v>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research EPA-600/7-80-102
Laboratory June 1980
Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Environmental and
Technological
Analysis of the
Use of Surplus
Wood as an
Industrial Fuel
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program
Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
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mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-80-102
June 1980
ENVIRONMENTAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF SURPLUS
WOOD AS AN INDUSTRIAL FUEL
by
E. H. Hall, J. E. Burch,
M. E. Eischen and R. W. Hale
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Grant No. R-805050-01-0
Project Officer
Harry M. Freeman
Incineration Research Branch
Industrial Pollution Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory - Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted,
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution
control methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved
methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.
This report presents the findings of a research program conducted to
evaluate the current status of the technology for burning wood as an in-
dustrial fuel. Research and development needed to encourage more extensive
use of wood fuel outside the forest products industries is identified. A
listing of existing wood-burning installations and summaries of operational
experience of selected facilities are included to aid interested companies in
developing the capability to burn wood in their own plants. Energy managers
in industrial companies as well as R&D planners should find the report of
value. For furhter information on the subject please contact the Fuels
Technology branch of lERL-Ci.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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ABSTRACT
There is widespread interest in the use of surplus wood as an industrial
fuel because it is a renewable resource, and because it has a negligible sul-
fur content. However, the use of wood fuel is still currently limited pri-
marily to the forest products industries.
This research program was conducted to evaluate the current status of
wood-burning in industry, to identify research and development activities
which are needed to encourage more extensive use of wood fuel in facilities
outside the forest products industries, and to evaluate the potential benefits
and problems associated with greatly expanded uses of wood fuel.
A listing of 284 domestic and 44 foreign installations of wood-burning
equipment was compiled. Information on operational problems was developed
through visits to selected facilities and through contact with vendors.
Summaries of this information are presented, and research and development
programs designed to overcome the most common operational problems are re-
commended. Non-technical barriers to expanded wood-fuel use are explored.
Estimates for reduction of sulfur-dioxide emissions achieved by burning
wood in lieu of coal or oil are presented. Emissions of particulate matter
and NOx are not found to be higher from wood-combustion than from coal-com-
bustion.
Industrial fuel requirements are compared with the quantities of unused
wood residues available on both regional and national levels as an indication
of the level of wood-fuel use which could be supported without endangering
long-term forest production.
Ecological impacts of wood residue utilization are explored.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. R-805-0-50010,
under the partial sponsorhsip of the United States Environmental Protection
Agency. This report covers a period from September 1, 1977 to December 31,
1978; work was completed on December 1, 1978.
iv
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ill
Abstract iv
List of Tables vi
List of Conversion Factors vii
1. Introduction. 1
2. Conclusions 3
3. Recommendations 5
4. Surplus Wood Residue Availability in the United States 6
Introduction 6
Forest Resources 7
Forest Residues . 11
Mill Residues 13
References 16
5. Survey of Wood Fuel Technology 18
Introduction 18
Modes of Wood Fuel Use 18
Direct Combustion 18
Wood Gasification 19
Wood-Derived Liquid Fuels 20
Industrial Wood-Fired Facilities 20
Technical Problems in Existing Installations. ... 20
Research and Development Needs 21
Direct Firing 21
Wood Gasification 22
Future Industrial Wood-Fuel 22
References 23
6. Non-Technical Barriers to Industrial Wood-Fuel Use. . 24
Wood Fuel Availability 24
Forest Land Resources 24
Deforestation 24
Ownership 24
Alternative Uses of Wood 25
Roundwood 25
Wood Products 25
Competing Uses 25
Cost of Wood Fuel 26
Harvesting Green Wood Fuel 26
Collecting plant Wastes 27
Transportation 27
Competition with Other Fuels 28
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Consumer Barriers 28
Inconvenience. ,,.... 28
Investment 29
References 29
7. Environmental Assessment 30
Applied Particulate Control Technology , 30
Impact of Wood Fuel on Pollutant Emissions. .... 31
SO Emissions. 31
Model Plant Analysis 31
Other Pollutant Emissions. 32
Comparison of Industrial Fossil Fuel Use With
Availability of Wood Wastes 33
References 35
8. Ecological Impacts of Wood Residue Use 36
Soil Nutrients 36
Other Soil Properties 40
Wildlife 40
Water Quality 40
Northeast , 42
Mid-Atlantic 43
Southeast 43
South Central 44
North Central. 44
Rocky Mountain 45
Pacific Northwest Coast. . .... 46
Conclusions • 47
Recommendations 48
References. 48
APPENDIX A - FOREST STATISTICS AND LOGGING RESIDUES 51
References 62
APPENDIX B - MILL RESIDUES 65
APPENDIX C - PARTIAL LIST OF INDUSTRIAL WOOD-FIRED FACILITIES 71
APPENDIX D - CONCISE REPORTS OF SITE VISITS 89
TABLES
Table 1. Forest Statistics for the United States by
Forest Region 8
Table 2. Forest Residue Generation 12
Table 3. Summary of Logging and Milling Residues
(By Region) in the U.S, (1Q3 DTE) — 1970 . . . 14
Table 4. Mill Residue Output 13
Table 5. Comparison of Industrial Fossil Fuel Use
and Quantity of Unused Wood Residues 34
Table 6. Annual Nutrient Uptake and Return by Three
Representative Species 37
Table 7. Nutrient Content of Tree Components 38
vi
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LIST OF CONVERSION FACTORS
Btu (at 60 F) x 1.055 x 103 - Joule (J)
106 Btu x 1.055 = 109 Joule - GJ
feet x 0.3048 - meter (m)
degrees Fahrenheit (°F - 32)/I.8 = degrees Celsius (C)
pound mass (Ib) x 0,4536 = Kilogram (kg)
Btu/pound (Ib) x 2.326 x 10~3 = Mega Joule/kg (MJ/kg)
lb/106 Btu x 0.4299 = kg/GJ (kg/109J)
short ton (2000 Ib) x 0.907 - metric ton (1000 kg) = k kg
dollars/short ton x 1.102 = dollars/metric ton
dollars/106 Btu x 0.9479 = dollars/GJ ($/109 J)
3
pound force per square inch (psi) x 6.895 x 10 =
Pascal (Pa) » Newton/m2 (N/m2)
gallon (U.S.) x 3.785 - liter
barrel (42 gallon) x 159.0 - liter
vii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
In 1975, the United States Environmental Protection Agency asked
Battelle Laboratories to evaluate the feasibility of using wood as fuel for
a new 50-MW electric power plant in Vermont. In that study, wood was com-
pared with a number of alternative fossil fuels: low-sulfur coal, physically
cleaned coal, high-sulfur coal with flue-gas desulfurization, and low-sulfur
oil. All of these fuels were compared with respect to: boiler technology;
pollutant emissions and pollution-control technology; energy requirements
for the acquisition and transportation of the fuels;^costs, and ecological
impacts. The general conclusions of that 1975 study were as follows:
• The use of forest surplus wood and waste wood is technically
feasible
Pollutant emissions are controllable
Net energy balances are favorable
The cost is competitive
With proper forest management, there is potentially a
net benefit to Vermont's forest ecosystem
Wood is a renewable resource
Therefore, a demonstration to advance the concept toward
commercial application is recommended.
Since use of wood fuel in small electric power plants (50 MW or less)
is feasible in certain areas of the country, its use as fuel in the industrial
sector should be investigated. Wood has been used as fuel in the forest
products industries for many years; however, very few uses of wood fuel
are found in other industries.
The present study was undertaken to clarify the potential benefits
and the potential detrimental effects of a greatly expanded use of surplus
wood or wood residue for industrial use. Consideration of other sources
of wood for fuel was excluded.
Hall, E.H., C.M. Allen, D.A. Ball, J.E. Burch, H.N. Conkle, W.T. Lawhon,
T.J. Thomas, and G.R. Smithson. 1975. Final Report on Comparison of Fossil
and Wood Fuels, to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Battelle
Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio. 238 p.
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The objectives of the study were as follows:
1. Summarize the results of recent studies on potential
availability of surplus wood.
2. Assess the current state of technology for using surplus
wood as a fuel.
3. Describe specific installations where surplus wood residue
is being combusted, with emphasis on identification of
problems.
4. Identify any technology related research and development
needs.
5. Identify non-technical barriers inhibiting wood^waste
utilization.
6. Assess the potential for reducing total SC^ emissions by
burning wood instead of coal or oil.
7. Evaluate the ecological implications of waste-wood utili-
zation, including the effects that excessive use of wood
for fuel might have on the long-range productivity of
forests.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Since the technology for direct combustion of wood is well established,
conversion to wood fuel could be readily implemented. Basic firing methods
include: stokers, suspension burners, and fluidized beds. Research into
new approaches to wood combustion is not needed since very few changes
occur in the technology.
Wood-gasification, on the other hand, is not an established technology.
When successful processes have been developed, unfavorable economic factors
have precluded widespread use. Low-Btu gas produced from wood affords one
means for conserving gas and oil, and such a product would provide a
relatively simple method of conversion to wood for industries facing cur-
tailment or cutoff of natural gas. Research is needed to clearly identify
those aspects of wood-gasification technology which work to its economic
disadvantage, and to conceptualize and evaluate technical approaches which
improve the relative economics.
Non-technical barriers to the use of surplus wood as an industrial
fuel include:
1. The lack of an established supply/market infrastructure.
Forest products industries normally have internally gener-
ated wood-waste available for use as a fuel. Non-forest
products industries would be reluctant to commit capital
to conversion to wood fuel without an assured wood supply.
Forest products industries could make wood chips available
to other industries; however, they are reluctant to invest
in additional equipment without an assured market. Some
entrepreneurs acting as wood-chip brokers could help to
overcome this institutional barrier.
2. Competition among alternative users of wood.
3. Uncertainty concerning the future price of surplus wood.
4. Inconvenience of wood as a fuel, compared with gas or oil.
5. Capital investment required for conversion of facilities to
wood fuel.
The use of wood instead of coal or oil can result in decreased emissions
of sulfur dioxide (802). If 150-million tons* of green wood were burned
A table of factors for conversion of English units to metric units is
provided on Page viii.
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per year, instead of 50-million tons of coal containing three percent sulfur,
SO emissions would be reduced by 2.85 million tons/year. To achieve equi-
valent reductions by stack-gas scrubbing would require scrubbers operating
at 85 percent removal efficiency to be installed on 1,175 coal-fired boilers
averaging 250,000 pounds of steam per hour at 45 percent load factor. If
limestone scrubbers were used, more than 18-million tons of scrubber sludge
requiring disposal would be produced. Emissions of particulate matter and
NO would not be increased if wood were burned in place of coal.
X
Because industrial wood-fuel use is not expected to exceed the supply
of unused wood residue, no depletion of forest resources is foreseen. More
than half of the total annual fuel requirement of industrial facilities
larger than 100-million Btu/hour could be supplied from unused wood residues
on a continuing basis, While the extent of industrial wood-fuel utilization
cannot be projected exactly, wood-fuel requirements of such magnitude are
unlikely.
The long-range significance of nutrient removal associated with
utilization of logging residues has not been established.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following research and development needs were identified in
the course of the study.
1. Development of an innovative system for feeding wood-
fuel, designed to accommodate various sizes and shapes
encountered in the several sources of wood.
2. Development of a cost-effective wood-chip dryer to
permit higher overall efficiency in the wood-fuel system.
3. Demonstrations of wood-fuel conversion in plants not
associated with the forest products industry. The
essential points of the demonstration are: logistics
of obtaining wood for fuel, conversion technology, and
life-cycle costs for the conversion of such demonstrations.
Widespread dissemination of the results would encourage
the conversion to wood fuel by industries not familiar
with wood-fuel potential.
4. Conceptualization and evaluation of technical and economic
approaches to overcome economic disadvantage of wood
gasification compared to coal gasification.
5. Development of definitive data on the effects of nutrient
removal on long-term forest productivity.
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SECTION 4
SURPLUS WOOD RESIDUE AVAILABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES
INTRODUCTION
Rapidly decreasing supplies of fossil fuels are creating a need for
alternate or additional sources of energy. Interest in utilizing wood
wastes as an energy source is growing because of wood1s high Btu content and
its relatively clean-burning properties.
In the U.S., approximately 14-billion cubic feet of timber were har-
vested in 1970 to be processed into lumber, plywood, and pulp (USDA Forest
Service, 1973). Large volumes of wood and bark residues are generated by
harvesting, processing, and primary manufacturing operations. These by-
products, which make up more than 50 percent of a log (Cheremisinoff et al.,
1976), include trimmings, sawdust, sander dust, edgings, chips, and bark.
Residue generated at each stage of wood-products processing must be
disposed of by sale, burning, landfilling, or use as fuel. Which alterna-
tive is exercised depends largely upon (a) availability of residue markets,
(b) distance to markets, (c) environmental regulations, and (d) cost and
availability of alternative fuels. Most of the easily obtainable residues
from milling operations are being or will be utilized for higher-value prod-
ucts such as fiber board and pressed wood products, at least in the near
future.
