&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/2-78-140b
August 1978
Research and Development
Land Cultivation
of Industrial Wastes
and Municipal
Solid Wastes
State-of-the Art
Study
Volume II
Field Investigations
and Case Studies
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-78-140b
August 1978
LAND CULTIVATION OF INDUSTRIAL
WASTES AND MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES:
STATE-OF-THE-ART STUDY
Volume II
Field Investigations and
Case Studies
by
Tan Phung, Larry Barker,
David Ross, and David Bauer
SCS Engineers
Long Beach, California 90807
Contract No. 68-03-2435
Project Officer
Robert E. Landreth
Solid and Hazardous Research Waste Division
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
11
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FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing
public and government concern about the dangers of pollution to the health
and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoiled
land are tragic testimony to the deterioration of our natural environment.
The complexity of that environment and the interplay between its components
require a concentrated and integrated attack on the problem.
Research and development is that necessary first step in problem solu-
tion and it involves defining the problem, measuring its impact, and search-
ing for solutions. The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory develops-
new and improved technology and systems for the prevention, treatment, and
management of wastewater and solid and hazardous waste pollutant discharges
from municipal and community sources, for the preservation and treatment of
public drinking water supplies, and to minimize the adverse economic, social,
health, and aesthetic effects of pollution. This publication is one of the
products of that research; a most vital communications link between the
researcher and the user community.
Soil has an enormous capability to assimilate waste materials. If
managed properly, soil can often serve as a sink for a wide range of waste
materials. Thus, land cultivation is truly a final disposal method where-
by the waste is recycled on land.
Francis T. Mayo
Director
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
11
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ABSTRACT
This volume evaluates field data on the operational pro-
cedures, costs, environmental impacts, and problems associated
with land cultivation of municipal refuse and industrial wastes
Ten land cultivation sites were investigated, and com-
posite soil and vegetation samples were collected at seven
sites. Preliminary results indicated elevated concentrations
of some heavy metals in surface soils and plant tissues from
sites receiving refinery and tannery sludges. No significant
changes were noted in the chemical properties of the soils or
the elemental concentrations in plant tissues due to land cul-
tivation of waste concentrated sulfuric acid, mixed chemical
sludge, or shredded municipal refuse. The data was in-
sufficient to assess the overall and long-term soil and vege-
tative impacts of land cultivation.
Case study reports include descriptions for each of the
ten sites, coverage of the waste(s) cul tivated, operational pro-
cedures and problems, and perceived environmental effects of
land cultivation. Economic, equipment and personnel informa-
tion are given for six sites. It is concluded that land cul-
tivation equipment is similar to farming equipment, and the
costs are comparable or'lower than conventional acceptable
disposal methods. Land cultivation has not resulted in en-
vironmental degradation at the sites studied; it may be a
viable disposal method for many organic industrial wastes.
Before selecting this method, all waste and site characteris-
tics must be fully determined and proper site preparation and
management techniques developed and implemented.
In addition, methods currently being employed for the non-
standard disposal (or utilization) of hazardous wastes were
summarized.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No.
68-03-2435 by SCS Engineers under the sponsorship of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the
period July 1976 to January 1978, and work was completed as
of April 30, 1978.
i v
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract 1v
Figures , . 1x
Tables xii
Acknowledgments xv
1. Introduction !
2. Field Studies of the Impact of Land
Cultivation on Soils and Vegetation 3
Overview 3
Arizona 4
Introduction 4
Sulfuric acid production 4
Agricultural uses 4
Field sampling 7
Assessment of trace element
accumulation in soil and plant 12
Conclusions 15
Eastern Pennsylvania 15
Introduction 15
Site description , 16
Waste source and characteristics 16
Land cultivation practices 18
Field sampling and chemical analyses 20
Summary 22
Oklahoma 24
Introduction 24
Refinery waste disposal 24
Field study 26
Land cultivation practices 30
SCS field sampling and chemical analyses. . . 30
Conclusions 31
Texas. 34
Introduction 34
Site description 34
Land cultivation practices 36
Field sampling and chemical analyses 38
Summary 40
3. Case Studies of Land Cultivation Practices 42
Overview 42
Southern California 43
Summary 43
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CONTENTS (continued)
History of land cultivation activities. ... 44
Site description Ti
Related studies 7°
State regulation ^
Waste characteristics ^
Waste application ^
Environmental factors £°
Field sampling and chemical analyses °0
Waste storage °3
Equipment summary °^
Personnel °3
Economic summary 64
Problems encountered/public response- .... 64
Supporting information 65
Illinois 65
Summary 65
History of land cultivation activity 66
Site description 66
State and local regulations 71
Waste characteristics 71
Waste storage/transportation 71
Waste application 72
Environmental factors 76
Equipment and personnel summary 76
Economic summary 77
Planned final site use 77
Public response and problems encountered. . . 78
Rhode Island 78
Summary 78
History of land cultivation activities. ... 79
Site description 79
Waste characteristics 84
Waste application 86
Environmental factors 86
Field sampling 90
Waste storage 93
Equipment summary 94
Personnel 94
Economics 94
Planned final use of site 95
Public response 95
Special problems 95
Southern Indiana 95
Summary 95
History of land cultivation 97
Site description 98
Site preparation 103
Related studies 103
State arid local regulations 103
vi
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CONTENTS (continued)
Waste characteristics 106
Waste storage/transportation 106
Waste application 110
Environmental factors 113
Economic summary 114
Equipment summary 114
Planned final site use 114
Public response and problems 115
Odessa, Texas 115
Summary 115
History of land cultivation at Odessa. . . . 117
Site description 118
Waste characteristics 126
Waste application 126
Environmental factors 129
Field sampling and chemical analyses .... 130
Waste storage 132
Equipment used 132
Personnel 132
Site economics 132
Planned final use of site 133
Public response to the land cultivation
operations 133
Problems encountered 133
Michigan 135
Summary 135
History of land cultivation activities . . . 135
Site description 136
Related studies 136
Waste characteristics 138
Waste storage/transportation 139
Waste application 139
Environmental factors 141
Economic summary 141
Planned final use .of site 143
Public response 143
Problems encountered ... 143
4. Nonstandard Disposal of Hazardous Wastes 144
Overview 144
Waste types and nonstandard disposal
techniques 145
Fly ash. 145
Bottom ash and boiler slag 146
Steel slag 146
Leather tanning and finishing
industry wastes 146
VI 1
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CONTENTS (continued)
Pulp and paper mill wastes 147
Phosphoric fertilizer industry wastes . . . 147
Waste sulfur and sulfuric acid 147
Plating industry wastes 147
Pharmaceutical wastes 148
Used crankcase oils 148
References 149
Appendix
Methods for sample preparation and analysis 154
Sample preparation 154
Analytical procedures 155
References 156
VI 1 1
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Special acid injection rig attached to a large
tractor 8
2 Knifing edges with injection pipes 8
3 Arizona site 9
4 Eastern Pennsylvania land cultivation site 17
5 Experimental plots and landfarm at Oklahoma site . . 28
6 One of the experimental oil-treated plots at
Oklahoma site 29
7 Landfarm area, Texas site 35
8 Location of Southern California site 45
9 Southern California site map 46
10 Cross section of Southern California site 49
11 Soil profile based upon sieve analysis 50
12 Well logs 51
13 Historical waste quantities 54
14 .Oily wastes deposited at Southern California site. . 55
15 Mixing of oily wastes and sands at Southern
California site 55
16 Location of Illinois site 67
17 Site layout 68
18 South sludge holding lagoon with pump and loading
rig in background 73
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FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
19 North sludge holding lagoon showing effect of
glycerine wastes 73
20 Sludge spreading tank wagon - Illinois site .... 74
21 Tractor and disc used to mix sludge into soil -
Illinois site 74
22 Illinois field shortly after sludge spreading ... 75
23 Rhode Island case study site: topography and soils 80
24 Rhode Island case study site: aquifer boundary
and groundwater elevations 83
25 Driver opening valve on tank truck 87
26 Tank truck applying sludge at Rhode Island site . . 87
27 Treated soil about 2 hours after sludge
application 88
28 Rhode Island control field 88
29 Rhode Island case study site: 1976 sludge
treated fields 89
30 Rhode Island sludge-treated field 91
31 Rhode Island sludge storage lagoon 91
32 Southern Indiana site location 99
33 Map of 1976 sludge disposal field 100
34 Area of 1977 land cultivation activities -
Indiana site 102
35 Vegetation on recently cultivated plot -
Indiana site 102
36 Sample locations (south lagoon) - Indiana site. . . 108
37 South sludge lagoon - Indiana site 109
38 North sludge lagoon - Indiana site 109
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FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
39 Tank car for sludge storage Ill
40 Tank wagon showing plow and injector Ill
41 Tractor used in sludge injection 112
42 Corn in 1976 field - Indiana site 112
43 Location of Odessa, Texas 119
44 Location of soil enrichment site, Odessa, Texas. . . 120
45 Field layout of soil enrichment project,
Odessa, Texas 121
46 Refuse application area with partial establishment
of vegetation 124
47 Refuse application from transfer truck 124
48 Buffalo Bomag soil stabilizer in operation 127
49 Soil stabilizer rototiller unit 127
50 Applied refuse - Odessa site. Left side - before
mixing, right side - after mixing 128
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Trace Element Concentrations in Waste
Sulfuric Acid H
2 Chemical Analysis of Soils Taken at Two Depths
from Arizona Site 12
3 Chemical Analysis of Alfalfa at Two Cuttings
from Arizona Site 14
4 Elemental Composition of the Tannery Waste
at Two Sampling Dates 19
5 Chemical Analysis of Surface Soils from the
Control and Waste-Treated Clover and Corn
Fields - Pennsylvania site 21
6 Chemical Analyses of Clover and Corn from the
Control and Treated Plots - Pennsylvania site . . 23
7 Field Plots Selected for Sampling - Oklahoma
Site 30
8 Chemical Characteristics of the Control and
Oil-Treated Soils at Oklahoma Site 32
9 Chemical Analyses of Wheat Grain from the Con-
trol and Treated Plots at Oklahoma Site 33
10 Chemical Composition of API Oil-Water Separator
Sludge at Texas Site 37
11 Chemical Characteristics of the Control and
Oil-Treated Clayey Soil at Texas Site 39
12 Chemical Analysis of Nutgrass and Cocklebur
Seeds Sampled from the Control and Oil-Treated
Plots at Texas Site 41
13 Basic Characteristics of Land Cultivation Case
Study Sites 42
XI 1
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TABLES (continued)
Number
14
15
16
17
*
Summary of Climatol
Cal i f orni a . . . .
Results of Soil and
Wei Is A, B, C, and
Results of Surface
Chemical Character!'
ogical Data: Los Angeles,
Water Sample Analyses
D
Soil/Oil Sample Analysis. . .
sties of the Control and
Page
"
52
57
59
Oil-Treated Sandy Soil - Southern California . . 61
18 Chemical Analysis of Some Plant Species Grown
on the Control (C) and Oil-Treated (T) Sandy
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Soil - Southern California
Economic Summary - Southern California Site. . .
Summary of Cl imatol ogical Data: Chicago,
Illinois
Cost Summary, Illinois Site
Historical Climatic Data for Providence, Rhode
Analyses of Soils from the Control and Sludge
Treated Plots - Rhode Island Site.
Chemical Analyses of Grasses from the Control
and Treated Plots - Rhode Island Site
Rhode Island Site Sludge Disposal Cost Analysis
for Calendar 1976
Summary of Cl imatologi cal Data: Louisville,
Conditions Imposed by State Regulatory Agency
for Indiana Site Operation Approval
Chemical Characteristics of South Lagoon Sludge
from Indiana Site
Elemental Analysis of Sludge from Indiana Site .
1976 Sludae Transportation
62
64
70
77
82
92
93
96
104
1 05
107
107
110
XI 1 1
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TABLES (continued)
Number Page
31 Summary of Climatological Data: Odessa,
Texas I23
32 Texas Water Quality Board Land Cultivation
Guidelines Summary 12^
33 Soil Chemical Characteristics from the Control
and Refuse-Treated Plots at Odessa, Texas .... 130
34 Analyses of Wild Geranium and Wild Buckwheat
Grown on Control and Refuse-Treated Plots at
Odessa, Texas .................. '31
35 Estimated Costs, Total Soil Enrichment of
Shredded Odessa Refuse
36 Summary of Cl imatol ogical Data: Grand Rapids,
Michigan ..................... 137
37 Sludge Analyses - Michigan Site
38 Anticipated Costs for Michigan Sludge Application
Program ..................... 142
XT v
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The literature and case study reports are the result of
extensive cooperation between EPA, industry, university, and
SCS personnel. The guidance and assistance of Mr. Robert
Landreth, Project Officer, Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory (MERL) of U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, is grate-
ful ly acknowledged.
We wish to express our appreciation to our consultants on
this project - Dr. Van Volk, Soil Science Department, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon; and Dr. Albert Page, Soil
and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside
California - for their assistance in locating useful informa-
tion and review of several sections of Volume 1. Assistance
from the personnel of the case study sites is also sincerely
appreciated.
SCS project participants were Mr. David E. Ross, Project
Director; Mr. Larry K. Barker, Project Manager; Dr. Hang-Tan
Phung, Soil Scientist; and Mr. David Bauer, Environmental
Scientist. Ms. Jackie Wittenberg edited the draft report and
checked the bibliography of the final version.
xv
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
There is a definite need for information concerning the
operational procedures and problems associated with land culti-
vation. Such information is best obtained by visiting opera-
tional sites, interviewing personnel, and observing procedures.
Even with this input, inadequate knowledge of the impacts of
land cultivation on soil and vegetation is readily available
since most existing land cultivation sites have monitoring
programs limited only to groundwater and surface water.
Significant effort in this project was devoted to field
investigations; a total of ten sites were visited. Six of these
sites were visited twice, with the interval between visits
ranging from 2- to 9 mo. At each of the ten sites, local per-
sonnel were interviewed to obtain information concerning site
and waste characteristics, operational procedures, and problems.
In addition, soil and vegetation samples were collected at seven
of the sites. Analysis of these samples provides an insight
into the buildup and vegetative uptake of waste components.
Sections 2 and 3 of this volume discuss results of field
investigations at ten land cultivation sites. These ten sites
represent a variety of waste and site characteristics, climate,
and waste application techniques. Four sites are presented in
Section 2, each cultivating-an industrial waste. Both soil and
vegetative samples were collected and analyzed at these sites.
Analytical results are presented along with brief narrative site
descriptions.
Detailed reports on six case study sites are found in
Section 3. Soil and vegetation samples were collected at three
of these sites, with only interviews and observations performed
at the other three. The report on the Michigan site is less
detailed than that on the other five sites. Operating cost
information was also collected from each site.
Other nonstandard disposal or waste utilization techniques
for hazardous wastes are discussed in Section 4. This section
reviews waste types utilized or considered for nonstandard
disposal, as well as the disposal techniques being employed.
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The location of most of the case study sites is given in
only general terms, such as Rhode Island. Further, the companies
involved as waste generators or disposers are not identified.
Such anonymity protects proprietary information about processes
and operations.
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SECTION 2
FIELD STUDIES OF THE IMPACT OF LAND
CULTIVATION ON SOILS AND VEGETATION
OVERVIEW
An important consideration in land cultivating an industrial
waste is the determination of the effects of the waste on the
soils and vegetation. Such a determination is particularly
significant for hazardous wastes and for sites producing crops
which may enter the food chain. Four sites which land cultivate
hazardous wastes were visited, with soil and vegetation samples
collected and analyzed. Three of these sites had crops growing.
Brief site reports for the four sites are presented in this
section. Each report includes a description of the waste and
the site, and a discussion of the analytical results. Waste and
crops at the sites are:
t Arizona - waste sulfuric acid (subsurface injection)
with alfalfa grown
Eastern Pennsylvania - tannery buffing dust slurry on
corn and clover fields
Oklahoma - various refinery sludges on experimental
plots, some of which were planted to wheat
Texas - refinery sludges with no crops grown.
(/as grown only on an experimental basis at the Oklahoma
There are no plans to produce wheat on the full scale
jltivation fields, and the small quantities already grov
^vested will not enter the food chain.
Wheat was
site.
land cultivation fields, and the small quantities already grown
and harve:
It appears that, with the application rates used at these
sites, crops produced are fit for animal or human consumption.
However, due to the limited scope of the sampling and analyses
performed, such a conclusion can only be tentative. Further
sampling is required to confirm this.
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ARIZONA
Introduction
Waste sulfuric acid production is rapidly increasing due to
the implementation of stringent air pollution regulations. Two
of the major potential sources of such sulfuric acid, nonferrous
smelting industries and coal-burning power plants, are found in
several locations in the arid southwestern United States (1).
The potential value of sulfuric acid for improving the
productivity of alkaline soils and irrigation water in arid
regions has long been recognized. However, its actual use has
not been extensive, partly because of limited supplies, handling
difficulties, and inadequate application criteria. With the
current surplus of sulfuric acid, agricultural use may offer a
partial solution to disposal and management problems.
The objectives of this study were to:
Investigate waste sulfuric acid production
t Review the agricultural uses of waste sulfuric acid
t Discuss analytical results of field samples
Assess trace element accumulation in soils and plants,
and other potential environmental problems associated
with sulfuric acid application.
Sulfuric Acid Production
Currently, the exact amount of waste sulfuric acid produced
in the United States is not known. The estimated figure is
4 million t (4.4 million tons) per year, primarily from non-
ferrous smelting plants and, to a lesser extent, from coal-
burning power plants (2). If current air pollution regulations
are fully implemented by these plants, the 4 million t/yr> can
be easily doubled. Although there is a large demand for acid
by various industries, it can be met by about one-half of the
total acid production.
Agricultural Uses
Considerable quantities of surplus acid can be employed
beneficially for many agricultural uses, including: reclaim-ing
sodium-affected calcareous soils, increasing the availability of
phosphorus and various micronutrients, treating alkaline and
ammoniated irrigation water, controlling certain weeds and soil-
borne pathogens (1). Principles involved in these uses are
reasonably well established; however, studies are required to
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determine effective techniques to implement the uses, especially
the method of field application.
Sodic Soil Reclamation--
Approximately 10 million ha (25 million ac) of irrigated
land in 17 western states is affected by sodium with varying
levels of soluble salts (3). Excessive amounts of exchangeable
sodium cause poor soil structure (thus restricting water penetra-
tion), high^pH, and poor germination and plant growth (4, 5).
Therefore, it is sometimes advantageous to remove excess sodium
by field application of acid. This is accomplished by applying
concentrated acid on soil surfaces under gravity flow by tractors
or trucks equipped with sprinklers (6). After these surface
applications of acid, there must be adequate leaching to remove
soluble salts. When acid application rates are less than a few
metric tons per hectare, the acid can be applied through leaching
water or the first irrigation water. However, restoration of
soils with very high sodium levels can be very expensive and
time consuming.
The amount of acid required to permanently reclaim sodic
soils depends on soil and water properties as well as on crop
species. This amount ranges from 2 to 6 t/ha (1 to 3 tons/ac)
for improving moderately sodium-affected soils, to 6 to 12 t/ha
(3 to 5 tons/ac) for reclaiming severely sodium-affected soils
(1). Based on the entire area of irrigated land affected by
sodium with varying levels of soluble salts, and assuming a
total one-time application rate of 5 t/ha (2 tons/ac), the total
amounts of acid required for sodic soil reclamation are 2, 10,
and 15 million t (2.2, 11, and 16.5 million tons) in Arizona,
four southwestern states (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and
Colorado), and California, respectively. Although these figures
are crude estimates, the order of magnitude indicates the
existence of sites that could receive a large portion of surplus
acid.
Increased Nutrient Availability--
The high pH and lime content of calcareous soils in arid
regions often limits solubility and availability of phosphorus
and certain micronutrients (e.g., Fe, Mn, and Zn). As a result,
deficiencies of these nutrients in various crops are commonly
reported.
Elemental S and, to a limited extent, sulfuric acid have
been studied as a means of correcting these deficiencies. In
general, acidification of calcareous soils increases the solu-
bility of the above elements (P, Fe, Mn, and Zn) originally
present in soils and those applied as fertilizers (7, 8, 9, 10).
Localized acidification by band or spot treatment generally
produces better results than those produced by mixing acid
thoroughly with soils or by applying acid continuously to
irrigation waters at comparable total application rates (9).
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Depending on method of application, soil cation exchange
capacity, percent base saturation, and original pH, acidifica-
tion requires an application rate of 560 kg/ha (500 Ib/ac) to
6.7 t/ha (3 tons/ac) per growing season to increase crop yields
(9, 11) (Palmer, personal communication).
Irrigation Water Treatment--
Irrigation water containing high levels of Na relative to
Ca is known to cause adverse effects on soil physical conditions
(e.g., water infiltration). High levels of bicarbonate in
irrigation water accentuate the sodium hazard by precipitating
Ca (12).
Sulfuric acid and other sulfur compounds (e.g., gypsum)
have been used for reducing the Na-to-Ca ratio, thereby main-
taining favorable soil physical conditions. Acid applied to
irrigation water removes bicarbonate (as well as carbonate) and
reduces Ca precipitation and Na accumulation in soils (12, 13).
Acid applied to irrigation water also reduces the volatile loss
of NH3 in water and on soil surfaces (14). This appears to be
related to the lowering of water and soil pH.
The amount of acid needed for reclaiming sodic soils with
irrigation water treatment ranges from 50 to 200 ppm or 0.5 to
2 t/ha-m water (1). When surface irrigation systems contain
concrete ditches or metal pipes, acid amounts are limited to
about 90 percent of the equivalent amount of bicarbonate to
avoid corrosion. No standard amount of acid has yet been
established for sprinkler systems.
Weed and Pathogen Control--
Many weed species can be controlled by diluted sulfuric acid
(2 to 10 percent by weight) at application rates of 25 to 100 kg
acid per hectare (15, 16). Byutilizing the differential toler-
ance, the quantity of weeds in small grains and onion fields has
been controlled successfully. Dilute acid was formerly used
extensively for weed control, but its use has declined because
of the rapid development of organic herbicides, and corrosion
and hazards associated with acid spray.
Sulfuric acid has been studied for controlling pathogens
that are sensitive to acidity, such as Teras root rot and
Helminthosporium turcium Pass (17).
Other Potential Uses--
In addition to the agricultural uses already mentioned,
other potential uses of surplus acid include:
Enhancing range grass establishment
Reclaiming sodium-affected land or mine spoil banks
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t Controlling dust and increasing grass production in
alkaline dry lake beds
Supplying sulfur fertilizer to agricultural soils
Controlling soil crusting, algae, and aquatic plants.
Field Sampling
Field sampling of soils and alfalfa from plots that had
received sulfuric acid applications was conducted at a ranch
located south of Phoenix, Arizona.
Site Description--
The ranch has a total area of about 1,296 ha (3,200 ac),
which is divided into 36 plots of various sizes.
The region has a dry climate; only 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in)
of rainfall is received annually. Winters are mild, with a
normal January low temperature of 2°C (35°F), while summers are
hot, with a normal July high of 40°C (105°F). Humidity is
generally low.
The soils are Antho sandy loam and Gilman loam, and are
located on flood plains and alluvial fans. These soils are
calcareous, well drained, and are used for most of the irrigated
farming common to the area.
Acid Application--
Typically, soon after harvest of the cotton and alfalfa
crops, the soil was plowed, loosened, and leveled. Waste-con-
centrated sulfuric acid was applied once through subsurface
(0 to 7.6-cm) injection, using a special acid injection rig
attached to a large tractor (Figure 1). Essential features of
the rig consisted of a steel tank and knifing edges with injec-
tion pipes (Figure 2). Such a rig could reportedly inject acid
at about 30 ha/day (74 ac/day). If needed, anhydrous ammonia
or phosphoric acid could be simultaneously injected with the
sulfuric acid.
The acid was commercially available at $13.6/t ($12.3/ton)
plus $15.4/t ($14/ton) for freight. This amounts to $29/t
($26.3/ton). Acid was obtained from the mining companies in
surrounding areas.
Sampled Plots--
Acid was injected into five plots in October 1976 at cal-
culated rates of 448 to 560 kg/ha (400 to 500 Ib/ac). Plots 25
and 34 (shown in Figure 3) were arbitrarily selected as the
acid-treated and control plots for field sampling. Plot 25,
with a total area of 20 ha (50 ac), received an application rate
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Figure 1 . Special acid injection rig attached to a large tractor
Figure 2 . Knifing edges with injection pipes
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ALFALFA FIELD
CONTROL PLOT
(#34 110 AC)
TREATED
PLOT
(#25 50 AC)
TO ENTRANCE
COTTON FIELD
AND HEADQUARTERS
Figure 3. Arizona site.
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of 618 kg/ha (552 Ib/ac), which was slightly higher than the
highest calculated rate.
Shortly after acid injection, fertilizer (18-46-0) was
broadcast at 224 kg/ha (200 Ib/ac), and the plots were seeded
to alfalfa. Well water was then introduced into the plots by
gravity flow from the concrete ditches.
At the time of acid injection, control plot 34 was in its
fourth year of alfalfa. Fertilizer (18-46-0) was typically
applied during seeding and in February of each year. Normal
crop yield is about 3.4 t/ha (1.5 tons/ac). The second and
third years usually result in the largest alfalfa yield.
Due to an unusual cold spell in May 1977, yields from the
first and second cuttings were below normal for both plots.
However, no significant differences in yields from the acid-
treated and control plots were observed during the first four
cuttings.
Soil and Plant Sampling--
The objective of this field study was to evaluate the down-
ward movement of acid below the depth of injection and the plant
uptake of heavy metals that were suspected to be present at
various concentrations in the acid. Heavy metals were assumed
present since the waste acid was generated by copper smelters.
The sample of concentrated waste sulfuric acid used for the
ranch was obtained from a commercial acid injection company.
The acid this company injected for the ranch in October 1976 may
have come from a source other than the one used in October 1977.
Nevertheless, all acid came from copper smelters. -
For sampling purposes, the acid-treated plot (No. 25) was
divided into three equal subplots. Prior to the second cutting,
10 soil borings were taken from each subplot at the 0 to 30 cm
(0 to 12 in) and 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) depths. Ten soil
borings were similarly obtained from the control plot (No. 34).
The soil samples at the same depth in each subplot were com-
posited and bagged.
Prior to the second and fourth cuttings, the aboveground
portion of alfalfa was randomly clipped from the control plot
and from each subplot of the treated plot. No yield data were
recorded in the field.
The soil and alfalfa samples were processed and analyzed'
for selected plant nutrients and trace elements. The waste acid
was analyzed for some trace metals that present a potential
hazard to animal health. Details of the analytical procedures
are given in the Appendix.
10
-------
Assessment of Trace Element Accumulation in Soil and Plant
Acid Analyses--
Concentrations of the trace elements and heavy metals
analyzed in the acid sample are presented in Table 1. This acid
contained relatively high levels of iron, which would be bene-
ficial to the alfalfa crop since most calcareous soils are
deficient in this micronutrient (1). Since none of the elements
were present in excessively high concentrations and since the
soils in this area are highly calcareous and strongly alkaline,
the availability of these elements (except for selenium) for
plant uptake would be very low.
TABLE 1. TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS
IN WASTE SULFURIC ACID*
Concentration
Element ug/ml
Fe 886
Mn 5.47
Cu 1.12
Se 0.045
Ni 15
Zn 5.3
Pb 0.27
Cd 0.25
Co 0.13
*Acid sample was obtained on October 3, 1977.
Soil Analyses--
Surface (0 to 30 cm) and subsurface (30 to 60 cm)
soils were collected from the control and the acid-treated plots
and analyzed for various elemental constituents. The results
are given in Table 2.
Since the acid application rate (618 kg/ha) is considered
to be very low, effects of the acid treatment on the chemical
properties of the soil were not apparent. Soil pH, for example,
was not changed as a result of acid application.
Significant amounts of sodium had leached below the surface
30 cm (12 in) depth. The sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) and
electrical conductivities indicate that the soil is suitable
only for crops that are relatively tolerant to high sodium and
salinity levels.
