges to recover lime for reuse
    or resale has been demonstrated.  Individual evaluations are required
    to determine whether the reduction  (minimi?.?>*-ion) of wastes for dispos-
    al and the recovery of lime outweigh the costs and operation consid-
    erations for such a waste treatment facility.  Among the important
    considerations are:  operation, maintenance, and capital costs for a
    recalcining plant;  the level of operation sophistication; the extent
    of impure and inert material to be separated and disposed of prior to
    calcining; the market for excess lime produced; the recovery of carbon
    dioxide from the kiln for the carbonation of the product water or the
    carbonation of the sludge; the need to minimize air pollution in the
    calcining operation; and reduced main plant operating costs.

4.  The possibility of recovering alum from coagulant sludges has been
    demonstrated.  The recovery process requires careful control and oper-
    ation.  The recovery appears economically attractive in plants treating
    flows of 100 mgd or greater.  Individual testing is needed to determine
    the value of alum recovery at specific locations.

5.  Physical and chemical liquid-solid separation processes for sludge
    disposal  require laboratory and pilot plant applications before a
    system can be selected.

6.  Laboratory, pilot, and plant scale testing provides the basis for
    selecting the most efficient and economical sludge dewatering and/or
    recovery process.

7.  The development of uniform reports on sampling, analysis, and cate-
    gorization for the evaluation of wastes from all types of water treat-
    ment plants has been initiated.  Standardized reporting procedures are
    needed for comparing data from water treatment plants.  The accumulat-
    ed data may illustrate seasonal variations in waste character that

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    are important in the orderly progression of laboratory or pilot unit
    testing.

8.  A standard methodology to evaluate the suitability of polymers as
    primary coagulants, coagulant aids, and sludge conditioning agents
    will assist in solving the waste treatment problem.  Work has been
    initiated to determine the utility of polymers to assist in reducing
    waste volume.

9.  The recovery of by-products from sludge for reuse or marketing should
    be further investigated as an alternative to lagooning or landfill.

10. Coagulants such as MgC03, polymers, or other chemicals should be more
    intensively investigated.  They may be suitable to replace alum, pro-
    duce properly treated waters, and leave easily dewatered or treated
    sludges.

11. The type and amount of sludge produced in water treatment plants
    depends upon the raw water quality, treatment processes, and treatment
    efficiency.  The control of these variables should be directed to
    maximizing waste concentration and thus minimizing of waste volume.

12. The majority of authorized regulatory agencies will require that
    waste effluents from water treatment plants meet existing  effluent
    requirements and/or stream classification water quality standards
    before wastes can be discharged to a watercourse.

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                              SECTION II

                         RECOMMENDATIONS

The development of standard  testing procedures to sample, analyze, and
categorize wastes from all types of water treatment plants is in progress.
Following completion and evaluation,  the methodology is to be submitted to
an appropriate Standard Methods Sub-Committee for review and modification.
It is  intended that these procedures  will be published in future editions
of Standard Methods for the  Examination of Water and Wastewater.

With the establishment of  uiiform reporting formats, water treatment plants
should undertake the examination of their wastes as a routine operation.
Records of waste quantity and quality should be accumulated and correlated
to system variables such as  raw water quality, treatment efficiency, temper-
ature, and other parameters.  The collection of this data is an important
first  step in selecting sludge dewatering or by-product recovery technol-
ogy for laboratory or pilot  scale evaluation.

The utility of polymers or some universal coagulant to favorably alter
waste  character and minimize waste volume should be demonstrated at specif-
ic treatment plants.   The suitability of polymers to replace or reduce
alum or ferric salts in the  production of potable water and to make sludges
more amenable to dewatering  must be fully resolved.  A methodology is under
development to systematically evaluate and choose effective polymers.

The results of research and  demonstration projects on techniques to recover
and reuse filter washwater,  to recover solid wastes for reuse or market-
ing, and to utilize new or modified liquid-solid separation processes
should be collected by the AWWA Research Foundation.  The need for water
utility oriented organizations to provide reports of individual research
is evident for the success of a central information resource.  As a clear-
ing-house, the Foundation will organize, coordinate, and transfer reports
on research and new technological developments, such as the use of magne-
sium carbonate to remove color and turbidity from water and the rotary
precoat vacuum filtration of alum sludge, to the water utility industry.

The design of new or modified water treatment facilities should' incorporate
integrated water and waste treatment  processes having the flexibility to
adjust to changes in the sludge character.

Laboratory, pilot, and plant scale investigations are invaluable in deter-
mining the most suitable sludge treatment sequences at specific utilities.
The most economically justifiable sludge treatment alternative must provide
the basis for the final process selection.  It is expected that heavily
populated areas will require the investigation of by-product recovery or
dewatering procedures utilizing minimum area requirements for ultimate
disposal.  Areas not heavily populated may still use sedimentation or
lagooning procedures to treat wastes.  The record of chemical constituents
in particular sludges may justify the use of recovery processes.

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Each water utility must consider the effects of recycling highly treated
washwater to the intake line of the treatment facility.  Bacteriolog-
ical and other quality and treatment efficiency evaluations must be made.
The recovery of this water may lower plant operating costs and reduce
pollution caused by the discharge of this waste to a watercourse.

The climatological conditions of a specific geographic area must be
fully exploited in waste treatment.  The natural freezing and thawing
of purification sludges in lagoons' will reduce the solids to a coffee
ground formation that settles well and occupies a minimum volume.  These
settled solids can be used as the first step in alum recovery operations.
Other possibilities such as the use of solar evaporation ponds in arid
regions to treat concentrated brine wastes, must be part of an overall
treatment sequence.

The selection and operation of water treatment processes affects the
nature of the waste.  Processes must be chosen that make wastes amenable
to handling and treatment.

Some water treatment facilities do not presently have sludge disposal
problems.  It is expected that these utilities will plan future treat-
ment alternatives that can alleviate or lessen the problems when they
become real.  For instance, two raw water supplies may be available for
development.  One source may require significant pumping before reach-
ing the plant.  The second source may be nearby.  The first source may
be relatively higher in quality than the second source.  If the source
further away will produce considerably less waste, the cost of pumping
this water and treating this waste should be compared with the cost of
pumping the closer raw water supply and treating its waste before a
selection is made.

The true effects of discharging softening and purification wastes to
sewage treatment systems must be fully explored.  The effect of sludges
on settling efficiency in primary settling tanks and removing phosphate
in activated sludge processes is relatively unknown.  These solid wastes
will increase digester requirements.  The efficiency of a digester should
be tested with varying amounts of water plant sludge added to the basic-
ally organic sewage wastes.

Sludge incinerators, with adequate particulate emmission removal systems
which minimize air pollution, must be investigated.  The residue from
incineration can be used as a landfill and may demonstrate utility as
an aggregate for concrete.

The hydraulics of transporting purification and softening sludges in
pipelines needs reasearch.  Pumping, head loss, and floe disintegration
must be included in this area of study.

Modifications to new or existing processes available from other indus-
tries should be developed.  The Metroplitan Water District of Southern
"California modified the alum recovery operation used in Tokyo by

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incorporating filter pressing to separate the recovered alum sulphate
solution from the acidified inert sludge*

Research on the recovery and treatment of concentrated brine solutions
must be considered so that the use o£ ion-exchange and desalination
processes will be possible without Violating state and federal pollu-
tion control requirements.

The effect of regionalizing treatment systems for producing potable
water and handling wastes in contiquoUs operations must be considered.
Several basin commissions have been formed to determine legitimate water
utilization and water pollution control measures.  The regional approach
applied to water treatment plants might require more sophisticated oper-
ation and management.

In large water treatment plants where the recovery of alum may be prac-
ticable, special personnel may be requited to operate the recovery
facilities.  Chemical suppliers might be interested in operating this
facility.  The recovery process may hot be economically lucrative
when first compared to the price of new aluttij but alum recovery mini-
mizes the amount of waste for ultimate disposal.

Water utilities must keep abreast of state and federal legislation,
such as the Harbors and Rivers Act of 1899, that may require each treat-
ment plant to file discharge permits with the U.S* Army Corps of Engi-
neers .

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                             SECTION III

                            INTRODUCTION

The need to successfully handle and dispose of wastes from water treat-
ment plants has attained increased importance.  More stringent pollu-
tion abatement legislation  is being enacted to deal with wastes from
all types of industrial sources.  Public awareness of controlling pollu-
tion caused by municipal and industrial discharge of waste streams
to watercourses is emphasized in the various communication media.  The
wastes from water utilities are classified as industrial in character.
There is an opportunity for the water treatment industry to be the first
major industry to control their wastes on a national scale.

The AWWA Research Foundation, in 1969, published a state-of-the-art
report on the "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment Plants."  This
study was supported in part by a grant from the FWPCA.   It presented
known treatment technology, cost data, and suggestions for future needs.
Tha- report recommended the establishment of a central information
clearing-house to organize, coordinate, and disseminate information on
new or modified treatment technology and promote its application by
the water utility industry.

The Research Foundation, in 1970-71, conducted an expanded program
titled "Information Resource on Water Pollution Control in the Water
Utility Industry."  This study was supported by a grant from the Water
Quality Office, EPA, and by matching funds from 30 water utilities.
Implementation of the project has developed activities for the trans-
fer of technology among researchers and water utilities, and has defined
gap areas of treatment technology requiring further investigation.

A Project Advisory Committee, composed of experts involved in the
research, engineering, plant operation, and regulatory aspects of the
sludge disposal problem, was assembled for a two day meeting.  The
purpose of the meeting was for Committee members to exchange ideas and
present recommendations to aid the Research Foundation in organizing
an information service.  The preparation of two surveys and the pre-
sentation of several reports on aspects of the sludge treatment problem
were undertaken.

The need was recognized for an information clearing-house to initiate
laboratory or pilot scale investigations of sludge dewatering and by-
product recovery processes.  The accumulation and dissemination of
current research information is a valuable step in providing criteria
for solution of specific problems at individual water utilities.   The
report is intended to aquaint the water utility industry with references
to past, present, and proposed work as bases for the adoption of waste
treatment programs.

Research and development activities were identified through governmen-
tal agencies, literature searches,  and personal correspondence with

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water research  institutions.  Technical articles were abstracted in
accordance with Water Resources Science Information Center specifi-
cations for inclusion into their computerized storage and retrieval
system.  Abstracts in section 5 of this report are capsule summaries
of new material acquired since the 1969 Research Foundation report.
Section 9 summarizes information from historical articles tracing the
development of  presently utilized sludge disposal techniques.

Surveys were distributed to authorized regulatory agencies and water
treatment plants.  The results reported in regulatory surveys provide
new information on the parameters to be considered for treatment re-
quirements; acceptability of sludge disposal methods; maintenance and
reporting of waste production records, and the support and conduct of
research.  The  water utility surveys demonstrate the need for standard
documents to sample, analysis, and categorize basic waste quantitative
and qualitative data.

Several new approaches have been developed to establish means of:
comparing data  from water utilities; reducine waste volume and increas-
ing waste concentration; and inventorying the equipment available for
treating waste  sludges.  A project Sub-Committee is actively involved
in developing standard sampling and analysis documents for wastes
from all types  of water treatment plants.  A polymer evaluation pro-
gram has been initiated to determine the applicability of polymers as
primary coagulants, coagulant aids, and sludge conditioning agents.

The publication of new information should further stimulate the direc-
tion and support of research into areas of needed investigation.
There is no universal solution for the treatment of water purification
and softening sludges but, rather, a variety of alternative methods.
Treatment alternatives will require evaluation based on local situa-
tions, and will involve studies of efficiency, operation and mainte-
nance requirements, and economics.

Process Development and Applicability

Several major sludge treatment processes were suggested by the Project
Advisory Committee and the Research Foundation to be incorporated into
the manual Research & Development system.  These treatment alternatives
are arranged alphabetically in Table 1 titled "Processes for Treatment,
Disposal, and By-product Recovery of Water Treatment Plant Wastes."  The
state of development and applicability of each process are identified
on the basis of the references utilized.  This listing is not intended to
be all inclusive, but to summarize the information accumulated in this
specific study.

The utility of  conducting laboratory, pilot, and plant scale evaluations
of new or established sludge treatment technology cannot be overemphasized.
Waste character can vary significantly from treatment facility to treat-
ment facility.  The study of new or modified technology on laboratory
or pilot scale  aids in the development of physical and chemical design
parameters.  The systematic evaluation of alternative treatment methods
is an important step in avoiding major deficiencies in the design and
construction of plant scale facilities.

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                                TABLE 1

          PROCESSES FOR TREATMENT, DISPOSAL, AND BY-PRODUCT

             RECOVERY OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT WASTES
Process

Alum Recovery


Centrifugation
Chemical & Polymer
Conditioning
Drying Beds




Filter Pressing




Freezing


Lagooning
Lime Recovery

Magnesium Carbonate
Recovery

Recycling
State o£ Development

Laboratory, Pilot,
and Plant Scale

Pilot and Plant Scale
Laboratory, Pilot,
and Plant Scale
Pilot and Plant Scale
Pilot and Plant Scale
Laboratory, Pilot,
and Plant Scale

Pilot and Plant Scale
Pilot and Plant Scale

Laboratory, Pilot,
and Plant Scale

Pilot and Plant Scale
Applicability

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Alum Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Filter Washwater Sludge

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Filter Washwater

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Sludge
Filter Washwater Sludge

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Filter Washwater Sludge

Alum Sludge
Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Ferric Hydroxide Sludge
Filter Washwater Sludge

Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge

Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Filter Washwater

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                         TABLE 1 (continued)
Process

Recycling
Sedimentation
State of Development

Pilot and Plant Scale
Pilot and Plant Scale
Vacuum Filtration
Miscellaneous

Neutralization and
Precoat Filtration

Thickening-Dewatering

Evaporation Ponds
Brine By-Product
Recovery

Evaporation-Well
Disposal

Sewage Treatment
Coagulant
Laboratory, Pilot,
and Plant Scale
Applicability

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Filter Washwater

Alum Sludge
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Polymer Conditioned Sludge
Ferric Hydroxide Sludge
Filter Washwater

Alum Sludge with
Conditioning or Precoat
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
Evaluation-Pilot Scale    Acid Mine Drainage Waste
Detailed Study

Laboratory and Pilot
Scale

Conceptual Design
Developmental
Laboratory and Plant
Scale
Acid Mine Drainage Waste

Desalting Concentrated
Brine Streams

Desalting Concentrated
Brine Streams

Zeolite Softener Brines
Lime and Lime-Soda Sludge
 Section XIII of this report contains the references  used in the develop-
 ment of the information resource program.   The references .are  arranged
 alphabetically by author and numbered consecutively.  The following
 processes and references provide a basis for individual  investigation.

 Alum Recovery

 The recovery of an aluminum sulfate coagulant from purification wastes
 containing appreciable aluminum content has been utilized on a plant  scale
                                  10

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 basis  both in France and Japan.   The acidification of  a  basically
 aluminum hydroxide waste produces a soluble  reuseable coagulant and
 inert  material.   The process  can substantially reduce  the waste volume
 for final disposal,  but requires a more sophisticated  operation and manage-
 ment than physical  thickening processes.   Other important considerations
 in this  technology  are the efficient separation of recovered  alum  solution
 from the inert material unaffected by acidulation and  the minimization of
 impurities such  as  iron and manganese building up in the recovered solution.
 The following reference numbers  apply to the  investigation  of- alum recovery
 on laboratory, pilot, or plant scale level: 9, 15, 22, 27,  33, 38, 39,
 and 92.

 Centrifugation

 The centrifugation  of waste sludges from purification  or softening facili-
 ties physically  changes the solids concentration of the  feed  stream.
 Centrifugation can  be employed as a major process to produce  a waste  concen-
 trate  suitable for  landfill or can be one unit process in a sequence  to
 prepare  the waste for by-product or additional dewatering.   The use of polymer-
 ic or  inorganic  conditioners  appears to be beneficial  in the  centrifugation of
purification waste.   Pilot and plant  scale activities of centrifugation
investigations have been identified.  The reference numbers include:  1,  9,
14, 20, 25, 28, 33,  54, 57, 58, 69, 72, 88, 92, 95, and 98.

Chemical and Polymer Conditioning

The conditioning of wastes by  the  application of  inorganic  or organic
materials can  assist  in increasing  the dewaterability rate and additionally
concentrating  waste solids.  Conditioning agents  can be applied to waste
streams to prepare these streams for  dewatering by physical separation
techniques such as centrifugation,  drying beds, filter presses, and vacuum
filtration.  Some polymers have demonstrated suitability, in specific
instances, of  replacing the inorganic coagulant to produce a concentrated
waste amenable to dewatering.   Development at  laboratory, pilot and plant
scale levels is still needed in this  area.  The references applying to
the conditioning of waste volumes  include numbers: 1,  9,  13, 17,  18,  46,
53, 68, and 97.

Drying Beds

The  successful dewatering of waste  sludges on drying beds is in part
dependent on the climatological conditions of  the  region and the character
of  the waste sludge.  The use  of polymers to form a  bridge  between floe
particles  from alum coagulation processes may  enhance  the dewaterability
of  these  difficult to  treat sludges in  this process.  The efficiency of
drying beds to produce  a concentrated waste for final  disposal should be
developed carefully to  determine  the  specific  design parameters applicable
at  each water  utility.  Literature reference to drying beds include numbers:
 7,  9,  18,  50,  52, 56,  57, 83,  92,  and 96.
                                  11

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Filter Pressing

The use of filter presses to dewater wastes from purification and softening
processes has been developed on plant scale bases in England and other
parts of Europe.  Plant scale presses are under construction in both Atlanta,
Georgia,  and Little Falls, New Jersey.  Detailed laboratory and pilot plant
testing of filter pressing determines parameters for final design.   Some
manufacturers of filter pressing equipment for sewage treatment plant
waste have informed the Research Foundation that experimental work is
underway to determine the suitability of this equipment for dewatering water
utility wastes.  Literature references to filter presses include numbers:
5, 9, 12, 13, 17, 25, 26, 33, 35, 46, 57, and 94.

Freezing

The natural freezing of aluminum hydroxide sludge has been utilized by
the Copenhagen Water Department on a plant scale level.  Natural and
artificial freezing has undergone detailed development in England.   The
freezing and thawing process physically alters the character of aluminum
hydroxide wastes.  A continuous slow freeze of these waters aids in
releasing the water of hydration from purification wastes.  The solids
settle rapidly upon thawing, assuming a coffee ground type of consistency.
Work in the United States is in laboratory and pilot stages both for artificia
and natural freezing processes.  Literature references to freezing include
numbers: 9, 14, 15, 17, 19, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 39, and 57.

Lagooning

The separation of solid wastes from the supernatant waste can be accomplished
in a well designed and operated lagoon.  The settling of purification and s
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Magnesium Carbonate Recovery

The recovery of lime from softening sludge is a major technology that can
alleviate the solids disposal problem existing at lime or lime-soda soften-
ing plants.  To achieve a high grade lime product, impurities such as
magnesium must be removed.  Carbonation of softening sludge containing
appreciable magnesium hydroxide can dissolve the insoluble  magnesium salt.
The soluble  magnesium carbonate can be physically separated from the
calcium carbonate precipitate.  The utility of magnesium carbonate as a
purification plant coagulant to replace alum is being evaluated at the
Montgomery, Alabama, water treatment plant.  Literature references for
magnesium carbonate recovery include numbers: 16 and 28.

Recycling

The recycling of waste supernatant from filter washwater operations may
be economically justifiable on the basis of the recovered water and the
pollution control need.  The suspended solids in filter washwater may
provide sites for initiating the coagulation and the agglomeration of
floe particles.  High rate clarification units also may utilize a recycled
sludge to provide nuclei for floe formation.  Literature references for
recycling include numbers: 9, 37, 44, 48, 59, 81, 86, 90, 92, and 97.

Sedimentation

The settling of wastes from filter washing and sedimentation tank cleaning
may provide a good approach to additional thickening of the sludge and
the recovery of the supernatant.  Sedimentation can be accomplished in
basins constructed of various material.  Literature references for sedimen-
tation include numbers: 9, 23, 24, 37, 39, 50, 55, 63, 78, and 81.

Vacuum Filtration

The dewatering of both purification and softening wastes has been accom-
plished through vacuum filtration.  Softening wastes require little or
no conditioning prior to dewatering on the vacuum drum.  Alum wastes
may require preconditioning with various materials.  Pilot work is under-
way using a rotary precoated vacuum filter to dewater alum sludge.  Litera-
ture references to vacuum filtration include: 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 14, 17,
23, 25, 31, 33, 39, 47, 48, 55, 56, 57, 62, 69, 92, and 96.

Miscellaneous

Studies dealing with the treatment of acid mine drainage, desalting plant
brines, zeolite softener brines, and the use of lime and lime-soda sludges
as sewage treatment coagulants have been identified in this study.  Reference
numbers 62 and 69 deal with the neutralization and precoat filtration and
thickening of acid mine wastes respectively.  Literature dealing with the
evaporation and by-product recovery from desalting brines include reference
numbers 29, 30, 36, 40, 42, 60, 66, 80, and 91.  Reference numbers 7 and
75 consider the evaporation well disposal of zeolite exchange softening
brines.  Reference numbers 6 and 75 consider the use of softening wastes
as coagulants for sewage treatment plant use.
                                  13

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                               SECTION IV

               ADVISORY COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS

Introductory Statement

The AWWA Research Foundation conducted a study in 1968-1969 on the "Dis-
posal of Wastes from Water Treatment Plants."  The comprehensive report
was published under that title as Water Pollution Control  Series,  ORD-2,
by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,  U.S. Department
of the Interior.  The report was also published serially in four issues
of the AWWA Journal.

The Foundation's study was comprised of four status reports on research,
engineering, plant operations, and regulatory aspects,  and a review of
current technology and costs.  The final report recommended that "substan-
tially expanded programs of research and demonstration be  undertaken" and
included lists of specific problems in need of investigation to develop
effective and economical technology.

The Project Advisory Committee for that study recommended  the establish-
ment of a central service to promote the planning of research and develop-
ment, and to implement new programs.  The service was proposed to organize,
coordinate, and disseminate information on new or modified treatment tech-
nology to control pollution from water treatment plants.  The transfer of
this technology is needed to promote its application by the water utility
industry of the United States.

A central information service has been established.  The program,  titled
"Information Resource on Water Pollution Control in the Water Utility
Industry," is jointly funded by the Water Quality Office of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency and by matching funds contributed by 30 U.S.
water utilities.  The contributions from water utilities to support the
development of new and important technical information represents an
expression of confidence in the usefulness of the program.

Project Advisory Committee

The Research Foundation assembled'individuals concerned with various as-
pects of the water utility industry to advise and guide the Foundation in
its information resource program.  Members of the Committee were selected
to include the Chairmen of two AWWA Committees:  the Water  Quality
Division Committee on Water Treatment Plant Waste Disposal, and the Re-
search Committee on Sludge Disposal.  The Committee also included four
members who served in the project on "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treat-
ment Plants," and four new members.

The Advisory Committee provided the expertise to assist the Research Foun-
dation in defining the dimensions and directions of the study to collect,
evaluate, and distribute the information required.
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Status reports on the activities of the two AWWA Committees were presented.
The Foundation staff summarized the goals of the information resource pro-
gram.  The research plans were prepared under three principal areas:  the
organization, coordination, and communication of information.

Research Foundation Goals

The Research Foundation assisted by the Advisory Committee planned to:

      1.  Publicize current regulatory, research, engineering, and operat-
          ing practice procedures and to encourage the submittal of infor-
          mation trom manufacturers of equipment and supplies applicable
          to the study.  Also, to encourage questions by water utility
          manufacturers that provide the basis for additional research
          and/or development.

      2.  Present to research, engineering, operating  practice groups,
          and manufacturers, those sludge treatment and disposal tech-
           niques requiring further development.

      3.  Encourage initiative among the various water utility trade organ-
          izations to develop novel approaches for sludge treatment and dis-
          posal.

The critical analysis of information prepared by the Foundation,and methods
to improve the analysis and translation of information into a useable form,
is an essential Advisory Committee function.  Disseminated information
should be designed for use at all levels of operation.

Recommendations for additional information to supplement existing infor-
mation and the presentation of problems existing in current operations
and possible solutions by the Advisory Committee will provide direction
for the Foundation's study.

Experience in Organization of Information

The Research Foundation, as a central information resource, planned the
identification and inventory of research and demonstration projects.
Several sources were searched to obtain information on projects completed,
in-progress, or projected.  The sources included:  Science Information
Exchange;  Water Quality Office of the E.P.A.;  Office of Saline Water,
USDI;  municipal water utilities;  educational institutions;  manufacturers
of equipment and supplies; engineers; and foreign institutions.

The status of research and demonstration projects identified through each
of these  sources was developed by correspondence with principal researchers.
 Available publications and reports collected are classified in accordance
 with a manual Research & Development Information Storage & Retrieval System.
 A copy of this system is contained in the report appendix.

 A basic data survey was prepared by members of the operating practice group
                                     16

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of the Advisory Committee.  The purpose of this survey was to inventory
basic data on the quality and quantity characteristics of wastes from water
treatment processes, and on their pollutional effects.  A copy of this sur-
vey, prepared for distribution to water utilities, is included in the re-
port appendix.

Additional information sources included the AWWA Research Committee on
Sludge Disposal and the Water Quality Division Committee on Water Plant
Waste Disposal, other committees performing related work, and development
needs identified by others.

Various processing industries were suggested as having waste disposal prob-
lems whose methods could be converted into the water utility field.  The
results of research from manufacturing organizations may provide new or
modified approaches to waste treatment technology.

The sections of the AWWA were recommended as a source of information on
research and demonstration projects.  Although few sections have research
committees, the publicity of the information resource program at the section
level could stimulate the submittal of information on research activities.

Members of the regulatory group prepared a survey to be distributed to
state regulatory agencies.  The purpose of this survey was to provide infor-
mation on statistical, research, and regulatory aspects of the waste treat-
ment process.  A copy of the regulatory survey is included in the report
appendix.

The Advisory Committee recommended the development of uniform sampling, anal-
 ysis,  and categorization techniques for water treatment plant wastes as
an immediate priority.  The orderly development of reliable waste quantity
and quality data is dependent on standard test procedures.  Variations, in
a recent survey, have proven significant due to the sampling and/or analy-
sis methods.

The Committee recommended the future funding of pilot and plant scale dem-
onstration facilities.  The project conducted by the Research Foundation
will allow better  justification for providing funds in this area.  The
priority need must be demonstrated before these projects are federally
supported.  Demonstration  on pilot plant scale is a definite need since,
if there is much more delay in funding research, plant scale processes
will be built.  Meaningful suggestions for priority research will illustrate
the need for increased funds to be made available for treating water plant
wastes.

Coordination of Information

The program is dynamic in nature.  Practical applications of waste disposal
technology must be presented to scientists, engineers, and administrators
in a useable form.  Data must constantly be analyzed, translated, and supple-
 mented to facilitate its application in research and demonstration projects.
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The exchange of information between those who develop and those who apply
new information often requires translation.  Through the development of a
central information resource for pollution control in the water utility
industry, the Research Foundation plans to stimulate communication between
research organizations and water utilities to develop the required technol-
ogy.

Prime emphasis in this study was given to the development of treatment pro-
cess modifications.  These modifications may result in wastes of different
quantity or quality characteristics, thus affecting waste volumes and treat-
ability.  Pollution control processes and procedures must be established
to meet the constantly changing stringent requirements of federal and state
regulatory agencies.

Communication of Information

Communication of information is essential to a diverse cross-section of
individuals and organizations.  The water utility industry can benefit by
learning the newest developments in waste treatment practices.  Research
workers will find important direction in investigating water utility waste
problems while learning of current research programs.

In this way, duplication of programs can be avoided and money and time
channeled into new programs.  Consulting engineers will have the needed data
to design water treatment plant waste control units.  Manufacturers will
have avenues to develop products that will be immediately needed, and incen-
tive and direction to develop new process equipment and supplies.

The Foundation planned assistance for the design of research and demonstra-
tion projects to assure the wide applicability of all types of information
developed.  Reports defining specific research topics will be published.
Basic and applied research results must be reported with the degree of their
applicability.

Special Reports by Advisory Committee Members

Report of AWWA Committee Activities. The Water Treatment Plant Waste Disposal
Committee (AWWA Water Quality Division) activities were reported by Lee
Streicher, Chairman.

This Committee was formed with a scope to study and report the problems and
methods of disposal of water treatment plant wastes considering:

      a.  Disposal of filter washwater and sludges
      b.  Disposal of brines

The Committee was originally composed of 10 members, including the Chairman,
and was divided into 5 different subject sections as follows:

      1.  Disposal of Filter Washwater
      2.  Disposal of Lime-Soda Sludge
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      3.  Disposal of Alum Sludge
      4.  Disposal of Other Coagulant Sludge
      5.  Disposal of Brines

The preliminary report of this Committee stresses certain objectives that
must be considered.  Initially, the amount of waste produced should be
reduced by the careful selection of an appropriate treatment method. After
waste reduction is acheived, concentrated efforts should be directed to
finding an easier sludge disposal form.  As an example, it is suggested
that polyelectrolytes replace alum as a coagulant.  The polyelectrolyte
sludge is more easily dewatered.

Mr. Streicher is presently dealing with Colorado River water that has re-
quired only intermittent coagulation.  A new plant is under construction
to process a different supply source which will require continuous coagu-
lation with alum.  Without adequate lagooning area, other alum sludge dis-
posal means must be considered.

Other treatment alternatives entertained were alum recovery, discharge to
quarries, and discharge to sanitary sewers.  The discharge of sludge to
sanitary sewers was initially rejected by the Bureau of Sanitation.  After
some thought, the Bureau reconsidered this proposal since the sludge trans-
port water would enhance the quality of their source water from sewage
treatment plants.  Further study by the Bureau showed that the water treat-
ment plant sludge would add significant bulk to their own sludge and also
make the sewage sludge harder to dewater.  Digester capacity would have to
be increased, and the water utility would have to pay for the resulting
increases in the water reclamation plant digestion units due to the pre-
sence of the alum sludge.

The development of by-products from waste sludges was also presented.  Lime
and alum recovery were cited as reclamation processes.  Reference was made
to Peter Doe's paper on lime sludge reclamation, and the possibility was
raised of developing uses for lime or alum.

If by-products cannot  be recovered, the methods of final disposal should
be improved.  Efficient dewatering and sludge incineration techniques should
receive further investigation.

There is a great need for the standardization of sampling, analysis, and
categorization techniques for sludges at water treatment plants.  To make
any data meaningful and applicable, standardization is essential.

Finally, Mr. Streicher discussed the contribution such a Committee would
make to resolving the sludge disposal problem.  Rather than enumerate or
reference sludge treatment and disposal processes, this Committee would
discuss processes such as the handling of lime or alum sludges or the
recovery of products from sludges.  This would provide concerned individ-
uals with methods of handling different problems in a step-by-step fashion.

Discussion of Committee Report. Several points were made regarding the
                                      19

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report on water treatment plant waste disposal.  The control of waste quan-
tity was questioned.  The concentration of the material produced was suggest-
ed as being under control of the water plant operator.

The amount of wastes produced is under control if the coagulant is a poly-
electrolyte and not alum.  Not only is the waste concentrated, but its na-
ture is changed.  Studies have shown that 1.0 to 1.25 ppm of polymer is
equivalent to 20 to 25 ppm of alum.

Total control of sludge volume and quantity is not always possible. These
values cannot  be controlled when softening water to a certain residual
hardness and removing turbidity to predetermined finished water levels.
The softening process produces calcium carbonate and removes suspended ma-
terial from water.  These solids cannot  be reduced.  A change of chemicals
in the clarification system may aid in changing the volume produced.

The Committee report refers to a plant which softens Colorado River water
by ion exchange.  The new supply being developed at this utility will re-
quire clarification only.

The question of taste and odor problems arose concerning the.waters in ques-
tion.  Carbon is not used, although there were infrequent taste and odor
problems with the Colorado River water.  Taste and odor are generally small
in magnitude.  A system has been developed to control taste and odor and
bacteria.  Due to bird droppings, the bacterial count of water going to the
filters was several times higher than the count of the raw water.  A three-
step chlorination process was developed and odors were controlled.  The
new supply source will introduce a color problem.  Among the experimental
methods being studied for color removal is the use of ozone.  Ozone reduces
color effectively and does a fine job of preliminary sterilization.  In-
stead of prechlorination, an ozonation step could possibly be used.  The
reduction of waste volume should be a primary goal if possible.

The treatment facility mentioned in the Committee report has successfully
utilized Catfloc and Nalcolyte 607.  These polymers produce a fine but
suitable floe.  However, the floe required a nonionic to produce weight
for settling.  A dosage of 0.20 to 0.25 ppm of Magnifloc 985 along with
Ippm of Catfloc or Nalcolyte 607 does a good job.  The need for investi-
gation of polymers to reduce waste volumes is evident.

Report of Research Activities.  Research activities were reported by  R.N.
Kinman.  Most of the work I am aware of now deals with the recovery of
useable material from lime-soda sludges and the conditioning of alum sludges
through the use of polymers.

Dr. Black has in progress at the City of Dayton, the University of Florida
at Gainesville, and Montgomery, Alabama, projects dealing with the recovery
of magnesium from water softening plant sludges.  The process plans to
recover magnesium, which in turn, can be recycled as a coagulant.  A patent
is involved with this particular research.  It is also proposed to study
use of the magnesium recovered at Dayton as a coagulant at the local sewage
treatment plant for phosphorus removal.
                                      20

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At Virginia Polytechnic Institute work is being done on the conditioning
of alum sludge with polymers.  Nonionics of relatively high dosages ap-
pear to be most effective.

Several water treatment plants are experimenting with their sludges attempt-
ing to make them more amenable to dewatering.    Research work is being done
with sludge trom the Cincinnati Water Treatment Plant at the plant and at
the University of Cincinnati.  Investigators have shown that polymer addi-
tion to this sludge has increased the dewaterability characteristics of
the sludge.

A number of priorities should be established under research needs.  The
foremost need is to develop a standardization of sampling, analysis, and
categorization techniques for sludge.  With the development of a standard
method, there would be a basis for comparison of sludge wastes.  It was
pointed out that several plants do not presently recycle filter washwater
and that such recycling could decrease the volume of wastes produced.  The
reduction of waste volume is an important consideration.  Polymers may
applicable in reducing waste volume, although they are sensitive.  There
is no universal polymer available at this time.  Laboratory methods should
be carefully considered, since detergents contain anionic surfactants
that neutralize the polymers.  Polymers should also be fresh and stored
in glassware that must be aged.  Finally, in recovering or reusing pro-
ducts from sludge, a market is needed to make the operation meaningful.
The City of Dayton has a market survey underway to determine buyers and
the price of recovered magnesium.

Discussion of Research Activities Report.  If there are interfering sub-
stances in the water due to detergents or other contaminants,methods to
destroy these interfering substances economically should be explored
before searching for the right polymer.

Polymers are quite expensive.  The turbidity of an average water, how-
ever, can be removed with parts per billion of polymer as opposed to
parts per million of alum.  Polymers have a variable price range.  The
Catfloc ranges in price from 40 to 50 cents per pound.  The Nalcolyte
ranges in price from 30 cents per pound for tank car lots to 40 cents
per pound for small quantities.

Polymer prices may go down in time.  There are not many water treat-
ment plants using polymers at this time.  There is experimentation in
progress and a large numbers of polymers have been approved by the
Public Health Service for water treatment plant use.  Few water treat-
ment plants have the time to investigate all the approved polymers.

Quality control in polymer production was mentioned.  Polymers must
be purified and consistencies insured before approval can be granted.
The elimination of trace byproducts and consistent production quality
are essential.

It appears that the more polymers are used, the lower will be the cost
                                    21

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and more consistent the product.  Manufacturers will have experience
in producing polymers.  It was recommended to use polymers wherever
they fit into the treatment process.
                                    22

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                                SECTION V

                   INFORMATION RESOURCES AVAILABLE

The Project Advisory Committee was requested to recommend specific infor-
mation needs and resources.  The Committee members were assigned topics
dealing with research, engineering, regulatory, and plant operating prac-
tice aspects of this problem.

Research Needs - R.N. Klnman

A review of the first report, "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment
Plants", showed what was known.  The Research needs were spelled out in
the AWWA Conference report.  These needs were grouped under four headings.
The headings were:  Nature of Wastes, with 4 problem areas; Treatment of
Water Plant Wastes, with 15 problem areas; Ultimate disposal of Wastes,
with 7 problem areas; and Future Water Treatment and Waste Management
Technology, with 5 problem areas.

Several projects have been proposed or are in progress to obtain infor-
mation related to the solution of these problem areas enumerated in the
Conference report.

The following agencies or individuals should be contacted to obtain as
a full report as possible on what is known at the present time and the
specific objectives of each project.  The list is as follows:

      a.  A.P. Black, University of Florida at Gainesville
      b.  Walton Farr, City of Dayton, Ohio
      c.  George Webster, Water Quality Office of EPA
      d.  City of Atlanta, Howard Peters
      e.  Clifford Randall  Virginia Polytechnic Institute
      f.  Paul King, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
      g.  Office of Water Resources Research
      h.  Sharpies Centifuge Company
      i.  Bird Centrifuge Company
      j.  Rex Chainbelt Company
      k.  Ralph Evans, Illinois State Water Survey
      1.  Lee Streicher, Metropolitan Water District of Southern Califor-
          nia.                     '

When information is reviewed, it should be reported to the industry in
Willing Water, the AWWA Journal, and in a Research Foundation publication.
When information is reported, its relation to the whole or partial solu-
tion of one of the problems should be indicated along with the research
needs still to be met.  This procedure would keep Everyone abreast of what
is known and at the same time call attention to the work remaining to be
done.

Since much of the usefulness of the data developed by the Research Founda-
tion depends on basic data concerning the first grouping, Nature of Wastes,
                                    23

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which has been generated by performing standardized analyses for the same
parameters, on wastes from different plants, it is essential that this
Committee develop and promulgate standard methods of analysis for water
treatment plant wastes.  After  these have been evaluated and approved, the
methods should be furnished to  the water utility industry with the basic
data questionnaire attached.  Then data would be generated that could be
compared in a meaningful way.

The priorities in research are  as follows:

      1.  Uniform sampling procedures and standard methods of analysis.
      2.  Recycle of waste waters.
      3.  Reduction of waste volumes.
      4.  Recovery of valuable  materials from waste either for reuse or
          sale.

Discussion of Research Needs

The need for the development of basic data on waste quantity and quality
was emphasized.  Standardized sampling, analysis, and categorization tech-
niques should be developed to effectively compare data from water treat-
ment plants.

The ultimate goal will be to have these uniform techniques submitted to the
appropriate Standard Methods Sub-Committee for review.  The Standard Methods
Sub-Committee may suggest additional techniques and consider the incorpo-
ration of this work into their  publication. The final methods may result
from modification to existing approved methods that have been successfully
utilized for agricultural, soils, or other analysis fields.

A Sub-Committee composed of Messrs. Herbert Hartung, Kenneth Shull, Ralph
Evans, and Riley Kinman was organized to suggest appropriate modifications
to existing sampling and analysis techniques that would then be applicable
to water treatment plant wastes.  The Research Foundation is to coordinate
the exchange of information.  Each member is to suggest standards for lime
softening and alum sludges that could be exchanged for review and comments.
Standards should be considered  for brine sampling and analysis procedures.
This program has been implemented.

