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              AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS

                       OF

                    ASBESTOS
                Prepared for the
  National Air Pollution Control Administration
Consumer Protection & Environmental Health Service
   Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
           (Contract No. PH-22-68-25)
         Compiled by Ralph J. Sullivan
                 and Yanis C. Athanassiadis

              Litton Systems, Inc.
         Environmental Systems Division
               7300 Pearl Street
            Bethesda, Maryland  20014

                 September 1969

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                          FOREWORD


       As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-

cern over the less ubiquitous but potentially harmful contami-

nants that are in our atmosphere.  Thirty such pollutants have

been identified, and available information has been summarized

in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,

effects, and control technology for their abatement.

       A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the

30 pollutants.  These reports were developed under contract

for the National Air Pollution Control Administration  (NAPCA) by

Litton Systems, Inc.  The complete listing is as follows:


    Aeroallergens (pollens)       Ethylene
    Aldehydes (includes acrolein  Hydrochloric Acid
      and formaldehyde)           Hydrogen Sulfide
    Ammonia                       Iron and Its Compounds
    Arsenic and Its Compounds     Manganese and Its Compounds
    Asbestos                      Mercury and its Compounds
    Barium and Its Compounds      Nickel and Its Compounds
    Beryllium and Its Compounds   Odorous Compounds
    Biological Aerosols           Organic Carcinogens
      (microorganisms)            Pesticides
    Boron and Its Compounds       Phosphorus and Its Compounds
    Cadmium and Its Compounds     Radioactive Substances
    Chlorine Gas                  Selenium and Its Compounds
    Chromium and Its Compounds    Vanadium and Its Compounds
      (includes chromic acid)     Zinc and Its Compounds


       These reports represent current state-of-the-art

literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected

knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal

Government.  They do not however presume to be a synthesis of

available information but rather a summary without an attempt

to interpret or reconcile conflicting data.  The reports are

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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for

some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-

sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemic-

logic studies were available.

       Initially these reports were generally intended as

internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound

decision-making on program guidance for future research

activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating

to the development of criteria and control technology docu-

ments.  However, it is apparent that these reports may also

be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,

such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a

library of information on which to base informed decisions on
                                                  f

pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas.  Addi-

tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators

to pursue research in needed areas.  They also provide for the

interested citizen readily available information about a given

pollutant.  Therefore, they are being given wide distribution

with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge

of their value and limitations.
                            i
       This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the

Litton personnel listed below:

       Ralph J. Sullivan
       Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
       Norman L. Durocher
       Yanis C. Athanassiadis
       Sydney Miner
       Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
       Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
       James L. Haynes

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       The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C.



Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.



       Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both



outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed



draft copies of these reports.  Appreciation is also expressed



to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications



for their support in providing a significant portion of the



technical literature.

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                          ABSTRACT



       Inhalation of asbestos may cause asbestosis, pleural or


peritoneal mesothelioma, or lung cancer.  Mesothelioma is a


rare form of cancer which occurs frequently in asbestos


workers.  All three of these diseases are fatal once they become


established.  The dose necessary to produce asbestosis has been


estimated to be 50 to 60 million particles per cubic foot-years.


No information is available on the dose necessary to induce


cancer.  Random autopsies of lungs have shown "asbestos bodies"


in the lungs of one-fourth to one-half of samples from urban


populations.  Thus, the apparent air pollution by asbestos


reaches a large number of people.


       Animals have been shown to develop asbestosis and cancer


after exposure to asbestos.


       No information has been found on the effects of asbestos


air pollution on plants or materials.


       The likely sources of asbestos air pollution are uses of


the asbestos products in the construction industry and asbestos


mines and factories,  observations in Finland and Russia indi-
                        i

cate that asbestos does pollute air near mines and factories.


However, no measurements were reported of the concentration of


asbestos near likely sources in the United States.  A concentra-


tion in urban air of 600 to 6,000 particles per cubic meter has


been estimated.

       Bag filters have been used in factories to control

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asbestos emissions; the cost of this type of control in a



British factory was approximately 27.5 percent of the total capital



cost and about 7 percent of the operating cost.  No information



has been found on the costs of damage resulting from asbestos



air pollution.



       No satisfactory analytical method is available to



determine asbestos in the atmosphere.

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                          CONTENTS

    FOREWORD

    ABSTRACT

1.  INTRODUCTION 	   1

2.  EFFECTS	   3

    2.1  Effects on Humans	   3
         2.1.1  Asbestosis	   4
         2.1.2  Pleural Calcification and Plaques  ....   6
         2.1.3  Cancer	   7
         2.1.3.1  Cancer of the Lung	   7
         2.1.3.2  Mesothelioma of the Pleura and Peritoneum 11
         2.1.3.3  Other Cancers  	  15
         2.1.3.4  Synergism  	  15
         2.1.4  "Asbestos Bodies"  	  17
    2.2  Effects on Animals	20
         2.2.1  Commercial and Domestic Animals	20
         2.2.2  Experimental Animals	21
    2.3  Effects on P-lants	24
    2.4  Effects on Materials	  24
    2.5  Environmental Air Standards	24

3.  SOURCES	26

    3.1  Natural Occurrence  	  26
         3.1.1  Mines	26
    3.2  Production Sources  	  29
    3.3  Product Sources	31
    3.4  Environmental Air Concentrations   .	33

4.  ABATEMENT	35

5.  ECONOMICS	37

6.  METHODS OF ANALYSIS	  .  38

7-  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	  .  40

    REFERENCES   	43

    APPENDIX  A	63

    APPENDIX  B	92

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                       LIST OF FIGURES
1.  Comparison of Trends in World Production  and U.S.
    Consumption of Unmanufactured Asbestos 	    30

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                       LIST OF TABLES
 1.  Deaths of Asbestos Insulation Workers in  New York,
     1963-67 ......................  16

 2.  Distribution of "Asbestos (Ferruginous) Bodies"  in
     Lungs in Pittsburgh ................  20

 3.  Type and Number of Tumors Induced by Intrapleural
     Inoculation of S.P.F. Rats with Asbestos   .....  22

 4.  Dust Counts in Asbestos Mines and Mills  in South
     Africa, 1947  ...................  29

 5.  Cancer of the Lung Among Asbestos Workers .....  63

 6.  "Asbestos Bodies" in Consecutive o» Random
     Autopsies .....................  65

 7.  Composition and Properties of Asbestos  ......  67

 8.  World Production of Asbestos  ...........  70

 9.  The Production and Apparent Consumption of Asbestos
     in the United States  .......... .....  72

10.  Regional Distribution of Asbestos Mining  and
     Processing  ....................  73

11.  Asbestos Mines in the United States, 1966 .....  74

12.  Apparent Asbestos Consumption, 1965 ........  75

13.  Proportion of Asbestos in Various Asbestos Products  76

14.  Quantity and Value of Asbestos Input by Industry,
     1963  .......................  76

15.  Population Groups with Occupational and Environmental
     Exposure to Asbestos  ...............  77

16.  Asbestos Control Equipment  .........  ...  78

17.  Analysis of Asbestos and Asbestos Products Exports
     and Imports ....................  79
18.  Selected Statistics for the Asbestos Manufacturing
     Industry  .....................  8°

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                    LIST OP TABLES  (Continued)


19.  Selected Statistics for the Asbestos  Products In-
     dustry 	   81

20.  Asbestos Uses	   82

21.  1967 List of Manufactured Asbestos  Products   ...   85

22.  Asbestos Product Manufacturing Plants,  1963   ...   87

23.  Penetration of Fibers Through  Nasal Hairs   ....   93

24.  Particle-Mass Relationship of  Asbestos  as  a Function
     of Fiber Length	   93

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1.  INTRODUCTION



           Asbestos is a general name given to a variety of useful



    fibrous minerals.  The value of asbestos ensues from the



    indestructible nature of products fabricated from the various



    grades of mineral fibers.  The major asbestos minerals are



    chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, and anthophyllite, while



    tremolite and actinolite are considerably less important.



    Over 90 percent of the asbestos is chrysotile.  The United



    States uses about one-fourth of the world production of this



    substance, practically all imported from Canada and Africa.



           Inhalation of asbestos dust has long been recognized as


                         161,165
    an industrial hazard.         Early in this century, exposure



    to high concentrations of the fibrous dust was causally



    associated with asbestosis.  In 1935, evidence began to



    accumulate that cancer of the lung is also associated with



    inhalation of asbestos.    More recently, certain rare cancers,



    pleural mesotheliomas and peritoneal mesotheliomas, have been



    associated with inhalation of asbestos fibers by asbestos

            1 -j /•         g2

    workers.     Heimann   states that "The finding of several



    such rare tumors in any given group makes that group suspect



    of having special and distinct environmental characteristics,



    in this case, exposure to asbestos dust."
           Nonoccupational environmental exposure to asbestos was


                                      81
    found as early as 1927 when Haddow   reported finding so-



    called "asbestos bodies" in the lungs of a person living near

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an asbestos factory.  Since then, several investiga-
tors121'175'186'202'226 have reported finding neighborhood
cases.  The subject of nonoccupational environmental exposure
to asbestos assumed a new dimension beginning with the re-
                                       — ^ i £
ports of Thomson and his colleagues.         After examining
the lungs in consecutive autopsies, they found that approxi-
mately one-fourth of the populations in both Capetown, South
Africa, and Miami, Fla., have "asbestos bodies" in their
lungs.  Other investigators have confirmed that one-fourth
                                            40               43
to one-half of the population in Pittsburgh, * San Francisco,
Milan,   Glasgow,    New York,    Montreal,  Jerusalem,
        167           R5
Finland,    and Sweden   have "asbestos bodies14 in their lungs.
These findings indicate that either these asbestos particles
or other particles that resemble asbestos in many ways, in-
cluding the way in which the body reacts to them, are being
inhaled either with the ambient urban air or through direct
exposure to asbestos.

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2.   EFFECTS



    2.1  Effects on Humans



           Asbestosis (a diffuse pulmonary fibrosis),  pleural



    calcification, pleural plaques, lung cancer,  and pleural and



    peritoneal mesotheliomas can result from  exposure to



    asbestos.  Asbestos bodies are commonly found in the lungs of



    persons exhibiting these complications.  Diagnosis of any of



    these or finding "asbestos bodies" in the lungs signifies the



    need to review the case history for previous asbestos exposure.



    Surveys of people living or working near asbestos mines and



    factories have revealed that many nonoccupational cases of



    asbestosis and mesothelioma have occurred either from the



    polluted air or from asbestos carried home on the workers'

             175,176,178

    clothing.             However, in many cases no exposure to



    asbestos can be established.



           The fate of the asbestos fiber once it is inhaled* and



    deposited in the lung is still questionable.  The short fibers,



    <0.5 M- in length, have been pathologically ignored, probably



    because they are much too narrow to be visible under a light



    microscope.  The longer fibers which are encrusted in an iron-



    bearing protein  (asbestos bodies) become easily visible.


                       228                  172
    Wagner and Skidmore    and Morris et al.    have shown that



    rats which have inhaled asbestos lose the asbestos (probably



    the short fibers) from their lungs.  The biological half-life
           *A discussion on respirable fibers is presented in

    Appendix B (page 92).

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for asbestos appears to be 20 to 90 days, depending on the

mineral type.  Some of the fibers are removed by phagocytosis

to the lymph nodes.

2.1.1  Asbestosis

       Among asbestos workers, evidence of pulmonary asbestosis

is common.  This condition results in a diffuse fibrosis,

usually in the lower lobes of the lung.  Pulmonary asbestosis

has been called a monosymptomatic disease, with dyspnea as the

main complaint.     The British Occupational Hygiene Society

has reported that basal rales are the first symptoms of asbes-

tosis.