A tremendous volume of wood fiber (1.6 billion cubic feet was reported
for 1970; USDA Forest Service 1973), is left in U.S. forests as residue from
logging. Only an estimated 50 percent of the above-ground biomass of an
individual tree is removed for merchantable sawtimber (Keays, 1975a). Resi-
dues from logging operations are typically so scattered as to require a sub-
stantial energy cost to collect them. Management methods must be developed
for residue collection at initial harvest if the gathering of logging resi-
due is to be profitable. Beyond its potential fuel value, other forces are
acting to make forest-residue collection a reality, e.g. in southern pupling
forests of short-rotation, plantation design, residuals must be removed
prior to seed-bed preparation; in forests in the pacific northwest, massive
quantities of forest slash after clearcutting must be removed to reduce the
possibility of forest fires.
The border between nonusable and usable wood residues is a dynamic
boundary; material previously unused is gaining increasing utility.
Treetops, small branches, and foliage, long considered nonusable residues,
-------
are now being chipped, transported, and used, e.g. as fuel or pulp feed-
stock. Such uses encourage whole-tree processing. However, roots, stumps,
and unmerchantable trees still remain in the forest, largely as residue.
As new methods and equipment are employed for collecting logging resi-
dues, at least some of the material collected will be reclaimed for use in
wood products returning more value than if used as fuel. These new methods
and equipment affect expansion in wood commodities and in energy use of
wood.
FOREST RESOURCES
At present, there are approximately 500-million acres of land in the
U.S. classified by the Forest Service as commercial timberland (USDA Forest
Service, 1973). By definition, these lands must be capable of producing
20-cubic-feet of timber per acre, per year. These acreages do not include
lands withdrawn from harvest, such as areas given wilderness designation.
Nearly three-quarters of this commercial timberland is located in the
eastern half of the U.S. Approximately 25 percent is concentrated in the
Pacific Northwest.
The forests of the U.S. are biologically diverse. There are 40 major
forest types and some 60 major tree species. Conifers, such as spruce, pine
and Douglas fir, are most fully used for lumber, plywood veneer, and pulp.
Hardwoods (oak, maple, hickory) provide materials for solid wood products,
paper, and paperboard. Removals of softwood sawtimber were 84 percent of
the total removals in 1970. Softwood growing stock growth was 111 percent
of the removals. For hardwoods, sawtimber growth was 131 percent of re-
movals; growing stock growth was 179 percent of removals (National Research
Council, 1976).
Current annual growth is estimated as 38-cubic-feet per acre, per year
(National Research Council, 1976; Spurr and Vaux, 1976). [The mean varied
from 65 cubic feet on the Pacific coast to 23 cubic feet in the Rocky Moun-
tain region (National Research Council, 1976).] The latest estimate of net
growth is 18.6-billion-cubic-feet per year for the U.S. in 1970.
Current forest statistics from each state are shown in Table 1. Fig-
ures reported by the USDA Forest Service (1973) were used in cases where the
most recent data for a state were prior to 1970. This table shows 491-
million acres of commercial forest land, removals of 232-billion cubic feet
and 438-billion cubic feet for hardwoods and softwoods, respectively, and a
growth rate of 45-cubic-feet per acre, per year.
Spurr and Vaux (1976) estimate that the commercial forest land base
will decrease to 455-million acres by approximately 2020, due to land with-
drawals for urban or industrial or other use. (The U.S. Forest Service
predicts a decrease to 474 million acres.) Even though available acreage is
expected to decrease, Stephens and Heichel (1975) suggest that timber
production can be approximately doubled through better, more intensive
management. The Pacific states offer the most potential for productivity
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TABLE 1. FOREST STATISTICS FOR THE UNITED STATES BY FOREST REGION(a)
oo
Area of
Commercial Net Volume of Growing Stock Annual Net
State
Forest Land
(106 acres)
Hardwoods Softwoods
(109 cubic
feet)
Growth Timber Removals
(106 cubic feet) (106 cubic feet)
Logging Residues
(10s cubic feet)
Date of
Survey
NORTHEASTERN FORESTS
Connecticut
Delaware
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Nevi Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont
West Virginia
Totals for Region
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Nebraska
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota
Wisconsin
Totals for Region
1.8
0.4
16.9
2.9
2.8
4.7
1.9
14.5
17.5
0.4
4.4
11.5
79.6«>>
3.7
3.8
1.5
1.2
11.8
18.9
16.9
12.4
1.0
0.4
6.4
1.5
14.5
94.1
2.0
0.4
6.5
2.5
2.1
3.4
1.2
9.2
18.7
0.2
3.0
12.7
62.2
2.3
3.5
1.0
0.5
7.9
12.2
7.8
5.4
0.4
0.3
4.1
0.1
8.7
54.5
0.4
0.2
14.8
0.5
1.3
3.1
0.3
3.3
1.6
0.1
1.7
0.8
28.0
NORTH
— (c)
0.1
— (c)
— (c)
0.6
4.3
3.9
0.3
0.3 x
_ (c)
0.1
1.1
2.7
13.2
73.8
31.0
710.8
106.5
130.1
236.3
24.9
285.9
762.8
14.9
106.6
473.5
2,957.0
CENTRAL FORESTS
92.5
106.5
48.2
16.0
319.0
605.1
455.6
28.7
16.7
5.0
157.7
31.3
503.7
2,446.1
14.0
11.9
408.7
75.6
34.7
64.4
16.0
115.0
231.8
3.3
47.8
166.1
1,189.1
91.1
65.7
25.5
7.6
141.3
213.1
155.2
271.7
10.2
3.1
113.1
17.5
309.0
924.0
0.7
1.0
55.8
14.8
3.7
4.5
0.9
19.7
48.2
0.1
6.6
21.2
177.0
5.4
11.2
1.5
0.6
19.7
15.9
8.1
4.6
0.8, v
_ (c)
20.7
0.6
17.0
106.4
1972
1970
1970
1970
1971
1973
1971
1970
1970
1971
1973
1975
1970
1970
1974
1970
1970
1970
1970
1971
1970
1970
1970
1970
1970
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TABLE 1. (Continued)
Area of
Commercial Net Volume of Growing Stock Annual Net
State
Florida
Georgia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Virginia
Totals for Region
Alabama
Arkansas
Louisiana
Mississippi
Oklahoma
Tennessee
Texas
Totals for Region
Alaska (coastal)
California
Oregon
Washington
Totals for Region
Forest Land
(106 acres)
16.2
24.8
19.5
12.4
16.0
89.0
21.3
18.2
14.5
16.9
4.8
12.8
12.9
101.5
5.6
16.8
25.0
18.2
65.6
Hardwoods Softwoods
(109 cubic
4.0
10.6
14.4
.6.3
14.1
49.4
9.4
9.4
7.7
6.7
0.8
8.6
3.1
45.8
0.3
3.1
6:4
5.7
15.6
feet) (10b
SOUTHEASTERN
6.9
14.8
10.4
6.4
5.5
43.9
SOUTH CENTRAL
11.9
6.8
9.0
7.2
0.8
1.8
7.4
45.0
PACIFIC COAST
34.5
51.2
77.2
58.3
221.1
Growth Timber Removals
cubic feet) (106 cubic feet)
FORESTS
531.8
1,577.2
1,124.4
691.4
823.2
4,748.0
FORESTS
1,270.5
802.7
928.8
966.3
70.1
509.1
566.0
5,113.4
FORESTS
164.7
630.0
1,218.4
1.320.6
3,333.7
347.9
1,017.8
750.6
449.0
496.0
3,061.2
854.7
597.4
601.4
746.0
52.1
216.4
461.2
3,529.1
1,079.6
927.0
1,635.1
1.478.9
5,120.6
Logging Residues
(10g cubic feet)
24.2
79.6
116.6
43.6
74.3
338.3
63.0
69.1
64.9
69.2
4.1
37.9
36.4
344.8
39.3
105.5
197.3
283.3
625.4
Date of
Survey
1970
1971-1973
1974-1975
1970
1976-1977
1975
1975
1974
1970
1970
1971
1970
1970
1970
1973
1973
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TABLE 1. (Continued)
Area of
Commercial Net Volume of Crowing Stock Annual Net
State
Idaho
Montana
Wyoming
Totals for Region
Arizona
Colorado
New Mexico
Nevada
Utah
Totals for Region
Totals for U.S.
Forest Land
(106 acres)
15.9
16.0
4.2
36.1
3.7
11.6
5.7
0.1
3.8
25.0
490.9
Hardwoods Softwoods
(10« cublc
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.7
0.2
1.9
0.6
_ (c)
1.0
3.8
231.9
feet)
NORTHERN
29.3
28.4
4.5
62.1
SOUTHERN
4.6
10.3
5.7
0.3
3.7
24.6
437.9
Growth Timber Removals
(106 cubic feet) (106 cubic feet)
ROCKY MOUNTAIN FORESTS
503.0
443.1
45.8
991.9
ROCKY MOUNTAIN FORESTS
71.3
157.3
75.1
10.4
85.1
399.2
19,989.3
357.3
324.4
36.2
717.8
87.7
59.0
44.1
0.1
69.7
260.0
14,802.4
Logging Residues
(10S cubic feet)
37.2
44.0
2.5
83.7
8.6
4.8
4.7
— (c)
0.8
18.9
1,694.6
Date of
Survey
1970
1970
1970
1970
1970
1970
1970
1970
(a)
(b)
(c)
Sources: U.S. Forest Service Resource Bulletins for appropriate state (see References to Appendix A).
SUBS io not equal totals due to rounding.
Negligible amounts present.
-------
increases, with the southern region offering extensive areas for additional
production increases.
The increasing demand for forest products is documented, and the con-
tinuation of that demand increase is widely forecast. Keays (1975b) has
outlined the various sources of increased production potential for the
future:
o Use of unexploited coniferous forests
o Closer use of underexploited forests
o Additional conversion of mill wastes
o More plantation cropping
o Shorter rotation cycles
o Advancement of silvicultural practices
o Increased use of underexploited, unused hardwood species
o Development of stronger hardwoods
o Increased pulp yield from the digester
o Forest loss reduction, i.e., fire, decay.
Projected harvests presented by Hewlett and Gamache (1977) (Appendix
A, Table A-l) and others reported by the National Research Council (1976)
are comparable with estimates prepared by Spurr and Vaux (1976) under the
following various production regimes for the year 2000:
o Biological potential from fully stocked stands....
29.1 billion cu ft/yr
o Biological potential under more intensive forest management
practices....34.6 billion cu ft/yr
o Economic potential under intensive forest management practices
....29.4 billion cu ft/yr
o Economic potential under current institutional constraints
....19.0 billion cu ft/yr.
FOREST RESIDUES
Forest residues comprise the most available component of the by-
products of wood production for potential uses. Logging residues, pre-
commercial cuttings, understory removal, and annual mortality contribute to
the tonnage generated. Today in the U.S., collection and utilization of
forest residues is negligible. The material generally has little value, and
may be a nuisance to the land/forest owner.
In 1970, the total aboveground forest residual produced was estimated
to be 83-million dry-ton equivalents (DTE) (Appendix A, Tables A-2 to A-4)
(Inman, 1977).
More recently, volumes of forest residues have increased as timber
productivity increased. Improved harvesting techniques facilitate an in-
crease in the amounts of useable lumber and sawtimber which can be obtained.
This increased harvest results in an increase in forest residues. The demand
for use of these residues has not yet kept pace with the increased produc-
tion. Inman (1977) projected the amount of forest residues to be generated
yearly through 2020 (Table 2). Amounts are expressed in dry-ton equivalents
which, on a percentage mix of hardwoods and softwoods, assumes 29-pounds-
per-cubic-foot oven-dry weight to green volume (Spurr and Vaux, 1976).
11
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Keays (1975a) gives a conservative estimate that aboveground biomass
is equal to or greater than the amount logged. Comprising this biomass
(measured for a northern hardwood stand) is the merchantable bark-free bole
(50 percent), residual wood (33 percent), bark (13 percent), and foliage (4
percent). These residuals could be made available through full-tree
harvesting. In a typical northern hardwood forest, 100-tons-per-acre of
biomass would yield 50, 33, 13, and 4-tons-per-acre of merchantable bark-
free bole, residual wood, bark, and foliage, respectively, from full-tree
harvest. The stump-root system is 20 percent of the merchantable bole for
slash pines (Koch, 1974). In complete-tree harvest, 20 percent would be
added to full-tree residuals.
TABLE 2. FOREST RESIDUE GENERATION
Projection—Millions of DTE*
Year Low High
1980 83 110
2000 81 148
2020 107 195
Source: Inman, 1977.
*Dry Ton Equivalent.
Current trends in forest residue utilization are really trends in
forest residue reduction. Whole-tree harvest and chipping are growing in
acceptability to pulp mills, resulting in a reduction in residue generated
at the harvest site and at the mill.
Cost of collecting forest residuals is minimized by processing the
residual materials in conjunction with the primary commercial cut of the
forest. Particularly in southern forests, where whole-tree harvesting makes
use of four-wheel-drive skidders, tops, foliage, non-commercial species, and
non-commercial boles can be mechanically chipped at the yarding site. This
mixture contains leaves, bark, and wood which, while currently unsuitable
for pulping, remains a suitable energy source. This increased utilization
of the whole tree contributes in part to a reduced volume of forest residues
in the southern states compared to per-acre residues in the Pacific North-
west (Appendix A, Table A-5).