Engineering Needs - G.P. Fulton

The role of the engineer is to  translate scientific data into a form that
is both useable and practical.  The research needs of the engineer are
consistent with those outlined  earlier by Riley Kinman.  We are planning
to develop future data, but the time for the engineer is now.  The states
have arbitrary standards at present for treating water treatment plant
wastes.  Metcalf and Eddy has 1 plant in construction, 2 in the design
stage, and 1 going into design  with waste treatment facilities.

We have been studying treatment plants ranging in size from 100 mgd to
2000 mgd that would operate on  a regional basis.  Those familar with the
problems of the New York City water supply will realize that plants of this
                                     24

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magnitude will be required in the next 25 years.  Plants of this magni-
tude will require significant waste treatment facilities.

We have been handicapped by the lack of basic data.  The most elemental
data, that would necessarily require the development of a standard method
to obtain, is the suspended solids.  Turbidity has been a common handle
for water treatment plant operation.  When we talk about wastes, we are
talking about solids that we must handle.  Most plants keep accurate re-
cords on chemical usage, based on coagulant and coagulant aid usage.  From
the chemicals being used, we are able to determine the amount of precipi-
 tates being  formed; but it  is very  difficult  to figure  out  the  amount  of
solids being separated  trom the raw watei..  There are more things common
in a sewage waste than  in a water treatment influent water.

Fortunately, suspended  solids data was available for design consideration
in our larger plants.   In the future most water treatment plants will have
waste disposal problems that must be solved.  It makes a great difference
in solids generation whether the water contains 20 or 50 ppm of suspended
solids.  The time to collect such data is now, without necessarily wait-
ing to establish a standard method.

The problem in the Northeast is not sediment, but the organics in the source
water.  The state is promoMn^ more sophisticated analyses since they real-
 ize organics and not  turbidity  is  the problem.   i'he determination of amor-
phous matter and volatile solids would be important considerations.  These
parameters are reflected in seasonal variations.  Analyses should be fre-
quent enough to display seasonal trends for a water treatment system.  This
is an important design  factor.

The reduction of wastes is a most important factor.  Preventive action is
more effective than taking care of the waste disposal problem once it is
created.  As mentioned  earlier, organics are the major problem in the
Northeast.  In New York, we are faced with using the 10 States Standards
that have been designed to treat Mississippi River water.  90 per cent of
the Northeast supply is impounded water, and you can never find a brown
color in the Hudson River.  There has to be a strong effort, in those parts
of the country where sediment is not the problem, to eliminate the use of
alum.  New York has shown that if you can prove that coagulants are not
needed, they will accept a design that does not employ them.

Metcalf and Eddy has adopted 2 waste disposal methods, lagooning and natural
freezing, based on economics. A settling lagoon 10 feet deep could hold 5
feet of sludge, and 2 separate freezing lagoons could be provided.  The
sludge can be spilled or sprayed on the bed.  Johnson Well Screen type
strainers are being installed in all the lagoons to permit decantation of
water.  A considerable  area is required for waste treatment.  The magni-
tude of the waste facilities is proportional to the size of the plant
and will increase directly with the amount of wastes produced.

Plants of 100 mgd or greater will present formidable waste disposal pro-
blems.  In the Hudson River study, a maximum of 20 ppm of solids was
                                     25

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considered and a coagulant dosage of a grain of alum.  In this case, a
reduction of wastes is the most important factor.  The reduction may be
either on the preventive or treatment side.  For the 100 mgd or greater
plants, alum recovery has been determined to be the best method.  The
limitation of alum recovery is that such a plant requires more sophisti-
cated operators and operations.

A plant of 280 mgd, utilizing alum recovery, was discussed.  The waste
area facilities have been tremendously reduced.  This leaves many plants
in the 5 to 100 mgd range that have problems with no economically avail-
able solutions.  A possible solution for these smaller plants might be the
development of a package alum recovery system.  The alum recovery, includ-
ing ultimate disposal, on the 100 mgd plants and greater adds $5 to $7 per
million gallons of treatment.  The cost of mechanical equipment for lagoons
is nominal, but the land cost is great.

Some studies have been made on the type of ice-making equipment that would
be available for the artificial freezing operation.  Most equipment would
be applicable for small.plant operation.  The package type units would be
the mosfe logical choice based on the operating personnel experience level.

The Hackensack Water Company has stored sludge since 1926.  The company
has not run out of area yet, but they are getting worried.  The fill site
is similar to sites in Florida where wastes from phosphates or phosphoric
acid operations are dumped.

Engineering Needs - P.W.  Doe

There are several examples where plant research is needed to provide valu-
able information.  Sludge pumping is one variable that must be considered
in sludge handling.  The viscosity of the sludge changes with the varia-
tion of solids concentration.  The standard head loss equation, hL=fL V ,
                                                                   D  2g
ceases to apply after a certain point.  An illustration of the difficulty
of hand ling sludge is evident in this example.  Sludge was pumped by
Moyno pumps to a tank 30 feet high.  The sludge from this tank had to flow
through a 12X) feet of line to a freezing plant.  Polyelectrolytes were used
in the sedimentation basins and increased the sludge solids content from
about  3 to 5 per cent.  The result was that the 25 percent grade on which
the pipe was laid was not sufficient for gravity flow.  The line had to
be broken and another Moyno pump inserted to pump into the freezing tanks.

Handling of low and high concentration sludges also presents problems.
Alum sludge, which is thixotropic, will settle in a pipeline when it is
pumped at high solids concentrations.  Some provision should be made for
draining the pipeline while the sludge is fluid to avoid settling duririg
intermittent operation.  When the sludge reaches a higher solids concen-
trations, a different solids handling mechanism, such as a screw conveyor,
might be used.  If raw sludge or water contacts the cakes, the  sludge can
revert to its fluid form.  The screw conveyor then will grind the cakes
back into a slurry.  The end product is important.  Whatever the solids
concentration of the cake, there must be a means of finally disposing it.
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Operating data and experience would be greatly appreciated in this area.

The methods of sludge withdrawal from sedimentation basins is an important
consideration since it may affect the concentration and quantity of waste.
Using Moyno or other pumps to desludge the basins on a continuous or inter-
mittent basis could provide needed data.  The goal of withdrawal would be
to produce a sludge of minimum volume and maximum concentration.

There may be some other ideas to be examined in final disposal.  Can sludge
be disposed of in underground aquifers?  If the sludge is pumped to gravel
beds, the interstices of the gravel bed will fill with sludge and a super-
natant will be displaced from the top.  Filter press cakes may be disposed
of on a sanitary landfill.  These cakes generally do not revert, but break
down into smaller pieces. The interstices of a sanitary landfill could be
filled with this material.

There is little information on the effect of alum sludge on activated sludge,
trickling filters, and digesters other than some economics.  A research
program could investigate the effect of increasing alum sludge in incre-
ments from 1 percent to 8 percent, etc in such units.  This disposal method
would be very cheap and should be investigated.

The use of incineration to further reduce combustible components of sludge
should be examined.  The level of dryness should be determined to see
where combustion is self-supporting.  Existing incinerators could be used
with increased amounts of pressed cakes to develop data.  The incineration
of polyelectrolyte sludge could be examined to show advantages and disadvan-
tages of the incineration process.

The long term storage of sludge should be investigated.  Personal experience
has indicated that sludge will turn purple, undergo anaerobic digestion,
and produce methane after a 14 day storage period or thereabouts.

The lagooning of sludges presents problems of maintenance, safety, and
liability.  A quarry should be fenced to prevent access by children who
might inadvertently attempt to walk over a seemingly stable sludge crust.
A fence will last 10 years but may then require maintenance.  In the case
of accidents or death resulting from people falling into lagoons, the
legal liability is tremendous.

Practical experience on the use of polyelectrolytes should be collected
by the Foundation.  This information would provide direction and guidance
for developers, designers, and operators.

A list of plants that have waste treatment disposal facilities was reported:

      1.  Stocks plant, Fylde Water Board (England) - freezing
      2.  Daer Water Board, Scotland - alum recovery and freezing
      3.  United Kingdom Atomic Energy Commission - Freezing of phosphate
          sludge.
      4.  Tokyo - alum recovery
      5.  Stocks Treatment Plant - 2 filter presses
                                     27

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      6.' 'Broughton Treatment Plant - 1 filter press
      7.  Manchester Corporation Waterworks - 2 filter presses
      8.  City of Atlanta - 1 filter press
      9.  Passaic Valley Commission - 2 presses

It may be possible, at selected plants, to make weekly logs of raw water
suspended solids, chemical dosages, and sludge produced, so that chemical
balance  could be attempted.

If the information is not available, small joint ventures might be under-
taken to develop needed data.  Abstracts from pilot operations could be
publicized by the Foundation.

Research instrumentation could be included in engineering design.  At the
Passaic  Valley plant, sludge will be pumped through some 1000 feet.  By
installing pressure gages and other instrumentation, head loss curves could
be developed for sludge at different flows and concentrations.  This field
of research is easy to do and write up.

Chlorinated rubber base paints provide good protection against corrosion
in sludge storage tanks.  Epoxy paints, on the other hand, sometimes tend
to strip.  The report of effective materials for corrosion resistance is
another  important consideration.  PVC pipe is also very resistant to the
corrosive nature of alum sludge.

A bibliography of information should be developed for ready reference and
as a complete file of sludge disposal literature.  The Foundation should
have as  a complete reference as possible to be a true clearing-house.

Discussion of Engineering Needs

Waste reduction was considered important.  Polymers might be used to re-
place alum.  If efficient incineration processes  could be  developed without
producing air pollution, only small residues of non-combustible material
would be produced.  Only a bare minimum of material would be produced for
ultimate disposal.

Alum recovery studies, conducted by the Metropolitan Water District of
Southern California, have shown that the higher the ratio of aluminum hy-
droxide  to other materials, the higher the percentage of alum recovery.
Tokyo claims to get 80 percent recovery of alum.  Small scale studies,
both laboratory and pilot plant stages, indicate that it is useless to
recover  alum on sludges having a 5 percent aluminum content.  The Metro-
politan Water District studies have shown recoveries of from 80 to 93 per-
cent.  When the organic content is increased to 50 percent in the waste,
recovery of alum is from 80 to 85 percent.

The Metropolitan Water District has modified the Japanese alum recovery
procedure to gain higher efficiency.  Instead of decanting the aluminum
sulphate solutions and leaving the remainder of the insoluble  material,
the sludge is treated with acid and passed through a filter press.
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Tliis squeezes out the soluble  alum and leaves a cake of 50 percent solids
with some residual alum.  The Japanese attempted to increase recovery effi-
ciency through elutriation, but diluted the recovered solution too much.

Metcalf and Eddy has considered the lagooning and natural freezing of
sludge as a treatment method.  In the design of a sludge treatment and dis-
posal facility for a 5mgd water utility, several points were raised.  The
major problem in the northern part of the U.S. is snow.  The effect of 18
inches of snow covering partially frozen sludge is unknown.  The design
provides flexibility by allowing spilling or spraying of the sludge on the
bed.

Metcalf and Eddy is considering 60 percent recovery for alum reclaiming
operations.  The raw water source is the Hudson River, containing a 20ppm
maximum solids concentration.  The waste sludge will contain a large amount
of aluminum hydroxide.  In alum recovery, aluminum hydroxide is converted
into aluminum sulfate  through treatment with sulfuric acid.  Some alumi-
num sulfate must be contained in the final waste.  With a low recovery
and a pH of 2, the waste must be neutralized with lime.  Wastes contain-
ing a high percentage of alum, due to poor recovery operation, will form
aluminum hydroxide.  The recovery method, in this case, is very inefficient
and expensive if recovery factors are not reasonable.  A 1 to 2 percent
solution of recovered liquid alum would be good.

Metcalf and Eddy has also done studies of vacuum filtration of water sludges
with sewage sludges.  Adding extra lime to the mixture improved the filtra-
tion.  This operation is not suitable when sludge transmission is required.
If the sludge is discharged to sewers, digestor capacity would have to be
increased, creating economic problems.

The applicability of nuclear  sludge density meters for the control of
water treatment sludges, similar to the meters used for the control of  sew-
age sludge, was considered.  This unit may provide means to operate at an
optimum sludge density at all times.  These meters eliminate the need for
starting a pump to sample the sludge density.  Sewage treatment plants
sometimes use these meters for primary sludge density control.  The unit
is a continuous metering device mounted in-line.  The meter is produced
by Industrial Nucleonics  of Columbus, Ohio.

The utility of this meter for controlling alum or softening sludges is
unknown.  Sewage sludge solids have a different density than alum sludge.
Densities of alum sludge and water are so close that a high solids concen-
tration is required to give a measureable difference.

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California is using a nuclear
sludge density meter at a washwater reclamation facility treating filter
backwash water.  The meter appears to be an effective measuring  device
in the 4 to 5 percent density range.  The meter results have been correlated
with laboratory tests.

The availability of equipment to treat sludge from water treatment plants
                                     29

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should be explored.  The cooperation ofcraanufacturers  in  providing  infor-
mation on other products would help water utilities and  designers in
building pilot and plant scale sludge treatment systems.

Regulatory Needs - R. Boes. R. Evans

The need was pointed out for a questionnaire that would  establish a clear
"picture of what is being done and what must be done  in  the future", regard-
ing waste discharges from water treatment plants as viewed by regulatory
agencies.

A review was made of the responses to a previous questionnaire (1968) includ-
ed in the Foundation's first report concerning Regulatory Aspects.   Al-
though a large majority of regulatory agencies considered wastes from water
treatment plants a definite source of pollution, and  had established regu-
lations governing discharges, only 5 of 53 responding "had data on the
characteristics and quantities of these wastes.  This is not unusual since
regulatory agencies generally are not involved in conducting or supporting
research at least at the state level.

It seemed pertinent to find out what these agencies consider major sources
of pollution from water treatment processes as well as their views upon
acceptable treatment, particularly since decisions are being made in spite
of the lack of basic data and research findings.  There  is need for a new
questionnaire that would define some areas, for the Foundation's study,
as well as provide some insight on the regulatory agencies activities re-
garding treatment requirements and fundings.

Discussion of Regulatory Needs

Relating to the 1953 survey by Dean and to the 1968 survey by the Research
Foundation, a marked change is evident in regulatory  agency attitudes.- The
policy in most states is that new water treatmert plants will require waste
handling facilities.  The 1968 survey replies that existing plants will
not be required to develop waste handling facilities  unless their waste
discharges cause definite problems.  If an existing plant is modified or
expanded, appropriate waste handling facilities will  be  required.  Pressure
may require even existing plants to treat wastes.

The most evident problem is visible wastes.  In Cincinnati, the filter back-
wash water contains considerable carbon that is visible when it is dis-
charged to the Miami River.  This causes complaints.  If the same waste
was discharged to the Ohio River through a diffuser,  it  would not be
visible.  Aesthetic problems caused by visible wastes arouse the public.

In Illinois, the Division of Water Treatment acts as  a breaking force between
water utilities and the Bureau of Stream Pollution.   This Division is
most cognizant of the water treatment waste disposal  problem.  Good coop-
eration exists between water utility superintendents  and regulatory agencies.
These agencies can provide good advice to the stream  pollution personnel.
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Regulatory agencies adopt increasing controls on water utilities when com-
plaints of visible wastes are reported.  The Columbus, Ohio,water treat-
ment plant has been a softening facility since 1910.  Softening sludge was
discharged from this plant to the river below a dam.  The spring floods
washed the sludge away.  Complaints were received for 60 years.  In the
last 4 or 5 years so much pressure was applied that this disposal method
was eliminated.  A commercial lime plant, supplying this facility, was
located next to the plant.  It had several large holes that could serve
as permanent lagoons.  The lime company studied the reprocessing of the
lime sludge from the water treatment plant by burning, and found that it
was possible to develop a high purity lime.  The costs for hauling and
thickening lime sludges and competition from a nearby lime supplier out-
weighed the market potential of the proposed recalcination process.

For waste disposal requirements, some states use effluent standards and
others use treatment standards based on stream quality criteria. States
using the stream quality criteria generally contain clauses in their per-
mits specifying what must be done to meet treatment requirements in 6 to
12 month periods.  The permit amounts to being an effluent standard al-
though it, is not classified as such officially.  The states not using
effluent standards inform designers engaged in water treatment and sewage
treatment plant work of their criteria, so that designers work in terms
of effluent wastB standards.

It was suggested that effluent standards are established to facilitate
the administration of water pollution abatement measures.  Some regulatory
agencies may have knowledge of the assimilative capacity of the stream.
With this knowledge, criteria may be provided for a waste treatment set-
ting waste effluent levels at 80 ppm suspended solids at a certain mile
point on a river.  For instance, at critical flows in the Cincinnati
River, 15 tons of material are requieed to change the river concentration
of this material 1 mg/1.  The use of the assimilative capacity of rivers
and streams in many cases would require complex analses.
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                               SECTION VI

                     TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER RESULTS
Introduction
The AWWA Research Foundation, as a central information resource, identi-
fies and inventories research and demonstration studies dealing with the
treatment and disposal of wastes from water treatment plants.  Several
sources have been searched to determine the type, extent, and status of
research activities both in the United States and several foreign research
organizations.

In its first year of operation as an information clearinghouse, the Research
Foundation has collected and organized information on research and demonstra-
tion studies from a variety of sources.  These sources include:  Science
Information Exchange of the Smithsonian Institution; Water Quality Office
of the Environmental Protection Agency; Office of Saline Water, U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior; personal correspondence with  principal research
investigators; members of the Fylde Water Board, Blackpool,  Lancashire,
England; and reports discovered through literature searches.  Several new
research reports have been published since the publication of the first
AWWA Research Foundation report titled "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treat-
ment Plants."

The material following represents the research activity identified for the
treatment and disposal of wastes from both conventional and desalting water
treatment facilities.  This information defines new or modified waste treat-
ment technology.  Accumulated information is classified and stored in the
Research Foundation's Research & Development Information Storage and Retriev-
al System.

News of research activity is valuable to the water utility industry.  The
Research Foundation plans to continue and expand the organization, coordi-
nation and dissemination of information on the waste disposal problem.
Additional research and demonstration projects dealing with this subject
area, submitted to or discovered by  the Research Foundation will be reviewed
and incorporated into this expanding study.

Science Information Exchange

The mission of the Science Information  Exchange (SIE) is described as:
"to facilitate effective planning and management of scientific research
activities supported by the U.S. agencies and non-Federal institutions...."

The Research Foundation utilized the services of this organization to
define research activity for the subject area titled "treatment and dispos-
al  of sludge from water treatment plants-all types- of water treatment
plants including desalination plants."

The SIE was able to provide copies of Notices of Research Projects that
                                     33

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they have received  from Federal and state department agencies, educa-
tional institutions, and various commercial organizations.  These Notices
are provided with the understanding that they may not be utilized for
publication or publication reference without the permission of the princi-
pal investigators involved.

The Research Foundation contacted  those investigators having information
on treatment technology applicable for the control of pollution caused by
wastes from water treatment plants.  The researchers   were informed of the
Foundation's principal activities, the collection and exchange of data
on laboratory, pilot plant, and full scale studies.                   ,

Each investigator was asked to permit the Research Foundation to include
the Notice of Research Project in its Research & Development Information
Storage  & Retrieval "System, and to inform the Research Foundation of the
availability of reports  describing progress  in the study.

The following summary reports illustrate studies conducted by individuals
or organizations that have granted permission to the Foundation to include
their work in the information resource.

These Notices of Research Projects are listed alphabetically by the support-
ing agency for each study.  These agencies are the Business and Defense
Services Administration; City Government of Decatur, Illinois; Federal Water
Quality Administration; Office of Saline Water; Office of Water Resources
Research; State Government of Illinois; and the University of.Illinois.
                                     34

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Supporting Agency:  Commerce Department, Business & Def. Services Adm.

Title of Project:  Production of Water and Waste Water Treatment Equipment  (1968)

Principal Investigators:  K.L.  Kollar and W.G. Youngwirth

Recipient Institution:  U.S. Department  of Commerce, Bus.&Defense Ser. Admin., Washington
D.C.

Summary of Project:  Water Quality Management and Protection:  A survey has been completed
of  some 180 manufacturing establishments engaged in the production of water and wastewater
treatment equipment.  The number and value of treatment equipment produced  in 1968 and the
production capacity  for 24 major product categories will be  published in a  report 9/1970.
Among the products the  report will cover are chemical feed equipment, filtration equipment,
sludge  digestion and disposal equipment  and package treatment plants.
.Supporting Agency:   Decatur City Government  -  Illinois

 Title  of Project:   Thickening and Dewatering of Water Treatment  Sludge

 Principal Investigators:   R.I.  Dick and J.I.  Barkman

 Recipient Institution:   Univ. of Illinois,  School  of Engineering,  Urbana,  Illinois

 Summary of Project:  Laboratory and full scale plant investigations  are being conducted to
.develop operational parameters for a gravity thickener  to yield  optimum volume reduction
•and solids concentration.   Further dewatering investigations  have  involved the use of
 various polyelectrolytes to improve the filterability of the  softening-clarification sludge
 by an  existing vacuum coilfilter.



 Supporting Agency:   Interior Department,  Federal  Water Quality  Administration

 Title  of Project:   Lime Sludge Recovery and  Reuse

 Principal Investigators:   M.C. Mulbarger and R.B.  Dean

 Recipient Institution:   U.S. Dept. of the Interior,  Federal Water  Quality, Admin, Cincinn-
 ati, Ohio

 Summary of Project:  Lime in doses of 200 to 500 mg/1 as Ca(OH)2 removes  phpsphates and
 suspended matter from secondary effluents.   The resultant sludge consists  of calcium carbon-
 ates and phosphates together with silicate minerals, magnesium hydroxide  and organic matter.
 Although the recovered lime may cost nearly as much  as  fresh  lime, the problem of disposing
 of large volumes of sludge is solved.  Waters differing in  hardness  and phosphate content
 have been treated through four cycles and the quantity  and  quality of the recovered lime
 has been measured.   In soft waters calcium phosphate builds up until it represents over
 half of the weight of calcined lime without  exerting any deleterious effect, provided
 that fresh lime is  added to make up the losses. In  hard waters  calcium carbonate is removed
 from the water and must be continuously wasted along with low concentrations of calcium
 phosphate.
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 Supporting Agency:   Interior Department,  Federal Water Quality Admin.

 Title  of  Project:   The Thickening and Dewatering of Precipitates   from  the Lime/Limestone
 Treatment of Mine Drainage

 Principal Investigator:  Edward Moss

.Recipient Institution:  West Va.  University,  School of Mines,  Morgantown, West Virginia

 Summary of Project:  The  proposed work will consist of a detailed studyof the problem of
 densification of ferric hydroxide —  calcium  sulphate  sludges  which result from the lime
 or  limestone treatment  and aeration of acid waters  from coal mines.  The project will focus
 on  the interrelationship  of  mine  water chemistry with  the settleability of sludges and
 possible  methods used  to  chemically or mechanically concentrate and dewater these sludges.
 Areas  of  study will  include  filtering, flocculation, decantation, centrifuglng, thickening,
 and cycloning.  A "State  of  the Art"  review of potentially useful existing dewatering
 methods as they apply  to mine water treatment sludges  will be  completed early in the study.
 The economics of alternative tr^i.-ment schemes will be examined with the objective of
 reducing  the overall costs of water treatment and sludge disposal.  The project will begin
 in  February, 1972.
Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Federal Water Quality Admin. & Common, of Pa.

Title of Project:  Neutralization and Precoat Filtration of Concentration Sludges from
Mine Water

Principal Investigator:  Dr. D.R. Maneval

Recipient Institution:  State Dept.  of Mines & Min., Harrisburg, Pa.

Summary of Project:  The project is  directed at providing a cost-effectiveness evaluation
of various neutralization processes  in the  treatment of acid mine drainage.  Sludge dis-
posal problems will be studied with  emphasis on precoat filtration.  Field test will be
accomplished on  four abandoned mines in the Western Pennsylvania area.  Johns-Manville
Company will perform the work.  It is hoped that this method will provide significant
information on economic feasibility  of reducing acid mine drainage by neutralization.
 Supporting Agency:  Interior  Department, Federal Water Quality Admin.

 Title  of Project:  Treatment  of Acid Rinse Waters

 Principal Investigator:   J. Barker

 Recipient Institution:  Armco Steel Corporation Middletown,  Ohio

 Summary of Projecf.  The  project  provides  for construction,  operation,  tests, and reports
 on facilities  to treat  1500 gpm of  acid rinse waters  produced by the hydrochloric acid
 pickling of  strip-steel preparatory to cold-rolling.  The  treatment process will consist
'of limestone neutralization,  aeration, coagulation, sedimentation, sludge recirculation,
 vacuum filtration of  the  excess sludge, and effluent  equalization.  All or nearly all
 of the acid  and the compounds of  iron  will be removed by the treatment  process.  The
 chloride content of the waste is  not changed by this  process and may be such  that dilu-
 tion with other available wastes  will  be required  in  order to meet the  state's proposed
 standards regarding total dissolved solids.
                                             36

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Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Saline

Title of Project:  The Feasibility  of Obtaining a Solid (Dry) Brine Effluent from De-
salting Plants at Inland Locations

Principal Investigators:  W.F. Mcllhcnny, B.P. Shepherd, P.G. Legros,  and J.C.  Williams

Recipient Institution:   Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan

Summary of Project:   In the first phase of this project a survey will be performed of
the chemical and process industries to determine applicable methods of reducing or remov-
ing solids from solutions.  The constituents of brackish water will be determined and
the potential usefulness of the processes for  treating of the brine effluents from desal-
ination plants will be determined.  Secondly,  tte economic feaseabilities and potential
size  limitations of each alternation will be determined and  the advantage, disadvantage,
and economic potentials of the alternatives will be compared.  Processes which, at this
time, appear to merit for treating and desalting brines to produce dry solids include:
(1) Solvent extraction;  (2) Fluid-bed drying; (3) Spray calcination.
Supporting Agency:   Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

Title of Project:  Determining  the Feasibility of Obtaining Dry Brine Effluents from
Desalting Plants at  Inland Locations

Principal Investigators:  I. Yen, D. Garrett, E.A. Manker, M.J. Kallerud,  and E. Chemtoe

Recipient Institution:  Garrett  Res. & Dev. Co. Inc., La Verne, California

Summary of Project:  This project will prepare a conceptual design of a desalination plant
using solar ponds  in conjunction with a multistage flash evaporator.  The solar ponds
shall be used not  only  for evaporation but also as solar energy collectors to heat the
feed brine for further  processing.  The complete plant shall be designed for a total
potable water output of 2.5mgd.  Plant scaling factors shall be provided for 1 to lOmgd
plants.  The conceptual design  shall include process flowsheet, heat and material bal-
ance, equipment  layouts, materials of construction, design calculations  and elevation
or sectional drawings required  to fully describe the designed plant and/or principal
items of equipment capital and  operating cost estimates shall be prepared for the
designed plant and related to the cost of fresh water output so that a cost of reduction
or removal of solids can be determined for a fresh water output.
Supporting Agency:  Interior Department,  Office  of Saline Water

Title of Project:  Feasibility of Obtaining  a Solid  (Dry) Brine Effluent from Desalting
Plants at Inland Locations

Principal Investigators:  R.W. Fosterpegg, G.W.  Blair, S.A. Laurich, N. Ganiaris, R.H.
Hedrick, and R.J. Glasser

Recipient Institution:  Struthers Energy  Systems Inc., Warren, Pennsylvania

Summary of Project:   This project will investigate  the recovery and use of solids from
the brine effluent from a 2.5 mgd desalting plant.   Processes to be examined are: 1. The
use of a single and multiple effect crystallyzer/evaporators for removing or reducing the
solids from solution;  2. The operating parameters of a crystallizer to determine the
economic feasibility of designing for production of  salts with a commercial value; 3. The
use of a direct contact spray type granulator and/or fluidized bed dryer for final effluent
drying.  The above processes will be compared as to advantages, disadvantages, and economic
potential, and potential size limitations will be determined.  For the most optimum of
these processes a conceptual design will be prepared for a plant treating the effluent of
a 2.5mgd desalination plant.  The capital and operating cost estimates for this plant will
be determined so that the cost of reduction or removal of solids can be determined for a
unit of fresh water output.
                                              37

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 Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

 Title of Project:  Recovery of Chemicals as a Means of Brine Disposal

 Principal Investigators:  E. Rabin, C.J. Avery, and P. Hadzeriga

 Recipient Institution:  Environmental Qual. Eng. Inc., Oakland,  California

 Summary of Project:  Candidate products, processes, and sites will be identified for the
 recovery of chemicals from desalting plant effluents.   Associated economic and process
 design data will be assembled, and environmental problems will be examined.   Feasability
 criteria for the potential of the process will be established.  Based on this information
 and criteria, block flow diagrams will be developed for approximately eight  products and
 sixteen processes.  A preliminary market analysis will be performed on each  product  under
 consideration.  The interrelation between chemical and desalting  plants will be evaluated
' to include such factors as descaling,  effluent brine concentration & composition, and
 changes in residual waste disposal resulting from chemical recovery.   Based  on these
 exploratory studies, the most promising products, processes and  sites  will be selected  for
'a preliminary engineering and economic analysis.  This will include determination of the
 smallest plant size that will support chemical recovery.   The results  of this analysis
 will be used to (1) identify the most promising integrated facility for desalting-chem-
 ical recovery, and (2) determine research efforts necessary for advancement  of chemical
 recovery methods for brine disposal.
 Supporting Agency:   Interior Department,  Office of Saline Water

 Title of Project:   Disposal of Brine Effluents by Conversion to By-Products

 Principal Investigators:   R.R. Grinstead  and G.E. Fleig

 Recipient Institution:  Dow Chemical Company, Walnut Creek,  California

 Summary of Project:  This  project will examine the application of solvent extraction
 methods to the separation  and concentration of desalination  brines to produce  products
 which can be disposed of in normal industrial channels.  Such products will  include sodium
 chloride, sodium carbonate, magnesium and calcium carbonates, sodium and ammonium sulphates',
 and chlorine and caustic soda (from electrolysis of sodium chloride brine).  A dual extra-
 ction system will be studied, and will be analogous to the Desal ion exchange  process for
 desalinating brackish water.  The initial step would be based on the use of  amine systems
 to convert anionic  constituents of the brine to bicarbonates, and the second step will
 utilize acidic extractions to acidify the bicarbonates to carbon dioxide. Among the  by-
 products will be sodium carbonate, which can be used to remove divalent cations from  the
 brine feed or from  the  original brackish water, ahead of the desalination step.  In the
 latter case, the softened  feed water would allow a greater recovery of water in the desal-
 ination step.  The  rationale of using extraction methods in this application rests on the
 abil ity of extraction processes to treat and produce stronger salt solutions than ion
 exchange of methods, since problems of dilution due to mixing of aqueous phases are elim-
 inated.
                                              38

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Supporting Agency!  Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

Title of Project:  Determining the Feasibility of Alternative Approaches of Obtaining
a Solid Dry Brine Effluent from Detalination Plants at Inland locations

Principal Investigators:  S. Lemezis, D.B. Boies, R.L. Coit, V.S. Ivins, and C.J. Bowden

Recipient Institution:  Westinghouse Electric Corp., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Summary of Project:  this project will prepare a conceptual design of a unique multistage
flash evaporator concentration system which can receive brine effluent waste from desalt-
ing plants of any process and reduce the waste volume to less than \ of 17..  The concen-
tration system design capacity shall be based on treating the brine effluent from a 2.5
mgd distillation plant.  Plant scaling factors shall be provided for 1 to 10 mgd plants.
Capital and operating cost estimates for the 2.5 mgd plant shall be prepared so that the
cost of reduction or removal of solids can be determined for a fresh water output.
Screening runs on available equipment shall be performed to evaluate water characteristics
for design purposes.
Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

Title of Project:  Study of Approaches of Obtaining Solid Brine Effluents from Desalina-
tion Plants

Principal Investigator:  F.C. Stairiiford

Recipient Institution:  W.L. Badger & Associates, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Summary of Project:  In the first phase of this project, a survey will be performed of
the chemical and process industries to determine potential processes for removing or
reducing solids from solution when treating the brine effluent from desalination plants.
Secondly, the economic feasibility of each alternative will be determined and a cost of
reduction or removal of solids will be determined for a unit of fresh water and for the
plant sizes under consideration.  The potential size limitations of each alternative will
be determined and the advantages, and disadvantages and economic potential of these
alternatives will be compared.  A conceptual design will be prepared for a plant treating
the effluent of a 2.5.mgd desalination plant and capital and operating costs for this
plant will also be prepared.  These costs will be used to determine a cost ot reduction
or removal of solids for a fresh water output.
Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

Title of Project:  Evaluation of Soil Sealants from Solar Evaporation Ponds

Principal Investigator:   L. Ellsperman

Recipient Institution:  U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Color-
ado

Sunmary of Project:  The Bureau of Reclamation has been conducting studies on surface
facilities for the disposal of brine from inland desalting plants.  Nine different linings
and a control, including two chemical sealants, have been evaluated at Dalpra Farms,  Long-
mont, Colorado.  These materials were installed as the base under 18-foot diameter metal
tanks.  Seepage rates have been determined using brine effluent up to a 5 - foot depth.
At the present time the most economical and effective sealants for solar ponds are poly-
ethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films.  However, film materials are subject to
mechanical damage which is difficult to repair.  Chemical sealants are self-sealing.  As
a result of the previous laboratory work two new chemical sealants were shown to have a
better potential for sealing ponds effectively and at lower cost than most of the materials
field tested to date.  They are Dow Chemical Company's Sealant No. 1193 and Union Carbide
Company's product, DCA-70.  The purpose of this project is to field evaluate these two new
chemical sealants.
                                             39

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 Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Saline Water

 Title of Project:  Surface Facilities for Disposal of Desalting Plant Effluents

 Principal Investigator:  L.H. Ellsperman

 Recipient Institution:  U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bur. of Reclamation,  Denver,  Colorado

 Sunmary of Project:  Objectives:  To develop design criteria for surface  facilities  to
 be used in the disposal of desalting plant effluents.  Description of Work:   a. Perform
 "state of the art" bibliography, including literature and industry survey,   b.  Explore
 and evaluate soil samples from probable sites,  c.  Conduct a laboratory  evaluation  of
 the effectiveness of soil sealants and other lining materials with various brine  efflu-
 ents,  d.  Develop « monitoring system for continuous and routine measurements of seepage
 losses,  f.  Field test soil sealants and other lining materials and develop optimum
 methods of application,  g.  Prepare a manual on surface facilities for disposal  of
 desalting plant effluents,  h.  Conduct an economic study of salt disposal.

 Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Water Resources Res.

 Title of Project:  Conservation of Fresh-Water Resources by Deep-Well Disposal of Liquid
 Wastes

 Principal Investigators:  Dr. D.M. Grubes, C.D. Haynes,  and W.E. Tucker

 Recipient Institution:  Univ. of Alabama, Water Resource Program, University, Alabama

 Summary of Project:  This project will evaluate the geological and engineering parameters
• of subsurface rock formations which will permit disposal of liquid waste  by  deep-well
 injection procedures.  Criteria and techniques will be sought which will  have both quanti-
 tative and qualitative regional application in the development of underground disposal
 facilities.  This will in turn alleviate the problem of usage of surface  waters as carriers
 of waste effluent.  Studies will be focused upon: 1.  Derivation and analysis of  informa-
 tion such as rock core and cuttings lithology, analysis of reservoir fluids, results
 of rock matrix and cementing material, electrical and other well-logging  parameters, and
 petrophysical data such as porosity and permeability;  2.  Laboratory analysis from  simi-
 tated injection of wastes into actual reservoir core samples to determine capacity,
 receptivity, continuity and compatibility, and pressure-time-distance response as a  basis
 for prediction or systems behavior; 3.  Development of mathematical models applicable
 to the identification and evaluation of potentially receptive disposal zones.  Determina-
 tion of restrictions to be placed upon types and volumes of liquid wastes which may  be
 .Injected into specific deep-well reservoirs.

 'Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Water Resources Res.

 Title  of Project:  Ground Water Contamination Resulting  from  Waste Disposal

 Principal Investigators:  J.R. Anderson  and J.N. Dornbush

 Recipient Institution:  South Dakota State University, School of Engineering, Brookings,
 South  Dakota

 Summary  of  Project:  Representative waste disposal methods  In South Dakota including  land
 disposal of liquid and  solid wastes will be investigated to determine:   1.  A reconmended
 procedure  for  selection of waste disposal sites  in  order  to minimize  ground water contam-
 ination  problems.  2.   The effects  of waste disposal  practices  including:  a. The nature
 and  extent  of  ground water contamination,  b.   The.effect of ground water contamination
 on proposed beneficial uses.   c.   The  influence of such  factors as climatic conditions,
 soil types  and waste characteristics  on the degree and  extent of travel  of pollutants.
 3.   A means of combatting undesirable  contamination of  the ground water.  It is  also  pro-
 posed that the project will  investigate the  long term effects of solid waste landfill on
 ground water quality in an area where  adequate background data have been collected  to
 observe  the initial  influence.
                                               40

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Supporting Agency:  Interior Department, Office of Water Resources Res.

Title of Project:  Use of Lime-Soda Ash Sludge for the Treatment of Municipal Wastewater

Principal Investigator:  W.J. O'Brien

Recipient Institution: Univ. of Kansas, School of Engineering, Lawrence, Kansas

Summary of Project:  The objectives of this reasearch are to analyze the excess sludge
produced by the  lime-soda ash water softening process used in the municipal water treat-
ment plant at Lawrence, Kansas, and to determine the effectiveness of this material as
a precipitant for wastewater.  The water softening sludge will be added to the primary
sedimentation basin on the municipal wastewater treatment plant to determine the level
of phosphate and suspended solids removal  that can be obtained at a pH of 9.5 in the sedi-
mentation basin.  Final disposal methods for the mixture of biodegradable organic matter
and chemical sludge produced at the wastewater treatment plant will also be investigated.
Both laboratory  and plant scale tests will be conducted.  An economic evaluation of the
process will also be prepared.
Supporting Agency:   Interior Department,  Office of Water Resources Res.

Title of Project:  Economic Disposal  of Waste Sludges  from Water Treatment Plants

Principal Investigator:   P.H. King

Recipient Institution:  Virginia  Polytechnic Institute, School of Engineering, Blacksburg,
Virginia

Summary of Project:  The  disposal of  sludges resulting from conventional water treatment
processes such  as  coagulation,  softening  and filtration will be examined with a view
of developing alternatives to disposal by dilution  in  cases where water quality stream
standards would be violated or  in situations where  disoosal to lagoons would not be feas-
ible due to  land costs.   Particular attention will be  given to the parameters of treatment
plant operation and  to sludge conditioning techniques  which result in rapid and tnorough
sludge dewatering  on either open  sand drying beds or through use of vacuum filters.  The
use of newly developed synthetic  organic  polyelectrolytes as a conditioning aid will be
investigated.   The economics of alternative methods of water treatment plant sludge dispo-
sal under varying  conditions will be  evaluated.
 Supporting Agency:   Interior Department,  Office  of Water Resources Res.