       Asbestosis usually develops after long exposure to high

concentrations of asbestos dust.  The risk varies directly with

the length of exposure and the dust concentration.  Following

continued exposure to high concentrations of dust, asbestosis

may develop fully in 7 to 9 years and may cause death as early

as 13 years from onset of exposure.  The common exposure period

before recognition of asbestosis  (as observed among asbestos

workers) is 20 to 40 years, with death following about 2 to 10
                         i
years later.  Once established, asbestosis progresses even after

the exposure to dust ceasess  illness or death can occur long

after exposure to concentrations not producing immediate effects. 3/

       The prolonged latency period between exposure and the

first signs of asbestosis makes it difficult to establish dose-

                           43
time relationships.  Cooper   suggested that a time-weighted

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average concentration of asbestos fibers of 5 mppcf* is too


                      234
high.  He cites Wells'    idea that multiplying average counts



by years of exposure provides a rough guide to the total dose



allowable.  After 50 to 60-mppcf-years, workers began to show



evidence of asbestosis.  At an average concentration of 5



mppcf, this total allowable dose would be reached in 10 to 12



years.  Unfortunately, dust concentrations have been infre-



quently reported and measurements have been hampered by the



varied nature of the sources.  Marr    and Selikoff et al.



have reported that insulation workers are exposed to dust



concentrations below 5 mppcf, yet have exhibited a high



prevalence of asbestosis.  Thus, Cooper's argument is



strengthened.



       In 1946, there were about 700 cases of asbestosis in



Germany among a total of approximately 8,000 employees in the


                  108          235
asbestos industry.     Wegelius    found 125 cases of asbestosis



of the lung in X-ray examinations of 476 asbestos workers in



one company in Finland.  Of 132 asbestos workers examined by


      26
Bohme,   29 percent showed X-ray evidence of asbestosis.  The



occurrence of asbestosis in members of this worker group rose



with the duration of the employment:  5 percent in workers



exposed to asbestos for less than 3 years; 56 percent for those



employed for 5 to 10 years, and 79 percent for those with over



10 years1 exposure.  A similar morbidity of 80 percent among
       *5 million particles per cubic foot based on total dust

count and 8-hour-day, 40-hour-week exposure.

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English asbestos workers with over 20 years of employment was


reported by Merewether and Price    in 1930.  Noro    noted


that the incidence of asbestosis was 65 percent in 167 asbestos

                                          197
workers studied by X-ray.  Selikoff et al.    investigated


1,522 asbestos insulation workers in the New York-New Jersey


metropolitan area.  Among 392 individuals examined more than


20 years from the onset of exposure, X-ray evidence of asbestosis


was found in 339.  In half of these, the asbestosis was moderate


or extensive.  In individuals with less than 20 years of exposure,


radiological evidence of asbestosis was less frequent and when


present, was much less likely to be extensive.


2.1.2  Pleura! Calcification and Plaques


       Pleural calcification resulting from exposure to asbestos

                                                     120
is usually bilateral and affects the parietal pleura.

        193
Selikoff    stated that bilateral pleural calcification involving


the diaphragm is diagnostic of asbestosis.  This pleural calci-


fication can be readily identified by X-ray.

                120
       Kiviluoto    discovered 499 cases of pleural calcifica-


tion during a community X-ray survey of 6,312 adults in the


Kuusjari commune in Finland.  In Ilomantsi commune he found no


such calcification among 7,101 adults.  He observed that the


Kuusjari commune contained an asbestos mine and suggested that


these people had been subject to a localized environmental

                                     121
asbestos exposure.  This investigator    also observed 77 cases


of pleural plaques out of 35,000 routine chest X-rays.  The


case histories of these 77 revealed that 52 had previous

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exposure to asbestos either in the home or in their occupations,
where they handled asbestos products.  Of the other 25 persons,
16 were questioned and no previous asbestos exposure could be
ascertained.  Raunio186 continued the study and found 1,516
adult cases of pleural calcification from 633,201 X-rays taken
in 13 Finnish towns and 106 rural communes.  In Tuusniemi
commune, where an asbestos quarry is located, pleural calcifi-
cation was found in 9 percent of the population; in urban
populations it was found in 0.7 percent of the people; and in
rural areas calcifications were found in only 7 out of 265,273
people examined (0.002 percent).  However, Meurman167 found
the pleural plaques were common (39.3 percent of his cases)
in all Finland.
       Approximately 2.8 percent of the agricultural workers
in Czechoslovakia^05 an(j Bulgaria238 have also been shown to
have appreciable pleural calcification.  In Bulgaria the soils
worked by the farmers contained asbestos; even stone fences
were made of outcrops of anthophyllite mineral.  However, in
Czechoslovakia no asbestos or known exposure to asbestos was
found.  After examining children living in the city of Asbest
in the Soviet Union, Bobyleva e_t a.1,. 24,25 concluded that they
were suffering from impaired health caused by air pollution
from asbestos plants.
2.1.3  Cane er
2.1.3.1  Cancer of the Lung
       The most common complication of asbestosis is cancer of
the lung.  However, cancer of the lung apparently induced by

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                                                             8
asbestos may appear unaccompanied by asbestosis.
       The association of lung cancer with exposure to asbestos
dust has been the subject of many investigations in the second
                                                  149
quarter of this century.  In 1935, Lynch and Smith    in the
United States described lung cancer found during autopsy of a
patient with asbestosis.  According to Homburger's data,
over a 20-year period eight cases of asbestosis were found in
4,137 autopsies at the medical school of Yale University.  Of
these eight asbestosis cases, four were associated with lung
cancer (50 percent).  In contrast, lung cancer was found in
only two (12 percent) of 17 cases of silicosis.
                       147
       Lynch and Cannon    in 1949 found lung cancer in only
three cases (7.5 percent) of 40 patients with asbestosis.
Gloyne   in 1951 reported that according to autopsy data for
the London Hospital of Chest Diseases, lung cancer was observed
in 14 percent of the 121 patients with asbestosis, but in only
6.9 percent of those with silicosis.
       Usually, the lung cancer incidence in men is four to six
times higher than in women, but among patients with asbestosis
it is only twice as high for men.  This has been confirmed by
                             OQ
Bohlig, Jacob, and Kalliabis.    They note that among women
working in the asbestos industry, lung cancer is observed at
an earlier age than among the rest of the population.  In his
               19
review, Behrens   reported 44 cases of lung cancer (14 percent)
in 309 autopsies of patients with asbestosis.  After examining

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                                                            9
the data of various authors,  Isselbacher et al.     reported
that of 603 persons with asbestosis,  lung cancer was found in
83 (13.8 percent) at autopsy.  Hueper    and Doll   record an
even higher percentage (15 percent).   Doll emphasizes that the
majority of those who died had worked under conditions of high
dust content in the air.
                      33
       Braun and Truan   found lung cancer in 12 (three cases
were not conclusive) of 187 workers in the Canadian asbestos
                              96
industry who had died.  Boehme   reported 74 patients with
asbestosis? lung cancer was found in six of these.  The
average age of the patients was 53; the average period from
                                                  114
the beginning of work to death was 28 years.  Keal    points
out that of 30 patients with asbestosis, 14 (47 percent) died
of lung cancer and 10 from carcinoma of the peritoneum or
ovaries.
       Some additional statistics on the association of lung
cancer with asbestos workers are listed in Table 5 in the
Appendix.
       Cancer of the lung produced by asbestos needs further
study.  The latent period between exposure and evidence of
carcinoma may be even longer than for asbestosis.  Nothing is
known about the dose-time relationship.  Cases of lung cancer
have been observed when only a very short exposure or no
exposure to asbestos was known.  Furthermore, the low number
of "asbestos bodies" observed in one-fourth to one-half of the
urban population may be sufficient to cause cancer.  Because

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                                                         10
the long "asbestos bodies" remain in the lungs/  a  person who
has inhaled asbestos may carry the potential  (for  the  rest  of
his life) to develop carcinoma of the lung.   Moreover/  it has
not been determined whether more than one fiber  is necessary
to induce a malignant tumor.  Cox   has suggested  that the
probability of cancer induction is proportional  to the number
of asbestos fibers/ number of susceptible cells, the concen-
tration of carcinogens on the fibers/ and the time from
expo sure.
       Why asbestos is carcinogenic is not clearly understood.
At least three hypotheses have been advanced5
       (1)  That the fibers act as a physical irritant which
after 20 to 30 years of constant irritation induces a  tumor.
       (2)  That the fibers contain small amounts  of carcinogens-
such as benzo(a)pyrene, nickel, and chromium—which are eluted
from the fibers by the serum in the lungs. These  carcinogens
                                           DP
then produce the cancer.  Harington and Roe   have shown that
(a) chrysotile contains little or no benzo(a)pyrene, but about
100 |ag of chromium per g of fiber and 5,000 |ag of  nickel per g
of fiber; (b) crocidolite contains 0.2 to 24  jag  of benzo(a)pyrene
per 100 g of fiber and negligible amounts of  nickel and chromium;
and (c) amosite contains 0.2 to 2.4 Hg of benzo(a)pyrene per 100
g of fiber, 100 |-ig of nickel per g of fiber and  15 ug  of
chromium per g of fiber (see Appendix B,  page 92).  The
authors have not only shown that these agents can  be dissolved
in the lung serum, but also that airborne fibers can adsorb

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                                                            11
carcinogens present in the air.  In studies of the adsorption



of benzo(a)pyrene by asbestos,  chrysotile adsorbed 100 percent



of benzo(a)pyrene from solution after 48 hours at 37°C,



compared with 40 percent for crocidolite and 10 percent for



amosite.  Harington and Roe suggest that these carcinogens



can be adsorbed on airborne fibers.  Thus, the fibers become



a transporting vehicle to carry a concentrated quantity of



carcinogens into the lung.



       (3) That the fibers accumulate in the lung and are



immobilized as ''asbestos bodies" which disintegrate after 20



to 40 years.  The resulting free particles cause asbestosis



or carcinoma of the lung.


                           83
       In addition, Hammond   has suggested that asbestos is



a cocarcinogen; i.e., it increases the cancer-producing poten-



tial of small amounts of some other agent.  In a study of


                                       199
asbestos workers, he and his colleagues    found cancer of the



lung only in cigarette smokers.  The number of deaths attributed



to cancer of the lung was eight times higher in asbestos workers



who smoked cigarettes than in smokers who were not exposed to



asbestos (see Section 2.1.3.4).




2.1.3.2  Mesothelioma of the Pleura and Peritoneum



       Primary tumors of the pleura and peritoneum are so rare



that for years they were considered to be pathologic curiosi-



ties.  In 1960 the first large series of cases of diffuse

                                           229

mesothelioma were reported by Wagner et al.    in South Africa.

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                                                            12
In trying to explain this mysterious epidemic,  Wagner/



noting that "asbestos bodies" were found in the lungs of some



of their patients, obtained detailed life histories of these



patients.  By 1960, he was able to establish an association



with exposure to the Cape of Good Hope asbestos fields,  or the



industrial use of asbestos, in 32 of 33 patients with histolog-



ically proved pleural mesothelioma.  The majority of these



patients had not actually worked with asbestos but had lived



in the vicinity of the mines and mills, and some had left these



areas of exposure as young children.  The average period between



exposure and development of the tumor was 20 to 40 years.  By

            OOfi

1962, Wagner    had diagnosed a total of 87 pleural and two



peritoneal mesotheliomas.  In only two cases was it impossible



to establish a history of exposure to asbestos dust.  Of these



87 cases, 12 had been industrially exposed and the remainder



had been environmentally exposed from living in the vicinity



of the mills and dumps.  This association between mesothelioma



and asbestosis became even more intriguing when in 1955, Bonser


      30
et al.   described a series of 72 autopsies on patients with



asbestosis in. which four cases of peritoneal mesothelioma were


                                         152
found.  Subsequently, Mancuso and Coulter    found five



peritoneal mesotheliomas in 1,495 asbestos workers, and


          102
Hourihane,    upon reviewing the necropsy files of the London



Hospital from 1917 to 1962, found 34 cases of mesothelioma,



half of the pleura and the other half of the peritoneum.  All

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                                                             13
of these patients had pulmonary asbestosis,  even though in a


few there was no history of exposure to the asbestos dust.  In

                  103
a subsequent study    Hourihane found 74 cases of mesothelioma


in a London hospital over a 10-year period.

