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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vii
Acknowledgements xi
I Introduction 1
II Conclusions 3
III Recommendations 5
IV Literature Survey 6
V National Survey of Problem 26
VI References 51
VII Appendices
A. Mail Survey Inquiry Letter 58
B. Questionnaire: To Determine the Extent of Vegetation Growth
Problems Associated with Solid Waste Refuse Landfills 59
C. Classification of Mail Survey Sources 6l
D. List of Field Equipment 62
E. Landfill - Vegetation Field Inspection Form 63
F. Field Gas Sample Analysis Form 65
G. Field Soil Sampling Procedure 66
H. Field Leachate Sampling and Analysis Procedure 67
I. Detailed Observations and Field Data from Landfill Site
Survey 68
J. Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics 119
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
1 Major United States Climate Types 27
2 Location of Landfills Evaluated for Quality of
Vegetation Growth 38
1-1 Mission Canyon Landfills 1, 2, and 3 92
1-2 Soil Temperatures - Day Island Landfill
vi
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1 Approximate Percentages of Substances Comprising
Manufactured Illuminating Gas ........................... 13
2 Analysis of Coke Oven Gas Supplied by New Haven
Gaslight Company ........................................ 19
3 Plant Species Relatively Tolerant to Illuminating Gas as
Reported in the Literature ................................ 21
h Plant Species Relatively Sensitive to Illuminating Gas as
Reported in the Literature ............................ ... 22
5 Landfill Vegetation Growth Results by Climatic Zone as
Reported in Mail Survey .................................. 30
6 Comparison of Vegetation Growth Problems by Climatic Zones... 31
7 Results of Mail Survey by States and Territories ...... . ..... 32
8 Comparison Between Field Observations of Landfill
Vegetation Conditions and Replies to the Mail
Survey of Vegetation Conditions .......................... ^5
1-1 Percent Composition of Soil Gases in Fields with Good and
Poor Vegetative Growth ................................... 71
1-2 Percent Composition of Soil Gases in Wheat Fields with
Growth of Different Qualities ............................ 72
1-3 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Dead and Living
Poplars .................................................. 7^
I-k Pecent Composition of Soil Gases in Fields with Good
and Poor Grass Growth
1-5 Percent Composition of Soil Gases in Barley Fields with
Good and Poor Growth ..................................... 76
1-6 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Living and
Dead Trees ............................................. , . 77
vii
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Number
Page
1-7 Percent Composition of Soil Gases in Various Barley
Growth Quality Areas 78
1-8 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Living and Dead
Kentucky Coffee Tree 80
1-9 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Healthy and
Unhealthy Trees 8l
1-10 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Living and Dead
Loblolly Pine Trees 82
1-11 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Tall and Short
Loblolly Pine Trees 83
1-12 Percent Composition of Soil Gases Beneath Healthy and
Unhealthy Trees 86
1-13 Percent Composition of Soil Gases and Soil Temperatures at
Healthy and Dead or Poorly Growing Vegetation 88
I-lU Percent Composition of Soil Gases and Soil Temper atures
at Healthy and Unhealthy Vegetation ...................... 89
1-15 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Healthy and Unhealthy
Vegetation ............................................... 90
I-l6 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Healthy and Unhealthy
Vegetation ............................................... 91
1-17 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Healthy and Unhealthy
Vegetation ............................................... $k
I-l8 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Healthy and Unhealthy
Corn [[[ 95
1-19 Percent Composition of Soil Gases vs Peach Tree Viability ... 96
1-20 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Areas of Good and Poor
Growth, Alfalfa and Vetch ................................ 97
1-21 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Areas of Healthy and
Poor Growing Quaking Aspens .............................. 98
1-22 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Living and Dead
Black Cherry Trees ....................................... 99
1-23 Percent Combustible Gas in Soil Gases at Living and Dead
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Number Page
1-2^ Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Living and Dead
Trees [[[ 101
1-25 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Live and Dead
Red Oaks ................................................. 102
1-26 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Live and Dead
Trees [[[ 103
1-27 Percent Composition of Soil Gases and Soil Temperatures
at Living and Dead Trees .................................
1-28 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Good and Poor
Growth Vegetation ........................................ 106
1-29 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Willow Trees Showing
Various Growth Characteristics ....... .................... 107
1-30 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Good Ground Cover
and Wo Vegetation Growth Areas ........................... 108
1-31 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Living and Dead Red
Pine Trees ............................................... 109
1-32 Percent Combustible Gas In Soil Atmospheres at Living,
Dying , and Dead Vegetation ............................... 113
1-33 Percent Combustible Gas in Soil Atmospheres in Wheat
Field [[[ 115
1-3^ Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Good and Poor
Growth Trees ............................................. 117
1-35 Percent Composition of Soil Gases at Good and Poor
Growth Alfalfa ........................................... 118
J-l Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics , Region Ar - Tropical Dry ............... 119
J-2 Field Survey Data- Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics , Region BS - Steppe ..................... 120
J-3 Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics, Region BW - Arid, Desert ......... ......
J-U Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics, Region Cf - Subtropical, Humid ......... 122
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Number Page
J-6 Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics, Region Dca - Temperate,
Continental , Hot Summers .................................
J-7 Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics, Region Deb - Temperate,
Continental , Cool Summers ................................ 125
J-8 Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics, Region Do - Continental Oceanic ........ 126
J-9 Field Survey Data-Mineral Constituents and Soil
Characteristics , Region H - Highlands ................... 12?
J-10 Mean Percent (%} Change in Content of Constituents of
Soils from Nine Climatic Regions as Soil Proceeded
from No- Gas to High Gas Concentrations ................... 128
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The cooperation of the New Jersey Cooperative Extension Service personnel,
particularly Dr. Spencer H. Davis, Jr., Specialist in Plant Pathology, and
Dr. Roy Flannery, Specialist in Soils, is greatfully acknowledged. The
authors also wish to express their indebtedness to the hundreds of individuals
representing federal, state, county, and municipal governmental agencies, as
well as private individuals, who responded to the mail survey and assisted in
planning and executing the site visits. We would also like to acknowledge
the assistance of the following: Cook, College students Heather Boyd,
Deborah Flower, and Michael Telson, and research technicians Tirza DeVries
and Dr. Jeanette Mohamed. Finally we wish to thank all the Cook College
staff who so kindly gave their assistance.
xi
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
Sanitary Landfill has been demonstrated to be the least expensive envir-
onmentally acceptable means of waste disposal available to date, purportedly
possessing the attributes of neatness and safety in addition to the relatively
low cost. Whereas such sites may have originally been located at considerable
distances from residential areas, rapid urban and suburban development in the
United States has caused many once remote dumping grounds to be within deve-
loped areas. As such they provide an attractive source of much needed land
for many purposes. Although conversion to recreational areas or other non-
structural usage has long been considered an acceptable end for completed
landfill sites, the urgent need for space and for increased tax revenues has
caused many municipalities to eye completed landfills for commercial use as
well. In rural areas, intensifying land use has resulted in attempts to use
completed landfills for growing commercial crops.
Regardless of the ultimate utilization of the landfill, certain serious
disadvantages are inherent, not the least of which are ecological upsets due
to leaching of infiltrates and gases into groundwater, pollution of water
supplies, the production of toxic and explosive gas mixtures from anaerobic
microbial decomposition of the organic matter present, and surface settlement.
High ground temperatures have also been reported in the cover material of
some completed refuse landfills.
The state of New Jersey, with a population of approximately T|- million,
has experienced vegetation growth problems on and around refuse landfills.
The state is currently serving as the repository for solid waste from a
population of approximately 10 million. There are some 300 active landfill
sites in New Jersey comprising approximately 10,000 acres that predictably
will become filled in the next few years. There are also in existence with-
in the state some 150 completed landfills, many of which have already been
converted to some of the aforementioned uses. Landfills completed up to
World War II were shallower and contained less organic matter than the pre-
sent ones, possibly as the result of more coal ashes, more open burning, and
less wastage during those earlier times. Since World War II the amount of
disposable waste has risen considerably with a concomitant rise in content
of biodegradable material. It is believed that the changing character of the
waste in landfills and the increasing need to develop former landfills for
new land have helped make vegetation deaths more noticeable. More than half
a dozen landfill sites in New Jersey were known to have experienced this
problem.
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With the death of vegetation associated with landfills well documented
in New Jersey, it was desirable to see if similar situations existed in other
parts of the United States and to examine possible causes of these vegeta-
tion growth problems. The survey of the quality of landfill vegetation
growth consisted of a mail survey of the United States followed by on-site
visits to former landfills in all the major meterological regions found in
the 1*8 continental states and Puerto Rico.
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SECTION II
CONCLUSIONS
1. A mail survey of some 1,000 persons assumed to be knowledgeable of plant
growth status on or adjacent to completed landfills showed fully 75 per-
cent of those -who responded as unaware of the problems associated with
vegetating completed landfills.
2. Site visits to some 60 completed landfills within nine climatic regions
of the United States generally revealed a high negative correlation be-
tween plant growth and concentrations of methane and/or carbon dioxide
in the root atmospheres.
3- Little variability in the magnitude of landfill gas production and
consequent vegetation damage was observed among the different climatic
regions, except for the arid area (southwestern Arizona) where con-
centrations of combustible gas and carbon dioxide were found to be
somewhat less than in the eight other regions. This was presumably due
to the lack of rainfall.
k. A number of woody species including American linden, American elm,
Japanese spreading yew, and sugar maple were found to be particularly
sensitive to landfill conditions.
5. The degree of sensitivity to landfill conditions among the woody species
closely paralleled relative tolerance of these species to flooded or
water-logged soils.
6. Soil characteristics, other than atmospheric quality modified by the
presence of anaerobically produced landfill gases, included content of
moisture and available ammonia-nitrogen, iron, manganese, zinc, and
copper--all of which increased significantly in landfill gassed soils.
Increased availability of these elements is believed to be due to the
highly reduced conditions in the soils and the activity of anaerobic
microorganisms. Soil pH tended to approach neutrality in gassed soils
due to the presence of organic acids produced during anaerobic decom-
position of the buried refuse.
7. Where attempts were made to prevent the migration of landfill gases into
plant root zones through the use of impermeable barriers, vertical
venting or gas extraction systems, or through planting in mounds of
earth placed atop landfills, plants appeared to have a better chance
of survival.
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8. Occasionally high soil temperat wees (up to 6o°C) adverse to vege-
tation growth were found associated with landfill gases in the soil.
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SECTION III
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The lack of awareness of landfill managers of the problems attendant on
establishing vegetation on landfill sites indicates the need for
education along these lines. It was also found that in about one third
of the cases there were discrepancies between conditions reported in the
mail survey and those found in on-site visits to the landfills.
2. The variability in landfill gas tolerance among species suggests the
need for research aimed at screening plant species for their adaptabi-
lity to landfill gases.
3. The similarities between soil characteristics in landfill cover soils
and in water-logged soils suggests the use of flood resistant species
for landfill plantings.
4. The lack of understanding of the precise role of specific landfill
gases in causing plant deterioration suggests the need for research
aimed at clarifying this situation.
5. To grow healthy vegetation, landfill gases should be prevented from
entering the plant root atmospheres.
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SECTION IV
LITERATURE SURVEY
GAS PRODUCTION IN REFUSE LANDFILLS
The composition of landfill refuse varies considerably depending on its
origin be it municipal, industrial, incineration material or sewerage sludge.
The organic content of solid waste collected from homes, schools, commercial
establishments and industries generally ranges from 50 to 75$ on a weight
basis. Most of these organics are biodegradable and can be broken down into
simpler compounds by both aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms. The rate at
which this occurs is reported to be a function of (a) permeability of cover
material (b) depth of garbage (c) amount of rainfall (d) moisture content of
the refuse (e) putrescibility of the refuse (f) compaction (g) pH and (h) age
of the landfill (l, 2,).
When the refuse is initially deposited in the landfill, there is enough
oxygen present to support a population of aerobic bacteria. This stage lasts
from one day to many months (3). The literature indicates CO^, NH^, and E^O
to be the principle products formed in aerobic decomposition (U).
The depletion of soil oxygen results in a decrease in the aerobic and an
increase in the anaerobic population. During the anaerobic stage of decom-
position two phases have been identified, a non-methanogenic stage followed by
a methane-producing stage.
During the non-methanogenic stage, organic matter is reduced, in the
presence of water and extracellular enzymes produced from bacteria, to smaller
soluble components which include fatty acids, simple sugars, amino acids and
other light weight compounds (5 )• Further breakdown of soluble compounds in
the absence of oxygen produces Hg, CO, NH , E^O, C02 and organic acids (pro-
bably acetic acid) (5, 6, 7)
During the methanogenic stage, CO and CH. are the principle gases pro-
duced. They originate from two reactions carried out by a bacterium called
Methanobacterium(6). In the first reaction,the CO produced earlier in the
decomposition is reduced through the addition of hydrogen to form methane and
water. The second reaction utilizes the acetic acid produced during the non-
methanogenic stage. Acetic acid is cleaved in the presence of heat to form
methane and carbon dioxide. These two reactions are represented below:
(1) C02 kE^ >. CH^ & 2 HgO & Heat
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,0
(2) CH C" Heat x CH^ & CO
Acetic Acid OH
Various other gases reportedly produced in the anaerobic environment of
the landfill include ethane, propane, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen
and nitrous oxide (8,9,1.0,1.1,5}. A literature search of studies concerning the
effects on vegetation in response to the presence of these six gases in the
root zones produced & single article from Japan(12). Hydrogen sulfide, which
is produced from the bacterium Desulfovibrio desulfuricans in alkaline con-
ditions (13), was reported to have caused lower root respiration rates and a
decrease in soil nematode population (1^).
In addition to the methane-producing bacteria mentioned above, there
exists a bacterium, Pseudomonas chromobacterium, which utilizes methane during
its metabolism. It oxidizes methane, producing carbon dioxide and water (15).
Since oxygen is required for this reaction, these bacteria will generally be
found near the upper surface of the landfill.
During the oxidation of methane, oxygen in consumed. This raises a ques-
tion of whether or not the oxygen concentration is a limiting factor in this
reaction. Hoeks points out that these organisms can function at soil atmo-
spheric oxygen concentrations as low as 1$. However, at this low concentra-
tion, incomplete oxidation causes formation of such intermediate side products
as methanol, formaldehyde and formic acid (15).
During anaerobic decomposition, the possibility exists for production of
a wide range of gases and liquids. However, the literature indicates CO , H ,
CH. , H S, and N to be the predominant gases with CO and CH. making up the
largest portion of the soil gas atmosphere. There has been a considerable
amount of work done concerning the effects of excess CO in the root zone on
different plant species. In 191^, Noyes saturated soil around tomato and corn
plants with CO (16). Both species died within two weeks, but there was no
irreversible damage to the soil.
A good deal of variation in tolerence between species has been found.
Cotton seedlings grown in hydroponic solutions (17) were able to exhibit
optimum growth with 10$ CO present, provided at least 1.5% 02 was also
present. Thirty to ho percent CO in the root zone of cotton seedlings was
found to severely reduce root growth in hydroponic solutions. Red and black
raspberry (18) were killed when their roots were exposed to 10% CO^.
Norris,Wiegand, and Johanson (19)in 1959 exposed excised onion root tips
to CO concentrations above that normally found in soil atmospheres. They
concluded that an observed decrease in respiration rate was due to permanent
damage to the root cells caused by the lowering of the intercellular pH by
dissolved CO .
There are various factors influencing methane gas production. The para-
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meters most commonly reported are refuse moisture content, temperature and pH.
Probably the major factor is refuse moisture content. Ramaswamy (20) and
Songonuga (21) found that methane gas production rates increased with refuse
moisture content, a maximum production occurring at moisture content of 60 to
8of0 wet weight. Farquhar and Rovers (6) report maximum methane production
when refuse is near the saturation point. An experiment carried out by Merz
and Stone (22) concluded that methane gas production increased with the addi-
tion of surface irrigation water. Ludwig (23) found that at one of two sites
in California methane production increased after a heavy rainfall.
It is reported that refuse moisture content too low to support continuous
gas production in a landfill may be in the range of 30 to 40$ (22). This
condition may exist in certain areas of the United States such as the dry
southwest, where rainfall and relative humidity are very low.
Temperature has also been described as a limiting factor in methane gas
production. Aerobic conditions invariably produce higher temperatures than
anaerobic (2k,22}. Three separate articles have reported optimum temperatures
for methane production ranging from 30°C to 37°C. Kotze et al (7) report 37°C
to be the optimum temperature for methane gas production in the mesophilic
stage of sewage sludge decomposition. Dobson (25) and Ramaswamy (20) say
maximum gas production occurs at 30°C and 35 °C respectively. All found that
deviations from the optimum temperature resulted in decreased methane pro-
duction rates.
The optimum pH for methane production during anaerobic decomposition of
sewage sludge is very near 7.0 (6). As deviations from this optimum are en-
countered, gas production is decreased. Extremely high pH may exist in the
refuse because of the presence of alkaline materials, whereas low pH levels
can result in inhibition of methane production with the concomitant forma-
tion of organic acids (6).
One parameter which was measured in a number of studies was the effect of
excessive infiltration on methane production. When large amounts of water
were added to a lysimeter filled with refuse so that the saturation point was
almost reached, methane production was inhibited; however, COo continued to be
produced. This response was attributed to the positive oxidation-reduction
potential of rain water suppressing the activity of methanogenic bacteria
which require a negative oxidation-reduction potential (2.6}.
HISTORY OF PROBLEMS IN VEGETATING LANDFILLS
Conversion to recreational areas or other non-structural usage has been
considered an acceptable end for completed landfill sites and, in rural areas,
intensifying land use has resulted in attempts to use completed landfills for
growing commercial crops (27, 10, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33).
The serious disadvantages for adequate vegetation growth inherent in
landfill sites have been enumerated namely, the production of toxic gas mix-
tures from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter present, the leaching of
infiltrates and gases into ground water supplies, and the high ground tem-
peratures (3^, 10, 35).
8
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In spite of predictable negative success in utilizing landfills for the
support of vegetation, many reports of success or proposals for transforming
barren former refuse sites into luxuriant vegetated areas are appearing in the
literature and in the press (36, 37, 38, 39, 32, 1*0).
In July, 1972 an article by Duane(4l) applauding the construction of golf
courses on completed sanitary landfills cited the successful use of such tree
species as Japanese black pine, London plane, thornless honey locust and Russian
olive for beautifying the sites. In 1973, an anonymous article entitled "From
Refuse Heap to Botanic Garden" appeared in Solid Wastes Management magazine
describing the transformation of an 87-acre landfill in Los Angeles that had
the distinction of being one of the world's first such phenomena (42).
A catalogue published in 1973 describing hybrid poplars bred by a Pennsyl-
vania nursery cites a particular hybrid which supposed]^- was grown successfully
on a landfill site at Fort Dix, New Jersey (43). In that same year, a brochure
was published by the Caterpillar Tractor Company describing and displaying in
lavish color various successfully vegetated golf courses and parks in Mountain
View, California; Anoka, Minnesota; Baltimore County, Maryland; Long Island,
New York; Alton and Chicago, Illinois (44). In 1974 a news item in the Sun-
Star of Merced, California described a 5-acre park whose new grass and trees
would be aided in growth by "the proximity to the refuse which will provide
needed nutrients" (45).
Few problems if any were either observed or anticipated in achieving these
spectacular results with the exception of the report of root damage to large
trees and shrubs at the Los Angeles Botanic Garden site.
At the same time, various investigators were experiencing difficulties in
growing vegetation at similar sites. In January 1969, Professor F. Flower and
associates of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey (46), responding
to a complaint of vegetation death on private properties adjacent to a landfill
in Cherry Hill Township observed dead trees and shrubs of the following species:
spruce, rhododendron, Japanese yew, azalea, dogwood, flowering peach, brush
dogwood, Scotch broom, arborvitae, Douglas fir, and lawn grasses. Testing of
the soil with appropriate equipment disclosed high concentrations of carbon
dioxide and explosive gases. The conclusion reached was that the trees and
shrubs could have been killed by displacement of oxygen from their root zones
by lateral movement of the gases of refuse decomposition.
This site was visited periodically from 1969 to the present time, soil gas
was tested for explosive gas content and vegetation around the homes evaluated
for gas effects (47).
Subsequent visits were made to the site on March 12, March 18, and March
31, 1975 (48). Examination of the landfill area on which a park had been
constructed revealed that many trees had been planted over the area the pre-
vious fall. The species included sweet gum, red oak, Japanese poplar, white
pine, Scotch pine and fir among others. Some of the trees had been destroyed
by being pulled out by their roots. The holes remaining were rather shallow
indicating that plantings were not made at a great enough depth.
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The needles on some evergreen were brown indicating little likelihood of
survival.
Gas vents had been installed consisting of plastic pipes with holes placed
vertically in the ground.
Leachate was found in some spots. Grass growth throughout the park was
spotty; in some areas it grew well, whereas in other areas, very poorly.
A return visit to the site on May 28, 1975 (^9) was made to evaluate the
quality of the vegetation which had been planted over the area. Most of the
trees were still living with the exception of a large number of Austrian pines
and Scotch pines. The firs, white pines, and deciduous trees in most cases
were doing very well.
Ground gas samples were taken and in most cases gas was not encountered
until a depth of 15 to 25 inches was reached. In only one case was there
evidence of high combustible gas level in the root zone of a deciduous tree
and that tree had died. Vetch, clover, grasses and weeds covered much of the
area; some spots were noted to be barren. Ground gas was found very close to
the surface in some of the latter areas. Signs of leachate were also noted at
a few locations.
Checks for combustible gas were made in several of the vertical venting
pipes, results of which indicated that these pipes were venting the gases from
the landfill. It was concluded that a hard layer at the base of the 2 to 3
feet of cover material had successfully sealed off the combustible gases from
the root zone of trees, forcing the gas to move laterally to the venting pipes
whence they were being dispersed to the atmosphere. The vents probably reduced
underground lateral migration of gases away from the landfill, although a
single check in this area showed combustible gas to be present.
In 1972, the Rutgers contingent made a visit to the peach orchard of the
De Eugenic brothers in Glassboro, New Jersey which bordered on a completed
landfill, where approximately 50 peach trees had died (^7). Upon completion
of the landfill, the growers had hoped to plant additional peach trees on the
filled area. Examination of the soil atmosphere revealed high concentrations
of carbon dioxide and explosive gases in the orchard area.
The conclusion was that carbon dioxide and methane from the anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter had moved laterally from the landfill into the
orchard area. The sealing of the surface of the landfill with a soil cover had
probably been sufficient to prohibit the free passage of gases vertically out
of the landfill, therefore, they had taken an easier route laterally into the
soil in the root area of peach trees adjacent to the landfill.
A return visit was made to the De Eugenic orchard on March 18, 1975 (50).
There had been further peach tree death from lateral migration of the landfill
gases. No corrective measures had been taken.
In May, 1973 the Rutgers group visited the Hunter Farm in Cinnaminson,
New Jersey where previous visits had confirmed that combustible gases from an
10
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adjacent landfill had encroached upon the farmland and injured crops (Vy). A
venting system of perforated PVC pipes had been installed at the interface of
the landfill and Hunter Farm land. Samples taken from the permanent gas
sampling stations at Hunter Farm revealed combustible gas extending 200 feet
into the Hunter Farm field. It was not possible at the time to determine
whether any improvement in gas migration had been effected by the venting
system.
Hunter Farm was again visited in December, 197^ when fields planted with
rye were growing poorly (^7). Gas checks revealed that combustible gases were
present in the area of new vegetation injury and that migrating gases were now
reaching 600 feet from the nearest edge of the landfill. Apparently the
venting was inadequate.
Another trip to Hunter's Farm was made in July, 1975 when corn and sweet
potato were found to be growing poorly in areas where combustible gas concen-
tration was high. At this time gas migration was found at 800+ feet from the
edge of the landfill (77).
On May 1^, 1973? the Rutgers group visited Sharkey's Landfill in
Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey to estimate its potential for supporting
vegetative cover and to examine field test plots set out by a county agent
(51). It appeared that grass seeding had been attempted\ however, grass seem-
ed to be growing well over only small areas of the fill. Numerous pools of
oily leachate were observed, many with gas bubbles breaking the surface.
Samples of soil gas revealed high concentrations of combustible gases.
In the few areas where vegetation seemed to be growing well, there was little,
if any combustible gas in the root zone.
The general consensus on the possibility of successful vegetation appear-
ed to be that only shallow rooted species such as grasses would be expected to
thrive over most of the area. In some spots devoid of combustible gas it
might be possible to grow deeper rooted vegetation.
A communication from the county agent on June 3> 1975 revealed that clover,
vetch, lespedeza and weeping love grass were doing well on the landfill (52).
On January 28, 197^ the Rutgers group visited an l8-acre refuse landfill
which was the proposed site for a high-rise apartment project. At the north
end of the landfill, a "bank had been constructed three years previously on
pilings (53). Ground settling, gas odor and vegetation death were observed
on the bank property. Checks for soil gas revealed high concentrations of
combustible gases in the areas of vegetation death.
At the same time that the Rutgers investigations were going on in New
Jersey other investigators in this country and abroad were also reporting lack
of success in growing vegetation on or near landfills.
In 1972, Kutsuma found a chestnut blight in the area of a landfill in the
Tcma River Valley in Japan, due to a high carbon dioxide and methane content
(5)4) and the following year Ueshita, Kuwayama and Saita (55) reported the death
11
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of unspecified tree species which had been planted on a landfill in Aichi
Prefecture.