The U.S. Forest Service (1973) estimated that 4.5-billion cubic feet
of growing stock volume was lost through natural mortality in 1970 (Appendix
A, Table A-6). (Calculated values of mortality in each state presented in
Appendix A, Table A-7, were 4.1-billion cubic feet.) This material is
widely dispersed and is largely lost to a potential forest-residue market.
Concentrated cases of mortality such as those induced by flooding, hurri-
canes, or insects may be irregularly available.
Bark represents a major component of the available, unused wood resi-
dues. Nearly 70 percent of bark residues are unused. Bark comprises two-
12
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thirds to three quantities of all mill residues. By contrast, bark makes up
only 10 to 15 percent of logging residues (Inman, 1977). While no single
use of bark is large enough to deplete the vast amounts generated, newly
emerging uses, which may compete with energy alternatives, include bark
mulches, compressed fireplace logs, hardboard, livestock bedding, charcoal,
and alloy smelting.
Another unused (and more difficult to obtain) forest residue is the
below-ground residue. Stumps and root systems represent a substantial por-
tion of the total biomass of the living tree. Harvest at or near ground
level leaves this material as a residue. An estimated 104 x 10-* DTE of
stump-root residues are currently available (Appendix A, Table A-8). Only
in the case of limited areas of the southeastern pine forests are stumps
being routinely used—in that case for in situ naval store extraction.
Amounts of logging residues generated in the U.S. by wood, bark, top
and branches, and stump-root system components are summarized in Table 3.
MILL RESIDUES
The residues from milling are substantial. Mill residues are esti-
mated to account for 59 percent of the dry weight of logs processed in 1970
(Hewlett and Gamache, 1977). Inman (1977) reported 86.1x1O6 DTE of mill
residues for the U.S. These residues, however, with the exception of bark,
are a largely committed resource, and under current economies are unavail-
able for fuel purposes (Appendix B, Table B-l).
A brief review of the types and availabilities of mill residues in the
U.S. and regionally is given here. In 1970, seventy-five percent of all
wood residues from mills were used, including 56 percent for non-energy pur-
poses (mainly pulp production) and 19 percent for fuel at lumber mills. Of
all bark residues from mills, 60 percent were used as fuel as or near the
mill (Appendix B, Table B-2) (Inman, 1977).
Mitre Corporation, in its 1977 report to the Department of Energy,
projected the total residuals output of mills through 2020 (Table 4).
TABLE 4. MILL RESIDUE OUTPUT
Projection—Millions of DTE*
Year Low High
1980 98 124
2000 88 128
2020 76 143
Source: Inman, 1977.
*Dry Ton Equivalent.
13
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TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF LOGGING AND MILLING RESIDUES (BY REGION)
IN THE U.S. (103 DTE) — 1970
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Mitre's projections of a high and low range assume a relative decline in
lumber production in favor of plywood and residue-based panel products.
Future socioeconomic variables affected the various estimates.
A substantial portion (19 percent) of mill resides in the U.S. is
presently going to fuel (Appendix B, Table B-l) (U.S. Forest Service, 1973).
In 1972, as much as 37 percent of the energy requirements of the pulp and
paper industry were met through combustion of bark and spent pulp liquors
(Grantham and Ellis, 1974).
Approximately 30 years ago in the Pacific Northwest, half of the saw-
mill residue was burned as fuel; 40 percent was dumped or buried; and only 3
percent was used as wood fiber for further processing. Pulp was largely
made from roundwood, not from residuals. Today, sawmill residuals are
rarely buried or burned for disposal and the pulp business is largely based
on residue materials (Appendix B, Table B-2 to B-4). As Christensen, (1976)
said: "Yesterday's waste is today's fuel, but may be tomorrow's raw
material".
Inman (1977) reports that approximately 24.1 million DTE of wood and
bark residues from mill operations in 1970 remained unused. (Appendix B,
Table B-3). On a regional basis, percentages of residues unused ranged from
15 percent in the Pacific Northwest to 56 percent in the Southern Rocky
Mountain states. Amounts of total and unused milled residues generated in
the U.S., by region, are presented in Table 3.
With advancing technology, the residue generated per unit of lumber
produced is expected to decline. Projected residues for lumber, plywood,
and other industries are presented in Appendix B, Table B-5.
The future uses of mill residues for energy production wil be largely
influenced by the future demands for wood products, future timber supplies,
technological advances, and the costs of alternative fuels. The largest
user of these residues as fuels probably will continue to be the forest-
products industry, where mill wastes provide a readily available, constant
energy supply.
15
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REFERENCES
Beardsley, W. H. 1976. Commodity and Material Meeds: Forestry in an Age of
Shortages. Journal of Forestry, Feb. 1976, p. 71-74.
Cheremisinoff, P. N., P. 0. Cheremisinoff, A. C. Morresi, and R. A. Young.
1976. Woodwastes Utilization and Disposal. Technomic Publishing Co.,
Westport, CT 06680.
Christensen, G. W. 1976. Wood Residue Sources, Uses, and Trends. In Wood
Residue as an Energy Source. Forest Products Research Society, Madison,
Wisconscin, Proceedings No. P-75-12. P. 30-41.
Environment Canada. Combustion Sources Division. 1975. Combustion Tech-
nology for the Disposal and Utilization of Wood Residue . EPS3-AP-75-4. 92
P-
Grantham, J. B., and T. H. Ellis. 1974. Potentials of Wood for Producing
Energy. Journal of Forestry 72:552-556.
Grantham, J. B., E. M. Estep, J. M. Piervich, H. Tarkow, and T. C. Adams.
1974. Energy and Raw Material Potentials of Wood Residue in the Pacific
Coast States - A Summary of a Preliminary Feasibility Investigation. U.S.
Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-18, Pacific Northwest Range and
Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 37 p.
Hall, E. H., C. M. Allen, D. A. Ball, J. E. Burch, H. N. Conkle, W. T.
Lawhon, T. J. Thomas, and G. R. Smithson. 1975. Final Report on Comparison
of Fossil and Wood Fuels to the U.S. EPA. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, OH 238 p.
Howelett, H., and A. Gamache. 1977. Forest and Mill Residues as Potential
Sources of Biomass. MITRE Technical Report No. 7347. VI Vols., Prepared
for the U.S. Department of Energy.
Inman, R. E. 2977. Silvicultural Biomass Farms. MITRE Technical Report no.
7347. VI Vols. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy.
Keays, J. L. 1975a. Biomass of Forest Residuals. In Forest Product
Residuals, H. K. Lautner (ed.). AIChE Symposium Series 71 (146). American
Inst. of Chem. Engineers, New York, NY.
Keays, J. L. 1975b. Production of World Demand and Supply for Wood Fiber to
year 2000. In Proc. of the 8th Cellulose Conference. I. Wood Chemicals - A
Future Challenge, T. E. Timell (ed.).
Koch, P., 1974. Whole-Tree Harvesting of Pines with Taproot Attached.
Southern Luberman 228 (2825): 13-14.
Koch, P., and J. F. Mullen. 1971. Bark from Southern Pine May Find Use as
a Fuel. Forest Industries 98(4):36-37.
16
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National Research Council. 1976. Renewable Resources for Industrial
Materials. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, B.C.
Resch, H., 1975. The Physical Energy Potential for Wood. Paper presented
as the 65th Pacific Logging Congress, November 1974. Reno, NV. 5 p.
Spurr, H., and H. J. Vaux. 1976. Timber: Biological and Economic Poten-
tial. Science 191(4227);752-756.
Stephens, G. R., and G. H. Heichel. 1975. Agricultural and Forest Products
as Sources of Cellulose. In Cellulose as a Chemical and Energy Resource,
C. R. Wilke (ed.) pp. 17-42. Interscience Publications, John Wiley & Sons,
New York. 361 p.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1973. The Outlook for Tim-
ber in the United States. Forest Resource Report No. 20. Washington, D.C.
367 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1976. Fuel and Energy Produc-
tion by Bioconversion of Waste Materials. Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH 45268.
EPA-600/2-76-148. 65 p.
17
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SECTION 5
SURVEY OF WOOD FUEL TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Industrial process heat is derived primarily from the combustion of
fossil fuels. The combustion energy is used in the form of direct heat or
hot air, or is converted to a form for convenient transfer about the plant
as either hot water or steam.
In principle, wood can be substituted for fossil fuels in either of
these modes of application. Certainly, a boiler producing hot water or
steam can be fired directly with wood. This approach has been used for many
years, almost entirely within the forest-products industry. Direct utili-
zation of heat from wood combustion also has been practiced in lumber dry
kilns and veneer dryers. However, there is a broad range of heating appli-
cations now supplied by fluid fuels, i.e., gas or oil, which cannot be
duplicated by direct combustion of wood, e.g., annealing glass, soldering,
and drying food products. In these cases, the special characteristics of
the flame obtained from a fluid fuel preclude the use of direct firing of
wood without a complete process redesign.
MODES OF WOOD FUEL USE
In the framework of industrial fuels, three different ways of using
wood can be identified:
1. Direct combustion
2. Gasification to a low-Btu gas
3. Use as a feedstack to product alcohol or other liquid fuels.
Of the three, direct combustion is the simplest in application.
Gasification and liquids-production are directed to meeting the needs of
those applications which require a fluid fuel.
Direct Combustion
The technology for direct combustion of wood was described in detail
in the power plant study cited earlier (Hall, 1975). The technology has
been employed in the forest-products industries for many years for direct
heating, and for steam raising . The steam is used for process heat and, in
some cases, for combined electric-power generation and process steam.
If a new boiler is being installed, proven wood combustion technology
can be employed. In the case of a retrofit application, a number of factors
18
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must be considered. The substitution of wood fuel in an existing boiler
designed for coal, would present the fewest problems. If the boiler has a
stoker, only a wood-feeding system would have to be added. However, if co-
firing of wood and coal is being considered, the combined effect of the wood
and coal ash must be carefully analyzed to avoid slagging or clinkering.
Boilers designed for suspension-firing of pulverized coal or heavy oil
could be converted to wood fuel. The wood would have to be reduced in size
to less than 1/4-inch, and a small grate installed at the base of the unit
to permit complete combustion of any wood which did not burn completely in
suspension.
A much more difficult problem is encountered in substituting wood fuel
in a natural-gas or light-oil boiler. In boilers of this type, no provision
is made for ash collection and removal. Further, narrow tube-spacing and
the lack of provision for soot blowers would make impossible the burning of
wood without extensive boiler modification. This is not a cost-effective
substitution.
An alternative approach to the conversion of a natural-gas or light-
oil boiler to wood fuel is to construct a separate combustor to burn wood
and to conduct the hot combustion gases into the existing boiler. This
approach has been employed successfully where clean, dry wood is burned and
very little particulate matter is contained in the combustion gases. How-
ever, where green wood chips are to be burned, the same problems with narrow
tube-spacing in the boiler as noted above will exist.
Wood Gasification
The problem of substituting wood fuel in a natural-gas or oil-fired
boiler would be solved if the wood were gasified and the product gas burned
in the existing boiler. Gas derived from wood also could be used in process
heat applications which require the flame from a fluid fuel.
Wood can be gasified to produce a low-Btu gas with a typical heating
value of 120 to 200 Btu per standard cubic foot. Because of its low Btu con-
tent, gas produced from wood would necessitate modification of burners de-
signed for natural gas or oil. These modifications are minor compared with
the major structural changes required in a gas-fired boiler to permit direct
combustion of wood.
Despite the apparent advantages to be gained from gasifying wood, and
despite the fact that there appear to be no technological constraints, gasi-
fication of wood remains a relatively untried and unproven practice.
Gasification of wood has been carried out in vertical-shaft, fixed-bed
reactors similar to those used in some approaches to coal gasification
(Bowen 1978, Mudge 1978, and Williams 1978). These efforts were generally
successful with a minimum of technical problems. The major obstacle to the
commercial use of wood gasification is its cost, as discussed below.
19
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The wood must be dried to less than 10 percent moisture to achieve
stable gasification conditions. More importantly, wood gasification rates
of 60-to 90-pounds-per-square-foot of cross section per hour are substan-
tially less than that possible for coal. Since coal has a heating value
about 50 percent greater than that of wood, and since the coal does not have
to be dried, a wood gasifier would produce substantially less gas than a
coal gasifier of the same size. The resultant cost is much higher for the
gas produced from wood. This conclusion is supported by the fact that two
companies formerly offering wood gasification systems have withdrawn their
product; principally because of high cost.
Wood-Derived Liquid Fuels
Production of alcohol or other liquid fuels from wood provides another
approach to substituting wood for petroleum liquids. The technology for
making alcohol from wood or other biomass materials is available. The
United States Department of Energy is conducting a program of systems analy-
sis and economic evaluation for energy conversion of biomass including the
production of alcohol and other liquids.
As with wood gasification, the major constraint on alcohol and other
liquid fuel produced from wood is cost; none are competitive with fossil
fuels at this stage of development.
INDUSTRIAL WOOD-FIRED FACILITIES
As a means of identifying uses of wood fuel, a listing of existing
industrial wood-burning facilities was compiled. The list, presented in
Appendix C, is not intended to be complete, but rather to illustrate appli-
cations, the size ranges of units, and the alternative fuels used.