11
-------
TABLE 2. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS TAKEN AT
TWO DEPTHS FROM ARIZONA SITE
Parameter
PH
SARf
EC, mmohs/cm
Total N, pg/g
Ortho-P
so4
Se
Mo
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Co
Zn
Cl
Na
K
Ca
Mg
B
0-30 cm
8.0
7.58
4.2
851
110
375
<0.003
0.21
3.5
16.8
0.43
3.6
<0.1
0.33
0.22
1.55
1.3
973
580
25
296
90
0.55
Control
30-60 cm
8.0
8.32
4.1
360
Acid
0-30 cm
8,1
7.26
3.2
540
0.1N HCl-extractable, pg/g
126
310
<0.003
0.16
3.8
11.4
0.40
0.4
0.5
0.33
0.04
1.17
0.95
VVCtlrCl OU 1
1,098
620
19
280
86
0.26
84.4
337
<0.003
0.26
2.2
12.8
0.34
1.1
0.3
0.22
0.03
1.36
0.61
#
uble , pg/ml -
677
433
28
176
57
0.41
treated*
30-60 cm
8.1
11.36
4.62
337
67.8
346
<0.003
0.38
1.6
8.5
0.23
2.0
0.1
0.25
0.06
1.32
0.23
1,042
698
25
160
87
0.56
*Average of three samples.
tSodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is an index of sodium hazard.
#Measured in water-saturation extracts.
12
-------
When a soil is acidified by sulfuric acid, it is expected
that the availability* of orthophosphate and most trace elements
will be increased. However, this was not observed on the acid-
amended soil due to the low acid application rate and soil
variability. Generally, no significant accumulation or leaching
of the trace elements and metals below the depth of acid
incorporation was noted. The data suggest that the acid appli-
cation did not adversely affect the soil chemical properties.
Plant Analyses--
There were no significant differences in the alfalfa stand
between the control and treated plots during the second or
fourth cuttings. However, comparison of the elemental composition
of alfalfa grown in the control and treated plots may not be
valid, since the alfalfa in the control plot was in its fourth
season, while the alfalfa in the treated plot was only in its
first season. The alfalfa in the control plot was slightly
damaged by insects prior to the fourth cutting, creating sporadic
empty spots in the field. Although no yield data were recorded,
it was noted that the crop stand was generally better in the
fourth cutting than in the second.
Results of the plant analyses are presented in Table 3.
Concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, sulfur, copper, lead, and cobalt were considerably
higher in the fourth than they were in the second cutting.
These increases may be attributed, in part, to a better alfalfa
crop in the fourth cutting. The increase in nitrogen content is
of particular significance to the farmers, since higher nigrogen
(protein) means better quality.
There were no consistent differences in the concentrations
of various elements in alfalfa between the second and fourth
cuttings due to acid treatment. For example, the boron concen-
trations were 7.13 and 9.06 ug/g from the control and treated
plots in the second cutting; they were 13.12 and 8.17 yg/g in
the fourth cutting. Part of this discrepancy was probably due
to the nature of soil variation and uneven application or dis-
tribution of the acid in soil.
Iron concentrations in alfalfa were significantly increased
as a result of acid application. These increases, however, were
not reflected in the O.IN^ HC1-extractabl e iron levels in soil.
Plant uptake of other trace elements was not increased by the
acid treatment. Again, this may be attributed to the low acid
application rate and high buffer capacity of the soil.
Concentrations of various elements extracted by 0.1N_HC1 are
presumably indicative of their availability for plant uptake
and/or potential for movement in soil.
13
-------
TABLE 3. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF ALFALFA AT TWO CUTTINGS
FROM ARIZONA SITE
Second cutting
Element Control
Treated*
Fourth cutting
Control
Treated*
°i °/
N 2.91
P 0.14
K 2.13
Na 0.10
Ca 0.64
Mg 0.18
S 0.19
B 7.13
Se 0.31
Mo 4.14
Fe 60
Mn 26.7
Cu 7.9
Ni 9.0
Pb 2.0
Cr 9.58
Cd 0.03
Co 0.56
Zri 29.5
2.66
0.15
2.28
0.08
0.73
0.16
0.19
yg/g
9.08
0.16
4.08
129
24.3
6.8
2.3
0.83
4.72
0.03
0.56
39.4
3.47
0.22
1.78
0.53
1.48
0.34
0.30
13.12
0.03
3.67
67
32.1
10.6
8.8
<0.83
1.25
0.11
1.45
35.3
3.72
0.25
1.21
0.47
1.53
0.32
0.32
yg/g
8.17
0.05
4.39
109
29.0
11.2
4.0
4.52
1.53
0.24
1.28
35.6
*Average of three samples.
14
-------
Conclusions
Based on the preliminary chemical analyses of waste acid,
soil and alfalfa samples, the following conclusions can be drawn:
t Since the acid application rate was low, the soil pH and
availability of nutrients and heavy metals were not
significantly altered.
No significant accumulation or movement of heavy metals
away from the zone of acid incorporation occurred in
the acid«treated soil.
Concentrations pf nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
magnesium, calcium, and sodium were significantly higher
in alfalfa from the fourth cutting than from the second
cutting.
Except for iron, concentrations of various elements
analyzed in alfalfa were not significantly altered by
the acid treatment.
EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA
Introduction
The leather tanning and finishing .industry generates a
waste that is considered to be potentially hazardous. This
waste consists of chrome trimmings and shavings, chrome flesh-
ings, unfinished chrome leather trim, buffing dust, finishing
residues, finished leather trim, and wastewater treatment
residues (18). This waste generally has high concentrations
of chromium, lead, copper, and zinc.
Present disposal techniques for tannery waste include open
dumping; landfilling (sanitary and "secure" landfills); disposal
in lagoons, trenches, pits, and ponds; discharge to municipal
sewage treatment; and agricultural spreading. Land cultivation
of tannery waste is not widely practiced, probably because of
the high concentrations of heavy metals (especially chromium)
in the waste stream.
The site selected for this field study has a long history
of land cultivation of tannery buffing dust solids and slurries.
The objective of this site survey is to determine the effects
of waste application on metal accumulation in soil and on uptake
by crops.
15
-------
Site Description
The land cultivation site, which is operated by the .
owner, is located in a rural area in eastern Pennsylvania. The
total area of the site is about 12 ha (30 ac).
The site layout is presented in Figure 4. Topography of
the site ranges from relatively fiat (less than 1 percent slope)
to gently rolling (about 5 percent slope). A surface stream
runs along the western boundary of the site, and drainage is
predominantly towards the south and west.
Since land cultivation at this site is oriented toward
waste utilization, various crops are grown, such as wheat, hay
(including clover), and corn. Approximately a dozen fruit trees
(including pear, apple, and chestnut) grow on the property.
Fruit from these trees is consumed by the owner's family and is
marketed at a roadside stand for consumption by local residents.
The corn grown, as well as some of the hay, is used for animal
feed. Some of the hay is also sold to mushroom growers in the
area for use as mulch. Wheat is not a common crop on the site,
but when grown it is sold to local brokers.
Soil in the area is primarily a Chester channery silt loam,
well drained, and moderately eroded. It contains many coarse
fragments, which increase at lower depths (>99 cm). 'Surface
runoff is slow to very rapid, and permeability throughout the
profile is moderate. Slope is the major limitation to use of
this soil for farming.
Depth to groundwater at this site is not known. Several
nearby residents have private wells to provide their household
water.
The area has a fairly moderate, humid, continental climate.
The average monthly temperatures normally range from slightly
more than -1°C (30°F) in January to 25°C (77°F) in July. An
increase of about 5°C (10°F) takes place each month from March
through June, and a decrease of about 5°C (10°F) takes place
each month from October through December. Annual precipitation
totals about 104 cm (41 in). Rainfall evenly distributes
throughout the year with July and February being the wettest and
driest months, respectively.
Haste Source and Characteristics
The waste cultivated at this site is generated by finishing
operations at a nearby tannery. One of the finishing operations
normally conducted in a chrome leather tannery is buffing.
Buffing dust is produced when the dried and trimmed leather is
mechanically sanded to remove surface imperfections or to
improve the nap of the flesh side. In the tannery, a wet
16
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CORN
HAY
^,CDNTRC
HAY
)l_
CORN
TREATED PLOT
CORN
FIELDS
c? e? «P
o & &
0 Q &
ORCHARD
HOUSE AND
FARM BUILDINGS
D
.WASTE STORAGE PIT
Figure 4. Eastern Pennsylvania land cultivation site.
-------
scrubber air pollution control device is used to limit the
release of buffing dust to the atmosphere. The wet scrubber
used has a closed-loop water recycle system. Water from the
waste scrubber is discharged to a settling basin, and the readily
settleable solids are removed for disposal to a landfill. The
remaining slurry is pumped into a "Honeywagon" and hauled to
the land cultivation site, located about 4 km (2.5 mi) from the
tannery. Approximately 11.4 m3 (3,000 gal) of slurry from the
scrubber are disposed at the land cultivation site weekly.
Prior to 1973, settled buffing dust solids were also dis-
posed of at the land cultivation site. However, the buffing
dust was found to decompose slowly, so accumulated quantities
began to interfere with normal cultivation of the fields. As a
result, buffing dust disposal at the site was discontinued, and
buffing dust is now disposed in a local landfill.
Chemical characteristics of the waste disposed at the site
are presented in Table 4. (Data from previous chemical analysis
are included as a supplement, rather than for comparison pur-
poses.) The waste sample collected in August 1975 was a slurry
(2.5 percent solids), while the sample collected in September
1977 was a dewatered sludge (90 percent solids) that had been
exposed to the atmosphere for'some time. The data indicate
that the waste sampled in 1977 was highly organic and generally
contained high concentrations of nitrogen, chromium, and titan-
ium. Heavy metals such as lead and zinc were also present in
relatively high concentrations.
Land Cultivation Practices
Land cultivation has been practiced at this site since
1961. The tannery waste is used primarily as a nitrogen supple-
ment and an organic amendment to the soil.. Initially, all
process wastewater (estimated at 3.78 x 10 I/day or 1,000 gal/
day) and scrubber slurry and buffing dust were disposed at the
site. Then, in 1967, the local sewage treatment plant went on
line, and only scrubber slurry and buffing dust continued to be
disposed of at the site. In 1972, only the scrubber slurry was
disposed at the site. All land cultivation has occurred on
this farm. However, no records exist concerning waste quanti-
ties applied to any portion of the farm.
When a field at the land cultivation site is not covered
with a crop, the scrubber slurry is spread directly on the field
from the Honeywagon. When no open fields are available for
disposal, the waste is placed in one of several small lagoons
distributed around the site. In this case, the waste dewaters
by evaporation prior to land application. The waste is subse-
quently removed from the shallow lagoons with a front-end scoop
on a tractor, distributed over the fields, and then disked into
the soil. Disking is usually done in the fall and spring.
18
-------
TABLE 4. ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF THE TANNERY WASTE
AT TWO SAMPLING DATES*
PENNSYLVANIA SITE
Element
N
Organic C
Al
Si
Ba
Cr
Ti
Fe
Ca
Cu
Cd
Co
Ni
Pb
Mn
Zn
Se
S
Sr
August 1
_
0.80
0.41
0.63
4.76
1 .60
0.31
530
13
180
51
700
82
Sampl ing Date
975t September 1977#
01
- - - % ---------
6.75
84.8
2.25
--
y / y
_ _
53.1
2.12
1 .41
5.0
133
13.5
159
0.056
983
* Concentrations expressed on dry weight basis.
t Unpublished data, SCS Engineers. Results are from
spectrographic analyses of a grab sample of the
buffing dust scrubber slurry.
# A grab sample of the dewatered sludge taken from the
field.
19
-------
Since the principal purpose of the land cultivation site is the
production of agricultural crops (wheat, clover, and corn),
waste disposal operations must be coordinated with planting and
harvesting schedules.
No historical records have been maintained on the quantity
of buffing dust and scrubber wastes that have been disposed of at
the site, or on the exact location of disposal.
No permit is required by the State Department of Environ-
mental Resources (DER) for land cultivation at the site. This
is because the site owner maintains that the waste is utilized
for its irrigation as well as nutrient and soil conditioning
benefits and not primarily for disposal. The DER concurs and
therefore has decided that a waste disposal permit is not
necessary. Thus, no monitoring of the site is conducted. How-
ever, environmental factors are taken into consideration in the
placement of the waste on the site. Care is exercised to prevent
placement of wastes on steep slopes or within 32 m (100 ft) of
surface streams.
Field Sampling and Chemical Analyses
Field Sampling--
Soil and vegetation sampling at the site was performed in
September 1977. Ten surface (0 to 15 cm) soil samples were
randomly taken from each of the waste-treated corn and clover
fields. Since the soil immediately below the 0- to 15-cm depth
was mixed with gravels, no sample was taken at the 15- to 30-cm
(6- to 12-in) depth. For comparison, 10 soil samples were
taken from the same depth at the control field where similar
crops were growing but no sludge had been applied. Sampling
locations are shown in Figure 4.
Vegetative samples were taken from corn kernels and the
aboveground portion of clover from the control and waste-amended
fields. One control composite and three treated composites were
made from each crop. At the time of sampling, no differences in
visual appearance (color, stand, and estimated yields) were
observed.
Chemical Analyses--
Soil and plant composite samples were processed and
analyzed for selected plant nutrients, trace elements, and
heavy metals, according to the procedures given in the Appendix.
Soil analyses Results of the chemical analysis of the
surface(0 to 15 cm) soil from the clover and corn fields are
given in Table 5. The EC and SAR values show that soil incorpor-
ation of the waste slurry or dewatered solids from the scrubber
did not result in the buildup of soluble salts and sodium
hazards. The impact of waste application on the chemical
20
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TABLE 5 . CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SURFACE SOILS FROM THE CONTROL
AND WASTE-TREATED CLOVER AND CORN FIELDS
PENNSYLVANIA SITE
Parameter
pH
EC, mmhos/cm
Total N, %
Ortho-P
$04
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Co
Zn
B
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Cl
SAR
Clover
Control
6.4
0.37
0.16
1.7
22
22.7
131
5.81
1.83
3.0
1.0
0.08
1.22
12.3
<0.2
2.9
4.1
55
12.3
37
0.09
Field
Treated
6.3
0.35
0.28
Corn
Control
5.3
0.30
0.15
.IN. HCl-Extractable, ug/g
6.5
7
24.0
180
4.31
2.33
6.0
3.2
0.17
1.44
12.5
Water-Soluble*,
<0.2
2.6
7.2
52
14.3
15
0.08
4.4
2.5
22.0
103
4.12
<0.07
4.83
0.6
0.10
0.97
9.8
<0.2
3.2
2.3
47
4.0
34
0.12
Field
Treated
5.9
0.40
0.19
13.5
2.5
17.0
154
5.44
1.00
6.67
1.1
0.12
1.06
12.3
<0.2
2.4
4.2
45
12.9
30
0.08
* Measured in the water saturation extracts.
21
-------
properties of soils is different for the clover and the corn
fields. However, there are increased concentrations of HC1-
extractable orthophosphate, manganese, nickel, lead, chromium,
and total nitrogen, and water-soluble potassium in the soils as
a result of waste application.
None of the heavy metals analyzed showed excessively high_
concentrations in the HC1 extracts. For example, a high chromium
concentration (2.25 percent) was present in the waste; however,
its concentrations in the treated surface soils were only 3.2
and 1.1 yg/g, respectively, from the clover and corn fields.
The data suggest that either the application rate, which is
unknown, was low or that the heavy metals were present in forms
of which very little can be extracted by 0.1N_ HC1 . Thus, the
levels of heavy metals measured in the HC1 extracts may not be
indicative of the total concentrations in the soil. Based on
the relatively low pH of the surface soil, some heavy metals
(e.g., Zn, Ni , Cu, Cr, etc.) would be more available to plants
than would normally be expected.
Plant analyses--Resu!ts of the chemical analyses of corn
grain and clover tissue are presented in Table 6. Concentrations
of nitrogen and potassium were increased, particularly in clover.
These increases suggest that the tannery waste cultivated at this
site may be an important source of nitrogen and potassium for
clover. The nitrogen content (6.75 percent) of the waste is a
good indicator of this nutrient value.
Waste application resulted in significant increases in lead
and chromium concentrations in the clover tissue, and slight
increases in zinc concentrations. These findings do not agree
with Allaway (19), who found that chromium addition to soil
generally caused only small changes in tissue chromium concentra-
tions. The elevated tissue concentration of chromium may be
beneficial to animals consuming the hay since chromium is
essential for normal glucose metabolism (20). However, this
concentration (77.1 yg/g) may also have cuased phytotoxicity in
clover.
Elemental concentrations were generally lower in the corn
grain than in the clover forage (Table 6). This suggests that
heavy metals probably accumulated in the roots and forage; they
were not translocated to the grain. The project scope did not
allow for sampling and analysis of plant roots or forage.
Overall, the impact of waste application on the elemental com-
position of corn grain appears to be insignificant.
Summary
Land cultivation at this site has been practiced since 1961.
The waste is primarily a slurry from the scrubber of a tannery
22
-------
TABLE 6 . CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF CLOVER AND CORN FROM
THE CONTROL AND TREATED PLOTS
PENNSYLVANIA SITE
Element
Clover
Corn Kernel
Control
Treated*
Control
Treated*
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Na
B
Se
Mo
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Co
Zn
1.79
0.34
0.36
1.48
0.28
0.14
315
7.88
<0.016
5.06
712
120
12.27
28.75
3.12
32.2
0.09
1.56
63.75
_ _ _ _ °/
2.03
0.34
0.70
1.36
0.25
0.16
1 1 rt / n
- - - - yg/g -
282
5.71
0.05
2.38
464
119
12.24
10.52
7.18
77.1
0.20
0.52
72.82
1.23
0.22
0.25
0.01
0.07
0.08
16.2
--
--
97.3
6.43
2.23
8.60
2.56
5.9
0.04
0.33
32.79
1.41
0.30
0.28
0.01
0.09
0.07
16.4
--
--
81.8
7.04
1.86
8.98
2.34
4.9
0.04
0.30
29.88
* Average of three samples
23
-------
finishing plant, which is used as a nutrient source and an
organic amendment.
Surface soil and vegetation (corn and clover) were sampled
and analyzed for plant nutrients as well as various trace
elements and heavy metals. Waste application increased the
total nitrogen, water-soluble potassium, and HC1-extractable
nickel, lead, and chromium in the soil. Tissue concentrations
of nitrogen, potassium, zinc, lead, and chromium in clover were
significantly higher in the waste-treated plot than in the
control plot. However, the nutrient level and the heavy_metal
concentration in the corn grain were not affected appreciably
by waste treatment.
The data suggest that the tannery waste disposed at this
site may be a good source of nitrogen for crops. Also, the
high chromium levels in the hay may be considered as a supple-
ment for animals consuming the forage.
OKLAHOMA
Introduction
As part of its land cultivation program, a major oil
company initiated a field study of oily waste land farming. The
purpose of this study was to evaluate the cost effectiveness and
environmental impacts of land farming, including heavy metal
accumulation in soil and oil degradation rates. Also evaluated
were the effects of nitrogen application and crops on oil
degradation.
Although other petroleum refineries are practicing land
cultivation, the work at this site was unique in its detailed
experimental impacts, including potential heavy metal uptake by
an agronomic crop grown on the oil-treated soil.
In this report, the various disposal methods for refinery
wastes are reviewed, and the preliminary results from the field
study are discussed.
Refinery Waste Disposal
Based on the findings from site visits to 16 petroleum
refineries in the United States, Lofy (21) listed 17 waste
streams requiring disposal and discussed nine treatment and/or
disposal technologies that were used by the refineries. Accord-
ing to Lofy, these waste streams are hazardous because of the
presence of one or more contaminants at toxic levels. The con-
taminants in many cases are a combination of oil and one or
more heavy metals.
24
-------
Some of the various technologies for treatment and/or
disposal of these potentially hazardous waste streams are as
follows:
Landfil1 ing
Landspreading
Lagoons, ponds, sumps, and open pits
Incineration
Deep we!1 disposal.
Landfil1ing--
Landfilling is presently the most widely used method for
disposing of all types of petroleum refinery wastes. The
environmental adequacy of this method is contingent upon the
types and characteristics of the wastes, as well as upon systems
of operation and specific site geologic and climatologic condi-
tions. Many of the landfill sites that receive refinery wastes
would probably be designated as Class II-2 (California defini-
tion).
Landspreading--
Landspreading, or land cultivation, is a relatively inexpen-
sive method of disposal for petroleum refinery wastes, which is
being used by a growing number of refineries. Lofy indicated
that the rate of degradation and disappearance of the oily
wastes requires between 1 and 6 mo, depending upon the thickness
of the sludge deposit, oil content in soil, amount of fertilizer
(nitrogen and phosphorus) used, climate, and frequency of till-
ing. Not all refinery wastes are suitable for 1andspreading
(22); however, waste biosludge, tank bottoms, and API separator
sludge can be disposed of by this method. The major environ-
mental concern associated with 1 andspreading of refinery wastes
is the long-term implications of trace metal accumulation in
soil with repeated application.
Lagoons, Ponds, Sumps, and Open Pits--
Lagoons, ponds, sumps, and open pits have been used for
many decades by the petroleum industry for the disposal of
liquid and semi-solid waste. Because of their simplicity and
ease of construction, earthen or lined lagoons are used by many
of the newer refineries as primary or secondary sedimentation
chambers; aeration basins; emergency oil spill retention basins;
and as oxidation, storm runoff, evaporation, or thickening
ponds. There is considerable potential for significant contam-
ination of underlying water aquifers from inadequately lined
lagoons, because of improper lagoon location, and inadequate safe-
guards.
Incineration--
Refinery wastes that are sometimes incinerated include
spent caustic solutions, API separator bottoms, DAF float,
waste biosludge, and slop oil emulsion solids. Among the
25
-------
disadvantages of incineration are high capital cost, high recur-
ring annual operation and maintenance costs, and expensive air
emission control devices. Incineration can result in the
emission of volatilized metals such as beryllium, nickel, and
vanadium, along with fine particulate matter.
Deep Wei 1 Disposal--
Refinery wastes that are disposed of by deep well injection
include sulfidic solutions generated by caustic washing of crude
cracking and hydrotreating streams, sour water from hydrotreating
units, brines from desalter operations, and other weak solutions
from crude processing and preheating. The capital and operating
costs for deep well disposal can be considerable. The environ-
mental impacts of this method are not yet fully known.
Field Study
Prior to full-scale land cultivation of refinery wastes,
the oil company initiated a long-term field study to assess the
environmental impacts of soil incorporation of these wastes
under local conditions. The objectives of the study were to:
Determine the fate of oil, metals, and salts in the
waste added to soil
Measure the composition of surface runoff (if it were
allowed to occur)
t Determine if plants grown on oil-treated soil would take
up excessive amounts of heavy metals or salts.
This study was begun in April 1976 and will last for several
years.
Site Description--
The site used for the study is a landfarm and experi-
mental plots, which are adjacent to a tank farm owned by the
company.
The area has a temperate, subhumid climate. Summer is hot
and wet with dry spells. Cold Canadian air often invades the
area during the winter, leaving an average of 20.1 cm (7.9 in) of
snow. Annual precipitation is 71.5 cm (32.1 in) scattered
throughout the year.
The soil at the site is primarily a Vanoss silt loam that
is moderately well drained, friable, and slightly acid. This
soil is well suited to farming.
Field Experimental Procedures--
The field experiment - which was a completely randomized
design with three replications - was conducted in an area next
26
-------
to the landfarm (Figure 5). The area had 9 control and 18 oil-
treated plots, each measuring measured 6.1 m x 22.9 m (20 ft x 75
ft).
After the area was cleared and all plots were laid out,
ammonium nitrate and triple superphosphate were broadcast to all
plots at rates of 112 kg N/ha (100 Ib N/ac) and 19.6 kg P/ha
(17.5 Ib P/ac). In addition, half of the 18 treated plots
received another 112 kg N/ha of ammonium nitrate.
In May 1976, an oil sludge was applied at a rate of approx-
imately 5 cm (2 in) thick to the 18 treated plots (Figure 6).
This application was close to 5 percent oil on soil basis. The
sludge was from mixed sources - primarily API bottom material -
and was composed of 18 percent oil, 54 percent water, and 28
percent solids (biosludge and sand). The company had determined
the chemical composition of the sludge, which showed unusually
high concentrations of various metals.
After application, the sludge was allowed to dry. It was
then rototilled in the surface 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of soil.
Six subsequent tillings were done prior to the planting of winter
wheat (Tarn 101), which was seeded to three control and six oil-
treated plots in October 1976. The purposes of growing wheat
on the test plots were to determine the effect of wheat growth
on oil decomposition rate and the effect of oily waste on wheat
growth and heavy metal uptake. Winter wheat was harvested in
July 1977. Recorded yields were as follows:
Treatment (N applied) Grain Yield Index
Control (112 kg N/ha) 1.000
Oily Waste Treated (112 kg n Qfll-
., j i \ U.-7O-J
N/ha)
t Oily Waste Treated (224 kg , ~qn
HI * L \ I.L.-7U
N/ha)
There were average yields from the three replications. It
appeared that grain yield was not affected by the application of
oily waste at the same nitrogen level, but was slightly increased
as a result of additional nitrogen application. However, the
overall effect of landfarming of oily waste on wheat growth
should be evaluated, not only by the yield data but by the
chemical composition of leaf and grain samples.
The company also sampled soil from the control plots
bimonthly and analyzed for oil components, metals, and nutrients.
27
-------
LANDFARM
(40 ACRES APPROX.)
NO. 27
75'
TEST
PLOTS
NO. 1
RDAD
en
LJJ
u
u
i-
o:
o
in
I
u
i-
ENTRANCE
COMPANY GRAVEL ROAD
NOT TO SCALE
Figure 5. Experimental plots and landfarm at Oklahoma site
28
-------
r\>
UD
: V
a
Figure 6. One of the experimental oil-treated plots at Oklahom'a site.
-------
Land Cultivation Practices
The company practiced land cultivation on a limited scale
from 1975 to the summer of 1977, after which full-scale opera-
tions began. Prior to the initiation of land cultivation, oily
waste was disposed of by road spreading and landfill or burial.
The current 16-ha (40-ac) land cultivation site is located
in the tank farm, which is owned and operated by the company.
The Research and Development Department of the company recom-
mended that the optimum sludge loading rate be maintained at
5 percent oil (on soil basis), based on results of field experi-
mentation.
Earlier studies by Cresswell (22) showed that tilling of
refinery wastes (4 to 10 percent oil, soil basis) into the upper
15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of topsoil resulted in an average oil
degradation rate of 40 percent after 28 mo of oil exposure.
This is equivalent to 8.5 g oil per kilogram of soil per year.
No permit was required to operate a land
in Oklahoma if the operation started prior to
was the case with this site.
SCS Field Sampling and Chemical Analyses
cultivation site
July 1 , 1977, as
Field Sampling--
Pertinent information on the plots selected for field
sampling was furnished by the company and is presented in
Table 7.
TABLE 7. FIELD PLOTS SELECTED
OKLAHOMA SITE
FOR SAMPLING -
PI
ot
No.
01
1
i n
Soi
1
Nitrogen
Appl ied
Phosphorus
Appl ied
kg/ha
2
16
26
1
21
27
0
0
0
3.
3.
3.
67
73
65
112
112
112
112
224
112
19.
19.
19.
19.
19.
19.
6
6
6
6
6
6
On July 26, 1977, soil samples were taken from the 0 to 30
cm (0 to 12 in) and 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) depths from the
control and oil-treated plots. For both depths at each plot, a
total of 10 borings were taken, composited, and bagged.
30
-------
The company supplied grain samples from the plots listed in
Table 7. Ten grams of wheat taken from each of three control
plots (Nos. 2, 16, and 26) were composited as one sample. No
composite was made for grain samples from the treated plots.
Chemical Analyses--
Soil and plant samples were processed and analyzed for
selected plant nutrients, trace elements, and heavy metals,
according to the procedures given in the Appendix. The results
are presented in Tables 8 and 9.