In 1972, a scientific study of the growth response of four species of pine
on simulated landfills was conducted by Cremer (56) in fulfillment of require-
ments for an advanced degree at Yale School of Forestry. Preliminary results
indicated that two of the species, Monterey pine and Pitch pine, were growing
poorly on the simulated landfill plot whereas Austrian pine and Jack pine
appeared to be unaffected.
In 1973 a report from Toronto, Canada (57) blamed ethylene gas from a
landfill for vegetation mortality.
In the same year an anonymous publication (^5) issued in Ontario, Canada
discussed the killing of vegetation by gases escaping from a sanitary landfill
in Mississauga, Ontario.
Various other communications (3^, 58, 59, 30) during the past year have
reported further observations of vegetation problems on former landfills
ascribing the problem to methane gas, high soil temperatures, and/or insuffi-
cient depth of cover. Among the reports was one describing injury to corn
crops on landfilled trenches as compared to normal growth on inter-trench
nonlandfilled areas in Connecticut (60).
The variability in results from efforts to establish vegetation on former
landfill sites is apparently due to variability in certain landfill charac-
teristics such as type and amount of solid waste, depth of cover, construc-
tion and grading of the fill; certain regional meteorological conditions,
such as temperature, relative humidity and rainfall; soil characteristics
such as composition, texture, ability to retain moisture, nutritional charac-
teristics; adaptability of plant species to landfill conditions, and planting
and maintenance techniques to overcome unfavorable landfill conditions ( 6l,
62, 63, 64, 65, 35).
EFFECTS OF LANDFILL GASES ON VEGETATION
Illuminating Gas
Included among the many decomposition gases from landfills produced during
the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter are CH. , H , NH_, HpS, CO , N , C?%
and CO (66). Mechanisms have been brought forth to show now these products are
formed from their precursor macromolecules. The literature describing the
effects of these gases on vegetation is very sparse possibly due to the lack
of concern. However, as far back as 1807, problems concerned with trees in-
jured by illuminating gas accidently leaking into the soil, may be said to
have commenced when the first public street lighting system was installed in
Pall Mall, London (67).
One may ask what illuminating gas has to do with these decomposition gases
and their effects on vegetation. Table 1 gives the composition and some repre-
sentative concentration of the constituents of illuminating gas. A quick glance
at this chart will bring forth immediately, the importance of studying the
12
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effect of illuminating gas on vegetation. The gases CH^, CO , N , C H. and
CO comprise the majority of the constituents of manufactured illuminating gas.
TABLE 1. APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGES OF SUBSTANCES COMPRISING
MANUFACTURED ILLUMINATING GAS
Substance
Composition by Volume
Ethylene (C H>)
Acetylene (C2H2^
Benzene (cgHg)
Butylene (C.Hn)
Propylene (C-H^)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ammonia (NH_)
Cyanogen compounds*
Hydrocyanic Acid* (HCN)
33%
) Less
) Than
Hydrogen (Hg)
Carbon Dioxide (C0?)
Oxygen (Og)
Nitrogen (N?)
Methane (CH.), ethane (C^Hg), propane (C-Ho)
33
1.5
1
6
12
*Most of these have been removed from manufactured gas by a process called
"scrubbing".
NOTE: This table was abstracted from bibliography reference #70.
Ethylene (CLH. ) is of special interest although it has to date rarely been
considered a limiting factor by authorities trying to establish vegetation on
completed sanitary landfills. Smith and Re stall (68) shoved that ethylene was
produced in anaerobic soil by biological activity and not by chemical action.
In a simulated anaerobic soil, when 0 concentrations fell to zero, ethylene
production increased. Total evolution was related to organic matter content
13
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and soil temperature. A temperature of 35 °C produced the maximum ethylene
evolutions.
Methane production was also reported to be optimum at 30°C and 35 °C by
Dobson and Ramswany respectively (25, 20). Smith and Harris (69) report that
under anaerobic conditions, if no losses of ethylene occur, its concentration
in soil atmosphere can reach or exceed 20 p.p.m. (0.002$) in widely differing
soil types in the United Kingdom. These concentrations are in considerable
excess of those which have been found to cause severe reductions in the exten-
sion of seminal root axes in temperate cereals (68). Barley, which was the
most sensitive of the cereals studied, suffered 50$ reduction in size after
three days exposure to 1 p.p.m. of ethylene in soil and 80$ at 10 p.p.m. The
corresponding figures for rye were 25$ and hctfo. Oat and wheat sensitivities
were between barley and rye. When C0? concentrations in the soil were varied,
little change in the cereals' response was noted.
Because of the above experiments, it is appropriate to consider ethylene
as a possible toxic component of illuminating gas. The late iSOO's and early
1900's produced much concern over escaping illuminating gas and the injury it
caused when in contact with the root system of various shade trees and orna-
mentals. The historical portion of Crocker and Knight's (71) study on carna-
tions and illuminating gas described much of the previous work done in Germany
in the late iSOO's. According to Crocker and Knight Kny was one of the first
to test the injury experimentally. He used three sound trees in the Berlin
Botanical Garden, each about twenty years old—one maple (Acer) and two lin-
dens (Tilia). Gas pipes were laid 8k cm. underneath the soil where these
trees were to be planted. On July 7 illuminating gas was passed through the
pipes beneath the maple at 12.9 cu.m./day and beneath the two lindens, 11.7
and 1.6 cu.m/day respectively. First a euonymous (E. europea) bush near the
maple died, followed by defoliation of the maple leaves on September 1. An
American elm near by showed injury also. On September 30, the first linden
began to show signs of injury, and by October 12 it had lost all its leaves.
The second linden had lost its leaves by October 19. A blue discoloration
concentrated in the stele showed up on close examination of cross sections of
the roots one-half inch in diameter or larger. The lindens both produced
foilage the following spring; however, it was bleached and very stunted. The
maple, elm, and euonymous bush showed no signs of life.
Spath and Meyer (71) passed 1 cu.m. of gas daily through wooden pots each
containing one tree. Platanus, silver poplar, American walnut and Ailanthus
were killed; maple and horse chestnut were severely injured, and a linden
showed no injury. The leaves of the injured trees were a pale green or yel-
low and most of the younger roots were dead. These investigators concluded
that trees are far less sensitive to gas injury during the winter months when
the sap is not flowing than during the growing season. The above two exper-
iments suggest that linden is more resistant to injury brought about by
illuminating gas than any other mentioned species.
Bohm (71) grew slips of water willow in water through which gas was
passed. He found that they produced only short roots and that these soon
died, as did the dormant buds. The twigs themselves remained alive for about
three months until, as he believes, the reserve food had been exhausted.
-------
In another experiment he found that soil impregnated with gas was very
poisonous to plants and for seed put to germinate in it. A draceana planted
in such soil died in ten days. Far less injury was shown when a given quan-
tity of gas was in contact with the portions of the plant above the ground
than when the same quantity came in contact with the roots by being passed
into the soil. He concluded that roots are most sensitive to gas injury.
Wehmer (71) calls attention to a severe case of gas poisoning in Hanover,
Germany. Thirteen elm trees along a street showed injuries varying with the
distance they stood from a leak in a gas pipe. In late winter a number of
them showed brown discoloration of the inner bark, and a falling-off of the
bark in very large patches extending up the trunk six feet from the ground.
No blue discolorations of the roots appeared as was reported by Kny (71) and
other observers (71).
Molisch (71) found that growth in length of roots is retarded by 0.005%
illuminating gas in soil gas atmosphere. If uninjured and decapitated roots
of corn are grown in illuminating gas, the former are remarkably bent and
retarded in their growth in length, while the latter grow almost straight and
are comparatively vigorous. Under the influence of the gas the growth in
thickness of the roots is increased with the greatest thickening occurring
where the bending is sharpest.
Shonnard (71) had exposed potted lemon trees to gas at 1.07 cu. ft./hr.
constantly for eight days when he noted exudation of sap in considerable quan-
tity from the trunk and branches, as well as chlorosis and defoliation of
leaves. He found gametophytes of certain mosses to be very resistant, suffer-
ing very little injury in high concentrations of these gases after two months
exposure. Elodea and nittella's older cells were injured to a greater extent
than the younger cells, as shown by the plasmolysis of the cells.
Richards and Mac Dougal (72) found that carbon monoxide and illuminating
gas retarded the rate of elongation of roots of Vicia faba, sunflower, wheat
and rice. Swelling also appeared in the leaf sheaths of wheat, being some-
what more pronounced with illuminating gas than with carbon monoxide. Exam-
ination of a root cross section under an appropriate microscope showed that
these increases in root diameter were largely due to the enlargement of the
cortical cells.
Stone (73) has reported proliferations of tissue at the lenticels of
willow slips growing in water which had been charged with illumination gas.
He also noted a rapid proliferation of the cambium in stems of Populus
deltoides (Quaking Aspen) under the influence of illuminating gas.
Probably one of the most extensive studies carried out to investigate the
effects of illuminating gas on vegetation was done by Harvey and Rose (7^-).
This investigation was undertaken with two objectives in mind: 1-to determine
some of the effects of illuminating gas on root systems, and 2-to determine
whether the chief causes of injury are those constituents of illuminating gas
which are readily absorbed by the water film of soil particles or those which
remain primarily in the soil interstices. Because previous work had pointed
out the "ethylene effect" on trees which were exposed to illuminating gas,
15
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Harvey and Rose (7*0 decided to test this hypothesis. They placed the bare
roots of six Vicia faba seedlings inside a large humidified glass bottle into
which they pumped illuminating gas. Then, using the same species in soil and
exposing the soil to similar concentrations of gas, they produced the same
response as observed with the bare roots. Therefore, they concluded that the
constituents of illuminating gas which are relatively insoluble in water are
responsible for the response in Vicia faba. Ethylene is included as an insol-
uble gas. This fact further stimulated Harvey et al. to move towards testing
ethylene toxicity.
Again, they used Vicia faba and exposed bare roots, as described above,
to illuminating gas. In a separate bottle, ethylene, in concentrations
corresponding to that in the illuminating gas, was passed around the roots
of the same species. From the observations made in these tests the ethylene
was considered one of the toxic agents present in illuminating gas.
The concentration of ethylene used here was 0.001% or 10 p.p.m. Barley's
growth decreased by 50% at 1 p.p.m. and rye responded to the same concentra-
tions by a 25% decrease (69). In all these cases, the root response to gas
exposure was a bending and swelling of the root at this bend.
When the roots of radish, mustard, and tomato seedlings were exposed in
a moist-air chamber to illuminating gas for 2k, k&, and 72 hours respectively,
the responses of the tomato differed from that of the radish and mustard
seedlings(7*0. While the roots of the mustard and radish showed obvious
signs of bending and swelling very similar to Vicia faba, the tomato roots
grew as straight as normal seedlings' roots. However, swelling of the
hypocotyl was evident and was found to be the result of an enlargement of
the cortex and phellogen. Close examination of the stele showed no structural
differences from that of a control tomato plant. The experiments with
ethylene on tomato again gave some evidence that the toxic effect recorded
for illuminating gas is due to the ethylene constituents of that gas.
When Catalpa speciosa seedlings were exposed for eight days to illumi-
nating gas piped through the soil at concentrations of 0.05, 0.5> 2.5 and 5%,
stems and leaves showed no modifications (7*0- However, at 2.5 and 5% the
roots showed very obvious swelling. When the same species were exposed to
ethylene concentrations of 0.002, 0.02, 0.1, and 0.2% which is comparable to
the amount of ethylene contained in the illuminating gas used above, the re-
sponse shown by the 0.1 and 0.2$ ethylene was like that shown by 2.5 and 5%
illuminating gas. This gave further evidence to the expanding theory that
ethylene toxicity is responsible for the response of the root systems to the
illuminating gas. This also showed that larger quantities of illuminating
gas and ethylene are needed in soil to produce the same response by roots
exposed to corresponding quantities of gas with no soil. Possibly the soil
is acting as a buffer and is either absorbing or utilizing the ethylene.
When Catalpa seedlings were exposed for twenty-one days to illuminating
gas concentrations of 25% (1% ethylene) a swelling of the main root appeared
(6). The increase was 2-3 times that of the normal thickness. The epidermis
was often cracked and sloughed off in places. Such cracks provide root rot-
ting fungi and bacteria a mode of easy entry into the root. Very serious
16
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stunting and even death can result from root rot infections especially when
attack is promoted against young seedlings (75).
Ailanthus altissima seedlings were exposed by Harvey and Rose (7k) for
fifteen days to illuminating gas concentrations of 0.25 and 10$. The 0.25$
treatment gave slight swelling of the roots 3-*+ cm below the surface, while
the 10$ treatment produced leaf drop beginning five days after the gassing
commenced. By the end of the experiment, all leaves had fallen. When ethylene
was used instead of illuminating gas, in concentrations corresponding to the
amount of ethylene present in the illuminating gas in the above experiment,
very similar responses were observed. The lower ethylene concentration(0.01$)
produced negligible swelling while the higher concentration (0.*4-$) produced
swollen top roots and leaf drop, eight days after the gassing started. Through
the examination of cross sections of the control plants and gassed plants, it
became evident that the stelar region had remained unchanged, while the cortex,
extending into the phellogen layer, had increased in thickness, partly through
the increase in cell diameter and partly through cell division. This same
phenomenon was seen in the gassed tomato and the Vicia faba plants (7*0-
A number of tests were carried out with Gleditsia (Locust) seedlings
. Illuminating gas in concentrations up to 33% were used to fumigate the
roots. These high concentrations gave leaf drop, but no definite injuries
were detected in the root system.
Briefly looking back on the above work brings out an interesting trend
in the pattern of damage produced by varying the concentrations of illuminating
gas and ethylene gas in the soil. At low concentrations, such as with the
radish and mustard experiment and the Vicia faba plants, the response seems to
be primarily a swelling of the roots. However, when higher concentrations are
provided to the root systems, the response seen in the root system is cracking
and sloughing off of the epidermis in Catalpa. Ailanthus and Gleditsia
responded to higher concentrations by dropping their leaves.
Harvey and Rose (7*0 summarize the work carried out by Kosaroff, whose
experiments found that the symptoms manifested in the aerial parts of plants
due to illuminating gas being passed through the soil were similar to those
seen where the plants were exposed to droughty conditions. He further states
that injury is not necessarily due to conduction of toxic substances into the
leaves; however, this possibility is not to be overlooked. In experiments
conducted to determine the effect various transpiration rates had on the
plants' response to gas exposure, Kosaroff found that greater evapotranspira-
tion rates produced gas type injury sooner than did lesser rates of evapo-
transpiration.
A final experiment was conducted by Harvey and Rose (7*0 with an
Ailanthus tree having an 8 cm diameter and a 3-5 meter height. They used
many surrounding Ailanthus trees as controls. By placing a glass tube 0.7
meters into the soil and 0.6 meters from the tree, they passed illuminating
gas to the roots of this Ailanthus tree. The gas was supplied at a relatively
constant rate starting on July 3. The first symptoms of injury were manifested
on July Ik. The leaves of some of the young shoots growing on the side of the
tree where the gas entered the soil, showed signs of wilting. Three days later
17
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these leaves and others shriveled and died,-but remained attached to the
branches. In the middle of September, the leaves which were apparently un-
affected initially, began to shrivel and fall. This tree had lost all its
leaves much sooner than the nearby controls. In our field work we have ob-
served black cherry (Prunus serotinia) and black oak (Qjaercus velutina), ap-
parently killed by landfill decomposition gases, whose leaves had shriveled
and still remained hanging on the branches.
In the early 1900's quite a number of articles were written, which re-
ported and described illuminating gas kill of vegetation. Two of the more in
depth set of observations were made by members of the Massachusetts Agriculture
Experiment Station in 190? and 1913- In both cases observations were made on a
number of trees over an extended period of time beginning with the time of
first known gas exposure. Some of their results are discussed below.
Stone (75) reports that the poisonous properties of illuminating gas are
largely confined to the numerous products which are absorbed by the soil
moisture in small quantities, taken up through the roots and translocated
through the tissue. This is in conflict with Harvey and Rose (7^4) who carried
out a controlled experiment showing quite conclusively that the gases present
in the interstitial spaces in the soil were responsible for the toxic effect
of the gas on vegetation. Stone gives no data for his statement. Stone fur-
ther states that these substances are to be found in the tissue; however, the
response differs between species and even with different parts of the plant.
An anonymous report (66) by the Massachusetts Agriculture Experimental
Station describes gas injury in two classes: first incipient cases, then
pronounced cases. During observation of the incipient cases the bark has
been seen peeling off in very large strips, up to 6 feet long in American elm
(66) and 2.5 feet long in quaking aspen (Populus deltoides) (73). The bark
on the sides of these cracks was bulged out considerably and on closer exam-
ination it was shown that a thick layer of soft parenchymous tissue extended
into the wood for a considerable distance. This abnormal tissue was formed
outside of the cambium from which it seemed to have been derived. Remember
that Harvey and Rose (7U) observed A. altissima leaves turning yellow first,
then dropping off. The leaves farthest from the source of water, i.e. those
at the top of the tree and the ends of the branches, have been observed to be
the first leaves to show signs of injury. These are the leaves which charac-
teristically will be the first to show signs of water deficiency. It is the
work by Harvey and Rose (7^) and others (67) which leads to the belief that
root damage at least plays a small role in the yellowing of the leaves farthest
from the roots and water supply.
Following the initial injury to the foliage are characteristic changes in
the wood and bark of the tree as was briefly mentioned above. The first
symptoms appear as a drying of the cambium and other tissues outside the wood
or xylem. Later these tissues (cambium,phloem,and cortex) turn brown and
disintegration follows. These abnormal conditions first take place in the
roots, but Stone states that later, as translocation proceeds, the poisonous
constituents may be detected in the wood in the above-ground parts. A charac-
teristic odor can be detected in a cut section of the trunk after the roots
have been exposed to gas (66). Following disintegration of the phloem, cortex,
18
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and cambium there is a change in the physical properties of the bark, causing
it to dry out and crack open, exposing the underlying tissues (66, 73). This
may soon be followed by fungal and bacterial invasion. Species of fungi in
the genera Polystictus and Schizospyllum have been isolated as well as the
bacterium Penicillium. A complicated process of wood decay follows which soon
makes the wood unsalvageable even for firewood (75).
Stone (73) makes a final statement concerning the symptoms observed follow-
ing gas exposure of the roots. He states, "All the conditions refer merely to
the way in which a tree succumbs to gas poisoning, and do not necessarily
constitute reliable symptoms of this type of injury, as these symptoms may be
found in trees dying from other causes. The tissue furnishes the most reliable
symptoms for diagnosis."
Stone (73) has carried out a study, to observe the effect of illuminating
gas upon vegetation when provided to the above ground parts. He observed that
Kenilworth ivy, papyrus, tobacco, tomato and others were damaged, while ferns,
mosses and liverwort were hardly affected. He suggests that because the latter
group have evolved in time much earlier than the former, that they are tolerant
to a wider range of gas exposure. If this holds true, species such as palm
and ginkgo tree would be more tolerant to illuminating gas exposure to above
ground portions than modern deciduous and conifers, e.g. black cherry, red oak,
white spruce, etc.
In the spring and summer of 193^ Deuber (67) carried out an experiment
with the purpose of recording the influence of various rates of flow and
quantities of a typical manufactured gas on the growth of three-year old
American elms (Ulmus americana). These trees were growing in clay pots and
were transplanted just before gas exposure to pots containing one liter of
soil. Unlike the work described up to this point, this manufactured gas con-
tained no ethylene. Table 2 contains an analysis of the gas used. In addition
to the gassed trees, controls were transplanted and handled in a similar
manner.
TABLE 2. ANALYSIS OF COKE OVEN GAS SUPPLIED BY
NEW HAVEN GASLIGHT COMPANY
Substances
Carbon Dioxide (C0?)
Illuminants
Oxygen (02)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Hydrogen (H )
°lo Composition by Volume
1.70
3.00
0.20
8.70
51.00
(continued)
19
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TABLE 2. (continued)
Substances _ % Composition by Volume
Methane (CH) 25-90
Nitrogen (N2) 10.0
Naphthalene (C1C)Hg) 3-5
Sulphur (S) trace
Hydrocyanic Acid (HCN)
NOTE: Obtained from reference #67.
He exposed ten elm trees to various gas flow rates and various quantities
of total gas supplied. The earliest symptoms observed were chlorosis of the
leaves and defoliation. Chlorosis generally involved the leaf margins first
and sometimes proceeded no further. Usually the lower-most leaves on the main
stem or larger branches became chlorotic and abscised before the younger upper
leaves. This is in direct conflict to the pattern seen when trees were gassed
with illuminating gas containing ethylene (?U). The trees receiving the high-
est quantities of gas in the shortest period of time became defoliated within
five days. However, both trees produced an enormous amount of new shoots with-
in a month. The condition of these new shoots was unreported at this time.
The trees supplied with lesser amounts of gas gave a variety of responses
ranging from gradual defoliation over a three month period to slight chlorosis.
The tree in soil through which 7 cu. ft. of gas had been passed continued to be
normal in appearance except for a slight chlorosis at the bases of three leaves.
The following spring, these trees exhibited normal growth of tops and roots.
Deuber (67) has discussed in this same paper his personal observation of trees
apparently injured by root exposure to illuminating gas leaks. He states,
"Rapid killing of a shade tree within a few days or a few weeks has been seen
occasionally, but the more numerous cases are those in which chlorosis of the
foliage on a portion of the tree and partial defoliation is subsequently
followed by the drying out and death of uppermost twigs, and the drying of
some branches and not others."
Other experiments carried out by Deuber in which woody plants were sub-
jected to a "mixed illuminating" gas and, in some instances, to ethylene, led
him to describe three classes of plant physiological responses to this illu-
minating gas. The first response is stimulation, such as accelerated devel-
opment of latent buds and proliferation of root parenchyma. The second class
of responses is injury, such as inhibition of bud development and dwarfing of
leaves. The third response is killing effects, ranging from partial to com-
plete defoliation. The type and degree of the physiological response of
small elm trees varied with time of exposure (season) and with the part of
20
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the plant exposed to the gas i.e. roots or leaves.
Deuber (67) worked with ethylene in concentrations of 1% to 5$ in air
held about the bases of rooted cuttings of privet or small oak trees and
observed chlorosis, defoliation, and drying out of the leaves on the top of
the plants. He has concluded from this and his above experiment with illumi-
nating gas that "ethylene or gaseous ingredients of similar physiological
action on plants can explain the symptoms observed when relatively large
volumes of the coke oven gas employed in this investigation are passed into
the soil in which small elm trees are growing".
SUMMARY
The deleterious effects of illuminating gas on many species of plants have
been observed, demonstrated, and reported frequently since the early nineteen
hundreds. A few species have also been reported to be relatively tolerant to
the presence of illuminating gas in their root zone. Tables 3 and h list these
tolerant and sensitive species as reported in the literature.
TABLE 3. PLANT SPECIES RELATIVELY TOLERANT TO ILLUMINATING
GAS AS REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE
Common Name Genus-Species
Birch (71) Betula
American Linden (71) Tilia americana
Rough Fruited Maple (71) Acer sp.
Norway Maple (76) Acer platenoides
Privet (67) Ligustrum
Mosses (70)
Ferns (70)
Liverworts (70)
Locust seedlings (7!+) Gleditsia _sp_
21
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TABLE 4. PLANT SPECIES RELATIVELY SENSITIVE TO ILLUMINATING
GAS AS REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE
Common Name
Genus-Species
Sycamore (71)
Silver poplar (71)
American Walnut (71)
Tree of Heaven (71)
American Elm (70, 71)
Dracaena (71)
Horsechestnut (71)
Alder (70)
Apple (70)
Ash (70)
Boxelder (70)
Catalpa (70, 67)
American Linden (70, 67)
Pear (70)
Poplar (70)
Euonymous (71)
Willow (67)
Cherry (67)
Silver Bell (67)
Red Oak (67)
Black Oak (67)
Bermuda grass
Fuchsia (71)
Salvia (71)
Flatanus
Populus
Juglans _sp_
Ailanthus altissima
Ulmus americana
Dracaena
Aesculus hippocastanum
Alnus
Malus
Fraxinus
Acer negunda
Catalpa bignonioides
Tilia americana
Fopulus
Euonymous europea
Salix
Prunus
Halisia caroliniana
Quercus rubra
Quercus velutina
Cyndon dactylon
Fuchsia
Salvia splendens
22
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In most of the studies where gas was injected into the root zone the
leaves dried. Trees growing in the vicinity of illuminating gas line leaks
have exhibited similar symptoms as well as bark-peeling and tissue-staining.
Ethylene has been demonstrated to be one of the prime factors involved in the
toxic effect of illuminating gas on vegetation in very minute quantities.
Effect of Carbon Dioxide on Plant Growth
Since carbon dioxide can be produced in the refuse and in the soil
saturated with methane an investigation into what effects this could have on
plant growth is in order.
In our field survey concentrations of carbon dioxide in the soil ranged
from less than 1% to 3^$> of the soil atmosphere. A large percentage of these
readings were in the 5$ to 15$ range (77). Normal soil carbon dioxide usually
ranges from 0.04$ to 2$ (17); therefore, the levels recorded in the survey
are excessive.