                   31
       Borow et al.   report that in two years they observed


11 cases of mesothelioma during surgery in New Jersey.  These


cases, added to six others previously diagnosed by them, totaled


17 cases of mesothelioma, eight of which were peritoneal and


nine pleural.  They suggest that the high prevalence of these


rare tumors in New Jersey can be explained by its close proxim-


ity to a major asbestos mill,  where a large percentage of all


the asbestos fiber mined in North America is converted to


commercial use.


       In an attempt to determine whether mesothelioma of the


serosal surfaces was related in any way to asbestos exposure

                                     198
in the United States, Selikoff et al.    studied 307 consecutive


deaths among asbestos insulation workers in the Northeastern


United States.  They found 10 deaths caused by four pleural


and six peritoneal mesotheliomas.  In addition, these workers


had a high death rate attributed to cancer of the stomach,


colon, and rectum.  Of the 307 deaths, 40.4 percent were


attributed to cancer, 5.5 percent to asbestosis, and 54.1


percent to other causes.  In a second study, the investigators


reviewed 26 consecutive autopsies of patients with asbestosis,


and found four mesotheliomas of the pleura and three of the


peritoneum.

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                                                            14
       A series of 83 patients from the London Hospital with


a diagnosis of mesothelioma (confirmed by necropsy or biopsy)

                                     176
were studied by Newhouse and Thompson    for possible exposure


to asbestos.  The series consisted of 41 men and 42 women; 27


of the patients had peritoneal and 56 pleural tumors.  Although


the earliest death recorded from this group was in 1917, only


10 patients died before 1950, while 40 (48 percent) died


between 1960 and 1964.  In 76 of the 83 cases, full occupational


and residential histories were obtained.  Forty patients (52.6


percent) had a history of occupational exposure to asbestos or


of domestic exposure  (living in the house with an asbestos


worker).  In comparison, only 11.8 percent (9 of 76) of the


patients from the same hospital suffering from other diseases


had previous exposure to asbestos.  There was also evidence


that neighborhood exposures may be important.  Among those in


this study with no history of occupational or domestic expo-


sures to asbestos, 30.6 percent of the mesothelioma patients


and 7.6 percent of the inpatients with other diseases lived


within half a mile of an asbestos factory.  Of the 31 patients


with occupational exposures to asbestos, only 10 held jobs


scheduled under the British Asbestos Regulations of 1931.  The


interval between first exposure and the development of the


terminal illness from mesothelioma ranged between 16 and 55


years.  The duration of exposure varied widely, ranging from


two months to over 50 years.  In 47 patients in this mesothelioma

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                                                            15
series, lung tissue or sputum was available for examination.



In 30  (62.5 percent), either asbestosis or the presence of


asbestos bodies was noted.



       Mesothelioma is now considered a frequent cause of


death among asbestos workers.  No attempt has been made to



summarize the reports of mesothelioma, since they appear



almost weekly in the current literature.  So far, however,



there appear to be few cases among the general population.

        198
Selikoff    reviewed, 31,652 deaths among the general popula-



tion of over 1,048,183 in the United States and found only


                                          195
three cases of mesothelioma.  Moreover, he    points out that



asbestos is not the only cause of mesothelioma; it has also

                       224                  107
been produced by silica    and polyurethane.



2.1.3.3  Other Cancers



       Extrapulmonary cancer has also been noted as a cause

                                              132
of death among asbestos workers.  Kogan et al.    in 1966



reported 14 cases (31.1 percent), 11 women and 3 men.  Pour of


the women died of uterine cancer, two of intestinal cancer, two



of breast cancer, and one of liver cancer.  Among the men, one



died of stomach cancer, another of cancer of the urinary bladder,



and a third of cancer of the prostate.  Other cases of extra-



pulmonary cancer have been cited in Section 2.1.3.2.



2.1.3.4  Svnergism



       While the exact cause of lung cancer or pleural peritoneal


mesothelioma induced by asbestos is not known, air pollution by

-------
                                                            16
other pollutants may accelerate the morbidity.  One form of

air pollution which is easily studied in individuals is smoking.
               1 QQ
Selikoff et al.. " recently studied the mortality of 370

asbestos insulation workers.  In this group 24 men died of

lung cancer and all had a history of smoking.  (See Table 1

below.)  This rate was eight times greater than the expected

mortality rate, with age and smoking habits taken into account.


                          TABLE 1

               DEATHS OP ASBESTOS INSULATION
               WORKERS IN NEW YORK, 1963-67199
                     (By smoking Habits)
Smokina Habits
No. of
Cases3
Observed
Deaths
Expected
Deaths
Never smoked regularly        48          0           0.05

History of pipe, cigar-
  smoking only                39          0           0.13
History of regular .
  cigarette smoking          283         24           2.98
       Total                 370         24           3.16
       aAll with more than 20 years from onset of exposure
       1
cigars
Includes cigarette smokers who also smoked pipes or
       The blue asbestos, crocidolite, from South Africa is
believed by many53'79'136'140'209 to be much more carcinogenic
                                                        167
than the other minerals of asbestos.  Studies in Finland
                                                          226
indicate that anthophyllite also produces cancer.  Wagner,

-------
                                                             17
 Smith  et  al.,     and recently Godwin  and Jagatic,  reported
 that they had  induced mesothelioma  in mice using chrysotile.
..Moreover, animal  experiments76'78'98-100'113'172'225'228 have
 demonstrated that pulmonary complications occur  with  crocidolite,
 chrysotile,  amosite, and anthophyllite.  Some  investigators
 believe that the  fiber  is not the carcinogenic agent, but
 rather the vehicle  on which the carcinogens  are  carried to the
 target tissue.  As  stated earlier,  chrysotile  contains the
 most nickel  and chromium of all asbestos minerals, while
                                             87  8Q 1 'iQ
 crocidolite  contains the most benzo(a)pyrene.    °?,±->?  A11

 three  of  these impurities in asbestos are suspected of being
 carcinogenic.   This knowledge,  together with results  which
 indicate  carcinogens can be adsorbed  from urban  air or tobacco
 smoke, indicate that there may  be no  necessity to distinguish
 urban  asbestos dust by  mineral  types.

 2.1.4  "Asbestos  Bodies"
       As stated  earlier, the recent  finding of  "asbestos
 bodies" in one-fourth to one-half of  the urban population
 (see Table 6 in the Appendix) has added new  impetus to the
 examination  of asbestos as a general  air pollutant.
       An "asbestos body1' has been  defined as  "an elongated
 golden or reddish-brown structure usually with clubbed ends;
 the shaft, which  often  shows a  segmented or  beaded appearance,
 is usually straight, but sometimes  curvilinear with a tendency
 toward symmetry;  usually it is  from 3 to 5 M. in  diameter and

-------
                                                             18
20 to 100 |Ji in length.  The coating contains iron demonstrable


by Perle's stain (Prussian blue reaction), and probably


composed of ferritin or ferritin-like material; it may cover


the structure completely/ masking the central fiber from direct


view, or may be incomplete in the central portion of the shaft


or in the interstices of the body, revealing an expanse of


naked fiber.


       There is no doubt that the "asbestos bodies" formed in


the lungs of the asbestos workers contain asbestos.  Stumphius

         210
and Meyer    have investigated the composition of the "kernel"


in the "asbestos bodies" removed from deceased shipyard


workers (an occupational group with only indirect exposure).


They found by electron microscopy and X-ray microanalyses that


the "asbestos bodies" did indeed contain some minerals of


asbestos.  Out of 27 fibers, 17 were classified as serpentine


(possibly chrysotile) and 10 as amphibole (possibly crocidolite)


But what about the so-called "asbestos bodies" in the lungs of


the general population?  While these "asbestos bodies" probably


contain some asbestos, there is no experimental evidence to


date which shows what fractions contain asbestos or whether

                                 7Q 1 Q4
they contain any asbestos at all. /y'J-yi*  This subject xs

                                                 CO "7Q 7QO
currently being debated by several investigators.30''y'*^y  in


fact, some object to the use of the term ''asbestos bodies" and


prefer to call them "ferruginous bodies."  Moreover, Gross

      79
et al.   have shown that "ferruginous bodies"—-which appear


identical under the microscope to those formed from asbestos—

-------
                                                            19
can be produced from ceramic aluminium silicate,  glass fibers,

                                             915
and silicon carbide fibers.  However,  Thomson    claims that



a skilled pathologist can tell the difference.  This contro-

                                               co             194
versy should soon be resolved, since both Gross   and Selikoff



are investigating the composition of the central  fiber with



the electron microprobe.



       Generalized contamination with fibrous material is



evidenced by the figures in Table 6 in the Appendix.  Two other



obvious conclusions are that "asbestos bodies" are found more



frequently in older people than in younger, and more frequently



in men than in women.



       In none of the aforementioned studies has  there been



any quantitative count of "asbestos bodies" in the lungs of



the general public.  In most studies, "asbestos bodies" found were


                                                            214
scanty, although in some instances the bodies were numerous.


                                                    214
In most of the investigations, the method of Thomson    was



used (smears taken from basal lobes of the lung were examined



and the asbestos bodies counted).  Since only about one-half-



millionth of a lung is examined, the finding of only one asbestos



particle may be extrapolated to mean that perhaps a half-million



fibers are present in the lung.     In one recent study in


                           220
Pittsburgh, Utidjian et al..    made an attempt to quantify their



results.  In this study 98 percent of the 100 lungs examined



contained "asbestos bodies" ("ferruginous bodies").  The results



are given in Table 2.  For comparison they suggested that if



those cases with only one "asbestos body" were ignored, then

-------
                                                             20
47 percent of the lungs examined contained two or more bodies,



(20.5 percent of the women and 60.7 percent of the men).



This 47 percent is in substantial agreement with the compar-


                                 40
able 41 percent reported by Cauna   (see Table 6 in the Appendix)



for residents of Pittsburgh.
                           TABLE 2



       DISTRIBUTION OF "ASBESTOS (FERRUGINOUS) BODIES1'


                  IN LUNGS IN PITTSBURGH220
Sex
Men


-
Total
Women



Total
No. of
Cases
1
21
15
19
56
2
29
8
5
44
Mean
Aqe
89
62
64
70
65
29
57
68
64
60
Fibers/Unit
of Lunq
0
1
2-5
>5

0
1
2-5
>5

Distribution
(Percent)
2
37
27
34
100
5
66
18
11
100
2.2  Effects on Animals



2.2.1  Commercial and Domestic Animals


                121
       Kiviluoto    reported finding some asbestos bodies in


                                              201
a cow near an asbestos mine.  In 1931, Shuster    reported



finding extensive pulmonary fibrosis in a dog kept for ratting



in an asbestos factory.  The lungs of the dog also contained



some asbestos fibers but no asbestos bodies were found.

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                                                            21
                          182
       Peacock and Peacock    have studied the effect of


asbestos on white leghorn fowl.  They tried dusting the birds


with asbestos but found that the fibers did not penetrate far


into the lung.  When the fibers were injected into the lumen


of the air sac, an immediate inflammatory reaction occurred,


macrophages appeared and engulfed the fibers, and giant cell


formation was observed.  Four of the 17 chickens examined


developed tumors:  of the six injected with crocidolite, two


developed tumors; of the 10 injected with amosite, only one


developed a tumor; and one chicken injected with an unidenti-


fied variety of asbestos also developed a tumor.



2.2.2  Experimental Animals


       Studies with experimental animals have shown that


asbestos can induce fibrosis (asbestosis), cancer of the lung, and


mesothelioma and can form "asbestos bodies."

             234
       Wagner    described experiments with rats in which 600


animals were exposed to various minerals of asbestos.  The


results are given in Table 3.