Soil analyses Application of oily sludge resulted in
increases in pH, levels of soluble salts (EC), and 0.1N. HC1-
extractable sulfate and metals (except for molybdenum) in the
surface soil (Table 8). The data also suggest that sulfate had
leached below the surface soil. No significant movement of
heavy metals below the zone of oil incorporation was noted.
Oily waste addition significantly increased concentrations
of water-soluble Na, Ca, and Mg in the surface soil (Table 8),
and there was significant movement of these cations below the
plow layer. Also increased was the sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR), an indication of sodium hazard to growing crops. However.
the SAR values were low and would not pose any sodium hazard to
plant or soil.
Plant analyses--Resu!ts of plant analyses are presented in
Table 9. Data from the individual treated plots are given
together with averages. Note that plot No. 21 received 224 kg
N/ha (200 Ib N/ac), whereas all the control plots as well as
plot Nos. 1 and 27 received only 112 kg N/ha (100 Ib N/ac).
Application of oily waste resulted in significant reduction in
nitrogen uptake by wheat. This was due in part to the microbial
immobilization of inorganic nitrogen when the carbonaceous oily
waste was incorporated into the soil. Doubling the rate of
nitrogen fertilizer did not affect concentrations of nitrogen or
other elements analyzed in wheat grain from the treated plots.
Oil treatment increased the concentrations of B, Mo, Mn,
Cu, Ni, Pb, Cr, Al, and Zn in the wheat grain. (There were not
sufficient data to determine if the increases were statistically
significant.) These concentrations, in part, are reflected in
the soil analyses. The levels of these elements were not ele-
vated to phytotoxic or unsafe amounts for human or animal con-
sumption. However, the effects of prolonged disposal of oily
wastes on wheat grown in the treated soil are still indeter-
minate.
Conclusions
The data obtained by SCS Engineers are generally in agree-
ment with those found by the oil company (Huddleston, personal
31
-------
TABLE 8. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTROL AND
OIL-TREATED SOILS AT OKLAHOMA SITE
Control Soil Depth (cm)
Parameter
pH
EC, mmhos/cm
Total N, %
Ortho-P
S04
Mo
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Co
Ag
Al
Ti
Zn
B
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Cl
SAR
0-30
6.6
1.0
0.10
5.6
18.7
0.27
6.8
22.3
0.5
1.0
1.2
0.08
0.03
0.20
0.06
140
0.35
1.5
<0.2
5
29
151
28
50
0.09
30-60
6.3
0.8
0.09
Treated Soil
0-30
7.0
2.9
0.13
- 0.1|\[ HCl-Extractable, yg/g
0.8
12.5
0.22
8.8
7.6
0.7
0.9
0.1
0.08
0.01
0.17
0.08
130
0.80
1.6
<0.2
7
8
106
43
78
0.15
6.3
625
0.24
9.8
70
26.8
2.3
160
11.3
0.11
0.62
0.17
135
2.90
118
uble*, yg/ml -
<0.2
76
39
710
120
33
0.69
Depth (cm)
30-60
6.2
1,6
0.09
0.7
212
0.26
7.2
9.7
1.3
0.5
1.7
0.2
0.01
0.22
0.03
155
0.85
2.6
<0.2
47
17
250
88
50
0.64
* Measured in the water saturation extracts.
32
-------
TABLE 9. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF WHEAT GRAIN FROM THE CONTROL
AND TREATED PLOTS AT OKLAHOMA SITE
Element
N
P
K
B
Mo
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Co
Ag
Al
Ti
Zn
Control Plot*
2.74
0.32
0.41
1.38
1.69
48.3
21.67
3.81
2.5
<0.05
0.42
0.11
0.19
0.33
0.68
0.73
61.0
1
2.40
0.33
0.38
2.75
2.45
55.0
37.50
5.38
5.0
1.0
3.13
0.15
0.06
0.33
0.50
0.26
72
Treated
21
- 1
1.11
0.34
0.36
uy/9 ~ ~
2.75
4.33
48.3
41.25
5.75
5.0
<0.05
2.5
0.18
0.15
0.29
1.40
0.73
73.75
Plot No.
27
1.16
0.34
0.39
2.12
3.39
50.4
40.00
5.38
2.75
1.23
2.92
0.20
0.06
0.13
1.31
0.38
70.0
Avg.
1.57
0.33
0.38
2.54
3.39
51.2
39.58
5.50
4.25
--
2.85
0.18
0.09
0.25
1.07
0.46
72.17
* Composite was made from plot Nos. 2, 16, and 26 samples.
33
-------
communication). Based on the first-year results, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
t Application of oily waste significantly increased the
concentrations of heavy metals in the surface soil. To
a lesser extent, plant uptake of these metals was also
increased, but metal concentrations had not reached
phototoxic levels.
No significant movement of heavy metals beyond the zone
of incorporation was found.
Oil treatment decreased the nitrogen content in the
wheat.
TEXAS
Introduction
The various types of refinery waste and current disposal
technologies for such wastes are discussed previously with the
Oklahoma site. The Texas site differs from the Oklahoma site
in the following aspects:
Different waste (API separator sludge) and soil types
Longer site operation history
No crops grown
Greater precipitation than at the Oklahoma site.
The objective of this field study was to determine the
effects of land application of oil refinery waste on soil
properties (including heavy metal accumulation) and on plant
uptake of heavy metals.
Site Description
The site is located in southeast Texas near the Gulf of
Mexico. The refinery occupies about 1,315 ha (3,000 ac) of land
and refines 64,000 nr3 (400,000 bbl ) of oil daily.
Two land cultivation areas are located within the refinery
complex, approximately 0.8 km (0.5 mi) from the waste sources.
The older area, 6.1 ha (15 ac) in size, has been abandoned for
several years. The newer cultivation site consists of two 4.1-ha
(10-ac) plots (Figure 7), one that has been in use for 4 yr, the
other for 7 yr. Neither plot had received fertilizer or pesti-
cide applications. Dikes were built along the perimeter of the
plots to prevent surface runoff of oi1 - contaminated water.
Common vegetation in and around the plots includes nutgrass,
crabgrass, cockleburs, and unidentified weeds.
34
-------
CO
LAGOON NO. 1
EXPERIMENTA
LANDFARM
OIL-TREATED
PLOT
NOT TO SCALE
HOUSTON SHIP CHANNEL
CONTROL AREA
(NO OILY SLUDGE APPLIED)
Figure 7. Landfarm area, Texas site.
-------
The climate is conditioned by the Gulf of Mexico. The
average temperature is approximately 12°C (55°F) from November
to February and 26°C (80°F) from July to August. Annual preci-
pitation averages 121 cm (48 in) and is distributed throughout
the year with more rain falling in the summer and early fall.
There was an unusual amount of precipitation in 1976, as 18.5,
11.7, and 15.5 cm (7.3, 4.6, and 6.1 in) of rainfall were
recorded for the months of September, October, and November,
respectively.
The soil is primarily clay that has a layer of coarse soil
particles deposited from either settling pond muds or dike
material. As a result, the surface 5.1 cm (2 in) has a texture
similar to that of loamy sand. The nearest surface waters are
the Houston Ship Channel and a wastewater treatment lagoon
(Figure 7). Depth to water table is not known but is estimated
at 3 m (9.8 ft).
Land Cultivation Practices
Land cultivation has been practiced at the site for several
years for disposal of refinery wastes, which primarily include
API oil-water separator sludges.
An average API oil-water separator sludge consists of an
emulsion with 8.3, 58, and 33.7 percent of oil, water, and
solids, respectively. The chemical composition of the sludge
deposited at this site is presented in Table 10. Concentrations
of copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc are higher than values
normally reported for soils, while concentrations of other
elements are either lower than or equal to soil values. Since
the oily sludge is alkaline (pH 8.1), it is likely that the
heavy metals would be retained in the surface soil in forms not
readily available for plant uptake.
The refinery generates about 29,600 m3 (185,000 bbl ) of
oily sludge a year. The sludge is pumped from the bottom of an
API oil-water separator into one of the two settling pits,
where it is stored for 1 or 2 yr. When a pit is full, the
sludge is dewatered by decanting. The sludge is then removed by
clamshell, loaded onto dump trucks, and hauled to the landfarm
area.
Land cultivation operations entail the spreading of oily
sludge with a track dozer to a depth of about 10 to 12.5 cm
(4 to 5 in). This depth is equivalent to an application rate
of about 224 t/ha (100 tons/ac). After partial drying, the
sludge is incorporated into the surface soil by rototilling and
by subsequent monthly disking with a heavy duty disk harrow.
When the sludge is first applied, the soil is black and tends to
clump. As the oil decomposes, the soil turns gray and then
brown with a loose or powdery appearance. According to past
36
-------
TABLE Id CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF API
OIL-WATER SEPARATOR SLUDGE AT TEXAS SITE*
El ement
N
P
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Ba
As
B
Cd
Cr
Hg
Mn
Ni
Pb
Zn
Cl
Cone. Uig/g)t
400
222
80
410
5,900
1 ,600
140
4
3
0.42
640
3
83
102
80
331
195
Constituent
Oil
Water
Sol ids
Oil Fractions
Normal and
branch paraffins
Aromatics
Polycycl ies
PH
Specific gravity
Cone. (%}
by weight
8.3
58.0
33.7
by volume
46.7
46.7
6.6
8.1
1 .55 @
«n°F
oU r
*Analyzed by the company laboratory (August 1976).
tDry weight basi s.
37
-------
experience, when the oil content of the surface soil has
decreased to about 2 to 4 percent, the soil is deemed ready to
receive the next application.
The estimated cost of waste disposal by this land cultiva-
tion method is $3.90 to $10.50/m3 ($3 to $8/yd3), including
cost for dredging and transporting sludge from settling pits
to the disposal site. An additional $11,000/yr is spent on
site management.
Field Sampling and Chemical Analyses
Field Sampling--
Soil and vegetation sampling was conducted in November 1976
Ten soil samples from the surface layer (0 to 15 cm) were taken
randomly from various spots within the disposal or treated plot.
Ten samples were taken from the same dpeth at off-site control
plots where similar plant species were growing in untreated soil,
(Sampling spots are marked by X's on Figure 7). A portion of
soil from each group of 10 samples was combined to make a
composite sample. In-depth investigations of the impact of
land cultivation of refinery wastes on soil, groundwater and
surface waters and on the prevalent vegetation were not within
the scope of this project.
Cocklebur and nutgrass, the two common types of vegetation
in the area, were sampled from the same locations where the
soil samples were obtained. A composite was made for each type
of vegetation prior to processing the samples.
Chemical Analyses--
Soil and plant composite samples were processed and
analyzed for selected plant nutrients, trace elements, and
heavy metals, according to the procedures described in the
Appendix.
Soil analyses Chemical analysis of the surface soil (0 to
15 cm deep) inch cated that soil from the oil-treated plot con-
tained higher levels of soluble salts, TKN, and organic carbon
than soil from the off-site control plot (Table 11).
Concentrations of HC1-extractable sodium, zinc, and
selenium increased considerably, while those of other trace
elements increased only slightly from land cultivation of oil
refinery waste (Table 11). The lead levels in the treated and
control soils were high. The explanation may be that lead
content is naturally high in the soil around the disposal site;
or the control plot may have been previously contaminated with
the oily sludge, which was high in lead. Another possibility is
that the lead may be from the local atmosphere which, due to
automobiles, may have a high lead concentration. As discussed
38
-------
TABLE 11. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTROL AND
OIL-TREATED CLAYEY SOIL AT TEXAS SITE
1
Parameter*
PH
EC, mmhos/cm
Oil , %
TKN, %
Org. C, %
P
Na
B
Mn
Ni
In
Se
Mo
Cd
Pb
Control
7.
2.
0.
2.
17.
185
0.
65
4.
53.
0.
0.
0.
212
41
21
080
10
5
2
8
5
01
6
06
Treated
7.
3.
2.
0.
5.
17.
375
0.
71.
5.
71.
0.
0.
0.
242
40
91
06
134
10
5
22
6
3
5
028
55
06
*Electrical Conductivity (EC) and B (vg/ml) were
measured in the saturation extracts; other elements
in ppm (yg/g) were determined in 0.1N[ HC1 extracts.
39
-------
later, vegetation in the area also accumulated large amounts of
lead.
Plant analysesVegetative samples were taken from nutgrass
leaves and cocklebur seeds. Nutgrass was considerably younger
in the oil-treated plot than in the control plot, while cocklebur
from both treated and control plots was of about the same age
when the samples were taken. Cocklebur seeds were selected for
analysis since the leaves were old and dry at sampling time.
Land cultivation at this site increased sodium, boron,
nickel, zinc, molybdenum, and lead concentrations in the nut-
grass (Table 12); differences in these elements were not as
marked in cocklebur seeds. Except for nitrogen, phosphorus, and
boron, trace element concentrations in cocklebur seeds were
lower than those found in nutgrass tissues.
Concentrations of zinc, nickel, and, in particular, lead
were high in nutgrass grown on the oil-treated plot. The lead
values are comparable to the lead concentrations in pasture
grasses in a lead-contaminated area near Antioch, California
(Ganje, personal communication). Normal lead concentrations in
the leaves and seeds of agronomic and vegetable crops are gen-
erally less than 15 ppm and 5 ppm, respectively. The data
suggest that nutgrass and cocklebur seeds have accumulated sig-
nificant amounts of lead, particularly from oil-treated plots.
Summary
To obtain basic data on the possible environmental impact
of land cultivation of an API sludge at the Texas site, surface
soil and natural vegetation were sampled and analyzed for
chemical characteristics and elemental composition.
Soil analyses indicate that land cultivation of the oily
waste increased soluble salts, TKN, and organic carbon in the
soil. Concentrations of HC1-extractable sodium, zinc, and lead
were also increased from waste application. The data identify
the accumulation of lead in soil; however, the extent of lead
contamination is not known, since background samples are also
high.
Analyses of nutgrass leaves and cocklebur seed collected at
the site show that concentrations of zinc, nickel, molybdenum,
and lead are significantly higher in the treated than in the
control plots. The lead concentrations are also higher regard-
less of waste application, which is indicative of vegetative
contamination by lead in the general vicinity of the site.
40
-------
TABLE 12. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF NUTGRASS AND COCKLEBUR SEEDS SAMPLED FROM
THE CONTROL AND OIL-TREATED PLOTS AT TEXAS SITE
El ement
N
P
Na
B
Mn
Ni
Zn
Se
Mo
Cd
Pb
Con
1
0
2,
7
63
1
93
0
7
0
61
Nutgras
trol
%
.44
.17
- - yg/g
062
.6
.9
.8
.23
.1
.41
.5
s
Trea
1.
0.
- -
6,1
15
48.
6.
131 .
0.
9.
0.
90.
Cocklebur Seed
ted
42
11
87
7
3
9
23
5
41
5
Control
3
0
1,
28
18
3
43
0
4
0
11
.05
.29
- -
000
.8
.6
.8
.04
.2
.15
.2
Treated
%
1
0
yg/g - -
14
19
3
53
0
8
0
23
.07
.16
687
.1
.1
.1
.04
.7
.15
.2
-------
SECTION 3
CASE STUDIES OF LAND CULTIVATION PRACTICES
OVERVIEW
To gain more practical and in-depth knowledge about opera-
tional aspects of land cultivation, six active sites were
visited. During these visits, management and operating personnel
were interviewed, walking surveys of the cultivation area were
conducted, and operational activities were observed. Information
obtained from these visits was then compiled into the case study
reports that follow. Five of the case studies are presented in
detail, with the sixth (the Michigan site) presented as a much
less detailed "mini" case study.
Site selection was based on obtaining a representative
sampling of waste types, and on climatic conditions. The matrix
in Table 13 indicates in general terms the waste and climate at
each of the six case study sites.
TABLE 13. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND
CULTIVATION CASE STUDY SITES
Site
Waste Type
Climate
Southern
Cal iform'a
Illinois
Rhode Island
Indiana
Odessa, Texas
Michi gan
Oily
Mixed industrial
Organic chemicals
Soap and detergent
Municipal refuse
Pulp and paper
Dry, mild all year
Wet, cold winters and hot
summers
Wet, cold winters and hot
summers
Wet, cool winters and hot
summers
Dry, cool winters and hot
summers
Wet, cold winters and cool
summers
42
-------
Information presented in each case study report includes a
description of the site and the waste; a history of activities;
method of waste application and storage; environmental factors;
state regulations; a summary of equipment, personnel, and costs;
planned final site use; and public response and problems
encountered.
Each site has encountered problems to varying degrees. In
general, the problems have tended to be unique to each site and
were not insurmountable. Odor problems have been noted at
several sites; different mitigation measures were taken to solve
this problem. No other significant environmental problem has
been detected by existing monitoring programs or by state and
local regulatory agencies. In terms of economics, persons
involved with each of the six operations generally feel that
land cultivation offers cost benefits when compared to the other
viable alternative methods of waste disposal.
Of the six states represented in the study, only Texas has
specific regulations that address industrial wastewater/sludge
disposal by land cultivation. However, the Texas regulations do
not cover the municipal solid waste being land cultivated at
Odessa. Therefore, each of the six case study sites has been
handled by the appropriate state and local regulatory agencies
on an individual review basis.
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Summary
Land was acquired at this site over 20 yr ago for the
disposal of oily wastes, which are now produced by about 15 oil
companies operating in the area. These wastes are primarily
drilling muds, although oil and water mixtures from oil storage
tank bottoms contribute substantially to the waste input. Some
oil spill debris has also been disposed of at this site. Land
cultivation of the oily wastes has been practiced since 1959.
The site is located 365 m (1,200 ft) from the Pacific Ocean
on a wide alluvial plain. Shallow perched groundwater underlies
the site at 9.1 m (30 ft); the aquifer which supplies drinking
water to the area underlies the site at 60 m (200 ft). Oil
migrating vertically from the disposal area can reach the perched
water but not the aquifer. The only nearby surface water is the
Pacific Ocean to the west of the site.
Previous investigations at the site (23) indicate that some
oil may be migrating from the upper layers of the land cultiva-
tion area to the perched water below. However, the disposal
site may not be the sole source of this oil.
43
-------
The original loose sand at the site has been transformed
into a dark, silty sand by microbial decomposition of the oil and
by the presence of large volumes of waste drilling muds in the
input waste. Soil is more consolidated in the disposal area and
supports scattered vegetation as allowed by dozer activity.
Those portions of the site that have been idle for several years
show no signs of oil in the soil and have no hydrocarbon odor.
Chemical analyses of soil samples collected at the site
indicated significant increases in pH, TKN, organic carbon,
sodium, soluble salts, boron, and levels of HC1-extractable
nickel, manganese, zinc, and lead in the treated soil. Plant
uptake of sodium, manganese, zinc, and lead from the treated
soil also increased.
History of Land Cultivation Activities
In 1954, 12 ha (30 ac) of beach land were leased to a
private contractor for use as an oily waste disposal site. The
land consisted of Pleistocene sand dunes, still visible to the
west of the site. This area was first utilized as an oil sump,
where oily wastes were lagooned until 1959. In 1959, another
14 ha (35 ac) were leased directly west of the original property.
Land cultivation operations began in both areas, and the wastes
were mixed with indigenous sands. Surrounding land was used
primarily for agricultural ,$nd., more recentlys for residential
purposes. The original contractor is still active at the site.
Site Description
The site is located approximately 113 km (70 mi) northwest
of Los Angeles on the Southern California coast. Figure 8
indicates the general area of the site. Oily wastes have been
disposed of on the site since 1955; land cultivation has been
practiced since 1959.
Land Area and Topography--
The site contains a total of 26 ha (65 ac), with current
land cultivation activities confined to a 12-ha (30-ac) parcel
of land on the western side of the plot. Figure 9 shows the
layout of the site and indicates the area of current activities.
Vacuum trucks used to transport wastes enter the site by a dirt
road on the south side.
Topographically, the site is located at the mouth of a wide,
relatively level alluvial plain that empties into the Pacific
Ocean. The site itself exhibits a gradual western sloping relief
of approximately 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft) due primarily to on-site
grading.
44
-------
en
SSNTA MARIA
»»,***?* <« v~*| _.--,.. \ \v-^\-"y^y'
v £7j>iN r u.' a A' A 'X -^. /I A/TORESI
^'»OT,wtoM ,'psPE CO»»OR | ^'n . .X/O ?, L^
SANTA BARBAR
--=»i/C.KsW P.»e> 3»|W«,
'«»_ It*"" . MTI ""'
LOS ANGELES Ml
nta Monica Bav
HIGHWAY MARKERS
INTERSTATE fit?) UNITED STATES (4[}J STATE (^9) COUNTY \Jj\
ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS
OTHER DIVIDED HIGHWAYS
PRINCIPAL THROUGH HIGHWAYS
OTHER HIGHWAYS
Figure 8. Location of Southern California site.
-------
BER.M
FENCE
CROSS-SECTION
ACCESS ROAD
Figure 9. Southern California site map.
46
-------
Surface Drainage Patterns, Surface Water and Groundwater--
ine site is located approximately 365 m (1,200 ft) from the
Pacific Ocean, which is the only significant surface water in
tne area. All drainage is in a westerly direction toward the
ocean. To contain runoff on site, a 1.8-m (6-ft) earthen berm
has been constructed on the west and south sides of the site.
The surface hydrology consists of limited runoff in a
westerly direction during periods of intense precipitation.
Runoff is limited due to high permeability of the sandy surface
soils and the relatively flat topography.
Subsurface hydrology consists of: (1) shallow perched
water at a depth of about 9.1 m (30 ft), and (2) an aquifer at
a depth of about 60 m (200 ft). The aquifer, rather than the
perched water, is a water supply for the area. Since there is
no hydraulic continuity between the aquifer and the perched
water, any infiltration of oily wastes could affect only the
perched water. Characteristics of the perched groundwater
system are addressed below.
The perched water table is defined vertically by the
impermeable sediments and horizontally by the ocean and inland
sediments. Since there is little or no contributing recharge
from the inland sediments, precipitation and runoff are the
only recharge sources of this perched water. Seasonal fluctua-
tions in the water level are radical, ranging from several
meters above the aquiclude to total saturation of the sands
during periods of intense precipitation. Movement of this
perched water is assumed to be seaward where discharge occurs.
Figure 10 illustrates the estimated groundwater elevations and
direction of movement based upon static water levels on March 19,
1976. Conductivity readings of the perched water show a TDS
value of 25,000 ppm, attesting to probable salt water intrusion
when hydraulic gradients permit.
Vegetation and Soil--
Natural vegetation at the site includes ragweed, golden
brush, ice plant, and various tall grasses. No vegetative cover
has been planted since the nearly continuous land cultivation
activities preclude establishment of such cover. Native vegeta-
tion is very sparse and scattered and is found primarily around
the edges of the cultivated area.
Information on the site's soils, geology, and hydrology was
obtained from available published reports and from observations
during well borings on March 19, 1976, performed as part of an
earlier project (23).
The United States Geological Survey defines the area of
the land cultivation operation as inactive dune sands that
parallel the ocean for several miles north and south of the
47
-------
site (24). These fine sands extend inland approximately 914 m
(3,000 ft) where they contact fine-grained, relatively imperme-
able, alluvium sediments of Pleistocene Age (see Figure 10). The
dune sands are relatively uniform in size, possibly enhancing the
adsorption of percolating waste oils and subsurface aeration.
Sand depths are approximately from 4.5 to 9.1 m (15 to 30 ft) in
this area. A typical soil profile to a depth of 9.0 m (30 ft)
is shown on Figure 11. The first 4.6 m (15 ft) is derived from
sieve analyses. Figure 12 shows the well logs for all wells
drilled at the site.
Below the permeable dune sands are several centimeters of
unconsolidated cobble-sized gravels, which were encountered in
three of the well hole corings at the site. An impermeable
layer of elastics from 45 to 60 m (150 to 200 ft) thick underlies
these gravels and provides an effective aquiclude for any
further vertical infiltration of waters.
Climate--
Climate at the site is typical of the Southern California
coastal area: summers and winters are mild and there is little
precipitation. Climatological data is summarized in Table 14
(25). Temperature varies from lows of 6°C (42°F) to highs of
23°C (73°F) (26). Annual precipitation averages about 32 cm
(13 in), which falls primarily in the rainy season between
November and April. Westerly winds prevail.
Related Studies
This site was previously studied in depth to determine the
impacts of oil spill debris disposal on local groundwater.
Results of that study are reported in detail in Reference 23 and
are summarized under "Environmental Factors:"
State Regulation
Regulations of the California Water Quality Control Board,
Los Angeles office, apply to operations at this site. The role
of the board is discussed under "Environmental Factors."
Waste Characteristics
Since 1959, the site has received various types of oily
wastes from the area's many oil companies. Drilling muds, as
well as oil and water mixtures from storage tank bottoms, have
constituted the largest portion of these wastes. Oil content in
the drilling muds, previously about 10 percent, has recently
decreased to about 5 to 7 percent. Some oil spill debris from
the Santa Barbara oil spill of 1969 has also been accepted at
the site, although specific quantities or locations of deposition
are unknown. Most of the oils within the oily wastes have been
crudes, although specific origins and oil types are nearly
48
-------
TO OCEAN
LEGEND
OIL & SAND Si
CLAY
COARSE GRAVEL ::::
SAND S§ii!@SM
PERCHED WATER il I I I I I
Figure 10. Cross section of Southern California site.
-------
DEPTH
F
1 '
2 -
3 ~
4 -
5 -
6 -
7 -
8 '
9 "
10 -
11 -
12 -
13 -
14 -
15 '
16 -
17 -
18 -
19 -
20 -
21 -
22 -
23 -
24 -
25 -
T. N
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 -
" 5 -
6 -
7 -
COLUMN
n»#**»**» »*»
»** **;;.«
..« *,*.» «*.*«»» .
sJ-i-'r1U*TV^1»*<_^
o i-, Q " j-. o
CLASSIFICATION
LOAMY SAND
BEACH SAND
(Note: All soil
classifications
are based on ASTM
43-2.1)
GRAVEL
CLAY
Figure 11 . Soil profile based upon sieve analysis.
50
-------
(J:
3
o
SAND
DUNES
D
y-
DEPTH
FT M
0-r 0-r
10
20
- 3.0
- 6.0
30-L 9.0J.
WELLS
BCD
1
LEGEND
NOT TO SCALE
FENCE I
BERM
WELLS A-D
SURFACE SAMPLING
CROSS-SECTION
ACTIVE AREA
ACCESS ROAD
SAND
COARSE GRAVEL
CLAY
SOIL SAMPLES
WATER LEVEL
OIL/SAND
FIGURE 12. WELL LOGS
51
-------
TABLE 14. SUMMARY OF CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
Precipitation
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Normal
6.8 cm
7.3
4.5
2.7
0.3
0.1
0
0
0.4
1.0
2.8
6.1
(2.7 in)
(2.9)
(1.8)
(1.1)
(0.1)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0.2)
(0.4)
(1.1)
(2.4)
Temperature
Maximum
18°C
18
18
19
20
22
24
24
24
23
22
19
(64°F)
(64)
(65)
(67)
(69)
(71)
(76)
(75)
(76)
(73)
(71)
(66)
Minimum
7°C
8
9
11
13
15
17
17
16
14
11
8
(45°F)
(47)
(49)
(52)
(55)
(58)
(62)
(63)
(61)
(57)
(51)
(47)
Mean Hourly
10.
11.
12.
13.
13.
12.
11.
11.
11.
10.
10.
10.
6 kmph
6
7
4
0
6
9
9
3
6
5
5
(6.
(7.
(7.
(8.
(8.
(7.
(7.
(7.
(7.
(6.
(6.
(6.
Winds
Speed Prevailing Direction
6 mph)
2)
9)
3)
1)
8)
4)
4)
0)
6)
5)
5)
W
W
w
wsw
wsw
wsw
wsw
wsw
wsw
w
w
w
Year 32.1 (12.6) 21 (70) 12 (54) 11.7 (7.3) W
-------
impossible to define. The oily wastes receive no pretreatment
before disposal at the site.