In 191^ H. A. Noyes saturated the soil around tomatoes and corn plants
with carbon dioxide. Both species died in two weeks but there was no irre-
versible damage to the soil (l6). Ruben and Kama in 19^0 demonstrated the up-
take and fixation of carbon dioxide by barley roots. They used a radioisotope
tracer to show this but were unable to isolate the products of fixation in the
plant (78). This was done in 1953 by Poel who identified the products of
fixation as citric, aspartic and glutamic acids, serine, asparagine, glutamine,
tryosine and alpha-keto-glutaric acid (79)- Stolwijk and Thimann in 1957 found
that the products of carbon dioxide fixation in the roots of pea seedlings were
transported to the shoots. They also found that concentrations of 0.5$ carbon
dioxide stimulated root growth but 1$ carbon dioxide inhibited root growth (80).
Geisler found that exposing pea seedlings to 5 to 250 milligrams of CO per
liter in a hydroponic solution stimulated root growth (8l). The stimulation
noted was in root elongation; the roots were thinner and an increase in the
rate of lateral root initiation was also noted. This stimulatory effect of
low levels of carbon dioxide were attributed to the ability of the roots to
use it as a carbon source. In light of more recent developments it seems
more likely that the carbon dioxide is competing with ethylene for a receptor
site. This competition results in a more pronounced auxin response. In-
creased cell elongation would be characteristic of this hormonal imbalance (82).
There has been a lot of work done on establishing tolerance in various
species to excess carbon dioxide in the root zone. A good deal of variation
in tolerance between species has been found. Cotton seedlings grown in
hydroponic solutions were able to exhibit optimum growth with 10$ carbon
dioxide present, provided at least 7.5% oxygen was also present. Thirty to
forty-five percent carbon dioxide was found to severely reduce root growth
(17). Red and black raspberries were killed when their roots were exposed to
1C$ carbon dioxide. The root growth in the species, Pisum sativum, Vicia fab a
and Phasedus vulgaris, was completely inhibited by 5- 5% carbon dioxide (I&)~.
The ability of carbon dioxide to disrupt the normal function of root cells
was investigated by Norris, Weigand and Johanson in 1959. Excised onion root
tips were exposed to an atmosphere of 90$ oxygen and 10$ carbon dioxide. The
23
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rate of respiration was halved and when the same tissue was flushed with pure
oxygen the rate continued to halve. This was attributed by the authors to be
due to permanent damage to the cells caused by dissolved carbon dioxide low-
ering the pH (19).
Effect of Low Oxygen on Plant Growth
Low concentrations of oxygen have been reported in the soil near natural
gas leaks (13). A similar situation has been found both on and adjacent to
sanitary landfills. In this study oxygen concentrations in the soil on land-
fills were found to range from 1% to 20$ of the soil atmosphere (77).
In 19^5 > Chang and Loomis conducted a general survey of the literature
and concluded that plants would survive concentrations of oxygen in the root
zone of one to two percent. They also concluded that most plants should
function normally at oxygen concentrations ranging from five to ten percent
(83). There is, of course, a good deal of variability between the different
species in their tolerance to low oxygen concentrations in the root zone.
Orange tree roots stopped growing when oxygen levels were between 1.2$ and
5$ and were retarded at concentrations of 5$ to 8$ at 28°C (84). Apple trees
were found to require 10$ oxygen for good growth to occur but they could
survive concentrations as low as 0.1$ (85). Ten percent oxygen was found to
inhibit the growth of both red and black raspberries (18).
Higher temperatures were found to increase the need for oxygen in growing
roots (18). A dense soil will also increase the need for oxygen at the growing
root tip. This is believed to be due to the extra work that has to be done by
the root tips as they push their way through the soil (86).
Sustained low oxygen concentrations in the soil have been found to result
in mineral deficiency symptoms in the plant. Potassium is usually the first to
occur and it is followed in order of appearance by nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium and magnesium (87, 88).
EFFECTS OF LANDFILL GASES ON SOIL QUALITY
In investigations of the effects of natural gas (methane) leaks on phy-
sical properties of soils, several investigators (89, 13, 90, 15, 91) reported
increases in pH, organic matter, available phosphorus, calcium, potassium,
iron, manganese, nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, and moisture content in
areas around the gas leaks as compared with normal soil away from the leaks.
In some cases the fertility of the soil was increased by leaking gas to the
point that crops such as wheat and oats grew better on the gassed soils than
on normal soils (90). The fact that the ratio of organic matter to nitrogen
was generally lower in the gassed soil led to the conclusion that the soil
alterations were probably due to the activity of micro-organisms under anaer-
obic conditions.
The reason for the observed increases in concentrations of nitrogen
compounds and trace elements in gassed soils undoubtedly lies in the low
redox potential of these soils, as has been documented for similar responses
24
-------
of soil to flooding conditions (92, 93, 9*0. When oxygen disappears from the
soil, requirements of anaerobic soil microorganisms for a source of oxygen
results in the reduction of several oxidized compounds namely nitrate, nitrite,
and the higher oxides of manganese, and iron. These reduced forms are gener-
ally more soluble and hence are made available to plants. Availability of
other trace metals occurs as they are displaced by ferrous ions from the ex-
change complex to the soil solution.
The trend to neutrality in pH is probably caused by the buffering effect
of organic acids released by the microbial breakdown of organic matter.
The consequences of these soil changes in landfills have yet to be evalu-
ated. At this time it is considered that these soil conditions contribute to
the damage done to vegetation, although to a lesser degree than does the
presence of landfill gas. However, the presence of ammonia-nitrogen or of
trace elements in toxic concentrations might hasten the death of vegetation
already debilitated by the presence of toxic gases and/or the lack of oxygen
in the root atmosphere.
25
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SECTION V
NATIONAL SURVEY OF PROBLEM
MAIL SURVEY OF VEGETATION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH REFUSE LANDFILLS
Procedure
The investigation to determine the geographic extent of problems asso-
ciated -with growing vegetation on completed landfills was conducted in two
stages, the first of which was a mail survey for the purpose of obtaining
preliminary information on the location of and the vegetative condition of
former sanitary landfills which have been converted to parks, playgrounds,
golf courses or other types of recreational areas.
On the basis of information obtained through the mail survey, specific
landfills were selected for site visits, so that the nine climatological
regions of the United States and territories (Figure 1) proposed by Trewartha
in his textbook entitled An Introduction to Climate were covered.
Approximately 1,000 letters were sent to people and publications through-
out the United States explaining that we were undertaking a survey to determine
the extent of problems associated with growing vegetation adjacent to, and on
top of completed solid waste refuse landfills.
Appendix A is a copy of the basic letter sent to most of these people.
A total of seven differently worded letters was sent. However, a majority
of the people receiving the letters of inquiry received the basic letter.
Most of the other six letters contained only slight modifications of the
letter in Appendix A. The modifications were made to accommodate the differ-
ent audiences. The letter in Appendix A was reproduced by the Itek system.
The address and salutation for each letter recipient were individually typed
and each closing signature was individually written. In cases where the
letter sender, Franklin B. Flower, personally knew the recipients of the
letter, an additional personal postscript was added to the letter to encourage
their response.
A questionnaire (Appendix B) and a stamped, self-addressed envelope
were enclosed with each letter. The questionnaire requested the names and
addresses of landfills which have had problems growing vegetation above them
or adjacent to them and the names and addresses of landfills which have been
successful in growing grass, shrubs, trees or other vegetation. Comments on
the effects of buried refuse on living surface vegetation were also sought.
The enclosed self addressed, stamped envelope enabled the recipient to easily
return the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed so that it would
26
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Oceanic]
.- , ..0%
BS } ' v
/ \( Highland)'
/
"T"—V—•• — ..^..J1
• NORTHJPAKOTA J *'«•".
DC I j (MINNESOTA ->.«.u,.^ .
, I IDCB (Temperate Contlnenl^l-Cooisuianers)
iSteppe or j
' Semi- Arid),
'"SOJT'HK^T;^^*'
n *». '•»**-
DCB V.
'.IOWA
BH
(Desert\/
v or
• KANSAS
.;' Vo-AToH^^ \ DCA y
\ (Temperati Continental '. :l..^-^!5>o"/f^V
V-——*••—V ,. , „ I \l J V^&>*. \\ \al\
v MISSOUHI • • Hot 3u^imern)i .-^ VA" j u
-------
take a minimum amount of effort to complete but would supply information which
would enable us to locate those refuse landfills which showed the best and
poorest vegetation growth associated with them. We included a notation that
could be check-marked to indicate that the person completing the questionnaire
would like to obtain a summary report of the results of the completed study.
It was felt that this would encourage the recipient to complete and return
the questionnaire.
Appendix C lists the sources from which we obtained the addresses of the
recipients of the questionnaires and the number of questionnaires sent to
each of these groups. The State Soil Conservation Service Office, the Director
of the Cooperative Extension Service, and the Solid Waste Management Office in
every state and territory received this written request for information. The
thirty-three publications with which we communicated were the major publica-
tions of the solid waste management field. Mailing of the questionnaires to
people on the various registration and membership lists was done on a selec-
tive basis. The 130 mailings listed under "other" included consultants;
landfill operators; directors of county, city and municipal solid waste man-
agement programs; educators; etc. The names and addresses of many of these
"other" people were obtained from the replies received from earlier mailings.
The State Soil Conservation offices in Alabama, Iowa, and Texas made
copies of our letter and questionnaire which they forwarded to their regional
(county) offices. After assembling the data, they returned to us either the
individual replies or a compilation of the replies. At the request of the
individual State Soil Conservation Service offices, we sent questionnaires to
each regional office in New Jersey and to twelve of New York State's regional
offices.
Results
Approximately 500 replies were received from the survey in addition to
the 40 returned by the Post Office as undeliverable. Of these, 115 indicated
they had no knowledge of the situation. The balance of the replies contained
information on approximately 500 refuse landfill sites.
The results are summarized in Table 5 according to the major climatic
zones as outlined in Figure 1, which follows the climate types presented in
An Introduction to Climate by Glen T. Trewartha, hth edition, 1968.
Adding the number of sites reported in Table 5 with no problems growing
vegetation to those reporting growing problems on and/or adjacent to the land-
fill gives a total of 5M*, or 37 more than the total number of sites reported.
This apparent inconsistency is due to two or more conditions being reported
to exist concurrently at some landfills.
The mail survey results indicate that of the sites reporting:
76$ were growing vegetation without problems;
25$ had problems growing vegetation on the soil cover;
28
-------
7$ were experiencing difficulty in growing vegetation adjacent to the
landfill;
17$ were successfully growing trees on the landfill;
63$ grew grass successfully on the landfill;
12$ grew shrubs successfully on the landfill.
No significant difference was noted in the degree of problems reported
from landfills located in the different meterological zones (Table 6). Six-
teen or more reports were received from each of the five climatic zones. Of
these, the percent of sites reporting no growing problems ranged from 72% to
77$ and the percent reporting some kind of vegetative growth problem varied
from 30$ to U8$ of the total number of sites reporting. Table 7 summarizes
the results by states.
Thirty-eight replies commented on the possible causes of vegetation
growth problems on refuse landfills and what should be done about them. The
most frequently reported suggestions and the percent of people reporting each
suggestion were:
ij-7$ - Use or develop a good quality soil and good cultivation practices;
32$ - Landfill gases inhibit vegetation growth;
32$ - Use more than two feet of cover for good vegetation growth;
26$ - Grow grass or other shallow-rooted crop;
13$ - Vent or block landfill gases to keep them away from the root zone
of vegetation;
11$ - Consider adaptable species;
11$ - Leachate causes vegetation growth problems;
11$ - Well-compacted refuse will enhance vegetation growth;
11$ - Good surface drainage enhances vegetation growth.
While the major reason reported for poor vegetation growth was the lack
of good soil and/or poor cultivation practices, a high percentage of those
reporting did give the presence of landfill gases as a major cause of this
poor growth. Others suggested various methods for keeping the gases away
from the root zone of vegetation as an aid to better growth.
Although we have been able to produce very nice tables from the data
obtained from the mail survey, the degree of accuracy of this data is suspect.
In the section of this report which gives the results of the field visits
29
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TABLE 5. LANDFILL VEGETATION GROWTH RESULTS BY CLIMATIC ZONE
AS REPORTED IN MAIL SURVEY
Major Climate
Zone
Symbol
Cf
Deb
Dca
BS
Cs
Bw
Do
H
Aw
Ar
A
Name
Subtropical
Humid
Temperate
Continental
Cool Summers
Temperate
Continental
Hot Summers
Steepe or
Semi-Arid
Subtropical
Dry Summer
Desert or Arid
Temperate Oceanic
Highland
Tropical
Wet and Dry
Tropical Wet
Tropical (Hawaii)
TOTAL
Total Number
With
No Problems
83
25
223
13
18
2
8
6
..
__
6
38U
Growing
arass
70
16
192
8
13
1
7
6
„
. _
6
319
Shrubs
8
2
36
12
_ _
—
__
..
__
1+
62
Trees
2k
5
Ul
1
12
— .
3
__
..
— _
2
88
Other
10
2
22
1
__
__
„
—
35
Vegetation
Growing Problem
Adjacent to
Landfill
3
2
2k
2
2
__
—
..
—
33
On Covered
Landfill
32
8
63
6
10
2
1
..
1
4
127
Total #
Sites
Reported
112
33
291
18
25
2
9
6
0
1
10
507
-------
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF VEGETATION GROWTH PROBLEMS BY CLIMATIC ZONES
Major Climate
Zone
Symbol
Cf
Deb
Dca
BS
Ca
Name
Subtropical
Humid
Temperate
Continental
Cool Summers
Temperate
Continental
Hot Summers
Steppe or
Semi-Arid
Subtropical
Dry Summer
Number
Stations
Reporting
112
33
291
18
25
Percent -
No Growing
Problems
7^
76
77
72
72
Percent -
Problems Growing
Veg. on Landfill
29
24
22
33
ko
Percent -
Problems Growing Veg.
Adjacent to Landfill
3
6
8
11
8
-------
TABLE 7. RESULTS OF MAIL SURVEY BY STATES AND TERRITORIES
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Col.
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
No.
Problems
17
0
6
7
20
0
8
11
3
7
1
6
5
5
12
1*6
0
9
1
0
16
Problem
Adj.
0
0
2
2
2
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
Problems
On
1U
0
2
5
11
0
2
0
1
1
0
u
0
2
0
5
0
0
0
0
h
Total No.
Sites Reporting
31
No Ld.Fls. Reptd.
9
12
28
No Ld.Fls. Reptd.
10
11
3
8
1
10
5
7
12
51 (might be
some overlap)
0
9
1
No Ld.Fls. Reptd.
20
(continued)
32
-------
TABLE 7. (continued)
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
No.
Problems
7
7
4
0
2
3
1
0
h
30
2
27
12
5
12
5
8
11
0
2
13
0
Problem
Adj.
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
3
1
0
Problems
On
3
0
1
6
0
2
0
0
1
11
1
15
1
0
11
2
1
5
1
2
1
0
Total No.
Sites Reporting
11
9
5
6
2
3
1
No Ld.Fls. Reptd.
5
^5
3
41
13
5
22
5
8
16
1
7
15
0
( continued)
33
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TABLE 7. (continued)
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
GRAND TOTAL
No.
Problems
h
19
2
2
13
l
2
6
0
38k
Problem
Adj.
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
33
Problems
On
0
3
1
0
6
1
0
1
0
127
Total No.
Sites Reporting
U
19
2
2
19
2
2
6
No Ld. Fls. Reptd.
507
NOTE: Some landfills are listed in more than one category
-------
and examinations, we have compared the information received by mail and what
was found in the field. This comparison indicates that one-third of the
reports received by mail may have been inaccurate.
SITE SURVEY OF VEGETATION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH REFUSE LANDFILLS
Introduction
From the completed questionnaires received in response to the mail survey,
landfill sites were selected which showed the best and the poorest vegetation
growth associated with refuse landfills in the following nine climatic areas
(Figure 1):
(1) Ar - Tropical wet.
(2) BS - Steppe or semi-arid.
(3) Bw - Desert or arid.
(k] Gf - Subtropical humid
(5) Cs - Subtropical dry summer.
(6) Dca - Temperate continental-warm summers.
(7) Deb - Temperate continental-cool summers.
(8) Do - Temperate oceanic.
(9) H - Highland.
Procedures
Before planning the site visits, an inventory was made of all the equip-
ment required for making the landfill vegetation and soil studies (Appendix D).
The following field procedure was designed to insure the maximum possible
data from each landfill site visited. Field data were recorded on field
inspection report forms (Appendices E and F).
1. After arriving at the site, preferably one involving the growth of
trees and/or agricultural crops, with field equipment (Appendix D) communicate
with the official contacts and make friends.
a. Obtain a history of the site and the vegetation growth from the
local officials. Find out what materials went into the landfill, how
well they were compacted, how deep is the refuse, when it was put in the
landfill; thickness and type of daily, intermediate and final cover, etc.
Find out when vegetation was planted and how well it is growing.
b. Record names, addresses, and telephone numbers of all contact
persons. Record physical and mailing addresses of the site.
2. Make or obtain a rough map of the site noting areas of poor and good
vegetation growth.
3. Establish reference points to and from which compass bearings can be
taken and distance measurements can be made so that an accurate map can be
made and the good and poor vegetation growth areas can be located accurately
35
-------
in relation to the completed fill. This map should include the location of the
completed landfill, vegetation, buildings, and where pictures were taken.
k. Take distance measurements and compass directions to reference points
from the centers of the poor vegetation growth areas or from a specific loca-
tion within the poor vegetation growth area.
5. When the poor vegetation growth areas are located, place or locate a
reference marker in this area. Locate it at the center of the poor growth or
at the spot previously located in number h. All sampling points in the poor
vegetation growth area should be taken in relation to the reference marker.
6. Repeat number k and number 5 for a comparable good vegetation growth
area where the same species of crop is being grown as in the poor growth area.
7. Starting at the reference marker and moving out in as many directions
as possible, take combustible gas readings at the 3' depth in the poor and
good vegetation growth areas. The spacing and number of the sampling points
will be determined by the size of the poor growth area and the amount of time
available.
8. At intermediate sampling points in both areas take combustible gas
samples at 1', 2', and 3' depths. Sample for 0 and CO at the I1 depth.
Where possible, intermediate sampling sites should be located in the vicinity
of sampling sites that were previously found to contain high concentrations of
combustible gas at the 3' depth.
9. Take soil samples according to soil sampling procedure (Appendix G).
10. Identify species of the good and poor growth vegetation and the poss-
ible causes of poor growth.
11. Photograph the site including good and bad vegetation sampling loca-
tions. Record locations of photographs. Include vistas and close-ups of
individual plants and/or leaves showing injury.
12. Sample and analyze any visible leachate which is in a vegetation
growing area. Follow leachate sampling and analysis procedures (Appendix H).
13. Give contact people a general oral presentation of your observations
and test results. If they request it, send them a copy of the report at a
later date.
Ik. Record the following temperatures and their locations.
a. On landfill
1. Soil at 3' depth in area of poor vegetation growth and a
high concentration of landfill decomposition gases.
2. Soil at 3' depth in area of good vegetation growth.
36
-------
b. Off landfill
1. At 3' depth in an area not influenced by landfill.
2. Soil at 3' depth in area of poor vegetation growth.
c. Ambient air in the shade.
15. Determine depth of cover over landfill refuse in areas of poor and
good vegetation cover.
l6. Note: Report data on "Landfill Vegetation Field Inspection Form"
(Appendix E) and "Gas Sample Analysis Form" (Appendix F).
Evaluation of Landfills Surveyed
Introduction
During 1975, 1976, and 1977 over fifty landfills and former landfills
were visited throughout the United States and Puerto Rico (Figure 2) for the
purpose of evaluating the quality of vegetation growth on or adjacent to the
former landfill.
The sites visited were chosen from the replies received from the mail
survey supplemented by information obtained via telephone conversations. A
half-dozen additional "landfills" were visited, but for various reasons they
are not included in this report - in some cases they turned out not to be
true refuse landfills and sometimes we were not able to obtain enough infor-
mation to present reliable data.
The reports on the field trips are grouped by major climatic zones.
These are arranged in alphabetical order according to their letter symbols.
The detailed data are contained in Appendix I.
Landfills Surveyed According to Meteorological Regions
Ar - Tropical wet climate (Puerto Rico, 3/21-2V77)—The following three
sanitary landfills were investigated in Puerto Rico between March 21 and
March 2k, 1977:
3/22/77 - San Juan Sanitary Landfill
Route #1, 7 miles south of San Juan.
3/23/77 - Bayamon Sanitary Landfill
Barrio Buena Vista, k^ miles SSE Bayamon along
Route #167.
3/23/77 - Cayey Sanitary Landfill
3 miles east of Cayey off Route #1.
All of these landfills receive municipal and light industrial refuse.
Bayamon was closed in 197** by a court order whereas San Juan and Cayey are
still operating. No attempts to vegetate any of these landfills was under-
37
-------
uo
oo
CLEARTY1PE
STATE OUTLINE
UNITED STATES
Number wxthin
ndicates the number
of landfills inspected
in that area.
HAP Ml IH
n. MC
Puerto Rico
Figure 2. Location of landfills evaluated for quality of vegetation growth*
-------
taken; however, volunteer plants were scattered about the surface of San Juan
and Bayamon.
On the San Juan landfill combustible gas was found to be higher in the
areas where vegetation died than in areas which supported healthy vegetation.
The root zone beneath a severely defoliated legume tree adjacent to Bayamon
landfill contained higher combustible gas concentrations than a nearby healthy
tree. No vegetation was growing on the Cayey landfill, and there were no signs
of lateral gas migration.
In summary, combustible gas concentrations in the soil atmospheres related
positively to dead and unhealthy vegetation.
BS - Steppe or semiarid climate (Utah and Montana, 8/30-9/3/76)--Four
former landfills were examined in northern Utah and western Montana:
8/30/76 - Pioneer-Cannon Stakes Dairy, Salt Lake City, UT.
8/31/76 - Timpanogos Golf Course, Provo, UT.
8/31/76 - South Street Sanitary Landfill, Provo, UT.
9/03/76 - Great Falls Sanitary Landfill, Great Falls, MT.
All of these sites were planted with vegetation. However, only a minor
part of Timpanogos Golf Course was constructed over a former landfill, and
the Russian olive trees planted at the South Street Sanitary Landfill were
actually adjacent to the former landfill. Correlations between high combus-
tible gas and poor vegetation quality were noted at Great Falls and to a
lesser extent at Pioneer-Cannon Stakes Dairy. The row of olive trees at the
South Street Sanitary Landfill were planted on a berm, adjacent to the land-
fill, to which no combustible gas had migrated.
BW - Desert or arid climate (Phoenix-Glendale, Arizona, 1/17-1/20/77)--
Five former landfills were examined in the Phoenix and Glendale region of
Arizona:
1/18/77 - Del-Rio Sanitary Landfill, 7th St., Phoenix (A)
1/18/77 - Deer Valley Park, 19th Ave., Phoenix (B)
1/19/77 - Johnson's Farm, Olive Avenue & 98th Avenue, Maricopa Co. (C)
1/19/77 - Glendale Nursing Home, Olive and 107th Avenues, Maricopa Co.(D)
1/20/77 - Button's Farm, Northern Ave. and 103rd Ave., Maricopa Co. (E)
Combustible gas concentrations were generally low in the soil covering
the refuse of these five landfills. No relation between combustible gas
concentrations and vegetation quality were found at sites A, B and D and a
very small negative relation (the more gas the poorer the vegetation) were
found at sites C and E. The major problems with growing vegetation on these
39
-------
five sites appear to be a combination of rocky soil, lack of water, surface
settlement, and transplanting difficulties.
Soil temperatures did not appear to be correlated with the viability of
vegetation on any of the sites.
Cf - Subtropical humid climate (Southern Alabama, 8/15-2U/76)—Seven
former landfills were examined in the southern portion of Alabama:
8/16/76 - Montgomery #2 Wareferry Road, East Montgomery.
8/17/76 - Selma Sanitary Landfill, Route 80, Selma.
8/17/76 - Montgomery #1 Sanitary Landfill, Montgomery.
8/18/76 - Gautier St. Landfill, Tuskegee.
8/19/76 - Old Dothan City Landfill, Ashford.
8/20/76 - Atmore Sanitary Landfill, Escambia County.
8/23/76 - Chatom City Landfill, Chatom.
A correlation was found between dead or poorer quality vegetation and
presence of combustible gases in the soil sites at Montgomery #1, Gautier St.,
Old Dothan City, and Atmore. Little combustible gas was found at Montgomery
#2 and Selma sites and no combustible gas was found at the Chatom City land-
fill.
Cs - Subtropical dry climate (San Francisco-Los Angeles, California, 1/76)
--In the San Francisco area five sites, all of which were reclaimed from San
Francisco Bay by diking, were selected for investigation. The refuse ranged
in depth from 15 to ho feet, and in age from recent to over 80 years. The
cover material on these sites tended to be very heavy clay, but it was fre-
quently used very sparingly. As of January 1976, three of these sites (Marine
Park, Galbraith, and Alameda) have been converted into golf courses; the
remaining two (Mountain View and Oakland Scavenger) will become golf courses
when filling is completed. All three golf courses have been developed success-
fully, but only the Marine Park site has not experienced serious problems with
vegetation.
The three golf courses are located on refuse which contains a limited
amount of putrescible material. The two landfills still to be converted into
golf courses are said to contain much more putrescible refuse. This could re-
sult in more extensive problems with settlement and landfill gases than expe-
rienced at the other sites. A positive relationship was found between high
concentrations of landfill gases and poor growth of cypress and Monterey pine
trees at the Oakland Scavenger Company's Davis Street Landfill.