 Title  of  Project:   Effect  of Environmental  Factors on Design and Operation of Open-Air
 Sludge Drying  Beds

 Principal Investigator:  Dr. J.C.  Jennett

 Recipient Institution:   Univ.  of Missouri,  School of Engineering, Rolla, Missouri

 Summary of Project:  In  order to develop  rational techniques for the design of open-air
 sludge drying  beds, it is  necessary to understand the effect environment has  on the
 process.   The main  approach  of this investigation is to study the fundamental aspects
 of sludge  drying and how environment is a factor.  The specific objectives  of this  project
 are to develop laboratory  procedures which will allow the quantitative evaluation of the
 effects of environment on  sludge drying;  to evaluate the experimental results gained from
 the laboratory to determine  how and to what degree environment and sludge bed design affect
 the rate and extent of sludge drying; and to develop « rational approach to the design
 and operation of these drying beds.  Laboratory investigations will be performed using
model  sludge drying beds in  environmental chambers which allow the control of the physical
 environment so that each variable may be held constant or changed as desired.  Laboratory
 and field  data will be correlated to allow practical application of the results.
                                              41

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Supporting Agency:  Interior  Department, Office of Water Resources Res.

Title of Project:  Treatment  of Water-Plant Sludges

Principal Investigator:  Dr.  J.F. Judkins

Recipient Insitutions:  Auburn University, School of Engineering, Auburn, Alabama

Summary of Project:  The objectives of the proposed research are to investigate the crys-
tal seeding process as a means of improving the filterability of water treatment plant
sludge.  The process will be  investigated for its annl lability to both coagulant sludges
and lime-softening sludges.   Variables of iiterest will  include crystal seed dosage, mixing
rate and the concentrations of impurities in the water.  Studies will be conducted on
laboratory samples prepared by the* addition of typical concentrations of turbidity,
hardness and alkalinity to di;tilled water.
Supporting Agency:  Illinois State Government

Title of Project:  Water Treatment Plant Wastes

Principal Investigation:  R.L. Evans

Recipient Institution:   State Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois

Summary of Project:  A study is under way to determine the effect, if any, that waste
generated by water treatment plants may have on potential or existing water simply
sources, as well as other legitimate users of water.  An effort has been made on
a statewide basis to determine 1)  existing methods of water treatment wastes disposal;
2)   types and quantities of waste generated per unit quantity of water treated; and
3)   chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of the wastes.  That phase of the
project involving classification units and water softening is complete.  Current efforts
are  devoted to investigating municipal ion exchange units involving principally brine
wastes.
Supporting Agency: University of Illinois

Title of Project: Gravity Thickening Theory

Principal Investigators:  R.I. Dick and B. Shin

Recipient Institution:  University  of Illinois, School of Engineering, Urbana, Illinois

Summary of Project:  Kynch's theory is being used  as  a basis for study of the gravity
'. thickening behavior  of  suspensions.  Extensions and modifications of the theory as sugg-
.ested by reported performance of gravity  and continuous thickeners are being developed.
                                               42

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Plant Visits

The Research Foundation staff visited two water utilities conducting pilot
and plant scale activities.  The Hackensack Water Company of Oradell, New
Jersey, is using pilot plant units to determine the effect of recycling
and reusing filter washwater.  The City of Atlanta, Georgia, is installing
two pressure filters to dewater the sludge from the Chattahoochee Water
Treatment Plant.

Hackensack Water Company

The Hackensack Water Company is conducting an in-house study on the "Recy-
cling and the Reuse of Filter Washwater."  The water utility is funding
and staffing this project.

The one gallon per minute pilot plant includes flocculation, sedimentation,
and filtration units; it is supplied with water drawn from the influent
basin of the main treatment plant.  This water contains the normal chem-
ical dosages of chlorine, alum and carbon; to it, in the flash mixer of the
pilot plant, filter backwash water is added.  The backwash water represents
2 to 3 percent of the composite one gallon per minute flow processed.

The initial source of backwash wastewater was a composite sample of wash-
water from one of the full scale plant filters.  In continuing pilot plant
operation, filter washwater from the pilot filters was recycled and reused.

Following rapid mixing and settling, the clarified effluent is fed to a
multi-media pilot filtration unit.

The experimental filters are composed of 42 inches of anthracite , with
gravel bottoms.  The surface area is 0.233 sq. feet and the flow through
the filters is 4.5 gpm per sq. ft.  The filters are washed every 30 hours
at 32 inches rise per minute for 8 minutes, corresponding to the use and
backwashing schedule of the actual full scale plant filters.

Samples of the pilot plant basin and filter effluents are collected for
analysis.  Head loss readings are recorded both for control and experimen-
tal filters.

The effectiveness and economy of chemically coagulating a filter washwater
will be evaluated.  It is proposed that this process will reclaim the
liquid portion of the washwater and eliminate the need for separate wash-
water sedimentation basins to settle potential solid pollutants.

Atlanta, Georgia

The City of Atlanta is installing Beloit-Passavant sludge dewatering equip-
ment to dewater the alum sludge generated at the Chattahoochee Water Treat-
ment Plant.  The selection of this equipment followed  extensive testing
in which air flotation, vacuum filtration, centrifugation, and filter press-
ing processes were evaluated.  It is anticipated that Atlanta will be the
                                     43

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first United States city to dewater alum sludge by filter pressing.on a
plant scale basis.  The addition of seven new dual media filters will
increase the plant design capacity to 60 mgd.

The full scale waste dewatering plant will consist of two series 6400
Beloit-Passavant Pressure Filters.  The presses are expected to produce
a filter cake with a solids concentration between 40 and 45 percent.  The
alum sludge will be conditioned with lime before processing.  The filter
cake can be disposed of as a landfill.  The capacity of the two pressure
filters being installed is approximately 55,000 pounds of dry solids daily.
It is expected that the Chattahoochee Sludge Dewatering Plant will go into
service in late 1971.

Manufacturer Research

The Permutit Research and Development Center has reported initiating pilot
plant studies on the dewatering of alum, ferric hydroxide, and calcium
carbonate sludges.  The Center is preparing a paper titled "Dewatering of
Water Plant Sludges."  An abstract of this paper, submitted to the Research
Foundation, states:

"A method of gravity dewatering of typical water plant sludges is presented.
The sludges studied include aluminum hydroxide, iron hydroxide, magnesium
hydroxide, and calcium carbonate.  Due to their greater complexity, water
plant sludges are more difficult to dewater than a pure aluminum hydroxide
or a pure ferric hydroxide sludge.  Water plant sludges are fragile under
stress and of particle sizes unsuitable for rapid dewatering.  The new
gravity dewatering treatment system judiciously utilizes;  (1) polymers
which produce a floe having the proper particle size and integrity for
gravity dewatering, and (2) a moving bed gravity dewatering device that
maintains an extremely thin cake in its gravity dewatering compartment."

Water Quality Office, E.P.A.

There have been two studies identified through the Water Quality Office of
the Environmental Protection Agency.

The first study is titled "Treatment of Waste Alum Sludge."  A grant of
$31,871 was awarded to the City of Albany, New York, Department of Water
and Water Supply.  The project is expected to run from June, 1971 to
December, 1971.

The purpose of this study is "to conduct a detailed pilot plant alum
sludge filtration study at the Feura Bush Water Treatment Plant of the City
of Albany.  The objectives are to optimize operating parameters, demon-
strate process reproducibility, and develop information necessary for full-
scale plant design.

The technical and economic feasibility of rotary vacuum precoat filtra-
tion of alum sludge will be evaluated.  A comparison will be made of the
performance of various types and grades of filter aids, and other operat-
ing variables.    Design and criteria for a full-scale facility will be
sought.
                                     44

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The second study is jointly funded by the Water Quality Office of the
E.P.A.;  The City of Montgomery, Alabama; and the AWWA Research Foundation.
The project is titled "Use and Recovery of Magnesium Carbonate for Color
& Turbidity Removal from Municipal Water."

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of magnesium
carbonate as a recycled coagulant for use in removing color and- turbidity
from raw water sources at municipal purification plants.  Magnesium car-
bonate is presently reclaimed at the Dayton, Ohio, water softening plant
from a sludge containing calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide.  The
calcium carbonate sludge is recalcined to recover lime for plant oper-
ation and excess lime is sold.

In the conversion of magnesium hydroxide to magnesium carbonate, sludge
from the softening facility is carbonated, using carbon dioxide produced
from the rotary kiln of the lime recovery furnace.  The carbon dioxide
selectively converts the insoluble  magnesium hydroxide to a soluble   car-
bonate.  A physical solid - liquid separation process allows the recovery
of a magnesium carbonate supernatent solution before the calcium carbon-
ate sludge is calcined.  The use of magnesium carbonate as an alum coag-
ulant replacement represents a new technology in water treatment that will
alter the character of waste sludges.

Pilot and plant scale testing of this coagulant at the Montgomery, Alabama,
water treatment plant will determine operating and design variables for the
new process.  The recycling of magnesium carbonate coagulant in purifica-
tion plants will alleviate  the magnitude  of wastes for ultimate disposal
at these facilities.

Correspondence - Domestic

Three studies on the treatment of settling basin sludge and filter wash-
water have been reported to the Research Foundation for incorporation into
this information resource.   These studies deal with the centrifugation,
lagooning, and recycling of waste sludges.

The first study is titled "Treatment and Disposal of Sedimentation Tank
Sludge and Sand Filter Backwash Water, Van Bibber Treatment Plant, Edge-
wood Arsenal, Maryland."

The engineering firm of Van Reuth and Weidner, Inc. was contracted by the
Baltimore District, Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army, to study
and report on the treatment and disposal of sedimentation tank sludge and
sand filter backwash water from the Van Bibber Water Treatment Plant at
Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.  The study was undertaken for the purpose of
meeting more stringent state pollution abatement laws governing the dis-
charge of wastes from water treatment plants.

Several treatment processes were evaluated for concentrating the predom-
inantly aluminum hydroxide sludge at this purification plant with a design
capacity of 4.0  mgd.   Laboratory tests were  conducted on  potential dewatering
methods including vacuum filtration, sand filtration, evaporation and
                                     45

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decanting  (lagooning), freezing, chemical  treatment, and centrifugation.
Evaporative lagooning with decantation and centrifugation with chemical
treatment were found  to warrant further investigation in this applica-
tion due to their practicality and efficiency.

Field demonstration tests on waste conditioned with synthetic organic
polymers were made using a Dorr-Oliver Merco Bowl Centrifuge.  Tests
showed that at this plant, centrifugation  was the most economical treat-
ment process for the handling of the sludge and filter backwash water.

The recommendations from  the study have been adopted and now constitute"-
the basis for design and construction of new facilities which are scheduled
for early completion at the Van Bibber Plant.  The construction costs
are estimated at $180,000 and annual operating and maintenance costs are
estimated at $29,000.  This report is the  result of investigations con-
ducted by the authors for the U.S. Army Engineer District, Baltimore, and
is released pursuant to current policy, as a matter of possible interest
to the engineering profession.

The second study reported is an engineering proposal made for the settling,
of filter washwater from a water treatment facility.  The supernatant
from the settling process will be reclaimed.

Reagan & Me Caughan, Consultant Engineers  from Corpus Christ!, Texas,
have proposed waste treatment facilities to control the pollution caused
by sedimentation tank sludge and filter backwash water at a Nueces County
Water Control & Improvement District No. 3 water treatment plant.  This
utility provides l.Smgd of domestic water for the City of Robstown and the
surrounding area.

Lime, alum, and chlorine are used to treat the raw water at this plant.
The source water is pumped from the Nueces River into an earthen canal
and then flows into a series of lakes at the treatment plant site.  The
wastewater from the coagulation and filter washing process is presently
discharged to a drainage ditch owned and operated by a Drainage District.
The Texas Water Quality Board has noted objections to this procedure and
has advised the District to find a .new disposal technique.

The consultants have proposed that the sludge and filter washwater be
treated in earth settling basins.  The clarified effluent would then be
returned to the raw water lake.  Two basins would be provided to allow
operation of one and cleaning of the other. The sludge from these basins
would be ultimately disposed of at a suitable site.  The settled sludge
may have utility as a fertilizer for grain or cotton crops.

A third study has been reported by the superintendent of the water works
for the City of Cincinnati, Ohio.

"Plans are being formulated to recycle spent washwater, with raw incoming
water, through the primary sedimentation basins.  The installations will
provide for two methods of initial experimentation:
                                      46

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          1.  Recycling of spent washwater with sludge from secondary
              treatment.

          2.  Recycling of spent washwater alone.

Experiments are now underway to concentrate secondary treatment plant sludge
in lagoons.  In these, it is anticipated that some concentration will occur
due to perculation, evaporation and natural winter freezing.

The residual will be pumped in thin layers on farm land, harrowed in, fer-
tilized, and otherwise treated to form an acceptable base on which to grow
sod.  The end result being a sod farm (to supply City Departments) with a
self-perpetuating top soil.  Water is to be decanted from the lagoons using
a valved tower to regulate the effluent level being decanted. "

Correspondence - Foreign

Several foreign research organizations have been contacted to determine
the type and status of activity involving the treatment of water utility
wastes.

The Fylde Water Board provided three reports that were not referenced
in the Foundation's 1969 report on the disposal of wastes from water treat-
ment plants.  These reports have been abstracted by the Research Foundation
and transmitted to the Water Resources Science Information Center.  The
abstracts follow.
                                     47

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 Benn, D. and  Bridge, L., "Sludge Disposal by Pressing,"  Paper of Fylde Water Board,
 Blackpool, Lancashire, England.

 Key Words:  Design data, Filter pressing, Sludge conditioning, Operational experience


 This study provides experimental, operational, design, and cost data  from extensive filter
 pressing testing of clarification sludge conditioned by a polyelectrolyte.  A pilot press
 was utilized  to evaluate the dewatering of sludge  from three water utilities.  Filter
 pressing of sludge from the Hodder water facility  was successful.  A  full-size filter press
 was installed.  Filter washwater is dosed with a polyelectrolyte.  The mixture undergoes
 two stage settling.  The final supernatant is discharged to a river and the sludge is
 withdrawn from the settling basins and stored for  pressing.  Details  of the press design
 features and  operation are provided.  Operational  experience is discussed including infor-
 mation on sludge thickening, cyclic operation, power, economy, pipework and valves, auto-
 matic control systems, filter cloths, and mechanical handling equipment.  Capital, running
 charge, debt  charge, and comparative costs are tabulated.  Conclusions based on operating
 experience are made on the press cycle, degree of  system automation,  cloth materials, and
 equipment sizing.


.Hilson, M.A., "Sludge Conditioning by Polyelectrolytes,"  Paper of Fylde Water Board,
 Blackpool, Lancashire, England.

 Key Words:  Mathematical models, Sludge disposal,  Sludge conditioning, Polyelectrolytes


 This study defines the nature of polyelectrolytes  and provides instances where these natural
 or synthetic  polymers made clarification sludges more amenable to dewatering.  Polyelectrolyte
 effectiveness can be influenced by seasonal water  quality changes.  At the Fishmoor plant,
 sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation basins  and stored.  The stored sludge is then trans-
 ported to a mixing tank where a polyelectrolyte is added.  The mixed  sludge is gravity fed to
 a thickener.  At the Stocks plant, polyelectrolyte is added to the washwater.  The washwater is
 then settled.  Laboratory jar tests to evaluate polymers for sludge thickening efficiency
 concentrate on the rate of flocculation, floe size, settling rate, and water clarity.  Sludge
 dewatering by filter pressing is predictable by the Carman-Kozeny and D'Arcy equations.   The
 compressibility index and specific sludge resistance primarily affect the dewatering proper-
 ties.  A procedure is presented to evaluate these  parameters in the laboratory.   Flans are
 explained to  study the conditioning of lime softening sludges.  Cost  considerations are enumer-
 ated.


 Brown, A., and Leighton, J.,"Some Solutions to Sludge Treatment Problems at Fishmoor Treatment
 Plant,"  Paper Presented at Fishmoor Treatment Plant, England  (1966).

 Key Words:  Costs, Freeze-thaw tests, Filter pressing, Polyelectrolytes


 This study presents design and cost data for the filter pressing, freezing, polyelectrolyte
 conditioning, and lagooning of clarification sludge.  The initial sludge dewatering facilities
 planned for Fishmoor include slow stirring thickeners, sludge retention bunkers,  and freezing
 tanks.  Sludge solids concentrations and quantities are listed.  Operational difficulties are
 discussed.  The thickener did not function adequately.  The thickener was modified and testing
 was initiated with a Davy Paxman Vacuum Filter, Walmsleys Ltd. Rotoklene Strainer, filter press,
 and polyelectrolyte sludge conditioning agents.  Design, operational, and construction details
 of a polyelectrolyte conditioning system are presented.  Design parameters and operation
 experience are discussed for the filter press.  Lengthy contruction considerations are enumer-
 ated for the  freezing tank design.  The freezing cycle time is related to sludge  volume, re-
 frigeration area, and freezing efficiency.   Capital, operating and maintenance, power, and
 chemical costs are presented for the major processes employed.
                                              48

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The Manchester Corporation Waterworks of England reports "work on poly-
electrolytes as coagulant aids and for the pre-treatment of sludge press-
ing has continued since 1966, and the results will be published shortly
by the Society for Water Treatment & Examination."

The Copenhagen Water Department in Denmark has taken advantage of the
natural freezing, process to treat their clarification sludge.  The Depart-
ment states "we are able to inform that the Copenhagen Water Supply has
run a lagoon plant for alum sludge during 7 years, using natural frost
as a means of reducing the volume of the aluminum hydroxide sludge.  This
has till now, in our opinion, been a great success, but no special report
has been issued stating details.  The sludge is reduced to negligible
quantities when frozen, and till now it has not been necessary to remove
the remainder."

The Water Resources Association of England has been contacted to determine
the type and status of work on water treatment plant waste control.  The
Director of W.R.A. plans to establish an exchange of information between
the W.R.A. and the working committees of the Research Foundation.  The
Research Foundation looks forward to the exchange of information with the
W.R.A. that will result in the development of new or modified treatment
methods that will benefit the water utility industries of both countries.

Literature Searches

Several reports on the treatment of wastes from water utilities have been
published since the report on the "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment
Plants." These articles, appearing in water utility trade publications,
have been abstracted in accordance with the specifications of the Water
Resources Science Information Center.  The abstracts follow.
                                     49

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 Albertson,  O.E.,  and Guidi,  E.,  "Centrifugal:ion of  Waste Sludges,"   WPCF JOURNAL.  41.
 No.  4,   pp  607-628  (1969).

 Key  Words:   Centrifugation,  Cost comparisons,  Process  variables,  Case  studies


 A brief history of the application of centrifugation for the dewatering  and  thickening of
 domestic and industrial wastes  is presented.   This  paper describes  the utility of  basket,
 disc, and solid-bowl conveyor centrifuges.  A  detailed study oE design and process variables.
 including bowl design, bowl  speed, pool  volume,  conveyor speeu,  reed rate, teed  consistency,
 temperatures,  and flocculants  is given to  show the  versatility  of solid-bowl centrifugation.
 Reference is made to specific  test facilities  where case studies  have  shown  this dewatering
 technique can  effectively handle raw primary and secondary  sludges,  digested primary and
 secondary sludges, pulp and  paper wastes,  and  water softening sludges.   Cost comparisons
 have been made evaluating sludge treatment  by  vacuum filtration,  solid-bowl centrifugation,
 and  chemical flocculation.   Centrifugation competes favorably with  these processes when oper-
 ating,  maintenance,  and capital  costs are  considered.


 Middlebrooks,  E.J.,  and Phillips,  W.E.,  and Coogan,  F.J., "Chemical  Coagulation of Kraft Mill
 Wastewater,"  Water  & Sewage Works.  116, No. 3,   pp IW 7   IW 9   (1969).

 Key  Words:   Coagulation,  Chemical  oxygen demand, Organic polymers, Aluminum sulfate


 This study  shows  that colloidal  suspensions containing significant proportions of color,
 suspended solids,  and chemical oxygen demand material  in paper mill  wastewater can be re-
 moved by chemical coagulation with organic  polymers.   Analytical  grade aluminum sulfate
 and  6 organic  polyelectrolytes were tested  on  kraft mill wastewater.   Previous work with
 synthetic polymers and ferric sulfate  is referenced. The coagulants were  tested on grab
 samples and composite samples from the raw waste stream. The jar test procedure and para-
 meter analysis techniques are explained.  The  organic   polymers were equally effective in
 reducing chemical oxygen demand  material,  color  and suspended solids.  The aluminum sulfate
 was  effective  but tripled the sludge volume produced by the organic  polymers.  The co-
 agulation efficiency changed with variations in  the solution pH.  None of the coagulants
 utilized could significantly reduce the  biochemical oxygen  demand of the waste.


 Hamblin, C.W., "Recalcining  Lime Sludge  Produces Multiple Benefits,"   The American City, 84.
 No.  11,  pp 67-69  (1969).

 Key  -Words:   Carbon dioxide,  Water  softening, Lime-recalcining, Washwater recovery


 This study  shows  how lime recalcining and  washwater recovery at a municipal water utility
 can  reclaim 9800  tons of 92  percent pure quicklime,  9950 tons of  carbon  dioxide and 170
 million gallons of washwater annually.  Extensive modifications  to  the existing  facilities
'will permit handling of the  23,000 tons  of dry solids  produced annually  while extending the
 life of sludge storage units and controlling air pollution.  Sedimentation of filter wash-
• water is accomplished in separate settling basins.   The carbon dioxide produced from Che
 recalcining facility will be used to stabilize the  softened water.   It is expected excess
 quicklime can  be recovered and  sold to reduce  plant operating costs.  A  flow diagram of the
 60 ton  per  day vertically constructed fluid bed type recalcining system  is presented.  Fuel
 requirements are 9 million Btus/ton of product output.  Tables  show chemical characteristics
 of the  lime sludge and the equipment required  for construction.
                                                50

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 Fulton, G.P., "Disposal of Wastewater from Water Filtration Plants,"  AWWA JOURNAL,  61,
 No.. 7,  pp 322-326  (1969).	

 Key Words:  Pollution abatement, Concentration, Sludge freezing, Alum recovery


 Processes for the successful treatment and disposal of potential pollutants from settling
 basin underflows and filter backwash water were examined to identify pollution abatement
 techniques.  Limited physical and chemical characteristics of wastewater were qualitatively
 and quantitatively reviewed to evaluate sludge freezing, alum recovery, and vacuum filtration
 operations.  Consideration was given to the disposal of water plant wastes in local  sewage
 systems.  Treatment goals of concentrating wastes and making these wastes suitable for dis-
 posal are discussed.  Treatment cost is reportedly minimized by simplifying operations for
 personnel and limiting land area unit requirements.  A settling rate of 250 gpd per  sq.  ft.
 was found acceptable for settling alum sludge, in its semifluid state, by using mechanical
 thickeners.  The advantages and disadvantages of the treatment schemes are presented.   Sludge
 freezing and alum recovery processes are referenced to plant scale operations.



 Keith, F.W., "Centrifuges Concentrate and Dewater Waste System Solids,"  Water & Sewage  Works,
 116, No. 3 ,  pp IW 10- IW 18   (1969).

 Key Words:  Centrifugation, Dewatering, Scroll centrifuge, Electrochemical machining


 The utility of centrifugation as a concentrating mechanism to treat municipal sewage sludge
 and paper, petroleum, and electrochemical machining waste water is discussed.  The study
 reveals that centrifugation processes can clarify waste streams in a primary treatment capac-
 ity or provide supplemental treatment by dewatering concentrate streams from flotation and
 thickening processes.  Design features and waste stream parameters are presented for scroll
 and disc type centrifuges.  The scroll centrifuge is most effective when there is a  high solids
 loading and a high concentration cake is desired.  The disc centrifuge can handle finer  sized
 particles economically and is suitable for dewatering activated sludge.  The applicability of
 centrifugation to concentrate waste activated sludge, to prepare primary and secondary sludge
 for incineration, and to treat electrochemical machining wastes is referenced.


 Scott, J.C., "Ann Arbor's Recalcining Process and Problems,"  AWWA JOURNAL, 61, No.  6,
 pp 285-288  (1969).

 Key Words:  Reclamation, Lime recalcining facility, Costs


 Although a comprehensive report on Ann Arbor's water needs showed that the lagooning of  lime
 sludge is an adequate disposal technique, the development of a lime recalcining facility was
•undertaken.  The cost of the 24 ton per day lime reclamation facility is estimated at  $1,200,000,
 including handling and treatment of the sludge from the clarifier to the finished lime storage
 tanks.  This paper outlines the basic format of the process methodology from the lime  sludge
 withdrawal to a lime product.   The problems associated with this installation are those  arising
 from personnel requirements, type of operation, characteristics of sludge collected, winter
 equipment maintenance, and other equipment needs.  The cost estimate is shown to be  highly
'variable and a study of the proposed site and surroundings among other factors must  be carefully
 evaluated.  The problems are related to construction,  maintenance, and operating costs.
                                               51

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AWWA Committee, "Diatomite Filtration  Sludge Disposal,"  AWWA JOURNAL. 62.  No. 8, pp 507-509
 (1970).                                                               	

Key Words:  Solid wastes, Liquid wastes, Diatomite filtration, Slurry disposal


.The purpose of this study ±s to provide information on the problem of sludge disposal from
diatomite filtration operations with specific consideration given to potable water treatment.
A table is presented comparing the characteristics of plant process wastes from diatomite
filtration and conventional filtration plants.  Several slurry disposal methods are discussed.
Although a diatomite filtration slurry is stated to be a good soil conditioner for agricultural
lands, the discolored waste material is esthetically objectionable.  The'advantages and dis-
advantages of disposing slurries to sewerage facilities are enumerated with consideration given
to the abrasive and settling nature of the waste.  Settling lagoons, vacuum drum filtration,
and pressure bag filtration are suggested as solids separation techniques.  Disposal of liquid
wastes can be accomplished by discharge to sanitary sewers and recovery.   Solid wastes will
provide good landfill.  A number of secondary waste uses are listed.


Faber, H.A., "Research on Water Treatment Plant Waste Disposal,"  Water & Sewage Works.  117,
No. 11,  pp 379-383  (1970).

Key Words:  Freezing, Dewatering, Centrifugation, Lime recovery, Economical disposal


This survey highlights active research, demonstration, and in-plant studies of sludge and
filter washwater disposal.  The problem of economical waste disposal techniques for puri-
fication and softening plant sludges is being investigated in various areas.  The disposal
of aluminum and ferric hydroxide sludges and the recalcination of lime sludge are enumer-
ated for several dewatering processes.  The survey cites references to freezing, centri-
fugation, precoat vacuum filtration, thickening, filter pressing, and lagooning procedures.
Water reuse and phosphate removal systems are also listed.  Projects examining sludge
conditioning through chemical addition, and operations substituting polyelectrolytes as
primary coagulants to treat filter washwater or raw water are discussed.   A systematic
program for the organization, coordination, and dissemination of  research and demonstration
projects is stressed.  A central information resource program would promote pollution
control technology beneficial to the water utility industry.


Bugg, H.M., and King, P.H., and Randall, C.W., "Polyelectrolyte Conditioning of Alum Sludges,"
AWWA JOURNAL. 62,  No. 12,  pp 792-795  (1970).

Key Words:  Zeta potential, Polymer conditioning, Specific resistance


Data show that alum sludge is more amenable to dewatering by gravity drainage or vacuum
filtration with polymer conditioning.  Water plant wastes are potential pollutants contain-
ing metallic ions and organic material that deplete the oxygen resources of a watercourse
while inhibiting natural biological activity.  The polymers investigated were 2 cationic,
2 nonionic, and 3 anionic polyelectrolytes manufactured by Nalco.  Jar tests showed that
sludge-polmer mixing beyond 2 minutes  caused a break up in the agglomerated floe.  The
cationic polymers were effective over  a low pH band and the other polyelectrolytes were effi-
cient in the pH 6.0 to 10.0 range.  Anionic polymers performed best at the 2 percent sludge
concentration and unadjusted pH of 6.6. Data are presented for the parameters of specific
resistance and zeta potential for conditioned and unconditioned  sludge.  Bench-scale sand-bed
drainage studies qn a 4.2 percent alum sludge showed  that conditioned material with  100 mg
per liter of anionic polymer dewatered in  one-fifth the time of  unconditioned material.
                                               52

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 Francis,  P.,  and  Knight,  H.W.,  "The  New  Langford Treatment Works of  the Southend Waterworks
 Company,"  Water  and  Hater  Engineering.  74.  No. 894,   pp  319-327   (1970).

 Key  Words:  Construction, Hydraulic  design,  Lime-soda  ash softening,  Recycling


 This article  describes  the-  site,  layout,  foundation, administration and plant specifi-
cations tor a 12  million gallon per day lime soda softening  facility.  In addition to the
 softening process, construction and hydraulic design considerations  are  outlined for the
 prechlorination,  hydrogen ion concentration adjustment, gravity filtration,  chlorination,
 and  dechlorination processes.  The lime soda sludge is concentrated  to 7000  gallons per
 hr.  and pumped at a rate of 3% feet per second through k inch PVC piping to  a gravel pit.
 The  sludge settles and the supernatant effluent from the pit is recycled to  the plant
 intake line.   Details are provided on the treated water pumping station and  the archi-
 tectural features of the utility.  The main contractors and  contract costs are listed.
 A history of the operating record of the Southend Waterworks Company is presented.  A
 diagram of the water treatment processes and the site  layout is included.
 Degremont, S.A., "The Orly Waterworks of the City of Paris,"  Water and Water Engineering,  74,
 No. 890,  pp 135-146  (1970).

 Key Words:  Water purification, Sludge treatment, Orly waterworks, Alum recovery


 This article describes the treatment technology utilized at a water purification plant
 employing a coagulant recovery process.  This highly automated treatment facility handles a
 nominal flow capacity of 66 million gallons per day of Seine River water.  Details of the
 pretreatment, clarification, filtration, sterilization, reagent storage and feeding, pump-
 ing, alum recovery, and monitoring, electrical, and control equipment facilities are provided.
 Filtration is accomplished under a 3.9 foot head of water.  This head is required to prevent
 the degassing of the process water in the filters during low and hot weather flows.  The
 sludge from the clarification units is concentrated at 8 grams per liter and then acidified
 with sulfuric acid to pH 3 to 3.2. The acidified sludge is fed to settling basins where the
 aluminum sulphate solution is recovered.  The remaining sludge is neutralized with calcium
 carbonate in separate tanks.  Physical and chemical characteristics of the water at different
 stages of the treatment process are presented.  A flow diagram of the plant is also provided.


 Welch, A.W., "Reclamation-of Filter Backwash Water,"  Water & Sewage Works, 117.  No. 7,
 pp  189-190   (1970).

 Key Words:  Settling basins, Lagoons, Washwater recovery, Polyelectrolytes


 This study stresses Che importance of the disposal of sludge from settling basins and the
 disposal of filter washwater in water treatment plant pollution abatement.  A polyelectrolyte,
 Zeta Floe WA, is stated to produce a dense floe when added to filter washwater during the
 backwash cycle.  The coagulating chemical is fed dry to the waste water stream and is capable
 of  producing an 80 to 85 percent washwater recovery when the waste is settled in lagoons or a
 recovery basin.  Data for a typical backwash of 6 to 8 minutes with 60,000 gallons of water
 showed that 8 to 10 pounds of polyelectrolyte were required at a cost of $.11 per pound.  The
 sludge produced can be dewatered, recycled to the primary settling tanks, or utilized as a
 sewage sludge conditioner.
                                                 53

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 Fulton,  G.P.,  "Alum Recovery for  Filtration Plant  Waste Treatment,"   Water & Wastes Engineer-
 ing,  7,  No.  6,  pp  73-C1   (1970).

 Key Words:   pH, Filtration,  Alum  recovery,  Aluminum hydroxide  sludge, Acidulation


 A  description  is supplied of process  considerations to  be  evaluated for alum recovery from
 an aluminum  hydroxide  sludge.  The  suspended  solids content and other impurities contribut-
 ing to the nature  of the waste are  examined with reference made to specific operating condi-
 tions and raw water quality.  The advantages  of a  preliminary  thickener before the acidulation
 step are explained.  A settling basin overflow rate of  250 gpd per sq. ft. and a hydrogen ion
 concentration representing a pH of  2.0  is considered to  enhance sludge settling in final solids
 separation.  A  10-minute minimum  detention  time is suggested for the acidulation step.  An
 alum solution between  1 and  2 percent should  be obtained for an efficient operation.  Filtration
 plants in the 200  to 500 mgd range with raw water  suspended solids at 20 mg per liter indicate
 recovery costs to  be $3 to $5 per million gallons  of water produced.  The utility of alum
 recovery is  cited.


 Me Colgan, R., "Water  Treatment Plant Wastes Disposal,"  Report of Orange County Sewer District,
 (1970).'

 Key Words:   Injection  wells, Water treatment  plant  wastes


 The project  goal was to determine effective treatment or disposal of activated carbon and
 aluminum hydroxide  sludges and the neutralization of the waste supernatant before discharge
 to a lake.   Sludge  disposal  techniques included injection wells and pipeline disposal to
 roadbase pits.  Sludge treatment  methods included gamma ray sludge destruction, dewatering,
 and filtration.  Sludge injection caused clogging of the aquifer and elimination of the ground-
 water as a potential supply.  Pipeline disposal created a dewatering problem in the roadbase
 pits.  A .0.1 mg/1 Nalco 671 polymer addition generated less sludge than radiation treatment
 and was  as effective.  Vacuum filtration, sand bed drying, centrifugation, and filter press-
 ing concentrated sludge solids up to 20 percent.   Basic research is recommended for sludge
 lagoons.   Lagoon design considerations are a 2^ foot maximum depth, a 10 foot clearance for
 dump trucks, and a. buffer zone between lagoons and residential communities.


Me Colgan, R., "Waste Alum and Activated Carbon Sludge Solids Reduction Methods,"  Report
 of Orange County Sewer District.  (1970).

 Key Words:  Waste storage, Landfills, Water treatment plant wastes, Lagoons


 The study described a  technique to limit alum and activated carbon sludge carryover from a
 w^te storage lagoon of a water treatment plant.   Initially, buckets were dragged through the
 settling lagoon to remove the sludge.  This technique re-suspended settled material and pro-
 duced a  carryover In the effluent.  A new lagoon, 2% to 3 feet deep, with a 2 to 1 slope was
 constructed.  Pumping  enabled a sludge transfer from the original primary lagoon to the new
 thickening lagooning.  Sludge thickening was accomplished at the influent end of the lagoon,
 and the  supernatant was recycled  to the primary lagoon.  The solids content of the thickened
 sludge was 6 to 10 percent.  After additional drying, the  sludge was used as a landfill.
                                                 54

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Farrell, J.B., and Smith, J.E., and. Dean, R.B., and Grossman, E., and Granc, O.L.,
"Natural Freezing for Dewatering of Aluminum Hydroxide Sludges,"  AWWA JOURNAL.  62,
No. 12,  pp 737-791  (1970).

Key Words:  Snow cover, Freeze-thaw test, Lagoons, Natural freezing, Layered freezing,
Filtrability


Data presented provide a basis for the design of lagoons for the dewatering of aluminum
hydroxide sludge by natural freezing.  Temperature considerations and convective heat losses
are considered in the freezing experiments.  The freezing rate of aluminum hydroxide sludge
parallels the freezing rate of water.  Field testing at Ely, Minnesota showed that a snow
cover could reduce the freezing efficiency of the sludge, but careful management could
minimize this problem by freezing the sludge in thin layers and removing snow from frozen
layers.  With complete freezing, the dewaterability and solids content of the sludge can be
significantly increased.  Freezing in a mild climate as Cincinnati, Ohio, would be success-
ful in  1 inch layers.  Layered freezing in partial freeze-thaw tests was not as effective as
a complete steady freezing.  The ratio of phosphorus to aluminum in the sulfate form is shown
to barely affect the filtrability and solids content of aluminum hydroxide sludges.


Thomas, C.M., "The Use of Filter Presses for the Dewatering of Sludges,"  WPCF JOURNAL,43,
No. 1,  pp 93-101  (1971).

Key Words:  Dewatering, Filter presses, Chemical conditioning


The utility of a. filter press  to successfully dewater various wastewater treatment sludges is
presented.  The advantages  of  a filter press operation are cited for a specific range of
application over alternative methods as centrifugation, thickeners, vacuum filters, and pres-
sure filters.  The, enumerated  benefits include efficient filtration even with feed character-
istic variations, minimized maintenance, improved filtrate quality, facility in cake handling,
and competitive capital costs.  Design consideration should be based on theory and pilot test-
ing.  Additional requirements  for  filter pressing may include sludge storage tanks and mixers,
chemical conditioning plants,  feed pumps, filter cloths, interconnecting pipework and pressure
vessels, and  filtrate collection trays.  Conditioning, filtration cycle, feed and cake charac-
terization, and cake thickness data are  presented for water plant sludge.
                                                55

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                              SECTION VII

                    SURVEY OF REGULATORY AGENCIES
Introduction
One purpose of the information resource  project is to determine current
problems and practices of regulatory agencies with respect to water treat-
ment plant waste disposal requirements, and to identify measures contem-
plated to meet more stringent pollution abatement laws.  A survey form
was designed with the assistance of the Project Advisory Committee, to
obtain new information on pollution control regulations.  This survey was
sent to regulatory agencies in March, 1971.

Historical Background

The AWWA Research Foundation published a survey, in its 1969 report on
"Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment Plants," on the regulatory aspects
of the sludge disposal problem.  The survey included ten questions relat-
 ing to statistical, research, and regulatory information of sludge treat-
ment requirements.  The responding regulatory agencies submitted additional
information on the problems and practices of water utilities within their
area of control.

The 1968 survey showed that a majority of state and interstate regulatory
agencies considered the discharge of wastes from water treatment plants to
surface waters a violation of pollution control laws or regulations.  Many
of these agencies have laws or regulations applicable to the control or
treatment of these wastes before discharge to surface waters.  Several of
the state, interstate, and territorial agencies could identify water treat-
ment facilities controlling these wastes.

In 1953, Dean reported on a survey made of the state sanitary engineers.
The survey questioned the engineers with respect to the discharge of sedi-
mentation basin sludge and filter washwater into watercourses.  The respon-
ses showed "that, in nearlv every state, the health department or a commis-
 sion or board has  the authority  to  prevent the  pollution of streams or
lakes.  Apparently these regulatory bodies are concerned with the disposal
of sewage and industrial wastes and have usually not restricted the purifi-
cation plants."

Summary of 1971 Survey

The 1971 survey by the AWWA Research Foundation indicates that the trend
towards more stringent pollution abatement laws, as predicted by Dean and
as illustrated in the 1968 survey, is becoming increasingly important.  In
the majority of cases, it will no longer be possible to design or operate
a new water utility or modify an existing utility without providing ade>- ••
 quate waste  treatment facilities.   In areas with  growing population densities,
the amount of wastes produced at water utilities will increase.  Effective
means to eliminate or alleviate the amount of pollution caused by these
wastes will be required to meet state and federal legislation.
                                      57

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Survey of Regulatory Agencies

The AWWA Research Foundation survey form was sent to the fifty states;
District of Columbia; Guam; Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands; and eight inter-
state agencies.  The survey was also sent to the ten Canadian Provincial
pollution control authorities.

The response to the survey was excellent.  Replies were received from the
fifty states, District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, eight interstate
agencies, and eight Canadian provinces.  Some agencies did not have suffi-
cient experience with these problems to complete all the questions within
the survey.  These agencies did provide several useful comments, present-
ing new material for dissemination.

The survey form (see Appendix) included eight questions requiring  single
or multiple choice responses.  The survey was concerned with wastes from
coagulation, softening, iron-manganese  removal,  diatomaceous  earth,  ion-
exchange regeneration, filter backwash, desalination, and microstraining
water treatment processes.