                            7fi
       Gross and De Treville   made the following observations


in studies on rats, hamsters, and guinea pigs.  In rats that


have inhaled high concentrations (86,000 i-ig/m3) of chrysotile


asbestos fibers for only a few months, minimal fibrotic


lesions can be observed in the lungs of all animals.  However,


this form of asbestosis in rats is nonprogressive.  In hamsters


that have inhaled chrysotile dust, a fibrosis develops which is

-------
                               TABLE 3



           TYPE AND NUMBER OF TUMORS INDUCED BY INTRAPLEURAL

              INOCULATION OP S.P.F. RATS WITH ASBESTOS234
Asbestos
Minerals
Croc . Ia
Croc. IIb
Amosite
Chrysotile
Silica
Saline
Total
Animals
Exposed
100
100
100
100
100
100
600
Animals
Died
19
10
4
25
11
5
74
Misc.
Nonmaliq.
5
4
1
5
1
2
18
Misc.
Tumors
1



1
1
3
Reticulum— cell
Sarcomas
1

1
2
2
2
8
Mesothelioraas
12
6
2
18
7

45
Crocidolite from Northwest Cape, South Africa,


Crocidolite with oil extracted from it.
                                                                                          to
                                                                                          to

-------
                                                            23
progressive; "asbestos bodies" are also formed.  In guinea



pigs, the inhalation of chrysotile dust produces fibrotic



lesions similar to those observed in rats.  The data indicate



that the minimum time to produce asbestosis in rats and guinea



pigs is 60 to 120 hours at an asbestos dust concentration of



86,000 ug/m3.  The investigators think the time required is



shorter for hamsters.


                          228
       Wagner and Skidmore    have shown that asbestos dust



tends to accumulate in the alveoli arising directly from the



respiratory bronchioles of rats.  They also investigated the



elimination of asbestos from the lungs as discussed in Section


                           76
2.1.  Gross and De Treville   also observed a decrease in fiber



content -as the time from end of exposure increased.


                  98
       Holt et al.   suggest from their observations on rats



that fibrotic lesions in the lungs are caused by asbestos



fibers (chrysotile) which are less than 3 M. long.  Longer



fibers are stored in the lungs as "asbestos bodies;" shorter



fibers are removed from the lungs by phagocytosis.  After



some years, the larger fibers disintegrate, producing a large



number of small particles.  These small particles are then



phagocytosed and produce fibrosis.  They also suggest that



asbestos is only fibrogenic when it is ingested by phagocytes.



       Holt et al.    exposed guinea pigs to asbestos dust.



After 14 days of exposure to dust, bronchiolitis was observed;



after 21 days the damage was very severe, and "asbestos bodies"

-------
                                                            24
were observed along with asbestos fibers.  After 226 days the


lungs of animals dusted for more than 1,000 hours over a 78-



day period developed a wide-spread, progressive fibrosis with



only a few asbestos fibers and "asbestos bodies" present in



the lung tissue.  The experimenters concluded that asbestos



fibers too small to be seen under the microscope will produce


asbestosis.



       In order to evaluate the possible distribution of

                                       194,195
asbestos within New York City, Selikoff        is now examining


the lungs of rats found in the city for asbestos fibers.



       In a similar investigation carried out in South Africa,


wild animals captured near an asbestos mine were examined.



However,- the small number of "asbestos bodies" found in them



precluded any conclusions.^^



2.3  Effects on Plants



       No information has been found in the literature on the


effects of asbestos air pollution on plants.



2.4  Effects on Materials
            1      ~ _tfmiimilllll^^^^^


       No information has been found in the literature on the



effects of asbestos air pollution on materials.



2.5  Environmental Standards



       Both the American Conference of Governmental Industrial

          218
Hygienists    and the American Industrial Hygiene Associa-


tion    have recommended an industrial threshold limit value


for asbestos dust of 5,000,000 particles per cubic foot

-------
                                                             25
(5 mppcf), based on total dust count and on an 8-hour day, 40-
hour week.  This value was recommended by Dreessen et al.
after a study of 541 employees in three textile plants using
chrysotile.  Only three doubtful cases of asbestosis were
found in those exposed to dust concentrations of less than 5
mppcf, whereas numerous cases were found above 5 mppcf.
                                                         136
       Recently, the British.Occupational Hygiene Society
published its standards for chrysotile.  The Society has
recommended a maximum accumulated exposure of 2.8 mppcf-years
   Q                     O
(10  particle-years per m ).  For example, maximum doses of
                         6                 Q
0.056 mppcf-years (2 x 10  particle-years/m) for 50 years,
                         fi                 o
0.112 mppcf-years (4 x 10  particle-years/m ) for 25 years,
or 0.28 mppcf-years (10  particle-years/m^) for 10 years are
recommended.  They have also recommended that dustiness be
designated by categories according to the following scheme:

                             Concentration Averaged
                                 Over 3 Months
       Dust Category         (Million Particles/m3)
       Negligible                      0-0.4
       Low                            .5-1.9
       Medium                        2.0-10
       High                          Over 10.0

       Only fibers longer than 5.0 |a in length with a 3:1

length-to-breadth ratio are counted.
       With these standards the risk of asbestosis may be
reduced to 1 percent; that is, 1 percent of the workers exposed
to a dose of 10  particle-years/m  would contract asbestosis.

-------
                                                                26
3.   SOURCES



    3.1  Natural Occurrence


           Asbestos is a broad term embracing several fibrous


    minerals.  The minerals are divided into two groups:   (1)


    Pyroxenes—chrysotile; (2) Amphiboles—crocidolite,  amosite,


    tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite.  Properties of these


    minerals are listed in Table 7 of the Appendix.


           Asbestos probably occurs in nearly every country in the


    world, but only a few of the deposits are commercially


    valuable.  Over 90 percent of the world asbestos production is


    chrysotile, and Canada is the major source of this mineral for

                      93
    the United States.    Table 8 in the Appendix lists the world


    production.  Prom these figures an estimate of known free-


    world deposits is possible.


           It is noteworthy that some soils near asbestos mines


    contain considerable quantities of asbestos.  In Finland,


    farmers working these high-asbestos-content soils have been

                                       120
    observed to suffer from asbestosis.


                             i
    3.1.1  Mines


           The mining of asbestos in the United States has in-


    creased 180 percent in the last 10 years.  (See Table 9 in the


    Appendix.)  This mining may constitute a source of air


    pollution.  A high percentage of the increase in domestic


    production has been credited to California producers, who


    accounted for 65 percent of the total output in 1966.  Pour

-------
                                                            27
companies produced chrysotile asbestos fiber:  Atlas Minerals


Corp. and Coalinga Asbestos Co., Fresno County; Pacific


Asbestos Corp., Calaveras County; and Union Carbide Corp.,


San Benito County.  The latter company processed the crude


material in a plant at King City, Monterey County, whereas


the other producers operated plants near the mine sites.


       Amphibole asbestos was mined by Powhatan Mining Co.


near Burnsville, Yancey County, N.C.  Their output increased


66 percent during 1966.


       There are four chrysotile mines in Arizona in the Salt


River Valley near Globe.  Since these mines are underground,


only the waste needs to be considered in connection with air


pollution (other than the possible pollution from transporting


the mineral).  Nearly all of the output from these mines was


used in the cement industry to manufacture asbestos cement and


building products:  28 percent was classified as filter fiber


and 2 percent as spinning grade; the rest consisted of sand


and waste, floats, or other short fibers.  Jacquays Mining Corp.


operated the Regal and Chrysotile Mines and shipped the ore to


a company mill at Globe after hand-sorting the chrysotile.


Western Asbestos Manufacturing Co. operated the Phillips Mine,

                                                  171
and the Metal Asbestos Corp. the Lucky Seven Mine.


       In Vermont, the Vermont Asbestos Mines Division of the


Ruberoid Co. quarried and processed chrysotile near Lowell in


Orleans County.  Twenty-four grades were produced for spinning,


cement stock, paper stock, and other uses.  Some waste rock

-------
                                                            28
       A *      X
was used for roads-tone.



       Data on these mines are summarized in Tables 10 and 11


in the Appendix.



       Other deposits of asbestos have been found in Georgia


and Maryland.



       Although no measurements have been made of the asbestos



air pollution from mining in the United States, some evidence


of the extent of pollution can be drawn from measurements and


observations in foreign countries.  The extent of air pollution



from an asbestos mine in Finland was studied by Laamanen/ Noro,


           133
and Raunio.     They found asbestos dust at distances up to



50 km from the mines, including dust-fall rates ranging from

            •?                              2
1.52 g/100 nr/month at 4 km to 34.6 g/100 m /month at 0.5 km.



They concluded that asbestos dust is disseminated from mining



and milling areas rather extensively and that the degree of



pollution varies according to the distance from the mine or



mill and the prevailing winds.

               234
       Schepers    described the dust from asbestos mines and



mills in South Africa as dust which "rolled through like a


morning mist," producing "itching skins caused by asbestos



adhering to our clothes.  Even the food at the local hotel was



gritty with dust."


       Sluis-Cremer    reports dust counts in asbestos mines



and mills of South Africa as listed in Table 4.  He pointed out



that living .quarters near the mines were polluted with asbestos



and that the main source of pollution was airborne asbestos

-------
                                                            29
blown off dumps and roads made from the mine tailings,
                           TABLE 4

              DUST COUNTS IN ASBESTOS MINES AND
               MILLS IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1947202
Location
Northwest Cape Province
Transvaal
Dust Count, mppcf (mppnr*)
Mines
2.8-24 (100-840)
2.3-6.5 (80-228)
Mill
10-55 (360-1920)
4.6-20 (162-720)
3.2  Production Sources

       World production of asbestos during the period 1956 to

1967 increased at the average rate of approximately 13 percent

per year.  Figure 1 shows that the world production nearly

tripled during the period 1945 to 1965, while United States

consumption only doubled during the same period.  However,

during the period 1956 to 1967, domestic apparent consumption

fluctuated between 665,000 and 813,000 short tons per year and

may be leveling off as Substitute materials (such as fiberglass

and plastics) provide competition.

       The relative importance of the various industrial uses

of asbestos is given in Table 12 in the Appendix.  It is seen

that the highest input of asbestos occurs in the asbestos

cement, floor tile, asbestos paper products, and asbestos

textile industries.  The proportions of asbestos used in

various products are shown in Tables 13 and 14 in the Appendix.

-------
                                                                          30
Thousands of Short Tons
  U.S.    WORLD
  CONS.   PROD.
   900
   800
  700
  600
  500
  400
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
 1,000
                     U.S. CONSUMPTION
                1945
                  1950       1955
                                                      WORLD PRODUCTION
1960       1965
1970
                                    FIGURE 1
               Comparison of Trends  in World Production and U.S.
                 Consumption of Unmanufactured Asbestos    '

-------
                                                            31
       Of the 78,056 short tons of domestic production in 1965,



66 percent were produced in California and 31 percent* in



Vermont, amounting to 97 percent of the total production.



This 97 percent was produced and processed in five counties.



More than 50 percent of the 124 plants comprising the asbestos



products industry were located  (in 1963) in the States of



California, New Jersey, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Texas, in



decreasing order.^


                    '  ?4 75
       Bobyleva et. al.."6*' have shown that the air can be



polluted by asbestos from plants manufacturing asbestos products,



This asbestos may be carried in the air for distances of 25 to



50 miles.  In a study of asbestos air pollution from three



plants in the U.S.S.R., they found that at a distance of 3 km



from the plant, the dust concentration ranged from 0 to 6,000



Hg/m3. at 1.0-1.5 km it was 3,000-33,000 ug/m3; and at 0.5 km



it was 6,000 to 34,000 |ag/ms.


                                         ?06
       In the United States some attempts    have been made to



determine the concentration of asbestos near asbestos factories,



but the asbestos content of the atmosphere was masked by the



other dusts.  Asbestos fibers were detected, but a quantitative



count was not possible.