_ Records of waste type and volume received have been main-
tained, as required,by the California Regional Water Quality
Control Board, Los Angeles. According to these records, daily
amounts of oily waste received have ranged from 2.3 to 168 m3
Ub to 1,060 bbl) per day. Recently, cultivated quantities of
oily waste have averaged approximately 3,200 m3 (20,000 bbl) per
month. Figure 13 presents the annual waste quantities for the
years 1960 through 1976. The site operator indicated that for
the early part of 1977, input waste quantities averaged from
4,000 to 5,000 mj (25,000 to 30,000 bbl) monthly. In this 17-yr
period, a total of over 530,000 m3 of oily wastes have been
cultivated at this site.
Waste Application
The land cultivation procedures used at the site have
evolved by trial and error over its 22-yr operating history.
Site maintenance plays an important role in the land cultivation
operation. All active areas of the site are maintained level so
that ponding and runoff are minimized.
All wastes are transported to the site by truck. The access
road used by waste delivery trucks is graded and maintained in
good condition. Slopes from this road to the active area are
kept at about a 10 percent minimum so that the oily wastes can
gravity flow from the trucks onto the level active area (see
Figure 14).
After the oily waste is deposited in the working area, a
track dozer mixes it with sand and previously deposited oily
waste to promote aeration and contact with oi1-consuming bac-
teria. Figure 15 shows the track dozer and a recently mixed
plot. The dozer operator mixes the oil material with the sandy
soil by the combined action of pushing with the blade and churn-
ing up the soil with the tracks. Several passes over the plot
are usually sufficient for thorough mixing. A disk harrow is
used less than 5 percent of the time. Under environmental
conditions usually prevailing at the site, the blade provides
sufficient mixing. Mixing is halted only during periods of
very heavy rain.
Small dikes are constructed that divide the larger site
into smaller plots of 1.6 to 2 ha (4 to 5 ac). Oily wastes are
dumped from the vacuum trucks into a small plot for approximately
2 wk, until a total waste input of 1,900 to 2,400 m-3 (12,000 to
15,000 bbl) has accumulated. From 1 to 4 wk are required,
depending on weather conditions, for the waste to dry suffi-
ciently for the dozer to work the plot with its blade. This
operation, mixes waste and soil to a depth of 46 to 61 cm (18 to
53
-------
90 L TOTAL WASTE APPLICATION = 532,150 M3
m
ro
o
_l
D
Z
Z
t-
O
I-
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976
Figure 13 . Historical waste quantities
54
-------
Figure 14. Oily wastes deposited at Southern
California site.
Figure 15.
Mixing of oily wastes and sands at
Southern California site.
55
-------
24 in). After this mixing operations the plot is sufficiently
dry that reapplication of wastes is possible. Thus, oily wastes
can be reapplied to a given plot at 3- to 7-wk intervals,
depending on how long the mixture takes to dry. Each application
is at the rate of 950 to 1,500 m3/ha (2,400 to 3,750 bbl/ac).
Environmental Factors
The operation is monitored for environmental safety by the
California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Los Angeles.
This agency also maintains monthly records of the volume and
origin of the deposited wastes. Review of this agency's field
notes and discussions with field investigators indicate that only
a few minor difficulties have been noted during the 22 yr of
operation.
A monitoring program was previously devised for the site to
determine the following:
Environmental impacts of oily waste disposal by land
cultivation in coastal California's climate
The degree to which oil is decomposed by the soil
microorgani sms.
To implement this monitoring program, four wells were drilled at
site locations and depths noted on Figure 12. Well A was drilled
within the active area; Well B, in a recently active but then
idle area; and Wells C and D, off site and downhill from the
other wells. Water samples were later taken from each well for
analysis of several parameters, listed in Table 15.
During well drilling, soil samples were taken at several
depths, as shown on Figure 12. All soil samples taken during
well drilling were packed in ice and returned to the laboratory
for analysis. Then once per week for the following 5 wk, a
sample of soil/oil mixture was taken for analysis from the
surface or from just below the surface. The sampling point was
approximately 4.5 m (15 ft) south of Well A.
Tables 15 and 16 present the results of the various analyses
performed on oily soil and groundwater samples obtained from
Site A. Data in Table 15 pertains to samples taken on March 19,
1976. Table 16 presents data on subsequent surface soil/oil
samples.
Review of the analytical results in Tables 15 and 16 indi-
cates that oil may be migrating from the upper layers of the
land cultivation area to the perched water below. However, the
data is not extensive enough to prove that the land cultivation
site is the c^nly source of detached oil or to define the areal
limits of oil migration.
56
-------
TABLE 15. RESULTS OF SOIL AND WATER SAMPLE ANALYSES
WELLS A, B, C, AND D
en
Well/
Sample
No.
A 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
B 1
2
3
C 1
2
3
4
5
6
D 1
2
3
Type of
Sample
Soil
n
n
n
n
n
n
Water
Soil
n
Water
Soil
n
n
n
n
Water
Soil
li
Water
Depth of
Sample
m
ft
Parameter (in ppm unless otherwise
Moisture
Content
% by wt.
surface
0.9
1.5
3.6
4.8
6.9
9.4
3.3
3
5
12
16
20
31
11
11.6
12.1
3.3
10.7
22.1
19.6
Organic
Acid
75
570
420
60
990
60
60
20
Total
Organic
Nitrogen
834.0
552.0
703.0
115.0
116.3
46.2
42.7
36.4
noted)
Total*
P.
2053
949
1151
1289
1275
1449
375
1
Pb
3.0
4.2
3.0
2.4
5.2
1.0
4.0
0.8
Fe.
6900
1395
3360
3400
2025
3550
3900
252.5
surface
2.4
3.0
1.0
2.1
3.0
4.5
5.7
2.7
1.0
4.2
2.4
8
10
3
7
10
15
19
9
3
14
8
--
5.1
16.4
16.8
16.9
16.4
--
17.2
3.9
"
--
70
30
2304
180
582
330
270
420
60
69
--
294.0
43.4
72.2
40.6
39.2
48.3
359.0
33.9
76.2
26.6
--
9
1458
249
1824
645
116
0
1919
1437
0
--
0.7
3.0
5.8
1.6
3.0
3.6
1.0
5.0
2.4
0.7
__
100
2500
3538
3025
2835
3135
222.5
4375
4900
226.5
*Digested in
(continued)
. Concentration in ug/g of soil or water as received.
-------
TABLE 15 (Continued)
Well/
Sample
No.
Type of
Sample
Depth of
Sample
m
ft
Parameter
Total
Extractable
Hydrocarbons
mg/g
Oil Content
mg/g
Oil Fractions, percent
Paraffin
Aromatic
Polar
on
00
A 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
B 1
2
3
C 1
2
3
4
5
6
D 1
2
3
Soil
Water
Soil
H
Water
Soil
Water
Soil
n
Water
surface
0.9 3
1.5 5
3.6 12
4.8 16
6.9 20
9.4 31
3.3 11
surface
2.4 8
3.0 10
1.0 3
2.1 7
3.0 10
4.5 15
5.7 19
2.7 9
1.0 3
4.2 14
2.4 8
39.1
41.1
3.0
0.1
3.7
0.3
59.0 mg/£
39.1
0.1
53.0 mg/l
0.2
0.2
__
51.8
0.2
44.8 mg/l
0.6
51.8
27.2 mg/l
32.8
--
34.2
3.0
0.1
3.6
0.3
36.8 mg/l
32.8
0.1
23.4 mg/l
0.1
0.1
--
37.1
0.1
19.8 mg/l
0.2
37.1
7.2 mg/i
29.7
--
27.6
26.3
13.7
28.9
24.2
24.9
29.7
17.3
22.1
7.6
27.2
33.9
20.0
14.1
14.7
33.4
15.5
12.2
--
1.3
13.1
2.2
12.2
7.8
10.0
12.2-
6.6
7.7
6.2
2.0
--
9.9
12.9
5.5
17.4
9.7
3.3
57.9
--
59.3
60.5
84.0
58.7
67.9
64.1
57.9
76.0
70.1
86.0
51.9
--
56.2
66.8
80.0
67.8
56.2
81.1
-------
TABLE 16. RESULTS OF SURFACE SOIL/OIL SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Date
Samp
of
ling
Parameter
Total Extractable
Hydrocarbon , mg/g
01 1 Content,
mg/g
Oi 1 Fracti on ,
Paraffin
Aromat
Percen t
i c
Polar
3/19/76
4/7/76
4/19/76
4/21/76
5/5/76
39.1
42.0
31.4
29.0
34.5
32.8
30.7
27.2
26.3
31.6
29.7
27.5
31.5
26.3
27.6
12.2
9.5
10.8
11.7
11.2
57.9
62.9
57.6
61 .8
61 .1
-------
The concentrations of oil in soil samples taken from the
four wells range from less than 0.1 mg/g (at different depths
in Wells A, B, and C) to 34.2 mg/g at 1.5 m (5 ft) deep in
Well A. Although there are many anomalies, the overall trend
shows that the oil content of soil samples decreases with depth
in each well. However, the oil content of soil samples taken
from as deep as 9.4 m (31 ft) was relatively high: 0.26 mg/g
(or 260 ppm).
All water samples contained relatively high oil contents:
from 7.16 mg/1 at Well D to 36.8 mg/1 in Well A. This suggests
that oily material is reaching the perched groundwater, although
the oil source may not necessarily be the land cultivation site.
Analyses of upstream groundwater were not available for compari-
son. Seawater intrusion probably affects the perched water
farther inland than the site, so background water may also con-
tain oil from the site (24). The relative paraffinic, aromatic,
and polar oil fractions for oil taken from water samples are
close to the fractions taken from soil samples.
Oil may have entered the groundwater by downward migration
through the sand, or it may have been leached from the upper
soil profile during periods of high seawater intrusion, when the
groundwater elevations are near the surface. Also, oil explora-
tion and storage in the vicinity could contribute some of the
oil detected in the groundwater sampled.
Field Sampling and Chemical Analyses
Soil and vegetation samples were collected in November 1976
as a part of this study. Surface soil (0 to 30 cm) samples were
taken from a treated plot that received oily wastes in September
and a control plot which had never received oily wastes. Vege-
tation samples taken in the area of the soil samples included
tall grass ( D i s t i c h 1 i s sjri_c_a_t^a_), 'golden bush (Hapl opappus
e r i c o i d e s ), ragweed CAimbrc^siji chamissonis), and ice plant
(Carpobrb"tus edulis). The soil and plant samples were analyzed,
and the results are presented in Tables 17 and 18.
Land cultivation of oily wastes resulted in increases in
soil pH, soluble salt content, and levels of total Kj.eldahl
nitrogen (TKN) and organic carbon in the soil (Table 17). The
accumulations of soluble salts (expressed as electrical conduc-
tivity or EC) and organic carbon are of particular significance.
Salt-sensitive plants could be injured with the elevated salt
levels reported for the treated soil. However, the physical and
chemical properties of the soil should be improved with buildup
of organic matter derived from the oil.
Concentrations of HC1-extractable sodium and water-soluble
boron in the oil-treated soil increased dramatically over those
in the control soil. These concentrations, however, are not
60
-------
nJJ--r CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTROL
AND OIL-TREATED SANDY SOIL - SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Parameter*
PH
EC, mmhos/cm
Oil, %
TKN, %
Org. C, %
Ortho-P
Na
B
Mn
Ni
Zn
Se
Mo
Cd
Pb
Control
6.
0.
°-
0.
410
no
<0.
35.
1.
7.
0.
1.
0.
4.
04
40
006
16
20
4
5
5
022
3
14
2
Treated
7.
4.
2.
0.
2.
--pprn---
230
280
2.
55.
2.
40.
0.
1.
0.
5.
65
46
28
079
53
28
0
5
7
09
1
06
4
*Electrical Conductivity (EC) and B (ug/ml) were measured in
the saturation extracts; other elements in ppm (yg/g) were
determined in 0;1N HC1 extracts.
61
-------
TABLE 18. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME PLANT SPECIES GROWN ON THE CONTROL (C)
AND OIL-TREATED (T) SANDY SOIL - SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Element
Tall Grass
Golden Bush
Ragweed
Ice Plant
Ol
ro
N
P
Na
B
Mn
Ni
Zn
Se
Mo
Cd
Pb
1.12 1.49
0.15 0.16
- - yg/g - -
1875 2437
28 38
50.5 58
3.8 5.9
18.5 30.7
0.013 <0.013
1.6 4.7
0.26 0.62
5.5 20.3
1.57 1.76
0.21 0.28
- - yg/g - -
4560 5125
4.4 48
53 83.5
6.9 7.1
40.1 71.2
<0.013 <0.013
0.75 0.6
0.41 0.52
5.6 12.5
2.52 0.87
0.32 0.33
- - yg/g - -
2560 3375
102 96
88 95.4
6.9 8.5
101.4 190
0.04 0.125
1.2 0.71
0,05 0.05
3.12 18.0
1.29 0.91
0.21 0.21
- - yg/g - -
20937 36560
12 12
96.7 198
3.8 2.0
40.6 38.2
0.04 0.04
0.31 <0.1
0.10 0.21
3.12 3.28
-------
considered excessively high in terms of plant injury. Boron
levels in the treated soil may be beneficial to the vegetation
growing at the disposal area since the control soil is deficient
in boron.
The oil-treated soil contained significantly higher HC1-
extractable manganese, nickel, zinc, selenium, and lead than the
control soil .
itrogen and phos-
and plant species
oily wastes.at
and lead in plant
soils. There were
er manganese con-
golden bush and
hi gh 1evels of
Plant analyses indicate relatively low n
phorus contents irrespective of oil treatment
(Table 18). In general, land cultivation of
this site increased sodium, manganese, zinc,
tissues as compared to plants on the control
also species variations, as shown by the high
centrations in ragweed and ice plant than in
tall grass. Ragweed and iceplant accumulated
zinc and manganese, respectively.
Waste Storage
No waste storage facilities are provided at the site, since
weather conditions that preclude land cultivation activities
occur only a few days each year. The nature of the wastes are
such that disposal can be delayed with no adverse effects until
weather and soil conditions allow the wastes to be land culti-
vated .
Equipjnent Summary
Equipment at the site consists of three track dozers and a
disk harrow. Vacuum trucks used to transport oily wastes to the
site belong to the oil companies or contract haulers. The
dozers are used for mixing the waste into the soil and for site
grading. Little use is made of the disk harrow, primarily
because of equipment wear and because the track dozers provide
adequate mixing. One International Harvester 2025 and two 2D24
dozers are used. Due to the abrasive nature of the oil/sand
mix, as indicated by excessive wear to the undercarriage
expected life of a dozer is only 6 to 7 yr.
Personnel
The dozer operator is the only full-time (usually 60 hr/wk)
employee at the site. In addition to operating the dozer, he
performs all necessary equipment maintenance functions. Traffic
control is unnecessary since vacuum trucks arrive infrequently
throughout the day.
63
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Economic Summary
No overall cost information is available. The operator did
indicate that the disk harrow is more costly to operate than the
track dozer because of increased equipment wear. The oil/sand
mixture causes significant abrasion of all moving parts of the
disk harrow since the oily sand tends to stick and act as a
grinding compound.
The fee for dumping the oily waste is 3.6<£/l (40^/bbl).
Land lease costs are approximately 25 percent of the gross
income. Dozer operation and maintenance costs, including amorti-
zation, average $1,500 to $2,000/mo. Personnel costs, including
fringe benefits, are about $2,000/mo. No estimate of the cost
of utilities at the site (electricity and water) was available,
although water purchased from a nearby oil company costs the
operator 0.6
-------
Supporting Information
This section presents year-by-year tabulations of total
wastes received. The information was obtained from a review of
the files of the California Water Quality Control Board (CWQCB),
Los Angeles office. These files included Compliance Inspection
Reports prepared by the CWQCB. These reports indicate that no
adverse effects were noted from the waste dumping activities. A
memorandum from the Ventura County Public Works Agnecy was also
reviewed, dealing with monitoring performed at the site in 1974
in support of an environmental impact report. This monitoring
indicates that little migration of hydrocarbons was in evidence
at the site at the time of the investigation.
Tabulations of Total Wastes--
Year
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
Total
Yearly Waste Inputs
o
Total Input - m Total Input - bbl
,970
,050
,180
,195
,155
,420
,865
,185
,915
,885
,775
,565
,890
,535
,485
4,610
15,470
532,150
82
65
69
53
48
43
25
27
15
18
18
17
10
8
6
521
409
435,
334,
302
273
162
170,
100
118,
118
110
68
53
40
29
910
180
225
630
935
120
690
995
100
800
100
500
500
700
800
000
97.300
3,347,485
ILLINOIS
Summary
Since July 1973, Company X has been operating a combined
solid waste and industrial liquid waste disposal site in northern
Illinois. The site receives residential refuse, industrial
wastewaters and sludges from ten large industries in the area,
and some septic tank waste.
Over a year, the monthly input of industrialand septic
tank wastes averages approximately 3,030 m^ (800,500 gal),
65
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ranging from a low of 0 to a high of about 5,800 m3 (0 to
1.5 MG) . Approximately 70 percent of this waste stream, or an
average of 2,100 m3/mo (555 ,000 , gal), is industrial wastewater;
the remainder is septic tank waste. In addition, an average of
1,070 m6 (1,400 yd3) of refuse is disposed of daily in the
sanitary landfill area on the site.
Two disposal procedures are used at this site: landfilling
and land cultivation. Landfilling is used for the portion of
the industrial waste with a relatively high glycerine content.
Mixing this waste with other industrial wastes creates pumping
problems; therefore, it is placed in the landfill with the
refuse. Landfilling is performed at a ratio of about 0.05 m3
of wastewater/m3 of refuse (10 gal/yd3). Most of the industrial
wastewater and sludge, along with the septic tank waste, is land
cultivated. Land cultivation is conducted on 45 ha (110 ac) of
land by surface spreading and disking.
History of Land Cultivation Activity
Until early 1973, the land was a farm. At that time, it
was purchased as a disposal site, with zoning for the entire
63 ha (156 ac) changed to allow a sanitary landfill. Shortly
thereafter, company X assumed operation of the site from the
previous owner. It was assumed that the site had an expected
1ife of 25 yr.
Land cultivation of septic tank and industrial sludges has
been practiced at the site since the beginning of disposal
activities. Through 1976, the wastes were injected about 10 cm
(4 in) below the soil surface, using two 8.5-m3 (2,250-gal)
"honey wagons" equipped with rear plow and injector mechanisms.
Two International Harvester tractors were used to pull the
honey wagons. After injection of sludge, the fields were disked
to facilitate mixing with the soil. In 1977, this application
method was changed to surface spreading to enhance evaporation,
followed by disking.
Site Description
The site is located near Illinois State Highway 53, as
shown in Figure 16. It is owned and operated by company X.
Site Area--
The site covers a total of 63 ha (156 ha) (Figure 17). The
area is divided into six land cultivation fields - five of
approximately 8 ha (20 ac) and one of 4 ha (10 ac) - and the
landfill, which covers about 16 ha (40 ac). The remainder of
the land is used for two sludge holding basins, roads, and
buildings. Selection of the field to be used is based on a
rotating schedule, modified, if necessary, to ensure that all
wastes applied to a given field are compatible.
66
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CHICAGO
DISPOSAL SITE
Whiting
w\£% E. Chi<
Figure 16. Location of Illinois site.
67
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en
oo
MAINTENANCE BLDG.
OFFICE
UNLOADING AREA
SLUDGE PUMP & LOADING
RIG
SLUDGE STORAGE LAGOON
ACCESS ROAD
LANDFILL AREA
(40AC)
APPROXIMATE USABLE AREA (147 AC AVAILABLE).
PRESENT LANDFILL AREA ABOUT 40 AC. BALANCE
110 AC IN LAND CULTIVATION.
Figure
Site layout.
-------
Physical Features--
Terrain throughout the region is typical of much of the
Midwest. The land is relatively flat, with a few gently rolling
areas. The highest area is on the eastern side of the site,
sloping slightly to the west. All surface and groundwater
drainage is toward the Des Plaines River, which lies approxi-
mately 550 m (1,800 ft) west of the disposal site. Depth to
groundwater is about 10 m (32 ft). Large clay berms have been
constructed around the entire site to control surface runoff.
These berms are sized so that, at finished grades, 0.6 m (2 ft)
of freeboard will remain.
The access road enters the site from the north. Incoming
trucks check in at the office (Figure 17) and then proceed to
the holding basins at the northwest corner of the site, where
their sludge loads are emptied. An interior access road extends
to the landfill property at the southwest corner. This road
lies above the level of the surrounding land cultivation fields,
thereby serving as an additional berm to control and direct
on-site drainage.
Since the site is devoted to sludge disposal, on-site vege-
tation is quite sparse. Most of the area is bare soil, with
occasional patches of weeds and low brush. A small wooded area
lies to the southeast. Land to the east and south of the site
is still being used for agriculture.
Climate--
The climate of the area is typically midwestern, with hot
summers, dry cool falls, cold winters, and wet windy springs.
Sludge cultivation does not take place during the winter months
(November through February), as the ground freezes and operators
want to avoid runoff during spring thaws. Table 20 presents
climatic data.
Soil Types--
The soils at this site are comprised of Huntsville loam,
Lorenzo silt loam, and Romeo silt loam. Huntsville loam, the
predominant soil in the area, is a dark, moderately well-
oxidized soil formed in medium-textured alluvial sediments 120
or more centimeters thick. The surface 0 to 25 cm (0 to 10 in)
is black to very dark brown friable loam to gritty silt loam,
neutral and high in organic matter. The subsurface 25 to 102 cm
(10 to 40 in) is very dark grayish brown to yellowish brown
silty clay loam, neutral to slightly acid. Drainage decreases
drastically at lower depths as evidenced by the presence of
reddish brown mottles.
Native vegetation is mostly prairie, often with scattered
trees or brush. Pasture is the best use for most areas with
Huntsville loam. Drainage may be needed for satisfactory grain
farming.
69
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TABLE 20. SUMMARY OF CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Mnnt.h
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year
Precipitation
Normal
4.7 cm (1 .9 in)
4.1 (1.6)
7.0 (2.7-)
7.7 (3.0)
9.5 (3.7)
10.3 (4.1)
8.6 (3.4)
8.0 (3.2)
6.9 (2.7)
7.1 (2.8)
5.6 (2.2)
4.8 (1.9)
84.3 cm (33.2 in)
Temperature
Maximum
1°C (33°F)
2 (35)
6 (44)
14 (57)
21 (69)
26 (80)
29 (84)
28 (82)
24 (75)
17 (63)
8 (47)
2 (36)
15 (59)
Minimum
-7°C (19°F)
-6 (21)
-2 (29)
5 (40)
10 (51)
16 (62)
20 (67)
19 (66)
14 (57)
8 (47)
0 (32)
-2(29)
6 (43)
Hinds
Mean Hourly Speed
18.3 kmph (11.4 mph)
18.7 (11.6)
10.0 (11.8)
18.8 (11.7)
16.7 (10.4)
14.8 (9.2)
13.2 (8.2)
12.9 (8.0)
14.3 (8.9)
15.8 (9.8)
18.3 (11.4)
18.0 (11.2)
16.6 (10.3)
Prevail ing
Direction
W
W
W
W
SSW
SW
SW
SW
S
S
SSW
W
W
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State and Local Regulations
The state of Illinois regulates the site, although there
are no specific regulations dealing with land cultivation. The
state has two basic requirements for site operation: first,
state permits are required for each waste being cultivated;
second, groundwater monitoring is required.
Waste Characteristics
Sludges cultivated at the site are received from a variety
of sources. Major waste types received include:
t Sulfate wash water and cooling water from a natural gas
u t i 1 i ty
t SOg stack scrubber blowdown
Oil waste residue
0 Sulfate water and vegetable oils
API separator sludge
Soap manufacturing rendering waste, grease skimmings,
and glycerine pitch
Septic tank sludge.
In addition, minimal amounts of industrial wastewater and
sludge are received from several relatively small local indus-
tries .
Most of the waste has not received any pretreatment.
Approximately 284 m3 (75,000 gal) per day is land cultivated
during the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Most of the soap
manufacturing waste is disposed of, with the refuse, in the
landfill. Most of the remainder of the sludge and wastewater
is land cultivated.
This site is a commercial operation, disposing of wastes
generated by others for a fee. Because of this, the site
operator cannot release specific characteristics of the various
wastes.
Haste Storage/Transportation
All sludges and wastewaters are transported from the point
of generation to the disposal site in tank trucks. Refuse is
delivered in commercial packer trucks, and debris in open body
vehicles. Solid wastes are immediately landfilled. Liquids are
either dumped directly in with the refuse (all wastes which are
71
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not readily biodegradable are so handled) or are deposited in
one of two storage lagoons (Figure 17). Each lagoon is an
earthen basin with compacted clay bottom and 4,920-nr (1.3-MG)
capacity. Lagoon dimensions are 89 m long x 42 m wide x 4.6 m
deep (292 ft long x 137 ft wide x 15 ft deep). The very heavy
clay soil impedes percolation from the basins).
Figure 18 shows the south storage lagoon. In the center
background is the sludge pump, to the left of which is the sludge
loading rig. Figure 19 pictures the north lagoon, where waste
containing glycerine was previously placed. When this glycerine
waste was mixed with oily wastes already in the lagoon, pumping
problems resulted because of the thick, solid crust on the sur-
face.
Waste Applicati on
Land cultivation operations commence when the ground thaws
in the spring. Sludge is pumped from the lagoons into one of
the three 8.5-m3 (2,250-gal) honey wagons equipped with rear
attached plow mechanisms (see Figure 20). These tank trailers
are pulled by one of two International Harvester 125-hp tractors
(Figure 21), one with dual rear tires and the other with single
rear tires. The waste is then spread on the soil surface.
Figure 22 shows a field a few minutes after the sludge has been
spread. Pools of sludge stand in the area directly below the
tank trailer spreading nozzle, which can be seen at the center
rear of the tank in Figure 20. The fields are disked by one of
the tractors after sludge application. An International 250
(165-hp) tracked vehicle is used during muddy conditions.
Figure 21 shows the disk used.
When applying sludge, the empty tank trailer is driven to
the loading rig shown in FiguVe 18. The driver positions the
trailer under a hose in the rig, then opens a port on the trailer
top and starts the sludge pump. When the trailer is filled,
the pump is stopped, the port closed, and the tractor-trailer
proceeds to the field being used.
Six separate fields constitute the total 45 ha (110 ac)
currently utilized for land cultivation. Wastewaters are
applied on a rotating basis. During a typical 9-hr day, several
loads, of 8.5 m3 (2,250 gal) each, are spread on a single 8-ha
(20-ac) field. Total waste loading, between diskings, averages
approximately 60 m-Vha (6,250 gal/ac). If rain does not inter-
fere, sludge is applied at the above rate to a field during one
day. The field stands idle to dry the following day, and is then
disked the next day. Sludge can be reapplied to the field the
day after disking; thus each field can receive sludge every three
days .
72
-------
***--.;. ',:,^ .
V-V';; i -
'Tft
' i
Figure 18. South sludge holding lagoon with pump and loading rig in background,
f , A ^
, "
Figure 19^ North sludge holding lagoon showing effect of glycerine wastes.
73
-------
Figure 20. Sludge spreading tank wagon - Illinois site
FT gure 21 .
Tractor and disc used to mix sludge into soil
Illinois site.
74
-------
'**z
-------
During the 8-mo land cultivation season, six-day weeks are
normal, allowing two weekly sludge applications on each field.
Weather conditions and sludge quantity received do not allow
this application rate to exist for all six fields for the entire
8 mo, so the annual loading rate averages about 830 m3/ha
(86,700 gal/ac).
No fertilizers or other chemicals are added to the soil,
and no crops are grown. The operation is totally oriented
toward di sposal.
Environmental Factors
The state of Illinois requires that groundwater quality be
monitored. To meet this requirement, four 5-cm (2-in) diameter
monitoring wells are located at the corners of the property.
The wells extend approximately 10 m (32 ft) through the deep
clay layer into the gravel aquifer.