Four former landfills, all constructed by the County of Los Angeles Sani-
tary District, were examined in the Los Angeles area. They were the South
Coast Botanic Garden, South Coast County Park, Mountain Gate Golf Course,
40
-------
and Mission Canyons #1, 2, and 3. All of these landfills have a maximum depth
of at least 100 feet. A mixture of municipal and industrial waste was deposited
at the South Coast Botanic Garden and South Coast County Park sites which are
located in former diatomaceous earth mines. The remaining landfills, which
were constructed in canyons, contain primarily municipal-refuse. The Los
Angeles landfills had considerably more cover material than those in the San
Francisco area.
A considerable effort has been put into replanting these landfills by
governmental agencies and private concerns. The results were the most success-
ful we observed on our tour of sites throughout the country. All of the sites
have had problems due to settlement, landfill gases or high soil temperatures.
These problems, however, didn't appear to seriously detract from the overall
success of the sites.
At the South Coast Botanical Garden a direct relationship was observed
between the poor growth of vegetation and the occurrence of landfill gases in
the soil. There was also found a direct relationship between the occurrence
of high soil temperatures and poor growth of vegetation. A direct relationship
between the occurrence of landfill gases in the soil and the poor growth of
vegetation was also observed at the South Coast County Park, Mission Canyon
Landfill, and the Mountain Gate Golf Course.
Pea - Temperate continental-warm summer climate (Northeast United States)
--During 1975 and 1976 the following 12 landfills were visited in the warm
summer temperate continental climatic region:
6/19/75 - Hunter Farm, Cinnaminson, NJ.
6/2^/75 - DeEugenio Bros. Peachtree Farm, Glassboro, NJ.
7/31/75 - University of Connecticut at Storrs, Storrs, CT.
8/01/75 - Farmington Sanitary Landfill, Unionville, CT.
8/06/75 - Holyoke Sanitary Landfill #1, Holyoke, MA.
8/06/75 - Holyoke Sanitary Landfill #2, Holyoke, MA.
1+/08/76 - Erlton Park, Cherry Hill, NJ.
6/29/76 - Kenilworth Demonstration Landfill Project, Washington, DC.
10/1U/76 - Holtsville Sanitary Landfill, Brookhaven, L.I., NY.
10/lV?6 - Kings Park Sanitary Landfill, Smithtown, L. I. , NY.
10/15/76 - Huntington Sanitary Landfill, Huntington, L. I. , NY.
10/15/76 - Bethpage Sanitary Landfill, Oyster Bay, L.I. , NY.
Eight sites (Hunter Farm, DeEugenio Bros., Farmington, Holyoke #2, Holts-
41
-------
ville, Kings Park, Huntington, and Bethpage) have dead trees and/or poor grow-
ing vegetation directly associated with the presence of landfill gases in the
soil. However, the concentration of landfill gases at Farmington was very
low.
At two sites, Kenilworth and Storrs, combustible gas correlated with poor
growing vegetation in some instances; however, not all poorly growing vegeta-
tion was associated with the presence of combustible gas.
It appeared that poor planting practices and the lack of irrigation were
the major contributors to the demise of trees planted on the former landfills
at Kenilworth and Erlton Park.
Holyoke #1 was used as landfill for incinerator ash. No combustible gas
was detected on or adjacent to this landfill.
Seven of these landfills (Hunter Farm, DeEugenio Bros., Holyoke #2,
Holtsville, Kings Park, Huntington, and Bethpage) exhibited the correlation
of landfill gases in the soil atmospheres and vegetation death in areas
adjacent to the landfill. All seven landfills had been placed in former
sand and gravel pits.
Deb - Temperate continental-cool summer climate (Northeast United States,
8/75)--The following seven landfills were inspected during August, 1975;
8/7/75 - Roussel Park, Nashua, EH.
8/11/75- Guilderland Landfill, Guilderland, NY.
8/12/75- City of Auburn Sanitary Landfill, Auburn, NY.
8/18/75- Southeastern Oakland Incinerator Authority, Oakland Co., MI.
8/19/75- Cereal City Landfill #1, Battle Creek, MI.
8/20/75- Cereal City Landfill #2, Battle Creek, MI.
8/21/75- Kalamazoo Landfill, Oshtemo Twsh, MI.
There appeared to be no definite relation between vegetation injury and
landfill gases at the Roussel Park or Kalamazoo Landfills. However, an ex-
cellent positive relationship was noted between high concentrations of land-
fill gases in the soil atmosphere and dead or dying vegetation at the Guilder-
land, Auburn, Oakland and Cereal City landfills. At the Oakland and Cereal
City landfills the major vegetation death problems were associated with
landfill gases migrating from the landfill beneath the ground. The following
vegetation was apparently injured or killed by landfill gases:
Guilderland - volunteer aspen, sumac, and weeds
Auburn - willow trees
-------
Oakland - lombardy poplar and black oak trees, weeds and grass
Cereal City $1 - red pine trees, weeds and grass
Cereal City #2 - white spruce, douglas fir, white fir, and shagbark
hickory trees
Do - Temperate oceanic climate (Washington and Oregon, 6-7/76)--Two
former landfills were examined in Seattle, Washington: East Campus of the
University of Washington and Genesee Street Park. In Oregon two former land-
fills were evaluated: Day Island in Eugene, and Fowler's Farm in West Salem.
An excellent direct relationship was found between dead vegetation and/or
barren ground and the presence of combustible gases in the soil atmosphere and
anaerobic soil conditions at the two Seattle sites and at Day Island. The
death of trees adjacent to Day Island was correlated positively with the under-
ground migration of landfill gases from the landfill. High soil temperatures
were also found to be associated with landfill gases at Day Island.
The wheat field at Fowler's Farm was growing over a former demolition
landfill which produced only traces of combustible gas. Where the soil had
not settled the wheat growing over the demolition material appeared to grow
as well as that growing on nearby virgin ground.
H - Highlands climate (Idaho Falls, Idaho, 8/30-9/6/76)--The three former
landfills which were visited in the Highlands climate region were:
9/2/76 - Fremont Park.
9/2/76 - Red Baron alfalfa field.
9/3/76 - Idaho Falls Child Development Center.
A good positive relationship was found between high combustible gas and
poor quality vegetation at the Red Baron alfalfa field site, but at the other
two sites very little landfill gas was found in the vegetation root zones.
Therefore, no direct relationship was observed between the poor vegetation
growth and the occurrence of landfill gas pollution in the soil atmosphere at
these two sites.
Effects of Landfill Gases on Soil Quality
Top and subsoil samples from each of the nine climatic regions were ana-
lyzed for content of major and trace nutrients, pH, moisture, organic matter, .
conductivity and for soil texture. Data for landfills within each region were
averaged (Appendix J, Tables 1-9} and analyzed statistically by Student's "t"
test, where data were sufficient. Table J-10 contains a summary of all the
topsoil data expressed as percent change (+ or -) in each constituent as the
soil proceeded from a non-gas to a plus-gas condition.
The initial content of nutrient elements, as well as the pH of soils, in
different landfills and among climatic areas varied widely. However, there
-------
was little difference in content of major nutrient elements (magnesium, phos-
phorus, potassium, and calcium) between gassed and ungassed soil. Since these
elements are normally present in soil in hundreds or thousands of pounds per
acre, a small percentage fluctuation in content would have a negligible effect
on plant growth.
Nitrogen compounds (NO_-N and NH. -N) and trace elements (iron, manganese,
zinc, copper, and boron) which are normally present in much lesser quantity,
increased many fold in soil with high concentrations of gas in their atmos-
pheres. In particular, the ratio of iron to manganese, a critical value in
soil fertility, was frequently above the recommended range for adequate plant
growth.
Conductivity which is a measure of total ion activity was, understandably,
increased as well.
Soil pH was either increased or decreased, depending on the original con-
dition of the soil; the pH of highly alkaline soils, such as those in Utah
(steppe) and Idaho (highlands), decreased, while the more acid soils of the
Northeast and Northwest increased in pH value.
Comparison Between Field Observations and Mail Survey Reports of Landfill
Vegetation Conditions
Approximately 60 refuse landfills were visited during the 1975-77 field
survey of landfill vegetation conditions. Thirty-seven of these had been
reported through the mail survey prior to the field inspection. A comparison
of what was reported by mail and what was found in the field indicated that
about 23 (62$) of the responses were correct and about 14 (38$>) were inaccu-
rate.
The apparent conflict between what was reported by mail and what was
found in the field for more than one-third of the reports was possibly due,
in part, to errors in interpretation of the information supplied and to having
many of the mail survey questionnaires completed by people who had not person-
ally examined the landfill sites to determine the condition of the vegetation.
Table 8 presents the vegetative growth information reported by mail and
the field observations from the same sites. The apparent accuracy of the
mail survey report is given for each site. It was sometimes difficult to
evaluate the accuracy of the mail report as simply either good or poor, since
in a number of cases field examination indicated that part of the report was
found to be correct and part incorrect.
44
-------
TABLE 8. COMPARISON BETWEEN FIELD OBSERVATIONS OF LANDFILL VEGETATION CONDITIONS
AND REPLIES TO THE MAIL SURVEY OF VEGETATION CONDITIONS
Climate *
Ar
Bsh-Bw
Bsh-Bw
Bsh-Bw
Bsh-Bw
Bsk
Bsk
Cf
Site
San Juan Landfill
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Deer Valley Park
Maricopa County
Arizona
7th Street Landfill
Phoenix, Arizona
103rd Ave. Landfill
Maricopa County
Arizona
Olive Ave. Landfill
Maricopa County
Arizona
Great Falls S.L.F.
Great Falls, Montana
Pioneer-Cannon Stakes
Dairy
Salt Lake City, Utah
Montgomery City
Landfill
Montgomery, Alabama
Reported by Mail
Problems on the
landfill
Problems on landfill
Problems adjacent
to landfill
No problems
No problems grass
on landfill
No problems on
landfill
No problems with
grass, trees and
shrubs
No problems growing
grass, trees and
shrubs
Observed in Field
Problems on landfill
Grass doing poorly
Cause not known
Dead trees near adja-
cent homes observed
Had been farmland
Farming was abandoned
due to settlement and
gas
Landfill converted to a
nursing home, grass and
trees doing well
Wheat crop on landfill
failed
Vegetation doing very
poorly on this site
Nothing planted only
volunteer vegetation
on site, mostly weeds
Accuracy of
Mail Statement
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8. (continued)
Climate
Site
Reported by Mail
Observed in Field
Accuracy of
Mail Statement
Cf
Tuskegee Landfill
Tuskegee, Alabama
No problems growing
grass, trees and
shrubs
Nothing growing on
landfill at all
Poor
Cf
Dallas Co. Landfill
Selma, Alabama
No problems growing
grass, trees, or
shrubs
Trees and volunteer
vegetation doing very
well
Good
Cf
Escanbia Co. Landfill
Alabama
No problems growing
trees
Trees (Pines) doing
well, many were chloro-
tic, some erosion
Good
Cf
Old Dothan City
Landfill
Dothan, Alabama
No problems, grass
and trees on landfill
Nothing observed planted
on landfill, some trees
adjacent declining gas
suspected
Poor
Cf
Chatom City Landfill
Chatom, Alabama
No problems growing
trees on landfill
Trees doing well
(seedlings)
Good
Cs
South Coast Botanical
Gardens, Palos Verdes
Los Angeles, California
No problems with grass,
trees, and shrubs,
problems adjacent
Good sucess on landfill
But some problem areas
were observed
Poor
Cs
Mission Canyon
Los Angeles, California
Problems on landfill
Grass doing well, severe
settlement problems
observed
Good
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8. (continued)
Climate *
Site
Reported by Mail
Observed in Field
Accuracy of
Statement
Cs
Galbraith Golf Course
Oakland, California
No problems with
grass, trees, or
shrubs
Problems observed due to
thin cover, settlement,
and gas
Poor
Cs
Alameda Municipal Golf
Course
Almadea,California
Problems on landfill
Severe settlement
problems observed
Good
Dca
Oxon Cove Landfill
Delaware
Grass growing on
landfill
Wild vegetation, no
planted vegetation
Poor
Dca
TVA, Land Between the
Lakes Park Landfill
Kentucky
No problems growing
grass on landfill
Grass growing on
landfill, some erosion
problems
Good
Dca
Univ. of Connecticut
Experimental Plot
Storrs, Connecticut
Problems on landfill
Grass and alfalfa was
growing noticably poorer
over refuse
Good
Dca
Farmington City
Landfill
Unionville,Connecticut
Problems adjacent to
landfill
Poor growth of volunteer
species was observed on
landfill, no evidence of
problems adjacent
Poor
Dca
Overpeck Creek
Hackensack, New Jersey
Problems on landfill
Some problems were
observed but in all a
successful operation
Good
Dca
Princeton Disposal
S.L.F.
South Brunswick,
New Jersey
Problems adjacent
Leachate, indicating
adjacent wood lot,
landfill disrupting
surface drainage,
flooding trees
Good
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8. (continued)
Climate *
Dca
Site
Earle Landfill
Naval Ammunition Depot
Colts Neck, New Jersey
Reported by Mail
No problems growing
grass, trees and
shrubs
Observed in Field
Pines planted-doing well
Good cover of wild
vegetation
Accuracy of
Statement
Good
Dca
Cinniminson S.L.F.
Cinniminson, New Jersey
Problems with vege-
tation adjacent to
landfill
Corn, sweet potatoes
killed on adjacent
farm
Good
Dca
Kenilworth Landfill
Washington, DC
No problems with grass
and shrubs on landfill
Some problems with
trees
Grass doing well over
most of site, many trees
transplanted to site
were dead
Good
Jr
OO
Dca
Holtsville S.L.F.
Brookhaven
Long Island, New York
Problems on landfill
Grass growing on
landfill
Trees and grass not
doing very well on
landfill. Trees killed
adjacent to landfill
Good
Dca
City of Madison
S.L.F.
Madison, Wisconsin
1) No problems with
grass on landfill
2) Problems with grass
on landfill
Grass generally doing
well on landfill but
areas did exist which
wouldn't support grass
Good
Dca
Jackson City S.L.F.
Jackson, Ohio
No problems with
grass, shrubs and
trees on landfill
Landfill largely
unvegetated
Poor
Deb
South-East Oakland
Incinerator Co. S.L.F.
Detroit, Michigan
Problems adjacent to
landfill
Poplar trees and wild
sumac killed adjacent
to landfill
Good
Deb
Cereal City S.L.F.
Battle Creek, Michigan
Problems adjacent to
landfill
Trees killed on two
sides of landfill
Good
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8. (continued)
Climate *
Site
Reported by Mail
Observed in Field
Accuracy of
Statement
Deb
Holyoke, S.L.F.
Holyoke, Massachusetts
Problems with vegeta-
tion on landfill
Not much vegetation on
landfill. Some dead
trees observed
Good
Deb
City of Auburn S.L.F.
Auburn, New York
No problems with grass
and shrubs on landfill
Some problems with
trees
Grass and trees doing
well over most of the
site. Some trees were
having problems on the
site
Good
Deb
Guilderland S.L.F.
Guilderland, New York
No problems with
vegetation on
landfill
Nothing was planted on
landfill. Volunteer
vegetation having
problems
Poor
Do
Day Island Landfill
Eugene, Oregon
Good grass growth,
Some trees dead
Mostly good grass growth
but some dead spots.
Number of dead trees on
and adjacent to completed
landfill
Good
Do
Union Bay
Univ. of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Good grass cover
Numerous poor or no
growth areas associated
with high concentrations
of landfill gas
Poor
H
City of Idaho
Falls S.L.F.
Idaho Falls, Idaho
No problems growing
grass on landfill
Grass growing well on
landfill. Some problems
with trees observed on
landfill
Poor
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8. (continued)
*CLIMATES
Abbreviation
Description
Ar
Bsh
Bsh-Bw
Bsk
Bw
Cf
Cs
Dca
Deb
Do
H
Tropical wet
Steppe semiarid, hot
Steppe semiarid-arid, hot
Steppe semiarid cold
Desert or arid
Subtropical humid
Subtropical dry summer
Temperate continental warm summer
Temperate continental cool summer
Temperate oceanic
Highland
50
-------
SECTION VI
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Sciences. 5:83-112, 1927.
85. Boyton, D. and J. DeVilliers. Are There Different Critical Concen-
trations for Different Phases of Root Activity. Science 88:569-570,
1938.
86. Gill, W.H. and R.D. Miller. A Method for Study of the Influence of
Mechanical Impedance and Aeration on the Growth of Seedling Roots,
Proc. Soil Science Soc. of America. 20:240-248, 1956.
87. Kirklawta, R. The Influence of Soil Aeration on the Growth and
Absorption of Nutrients by Corn Plants. Proc. Soil Science Soc. of
America. 10:263, 191*5.
88. Lety, J. , O.R. Lunt, L.H. Stolzy, and T.E. Szusziewicz. Plant Growth,
Water Use and Nutritional Response to Rhizosphere Differentials of
0 Concentrations. Proc. Soil Science Soc. of America. 25:183, 1961.
56
-------
89. Adams, S.R. and R. Ellis. Seme Physical and Chemical Changes in Soil
Brought About by Saturation with Natural Gas. Proc. Soil Science Soc.
of America. Zk-.hl-kh, 1960.
90. Harper, H.G. The Effect of Natural Gas on the Growth of Microorga-
nisms and the Accumulation of Nitrogen and Organic Matter in the Soil.
Soil Science. U8:U6l-U66, 1939.
91. Schollenberger, C.J. Effect of Leaking Gas Upon the Soil. Soil
Science. 29:261-266, 1930.
92. Kee, N.S. and C. Bloomfield. The Effect of Flooding and Aeration on
the Mobility of Certain Trace Elements in Soils. Plant and Soil.
26:109-135, 1963.
93. Patrick, W.H. and D.J. Mikkelson. Plant Nutrient Behavior in Flooded
Soil. In: Fertilizer Technology and Use, R.A. Olson, T.J. Armay,
J.J. Hanway, and V.J. Kilmer, eds. Soil Science of America, Inc.,
Madison, Wisconsin, 1971. pp. 187-215.
91+. Ponnamperuma, F.N. Dynamic Aspects of Flooded Soils and the Nutrition
of the Rice Plant. Proc. of Symposium on The Mineral Nutrition of
the Rice Plant. The Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Laguna,
Philippines, February, 196U. pp. 295-327.
57
-------
A??z::rix A
RS MAIL SUF.YIY ITUUIr.Y LETT!?
COOPERATIVE" PO BOX 231. NEW BRUNSWICK. N.J. 08903
EXTENSION SERVICE Telephone (201, ^
COOK COLLEGE
The Cooperative Extension Service in cooperation with the Department
of Plant Biology of Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New
Jersey is undertaking a survey to determine the extent of problems associated
with growing vegetation adjacent to and on top of completed solid waste
refuse landfills. Here in New Jersey we have observed a number of cases
vbere trees and other vegetation adjacent to landfills have been killed by the
lateral migration of landfill gases. We have also experienced many problems
in growing adequate ground cover, particularly the deeper rooted vegetation,
on the soil covering completed landfills. We would like to know if you know
of any similar problems.
We also expect to conduct field and laboratory studies to help determine
the cause of these vegetation growth problems and how they may be surmounted.
Your assistance in helping solve these problems by returning the enclosed
questionnaire in the self-addressed postage paid envelope will be greatly
appreciated. If you would like to receive a report on the results of this
study, please check the item next to your name and address.
Very truly yours,
Franklin B. Flower
Extension Specialist in
Environmental Sciences
be
Enc.
COOPERATING AGENCIES RUTGERS - THE STATE UNIVERSITY. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AND COUNTY
•OAROS Of CHOSEN FREEHOLDERS. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS ARE OFFERED iVlTMOUT REGARD TO RACE. COLOR. OR
NATIONAL ORIGIN. THE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
58
-------
APPENDIX B
OMB No. 158s 75005
Approval Expires 6/76
QUESTIONNAIRE: TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF VEGETATION GROWTH PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH SOLID WASTE REFUSE LANDFILLS
Do you know of completed refuse landfills where there have been problems
in growing vegetation _on their cover material? Yes _ No _
If yes, please list those landfills that have had the greatest problems.
NAME ADDRESS
1. _
2. _
3- _
k. _
5. _
Do you know of refuse landfills where there have been problems of grow-
ing vegetation adjacent to the landfill? Yes _ No _
If yes, please list the landfills that have had the greatest problems.
NAME ADDRESS
1. _ _
2. _
3-
5.
( continued)
59
-------
APPENDIX B. (continued)
Do you know of completed refuse landfills that have "been able to grow a
good vegetative ground cover with few problems? Yes No
If yes, please list those completed landfills that are growing good
vegetative covers and the type of cover they are growing.
NAME AND ADDRESS
TYPE OF COVER
Grass Shrubs Trees Other
3-.
5.
If you have any comments on the effects of buried solid waste on living
surface vegetation we would certainly appreciate hearing them. We would also
appreciate your adding your name and address to this sheet and returning it
to Frank Flower, Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
08903 in the enclosed self-addressed postage paid mailing envelope.
Name
_Please send me a summary
Title
Address
of the results of this refuse
landfill - vegetation study
when completed.
60
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APPENDIX C
CLASSIFICATION OF MAIL SURVEY SOURCES
ORGANIZATION
1.
2.
3.
k.
5-
6.
7.
8.
9-
10.
11.
12.
13-
1^4- .
15-
16.
State Soil Conservation Service Offices
County Agents and Selected Specialists
in New Jersey
State Cooperative Extension Service
Directors.
EPA-SWMP Regional Representatives
State Solid Waste Management Agencies
Publications
S.W. Planning Course Registration,
6/13-15/72
APWA Educ. Fdn. Ref. Col. and
Disposal Workshop, 5/9-10/72 Reg.
Sanitary Landfill Design Seminar,
6/28-29/73 Reg.
New Jersey Conservation Districts
Major Solid Waste Management Firms
Engineering Foundation SLF Conf.
8/13-18/72 Reg.
Other
Gas and Leachate from Landfill Conf.
3/25-26/75 Reg.
Solid Waste Processing Div. ,
ASME Membership
New York State Soil Conservation
Districts
1975
Date Number
Sent Sent
5/19
5/19
5/20
5/29
5/30
6/2
6/2
6/2
6/5
6/6
6/6
6/12
6/5-12/31
7/18
7/20
9/25
TOTAL 1
57
60
63
10
58
33
15
19
55
15
10
81
130*
191
19^
12
,003
Form Letter
No.
1
2
3
h
5
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
* - Approximate number
61
-------
APPENDIX D
LIST OF FIELD EQUIPMENT
1
2
3
1*-
5
6
7
8
9
10-
11-
12
13
ll*
15-
l6-
17-
18-
19
20
21
22
23
25-
compass
pen and note pads
6' and 50' steel tapes
string
camera and film
vegetation I D "books
roller tape
pail
clip board
felt marking pens
close up lenses for camera
hammer and mallet
screwdrivers
wrenches - adjustable and pipe
pliers - standard, long nose,
water pump
garden trowel
tool boxes
masking tape
- electrician's knife
plastic bags for soil samples
shovel
soil profile extractor
3" soil auger
first aid kit
bags to carry equipment and
supplies
26- gloves
27- insect repellent
28- boots
29- thermos
30- soil sampling procedure - SOP
31- gas sampling procedure - SOP
32- water sampling and testing
procedures - SOP
33- files for reports
3!*- preaddressed mailers
35- refill for 3' bar hole maker
36- Explosimeter with extra cata-
lyst and 10/1 dilution tube
37- 0 analyzer
38- 20/o CO analyzer
39- 6o/0 CO analyzer
1*0- 3' thermometer
1*1- extra tips for bar hole maker
1*2- water analysis kit
^3- 3' gas sampling probe
1*1*- paper clips and rubber bands
1*5- rubber stoppers
1*6- 0 and CO refills
1*7- o and CO analyzer repair kits
1*8- Explosimeter calibration kit
1*9- 3' and 1*' bar hole makers
62
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APPENDIX E
LANDFILL-VEGETATION FIELD INSPECTION FORM
SITE: DATE:
Name
Address
Phone
CONTACTS:
Names
Addresses
Phones
LANDFILL:
Size
Cover (Quantity and Quality)
Daily
Intermediate
Final
Refuse
Type
Depth
Degree of Compaction
TEMPERATURES: (°F. and Location)
Ground (3 ft. depth)
Over Landfill - Good Growth -
Poor Growth -
Virgin Land -
Ambient (in shade) -
Settlement
Leachate
Odor
Age
Started
Completed
Cell Size
Current Use
Ultimate Use
(continued)
63
-------
APPENDIX E. (continued)
Vegetation (Quantity and Quality) on Landfill
Grass
Shrubs
Trees
Other
Vegetation (Quantity and Quality) Adjacent to Landfill
Grass
Shrubs
Trees
Other
General Notes and Observations: (include an outline map of area.)
64
-------
APPENDIX F
FIELD GAS SAMPLE ANALYSIS FORM
*Soil Sample Taken
COMBUSTIBLE GAS AT
ON
VJ1
SITE
1' 2'
LL
10/1
20/1
LL
10/1
20/1
3'
LL
10/1
20/1
1' 1'
%o2
% co2
REMARKS
-------
APPENDIX G
FIELD SOIL SAMPLING PROCEDURE
a. Select and map site.
b. Locate sampling stations in areas of good and poor vegetation growth.
c. Take samples from three or four points within sampling stations to
reduce the chance of taking samples from an unindigenous area.
d. Avoid surface contamination such as fertilizer or garbage. To avoid
contamination when taking samples do so quickly and firmly. Without
rotating the sampling tube insert the tube directly into the soil. A
bucket can be used to transfer the soil from the sampler to the bag.