3.3  Product Sources



       The uses of asbestos are numerous.  Some products which



use asbestos are the following:  asbestos cement which may be
       *Extrapolated.

-------
                                                            32
applied as mortar or plaster, or sprayed on walls;  insulating



materials for the covering of pipes, dacts, boilers, cables,



and conduits; siding shingles, roofing shingles,  tiles, flat



and corrugated sheets, wallboard, clapboard, and automobile



undercoating; threads, yarns, wicks, cords, tapes,  cloths,



sheets, and blankets; friction materials, brake linings, clutch



facings, gaskets, and lagging cloths; and asphalt tiles,


                                108
plastics, and similar materials.



       Abrasion of brake linings and clutch facings has been



suggested as a primary source of asbestos air pollution.


    13          145
Ayer   and Lynch    have examined the emissions from brakes on



automobiles and found that the fiber is destroyed by the heat



of friction.  Asbestos crystalline structures are also destroyed



and are recognizable only by the chemical composition.



Newhouse and Thompson    have reported one case of mesothelioma



in a mechanic.



       The existence of a wide potential for direct or in-



direct occupational exposure has been cited 2'''    as a
                        (


possible explanation for the frequent occurrence of "asbestos



bodies" in the general public.  Asbestos is now used in more



than 3,000 products.  Most people working in the construction



and demolition of buildings come into contact with asbestos.



Electricians and homeowners strip asbestos insulation off wires;



the carpenter saws asbestos boards and often pounds the asbestos-



insulated furnace ducts to make them fit.  As a result, the air



around a construction site is contaminated with asbestos fibers.

-------
                                                            33
and the foreman, carpenter, painter,  plumber,  or new occupants



all breathe this dust.  In most homes,  the owner will at some



time handle these asbestos products during normal home main-



tenance.  A large number of workers in  other industries are



similarly exposed.  Some of these are listed in Table 15 in



the Appendix.



       Although only a few of these people work in the asbestos



industry, all may have inhaled sufficient asbestos to show



"asbestos bodies" upon autopsy.  The hazard is there, but how



great is the hazard?  It will be necessary to obtain quantita-



tive concentration data to delineate its seriousness.



       From the above discussion it may be concluded that



approximately 100,000 asbestos workers  in the United States


                                 195
have a high exposure to asbestos.     An additional 3.5 million



construction workers—carpenters, welders, electricians, masons,



plumbers, steamfitters, tile setters, etc.—are indirectly



exposed,either by themselves handling asbestos products or by


                                                 195
working on the  job with people handling asbestos.




3.4  Environmental Air Concentrations



       Only one estimate of the environmental air concentrations



of asbestos in  the United  States was found. Smith and Tabor206 have



roughly estimated that urban air in the vicinity of heavily

                                                  3

traveled streets contains 600 to 6,000 particles/m .  They



indicate that the validity of these values is highly suspect



because the methods available for the determination of asbestos

-------
                                                        34
are inadequate at the concentrations found in the urban air,

-------
                                                                 35
4.  ABATEMENT



           The asbestos industries in the United States have



    developed elaborate ventilation systems to prevent high dust


                                                         13,95
    concentrations which might be inhaled by the workers.



    This dusty air is passed from the ventilators through .fabric



    sleeve filters and then discharged to the atmosphere.  The



    asbestos fibers are easily filtered out since the fibers form



    a mat which becomes an absolute filter.    In addition to the



    ventilation system, it has been necessary to carry out some



    operations (such as spinning and weaving) as wet processes to



    eliminate dust.  As a result, the pollution from factories is



    minimal.  Attempts to measure concentrations in the vicinity



    of an asbestos plant have proved futile with present analytical



    methods.



           Pollution during the transportation of asbestos has



    been controlled by enclosing the material in plastic-coated



    bags.



           Although the most common procedure used to suppress



    dust emission is wetting of the material, it is unfortunately



    not desirable to wet a large number of asbestos products.



           In New York, insulators are required to enclose the



    area when asbestos fireproof ing is blown onto steel frames, but



    even this does not prevent pollution.  Asbestos fibers are



    reported to be a common occurrence in the air around construc-


               34
    tion sites.

-------
                                                           36
       No information has been found on the abatement methods



used in United States asbestos mines and in asbestos mills



near the mines.

-------
                                                                37
5.   ECONOMICS

           No information has been found in the  literature  on the

    damage costs or economic losses due to the effects  of asbestos

    air pollution on humans, animals,  plants,  or materials.   However,

    a large fraction of the people in  the United States have been

    exposed to asbestos, including the following:

           (1)  approximately 100,000 workers using asbestos in
               their occupations,

           (2)  approximately 3,500,000 construction workers ex-
               posed indirectly to asbestos as they work with
               asbestos products or near those who handle
               asbestos products,

           (3)  approximately 50,000,000 Americans who possibly
               have "asbestos bodies"  in their lungs.

           No attempt has been made to assess the cost of health

    impairment for these people.  Workmen's compensation laws for
                                               234
    dust diseases are in effect in most States.

           No information has been found on the  cost of the present

    and future abatement of air pollution by asbestos in this country.

    The data in Table 16 in the Appendix,  which  refer to the asbestos

                        95
    industry in Britain,   show that the dust extraction equipment
                             1
    cost alone, for a given size and type of plant, amounts  to 27.5

    percent of the total capital cost  and approximately 7 percent

    of the operating cost of that plant.  The type of control

    equipment used is primarily designed to meet government speci-

    fications relating to occupational health standards.

           Data on the production and  consumption of asbestos are

    presented in Section 3.

-------
                                                              38
6.  METHODS OF ANALYSIS

                                              1 2 206
           Of the methods presently being used •*••* ° to  count

    dust samples in the asbestos industry,* none is applicable to

    atmospheric asbestos air pollution.   There are at present no

    proven satisfactory methods for the  collection, detection,

    and identification of asbestos fibers in the 0.1 to 5.0 |a

    range in ambient air.  Satisfactory  sampling can probably be

    accomplished by use of a membrane filter-pump system.  The

    major difficulty lies in the problem of identifying a very

    few asbestos fibers in the presence  of relatively large num-

    bers of a wide variety of other inorganic particulate matter

    found in the same air.  Attempts to  determine the asbestos

    content of urban air have revealed the need for development

    of new methods.  Battelle Memorial Institute is currently

    developing one such method for the National Air Pollution

                           205
    Control Administration.
           *In all the asbestos monitoring methods used,  microscopic
    counting of the fibrous particles is necessary to determine the
    proportion of fibrous material,  and even then it is not known
    what fraction of the fibers are asbestos.  Counting of fibers
    by eye under the microscope is tedious and difficult.  If the
    number of fibers is less than 1 percent (<5 wt%) of total dust,
    the other dust masks the fibers, and quantitative results cannot
    be obtained.
           In parts of the asbestos industry where the asbestos-to-
    dust ratio is high (>5 wt%), it is often possible to  determine
    the asbestos content indirectly.136  For example, if  the pro-
    portion of asbestos in the airborne dust was known by microscopic
    count for a given sampling location, the concentration (at least
    the order of magnitude) could then be inferred from a simple
    measurement of the concentration of the total dust.

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                                                           39
       Modern analytical methods and instrumentation used in



the asbestos industry are listed below:



       Microscopic particle counting of samples on membrane



         filters1'2'14'15'57'97'136'187



       Thermal precipitators1'2,97,136,187



       impingers1'2'14'15'136'187



       Royco particle counter1'2'136'187



       Mass concentration methods1'14'136'187



       Microsieving116


                1 1 Ft
       Digestion-1--1-0



       Column chromatography of organics adsorbed on the



         surface116



       X-ray diffraction14'46'47'116



       Low-temperature ashing116



       Atomic adsorption spectrophotometry14'116


                          11 f\
       Electron microprobe^ °



       Neutron activation116



       Owens jet counter1'2



       Konimeter1'2

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                                                                40
7.   SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS



           Asbestos is an air pollutant which carries with it the



    potential for a national or worldwide epidemic of lung cancer



    or mesothelioma of the pleura or peritoneum.   Asbestos bodies



    have been observed in random autopsies of one-fourth to one-



    half of the population of Pittsburgh, Miami,  and San Francisco



    and will probably be found in the people of every large city.



    Although asbestos has been shown to produce asbestosis, lung



    cancer, and mesothelioma in asbestos workers,  the relationship



    between "asbestos bodies" and cancer or asbestosis has not



    been determined.



           The latent period required to develop asbestosis, lung



    cancer, or mesothelioma is 20 to 40 years, and the exposure



    required to cause asbestosis has been estimated to be 50 to



    60 mppcf-years.  No such exposure relationship has been es-



    tablished between asbestos and lung cancer or mesothelioma.



    Asbestosis, lung cancer.- and mesothelioma are all diseases



    which, once established, progress even after exposure to dust



    ceases.



           Experiments with animals have shown that animals may



    develop asbestosis or cancer after inhaling asbestos.



           No information has been found on the effects of asbestos



    air pollution on either plants or materials.



           The likely sources of air pollution appear to be the



    vast number of asbestos products used in our modern society,



    particularly in the building industry.  Mines, factories, and

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                                                           41
shipping yards may also constitute pollution sources.



       The world production of asbestos has approximately



doubled over the past 10 to 12 years, whereas the domestic



consumption has apparently remained relatively constant.



These results indicate that while the asbestos air pollution



problem of the world may be increasing, the air pollution



potential in the United States has remained relatively un-



changed.  The increase in the number of lung cancer or mesotheli-



oma cases reported in the current literature may be due to



increases in asbestos use that occurred 20 to 40 years ago.



Moreover, the effects of the asbestos being inhaled today may



not be reflected in the general health of the population until



the 1990's or the next century.



       The number of people exposed to asbestos has been esti-



mated to be 100,000 asbestos workers, 3.5 million people working



in areas where asbestos is handled in ways which emit small



quantities of dust, and 50 to 100 million people who have



breathed or will breathe enough fibers to show positive "asbestos



bodies" at autopsy.



       No measurements have been made of the concentration of



asbestos in urban air.  A single estimate of 600 to 6,000



particles per cubic meter has been reported.



       Bag filters are used to control asbestos in the exhaust



gases from asbestos factories.  Wetting the asbestos or its



products has also been used to keep the dust from becoming



airborne.  The cost of abatement equipment in a British factory

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                                                            42
amounted to 27.5 percent of the total factory cost and
approximately 7 percent of the operating cost.  Similar data
on the costs of abatement or economic losses due to asbestos
air pollution in the United States were not found.
       No satisfactory method is available to determine the
asbestos content at the concentration found in the ambient air.
One method is presently under development.
       Based on the material presented in this report, further
studies are suggested in the following areas:
      (1)  Identification of the fibers in the lungs of
deceased members of the general public should be completed.
(Two studies are in progress.)
      (2)  The relationship between these "asbestos bodies'1
and lung cancer or mesothelioma should be determined.
      (3)  The time-concentration relationship between inhala-
tion of asbestos fibers and lung cancer and mesothelioma should
be determined.
      (4)  Methods must be developed to determine the asbestos
concentration in air.  (One method is under development.)
      (5)  The concentrations of asbestos fibers in urban air,
near mines and factories, and in the vicinity of building
construction and demolition should be measured.
      (6)  The methods and cost of control of asbestos emission
from mines, construction or demolition sites, and other normal
uses should be determined.

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                                                           43
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-------
                                                            52
121.  Kiviluoto, R., Pleural Plaques and Asbestos:  Further
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-------
                                                              53
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                                                             56
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                                                             57
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                                                           58
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                                                           61
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of Statistics, 1968).