Two of the monitoring wells have been consistently dry.
Water from the other two wells is analyzed quarterly for TDS,
pH, Fe, Cl, and EC, with results reported to the state.
Analysis of the water samples is performed in the company's
laboratory. No surface water or soil monitoring is performed.
To date, no significant adverse environmental impacts have
been found. When the site was toured, some odors were noted,
especially near the sludge storage lagoons. The primary odor
noted was that of oil from the oily wastes. This odor was also
noticeable in the field where sludge was being spread. However,
the odors were very low level and were not detected off site.
Equipment and Personnel Summary
For the land cultivation activities at the site, the
following equipment is used:
Three 8.5-m3 (2,250-gal) honey wagon tank trailers
(Figure 20)
Two International Harvester (IH) Model 1066 (125-hp)
farm tractors (Figures 20 and 21)
One IH Model 250 (165-hp) track dozer
One standard IH farm disk (Figure 21)
One sludge pump and loading rig (Figure 18).
Two and one-half men (i.e. two employed full-time and one part-
time) are assigned to the land cultivation activities. Admini-
strative and maintenance personnel serve both the land
76
-------
cultivation and landfill aspects of the operation. No informa-
tion was provided regarding time allocation of these people to
the land cultivation effort.
Economic Summary
Activities at this site are a commercial disposal operation.
Cost information is considered to be proprietary and is closely
guarded. Some basic cost estimates were obtained and are
presented in Table 21. Disposal fees to customers normally
range from $3.96/nr3 to $8.72/m3 (1.5$/gal to 3.34/gal), dependent
on waste type. Higher fees are charged in emergency situations.
TABLE 21. COST SUMMARY, ILLINOIS SITE
Item
Capital
Cost
Year
Purchased
Annual
O&M Cost
Sludge storage lagoons $16,000 1975* $ 2,000
Sludge spreading
- IH 1066 tractor 16,000 1973
- IH 1066 tractor 8,000 1974
- IH 1466 tractor -- -- 1,200
(1 eased)
- 3 "honey wagons" 20,000 1975
- IH 250 track dozer 35,000 1976
- IH disk 2,200 1975
- 2 1/2 workers -- -- 37,500
(including fringe
benefits)
*Year constructed
Some consideration has been given recently to expansion of
the site. Exploratory talks were held with adjacent land
owners, which proved unfruitful due to exceptionally high prices
asked for the land, on the order of $62,000/ha ($25,000/ac).
These prices reflect the possible effects of expanding profitable
commercial operations located in mixed agricultural/industrial
areas.
Planned Final Site Use
Final site use after closure is intended to be either agri-
cultural or commercial. At the current rate of loading, about
20 yr remain before soil loading of contaminants would require
a cessation of land cultivation. Consideration is being given to
prolonging site life by stripping the upper 25 to 30 cm (10 to
77
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12 in) of soil when it becomes fully loaded. This stripped soil
would be placed in the landfill, and would extend the life of
the land cultivation fields.
Public Response and Problems Encountered
There has been very little public response, positive or
negative, to operations at this site. The area is basically
partially industrialized farmland, with farmers being the only
nearby resi dents.
As a public relations gesture, about five tours are con-
ducted annually for various environmental groups and school
classes .
The only significant problems are connected with the
storage lagoons. Tank truck drivers often did not get discharge
hoses deep enough into the lagoon, which caused severe erosion
of one bank. This was solved by the installation of a 60-cm
(24-in) culvert into which drivers place their discharge hoses.
The other problem is the mixing of oily and glycerine wastes,
previously discussed. This is being solved by segregating the
glycerine waste.
RHODE ISLAND
Summary
A Rhode Island chemical manufacturing plant utilizes both
landfilling and land cultivation to dispose of primary and
secondary (activated) wastewater treatment sludge. The chemical
plant produces a variety of dyes, dye intermediates, pigments,
and ethical Pharmaceuticals with batch production operations.
Thus, sludge composition varies substantially from day to day.
The sludge is applied to fields of a nearby turf farm
during the interval between turf stripping and reseeding. The
sludge is applied at a rate of approximately 117 m3/ha (12,000
gal/ac) per application. Either one or two applications are
made, depending on the farm's seeding schedule. When sod is not
being stripped and no cleared fields are available, the sludge
is landfilled.
Sod production requires the removal of topsoil from the
fields. Thus, the turf farm is interested in land cultivation
to obtain the benefits of the sludge as a soil conditioner. In
addition, the sludge supplies some nutrients, princinally
nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and helps to maintain the soil
pH of the fields in the desired range of 6.5 to 6.7.
Both preliminary greenhouse experiments and 2 yr of full-
scale field experience indicate that use of the secondary and
78
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primary sludge has some beneficial and no apparent detrimental
effects on soil fertility and turf grass production.
History of Land Cultivation Activities
The sludge that is land cultivated at this site is generated
at an industrial waste treatment plant which began operation on
April 15, 1974. Sludge generated from April 19, 1974, to May 19,
1975, was disposed of exclusively by landfilling. In May 1975,
land cultivation activities were initiated at a nearby turf farm.
In the months of May and August 1975, approximately 1,500 nr
(400,000 gal) of sludge were land cultivated. Arrangements
were subsequently made to begin land cultivation in the following
spring at a different turf farm.
During the late spring and summer of 1976, approximately
3,400 m3 (900,000 gal) of sludge were disposed of by land culti-
vation. Land cultivation activities concentrated on three
separate fields with a total area of approximately 16 ha (40 ac).
The annual loading rate on these fields averaged 212 m3/ha
(22,500 gal/ac).
Since turf is grown in an 18-mo to 2-yr cycle and land
cultivation of sludge only occurs between the turf harvesting
and reseeding of the field, land cultivation activities in 1977
will be conducted on areas different from those used in 1976.
Plans for 1977 are to increase the acreage used and the quantity
of sludge land cultivated. The specific fields to be used in
1977 have yet to be identified.
Site Description
This study site is located in Rhode Island, approximately
33 km (20 mi) from Providence. The 160-ha (400-ac) site is
shown in Figure 23. The site is owned and operated by a turf
farm, which hopes to benefit from the organic amendment and pH
stabilization properties of the sludge.
The waste source manufactures approximately 350 different
organic chemicals. The wastewater generated by production
processes is treated in an on-site, activated sludge treatment
system, and the resulting waste sludge is disposed either by
landfilling or land cultivation, with the majority of the sludge
being landfilled.
Topography and Soils--
The topography of the sludge-treated fields is nearly level,
with some gently sloping (less than three percent) rises or
depressions. The fields drain to the south into an unnamed
stream; but since the topography is so level, substantial over-
land flow normally occurs only during periods of very heavy
79
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co
o
CONTOUR INTERVAL - 10
SURFACE STREAMS
TURF FARM BOUNDARY
ENFIELD SOILS
BRIDGEHAMPTON SOILS
ELEVATION' DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL
Figure 23. Rhode Island case study site: topography and soils.
-------
rainfall. The vegetation on the fields is turf grass, the
commercial product of the turf farm.
An examination of Figure 23 shows that, though the treated
fields are nearly level, they are located in an area of moder-
ately hilly terrain. Outwash terraces, common in the area, have
soils that are normally classified in the Bridgehampton and/or
the Enfield series (27).
Bridgehampton soils are strongly acidic, well drained to
moderately well drained silt loam (27). Surface drainage may be
slow or rapid, depending on the slope and soil cover. Internal
drainage and permeability in the upper sequum are moderate.
The lower sequum may be water-logged in winter, early spring,
and after heavy rains because of the strongly contrasting
textures in the lower sequum and the substratum.
The Enfield soils are strongly acidic, well drained, nearly
level to undulating silt loam developed in a stratified glacial
drift (27). Available moisture is high in the solum but low in
the substratum, making irrigation necessary for some crops. In
addition, adequate applications of fertilizers and lime are
required for crop production.
Information on the subsurface geology at the disposal site
is provided by boring logs recorded during the installation of a
16.5-m (55-ft), I.l-m3/min (300-gal/min), groundwater well used
to irrigate the turf grass. The boring logs indicate that sand
and gravel were found from 0 to 3 m (0 to 10 ft); medium gravel
from 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft); hardpan and silt from 6 to 9 m
(20 to 30 ft); medium sand from 10 to 12 m (30 to 36 ft); sand
and gravel from 12 to 15 m (36 to 50 ft); and fine sand from 15
to 17 m (50 to 56 ft).
Climate--
Climatic data are presented in Table 22. In winter, the
temperatures are modified considerably, and many of the major
storms drop precipitation in the form of rain rather than snow.
The temperature for the entire year averages around 10°C (50°F),
ranging from a low of 8.3°C (47°F) to a high of 12.2°C (54°F).
January and February are the coldest months, with a mean tempera-
ture of about -2°C (29°F), while July is the hottest, with a mean
close to 23°C (73°F). Temperatures below -18°C (0°F) in winter
seldom occur, averaging less than two days in any month. The
annual average precipitation is approximately 109 cm (43 in).
Surface and Groundwatei
The surface water boundary of the river basin passes through
the northwest corner of the site,and the boundary of the ground-
water aquifer passes nearly through the middle of the site
(Figure 24). Based on measurements made in August 1959, depth to
groundwater ranges from about 6 m (20 ft) on the south edge of
81
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TABLE 22 , HISTORICAL CLIMATIC DATA FOR PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND
00
ro
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Yearly
Mean temperature
QC (OF)
Maximum Minimum
2 (36)
3 (38)
7 (45)
14 (57)
19 (67)
25 (76)
27 (81)
27 (80)
23 (73)
18 (64)
11 (52)
4 (40)
15 (59)
-6 (21)
-6 (21)
-2 (29)
3 (38)
8 (47)
14 (56)
17 (63)
16 (61)
12 (54)
6 (43)
1 (35)
-5 (23)
5 (41)
Normal
precipitation
cm (in)
8.9 (3.5)
8.8 (3.4)
10.1 (4.0)
9.4 (3.7)
8.9 (3.5)
6.7 (2.6)
7.2 (2.8)
9.9 (3.9)
8.3 (3.3)
8.3 (3.3)
11.5 (4.5)
10.5 (4.1)
108.6 (42.8)
Mean
wind speed
kmph (mph)
18.5 (11.5)
19.1 (11.9)
20.0 (12.4)
20.1 (12.5)
17.9 (11.1)
16.2 (10.1)
15.3 ( 9.5)
15.3 ( 9.5)
15.4 ( 9.6)
15.6 ( 9.7)
17.1 (10.6)
17.7 (11.0)
17.4 (10.8)
Prevailing
wind direction
NW
NNW
WNW
SW
S
SW
SW
ssw
SW
NW
SW
WNW
SW
-------
oo
CO
CONTOUR INTERVAL - 10
SURFACE STREAMS
TURF FARM BOUNDARY
GROUNDWATER CONTOURS
AQUIFER BOUNDARY
ELEVATION DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL
Figure 24. Rhode Island case study site
elevations.
aquifer boundary and groundwater
-------
the site to approximately 10 m (30 ft) along the northern edge.
Related data indicate that the groundwater table is approximately
1.5 m (5 ft) higher during wetter portions of the year (28, 29,
30, 31 , 32).
This groundwater aquifer currently has several productive
uses. Groundwater is periodically withdrawn during the summer
months to irrigate the turf grass. Although city water is
available, most of the residences located nearby rely on the
shallow aquifer for drinking water.
No monitoring wells currently exist at the site. However,
existing wells could be used to monitor groundwater quality.
Available data on ambient groundwater quality for the site are
summarized below (28):
Parameter Concentration (ppm)
Total dissolved solids 45
Total hardness 15
Iron 0.9
State Regulations--
The state of Rhode Island has no specific regulations or
guidelines dealing with land cultivation of wastes. Those
responsible for land cultivation activities are required to
inform the state as to where they dispose of their wastes.
Before initiation of activities, the operator of the chemical
plant provided the state with a waste profile and the results of
preliminary experiments conducted to determine the feasibility
of land cultivation of these wastes. State approval for the
land cultivation operation was received; however, no formal
permit was issued. The State Department of Health promulgated
emergency regulations in December 1977 that require the chemical
company to monitor the site. The monitoring method will be
established by the state.
Haste Characteristics
This- site's land-cultivated wastes are generated by a
chemical plant that produces approximately 350 different chemical
products. Most of the chemicals produced are dye intermediates,
dispersed dyes and pigments, organic pigments, and ethical
Pharmaceuticals. All of the products are manufactured in batch
process operations, and the product mix is different every day
of the year.
Wastewaters produced as a result of the production processes
have an average pH of less than 1. Lime is added to raise the
pH to approximately 7. After neutralization, the wastewater is
given primary treatment followed by flow equalization, activated
sludge aeration, and chlorination. It is then discharged to an
84
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adjacent river. Sludge removed during primary and secondary
clarification is discharged into a 19,000-m3 (0.5 x 106-gal)
concrete holding basin.
Sludge from the basin is pumped at approximately 5 to 7
percent solids content and disposed of either by landfilling or
land cultivation. The quantities of sludge generated, percent
solids as disposed, and method of disposal for the years since
the treatment plant became operable in April 1974 are summa-
rized below:
Sludge Generated and
Method of Disposal
(1,000 m3)
Land Average of Solids
Year Landfill Cultivation Disposed (%)
1974 35 0 4
1975 20 1.5 5
1976 34 3.4 7
Regardless of the method of disposal, the sludge is hauled
from the treatment plant by a contractor using either a 19- or
23-m3 (5,000- or 6,000-gal) tank truck. The distance from the
treatment plant to the land cultivation site is approximately
20 km (12 mi), and the contractor charged $0.004 per 1 ($0.015 per
gal) in 1977 for sludge hauling and spreading. This cost rose to
$0.007 per 1 ($0.025 per gal) in 1978.
Typical sludge characteristics are shown below:
Concentrati on
Parameter (ppm at 5% solids)
Total P 33
Total N 213
Fe 0.28
Ca 370
Zn 0.35
Mn , <0.10
Cu <0.10
pH 8-9
However, it should be noted that the characteristics vary
considerably depending on the production mix. No information
is available on the intermediate or final degradation products
resulting from land cultivation of the sludge.
85
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Waste Application
Sludge is land cultivated at the turf farm in the interval
between turf harvesting and subsequent reseeding of the fields.
After the turf has been cut and stripped from the fields, sludge
is spread from the same truck used to haul it from the wastewater
treatment facility. The truck is equipped with a spreader bar
approximately 3 m (9 ft) wide, allowing the sludge to drain from
the truck as it is driven across the field.
To spread the sludge, the driver opens a valve on the rear
of the truck. This allows sludge to flow from the spread bar
(Figure 25). The sludge is spread at a rate of approximately
117 m3/ha (12,000 gal/ac) per application as the truck slowly
drives across the field (Figure 26). Generally, the sludge
dries rather quickly, as indicated in Figure 27.
Following application of the sludge, the fields are nor-
mally cultivated to a depth of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 8 in) within
a week. If weather and reseeding schedules permit, sludge is
applied a second time before the fields are reseeded. This
second sludge application is also cultivated into the soil as in
the first application. Since turf matures in approximately
18 mo and fall seeding is preferred, the turf cycle is normally
two years. Sludge application and cultivation only occurs
between crops,and the maximum sludge application rate is normally
234 m3/ha (24,000 gal/ac). Preliminary laboratory experiments
indicated that application rates up to 1,420 m3/ha (150,000
gal/ac) had no detrimental effects on the turf grass germination
or growth.
Records have been kept on the total quantity of sludge
land cultivated. However, records of the quantity of sludge
disposed on particular fields are not available. It is estimated
that the sludge loading rate for the three sludge-treated fields
shown in Figure 29 (total area of approximately 10 ha (40 ac))
has been approximately equal and has averaged 210 m^/ha
(22,500 gal/ac).
Although the sludge is a significant source of nutrients,
it does not provide adequate nutrients for maximum sod growth.
Fertilizer (27-6-4) is usually applied three to five times per
year to supply approximately 90 kg (200 lb) of nitrogen. The
fields are limed, as needed, to maintain pH above 6. In addi-
tion, preemergent crabgrass herbicides are often used.
Environmental Factors
No monitoring activities have been conducted for the land
cultivation activities at this site through 1977. Preliminary
greenhouse experiments indicate that the sludge applications
86
-------
Figure 25. Driver opening valve on tank truck
Figure 26. Tank truck applying sludge at Rhode Island site
87
-------
Figure 27. Treated soil about 2 hours after sludge application
; '>. ' '
Figure 28. Rhode Island control field
88
-------
oo
UD
CONTOUR INTERVAL - 10
SURFACE STREAMS
TURF FARM BOUNDARY
SLUDGE TREATED FIELDS
ELEVATION DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL
Figure 29. Rhode Island case study site: 1976 sludge treated fields
-------
appeared to have increased turf quality and strength. No appar-
ent detrimental effects on turf grass production were observed.
The impact of sludge cultivation at this site on ground
and surface waters has not been determined. The monitoring
program to be initiated in 1978 will supply this information.
Since the sod produced is not used as a food crop, effects of
sludge cultivation on the chemical composition of the sod have
also not been examined.
Field Sampling
Soil and turf grass samples were taken at the site to
evaluate the buildup and uptake of waste components. Samples
were collected from an untreated (control) field (Figure 28)
and from a field that had received a sludge application approxi-
mately 12 mo before (Figure 30). Ten soil borings were taken at
depths of 0 to 30 cm (0 to 12 in) and 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in)
from the control field. These were composited into single 0 to
30 cm and 30 to 60 cm samples for analysis. Turf grass clippings
were taken in the proximity of the borings and also composited.
In the treated fields a total of 30 soil borings were made
at the same two depths as for the control. Again, these were
composited into two samples of 0 to 30 cm (0 to 12 in) and 30 to
60 cm (12 to 24 in). Turf grass samples were collected near
each of the 30 borings and composited into three separate samples.
Results of Analysis--
Results of soil analyses are given in Table 23. Waste
application significantly increased the O.lji HC1-extractable
orthophosphate, copper, zinc, and water-soluble sodium, calcium,
magnesium, and chloride levels in the soil. The high ortho-
phosphate concentration in the treated soil is probably due to
phosphorus added to the de-tergent products. However, the ortho-
phosphate levels in the two depths from the control plot are also
high, which is indicative of the large concentration of native
phosphorus in the soil.
There are indications that sodium, calcium, magnesium, and
chloride had moved to a depth of 60 cm (24 in). The soil is
strongly acidic and highly leached of calcium and magnesium.
From the standpoint of nutrient supply and metal retention, lim-
ing the soil with agricultural dolomite appears necessary.
Results of plant analyses are given in Table 24. Concen-
trations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are higher than
those generally reported for most grass species, irrespective of
waste application. The nitrogen concentrations are exceedingly
high in grasses from both the control and treated plots. None of
the heavy metals analyzed were present in phytotoxic levels.
90
-------
;'
,
,:-.f :: r\" .-.' 'L?i:J>/
I I 1 ? I
Figure 3d Rhode Island sludge treated field
Figure 31. Rhode Island sludge storage lagoon
91
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TABLE 23. ANALYSES OF SOILS FROM THE CONTROL AND
SLUDGE TREATED PLOTS - RHODE ISLAND SITE
Control soil depth (cm)
Parameter
pH
Total N, %
EC, mmhos/cm
0-30
5.40
0.172
0.22
30-60
5.35
0.041
0.32
Treated soil
0-30
5.60
0.168
0.75
depth (cm)
30-60
5.25
0.042
0.70
0.1N. HCl-extractable, yg/g
Ortho-P
so4
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Zn
B
Na
Ca
K
Mg
Cl
92.5
19
53.4
6.7
8.20
2.17
2.00
0.70
0.05
13.86
0.20
2.8
24
3.2
11.0
21
46.2
50
26.5
4.1
1.08
1.33
0.83
0.75
0.03
8.36
Water-soluble,
0.20
4.9
31
12
9.8
27
250
23
62.7
6.4
27.73
0.33
2.17
0.25
0.01
36.59
yg/ml
0.20
18
75
3.9
42.4
49
98.7
90
44.5
5.2
3.25
2.17
0.50
0.75
0.03
8.40
0.20
17
70
5.5
32.8
46
92
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TABLE 24. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF GRASSES FROM THE
CONTROL AND TREATED PLOTS - RHODE ISLAND SITE
Treated
Element
Total N
P
K
Na
Ca
Mg
s
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ni
Pb
Cr
Cd
Zn
Control
3.83
0.34
2.19
0.019
0.34
0.17
0.28
150
93.3
12.27
12.50
4.58
9.40
0.10
44.5
1
4.51
0.34
1.88
0.011
0.39
0.17
0.37
158
47.7
12.50
5.63
4.58
5.90
0.07
43.8
2
01
10
4.10
0.41
2.69
0.021
0.36
0.18
0.34
yy/9
150
45.3
16.41
13.13
6.25
5.60
0.19
63.8
3
4.50
0.34
2.28
0.016
0.38
0.18
0.35
192
53.7
14.06
14.37
3.96
11.20
0.15
52.0
Average
4.37
0.36
2.28
0.016
0.38
0.18
0.35
167
48.9
14.31
11.04
4.93
7.57
0.14
53.2
Overall observations suggest that land cultivation of
wastes at this site had not resulted in a significant buildup of
nutrients (except for phosphorus) and heavy metals in the surface
soil. Also, elemental composition of grasses was not affected
by the waste treatment.
Waste Storage
No sludge storage facilities are provided at this site*
The only sludge storage available is provided by the 1,900-m3
(0.5 x 10^-gal) sludge lagoon at the wastewater treatment plant
(Figure 31). This lagoon normally provides between one and two
weeks storage for sludge prior to land cultivation or landfill
disposal. The estimated construction cost of the sludge holding
lagoon was $200,000 (cost assigned to the operation of the
93
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treatment plant and not to sludge disposal). It is also esti-
mated that sludge handling and maintenance costs associated with
sludge disposal for the sludge lagoon and sludge pumps total
approximately $4,000 per year.
Equipment Summary
The contractor hauling the sludge from the wastewater
treatment plant to the land cultivation site utilizes 19-m3
(5,000-gal) and 23-m3 (6,000-gal) tank trucks. A portable pump,
furnished by the contractor, is used to pump the sludge from the
storage lagoon into the trucks.
Cultivation is accomplished with conventional tractor and
plow equipment furnished and operated by the turf farm. Since
plowing is a necessary part of site preparation prior to seeding
a new turf crop, equipment and operating costs associated with
plowing are not considered a sludge disposal-related expense
by the owners.
Personnel
Personnel required to haul and spread the sludge are
furnished by the hauling contractor. Personnel responsible for
cultivation of the sludge-treated fields are furnished by the
turf farm. One member of the treatment plant staff devotes
approximately 14 hours per week to sludge disposal-related
handling.
Economi cs
There are no capital costs associated with the current land
cultivation practice at this site. Sludge storage capacity is'
provided by a primary and secondary sludge lagoon that is an
integral part of the treatment system and not associated with the
sludge disposal method utilized. No additional pumping or stor-
age capacity was required since pumping capacity is provided by
contract hauler and since the existing sludge lagoon provides
adequate storage capacity.
A 19-m3 (5,000-gal) or 23-m3 (6,000-gal) tank truck is used
to haul and spread the sludge. All capital and operation and
maintenance costs associated with these trucks are absorbed by
the contract hauler and reflected in the hauling rate of $0.004
per 1 ($0.015 per gal) in 1977 and $0.007 per 1 ($0.025 per gal)
in 1978.
One plant employee is involved with sludge handling activi-
ties an average of 14 hours per week. In addition, a treatment
plant employee spends approximately three hours per week conduct-
ing sludge analyses related to land cultivation. Labor
(including fringe benefits) costs the plant $6,630 per year
94
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for all sludge disposal. Table 25 provides a cost breakdown for
land cultivating sludge. For comparison purposes, the cost of
landfill disposal of the sludge from this plant is also provided.
Planned Final Use of Site
This site is currently used for the production of turf, and
plans are to continue this practice.
Public Response
Employees of the local newspaper, turf farm, and chemical
company were questioned to determine public response to the land
cultivation disposal technique at this site. Representatives of
both the chemical company and the local newspaper indicated sub-
stantial public opposition had existed to some of the landfills
that had been used for sludge disposal. No opposition to the
present landfill or land cultivation site for sludge disposal was
reported. Similarly, the turf farm representative indicated they
had not had any complaints from the neighbors concerning the land
cultivation activities.
Special Problems
The most significant problem presently encountered at this
site is the difficulty in coordinating sludge hauling schedules
to comply with turf planting schedules and appropriate weather
conditions. Use of over-the-road tank trucks to spread the
sludge makes disposal by land cultivation highly weather-
dependent. Since the sludge is only applied to bare fields after
sod has been harvested and before grass seed is planted, timing
of sludge disposal and turf farming practices must be closely
coordinated.
SOUTHERN INDIANA
Summary
During the summer of 1976, Company X in Indiana began land
cultivating sludge from its wastewater treatment plant on a 20-ha
(50-ac) field owned by a local farmer. This field was later
returned to agricultural use. In April 1977, land cultivation
moved to a 20-ha (50-ac) plot of a 60-ha (150-ac) field, east of
the previous field. The primary goal of activities at these two
fields, which constitute one land cultivation site, is the
disposal of sludge. Resulting soil conditioning is a secondary
benefit. Sludge applied is low in nutrients; therefore, ferti-
lization may be required when the land is returned to agricul-
tural use. The sludge, however, is strongly alkaline, reducing
soil a c i d i ty.
95
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TABLE 25. RHODE ISLAND SITE SLUDGE DISPOSAL
COST ANALYSIS FOR CALENDAR 1976
Disposal method
Cost elements
Land
cultivation
Landfill
Annual Capital Cost
Vehicle depreciation
Stationary equipment
depreciation
Building depreciation
Total annual capital cost
Annual Operating Cost
Labor (including fringe
benefits)
- 0 -
$ 6,630
- 0 -
$ 5,967
Maintenance
Transportation charges
Disposal charges
Utilities and other
Total annual operating cost .
Total annual capital cost
Total annual cost
Total Sludge Hauled
(Metric tons on a dry
weight basis)*
Cost Per Metric Ton
400
13,500
0
0
$ 20,530
- 0 -
$ 20,530
246
$ 83
3,600
112,275
134,730
0
$ 256,572
- 0 -
$ 256,572
2,453
$ 105
*The sludge weighs 8.36 Ib/gal at 7.2% solids.
96
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The sludge results from the addition of lime/ferrous
chloride/polymer to a primary treatment system, with waste-
activated sludge subsequently mixed in. The sludge is pumped
from a storage lagoon at the plant into tank trucks, then trans-
ported to the field and discharged into a railroad tank car that
serves as the on-site storage facility. A tractor-drawn tank
wagon is used to apply the sludge, injecting it about 40 cm
(16 in) beneath the surface. Approximately 5,700 m3 (1.5 MG)
of sludge has been cultivated through the end of July 1977, with
an equal quantity remaining to be cultivated in the late summer
and fall of 1977.
To date, the program has been generally successful,
although some odors have been detected, leading to a few com-
plaints from nearby residents. During 1976 the odors were eli-
minated by initiating a program of periodic disking. Odors in
1977 were caused by anaerobic conditions developing in the sludge
storage lagoons, resulting in a foul smelling sludge applied to
the site. This condition was coincident with a failure of the
sludge injection equipment and the application of excessive
sludge on the soil surface. A large quantity of lime was added
to the lagoons, and odors were essentially eliminated.
History of Land Cultivation
Land disposal of sludge was initiated by Company X in May
1976, with the leasing of 20 ha (50 ac) of farmland and the
hauling of the first loads of sludge. The land was leased at an
approximate rate of $444/ha/yr ($180/ac) or about $9,000 for the
year. During this initial year of operation, the sludge was
pumped from storage lagoons into tank trucks and hauled 27 km
(17 mi) to the leased field. Each tank truck was equipped with
a special rear-mounted spray plate, which spread the sludge in a
3- to 4-m (10- to 14-ft) wide pattern as the truck traversed the
field. At the request of the state regulatory agency, the field
was disked 2 to 4 wk after application to mix the sludge into
the soil, primarily to minimize the possibility of runoff in the
event of heavy rain. Approximately 6,400 m3 (1.7 MG) of sludge
was cultivated in this manner in 1976.