Use 3" soil auger or garden trowel to obtain sample when sampling tube
cannot be used.
e. Obtain a pint of both surface soil (topsoil)and subsoil for analysis.
Fill two sampling bags. Take the surface soil sample first.
f. Measure the depth of the topsoil. If the topsoil is less than 8" deep
take the surface soil sample from the first 8" of soil; if the topsoil
is more than 8" deep take the surface soil sample from the total depth
of the topsoil.
g. Take the subsoil sample from the next 8" of soil depth using the same
hole(s) from which the topsoil sample was obtained.
h. At the time of sampling, characterize the soil as to whether it is wet,
moist, or dry, by squeezing it. Water will drip from wet soil when
squeezed, moist soil will remain as a ball, while dry soil will crumble
after being squeezed.
i. When putting the sample in the bags for transport to the soils labora-
tory be sure to seal them tightly to prevent water loss.
66
-------
APPENDIX H
FIELD LEACHATE SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE—
The following method for sampling leachate was established.
1. Secure a sample of the leachate in a glass or polyethylene bottle
(100-200 cc).
2. If the solution is very dark, it may require dilution with distilled
water before applying the color tests.
3. Test for the following components by methods described in the Hach
Water Testing kit. Be sure to rinse the vials with distilled water
after each test.
a. pH
b. Free and total acidity
c. Alkalinity
d. Copper content
e. Iron content
f. Chloride content
U. Determine total conductivity by means of the Beckman Mho-Gun.
-------
APPENDIX I
DETAILED OBSERVATIONS AND FIELD DATA FROM LANDFILL SITE SURVEY
AR-TROPICAL WET CLIMATE
San Juan Sanitary Landfill, Puerto Rico
In 1967 the San Juan Landfill, located seven miles south of the city of
San Juan on Route #1, began accepting incinerated municipal refuse and light
industrial refuse. In 1972, after the incinerator was closed, sanitary
landfill operations began. The 100-acre landfill now accepts approximately
1700 tons/day of municipal and light industrial refuse which has reached a
depth of eighty feet in some places.
The daily cover spread at the end of each day's landfilling ranged from
zero to six inches during the period of time this site has been operated as
a sanitary landfill. In areas where landfilling has been completed, the
final cover ranged from six inches to twelve inches. Much of the refuse has
been placed in a low lying marshy area, presumably above the water table.
However, according to Charles Romney (Natural Resource Specialist, 1550 Ponce
Leon Boulevard, San Juan, Puerto Rico) the majority of the refuse was dumped
into the water lying in the marsh.
The completed portions of this landfill have not been planted with
vegetation and are currently not being used by anyone. Volunteer vegeta-
tion has established itself in some areas where the final cover is the
deepest. However, much of the area is devoid of vegetation. A continually
burning landfill fire on the north side of the landfill was responsible for
the death of a group of adjacent trees when the fire flared up and began
burning the leaves on the trees.
One volunteer legume tree growing near the edge of the same face has
died this year. Combustible gas at three feet beneath this tree was about
seven percent. Twenty feet away and still on the edge of the refuse, was a
living legume tree with no combustible gas in the root zone down to three
feet. Soil samples were taken to better ascertain the cause of death.
Approximately 500 feet southeast of these legume trees was a group of
cucurbit (cucumberlike) plants. In the area of good growth, no combustible
gas was found at one foot, trace amounts were found at two feet, and ten
percent at three feet. The gas at three feet probably has little if any
effect on the growth and survival because of the shallow root system. In a
generally barren area twenty feet away, combustible gas was found in trace
amounts at one foot, and at two feet reached forty percent of the soil
68
-------
gas atmosphere.
In summary, combustible gas related positively to dead vegetation and
bare cover soil.
Bayamon Sanitary Landfill, Puerto Rico
In 1970, the municipality of Bayamon "began operating a sanitary landfill
for the disposal of municipal solid waste. The landfill is located at Barrio
Buena Vista, about four and a half miles south-southeast of Bayamon along
Highway #167. Operations in the landfill were begun in 1970 and discontinued
in 197^ by order of the United States District Court in San Juan, Puerto Rico,
as a result of a lawsuit by residents of the area.
Prior to the closure of the landfill, and at the request of the United
States District Court, the United States Geological Survey conducted a field
test and collected and analyzed samples of the leachate flowing from the
landfill (June and July 1972). The results of these analyses is reported in
the proceedings Gas and Leachate from Landfills; Formation, Collection and
Treatment, (EPA-600/9-76-00*0 , United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
The landfill covers approximately ten acres. No vegetation was planted
on the landfill; however, thick grass covered most of the site and a few
small volunteer trees and shrubs are scattered about the site. The combusti-
ble gas concentrations could not be determined beneath any of the trees or
shrubs on the landfill because the ground contained too many rocks.
Adjacent to the landfill, on the south slope, were two large trees. One
of these had lost all of its leaves during the previous year and another,
forty feet away, was healthy. High combustible gas concentrations were
found in the root zone of the dead tree but no combustible gas was found
beneath the living tree. 0 and CO readings were similar beneath both trees
and the soil temperatures averaged about 90°P.
Leachate was streaming from the bottom of the south slope of the land-
fill and running over the soil around a group of large trees growing adjacent
to the refuse. Many of these trees have died, particularly the large ones
in the area where the leachate is running.
In summary, no trees were planted on the landfill; however, volunteer
grasses and shrubs have completely covered the area, but the cover was too
rocky to obtain soil gas readings. Adjacent to the landfill, combustible
gas was found beneath a dead tree and no combustible gas was found beneath
a living tree. A number of trees adjacent to the landfill have also appar-
ently been killed by excessive leachate.
Cayey Sanitary Landfill, Puerto Rico
This forty to fifty acre operating landfill, located three miles east of
Cayey off Route #1, receives approximately six tons of municipal and light
industrial refuse every day from a few surrounding communities. Operation
69
-------
began in 1971 by filling a canyon. By March, 1977 it was up to eighty feet
deep in the center. Daily cover is scraped off of an adjacent ridge on the
north end of the area and placed over the refuse at the end of each day's
operations. Approximately six inches to one foot of daily cover is used.
No leachate or settlement was apparent.
No attempts have ever been made to vegetate this landfill. In addition,
no volunteer plants occupied any part of this site. However, adjacent to
the south side of the landfill is a sugar cane field which has been aban-
doned for reasons other than the landfill's impact. No migrating combustible
gas was found in this field but the refuse has been adjacent to the field for
only three months.
When the Cayey Sanitary Landfill is completed it is planned that tennis
and basketball courts will be built and various trees and shrubs will be
planted.
BS-STEPPE OR SEMIARID CLIMATE
Pioneer-Cannon Stakes Dairy, Salt Lake City, Utah
This former 150+ acre landfill was reported to be currently used as
pasture land. Examination of the site revealed that the area is located in
lowlands near the Great Salt Lake, where the salt water table is close to
the surface. Municipal refuse had been deposited in this area with the hopes
that it would raise the level of the soil above the water table so that the
salt could be leached out of the soil.
Two fields were examined. The field completed in 1975 was planted in
1976 with alfalfa and sudan grass. Neither crop was observed growing at the
time of our inspection. Instead only weeds were observed growing in this
field. The second field had been completed as a landfill in 1966. This was
the third year that a crop was planted on it. There was noticeably better
growth in this field than in the first field.
Carbon dioxide and combustible gas concentrations were much higher and
oxygen much lower in the poor vegetation growth field than in the better
(second) field (Table 1-1). Although the second field showed generally good
growth there were large patches in the field where nothing was growing. Com-
bustible gas readings were the same in the no-growth areas of this field as
in the areas where the vegetation was doing very well. It is suspected that
high salt concentrations may be responsible for these no growth areas.
Settlement was noticeable in both fields. The farmer who cultivates
these fields reported that this settlement hinders the operation of the
farm equipment. The settlement also leaves depressions that cause ponding.
This is a problem because the ponded water collects salt from the subsoil
which remains on the surface after the water evaporates.
70
-------
TABLE 1-1. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES IN FIELDS WITH
GOOD AND POOR VEGETATIVE GROWTH
PIONEER-CANNON STAKES DAIRY, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH
Good Alfalfa Growth Weeds Only
Sample Depth 2J 3J 2' 3'
02 1? 10
C0g - <0.5 - 22
Combustible Gas 5 - k6
^Average of 2 to 11 readings
Timpanogos Golf Course, Frovo, Utah
The Timpanogos Golf Course is located on South Street, east of Interstate
15, between East Street and University Avenue in Provo, Utah. Nine holes of
the Golf Course were reported to be built over a former refuse landfill.
When combustible gas checks were made in this area toward the south end of
the course, it was apparent that no refuse had been placed in this area,
since no combustible gas was detected. We were then informed by the golf
course superintendent that only a small area between the tenth and fourteenth
fareways had been filled with municipal refuse. This small area, which was
filled in 19^-6, measures approximately 200 feet long and 35 feet wide with a
maximum depth of six feet. Combustible gas reading at one spot was about
thirteen percent of the soil gas atmosphere at the two foot depth. Here
considerable settlement had resulted in very noticeable undulations of the
ground surface. The grass in this and all other areas where refuse was
placed was growing just as well as on that part of the golf course where
there was no refuse. No combustible gas was recorded at one foot anywhere
in the settled area. The irrigation of the grass probably promoted a shallow
root system. This may explain the good grass growth despite the presence of
combustible gas at the two foot depth in one location. The roots are prob-
ably growing above the combustible gas.
South Street Sanitary Landfill, Provo, Utah
This 100-acre landfill was completed in 1973 with the placement of
municipal refuse in depths of ten to fifteen feet. One side of the landfill
adjoins a major highway (interstate 15). Russian olive trees were planted
along this side of the landfill. Although these trees were reported to have
been planted on the landfill, it was found that they had been planted on a
soil dyke surrounding the landfill. The trees were in good condition and
ranged in height from nine to twenty feet. No combustible gas was found
71
-------
along the 1,000 foot length of this tree planting. The soil appeared to be
of a better quality where the trees were growing than that on the landfill
where very little vegetation grew. At one point on the landfill the com-
bustible gas concentration was found to be greater than fifty percent at
the one and a half foot depth.
At this landfill the soil dyke apparently prevented the gases of anaer-
obic decomposition from migrating horizonatally out of the landfill.
Great Falls Sanitary Landfill, Great Falls, Montana
The 25+ acre Great Falls Sanitary Landfill began operation in 19&3 "with
the acceptance of municipal refuse and some agricultural wastes. This conti-
nued until around 1973 when shredded refuse was also accepted. Shredded
refuse was placed over that part of the landfill now occupied by a wheat
field. Six inches of daily soil cover was placed over the non-shredded
refuse, but no soil cover was spread over the shredded refuse until the end
of the filling operations in 1975 when twelve to eighteen inches of final
cover was spread.
In the fall of 1975, following the completion of the site, part of the
former landfill was seeded with winter wheat as was an adjacent field on
virgin land. According to the owner, the wheat germinated normally in the
fall of 1975 ancL survived the winter as did the wheat planted on virgin
land. However, with the onset of the summer dry period the wheat on the
landfill began to show signs of chlorosis and remained stunted. Dieback
was extensive. The total wheat yield from the landfill area was about one-
half that normally expected from a field this size. It was reported that
the wheat in certain areas of the refuse-filled area did not grow taller
than three to four inches.
Combustible gas and CO readings in these severely growth-stunted areas
were higher and 0 concentrations lower than in the areas of better growth
(Table 1-2). A very good correlation exists between the presence of com-
bustible gas and stunting and dieback of the wheat plants.
TABLE 1-2. PERCENT COMPOSITION OF SOIL GASES IN WHEAT FIELDS
WITH GROWTH OF DIFFERENT QUALITIES
GREAT FALLS SANITARY LANDFILL, GREAT FALLS, MONTANA
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
Excellent
1'
-
-
0
Growth*
3'
-
-
-
Good
I1
-
-
0
Growth**
3'
16
12
-
Poor
1'
-
-
12
Growth**
3'
12
21
-
*0ff landfill
**0n landfill
72
-------
BW-DESERT OR ARID CLIMATE
Del-Rio Sanitary Landfill, Phoenix, Arizona
The thirty-five foot deep Del-Rio Sanitary Landfill, -which covers 1/3
square mile, is presently operated by the city of Phoenix, Arizona. Some
sections of the landfill have been completed. One of these areas adjacent
to the scale house was planted with a number of cottonwood trees in 197^-
Most of our investigative work was done here.
The landfill began operations in 1969 using a cell size of approximately
300'/6^'/8' and accepting only municipal refuse. A caterpillar type bull-
dozer was used both to compact the refuse and spread the six inches of daily
cover as well as the thirty inches of final cover. Because of the geologic
history of the Phoenix area, the cover material contained many round rocks.
Consequently, the soil in which the cottonwood trees were planted had to be
imported from another area.
Five of the six cottonwood trees planted adjacent to the scale house
were planted in 3' 6" inside diameter, 6' long cement drain pipes. These
vertically set pipes extended two feet above the surface of the cover mate-
rial. The sixth tree was not growing in a cement pipe but was planted in
the cover material.
No combustible gas was found at any depth in these containers except
for a trace in one container at three feet (Table 1-3). Combustible gas
averaged 1-2 percent at two feet beneath the tree not planted in the con-
tainer. This tree appeared to be the most healthy of the six trees. Four
of the five containers supported grass growth while no grass was growing in
the fifth container. The cottonwood in this container has died and was the
third tree of three which had been planted and died in that container. The
poplars in the four other containers did not appear completely healthy, but
they had grown this year and next year's buds appeared normal.
There appeared to be no correlation between combustible gas concentra-
tion and the health of the poplar trees. Although some combustible gas was
present in the root zone of the mostly healthy poplar, it did not appear to
effect the viability or growth of the tree.
73
-------
TABLE 1-3. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT
DEAD AND LIVING POPLAES
DEL-RIO SANITARY LANDFILL, PHOENIX, ARIZONA
Sample Depth
0
CO
Living Poplar
2' 3'
21
2
Dead Poplar
2' 3'
21
1
2
Combustible Gas 1-2 - 0 -
*l-2 readings
Deer Valley Park, Phoenix, Arizona
Six acres of this landfill have been vegetated in anticipation of deve-
loping the site into a municipal golf course. There is six to eighteen feet
of municipal refuse in the landfill with cover thickness ranging from about
thirty inches to ten feet.
Bermuda grass was planted over the entire area and was observed to have
difficulty growing on the site. There were many patches over the site where
the grass wasn't growing. No correlation was found between these patches
and the occurrence of landfill gases in the soil (Table 1-4). There was also
no visible difference in the growth of the grass between the area where the
cover was thirty inches thick and where it was ten feet thick.
TABLE 1-4. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES IN FIELDS
WITH GOOD AND POOR GRASS GROWTH
DEER VALLEY PARK, PHOENIX, ARIZONA
Sample Depth
2
C00
Good Growth
1' 2'
20
4
Poor Growth
1' 2'
20
4
Combustible Gas - 9 - 0.5
*l-2 readings
-------
Adjacent to the landfill there was observed a number of dead and dying
trees which had been transplanted to the site. Three of these trees were
examined and combustible gas. About 2% was found at a three foot depth near
only one of them.
It appears that the problems with the vegetation on and adjacent to this
landfill are caused by something other than landfill gases, such as lack of
water or poor soil conditions.
Johnson's Farm, Maricopa County, Arizona
This former sanitary landfill of 9-1 acres was completed in December
1970 after being operated for a year and four months. The landfill contains
an average of nine feet of municipal refuse with thirty inches or less of
cover material.
The site had been planted with barley for three to four years. The
farmer reports that the yield from this area was one-fourth of the yield
from adjacent virgin land. The plants were only half as high in this area,
the roots were stunted and there was poorer germination in the field over
the refuse. Settlement was also reported to be severe enough to hinder the
operation of farm equipment and disrupt surface drainage.
At the time that this data was collected the field over the refuse was
fallow. The farmer had given up in his attempts to farm the site. The soil
appeared to be of noticeably poorer quality in the field over the refuse
than the adjacent virgin land. There were barren patches among the weeds
and barley that grew on the site. In these areas where nothing was growing
combustible gas concentrations were found to range from four to five percent
at a depth of one foot, and from fifteen to thirty percent at the three foot
depth. In areas on the refuse where the vegetation was doing fairly well no
combustible gas was found at the one to two foot depth. No combustible gas
was found in the active farm field adjacent to the former landfill farm
field (Table 1-5). The farmer reported that the barley planted in the field
off the landfill had grown much better than the barley on the landfill.
There does appear to be a positive relationship between the poorest
barley growth and the presence of landfill gases.
75
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TABLE 1-5. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES IN BARLEY FIELDS
WITH GOOD AND POOR GROWTH
JOHNSON FARM, MARICOPA COUNTY, ARIZONA
°0
2
co_
2
Combustible Gas
20
0
0 0
21
0
0 0
18
5
5
—
23
^Average of 2 readings
**0ff landfill
***0n landfill
Glendale Nursing Home, Maricopa County, Arizona
The Glendale Nursing Home was built in 1975 on the site of a former
sanitary landfill. The refuse was removed from the area where the building
was located and replaced with clean fill and crushed rubble. However, the
refuse remained beneath the area where landscaping plants were planted.
Landfilling with municipal refuse began on this site in 1966 and was
completed in 197 4 to a depth of approximately fifteen feet. Six inches of
daily cover were spread at the end of each day's filling and about thirty
inches of final cover was placed at the completion of the landfilling oper-
ations.
In the summer of 1976 the area surrounding the building was planted with
grass and various tree species, including olive, orange, and palm trees.
Silver dollar trees were planted in December 1976. Settlement areas in the
lawn and in one of the parking lots accumulate water when the irrigation
system is turned on. Despite frequent irrigation, approximately one-quarter
of the trees planted were dead or showed signs of stress as of January 19,
1977-
No combustible gas was found beneath any of the trees on the site except
for one trace reading at three feet under one living palm tree. However,
carbon dioxide concentrations reached 9 percent and 4.5 percent beneath two
dead silver dollar trees while no carbon dioxide was found beneath a living
silver dollar. However, this situation was reversed beneath two olive trees
where the highest CO- (8$) was found under a living olive tree and the low-
est concentration (2$) beneath a dead olive tree (Table 1-6).
76
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TABLE 1-6. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES BENEATH
LIVING AND DEAD TREES
GLENDALE NURSING HOME, MARICOPA COUNTY, ARIZONA
Living Trees Dead Trees
Silver Dollar Olive Silver Dollar Olive
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
27"
20.5
0
0
36"
12
8
0
15"
15
7
0
36"
21
2
0
•^Average of 1-2 readings
No consistent relationship were found between vegetation survival and
presence of combustible gas or carbon dioxide. The dead plants appear to
have succumbed because of transplanting difficulties.
Cal Button's Farm, Maricopa County, Arizona
Since this thirty-eight acre sanitary landfill was completed in 1972
wheat, cotton, and barley have been grown on this site in alternate years
with the aid of regular irrigation.
Municipal refuse was deposited in this area from December, 1970 to
April, 1972 to a total depth of fourteen feet. Six inches of daily cover was
spread over the refuse at the completion of each day's operation, and two to
three feet of cover material was spread as a final cover.
The yield from this landfill field is as much as forty percent below
that obtained from an adjacent field on virgin land. The soil on the former
landfill field dried quicker, requiring more frequent irrigation, than the
adjacent virgin field. Settlement has caused many undulations throughout
the field forcing the farmer to fill in the settled areas with soil from
unsettled areas of the field thereby creating a non-uniform soil depth
throughout the field. Many of these settled areas supported little vegeta-
tion.
Combustible gas readings were taken in two good growth areas and two
poor growth areas on the former landfill field. Most of the test points
could not be penetrated beyond one foot because the soil contained many
large rocks; however, three points were penetrated to three feet. The soil
became considerably softer and easier to penetrate at two feet indicating
that perhaps the refuse began at this depth.
77
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Very low combustible gas concentrations (averaging about two percent)
were recorded at one foot in a poor barley growth area, and no combustible
gas was found in the good growth areas. However, at three feet, the com-
bustible gas concentration was about fifteen percent beneath the good growth
area.
Barley growth on the former landfill was poor although very little com-
bustible gas was found on the former landfill. Low combustible gas readings
were found in the bad growth areas while the good growth areas contained
almost no combustible gas in the topsoil (Table 1-7). The extremely rocky
hard soil over the former landfill probably contributed to the poor growth.
TABLE 1-7. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES IN VARIOUS BARLEY GROWTH
QUALITY AREAS
CAL BUTTON'S FARM, MARICOPA COUNTY, ARIZONA
Adjacent to Former Landfill On Former Landfill
Best Growth Good Growth Poor Growth
Sample Depth 3' I1 1*
0_
2
C00
2
Combustible Gas
20
0
0
20
1
trace
21
0
2.0
^Average of 1-2 readings
CF-SUBTROPICAL HUMID CLIMATE
Montgomfery-';#2. War.eferry.Road, East Montgomery, Alabama. .. ..-
This operating landfill was located in a former sand and gravel pit
covering about thirty acres. It contains general municipal refuse to a
depth of about twenty-five feet in most places. Adjacent to the landfill is
a fifty-acre soybean field. The refuse nearest to the soybean field is about
five years old.
The field was examined for possible landfill gas damage. The soybean
plants on the edge of a dirt road separating the landfill from the soybeans
were severely stunted, averaging about six inches high. Plants further in
the field averaged three feet in height. This stunted area was approximately
twenty feet wide and followed the edge of the road for the entire length of
the field. The farmer felt that this stunting was caused by the farm equip-
ment compacting the soil when it turned at the end of the field.
78
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Combustible gas checks in these stunted areas revealed that a small
amount of landfill gas was present. At a one-foot depth combustible gas
comprised an average of one percent, no CO was found and 0 comprised
twenty-one percent of the soil atmosphere. At a depth of tnree feet combus-
tible gas averaged five percent of the soil atmosphere. A very slight odor
was present one foot beneath the stunted plants.
The root systems of the stunted plants were compared with those from
the normal growth area. The roots of the stunted plants extended three to
four inches into the soil while those in the normal area reached down one
foot.
Three other stunted areas within the main field up to 109 feet from the
refuse were checked for combustible gas. No combustible gas was found in
any of these areas. The stunting in these areas was probably due to ponding.
Another stunted area located along the edge of the field was examined.
Ho combustible gas was found in this area. The lack of landfill gases in
this area and the low concentrations of combustible gas where it was found
and the lack of QQ where the combustible gas was found supports the farm-
er's opinion that €he stunting was due to soil compaction.
Selma Sanitary Landfill, Route 80, Selma, Alabama
This small (three acre) landfill contains eight to ten feet of munici-
pal and light industrial refuse. The refuse was only covered occasionally,
resulting in an open-dump operation most of the time. This site was used
from 1969 to 1973. Upon completion of landfilling the refuse was covered
with two to three feet of soil and was planted with loblolly pine seedlings.
When planted in 1973 these seedlings ranged from eighteen inches to over
seven feet in height.
Very little combustible gas was present in the soil over the refuse.
Of twenty-two test points only two contained combustible gas at a depth of
one foot. The highest reading at a depth of two feet was about five percent,
beneath a loblolly pine which was seventy-five inches high, one of the
largest trees on the site. Since loblolly pine has a characteristically
shallow lateral root system, two feet of soil should contain most of the
roots. Although the tree heights ranged from eighteen inches to over seven
feet, no correlations were found to exist between tree height and the pres-
ence of combustible gas. In general, the trees were doing as well as might
be expected in similar soil not located over a former refuse landfill.
Montgomery #1 Sanitary Landfill, Montgomery, Alabama
This operating landfill was begun in the early 1960*s. The refuse
ranges from ten feet to fifteen feet deep over an area of approximately
twenty acres. The daily cover ranges from zero to six inches, with a final
cover of about two feet. However, some areas lacked adequate cover and the
refuse remained exposed. Some areas on the landfill have remained flooded
for long periods of time preventing any vegetation from growing. Settle-
ment appeared to have caused the depressions in which the water accumulated.
79
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Trees and shrubs covered the fifteen-year old portion of the landfill
while shrubs, small trees and annual weeds have become established on the
ten year old portion. No combustible gas (or occasionally very low combus-
tible gas) concentrations were recorded in these vegetated areas. A positive
correlation was found between high combustible gas concentrations and death
of a Kentucky coffee tree, while low combustible gas was found beneath a
living coffee tree (Table 1-8).
TABLE 1-8. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES BENEATH LIVING AND DEAD
KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE
MONTGOMERY #1 SANITARY LANDFILL, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA
Living Tree Dead Tree
Sample Depth 1' 2' 1' 2'
02 21 - 20 -
co2 o - £ -
Combustible Gas - 1 - 12^
^Average of 1-3 readings
Gautier Street Landfill, Tuskegee, Alabama
This three acre landfill operated from 1955 to 1970. The landfill
contains municipal refuse ranging in depth from a few feet to about twenty
feet. There are two to three feet of final cover.
Native forest vegetation is adjacent to the landfill on three sides.
Volunteer vegetation from this forest was found growing on the site, parti-
cularly mimosa and loblolly pine. No attempts had been made to replant
this landfill.
Two loblolly pine trees were checked for combustible gas in their root
zones; one healthy tree, and one which exhibited severe dieback. Combusti-
ble gas readings were similar beneath these two trees. However, CO was
much higher under the unhealthy tree (Table 1-9).
Four mimosa trees were compared; two were experiencing severe dieback,
two were healthy. Combustible gas was higher on the average near the symp-
tomatic trees. C0_ was found to be higher near the unhealthy trees
(Table 1-9).