Table C-l lists domestic facilities and Table C-2 foreign installa-
tions. These tables include 284 domestic and 44 foreign installations, give
the company name and location, the supplier (if known), type of equipment,
capacity, design pressure, temperature, and type of wood fuel. Very few
companies outside the forest product industries have entered the wood-fuel
market. Boilers are the most common equipment type, with kilns and other
dryers accounting for most of the rest.
Hogged fuel, shavings, sawdust, and bark are the principal forms of
wood fuel; gas and oil sometimes are available as backup fuels. In a few of
the installations coal is co-fired with wood.
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS IN EXISTING INSTALLATIONS
Visits were made to selected plants to observe current practice and to
discuss technical problems encountered. Details of these plant visits
appear in Appendix D.
The facilities visited employed three basic types of wood combustors:
strokers, vortex (suspension) burners, and fluidized beds. There were
20
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several variations in the kind of material burned as well as in the use made
of the combustion energy.
As might be expected from the fact that several-hundred facilities are
burning wood, no prohibitive problems were reported. However, some diffi-
culties are encountered from time-to-time, as summarized below.
1. The nonuniform nature of wood fuel created intermittent problems
with wood-fuel feeding systems. Pelletizing the wood fuel im-
proves feeding; however, that step requires energy and adds to the
cost.
2. Wood fuel of different types may exhibit combustion characteris-
tics which can disrupt an otherwise smoothly operating system.
Some examples include: a fluidized-bed burner which operated well
with hogged wood as the basic fuel, but burned erratically when
too many shavings were introduced; in another fluidized-bed
burner, the bed hardened into a rather crystalline mass and had to
be shut down when veneer trimmings were introduced into the hogged
wood and bark fuel.
3. Boiler efficiency is reduced by moisture in the wood. A good,
cost-effective method of drying wood before combustion has not
been proven.
4. A wood-burning system which included an induced-draft fan showed
erosion of the fan blades caused either by wood ash or by sand and
dirt associated with wood burning.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
Direct Firing
The technology for direct firing of wood fuel in the forest products
industries has developed over many years. Today, no major changes in the
basic techniques for burning wood are occuring and no technical break-
throughs are needed. However, research and development in three areas might
serve to make wood fuel more attractive and promote its more extensive use:
1. Development of an innovative system for feeding wood fuel, de-
signed to accommodate the varying sizes and shapes encountered in
the several sources of wood.
2. Development of a cost-effective wood chip dryer to permit higher
overall efficiency in the wood-fuel system.
3. Demonstrations of wood-fuel conversion in plants not directly
associated with the forest-products industry, with emphasis on
logistics of obtaining wood for fuel, conversion technology, and
life-cycle costs for the conversion. Such demonstrations, if suc-
cessful, could encourage conversion to wood fuel by industries
that have no prior knowledge of wood-fuel potential.
21
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Wood Gasification
At this time, wood gasification is not a viable alternative to oil and
gas in industrial boilers and burners. However, as the need to conserve oil
and gas increases, the need for wood-gasification technology might also in-
crease. Research is needed to clarify the potential of wood gasification.
The research program should encompass the following areas:
1. Technical and economic evaluation of wood gasification to identify
aspects of the technology which work to its economic disadvantage.
2. Conceptualization and evaluation of technical approaches to over-
come the economic disadvantage.
FUTURE INDUSTRIAL WOOD-FUEL DEMAND
Predicting the rate of increase of the level of consumption for wood
as fuel is difficult. Several approaches to making such predictions were
rejected because too many assumptions were needed to yield a credible
result; i.e., each decision for or against wood-fuel must be based on trade-
offs, and on factors which are both site-specific and dependent upon manage-
ment goals and philosophy. Some of the variables encountered are the
following:
1. Local availability and cost of fossil fuels, local history of gas
curtailment, imminence of gas cutoff, management view of the real-
ity of oil and gas shortages over the short or long term.
2. Local availability and cost of wood residues for fuel, management
perception of the realiability of supply-.
3. Environmental regulations—local, state, federal—history of
appropriate authority in granting variances for existing fuel use.
4. Design of existing equipment, retrofit possibilities, availability
of space for wood storage and handling facilities.
5. Availability of capital for retrofit conversion, or for new wood-
firing facilities.
6. Life-cycle cost of the retrofit conversion or new facilities.
This factor, in turn, depends upon management philosophy regarding
rate of return, and upon projected trends in the cost of wood
relative to the cost of the current fuel.
22
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REFERENCES
Hall, E. H. , C. M. Allen, D. A. Ball, J. E. Burch, H. N. Conkle, W. T.
Lawhon, T. J. Thomas, and G. R. Smithson. 1975. Final Report on comparison
of Fossil and Wood Fuels to the U.S. EPA. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, OH. 238 p.
Bowen, M. D., et al., A Vertical Bed Pryolysis System. American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 76, Solid Wastes and Residues—Conversion by Ad-
vanced Processes, 75th Meeting of American Chemical Society, March 1978.
Mudge, L. K., and Rohrmann, C. A., Gasification of Solid Waste Fuels in a
Fixed-Bed Gasifier, op. cit.
Williams, R. 0., et al., Development of a Pilot Plant Gasification System
for the Conversion of Crop and Wood Residues to Thermal and Electrical
Energy, op. cit.
23
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SECTION 6
NON-TECHNICAL BARRIERS TO INDUSTRIAL WOOD-FUEL USE
Several existing and potential barriers to the industrial use of wood
fuel on a significant scale are considered in this section.
WOOD FUEL AVAILABILITY
Wood fuel is a renewable, but finite, source of energy in the United
States. To put the potential supply of wood fuel in perspective: if all of
the wood harvested in the United States in 1970, including harvest residues,
had been burned as green wood fuel, it would have supplied about 4 quads (4
x lO^Btu) of energy or about 5.6 percent of the U.S. energy consumption
for 1970.
Forest Land Resources
The availability of wood for fuel is dependent on the continued
availability of harvestable forests. Several factors can influence that
availability.
Deforestation. The total area of U.S. forests has been greatly dimin-
ished since colonial times. The advent of fossil fuels tended to slow the
diminution for a time. The total of U.S. commercial timberlands was reduced
by 1.7 percent between 1962 and 1970. As the population increases, there
will be continued pressure to convert farm lands to living space and to con-
vert forest lands to farm lands. Deforestation for these purposes creates
an immediate supply of wood, but reduces it as a resource for the future.
These pressures to reduce tiraberland areas may be partially offset by better
forest management practice and increased tree farming, thereby increasing
the productivity of the remaining acreage.
Ownership. Only about 14 percent of U.S. commercial timberlands are
owned by companies in the forest industries. The largest fraction, 33 per-
cent, is owned by private owners, including business and professional peo-
ple, wage and salary workers, housewives, railroads, mining establishments,
and other non-farm owners. About 26 percent is owned by farmers and about 1
percent each by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, and
other Federal agencies.
Many representatives of these various classes of ownership are willing
to permit timber harvesting on their land holdings. However, in some cases,
particularly in the private sector, holdings may be small, necessitating
simultaneous agreement with several owners to make harvesting practical.
24
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Depending on the owner's point of view, immediate economic returns may not
compensate for future inflationary pressures or the desire to hold onto a
tangible resource.
A special case exists in the commercial timberlands held, or formerly
held, by the USDA Forest Service. Since 1962, more than 3-million acres of
National Forest area formerly classified as commercial timberlands were
selected for potential inclusion in the wilderness system. When included in
the system, this acreage will not be available for harvesting; fortunately
however, it amounts to only about 0.5 percent of the total commercial tim-
berlands area in the United States. Furthermore, most of this potential
wilderness acreage in the contiguous states is located in the Rocky Moun-
tains, where timber harvesting is difficult and costly.
Alternative Uses of Wood
Some conventional uses of wood contribute to the supply of wood wastes
and other uses compete with fuel use for that waste supply.
Roundwood. The harvesting of roundwood for sawtimber, poles, piles,
posts, and mine props leaves a significant quantity of waste cellulosic
material in the forest. With selective cutting, this waste material in-
cludes tops, branches, and leaves of harvested growing-stock trees, smaller
trees inadvertently felled, and possibly bark and residues from rough and
rotten trees. When clear cutting, the residues will include saplings and
cull trees. All of these materials are potential sources of fuel.
Wood Products. The generation of wood wastes generally continues
after the roundwood has been removed from the forest. The production of lum-
ber, plywood, veneer, and a wide variety of finished wood products results
in the generation of bark, slabs, sawdust, shavings, and scraps, all of
which are potential sources of fuel. Any subsequent treatment of roundwood
for use as poles, piles, posts, and mine props generates little wood waste
other than bark.
Competing Uses. The harvesting of wood for use in pulp mills was not
mentioned in the preceding section on roundwood. Pulpwood was formerly
harvested exclusively as roundwood and was debarked and chipped at the mill,
leaving significant harvesting residues in the forest. There is now a
strong trend, however, toward chipping the harvest residues in the forest
and hauling the chips to the pulp mill. In some cases, this trend has ex-
tended to chipping in the forest for wood pulp uses the residues of other
timber-harvesting operations. The ultimate trend in this direction is whole-
tree chipping in the forest. This pulpwood application for harvesting
wastes, and even whole trees, offers the greatest current and anticipated
competition for the use of green wood as a fuel. The production of par-
ticleboard (hardboard, fiberboard, and chipboard) also competes with fuel
use for wood chips.
Sawdust, wood shavings, and other wastes from the manufacture of
finished wood products are very suitable materials for use as fuel. How-
ever, much of this material already finds use as agricultural mulch (along
25
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with shredded bark), bedding for animals, and in the production of charcoal.
These uses tend to reduce the availability of wood wastes for fuel use.
COST OF WOOD
The elements that contribute to the cost of wood fuel include harvest-
ing costs for green wood fuel, collection costs for wood-industry plant
wastes, transportation costs, and competition with other fuels.
Harvesting Green Wood Fuel
The wood-fuel industry is small. In 1970, about 3.6 percent of the
volume of wood harvested in the United States was sold as fuelwood cut from
roundwood. This fuelwood was used almost exclusively for domestic heating
and cooking. Because of small and scattered demand for such fuel, most
operators in this business are quite small.
Only a very few operators have established a business of chipping
green wood in the forest for use as fuel. The operator must have access to
wood, must invest in one or more portable chippers and in wood-moving equip-
ment, must have adequate and reliable manpower, and must be assured that he
can sell the product at a profit. He may also need to arrange transporta-
tion of the wood fuel to the customer. Seldom does the wood harvester also
own and operate transportation facilities; establishing a small business
under these conditions is difficult. A bank loan would be difficult to
secure without orders for purchase of wood fuel. Conversely, a potential
customer would be reluctant to place orders without assurances that the
supplier had access to wood-fuel supplies.
The concentration of wood to be harvested for fuel is a very important
economic consideration. Although chippers are portable, time and money ex-
pended to move them could better be used in chipping. The highest concen-
tration of harvestable wood fuel occurs when a stand of timber is clear-cut
for a whole-tree chipping. The concentration of harvest residues would also
be high when a stand is clear-cut for primary harvest of roundwood. As
harvesting becomes more selective, the concentration of wood for fuel use
decreases.
The nature of the terrain may also be an important factor in wood fuel
harvesting costs. Setting up and operating a chipper on a hillside and
moving chips out is more difficult than moving logs from the same hillside.
Some southern pine is harvested in swampy or marshy areas where harvesting
of residues would be difficult. Obviously, harvesting of wood fuel in
certain locations would be difficult and expensive, if not impossible.
Adverse weather conditions may contribute to the cost of harvesting
green wood fuel. In geographic areas where the number of working days is
limited by weather, the investment in equipment may be prohibitive. Labor
costs in such conditions may also affect productivity.
26
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Collecting Plant Wastes
Wood residues from primary wood-processing plants (sawmills, veneer
mills, for example) amounted to 3,806-million cubic feet in 1970. (USDA
Forest Service, 1973). Of this total, 2,086-million cubic feet was used for
pulp and other products, 726-million cubic feet was used as fuel, and 994-
million cubic feet was unused. Statistics are not available for secondary
wood-manufacturing establishments (producers of millwork, hardwood dimension
lumber and flooring, prefabricated structures, pallets, and other products).
However, the U.S. Forest Service estimated that in 1970 such firms produced
about 900 million cubic feet of plant by-products, of which about 270-
million cubic feet was for fuel use, and about 300-million cubic feet was
burned or dumped as waste.
Wood waste at primary plants may be in the chippable forms of bark,
slabs, edging, or scraps, or in the fine form of sawdust. Chipping and
loading facilities may be available at larger plants, facilitating the
loading of full truckloads of material more-or-less ready for fuel use. At
smaller plants, chippers are not likely to be available, loading facilities
are likely to be primitive, and quantities of waste wood limited.
Wood waste at secondary plants is largely sawdust and shavings, with
limited quantities of larger, chippable material. Many such establishments
are small, where segregation of fine and coarse wood wastes is not prac-
ticed. Loading facilities for the waste material are likely to be primi-
tive, and collection of wastes from several secondary plants may be required
to obtain a truckload.
^Transportation
Transportation costs for wood fuel can be a large fraction of the
total cost of the fuel. Commercial forests and major sawmills may be
located far from industrial centers, which are the greatest market for wood
fuel. Wood chips are bulky relative to their energy content, and may con-
tain up to 50 percent water.