There were five statistical, two research, and one regulatory questions.
The respondents  were requested to complete the survey and to supplement
it with any further information which would be helpful in our study.
                                       58

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Summary of Survey Responses^

                              Question 1

        Based on "your Agency's experience, please indicate, in order
        of magnitude, your concern regarding wastes from the follow-
        ing water treatment processes (use numerals 1 to 8 with 1
        as a major and 8 as a minor concern):

        	  Coagulation             	  Filter Backwash

        	  Softening               	  Desalination
      •  	  Iron-Manganese          	  Ion Exchange
                Removal                         Regeneration

        	  Diatomaceous Earth      	  Microstraining

Coagulation Processes

The wastes from coagulation processes were identified as of major concern
by the regulatory agencies responding. Russelman  (1968) reported the number
of water utilities producing sludges from coagulation processes in the
United States to be about 3,600.  Coagulation wastes are variable   in compo-
 sition.   The magnitude and nature of the waste are dependent upon the
coagulants and other chemicals utilized in the treatment process, the effi-
ciency of the treatment, variations in the physical and chemical constitu-
ents in the raw water supplies, seasonal variations in influent water
quality, and the use of the drainage basin as effected by increased recrea-
tional, agricultural, industrial development, etc.

There are several waste treatment process alternatives available to control
or concentrate the volume of waste material to be disposed. Processes to
concentrate the solid materials in these sludge volumes include:  cemtrifu-
gation, lagooning, natural and artificial freezing, filter pressing, thick-
ening, dewatering on sludge drying beds, vacuum filtration, and rotary
precoat vacuum filtration.  The recovery of aluminum sulfate from coagula-
tion sludges, as a plant scale operation, has been accomplished in Tokyo
and Paris.  The reduction of the final solids in  these wastes is increas-
ingly important.  The use of solid material for landfill is a disposal
alternative to by-product recovery.

Softening Processes

The treatment and disposal of sludges from water  softening installations
was second in priority among the regulatory agencies.  Chemically coagu-
lated softening wastes contain calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide,
and various inorganic and organic constituents depending upon the raw
water supply source.  Water supplies softening by means of synthetic zeo-
lites or organic exchange resins, must regenerate the ion exchange units.
Regeneration with a brine solution (sodium chloride) releases divalent
                                      59

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metallic ions originally removed in the softening process, chloride ions,
and excess sodium chloride.  Both the chemically coagulated waste and ion
exchange brine stream must be disposed of.

The Cities of Dayton, Ohio, and St. Paul, Minnesota, are examples of facili-
ities chmically softening their supplies.  Each treatment plant recalcines
the calcium carbonate sludge.  The calcium carbonate is reduced to quick-
lime and carbon dioxide.  The carbon dioxide can be used for recarbonation
of water in the treatment process following the lime softening step.  Re-
claiming lime and carbon dioxide from these wastes lessens the final solids
disposal problems and reduces the operation cost of the facility.

A primary consideration in the recovery of lime from softening sludges for
reuse is the build-up of impurities in the treated water.  Magnesium, iron,
and inert materials may be recirculated with the recycled lime.

The separation of magnesium compounds from softening sludge has been demon-
strated at the City of Dayton, Ohio.  Sludge withdrawn from the settling
basins at this facility is carbonated.  The carbon dioxide selectively
converts the insoluble  magnesium hydroxide to a soluble  magnesium carbon-
ate form.  A physical process is then required to separate the soluble
magnesium carbonate from the insoluble  calcium carbonate.

Pilot facilities are being constructed at the City of Montgomery, Alabama,
water treatment plant to demonstrate the utility of MgCOs  as a recycled
coagulant to remove color and turbidity from raw water.

The recovery of lime and production of magnesium carbonate for reuse as a
purification coagulant minimizes solid wastes disposal problems.  The
recovery and recycling of chemicals for softening and purification plant
treatment significantly reduce waste volumes.

Additional Process Wastes

The remaining area of concern in decreasing importance were:  filter back-
wash water, iron - manganese removal wastes^ ion exchange regeneration>•
brines, desalination brines, diatomaceous earth filtration waste, and
microstraining waste.

Filter backwash water can be recycled and the liquid portion of the waste
recovered.  Backwash water requirements are generally 1 to 5 percent of
the daily plant flow.  The backwash water represents a supply that .has
undergone treatment in the purification or softening plant.  The recovery
of backwash water through recirculation may be economically justifiable.

The sedimentation of filter backwash water in lagoons or settling basins
provides another means of controlling the solid wastes.  The supernatant
from this sedimentation process can be discharged to a watercourse or
recycled to the plant influent line, depending upon the water quality.

The recycling of filter washwater should be studied before being put into
                                       60

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plant scale operation.  The process might not be acceptable if bacteria
are so highly concentrated in the washvater as to degrade the finished
quality.  This problem should be studied at each water treatment plant.

Research is being supported by the Office of Saline Water to study the
recovery of chemicals and the evaporation of brine streams from desal-
ination wastes.  Several of the techniques developed might be adaptable
for the treatment of ion-exchange brine streams.

The development of new or modified treatment technology demands respon-
sible actions.  The ability to maintain an integrated system of potable
water production and waste control is important to comply with pollution
abatement legislation.  The control of pollution from water treatment plant
wastes requires laboratory and pilot evaluation of processes,  economic
analyses of treatment alternatives, and planning to consider the possible
uses of the source water.  Versatility in design is necessary in the
production of water and control of waste to counter seasonal and future
water quality changes.

Comments

The State of Hawaii reported that it "obtains the majority of drinking
water from groundwater supplies which require no treatment."

The State of Kansas reports that "wastes from softening, ion exchange
regeneration, desalination, diatomaceous earth filtration, and microstra-
ining are considered to be water pollutants.  Iron - manganese removal,
coagulation, and filter backwash wastes are not considered pollutants."

                              Question 2

        In determining treatment requirements for wastes from
        water treatment processes, does your Agency consider the
        following:

                         Yes    No                     Yes     No

        TDS             	  	    COD

        Settl. Solids   	  	    BOD

        Susp. Solids    	  	    Chloride

        pH              	  	    Color

        Coliforms       	  	    Heavy Metals

Table 2, titled "Utilization of Waste Treatment Parameters", indicates
the availability of specific data to characterize water utility wastes.

Each of these parameters has effects on downstream users, if the waste is
                                      61

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discharged to a watercourse.  The monitoring of waste parameters from
water treatment plants defines the magnitude of the discharge on the
quality of the receiving stream or river.

The discharge of wastes containing a high total dissolved solids concen-
tration (TDS) may significantly change the quality of the water in the
receiving stream.  Depending upon the nature of the dissolved materials,
intake and piping systems can be affected.  In a large watercourse, the
TDS concentration may be slightly altered.  In a small stream, the TDS
concentration may be significantly increased:  it may affect aquatic life,
and place the burden of lowering these solids to acceptable USPHS stand-
ards on a downstream user.

Settleable solids in waste streams require quiescent conditions for set-
tling.  They can settle in slow-moving watercourses, forming sludge blan-
kets.  Organic sludge undergoes anaerobic decomposition, producing nuisance
by-products.  Inorganic sludge inhibits the natural biological activity
in a watercourse.

Suspended solids can be conspicuous and are aesthetically objectionable.
Organic suspended solids may be aerobically and/or anaerobically decom-
posed and thus deplete the oxygen content of streams.  The assimilative
capacity of a watercourse is affected by the magnitude of biodegradable
material it receives.

The pH of a raw water has an important effect in coagulation, disinfection,
water softening, and corrosion control.  A rapid and extensive pH change
in a stream is detrimental to much aquatic life.

Coliform organisms, such as Escherichia Goli, are used as indicators of
the presence of pathogenic bacteria.  If the dilution capacity of the
receiving stream is low, the discharge of water treatment plant wastes
containing large numbers of pathogenic bacteria will impair the quality
of the stream as a subsequent source of water supply.  The coliform
content of wastes, therefore, is a useful parameter for measuring the
quality of the waste discharged.

The biochemical and chemical oxygen demands provide an indfcation of the
oxygen requirements for stabilization of a waste.  The utilization of
oxygen by BOD and COD materials depletes the dissolved oxygen supply in
a watercourse.  Rapid oxygen depletions for significant time spans can
seriously affect the more delicate biological activities.

Chlorides of 250 mg per liter produce objectionable taste problems in a
water supply.  The discharge of softening exchange brines changes the
chloride concentration of the receiving stream.

Highly colored water is aesthetically unacceptable to most consumers.
Color removal may be required as a treatment process to keep consumers
from alternative sources, such as springs or wells which may be of unsafe
quality.
                                       62

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                                  TABLE 2

                UTILIZATION OF WASTE TREATMENT PARAMETERS
Respondent
Parameter

TDS
Settleable Solids
Suspended Solids
PH
Coliforms
COD
BOD
Chloride
Color
Heavy Metals
State
YES
31
41
40
31
28
18
18
30
29
28
NO
12
2
3
12
15
25
25
13
14
15
Agencies
Interstate
YES
2
4
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
4
NO
2
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0


Territorial
YES
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
NO
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
The  degree  of  heavy metal  concentrations has not been considered a prob-
lem  by water utilities  until  recently.  This is principally due to the
fact that analytical  methods  were  not  capable  of measuring very low con-
centrations of trace  metals.   Standards for the toxicity  levels of certain
heavy metals have recently been established, and concentrations in wastes
should be established.

The  ten  parameters listed  affect downstream users  by impairing water qual-
ity  and  reducing the assimilative  capacity of  watercourses.  The extent
of water quality degradation  depends upon  the  relation  of the waste flow
to the river  flow. The degree of  treatment required for  water utility
wastes will be determined  through  the  use  of water quality or waste efflu-
ent  standards.

.-Comments

The  State  of  New Jersey indicates  that "the degree of concern  for all of
 these parameters depends on the particular receiving stream."
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The State of South Dakota "expects to consider both color and heavy metals
in the future" in determining waste treatment requirements from water
utilities.

                                  Question 3

        Please indicate which of the following methods of sludge
        disposal would not be consistent with your Agency's regu-
        lation.

        Discharge to Sanitary Sewers 	   Incineration     	

        Barging to Sea               	   Landfill         	

        Pipeline Transport           	   Agricultural Use 	
        Please submit a copy of your Agency's regulations governing
        water treatment plant sludge.

Table 3, titled "Acceptability of Sludge Disposal Methods," illustrates
the sludge disposal techniques that can be utilized by water treatment
plants.

Comments;

The State of Alabama reports that "as of now, problems of waste from
water treatment plants are relatively few in Alabama, represented by a
few large plants.  In view of this, we have adopted neither requirements
nor regulations pertaining to these wastes, but may find it necessary to
do so in the future."

The State of Colorado "doubts whether a municipality would allow a dis-
charge to sanitary sewers.  No specific regulations exist for water treat-
ment plants.  The requirement is to meet Water Quality Standards."

The State of California reports "pipeline transport depends upon the dis-
charge point."

The District of Columbia reports "solids from one municipal water treat-
ment plant do enter our sewer system at the present time.  The discharge
of waste to the sewerage system is presently under study.

The State of Maine reports " standards are not specific.  Regulation de-
pends upon general approval of the Department."

The State of Montana reports "no regulation at present.  However, plants
located on smaller streams have been requested to use sludge disposal
facilities."

The Delaware River Basin Commission reports "no new facility may discharge
sludge back to the river.  Old facilities are being required to correct
this method when they need to make adjustments or expansions."
                                        64

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                                  TABLE 3

                ACCEPTABILITY OF SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS

                    	Respondent Agencies
Disposal by:

Discharge to
Sanitary Sewers
Barging to
Sea
Acceptable
Method

30 State
3 Interstate
1 Territorial

21 State
4 Interstate
1 Territorial
Pipeline Transport  31 State
                    4 Interstate
                    2 Territorial
Unacceptable
Method
12 State
1 Interstate
1 Territorial

18 State
1 Territorial

4 State
Incineration
Landfill
Agricultural
Use
40 State
4 Interstate
2 Territorial

41 State
4 Interstate
2 Territorial

42 State
4 Interstate
1 Territorial
                                                         2 State
                                                         2 State
                                                         1 State
                                                         1 Territorial
The State of Oregon reports "any or all of the methods of sludge disposal
may be satisfactory for a particular situation."

The State of Texas reports "municipal water treatment plant sludges are
considered to be in the category of municipal solid wastes and are assign-
ed to the Texas State Department of Health for regulatory control.  Those
generated by industry are regulated by the Texas Water Quality Board by
specific waste control orders or regulations."

ORSANCO reports "all methods of sludge disposal would be  consistent with
appropriate controls."

The New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission reports
"regulations should be developed by states and administered by them."
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The States of Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi,  and South
Carolina report that they have no specific regulations governing water
treatment plant sludge.

Some of the respondents have submitted regulations dealing in part with
water treatment plant waste sludges.  Other survey participants have refer-
enced the control of these wastes to their water quality standards.  Sever-
al of these responses follow.

The State of Arizona transmitted a publication from the State Department
of Health titled "Rules and Regulations for Public Water Supply Systems."

The State of Arkansas transmitted a publication from the Arkansas Pollu-
tion Control Commission titled "Air Code and Water Quality Criteria for
Interstate Streams for State of Arkansas."

The State of Idaho places water treatment plant wastes under  regulations
contained within the water quality standards.  Copies of the  "Idaho Drink-
ing Water Standards" and the Idaho Water Quality Standards" were trans-
mitted.

The State of Maryland transmitted a publication titled "Water Resources
Regulation 4.8, General Water Quality Criteria and Specific Water Quality
Standards."

The State of Minnesota transmitted "WPC 14, 15, and 23."  These control
laws are titled "Rules, Regulations, Classifications and Water Standards."

The State of Missouri transmitted a publication of the Missouri Water
Pollution Board titled "Design Criteria to Treat Wastewater Discharges
from Water Treatment Plants."

The State of Nevada reports "there are no regulations.  There are Water
Pollution Control Regulations adopted by the State Board of Health."

The Delaware River Basin Commission transmitted a publication titled "Admin-
istrative Manual - Part III, Basin Regulations - Water Quality."

The State of New Jersey transmitted a publication titled "Rules and Regu-
lations for Approval of Public Water Supply Systems and Water Treatment
Plants." Section 3.5 of this publication deals with wastewater treatment
disposal.  Section 12.4 applies to filter backwash water.  These sections
follow.

       Section 3.5 Wastewater Treatment and Disposal
                            i
     a.  Wastewater,. such as sludge from coagulation and sedimenta-
         tion tanks and filter backwash water, shall ordinarily be
         treated before being discharged into any of the waters of
         this State.  The degfee of treatment will be contingent upon
         the character of the wastewater and its effect upon the
                                        66

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         receiving waters.  Disposal of sanitary sewage shall be in
         accordance with existing statutes and regulations promul-
         gated thereunder.

     b.  Unless otherwise approved, minimum treatment shall be plain
         sedimentation in lagoons.  A minimum of two (2) lagoons shall
         be provided with a minimum total combined capacity equivalent
         to twenty-four (24) hours wastewater flow.  They shall be de-
         signed with suitable baffles to minimize short - circuiting,
         and shall be provided with slow-release outlet devices.

     c.  Wastewaters containing high concentrations of dissolved solids
         shall be controlled as to discharge rate and the point of
         discharge, so as to meet the requirements of the Department
         for the specific situation.

         Section 12.4 Backwash Water

     d.  Unless otherwise permitted, untreated filter backwash shall
         not be discharged to any of the waters of this State,  (see
         subsection 3.5)

The State of North Carolina reports "we have no special requirements for
wastes from water treatment processes.  The streams in North Carolina are
classified according to the best usage being made of the water in accord-
ance with the Rules, Regulations, Classifications and Water Quality Stand-
ards Applicable to the Surface Waters of North Carolina."

The State of Ohio, Division of Engineering & Water Pollution Control Board,
State Department of Health, transmitted information on the "Discharge of
Wastes from Water Treatment Plants."  Minimum quality requirements have
been established for all waters of tine state.  Waste discharges from water
treatment plants must conform to the requirements of the Ohio Water Pollu-
tion Board.  These regulations fallow.

         "Minimum conditions applicable to all places at all times
         are as follows:
                                      *
     1.  Free from substances attributable to municipal, industrial
         or other discharges; that will settle to form putrescent or
         otherwise objectionable sludge deposits;

     2.  Free from floating debris, oil, scum, and other floating
         materials attributable to municipal, industrial or other
         .discharges in amounts sufficient to be unsightly or dele-
         terious ;

     3.  Free from materials attributable to municipal, industrial,
         or other discharges producing color, odor or other condi-
         tions in such degree as to create a nuisance;  and
                                       67

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     4.  Free from substances attributable to municipal, industrial
         or other discharges in concentrations or combinations which
         are toxic or harmful to human, animal, plant or aquatic life.

         The following wastes from water treatment plants can no longer
         be discharged directly without treatment or other satisfactory
         control to the waters of the state.

          1.  Sludge from settling tanks.

          2.  Waste wash water.

          3.  "Red" or "black" waste water frpm iron or manganese
              removal plants.

          4.  Waste brine from ion exchange plants.

          5.  Domestic sewage wastes.

          6.  Other wastes.

The Ohio Department of Health has established the following program to
achieve the results required by the Water Pollution Control Board:

     1.  All water treatment plants discharging wastes to the "waters
         of the state"  will be placed under the permit system of the
         Water Pollution Control Board.

     2.  Water treatment plants not having acceptable facilities for
         handling of wastes will be required to install such facilities
         as a condition for future permits.

     3.  Provisions for handling of waste shall be included in the
         original construction for all new water treatment plants
         and shall be included in any construction for enlargement
         or substantial modifications of existing water treatment
         plants.  These provisions must be included in all plans pre-
         sented for approval after July 1, 1967.

     4.  Waste water from backwashing of filters at lime-soda soften-
         ing plants and plain filtration plants cannot be discharged
         directly to the "waters of the state" unless there will be
         no problem in the receiving water.  Designing engineers may
         present evidence to the Department if they believe that
         treatment of waste filter backwash water is not necessary.

It should be noted that adoption of criteria or standards by the Water
Pollution Control Board in the future may require further upgrading of
water quality criteria."

The State of Tennessee reports "this agency has no printed regulations."
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The Commonwealth of Virginia reports "Virginia does not have regulations
that pertain exclusively to water treatment plants.  We consider the waste
waters generated from water treatment plants as industrial wastes, thus,
our regulations concerning industrial establishments would apply.  The
Commonwealth has "State Water Control Law" and "Water Quality Standards".
The Commonwealth of Virginia is requiring all new water treatment plants
being constructed to provide acceptable waste water treatment facilities.
Virginia has not required the existing water treatment plants to install
sludge treatment facilities, however, this is in our future program."

The State of West Virginia transmitted Section 17 of the amended publica-
tion titled "Administrative Regulations (1970)."

         Section 17.  Water Purification Waste Water Control Measure

         17.01  Waste Disposal - Provision must be made for proper
         disposal of wastes from water treatment plants.  Such wastes
         include but are not limited to those eminating from sanitary
         facilities, laboratories, clarification facilities, softening
         facilities, and filter backwash. Discharges shall be governed
         by Chapter 20, Article 5A, Code of West Virginia and the follow-
         ing regulations:
              (a)  The following means of waste and sludge disposal may
              be considered:
     1.  Lagoon design must provide the following:
              .(a)  Location free from flooding.
              (b)  Dikes, deflecting gutters or other means of divert
                   ing Surface water when necessary.
              (c)  A minimum depth of 4 to 5 feet.
              (d)  Multiple cell.
              (e)  Adjustable decanting devices.
              (f)  Convenient cleaning.

     2.  Sludge beds for lime softening sludge or other sludges must
         provide the following:
              (a)  Location free from flooding.
              (b)  Multiple beds, each designed for at least one year's
                   storage.
              (c)  Size of sludge beds will be governed by the concen-
                   tration of solids disposed of with an ultimate depth
                   of 12 inches dry basis.
              (d)  Distribution channels may be required for spreading
                   sludge over entire area.
              (e)  Easy access roads and loading ramps with proper under
                   drains must be provided.
              (f)  Tank Truck - Trucking wet sludge to agricultural lands
                   or disposal areas requires proper handling, vehicles
                   and equipment to-permit hauling and spreading without
                   creation of nuisances.  It is necessary to provide
                   sludge holding facilities for use during times that
                   trucks cannot operate.
                                       69

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          Community Wastewater Treatment Facility - Discharges to sewer
          systems  and  their  treatment  facilities depend on type of treat-
          ment,  rate of  discharge, plant design capacity, character of
          waste, and Local conditions.
          Other Methods-These include holding tanks, vacuum filters,
          centrifuging and recalcining.  Detailed studies must be made
          to  justify their use.
          Sanitary Waste - The sanitary waste from water treatment
          plants,  pumping stations, etc., must receive treatment.
          Waste  from these facilities must be discharged either direct-
          ly  to a  sanitary sewer system with approved treatment or to
          an  individual  waste disposal facility providing suitable
          treatment.   The effluent must be acceptable for discharge to
          the surface  of ground waters.

          The states of  Colorado, Connecticut, Iowa, and South Dakota
          have submitted water quality standards to govern these wastes.

                                  Question 4

          Please indicate which of the following methods of liquid
          disposal would not be consistent with your Agency's reg-
          ulations :

          Recycle          	               Sanitary Sewers       	

          Stream Transport 	               Underground Injection 	
Table 4, "Acceptability of Liquid Waste Disposal Methods," shows the liquid
waste disposal techniques that can be utilized by water treatment facilities,

Comments

The State of Alabama reports "underground injection is dependent on the
individual case."

The State of Hawaii would not accept "stream transport if there is a viola-
tion of the State's Water Quality Standards."

The State of Idaho "would prefer pretreatment of waste prior to the dis-
charge to sanitary sewers."                       r

The State of Kansas states disposal method consistency "depends on the
specific liquid and the volume.  All methods would be possible."

The State of Montana reports "stream transport and sanitary sewers would
not be consistent in some cases."

The Delaware River Basin Commission suggests "stream transport would be
consistent after adequate treatment."
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                                 TABLE 4

             ACCEPTABILITY OF LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
Disposal by:

Recycle



Stream Transport



Sanitary Sewers



Underground Injection
Acceptable
Method

42 State
4 Interstate
2 Territorial

21 State
3 Interstate
1 Territorial

36 State
4 Interstate
2 Territorial

25 State
1 Interstate
1 Territorial
Unacceptable
Method   '

2 State
23 State
1 Interstate
1 Territorial

8 State
19 State
3 Interstate
1 Territorial
                                  Question 5

         Please indicate whether your Agency requires water utilities
         to perform the following:
                                                         YES    NO
     a.  Maintain records of waste production            	    	

     b.  Submit reports of waste production              	    	

     c.  Monitor waste receiving streams                 	    	
Table 5, titled "Waste Production and Monitoring", shows the agencies that
require maintenance and submittal of waste production reports, and monitor-
ing of waste receiving streams.

Comments

The State of Colorado reports "regulations to this effect are being consid-
ered."

The State of California reports "the maintenance of waste production records
is dependent upon the size and location of the water utility.  Requirements
are established on a case by case basis."
                                        71

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                                   TABLE 5

                      WASTE PRODUCTION AND MONITORING
Maintain records
of waste production
Submit reports of
waste production
Monitor waste
receiving streams
                              YES
10 State
1 Territorial

11 State
1 Territorial

5 State
1 Interstate
2 Territorial
NO

33 State
3 Interstate
1 Territorial

33 State
3 Interstate
1 Territorial

39 State
3 State
The District of Columbia reports "solids are not discharged to the receiv-
ing stream when the water is clear.  Material is discharged when the stream
is heavy with sediment."

The State of Idaho "does not presently maintain records of waste production.
The State monitors streams."

The State of Kansas reports "the maintenance of waste production records
and the submittal of waste production reports will probably be required
by 1975."

The Delaware River Basin Commission reports "these functions are required
by the Basin states."

ORSANCO reports "contents of plant operating records are determined by the
pollution control agencies of the signatory states of the ORSANCO inter-
state compact."

                                  Question 6

         Please indicate,in your judgment   which of  the following
         should be the malor contributor in supporting research for
         treating wastes from water treatment plants (Question 1):
         State Government

         Federal Government

         Water Utilities
                Equipment Mfr.

                Educational Inst.

                Consulting Engineers
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Table 6, titled "Major Contributors to Support Research," shows the insti-
tutions the agencies feel should provide the funds for water treatment
plant waste research.  Some agencies placed equal weight on two or more
potential contributors.

                                 Question 7

         Please indicate, in your judgement, which of the follow-
         ing should conduct most of the research effort for treat-
         ing wastes from water treatment plants(Question 1):

         State Government   	              Equipment Mfr.       	

         Federal Government 	              Educational Inst.    	

         Water Utilities    	              Consulting Engineers 	

Table 7, titled "Major Conductors of Research Effort", shows the organiza-
tions each agency feels should conduct the research on treating water
utility wastes.  Some agencies placed equal weight on two or more organiza-
tions .

                                 Question 8

         Please indicate, if the wastes from a water treatment plant
         could be reduced to the same form as the wastes in the origi-
         nal source water, would your Agency accept the discharge of
         these wastes to a.watercourse?

         YES	                                       NO 	

         If not, what standards would you require?

Table 8, titled "Acceptability of Discharging Reduced Wastes to a Water-
course", shows the number of agencies that would allow a waste of the same
form as the source water to be discharged to a watercourse.   The comments
indicate "yes" replies were qualified.

Comments

The State of California reports "specific numerical criteria are estab-
lished for each discharge.  Discharges of sludge are generally prohib-
ited."

The District of Columbia reports "the policy is that once wastes are removed,
they are not to be returned to the receiving stream without treatment
to an acceptable level.  However, at the present time the policy is not
followed and the problems of proper disposal of wastes fxm our municipal
water treatment plants are under study.   The District of Columbia Police
Regulations, Sections 12, 18, & 19 should be noted."
                                   73

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                                  TABLE 6

                 MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO SUPPORT RESEARCH

                                          Responding Agencies
State Government                              3 State

Federal Government                            35 State
                                              3 Interstate
                                              2 Territorial

Water Utilities                               18 State
                                              2 Interstate
                                              1 Territorial

Equipment Manufacturers                       9 State
                                              1 Interstate
                                              1 Territorial

Educational Institutions                      6 State
The State of Hawaii responds "yes, if it is of the same quality as when
it was taken out."

The State of Indiana reports "if wastes are concentrated, they should not
be recommited to receiving waters.  Any addition of plant waste would re-
sult in an increase of some sort in the receiving stream."

The State of Iowa reports "possibly yes if on a continuous discharge basis."

The State of Kansas reports "yes, but this position may have to be changed
as a result of the Corps of Engineers implementation of the 1899 Refuse
Act."

The State of Kentucky  reports "yes, but this depends on the condition and
water quality of the receiving stream."

The State of Massachusetts  requires that "pollutants must be reduced by
at least 80 percent and effluent must meet river classification require-
ments ."

The State of Minnesota reports "no, use regulations WPC 14, 15, and 23."

The State of Missouri reports "no, under present regulations by the Fed-
eral Environmental Protection Agency it will soon become necessary to
treat or dispose of all material once it has been removed in some manner,
other than discharge back to the source."
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                                  TABLE 7

                    MAJOR CONDUCTORS OF RESEARCH EFFORT

                                         Responding Agencies

State Government                              4 State

Federal Government                            25 State
                                              2 Interstate
                                              2 Territorial

Water Utilities                               11 State
                                              1 Interstate
                                              1 Territorial

Equipment Manufacturers                       20 State
                                              2 Interstate

Educational Institutions                      19 State
                                              2 Interstate

Consulting Engineers                          2 State
The State of Montana responds "no,  not unless from the aesthetic stand-
point they were the same.  On high quality waters there should be at least
the removal of suspended and settleable solids."

The State of Nebraska reports "this question cannot be answered at this
time because our Water Quality Standards indicate that there be no dis-
charges of settleable or floating materials.  Therefore, we are attempt-
ing to prohibit any wastes into Nebraska waters.  Another responsibility
of our Water Quality Standards is that of enhancing water quality. There-
fore, if water is taken from a stream and the pollutants such as silt,
and sand are removed, enhancement is realized.  From the standpoint of
practical application, Federal and State Water Quality Standards will have
to be given  careful study to determine whether or not the pollutants that
were taken out of the water could not be returned.  This, of course, does
not permit the discharge of lime, aluminum sulfate, iron, manganese, cal-
cium, magnesium and other undesirable minerals from a water treating plant.
At the present time, these are all being discharged^into sanitary sewers
where they are removed with the sludge.

 Omaha is now facing the problem of disposing of the silt, sand and other
settleable solids from the Missouri River water supply in their treating
plants.  They f,ace a huge landfill program if prohibited from returning to
the River which they are now doing."
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 The State of New Hampshire reports "requirements  of stream classification
 must be met."

 The Delaware River Basin Commission reports  "wastes would be accepted  for
 discharge if they meet requirements."

 The State of New Mexico reports "yes, at present.   Most domestic water in
 New Mexico are from wells with no treatment  involved except chlorination
 and some fluoridation.  Farmington and Raton are  the two larger supplies
 having water treatment including flocculation and filtration.   The  back-
 wash from treatment plants could find its way into streams; however,
 due to the dry and arid nature of the state, this  backwash material has
 not been considered a problem-perhaps it should.   During periods of rain,
 streams are very muddy and turbid."

 The State of Ohio reports "no, the enhancement of  stream quality "  would
 be required.

 The State of Oklahoma reports "this depends  on the particular sub-basin
 in the State.  Some cases would be "yes and  some  cases  no1.'

 The State of Oregon reports "the problem is  presently minimal in our State."

 The State of Pennsylvania requires "at least 85 percent reduction of BOD,
 reduction of practically all suspended solids, and disinfection will be
 required."

 The State of Tennessee reports "yes, if they could be returned at essen-
 tially the same conditions.

 Standards require:
                                                     i
      1.  No more than 1.0 mg per liter settleable solids.

      2.  No distinctly visible floating solids.

      3.  BOD5 limitations would be stipulated in  accordance with receiving
          stream.

      4,  Chloride limits might be set where  applicable.

 This agency has no set, uniform standards relating to waste materials  from
•water treatment plants."

 The State of Texas reports "no, we require reasonable control of solids,
 sludge and other concentrated materials (salts,etc.) which result from the
 various water treatment operations."

 The State of Wisconsin "does not have effluent standards at the present
 time, however, turbidity and solids would have to be be below an accept-
 able level."
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                                 TABLE 8

              ACCEPTABILITY OF DISCHARGING REDUCED WASTES
                            TO A WATERCOURSE

               Acceptable                       Unacceptable
               Method                           Method

               21 State                         17 State
                                                3 Interstate
                                                1 Territorial

             Additional Regulatory Agency Survey Information

The State of Connecticut provided a list of water filtration plants which
have washwater and/or sludge to dispose of, and the method of waste disposal
utilized.

The Government of Guam reports that it "obtains the majority of its water
requirements from groundwater, except in the case of the Fena River water.

Raw water from Fena Resevoir is combined with the spring supply and passes
through a Venturi meter.  Alum and lime are then added to the raw water
in a mixing tank prior to its flow into a 1.25 million gallon circular
clarifier.  Activated carbon is also added at this point on the rare occa-
sions . that taste and odor control is needed.  Chlorine gas is added to the
clarified water prior to filtration.  The plant has six anthrafilt filters.
Sodirm silica flouride solution and chlorine gas are added after filtration
and before storage in a one-million gallon clearwell.  It is possible to
add chemicals before the Venturi meter and by-pass the Venturi meter
mixing tank and clarifier.

Normally all filters are used and are backwashed at two-seven day inter-
vals.  Filter backwash and clarifier sludge are dumped into a nearby
creek, causing pollution problems.  There have been complaints of this,
but the appropriate corrective action has not been decided.  It would
be possible to pond and evaporate the water, but downstream users want the
water vithout the waste.

The State of Washington reports that "backwash water from water treatment
plants has not in the past been the subject of an active control program
in this state.  It is safe to say that water treatment backwash water will
be subject to some federal and perhaps state control soon,  This amounts
to one or two dozen water treatment plants discharging alum floe wastes
with one or two small sodium zeolite softening units.  Several of the fil-
ter plants are in the 10 to 30 mgd range, but the majority would be 1 mgd
or less.  Several have already been provided with sludge lagoons and in
most cases the solution probably will be lagooning or discharge to muni-
cipal sewers."

A copy of a letter from the E.P.A. to the State of Washington, Environmental
Programs, Division of Health was included.  This letter "indicates clearly
                                   77

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 that  the agency  (E.P.A.) intends to become interested in this source of
waste water.  It also seems rather clear that such control will be at
 least coordinated, if not directly regulated, by the Environmental Protec-
 tion Agency with the possible assistance of the Corps of Engineers."

The E.P.A. letter states in part "that waste discharge from water treat-
ment plants will be subject to the permit provisions of Section 13 of the
River and Harbor Act of 1899.  This means it will be necessary for each
purveyor operating a treatment plant to make application to the Corps of
Engineers for such a permit if wastes are discharged to a navigable water-
way (this includes practically all surface waters)."

                          Canadian Survey Responses

The collection of information on the control of pollution caused by wastes
from water treatment plants was extended to obtain information from the
ten Canadian  Provincial regulatory agencies.  Eight of these provinces
have responded to the survey.

                       Question 1 - Canadian Replies

The Department of Health in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, listed the wastes
from the following water treatment processes as items of major concern
in decreasing importance: softening, coagulation, filter backwash, iron-
manganese removal, ion-exchange regeneration, diatomaceous earth, micro-
straining, and desalination,wastes.

The Department of Health in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, provided the
following list in decreasing importance:  coagulation, filter backwash,
iron-manganese removal, softening, diatomaceous earth, ion-exchange regen-
eration, desalination, and microstraining.

The New Brunswick Water Authority of Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada,
reports wastes from coagulation and filter backwashing operations of
only minor concern.

The Prince Edward Island Water Authority of Charlottetown, P.E.I.,
Canada, states "groundwater is used exclusively on P.E.I.  We do not have
any experience with the wastes from the water treatment processes noted."

                    r   Question 2 - Canadian Replies

The Edmonton, Alberta, agency considers TDS, settleable solids, and sus-
pended solids in determining treatment requirements for wastes from water
treatment plants.

The Regina, Saskatchewan, agency considers settleable solids, suspended
solids, coliforms, COD, and BOD for treatment requirements.

The Fredericton, New Brunswick, agency does not consider any of the ten
parameters.
                                   78

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The Charlottetown, P.E.I, agency considers the following parameters in
determining  the treatment requirements for wastes from industries utili-
zing water treatment processes :  suspended solids,  pH,  coliforms,  COD,  BOD,
color, and heavy metals.

                          Question 3 - Canadian Replies

The Edmonton, Alberta and Regina, Saskatchewan agencies consider the dis-
posal of  sludge by barging  to sea  inconsistent with their regulations.

The Fredericton, New Brunswick agency indicates the treatment of sludge
by discharge to sanitary sewers, barging  to  sea, pipeline transport,
incineration, landfill, and agricultural  use of these wastes are all
consistent disposal methods.

The discharging of sludge to sanitary sewers and the barging of sludge
to sea are not  consistent methods with the Charlottetown, P.E.I, agency.

There are no specific regulations governing water treatment plant sludge
reported  by  any of the Canadian Provincial agencies responding.

                        •  Question 4 - Canadian Replies

Edmonton, Alberta indicates that the underground injection of liquid
wastes would not be consistent with their Agency's regulations.

Fredericton, New Brunswick would not accept the recycling and under-
ground injection of liquid  wastes.

Charlottetown, P.E.I, does  not consider recycling and stream transport of
liquid wastes as consistent disposal techniques.

                          Question 5 - Canadian Replies

The four  regulatory agencies providing responses to this survey question
do not require water utilities to maintain and submit records of waste
production or monitor waste receiving streams.

                          Question 6 - Canadian Replies

The Edmonton, Alberta, Regina, Saskatchewan, and Charlottetown, P.E.I.
agencies  indicate that the  Federal Government should be the major contrib-
utor  in  supporting research for treating wastes from water treatment
plants.

Fredericton,New Brunswick agency indicates that State Government,  Fed-
eral  Government,  and water  utilities should  make equal contributions
in supporting research for  treating wastes from water treatment plants.

                          Question 7 - Canadian Replies

Edmonton  Alberta and Fredericton,   New Brunswick, respond that the Federal
                                   79

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 Government  should  conduct most of  the waste treatment research effort.

 Regina,  Saskatchewan,  places  the major responsibility on educational
 institutions.

 Charlottetown, P.E.I., reports that State and Federal Government should
 share  the conduct  of major research efforts.  The State Government could
 utilize  consultants but  local government must be involved in terms of
 reference,  etc.

                        Question 8 - Canadian Replies

 The four agencies  responding  to the survey question indicate that if the
 wastes from a water treatment plant could be reduced to the same form as
 the wastes  in the  original source water, they would accept the discharge
 of these wastes to a watercourse.

Fredericton,  New  Brunswick reports "we have only four filter plants in
 New Brunswick.  These  are very small. None of these plants discharge to a
 small watercourse."                             .

 The Department of  Health Services and Hospital Insurance in Victoria,
 British  Columbia,  Canada, reports "this province has no more than four
 water  treatment plants.  There is very little restriction placed on the
 waste  disposal from water treatment plants, and there is doubt xAiether any
 of them  have a permit  from the Pollution Control Branch for their discharge
 of waste products.  The plants we have are for very small communities and
 they are insignificant."

 The Water Resources Commission in Halifax, Nova Scotia, reports that "this
 Province possesses, within its boundries, very few water treatment plants
 of a type sophisticated enough to have sludge problems.  To date, what
 few problems occur of  this nature are readily resolved by disposal to
 receiving waters such  as the open sea.  We anticipate that this sort of
 problem  will develop in time and, in view of the magnitude of our present
 problems with other forms of pollution, we have not yet started to consid-
 er the matter of sludge disposal from water treatment plants."

 The Quebec Water Board in STE FOY, Quebec, Canada, reports that "in the
 province of Quebec, the treatment of such waste (water treatment plant
 waste) is not required.  We are looking forward to adopt regulations to
 take care of that  pollution source."

 The Department of  Mines, Agriculture and Resources, Clean Air, Water, and
 Soil Authority of  the  Government of Newfoundland and Labrador  states "we
 do not c6nsider we have a pollution problem at present with water treatment
 plant  wastes.  In  fact, there are only four water treatment plants in
 the province, and  the  wastes  from  them holds an insignificant problem when
 compared with untreated sewage discharge."
                                   80

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                                SECTION VIM

                           WATER UTILITY SURVEY
 Introduction
 A water utility survey was prepared with the  assistance  of  the  Project
 Advisory Committee,   The purpose of the survey was  to  inventory quan-
 titative data and qualitative data on the character of wastes from water
 treatment plants.  Survey questions were prepared convering the basic
 data of new and finished water,  chemical additions,  waste handling and
 treatment operations,  waste production, and character  of purification
 and softening sludges.   The survey (see appendix) required  the  respond-
 ents  to make several  physical and chemical tests on waste  products.

 It was originally planned to specify the physical and  chemical  test pro-
 cedures for the waste  sampling and analysis.   A special  committee  was
 organized to prepare standardized  sampling, analysis,  and categorization
 techniques  for waste from water  treatment plants.  Work  has been initi-
 ated towards this goal.   It was  necessary,  however,  to distribute  the
 survey before the test  procedures  could be  completed.

 The survey  was sent  to  171 water treatment  plants.   At least one survey
 was sent to each state  in the  continental United States.  The purpose
 of the information resource program and the importance of the survey
 was explained.   The  Research Foundation received ninety-four replies
 to this survey from  the  U.S. water utilities.