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APPENDIX A

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APPENDIX
                                       TABLE 5
                     CANCER OP THE LUNG AMONG ASBESTOS WORKERS
                                                              43
Place
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Quebec
Pennsylvania
New York &
New Jersey
Population Studied
Reported deaths from
asbestos
Cases of asbestosis in
1,247 autopsies with
pneumoconiosis
Asbestos textile workers,
industry areas , 20 years '
or more exposure
Reported deaths from
asbestosis
Chrysotile miners and
mill workers with over
5 years ' employment
Workers in asbestos
products plant employed
in 1938-39, aged 25-64
Insulating workers, over
20 years ' union membership
No. of
Workers
235
121
113
365
5,958
1,495
632
Years
Followed
1924-1947

1922-1953
1924-1955
1950-1955
1940-1960
1932-1962
No. With
Lung
Cancer
31/235
(13.1%)
17/121
11/39
deaths
65/365
(17.8%)
9/187
deaths
19/186
deaths
45/255
deaths
Comparison
Groups
Silicotics
(1.32%)
Silicotics
(6.9%)
0.8
Expected

en-
Expected
5.61
Expected
6.6
Expected
                                                                           (continued)
                                                                                              u>

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APPENDIX
                                       TABLE 5



               CANCER OF THE LUNG AMONG ASBESTOS WORKERS (Continued)
Place
California
Dresden
United States
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
New York
Pennsylvania
Population Studied
Insulating workers,
mixed, 15 years in
trade, aged 35-64
All asbestos trade
mixed exposures
Asbestos textile workers
employed in 1948-1951,
aged 15-64
Reported deaths from
asbestosis
Agricultural workers near
an asbestos mine
Asbestos insulators em-
ployed more than 15
years, aged 40-80
Asbestos textile and
friction workers
No. of
Workers
529
2,636
2,833
584
3,325
152
68
Years
Followed
1954-1957
1924-1963
1951-1963
1924-1963
1962
1945-1965
1957-1962
No. With
Lung
Cancer
10/41
deaths
34/150
deaths
24/285
deaths
146/584
(25%)
155/3325
asbestosis
18/46
deaths
13/68
deaths
Comparison
Groups
2.8
Expected
11.4
Expected
11.9
Expected


3.1
Expected


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APPENDIX
                                          TABLE  6




                   "ASBESTOS BODIES"  IN CONSECUTIVE OR RANDOM AUTOPSIES
Location
Capetown
Miami
Pittsburgh
Milan
Tyneside
Jerusalem
Glasgow
Finland
Sweden
Total
Cases
500
500
100
100
311
100
100
264
34
%
Posi-
tive
26.4
27.2
41
51
20.3
26
23
57.6
35.3
% Positive by Aqe*
<24
.5
(4.3)
0
0
(0)

0
(0)
r"«M

0
1.5
(57)
0
25-34
2.4
(25.6)
0
5
(83)
(< 	
0.3
(25)
(14)
0
3.0
(57)
0
35-44
4.4
(28.4)
1
(16.1)
5
(46)
3
(14)
1.6
(19.2)
t W «ff
>){<-
0
3.8
(71)
0
45-54
4.6
(22.4)
3.4
(23)
3
(38)
— -i >)
2.9
(17.3)

1
(12)
8.7
(55)
0
55-64
7.4
(31.6)
5.6
(27.2)
13
(54)
30
(60)
4.8
(18.5)
. 7—5>«.
(21)
4
(22)
20.0
(64)
11.7
(80)
65-74
7.4
(28.0)
9.2
(30.6)
8
(40)

7.7
(28.9)
i n
(30)
11
(32)
16.7
(58.7)
14.7
(25)
>75

90
(31.9)
6
(30)
18
(66)
2.9
(15)
- V
... .>)
7
(19)
3.8
(34.5)
18.8
(43)
Sex
% Positive*
Female
7.8
(20)
8
(20.4)
16
(34)
16
(44)
4.2
(13)
10
(29.1)
0
(0)
23.9
(54.3)
14.7
(38)
Male
18.6
(30.4)
19.2
(31.6)
25
(47)
35
(54)
16.1
(25.5)
16
(22.2)
23
(37)
33.7
(60)
20.6
(33)
Year
of
Study
1960
1961
1964
1966
1967
1967
1967
1966
1966
Refer-
ence
214,216
214,216
40
67
11
184
188
167
82
                                                                                       (continued)

-------
APPENDIX
                                          TABLE 6



             "ASBESTOS BODIES" IN CONSECUTIVE OR RANDOM AUTOPSIES (Continued)
Location
Johannesburg
San Francisco
Belfast
London
Montreal
New York
.Total
Cases


200
50
100
355
%
Posi-
tive
39.2
42
20
6
48
50.5
% Positive bv Aqe*
<24





25-34



«•-


35-44



3 >
(30)

45-54



•tfiJ R
(50)

55-64






65-74



^ 07
(50)

>75






% Positive*
Female



16
(36)
3.9
(29.8)
Male



32
(57)
46.5
(53.7)
Year
of
Studv
1965
1966
1965
1964
1966
1966
Refer-
ence
234
43
60
102
7
195
 *Numbers in parenthesis represent percentage of group-age or sex.

-------
APPENDIX
                                        TABLE 7




                  COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OP ASBESTOS MINERALS
66
Approximate Formula
Percentage of Manor Components
Silica SiO2
Alumina A12O3
Ferrous Oxide FeO
Ferric Oxide Pe2O3
Manganous Oxide MnO
Calcium Oxide CaO
Magnesium Oxide MgO
Sodium Oxide Na2O
Potassium Oxide K2O
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Water of Crystallization H2O
Chrysqtile
3MgO-2Si02'2H20
40.3
0.7
1.0
1.5

0.2
42.4


0.2
13.7
Crocidolite
Na2O-3FeOFe2O-
8SiO2-H2O
51.4

20.3
17.5
0.1
0.8
1.4
6.2

0.4
1.9
Amosite
1.5 MgO-5.5FeO-
8SiO2'H2O
49.3

40.9
0.4
0.7
0.4
5.7
0.2
0.3
0.2
1.9
(continued)

-------
APPENDIX
                                       TABLE  7




            COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF ASBESTOS  MINERALS (Continued)


Approximate Formula
Trace Organic Impurities
Oil-wax (mg/100 g fiber)
Benzo ( a )pyr ene
(ua/100 a fiber)
Trace Inorganic Impurities
(ug/g fiber)
Pb
Sn
Ga
Bi
V
Mo
Cu
Ti
Ag
Hi

Zv
Co
Mn
Cr

Chrvsotile
3MgO-2Si02-2H20

4-7.6

none detected


2
<5
<2
<5
50
<2
35
50
<0.2
5,000
(1,000-14,000)
<200
<5 (<100)
130 (400-500)
1,000 (400-900)
Crocidolite
Na20-3FeOFe20-
8SiO2 'H2O

4-200

0.2-24


5
<5
<2
<5
<2
<2
7
50
0.2
<10
«100)
700
<5 (<100)
180 (200)
20 (<100)
Amosite
1.5 MgO-5.5FeO-
8SiO2 *H2O

4-20

0.2-2.4


20
<5
2
<5
<2
<2
7
300
0.2
1,000
(<100)
1,000
<5 (<100)
7,000 (7,900)
150 (<100)
                                                                                                00
                                                                            (continued)

-------
 APPENDIX
                                       TABLE 7




             COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OP ASBESTOS MINERALS (Continued)
Approximate Formula
Radioactive Contaminants
(liUc/g fiber)
K40
Th238
Ra226
Chrvsotile Crocidolite Amosite


0.14 0.02 0.55
<0 . 01 0 . 05
0.07 0.15
Physical Properties



Flexibility



Length



Texture



Tensile strength



Acid resistance



Heat resistance



Spinnability
Very flexible



Short to 3"



Harsh to silky



Very high



Fairly soluble



Good



Very good
Fair to good



Short to 3"



Harsh to soft



Very high



Very good



Poor



Fair
Good



V to 6"



Coarse but pliable



Fair



Good



Good



Fair
                                                                                              CTi

-------
   APPENDIX
                                         TABLE 8

                              WORLD PRODUCTION OF ASBESTOS
                                       (Short Tons)
                                 170
Location
   1962
   1963
1964
1965
1966
                                                                                      b,e
North America
  Canada (sales)
  United States
    (shipments)
1,215,814

   53,190
South America
  Argentina	       203
  Bolivia  (exports)   .  .        56
  Brazil  	     4,900a

Europe
  Austria	       503
  Bulgaria  .  	     1,323C
  Finland^  	    10,869
  France  	    28,034C
  Greece  	
  Italy	    60,860
  Portugal  	
  U.S.S.R.  .......   710,000a'c
  Yugoslavia	     7,401

Africa
  Botswana  .......     2,375
  Kenya	       212
  Mozambique	       370
  Rhodesia, Southern  .  .   142,195°
  South Africa  	   221,302
  Swaziland   ......    32,830
  United Arab Republic  .       606
1,275,530    1,420,769

   66,396      101,092
                     365
                      10
                   l,440f
                     638
                   1,323C
                  10,201
                  26,094C
                      74
                  63,016
                      29
                 755,000a'c
                   9,074
                   2,368
                      78

                 142,254°
                 205,744
                  33,350
                     192
                   542
                     7
                 l,430a'c'f
                 1,433G
                11,611
                24,289C
                    65a
                75,573

               810,000a'c
                 9,280
                 2,161
                   204

               153,450
               215,592
                39,862
                 1,739
             1,387,555  1,479,281

               118,275    125,928
                   243C
                     3
                 1,204
                 1,433
                13,307
                 7,506C
                    85a
                79,214
                    53C
               865,000
                10,585
                   888
                   136

               176,149°
               240,752
                40,884
                 3,225
               24 Oc
                 4
             1,820
             1,430*
            13,250
             7,720a
                85a
            90,464
                10
           925,000a
             8,411
               880a
                73

           175,000a
           276,597
            36,142
             2,057
                                                                                 (continued)

-------
  APPENDIX
                                         TABLE 8

                         WORLD PRODUCTION OF ASBESTOS (Continued)
                                       (Short Tons)
Location
Asia
Cyprus 	
India 	
Japan 	
Korea , South ....
Philippines 	

Turkey 	
Oceania
Australia 	
New Zealand 	
World Total3 . . .
1962
100,000
22,391
1,865
15,407
1,333
1,037
525
709
18,416
457
2,655,000C
1963
110,000
19,962
3,038C
18,210
2,120
421
604
408
13,374
439
2,760,000C
1964
130,000
13,755
3,710C
17,979
1,402
586
526
1,291
13,545

3,050,000C
1965
140,000
17,622°
4,989
16,451°
1,710C
883
1,376
11,647

3,140,000C
1966b'S
140,000
24,449
7,646
17,067
687
721
1,258
13,472

3,350,000
     aEstimated.

      Preliminary.
     c
      Revised.
      Asbestos also is produced in Czechoslovakia,  Eritrea,  Malagasy,  North Korea,  and
Rumania.  No estimates for these countries are included in the total because production is
believed to be negligible.
     eCompiled from data available May 1967.
      Bahia only.
     ^Includes asbestos flour.