Transportation of green wood chips by truck for 100 miles at $0.05 per
ton-mile would add about $0.42 per million Btu to the fuel cost. Transpor-
tation for longer distances could be accomplished economically only by
railroad or barge; trucks would also be required to deliver fuel to central
storage and loading facilities. The shortage of railroad cars, with at
least a 12-month delivery time on new cars, (Business Week, 1978), is
another negative economic point.
Hauling distances might not be so great for wood fuel procured from
secondary wood-processing plants, which are frequently located close to
industrial centers. However, the quantity of wood waste produced by such
plants is small compared to that of primary plants, and a collection route
to several plants might be required to fill a truck. As a somewhat compen-
sating factor, waste wood from secondary plants, if it is protected from
weather, should be somewhat drier than waste wood from primary plants, and,
27
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therefore, should have a higher energy content per ton. This factor would
tend to reduce the transportation cost per million Btu.
Competition with Other Fuels
Unless the United States adopts extremely effective energy-
conservation measures or major breakthroughs are achieved in harnessing
non-fuel sources of energy, the prices of all fossil fuels will increase at
a rate exceeding the rate of inflation. Despite these price increases, the
availability of domestic petroleum and natural gas in the foreseeable future
will decrease more or less rapidly, depending on the funds available to the
energy companies for exploration and development. The demand for wood fuel
under such conditions should cause its price to rise to levels competitive
with other fuels. This use, in turn, would tend to increase the price of
wood for competitive uses, particularly in the lumber and paper industries.
CONSUMER BARRIERS
There are several reasons why industrial firms might be reluctant to
use wood fuel. These reasons are usually related to convenience or
investment.
Inconvenience
Use of wood fuel is less convenient than fossil fuels, particularly
natural-gas and liquid-petroleum fuels. Flames can be much more readily
initiated and turned down with natural gas and the liquid fuels than with
coal or wood fuels. Control of particulates in the flue gas is more of a
problem with wood fuel than with natural gas or distillate fuels, but will
create less of a control problem than coal. Sulfur dioxide emissions are
not generally a problem with natural gas and-distillate fuels, nor should
they be a problem with wood fuel; the problem is more or less severe with
coal, coke, and residual fuel oils, depending on the sulfulr content of the
fuel.
Storage of fuel and the associated reliability of supply offer more
problems with wood fuel than do the fossil fuels. With natural gas, a user
is not required to provide storage facilities, although some users operating
on an interruptible basis might provide storage facilities. Users of
liquid-petroleum fuels normally have fuel tanks which occupy relatively
smaller space and can be filled from tank trucks, tank cars, or pipelines.
Coal is normally stored in large piles exposed to weather. Although coal may
occasionally freeze, it does not absorb water. A much larger pile of wood
fuel would be required to provide the same heat energy as a coal pile
because of the low density and low bulk density of wood chips. Wood fuel
must be protected from weather to prevent absorption of water and the
necessity to evaporate the water and heat the steam thus formed with the
resultant lower heating value. Also, the susceptibility of wet wood to
biological attack further diminishes its heating value and may cause un-
desirable odors.
28
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Provisions must be made.for a receiving and storage system. For coal,
receiving facilities may include roadways and parking space, railroad lines
and sidings, and suitable unloading equipment. Receiving facilities for
wood fuel would be comparable. However, to satisfy the same energy require-
ment, wood's greater bulk would require more vehicles and more storage
space.
Transporting fuel from storage and feeding it to the combustion device
would likewise require more equipment to handle wood's greater bulk; how-
ever, wood does not require as much ash removal equipment as coal.
Investment
The investment in new facilities to burn wood fuel would be comparable
to the investment in new facilities to burn coal. Greater storage and
handling facilities would be required for wood fuel, but significant ash-
handling facilities would be required for coal. More space would be re-
quired for receiving and storage of wood fuel, and the storage space should
be covered. Equipment for drying the wood fuel prior to combustion would be
needed. Facilities for drying the wood fuel and protecting it from weather
would increase the capital investment while also increasing energy-yield
from the fuel.
The technical problems of retrofitting a wood-fuel system to an
existing natural-gas or liquid-fuel combustion system would be costly.
Significant investments in additional equipment will be required, and a
considerable amount of extra space, which may or may not be available, will
be needed. In some cases, conversion to wood fuel may be impossible.
Even when wood fuel is shown to be technically and economically feas-
ible, the switch from a fossil fuel may still be difficult for the user to
make because he is not sure that suppliers of wood fuel can assure the long-
term deliveries to justify his investment. Should wood fuel become a popu-
lar source of energy, its availability will diminish at some time in the
foreseeable future, and its cost will escalate.
REFERENCES
"Business Week", page 25, August 14, 1978.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1973. "The Outlook for
Timber in the United States". Forest Resource Report No. 20, Washington,
D.C. 367 p.
29
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SECTION 7
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Although the combustion of any fuel to produce steam or direct heat
for industrial processes is accompanied by emissions to the atmosphere, wood
is a comparatively clean-burning fuel. Because wood, unlike coal or oil,
has a negligible quantity of sulfur, essentially no sulfur dioxide is emit-
ted when it burns. The ash content of wood is lower than that of coal, as
is the nitrogen content.
The pollutant emissions and control technology aspects of burning wood
were treated in detail in the powerplant study cited previously (Hall,
1975). With that generalized background, this study was designed to obtain
information on particulate control techniques as applied to existing facili-
ties, and to evaluate the potential of wood fuel in reducing S02 emissions
through substitution of wood for coal or residual oil.
APPLIED PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Information regarding particulate control techniques was obtained
through discussions with vendors of wood-fired equipment, and through visits
to operating facilities.
The most common particulate collection system encountered was a
mechanical system of the multiclone type. In one case, the multiclone was
followed by a wet scrubber, and in another plant an electrostatic
precipitator was placed in series with the multiclone. Another plant used a
bag house collector.
In each case, the firms were able to meet State and Federal particu-
late emission regulations, although at one plant, using multiclones, high
opacity readings were observed when fuel with very high moisture content was
burned. The only operational problem reported was plugging in the wet scrub-
bers which were not operational at the time of the visit.
At most facilities collected fly ash was landfilled with no problems
being reported. Some of the plants can sell the ash for mulch and for fer-
tilizer because of its potassium content.
30
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IMPACT OF WOOD FUEL ON POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
SO? Emissions
The major advantage of wood over coal or oil with respect to pollutant
emissions is the negligible sulfur content of wood. The use of wood in
place of coal or oil, either by conversion of existing facilities or in the
choice of fuel for new facilities, will result in a reduction of SC>2 emis-
sions. The purpose of this portion of the study is to estimate the possible
magnitude of this reduction.
Model Plant Analysis. A simple comparison of fuel requirements and
S02 emissions for two model plants will illustrate wood fuel's potential
for reduction of SC>2 emissions. The comparison is made for an industrial
steam boiler producing 250,000 pounds of steam per hour and operating with a
45-percent load factor. The basic assumptions which define each plant are
as follows:
1. Coal-Fired Boilers
Fuel - Eastern coal with 3 percent sulfur content and a heating
value of 24 x 10^ Btu per ton.
Boiler efficiency - 82 percent
Emissions - 95 percent of input sulfur is emitted from the stack,
or 114 Ib S02/ton coal.
2. Wood-Fired Boiler
Fuel - Wood with negligible sulfur content, 45 percent moisture
(wet basis), and 17 x 10& Btu per ton of bone dry wood (9.35 x
106 Btu per ton of green wood as received).
Boiler efficiency - 68.4 percent
Emissions - Negligible S02 emissions.
The reduced efficiency of the wood-fired boiler was calculated by consider-
ing the following sources of heat loss: dry stack gases, water in the wood,
water formed from hydrogen in the wood, incomplete combustion, and
radiation.
With these basic assumptions the following comparisons may be made.
31
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Factor
Coal-Fired
Plant
Wood-Fired
Plant
Heat Input, 106 Btu/Hour
Heat Input, 1012 Btu/Year
Fuel Input, Tons/Year
Fuel Input, Tons/Year
SC>2 Emissions, Tons/Year
305 365
1.20 1.44
50,000 84,700 (dry)
154,000 (green)
2,850 Neg.
These simple comparisons show that the use of wood to fuel one 250,000
Ib/hr boiler would reduce S02 emissions by 2,850 tons per year over the
use of coal under the assumed conditions. Extension of this result to a
wood fuel use equivalent to, say, 1000 model plants yields the following:
Wood required = 84.7 million tons of dry wood/year
= 154 million tons of green wood/year
Coal supplanted = 50 million tons/year
S02 reduction = 2.85 million tons/year
To achieve a reduction of 2.85 million tons per year of sulfur dioxide emis-
sions by scrubbing, the equivalent of 1175 coal-fired boilers of the model
plant size would have to use scrubbers operating at 85 percent sulfur-
removal efficiency. If limestone-type scrubbers were used, more than 18-
million tons of scrubber sludge would be produced which would require
disposal. Of course, the wood-fired plants would produce no sludge.
If wood fuel were substituted for residual oil, similar results would
be obtained. The sulfur content of residual oil ranges from 0.7 to 3.5 per-
cent. Since the heating value per unit weight of oil is higher than that
for coal, the quantity of S02 emitted from a model plant, burning residual
oil containing 3 percent sulfur, would be about 65 percent of that emitted
from a coal-fired plant. Thus, the decrease in S02 emissions resulting
from the substitution of wood fuel for residual fuel oil would be about one
third less than that for coal.
These comparisons show that significant reductions in S02 emissions
will be achieved when wood is burned instead of coal or oil. The total
magnitude of this benefit depends, of course, on the amount of wood fuel
burned. As noted in a preceding section, there are a number of tradeoffs to
be considered regarding the use of wood fuel. To accurately predict the
actual use of wood fuel is impossible; however, in general, the decrease in
S02 emissions from wood fuel is such that the promotion of wood fuel as
one element of an overall S02 control strategy is merited.
Other Pollutant Emissions
Particulate emissions from wood-fired facilities can be controlled to
meet existing State and Federal regulations. Since the same particulate
matter emission limits apply to wood fuel and fossil fuel, the use of wood
32
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fuel would not increase the quantity of particulate matter emitted over that
associated with the use of any fossil fuel.
Although only limited data are available regarding emissions of NOx
from wood-fired facilities, a recent study of measured emissions from a
boiler firing coal and various mixtures of coal and wood (Midwest Research
Institute, 1977) showed no significant variation in NOx emissions. From
this limited information we can expect that NOx emissions would not be
increased on substitution of wood for coal.
COMPARISON OF INDUSTRIAL FOSSIL FUEL
USE WITH AVAILABILITY OF WOOD WASTES
In view of several favorable aspects in the use of wood fuel in indus-
trial facilities, a significantly increased use of wood for fuel will proba-
bly occur. This anticipated use raises questions about ultimate depletions
of our forests. Beacuse of the variation in regional distribution of our
forest resources, an evaluation of possible depletion of these resources
should be conducted on a regional basis.
Although projections of actual wood-fuel use by industry are difficult
to make until better estimates are available from industries outside the
forest-products industries, some tentative projections can be made by com-
paring industrial fossil-fuel use with the quantities of wood residues
available in various regions.
Data on the quantities of various fossil fuels used by industry were
taken from a survey conducted by the Federal Energy Administration (FEA, now
incorporated in the Department of Energy). The data base includes the quan-
tities of fuel used in "boilers, burners, or other combustors" having a fuel
input of 100-million-Btu per hour or greater. Data were reported for 1973
and 1974.
The quantities of fuel used were agregated by State and then by re-
gions, corresponding to those employed by the U.S. Forest Service. The
results are given in Table 5. The first four columns show the totals in
each region for individual fossil fuels, and the total of all fuels is given
in the fifth column. For comparison, the quantities of unused wood residues
previously presented in Table 3 are given in millions of tons per year of
dry wood in Column 6, and in trillions of Btu per year in Column 7. The
reader should note that the wood residue quantities tabulated are associated
with normal logging and milling activities, thus, they are on an annual
basis, not on a one-time-only basis. However, these quantities include the
stump-root system that is not normally harvested.
Considering first the entire United States, the total annual fossil
fuel use in industrial facilities larger than 100-million-Btu/hr is 6,290 x
1012 Btu, or 6.29 quad (1015 Btu). The total of unused wood (including
the stump-root system) in 1970 was 3.61 quad, or 57 percent of the fossil
fuel total. Thus, more than half of the fuel requirement could be supplied
from unused residues on a continuing basis.
33
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TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF INDUSTRIAL FOSSIL FUEL USE
AND QUANTITY OF UNUSED WOOD RESIDUES
Region '
Northeast
North Central
Southeast
South Central
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
So. Rocky Mountain
No. Rocky Mountain
U.S. TOTALS
Coal
461.4
740.3
124.8
184.5
16.5
2.7
16.5
66.4
1,613.0
1974
Residual
Fuel Oil
430.2
201.4
240.8
168.1
39.0
58.8
17.1
26.0
1,181.4
Fossil Fuel Use
Distillate
Fuel Oil
29.2
62.5
17.6
14.5
1.0
3.3
1.3
6.6
135.9
, 1012 Btu/Year(a)
Natural
Gas
241.1
696.4
108.2
1,795.3
113.0
250.2
55.2
99.8
3,359.2
Total
Fossil Fuel
1,162
1,701
491
2,162
170
315
90
199
6290
Total Unused
Wood Residues
106 DTE(d) 1012 Btu/yr(e)
21.4
19.9
43.6
51.0
47.0
15.0
10.8
3.7
212.4
364.5
337.5
740.9
866.4
799.5
254.4
184.0
63.0
3610
(a) Source: Major Fuel Burning
boilers, burners, or other
(b) From Table 3.