 The collection of information was  extended  to  ten Canadian  water treat-
 ment plants  and to seven desalting facilities  identified through the
 Office of Saline  Water.

 The survey  replies demonstrate that wastes from water  treatment plants
 are highly variable  in character.  Data  tabulations were made to show
 the range of values  reported from  the cross-section of water treatment
 plants  surveyed.

 Summary of Survey Replies

A  summary of  survey  replies and special comments made by the respond-
 ents follows.

 Basic Data on Water Treatment Plant Wastes

The  physical and chemical nature  of waste sludges produced at water
 treatment plants depends upon the quality of raw water, the processes
utilized, and the effectiveness of the unit operations.  Some basic
parameters that define the magnitude of the waste treatment or disposal
problem  include:  density of the  dry solids; settling characteristics
of  the coagulated wastes; floe formation time  and size; sludge concentra-
tion at  time of withdrawal from basins;  physical and chemical constituents
                                  81

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in the sludge; filter washwater volumes and concentrations; and dewater-
ing ability.

The quantitative and qualitative character of the waste resulting from
water treatment depends primarily upon the quality of the raw water
sources.  Raw water sources can be influenced by seasonal variations,
obviously affecting both the amount and type of potential pollutants
that must be removed in producing a potable water.

Raw water quality may be significantly altered due to changes in the
utilization of a watershed area.  Multi-purpose reservoirs and the dis-
charge of domestic and industrial pollutants to watercourses in highly
populated areas will present new problems that will affect the type and
degree of treatment required.

The selection of unit processes and chemicals and the operation of treat-
ment facilities are contributing factors to the character of the waste.
Integrated process designs are required to produce a finished water of
high quality and minimize the waste products from purification and soft-
ening facilities.  Plant design must incorporate much needed flexibil-
ity to cope with seasonal quality variations in the source water, the
changing nature of the watersheds, and the development of new technol-
ogy, such as the use of organic or inorganic coagulants to replace or
aid existing coagulants.  The utilization of polymers as primary coagu-
lants, coagulant aids, and sludge conditioning agents will change the
physical and chemical composition of wastes.

A chief goal, outlined by the Project Advisory Committee, should be
the minimization of sludge volumes.  Methods of desludging contact or
sedimentation basins require careful study.  Desludging may be continuous,
cyclic, or intermittent.  The methods of discharging wastes from basins
is important in evaluating the type of equipment to be used for sludge
thickening or separation operations.

The Research Foundation is not presently aware of any particular sludge
thickening or separation method that is universally applicable.  The
treatment process finally selected to handle purification and softening
sludges should be the result of careful laboratory and pilot plant scale
evaluations of the most economical alternatives.  Process selection
should be directed towards producing waste components suitable for reuse
and ultimate disposal without impairing water quality of downstream users.

The operating practice group members of the Project Advisory Committee
suggested several parameters that could be readily available at the
majority of water utilities to be contacted by the Foundation.  These
parameters include: raw water turbidity; raw water suspended solids;
raw water hardness; treated water hardness; raw water total dissolved
solids; and treated water total dissolved solids.  The amount and type
of chemical additions producing sludge was also included.  These data
help define the degree of solids produced and removed within the plant.
The total solids entering the plant plus the chemical additions resulting
                                   82

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in precipitates minus the total solids leaving the plant equal the solids
removed.

The monitoring of basic data parameters is necessary to the designing
engineer, manufacturers of equipment and supplies, and the water utili-
ties.  Before treatment processes at specific utilities can be modified
or new treatment schemes developed, an inventory of constituents expect-
ed in the purification and softening process must be available.

Response to Water Utility Survey

Ninety-four treatment facilities responded to this survey.  These plants
process water from twenty-eight impounded, fifty eight river, seven
groundwater, and one groundwater and surface supply sources.

Turbidity

The majority of water treatment plants utilizing surface and the combined
supplies recorded turbidity of the raw water.  Three of the plants treat-
ing groundwater did not measure this parameter.  Turbidity generally is
caused by the suspension of fine or coarse particles in a solution.
Significant amounts of suspended materials are removed during the flow
of surface water into ground supplies due to natural filtration in sur-
rounding soil formations.

Suspended Solids

The raw water suspended solids were recorded at twenty impounded, thirty
river, and three groundwater supply sources.  The suspended solids deter-
mination shows the material that will be removed during sedimentation
and/or filtration.

Hardness

The raw water hardness was measured at each facility except one treat-
ing a river source.  The treated water hardness was recorded at each
facility except one processing a groundwater source.  The extent of hard-
ness removal in a softening facility provides data for a designing en'glr•
neer to determine if recovery of the lime is economical.  The importance
of recording hardness is necessitated by the effect of its potential
scaling properties in water distribution systems.

Total Dissolved Solids

Both the raw and treated water total dissolved solids were monitored at
most facilities.  The partial demineralization of dissolved solids through
chemical precipitation or ion-exchange presents data on solids production.

Total Drv Solids

The total dry solids produced in a treatment facility must be reused or
disposed of.  The total dry solids produced was defined in the survey as
                                   83

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the total solids of the influent source water, the chemicals added for
treatment of this water, minus the total solids of the treated water.
The added chemicals are those resulting in a precipitate.  These chem-
icals should include alum or ferric salts, polyelectrolytes, activated
carbon, lime and/or soda ash.  These should not include chlorine salts
of ammonia or lime used only for pH connection.

Graphical Correlation

A graphical correlation of the total dry solids production and the raw
and treated water quality character was attempted.  Data were tabulat-
ed  for the total dry solids production and the six basic data param-
eter.  Data were arranged by the nature of the treatment process, and plotted
on cartesian coordinates.  Treatment classifications were:  purifica-
tion plants with impounded supplies; purification plants with river
supplies; and softening facilities.

Graphical scatter was significant in each correlation attempted.  Varia-
tions exist in the raw and treated water quality of water in different
geological locations.  Each utility has a different combination of basic
data constituents.  The treatment plant tailors each source water to
acceptable drinking levels as recommended by the United States Public
Health Service. In several instances, two purification plants treating
impounded supplies remove nearly equal dry solids amounts, but combina-
tion of raw and finished water parameters may be markedly different.

Dry Solids Production.

Data collected for treatment facilities sharing a common discharge area
with similar influent water quality and utilizing similar treatment may
illustrate correlations.  The record of dry solids production should
be evaluated at a specific utility for a yearly period.  The dry solids
production can be correlated with basic data parameters and system-relat-
ed  variables such as temperature, treatment efficiency, runoff, etc.
The yearly fluctuation of waste production is an important considera-
tion for the design and operating requirements of integrated water-waste
treatment systems.

Data Categorization

The general categorization of data from impounded, rivei; groundwater,
and combined supply sources displays a trend of water quality.  To be
complete, the survey would require each treatment facility in the United
States to provide data.  Table 9 classifies the data received from the
cross-section of survev participants the Research Foundation has contacted.

Water Treatment Plant Waste Handling and Treatment

Sludge Thickening

Waste volumes can be minimized by concentrating or thickening the sludge
withdrawals from sedimentation basins and solids from filter washwater.
                                   84

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Volumetric sludge reduction alleviates the problem of final disposal
and provides a starting point for the recovery of by-products.  Water
utilities of all sizes can thicken or concentrate their waste solids.
Table 10 shows the treatment facilities of different capacities employed
for thickening sludge withdrawals from sedimentation and/or contact
bas ins.

Filter Backwash Recovery

The recycling and recovery of the liquid portion of filter backwash
water was suggested as a primary research need during the Project
Advisory Committee meeting.  The recovery of this water can be economi-
cally advantageous.  Table 11 illustrates the number of treatment facili-
ties that settle or recirculate filter backwash water to thicken the
solids concentration and eliminate the discharge of suspended solid pollu-
tants to other sources.

The Dalles, Oregon, Water Treatment Plant reports "we do not presently
additionally concentrate or thicken sludge (slurry) withdrawals prior
to disposal.  We will soon be adding polymer to our sludge (basin sludge
and filter washwater) as it goes to its new lagoon.  This will enhance
the settling rate of the sludge."

The East Bay Municipal Utility District reports "there is direct filtra-
tion and no sedimentation at their Lafayette, Orinda, and Walnut Creek
plants.  Sludge disposal is being evaluated at the Sobrante, San Pablo,
and Upper San Leandro Filter Plants.  Polyelectrolytes are being inves-
tigated.  Some changes will be made."

The Chester Water Authority of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, reports
"sludge is held in lagoons.  Later the sludge is removed and spread on
the ground to dry before final disposal."

The Fridley Softening Plant in Minneapolis, Minnesota, reports "sludge
beds concentrate sludge withdrawals prior to disposal.  A sludge dewater-
ing plant for concentration of softening plant sludge, filter backwash
water and coagulation basin sludge will be in operation by November,
1972.  Solids will be trucked to a dump."

The City of Atlanta, Georgia Water Department reports "they are building
two pressure filtration plants now to concentrate sludge withdrawals
prior to disposal ."

Characteristics of Solids

The character of the suspended solids in the wastes from sedimentation
or contact basins and filter backwashing operations at the point of
final disposal defines the waste treatment required to dispose or recover
the solids.  A highly concentrated waste is more readily adopted for use
as a landfill or for by-product recovery. The great majority of purifi-
cation and softening facilities surveyed reported that the wastes from
basin -desludging and filter backwashing were in fluid form at the point
of final disposal.
                                   85

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                                 TABLE 9

                 CATEGORIZATION OF SURVEY DATA PARAMETERS
Raw Water
Turbidity
Raw Water
Sus. Solids (mg/1)
Raw Water
Hardness*
Treated Water
Hardness*
Raw Water
TDS (mg/1)
Treated Water
TDS (mg/1)
* - mg/1 as CaC03
Mean
Range
Samples

Mean
Range
Samples

Mean
Range
Samples

Mean
Range
Samples

Mean
Range
Samples

Mean
Range
Samples
                                 Sources

                                  Surface-
                                  Impounded
12
0.2-63
27

33
0-250
20

93
5-249
28

93
21-251
28

175
27-1032
27

166
40-1033
28
                               Surface-
                               River
72
3-625
58

90
1-658
30

119
10-297
58

101
15-297
58

237
35-737
37

196
21-680
45
                                 Ground-
                                 water
1
0-4
3

1
0-2
3

324
199-625
7

175
50-475
6

377
230-600
5

225
100-405
5
The suspended solids concentrations in sludge withdrawals from sedimen-
tation or contact basins was reported from as little as 0.05 percent
to 100 percent dry solids by weight.  The former figure represents a
waste that undergoes no thickening other than sludge compaction within
the basins.  The latter figure represents utilization of by-products
from the waste sludge, recalcination of lime softening sludge.

The suspended solids concentrations of filter washwater were reported
from 0.03 percent to 6 percent dry solids by weight and from 1 to 1420
mg per liter.  The comparison of waste concentrations from filter wash-
ing operations is dependent on the establishment of standardized sampling,
analysis, and categorization techniques to examine water treatment plant
wastes.  The variation in solids concentrations is significantly differ-
ent, depending on the time and method of washwater sampling.  A uniform
                                    86

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                                   TABLE 10




                       CONCENTRATION OF  BASIN SLUDGE
Average Flow
Range (mgd)
0-5
0-5
>5-10
>5-10
>10-20
>10-20
>20-30
> 20-30
> 30-50
>30-50
>30-50
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
Supply
Source
River
Groundwater
Impounded
River
Impounded
River
Impounded
River
Impounded
River
River
Impounded
Impounded
River
River
River
Groundwater
Number of
Facilities
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
Method
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling,
thickeners
Settling
Centrifuga-
tion
Settling
Mechanical
thickeners
Drying beds
Centrifu-
gation
>120-200
River
Settling
                                    87

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                                 TABLE 11

                     CONCENTRATION OF FILTER WASHHATER
Average Flow
Ranee (med)
>5-10
>5-10
>10-20
>20-30
>20-30
>20-30
>30-50
>30-50
>30-50
>30-50
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>50-80
>80-120
Supply
Source
Impounded
Groundwater
Impounded
Impounded
River
River
Impounded
Impounded
River
River
Impounded
Impounded
Impounded
Impounded
River
Groundwater
River
Number of
Facilities
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
Method
Settling
Settling
Settling
Settling
Recycle to
f locculators
Lagoon
drying
Settling
Lagoon
Settling
Clarifiers
Settling,
Recovery
Recycling
Lagoon
Settling
Recycling
Recycled
Pressure
filters
sampling technique did not accompany the survey.  Comparisons will be'
possible only when standard methods are developed and utilized.
                                   88

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Similarly, sludge concentrations in sedimentation or contact basins,
depend, in part, on the type of system and the manner of desludging.
The degree of sludge compaction varies with the nature of the raw water
impurities to be removed and the coagulants utilized.  Continuous, cyclic,
and intermittent desludging operations must be evaluated in terms of opti-
mizing waste concentration and minimizing waste volumes.

Comments

The City of Atlanta, Georgia, expects that the two Beloit-Passavant pressure
filtration units will concentrate the  dry  solids  content  of  the sedi-
mentation basin sludge to forty-five percent and the filter washwater
waste to forty percent.

The City of Des Moines, Iowa, Water Treatment Department settles  filter
washwater in a stilling pond.  This settling is effective in increasing
the dry solids concentration to ten percent.

The City of Dayton, Ohio, Water Department thickens, centrifuges  and
recalcines their lime sludge.  The Department reports "all solids are
reclaimed or recycled.  Ninety-five percent of the solids are recalcined.
The only solids necessary to lagoon are a small percent from the  lime
plant."

The Gary - Hobart Water Corporation concentrates sludge from their set-
tling basins to six percent dry solids by settling.

The City of St.Paul, Minnesota, Water Department operates a lime  recla-
mation facility at this softening plant.  The lime recovery treatment con-
sists of centrifugation and recalcining of sludge from the settling basins.
Pellets of calcium oxide are reclaimed for reuse.

The City of Columbus, Ohio, Water. Department recycles the filter  back-
wash water to the sedimentation basins of the main plant.  The solids
from the filter washing are removed with the sludge withdrawals from
the sedimentation basins.  The wastes from the basins are settled and
concentrated to forty-five percent dry solids.

The Chester Water Authority of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, settles
filter washwater wastes in lagoons.  The wastes are periodically removed
from the lagoons and placed on sludge drying beds.  The dry solids con-
tent has been increased to fifteen percent by this method.

Table 12,titled "Disposal Techniques for Basin and Filter Washwater
Solids, and Liquid Wastes", shows the techniques utilized for final dis-
posal of these waste volumes at the utilities surveyed.

Several alternative techniques were reported in use to dispose of solid
and liquid water treatment plant wastes.  Table 13, titled "Techniques
Employed for Final Disposal of Solid and Liquid Waste",  illustrates the
methods used.
                                   89

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                                 TABLE 12

                         DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES FOR
BASIN AND
FILTER WASHWATER
SOLIDS, AND LIQUID WASTES

Responding Water Utilities
Disposal by
Watercourse
Lake
Dry Creek
Ocean
Lagoons
Sewer
Landfill
Agriculture
Recalcining
Other
Basin Solids
31
7
4
1
15
8
9
1
1
4
Filter Washwater
Solids
36
7
4
1
11
7
6
1
0
8
Liquid
Wastes
54
9
5
1
5
9
	
	
	
8
Comments

The Chester Water Authority of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, reports
"sludge is given to an organic compost plant.  They add it into their
process in the manufacture of organic fertilizers."

Vaste Production and Waste Characteristics

There are few alternatives for disposal of dried or concentrated waste
solids.  The solids must be disposed of in a manner consistent  with the
regulations of the authorized control body governing wastes from water
utilities.  By-products from the purification and softening processes
can be recovered for reuse and/or resale.    Inert materials that cannot
be utilized remain for disposal .  by-product recovery has been practiced
when it is economical.

The magnitude of final disposal problems for solids wastes is partly
dependent on the dry density of the solids.  Thirteen treatment facilities
                                    90

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Basin Solids

Plants
1
                                 TABLE 13

                          TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED FOR

                FINAL DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
                  Method
Settles solids in recovery pond and uses solids
as a landfill

Discharges solids to sanitary storm sewer which
discharges to a reservoir

Contract to have waste solids hauled away
Filter Washwater

Plants
1
1

4

1
                  Method
Settles solids in recovery pond and uses solids
                  as landfill

Discharges solids to sanitary storm sewer which
discharges to a reservoir

Contract to have waste solids hauled away

Recycles filter washwater to main plant intake

Discharges to a swamp
Liquid Wastes

Plants
6

1

1
                  Method
Recirculate liquids for recovery

Evaporation and percolation of liquid

Basin  liquid wastes is lagooned following centri-
fugation.  Filter washwater is recycled.
 reported dry solids  densities  of  sludges  from  seventy-two  to  141  pounds
 per c u  ft.   These values  include sludges from purification and soften-
 ing plants.   A standard  density determination  method  did not  accompany
 the survey.
                                    91

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The density value partially describes the volume required for a waste
that has been completely dried.  More important indicators of the waste
volume to be treated or disposed are the"' water volumes needed for basin
desludging and filter backwashing.

The water used for filter washing has been treated to a high level of
quality.  The recovery of this water seems to be an almost obvious
solution that may significantly reduce plant operating costs and elimi-
ate the pollution caused by discharging this waste.

The survey participants reported ranges of 0 to 21.8 percent of the treat-
ed water was required fa: basin desludging.  In some cases, the treated
water was recovered.  Most utilities presently dispose of this solid and
liquid waste from the basin desludging operation.

Filter washwater requirements ranged from 0.2 to 9 percent of the treat-
ed water used.  Some plants reclaim this water.

The separation of solids from filter washwater and the recovery of the
liquid portion of this waste demands consideration.  The use of liquid-
solids separation devices to reclaim filter washwater should be investi-
gated.  The suitability of .separation  technology  such as microstraining
should be examined if recycling or sedimentation of filter washwater is
not feasible at a particular location.

The analysis of sludge samples from basins and filter washing operations
depends upon the sampling method.  Well defined waste sampling methods
are currently being developed.  A broad range of values for basin sludge
and filter washwater sludge concentrations was found in this survey.
Table 14, titled "Basin Sludge Concentration Data", shows the range
of values reported.

Table 15  titled "Filter Washwater Sludge Concentration Data", demonstra-
tes the variation in solids concentrations of filter washwater.  By the
nature of the filter washing procedure, a single measurement made on a
single sample at a single time may be misleading.  Several concentra-
tions measured during the1 complete backwash cycle provide a temporal-
concentration relationship.  A plot of solids concentrations (mg/1)
versus the time of backwash defines the solids release pattern of a
particular filter.  The more frequent the sampling of a waste during a
backwash cycle, the more continuous are data points for the solids
release curve.  The area under the curve represent a time-concentration
product (mg/1 . min).  With a constant backwash rate (gpm), the time-
concentration product can be converted to total solids.  Each filtration
plant will have different relationships, dependent upon solids release
patterns, rate of backwash, and total backwash water.

Table 16  titled "Chemical Analysis of Basin Sludge", provides a range
of data accumulated from the purification and softening facilities
responding to this survey.  It is interesting to note that the largest
response to any parameter was thirty-two participants (8102). Of  the
ninety-four utilities included in this survey, the majority were unable
                                    92

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Concentration
Data

% of Dry Solids by         Range
Weight at Withdrawal       Samples
Time

% of Original Volume in    Range
24 hr. settling and        Samples
liquid decantation

% of Dry Solids by         Range
Weight in 24 hr.           Samples
settling and liquid
decantation

Suspended solids in        Range
supernatant in 24 hr.      Samples
settling and liquid
decantation (mg/1)

a - Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania
b - Columbus, Ohio
           TABLE 14

BASIN SLUDGE CONCENTRATION DATA

                 	    Supply  Sources
                Impounded

                0.15-6
                12
                0.9-75
                10
                0.1-19
                9
                7.8-111,000
                9
River

0.12-69
18
0-89.6
17
1.5-62
16
a
Groundwater

4-4.4
2
   17
   1
   16
   1
1.5-2000  17
17        1
 to supply much data on waste production and waste character.  The regu-
 latory  information shows a trend toward the strict enforcement of exist-
 ing  legislation and the elimination of waste discharges from water
 treatment plants.  Sampling, analysis, and categorization methods from
water treatment plant wastes are being developed.  The establishment
 of suitable  sludge treatment processes at any water utility will require
 an analysis  of waste production and character.  These types of data
will be necessary for laboratory, piloC, and plant scale design.

 Table 17, titled "Chemical Analysis of Filter Washwater", illustrates
 variations in chemical analysis of purification and softening plant filter
washwaters.  The orderly classification of waste characterization data
 is an important step in treatment method evaluation.

 Tables  18 and 19 illustrate the character of chemical and biochemical
 oxygen  demand data of wastes from water purification and softening facili-
 ties.   Table 38 contains data assembled from those purification plants
 responding to the survey.  Table 19 is accumulated data on the water
 softening installations participating.  The number of samples in these
 tables  are quite small.  The ability to measure and control these waste
 parameters will have added significance with the enforcement of state
                                    93

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                                 TABLE 15

                FILTER WASHWATER SLUDGE CONCENTRATION DATA

Concentration
Data                                              Impounded        River

Average Dry Solids            Range              0.35-3000        0.18-6888
Concentration in              Samples            14               20
Washwater  (mg/1)

Average Dry Solids            Range              68-97,000        2.5-106,200
Concentration after           Samples            8                17
24 hr. settling and
liquid decantation (mg/1)

Suspended Solids in           Range              2-35             2.5-330
Supernatant after             Samples            7                17
24 hr. settling (mg/1)
and federal water quality or effluent standard requirements.  Water utility
wastes represent one type of industrial waste input into streams.  The
chemical and biochemical oxygen requirements of these wastes utilize
a ssimilative capacities of watercourses.  The magnitude of this problem
is proportional to several variables.  These variables include: other waste
inputs along the watercourse, reaeration coefficients in the streams,
seasonal variation, decay rates of BOD material in streams, flow condi-
tions, and others.  The dissolved oxygen sag curve has been utilized to
predict the effect of waste inputs in river basin systems.  The oxygen
deficits at each point in a stream can be predicted by using the principle
of superposition for each waste source.  Water utility wastes, added to
other wastes, impair stream quality.  The reduction or elimination of these
wastes will ultimately be proportional to the degree of regulatory  enforce-
ment and the classification of the watercourse.

Additional Survey Information

The City of Laramie, Wyoming reports "all sludge from the sedimentation
basins and filter washwater goes into a lagoon.  When the lagoon fills
up, it will be dewatered and the sludge will be spread on city owned prop-
erty."

The City of Tucson, Arizona, "obtains its entire supply from deep wells,
and the product water is distributed directly without treatment.  Chlorine
is added only to the water stored above the surface.  The study of sludge
disposal technology will become increasingly important to Tucson as this
city looks forward to importing surface water as a supplemental source
to be supplied through the Central Arizona Project, perhaps by 1980."
                                    94

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Volatile Matter
Fe203
/o

A1203
/o

CaC03
%

Mg(OH)2



Remainder
                                   TABLE 16

                      CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BASIN SLUDGE

                            	Plant Type
Range
Samples

Range
Samples

Range
Samples

Range
Samples

Range
Samples

Range
Samples

Range
Samples
Purification

1-50
20

0.4-64
20

0.2-57.4*
18

0-82
19

1-86.6b
13

0-24.3
12

0-77.9C
12
a- as Fe(OH)3 Providence, R.I.
b-San  Diego Alvarado Plant
c-Cincinnati Water Works
                                                        Softening
             2.88-82,75
             0.2-47
             12

             0.29-9.5
             11

             0-1.2
             9

             8.76-98
             12

             0.35-14.9
             12

             0.46-10.7
             8

d-Bismarck, North Dakota
e-Bismarck, North Dakota
The Water Supply Board of Providence, Rhode Island, reports "ferric sulfate
is added as a coagulant  to their water.  Chemically treated water flows
through a tangential mixer.  Floe commences to form at the mixer, and the
coagulated water enters  the north basin.  The flow in the basin is baffled
to prevent short circuiting.  The settled water then flows in the south
settling basin.  The combined capacity of the two series operated basins
is 160.21mg.  Average retention time for the two basins is over two and
one-half days.  Settled  water from the surface of the south basin is
treated with chlorine, filtered, and then fluoridated.  The north basin
is cleaned every two years, requiring about one week to drain, flush and
refill.  The' south basin requires about ten days every four years for the
same cleaning.  The amount of flushing water is not monitored.

The time interval between discharges of basin sludge to the lagoon is
quite  long.  The filter  washwater is not stored in a tank or holding pond.
The washwater with its solids flows from the washwater drain to the lagoons
                                    95

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Volatile Matter
Si02
                                   TABLE 17

                    CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF FILTER WASHWATER
A1203


CaCOs


Mg(OH)2


Remainder
a - Rochester, N.Y.
b - Detroit, Michigan
c - San Diego, California
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Range
Samples
Plant Type
Purification
0.5-40
15
0.65-69
15
0.08-18.4
11
Ob-45
13
1-55. 8C
12
0.3-22.1
10
2-70. 3d
10

Softening
4.5-99.066
3
0.1-18.8
7
0.06-20.1
7
0-34.1
6
0.31-98
7
0.1-6
6
0.53-54.41
6
d - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
e - Bismarck, North Dakota
f - Bismarck, North Dakota
as the washing is in process.  The solids in the washwater of course are
different for each interval of time during backwash."

                          Canadian Survey Responses

Surveys were sent to ten Canadian water treatment facilities.  Five re-
 sponses were received  by the Research Foundation.

The water purification plant in Hamilton, Ontario, treats water from the
western end of Lake Ontario.  This utility reports that "solids in slurrry
withdrawals f TO m sedimentation basins are concentrated by settling prior
to disposal.  The final disposal of water treatment plant sludge solids
is to a creek emptying into Hamilton Bay, which is itself a large settling
basin."
                                    96

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                                  TABLE 16

              CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND CHARACTER

                      OF PURIFICATION PLANT WASTES

Sludge Withdwawn                     BOD5                  COD
From	                     	                  	

                       Range         0-350                 6-23,000
Basins
                       Samples       16                    15

                       Range         0-25                  4.5-200
Filter Washwater
                       Samples       15                    15


Liquid Waste @
Final Disposal
From	

                       Range         2.8-350               16-7000
Basins
                       Samples       11                    10

                       Range         1.6-72.8              21.1-2617
Filter Washwater
                       Samples       9                     9
The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto reports that "at the present
time wastes  from the  four water treatment plants in Metropolitan T oronto
are returned to the source, Lake Ontario.  The Municipality is currently
investigating this matter with a view to completely remove solids  in the
future  before returning  settling basin and backwash wastes to the  lake."

The Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources of Canada reports to the
Foundation that "the  Government of Canada has built a fairly large Pilot
Plant at Burlington,  Ontario, to accomodate both basic and applied re-
 search on water  pollution. It is expected to be in operation in about
six months (early 1972; .  One of its main functions will be research and
development into new  and improved methods for the reclamation, reuse,
and ultimate disposal ofi sludges, wastes  from treatment processes, brines,
etc.  The Department  plans to establish rapport with the Research  Foun-
dation, as a clearing-house to collect and distribute information  and
exchange data."
                                    97

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                                  TABLE 19

             CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND CHAJRACT.ER

                        OF SOFTENING PLANT WASTES

Sludge Withdrawn                     BOD5                  COD
From	                      	                  	

                       Range         7.2-145               14.2-5000
Basins
                       Samples       5                     6

                       Range         0.7-14                5.6-300
Filter Washwater
                       Samples       4                     3
Liquid Waste @
Final Disposal
From	

                       Range         3-145                 6.5-5000
Basins
                       Samples       7                     3

                       Range         0.7-14                0.4-300
Filter Washwater
                       Samples       4                     2
The Region of Niagara, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Water Treatment Plant
and the Petersborough, Ontario, Public Utilities Commission discharge
the water treatment plant sludge solids to watercourses.

             '           Desalting Facilities

Although many of the survey questions did not directly apply to desalt-
ing operations, several surveys were sent to desalting facilities.  A
general description of the operation at two facilities was received by
the Research Foundation.

The Office of Saline Water operates a test facility at Webster, South
"•akota, treating an average flow of 150,000 gpd of well water.  This
installation reports lime softening is utilized at this test(facility to
remove iron, manganese, and bicarbonate hardness prior to treatment by
electrodialysis.  Raw water total dissolved solids are reduced from 1500
mg per liter to 700 mg per liter iti the treated water.  The reduction in
hardness is from 800 mg per liter as  CaC03 in the raw water to 150mg per
liter as CaCOo in the treated water.
                                   98

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Solids in sludge withdrawals from basins are concentrated to twenty per-
cent prior to disposal.  The water treatment plant basin solids are used
as landfill.  Filter washwater is discharged to a lake.  The average
total dissolved content of these waste waters is 1800mg per liter.  This
brine waste is discharged to a lake.

The Town of Buckeye, Arizona, reported on its electrodialysis plant.  The
raw water comes from deep wells with 1400 to 1800 ppm of total dissolved
solids.  The treated water from the electrodialysis plant contains 500
ppm or less of total dissolved solids.  The total hardness of the raw
water is from 8 to 12 grains per U.S. gallon.  The treated water hard-
ness is less than 3 grains per U.S. gallon.  Impurities in the raw water
are principally calcium carbonate, sodium, bicarbonate, chloride, and
sulfate ions.

Following treatment in the electrodialysis plant, the major impurities
with the exception of fluoride, are brought down within public health
standards.  The raw water has 4ppm of fluoride and the treated water
contains 2ppm.

The waste stream from the water plant is concentrated to approximately
7500 ppm total dissolved solids before it is dumped to waste.  The
waste stream is mixed with the effluent from the sewage treatemmt plant
with a resulting combination of approximately 2700 to 2800 ppm total
dissolved solids.  The farmers are satisfied with the effect of this
combined effluent on their products.

                                 Conclusions

The development of reliable research and development data is necessary
in organizing an orderly approach to the control of pollution caused
by water treatment plant wastes.  Meaningful correlations and compari-
sons of waste parameters will benefit water treatment plants investigat-
ing or operating laboratory, pilot, or plant scale waste handling pro-
cesses.  The design of waste treatment facilities is dependent both on
the physical and chemical waste character.  A record of reliable data,
accumulated through standardized sampling and analysis methods, will
reflect seasonal changes and other important variations in waste con-
tent.

Two goals of the Research Foundation, confirmed by the analysis of
this survey are:

     1.  To continue with the development of uniform sampling, analysis,
         and categorization techniques for water treatment plant wastes.
         Subject these methods, as developed under the coordination
         of the Foundation, for review and revision.  Submit final meth-
         ods to an appropriate Sub-Committee for review and incorpora-
         tion in the next edition of Standard Methods  For the Examinar
         tion of Water and Wastewater.
                                   99

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To disseminate the standard testing procedures to the water
utility industry and encourage  the use of the procedures in
the evaluation of water treatment plant wastes.  These pro-
cedures must be utilized to provide a basis for comparison
of waste problems.
                          100

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                              SECTION IX

                  NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Introduction

A principal goal of the AWWA Research Foundation is to coordinate and
assist in the development of research and demonstration projects.  It
is essential that the information generated through this program provide
the water utility industry with a basis for effective and economical
waste disposal practices. As a clearinghouse, the Foundation serves to
transfer technology and to exchange communication among scientific, tech-
nical, and administrative personnel in the identification of specific
problems.

In the coordination of information, the Foundation is responsible for
supplementing data presently available with plans for future research
and demonstration requirements.  New, and prehaps more imaginative,
approaches to the control of water treatment plant wastes should be
investigated.

Two needs were identified by the Project Advisory Committee for further
development.  These needs are:

     1.  The development of uniform sampling, analysis, and categoriza-
         tion techniques for water treatment plant wastes; and

     2.  The use of polymers in treatment processes to perform as primary
         coagulants, coagulant aids, and sludge conditioning agents.

A third approach to identify new developments was initiated by the Foun-
dation:  the availability of sludge dewatering devices from manufacturers
of equipment required coordination.  The suitability of different equip-
ment to handle purification and softening wastes, and filter washwater
should be presented.  The Foundation has initiated work to accumulate
this type of information.

The progress of each of these endeavors follows.

Standardization Sub-Committee

A Sub-Committee of the Project Advisory Committee was fornred to develop
documents for^tthe uniform sampling, analysis, and categorization of water
treatment process wastes.  The Committee  consisted of Messrs.  Ralph Evans,
H.O. Hartung, R.N. Kinman,  and K.E. Shull.   The Research Foundation func-
tions as coordinator of the information developed.

The Research Foundation plans to:
                                  101

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    1.  Continue to coordinate activities in the development of the
        documents for standardized sampling, analysis, and categoriza-
        tion techniques for water treatment plant wastes.

    2.  Publish the finished documents and request reviews and comments
        from individuals on the Foundation's mailing list.

    3.  Transmit the final proposed procedures to the appropriate Stand-
        ard Methods Sub-Committee to consider incorporating these methods
        in forthcoming editions of Standard Methods for the Examination
        of Water and Wastewater.

At the time of publication of this report, members of the Sub-Committee
have submitted:  (1) five tests which give basic information and which
may be expanded into step by step standard methods; and (2) a labora-
tory procedure that has been successfully used by the Illinois State
Water Survey in analyzing boiler scale or other scale occuring on the
interior of water conveying conduits.  These tests and analysis proce-
dures will be building blocks in the construction of the final documents.

Five Basic Tests - Preliminary Contribution

1.  Volume Per Cent Solids:

    a.  60 minutes settling

    b.  30 days settling

    The volume per cent solids can be determined by reading the settled
    sludge volume after Settling  100ml  of slurry in a  100ml graduated cylinder.

2.  Weight Per Cent Solids:

    The determination of grams of dry solids in 100 ml of sludge can
    be made on an aliquot   portion, dried for 24 hours @ 105 C.
    a.  Solids Ratio = Volume PerCent Solids (60 minute settling)
                       Weight Per Cent Solids (Dried 24 hrs. @ 105°C)

    b.  Pounds of dry solids per cubic foot of slurry =

        0.623 x (grams   of solids / 100 ml)*

        where o.623 = 28,320 ml   . I     . Ib
                             ft3    100ml   454gms

    c.  Slurry volume per 100 pounds of dry solids =

        16           cf
     (gms of solids / 100ml)*
                                   102

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3.  Specific Gravity  of Slurry:

        The specific gravity can be determined by weighing an exact  vol-
        ume of slurry in a laboratory specific gravity bottle.

        Specific gravity = Weight of given volume of slurry
                           Weight of equal volume of water

4.  Density:

        The density can be determined on the weight per cubic foot of
        undisturbed, thickened, non-flowing sludge from the sludge
        lagoon.  The method can be based on soils laboratory procedures
        using standard spoon sampling and cores.

5.  Density of Solids (dried 12hrs @ 105°C - pounds per cubic foot):

        The method is to add a known weight of dried solids to a specific
        gravity bottle completely filled with water.  Weigh the displaced
        water.

        Pounds      = 62.4 x weight of solids
        Cubic foot           weight of displaced  water
    * Weight - Per Cent Solids in

The investigation of procedures to examine waste  solids is still in a
preliminary phase.  These suggestions are methods used by the Illinois
State Water Survey.

Scale Analysis

General Rules Applying to All Scale Analyses

    1.  All calculations will be made on the basis of the oxide of the
        element so that hypothetical combinations will be easier to
        calculate.

        For example:
                   CaO + C02 -» CaC03
                   CaO + S03 -» CaSO^

    2.  All filtrations will be made using 15 cm, No. OK, ashless
        filter paper unless specific directions to the contrary are
        given.

    3.  Samples ignited in the electric muffle, whether ignited to 1000°C
        or 1100°C will be allowed tg cool to 300  - 500°C in the muffle,
        then transferred to the 180 C oven for at least 1 hour, then
        placed in a desiccator to cool for 20 minutes before weighing.
                                  103

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Procedures for Analysis of Sludge

1.  Preparation of Sample

        a.  Grind representative sample in agate mortar until a fine,
            powdery consistency is obtained.

        b.  Dry the sample at 105° for at least two hours or prefer-
            ably over night so that all calculations,-, can be made on a
            dry basis.

2.  Organic and Volatile Matter (Loss on Ignition)

    Weigh accurately about 0.5 gm of the prepared sample into an ignited
    porcelain crucible.  Ignite to 1000 C.  Cool and weigh.

            Loss of Weight x  100%
            Weight of the Sample  =  % Loss on Ignition

3.  Silica (Si02)

    Weigh accurately about 1 gram 'of the dried sample into a platinum
    crucible.  Add to the sample three or four scoops ( #1A Scoop)  of
    C.P. anhydrous sodium carbonate. Thoroughly mix  the materials.
    (quantitatively) in the crucible.  Cover the material in the crucible
    with two or three scoops of C.P. anhydrous potassium carbonate.
    Ignite to 1000°C.

    After cooling, place the platinum crucible in a 400 ml beaker.   Add
    100 ml of doubly distilled water and 20 ml of concentrated HCL, Heat
    gently on the hot plate until no further evolution of C02 is noticed.
    Do not boil.  Care must be taken to avoid spattering during the evolu-
    tion of C02.  Wash out the platinum crucible and remove it from the
    solution.  Evaporate the solution to dryness on the steam bath and 1-
    bake in the 105°C oven for at least four hours.  This procedure is
    necessary to completely dehydrate the silica so that it will filter
    quickly and easily.

    Cool, moisten the residue with concentrated HCL,  then, after a short
    period of contact, dilute with doubly distilled water to a 10% acid
    solution.  Boil for a few minutes, then filter off the silica.  Wash
    the precipitate on the filter paper thoroughly, first with a hot
    solution of 1% HCL and then with hot doubly distilled water until
    the chloride ion is absent in the filtrate.  Make filtrate up to
    250 ml volume and save for later use.  Ignite the residue in a plat-
    inum crucible to 1000 C.  Cool and weigh.  Carefully moisten the  '
    material in the platinum crucible with 1 to 2 ml of doubly distilled
    water, add 4 or 5 drops of 1:2 ^SO^ and then, carefully add 5 ml
    of HF.  Place the crucible on the hot plate under the hood and evap-
    orate to fumes of 803, then increase heat and fume off the SO^.
    Ignite the platinum crucible to 1000°C.  Cool and weigh.
                                  104

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(original weight of precip. - remaining weight of precip.) x 100 = IS102
                            weight of sample
        note;  If the amount of silica in the scale is large, it may be
        necessary to dehydrate the filtrate a second time to recover all
        of the silica.