Prior to land cultivation, Company X experimented with
several methods of disposing of its wastewater treatment plant
sludge, with unsatisfactory results. Initially, the company ran
a pilot cultivation program on a field behind the local land-
fill. However, the 4.9-ha (12-ac) field was not large enough to
handle the volume. As a result, about 10 cm (4 in) of sludge
were accumulated on the surface. A major rainstorm caused run-
off to a nearby creek, and the program was stopped by the
Indiana Water Pollution Control Board.
As a second disposal attempt, the sludge was mixed with
residential refuse in the landfill. However, operating
97
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procedures required by the state regulatory agency limited the
disposal of sludge to 28 m3 (7,400 gal) per day, which was not
sufficient to dispose of the generated sludge. As a last resort,
in early 1976, the sludge was hauled 47 km (60 mi) to a private
industrial waste recovery/disposal site. A total of §,100 m
(1.35 MG) of sludge was disposed, but the cost of $160,000, or
$31.3/m3 (12<£/gal), prohibited long-term use of this site.
Company X has also tested approximately six to eight
methods of mechanical sludge dewatering with generally discour-
aging results.
Site Description
This site is located near an interstate highway in southern
Indiana, 29 km (18 mi) north of the Ohio River. Figure 32
locates the 20-ha (50-ac) field used for sludge cultivation in
1976 and the 20-ha (50-ac) plot used for the initial sludge
applications in 1977. (The latter plot is part of a 60-ha, or
150-ac farm, all of which is available for land cultivation.)
Both the 1976 and 1977 plots of land are owned by the same farmer.
Land Area and Topography--
Figure 33 shows the layout of the field used in 1976, with
significant features located. The field, which is highest at the
west end, slopes to the northeast and southeast. There is
approximately a 6-m (20-ft) drop in elevation from the high to
the low areas of this field, with the lowest area along the
drainage ditch.
Figure 32 shows the field used for land cultivation in
1977. This parcel slopes from the high ground at the south
toward low ground at the northeast. In general, the entire area
is rolling, with moderately gentle slopes and some level ground
to the north.
Surface Drainage Patterns, Surface Water, and Groundwater--
The 20-ha (50-ac) field used for land cultivation in 1976
drains toward the southeast into the drainage ditch shown in
Figure 33. This ditch flows northeast into a creek. The entire
60-ha (150-ac) field available for 1977 activities drains to
the north, with the surface flow also entering the creek. As
shown in Figure 32 this creek enters a second creek a short
distance east of the site. This second creek flows south, ulti-
mately entering the Ohio River to the south.
Only one well is located near the site. This well is about
0.4 km (0.25 mi) uphill from the field where wastes were culti-
vated in 1976, and is used as a potable water supply by
one farmer.
98
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1977 SITE
T50 AC)
TOTAL. AREA AVAILABLE
1977 - 60 HA
50 AC)
Figure 32. Southern Indiana site location.
99
-------
ROAD
CREEK
Figure 33 . Map of 1976 sludge disposal field
100
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Vegetation and Soil--
The western field, which was used for waste cultivation in
1976, was returned to agricultural use by the land owner in 1977.
Winter wheat was planted in the eastern end, and corn was planted
in the remainder of the field. This area was visited in late
July 1977, after the wheat was harvested. At that time the corn
was approximately 2 m (7 ft) tall, very green, and appeared to
be as good, or better, than corn growing in surrounding fields
that received no waste.
Use of the large, eastern field for land cultivation of
waste sludge during 1977 precludes production of any crops. The
northern, low end of the area was, at one time, in timber. Most
of this land has been cleared, with several large piles of cut
brush and trees scattered about. This northern section has
received no sludge but may be used for land cultivation of waste
later in 1977. At present the entire 60-ha (150-ac) field is
covered with weeds and some grasses. A small herd of cattle was
grazing the land, including the area that received waste appli-
cation in the spring and early summer of 1977.
Figure 34 is a photograph of the southern, treated
section of the field. The photograph, which looks west, shows
weeds and brush growing on the field. The area in the foreground
was most recently injected with sludge, thus the bare soil. Use
of subsurface injection to apply sludge disturbs only a portion
of the vegetation, as witnessed by the scattered weeds found in
the otherwise bare soil areas. This is indicated in Figure 35,
which is a close-up of a recently treated area.
The soil in the 1976 land cultivation area is predominantly
Bartle silt loam. It is a deep, nearly level, somewhat poorly
drained soil that has a slowly permeable fragipan. The surface
layer (0 to 28 cm, or 0 to 11 in) is brown and neutral (due to
liming); the subsurface layer (28 to 36 cm, or 11 to 14 in) is
light gray and slightly acid. The subsoil is about 135 cm (53 in)
thick and strongly acid.
The soils in the 1977 land cultivation field are composed
of Clermont silt loam, Bartle silt loam, Jennings silt loam, and
others. The Clermont soil is also poorly drained and strongly
acid throughout the solum (183 cm, or 72 in thick). Jennings
silt loam is deep, well-drained soil that occupies narrow ridges
and short breaks between nearly level ridges and sloping hillsides
In general, these soils are strongly acid, and low in
organic matter content and natural fertility. Lower horizons
are poorly drained and strongly to extremely acid, with the
presence of a fragipan.
Since the waste is strongly alkaline (pH 12.4), the farm
owner is willing to allow land cultivation to replace at least
101
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' ' /- !~f'"' >:
',' I ^
m
m
I
Figure 34. Area of 1977 land cultivation activities
Indiana site.
Figure 35.
vegetation on recently cultivated plot
I n d i a n a s i t e .
102
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a portion of the lime normally required to maintain a proper pH.
In addition, the sludge will improve soil tilth and overall
physical properties of the soil.
Climate--
Area climate, as summarized in Table 26, is typical of the
Ohio River Valley, characterized by warm summers with daytime
temperatures of 24 to 32°C (75 to 90°F), and relatively mild
winters. Daytime temperatures in the winter normally range from
2 to 10°C (35 to 50°F). January is the coldest month, and July
the hottest. Annual precipitation averages 104 cm (41 in) and
is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. The cli-
mate has a significant effect on the land cultivation operations,
as occasional heavy rains make the field impassible, especially
in the low areas. Periods of prolonged freezing temperatures
also cause cessation of cultivation activities.
Site Preparation
Preparation efforts at this site were minimal. Some work
was done to upgrade and maintain the gravel access road. This
road enters the 60-ha (150-ac) farm on the east side from a U.S.
highway. A widened area at the end of the road has been devel-
oped, allowing trucks to turn around and also providing for open
storage of equipment.
The only other preparation was the installation of an old
railroad tank car. This is used for sludge storage and loading
of the tank wagon employed for sludge cultivation. The tank car
has been installed at the top of a low, steep bluff.
Related Studies
Company X has retained an engineering consulting firm to
conduct studies at the site. Samples of soils, vegetation, and
creek water were obtained from the site in May 1976, before land
cultivation activities were initiated. Analysis of these samples
established baseline conditions. The western field was again
sampled in December 1976, after land cultivation operations on
that plot were completed. Plans are to again sample the site in
the fall of 1977.
Results of the sampling and analysis program are. considered
to be confidential and could not be released.
State and Local Regulations
This site is operated with authorization of the Division
of Sanitary Engineering, Indiana State Board of Health. Table 27
summarizes conditions that were imposed by the state for site
operations. These conditions (presented in two letters, dated
February 26 and May 18, 1976) covered operations conducted in 1976.
103
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TABLE 26 SUMMARY OF CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year
Precipitation
10.4
7.6
11.9
10.2
10.0
10.3
7.8
7.8
6.9
6.2
7.9
8.4
105.3
Normal
cm (4.
(3.
(4.
(4.
(3.
(4.
(3.
(3.
(2.
(2.
(3.
(3.
(41.
Temperature
Maximum
1 in)
0)
7)
0)
9)
1)
1)
1)
7)
4)
1)
3)
5)
6°C
8
13
19
25
30
32
31
28
21
13
8
20
(44°F)
(46)
(56)
(67)
(77)
(85)
(89)
(88)
(82)
(70)
(55)
(46)
(67)
Minimum
-3°C
-2
2
7
12
17
19
18
15
8
2
-2
8
(26°F)
(28)
(35)
(45)
(54)
(63)
(67)
(65)
(58)
(47)
(36)
(28)
(46)
Mean hourly
15.9
16.6
17.4
16.2
13.7
12.4
11.3
10.6
11.4
12.6
15.1
14.5
14.0
kmph (9.
(10.
(10.
(10.
( 8.
( 7.
( 7.
( 6.
( 7.
( 7.
( 9.
( 9.
( 8.
Winds
speed Prevailing direction
9 mph)
3)
8)
1)
5)
7)
0)
6)
1)
8)
4)
0)
7)
S
NE
NW
SW
SE
S
S
N
SE
SE
S
S
S
-------
TABLE 27. CONDITIONS IMPOSED BY STATE REGULATORY AGENCY FOR
INDIANA SITE OPERATION APPROVAL
Conditions Imposed February 26, 1976
1. No more than one sludge application on any portion of the site
2. No disposal operations allowed closer than 600 ft from the
interstate highway
3. Sludge application must always be done by use of a spreader
4. No sludge accumulation at any point to be at a depth
greater than 0.5 in
5. State agency must be notified upon start-up to allow an inspection
6. Approval becomes void in site ownership changes
Conditions Imposed May 18, 1976
1. Approval granted for use of an additional 50 ac
2. Only sludge from Company X may be disposed at the site
3. County Health Department approval required prior to start-up
4. Sludge application must not occur during inclement weather
5. Application rate not to exceed 25,000 gal/ac
6. All sludge must be disked into the soil after surface application
7. Written request must be submitted for renewal of the approval
for operations after November 1, 1976
105
-------
At the time of this authorization, there were no state regula-
tions, as such, dealing with land cultivation. In the spring of
1977, a Land Applications Division was formed that will be the
state agency overseeing land cultivation activities. This new
division had issued no regulations at the time of this report.
At the local level, the County Health Department is the
responsible agency. While concerned with health effects of this
land cultivation operation, the Health Department also has not
issued specific regulations.
Lack of state or local regulations has resulted in changing
requirements, as shown by the fact that two letters of authori-
zation were issued. For land cultivation in 1977, the state and
county determined that surface application was no longer accept-
able. The requirement was then revised to stipulate subsurface
injection at a depth of approximately 40 cm (16 in).
Waste Characteristics
The sludge is composed predominantly of primary solids from
a clarifier that is dosed with lime, ferrous chloride, and
polymer. This sludge is pumped to one of two large sludge stor-
age ponds, along with a minor amount of waste-activated sludge
from the secondary clarifier. The combined sludge, which aver-
ages 1-percent solids, then goes to the lagoons where it is
dewatered. The supernatant is pumped back to the head of the
treatment works, and the sludge, at about 10-percent solids, is
pumped into the tank trucks and applied to the field.
3
Estimated sludge production is roughly 2,270 kg or 190 m
(5,000 Ib or 50,000 gal) per day, of which about 70 to 95 percent
is the primary chemical sludge and the balance is waste-activated
sludge. Tables 28 and 29 summarize sludge characteristics from
the south sludge storage lagoon. Note that sludge pH and concen-
trations of magnesium and boron are extremely high. Percent
solids increase significantly toward the bottom of the lagoon
(up to 20 percent at the bottom of the lagoon). Figure 36 shows
the sampling locations,
Waste Storage/Transportation
The sludge from the treatment plant is stored in two 4.3-m
(14-ft) deep lagoons, each with 5,700-m3 (1.5-MG) capacity. The
lagoons are clay lined to prevent leaching to the groundwater.
Storage procedure calls for 9 to 10 mo of filling and dewatering
in one lagoon while the other is being emptied and the sludge is
land cultivated. Because there is no disposal activity during
the cold winter months, there is heavy activity from late spring
through fall to provide sufficient lagoon capacity for the rest
of the year.
106
-------
TABLE 28. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOUTH LAGOON SLUDGE FROM INDIANA SITE*
Parameter Average Range
pH
EC, mmhos/cm
Solids, %
TS, mg/1 x 10,000
TVS, mg/1 x 10,000
Alkalinity, mg/1 as
CaCOa x 10,000
Chlorides, mg/1
Total P, %"
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, %
12.41
7.62
11.51
10.97
4.11
11.36
56.78
0.226
0.034
12.1 -
1.39 -
9.3 -
9.03 -
3.42 -
7.26 -
19.7 -
0.11 -
0.012 -
12.5
14.9
15.9
15.4
5.26
22.0
122.5
0.35
0.045
*Analysis of three lagoon samples.
tDry weight basis.
TABLE 29. ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF SLUDGE FROM INDIANA SITE*
Parameter Average Range
Iron (x 1,000)
Chromium
Zinc
Magnesium (x 1 ,000)
Nickel
Cadmi urn
Copper
Potassium
Lead
Boron
39.1
30.3
163
34.5
65.1
5.62
62.3
658
64.3
492
18.8
23.8
122
22.7
51.8
3.45
44.6
354
50.4
328
- 77.1
- 58.6
- 322
- 79.3
- 154
- 19.4
- 120
-1,950
- 138
-1,030
*Analysis of three lagoon samples. Concentration in
yg/g dry weight.
The south sludge lagoon (Figure 37) was emptied first in
1977. Sludge in the north lagoon (Figure 38) will be cultivated
later in the year. This lagoon was full when visited, with the
south lagoon receiving newly generated sludge. A dry crust of
sludge, about 5 cm (2 in) thick, is found on the surface. Below
the crust, the sludge is much thinner, at less than 10-per-
cent sol ids.
The waste is trucked by a private hauler 27 km (17 mi) to
the field in three trucks of 6-, 15-, and 21-m-3 (1,600-, 4,000-,
107
-------
RADIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SLUDGE.
DECANTING "DOCK"
SLUDGE FROM
TREATMENT PLANT.
PROJECTED LINES . . .
ANY LTNE CONSTITUTES
A VERTICAL PLANE OF
EQUAL AVERAGE CONCEN-
TRATION.
NOTE: SAMPLES NO. 3, NO. 4, AND NO.5 DENOTE THE
APPROXIMATE LOCATION OF WEEKLY SAMPLES
FROM THE SOUTH LAGOON DURING THE WEEKLY
SAMPLING PERIOD.
Figure 36.
Sample locations (south lagoon) - Indiana site.
108
-------
* ':>^'..
Figure 37. South sludge lagoon - Indiana site
^%*£&^>&^~£;^
&^#^''^^::-^
l:i;:§;^
^ I H ,~ i BH I i 11 I ' »
Figure 38. North lagoon sludge - Indiana site
109
-------
and 5,500-gal) capacities. Short-term, on-site storage is
provided by the railroad tank car previously discussed and shown
in Figure 39. The trucks pump their sludge load into this tank
car on arrival at the site, then return to the storage lagoons
for more 1 oads .
Table 30 indicates the sludge transport rates achieved
during the land cultivation activities of 1976. At that time,
the 21-m3 (5,500-gal) truck was not in operation; a small, 4-m3
(1,000-gal) truck was used. Also, the trucks were used to spread
sludge on the land, thereby spending more time at the site and
reducing the daily trips.
TABLE 30. 1976 SLUDGE TRANSPORTATION
Month
No. Loads Working Days
Monthly Total
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
22
85
211
241
121
110
63
2
9
23
25
19
18
11
108 m3
419 m3
1,073 m3
1,941 m3
1,123 m3
1,120 m3
709 m3
( 28,600 gal)
( 110,800 gal)
( 283,600 gal)
( 512,800 gal)
( 296,600 gal)
( 296,000 gal)
( 187,200 qal)
853
107
6,493 m3 (1,715,600 gal)
Waste Application
Subsurface injection is now used to apply sludge to the
site. A 13-m3 (3,500-gal) IME tank wagon with plows (Figure 40)
injects the sludge to a depth of 40 cm (16 in). This tank wagon
is pulled by a large conventional farm tractor (Figure 41).
Subsurface injection at a depth of 40 cm (16 in) presents
two problems. Most significant is that anaerobic degradation of
the sludge can normally be anticipated at this depth. Anaerobic
degradation occurs at a much slower rate than does aerobic
degradation, thereby greatly increasing the allowable time
between sludge applications to avoid overloading. In addition,
the decomposition products have a greater probability of creating
adverse environmental impacts for anaerobic conditions than for
aerobic conditions. Secondly, deep injection (at 40 cm) is
physically more difficult than is shallower injection (e.g., at
20 cm). This requires that a larger tractor and/or slower speeds
be used. The net effect is an increase in operating costs.
In operation, the tractor draws the tank wagon to the base
a small bluff located below the railroad tank car. Sludge is
d into the tank wagon. When filled, the tank wagon
proceeds to the area being land cultivated for injection. The
of
gravity
110
-------
1 ,
:-
Figure 39 . Tank car for sludge storage
Jfi| P *1PP 4;- '»..;::r*:;?-...^
^ ^!:: \
Figure 40. Tank wagon showing plow and injector
111
-------
'.,;- '
1 i HI i in
Figure 41 . Tractor used in sludge injection
*,*'.-., -
^ I -..:£-* -.-
Figure 42. Corn in 1976 field - Indiana site
112
-------
State Board of Health authorized a maximum loading of 234 m /ha
(25,000 gal/ac); however, actual loading was somewhat higher.
One lagoon, of about 5,700 m3 [1.5 MG), was cultivated on 20 ha
(50 ac) for a loading of 285 m3/ha (30,000 gal/ac). At 10-per-
cent solids this is a loading rate of 28,000 kg/ha (25,000 Ib/ac)
of dry solids.
The hauler, who is also responsible for the land cultiva-
tion activities, is in full control of the sludge application
rate and frequency, and works with the farm owner to determine
the application area. Due to occasional muddy conditions, low
lying areas are generally more lightly loaded than are high, more
quickly drying, areas of the field.
The 20-ha (50-ac) field used for 1976 sludge application
(Figure 42) was not land cultivated in 1977. However, the state
has given approval for additional waste applications. The hauler
may reuse this plot in the future, after completing injection on
the current 60-ha (150-ac) field.
Environmental Factors
At the present time, the state of Indiana is in the process
of developing standardized guidelines for sludge-spreading
operations. The State Land Applications Division has ultimate
jurisdiction over the site. Currently, the authorities in this
division seem satisfied with the program, although some further
interpretation of application rates and disking requirements
seems necessary.
There is no continuous monitoring at the site. However,
extensive sampling of soil, plants, and stream water was
conducted in May 1976, before the operation began. Follow-up
tests were conducted in December 1976 to determine the effects of
waste application activities on these environmental components.
Results of the tests, conducted by a consulting firm retained by
Company X, are considered confidential. However, some informa-
tion was obtained. General conclusions concerning one-time
application of wastes to the western field are that soil pH, and
Ca and phosphorus levels have increased, and a buildup of Na is
evident. There is also an apparent increase in B and Ni levels.
Borates used in some of the products produced by Company X are
the probable source of B. One sludge sample, taken in the summer
of 1976, showed B concentrations of up to 60 ppm. Reformulation
of the products is expected to sharply reduce these concentra-
tions, as evidenced by a June 1977 waste sample with a B concen-
tration of 6.9 ppm. The company is at a loss to explain the Ni
increase, since no nickel is used in the plant.
It is not clear how much buildup and uptake of B may have
occurred in the treated field. Grass samples from a treated area
113
-------
showed a concentration of 22 ppm, while the same grass type in
two control areas had concentrations of 4.8 ppm and 21 ppm.
Economic Summary
Company X contracts with a private hauler for all sludge
hauling and spreading operations. During 1976, the hauler dis-
posed of 6,490 m3 [1,715,000 gal) of sludge for a fee of
$120,000 ($18.50/m3, or 7tf/gal). This fee included all operating
and maintenance costs for the trucks, tractors, and tank wagon;
the salaries and fringe benefits for the hauler and two drivers;
and profit. The equivalent cost to transport all this sludge to
the industrial waste recovery/disposal operation used previously
would have been approximately $240,000. For 1977 the charges
have increased to $19.75/m3 (7.5<£/gal). This increase reflects
the increasing cost of labor and fuel, and amortization of addi-
tional equipment purchased by the hauler. The income received
from Company X is utilized by the hauler to pay the farmer for
use of the land. For 1977 this cost is approximately $10,000.
Additional costs borne by Company X include $5,000 for
sludge and Teachability tests, about $3,000 for each series of
soil analysis, $2,000 for lime added to the storage lagoon in the
spring of 1977 (for odor control), and $500 paid to the hauler
to plow the newly cultivated areas in the spring of 1977. Other
direct cost figures are not available, such as time contributed
by management personnel at Company X, including the chief
engineer who is responsible for the project.
Equipment Summary
Equipment owned by the hauler and used for the land culti-
vation operation consists of the following:
Two farm tractors (as shown in Figure 41)
t One IME injector and tank wagon (in Figure 40)
with a capacity of 13 m3 (3,500 gal)
One lagoon pump to agitate and pump sludge from
the storage lagoons to the transport trucks
One tank truck of 21-m3 (5,500 gal) capacity;
Two vacuum trucks of 6- and 15-m3 (1,600- and
4,000-gal capacity
One railroad tank car for on-site sludge
storage and transfer to the tank wagon (Figure 39).
Planned Final Site Use
The land will continue to be used for agricultural purposes
Sludge disposal is an intermittent use of the land, creating a
114
-------
1-yr idle period for the particular field undergoing sludge land
cultivation. This is typified by the western field, which was
used for sludge disposal in 1976 and was planted in winter wheat
and corn in 1977. Figure 42 shows the corn in late July 1977,
which appeared to be of excellent quality when visually compared
to surrounding fields of corn.
Public Response and Problems
Initially, there was some adverse response from local
residents due to odor problems and the erroneous notion that the
sludge was raw sewage. By working closely with state regulatory
agencies and the County Health Department, by talking to local
residents to discuss the operation, and by doing everything
possible to appease those concerned, company X has been able to
gain acceptance for the program. Being a consumer-oriented
company, it is essential to keep the program free from
adverse publicity.
Odor complaints received in 1976 were resolved by institut-
ing a program of disking shortly after sludge spreading and at
2- to 4-wk intervals thereafter. New odor complaints were lodged
in the spring of 1977. Company X applied lime to the sludge
storage lagoons and had the hauler plow the waste applied areas
to solve the odor problems. Regulatory agencies have also
requested the deep injection (40 cm) of sludge in an effort to
overcome odors.
About mid-August of 1976, the sludge solids level in the
lagoon rose to 15 percent, and loading of the trucks became a
time-consuming problem. At this time, it was necessary to start
adding water and agitating the lagoon to facilitate loading. The
major lesson learned from this operation was that it is mandatory
to use a combination mixing and loading device to reduce truck
loading time and to get proper top to bottom mixing of the sludge
in the lagoon. Suitable equipment is available in the form of a
special portable version of a high-capacity, low-head, centri-
fugal pump. Excess water pumped to the lagoon to aid in pumping
out the high solids sludge totaled approximately 1,510 m3
(400,000 gal) and significantly increased the costs of the
entire operation.
ODESSA, TEXAS
Summary
The city of Odessa, Texas, is conducting a pilot program
for land cultivating shredded municipal solid wastes. This soil
enrichment program is being implemented on a land cultivation
site west of Odessa, and has two basic goals: to improve soil
conditions and to reduce waste disposal costs.
115
-------
Improve soil conditions. Application of refuse
to the land will improve soil fertility by
increasing the organic matter content and water
holding capacity of the soil. Thus the over-
grazed land in this semi-arid region may be able
to support more vigorous vegetation, increasing
its grazing potential.
Reduce waste disposal costs. Implementation of
the program at this site, which is near the
city's waste generation centroids, may be more
economical than continuation of conventional
sanitary landfilling at more remote present and
future sites.
The land cultivation site is located 8 km (5 mi) west of
Odessa on State Highway 302. A total of 607 ha (1,500 ac) is
leased from a local rancher at a nominal rate of $l/yr. The
site itself is flat, gradually sloping toward the southeast.
This slope is in the direction of Monahan's Draw, which is an
intermittent stream and the area's only significant drainage
system. Natural vegetation consists primarily of low-growing
mesquite and sparse grass. Soils in the area are sandy to loamy,
allowing the infrequent precipitation to quickly evaporate.
Shredded municipal refuse is being land cultivated alone
and in combination with septic waste and primary sewage sludge.
About 60 percent of the ferrous metals present in the city's
refuse are magnetically removed from the shredded solid waste
before it is applied to the land. Land cultivation activities
were initiated in the summer of 1974. Waste had been applied
to a total of 41 ha (101 ac) as of late 1976. During that year
only about 26 percent of the city's collected refuse was culti-
vated, since the program was still in an experimental stage.
Each parcel of land will receive only a single application
of waste. Current application rates range from 134 to 278 t/ha
(60 to 124 tons/ac). The optimum application rate has not yet
been determined. For the Odessa program, the optimum application
rate is defined as the minimum rate that will yield a reasonable
improvement in soil characteristics as measured by increased
production of vegetation. Optimum application rates and environ-
mental effects are currently being studied.
Chemical analyses of the surface soil and two plant
species - wild geranium and buckwheat - indicated that land
cultivation of municipal refuse in the first year did not
adversely affect the soil chemical properties or quality of
vegetation at the site.
116
-------
Ranch grasses sown on the enriched soil have begun to
establish a reasonable cover. Results to date are encouraging
and show promise of success. This has led the city to set a goal
of land cultivating 75 percent of the city's refuse in 1977,
ultimately increasing the goal to 90 percent.
History of Land Cultivation at Odessa
In 1969, the city of Odessa was faced with newly passed
state legislation requiring the phase-out of the existing open
dump disposal of solid wastes. To meet the more stringent
environmental requirements, the city developed a sanitary land-
fill at the dump site, 6 km (4 mi) from the city center. In
early 1973, it was projected that the landfill would be full by
the year's end. A survey of possible replacement sites revealed
that all nearby sites offered only limited capacity, while large
capacity sites were located 25 km (15 mi) or more from the
service area centroid. City officials determined that costs for
waste transportation to the more distant sites would increase
significantly if conventional sanitary landfill practices were
continued. A cost analysis indicated that each 1-mi increase in
haul distances would add nearly $16,000 annually to city costs.
City officials also evaluated soil conditions in the
region. Cattle provide the agricultural base in the Odessa area.
In the past, the land was overgrazed with much of the bare top-
soil lost by wind erosion. Since the region receives little
rainfall (less than 36 cm yearly average), it was difficult to
reestablish vegetation to retard this erosion.
In early 1973, representatives from the University of Texas
outlined the concept of a soil enrichment program to city offi-
cials. This program would involve land cultivation of the city's
municipal solid waste to increase the soiHs water-holding
capacity and organic content to provide improved vegetative
growth on the land. Since this program would also provide at
least a partial alternative to the sanitary landfill, the city
embarked on a pilot soil enrichment program.
In March 1973, the city entered into an agreement with the
Newell Manufacturing Co. to acquire its Model 60104 solid waste
shredder. In 1974, the city leased 607 ha (1,500 ac) of range-
land from a local rancher. Application of shredded solid waste
on this land began in the summer of 1974. Initially, waste was
applied at the rate of 90 t/ha (40 tons/ac) on 12.5 ha (31 ac)
of land. Shredded waste was trucked to the site and spread by a
track dozer. Soil incorporation was accomplished using a tandem
disk pulled by a standard farm tractor. This arrangement worked
but was slow, and the disk did not thoroughly mix wastes into
the soil. Because of these disadvantages, field trials were
conducted in October 1975 to evaluate alternative rototilling
117
-------
machines. Results of the trials led to the purchase of a
Buffalo Bomag MPH-1 soil stabilizer.