80
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TABLE 1-9. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
BENEATH HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY TREES
GAUTIER STREET LANDFILL, TUSKEGEE, ALABAMA
Healthy Trees Unhealthy Trees
Loblolly Mimosa Loblolly Mimosa
Pine Pine
Sample Depth 2' 3' 2' 3' 2' 3' 2' 3'
00 20£ - 18* - 19 20
<—
co2 -o-al-iS-o
Combustible Gas 10 3-| l^i _ 17^
^Average of 1-5 readings
Old Dothan City Landfill, Ashford, Alabama
This seven year old landfill accepted municipal refuse from the city of
Ashford from 1970 to 197^. The refuse was deposited in trenches dug approxi-
mately fifteen-feet deep, thirty-three feet wide and up to 400-feet long.
There is about two feet of final cover over this refuse.
Weeds covered most of the site. No trees, either volunteer or planted,
were found growing on the landfill. There were a few dozen twenty-five to
thirty-five year old loblolly pine trees adjacent to the eastern edge of the
landfill. Two of the trees had been dead for more than a year while most of
the other trees were reasonably healthy. Many of the trees in this area had
damage near the ground as would result from a fire years before.
The two dead trees were compared with two living trees (Table 1-10).
The combustible gas in the soil atmosphere near the dead trees at the one
foot depth averaged 1^ percent and at the three foot depth 17-| percent.
This was considerably higher than what was found near the healthy trees.
Oxygen was found to be lower near the dead trees but more C0? was found near
the living trees. The dead trees had evidence of cankering above the "fire
damage". This might have been due to a disease. To what extent this could
have contributed to the demise of the trees could not be determined. The
data indicates that the trees could have been damaged by migrating landfill
gases.
81
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TABLE I-10. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES BENEATH
LIVING AND DEAD LOBLOLLY PINE TREES
OLD DOTHAN CITY SANITARY LANDFILL, ASHFORD, ALABAMA
Living Loblolly Dead Loblolly
Pine Trees Pine Trees
Sample Depth I1 3' I1 3'
°2
co2
21 17 -
5| - 0 -
Combustible Gas 0
^Average of 1-8 readings from root zones of 2 dead and 2 live trees
Atmore Sanitary Landfill, Escambia County, Alabama
Landfilling began at this five-acre site in August, 1973 and continued
until August, 1976. It accepts general municipal refuse and wood, which is
burned. The refuse was placed in trenches about fifteen-feet deep and forty-
feet wide and 300-feet to UOO-feet long. It was covered daily with six
inches of sandy soil. The final cover over the trenches is two feet deep.
When completed the site is to be reclaimed as forest land.
The first trench was completed in February 197^ and was planted with
fifteen-inch tall loblolly pine seedlings in March 197^- Over 1,000 trees
were planted in rows six inches apart. Approximately twenty percent of these
trees were dead or missing in August 197&. The living trees ranged from
seventeen inches to over seven feet tall. These pines were judged to be
doing fairly well compared with similar plantings on virgin soil by the
local Soil Conservationist who is involved in reforestation projects through-
out this county.
The soil atmospheres were compared between where the trees had grown
very well, being seventy-seven inches to ninety-seven inches tall, and where
the trees weren't growing well, being seventeen inches to thirty inches tall.
Very little CO was found anywhere on this landfill and 0_ concentrations
were found to Be about normal at a one foot depth near both groups of trees.
Combustible gas concentrations were generally low at the one foot depth near
all of the trees, but it was slightly higher near the poorly growing trees.
At a three foot depth there was much more combustible gas near the poorly
growing trees (Table 1-11).
This data indicates that landfill gases may be hindering the growth of
some of the trees, but not enough to noticeably reduce the overall success
of the site.
82
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TABLE 1-11. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES BENEATH
TALL AND SHORT LOBLOLLY PINE TREES
ATMORE SANITARY LANDFILL, ESCAMBIA COUNTY, ALABAMA
77" to 97" Tall 17" to 30" Tall
Loblolly Pines Loblolly Pines
Sample Depth 1' 3' 1' 3'
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
21
0
0 5
21
i
2
^ l.L'2'
^Average of 2-8 readings
Chatom City Landfill, Chatom, Alabama
The Chatom City landfill was begun in 1967 to enable household refuse
to be brought here for open burning. The fill was completed in 197^ and was
covered at that time with one to two feet of course, sandy soil. The entire
site, including the adjacent cut over woodlot, which is used as a source of
cover material, is five acres.
Slash pine trees were planted six feet apart over the entire site in
197^ in order to reclaim the land. The pines were planted as twelve inch
seedlings. They were observed to range in height from twelve inches to
forty- two inches in August,
No combustible gas was found in the soil anywhere on or adjacent to the
landfill. In general, the trees planted over the area where the refuse had
been open-burned were doing as well as the trees planted adjacent to the
refuse. Apparently, landfill gas was not a problem here because the organics
had been removed from the refuse by combustion prior to the final closing of
the landfill in
CS-SUBTROPICAL DRY CLIMATE
City of Alameda Golf Course, Alameda, California
This eighteen-hole golf course was constructed on a completed refuse
fill in 1955. Filling operations began sometime in the 1870 's and ceased
in 1953- The composition of the refuse is variable over the site, some
areas having clean fill. About twenty feet of fill has been placed over
bay muck.
83
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Although in general the trees are growing well over the golf course,
(eucalyptus are up to thirty feet tall), there are localized severe problems
with vegetation growth and surface settlement. In one case, a 15 x 20-foot
bare spot on a fairway contained combustible gas at the one-foot depth of
greater than fifty percent. Adjacent to this spot are a number of Monterey
pine trees which exhibited a good deal of variability in growth although all
were planted in 1957. Almost no combustible gas was found in the root zone
of these trees. The only combustible gas reading of any magnitude was k^
percent at a three-foot depth. The soil around these trees was not uniform.
In some places it was extremely hard.
Poor drainage appears to be the greatest problem. Surface drainage is
poor, particularly where extensive settlement has occurred. The dikes keep
out the salty bay water, but the fresh water doesn't have any outlet because
of these dikes and the dense nature of the clay subsurface soil. This area
was examined during a severe drought, yet fresh water was found to be satura-
ting the soil in several places at a depth of only one foot.
Galbraith Golf Course, Oakland, California
This golf course was constructed in 1966 on a 180-acre landfill com-
pleted in 1965. The landfill contains trash, rubble, and industrial waste
in depths of fifteen to thirty feet. The cover-material depth ranges from
zero to one foot. Settlement problems have occurred in some areas of the
course. There has also been a large loss of trees, particularly pines, over
the entire site. Some of these trees have blown over due to lack of a deep
root structure; others were known to be killed by industrial waste; the cause
of death for some was unknown.
Mounds of soil were deposited on the cover material along the fairways
to provide for the growth of some trees. Other trees were planted directly
in the cover material without mounds. It was noted that most of the trees
in the mounds were eucalyptus while most of the pines had been planted di-
rectly in the cover material.
The most extensive vegetation growth problems occur on and around the
eighth fairway. In this area the grass was growing poorly and much settle-
ment was evident. At several points in this area the combustible gas concen-
tration in the soil atmosphere at a one-foot depth was five percent or
greater. Some of the pine trees along the fairway were doing much better
than others, but combustible gas readings around several of these healthy
trees were not significantly different than those around the poorly growing
trees. Combustible gas at one foot depth near these trees ranged from 0
percent to about 5-| percent, and at the two-foot depth it ranged from 0
percent to greater than fifty percent.
Some of the mounds are located in areas containing combustible gas.
Data were collected to determine the ability of the mounds to provide gas-
free soil for root growth. Two mounds were examined. Both were about
thirty inches high at the center and about twenty-five feet in diameter.
The eucalyptus trees on both mounds appeared to be growing rather well.
In the cover material next to the mounds, combustible gas was found in two
84
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of six points tested at a one foot depth. At a two-foot depth these same six
points all had combustible gas ranging from about five percent to greater
than fifty percent. On one of the mounds combustible gas was absent down
to a depth of two-feet six inches at three points. On the other mound no
combustible gas was found at one and two-foot depths, but at a depth of three
feet, concentrations were four percent to five percent.
The mounds were relatively free of gas to a depth of one foot; however,
gas concentration was also very low in the cover soil. Therefore, the
absence of appreciable gas in the root areas on the mounds may have been due
to the cover soil serving as a barrier to the gas.
Oakland Scavenger Company, Davis Street Sanitary Landfill, San Leandro,
California
This 2^7-acre landfill receives most of the municipal refuse generated
in the Oakland-San Leandro area. The landfilling was begun around 1950, and
is scheduled to be completed in 1977 or 1978. The twenty to forty feet deep
landfill will then be converted into a golf course.
At the time of this inspection the only vegetation on the site was loca-
ted along the bay front, which was landscaped in 1969 to reduce the eyesore
created by the operating landfill. Four species of trees: Monterey pine,
cypress, and two species of eucalyptus (red gum and blue gum) have been plant-
ed. A shrub, bottle brush, was also found here. At first this site was not
irrigated and problems of poor tree growth were attributed to lack of water.
After an irrigation system was installed, in early January 197&, many of the
trees which were having growing problems showed improvement.
Two large eucalyptus did not improve and appeared to be dead. No refuse,
or to be more accurate, no differential texture that would indicate refuse in
this area was encountered in penetrating the soil at these eucalypti with a
bar-hole maker. This, in conjunction with the lack of any combustible gas in
the soil atmosphere, indicates that these eucalyptus trees were probably not
on the landfill but on the dike which had been constructed to keep out bay
water.
Some of the trees located on the refuse showed stress symptoms, most
noticeably chlorosis (browning of the needles in pine) and stunting. Soil
gas readings were taken near four Monterey pines, two of which were healthy
and two unhealthy (Table 1-12). Similar readings were taken for a healthy
and an unhealthy cypress (Table 1-12).
The data collected near the pine trees indicates a possible positive
relationship between the occurrence of combustible gas and stress symptoms.
The data collected near the cypress are inconclusive due to the very low
concentrations of combustible gas.
85
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TABLE 1-12. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
BENEATH HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY TREES
OAKLAND SCAVENGER COMPANY-DAVIS STREET SANITARY
LANDFILL, SAN LEANDRO, CALIFORNIA
Healthy Trees Unhealthy Trees
Monterey Monterey
Pine Cypress Pine Cypress
Sample Depth 1' 2' 1' 2' 1' 2' 1' 2'
0 19! - - - 20 - 21 -
CO i|-| _ _ _ 0 - 0 -
Combustible Gas 5-| 0 - 20^ - trace
^Average of 1-8 readings
Marine Park Golf Course, San Leandro, California
Nine holes of this eighteen hole golf course have been constructed on
a completed landfill. The filling operations ceased in 1967 and the course
was completed in 1972. Most of the refuse consisted of nonputrescible con-
struction debris and paper deposited to a depth not exceeding twenty feet.
Two to three feet of clay were put over the refuse as cover.
The golf course has not experienced problems with settlement or exces-
sive loss of vegetation. A wide variety of trees and shrubs are growing
over the site. Eucalyptus trees, many of which are over twenty feet tall,
were the most noticable species. One area where several large pine trees
had died was pointed out by the grounds-keepers. No combustible gas was
found in this area. Mr. Frank Green, superintendent, attributed much of
this loss to the roots growing into the refuse.
One area was reported to have some sewage sludge deposited in it. A
variety of trees was growing in this area and appeared to be doing well, as
was the grass. The only apparent interference with good grass growth was
that caused by puddling in areas of poor drainage.
At a depth of two feet, throughout an area where healthy eucalypti were
growing, combustible gas readings ranged from trace to over fifty percent at
nine of the eleven sampling points. At a one-foot depth only two of these
eleven points had any combustible gas (approximately two percent and five
percent). These data indicate that the heavy clay cover-material was prob-
ably effective in containing the landfill gases.
86
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Mountain View Sanitary Landfill, Mountain View, California
This operating landfill will be converted to a golf course when com-
pleted. The entire area has been reclaimed from San Francisco Bay by diking.
The refuse ranges in depth from twenty-five feet to about forty feet and the
cover material, while variable over the site, averages about two feet. A
1200#/cubic yard refuse density is said to be obtained in the landfill.
Three areas were examined. The first had a variety of eucalyptus species,
planted by the University of California in about five feet of cover. These
seemed to be doing well. Seven points were sampled in this area but only
one contained combustible gas, and that was at a depth of three feet.
The second area examined had a row of eucalyptus trees which were plant-
ed on the most inland dike. Many of these trees were dead and most of those
still living were experiencing severe dieback. The soil in this area was
very hard and dry. Two of the dead trees were checked for combustible gas.
None was found.
The third area examined was a 380' x 290' nursery of young trees which
are to be transplanted when the golf course is landscaped. This area is on
the refuse and the cover consists of one foot of compacted clay underlying
two feet of loam, into which sewage sludge was incorporated. The trees are
irrigated. These plantings are expected to help in the selection of tree
species for planting on the golf course. The plot is laid out in a grid
pattern containing twenty-five species and nineteen individuals of each
species. The different species varied in their reaction to this situation,
some being healthier than others. The redwood trees Sequoia gigantea and
S. serpervirens had the greatest problem adjusting; all had died.
The feature of interest was not the ability of the different trees to
grow here, but rather the ability of the clay layer to contain the landfill
gas. Of thirty-two combustible gas readings taken at a one-foot depth, only
five recorded the presence of combustible gas (ranging from a trace to
about fifty percent). The four high readings were all obtained from within
a forty-five foot long oblong area near the edge of the plot. Of fourteen
combustible gas readings taken at two-foot depths, only two contained com-
bustible gas, and that was only at trace concentrations. At a depth of
three feet, all thirteeen points tested contained combustible gas. The
readings ranged from a trace to greater than fifty percent.
South Coast Botanic Garden, Palos Verdes, California
The South Coast Botanic Garden is located on the Palos Verdes peninsula.
It was constructed on an eighty-seven acre former landfill having a maximum
depth of 165 feet. The landfill was constructed from 1957 to 1965 in a
former diatomaceous-earth mine which had operated from 1929 to 195^. Diato-
maceous earth was used as landfill cover.
The Botanic Garden, which was begun in 1961, is one of the first to be
developed on a completed sanitary landfill. It "boasts of 1^0 plant families,
about 700 genera and over 2,000 species, with a total of more than 150,000
87
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plants. The entire garden, with the exception of a concrete-lined pond was
placed over a former municipal and industrial waste landfill.
The garden was observed to "be well vegetated and presented a pleasing
appearance. Problems establishing vegetation on the site were reported,
these include wind toppling trees, settlement, and high soil temperatures.
This survey confirmed the problems that were reported. Of particular inter-
est was the occurrence of high soil temperatures which were apparently ex-
cluding the growth of vegetation in at least one area (Table 1-13). Opera-
tors of the garden blamed many vegetation losses upon high soil temperatures
but not on landfill gases. However, high concentrations of landfill gases
were frequently found associated with high soil temperatures.
TABLE 1-13. PERCENT COMPOSITION OF SOIL GASES AND SOIL
TEMPERATURES AT HEALTHY AND DEAD OR POORLY
GROWING VEGETATION
SOUTH COAST BOTANIC GARDEN, PALOS VERDES, CALIFORNIA
Healthy Vegetation
Dead or Poorly
Growing Vegetation
African Hybrid Broom African
Daisy Cytisis Daisy
racemosis
Hybrid Broom
Cytisis
racemosis
Sample Depth
1' 13" 36" I1 13" 36" 1' 13" 36" 1' 13" 36"
°
11
Ik
n -
co
0
15
Combustible Gas
Temperature °F
0 - - >15 - 22
109 - 6l 73 - 99 130 - 102 10k
Note: Ambient air temperature = 50°F @ 8:If5 am and 65°F @ 2:30 pm
In this survey of the Garden, combustible gas and elevated levels of
carbon dioxide were found at a depth of one foot in several areas. An
examination of the soil atmospheres near four living and two dead acacia
trees revealed a possible correlation between the death of the trees and
the presence of landfill gases in the soil atmosphere (Table I-lU). There
was also evidence of a canker disease on some of these trees both living
and dead. To what extent this disease contributed to the demise of these
trees could not be determined in these uncontrolled field conditions.
An area where grass was observed to be growing very poorly or not at
all was compared with an area where the grass was doing very well. Com-
-------
bustible gas and carbon dioxide were found to be much higher in the soil
•where the grass wasn't growing well (Table I-lU).
TABLE I-lU. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AND SOIL
TEMPERATURES** AT HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY VEGETATION
SOUTH COAST BOTANIC GARDEN, PALOS VERDES, CALIFORNIA
Healthy
Unhealthy
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
Acacia Grass
Trees
1' 3' 1' 3'
l&l - 19|
2 0
T T
Acacia
Trees
1' 3'
13
12
19
Grass
r 3'
17
7
11
Temperature °F
60
57
78
6k
*Ayerage of U-ll readings
**Single readings
It appeared that much of the success of the vegetation growth was asso-
ciated with the lack of landfill gases in the root zone. This may have been
due to the diatomaceous earth cover -material acting as a gas barrier.
South Coast County Park, Palos Verdes, California
South Coast County Park is located across Crenshaw Boulevard from the
South Coast Botanic Garden. It currently consists of a twenty-five acre
former landfill tract which is being used as a park. Ultimately the park
will cover 173 acres of former landfill, and it will include an eighteen
hole golf course plus other recreational facilities. Some settlement has
occurred and migration of combustible gas into an adjacent church building
south of the landfill had to be corrected by venting through an induced
draft system. This gas is burned in an outdoor flare.
Manhattan rye grass planted on the site appears green and luxuriant.
Some planted trees are underlain with a layer of large gravel and vented
with vertical 1+ 1/U I.D. plastic pipe to a depth of two feet. The area is
well irrigated, fertilized, and aerated. The soil temperatures fell between
50° to 57° F.
Landfill gas is extracted from this site by Reserve Synthetic Fuels,
Inc. , who produce pipeline quality methane for sale to the local gas com-
pany.
89
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Data are presented in Table 1-15 comparing two sets of planted trees.
In both cases, high concentrations of combustible gas were found in the root
zone of the poorly growing trees while very little was found in the root
zones of the healthy trees.
TABLE 1-15. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY VEGETATION
SOUTH COAST COUNTY PARK, PALOS VERDES, CALIFORNIA
Healthy Vegetation
Melaleuca Aleppo
Sample Depth
°2
COQ
1'
7
5
Pine
3' 1' 3'
17
i
•2.
Dead or Chlorotic Vegetation
Melaleuca Aleppo
Pine
1' 3' 1' 3'
3i 11 -
U3 - 25 -
Combustible Gas
>50
>50 >50 >50 >50
*Single readings
Mountain Gate Golf Course, Santa Monica, Los Angeles, California
Mountain Gate Golf Course is a privately owned eighteen-hole executive
golf course which was built on the site of a landfill (Mission Canyon #U
and #5) which operated from 19^5 to 1972. Plantings of Pinus halepensis
(Aleppo pine), Eucalyptus, Myaporum, Acacia, Ficus and other species were
established in 1973- Grass types consist of Penncross Bent on the greens,
Seaside Bent on collars, and Bermuda grass on the fareways.
Extensive settling has been experienced on the golf course, amounting
to as much as eleven feet in a single year. Daylight cracks are observable
between landfill and non-landfill areas. The main irrigation lines are
buried only in virgin ground. They are elevated above ground in the refuse
deposition area. Flexible couplings and elevators permit movement within
the piping system as settling occurs. Still there are about two breaks per
week in the feeder lines as a result of uneven settlement of the underground
pipes. The seven greens in the refuse deposition areas are underlain with
four to five-inch thick concrete slabs, buried 2^> to 3 feet in the ground.
A four to five-inch-deep layer of one-inch stone overlays the concrete slabs.
Still, high combustible gas readings were observed in the soils of the greens.
It has been estimated by the golf course construction superintendent that
costs of maintenance of a golf course on a landfill (including irrigation,
repair of daylight cracks and piping, drainage, etc.) are twenty percent
higher than on a conventional course.
90
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The soil atmospheres in areas where the vegetation was growing well were
compared with that in areas where the vegetation was growing poorly. Two
two-needle pine trees were compared, one of which was dead and the other
alive. The combustible gas in the soil near each of the trees was about the
same "but C02 was lower and 02 was higher near the tree which was living
(Table I-l6 ). Where aleppo pines and Eucalyptus trees were growing poorly
landfill gases were found in the soil atmosphere, and where these trees were
growing well no landfill gases were found (Table I-l6).
TABLE I-16. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY VEGETATION
MOUNTAIN GATE GOLF COURSE, SANTA MONICA, CALIFORNIA
Dead or Poor
Healthy Vegetation Growth Vegetation
Two-Needle Aleppo Pine Two-Needle Aleppo Pine
Pine & Eucalyptus Pine & Eucalyptus
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
1'
Ik
7*
5-15
1'
20
0
0
I1 1'
9 9?
12-3- 5
5-15 >50
^Single readings
Mission Canyons #1, 2, and 3, Los Angeles, California
In June, 1960, the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County
commenced sanitary landfilling operations in Mission Canyons 1, 2, and 3,
located in the Santa Monica mountains in northwestern Los Angeles (Figure
!-!.)• Operations continued until October, 1965 when they were shifted
southerly to Mission Canyons k and 5 which were to become Mountain Gate
Golf Course.
By January of 1976 a grass cover had been established on MC #1; MC #2.
had been planted along its easterly side with a 50 to 100-foot wide land-
scaped buffer zone; and MC #3 had been developed into a park containing
grass, shrubbery, and trees.
Deposition of refuse in MC #1 was completed in 1963. Three or more
feet of cover was reported to have been placed over this ten acre area,
which is now planted with mixed grasses including alfalfa. These grasses,
which are irrigated regularly, appear to be healthy. However, there are
continuing problems with extensive, uneven settlement and with "daylight
91
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HOMES
PUBLIC
BUILDINGS
vo
ro
CANYON
Figure 1-1. Mission Canyon Landfills 1, 2, and 3, North Sepulveda Blvd,. Los Angeles, California
-------
cracks" along the interface of the refuse and virgin ground.
Mission Canyon #2 is a fifteen acre tract atop a landfill started in
1962 and completed in 1965. Currently one and-a-half acres along the eastern
boundary have been developed toward its ultimate use as an aesthetic barrier
between adjacent, developed residential areas and future landfill operations.
Plantings of 1973 > which are located primarily on a seven to eight-foot deep
berm at the eastern edge of the refuse, appear to be growing well. This may
be due, at least in part, to the presence of five operating gas-extraction
wells on the tract. These wells were installed to prevent lateral gas migra-
tion. Two ground gas checks in the vicinity of the landscape barrier revealed
only very minor amounts of combustible gas in the soil atmospheres.
Mission Canyon #3 is a ten-acre park built on a landfill that was con-
structed between 1960 and 19&5- The refuse is reported to be as deep as 200
feet in places. Grass has been planted over the park along with scattered
trees. The main plantings were Eucalyptus and Pinus plus a few Acacia.
The surface of this park was original]y graded to promote drainage
towards the periphery of the park. Since the original landscaping in 1973
settlement has reversed this grade so that at the present time most of the
runoff is carried towards the center of the park. Here the refuse is deep-
est and settlement has been most extensive.
Table 1-17 presents field data. In general, little combustible gas was
found in the soil atmosphere until the three foot-depth was reached. This
may have "been due, at least in part, to the ten gas-extraction wells located
around this site. Landfill gases were not found in the root zones of the
vegetation. The gases collected are burned in a waste-gas burner located
near the bottom of Mission Canyon. The trees and grass in general appeared
to be growing fairly well. However, there were a number of bare spots in
the lawn, a few of the trees were doing poorly, and a majority of the pines
appeared chlorotic. In places the soil was water-logged at the time of our
visit, apparently because of recent irrigation.
93
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TABLE I-l?. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY VEGETATION
MISSION CANYON #3, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
Healthy Vegetation Unhealthy Vegetation
Eucalyptus Two-Needle Grass Eucalyptus Two-Needle Grass
PinePine
Sample Depth I1
02 20i
CO 0
Combustible Gas 0
1' I1 1'
21 21 17*
001*
000
1' 1'
20* 21
2 0
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TABLE 1-18. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY COM
HUNTER FARM, CINNAMINSON, NEW JERSEY
Good Corn Growth. Poor Corn Growth
Sample Depth 1' 3' 'I1 3'
02 !3i - Si -
co2 Ui 20 -
Combustible Gas - 0 - 15
^Average of 2 readings
DeEugenio Brothers Peachtree Farm, Glassboro, New Jersey
Landfilling at this site adjacent to the peach orchard began in Febru-
ary, 1968. The filled material included refuse collected from household
collections plus some demolition material, industrial waste and sewage sludge.
The landfill is located in a former sand-and gravel-pit which had a depth of
about twenty feet. Upon completion of the landfill, the peach farmer had
hoped to plant additional peach trees over the filled area by enlarging the
adjacent orchard. However, in 1971, two years after the completion of the
filling operations adjacent to the N-E side of the orchard, peach trees
closest to the refuse filled area began to die. One year later soil gas
measurements were made, and combustible gases and C0p were detected beneath
many of the dead trees.
By June 1975, many additional trees had died. Soil gas checks in the
area revealed that combustible gas was beneath a chlorotic, mostly defoli-
ated mature peach tree, while no combustible gas was found beneath the adja-
cent mature peach tree which showed moderate growth (Table 1-19).