107 Q v 1O6 HT-I
These totals
i f-nnQ pfluiva
Installation Coal Conversion Report
combustors with 100 x 106 Btu/hour,
include the stump-root sy
lonl- TF} anH 1776 x 1 f)12
stem. U.S
Bf u/vpar .
, FEA C-602-5-0.
or greater, fuel
Reported data
input .
apply to
. totals excluding these residues would be
(c) Regions are defined in footnote to Table 3.
(d) DTE = Dry Tons Equivalent.
(e) Conversion factor = 8500 Btu/dry pound, or 17 x 10 Btu/DTE.
-------
On a regional basis, the Northeast, North Central, South Central,
Southern Rocky Mountains, and Pacific Southwest Regions use fossil fuel in
quantities greater than the unused wood residue quantities. In the other
regions, wood residues are available in substantially greater amounts than
the fossil fuel required by the industries in the region. The North Central
region show the greatest fossil fuel use in comparison to the unused wood
residue quantity, with a ratio of about 5 to 1. If accelerated wood-fuel
use by industry were ever to pose a threat to long-term forest resources, it
would probably occur first in the North Central region. However, even in
this region, excessive use of wood for fuel is riot likely to occur. Coal is
the fossil fuel most likely to be displaced by wood in existing units. In
Table 5, the total of unused residues shown for the North Central region is
46 percent of the coal use, and a wood-fuel penetration of that magnitude
would not be expected. The unused wood residue quantities listed in Tables
3 and 5 do not include noncommercial species, a source which could add sub-
stantially to the wood residue totals.
Wood-fuel use is unlikely to expand rapidly enough to jeopardize the
long-term productivity of our forests. Wood residue quantities are expected
to increase in the future, thus providing a further margin of safety.
REFERENCES
Hall, E. H., C. M. Allen, D. A. Ball, J. E. Burch, H. N. Conkle, W. T.
Lawhon, T. J. Thomas, and G. R. Smithson. 1975. Final Report on Comparison
of Fossil and Wood Fuels to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio. 238 p.
Midwest Research Institute, 1977. Stationary Source Testing at Power Plant
of University of Missouri at Rolla. 35 p.
35
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SECTION 8
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF WOOD RESIDUE USE
The use of wood residues as fuels will create ecological impact from
logging operations. Logging operations and associated activities, such as
construction of roads and use of heavy equipment, impact physical and chemi-
cal components of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems associated with the
forested area.
SOIL NUTRIENTS
Extensive reviews exist which evaluate soil-nutrient removal from
logged areas (Hall et al., 1975; McElroy et al., 1973; Bell et al., 1974).
Data are often not comparable and are sometimes conflicting. Nutrient
losses reported in the Hubbard Brook Forest ecosystem studies were sub-
stantial (Liken et al., 1970); however, regeneration of the clearcut area
studied was prevented for two years by applications of herbicides. Other
data imply that when natural regeneration is allowed, soil-nutrient loss is
neglibible (Patric and Smith, 1975).
Forests remove definable amounts of nutrient materials from the soil
each year. Table 6 presents the annual nutrient uptake and components which
have been found to vary with species, age, and soil. Table 7 presents the
findings of several researchers in studies of the nutrient contents of tree
components representative of some of the major forest areas of the United
States. Removal of logging residues would deplete nutrient supplies in
amounts similar to those presented in Table 7.
Sixty-eight percent of the nutrients utilized for annual growth in a
spruce forest association were found to be returned to the soil with leaf-
fall (Sloboda, 1975). In an oak-aspen forest (Boiko et al., 1977), 50 per-
cent of absorbed nutrients were returned with leaffall. Additional nutrient
recycling occurs in cut-over areas with the decay of bark, branches, twigs,
and roots. Removal of these materials could result in soil-nutrient deple-
tion. Whole-tree harvest of a 16-year-old stand of loblolly pine would
remove 12 percent of the total nitrogen, 8 percent of extractable phospho-
rous and 31 percent of extractable potassium of the entire site (Hall et
al., 1975).
The probability of nutrient deficiency increases not only with com-
plete utilization of residuals, but also with shorter rotation times (Patric
and Smith, 1975; Hall et al., 1975). Both are forest management techniques
designed to increase productivity. The type of harvesting method is also
36
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TABLE 6. ANNUAL NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND RETURN
BY THREE REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
Scotch pine
Uptake
Retention
Return
Beech
Uptake
Retention
Return
Oak-Hickory
Uptake
Return
Ca
30
10
19
95
13
81
82
56
Nutrient
kg /ha
K P
7
2
4
14
4
10
29
4
4
1
3
12
2
10
6
3
N Reference
44 Wilde, 1958
10
36
50
10
40
54 Rochow, 1975
28
37
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TABLE 7. NUTRIENT CONTENT OF TREE COMPONENTS
oo
Nutrient Age
Tree Species or Component
Deciduous Hardwoods
Roots
Stems
Bark
Branches
Foliage
Whole Tree
Conifers Other Than Pines
Roots
Steins
Bark
Branches
Foliage
Whole Tree
Pines
Roots
Stems
Bark
Branches
Foliage
Whole Tree
Douglas Fir
Trees
Ca
169
257
590
204
64
1283
89
129
214
143
101
676
37
84
72
51
39
283
333
kg/ha
K
43
121
57
47
32
320
49
102
84
74
64
375
17
45
17
20
39
138
220
Of
P N Stand Location Reference
10 100 yr Europe (Spurr & Barnes, 1973)
20
15
17
8
70
8
10
18
14
20
70
2
8
5
5
10
30
66 320 36 yr Seattle, WA (Turner et al., 1976)
-------
TABLE 7. (Continued)
VO
Nutrient
Tree Species or Component
Red Alder
Roots
Trunk Wood
Trunk Bark
Branches
Leaves
Total
Northern Hardwoods
Abo veg round
Belowground
Pacific Fir
Tree Wood
Bark
Branch
Foliage
Total Aboveground Tree
Ca
123
51
69
77
42
299
383
101
61
574
119
259
1013
kg/ha
K P
7
27
18
4
43
99
155
63
421
225
120
190
956
4
16
10
2
5
37
34
53
29
8
9
17
63
Age
Of
N Stand Location
176 34 yrs
128
165
20
100
589
351 Vermont
181
141 175 yrs Seattle, WA
13
18
173
345
Reference
(Likens et al., 1977)
(Turner & Singer, 1976)
-------
directly related to the amount of nutrient leaching. Losses of calcium and
nitrogen approximately doubled with whole-tree harvest as compared with
stem-only harvest (Hornbeck, 1977). Usually, when any of these methods are
employed, nutrients must be added in the form of fertilizers to lessen the
effects of nutrient loss and to make regeneration possible.
OTHER SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil properties can be altered by certain other logging operations
besides removal of tree biomass. Clearcutting decreases soil mositure,
changes soil texture, bulk density, and permeability (Bell et al., 1974).
Filling and yarding influence soil compaction and create soil disturbance.
Road construction, hauling, felling, and yarding increase erosion and
runoff.
Clearcutting has considerable influence on soil temperature, air tem-
perature, wind speed and light regime in the cut-over area. Increased soil
temperatures due to increased solar radiation can be detrimental to regener-
ation. Removal of residues formerly allowed to decay will not only increase
solar radiation in the soil, but will also reduce the humic content of the
soil.
Physical damage can occur to regenerating species from logging and
skidding operations (Gottfried and Jones, 1975). Host (1972) reported damage
to regeneration ranging from 11 to 35 percent for various skidding methods.
Loss was heaviest for larger specimens. By removing residuals, damage to
new growth will be more costly because regeneration time will be longer.
WILDLIFE
Wildlife is indirectly affected by logging operations. Tree-removal
eliminates local habitats for nesting species which may cause them to evacu-
ate the area. On the other hand, openings in the forest caused by clearcut-
ting provide an increased food supply and more favorable habitat for many
animals. Small species make use of residuals for both food supply and
protection. Removal of slash materials will prolong the time required for
establishment of these populations.
Timing of logging operations can also influence wildlife behavior.
Areas are more conducive to rehabitation after vegetation has leafed out,
and the available food source serves as an attractant.
Regrowth in a clearcut area provides browse for larger game species.
Deer use of a cut-over area was found to peak shortly after logging. As
regeneration proceeded, use declined (Black, 1974). However, over-use of a
clearcut area by deer, hare, and mountain beaver can cause failure in
regeneration.
WATER QUALITY
Soil sediments are transported to streams by the erosive action of
rainwater runoff and snowmelt. In the case of heavily deforested areas,
40
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large amounts of nutrients in the form of metal ions and organic debris
(green vegetative matter and decomposed humic material) increase the loading
to the aquatic system (Likens et al., 1970; McElroy et al., 1973; Snyder et
al., 1975). Increased amounts of nutrients can produce eutrophic conditions
in the receiving water body.
Acidity of streams in logged areas may increase due to nitrification
of the forest floor caused by tree removal and to the absence of the neu-
tralization of acid precipitation by the canopy. The resultant pH may be
directly toxic to certain aquatic life forms and may slow rates of decompo-
sition (Likens et al., 1978). Use of logging residues would prolong the
time of regeneration, and therefore, of nitrate leaching.
Logging, road construction, and use are major sources of increased
turbidity and sedimentation in forest watersheds. High levels of turbidity
are unsuitable for most gill—breathing organisms. Associated sedimentation
destroys habitats, renders spawning and rearing beds unsuitable, smothers
invertebrates, fish food organisms, and fish eggs. Location of logging
roads is critical in reducing impacts from sedimentation.
Filter strips of undistrubed vegetation and forest floor can greatly
reduce or eliminate increased sedimentation due to logging roads. The width
of such strips depends on the slope and type of terrain (Packer, 1967; Bell
et al., 1974). For land with 0 percent slope, the filtration strip should
be, in general, a minimum of 25-feet wide; and at least 50-feet wide in
watersheds supplying municipalities (Trimble and Sartz, 1957).
Canopy-removal and cutting of forest vegetation increases the amount
of runoff which reaches streams (Hall et al., 1975 ; Likens et al., 1970;
Douglass and Swank, 1972). Amounts of throughfall, snow storage, and water
yield increase with cutting intensity, resulting in increased streamflow
(Bell et al., 1974). Removal of residuals would further increase the runoff.
Manipulating forest vegetation can alter the quality and quantity of water
appearing in the form of wetlands, bogs, marshes, and springs (Hornbeck,
1977). Soil-compaction and loss of permeability due to logging operations
and the absence of growing vegetation utilizing soil moisture contribute to
a higher water table. These increases can have serious impacts on sensitive
areas such as marshes.
Canopy-removal along stream banks increases the area of stream exposed
to direct solar radiation, causing rises in stream temperature and larger
than normal daily fluctuations in temperature (Likens et al., 1970; McElroy
et al., 1973; Snyder et al., 1975; Hall et al., 1975). Such temperature
changes are unsuitable for certain species of fish and other aquatic life.
Buffer strips protecting streamside vegetation moderate or eliminate
stream temperature fluctuations, reduce bank scouring, maintain stability,
and provide a natural food source to the acquatic system (Brown, 1974;
Snyder et al., 1975).
Some accumulation of residues in stream channels occurs naturally.
Residues may triple after logging operations (Brown, 1974). Large debris
41
-------
may be yarded out of the channel, but fine particles remain at higher levels
than before logging. Both types of residues can detrimentally affect aquat-
ic habitats. Biological degradation of fine residues reduces dissolved oxy-
gen. Accumulation of these residues can also interfere with circulation of
water. Large residues alter stream hydraulics, affect bank stability, and
can block fish migration. Large debris-dams may also cause flooding.
Use of residuals would eliminate stream damage caused by larger resi-
dues. Fine residuals too small for efficient removal or use would remain in
the cutover area and could potentially enter stream channels in runoff. Ef-
fects of both fine and larger residuals in streams could be mitigated by the
preservation of buffer strips on both sides of the stream bed.
The extent of water-quality impacts resulting from the use of logging
residues will be strongly influenced by prevailing environmental conditions
such as climate, precipitation, soil type, land use, forest type, tempera-
ture, and humidity. The following paragraphs briefly characterize sections
of the United States, and indicate areas of greatest potential impact on
water quality from the use of logging residues.
Northeast
The terrain of the northeastern regions of the United States is typi-
fied by low, open mountains, high hills, and hilly plains.
Mean daily temperatures range between 10° and 85° F. Mean annual
rainfall is approximately 40 inches. The climate is humid, maintaining
water surpluses even during periods of less-than-average precipitation.
Predominant soils In the New England states are cool, moist types with
a mean annual soil temperature lower than 47° F. While these soils are pro-
tected from leaching in the winter by freezing, they are more likely to lose
nitrate in the summer than soils in other parts of the U. S. The New Eng-
land soils absorb little nitrate, and evaporation losses are lower in summer
(Engelstad, 1970). These soils occur on gently-sloping and steep terrain
and are suited for woodland.