Site Description
The city of Odessa is located in west Texas, about 185 km
(113 mi) southwest of Lubbock, as shown in Figure 43. Approxi-
mately 607 ha (1,500 ac) of land, in two parcels, is leased for
land cultivation. This land is about 8 km (5 mi) west of the
city on State Highway 302 (Figure 44). The site, in addition to
receiving shredded solid waste, accepts sewage sludge and septic
waste to raise the carbon/nitrogen ratio and moisture content of
the waste/soil mixture. Figure 45 shows the field layout where
wastes are currently being applied. Refuse is being applied
alone and in combination with each of the two sludges.
Topography and Vegetation--
Topography at the site and the surrounding area is a very
gently undulating plain with no prominent hills or distinguish-
ing features. This area is located in the Midland Basin at the
southern end of the Texas High Plains. The land slopes gradually
from the northwest to the southeast. This slope allows surface
drainage toward Monahan's Draw to the southeast. Monahan's Draw
is an intermittent stream, containing water only following heavy
rains, and is the area's only major drainage system.
Natural vegetation at the site includes low-growing mes-
quite, wild geranium, broomweed, leman's love, plains bristle,
cline's grass, blue grama, side oats grama, tumbleweed, wild
buckwheat, and cactus. In the fall of 1976, five ranch grasses
were sown on the areas that have received waste applications.
Four of these grasses - plains bristle, cline's grass, blue grama,
and side oats grama - occur naturally. The fifth sown grass is
African blue, which is not a native species. These five grasses
were sown to provide feed for grazing cattle as part of the soil
enrichment/range improvement aspect of the operation. Early
frosts in the winter of 1976 killed the grasses before they could
become established. Plans are to reseed in the spring of 1977.
Groundwater, Soil, and Climate--
The nearest water well is located approximately 1.2 km
(0.75 mi) east of the site. There are presently no monitoring
wells at or near the land cultivation site. Groundwater in this
area, found at a depth of about 27 m (90 ft), is of poor quality.
Chloride levels are quite high (over 1,000 ppm), as are TDS (500
to 1,000 ppm) and sulfates.
The soils in the land cultivation field are moderately to
well drained, calcareous rangeland with moderate permeability.
The major soils are of the Ratliff series. These soils have
calcareous, moderately alkaline, grayish brown loam A horizons
and clay loam B horizons, with a zone of lime accumulation
118
-------
Jtoconno (
Sin Antonio J ©
-------
Figure 44. Location of soil enrichment si te,, Odessa, Texas.
-------
CONTROL
N
NOT TO SCALE
ro
SEPTICS
REFUSE 6 SEPTICS
(50 AC)
X
REFUSE
(10 AC)
O
<
in
o
j
o
u
SLUDGE & REFUSE
(30 AC)
Figure 45 . Field layout of soil enrichment project, Odessa, Texas.
-------
beginning about 64 cm (25 in) below the surface. The solum is
more than 152 cm (60 in) thick.
Other soils found in the area are of the Faskin and Cotton-
wood series. The Faskin soils have a neutral brown, fine sandy
loam A horizon and a reddish, thick sandy clay loam Bt horizon,
with an accumulation of lime at 107 cm (42 in). The solum is
more than 152 cm (60 in) thick. The Cottonwood soils are very
thin (7.6 to 30 cm) calcareous soils over light-colored beds
of gypsum.
Climate in this portion of west Texas is semi-arid.
Average annual rainfall is about 36 cm (14 in), with an average
evaporation rate of 183 cm (72 in). Table 31 summarizes perti-
nent climatic data for the area. Most of the annual precipita-
tion normally comes in four to five heavy summer rains. The
high evaporation rate and low moisture retention capacity of the
soil result in very little moisture available for plant use. The
climate is relatively mild, with an annual average temperature of
about 18°C (64°F). High winds are common to the region and
result in the erosion of the dry, sparsely vegetated soil.
Site Preparation--
Minimal efforts were devoted to site preparation. Some
brush was removed before waste application began. No runoff
diversion or drainage facilities were constructed, since the
sparse rainfall and drainage patterns do not warrant such
installations. Because the site is located on flat rangeland
at some distance away from homes and highways, visual screening
was deemed unnecessary. After waste application, the site is
somewhat unsightly due to exposed refuse until subsequent growth
of vegetation (native or seeded) provides visual cover. (Figure
46 shows the older cultivated area after partial establishment
of vegetation.)
Regulatory Controls--
The Texas State Department of Health (TSDH) has responsi-
bility for regulating waste disposal sites within the state.
If any odors emanate from a land disposal site, the Texas Air
Quality Board (TWQB) can become involved in its supervision.
Also, any leachate from a disposal site is the concern of the
board. In 1974, the city received a permit from the TSDH allow-
ing operation of the soil enrichment program. All wastes are
covered by this permit. Since odors and leachate have not been
a problem, only the TSDH has been involved with the Odessa site.
In May 1976, the TWQB issued guidelines covering the land
cultivation of industrial solid wastes. These guidelines, which
are briefly summarized in Table 32, could later be expanded to
cover municipal solid wastes as well.
122
-------
TABLE 31. SUMMARY OF CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: ODESSA, TEXAS
IV)
CO
Month.
Precipitation
Normal
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year
2.0 cm
1.5
1.0
2.0
5.3
4.1
4.8
3.8
4.6
4.3
1.3
1.8
36.5 cm
(0.8 in)
(0.6)
(0.4)
(0.8)
(2.1)
(1.6)
(1.9)
(1.5)
(1.8)
(1.7)
(0.5)
(0.7)
(14.4 in)
Temperature
Maximum
14°C
16
21
26
30
34
34
34
31
26
19
16
25
(57°F)
(61)
(69)
(78)
(86)
(93)
(94)
(94)
(88)
(79)
(66)
(60)
(77)
Minimum
-1°C
2
6
11
16
21
22
21
17
12
4
0
11
(31°F)
(35)
(41)
(51)
(61)
(69)
(71)
(70)
(63)
(53)
(39)
(32)
(52)
Winds
Mean Hourly Speed
15.3 Kmph
17.7
19.0
19.5
19.1
18.7
16.1
15.0
15.1
15.1
15.3
15.4
16.7 Kmph
( 9.3 mph)
(n.o)
(11.8)
(12.1)
(11.9)
(11.6)
(10.0)
( 9.3)
( 9.4)
( 9.4)
( 9.5)
( 9.6)
(10.4 mph)
Prevailing
Direction
S
SW
S
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SE
SSE
S
S
SW
SSE
-------
,. ;v ." ,
' -. - .''"', ""*;!:₯ ,-
/ J~-₯' "''<- , "'f... ,/ '' * ., i'.rV ^ .'"'.
>* ;. .. ' ,;. '"' . ._'' - .^iy. : ,/ ,» , if f; '!, ;
c:^«v^^:->?-^:'':";::^%;;?:--
Figure 46 . Refuse application area with partial establishment of vegetation
Figure 47. Refuse application from transfer truck.
124
-------
TABLE 32. TEXAS WATER QUALITY BOARD
LAND CULTIVATION GUIDELINES SUMMARY
Item
Guideline (Summary Statement)
t Soils
t Topography
Climate
Surrounding
Groundwater
Land Use
Conditions
t Application Rates
Operational Restrictions
t Should be deep, prefer high clay and
organic content.
Prefer surface slope less than 5 percent.
High net evaporation, median mean
temperature, moderate 24-hr, 25 yr
frequency maximum rainfall.
Sparsely populated, or provide buffer and
locate downwind from any nearby residence.
Avoid shallow potable groundwater. If not
possible, provide vegetative cover, avoid
high application rates, monitor ground-
water quality.
t Naste composition analysis (minimum): Cd,
P, Total N, Zn, Cu, Ni, As, Ba, Mn, Cr,
Cd, B, Pb, Hg, Se, Na, Mg, Ca.
Determine soil cation exchange capacity
(CEC).
Total metals application over site life
should be less than 50 percent of CEC
of top 1 ft of site's soil.
t If crop grown and harvested at site, total
metal application in 30 yr period should
be less than 5 percent of CEC.
Total N applied, less than 125 Ib/ac/yr.
t Annual free water applied in waste should
be less than annual evaporation rate.
All runoff must be contained (use dikes
or collection basin).
Soil pH must be maintained at 6.5 or
greater.
Mix waste into soil as soon as possible.
t Vegetation for human or animal consumption
must be analyzed for metals contained in
the waste before feeding.
125
-------
Haste Characteristics
Three waste types are being land cultivated at Odessa:
shredded municipal solid waste, septic tank waste, and municipal
sewage sludge. The city wastewater treatment plant provides only
primary treatment, with anaerobic digestion of the sludge. This
sludge is approximately 4 to 6 percent solids when applied to
the land.
Municipal solid waste (collected from city residents by an
innovative mechanical loading system) is transported to the
shredder plant located approximately 2.5 km (1.5 mi) from the
city's geographic center. All incoming wastes are shredded to
approximately 10 cm (4 in) or smaller particles. After shredding,
most of the ferrous metals (about 60 percent, or 4 percent of the
total waste stream) are magnetically separated for resale.
Haste Application
Upon arrival at the site, refuse transfer vehicles proceed
directly to the active application area. Shredded wastes are
unloaded from the rear by hydraulic ram as the truck moves
slowly forward (see Figure 47). Wastes form a windrow about 2 m
high by 2 m wide by 244 m long (7 ft by 7 ft by 800 ft), which is
then spread by the cultivation equipment. Equipment used is a
Buffalo Bomag MPH-1 soil stabilizer with a front-mounted blade
for spreading (Figure 48).
A rototiller-1ike unit (Figure 49) is at the rear of the
Bomag MPH-1. This unit mixes the shredded waste into the top
25 cm (10 in) of soil. A conventional tractor pulling a heavy
roller follows to pack the soil. This rolling is performed to
minimize wind erosion of the loosened soil. Figure 50 is a
closeup of the field before (left side) and after (right side)
mixing by the Bomag.
A second mixing is performed at a later date. This
generally occurs 3 to 6 mo following application, and has-two
purposes. First, by remixing the soil/refuse, biodegradation
is accelerated. Second, even with rolling, some wind erosion
of the surface soil occurs. This exposes refuse, which is
unsightly and retards biodegradation. Timing of the second
"plowing" is established by a visual examination of the site
surface and by dipping under the surface to observe the extent
of decomposition obtained.
Loading rates ranging from 78 to 278 t/ha (35 to 124
tons/ac) have been applied. Operators are still attempting to
determine the optimum loading rate suited for the particular
soil conditions. Currently, the average loading rate is on the
order of 112 t/ha (50 tons/ac). More time will be required
126
-------
Figure 48. Buffalo Bomag soil stabilizer in operation
Figure 49. Soil stabilizer roto-tiller unit
127
-------
oo
Fi gure 50.
Applied refuse - Odessa site.
right side - after mixing.
Left side - before mixing,
-------
to determine the optimum rate. This determination will be based
on the productivity of seeded grasses.
Since a major goal of this program is to enrich the soil
and increase its water-holding capacity, with disposal of wastes
essentially a secondary goal, each portion of land receives only
a single waste application. This will maximize the land area
involved in the soil enrichment program.
Wastes are applied year round, except for the few occasions
when rain makes the area too muddy to work. From the initial
application in the summer of 1974, to late 1976, a total of
41 ha (101 ac) have been land cultivated. No fertilizers or
other soil amendments have been added to the cultivated land.
The initial 12.5-ha (31-ac) application area was treated with
herbicides 2-4-5T and 2-4D after waste application to control
tumbleweed growth.
Environmental Factors
Odessa has a wel1-equipped laboratory that has been used
for wastewater treatment plant monitoring. Procedures are
currently being developed to utilize this laboratory for the
soil enrichment program. Soil and plant samples will be analyzed
for pesticide and heavy metal content, using a gas chromatograph
and an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Total organic carbon
levels in the soil will also be measured. In the spring of 1977,
a study was initiated to identify pathogens that may be present
in the waste treated soils, although preliminary results obtained
earlier did not detect pathogenic bacteria and viruses. However,
considerable additional work is planned.
Baseline conditions for soil and vegetation are established
by sampling from a small, 0.2-ha (0.5-ac) control plot maintained
near the active land cultivation site.
No monitoring wells exist or are planned at or near the
site, and no monitoring of groundwater or surface water is per-
formed. Surface water is found only intermittently in Monahan's
Draw, which is remote from the site; thus surface water contami-
nation is unlikely to occur. Since groundwater lies 27 m (90 ft)
below the surface and there is little rainfall, the city does
not feel groundwater monitoring is warranted.
The planned monitoring program, when fully operational,
will determine the safety of vegetation as cattle feed. It will
also determine the fate of heavy metals and pesticides in the
applied wastes.
129
-------
Field Sampling and Chemical Analyses
Both surface soil (0 to 15 cm) and vegetation samples were
collected from the control and refuse-treated plots approximately
8 mo following waste incorporation. The refuse application rate
was 112 t/ha (50 tons/ac). The plots had received no fertilizer
or pesticide. Figure 45 illustrates the field layout and sam-
pling locations, as marked by X's. The vegetation collected in
the field included wild geranium (Erodium circutarium) and buck-
wheat (Eriogonum annum). Results are summarized in Tables 33
and 34.
TABLE 33. SOIL CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS FROM THE CONTROL
AND REFUSE-TREATED PLOTS AT ODESSA, TEXAS
Parameter* Control Treated
PH
EC, mmhos/cm
TKN, %
Org. C, %
7.65
0.61
0.043
0.41
7.63
2.12
0.066
0.69
- - ppm - -
Ortho-P
Na
B
Mn
Mo
Zn
Pb
22.5
no
<0.2
22.5
0.05
1.8
0.09
25
122
0.25
33.1
0.05
7.2
0.12
*Electrical Conductivity (EC) and B (pig/ml) were measured
in the saturation extracts; other elements in ppm (yg/g)
were determined in O.IN^ HC1 extracts.
Land cultivation of shredded municipal refuse resulted in
appreciable increases in soluble salt (EC) content and HC1-
extractable manganese and zinc concentrations in the surface
soil (Table 33). The increases in TKN and organic carbon levels
appeared to be insignificant. The data suggest that.land culti-
vation at Odessa has not resulted in significant changes in soil
chemical properties and availability of plant nutrients. The
concentrations of the selected trace elements and soluble salts
in the refuse treated soil were not elevated and should not pose
phytotoxicity or water pollution problems.
Plant analyses show slight increases in boron content of
wild geranium, and in sodium, manganese, and lead contents of
buckwheat (Table 34). There ware no differences in nitrogen and
phosphorus levels in plants grown in the control and refuse-
treated plots. It is concluded that wild geranium and buckwheat
130
-------
TABLE 34. ANALYSES OF WILD GERANIUM AND WILD BUCKWHEAT GROWN ON
CONTROL AND REFUSE-TREATED PLOTS AT ODESSA, TEXAS
Wild Geranium
El ement
N
P
Na
B
Mn
Mo
Zn
Pb
Control
c
- y
3,46
0.28
- - yg
550
6
32.1
2.0
68.5
5. 6
Refuse
I - -
4.27
0.39
/g - -
525
25
36. 7
2.0
67.3
5.7
W
Control
2.31
0.40
-
650
15. 9
25.4
0. 50
56
4.2
ild Buckwheat
Refuse
%
2.
0.
- yg/g - -
785
17
32.
0.
62.
6.
27
55
5
50
3
4
-------
grown at the refuse disposal site for the first year are safe
for consumption by cattle.
Waste Storage
No facilities for waste storage are provided. For most of
the year, land cultivation is not interrupted by inclement
weather. When weather conditions or other causes, such as equip-
ment breakdown, preclude land cultivation of the wastes, all
wastes are transported to the city's sanitary landfill for
disposal. Equipment failures cause such diversions more often
than does weather.
Equipment Used
Equipment available at the land cultivation site is a
Buffalo Bomag MPH-1 soil stabilizer, the primary waste appli-
cation/cultivation tool. A standard Farmall tractor, a tandem
disk, and an 816-kg (1,800-lb) roller are also available to back
up the Bomag in case of short breakdowns, and to compact soil
behind the soil stabilizer. A conventional farm seeder is
available to sow grass seed in the prepared soil.
Personnel
Currently, three full-time men staff the cultivation site:
two operators and the foreman. Operator shifts are staggered to
allow the application and cultivation activities to extend
from 7 to 11, five days per week.
Site Economics
The city of Odessa has estimated costs for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1976, for both the land cultivation (soil
enrichment) and sanitary landfill operations. These costs are
summarized below:
Cost (in $ per 'ton)
Land
Item Cultivation Landfill
Site operation & maintenance 1.16 3.62
Transport-shredder to site 1.56 1.63
Shredding 3.18 3.18
Total 5.90 8.43
Costs for the land-cultivation program are based on two men at
the site: one operator and one foreman.
132
-------
Table 35 presents cost estimates prepared by the city of
Odessa for operation of a total soil enrichment program, culti-
vating 90 percent of the refuse, plus estimated capital costs for
a 5-yr period. On an annual basis, operating costs are estimated
at $386,705, and amortized capital costs at $24,830, for a total
of $411,535. No interest rate was used in developing the
amortized capital costs. Odessa generates approximately 75,000
tons of solid waste annually, which yields unit costs for the
land cultivation operation of $5.49/ton ($411,535 divided by
75,000 tons). It is not clear if these estimates include amor-
tized capital costs for the soil stabilizer. Since the purchase
price for this piece of equipment is approximately $70,000, its
omission would be significant.
Planned Final Use of Site
After the seeded ranch grasses have become well established
on cultivated plots of land, and if laboratory analyses show
that grasses do not uptake hazardous levels of any compounds,
these plots will be returned to the land owner for cattle grazing.
Odessa's soil enrichment program, once well established, will
consist of a continuous cycling of land. Untreated ranch land
will be leased for land cultivation of wastes, and land that has
had waste application and has been revegetated will be returned
to productive use.
Public Response to the Land Cultivation Operations
From the beginning, the soil enrichment program was
positively presented to the residents of Odessa and surrounding
ranchers. Emphasis was placed on the beneficial aspects of
improving the land's grazing capacity while supplementing waste
disposal at sanitary landfills. The land cultivation activities
have been favorably received by the populace. There has been
strong local support for tKe program, with essentially no
opposition expressed.
Problems Encountered
Herbicide application on waste treated land was not fully
successful in controlling tumbleweed growth. Nearby residents
have complained about the tumbleweeds migrating onto their
lawns. The city is attempting to physically control tumbleweed
growth, but this is a very difficult task.
The treated plots, 2h yr after refuse application, have
other problems. For instance, the arid conditions retard micro-
bial activity. Therefore, large cardboard pieces are still
only partially decomposed (but will biodegrade with time). More
serious problems exist with respect to plastics, leather, and
metals. Only about 60 percent of ferrous metals and no nonferrous
metals are removed at the shredder. The remaining metals, and
133
-------
TABLE 35. ESTIMATED COSTS, TOTAL SOIL ENRICHMENT OF
SHREDDED ODESSA REFUSE*
Operating Costs
Item
Personnel (includes benefits)
Supplies & materials
Building maintenance
t Improvements maintenance
Shop & plant equipment maintenance
Equipment rentals
Other services & charges
Total
1976 to 1981 Capital Expenditure Estimates
Item Cost
Landfill improvements $ 19,550
Equipment rentals 196,300
pickups ( 4,300)
air compressor ( 8,000)
large dozer ( 155,000)
tractor ( 11,000)
shredder sweeper ( 8,000)
waste spreader ( 10,000)
radio equipment 2,200
Total $ 218,050
Annual Costs
$ 145,965
33,033
2,150
4,110
26,557
133,653
41,237
$ 386,705
Expected
Life
5 yr
5 yr
10 yr
10 yr
10 yr
10 yr
10 yr
Amortized annual capital
cost= $24,830
*With backup emergency landfill.
134
-------
all plastics and leather, are land cultivated. Items such as
sections of garden hose and old shoes are visible. If returned
to cattle grazing, this land presents a potential for "hardware
disease" problems.
Wind erosion of the cultivated area has been experienced;
however, this has also been a problem throughout the Odessa
region during the spring of 1977. There has been little blowing
of the applied refuse. No significant fly or rodent infestations
have been reported.
Also, an equipment problem has caused several periods of
inactivity on the land cultivation site: the soil stabilizer
has experienced frequent mechanical failures, some of which have
resulted in cessation of operations for several days. The city
has expressed an interest in more reliable equipment, but has had
no success in locating such equipment.
MICHIGAN
Summary
Company X operates a large semi-chemical pulp and paper
mill in Michigan. In 1976, the company applied a portion of the
secondary sludge from its activated sludge wastewater treatment
plant to a few hundred acres of land to be used for new tree
farms of hybrid aspen and poplar. This sludge application served
two basic functions: (1) to dispose of the sludge without
causing odor, and (2) to provide low-cost fertilizer and soil
conditioner for new growth trees.
The operation has been very successful to date. Subsurface
sludge application has not caused any problems, and the sludge
has shown positive fertilizer value.
History of Land Cultivation Activities
Land cultivation activity was initiated in response to two
occurrences: regulatory requirements by the state of Michigan,
and the energy crisis. In 1970, when the company was designing
a secondary treatment plant, the state of Michigan Department of
Natural Resources informed Company X that it would be required to
dispose of its sludge without any odor (i.e., that landfilling
and lagooning would be excluded as disposal techniques). This
led to the purchase and installation of a large Dorr-Oliver
fluidized bed incinerator for sludge disposal. However, the
plant started in December 1972, after the effects of the energy
crisis inflated the costs for fuel oil, and management realized
that a less energy-intensive method should be explored. Thus
Company X began experimenting with land cultivation of the sludge,
not only to dispose of the solids but to take advantage of their
nutrient value.
135
-------
The experimental project was successful and, in the spring
of 1976, was expanded to a large pilot-scale program. The
expanded program involved the cultivation of 2.7 to 9 dry weight
t (3 to 10 tons) of sludge per day on several thousand acres of
land owned by the company.
Site Description
The sludge is spread on many different plots totaling a few
hundred acres of tree farmland, all owned by Company X. In total,
the company owns over 19,600 ha (49,000 ac) in Michigan (valued
at $200 to $600/ac) of which 1,200 ha (3,000 ac) are planned for
ultimate use under the pilot-scale sludge cultivation program.
Topography and Vegetation--
The various cultivation plots are quite different in topo-
graphy, vegetation and soil type, drainage patterns, and other
characteristics. Topography ranges from flat to rolling hill-
sides; natural vegetation from sod and natural grasses to moss;
soil types from excessively drained, sandy soils to poorly
drained, heavy clays. Surface drainage patterns vary from plot
to plot, but most areas drain to nearby ditches or streams. The
amount of runoff is closely related to soil type and vegeta-
tive cover.
Climate--
The region has severe winters, with moderate snow accumu-
lations and low temperatures. Average daily winter highs are in
the range of -2° to -6°C (20° to 30°F). Frost conditions exist
from 5 to 30 cm (2 to 12 in) deep, depending on temperature and
the prevalence of insulating snow cover. Summers are mild with
average high temperatures of 20° to 30°C (70° to 80°F). Precip-
itation averages about 79 cm (31 in) per year, predominantly
in the spring and summer months. Winds are often quite strong
during winter and spring. Climatic data are summarized in
Table 36.
Site Preparation--
Site preparation was conducted at only a few fields, where
heavy sod cover required disking prior to spreading activities.
No berms or other types of runoff protection were provided, as
authorities feel that subsurface injection eliminates the need
for this control.
Related Studies
Because the sludge is being used on productive tree farm-
land, the potential beneficial or adverse effects of these high
nutrient content solids on tree growth are critical. To analyze
these effects, six independent studies are currently in various
phases of completion:
136
-------
TABLE 36. SUMMARY OF CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA: GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
CO
I
Precipitation
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Normal
4.9 cm
4.4
5.8
7.5
8.8
8.4
6. 9
6.9
7.6
6.6
6.3
5.2
(1.9 in)
(1.8)
(2.3)
(2.9)
(3.5)
(3.3)
(2.7)
(2.7)
(3.0)
(2.6)
(2.5)
(2.0)
Temperature
Maximum
0°C
0
5
14
20
26
29
28
24
17
8
1
(31°F)
(32)
(42)
(57)
(69)
(79)
(84)
(83)
(74)
(63)
(46)
(34)
Minimum
-8°C
-9
-4
2
7
13
16
15
10
4
-2
-7
(17°F)
(16)
(24)
(35)
(45)
(56)
(60)
(58)
(50)
(40)
(28)
(20)
Winds
Mean Hourly Speed
18.7
17.5
18.7
18.2
17.2
15.0
13.2
13.8
14.8
16.2
17.9
16.9
kmph (11.6 mph)
(10.9)
(11.6)
(11.3)
(10.7)
( 9.3)
( 8.2)
( 8.6)
( 9.2)
(10.1)
(11.1)
(10.5)
Year
79.2 (31.2)
14
(58)
(37)
16. 6
(10.3)
-------
t Starting in 1975, Company X began experimenting with
sludge application on fields to be planted in aspen
and poplar. Initial results on trees grown from seed
showed height increases of 30 to 40 percent in sandy
soil, but no improvement in clay soil. The latter
showed poor nutrient release and organic matter
breakdown.
t Sludge fertilization experiment on corn were conducted
by Company X. Fields with low nitrogen fertilization
yielded 75 bushels/ac; with moderate commercial
fertilization, 83 bushels/ac. With sludge application
rates that provide high nitrogen levels (448 kg/ha,
or 400 Ib/ac) the corn yield was 92 bushels/ac.
e Company X is also experimenting with sludge application
on 3- and 4-yr-old natural regeneration aspen to
determine whether the nutrients in the sludge can be
made available to a more mature tree.
Michigan State University is currently conducting a
study on the effect of sludge application on soil
properties and the yield and quality of corn
and soybeans.
t Experiments are being carried out to determine possible
effects of very heavy sludge loading rates on ground-
water quality. Loading rates ranged from 7 to 54 t/ha
(3 to 24 tons/ac). After 1 yr of testing, no adverse
effects have been detected.
The U.S. Forest Service is experimenting with spray
application of sludge on 35-yr-old red pines.
Waste Characteristics
The sludge is processed by the following units at the
wastewater treatment facility before it is applied to the land:
Effluent
Un11 % Solids
Secondary clarifier 1
Gravity sludge thickener 2
Solid bowl centrifuge without 5
chemical conditioning
Although the centrifuges are capable of achieving a solids
concentration of 10 percent (with polymer addition) for incin-
eration, this degree of dryness is not required for land appli-
cation. The 5 percent solids sludge is preferred because it can
be pumped and transported as a liquid.
138
-------
Company X performed a series of sludge analyses in 1975
and 1976, which are summarized in Table 37. According to these
analyses, the sludge is 38 percent protein, and has a slow nitro-
gen release. Breakdown of the sludge in the soil is similar to
that of any protein matter. The company generates approximately
12.2 t (13.5 tons) dry weight per day of secondary sludge. Under
optimal conditions, all the sludge is land cultivated; otherwise,
as little as 3.2 t (3.5 tons) is cultivated and 9 t (10 tons)
is incinerated.
Waste Storage/Transportation
A total of 151 m3 (40,000 gal) of sludge storage capacity -
sufficient only for overnight storage - is provided at the treat-
ment plant by three tanks. The tanks, as well as a circulating
pump, were available as surplus equipment from another portion
of the mi 11.
The transportation and spreading operation was initially
done by a private contractor, but is now operated by company
personnel. Two large tank trucks of 32- and 38-m3 (8,500- and
10,000-gal) capacities are used for hauling the sludge from the
storage tanks to the fields (a maximum distance of 32 km, or
20 mi, from the mill). One driver is currently required for
hauling. He drops one full tank trailer of sludge at the field
and returns to the mill for the other one, as the sludge appli-
cator vehicle nurses off the trailer. This procedure is contin-
ued throughout the day for a maximum of eight tank truckloads in
a 10- to 12-hr working day,
Haste Application
The sludge is subsurface injected into the field by a "Big
Wheel" sludge applicator vehicle. This vehicle is specifically
designed for field application-of liquids, and has high flota-
tion provided by 1.2-m (4-ft) wide tires. Once the full tank
trailer has been dropped near the spreading site, the Big Wheel
takes on its 6-m3 (1,600-gal) load of sludge. With the aid of
the subsoiler attachment on the rear, the Big Wheel injects the
sludge from 2.5 to 10 cm (1 to 4 in) below the surface in the
small furrows created by the mechanism. The vehicle moves across
the field at about 8 km/hr (5 mph), injecting its load in about
3 min, and returns to the trailer to refill. Loading rates
average about 188 m3 or 8.9 t dry solids/ha (20,000 gal or
4 tons/ac). This provides approximately 560 kg/ha (500 Ib/ac) of
total nitrogen, or 0.11 t (100 Ib/ac) of available nitrogen. The
Big Wheel makes about four passes over the same ground to achieve
this loading, and the fields are treated only once prior to
planting. One driver operates the Big Wheel with occasional
supervision from the company staff.