4.  R203

    To a 100ml aliquot of the filtrate from the silica, add a few drops
    of concentrated HN03 and boil for a few minutes to oxidize all the
    iron to the ferric state.  Remove from the hot plate, neutralize
    with concentrated NH^ OH using methyl red indicator.  Boil for a few
    minutes, add organic filter pulp and filter (save filtrate).  Wash
    the precipitate with a hot 1% solution of NH^NC^.  Ignite to 1000°C.
    Cool and weigh.
        weight of precipitate x 2.5 x 100 = % R203
                weight of sample

5a. Iron (Fe CU - Jones Reductor  Method)

        To a 100ml aliquot of the filtrate from the silica, add 10-20
        drops of H^SO, , and evaporate to the fumes of SOo.  The solid
        mass at the bottom of the beaker should be straw colored
        fFe2(SO/)3].  Dissolve the mass in 100-150 ml of doubly distilled
        water, (the mass will dissolve more rapidly if the solution is
        kept hot by leaving it  on the steam bath) .  This may take a few
        minutes to several hours.  Cool the solution.
        Clean the Jones Reductor by passing 3% l^SO^ through 3-4 times,
        then rinse the reductor with doubly distilled water. (A good test
        is to add a drop of K^O^ to the rinse solution.  If the reduc-
        tor  is clean, this will produce a pink color).  Rinse again
        with 3% l^SO^..  Pour sample through clean Jones Reductor using
        gentle suction to regulate the flow to under 75ml per minute.  Do
        not allow the level of liquid in the reductor   to fall below the
        zinc column at anytime.  The zinc reduces the ferric sulphate
        to ferrous sulfate.  Wash through 3 times with 37o H2SO, , then 3
        times with doubly distilled water.  Draw each portion through
        before adding the next.  Wash the tip of the reductor off and
        titrate immediately with 0.1000N KM 0^ to pale pink end point.
        The KtLOi oxidized the iron to the terric state.
        ml kMnO/, x O.INx 0.05585 x 2.5 x 1.4297 x 100 = % Fe203
                         weight of the sample

    5b. If the sample is not high in iron, the iron may be determined
        by one of the i col crime trie methods shown in Standard Methods.

    6.  Phosphate (P205 by Molybdate)

        Take a 10 ml aliquot of the filtrate of the silica, dilute to
        50 ml in a Nessler's tube.  Place the solution in a 125 ml
                                   105

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    Erlenmeyer flask.  Add 1 ml of standard (NH4)6M0702A
    followed by 1 ml of standard 1 amino 2 napthol 4 sulfuric acid
    solution.  Let stand for exactly 10 minutes, transfer to a colori-
    metric tube and read color transmission on photometer using filter
    no. 660.  Results are read on PO    molybdate curve as ppm.  PO,
    on the basis of a 50 ml sample and calculated as 7o P 0 :
                 PPM x 5x .7474 x 100 = 7, P205          2 5
                 mgms of sample x 4

    Note:  If acid concentration is high, color development will be de-
    creased, therefore it is wise to run a 5 ml aliquot also.  If the
    acid concentration is high, the 5 ml aliquot will give a greater
    color development indicating the necessity of diluting out the sample
    to reduce the high acid concentration.

7.  Aluminum Oxide (Al~0o)

          7»R20  - 7cFe203 = 7oAl203*

  * Assuming that there is no titanium, manganese or phosphate in the
    sample.

8.  Calcium Oxide (CaO)

    Evaporate the filtrate from the R203 separation to approximately
    200 ml.   Using HCL, make the solution slightly acid to the methyl
    red.

    Add 10 ml of a 107o solution of (NIL-) 2 Co04 dropwise with constant
    stirring.  Neutralize with concentrated NlfyOH.  Digest on the steam
    bath for two hours.  Filter while hot using a sintered glass cruci-
    ble.  Wash with doubly distilled water.  Save filtrate for the MgO
    determination.

    Dissolve the calcium oxylate precipitate by adding hot 6N H2SO, to
    the crucible 3 times, then washing with doubly distilled water.
    Heat to 60 to 80°C and titrate immediately with 0.1N KMnO^ to a
    faint pink color.
              ml KMn04 x 0.0028 x 2.5 x 100 = 7o CaO
                weight of sample

9.  Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

    Use the filtrate from the calcium oxide determination.  Add the
    following:  20 ml of saturated microcosmic salt solution, a few
    drops of thymol blue indicator and then concentrated NH,OH to the
    appearance of a dark bluish-green color.  Let stand overnight.
    Filter the precipitate using an ignited and weighted Gooch crucible.
    Wash with mg washwater.  Ignite at 1000 C, cool, and weigh as
                 wt of ppt x 0.3621 x 2.5 x 100 = 7oMgO
                   weight of sample
                                   106

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10.  Calcium and magnesium may be determined also by EDTA titration.
     The  filtrate  from  the R20  extraction is made up to a 500 ml
     volume, and the hardness and calcium content determined.
     mg/1 hardness (as CaCOs) - mg/1 Ca (as CaC03) = mg/1 Mg (as €3003)

     mg/ICa (asCaC03) x 0.07 = % CaO
      weight of sample

     mg/lMg (as CaCOQ x 0.05 = % MgO
       weight of sample

11.  Carbon Dioxide  (C02)

     Refer to pages  355 thru 359 in "Elementary Quantitative Analysis"
     by Willard and Furman.

12.  a.   If the analyst has reason to suspect the presence of other
          elements  in the scale, these should be determined by appropri-
          ate methods.

     b.  When a scale analysis is completed the sum of the percentages
          of each of  the constituents should total approximately 100%.

Summary of Development of Standard Test Documents

The work  of the Standardization Sub-Committee is continuing.  More infor-
mation is required for recommended sampling procedures for wastes from
sedimentation basins and filter washwater.  Additional comments and sug -
gestions are required on the tests  and procedures  that have  been submitted,
in order  to obtain the analytical data needed for the characterization of
sludges.  Answers  are also required on the need for supplemental tests
and whether the methodology already described is sufficiently detailed.

The Research Foundation will evaluate additional comments on these pro-
 posed documents and remaining areas  of research.   Correspondence will be
coordinated with individuals expert in the treatment or water and the
analysis  of sludge from water purification and softening facilities.

Introduction to Polymer Evaluation Program

The amount and type of sludge produced at a treatment plant is partially
dependent upon the processes utilized and the efficiency of operation.
Another approach to the sludge disposal problem is through the use of
new coagulants.  This view was stated in the report titled "Disposal of
Wastes from Water  Treatment Plants", and later at the meeting of the
Project Advisory Committee.

The use of polyelectrolytes as coagulants in place of alum could repre-
sent a new tecnological change that would significantly alter the waste
character.  The effectiveness of polyelectrolytes as coagulant aids
                                   107

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might reduce the quantity of alum utilized in treatment processes.
Finally, polyelectrolytes have been shown to effectively act as
sludge conditioning agents, making waste sludges more amenable to
dewatering.

The Research Foundation has initiated the organization of material
which can be utilized in the evaluation of polymers.  The extent of
progress in this undertaking follows.

Polymer Evaluation Program

The Research Foundation made a literature search of the Journal American
Water Works Association  to determine if a standard jar testing procedure
had been utilized to evaluate polymers as primary coagulants, coagulant
aids, and sludge conditioning agents at different water utilities. Four
articles were found that suggested possible parameters to be considered
in a jar testing program.

A search for additional publications produced an AWWA manual titled
"Simplified Procedures for Water Examination - M-12." This manual con-
tains a basic jar testing format and recommendations useful in struc-
turing a polymer evaluation program.

In addition to the literature sources, the Research Foundation utilized
the expertise of two water utility operating practice personnel and one
university research investigator in preparing the preliminary test doc-
uments.  The suitability of the basic test documents has been agreed
upon by the experts and the Foundation as a good starting point.  It is
planned to utilize wider experience to conduct an evaluation program
which will lead to revision and modifications to these documents.

Seven basic documents have been coordinated to allow the testing of the
polymers.  These documents are: jar test data sheet; basic data test pro-
cedure,; procedure to evaluate sludge conditioning ageints; sludge condi-
tioner data sheet; filter aid evaluation by means of a filter test leaf;
standard column test procedure; and a simplified jar test procedure.

Jar Test Data Sheet

The data required for the polymer evaluation has been limited mainly to
physical tests.  These tests provide meaningful information and mini-
mize lengthy chemical analyses.

In attempting to correlate the data to the raw water quality, a raw
water analysis data sheet will be submitted for the day the polymer was
tested.

A settling speed test was included.  The settling speed test should
provide some indication of how much a polymer primary coagulant or aid will
increase the settling rate and compress the sludge when compared to
the coagulant presently used.  Most of the rapidly settling curves will
be exponential in form.  Settling data will be recorded and plotted.
                                   108

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The data can be plotted on semi-logarithmic coordinates to give an
indication of an exponential settling factor k from the equation:

                       S = Cle ~kt
    where              S = settling height
                       GI= initial height of interface
                       k = time  1
                       t = time

The data sheet for the investigation of polymers as primary coagulants
and coagulant aids is illustrated in reduced form.  Figure 1, the front
of the sheet, contains information on chemical additions to each jar
and basic data recorded.  This side also contains instructions for the
settling speed test.  Figure 2, reverse side of the sheet, shows the
record of data and plot of the interface level versus the time on carte-
sian coordinates.

Basic Data Test Procedure

The specification of data procedures will provide a basis for compari-
son.  The parameters on the data sheet are to be determined in the follow-
ing manner:

Water Temperature (°C);

Temperature measurements should be made in accordance with the specifi-
cations outlined in Standard Methods.  The temperature of each jar sample
should be taken immediately before rapid mixing.

Supernatant Turbidity (JTU);

Turbidity measurements should be made in accordance with Standard Methods
or by approved instruments that are used in daily laboratory evaluations.
Indicate the method of measuring the turbidity.

22

The pH measurement should be made in accordance with Standard Methods.
The measurement can be made with a commercial pH meter approved for use
in daily laboratory evaluations.  Indicate the method (pH meter) used
to obtain the measurement.

Floe Formation Time:

Reference is made to an article titled "Techniques of Coagulation Test-
ing - Part 1" appearing in the September, 1970, issue of the Journal
American Water Works Association. The test for floe formation time is
taken from this article.  The test follows.

"This is a very simple test in which the time between the coagulant
addition and the first appearance of visible floe is recorded.  Often,
                                    109

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Reporting Utility
Location
Raw Water pH
               FIGURE  1

 PRIMARY COAGULANTS AND  COAGULANT AIDS

           Date 	

	     Source of Supply
                      Official Reporting
                      Raw Water Turb.
CHEMICALS ADDED (mg/1):
                 Jars      l       2       3       4       5.6

Alum                    	  	  	  	  	  	

Carbon                    ,      	  	  	  	  	

Lime	  	  	

Soda Ash                	  	  	  	  	  	

Ferric Sulfate          	  	  	  	  	  	

Aid (Name)              	  	  	  	  	  	

BASIC DATA;

Water Temperature ( C)  	  	  	  	  	  	

Supernatant Turb. (JTU)  	  	  	  	  	  	

Supernatant pH          	  	     ,     	  _____  	

Floe Formation Time(min)	  	  _____    '      i___  	

Visual Floe Size        	  	  	  	  	  	

Supernatant Hard.(CaCO_)	  	  	  	  	  	

SETTLING SPEED:

1.  Observe the results of the testing for jars 1 to 6.
2.  Select the best or two best coagulant dosages on the basis of the data.
3.  Set up beakers with the same dosages of the best coagulant(s) and the
    control jar and repeat the jar test procedure.
4.  Following slow mixing, measure the height of the solid-liquid interface
    in centimeters.  Record this height at the times indicated on the data
    sheet provided.
5.  Plot the height of the interface versus the time recorded on the graph
    provided.
         (See reverse side of this page for data sheet and graph)
                                   110

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a Tyndall light beam is used to help detect the small initial floe.
Even with this aid, the nearly colorless floe particles formed in many
instances are difficult to see when first formed and as a result,
visual observations are quite qualitative.  Also, there is no assurance
that the first floe to form will possess the most durable properties in
the later stages of the process."

Visual Floe Size;

This test is derived from the same article as the floe formation test.
"This test merely consists of an observer qualitatively recording or
comparing the floes as they are formed.  Different observers may reach
different conclusions about the same suspension.  In addition, this
technique overlooks the importance of floe strength and density.  An
attempt to partially quantify the visual evaluations of the floe size
has been made by the establishment of the Wilcomb's Floe Index.  This
approach consists of relating visual characteristics of floe formation
and settling to an index number from 0 to 10.  High index numbers
represent relatively large floe particles with good settling properties."

A modification of this test appears in the "Simplified Jar Test Proce-
dure."  This test uses the size of the control jar floe as unity and
then requires an estimation of the floe size in the remaining jars in
relation to this unity floe.  For example, a floe size appearing twice
as large as that in a control jar has a visual floe size of 2.

Supernatant Hardne s s:

Hardness can run on the same sample used for supernatant turbidity.
The hardness test should be performed in accordance with Standard
Methods.

S imp1 i fled Jar Test Pr oc e dure:

A standard jar test procedure is contained within AWWA manual M-12
titled "Simplified Procedures for Water Examination."  A standard test-
ing plan is required to provide a basis for the comparison of polymers
as primary coagulants and for coagulation aids in a centrally directed
program.  The purpose of this phase of the Research Foundation informa-
tion resource program is to determine the suitability of polymers in
either reducing the total amount of sludge or concentrating the waste
volume of sludge generated at water treatment plants.

The following procedure will be used to initiate testing.  This procedure
combines the use of information established by AWWA in its publication.,
and the modifications and suggestions as determined by water utility ,
experts and the Foundation.

Purpose of Jar Tests

Manual M-12 states "the jar tests are designed to show the nature and
                                  112

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 extent  of  the  chemical  treatment which will prove effective in  the
 full  scale plant.  Many of  the  chemicals added  to a water supply can
 be  evaluated on a  laboratory  scale  by means of  jar tests.  Among the
 most  important of  these chemicals are coagulants, coagulant aids,
 alkaline compounds,  softening chemicals, and  activated carbon for taste
 and odor removal.  The  test also permits the  appraisal of the relative
 merits  of  the  aluminum  and  iron coagulants, or  in conjunction with such
 coagulant  aids as  activated silica,  polyelectrolytes, clays, stone
 dust, activated carbon,  settled sludge, lime, and soda ash."

 Warning

 The manual also notes several considerations  that may affect the outcome
 of  jar  testing.  It  states  "even the smallest detail may have an  impor-
tant influence on the result of  a  jar test.  Therefore, all samples in
 a series of tests  should be handled as nearly alike as possible.  The
 purpose of the test  will determine  such experimental conditions such as
 flocculation and settling intervals.  Since temperature plays an impor-
 tant role in coagulation,  the raw water samples should  be  collected  and
 measured only  after  all other preparations have  been  made, in order to
 reduce  the effect  that  room temperature might have on the sample."

 Apparatus

 The following  equipment will  be utilized to evaluate the polymers:

      1. A variable  speed  (0  to  0  to 100 revolutions per minute)
         stirring  machine with  three to six paddles  (each paddle size
         1" to 3").

      2. A floe illumination  device to be located under the base of the
         laboratory  stirrer.  This  illuminator will be used to  determine
         both  the  floe  formation time and the visual floe size  included
         on the data sheet.

      3. Six standard beakers of 1500 - ml capacity  (approximately
         4.5 inches  diameter  by 6.4 inches high).  These pyrex  beakers
         will  be required as  reaction vessels.

      4. A plastic pail or  similar  sample collection container  with a
         capacity  in excess of  2 gallons will be required.  The sample
         should be homogeneous  for  each complete jar test run.

      5. One 1,000 ml graduated cylinder.

      6. Measuring pipets of  1, 5,  and 10 ml, graduated in 0.1 ml steps,
         for dosing  samples rapidly with the necessary coagulants, sus-
         pensions, and  solutions.  These pipets should be thoroughly
         rinsed with distilled  water after using to prevent the caking
         of solutions.
                                   113

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7.   A 100 ml pipet for withdrawing the coagulated softened water
     supernatant sample for turbidity and hardness determinations.

8.   Instrumentation for the monitoring of water temperature, turbi-
     dity,  floe  formation  time,  and hardness  (for  softening plants) is
     required.

9.   Special apparatus for softening test:

         a.  Filter Funnel
         b.  Filter paper of medium retentiveness.  Either Whatman No.  40
             or Schleicher & Shuil  No. 589 is satisfactory.

Dosing Solutions and Suspensions

The importance of simulating plant conditions as closely as possible
cannot be overemphasized.   The manual states "dosing solutions or sus-
pensions should be prepared from the stock materials actually used in
plant treatment.  Distilled water used for the preparation of lime sus-
pensions should be boiled for 15 minutes t& expel the carbon dioxide
and then cooled to room temperature before the lime is added. "

Details are presented in AWWA Manual M-12 on the preparation of coagu-
lant dosing solutions and suspensions; preparation of an activated silica
dosing solution* and preparation of  an activated carbon dosing solution.

In testing polymeric  coagulants or coagulant aids supplied by coopera-
ting polymer manufacturers, solutions of these products will  be prepared
in accordance with manufacturer specifications.

The frequency of preparing dosing solutions and suspensions is explained.
These instructions will be used to insure uniform testing.

Reagents

The reagents needed in determining turbidity and hardness can be found
in Standard Methods.

Test Procedure for Coagulant Aid Treatment

The addition of alkaline agents, clay suspensions, or activated silica
are covered under number 14 in this format.  When the water contains
natural color, alum should be added before other agents or coagulant
aids.

Items 1 to 6 and 14 have been taken from Manual M-12.  The remaining
items have been developed through the coordination of the. Foundation.
                                                         j
     1.  Rinse six 1,500 ml beakers with tap water and let the beakers
         drain for a few minutes in an upside - down position.  Beakers
         that have had several days of use should be scrubbed inside
                                   114

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    and out with a brush and a household dishwashing detergent,
    finishing with a thorough rinse of tap water.

2.  Clean the stirring machine paddles with a damp cloth.

3.  Collect a sample of raw water and complete Steps 4 through 8
    within 20 minutes.  Throw away the sample and collect a fresh
    sample if the work must be interrupted during this critical
    stage.  Otherwise, the settling of high turbidity and an in-
    crease  in the  sample  temperature  from  the heat of the  laboratory
    may cause erroneous results.

4.  Stand the beakers right side up and pour more than 1 liter of
    raw water into each one.

5.  Taking one beaker at a time, pour some of the raw water back
    and forth between the beaker and a 1-liter graduated cylinder.
    Finally, fill the graduated cylinder to the 1-liter mark, and
    discard the excess raw water in the beaker.  Return the meas-
    ured 1-liter sample.to the beaker.

6.  Place all the beakers containing the measured 1-liter samples .
    on the stirring machine.

7.  Lower the stirring paddles into the beakers, start the stirring
    machine and operate it at 100 r.p.m.

8.  With a measuring pipet, add the same dosages of the coagulant-
    solution that is used in your treatment facility to the six
    test beakers, at nearly the same time as possible.  Record the
    time required to produce a visible floe on the data sheet.

9.  Apply the polymeric  coagulant aid at dosages of 0.05, 0.1,
    0.15, 0.2 ppm, etc. to the five above beakers at 100 rpm for
    three minutes.  The sixth beaker should be a control jar to
    which no coagulant aid is to be added.   With a proper series,
    the beakers should show good to excellent coagulation results
    depending on the control jar.  It may be necessary to repeat
    the jar test to ascertain the proper series of doses for the
    desired results.

10. Reduce the stirring speed over the next 30 seconds to 40 rpm,
    and continue stirring at this speed for a 15 minute period.

11. Stop the stirring machine and allow the samples to settle for
    5 minutes.  Observe the floe sizes in each jar.  Use the control
    jar floe size as unity.  Then visually compare the size of the
    remaining floe particles in jars  1 to 5 under visual floe size,
    an example,  if the floe in jar 5 appears twice as large as the
    floe in control jar 6, record 2 for jar 5 under visual floe size
    on the data sheet.
                              115

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     12. Using a 100 ml pipet, withdraw a sample for turbidity measure-
         ment one inch below the surface of each beaker.

     13. a.  Determine the turbidity of the coagulated sample in accord-
             ance with Standard Methods or approved turbidimeters.   Record
             this on the data sheet.
         b.  Using the sample from the turbidity measurement, determine
             the supernatant pH and record the pH on the data sheet.

     14. a.  Add alkaline agents if the plant normally adds these agents.

         b.  Addition of clay suspensions.  Where clay is used to improve
             the coagulation of low turbidity water, add a well-shaken
             clay, kaolin or stone dust dosing suspension (prepared in
             accordance with dosing solution and suspensions specifica-
             tions) just before the coagulant.  Then follow procedures
             1 to 13.

         c.  Addition of activated silica.  Where activated silica is
             employed as a coagulant aid, use the activated silica sol
             in amounts to give a dosage range of 1 to 7 mg/1.  On the
             average, activated silica dosages of 2 to 5 mg/1 yield
             satisfactory results.  Determine by experiment whether the
             activated silica sol should be added before or after the
             coagulant for best results.  Then follow  the procedure in
             items 1 to 13.

Test Procedure for Lime-Soda Ash Softening Treatment

     1.  Determine the Hardness according to Standard Methods.

     2.  Follow steps 1 through 6 under Procedure for Coagulant Aid Treat-
         ment.

     3.  Prepare each jar with the lime or lime-soda ash dosages re-
         quired to soften the water in the actual plant.

     4.  Lower the stirring paddles into the beakers, start the stirring
         machine and operate it for one minute at a speed of 80 revolu-
         tions per minute.

     5.  Select a range of coagulant aid dosages so that the first beaker
         will represent undertreatmant and the fifth beaker will repre-
         sent overtreatment.  The sixth beaker should be a control jar
         to which no coagulant aid is to be added.

     6.  Reduce the stirring speed over the next 30 seconds to 30 revo-
         lutions per minute, and continue stirring at the speed for 15
         minutes.

     7.  Stop the stirring machine and allow the sample to settle for 5
         minutes.
                                     116

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     8.  Observe the floe sizes in each jar.  Use the control jar floe
         size as unity.  Then visually compare the size of the remain-
         ing floe particles in jars 1 to 5 to the control jar.  As an
         example, if the floe in jar 5 appears twice as large as the
         floe in control jar 6, record 2 for jar 5 under visual floe size
         on the data sheet.

     9.  Using a 100 ml pipet, withdraw adequate samples for turbidity,
         pH and hardness measurements one inch below the surface of each
         beaker.

     10. a.  Determine the  turbidity of the softened sample in accord-
             ance with Standard Methods or approved turbidmeters.  Record
             this on the data sheet.

         b.  Measure the hardness of the  supernatant sample and record
             on the data sheet.

         c.  Determine the  supernatant pH and record the pH on the data
             sheet.

Test Procedure Involving Activated Carbon Treatment

Use the carbon dosage required in the treatment plant.  Add this reagent
to each jar and follow the same coagulation and softening techniques de-
scribed herein.

Test Procedure for Primary Coagulant (Polymer) Treatment

     1.  Follow steps 1 through 6 under Procedure for Coagulant Aid Treat-
         ment.

     2.  Apply dosages of 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6 ppra, etc. to five 1 liter
         water samples with mixer set at 100 rpm for 1-3 minutes for
         initial floe formation.  The sixth jar should be a control and
         contain the primary coagulant, in the appropriate dosage, used
         in the full scale plant.  Record the flpc formation time on
         the data sheet.

     3.  Reduce the mixer speed to 40 rpm for the remainder of the 15
         minute period.

     4.  Discontinue stirring, remove beakers and start timing immedi-
         ately for 5 minute settling time.

     5. -Siphon a sample for turbidity and pH measurements one inch
         below the surface of each beaker at the end of the 5 minute
         settling period.  Record this data.

     6/  Compare the results to that of the present primary coagulant
         (jar 6).
                                  117

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Sludge Conditioning

The utility of polymers to enhance the dewatering characteristics of
purification and softening plant sludges is an important consideration.
Polymers may demonstrate applicability as sludge conditioning agents by
reducing total waste volumes prior to•additional treatment or ultimate
disposal.

A method to evaluate polymers as sludge conditioning agents, titled "Pro-
cedure to Evaluate Sludge Conditioning Agents"; and a "Sludge Conditioner
Data Sheet", were developed through the efforts of the water utility ex-
perts and the coordination of the Research Foundation.  Figure 3 illus-
trates the data to be collected in this evaluation.  A procedure titled
"Filter Aid Evaluation by Means of Filter Test Leaf", published by the
Nalco Chemical Company will also be used in the program.

Procedure to Evaluate Sludge Conditioning Agents

1.  Place 1000 ml of well agitated sludge in each of six 1500 ml beakers
    or suitable jar test equipment.

2.  While stirring at 25 revolutions per minute, add polymer to five
    beakers.  Each of these five beakers should have a different polymer
    dosage.  One beaker will have no addition of polymer and will function
    as a control.

3.  Stir the beakers at 25 revolutions  per minute for two minutes, then
    stop the stirrer and remove the paddles.

4.  Measure the height of the interface between sludge and  supernatant
    liquid in centimeters at 5 minute intervals and record up to 30
    minutes.

5.  Determine the turbidity and pH of the supernatant.

6.  Insert filter leaf equipment (35 mesh Teflon cloth) %" above the
    bottom of the beaker and, using a vacuum of 20 inches of mercury,
    filter for 2 minutes.

7.  Remove solids from filter leaf carefully and record weight.

8.  Dry above solids for one hour at 105 C and record weight.

9.  If necessary, repeat the above procedure using smaller incremental
    dosages of polymer over the most favorable range.

Calculations

     Wet Solids (7) - Dry Solids (8) x 100 = "L moisture
             Wet Solids (7)
                                  118

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                                 FIGURE 3

                      SLUDGE CONDITIONER DATA SHEET


Reporting Utility ___^	Date
Type Sludge       	   Sample Source

Polymer Tested    	   Analyst 	
          Jars               1234
CHEMICALS ADDED (mg/1):

     1.	    	  	  	  	

     2.	    	  	  	  	

     3.
BASIC DATA:

     Water Temperature  ( C)_

     Interface  (cm)        	

           5 min.          	

          10 min.          _

          15 min.          	

          20 min.          _

          25 min.          _

          30 min.          _

     Wet Solids  (gr)       _

     Dry Solids  (gr)       _

     % Moisture            _

     Supernatant Turb(JTU) _

     Supernatant pH        _

SLUDGE ANALYSIS AND REMARKS:
                                     119

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Filter Aid Evaluation by Means of Filter Test Leaf

The Nalco publication states "a laboratory filter test leaf can be used
to determine the filtration aid chemical or chemicals necessary, approx-
imate dosages, order of addition in the case of more than one chemical,
the amount of agitation necessary in conditioning the sludge and the
filtration cycle (time), to obtain optimum sludge dewatering."

The apparatus required and the test procedure is detailed.  Illustra-
tions and a sample calculation are provided.

Standard Filter Column Test Procedure

The filter column test may be utilized to further substantiate the floe
settling rate as determined by turbidity measurements in the jar test.
The filter column test also aids in determining floe strength and filter-
ability.  A dense, rapidly-settling floe should resist pull-through at
filtration rates of 6 gallons per minute per square foot, and headlosses
of 6 feet and higher.  Low turbidities in the filter effluent at high
rates and headlosses indicate a strong floe.  Comparatively long filter
cycles and low turbidities indicate a highly filterable floe.  This test
is useful for the evaluation of filter aids.

Evaluation of Filter Aids

Evaluation of a polymer to determine its suitability for use as a filter
aid requires two separate procedures.  The first procedure involves the
"Simplified Jar Test Procedure" to determine the effectiveness of the
polymer in producing a good floe (as a primary coagulant) or the devel-
opment of a rapidly settling floe (as a coagulant aid).  The effective-
ness of the polymer is determined by examining the basic data of the
jar test.

If the jar tests show a polymer to be effective in producing a good floe
and/or promoting a rapidly settling floe at economical dosages, then the
polymer should be evaluated as a filter aid.  This evaluation is. accom-
plished through the "Standard Filter Column Test Procedure."

Procedure

Efficient performance of cationic, anionic, or nonionic polymers as
filter aids requires a considerably lower dosage than when polymers are
used as primary coagulants or coagulant aids.  Dosage requirements as
filter aids range from 10 to 100 parts per billion (ppb).

1.  The design of the filter column and specifications are shown in
    Figure 4.  The filter media may be of the type shown, or the sand
    and coal may be replaced by 20 inches of #20 sand.

2.  Polymers to be tested should be prepared at a solution concentration
    such that the volume applied is approximately ten percent of the total
                                    120

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                              FIGURE 4

              EQUIPMENT FOR STANDARD FILTER COLUMN TEST
         filter
         influent
                                   filter aid
                                   application point
2.25 I.D. plexiglas
tube approximately
60 inches in height
with rubber stopper
top 6e bottom
       media support; 	
       perforated plate
      -or U.S. 20 mesh
       screen
     backwash
     effluent
               filter
               effluent
                                                    20 inches anthracite
                                                    coal (1.0 to 1.1 mm
                                                    effective size)
   8 inches # 20 sand,
   (0.45 to 0.55mm
   effective size)
   2 inches # 6x14
   gravel
backwash
influent
                                      valve
                                      symbol
                                    121

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    volume being filtered.  This insures good mixing of filter aid with
    the water being filtered.  Dilute solutions of polymers are not stable;
    therefore, the polymer feed solution must be prepared fresh daily.

3.  Filter column tests should be performed at filtration rates of 6 to
    10 gallons per minute per square foot.

Example:

A filter rate of 6 gallons per minute per square foot equals 627 ml
per minute in a 2.25 inch inside diameter column.  The volume of filter
aid required is 60 ml per minute.  To feed 30 ppb, a filter aid solution
concentration of 0.31 mg per liter is needed.

4.  The filter column should be backwashed for a period of 3 to 5 minutes
    at approximately 2500 ml per minute prior to each test.

5..  A filter column test may be considered complete when turbidity values
    determined each 15 minutes show that maximum filter efficiency has
    been attained; that is, when the turbidity of the filtered water
    remains at a minimum level.  This level of turbidity is the measure
    of the performance of the filter aid.

The results of the filter column test will be recorded on the "Filter
Column Data Sheet."  Figure 5 illustrates the data to be recorded in
this evaluation.

A Cooperative Program

The cooperation of water utilities and suppliers of polymer products
is essential for the development of polymer evaluation methodology.
Several chemical suppliers were informed of the Foundation's centrally
directed program to organize, coordinate, and disseminate information
on new or modified water treatment technology.  Each supplier was
informed of the Foundation's plans to publicize the applicability of
polymers, approved by the United States Public Health Service, that
have utility in the water utility industry.

Three types of polymers are of importance:

     1.  Primary coagulants, capable of replacing alum or ferric salts
         and reducing total waste volume;

     2.  Coagulation aids, capable of partially reducing alum dosages,
         reducing waste volumes and improving treatment efficiency; and

     3.  Sludge conditioning agents, capable of enhancing sludge Set-
         tling characteristics  and sludge dewatering  ability.

A list titled "Approved Chemicals Available for Treatment and Disposal"
was sent to each supplier for review.
                                   122

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to
                                                        FIGURE 5




                                                FILTER COLUMN DATA SHEET
Sample No.
Sample Source
Sample Collection Date Sampler
Testing Laboratory
Testing Date Analyst
Filter
Filter Aid Rate
Test *Name Dosage gpm
No. & Type (ppra) sq ft
1. 	 	 	
2.
Sample Quality Data
PH
Temperature (WC)
Turbidity (JTU)
TDS (ppm)
TEST DATA
FILTER EFFLUENT
Filter Turbidities (JTU)
Influent Time after start of Minimum Turbidity
Turbidity filter run (min) Time after
(JTU) 5 10 20 30 (JTU) start (min)
.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Remarks :
         * After name, designate type in parenthesis; (=) for cationir:  (-) for anionic; (0) for nonionic.

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Approved Chemicals Available for Treatment and Disposal

The purpose of this phase of the Foundation's study is to evaluate USPHS
approved chemicals for effectiveness as primary coagulants, coagulant
aids, and sludge conditioning agents.  The cooperation of chemical sup-
pliers was requested in providing the following information and concern-
ing each available product.

Technical Data:

A.  Product Description                       F.  How to Use Product

B.  Advantages                                G.  Methods of Feeding

C.  Physical and                              H.  Packing and
    Chemical Properties                           Shipping Information

D.  Applications                              I.  Laboratory Test
                                                  Procedure

E.  How It Works                              J.  Range of Dosages

Samples':

The following request was directed to chemical suppliers:

The Research Foundation would like to be advised of the availability of
free samples.  These samples would be tested at water treatment plants
of the Foundation's choice in accordance with your suggested applications."

"The plants we choose will represent a broad geographic area and have a
variety of raw water and waste characteristics.  The testing personnel
will be experienced.  The laboratory equipment required will be avail-
able.

Publicity;

"The utility of each chemical will be reported to the Research Founda-
tion.  The staff will then prepare a paper about the tested polymers.
The approved paper will be published by the Research Foundation."

Acknowledgement;

    "A.  Please acknowledge our letter to let us know if your organi-
         zation is interested in such a program."

    "B.  If your organization wishes to participate, please explain the
         extent of cooperation your organization can provide."

Summary - Polymer Evaluation Program
                                   124

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This program is designed to accomplish several purposes.  Through the
use of the standard procedures to evaluate polymers as primary coagu-
lants and coagulation aids, the Research Foundation and participating
water utilities can systematically:

     1.  Define the type of data that illustrates the effectiveness of
         primary coagulants and/or coagulation aid products.  The method-
         ology will provide a means of selecting various polymer prod-
         ucts that warrant further investigation.

     2.  Produce a data sheet that has applicability in evaluating poly-
         mers at both purification and softening plants.

     3.  Publicize the experience of a standard testing program, noting
         the revisions in the procedures, and promote the findings for
         the benefit of the water utility industry.

Through the use of the three documents to evaluate polymers as condi-
tioning agents for water treatment sludges, the Research Foundation and
participating water utilities can:

     1.  Determine the ability of polymers to concentrate water treat-
         ment plant wastes and make the wastes more easily dewater-
         able.

     2.  Determine the order of magnitude of final waste volumes that
         can be expected due to the increase in dewatering ability of
         the concentrated wastes.

     3.  Relate this conditioning to the use of polymers as a treatment
         before landfill disposal or as a step in a by-product recovery
         operation.

     4.  Publicize this waste conditioning procedure for treating sludges,

Through the use of the documents to evaluate polymers as filter aids, the
Research Foundation and participating water utilities can:

     1.  Define the data and procedures that are useful in illustrating
         the effectiveness of filter aids.

     2.  Publicize the experience of the standard filter test procedure
         for the benefit of the water utility industry.

It is realized that this polymer testing program is restricted by several
factors  due to the degree of standardization specified.  The importance
of several parameters will be evaluated in the program:  the value and
significance of floe formation time, and a subjective visual floe size
test, the ability to read a representative interface in the settling
speed test, and standard speeds and times of mixing.  The testing pro-
gram may require further modification before specific products can be
adapted  for full scale use .
                                   125

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Response  from Chemical Suppliers

Each chemical supplier acknowledging interest in participating in this
program received copies of the testing procedures.  The suppliers were
notified  that a copy of the raw water characteristics of perhaps ten
participating water utilities would be forwarded to them.  The Foundation
has enlisted four water utilities to date.  The treatment plants are
not named.  The special instructions of each supplier relating to each
product will be incorporated into the test procedure for that product.
Examples  are:  recommended dosage range; method of application (dry,
liquid solution); applicability of product (primary coagulant, coagulant
aid, sludge conditioning agent); frequency of mixing dosing solutions;
and other appropriate suggestions.<

The evaluation of this polymer testing program by water utilities is
still to  be initiated.  The Research Foundation anticipates that the
experience and constructive comments received will be utilized to modify
and improve the basic test documents.  Such a testing program has never
before been conducted, and the program planned should be of mutual bene-
fit to the water utility industry and manufacturers of chemical supplies.

Manufacturers of Equipment

Many new  or modified sludge treatment processes will require the use of
equipment that is principally designed for or adapted to water utility
wastes.   Several water and waste water trade publications include yearly
product guides to define the availability of equipment from various
manufacturers.

The Research Foundation recognized that the identification of sludge
processing equipment and its relation to water treatment plant wastes
will be a useful reference.  The accumulation and publication of infor-
mation on this equipment can provide a guide for water utilities to use
in individual plant studies or design.

Three trade publications were used to provide a list of manufacturers
supplying equipment that will have potential application in processing
water treatment plant wastes.  These publications were:

     1.   Industrial Water Engineering Buyer's Guide - 1971

     2.  Water and Sewage Works, Reference No. 1970

     3.   1970 - 1971 AWWA Yearbook

The types of equipment that the Research Foundation identified includes:
centrifugation, deep-well disposal,  dewatering, pressure and vacuum
filtration, incineration, sludge concentrating, and sludge processing
equipment.

Over one  hundred equipment manufacturers have been contacted.  The manu-
facturers received background information on the nature of the informa-
                                     126

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tion resource program.  The Research Foundation plans  the publication
of a guide to such equipment, describing its  applicability for han-
dling water  treatment plant wastes.

A form titled "Equipment Available for Treatment and Disposal" was pre-
pared for review by the manufacturers.

Equipment Available for Treatment and Disposal

Specifications for Reporting:

Please provide the fallowing information for each product your organi-
zation has available for water treatment plant waste dewatering, recov-
ery, and disposal operations.  This must be limited to two 8%xll pages.

1.  Graphic  Illustration - Provide either a photo or drawing of waste
    treatment equipment, indicating the physical dimensions of the treat-
    ment unit (or units).  If a specific process has been developed
    which comprises a series of units, also provide a separate flow dia-
    gram illustrating the sequence of operations beginning with waste
    influent, and ending with waste concentrate and .supernatant disposal.

2.  Operational Capabilities - Provide a general description of the basic
    operation of the waste treatment device indicating the following
    items:

         A.  Specific applications of the unit.  For example, what type
             of material can this device handle successfully?  Is it
             more suited to alum, lime, or iron - manganese sludges?
             What concentrations of waste can the system handle?  Exlain
             how this unit is applicable and under what conditions it
             will optimally operate.

         B.  Indicate tie type of results one may expect if this device
             is utilized.  For instance, "this unit can  take 4% alum
             sludge and produce a cake of 35% solids and a filtrate with
             20 ppm suspended solids".  Similarily, indicate estimated
             results  on other water plant wastes as determined by pilot
             or plant scale operation of the treatment  device.

         C.  Hydraulic Capacity -  Provide information on the range of
             hydraulic capacities that the unit can handle.  Indicate
             whether  the device is more suitable for 'low range or high
             range flows.  List special hydraulic considerations, as
             flushing sprays for cleaning the unit.  As an example, "the
             ABC unit produced a 10% waste concentrate that was 15% of
             the waste influent flow."

         D.  Note specific locations where the unit has  been,  is being,
             or will  be used to treat water  treatment plant wastes.
                                   127

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3.  Manufacturer Contact -  The equipment publicity is expected to pro-
    duce further inquiries among the readers of our Newsletter.  To
    facilitate the handling of these inquiries the following items will
    be published.

         A.  Exact name of specific equipment.

         B.  Manufacturers name, address, and individual to be contacted.

The Research Foundation anticipates that those equipment manufacturers
that have not undertaken research and development of sludge handling
equipment for water utility wastes will realize the need for new .pro-
cesses and equipment.

Manufacturers of lagoon covers and linings were identified using the same
trade publications.  These products may be useful in the lining of evap-
oration ponds for the treatment concentrated brine solutions from ion-
exchange softening facilities and desalination plants.

Responses to this survey have been received, and the accumulation and
inventory process of applicable sludge handling equipment is a continu-
ing  operation.  Interested manufacturers transmit material on products
they market in accordance with the report specifications previously
outlined.

The need for effective and economical sludge treatment equipment cannot
be overemphasized.  The importance of developing equipment to handle the
water utility industry's wastes is becoming increasingly important, as a
result of new and more demanding pollution control legislation.  As
an additional clearing-house function, the Research Foundation can publi-
cize and promote the application of appropriate equipment.
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                               SECTION X

                          REFERENCE ABSTRACTS

One function of the AWWA Research Foundation, as a central information
resource, is to abstract and index all available literature on the treat-
ment and disposal of wastes from water treatment plants.   The abstracts
are prepared in accordance with the specifications of the Water Resources
Science Information Center (WRSIC).  WRSIC reviews, edits, and stores
abstracts into a computerized system for future retrieval.