Major forest types are red-white-jack pine, spruce-fir, and oak-
hickory. Approximately 55 percent (31 million acres) of the region's land
use is forest and woodland.
The humid conditions in this region facilitate rapid decay of logging
residues and rapid return of nutrients which offsets losses due to natural
leaching during the summer. Removal of residues coupled with the leaching
would hasten nutrient depletion of these soils.
Based on figures presented by Likens et al. (1977) for nutrient con-
tents of northeastern deciduous hardwood forests, removal of logging resi-
dues would decrease available nutrients in the following amounts: 351 kg/ha
nitrogen, 34 kg/ha phosphorus, 155 kg/ha potassium, and 383 kg/ha calcium.
42
-------
Mid-Atlantic
Soils of the middle Atlantic states are warm and moist. Those used
primarily for cropland and grazing have weakly differentiated soil horizons.
Areas used for forestry and woodland have soils low in bases (base satura-
tion at pH 8.2), and organic matter with subsurface horizons of clay
accumulation.
Vegetation types grade from northern hardwoods in New York to Appala-
chian oak forests in Pennsylvania and New Jersey to mixed mesophytic forests
in Maryland, Delaware, and West Virginia. Major forest types are oak-
hickory and maple-beech-birch.
Climate is humid with mean annual precipitation of approximately 40
inches. Mean daily temperatures range between 20° and 90° F.
Impacts on water quality would be similar to those for the New England
states above.
Southeast
The coasts of the southeastern U. S. are characterized by flat plains.
Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina have some irregular plains and
low mountains. Coastal soils are warm and wet. Rolling plains soils are
low in organic matter in subsurface horizons and are used for general
farming and woodland.
The coastal climate is warm and humid. Growing season varies from 7
to nearly 12 months. Annual rainfall is 40 or more inches, evenly dis-
tributed, although drought can occur in winter. Low elevation and pressence
of impervious clay sediments impede drainage on many soils. Less fertile
lands support longleaf, shortleaf loblolly and slash pine. Productive soils
produce oaks, hickories, ash and beech. Primary land use is for forestry
(65 percent).
Mean daily high and low temperatures range from 30° to 90° F. Based
on the combination of rainfall, evaportranspiration, soil water holding
capacity, and temperature, leaching of nutrients, particularly nitrogen is
more likely to occur in the winter in the Southeast (Engelstad, 1970).
Again, the humid climate contributes to the rapid decay of logging
residues and the return of nutrients to soils subject to nutrient leaching.
In addition, the slope of the land coupled with the type of soils in
northeastern North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia produce a high
erosion potential for deforested areas. Logging residues left in place
would provide slope stability and help prevent erosion. Nutrient losses
from use of logging residues are approximated for pine and oak-hickory
forest in Table 6.
43
-------
South Central
The bulk of the south central terrain is flat irregular plains and
open hills. Some low, mountainous areas are found in Arkansas and
Louisiana.
Soils of Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Louisiana are
predominantly warm, moist types which are low in bases with subsurface hori-
zons of clay accumulation. These soils are low in organic matter in sub-
surface horizons and are used for general farming, woodland, and pasture.
Along the Mississippi River, soils have weakly differentiated horizons;
materials have been altered or removed but have not accumulated. These soils
are seasonally wet with an organic surface horizon. Undrained lands are used
for woodland and pasture. Approximately 55 percent of the land use in these
states is for forestry.
Predominant forest types are loblolly-shortleaf pine, longleaf-slash
pine, and along the Mississippi River, oak-gunrcypress forests.
The climate of these states is generally warm and humid with an annual
precipitation of 56 inches, mean daily low and high temperatures are between
40° and 95° F.
Nutrient leaching from soils in Tennessee and Alabama would again be
offset by rapid decay of logging residues.
Texas and Oklahoma fall into a marginal region which is subject to long
and short-term droughts. Mean annual precipitation is between 16 and 32
inches. Mean daily temperatures are between 20 and 95° F. Soils are warm
dry types; some are organic-rich; most are high in bases with subsurface
horizons of salt and carbonate accumulations characteristic of semiarid cli-
mates. These lands are used predominantly for grazing, pasture, and small
grain crops.
North Central
The topography of the north central section of the United States is
characterized by flat, open plains and open low hills.
Soils in Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Kansas are rich in organic
matter, high in bases, black in color, warm and moist. The primary use of
these soils is for corn, soybeans, small grains, and pasture.
Large areas of Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, and Kentucky have soils medium
to high in bases with gray to brown surface horizons and clay accumulation
in subsurface horizons. These soils are usually moist but may become dry in
some horizons during warm seasons. Primary use is for row crops, small
grain, and pasture.
The Great Lakes area receives abundant sunshine in summer, high day-
time temperatures, and infrequent but heavy rainfall (32-40 inches mean
annual precipitation). Surface geology reflects various aspects of
44
-------
glaciation: table-like plains of glacial outwash, ridges of terminal and
recessional moraines, plateaus of ground moraines, "sheep backs", and
aeolian sands interspersed with thousands of lakes.
Over half the forest land for the north central region is found in
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota (50 million acres). Forest types are
dominated by red pine, jack pine, hard maple, beech, birch, slippery elm,
rock elm, white pine, hemlock, white spruce, and trembling aspen.
North and South Dakota are somewhat dissimilar from other states in
this region. Their topographical features include smooth, flat plains in
the eastern portions of the states grading to open, low hills in the western
sections. Soils of North Dakota are largely cool and moist, with black
organic-rich surface horizons used primarily for small grain, hay, and pas-
ture. South Dakota soils are also black and organic-rich, but are semiarid.
During warm seasons, these soils are intermittently dry. Salts or carbon-
ates have accumulated in subsurface horizons. Use is for wheat or small
grains. Land use is approximately 50 percent cropland, 35 percent grazing.
Less than 5 percent is used for forestry or woodland. Mean annual precipi-
tation varies from 16 to 24 inches. The Uakotas are in a marginal region
where they are vulnerable to both long- and short-term droughts. Mean daily
temperatures range from 0° to 90° F.
Impacts from the removal of logging residues in most states of the
Midwest would be most pronounced along waterways where erosion of soils is
most likely to occur. Nutrient losses, at worst, would be very localized
due to the limited area of commercial forest land.
Rocky Mountain
The Rocky Mountains extend from the northern to the southern border of
the North American continent. They range in elevation from sea level to
about 15,000 feet. The system is geologically young and exhibits a wide
range of soil groups and formations delineated by deserts at the foothills
and alpine meadows or skeletal barrens at the mountain tops.
The north-south orientation of the mountain ranges serves as a barrier
to moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean. Drastic differences in cli-
mate are encountered within a distance of several miles in either a vertical
or an east-west direction. The effect of the climatic factors differenti-
ates both the vegetation and soils into distinct climatic-zonal groups.
Forest associations are of several types. Dry woodland species—scrub oaks,
mountain mahogany, juneberry—occur in areas of low elevation and annual
rainfall of less than 20 inches. These species have little commercial value
except as a source of fuel, but are important for watershed protection.
Pinyon-juniper types cover large areas at higher elevations and are a source
of fuel, posts, and mine timber. The ponderosa pine type borders dry wood-
land zones and extends in the southern Rockies to an elevation of 8,000
feet. Annual rain fall is between 20 and 25 inches. Stands are widely dis-
tributed and trees are of good size and form. The value of the wood and the
comparative ease of logging, give the ponderosa pine forest a high commer-
cial importance.
45
-------
Above the ponderosa pine belt, extending occasionally to elevations of
10,OOU feet is the Douglas fir forest type. Precipitation, much of which
occurs in the form of snow, varies between 25 and 30 inches. Extended
periods of drought occur in spring and fall. Soils are usually well sup-
plied with nutrients, but often are shallow and have a low water-retaining
capacity.
The lodgepole pine type has a wide ecological range, tolerating ex-
treme temperatures, drought, and low nutrients. This forest type usually
forms pioneer cover and is eventually replaced by Douglas fir or Engelmann
spruce. Lodgepole pine cones open by fire resulting in dense even-aged
pioneer stands in burned-over areas.
Spruce-fir is the timber-line type, extending to elevations of 12,000
feet. Annual precipitation is approximately 30 inches. The growing season
is about 3 months, with an average temperature during that time of about 50°
F. Forest stands are uneven-aged and well-stocked with mature trees reach-
ing a diameter of 30 inches.
Soils in the northern Rocky Mountain elevations are cool and moist,
high in bases, and used for woodland, pasture, and small grains. Remaining
soil types are warm and dry and used primarily for range and small grain
crops. Primary land use is for grazing and pasture.
The region receives 16 to 32 inches of precipitation per year. Much
of the area is arid, subject to periods of long and shrot term droughts.
Mean monthly temperatures range between 10° and 85° F.
Soils of the southern Rocky Mountains are predominantly warm and dry.
Much of the region falls within an arid section of the country subject to
drought. Soils are suitable for wheat, range, and irrigated crops. Some of
the mountain soils are cool and moist, medium-to-high in bases, with a sub-
surface clay accumulation. These soils are used for woodland, supporting
hardwood, pinyon-juniper, and fir-spruce forest types.
The major land use is for pasture and grazing. Mean annual precipi-
tation is between 8 and 20 inches. Mean daily temperatures fall between 20°
and 105° F.
In the arid climate of the West, logging residues decompose slowly.
In spite of the low amount of rainfall, there is evidence of nutrient loss,
particularly nitrates, in soils due to leaching (Engelstad, 1970). Removal
of residues could result in a decrease in available nitrogen as well as
other nutrients.
Pacific Northwest Coast
The terrain in Oregon and Washington is punctuated by mountains and
plateaus. Soils in the western portions are warm and moist types, low in
bases, high in organic content, and are used for woodland and range. Soils
of the central plateau region are cool and moist, low in bases and typical
of soils found in tundra. Primary use is for woodland. The eastern
46
-------
portions of both states are warm and dry. Soils have an organic-rich
surface layer and are used mainly for wheat range and irrigated crops.
Major forest types are as previously described for the Rocky Moun-
tains. Approximately 40 percent of the land use is for forestry. Monthly
average temperatures are between 20° and 55° F. Mean annual precipitation
on the western coastal areas is approximately 96 to 128 inches. In the
central and eastern portions, mean annual precipitation decreases sharply to
8 to 24 inches.
Terrain in northern California is mountainous, grading to flat central
plains and southern hilly plains. Northern coastal soils are organic rich
and low in bases with subsurface clay accumulations. These areas are used
primarily for woodland and pasture. Temperatures and precipitation are
similar to western Oregon and Washington as are forest types.
Central and southern California soils are warm, dry types, low in or-
ganic matter, subject to long and short term droughts and are used primarily
for range and small grain crops. Rainfall is between 8 and 24 inches per
year.
Climatic conditions are such that the Pacific Northwest is one of the
major forest areas of the U.S., supplying almost 35 percent of the nation's
lumber. Approximately 242-million cubic feet of logging residue remain in
Washington, Oregon, and northern California forests. Complete use of resid-
uals could result in removal of as much as 1,000 kg/ha of nutrients from the
system. The periodically high rainfall increases probability of nutrient
loss due to leaching. Steep slopes increase the likelihood of erosion.
Selective use of residuals and residual components would be essential to
avoid detrimental impact.
The land mass of Alaska has various relief. The central portion is
typified by open, high mountains; the southern coastal regions are plains
and flatlands; northern coastal regions are high and low mountains. Pre-
dominant soils are cool and wet with organic surface horizons used for
vegetable crops, woodland, and pasture. Alaska also has large barren areas
of mainly rock and ice which do not support crops. Approximately 30 percent
of the land use in Alaska is for forestry. Over 50 percent of the land area
was unused as of 1967. The major forest type is hemlock-Sitka spruce along
the coast. The interior region supports mostly spruce-hardwood forests of
medium to poor quality and of noncommercial use. Commercial harvest of
Alaskan forests yielded approximately 1,100-million cubic feet of timber in
1970; 40-million cubic feet remain as residue.
CONCLUSIONS
Of forest harvest techniques, the clearcutting method produces the
most profound ecological effects as well as the largest volume of residuals.
Impacts were considered on this worst-case basis. Clearcutting is a method
likely to be employed when large residual volume recovery is attempted.
47
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Increased use of logging residuals is not likely to produce many
beneficial ecological impacts. Removal of slash materials does reduce raw
material for forest fires, and may provide esthetically more pleasing land-
scaping; however, by preventing natural recycling of materials, soil nutri-
ents could be seriously depleted. Various tree components absorb different
amounts of nutrients. Selective use of residual components is essential to
avoid or alleviate soil nutrient depletion.
Slash materials hasten regeneration of clear cut areas. New growth,
as well as leafed-out tree residues, provide browse and cover for many wild-
life species.
Negative impacts of large residues in stream channels can be avoided
by simple preventative measures (filter strips). Negative impacts associ-
ated with slash removal, however, are more costly to prevent (fertilization,
lengthened natural regeneration time).
Severity of impacts from the use of logging residuals will vary with
regional geological and climatological conditions. Impacts would not be as
extensive in areas of the country where forestry is not a major land use.