-------
APPENDIX
                                                              72
                          TABLE 9

        THE  PRODUCTION AND APPARENT CONSUMPTION
      OF ASBESTOS  IN THE UNITED STATES41'170'171
Quant d
Year
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955
1950
1945
1940
1935
Production















123,190
125,928
118,275
101,092
66,396
53,190
52 , 814
45,223
45,459
43,979
43,653
41,312
50,431



















.ties
in Short Tons
Imports
645,
726,
719,
739,
667,
675,
616,
669,
713,
644,
682,
689,
716,




110
459
559
361
860
953
529
945
047
331
732
910
480




Values (X
Exports Consumption
47,
46,
43,
27,
10,
2,
3,
5,
4,
3,
2,
2,
7,




1,000)
710 720,580
996 805,391
126 794,708
147 813,
044 724,
949 726,
799 (665,
525 709,
461 754,
026 685,
893 723,
950 782,
001 759,
727,
378,
270,
170,

306
212
194
440)
193
045
284
492
272
910
002
030
000
000

Exports
Year
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956

Production
$11
11
10
8
5
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
,100
,056
,162
,143
,108
,677
,347
,231
,391
,127
,918
,742
,534
Imports
$66
73
70
72
61
64
(63
63
65
58
60
61
59
,000
,100
,457
,973
,739
,112
,000)
,345
,006
,314
,104
,939
,339
Asbestos
$6
5
5
3
1







1
,030
,763
,294
,199
,304
598
759
857
793
424
350"
375
,497
Asbestos Products

$21,963
19,139
16,288
16,267
14,274



13,233
15,223
14,181
12,464














-------
APPENDIX
                                         TABLE 10

              REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OP ASBESTOS MINING AND PROCESSING
                                 (Ranking and Production)
170,171
Rank

1
2
3
4
State
1960
Vt.
Ariz.
N.C.
Calif.
1964
Calif.
Vt.
Ariz.
N.C.
1966
Calif.
Vt.
Ariz.
N.C.
Quantity. (Short Tons)
1964
55,041
*
*
*
(55,041)
1965
74,587
*
3,469
*
(78,056)
1966
81,671
*
*
*
(81,671)
Value (X 1,000)
1964
$4,419
*
*
*
(4,419)
1965
$6,177
*
441
*
(6,177)
1966
$6,945
*
*
*
(6,945)
         *Data withheld to avoid disclosure of producer's confidential information to
   the Bureau of Mines.
                                                                                                 00

-------
APPENDIX
                                         TABLE 11

                      ASBESTOS MINES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
170
State
California .



/



Vermont

Arizona






North Carolina
Mineral
Chrysotile
Chrysotile
Chrysotile

Chrysotile



Chrysotile

Chrysotile


Chrysotile
Chrysotile


Crocidolite
Production
Rank*
1
2
3

4



1

1


2
3


1
Name of Producer
Atlas Minerals Corp.
Coalinga Asbestos Co.
Pacific Asbestos Corp.

Union Carbide Corp.

b
Ash Bonding Co.
Vermont Asbestos Mines
Div. of Ruberoid Co.
Jacquays Mining Corp.


Western Asbestos Mfg. Co.
Metate Asbestos Corp.
Kyle Asbestos Mines of Ariz?
LeTourneau Asbestos Corp.a
Powhatan Mining Co.
Location — Coun v or City of
Mine
Fresno County
Fresno County
Ca laveras
County
San Benito
County

Nap a
Orleans County
(Lowell)
Salt River
Valley
(North of
Globe)



Yancey County
tBurnsville)
Processing Plant
Near Mine
Near Mine
Near Mine

Monterey County
(King City)












  fRanlced by production only within the State.
  **Not in operation during previous years.

-------
                                                           75

APPENDIX

                        TABLE 12

          APPARENT ASBESTOS CONSUMPTION, 1965170
              (In Thousands of Short Tons)
Use
Asbestos Industry Production
Mining and Processing
Asbestos in Products
Textiles
Cement
Friction Materials
Asbestos Paper
Floor Tile
Paints, Roof Coating, Caulks
Plastics
Miscellaneous
Total Products
World97


66
2,190
111
220
307
85
21
221
3,221
United States*
78

17
548
28
55
77
21
5
55
806
   *Based on  25% of world consumption.

-------
                                                               76
APPENDIX

                            TABLE 13

     PROPORTION OF ASBESTOS IN VARIOUS ASBESTOS PRODUCTS170
  Product
 Percent.
Asbestos*
  Asbestos textiles

  Asbestos cement

  Friction materials and gaskets

  Asbestos paper and products

  Floor tile

  Other asbestos products
  80-100

  15-90b

  30-80

  80-90

  10-30
      c
  U.D.
       aChrysotile asbestos is used unless otherwise stated.
       ^15% to 90% chrysotile, with some materials containing as
  much as 85% amosite and small amounts of crocidolite and antho-
  phyllite.
       GThese products contain undetermined quantities of
  chrysotile, tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite.
                            TABLE 14

     QUANTITY AND VALUE OF ASBESTOS INPUT BY INDUSTRY 1963170
Product
Asbestos textiles
Asbestos cement
Friction materials
and gaskets
Paper and products
Floor tile
Paint and coating
fillers
Plastics
Other
Total
Quantity
Short
Tons (000)
66
2,190

111
220
307

85
21
220.7
3,220.7
Fraction
of Total
0.02
0.68

0.04
0.07
0.09

0.02
0.01
0.07
1.00
Value
$(000,000)
26.4
328.5

11.1
19.8
13.2

3.7
9.2
19.7
423.3
Fraction
of Total
0.06
0.78

0.03
0.05
0.03

0.01

0.04
1.00

-------
                                                               77
APPENDIX
                            TABLE 15
      POPULATION GROUPS WITH OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
                       EXPOSURE TO ASBESTOS108
  Occupational Groups
   Nonoccupational Groups
  Asbestos  rock miners,
  loaders,  truckers,  crushers,
  millers,  asbestos  spinners,
  weavers,  electrical appli-
  ance  and  wire manufacturers,
  masons, carpenters,  heating
  equipment workers,  rubber
  workers,  shingle and tile
  manufacturers,  building
  material  manufacturers,
  filtering material manufac-
  turers, molders of asbestos
  products, asbestos-asphalt
  makers, putty manufacturers,
  asbestos  cement makers,
  asbestos  paper, cardboard
  and brake-lining producers,
  asbestos  felt insulation
  workers,  asbestos  sound insu-
  lation workers, asbestos insu-
  lators, pipe coverers, asbes-
  tos tube  wrappers,  asbestos
  cork  insulation workers, con-
  struction workers,  automobile
  makers, garage  attendants
 Residents  in vicinity of
 asbestos processing and tex-
 tile mills inhaling plant
 effluents  polluted with
 asbestos dust, and indivi-
 duals  living and working along
 roads  on which asbestos is
 trucked; residents in the
 vicinity of asbestos mines;
 residents  in vicinity of
/building construction and
 demolition, inhabitants of
 homes  or offices with asbes-
 tos acoustical tile

-------
                                                             78
APPENDIX

                           TABLE 16

                 ASBESTOS CONTROL EQUIPMENT95
                          Cost Data
 Asbestos Textile Industry3
   Dust extraction equipment
     Total capital cost (fixed)            ~ $1,500,000
     Operating cost per year              ~ $   250,000
       Operating cost/labor cost          ~       7. %
       Operating cost/total cost          ~       2*. 7%
         conversion

 Asbestos Mines*5
   Dust extraction equipment
     Total capital cost (TCC)              ~ $   360,000
     (TCC/TCC of plant) x 100              ~      27.5%
     Operating cost (per year)             ~ $   195,000
                         Specif ications
Asbestos  Textile Industry3
  Volume  of dust-containing air
     extracted from textile machines      1,000,000 ft /min or
                                         700 ft^/min/operative
  Quantity of asbestos  dust filtered
     per year (at above  rate)             700 tons or
                                         2.8 tons/working day

Asbestos  Mines
  Total installed horsepower            796
     Part  used to generate air  for
       dust removal                      230 (29%)
  Total air needed (for aspiration
     and dust removal) per pound of              3
       fiber produced                     1,350 ft


        aFigures  apply to the Turner Bros. Asbestos Co. plant at
Rochdale,  England.

        ^Figures  apply to the Cape Asbestos Co. at Penge in the
Transvaal.   The  most modern mill (in Canada), which is 10 times
larger, needs only about half  the quantity of air stated (using
gravity instead  of air-swept mills and horizontal transportation
of ore).

-------
 APPENDIX
                                        TABLE 17

            ANALYSIS OF ASBESTOS AND ASBESTOS PRODUCTS EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
                                            170







Short
1965
Crude and spinning fibers
Nonspinning fibers
Waste and refuse
i
1
24
17
,251
,221
,523
Exports
Tons
1966
1,455
28,017
17,218
Re-exports
Dollars
1965
326
3,622
1,323
(000)
1966
325
3,973
1,414
Short
1965
50
81
Tons
1966
176
130
Dollars
1965
10
13
(OOP)
1966
30
21
  Total

Gaskets .and packing
Brake lining
Clutch lining (number)
Textiles and yarn
Shingles and clapboard
Asbestos-cement
  Sub total

  Other products

  Total
42,995
46,690  5,271   5,712
         131
     306   23


2,



If
3,
020,

5,
6,
732
065
864
794
465
101
2,
3,
2,246,

10,
4,
678
630
986
900
010
742
4,
4,
1,
1,
1,
1,
528
728
691
067
096
588
5,
5,
1,
1,
1,
1,
261
236
897
326
797
332
                  14,698  16,849

                   4,389   5,058

                  19,087  21,907

                    Imports	
                                      Short Tons
                            1      1
                        5,000  5,000

                          113    231

                        5,114  5,232
                              Dollars (OOP)
                       1
                       2
                       4

                      37

                      44

                       8

                      52
51

 1
 2
 1

41

45

11

56
                                   1965
                 1966
                  1965
            1966
                 Chrysolite
                   Crude
                   Spinning/
                     Textiles
                   All Other

                     Total

                 Crocidolite
                 Amosite
                 	Total
     12,496

     17,339
    643,149

    672,984

     21,165
     17,042
    711,191
       6,596

      16,839
     642,894

     666,329

      26,995
      23,934
     716,258
 6,245
55,077
 6,319
56,308
70,454
73,100

-------
                                                             80
APPENDIX
                          TABLE 18
SELECTED STATISTICS FOR THE ASBESTOS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY41
                       (Employment Size)
Number of
Employees*
1-49
50-99
100-2,499
over 2,500
Total
Number of
Companies
39
6
10
18
73
Number of
Plants
39
6
17
62
124
Number of
Production
Workers
308
231
2,445
12,754
15,738
Value of
Shipments
$ (000)
8,264
4,827
89,131
407,014
509,236
      *The  employment  size class is determined by the total
company  employment  in all manufacturing activities in the
U.S.,  including  central offices and auxiliaries serving
manufacturing  establishments.  All establishments of a
company  are therefore included in the same employments size
column regardless of  establishment size.

-------
                                                              81





APPENDIX





                           TABLE 19




    SELECTED STATISTICS  FOR THE ASBESTOS PRODUCTS  INDUSTRY41
Expenditures (in $000)
New plant and equipment
New structures
New machinery and equipment
Total
Used plant and equipment
Total
1958

2,419
10,418
12,837
428
13,265
1963

2,613
9,768
12,381
1,289
13,670

-------
APPENDIX                                                     82
                          TABLE 20

                      ASBESTOS USES85
Textiles:
     Varieties used:  Chrysotile, crocidolite, and in part
                      amosite

Yarns and Cordst

     Processes:  Weaving of yarns and cords
                 Braiding  (interlacing)

     Classification of chrysotile fabrics:

          Class   Quality  Code    Asbestos Content (%)
            1     AAAA                  75-79.9
            2     AAA                   80-84.9
            3     AA                    85-89.9
            4     A                     90-94.9
            5     Underwriters          95-100
                  Commercial

Sealing and Packing Materials;

     Packing (woven fabrics)
          stuffing for boxes and sleeves
          manhole rings, boiler covers

Flat Packing;

     Gaskets, flanges (on  pipes) and containers

     1.  Without metal:  high pressure gasket sheets (rubber)

     2.  With metal:  material for sealing cylinder heads and
                      exhausts in motors and combustion engines,
                      and  for sealing compressors and turbines

Asbestos Boards and Papers;

     Boards
          Filtering and clarifying
          Coverings, coatings, casings, and jacketings for all
            kinds of surfaces
          Manufacturing of welders'  and rnelters'  shields
          Slideways in the glass industry
          Handles and fire-doors
          Auto Parts
          Safes
          Protective walls
          Curtains, etc.

                                                  (continued)

-------
APPENDIX                                                      83
                      TABLE 20 (Continued)

                        ASBESTOS USES85

      Sheets
           Inner/outer linings of furnaces and heating vessels ,
           drying ovens, incubators, heaters, climate-
           controlled spaces, etc.