The Research Foundation selected and reviewed technical articles from
a variety of sources.  These sources include: articles identified through
literature searches; articles transmitted to the staff from engineering,
research, and operating practice  advisory group members; papers deliv-
ered at national and local AWWA section meetings; and articles listed in
the bibliography of the report titled "Disposal of Wastes from Water
Treatment Plants."

A series of reference abstracts is presented on the following pages.  These
abstracts are capsule summaries of technical articles on water plant waste
treatment.  Several of these abstracts will be of historic value.  All
provide references to the development of pollution control technology.
                                      129

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 Kelly, Earl M.,  "Discussion of Reclamation and Re-use of Lime in Water Softening,"  AWWA
 JOURNAL. 31.  No.4  pp 671-675 (1939).                                              	

 KeyWords:  Sludge treatment, Lime recovery, Lime-soda ash softening


 Manufacturers producing caustic soda by the lime-soda ash process  employed calcining to
 reclaim calcium oxide from the waste sludge.  Ihe Stauffer Chemical  Company reclaims 20
 tons/day of calcium oxide using clarification, vacuum filtration,  calcination,  classifi-
 cation, and slaking processes in a simply staffed operation.   The  raw water chemical
 nature and treatment utilized restrict the re-use.  Magnesium and  inert material  must be
 eliminated to optimize the amount of calcium oxide in the calcined product.   The  pilot
 study illustrates the  success of the Lykkens-Estabrook process and uncovered operational
 problems to be corrected.. The use of ferrous sulphate as" a coagulant increased filter rates
 from 68 to 194 pounds /ft  /day.   The filter cake contained fine calcium  carbonate and
 magnesium hydroxide crystals and was too coarse for good flocculation or  filtration.
 Filtration rates increase with heating and thickening of the  sludge  according to  labora-
 tory studies.  The coagulant can be eliminated.  Sludge carbonation  increases filterability.
 Suggestions are made for future study on calcination and slaking.


 Hoover, C.P.,  "Discussion of Reclamation and Re-use of Lime  in Water Softening,  "AWWA
 JOURNAL. 31. No.4  pp 675-679 (1939).

 Key Words:  Sludge disposal,  Lime-recovery,  Lime-soda ash softening


 Lime recovery reduces  the cost of lime and sludge handling and generates  carbon dioxide
 for recarhonation in the softening facility.   The process has not  been  adopted  for five
 reasons.  Large plants located near waterways discharge their wastes into waterways.
 Plants, softening river supplies  of rapidly changing physical-chemical  characteristics,
_would require intermittent calcining operation and mud-lime .-separation.   The problem of
 magnesium build-up has only recently been solved.   Multiple-hearth furnaces  are now  avail-
 able for calcining.   Small communities are not interested in  new procedures.  'Planned recla-
 mation activities at the Columbus, Ohio plant in 1914 were curtailed due  to  various  construc-
 tion and lime cost changes and water quality changes.   Laboratory  studies show  that  magne-
 sium hydroxide aids settling.   Lime can be utilized as a coagulant for  vacuum filtration.
 At Oklahoma City, provisions are  made to return lime sludge to the lime slaker  for use in
 slaking the quicklime.  The mixture is fed to the mixing basins.   Sludge  disposal methods
 include discharge to streams,  lagooning, and reclamation by burning.


 Gordon, C.W.,  "Calcining Sludge from a Water Softening Plant," AWWA JOURNAL.  36 No.11,
 pp 1176-1177 (1944).

 Key Words:  Water softening, Flash drying, Calcination


 Details are provided on a flash drying system that prepares calcium  carbonate sludge for
 marketing or calcining at two water softening installations.   The  advantages oC this two
 stage counterflow gas drier are low gas discharge temperature   and  the minimization of
 particulate emissions in the stack gas.  Before drying, the carbonate  sludge is ccntrifuRcd
 to a 60% solids consistency and conditioned with the previously dried material.  Operating
 parameters and product characteristics are described for the  process.   The dried  calcium
 carbonate contains 0.5% moisture and can be bagged for marketing or  calcined.  The  calcin-
 ation system employed at the Marshalltown Water Works is evaluated  in  relation to the limit-
 ations of the water plant operating requirements.  These limitations include intermittent
 operation, ability to produce calcium carbonate,  freedom from dust nuisance, maximum  thermal
 efficiency, minimum building space, and adaptability to plant capacity variations.
                                                  130

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 Hoover, Charles P., "Recovery of Spent Lime at the Columbus Water Softening and Purification
 Works,"  AWWA JOURMAL. 3. No. 4,  pp 889-896  (1916).

 Key Words:  Sludge treatment, Lime recovery, Lime-soda ash softening


 The release of calcium carbonate sludge to the Scioto River during low flow in the summer
 months created sludge deposits and legal problems between Columbus and riparian property
. owners.  Maximum sludge production occurs in the summer with maximum river hardness,  ampli-
' fying the problem.  No objection to discharging sludge to the river exists in the fall and
 winter months when the stream is muddy.  The proposed recovery system includes sludge thick-
 ening, suction filtering of  the continuous type, and rotary kiln burning.   Construction
 details of the furnace are provided.  Operating and cost data are presented for the calcium
 oxide product.  The sludge treatment facilities will process lime-soda ash softening sludge
 and limestone from a nearby  quarry alternately for six month durations.  A description of
 the suction filter is given.  The settleability of the sludge, build-up of impurities,
 replenishment of lime, disposal of extra lime and planned additions to the existing plant
 are discussed.


 Sperry, W.A., "The Liine-Sof tening of Water and the Use of the Sludges as an Aid Thereto,"
 AWWA JOURNAL, 6, No. 2,  pp  215-229  (1919).

 Key Words:  Water softening, Sludge recirculation


 The lime-softening process contains several variables that must be considered in producing
 a stable water.  Among these parameters are the residual hardness, colloidal magnesium
 structure, reaction temperature, reaction time, lime requirements, and coagulant addition.
 These parameters must be balanced to eliminate filter sand incrustation, lime damage to water
 meters, coating of service mains, gates, and valves, and scaling of hot water, gas, and
 furnace heaters.  A water softening method that compensated for insufficient settling
 basins and could eliminate distribution system problems without increasing the use of an
 alum coagulant was considered for Grand Rapids.  Sludge recirculation was tested to remove
 colloids, save alum, and stabilize the water.  Laboratory results on contact time, recir-
 culated sludge volume, coagulant addition, and yearly effectiveness are presented.  This study
 enumerates advantages and disadvantages of plant-scale sludge recirculation testing.   Further
 testing was suggested after  these preliminary investigations.


 Aultman,  W.W., "Reclamation and Re-use of Lime in Water Softening,"  AWWA JOURNAL. 31,
 No. 4,  pp 640-671  (1939).

 Key Words:  Sludge treatment, Lime recalcining, Available lime


 This report illustrates the  economic benefits of reclaiming calcium oxide at a lime-soda
 ash softening installation in Boulder City, Nevada.  The process water is Colorado River
 water, high in magnesium content.  The Lykken-Estabrook process was investigated because
 tthis method eliminates increased magnesium content in the reclaimed lime.  A predominantly
 'calcium carbonate sludge is  pumped to a vacuum filter for dewatering.  The filter cake is
 .fed to a multiple-hearth furnace for calcining.  Operation and construction details are
 provided for the furnace and vacuum filter and for the chemical feeding and slaking,
 iflocculation and clarification equipment.  The percent of recovery, defined as the available
 lime to total calcium  (CaO), averaged above 90 percent.  Data are presented for a gravi-
 metric analysis of a composite calcined lime product.  Fuel and power consumption require-
 ments are prepared for the experimental furnace.  The test program is summarized.  The
 direct reuse of the reclaimed lime is not suitable with this water.
                                                131

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 Pederson,  H.V. ,   "Calcining Sludge from a Softening Plant,"  AHWA JOURNAL.  36.  No.  11,
 pp 1170-1175 (1944).	

 Key Words:   Water softening, Calcining, Stationary flash type calcining  furnace


 This  study describes  the  trial  and error construction of ta stationary  flash type calcining
 furnace  and the utility of  the  recovered calcium oxide at  a water softening installation.
 Calcining  experimentation was initiated due  to  a poor market  demand for  dried calcium car-
 bonate.  Problems associated with sludge characteristics and  furnace design are discussed.
 A system that handles 700 pounds  (dry carbonate)  per hour  at  a 2000° F initial combustion
 temperature was developed after eight furnace modifications.   Carbonate  sludge, withdrawn
 from  the clarifiers,  is pumped  to a storage  tank.   The sludge is  gravity fed to « Bird
^centrifuge  for dewatering.   The concentrated sludge is flash  dried and lifted to a cyclone
 from  which  it is  screw fed  to the combustion chamber.   Five tons  of calcined lime were
 produced and a plant  scale  study  initiated.  Sludge   cake  impurities were less than  15%
 based on thirty days  operation  with  calcined lime.   Operating data and benefits for  reclaimed
 lime  are discussed.


 Nelson,  F.G., "Recalcination of  Water Softening Sludge,"   AHWA JOURNAL. 36.  Noill,
 pp 1178-1184 (1944).

 Key Words:   Calcium carbonate,  Calcining


 This  study  shows  that the recovery of lime from a partially dewatered calcium carbonate
 sludge can  be economical  if  the magnesium content of  the recycled  product is controlled.
 A correlation between the settling rate and  the concentration of  a calcium carbonate sludge .
 is suggested.  Four factors  affecting the settling  rates of calcium hydrates are presented.
 Operating data on the dewatering  of a calcium carbonate  sludge at  the Findlay, Ohio plant
 by a  Bird contimous centrifuge are listed in graphical  and tabular form.  The parameters
 investigated include  solid  feed rates,  cake  moisture,  cake  recovery, temperature, and
 power considerations.  The  centrifugation process can produce a 500 pound per hour (dry
 solids)  cake of 61% solids.  The  recovery was 757. of  the feed solids.  The magnesium
.content  was reduced in the  recovered  cake.   Higher  solids capacities and recoveries  are
 possible with carbonated  sludges.  Data on centrifuged softening  sludges are presented
.for the Marshalltown,  Iowa  and Wright Aeronautical  Corporation softening facilities.


 Sheen, R.T.,  and  Lammers, H.B., "Recovery of Calcium Carbonate or Lime from Water Soft-
 ening Sludges,"   AWWA JOURNAL.  36.  No.11, pp 1145-1169 (1944).

 Key Words:   Calcium carbonate, Water  Softening, Sludge disposal,  Lime recovery


 This  study  describes  the  development  of two  industrial water  supply systems including
 sludge treatment  processes  and  economics. Detailed process descriptions are presented for
 the selective calcium softening installation of the Wright  Aeronautical  Corporation.  Data
 are tabulated for the design parameters used for the softening basin, chemical feeders,
 filters, recarbonation system,  and chemical  unloading and  storage facilities.  Cost  compar-
 isons show  the advantages of calcium carbonate  production  to  lime recovery.  A flow  diagran
 illustrates the calcium carbonate drying sequence.   The sequence  consists of thickening,
 centrifugation, and flash drying.  A Bird centrifuge with  a capacity of  4000 to 6000
 pounds (dry solids) per hour is used.  The product  quality  including market price, color
 comparisons, particle size,  and purity is discussed.   A process description and flow
 diagram  are provided  for  the selective calcium  softening installation  of the Columbia
 Steel Corporation.  Economic considerations  of  lime reclamation at this  facility are tabu-
 lated.   The advantages and  disadvantages of  the wedge furnace and rotary kiln calcination
 units are  discussed.
                                                132

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 AWWA Committee Report,  "Disposal of Water Purification anf Softening Plant Wastes,  "
'AHWA JOURNAL.39. No.12.  pp 1211-1223 (1947).

 Keywords:  Lagoons, Evaporation, Brine Disposal, Lime-soda ash softening, sodium zeolite
 softeners


 The purpose of this report Is to review the methods  and practices utilized to handle
 wastes from lime and lime-soda ash softening plants,  sodium zeolite softening install-
 ations and filter washwater operations.  The report  contains data on the chemical char-
 acter  of softening, filter washwater, and brine  stream wastes.  The softening  sludge
 disposal methods considered include lagoon storage,  discharge to water courses,  drying
 and dewatering, and lime reclamation.   Information is provided on proposed lime  recal-
 cining facilities and equipment and the advantages and problems associated with  this oper-
 ation.  The pollutional effects of wastes discharges to watercourses and sanitary sewers
 are presented.  The controlled dllnMon of brine  discharges to a watercourse is  considered
 more practical than disposal by uncontrolled dilution, evaporation ponds, and brine disposal
 wells.  Several disposal schemes are suggested  for filter washwater.  Special consideration
 is given to the sedimentation of wastes at the  Washington Surburban Sanitation  District
 Willis School Plant.


 AWWA Committee Report,  "Disposal of Softening Plant  Wastes, AWWA JOURNAL. 41. No. 9,
 pp 819-836 (1949).

 Key Words:  Brine disposal, Waste dilution, Lagoons, Lime reclamation


 The pollutional effects of discharging lime and lime-soda sludge and sodium  zeolite soft-
 ening brine wastes to watercourses Is discussed.  Data on the physical and chemical char-
 acteristics of softening sludge and a brine waste sample has been presented.  The results
 of a sludge disposal survey distributed to 21 states representing 371 lime or lime-soda
 softening plants are summarized.  In addition to sludge disposal to lagoons  and discharge
 to watercourses, the utility of municipal softening  sludge to provide chemical  coagulation
 In the primary treatment process at the Daytona Beach, Florida sewage treatment  plant is  •
 referenced.  Cost comparison data are presented for  the Miami lime reclamation  plant.
 Brine disposal techniques discussed Include controlled and uncontrolled dilution in natural
 watercourses, evaporation ponds, and brine disposal  wells.  A summary of state health
 department responses to a survey querying zeolite brine discharges procedures Is presented.
 An outline Is prepared on how to plan for brine disposal.


 Lawrance, C.H.,  "Lime Sludge Recirculation Experiments at Vandenberg Air Force  Base,"
 AWWA JOURNAL. 55. No. 2,  pp 177-192 (1953).

 Key Words:  Water softening, Sludge recirculation, Lime-soda ash softening


 This paper describes the testing of sludge recirculation as a treatment modification to
 eliminate the carryover of lime-soda ash floe,  deposition of solids in clarlfler effluent
 channels, and Incrustation of filters at a water softening facility.  Jar tests  were con-
 ducted on sludge samples from the flocculators, clarlfiers, and drying beds.  The suspended
 solids concentrations were varied from 1 to 6%.  These tests Illustrated that sludge recir-
 culation reduced the hardness, phenolphthalein  alkalinity, and Langelier saturation index
 significantly when compared to raw water receiving only softening chemicals.  The optimum
 suspended solids concentrations were from 5 to  6%.   Fresh flocculator or cjarifier sludge
 had more utility than dry sludge.  The plant scale testing confirms the benefits of the
 jar tests.  The optimum sludge source, optimum  suspended solids concentrations,  and sludge
 hydraulic characteristics were determined in the sludge recirculation'experiments.   Data
 are presented on the sludge carryover, softening efficiency, sludge volume index, and
 sludge composition in plant testing.   A full-size recirculation system was put  into plant
 operation.
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AHWA Committee Report, "Purificatio'ii Plant Waste Disposal." AWWA JOURNAL.  45.  No.11,
pp 1225-1237 (1953).

Keywords:  Sludge disposal, Regulations, Filter plant, Coagulation basin


The purpose of this study is to provide a general review of the current methods employed
to treat and dispose the wastes generated at water filtration and coagulation facilities.
The physical- and chemical character of the waste to be expected in grit chambers, plain
settling or sedimentation besins, coagulation and sedimentation basins, and filter wash-
water are defined.  A questionnaire concerning current sludge disposal procedures' and
state regulations regarding waste dispce al to water courses was sent to the chief sanitary
engineer of each state and territory.  The survey was systematically analyzed with respect
to the arrangement of the purification plants, the sludge removal and disposal techniques,
and filter washing disposal procedures.  The utility of sludge as a fertilizer and the
handling of sludge for landfill is discussed.  Consideration is given to the biological
effect or waste discharges to watercourses and the criteria established by the states to
regulate these discharges.                                                             ,


Waring, F.H., "Methods of Lime Softening Sludge Disposal"  AHWA JOURNAL. 47. No.  2, pp 82-
€4 (1955).

Key Words:  Sludge disposal, Coil spring vacuum filter, Recalcining


The techniques employed to dispose of lime sludge from Ohio's 130 municipal lime-softening
facilities include discharge to streams, dewatering in lagoons or sludge drying beds,
discharge to abandoned quarries or city sewers, and vacuum filtration.  Lagoons and drying
beds are generally aesthetically undesirable  and require periodic costly cleaning.  Each
of these dewatering methods are contingent upon available and isolated land sites.  Detri-
mental effects of stream discharge included increasing the river pH, creating visible
white turbidity, and depositing sludge blankets that may inhibit natural stream bilogical
activity.  The Ohio Water Pollution Control Board has classified lime sludge a pollutant.
Recalcining is practiced in Miami, Florida, and Marshalltown, Iowa.  A spring coil vacuum
filter was installed in Gallion, Ohio, that produces a lime sludge cake of 8 pounds/ft^/hr
(dry solids) with a 6 to 7 inch mercury vacuum.  Sludge thickening  is recommended prior
to filtration.  The filtrate is economically recycled.  The cake of 70% moisture can be
further dried and used as a sanitary landfill.  Vacuum filtration has utility for both
sewage and industrial applications.


Krause, F., "Value of Sludge Calcining,"  AWHA JOURNAL. 49. No. 3, pp 327-330 (1957).

Key Words:  Cost analysis, Calcining, Operating difficulties


Successful sludge calcining depends upon tie sludge quality.  Settling and clarification
prior to softening may remove inert materials as silica and clay to increase sludge
purity.  A change in pH or solids separation by centrifugation can reduce magnesium
contents.  Pure calcium carbonate produced good lime.  The carbonate slurries may harden
in storage.  Details of lime reclamation at Lansing, Michigan are provided.  The process
sequence includes sludge carbonation, thickening, centrifugation, conditioning, drying,
burning and storage.  Carbon dioxide is supplied from the calcining process.  The drying
gases are scrubbed.  A cyclone distributes dried solids to storage and to mixing facilities
to condition the sludge for drying.   The calcium carbonate is calcined on a fluidized air
stream in a rotary kiln furnace.  Lime production versus cost is graphically presented.
Operating difficulties discussed include proper equipment sizing, minimization of fuel
requirement while maintaining proper furnace temperatures, and the need for continuous
operation.
                                                134

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.Eidsness, F.A.  and  Black,  A.P.,  "Carbonation  of Water  Softening Plant Sludge," AWWA  JOURNAL.
49, No. 10,  pp  1343-1351  (.1957).                                                	

Key Words:  Magnesium hydroxide, Carbonation, Settleability


The Hoover, Lykken-Estabrook, and  centrifugation processes are available techniques  to
reduce  the  magnesium content  of  softening  sludges.  Sludge volume is dependent upon  the
physical characteristics  of the  suspended  solids and the  treatment process.  The sludge
settleability  decreases  and volume increases  as the magnesium content increases.  Sludge
Carbonation before  centrifugation  reduces  the magnesium content by converting the hydroxide
of magnesium to a soluble bicarbonate.  Laboratory and pilot plant testing centered on
determining carbon  dioxide requirements  for the hydroxide to bicarbonate conversion,
the effect  of  detention  time, the  possible dissolution of calcium carbonate, and the  improve-
ment  of sludge settleability  and concentration due to  Carbonation.  Magnesium removal curves
are plotted for various  carbonation levels and detention  times utilizing sludge from the
Dayton, Ohio,  and Gainesville, Florida softening  facilities.  Carbon dioxide selectively
converted 967.  of the magnesium hydroxide to magnesium  bicarbonate in 15 minutes.  Magnesium
hydroxide in raw and carbonated  sludges  influences sludge settleability and volume.


Nelson, F.G.,  "Discussion of  Carbonation of Water Softening Plant Sludge,"  AWWA JOURNAL.
49, No.TO,  Ppl351-1354 (1957).

KeyWords:  Magnesium, Carbonation, Settleability


This  discussion describes the testing equipment and procedures utilized to evaluate  the
carbonation of softening sludges at Dayton, Ohio, and  Lansing, Michigan.  Carbonation
is a  simple and economical procedure to  significantly  reduce the magnesium concentration
^nd improve solids  settleability of softening sludge before dewatering and recalcination.
iData  are presented  characterizing  settling and magnesium  removal efficiency at both  facili-
ties.  Magnesium hydroxide was converted to the bicarbonate form at Dayton and to th»
normal  carbonate form at Lansing.   Preliminary investigations show that solid-bowl centri-
fugation may remove magnesium from the sludge cake at  Lansing.  Laboratory and pilot plant
tests are recommended before  designing carbonation and thickening equipment for magnesium
removal and sludge  thickening at other installations.


Doe,  P.W.,  "The Treatment and Disposal of  Washwater Sludge," Paper of Fylde Water Board.
•(1958).

Key Words:  Sludge  disposal,  System parameters


This  study  describes an  approach to dewater sludge to  a solids concentration suitable for
handling and disposal.  Water clarification sludges vary  in composition as well as quantity
and concentration.   Treatment systems must be flexible.   Test results are given for  freezing,
filter  pressing, porous  ceramics filtration,  and  electroosmosis processing of clarification
sludge.  Experimentation shows preliminary thickening  of  sedimentation basin sludge  to 67.
solids  should  be considered.  A  thickening  tank with a  slow stirrer was designed.  System
parameters  investigated  include  stirring speed, raw sludge concentration, sludge nature,
tank  shape, mesh used, paddle shape, temperature, and  scaling effect.  Preliminary test
conclusions are enumerated.   Washwater sludge can be thickened economically by slow  stirring
to 57. solids in a relatively  short time.  Further testing of filter pressing, heat treat-
ment  under  pressure, and freezing  was suggested to handle  the prc-thickened sludge.
                                                 135

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Crow, W.B., and Wertz, C.F., "Techniques and Economics of Calcining Softening Sludges,"
AWWA JOURNAL. 52, No. 3, pp 322-332   (1960).

Key Words:  Cost comparisons, Water softening, Recalcination


The purpose of this study is to provide a review of recalcination technology and identify
economic factors to be considered.  These factors include reclamation plant capacity, lime
transportation costs, sludge disposal expense, carbon dioxide cost, and fuel and power costs.
^Details of the rotary kiln, pellet-seeding, and flash calciner processes are presented and
'referenced to six water softening installations.  A comprehensive description of the 80 ton
capacity quicklime Miami lime reclamation plant is presented.  Before rotary kiln recalcination,
their lime sludge is thickened to 30% solids and dewatered by centrifugation to 66.8% solids.
Carbon dioxide generated in the kiln is reused and the stack gases are scrubbed to minimize
air pollution.  Production, lime utilization and profit return on investment cost comparisons
are tabulated for the first seven operating years.  Plans to construct a lime reclamation
facility at the Alexander Orr, Jr. Water Treatment Plant are disclosed.


Doe, P.W. and Benn, D., and Bays, L.R., "The Disposal of Washwater Sludge by Freezing,"
Institution of Water Engineers JOURNAL, 19, No. 4, pp 251-175 (1965).

Key Words:  Sludge disposal, Freezing, Washwater sludge


This study describes design, layout, and operating data for a sludge treatment sequence.
Clarification sludge was thickened by slow stirring and retention basin storage before
freezing and thawing.  Design principles include low capital costs, minimum building space,
and future automatic operation of this facility.  Plant testing concentrated on improving
sludge thickness, freezing efficiency, and thawed sludge supernatant.  Operational considera-
tions include settling tank efficiency, sludge build-up, stirring speed variation, sludge
extraction, retention tank design, and freezing process cycles.  Testing of the freezing
equipment generated design improvements that were incorporated into a new plant.  Ignition
of the thawed sludge followed by alum recovery at the Stocks plant concentrated the iron and
showed other disadvantages.  Frozen sludge lagoon effluent was mixed with sedimentation tank
effluent to meet stream standards.  Capital depreciation (plant, building), operation,
maintenance, and power consumption costs are given.  Recommendations are made for future
treatment work.


Aultman, W.W., "Introduction to Waste Disposal - Water Treatment Plants,"  AWWA JOURNAL, 58,
No. 9, pp 1102-1103   (1966).

Key Words:  Waste disposal, Pollution control


More wastes are generated in the production of water for an ever growing population.  The
value of land for waste disposal facilities is steadily rising.  Watercourses are needed
for supply and not for waste transport.  Increasing wastes volumes often impair water quality
in river, lakes, and groundwater.  The Federal government has enacted the Water Quality Act
of 1965 to control discharges.  An AWWA Committee was organized to study and report on the
Disposal of Wastes from Water Purification and Softening Plants.  This Committee's reports
are enumerated.  The Committee notes  an increasing awareness of the public for pollution
abatement and improved water quality.  Their work concludes that lands are limited for
ponding and lagooning wastes due to concentrated population centers.  Local waste disposal
research is suggested to provide treatment that will comply with state and federal pollution
control legislation.
                                                  136

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 Howson.L.R.,  "Problem of Pollution,"  AWWA JOURNAL.  58. No. 9, pp  1104-1106   (1966).

 Key Words:  Waste disposal,  Natural  resources  utilization


 Each water  treatment  facility has waste disposal  problems unique to itself.  The magnitude
 of filter washwater and  sludge disposal problems  depends on the character and volume of the
 wastes  and  the assimilative  capacity of the waste receiving watercourses.  Water pollution
 is factual  and depends on the effects discharges  have on the stream and the degree of water
 quality degradation.   Two examples illustrate  the perspective in determining pollution.
 Sludge  disposal to rivers may be insignificant during high river flow periods.  Wash water
 can be  properly diffused at  outfalls, returned to the raw water at the mixing basins, and
 settled, with the liquid supernatant returned  to  the stream.  The  topic of waste discharges
 must be approached realistically. The utilization of natural resources for waste disposal
 must be considered when  downstream users are not  significantly affected.


 Poston,  H.W., "Federal Pollution Control," AWWA  JOURNAL, 58, No.  9, pp 1108-1112  (1966).

 Key Words:  Water quality, Water pollution control program


 The American  Water Works Association issued a  policy statement supporting a national program
 to preserve high-quality water supplies and reasonably restore the quality of polluted water
 supply  sources.  The  Federal program provides  aid to communities for waste treatment construc-
 tion, enforces state  and interstate  pollution  regulations, provides research on water quality
 problems, utilizes a  river basin approach, promotes  water quality  standards, and provides
 technical assistance.  Pollution control legislation was introduced in Congress to establish
 funds for sewage treatment plant construction, demonstration of new or modified water purifi-
 cation  methods, demonstration of joint municipal-industrial waste  treatment, and utilization
 of a river  basin approach to pollution abatement.  Water utility discharges are water pollution
 sources. These wastes impair water  quality.   The AWWA policy statement sets a trend for the
 water utility industry to control waste discharges.


'Lyon, W.A., and Lazarchik, D.A., "Influence of State Quality Standards,"  AWWA JOURNAL. 58.
 No. 9,  pp  1106-1108  (1966).


 A pollution concerned society has been instrumental  in urging stronger state and federal
 pollution control legislation.  The  state health  agency regulates  pollution legislation to
 protect streams in Pennsylvania.  Water utility wastes are considered as industrial wastes.
 Waste sources include filter washwater and settling  basin sludges.  Thes« wastes contain   .
 suspended solids and  chemically coagulated floes. Water quality discharge parameters include
 a 200 p p m suspended solids limit,  carbon removal from washwater, chloride and sulfate~
.•concentrations of 250 p  p m  limit, soluble iron and  manganese concentration of 7 p p m , and
 undissolved iron and  manganese concentration conforming to the suspended solids limit.  The
 concentrations are based on  low flow conditions,  10% of the flow-duration curves.  The Clean
'Streams Law resolves  to  restore streams to clean  and unpolluted conditions.  Streams uses
 are enumerated.  Waste transport is  not a primary use.  The law has been enforced since 1959
'at new  and  modified water treatment  plants.
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'Remus,  G.J.,  "Detroit's  Waste  Water  Problems,"  AWWA  JOURNAL.  58. No.  9, pp  1112-1116  (1966).

 Key Words:   Reclrculated water,  Waste  wash  water


 The City of Detroit,  Michigan, utilizes  four wash water disposal  techniques  at its treatment
 facilities.  These methods  are direct  discharge to  the river,  discharge  to a sanitary  sewer,
 recirculation and reuse  of  washwater,  and clarification before discharge to  a storm drain.
 Settling basin sludges and  sanitary  wastes  are discharged  to sanitary  sewers.  Data are
 presented on the flow characteristics  and silt loading of  the  Detroit  River  and the quanti-
 tative  and  qualitative waste characteristics of the four treatment  facilities.  The waste
 washwater discharged  to  the river disperses within  25 feet, leaving no sludge deposits.
 Downstream  water quality is unimpaired as the waste is chemically unharmful  and bacteriologi-
 cally superior to the raw water  due  to chlorination.  This report states that economics govern
 the disposal method when these wastes  have  no detrimental  effect on public health and  down-
 stream  users.   Limited cost, design, and bacteriological data  are presented.  The disadvantages
 of recycling are discussed.


•ORSANCO Report, "Control of Wastewater Discharges from Water Purification Plants on the Ohio
•River,"  Staff Report.  (1968).

!Key Words:   Water purification plants,Pollution abatement, Basin sludge, FLiter washwater


 This report describes waste discharge  practices of  water purification  plants on the Ohio
 River.   Highlights of ORSANCO  member states waste control  policies  are provided.  The  effects
 of discharging sediment  from raw water basins, sludge from settling basins,  filter backwash
 water,  and  ion-exchange  regeneration wastes from coagulation and softening plants to the
 Ohio River  are described.  The detrimental  effects  of these wastes  include the formation of
 sludge  deposits that  inhibit aquatic life cycles,an increase in the river mineral content,
 and esthetic objections  caused by color  or  suspended  material.  The report shows that  ORSANCO
 states  will require the  construction of  waste control facilities at both new purification
 plants  and  enlarged or improved  existing treatment  plants.  A  questionnaire  concerning water-
 plant waste control policies was distributed to the ORSANCO members.   A  summary of this
 survey  is included.


 Bishop, S.L.,  and Fulton, G.P.,  "Lagooning  and Freezing for Disposal of  Water Plant Sludge,"
 Public  Works,  99. No. 6, pp 94-96  (1963).

 Key Words:   Lagoons,  Freezing, Waste sludge storage,  Water filtration  plants.


 The treatment  of gelatinous hydroxide  sludge and filter washwater from water filtration
 plants  is a. recognizable problem in  pollution abatement.   Alum recovery, vacuum filtration,
 and discharge of these wastes  to sewerage systems are among some available treatment schemes.
 The advantages and disadvantages of  these processes are discussed.  Lagoons  are shown  to
 effectively settle and thicken sludges from the coagulation phase of the clarification process.
 Design  parameters and sludge characteristics are given for the Shoremont Water Treatment Plant.
 In addition to providing waste sludge  storage, the  utility of  lagoons  for freezing the sludge as
 a  treatment is discussed.  The freezing  process releases the water  of  hydration from hydroxide
 sludges and concentrates the sludge  significantly upon thawing.  This  process is economical
 in climates where natural freezing could be used.   At the  Shoremont plant, the sludge  con-
 centration  increased  from 3.5  to 17.5% and  the volume decreased considerably after freezing.   '
 Design  considerations and operating  procedures for  lagoon-freezing  operations are presented.
                                                    138

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Benn,  D.,and Doc, P.W., "The Disposal of Sludge by the Freezing and Thawing Process," Paper
of_Fylde Water Board,  (1969).                                                        ~*~

Key Words:  Freezing, Thawing, Aluminum hydroxide sludge


This study defines the physical and chemical constituents of clarification sludge and an
effective sludge treatment process.  Clarification sludge is a thick jelly-like colloidal
liquid containing organic, inorganic, and coagulant chemical material.  The sludge is variable
in color, thixotropic, and the organic material can be anaerobically digested.  Sludge
treatment processes include coagulant recovery, thickening, vacuum filtration, centrifugation,
filter pressing, freezing, lagooning, and disposal into sewers or rivers.  The steady slow
freezing of sludge to 15°F creates pure ice crystals.  These crystals are necessary for
effective liquid-solid separation during thawing.  A complete description of the freeze-thaw
cycle, using ammonia as a refrigerant, is given.  Latent heat is recovered and the thawed
mixture flows by gravity.  Important design considerations are listed.  The process is clean,
efficient, automatable, and produces an end product that can be handled.  Cost considerations
include high capital, operating and maintenance costs, plant depreciation costs, and power
costs.  Costs are listed for four freezing installations.


Sanders, P.V., "How We Solved Our Lime Sludge Disposal Problem,"  Public Works, 100. No. 2,
pp 88-89  (1969).

Key Words:  Softening plant, Solids disposal method


The City of Sioux Falls required additional sludge drying bed capacity to handle 29 tons
(dry weight) per day of calcium carbonate sludge.  Since the expansion of existing facilities
near to the softening plant was impossible, plans were made to pump the sludge 4550 ft to an
elevation of 50 ft and provide gravity flow 1900 ft at a 5% grade.  The waste generated dur-
:ing the construction of the lagoons, providing 20 year storage, is being disposed of in a
'nearby drainage ditch.  Farmers and fertilizer companies are removing this material as needed.
^The sludge is pumped by a 4-inch Model D L Weraco pump in a 6-inch pressure line to low eleva-
tion areas at present.  The line to the new facilities will be kept free by periodic flushing
with a clean water service.  The Water Department is working on new disposal applications
for the sludge including uses as soil stabilizers, crop and pasture fertilizers, and soil
sweeteners.


Sutherland, Earl R., "Treatment Plant Waste Disposal in Virginia,"  AWWA JOURNAL. ',6-1, No. 4,
pp 186-189  (1969).

Key Words:  Sedimentation basin, Filters, Water treatment plant wastes, Filter washwater


As part of a stream standards implementation program for the control of pollution caused
by sewage, industrial, or other wastes, the Virginia State Water Control Board will provide
specific provisions for the control of water treatment plant wastes.  Four general water
quality stream standards are provided.  The study states that water plant waste character-
istic vary considerably with raw water quality, treatment processes, cyclic filter backwashing
and sedimentation basin cleaning.  Bacteriological problems were not significant, but waste
solids concentrations and turbidity were extremely high.  The advantages of waste lagooning,
washwater recirculation, and sand bed drying ire presented.  Design parameters and operating
and capital costs are referenced to wastewater characteristics and plant capacity.  Waste
treatment by vacuum filtration, centrifugation, alum recovery, recalcining, and discharge to
sewage treatment plants is considered.  The board's  policy  is expressed and the applicability
of this policy is discussed for new and existing water plant facilities.
                                                    139

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Krasauskas, J.W., "Review of Sludge Disposal Practices,"  AWWA JOURNAL. 61. No.  5,
pp 225-230  (1969).

Key Words:  Sludge disposal, Water treatment plant wastes,Filter washwater


This review indicates that additional legislation will implement the Water Quality Act
of 1965 and control the discharge of water treatment plant wastes to natural watercourses.
The Washington Aqueduct Division conducted a survey of United States water treatment plants
that showed that filter washwater and basin sludge were discharged to surface waters in the
majority of plants.  A list of research centers and treatment facilities studying treatment
processes is provided.  The study shows that the sludge composition of water plant wastes
are highly dependent upon the source water and the chemicals utilized for treatment.  Refer-
ence is made to several sludge -disposal methods.  These methods include discharge to streams,
storm sewers and sanitary sewers, settling in lagoons, sludge freezing, centrifugation,
vacuum filtration, filter pressing, wedge wire filtration, sand drying beds, and barging.
Some design parameters, equipment operating characteristics and cost data are given for actual
installations.


Doe, P.W., "The Disposal of Sludge from Water Treatment Plants,"  Paper of Fylde Water Board.

Key Words:  Sludge disposal, Dewatering, Sludge reduction methodology, Prevention principles


This study relates the sludge disposal problem to economic and operational considerations
while enumerating sludge reduction methods to alleviate the potential pollution from these
wastes.  The English Rivers Acts provide monetary penalties for discharging washwater,
settling basin and lime sludge, and  ion exchange regenerant to watercourses.  Sludge preven-
tion principles are enumerated.  The choice of the process and raw water source can lessen
sludge quantity or concentration.  The advantages and disadvantages of lamella sedimentation
basins, flotation tanks, slow stirring thickeners, and polyelectrolyte sludge conditioning are
discussed.  Lime and alumina recovery are referenced to specific plant locations.  Design, oper-
ating, maintenance, and design considerations are mentioned for vacuum filtration, filter
pressing, freezing and thawing, lagooning, disposal into sewers or rivers, and centrifugation
processes.  No universal treatment solution exists.  Systems should be flexible and research
information coordinated.                                                    '
                                                     140

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                              SECTION XI

                 INFORMATION RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTS

The state-of-the-art report on the "Disposal of Wastes  from Water  Treat-
ment Plants, prepared by the Research Foundation  in 1969,  defined  two
areas in need of research.  The first area was  the  generation  of infor-
mation that would be generally applicable to the  water  utility industry.
This included the development of data on waste  quantity and quality,  and
the suitability of waste treatment technology to  effectively handle vari-
ous types of wastes.

The second important area was the need to develop new or modified  treat-
ment technology to solve specific problems.  Among  the  primary consider-
ations, was the establishment of a uniform methodology  to  properly eval-
uate the dewaterability of sludges, using different treatment  processes.

Information Clearing-House

The Report also recommended the establishment of  a  central information
resource to coordinate information on continuing, research  and  demonstra-
tion projects.  The information clearing-house could oreanize, coordi-
nate and disseminate research and  development  information  to provide the
direction for an industry-wide pollution control  effort.

The AWWA Research Foundation has undertaken action  to become a national
clearing-house of information on the control of pollution  caused by
water treatment plant wastes for the benefit of the water  utility  indus-
try.  The first year of operation has been devoted  to the  simultaneous
development of the structure of a clearing-house  system as well as to
the organization and coordination of information  relating  to sludge
treatment and idsposal methodology.

It is intended that the publication of current information on  pilot  and
plant scale research will accelerate the development and application of
waste treatment technology for the entire water utility industry.  The
Foundation has attempted to identify projects completed, in-progress,
or projected that will provide valuable reference material for individ-
ual researchers.                  ,

The cooperation of researchers,  dealing with waste treatment  problems
of water utilities, is necessary for the overall  development of a  compre-
hensive inventory program.  The failures and successes  of  the  treat-
ment technology require critical reporting to allow the systematic inves-
tigation of new or modified treatment alternatives.  In this way,  money
and time will be channeled into constantly identified gap  areas of re-
search needs.

Related Projects

The Research Foundation has become involved in two  related projects   that
                                    141

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may significantly alter the waste character of treatment plants.  The
first project is a study awarded to the Research Foundation by the Office
of Saline Water, U.S. Department of the Interior.  The program, titled
"A Study of Using Desalting Techniques for the Improvement of the Qual-
ity of Water Supplies", will identify and evaluate applications of new
processes which may be used by municipal water utilities to improve
water quality.  The wastes from desalting processes principally consist
of concentrated brine solutions and pretreatment sludges from coagula-
tion processes.