New seedlings had been planted on the southeast side of the landfill
and the trees in the row closest to the landfill had all died. Combustible
gas was present beneath a dead tree in this first row, but it was not
present beneath a living tree in the second row away from the refuse. The
presence of combustible gas was found to be directly related to the death
of peach trees in this orchard adjacent to the refuse landfill.
95
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TABLE 1-19. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
VS PEACH TREE VIABILITY
DE EUGENIC PEACH ORCHARD, GLASSBORO, NEW JERSEY
Good Growth Trees Poor Growth or Dead Trees
Saplings Mature Saplings Mature
Sample Depth
o2
co,.
1'
19
0
3' 1' 3'
20
0
1'
19
0
3' 1' 3'
- !6t -
Ji
Combustible Gas - 0-0
*A11 readings are single samples
University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
The University of Connecticut began a project in 1970 to determine if
corn could be grown over a completed landfill. One hundred and fifty foot
long trenches thirty feet wide and about ten feet deep were spaced thirty
feet apart and filled with mostly newspapers. A corn crop was subsequently
planted over the trenches and intertrench areas. The project ran out of
funds at this time. However, a decrease in corn yield was observed over the
trenches as compared to the intertrench areas. The soil over the trench
areas was also reported to be of poorer quality.
In 1975, alfalfa and clover were planted over this area. Our field
observations of these crops showed a significant decrease in flower height
over the trench areas (Table 1-20). Some sample stations in the trench
(poor growth) area contained combustible gas at three feet while other
sample stations contained no combustible gas. No sample stations in the
intertrench (good growth) areas contained combustible gas. Therefore, in
some cases, the presence of combustible gas related directly to poor vege-
tation growth while in other cases there was no correlation between poor
growth and the presence of combustible gas.
96
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TABLE 1-20. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT AREAS OF
GOOD AND POOR GROWTH,ALFALFA AND VETCH
UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT, STORES, CONNECTICUT
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
Good Growth
3'
17*
0
0
Poor Growth
31
20
0
0-33
•^Average of 1-9 readings
Farmington Sanitary Landfill, Unionvllle, Connecticut
This landfill contains an average of about twenty-five feet of munic-
ipal refuse covered with about two feet of soil. The landfill was completed
in 1973.
The area examined had been planted with about 200 Scotch pine trees.
Few of them were still living when this data was collected. Lack of care
and competition from volunteer species, particularly quaking aspen, might
account for their demise. A good deal of variation was noted in the condi-
tion and dispersal of the quaking aspens over the site. A negative rela-
tion was found between the presence of combustible gas and CO and the con-
dition and dispersal of aspens. Several patches of tall (5 to 8 feet) dense
stands of aspens were observed. In other areas the aspens were under four
feet tall and scattered, or they weren't growing at all. Where the quaking
aspens were doing well no combustible gas was found at the one-foot depth
and an average of -| percent C0? and 19 percent 0 was found in the soil
atmosphere. Where the trees weren't growing, or were growing poorly, the
soil atmosphere contained, on the average, about 1 percent combustible gas,
9 percent C0_ and Ik percent Q at the one-foot depth (Table 1-21).
This data is consistent with the possibility that the presence of land-
fill gases hindered the establishment of the aspens on this site.
97
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TABLE 1-21. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT AREAS OF
HEALTHY AND POOR GROWING QUAKING ASPENS
FARMINGTON SANITARY LANDFILL, UNIONVILLE, CONNECTICUT
Healthy Aspens Poor Growing Aspens
Sample Depth 1' 1'
0 19 3A
Combustible Gas 0
^Average of 3 readings
Holyoke Sanitary Landfill #1, Holyoke, Massachusetts
This landfill was begun in 1960 and was still in operation when this
data was collected. The refuse is about forty feet deep and consists almost
entirely of incinerator ash.
No attempts had been made to establish vegetation on the site. Dead
trees were observed adjacent to the landfill. No combustible gas was found
on or adjacent to the site indicating that very little anaerobic decomposi-
tion was taking place in the refuse. The trees had apparently been killed
by soil eroding from the site.
Holyoke Sanitary Landfill #2, Holyoke, Massachusetts
This landfill operated from 19&9 through 1973- It contains municipal
refuse mixed with incinerator ash to depths of 120 feet in some places.
Of interest at this site were some black cherry trees growing adjacent
to the refuse on virgin soil. A good relationship can be seen between death
of black cherry and the percent of combustible gas in the soil atmosphere.
Under two dead black cherry trees combustible gas in the root zone averaged
10| percent of the soil atmosphere at a three-foot depth. Combustible gas
concentrations were higher near the tree which had died this year as com-
pared with the tree which had been dead for over a year. Under a live black
cherry, twenty feet from the dead trees, no combustible gas was found (Table
1-22).
There was very little vegetation growing on the landfill. Nothing was
planted and very small patches of voluntary weed species were seeding them-
selves. The cover material on the landfill was very dry and rocky; no top-
soil had been put on it. In some areas the cover had eroded exposing the
refuse.
98
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TABLE 1-22. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT LIVING AND DEAD BLACK CHERRY TREES
HOLYOKE SANITARY LANDFILL #2, HOLYOKE, MASSACHUSETTS
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Living Cherry
1' 3'
19
0
Dead Cherry
1' 3'
19
i
2
Combustible Gas - 0
•^Average of 1-7 readings
Erlton Park, Cherry Hill, New Jersey
This 9-10 acre completed sanitary landfill was formerly a sand and
gravel pit. General municipal refuse was deposited here, beginning in .1963,
to a depth of ten to sixty feet. Dumping was completed in 1970, an<3- efforts
to turn the site into a park were begun.
It appeared that less than half of the original trees planted at this
park in 197^ were still alive. However, today's tests did not indicate any
particular relationship between the presence or absence of combustible gas
in the root zone and death or life of the vegetation (Table 1-23). In most
instances no combustible gas was found in the root zones of either the live
or the dead trees. The high rate of tree death may have been due to poor
tree-planting practice.
Hard soil layers were noted below the one-foot depth over much of the
park. These layers may be keeping the gas from the tree roots and sending
it to the vents around the periphery of the former landfill.
99
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TABLE 1-23. PERCENT COMBUSTIBLE GAS IN SOIL GASES
AT LIVING AND DEAD TREES
EARLTOR PARK, CHERRY HILL, NEW JERSEY
Living Trees
Two-Needle Poplar Spruce
Pine
Dead Trees
Two-Needle Poplar
Pine
Fir
Sample Depth
2'
3' 1' 2' 3' 1' 2'
0 5000000
Kenilworth Demonstration Landfill, Washington, D.C.
The completed landfill is about thirty feet deep and covers approximately
250 acres. It was started in 19^2 with only incinerator ash. From 1969 to
1970 a project described as a period of model landfill operations was con-
ducted during which time raw household refuse, as well as incinerator ash,
were deposited. The entire area was then completed with a final twenty-four
to thirty inch deep soil cover.
Between 1970 and 1975 about 200 trees were planted. These included red
oak, sugar maple, and willow. The trees were not irrigated after planting.
At least fifty percent of the trees showed signs of chlorosis with many of
these being partially or completely defoliated at the time of our visit.
Combustible gas checks in the root zones of all but two trees failed to
reveal combustible gas. Many of these trees had apparently died from lack
of water. The two trees with combustible gas in the root zone were entirely
defoliated. A relation between dead trees and the presence of combustible
gas existed in some, but not all instances (Table I-2U).
100
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TABLE I-2U. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT LIVING AND DEAD TREES
KENILWORTH DEMONSTRATION LANDFILL, WASHINGTON, D.C.
Living Trees Dead Trees
Sugar Maple Sweetgum Sugar Maple Sweetgum
Sample Depth
°2
co2
Combustible Gas
1' 1'
18
0
0 0
1' 1'
5
12
>5 0
*Average of 1-2 readings
Holtsville Sanitary Landfill, Brookhaven, New York
This former landfill covers approximately fifteen acres. Landfilling
began around 1955 in an old sand and gravel pit. All types of refuse were
accepted including municipal waste, industrial waste and some burned
material. The refuse was placed thirty to forty feet below the ground sur-
face and twenty to thirty feet above the surface over part of the landfill.
One to six inches of daily cover were spread over the refuse at the end of
each day's landfilling operation. The future of this landfill as a park was
considered when the final cover was being spread. One foot of sand was
placed directly over the refuse and one foot of loam was spread over the
sand for the promotion of good grass growth.
Over the former refuse fill area there is a general growth of grass and
weeds. Grasses appear to dominate. The area is presently unused, but it is
to be developed into a park. There is a parking lot to the south of the fill
area and a wood lot on the west side. Dead and dying oaks and pines were ob-
served on the south and west sides adjacent to the refuse.
An excellent relationship (Table 1-25) was found between the presence of
combustible gas in the soil and the death of deeper rooted vegetation (oak
and pines approximately twenty-five years old) adjacent to the landfill. No
combustible gases were found in the root zone of viable vegetation, but high
concentrations were found in the root zones of the dead trees adjacent to
the landfill.
101
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TABLE 1-25. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT LIVE AND DEAD RED OAKS
HOLTSVILLE SANITARY LANDFILL, HOLTSVILLE, NEW YORK
Live Red Oaks Dead Red Oaks
First Tree Second Tree First Tree Second Tree
Sample Depth 1' 3' 1' 3' I1 3' I1 3'
Og - 12 - 18 k - 12
pn
U 2 .9-0 28 - 10
Combustible Gas 0 - 0 - ho >50
^Average of 1-3 readings
Kings Park Sanitary Landfill, Smithtown, New York
The twenty-three acre landfill, which was begun in 1971 in a former sand
and gravel pit, was still in operation at the time this data was collected.
The refuse is of a general municipal type and averages about sixty feet in
depth. No vegetation was observed growing on the landfill.
Adjacent to the landfill, on the south side, many dead large oak trees
were observed in a woodlot, located between the landfill and Old Northport
Road. A dead white oak about thirty feet tall was compared with a living
white oak of about the same size. Both trees were located in the woodlot.
A dead hemlock six feet tall was compared with a living hemlock seven feet
tall. Both hemlocks were planted in 1970 by the city on the edge of the
woodlot nearest the road. Soil atmosphere concentrations of combustible gas
and carbon dioxide were found in much greater concentrations in the root zones
of the dead trees than in the root zones of live trees. Oxygen concentrations
in the soil were much lower at the dead trees than at the live trees
(Table 1-26).
102
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TABLE 1-26. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT LIVE AND DEAD TREES
KINGS PARK SANITARY LANDFILL, KINGS PARK, NEW YORK
Live Trees
Dead Trees
White Oak
Hemlock
White Oak
Hemlock
Sample Depth
°0
2
co2
l1 31
11
8
1' 3'
20
2
1' 3' l1 3'
k - 6i
32 - 19^
Combustible Gas
1-2
0
>50
7!
12
^Average of 1-3 readings
Huntington Sanitary Landfill, Huntington, New York
It had been reported that many large oak trees adjacent to this land-
fill had been killed. An on-site investigation revealed dead trees adjacent
to, and around most of the landfill. The incinerator ash and municipal ref-
use had been placed in a fifty-five foot deep former sand and gravel pit.
An area near the southeast corner of the landfill along Town Line Road was
chosen for this investigation.
A comparison of the soil atmospheres at the living and dead oak trees
adjacent to the landfill (Table 1-2?) show that extremely high carbon dioxide
and combustible gas readings were associated with the dead oaks. Generally
lower oxygen concentrations were found in the soil atmospheres at the dead
trees than at the live trees. In many cases it was found that the soil
beneath the dead trees was septic at the depth of six inches while that
beneath the live trees was aerobic. The dead trees on the west side of Town
Line Road closest to the landfill didn't have any leaves. The dead trees on
the east side of the road still held their dead leaves indicating that the
trees farthest from the landfill had died more recently than those nearer
the landfill.
Soil temperatures were higher where the higher combustible gas and
carbon dioxide and low oxygen concentrations were found (Table 1-27).
A limited number of vertical convection vents had been installed along
the southern end of the landfill, but trace amounts of combustible gas were
found 130 feet from the landfill in the adjacent wood lot. The soil around
this landfill is very sandy. This apparently facilitates the movement of
the gases generated within the landfill into the adjacent undisturbed land.
103
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TABLE 1-27. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AND SOIL
TEMPERATURES** AT LIVING AND DEAD TREES
HUNTINGTON LANDFILL, HUNTINGTON, NEW YORK
Living Trees Dead Trees
Red Oak Scarlet Oak Red Oak Scarlet Oak
Sample Depth 1' 3' 1' 3' 1' 3' 1' 3'
00
2
co2
- 12
- 9* -
- 8|
- 35
8
Uo
Combustible Gas k - 0 - 50 - 30
Temperature °F 6U - 58 - 65-78
*Average of 1-3 readings
**Single readings
Bethpage Sanitary Landfill, Oyster Bay, New York
This forty acre landfill is located in a very sandy soil region of Long
Island. The landfill contains general municipal refuse, ash, and demolition
debris which has been placed in a former sand and gravel pit that averages
about forty feet deep. In many areas the refuse is piled to a total depth
of sixty to eighty feet. Adjacent to the easterly side of the landfill and
across Winding Road is a bridle trail. It was noted that most of the mature
red and white oaks (Uo to 50 feet in height) in the area were dead, but most
of the understory vegetation was living.
Near the dead oaks, both combustible gas at one foot and carbon dioxide
at three feet were very high (35 to 4of0) and oxygen readings at three feet
were low (5 to 10$). Landfill gases appear to have migrated to about seventy
feet from the landfill. No live trees were accessible for comparison with
the dead oaks.
It appears that the demise of the native trees in this area was due to
the pollution of the soil by gases migrating underground from the landfill
across the street. The understory vegetation may still be living because of
its shallower root system.
Deb - TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL COOL SUMMER CLIMATE
Roussel Park, Haines Road, Nashua, New Hampshire
This site had been an open dump which was covered with five feet of
gravel, on top of which was placed six inches of loam. The refuse is ten to
104
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twelve feet thick and consists mostly of municipal type refuse. The cover
material has been planted with grass which was observed to be providing
adaquate cover. Two baseball parks and a monument have been established on
the site.
Correlation between the presence of combustible gas and death of
American elm and slippery elm (located adjacent to the refuse) was not very
good. At a depth of three feet, comparable concentrations (0$> to kctfo of the
soil atmosphere) of combustible gas were found under healthy trees and dead
trees. There was also a dead tree near which no combustible gas was found.
The possibility exists that combustible gas, present at an earlier time,
killed the tree, and has subsequently left this tree's root zone. Dutch elm
disease is also very prevalent in this region, although its characteristic
symptoms were not noticeable on this dead tree.
In the root zone of one slippery elm there was found between fifteen
percent and thirty-five percent combustible gas in the soil atmosphere at
2' and 3' respectively. There was a small branch on this tree with yellowing
leaves which appeared symptomatic of Dutch elm disease.
Oxygen concentrations at one foot were about normal (l8$>) under both
living and dead trees. Under one dead elm a C0p concentration of 2.5% was
recorded at a one-foot depth. The highest combustible gas concentrations
(kctfo] were recorded at this spot at a three foot depth, but no combustible
gas was noted at a one- foot depth in this area.
In summary, correlation between the presence of landfill gas in the
soil atmospheres and dead trees was poor at this site.
Guilderland Landfill, Guilderland, New York
This landfill was still operating when this data was collected. The
area of the landfill where the data was collected was completed in 1971.
The landfill contains municipal refuse on top of which there is about two
feet of cover material. This area had been seeded with rye grass but with
poor success.
Volunteer species were observed growing on the site, most notably:
quaking aspens, staghorn sumac, milkweed, and Queen Anne's lace. This
volunteer vegetation, .along with the rye grass, was observed to be occurring
in isolated clumps with bare and sparsely vegetated areas between. The
areas where the vegetation was growing well were compared with the areas
where the vegetation was growing poorly or not at all. Combustible gas and
COp concentrations at a depth of one foot in the soil were considerably
higher where the vegetation wasn't growing well. Oxygen concentrations at
a one foot depth were very low in the poor growth areas averaging only 2.5$
of the soil atmosphere as compared with l6.ty/0 in the good growth areas
(Table 1-28). The data indicates that the composition of the soil atmo-
sphere on this landfill was probably playing a major role in determining
where the vegetation was able to establish itself.
105
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TABLE 1-28. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT GOOD AND POOR GROWTH VEGETATION
GUILDERLAND LANDFILL, GUILDERLAND, NEW YORK
Good Growth Poor Growth
Sample Depth 1' 1'
°2
«. ~\
r*r\ o-i.
L-U £-0
o ^-
Combustible Gas 3
^Average of U - 10 readings
City of Auburn North Division Street Sanitary Landfill, Auburn, New York
This landfill was operating at the time this data was collected. The
area on the landfill with which this report is concerned was completed about
fifteen years ago and is estimated to contain about twenty feet of municipal
refuse. The cover appeared to range in depth from two to three feet. Grass
was doing very well on the site as were many of the trees which had become
established on the site.
Of particular interest was a row of willow trees which were showing
wide variations in growth. There was a negative correlation between the
height of the willow trees and the concentrations of combustible gas in the
soil atmosphere. There were three distinct height categories with different
gas concentrations in their root zones. At the two-foot depth, the willows
which were twenty feet high had an average of less than one percent combus-
tible gas in the soil atmosphere; the ten-foot high trees had an average of
8.5% combustible gas at the two-foot depth; and in the area where the trees
had died and been removed, the soil atmosphere contained an average of 30.5%
combustible gas at a two-foot depth (Table 1-29).
The fact that increased combustible gas in the soil atmosphere corre-
lated with a decrease in the height of the tree may indicate an adverse
response to the presence of combustible gas in the soil atmosphere.
106
-------
TABLE 1-29- PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT
WILLOW TREES SHOWING VARIOUS GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS
CITY OF AUBURN NORTH DIVISION STREET SANITARY LANDFILL,
AUBURN, NEW YORK
20' Tall and Healthy 10' Tall Dead and Removed
Sample Depth 1' 2' 1' 2' 1' 2'
0 20 - 19
co2 o - | - i
Combustible Gas 1 5% - 30|
*Average of 2-h readings
South Eastern Oakland Incinerator Authority, Oakland County, Michigan
This landfill was completed in a former sand and gravel pit in 1968 and
contains an average of about thirty- five feet of municipal refuse mixed with
incinerator ash. This landfill has had problems with landfill gases migrat-
ing into adjacent property, particularly on the western edge. It was in this
area that this data was collected, in and around a row of lombardy poplars
planted adjacent to the landfill. Most of the lombardy poplars were dead
at the time that this data was collected.
A negative correlation between weed and grass growth and combustible
gas present at one foot was very good. There was no combustible gas present
at one foot where the weeds and grass were growing well. At spots where
there was no weed or grass growth, combustible gas averaged twenty- two per-
cent of the soil atmosphere at the one foot depth. Also in these bare areas
0 averaged nine percent of the soil atmosphere and CO averaged k. 5
-------
the soil and necrosis was seen on the foliage, the dieback of the leaves
usually began at the tips of the branches and progressed down towards the
base of the plant.
TABLE 1-30. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT GOOD
GROUND COVER AND NO VEGETATION GROWTH AREAS
SOUTHEAST OAKLAND INCINERATOR AUTHORITY LANDFILL,
OAKLAND, MICHIGAN
Weeds and Grass Growing
Well
No Weed or Grass
Growth
Sample Depth
00
2
CO.,
1'
20
0
1'
9
^
Combustible Gas
^Average of 2-9 readings
Cereal City Landfill #1, Battle Creek, Michigan
This landfill has been operating since 195^. It contains an average of
about twenty-four feet of municipal refuse covered with about two feet of
sandy soil where completed. No attempts had been made to vegetate this
cover. This landfill has a history of gas migrating into adjacent property.
This report concerns a row of red pine trees which had been transplanted to
the northern edge of the landfill less than ten feet from the refuse in this
former sand and gravel pit.
There is a negative correlation between the occurrence of landfill
gases and the health of the trees. Where the trees were dead for over two
years, the average percent combustible gas concentrations in the soil atmo-
sphere were 22.7$ at the one-foot depth and 1*9$ at the three-foot depth.
The Q concentrations averaged 12$ and the C0~ averaged 17-5$ at a depth of
one foot. In the area where the trees were living but experiencing some
needle necrosis, the combustible gas averaged .25$ at a one-foot depth and
15$ at a three-foot depth. The CO and 0 concentrations were, respectively
6.5$ and 19.5$ at a depth of one foot (TaGle 1-31).
108
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TABLE 1-31. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES AT
LIVING AND DEAD RED PINE TREES
CEREAL CITY LANDFILL, BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN
Living Red Pine** Dead Red Pine**
Sample Depth 1' 3' 1' 3'
12
C02 6|
Combustible Gas \ 15
*Average of 1-8 readings
**Weeds and grass growing well near live tree, no grass or weed growth near
dead tree.
Cereal City Landfill #2, Battle Creek, Michigan
This landfill has been in operation since 1956. It contains an average
of about twenty-four feet of municipal refuse covered with about two feet of
sandy soil. No attempts have been made to vegetate this cover. This land-
fill has a history of gas migrating onto adjacent property. This report is
concerned with a row of mixed hardwood and coniferous trees located along
the southwest corner of the landfill. Most of these trees, adjacent to this
former sand and gravel pit, were observed to be in decline and many were
dead.
There appears to be an excellent correlation between the presence of
combustible gas in the root zone of the planted trees and death or decline
of these trees. This was found to be true for white spruce, Douglas fir,
white fir and shagbark hickory. The amount of combustible gas in the root
zones of these trees at the one foot depth varied between 5$ and 50$ (with
a mean of 25.6%) of the atmosphere. There were two live white spruce trees
under which the combustible gas concentrations ranged from 10$ to greater
than 50$ (with a mean of 29.5$) of the soil atmosphere at the one-foot depth.
These trees may not have been exposed to the landfill gases as long as the
trees which had been killed, or they could be resistant or have shallow
roots.
A very putrid-smelling, hard soil layer, three inches thick, was
present in the virgin soil where high combustible gas concentrations were
found. The top of this layer was found five inches below the surface, and
it was not present where combustible gas was not found.
Kalamazoo County Landfill, Kl Avenue, Oshtemo Township, Michigan
This landfill has been operating since 1965. It contains municipal
109
-------
and light industrial refuse ranging in depth from eighteen to forty feet.
The final cover was generally two feet thick, but noticeably thinner in some
areas. The completed landfill was planted with clover and fescue with
reasonable success. An area which had recently been planted with Kentucky
31 Fescue was doing very poorly; the cover material in this area was very
thin and dry.
In one area of the landfill a quaking aspen, which was showing no signs
of stress, had an average of Q.h% combustible gas in the soil atmosphere at
a one foot depth, 0 comprised l8.5$> and CO 3.5% of the soil atmosphere at
a one foot depth.
Do - TEMPERATE OCEANIC CLIMATE
East Campus, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
From 1926 to 1955 parts of this 150 acre peat bog area served as an
open-burning dump for the city of Seattle. In 195& "modern" sanitary land-
fill methods were started. The rate of filling the marshland accelerated
from the late 50's until 1966 when filling ceased. However, a series of
surface cover filling, grading and seeding operations altered the landscape,
until 19713 when all but minimal maintenance activities ceased. Today the
central part of this area supports a grassy prairie-like cover bordered by
peat islands, cattails and occasional trees along the shoreline.
Settlement over the area has been extensive. It is reported that por-
tions of the site dropped six feet between 1971 and 1975. Part of this
settlement is believed to be due to the decomposition and compression of the
underlying former peat bogs.
Gas checks over the grasslands area revealed no combustible gas to a
depth of three feet in an area where the grass and weed ground cover was
growing very well. In an area within forty-five feet of the good growth
area, where no grass or other ground cover was growing, combustible gases
were found at high concentrations (>15%) at the one, two and three-foot
depths. The soils in the no-growth area below the four inch depth were dark
and emitted a septic odor. The soils in the good growth area were not septic.
They emitted the normal pleasant soil odor. The areas in the grasslands
which did not contain any vegetation also exhibited numerous cracks in the
surface. In many cases it was noted that the unpleasant odors of the gases
of anaerobic decomposition were being emitted from these cracks. It was
reported that children have frequently set fire to these gases.
In random checks of the soil atmospheres in the root zones of various
trees growing over the refuse filled area outside the grasslands section,
combustible gases were not generally found in the atmosphere of soil less
than two feet deep.
In the vicinity of the golf driving range, where a number of trees
were checked, combustible gases were found in a number of cases at the two-
foot depth and below. These combustible gases were present although the
110
-------
last refuse filling was reported to have been completed in this area prior to
1950. The trees in general appeared to "be growing fairly well in this area.
In general, there was an excellent correlation in the "grasslands area"
between poor and no vegetation ground cover and the presence of combustible
gases within one foot of the surface. Where the combustible gases were
below the two- foot depth the ground cover was doing very well.
Genesee Street Landfill Park Development, Seattle, Washington
This former landfill covers approximately sixty acres. Filling began in
and was completed about 1968. The area north of Genesee Street was com-
pleted in 1963. That south of Genesee Street was completed in 1968. General
landfill refuse was deposited in the fill along with a large amount of demo-
lition debris and ash from the open burned refuse. The refuse varies in
thickness from a few feet to about thirty feet. The cover material depth
ranges from about two to about six feet. The material used for final cover
was mostly glacial till. Substantial settlement has been reported during
the last few years, along with some mounding of ground water in part of the
fill.