      Plates
           Insulating buildings against vibrations (aluminum-
             asbestos)
           Solar-heat reflecting surfaces (70% of solar heat)

      Special Asbestos Papers
           Filters

 Asbestos Cement (10 to 25% asbestos):
      Slabs
      Corrugated sheets
      Pipes
      Corrugated tiles for roofs in industry, agriculture,  and
        dwellings
      Planks for platforms in buildings under construction
      Balcony canopies
      Rain gutters
      Interior walls
      Ventilating shafts
      Air conditioning assemblies
      Pressure piping (for underground drinking water
        distribution systems, fuel gas, and sewage)
      Cooling towers (electricity-generating stations)

 Thermal Insulants and Fire-Proofing :
      Sprayed asbestos (insulant in both heating and
      refrigeration), sound absorbent (eliminates booming and
      improves acoustical properties of walls and ceilings)
      Magnesia asbestos (85% magnesia, 15% asbestos)  as
      thermal insulant for covering pipes

 Friction Material;
      Woven:     Brake 1ining
      Nonwoven:  Clutch lining
                 Transmission lining

                                                (continued)

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APPENDIX                                                     84





                    TABLE 20 (Continued)

                      ASBESTOS USES85
Asbestos Plastics:
     Flooring tiles  (asbestos-asphalt tiles and, increasingly,
       asbestos-polymers of vinyl)
     Pressed or molded  (thermal insulation and in electrical
       machinery)
     Resinated asbestos felt  (manufacturing of wings and firing
       of missiles and  expansion cones for nozzles of boost
       motors).  Other uses in aircraft industry: nozzles for
       motor tubes,  missile tailpipes, and missile—heat barriers;
       fuselages for guided missiles, fuel tanks for fighter
       bombers, cabin floors, etc.
     Radar  (large molded reflectors and scanners)

AsbestosAcid-Resistant Compositions;
     Used mostly in  chemical  industry

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                                                              85
  APPENDIX
                          TABLE 21

        1967 LIST OF MANUFACTURED ASBESTOS PRODUCTS85
Industry and Product Description
Quantity Measure
Miscellaneous Nonmetallic Mineral Products

  Asbestos Products

  Asbestos Friction Materials
    Brake Linings
      Woven, containing asbestos yarn,
      tape, or cloth
      Molded, including all nonwoven types
    Clutch facing
      Woven, containing asbestos yarn,
      tape, or cloth
      Molded, including all nonwoven types

  Asbestos-Cement Shingles and Clapboard
    Siding shingles and clapboard,
     including accessories
    Roofing shingles

  Asphalt Floor Tile
    Asphalt floor tile

  Vinyl Asbestos Floor Tile
    Vinyl asbestos floor tile

  Asbestos Textiles and Other Asbestos-
    Cement Products
    Asbestos textiles
      Yarn, cord, and thread
      Cloth
      Other asbestos textiles, including
       roving, lap, wick, rope, tape,
       carded fibers, etc.

    Asbestos-cement products
      Flat sheets and wallboard, all
       thicknesses converted to V basis
      Corrugated sheets
      Pipe, conduits, and ducts, including
       pressure pipe
Linear feet
Cubic feet
Thousand pieces
Thousand pieces
Squares
Squares

Thousand square
   yards

Thousand square
   yards
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
100 square feet
100 square feet
Short tons

     (continued)

-------
APPENDIX
                                                             86
                   TABLE 21 (Continued)
                                                  oc
       1967 LIST OF MANUFACTURED ASBESTOS PRODUCTS 3
Industry and Product Description
Quantity Measure
  Asbestos felts
    Roofing-asphalt or tar saturated
    Other
  Other asbestos and asbestos-cement
    products, including millboard and
    prefabricated housing components

Gaskets and Insulation

  Gaskets, All Types
  Gaskets  (for sealing nonmoving parts)
    Asbestos, asbestos-metallic, and
     asbestos-rubber

  Packing  (except leather, rubber, and
    metal) and Asbestos Insulations
    Asbestos compressed sheet

    Packing (for sealing moving parts)
      Asbestos, asbestos-metallic, and
       asbestos-rubber

      Insulation materials containing
       asbestos pipe insulation
        Cellular and laminated
        85 percent magnesia
        Diatomaceous silica, calcium,
         silicate, expanded silica, and
         asbestos fiber
        Other pipe insulation

      Block insulation, including sheet
       and lagging
        85 percent magnesia
        Diatomaceous silica, calcium
         silicate, expanded silica, and
         asbestos fiber
        Other block insulation, including
          celluar and laminated
      All other asbestos insulation
Short Tons
Short Tons
Pounds
Thousand pounds
Linear feet
Linear feet
Linear feet
Linear feet
Thousand
   board feet

Thousand
   board feet
Thousand
   board feet

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APPENDIX
                                                                  87
                                TABLE 22



             ASBESTOS  PRODUCT MANUFACTURING PLANTS,  196341
vocation
flew Hampshire
Belknap
Hillsborough
Total
lassachusetts
Essex
Franklin
Middlesex
Suffolk
Worcester
Total
Connecticut
Fairf ield
Hartford
Middlesex
Total
Slew York
Albany
Kings
Orange
Suffolk
Total
Sew Jersey
Bergen
Essex
Hudson
Mercer
Morris
Passaic
Somerset
Union
Total

Total
Plants

1
1
2

1
1
2
2
1
7

3
1
1
5

1
3
1
1
6

1
3
1
2
1
3
4
1
\
16
No. of Plants with Eraplo
1-
19






1
1
2

4


1

1


1

1
2


2



2

1
5
20-
49












1


1


1


1

1
1






2
50-
99





1

1

1
3

1


1
















100-
249

1

1










1
1











1

2

3
250-
499


1
1














1
1

2



1
2

1
1

5
lament of
500-
999

















1



1







1

1
1,000
or more












1


1
















1 	 (continued)

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APPENDIX
                                                                   88
                         TABLE  22  (Continued)




             ASBESTOS PRODUCT MANUFACTURING  PLANTS,  196341
Location
Pennsylvania
Elk
Lancaster
Montgomery
Northampton
Philadelphia Cit}
Potter
Total
Ohio
Cuyahoga
Paulding
Portage
Ross
Total
Indiana
Henry
Huntington
Kosciusko
Lagrange
Lake
Rush
Total
Illinois
Cook
Kankakee
Lake
Will
Total
Michigan
Wayne
Total
Total
Plants

1
1
2
1
3
1 1
9

1
1
1
1
4

1
1
1
1
1
1
6

8
1
4
1
14

1
1
No. of Plants with Employment of
1-
19





2
1
3

1



1




1


1

5



5

1
1
20-
49




















1
1

1



1


•^^MWMi
50-
99




1


1























100-
249

1

2



3


1
1
1
3



1

1

2



2
1
3



250-
499





1

1







1
1




2

2
1
1

4



500-
999

























1

1


*
1,000
or more


1




1























                                                              (continued)

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APPENDIX
                                                                 89
                         TABLE  22  (Continued)



             ASBESTOS  PRODUCT MANUFACTURING  PLANTS,  196341
jocation
Wisconsin
Milwaukee
Total
Missouri
St . Louis
St. Louis City
Total
Cansas
Barton
Total
Virginia
Essex
Frederick
Norfolk City
•Total
Jorth Carolina
Mecklenburg
Union
Total
South Carolina
Charleston
Marlboro
Total
Georgia
DeKalb
Talbot
troup
Total

Total
Plants

1
1

2
3
5

1
1

1
1
1
3

2
1
3

1
1
2

1
1
1
3
No. of Plants with Emp!
1-
19

1
1


1
1

1
1

1

1
2









1
1

2
20-
49




























50-
99




2

2









1

1


1
1





100-
249





2
2










1
1








1
250-
499












1

1

1

1

1

1





ovment of
500-
999




























1,000
or more




























J— 	 i continued j

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APPENDIX
                                                                  90
                          TABLE 22  (Continued)




             ASBESTOS  PRODUCT  MANUFACTURING PLANTS,  196341
Location
Florida
Dade
Total
Alabama
Mobile
Total
Mississippi
Hinds
Union
Total
Louisiana
Jefferson
Orleans
Total
Texas
Dallas
EC tor
Grayson
Harris
Hill
Total
California
Alameda
Contra Costa
Los Angeles
Orange
Sacramento
San Benito
San Joaquin
San Mateo
Santa Clara
Total
JNITED STATES
TOTAL
Total
Plants

1
1

1
1

1
1
2

3
3
6

2
1
1
3
1
8

2
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
18
124

1-
19

1
1





1
1





2
1



3



1
1
1
1

1

5
40
No,
20-
49












1
1








1

2






3
10
of Plants with Employment of
'56-
99




1
1
















1
1
1






3
13
100-
249







1

1

2
1
3



1
2
1
4



4



1

1
6
34
250-
499











1
1
2




1

1



1






1
21
500-
999
































4
1,000
or more
































2

-------
APPENDIX B

-------
                                                            92
RESPIRABLE ASBESTOS FIBERS


       A number of questions arise regarding respirable


asbestos fibers.  What length of fiber is respirable?  What


is the particle-to-mass ratio?  Should all fibers, whatever


their length or diameter, be counted?  If not, can any


instrument be designed to select the right size distribution


in the atmosphere?

               218
       Timbrell    has studied the deposition of fibrous


material in the respiratory system.  Fibers 50 or even 200 n


long are found in the lungs because the free-falling speed


depends largely on the diameter.  Thus, particles less than


3.5 [i (most asbestos particles are less than 0.5 M) in


diameter can possibly penetrate deeply into the lung.  The


more symmetrical a fiber is, the greater its chance of pene*


trating.  The largest compact particles normally found in the


lung are about 10 M, in diameter.  Limitation on the lengths


of the fibers which reach pulmonary air spaces is imposed by


the nasal hairs and the small diameters of the respiratory


bronchioles.  These limitations are summarized in Table 23.


       Respirable fibers have been defined by the British


Occupational Hygiene Society204 as fibers less than 200 M.


long, less than 3.5 [1 in diameter, and having a length-to-


breadth ratio of 3:1.  Only the fibers longer than 5 n in


length are counted.

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                                                             93
                           TABLE 23
         PENETRATION OF FIBERS THROUGH NASAL HAIRS218
Length of Fiber
(microns)
0.5
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
% Penetration through Nasal Hairs
1st Stage
100
75
53
31
26
20
17
14
2nd Staqe
100
57
24
10
5
3
2
1
3rd Stacre
100
42
11
3
1



              229
       Walter    has investigated the mass  of  average  particles

 in the asbestos textile industry (see Table 24).   He found

 that respirable dust contains  approximately 50 percent asbestos

 and that  10 particles of dust  per [ig contain 5 x  10  particles

 of asbestos per |-ig.   From this conversion factor  the threshold

"limit value for asbestos can be calculated* as approximately
350 |-ig/m   (5 mppcf).
                          TABLE  24
         PARTICLE-MASS RELATIONSHIP OF ASBESTOS AS
                 A FUNCTION OF FIBER LENGTH
Total Concentration^
_ f-**y/ m
Particles*/cirr (approx)
100
200
400
600
100
400
1,000
2,500
Incineration Residue
Ug/nr
(approx)
50-60
200-300
700-800
1,800-2,000
Fiber Length
in Microns
(approx)
< 150
< 500
< 700
<10,000
       *Particles counted with a konimeter.
       *5 mppcf=177 x 106 p/m3=350 |ag/m3.  The concentration
estimated in air is 600-6,000 p/m3=1.2 - 12 x 10~*

-------
                                                           94
       Finally, there remains the problem of counting respirable



fibers in ambient air.  It appears that a fairly sophisticated



instrument will be required which can (1) separate  the other



particles from fibers,  (2) identify the asbestos fibers in a



host of other fibers, and  (3) count only those fibers longer



than 5 (J. and shorter than  200 )a with diameters less than



3.5 H .

-------