Desalination processes have potential applicability in making available
new potable water supplies, especially in areas that must rely on brack-
ish supply sources.  Methods for the successful disposal of concentrated
brine solutions will be necessary before municipalities can readily employ
desalting technology.  The information resource nrogram will coordi-
nate efforts  between the  two programs  in  relation  to  studies  on the  dis-
posal of desalting facility wastes.

The second project is jointly funded by the Water Quality Office of the
E.P.A.; City of Montgomery, Alabama; and the AWWA Research Foundation.
The demonstration project is titled "MgCO^ Coagulation in Treatment of
Potable Water."  This study involves a completely new integrated process
of water treatment and will evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of
magnesium carbonate as a recycled coagulant to replace alum for the remov -
al of turbidity and  color.   Data will be accumulated and incorporated
into the information resource program.

Surveys Conducted

Two surveys were initiated through the Research Foundation.  The first
survey was sent to the state, interstate,  and territorial authorized
regulatory agencies.  The purpose of this  survey was to determine new
information on the treatment requirements, disposal techniques, and
responsibility of supporting and conducting research.   The survey illus-
trated that the disposal of water treatment plant waste's to watercourses
would be unacceptable in the majority of fetates unless these waste
discharges could conform to the water quality or effluent standards set
forth by each agency.

The second survey was sent to water treatment facilities in the United
States and Canada.  The purpose of this survey was to identify and
inventory basic data (qualitative and quantitative)on waste handling
and production.  In conducting this survey, the need for the development
of standard testing documents for sampling and analyzing water treatment
wastes was demonstrated.

The Research Foundation, assisted by the Project Advisory Committee,  was
able to develop two new approaches for the systematic classification and
reduction of wastes.  A Project Sub-Committee is currently developing
information on sampling, analysis, and categorization techniques for
water plant purification and softening wastes.  A separate Sub-Committee
has developed documents to evaluate the applicability of polymers as
                                    142

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primary coagulants, coagulation aids, and sludge conditioning agents.
The testing of polymers at participating water utilities will be initi-
ated and the results publicized.

Abstracts of Research Reports

The Research Foundation has collected and organized articles dealing with
the treatment or disposal of water treatment plant wastes.  These articles
have been prepared in accordance with the Water Resources Science Infor-
mation Center (WRSIC) specifications.  These abstracted articles provide
reliable reference material for the initiation of individual research
for waste treatment process selection.

Project Advisory Committee

The collection and structuring of an information resource is, at best,
a slow process.  The development of reliable research and development
data is an operation that requires concentrated efforts among researchers.
A Project Advisory Committee, sensitive to the needs of the water utility
industry, has utility in providing guidance and consultation to the Re-
search Foundation which cannot be ^overemphasized.

Information on Foreign Research

The initiation of the resource program has been acknowledged by both
national and international organizations.  Correspondence has been extend-
 ed  to Canada and select foreign research institutions in Europe.  Much
can be gained from organizations such as the British Water Research
Association  (WRA).  The WRA recognized the need to treat water utility
wastes several years ago.  A great deal of practical research effort has
been conducted in England.  Several plant size treatment facilities are
operative there.  Corresondence with domestic and foreign research organ-
izations will be continued and expanded to identify additional  development
in pilot and plant scale processes.  The WRA will cooperate with the
Research Foundation in coordinating research information.

Expanded Information Program

The Foundation plans the continuation and expansion of the clearing-house
functions in the coming year.  Special reports on research information
as identified through:  Science Infomation Exchange;  Water Quality
Office, E.P.A.; and the Office of Saline Water, U.S.D.I., will be pub-
lished.  Information is being compiled presently from water and waste-
water equipment manufacturers to identify equipment for dewatering or
reclaiming water treatment wastes.

The Research Foundation looks forward to the cooperation of those associ-
ated with the water utility industry to submit information on their
research activities.  The development, publication, and transfer of sig-
nificant new information will promote its application for the control
of pollution by the water utility industry.
                                      143

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                             SECTION XII

                         ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Prefect Steering Committee

The assistance of the Project Advisory Committee  is  gratefully  acknowl -
edged.   Committee members provided expert guidance  to  the Research
Foundation throughout the conduct of the study.   This Committee includes

                           Research Group

Riley N. Kinman                       James C.  Lamb, III
Associate Professor of                Professor of Sanitary Engineering
Sanitary Engineering                  Dept. of  Env.  Sciences  and Eng.
College of Engineering                University  of  North Carolina
University of Cincinnati              P.O. Box  630
Cincinnati, Ohio 45221                Chapel Hill, N. Carolina

                         Engineering Gf oup

Peter W. Doe                          G.P. Fulton
Havens & Emerson                      Consulting  Engineer
Consulting Engineers                  Metcalf & Eddy
507 Boulevard                         60 E. 42  St.
East Paterson, New Jersey 07407       New York, New  York 10017

                      Operating Practice Group

Robert J. Becker                      Herbert Hartung
Superintendent of Purification        Exec. Vice  Pres.  & Mgr. of Prod.
Indianapolis Water Co.                St. Louis County  Water  Co.
1220 Waterway Boulevard               8390 Delmar Boulevard
Indianapolis 7, Ind.                  St. Louis,  Missouri

Kenneth E. Shull                      Lee Streicher
Vice-President, Research              Water Purification Engineer
Philadelphia Suburban                 Metropolitan Water District of
Water Company                         Southern  California
762 Lancaster Avenue                  700 N. Moreno
Bryn Mawr, Pa.                        La Verne, Ca.  91750

                         Regulatory Group

Ralph Evans, Head                     Robert Boes
Water Quality Section                 Chemical  Engineer
Illinois State                        ORSANCO
Water Survey                          414 Walnut  Street
Urbana, III.                          Cincinnati, Ohio  45202
                                  145

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Projact Support

The support of this project by the Water Quality Office,  Environmental
Protection Agency, and the assistance provided by Mr.  William J.  Lacy
and Mr. George R. Webster, the Grant Project Officer,  is  gratefully
acknowledged.

Thirty water utilities contributed matching funds for  the conduct of
this project.   The contributing water utilities are:

   California - East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland
   Connecticut - Greenwich Water Company, Greenwich
   Georgia - Department of Water Works,  Atlanta
   Illinois - Department of Water and Sewers, Chicago
   Illinois - Kankakee Water Company, Kankakee
   Illinois - Lake County Public Water District, Waukegan
   Illinois - Northern Illinois Water Corporation, 'Champaign
   Indiana - Indianapolis Water Company, Indianapolis
   Iowa - Des Moines Water Works, Des Moines
   Maryland - Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission, Hyattsville
   Michigan - Metropolitan Water Department, Detroit
   Missouri - City of Kansas City, Kansas City
   Missouri - City of St. Louis, St. Louis
   Missouri- St. Louis County Water Company, St. Louis
   Missouri - Missouri Water Company, University City
   Nebraska - Metropolitan Utilities District, Omaha
   New Jersey - Garden State Water Company, Hamilton  Square
   New York - Monroe County Water Authority, Rochester
   New York " Wanaka Water Company, Hamburg
   Ohio - Ashtabula Water Works Company, Ashtabula
   Ohio - City of Cincinnati Water Works, Cincinnati
   Oklahoma - Oklahoma City Water Department, Oklahoma City
   Pennsylvania - Philadelphia Suburban Water Company, Bryn Mawr
   Pennsylvania - Chester Water Authority, Chester
   Pennsylvania - City of Philadelphia Water Department,  Philadelphia
   Pennsylvania - '  /re Water Company, Sayre
   Pennsylvania - fa., ."ango Valley Water Company, Sharon
   Texas - Water Utilities Department, Dallas
   West Virginia -  luntington Water Corporation, Huntington
   Wisconsin - Milwaukee Water Works, Milwaukee
                                   146

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.Research Foundation Staff

 The AWWA Research Foundation staff for conducting the project "Infor-
 mation Resource on Water Pollution Control in the Water Utility Indus-
 try",  and for preparing this report was:

           Harry A. Faber, Research Director

           Anthony D. Nardozzi, Project Research Director

           Kitty C. Klotap, Administrative Assistant

           Mary L. Long, Secretary
                                    147

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                              SECTION XIII

                              REFERENCES

 1.  Albertson,  O.K., and Guidi, E.E.,  "Centrifugation of Waste Sludges,"
    WPCF  JOURNAL. 41. no. 4,  pp 607-628  (1969).

 2.  Andersen, J.R., and Dornbush, J.N.,  "Ground Water Contamination
    Resulting from Waste Disposal," Notice of Research Project. Science
    Information Exchange (1971).

 3.  Aultman, W.W., "Introduction to Waste Disposal-Water Treatment Plants "
    AWWA  JOURNAL. 58, No. 9, pp 1102-1103  (1966).

 4.  Aultman, W.W., "Reclamation and Reuse of Lime in Water Softening,"
    AWWA  JOURNAL. 31. No. 4,  pp 640-671  (1939).

 5.  AWWA  Committee Report, "Diatomite Filtration Sludge Disposal,"
    AWWA  JOURNAL. 62. No.8, pp 507-509 (1970).

 6.  AWWA  Committee Report, "Disposal of  Softening Plant Wastes," AWWA
    JOURNAL. 41. No. 9, pp 819-836 (1949).

 7.  AWWA  Committee Report, "Disposal of Water Purification and Softening
    Plant Wastes" AWWA JOURNAL, 39. No. 12, pp 1211-1223 (1947).

8.  AWWA  Committee Report, "Purification Plant Waste Disposal," AWWA
    JOURNAL. 45. No. 11, pp 1225-1237  (1953).

9.  AWWA  Research Foundation, "Disposal of Wastes from Water Treatment
    Plants," FWPCA Report. Project No. WP 1535-01-69 (1969).

10. AWWA  Standard Methods Committee, "Simplified Procedures for Water
    Examination." AWWA Manual M-12.  (1969).

11. Barker,J., "Treatment of Acid Rinse Water," Notice of Research Project.
    Science Information Exchange (1971).

12. Barnhill, K.G.,  "Sludge Disposal Alternatives," Paper Presented at
    31st Annual Meeting of the International Water Conference of the
    Engineer's Society of Western Pennsylvania (1970).

13. Benn, D. and Bridge, L., "Sludge Disposal by Pressing," Fylde Water
    Board. Blackpool,  Lancashire,  England, (No Date).

14. Benn, D. and Doe,  P.W.,  "Disposal of Sludge by the Freezing and
    Thawing Process,"  Fylde  Water Board, Blackpool,  Lancashire, England
    (1969).

15. Bishop,  S.L.,  and  Fulton,  G.P., "Lagooning and Freezing For Disposal
    of Water Plant Sludge," Public Works. 99. No. 6, pp 94-96  (1968).
                                   149

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16. Black, A.P.; Shuey,  B.S., and Fleming, P.J.,  "Recovery of Calcium
    and Magnesium Values  from Lime-Soda Softening Sludges," Paper  Pre-
    sented at Annual AWWA Conference, June 1971,  Denver,  Colorado.  Paper
    scheduled for publication in AWWA JOURNAL.  63, No.  10 (1971).

17. Brown, A. and Leighton, J.,  "Some Solutions to Sludge Treatment Prob-
    lems at Fishmoor Treatment Plant," Fylde Water Board. Blackpool,
    Lancashire, England (1966).

18. Bugg, B.; King, P.H.,  and Clifford, W.,  "Polyelectrolyte Conditioning
    of Alum Sludges," AWWA JOURNAL.  62. No.  12, pp 792-795 (1970).

19. Christensen, W., Copenhagen Water Department,  Personal Correspondence
    (1971).

20. Crow, W.B., "Techniques and Economics of Calcining  Softening Sludges,"
    AWWA JOURNAL,52, No.  3, pp 322-326 (I960).

21. Davis, S.} "Alternatives for Phosphate Removal," Water and Sewage
    Works, 117, No. 10,  pp 336-338 (1970).

22. Degremont S.A., "The  Orly Waterworks of the City of Paris",  Water
    and Water Engineering, 74. No.890, pp 135 - 146 (1970).

23. Dick, R.I., and Barkman, J.I., "Gravity Thickening  and Mechanical
    Dewatering of Alum -  Lime Sludge, Decatur,  Illinois," Notice of
    Research Project. Science Information Exchange (1971).

24. Dick, R.I., and Shin,  B., "Gravity Thickening Theory," Notice  of
    Research Project, Science Information Exchange (1971).

25. Doe, P.W., "The Disposal of Sludge from Water Treatment Plants,"
    Fylde Water Board. Blackpool, Lancashire, England (No Date).

26. Doe, P.W., "The Treatment and Disposal of Washwater Sludge," Fylde
    Water Board, Blackpool, Lancashire, England (1958).

27. Doe, P.W.; Benn, D.;  and Bays, L.R., "The Disposal  of Washwater
    Sludge by Freezing,"  Institution of Water Engineers Journal, 19,  No.4,
    pp 251-275 (1965).

28. Eidsness, F.A., and Black, A.P., "Carbonation of Water Softendaig
    Plant Sludge," AWWA JOURNAL, 49,No.10, pp 1343-1351  (1957).

29. Ellsperman, L.M., "Evaluation of Soil Sealants for  Solar Evapora.-.
    tion Ponds," Notice of Research Project, Science Information Exchange
    (1971).

30. Ellsperman, L.M.," Surface Facilities for Disposal of  Desalting Plant
    Effluents," Notice of Research Project, Science Information Exchange
    (1971).
                                    150

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31. Environmental Protection Agency (Water Quality Office)/'Treatment  of
    Waste Alum Sludge," Project Number 12120 FRM, Information  Sheet  of
    Research, Development or Demonstration Project (1970).

32. Evans, R.L., "Water Treatment Plant Wastes," Notice of Research
    Project, Science Information Exchange  (1971).

33. Faber, H.A., "Research on Water Treatment  Plant Waste Disposal,"
    Water and Sewage Works, 117. No.11, pp 379-383 (1970).

34. Farrell, J.B.; Smith, J.E.; Dean,  P.B.; Grossman, E., and  Grant,0.L.,
    "Natural Freezing for Dewatering of Aluminum Hydroxide Sludges,"
    AWWA JOURNAL, 62, No. 12, pp 787-791  (1970).

35. Forster, H. , "Test Results on Basin Sediment from the Chattahoochee
    Water Treatment Plant, City of Atlanta, Georgia," Beloit-Passavant
    and City of Atlanta, Personal Correspondence (1971).

36. Fosterpegg, R.W.; Blair, G.W.; Laurich, S.A.; Ganiaris,  N.;  Hedrick,
    R.H., and Glasser, R.J., 'Feasibility  of  Obtaining  a  Solid (Dry) Brine
    Effluent from Desalting Plants at Inland  Locations,"  Notice of
    Research Project. Science Information Exchange  (1971).

37. Francis, P., and Knight, H.W.,  "The  New  Langford Treatment  Works  of
    the Southend Waterworks Company," Water and Water Engineering, 74,
    No. 894, pp 319-327 (1970).

38. Fulton, G.P , "Alum Recovery for Filtration Plant Waste  Treatment",
    Water and Wastes Engineering, 7, No.  6, pp 78-81  (1970).

39. Fulton, G.P., "Disposal of Wastewater from Water Filtration  Plants,"
    AWWA JOURNAL. 61, No. 7, pp 322-326 (1969).

40. Garrett, D.; Yen, I.; Manken, E.A. ; Kallerud, M.J., and  Chemtoe, E.,
    "Determining the Feasibility of Obtaining Dry Brine Effluents from
    Desalting Plants at Inland Locations," Notice of Research Project.
    Science Information Exchange (1971).

41. Gordon, C.W., "Calcining Sludge from  a Water Softening Plant," AWWA
    JOURNAL, 36, No. 11, pp 1176-1177  (1944).

42. Grinstead, R.R., and Fleig, C.E., "Disposal of Brine  Effluent by
    Conversion to By-Products,"  Notice of Research Project, Science
    Information Exchange (1971).

43. Grubes, D.M. ; Haynes, C.D, and Tucker, W.E., "Conservation of Fresh-
    Water Resources by Deep-Well Disposal of  Liquid Wastes," Notice  of
    Research Project, Science Information Exchange  (1971).

44. Hamblin, C.W., "Recalcining Lime Sludge Produces Multiple Benefits,"
    The American Citv. 84, No.11, pp 67-69 (1969).
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45. Harrison, R.L., Manchester Waterworks Corporation, Personal Cocre -
    spondence  (1971).

46. Hilson, M.A., "Sludge Conditioning by Polyelectrolytes," Fylde Water
    Board, Blackpool, Lancashire, England.

47. Hoover, C.P., "Recovery of Spent Lime at the Columbus Water Softening
    and Purification Works, AWWA JOURNAL. 3. No. 12, pp 889-896 (1916),.

48. Hoover, C.P., 'Discussion on Reclamation and Re-use of Lime in Water
    Softening," AWWA JOURNAL.31. No. 4, pp 675-679 (1955).

49. Howson, L.R., "Problem of Pollution," AWWA JOURNAL. 58. No. 9,
    pp 1104-1106 (1966).

50. Illinois AWWA Section Water Resources Quality Control Committee,
   "Water Treatment Plant Wastes," Paper at Annual Illinois AWWA Confer-
    ence (1970).

51. Illinois State Water Survey, "Scale Analysis," Laboratory Procedure,
    Personal Correspondence (1971).

52. Jennett, J.C., "Effects of Environmental Factors on Design and Oper-
    ation of Open-Air Sludge Drying Beds," Notice of Research Project.
    Science Information Exchange (1971).

53. Judkins, J.F. , "Treatment of Water Plant Sludges 5" Notice of Research
    Project. Science Information Exchange (1971).

54. Keith,  F.W., "Centrifuges Concentrate and Dewater Waste System Solids,"
    Water and Sewage Works. 116. No. 3, pp IW10-IW18 (1969).

55. Kelly,  E.M., "Discussion of Reclamation and Re-use of Lime in Water
    Softening," AWWA JOURNAL. 31. No. 4, pp 671-675 (1939).

56. King, P.H."Economic Disposal of Waste Sludges from Water Treatment
    Plants," Notice of Research Project. Science Information Exchange
    (1971).

57. Krasauskas, J.W., "Review of Sludge Disposal Practices," AWWA JOURNAL.
    61, No. 5, pp 225-230 (1969).

58. Krause, F., "Value of Sludge Calcining,"  AWWA JOURNAL. 49. No.  3,
    pp 327-330 (1957).

59. Lawrance, C.H.,  "Lime-Soda Recirculation Experiments at Vandenberg
    Air Force Base," AWWA JOURNAL. 55. No. 2, pp 177-192  (1953)./   ,

60. Lemezis, S.; Boies, D.B.; Coit,  T.L.; Ivins, V.S., and Bowden, C.J.,
    "Determining the Feasibility of Alternative Approaches: of Obtaining
    a Solid Dry Brine Effluent from Desalination Plants at Inland Loca-
    tions," Notice of Research Project. Science Information Exchange (1971),
                                   152

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61. Lyon, W.A. , and Lazarchik, D.A.,  "Influence of State Quality Stand-
    ards," AWWA JOURNAL. 58. No. 9,  pp 1106-1108 (1966).

62. Maneval, D.R., 'Neutralization and Precoat Filtration of Concentrated
    Sludges from Mine Water," Notice of Research Project, Science Infor-
    mation Exchange (1971).

63. Me Caughan, F.A. , "Proposed Waste Water Treatment Facilities for
    Nueces County Water Control and Improvement District No. 3,  "Prelim^
    inarv Engineering Report. Personal Correspondence (1970).

64. Me Colgan, R., "Waste Alum and Activated Carbon Sludge Solids
    Reduction Methods," Orange County Sewer District, Orlando, Florida,
    Personal Correspondence, (1970).

65. Me Colgan, R., "Water Treatment Plant Wastes Disposal,"  Orange County
    Sewer District, Orlando, Florida, Personal Correspondence,  (1970).

66. Mcllhenny, W.F.; Sheperd, B.P.;  Legros, P.G., and Williams,  J.C. ,
    "The Feasibility of Obtaining a Solid (Dry) Brine Effluent  from
    Desalting Plants at Inland Locations," Notice of Research Project.
    Science Information Exchange  (1971).

67. McKinney, R., Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book
    Company, Inc., New York (1962).

68. Middlebrooks, E.J.; Phillips, W.E., and Coogan, F.J., "Chemical Coagila-
    tion of Kraft Mill Wastewater," Waterand Sewage Works,  116, No.  3,
    pp IW7-IW9 (1969).

69. Moss, E.A., "The Thickening and Dewatering of Precipitates  from..the
    Lime/Limestone Treatment of Mine Drainage," Notice of Research Project,
    Science Information Exchange  (1971).

70. Mulbarger , M.C. , and Dean, R.B.,  "Lime Sludge Recovery and  Reuse,"
    Notice of Research Project, Science Information Exchange (1971).

71. Nalco Chemical Company, "Filter Aid Evaluation by Means  of  Filter
    Test Leaf,"  Technical Publication (1968).

72. Nelson, F.G., "Discussion on Carbonation of Water Softening Plant
    Sludge," AWWA JOURNAL, 49. No. 10, pp 1351-1354 (1957).

73. Nelson, F.G.,"Recalculation of Water Softening Sludge,"  AWWA JOURNAL.
    36, No.10, pp 1178-1184 (1944).

74. Neubauer, W.K., "Waste Alum Sludge Treatment," AWWA JOURNAL, 60..
    No. 7, pp 819-826 (1968).

75. O'Brien, W.J.,  "Use of Lime-Soda Sludges for the Treatment  of Munic -
    ipal  Wastewater," Notice of Research Project, Science Information
    Exchange (1971).
                                    153

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 76. ORSANCO Staff/'Control of Wastewater Discharges from Water Purifi-
    cation Plants on the Ohio River," Technical Report (1968).

 77. Pedersen, H.V., "Calcining Sludge from a Softening Plant," AWWA
    JOURNAL. 36. No. 10, pp 1170-1175 (1944).

 78. Plautz, W.H., and Van Kirk, F.N., "Disposition of Sediment and Waste
    Backwash Water at the Central and South Water Filtration Plants,
    City of Chicago, Illinois," Report of Consoer & Townsend Consulting
    Engineers, Chicago, Illinois, Personal Correspondence (1971).

 79. Poston, H.W., "Federal Pollution Control," AWWA JOURNAL. 58. No. 9,
    pp 1108-1112 (1966).

 80. Rabin, E., and Hadzeriga, P., "Recovery of Chemicals as a Means of
    Brine Disposal ," Notice of Research Project, Science Information '
    Exchange (1971).

 81. Remus, G.J., "Detroit's Waste Water Problems," AWWA JOURNAL. 58.
    No. 9, pp 1112-1116 (1966).

 82. Russelmann,  H.B., "Characteristics of Water Treatment Plant Wastes,"
    Proceedings  of 10th Sanitary Engineering Conference, Univ. of Illi-
   nois, Urbana.  (1968)

 83. Sanders, P.V., "How We Solved Our Lime Sludge Disposal Problem,"
    Public Works, 100,  No. 2, pp 88-89 (1969).

 84. Sawyer, C.N., and McCarty, P.L., Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers,
    McGraw-Hill  Book Company Inc., New York (1967).

 85. Scott, J.C., "Ann Arbor's Recalcining Process and Problems," AWWA
    JOURNAL, 61. No. 6, pp 285-288 (1969).

 86. Schwartz, B., "Recycling and Reuse of Filter Washwater," Hackensack
    Water Company, Oradell, New Jersey,  Personal Correspondence (1971).

 87. Schwoyer, W.L. and  Luttinger, L.B.,  "Dewatering of Water Plant Sludge,"
    Permutit Technical  Abstract (1971).

88. Sheen, R.T., and Lammers, H.B.,  "Recovery of Calcium Carbonate or
    Lime from Water Softening Sludges," AWWA JOURNAL, 36, No.11, ppl!45-
    1169 (1944).

89. Smithsonian  Institute, "Science Information Exchange, A National
    Registry of  Research in Progress," Pamphlet (1970).

 90. Sperry, W.A., "The  Lime-Softening of Water and the Use of the Sludges
    as an Aid Thereto," AWWA JOURNAL,  6. No. 6, pp 215-229 (1919).
                                    154

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91. Standiford, F.C., "Study of Approaches  of  Obtaining  Solid  Brine
    Effluent from Desalination Plants," Notice of Research  Project.
    Science Information Exchange (1971).

92. Sutherland, E.R., "Treatment Plant Waste Disposal  in Virginia," AWWA
    JOURNAL. 61. No. 4, pp 186-189 (1969).

93. TeKippe, R.J., and Ham, R.K.,  "Coagulation Testing:  A Comparison
    of Techniques - Part I, AWWA JOURNAL.  63.  No. 9, pp  594-602  (1970).

94. Thomas, C.M. , "The Use of Filter Presses for the Dewatering  of
    Sludges," WPCF JOURNAL. 43. No. 1, pp  93-101 (1971).

95. Van Reuth, A.G., "Treatment and Disposal of Sedimentation  Tank Sludge
    and Sand Filter Backwash Water, Van Bibber Water Treatment Plant,
    Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland," Report Prepared under U.S  Corps of
    Engineers Contract No. DACA 31-69-0-0072.

96. Waring, F.A., "Methods of Lime Softening Sludge Disposal," AWWA
    JOURNAL. 47, No. 2, pp 82-84 (1955).

97. Welch, A.W., "Reclamation of Filter Backwash Water," Water and Sewage
    Works. 117, No. 6, pp 189-190 (1970).

98. WertE, C.F., "Miami Lime Reclamation Plant," AWWA  JOURNAL, 52.
    NO. 3, pp 326-332 (1960).

99. Youngwirth, W.G. , and Kollar,  K.I., "Production of Water and Waste-
    water Treatment Equipment (1968)," Notice  of Research Project,
    Science Information Exchange (1971).
                                     155

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                            SECTION XIV

                            APPENDICES

                                                             Page No.
Research & Development Information Storage &
Retrieval System 	  158

Basic Data Survey for
Water Utility Industry	162

Regulatory Agency Survey 	  166
                                 157

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                                     RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

                            INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM

Each article to be Included in the retrieval system abstracts will be used to inform water util-
ities and others of studies pertaining to sludge treatment and disposal.   The information will
be stored on a McBee punch card as shown below.  The back of the card will be used to store the
abstracts.
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Researcher, Title of Research or Study
Citation- Journal or Publication
Reference Number Date of System Entry
Key Words
Abstract
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As each article is reviewed, the reviewer will classify the information on the R&D Information
Storage & Retrieval System Punch Guide.  The reports also will be indexed on 3x5 file cards,
both by Author-Title and Title-Author alphabetically.

All information received will be listed chronologically to provide a ready reference to new
information on the treatment and disposal of sludges from water treatment plants.
                                                158

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     RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM
Basic Classifications:
 1.  Research (R-#)
 2.  Demonstration (D-#)
 3.  Pilot Plant Scale (PPS-#)
 4.  Plant Scale (PS-//)
Status:
 9. Conceptually proposed or being developed
10. In-Progress
11. Completed
Developer:
Supply Type:
Waste Sources:
13. Utility (Public)
14. Utility (Investor-Owned)
15. University or Educational Institution
16. Manufacturers of Equipment and Supplies
17. Association or Foundation
18. Consultant Engineer
19. Government, County
20. Government, State
21. Government, Federal
22. Government, Foreign
23. Government, Interstate Agencies

24. Surface - River Water
25. Surface - Impounded Water
26. Groundwater
27. Surface & Groundwater
28. Estuarine
29. Ocean

30. Sedimentation Basin
31. Washwater
32. Desalting Pretreatment Sludges, Brackish
33. Desalting Pretreatment Sludges, Sea
34. Ion Exchange Regenerant Streams
35. Reverse Osmosis Brine Streams
Ll. Electrodialysis Brine Streams
L2. Evaporator Brine Streams
                                     159

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     RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM
Waste Types;
 L9. Alum
L10. Lime Softening
Lll. Lime-Soda Softening
L12. Iron-Manganese
L13. Iron Salt Coagulation
L14. Polymers
Sedimentation:
Filtration &
Exchange;
L17. Intermittent Cleaning
L18. Continous Cleaning
L19. Solids Contact

 B5. Slow Sand
 B6. Rapid Sand
 B7. Dual Media
 B8. Multi-Media
 B9. Anthracite
BIO. Pressure Sand
fill. Microstraining
B12. Ion Exchange
Waste Treatment:
B16. Sedimentation
B17. Lime Recovery
B18. Alum Recovery
B19. Lagooning
B20. Vacuum Filtration
B21. Drying Beds
B22. Centrifugation
B23. Freezing
B24. Filter Pressing
B25. Recycling
B26. Chemical Coagulation
Solids Disposal;
B33. Discharge to Sanitary Sewers
B34. Barging to Sea
B35. Pipeline Transport
                                    160

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     RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM
                            Rl. Incineration
                            R2. Underground Injection
                            R3. Landfill
                            RA, Lagooning
                            R5. Other
                            R9. Recycling to Plant Intake
Liquid Disposal:           RIO. Discharge to Waterways after treatment
                                to meet effluent standards.
                           Rll. Underground Injection
                           R12. Discharge to Sanitary Sewers
                                      161

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                                 Project 2

                 "Information Resource for Water Pollution

                  Control in the Water Utility Industry"


                           Water Utility Survey


  Water Utility 	    Source of Supply   	

  Location      	    Official Reporting
                                                       (Name and Title)
                                    Date
I. Basic Data (Water Treatment Plant) ;    	Yearly	

                                          Average   Minimum   Maximum

   Raw Water Turbidity (JTU)              	   	   	

   Raw Water Suspended Solids (mg/1)      	   	   	

   Raw Water Hardness (mg/1 as CaCOo)     	   	   	

   Treated Water Hardness (mg/1 as CaCO-j) 	   	   	

   Raw Water TDS (mg/1)                    	  	   	

   Treated Water TDS (mg/1)                	  	   	

   Water Treated (mgd)                    	  	   	

   Chemicals Used
   (Ibs/mg treated water)

                   Alum                   	  		

                   Carbon                 	  	   	

                   Lime                   	  	   	

                   Chlorine               	  	  	

                   Other (name)            	  	  	

                   NaCl                    	  		
Special Comments:
                                     162

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                           WATER UTILITY SURVEY

                            (Please Circle Reply)
•II. Water Treatment Plant Waste Handling and Treatment

1. Are solids in  sludge  (slurry) withdrawals from Sedimentation Basins
   or Contact Basins  additionally concentrated or thickened prior to
   disposal?            Yes     N£

   By what Method?    Settling   mechanical thickeners in tanks

                      freezing   centrifugation    vacuum filtration

                      Other  (Describe)	

2. Are solids in  filter washwater concentrated or thickened prior to
   disposal?            Yes     Np_

   By what Method?   (Describe)
3. In what form  are  the  suspended  solids from water treatment plants
   basins at point of  final  disposal?  Fluid     Solid     Semi-Fluid

   What is the Per Cent  Dry  Solids by Weight? 	
4. In what  form  are  the suspended  solids from filter washwater at
   point of final  disposal?     Fluid     Solid     Semi-Fluid

   What is  the Average concentration  of solids at point of final
      disposal - either 	mg/liter or 	%  dry solids by weight?

5. What is  the final disposal  of water treatment plant sludge solids?

   Watercourse   Lake  Dry  Creek   Ocean   Lagoons   Sewer

   Landfill  Agriculture  Ground Treatment   Recalcining   Alum Recovery

   Other (Describe)	
   a. Which method applies  to  solids  from basins?
   b. Which method applies to solids from Filter Wash Water?
6. What is the final disposal of the liquid portion of water treatment
   plant wastes?   (See above alternatives) 	i	

7. What is the final disposal of brines and other high TDS waste
   waters? 	'	

   What is the average TDS content of these waste waters, 	mg/1.
                                     163

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                           WATER UTILITY SURVEY

III.Waste Production and Waste Characteristics

 1.  Total Plant  - Dry  Solids  Produced 	 Ibs/M.G. water  treated.
    (T.S. influent water +  ^Chemicals Added - T.S.  treated  water)

 2.  Density-of dry solids produced 	 Ibs./cu. Ft.

 3.  Volume water used  for basin  desludging, 	%  of  treated water.

 4.  Water used for basin desludging which is not reclaimed, 	%
    of treated water.

'5.  Volume water used  for filter washing, 	% of treated water.

 6.  Filter wash  water which is not  reclaimed 	^ °f  treated water.

 7.  Basin Sludge Concentration Data  (typical samples)

         a. Average dry  solids concentration at time of  withdrawal  from
           basins, 	%  Dry Solids by Weight.

         b. Volume of  sludge  after 24 hr. settling  and decantation  of
           supernatant, 	%  of original volume.

         c. Average dry  solids concentration after  24  hr. settling  and
           decantation  of  supernatant 	% Dry Solids by Weight.

         d. Suspended  solids  in  supernatant after 24 hr. settling,
           	 mg/1.

 8.  Filter Washwater Sludge Concentration Data  (typical  samples)

         a. Average dry  solids concentration in filter washwater,
           	 mg/1.

         b. Average dry-solids concentration after  24  hr. settling  and
           decantation  of  supernatant,  	mg/1.

         c. Suspended  solids  in  supernatant after 24 hr. settling,
           	 mg/1.

 *Chemicals added - chemicals that will  result  in a precipitate.
                    Should  include alum  or  Ferric salts, polyelec-
                    trolytes, activated  carbon  and  lime  and/or
                    soda-ash. Should not include chlorine, salts
                    of ammonia or lime used solely  for pH correction.
                                     164

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                           WATER UTILITY SURVEY


III: Waste Production and Waste Characteristics (cont.)



9. Chemicals Analysis of Water Treatment Plant Wastes


                                          From Basins
a. Waste solids after drying at 105°C
     Volatile Matter

                       Si02


                       Fe2°3


                       A12°3

                       CaC03


                       Mg(OH)2


                       Remainder
                                             100%
                                                v.
                                                     Filter Wash Water
      100%
b. Sludge as withdrawn  from water  treatment plant:

                                        From Basins    Filter Wash Water


                                          	mg/1         	mg/1


                                          	mg/1	 mg/1
                    C.O.D.


                    B.O.D.5


   c. Liquid waste  at time  of final disposal:
                 C.O.D.


                 B.O.D.,
                                           Ffo'ffl Ba'sins


                                              	mg/1


                                              	mg/1
Filter Wash Water


      	ing/I


      	mg/1
                                   165

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                                 Project 2

                      "Information Resource for Water

             Pollution Control in the Water Utility Industry"


                      Survey of Regulatory Agencies


Statistical Information

1. Based upon your Agency's experience, please indicate, in order of
   magnitude, your concern regarding wastes from the following water
   treatment processes (use numerals 1 to 8 with 1 as a major and 8 as
   a minor concern):

      	  Coagulation              	 Ion Exchange Regeneration

      	  Softening                	 Filter Backwash

      	  Iron-Manganese Removal   	 Desalination

      	  Diatomaceous Earth       	Micros training

2. In determining treatment requirements for wastes from water treatment
   processes (question 1), does your Agency consider the following?

                          Yes     No                      Yes     No

      TDS                                COD
      Settleable Solids   	     	    BOD

      Suspended Solids    	     	    Chloride

      pH                  	     	    Color

      Coliforms           	     	    Heavy Metals
3. Please indicate which of the following methods of sludge disposal would
   not be consistent with your Agency's regulations:

       Discharge to sanitary sewers 	     Incineration     	

       Barging to sea               	     Landfill         	

       Pipeline transport           	     Agricultural Use 	

       Please submit a copy of your Agency's regulations governing water
            treatment plant sludge.
                                    166

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                       Survey of Regulatory Agencies
Statistical Information (cont.)

4. Please indicate which of the following methods of liquid disposal
   would not be consistent with your Agency's regulations:

          Recycle          	     Sanitary sewers       	

          Stream Transport 	     Underground Injection  	
5. Please indicate whether your Agency requires water utilities to
   perform the following:

                                                     Yes     No

          a. Maintain records of waste production    	     	

          b. Submit reports of waste production      	     	

          c. Monitor waste receiving streams    .     	     	
          .If yes, reference which and enclose copies of records or
          reports.
Research
6. Please indicate, in your judgment, which of the following should be
   the major contributor in supporting research for treating wastes from
   water treatment plants (Question 1):

       State government   	    Equipment Manufacturers  	

       Federal government 	    Educational institutions 	

     •  Water utilities    	    Consulting engineers     	

7. Please indicate, in your judgment, which of the following should
   conduct most of the research effort for treating wastes from water
   treatment plants (Question 1):

       State government   	    Equipment Manufacturers  	

       Federal government 	    Educational institutions 	

       Water utilities        _    Consulting engineers     	
                                    167

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                       Survey of Regulatory Agencies
Regulatory
    Please  indicate,  if the wastes from a water  treatment plant could be,
    reduced to  the same form as the wastes in the  original source water,
    would your  agency accept the discharge of these wastes to a water-
    course?
          Yes 	       No 	

    If not,  what  standards would you require?
                                *  *  *
                          Agency Completing Survey
Name

Title

Agency

Address
                                    •«* GOVERNMENT PR.NT.NG OFP.CE:  1972.,M_M3/ ,„„
                                     168

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   SELECTED WATER
   RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
   INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
                      1. Report No. \ 2.
          INFORMATION  RESOURCE:.   WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN

                 _ THE  WATER UTILITY INDUSTRY.	
   7. Author(s)
         Faber, H.A.,  and Nardozzi, A.D,
   9. Organization

         American Water Works Association Research Foundation,
         New York, New  York
                            3. Accession No.

                            w

                            5. Report Date
                            6.
                            S. Performing Orgaxdzatiott
                              Report If o.
                            10. Project No.
                             12120 EUR
  12. Sponsoring Organization

  IS. Supplementary Notes
                                          11.  Contract/Grant No.
                                                                   13. Type of Report aad
                                                                      Period Covered
  16. Abstract
         This report  describes the accomplishments  of a program conducted to organize,
         coordinate,  and disseminate information on new or modified sludge treatment
         technology for water treatment plant wastes.  The reliable control of  these
         potential pollutants is of increasing  importance with the enactment and
         enforcement  of more stringent pollution control legislation.  The report
         contains information on research, engineering, plant operation, and regu-
         latory aspects of the problem.  A Project  Advisory Committee provided  recommen-
         dations for  development of information resources, and assisted the Research
         Foundation in structuring an information clearinghouse.  The report describes
         current research activities and new approaches for characterizing and  reducing
         water treatment plant waste volumes.   A program was initiated to evaluate  the
         applicability of polymers as primary coagulants, coagulant aids, and sludge
         conditioning agents.  A Sub-Committee  was  established to prepare uniform
         sampling, analysis and categorization  techniques for water utility sludges.
         Each program is in progress.   Surveys were distributed to water utilities
         and regulatory agencies to provide information on sludge treatment methods and
         requirements.  The AWWA Research Foundation plans the continuation and expan-
         sion of this centralized information resource program.  (Nardozzi - AWWA
        	Research  •Foundation')
  17a. Descriptors
         *Sludge Disposal,  *Sludge Treatment, Water Treatment
  17b. Identifiers
         information Clearing-house, information Resource, Surveys, Regulatory
         Information, Water utility sludge,  Information Dissemination
  17c. COWRR Field & Group
  18. Availability
05D

'». Security Class.
   (Report)

20. Security Class.
   (Page)
  Abstractor
    21. No. of
       Pages

    22. Price


Institution
                                                       Send To:
                                                       WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
                                                       U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
                                                       WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
WRS1C 102CREV. JUNE 1971)

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