139
-------
TABLE 37. SLUDGE ANALYSES - MICHIGAN SITE
Concentration (mg/kg)
Parameter
Org'-N
NH3
N03
N02
P
K
Ca
Fe
Mg
Mn
Na
Ar
B
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Hg
Ni
Se
Zn
1/15/76
63,550
2,350
1
0.5
8,310
3,300
16,000
2,700
1 ,700
650
2,400
--
38
--
42
30
--
1.0
--
--
180
3/11/75
61 ,800
1,330
1
1.5
11,000
3,900
17,000
2,800
2,800
710
3,900
--
41
41
25
0.1
--
--
220
Date
5/13/76
47,432
7,532
3
2
6,199
2,283
22,207
2,750
4,670
908
4,317
0.65
62
4
32
36
<0.05
1.07
--
<0.25
5/14/76 t>/
7/76
48,805 47,068
8,139 7,342
3
2
3
2
5,987 7,317
2,449 2,371
22,074 22,761
3,346 3,524
4,840 4,793
1,007 1,020
4,396 4,040
0.71
9
4
41
41
<0.05
2.79
<0.25
0.83
41
4
35
43
<0.05
0.27
--
<0.25
140
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Although the winter of 1976 was cold, with little insulat-
ing snow, the Big Wheel was still in operation through December
1976. Its subsoiler mechanism was able to break through the
ground, which was frozen about 10 cm (4 in) deep. With the
accumulation of snow, the company experimented with sludge
spraying on the surface, followed by plowing of the site as soon
as farm equipment could work the soil in the spring. There were
no problems with odor or runoff during the spring melt.
For experiments on grown trees, the Big Wheel is used with
a spray attachment. The truck drives down an access road or
narrow cleared path and sprays the sludge laterally onto the
trees and soil.
If the sludge is only used on ground that is yet to be
planted, a 15-yr time lapse will be required for the trees to
mature and be harvested before more sludge can be applied to
that land. However, program managers are confident that the
sludge can be used to advantage on young trees as well, and that
a plot of land will then be able to accept more than the initial
9-t/ha (4-ton/ac) dosage. The major difference in spraying young
trees is that the application procedure must be carefully moni-
tored to avoid odor before the sludge is plowed into the soil.
Care must also be taken to avoid damaging the trees.
Environmental Factors
Two of the experimental test plots are closely monitored
with a network of shallow wells to check any effects of sludge
application on groundwater quality. Parameters measured include
NC>3, TN, pH, conductivity, and depth to the groundwater table.
As of late 1976, the state of Michigan was initiating guide-
lines and monitoring requirements for industrial sludge spreading
programs. Starting in the summer of 1977, quarterly reports are
being required on quantity of sludge applied, incidence of run-
off, odor occurrence, and other problems.
Economic Summary
Table 38 summarizes anticipated costs under full-scale
operation to be initiated in 1977 or 1978. Company X paid
$58/ton dry weight to a private contractor to have the sludge
hauled and spread. The costs in Table 38, estimated by SCS,
reflect the company's takeover of the entire operation. Actual
company costs are not available. As shown, existing pretreatment
represents a large portion (over 42 percent) of the overall
program costs.
141
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TABLE 38. ANTICIPATED COSTS FOR MICHIGAN
SLUDGE APPLICATION PROGRAM*
Item
Cost (1975
O&M
Capital ($/Yr)
$)
Total
(WYr)
3
(S/m )t
Pretreatment
- c 1 a r i f i e r
- thickener
- 4 centrifuges
Hauling
- 2 tractors
- 4 tankers
- 2 drivers
(including
fringe
benefits)
Spreading
- 2 Big Wheels
- 2 drivers
Maintenance
- 1 pickup truck
- 1 mechanic
- tools & shed
Monitoring
- 20 we!1s
- sampling &
analysis
TOTAL
750,000
65,000 140,000
1.48
60,000
120,000
1 ,000
5,000
2,000
5,000
13,000
18,000
26,500
500
5,000
2.64
3.65
42,000
100,000 12,000
42,000
6,000 2,000
22,000
10,000
42,000
73,000
43,000
42,000
85,000
3,000
22,000
1 ,500
8.52
8.73
8.52
0.61
4.46
0.30
0.10
1.01
$1,047,000 $197,000 $330,000 $66.95
* S C S estimate.
tAssume 13.5 t/day, 365 days/yr.
142
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Planned Final Use of Site
All sludge spreading sites are now and will continue to be
used as hybrid poplar and aspen tree farms. There are no plans
to use the site for any other purpose.
Public Response
A well-organized public information program was initiated
prior to sludge cultivation activities. The program emphasized
that the sludge was to be subsurface injected to minimize
odor, and that the plots would look like normal plowed fields.
Company X consulted with the following groups before pro-
gram implementation:
The township supervisor
County agricultural agents
The county public health director
t State water resource, air pollution, and
solid waste management districts
U.S. Soil Conservation Service.
In essence, all concerned people were aware of the program
and consented to its operation. As a public relations aid,
guided tours are conducted in some areas of the farm.
Problems Encountered
The only problem encountered was occasional summer odors
when sludge spraying was first tried. With subsurface sludge
injection, this problem has been eliminated.
143
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SECTION 4
NONSTANDARD DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
OVERVIEW
Modern industrial activities produce a large variety and
quantity of hazardous wastes. Conventional disposal techniques
for these wastes include disposition in impoundments and
in chemical and sanitary landfills, and incineration. How-
ever, there is a growing interest in nonstandard disposal tech-
niques that can provide for a practical utilization of the
waste materials.
The trend toward utilization, or nonstandard disposal,
has been prompted by several factors. Conventional, or
standard disposal techniques have, in several instances, resulted
in adverse environmental effects such as groundwater contamina-
tion and air pollution. In such cases, alternatives have been
sought that would avoid these adverse effects. Some industries
have found that acceptable disposal sites - such as landfills -
within economical transport distance are being closed, thus
requiring an alternative method to be found for hazardous waste
disposal. In other cases, the costs associated with standard
disposal have increased substantially. This may be caused by
increasingly strict requirements to control emissions, or by
escalating energy costs. Another factor that has led to waste
utilization is the growing awareness that one industry's wastes
may be another industry's resource. In these cases, the wastes
may be substituted for virgin materials. This provides the
waste generator with a low-cost, or possibly even revenue-
producing, method of waste disposal while at the same time
giving the user a source of supply at a reduced cost. An example
of this is the use of boiler slag as an aggregate in construc-
tion projects.
It should not be assumed that nonstandard disposal is free
of problems. Environmental degradation may still result, but
the overall impacts may be lessened since contaminants are often
spread over a larger geographical region due to utilization of
the wastes. For this reason, it is imperative that the inter-
actions between the waste at its site of use and the surrounding
environment be fully understood.
144
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Section 4 deals with some of the nonstandard disposal
techniques available to industry. The types of hazardous wastes
that have been disposed in a nonstandard manner are first dis-
cussed, followed by a discussion of disposal techniques. These
techniques essentially involve utilization of the waste, thereby
providing a useful product as well as a method of disposal.
WASTE TYPES AND NONSTANDARD DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
Fly Ash
Construction Uses--
Current use patterns for fly ash indicate its main appli-
cation is as a pozzolanic additive to Portland cement concrete
where its natural cementitious properties can bring about a
genuine savings in costs (33, 34). Other applications include
uses as a roadbed or railroad bed stabilizer, filler for asphalt
mixes, lightweight aggregate, oil well grouting, and as mine
subsidence. Because of its fire- and skid-resistant characteris-
tics, fly ash also is the main ingredient for mine fire control
purposes and in anti-skid winter roads.
Agricultural Uses--
Major chemical constituents '(30 to 40 percent) of fly ash
are Si, Al, Fe, Ca, and Mg (35). It is also rich in trace
elements such as B, Mo, and Zn. Many researchers have reported
that fly ash can be used as a micronutrient supplier to correct
deficient soils and enhance agricultural production (35, 36, 37,
38, 39, 40). When fly ash is alkaline in a reaction, it can be
utilized as a supplementary source of agricultural limestone.
For example, the neutralizing capacity of fly ash from the Mojave
generation station in California is from 35 to 50 percent, the
same as commercial agricultural limestone (35). Furthermore, the
use of fly ash as a soil amendment would alleviate problems
associated with Al and Mn 'toxicities to plants in acid soils.
Adams et al.(41) encouraged using fly ash as a neutralizing
material to reclaim coal mine spoil and refuse bank.
Caution should be taken with the use of fly ash in agri-
culture. Recent investigations indicate that fly ash may contain
carcinogenic compounds. Agricultural use should then be limited
to applications where these compounds do not enter the food
chain or present health hazards to workers.
Miscellaneous Uses--
When concentrations of certain high value elements in fly
ash are great, the ash can be recycled to recover the element.
For example, Brackett (33) reported the use of fly ash to
recover vanadium.
145
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Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag
These wastes can be used for construction purposes because
of their pozzolanic characteristics and their natural cementi-
tious properties (33). For example, bottom ash and boiler slag
are used in place of cement in concrete products, as lightweight
aggregate, as fill material for roads and construction sites,
as a stabilizer for road bases and parking areas, and as filler
in asphalt mix.
Steel Slag
Some useful characteristics of the numerous steel slags
include durability, resistance to abrasion and corrosion, and
fire and skid resistance. Depending upon particle size, steel
slag can be utilized as follows (42):
Construction Uses
Pozzolanic additive to Portland cement concrete
Base material for mineral wool
Lightweight aggregate
Railroad ballast
Material for pipe backfill
Wastewater Treatment Uses
Material for septic tank absorption beds
Trickling filter medium
Chemically, steel slag is composed mainly of calcium and
magnesium alumino-si1icate. It also contains smaller amounts of
other elements such as Fe, Mn, S, and P. Because of its strong
alkalinity and high Ca content, steel slag has been utilized as
a liming material (43).
Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry Wastes
Following is a list of the types of potentially hazardous
wastes generated by the leather tanning and finishing industry
and their potential beneficial uses:
Haste Stream By-Product Uses
Solvent-based finished residues Solvent recovery
Blue trim and shavings Fertilizer
Hog feed supplement
Glue
Leather trimmings Glue
Craftsman of leather articles
146
-------
With the exception of solvent recovery, by-product utili-
zation of potentially hazardous waste is volatile and dependent
upon location. The major type of potentially hazardous waste
sold is blue trim and shavings. These are sold to producers
of fertilizer (supplying principally N and, to a lesser degree,
P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, and Zn) used in citrus groves and other
orchards (18). Similarly, some tanneries also sell blue trim
and shavings for use as a hog feed supplement (supplying proteins,
vitamins, and trace elements such as Cr, Cu, and Zn) and in the
manufacture of glue. Occasionally, finished leather trimmings
are sold to glue manufacturers and to local craftsmen or foreign
countries for the manufacture of small leather goods.
Pulp and Paper Mill Wastes
Organic by-products recovered from spent cooking liquors
include turpentine, tall oil, alcohols, dimethyl sulfoxide,
vanillin, and yeast (44). Yeast production shows great potential
in by-product utilization of spent sulfite liquor. The yeast
cells, which grow rapidly, contain large amounts of proteins
and vitamins that can be used as food supplements. These can be
used directly in the manufacture of roofing felts and in thermal
insulation materials. The soluble sugars in the pulp washer
water are concentrated in evaporators to recover a molasses-type
cattle feed by-product.
Phosphoric Fertilizer Industry Wastes
Wastes from the phosphoric fertilizer industry contain
large amounts of gypsum and fluoride effluents. The recrystal-
lization under controlled conditions produces plaster and
construction blocks (44). Production of sulfur, sulfuric acid,
and cement constitutes other possible uses of these wastes.
Waste Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid
Surplus sulfur and sulfuric acid can be used beneficially
in agricultural practices for reclaiming sodium-affected
calcareous soils, increasing the availability of phosphorus and
certain micronutrients, e.g., Fe, Zn, and Mn, treating alkaline
and ammoniated irrigation water, and controlling certain weeds
and soil-borne pathogens, e.g., Phymatotricum omnivorium,
Helminthosporium turcicum, Cyrisdon dactyloTT (1, 10). Other
miscellaneous uses of waste sulfuric acid,include dust control
on alkaline dry lake beds (1), seed scarification to break
dormancy (45), crop desiccation, control of algae and aquatic
plants, and soil crusting control (46).
Plating Industry Wastes
The reclamation of chemicals from rinse waters produces
economic benefits. Chromic acid is recovered by evaporation and
147
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ion exchange (44). Ion exchange is also used in the recovery of
high value metals such as gold, silver, and platinum. The
demineralized water produced in this process may be good to
reuse for cooling and for some processing.
Pharmaceutical Wastes
Fermentation residues from the pharmaceutical industry
contain relatively small amounts of the plant nutrients (2.50
percent N, 2.58 percent Ca, and 0.47 percent Zn). The wastes
also contain P, K, Fe, and Mg and about 2.70 percent fat._
Pharmaceutical wastes can be excellent supplements for animal
feed (47), and can also be used as fertilizer, principally
supplying N and Zn to agronomic crops (48).
Used Crankcase Oils
These wastes can be reprocessed to produce low-grade oil
(49) or can be used as an auxiliary fuel (50).
148
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REFERENCES
1. Miyamoto, S., et al. Potentially Beneficial Uses of
Sulfuric Acid in Southwestern Agriculture. J. Environ.
Quality, 4:431-437, 1975.
2. McKee, A.G. and Co. System Study for Control of Emissions
by the Primary Nonferrous Smelting Industry. Publ. 184.
U.S. Federal Clearing House, Washington, D.C., 1969.
3. Allison, L.E. Salinity in Relation to Irrigation. Adv.
Agron., 16:139-180, 1964.
4. Reeve, R.C., et al. A Comparison of the Effect of
Exchangeable Sodium and Potassium upon the Physical
Conditions of Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 18:130-
132, 1954.
5. Thorup, J.T. pH Effect on Root Growth and Water Uptake
Plant. Agron. J., 61:225-227, 1969.
6. Miyamoto, S., and J.L. Stroehlein. Sulfuric Acid for
Increasing Water Penetration into Some Arizona Soils.
Prog. Agric. Ariz., 27:13-16, 1975.
7. Ryan, J., S. Miyamoto, and J.L. Stroehlein. Solubility
of Manganese, Iron and Zinc as Affected by Application
of Sulfuric Acid to Calcareous Soils. Plant Soil,
40:421-427, 1974.
8. Ryan, J., and J.L. Stroehlein. Use of Sulfuric Acid
on Phosphorus Deficient Arizona Soils. Prog. Agric.
Ariz., 25:11-13, 1973.
9. Ryan, J., J.L. Stroehlein, and S. Miyamoto. Effect of
Surface-Applied Sulfuric Acid on Growth and Nutrient
Availability of Five Range Grasses in Calcareous Soils.
J. Range. Manage., 28:411-414, 1975.
10. Wallace, A., et al. Massive Sulfur Applications to Highly
Calcareous Agricultural Soil as a Sink for Waste Sulfur.
Res., 2:263-267, 1977.
11. Mathers, A.C. Effects of Ferrous Sulphate and Sulfuric
Acid on Grain Sorghum Yields. Agron. J., 62:555-556, 1970
149
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12. Miyamoto, S., R.J. Prather, and J.L. Stroehlein. Sulfuric
Acid for Controlling Calcite Precipitation. Soil Sci.,
120:264-271, 1975.
13. Bonn, H.L., and R.L. Westerman. Sulfuric Acid: Its
Potential for Improving Irrigation Water Quality. Proc.
Am. Water Res. Assoc. , Ari. Sect., 1:42-52, 1977.
14. Miyamoto, S., J. Ryan, and J.L. Stroehlein. Sulfuric Acid
for the Treatment of Ammoniated Irrigation I. Reducing
Ammonia Losses. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 39:544-548, 1975.
15. Aslander. A. Sulfuric Acid as a Weed Spray. J. Agric.
Res. , 24:1065-1091 , 1927.
16. Brown, J.G. and R.B. Streets. A Practical Means for the
Control of Weeds. Bull. 128. Ariz. Agric. Exp. Sta., 1928.
17. Taubenhaus, J.J., W.N. Ezekiel, and J.F. Fudge. Relation
of Soil Acidity to Cotton Root Rot. Tech. Bull. 545. Tex.
Agric. Exp. Sta., 1937.
18. SCS Engineers. Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Waste
Practices - Leather Tanning and Finishing Industry.
NTIS PB 261018, November 1976.
19. Allaway, W.H. Agronomic Controls over Environmental Cycling
of Trace Elements. Adv. Agron., 20:235-274, 1968.
20. Underwood, E.J. Trace Elements and Their Physiological
Roles in the Animal. In: Trace Elements in Soil-Plant-
Animal Systems, D.J.D. Nicholas and A.R. Egan, eds.
Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1975. pp. 227-241.
21. Lofy, R.J. Petroleum Refinery Solid Waste Disposal
Practices. Presented at the National Conference About
Hazardous Waste Management, San Francisco, California,
February 1-4, 1977 (in press).
22. Cresswell , L.W. The Fate of Petroleum in a Soil Environment.
In: Proceedings of 1977 Oil Spill Conference, New Orleans,
Louisiana, March 8-10, 1977. pp. 479-482.
23. SCS Engineers. Oil Spill: Decisions for Debris Disposal.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.
24. Sea-Water Intrusion in California, Geologic Map of Califor-
nia. Dept. of Water Resources, No. 66, Division of Mines
and Geology, 1969.
150
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25. Climates of the States. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1974. p. 573.
26. Climatological Data, California Annual Summary, 78 (13).
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Environmental Data Service, 1974.
27. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
Rhode Island Soil Interpretation Tables and unpublished
soil maps. Washington, D.C.
28. Allen, W.B., G.W. Hahn, and R.A. Brackley. Availability
of Ground Water, Upper Pawcatuck River Basin, Rhode Island.
Water-Supply Paper 1821, U.S. Geol. Survey, Washington,
D.C., 1966.
29. Allen, W.B., G.W. Hahan, and C.R. Tuttle. Geohydrological
Data for the Upper Pawcatuck River Basin, Rhode Island.
Geol. Bull. 13. Rhode Island Water Resources Coordinating
Board, Providence, Rhode Island, 1963.
30. Bierschenk, W.H. Ground-Water Resources of the Kingston
Quadrangle, Rhode Island. Geol. Bull. 9, Rhode Island
Development Council, 1956.
31. Dickerman, D.C. Geohydrologic Data for the Chipuxet River
Ground-Water Reservoir, Rhode Island. Water Information
Series Report 2, Rhode Island Water Resources Board,
Providence, Rhode Island, 1976.
32. Hahn, G.W. Ground-Water Map of the Slocum Quadrangle,
Rhode Island. GWM-2, Rhode Island Water Resources
Coordinating Board, 1959.
33. Brackett, C.E. Production and Utilization of Ash in the
United States. In: Proceedings of the Third International
Ash Utilization Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1973.
pp. 13-14.
34. Theis, T.L. The Potential Trace Metal Contamination of
Water Resources through the Disposal of Fly Ash. In:
Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Complete
WateReuse, Chicago, Illinois, 1975. pp. 219-224.
35. Page, A.L., F.T. Bingham, L.J. Lund, G.R. Bradford, and
A.A. Elseewi. Consequences of Trace Element Enrichment
of Soils and Vegetation from the Combustion of Fuels Used
in Power Generation. SCE Research and Development Series
77-RD-29, Rosemead, California, 1977.
151
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36.
37.
38.
39.
40,
41
42,
43
44,
45,
46,
47.
Martens, D.C.
Compost. Sen.
Availability of Plant Nutrients in Fly Ash
12:15-19, 1971,
Mulford, F.R., and
Boron in Fly Ash.
Plank, C.O. , D.C.
by Application of
Proc. 38:974-977,
D.C. Martens. Response of Alfalfa to
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 35:296-300.
Martens. Boron
Fly Ash to Soil,
1974.
Availability as Influenced
Soi1 Sci. Soc. Amer.
Plank, C.O., D.C. Martens, and D.L. Hallock. Effect of
Soil Application of Fly Ash on Chemical Composition and
Yield of Corn (Zea Mays L.) and on Chemical Composition
of Displaced Soil Solutions. Plant Soil, 42:465-476, 1975.
Schnappinger, M.G., Jr., D.C. Martens, and C.O. Plank.
Zinc Availability as Influenced by Application of Fly Ash
to Soil. Environ. Sci. Techno!., 9:258-261, 1975.
Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and D.W. Gillmore. Coal Mine Spoil
and Refuse Bank Reclamation with Powerplant Fly Ash.
In: Proceedings of the Third Mineral Waste Utilization
Symposium, Chicago, Illinois, 1972. pp. 1-7.
National Slag Association. Processed Blast Furnace Slag.
Bull. NSA 171-3. Alexandria, Virginia.
Volk, 6.W., R.B. Harding,
of Blast Furnace Slag and
Res. Bull. 708, Ohio Agr.
and C.E. Evans. A Comparison
Limestone as a Soil Amendment.
Exp. Sta., Columbus, Ohio, 1952,
Dieler, F.G. The Pollution Spectrum with Some Recent
Technological Contributions to Air and Water Conservation.
In: Proceedings of the Thirty-first Annual Conference on
Waste Conversion for Profit, Chicago, Illinois, 1969.
pp. 57-70.
Blankenship, J.O., and D.R. Smith. Breaking Seed Dormancy
in Parry's Clover by Acid Treatment. J. Range Manage.,
20:50, 1967.
Johnson, R.C., and J.B. Low. Controlling Soil Crusting
in Sugar Beet Fields by Applying Concentrated Sulfuric
Acid. J. Amer. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. , 14:615-618, 1967,
Dunlap, C.E., and C.D. Callihan. Single-Cell-Protein
Production from Cellulosic Wastes. In: Recycling and
Disposal of Solid Wastes, T.F. Yen, ed. Ann Arbor Sci.
Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1974. pp. 335-347*
152
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48. DeRoo, H.C. Agricultural and Horticultural Utilization of
Fermentation Residues. Bull. No. 750, Connecticut Agric.
Exp. St., New Haven, Connecticut, 1975.
49. Besselievre, E.B. Industrial Waste Treatment. McGraw
Hill, New York, New York, 1952, pp. 304 and 314-316.
50. Chanskey, S., B. McCoy, and N. Surprenant. Waste Automotive
Lubricating Oil as a Municipal Incinerator Fuel. EPA-R2-
73-293, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973,
153
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APPENDIX
METHODS FOR SAMPLE PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS
The following procedures were standardized for the prepara-
tion and analysis of soil and plant samples received from the
field investigation sites.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
Soil samples were air-dried (temperature <40°C), ground up
to pass through a 2-mm sieve, and stored until analysis. A
portion of the air-dried soil was placed in a moisture can and
dried at 110°C for 24 hr. This portion was used later for the
expression of concentration on an oven-dry basis.
Plant samples were washed with P-free soap (Ivory Snow),
rinsed in deionized water, blotted, and dried in a 70°C forced-
draft-oven for 48 hr. The samples were then ground up in a
stainless steel grinder (<20 mesh) and stored in plastic1 vials.
Approximately 2 g of air-dried soil were shaken thoroughly
in 20 ml of 0.1 N_ HC1 for 1 hr. The mixture was then centri-
fuged and filtered and the filtrate analyzed for orthophosphate,
sulfate, and trace elements (including heavy metals). The
concentration found in the HC1 extraction is presumably an indi-
cation of the bioavailabi1ity or potential mobility of the
element. Separate aliquots of soil samples were required for the
analyses of total nitrogen, organic carbon, pH, and oil content
(where necessary).
The water extraction procedure used was that outlined by
Richards (1). A saturated paste was made by gradually adding
deionized water to the air-dried soil and thoroughly mixing them.
The paste was allowed to stand overnight. The following day the
paste was placed on a Richards funnel and an extract obtained
under suction. This extract was used to analyze electrical
conductivity, boron, chloride, and occasionally sodium, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium. The concentration found in water extrac-
tion is presumably readily Teachable or available for plant
uptake.
Approximately 0.5 g of plant sample was digested in 5 ml
of concentrated HN03-HC104 mixture (5=2 by volume). After the
154
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digestion was complete, the mixture was diluted with deionized
water and analyzed for nutrients and trace elements (including
heavy metals).
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES*
Soil pH (1:1): Glass electrode (2)
Organic Carbon Dichromate - Sulfuric acid method (2)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen or Total Nitrogen - Semi-
micro Kjeldahl method (3)
Heavy metals - Atomic absorption spectrometry
Calcium and Magnesium - Atomic adsorption spectrometry
Sodium and Potassium - Flame photometry
Chloride - Mercuric nitrate procedure (4)
Sulfate - Turbidimetric method (3)
Boron - Curcumin method (4)
Selenium - Hydride method (2)
Molybdenum - Atomic absorption spectrometry
Phosphorus - Colorimetrie procedure using SnCl2
as a reducing agent
Oil and Grease - Soxhlet extraction method (4)
*The following analytical procedures were used to test
the sample plants and soils.
155
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REFERENCES
1. Richards, L.A. (ed). Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline
and Alkaline Soils. Agri. Handbook No. 60. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, 1954. 160 pp.
2. Corbin, D.R. and W.H. Barnard. Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometric Determination of Arsenic and Selenium
in Water by Hydride Generation. Atomic Absorption News-
letter 15 (15): 116-120. 1976.
3. Black, C.A. (ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2 -
Chemical and Microbiological Properties.
4. Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater.
American Public Health Assoc., Washington, D.C. Thirteenth
edition. 874 pp. 1971
156
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(f lease read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-78-140b
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
LAND CULTIVATION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTES: STATE-OF-THE-ART STUDY
Volume II - Field Investigations and Case Studies
5. REPORT DATE
August 1978 (Issuing Date)
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Tan Phung, Larry Barker, David Ross, and David Bauer
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, California 90807
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1DC618
11.
68-03-2435
NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Municipal Environmental Research LaboratoryGin. ,OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final, July 1976 to Jan. 1978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: Robert E. Landreth
See also Vol. 1, EPA-600/2-78-140a
(513) 684-7871
16. ABSTRACT
A review of the available literature on land cultivation of industrial wastewater
and sludge, and municipal solid waste was conducted. This review was supplemented by
field investigations at 10 operating sites, including soil and vegetation analyses.
Soil is a natural environment for the inactivation and degradation of many waste
materials through a variety of soil processes. Land cultivation is a disposal techni-
que by which a waste is spread on and incorporated into the surface soil. Depending
on waste characteristics, the disposal program can be either related to agriculture
or solely a disposal practice.
Volume 1 is a technical summary and literature review. It contains information
about land cultivation practices, waste characteristics and quantities, mechanisms
of waste degradation, effects on soil properties and plants, regulations, site
selection, operation, environmental impact assessment, site monitoring, site conceptual
design, and case study summaries. Cited are 202 reference.
Volume 2 summarizes the results of field investigations and case studies. It
covers four field studies, six case studies, and a section on nonstandard disposal
or utilization techniques for hazardous wastes. Field data was collected to evaluate
operational procedures, costs, environmental impacts, and problems associated with
land cultivation at the individual sites.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Industrial wastes
Refuse disposal
Land reclamation
Soil chemistry
Soil microbiology
Plant nutrition
Plant physiology
.Waste disposal
Biodegradation
Land application
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
173
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
157
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978-757-140/1433 Region No. 5-11
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