Over the former refuse fill area there is a general growth of grasses
and weeds. Grasses appear to dominate. The area is mowed about twice each
year. The north end of the field area is occasionally used as a parking
area. Most of the rest of the fill area is unused in any developed or
planned manner. There are some peat deposits and soft clays beneath part
of the fill area. It is believed that these peat deposits may be compacting
due to the subcharging by the refuse and cover material.
Scattered barren spots were noted over the surface of the ground at
various locations. These barren areas frequently contained many surface
cracks, and occasionally the odors of the gases of anaerobic decomposition
of organic matter in the landfill were detected. The soils from these
barren combustible gas-laden areas were found to be soft, wet, dark-colored,
and emitting septic odors. The soils where good grass and tree growth were
taking place did not contain combustible gas, was dry and hard, and did not
emit septic odors.
An oval area approximately 20'/9' j ha^ no vegetation growing on it. It
was found to have a very high combustible gas concentration (>15$) at one
foot. Soil from the six inch to eight inch depth was dark colored, had a
putrid odor, and was anaerobic. The soil l6|- feet away in an area of good
growing vegetation ground cover showed no combustible gases at the one and
two-foot depths. Soil samples taken to an eleven inch depth were light -
colored, friable, and exhibited no anaerobic odor.
No combustible gas was found at the three -foot depth under a big-leaf
maple tree growing near the sidewalk along the north side of Genesee Street.
At about sixty feet to the north a barren area, around 12 '/27', was checked
for combustible gas. It was found to contain high concentrations of com-
bustible gas in the soil atmosphere.
Ill
-------
Overall, an excellent correlation was found between the presence of
combustible gases in the soil and the lack of surface vegetation. No com-
bustible gases were found in the root zone of viable vegetation.
Day Island Landfill, Eugene, Oregon
This sixty-acre landfill is located in a former sand and gravel pit on
the northeast side of the Willamette River. Between 1963 and 197^- the area
was filled to depths ranging from twelve to thirty feet with general munic-
ipal refuse and construction rubble.
Currently a good general grass and weed growth covers most of the land-
fill. Some of the grasses were three to four feet high. However, there
were numerous small areas where no ground cover existed. The no-growth
station was found to have high concentrations of combustible gas at the one-
foot depth, and the soil was septic at the three-inch depth. At a nearby
good growth station there was no combustible gas to sixteen inches and the
soil was aerobic (Table 1-32).
The soil atmospheres of trees planted for landscaping purposes was
checked, and combustible gas was found in the root zone of a dead tree, but
it was not present in the root zones of two living trees. The soil was also
septic in the root zone of the dead tree, but aerobic in the root zones of
the live trees.
An area of dead and dying trees east of the landfill was surveyed.
Here high concentrations of combustible gas were found in the soil atmo-
spheres within seventy feet of the landfill where the trees were dead or
dying. One-hundred and twenty feet from the landfill, the fifty-to sixty-
foot tall trees were growing very well, and no combustible gas was present
in the soil atmospheres.
As can be seen from Table 1-32, there is an excellent correlation be-
tween the presence of landfill gases in the vegetation root zone and poor or
no vegetation growth.
Soil temperatures were measured on and off the landfill and in gas and
no-gas areas. The results are plotted in Figure 1-2. In general, the
temperature decreased with increasing depth. The highest temperatures were
found where combustible gases were present on and off the landfill. The
lowest temperatures were found off the landfill in the area where no combus-
tible gases were present.
112
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TABLE 1-32.
PERCENT COMBUSTIBLE GAS IN SOIL ATMOSPHERES
AT LIVING, DYING, AND DEAD VEGETATION
DAY ISLAND LANDFILL, EUGENE, OREGON
Sample
Location
Description of
Vegetation
Approximate %
Combustible Gas
Concentration At
Various Depths
Soil
Condition
§
15 at 3'
0 at 1' and 2'
Very hard below l6"
Topsoilr light gray-
brown, pleasant odor
barely moist.
Hard ground below 2'
•d oj
P5 -P
CO 0)
. bQ
Adjacent Ld-Fl
Adjacent Ld-Fl
Adjacent Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
Grass and weeds doing poorly
Many large dead trees.
Good grass cover. Dead white
ash & broadleaf maple trees.
Scattered live brush & grass
Quite a bit of barren soil;
Scattered dead & dying trees.
Barren, no vegetation.
Barren, no vegetation.
Dead red oak that was planted
two years previous.
>15 at 3'
0 at I1;
5-15 at 3'
5-15 at 1'
>15 at 3'
5-15 at 1' and
16"
5-15 at 1';
>15 at 30"
Septic odor, dark
colored & damp; very
hard below l6"
Septic odor, black
and wet
-------
100
90
80
W
I 70
60
0
o
O
KEY
- OFF LANDFILL AND GAS
- ON LANDFILL AND GAS
- ON LANDFILL AND NO GAS
- OFF LANDFILL AND WO GAS
OFF LANDFILL - GAS
o
ON LANDFILL - GAS
O
o
ON LANDFILL - NO GAS
OFF LANDFILL - NO GAS
10 20
DEPTH IN INCHES
30
O
o
O
Figure 1-2. Soil temperatures, Day Island Landfill, June 2k, 1976
114
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John Fowler's Farm, West Salem, Oregon
Approximately two acres of John Fowler's wheat field is located over
about twenty feet of demolition waste that was deposited in 1968-69. This
is a small section of a much larger wheat field. The wheat growing over the
former landfill appeared to be almost as healthy as that growing in the
virgin soil, non-refuse area. Combustible gas was found at less than half
the test stations and then only at very low concentrations. However, there
were some areas where surface settlement had been so extensive that the
area could not be cultivated until it was refilled and replanted. Farmer
Fowler also reported that he experiences difficulty in maintaining an
adequate water supply in the soil over this refuse area because the shallow
soil cover tends to dry out quickly between waterings.
Table 1-33 summarizes the data obtained from the test stations. The
soil was very hard at many of the test stations located over the former
demolition landfill.
TABLE 1-33. PERCENT COMBUSTIBLE GAS IN SOIL
ATMOSPHERES IN WHEAT FIELD
JOHN FOWLER'S FARM, WEST SALEM, OREGON
Sample
Location
Vegetation
Quality
Combustible Gas
Readings
Soil
Condition
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
On Ld-Fl
(In Settled Area)
Adjacent Ld-Fl
13-15" tall wheat
10-21" tall wheat
13-31" tall wheat
14-20" tall wheat
11-23" tall wheat
Scattered weeds
(in settled area)
12-27" tall wheat
0 at 3'
Minor at 21"
0 at 3'
0 at 8"
0 at 1'
Trace at 2'
0 at 3'
Hard to very hard
Damp and dark brown
extremely hard
below
Soft
Rocklike at 8 inch
depth
Hard object at 1'
Soft to 33"
Varying from hard
to soft
NOTE: Many small green aphid-like insects
and many potato beetles were visible
on the wheat.
115
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H - HIGHLAND CLIMATE
Freemont Park, Idaho Falls, Idaho
This 15-17 acre site was a dump where open burning was practiced for
forty years prior to it being converted into a sanitary landfill in 1970.
Landfilling with municipal refuse was practiced from 1970 through 1972. The
unburned refuse ranged in depth from 0 to 15 feet. After the landfilling
ceased the process of converting the site into a park began and was still
proceeding at the time that this data was collected. Due to variability in
the composition of the refuse, a good deal of variability in the stability
of the soil and landfill gas concentrations would be expected over the site.
In general, the grass was growing well throughout the park. However,
many trees seemed to be having growth problems. Many dead and dying spec-
imens were observed. Some of the deaths were apparently due to poor plan-
ting practices; in one case the root ball of a ten-foot high cypress tree
was only half buried.
Data was collected, comparing trees which appeared to be dead or se-
verely stressed with trees of similar size that were not exhibiting any
strees symptoms (Table 1-3*0- Trees that didn't exhibit any evidence that
they had been subjected to poor planting practices were chosen for compar-
ison. The dying and dead trees included: a nine-foot high blue spruce
experiencing about ninety percent needle loss, a fifteen-foot high dead
basswood tree and a fifteen-foot high dead white spruce. These dead and
dying trees were compared with trees of the same species that appeared
healthy. None of these trees were recent transplants to the park.
The data collected doesn't indicate that there is any direct relation-
ship between the demise of the trees and the occurrence of landfill gas
pollution in the soil of this park.
116
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TABLE I-3k. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT GOOD AND POOR GROWTH TREES
FREMONT PARK, IDAHO FALLS, IDAHO
Good Tree Growth Poor Tree Growth
White Blue White Blue
Bass-wood Spruce Spruce Basswood Spruce Spruce
Sample Depth 1' 1' 1' 1' 1' 1'
02 18*
C02 2
Combustible Gas 0 0
8
8
0
Yi
35
3
10
10
0
13
3
0
^Average of 1-3 readings
Red Baron Alfalfa Field, Idaho Falls, Idaho
This landfill was completed in 1970 with ten to fifteen feet of munic-
ipal refuse. Alfalfa and rye grass were planted in 19?6, "but neither grew
very well on the landfill. Settlement was observed to be severe over most
of the site, making cultivation difficult. The person responsible for fann-
ing the area felt that settlement was not the only problem. He noted that
the alfalfa didn't grow well over the refuse.
The entire area being farmed was not on refuse. It was observed that
the alfalfa planted off of the landfill was growing very well, reaching two
to three feet in height. The alfalfa growing over the refuse was difficult
to find. What was growing was mostly less than one foot in height. Weeds
and grass were also growing better in the area off the refuse.
Comparisons were made of the soil atmospheres in the area over the
refuse and that adjacent to the refuse (Table 1-35). The soil appeared to
be of better quality on the virgin land. The cover on the landfill also
appeared to be a little shallow, only about a foot in some areas. Combus-
tible gas and CO concentrations were very high beneath the poor alfalfa
growth and zero Beneath good growth.
This site exemplifies the problems that can occur when trying to grow
vegetation on a completed sanitary landfill. These problems include:
settlement, poor soil conditions, difficulty in maintaining a satisfactory
water balance, and pollution from landfill gases. It appears that a com-
bination of these factors is probably responsible for the vegetation growth
problems encountered on this former landfill.
117
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TABLE 1-35. PERCENT COMPOSITION* OF SOIL GASES
AT GOOD AND POOR GROWTH ALFALFA
RED BARON ALFALFA FIELD, IDAHO FALLS, IDAHO
Good Alfalfa Growth
(Adjacent to landfill)
Poor Alfalfa Growth
(On landfill)
Sample Depth
°o
2
C00
2
Combustible Gas
3'
19!
0
0
3'
51
31^1
>50
^Average of 2-3 readings
Idaho Falls Child Development Center, Idaho Falls, Idaho
The Child Development Center is a special school for handicapped
children. The school was constructed on a former sanitary landfill in 1971.
The landfill operated from 1961 to 196^4 depositing an average of about eight
feet of municipal refuse. Settlement had damaged the building to the extent
that a new roof had to be put on the structure.
Problems were reported with some of the trees that were planted when
the site was landscaped in 1971-1972. Two blue spruces were said to be
having problems growing. Since planting, the trees have grown very poorly
exhibiting only sparse growth during most of the years.
An on-site inspection revealed that the most probable reason for the
poor growth was a cement factory located across the street from the center.
The needles were covered with cement dust to the extent that shaking the
branches caused a cloud of dust to rise. Combustible gas readings near both
trees were very low, ranging from zero to five percent at the three foot
depth. Oxygen and carbon dioxide readings at the same depth were about
normal, oxygen being around twenty percent and carbon dioxide 0.5 percent
or less.
118
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APPENDIX J
FIELD SURVEY DATA-MINERAL CONSTITUENTS AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
TABLE J-l. REGION Ar - TROPICAL, VET
Soil Constituent Top Soil
No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 782 800
Phosphorus 6 6
Potassium 13)4 130
Calcium 12,125 9,750
Ammonia-nitrogen 8 15
Nitrate-nitrogen 119 108
Organic matter 3.9 2.0
Moisture
Iron Tr. Tr.
Manganese 6.25 8.75
Copper 0.90 0.65
Zinc 0.70 1.75
Boron 0.31 0.3U
Iron/Manganese
Conductivity 3.7 U.2
PH 7.7 7.8
percent
Sand 65.0 55.0
Silt 22.0 28.0
Clay 13.0 17.0
119
-------
TABLE J-2. REGION BS - STEPPE
Soil Constituent Top Soil
No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium • 800 800
Phosphorus 2 3
Potassium 1*00 1*00
Calcium 7,200 7,800
Ammonia-nitrogen 2.1* 1.0
Nitrate-nitrogen 20.0 17.0
Moisture 9.5 10.9
Organic Matter
ppm
Iron 2.1*
Manganese 2.0
Copper 0.32
Zinc 0.60
Boron 1.95 2.0
Iron/Manganese 1.2
Conductivity < 0.10 < 0.10
pH 8.5 8.U
percent
Sand 1*0 kk
Silt 3^ 36
Clay 26 20
120
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TABLE J-3. REGION BW - ARID, DESERT
Soil Constituent Top Soil Sub Soil
No Gas Gas No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 800 800 800 800
Phosphorus 106 1?6 152 22?
Potassium 282 297 328 253
Calcium 1,662 1,700 1,683 1,850
Ammonia-nitrogen 11.8 69.3 17-3 17.0
Nitrate-nitrogen 2.8 12.3 3-7 2.0
Moisture -
Organic Matter 1.6 2.1 1.3 1*5
PPM
Iron 0.63 0.50 0.81 3.00
Manganese 8.3 12.7 33-7 37.0
Copper 0.25 O.U2 0.38 0.25
Zinc 0.71 0.70 0.91 5-00
Boron 0.3^ 0.55 0.86 0.30
Iron/Manganese 0.08 0.39 0.02 0.09
Conductivity 0.3^ 0.99 0.79 O.Wi
PH 8.2 8.0 8.1 8.2
percent
Sand 59.8 66.0 6l.O 68.0
Silt 27.8 21.7 26.7 22.0
Clay 12. k 12.3 12-3 10.0
121
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TABLE J-4. REGION Cf - SUBTROPICAL, HUMID
Soil Constituent Top Soil Sub Soil
No Gas Gas No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 164 149 224 143
Phosphorus 63 60 9 9
Potassium 103 82 49 72
Calcium 82? 1,248 4ll 310
Ammonia-nitrogen 8.5 4.5 3.9 10.0
Nitrate-nitrogen 13-7 11.3 3-6 10.0
Moisture 9.3 8.6 5.9 8.5
Organic Matter 1.9 2.1 0.8 1.2
p_pm
Iron 55-2 70.8 24.5 102.4
Manganese 19.5 23.2 11.4 25.5
Copper 0.68 1.16 0.76 1.00
Zinc 2.8 14.3 1.9 7-5
Boron 0.27 0.26 0.22 0.24
Iron/Manganese 2.83 3.05 2.15 4.02
Conductivity (Mols) 0.11 0.13 0.10 0.10
pH 5.6 6.0 5.8 5.8
percent
Sand 66.7 76.3 66.7 66.7
Silt 18.3 12.6 13-3 14.7
Clay 15.0 11.0 20.0 18.7
122
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TABLE J-5. REGION Cs - SUBTROPICAL, DRY SUMMERS
Soil Constituent Top Soil
No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 2,308 2,1*17
Phosphorus 1,07** 1,130
Potassium 163 1,41*0
Calcium 3,275 2,508 *
Ammonia-nitrogen 1*,8 9-0*
Nitrate-nitrogen 27 . 8 29-6
Moisture 5.1 7-6
Organic Matter 22.7 26.8
Iron 2.1* 1*.3
Manganese 13-6 11.1
Copper 5.09 6.18
Zinc 5-22 7.72
Boron
Iron/Mangane se 0 . 18 o . 39
Conductivity 0.81* 1.05
pH 7-3 7.0
percent
Sand 37.3 39-3
Silt 29.3 28.6
Clay 33-3 32.0
^Significant difference at P = 0.05
123
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TABLE J-6. REGION Dca - TEMPERATE, CONTINENTAL, HOT SUMMERS
Soil Constituent Top Soil Sub Soil
No Gas Gas No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 125 186 51 39
Phosphorus 150 l4l 73 73
Potassium 80 104 72 . 86
Calcium 454 645 92 97
Ammonia-nitrogen 4.8 37-1 6.8 35-1
Nitrate-nitrogen 10.6 23-9 10.5 17.4
Moisture 6.3 9.7 8.1+ 10.8
Organic Matter 1.0 1.7 0.9 0.9
Iron 58.2 104.3 57.5 186.4
Manganese 17-5 34.3 11.7 22. 4
Copper 3-5 4.3 1.5 1.9
Zinc 5-5 6.3 2.2 2.1
Boron 0.36 0.23 0.18 0.13
Iron/Manganese 3-32 3.04 It. 91 8.32
Conductivity (mohs) 0.10 0.18 0.12 0.12
PH 5.7 6.0 5.4 5-7
percent
Sand 84.7 76.2 85.8 83.2
Silt 8.4 15.7 7-3 10.3
Clay 7.0 8.1 7-0 6.6
124
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TABLE J-7. REGION Deb - TEMPERATE, CONTINENTAL, COOL SUMMERS
Soil Constituent Top Soil
No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 209 196
Phosphorus 1*K) 121
Potassium 112 150
Calcium 1,965 2,3^9
Ammonia-nitrogen 10.5 33.8 **
Nitrate-nitorgen l46l.O ^71. 3
Moisture lU.8 15.8
Organic Matter 3.1* 2.2
Iron O.h 62. h
Manganese U.8 10.8
Copper 0.15 0.1*5
Zinc 0.80 7.08
Boron - 0.17
Iron/Manganese 0.08 5.8
Conductivity (mohs)
pH 5.7 5.9
percent
Sand 78.3 81.1
Silt 13.1 11.3
Clay 8.6 7.8
** Significant difference at P = 0.01
125
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TABLE J-8. REGION Do - TEMPERATE OCEANIC
Soil Constituent Top Soil Sub Soil
No Gas Gas No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 800 800 800 800
Phosphorus 166 189 206 136
Potassium 15U H1* l8l 175
Calcium 2,676 2,573 2, 760 2,213
Ammonia-nitrogen 2.1 22.7 * 1.7 71-6
Nitrate-nitrogen 23.8 22.0 22.9 52.5
Moisture 8.2 11. h * 23-7 11.7
Organic Matter 2.2 2.1 2.9 3-5
Iron 116.7 162.9 116.0 2U7.7
Manganese 60.0 75-5 58.3 101.3
Copper k.J 6.5 * 3.3 6.2
Zinc 10. k 17.0 * 3-1 6.5
Boron 0.3^ 0.57 0.32 0.3k
Iron/Manganese 1.95 2.16 1.99 2.71
Conductivity (mohs) 0.12 0.26 * 0.19 0.28
pH 6.k 6.9 6.5 6.5
percent
Sand 56.6 U9.8 52.3 51.3
Silt 30 2k. 8
Clay 16 lU.8
^Significant differences at P = 0.05
126
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TABLE J-9. REGION H - HIGHLANDS
Soil Constituent Top Soil Sub Soil
No Gas Gas No Gas Gas
Ib/acre
Magnesium 7^-1 753 690 774
Phosphorus 5 8 10 204
Potassium 166 l8l 95 192
Calcium 8,789 7,6o8 9,424 8,420
Ammonia-nitrogen 1.9 0.9 l.o 2.0
Nitrate-nitrogen 14.2 17.6 10. 0 48.0
Moisture 17.1 l6.2 8.8 22.4
Organic Matter 1.5 2.7 2.9 6.5
Iron 2.4 2.9 2.4 2.0
Manganese 3.6 13.9 8.4 12.0
Copper 0.28 0.20 0.30 0.40
Zinc 0.85 4.00 0.93 1.60
Boron 6.48 6.70 0.29 1.14
Iron/Manganese 0.67 0.21 0.29 0.17
Conductivity 0.10 0.20 0.11 0.15
PH 8.3 8.1 8.2 8.0
percent
Sand 54 60.8 76 8l
Silt 30 24.8 17 14
Clay 16 14.8 7 5
127
-------
OD
TABLE J-10. MEAN PERCENT (%} CHANGE IN CONTENT OF CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS
FROM 9 CLIMATIC REGIONS AS SOIL PROCEEDED FROM NO-GAS TO HIGH GAS CONCENTRATIONS
Soil
Constituent
Mg *
P
K
Ca
NH0-N
3
NO -N
H2°
O.M.
Fe
Mn
Cu
Zn
B
Fe/Mn
C.
pH
Sand
Silt
Clay
Ar
P.R.
t 2.3
- 0.0
- 3.0
- 19.6
- 9.2
+ 87.5
-
7 1*8.7
- 0.0
+ i+o.o
- 27.8
+150.0
+ 9.7
+ 13-5
+ 1.3
- 15.1+
- 27.3
+ 30.8
Bs
Utah
- 0.0
t 50.0
- 0.0
+ 8.3
- 15.0
- 58.3
+ 11+.3
- 22.1
_
_
_
_
+ 2.6
-
- 0.0
- 1.2
+ 10.0
- 5.9
- 23.0
Bw
Des.
- 0.0
+ 66.0
+ 5-3
+ 2.3
+ 33.9
+1+87.3
-
+ 31.3
- 20.6
+ 53.0
+ 68.0
- 1.1+
+ 61.8
+387.5
+191. 2
- 2.1+
+ 10.1+
- 21.9
- 0.8
Cf
S.
- 9.2
- 1+.8
- 20.1+
+ 50.9
- 17.5
- 1+7.1
- 7.5
+ 9.^
+ 28.3
+ 19-0
+ 70.5
+1+10.0
- 3-7
+ 7.8
+ 18.1
+ 7.2
+ 11+.1+
- 31.1
- 26.7
Cs
Cal.
+
+
-
_
+
+
+
+
+
_
+
+
+
+
-
+
_
-
^.7
5-2
11.7
23.1+
6.5
87.5
1+9.0
18.1
79.2
18.1+
21.1+
1*7-9
-
116.7
25.0
U.3
5 1+
2'.!*
3.9
Dca
N.E.
+ 1+8.8
- 6.0
+ 30.0
+ 1+2.1
+125. 5
+672. 9
+ 51*. o
+ 79-2
+ 96.0
+ 22.9
+ ll*. 6
- 36.1
- 8.1+
+ 80.0
+ 5-2
- 10.0
+ 86.9
+ 15-7
Deb
M.A.
6.2
- 13.6
+ 33.9
+ 19.5
+ 2.2
+ 221.9
+ 6.8
- 35-2
+15500.0
+ 125.0
+ 200.0
+ 785.0
-
+ 7150.0
+ 66.7
+ 3.5
+ 3.6
- 13-7
9-3
Do
N.W.
- 0.0
+ 13-9
- 26.0
+ 3-8
- 7.6
+800.0
- 12.7
- 9.3
+ 39.6
+ 25.8
+ 38.3
+ 63.5
+ 67.5
+ 10.8
+117.0
+ 7.8
- 12.0
+ 8.8
+ 10.5
H
Mts.
+ 1.6
+ 37-5
+ 9-0
- 13.1+
+ 23.9
- 52.6
+ 5.3
+ 79.1
+ 28.0
+286.0
- 28.0
+370.0
+ 3-^
- 68.6
+100.0
- 2.1+
+ 12.6
- 17.3
- 7.5
Mean of 9
Regions
+ 1+.6
+ 16.5
+ 1.9
- 7-8
+ 15-9
+ 239-3
+ 15.6
- 2.7
+1967.0
+ 78.3
+ ^5.7
+ 218.0
+ 1+6.1
+1085.0
+ 67.9
+ 1.6
+ 2.3
- 2.7
- 1.6
*See page 129 for abbreviation key.
-------
TABLE J-10. (continued)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS*
Mg -- Magnesium
P — Phosphorus
K — Potassium
Ca -- Calcium
NH.--N -- Ammonia-nitrogen
NO--N — Nitrate-nitrogen
H20 -- Moisture
0.M. -- Organic Matter
Fe -- Iron
Mn — Manganese
Cu __ Copper
Zn -- zinc
B -- Boron
Fe/Mn -- Iron/Manganese
C. -- Conductivity
129
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-78-094
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
A Study of Vegetation Problems Associated with Refuse
Landfills
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf*NO.
5. REPORT DATE
May 1978 (Issuing Date)
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Franklin B. Flower, Ida A. Leone, Edward F. Gilman,
and John J. Arthur
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Cook College, Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1DC618
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R803762
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory--Cin.,OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Mav 1975 - May 1977
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Robert E. Landreth, Project Officer 513/684-7871
A'mail survey of about 1,000 individuals, was conducted for the purpose of determining
the status of landfill vegetation growth. Of the 500 people responding, about 75 per-
cent reported no problems. Twenty-five percent reported problems on landfills and 7
percent reported problems with vegetation adjacent to landfills. Site visits were
selected to represent the nine major climatic regions as defined by Trewartha. About
60 individual landfills were visited, and comparisons of the quality of soil atmos-
pheres were made in the root zones of healthy specimens and individuals of the same
species that were dead or dying. Comparisons of soil quality were made likewise.
Where landfill gases were high in concentration, elevated concentrations of available
ammonia-N, moisture and the trace elements iron, manganese, copper, and zinc were
found—changes similar to those found in flooded soils. Also, high soil temperatures
were found associated with landfill gases in a number of cases. Landfill vegetation
growth conditions were generally similar for most of the climatic regions visited.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COS AT I Field/Group
Methane
Carbon Dioxide
Vegetation
Solid Waste Management
Sanitary Landfill
Landfill Gas
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
142
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page}
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
.130
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19H_ 757-140/1353
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