Removal of residuals will have most pronounced effects in areas where such
materials are necessary to maintain soil nutrient levels (areas subject to
leaching) and prevent erosion (areas of moderate or steep slope, heavy
precipitation, shallow soil depth, or river bank and floodplain areas).
Increased use of mill residues currently being wasted will alleviate
problems of inconvenience and cost associated with disposal of these mate-
rials and reduce soil disturbance and leaching impacts caused by burning and
burial. The most efficient use of mill wastes is as boiler fuel in the mill
itself.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Biomass, wood, and wood residues will continue to be an important
source of fuels, fibers, and chemical feedstocks. In the short-term (0-50
years) we anticipate that there will be a great demand to utilize wood and
wood residues for fuels. The long term use will be more oriented toward
fiber and chemical feedstocks. Irrespective of the uses, trends suggest
that the forests of today must supply the materials and feedstocks necessary
to maintain our current lifestyles.
Whether or not our forest lands can be managed to successfully supply
needed materials depends on the fundamental issue of long term forest pro-
ductivity as it relates to particular wood/wood residue utilization scenar-
ios. This issue must be addressed by means of a definitive experimental
program.
REFERENCES
Bell, M. A. M., J. M. Beckett, and W. F. Hubbard. 1974. Impact of Harvest-
ing on Forest Environments and Resources, A Review of the Literature and
Evaluation of Research Needs. Biocon Research Limited.
48
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Bennett, F. W., and R. L. Donahue. 1973. Processes, Procedures, and
Methods of Control Pollution Resulting from Silvicultural Activities. EPA
430/9-73-010. U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Water Programs, Washington, D.C.
Boiko, A. V., T. P. Surovaya, and K. K. Kirkowskli. 1977. Annual Cycle of
Soil Elements in a Broadgrass-Floodplain Oak Grove of the Pripyat State Pre-
serve. Vesti Akad. Novuk BSSR, Ser. Biyal. Navuk, (1):120-121.
(Abstract).
Brown, G. W. 1974. Fish Habitat. In: Environmental Effects of Forest
Residues Management in the Pacific Northwest; A State-of-the-Art Compendium.
0. P. Cramer (ed.). USDA for. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-24.
Douglass, J. E. and W. T. Swank. 1972. Streamflow Modification Through
Management of Eastern Forests. USDA for. Ser. Res. Paper SE-94. South-
eastern For. Exp. Stn., Asheville; No. Carolina.
Engelsted, 0. P. (ed.). 1970. Nutrient Mobility in Soils: Accumulation
and Losses. Number 4 in SSSA Special Publication Series. Soil Science
Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wise.
Gottfried, G. J. and J. R. Jones. 1975. Logging Damage to Advance Regener-
ation on an Arizona Mixed Conifer Watershed. USDA For. Ser. Res. Paper
RM-147. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins,
Colo.
Hall, E. H., C. M. Allen, D. A. Ball, J. E. Burch, H. N. Conkle, W. T.
Lawhon, T. J. Thomas, and G. R. Smithson, 1975. Final Report on Comparison
of Fossil and Wood Fuels to the U.S. EPA. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, Ohio. 238 p.
Hornbeck, J. W. 1977. Nutrients: A Major Consideration in Intensive
Forest Management. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Intensive Culture
of Northern Forest Types. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-29. Northeast
For. Exp. Stn., Upper Darby, Pa.
Host, J. R. 1972. Productivity of Intermoutain Logging Operations. In:
Proceedings of Planning and Decision Making as Applied for Forest Harvesting
Symposium, September, 1972, Corvallis, Ore.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher, and R. S. Pierce.
1970. Effects of Forest Cutting and Herbicide Treatment on Nutrient Budgets
in the Hubbard Brook Watershed-Ecosystem. Ecological Monographs 40(1):
23-47.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, J. S. Eaton, and N. M. Johnson.
1977. Biogechemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, W. A. Reiners. 1978. Recovery
of a Deforested Ecosystem. Science 199:492-496.
49
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Packer, P. E. 1967. Criteria for Designing and Locating Logging Roads to
Control Sediment. Forest Science 13(1):1-18.
Patric, J. H., and D. W. Smith. 1975. Forest Management and Nutrient
Cycling in Eastern Hardwoods. USDA For. Ser. Res. Paper NE-324. North-
eastern For. Exp. Stn., Upper Darby, Pa.
Rochow, J. J. 1975. Mineral Nutrient Pool and Cycling in a Missouri
Forest. Journal of Ecology 63(3):985-994.
Sloboda, A. V. 1975. Dynamics of the Accumulation of Litter and its
Decomposition. Prod, Krugovorot Elem. Fitotsenozakh Sev. 51-67, 123-129.
(Abstract).
Snyder, G. G., H. F. Haupt., and G. H. Belt, Jr. 1975. Clearcutting and
Burning Slash Alter Quality of Stream Water in Northern Idaho. USDA For.
Serv. Res. Paper INT-168. Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Stn., Odgen,
Utah.
Spurr, S. H., and B. V. Barnes. 1973. Forest Ecology» Second Edition. The
Ronald Press Company, New York.
Stallings, J. H. 1962. Soil Conservation. Third Printing. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Trimble, G. R., Jr. and R. S. Sartz. 1957. How Far from a Stream Should a
Logging Road Be Located? Journal of Forestry 55:339-341.
Turner, J. D., W. Cole, and S. P. Gessel. 1976. Mineral Nutrient Accumula-
tion and Cycling in a Stand of Red Alder (Alnus rubra). Journal of Ecology
64 (3)-.965-974.
Turner, J., and M. J. Singer. 1976. Nutrient Distribution and Cycling in a
Sub-Alpine Coniferous Forest Ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology
13(1):295-301.
Wilde, S. A. 1958. Forest Soils, Their Properties and Relation to Silvi-
culture. The Ronald Press Company, New York.
50
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TABLE A-l. PROJECTED U.S. TIMBER HARVESTS, BY TYPE AND
GEOGRAPHICAL SECTION - 1980, 2000 AND 2020
Projected Timber Harvests
Type and
Section(a)
Softwoods
North
South
Rocky Mtn.
Pacific Coast
Total Softwoods
Hardwoods
North
South
Rocky Mtn.
Pacific Coast
Total Hardwoods
Total Softwoods
and Hardwoods
F.st-lmat-pH 1980
(106 cubic feet)
2000
1970 Harvest Low High Low
(106 cubic feet)
509
3,745
853
3,805
8,912
1,410
1,668
11
85
3,174
12,086
740
3,494
796
3,550
8,580
1,610
1,758
31
54
3,453
12,033
945
5,441
1,229
4,287
11,902
1,960
2,140
37
66
4,203
16,105
874
4,546
1,005
2,626
9,051
1,638
1,417
38
45
3,138
12,189
^ High
1,440
7,488
1,655
4,325
14,908
3,342
2,892
77
91
6,402
21,310
Low*
905
4,706
1,001
2,839
9,451
2,694
2,422
63
81
5,260
14,711
2020
:b) High
1,762
9,164
1,949
5,512
18,387
4,559
4,100
107
137
8,903
27,290
0
CO
H
cn
H
M
CO
M
O
CO
O
r1
o
o
o
M
z
o
w
CO
u
<=:
w
O)
85
Tl
HjH
2!
M
X
Footnotes appear on the fol]owing page.
-------
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLE A-l
(a)
Sections defined as follows: North - Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Maryland, New
Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Michigan, Minnesota,
North Dakota, South Dakota (east), Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska and Ohio. South - North
Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Florida, Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.
Rocky Mountain - Idaho, Montana, South Dakota (west), Wyoming,
Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah. Pacific Coast -
Alaska (coastal), Oregon, Washington, California, and Hawaii.
Assumes a relatively low level of basic demand factors such as popu-
lation growth and disposable income, accompanied by rising relative
prices for primary forest products, the latter reflecting relatively
tight timber supply conditions.
Source: Hewlett and Gamache, 1977.
52
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TABLE A-2. TOTAL LOGGING RESIDUES BY REGION, 1970
Regionl
New England
Middle Atlantic
Lake States
Central States
South Atlantic
East Gulf
Central Gulf
West Gulf
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
Total U.S.
Residues from
o
Growing Stock Volume^
(103 DTE)
1,408
2,259
865
1,405
4,935
2,074
3,465
3,471
7,715
1,970
1,535
345
31,447
Total
P\.esidues^
(103 DTE)
3,976
5,331
3,670
4,530
11,813
5,622
10,585
9,694
18,361
4,937
3,600
1,079
83,198
Source: Inman, 1977.
Regions defined as follows:
New England - Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,' Connecticut, Rhode Island
Middle Atlantic - Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia
Lake States - Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota (east), Wisconsin
Central States - Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio
South Atlantic - North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia
East Gulf - Florida, Georgia
Central Gulf - Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee
West Gulf - Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas
Pacific Northwest - Alaska (coastal), Oregon, Washington
Pacific Southwest - California, Hawaii
Northern Rocky Mountain - Idaho, Montana, South Dakota (west), Wyoming
Southern Rocky Mountain - Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah
2
"Growing stock includes live trees of commercial species qualifying as desirable or accept-
able trees. "Growing stock volume" is the net volume of the stems of growing stock trees 5
inches or more in diameter at breast height (4-1/2 feet above ground level), from a 12-inch
high stump to a minimum 4-inch top diameter.
Total residues include residues from growing stock volume, residues from non-growing stock
volume and tops and branches. Not included are trees and shrubs of non-commercial species,
regardless of size, trees of commercial species less than 5 inches in diameter at breast
height, and stump-root systems.
53
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TABLE A-3. ESTIMATES OF SOFTWOOD LOGGING RESIDUES, BY REGION - 1970 (103 DTE)6
Ln
Softwood
Timber
Region" Harvest
(10°
Residues from Residues from Harvested
Growing Stock Volume^ Non-Growing Stock Volume
Wood
Bark7
Total
Wood
Bark7
Total
Tops and
Branches-*
Total Residue
Residues4 Coefficient5
cu. ft.)
New England
Middle Atlantic
Lake States
Central States
Southern Atlantic
East Gulf
Central Gulf
West Gulf
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
TOTAL U. S.
337
88
138
17
789
897
978
1,081
2,978
828
654
199
8,984
628
185
122
13
732
814
1,039
1,487
6,260
1,426
1,305
289
14,300
111
33
22
2
129
143
183
262
1,104
251
230
51
2,521
739
218
144
15
861
957
1,222
1,749
7,364
1,677
1,535
340
16,821
127
23
6
1
50
57
•37
37
672
85
31
36
1,162
22
4
1
*
9
10
7
7
119
15
6
7
207
149
27
7
1
59
67
44
44
791
100
37
43
1,369
1,054
277
400
49
2.296
2,606
2,866
3,224
9,369
2,530
2,025
601
27,297
1,942
522
551
65
3,216
3.6309
4,132
5,017
17,524
4,307
3,597
984
45,4879
(DTE/ 10 J
cu. ft.)
5.87
5.93
3.99
3.82
4.08
3.40
4.22
4.64
5.88
5.20
5.50
4.94
5.00
Source: Inman, 1977
"negligible
Additional Footnotes appear on the following page.
-------
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLE A-3
•'"See Footnote 2, Table A-2.
2
"Non-growing stock" as defined here includes trees of commercial species
which do not qualify as growing stock because they are classified as
"rough", "rotten", or "salvable dead". "Non-growing stock volume" is the
volume of the stems of non-growing stock trees 5 inches or more in diameter
at breast height, from a 12-inch high stump to a minimum 4-inch top di-
ameter. Estimates of residues for non-growing stock volume are based on
the ratio of this material to total timber inventory in each region.
o
Tops and branches, including foliage, estimated as 15% of the sum of:
timber harvested (including bark) , total residues from growing stock
volume, and total residues from non-growing stock volume.
A
See Footnote 3, Table A-2.
The residue coefficient is the weight of residues generated per unit volume
of timber harvested.
Assumed
volume.
Assumed softwood specific gravity of .49, based on dry weight and green
Bark estimated as 15% of total weight of wood and bark.
Q
See Footnote 1, Table A-2.
Q
Corrected value; error in Inman's data as presented,
-------
TABLE A-4. ESTIMATES OF HARDWOOD LOGGING RESIDUE, BY REGION - 1970 (103 DTE)6
in
Residues from Residues from Harvested
Hardwood Growing Stock Volume^ Non-Growing Stock Volume2
Timber
Region^ Harvest Wood
Bark7
Total
Wood
Bark7
Total
Tops and
Branches-*
Total Residue
Residues4 Coefficient5
(106
cu. ft.)
Sew England
Middle Atlantic
Lake States
Central States
Southern Atlantic
East Gulf
Central Gulf
West Gulf
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
TOTAL U. S.
* negligible
** less than 500,000
200
386 1
394
430 1
516 3
178
579 1
396 1
68
17
**
10
3,174 12
cubic feet
569
,735
613
,182
,463
949
,907
,454
298
249
*
4
,423
100
306
108
208
6U
168
336
268
53
44
*
1
2,203
669
2,041
721
1,390
4,074
1,117
2,243
1,722
351
293
*
5
14,626
76
108
50
266
476
143
340
251
19
116
1
22
1,868
13
19
9
47
84
25
60
44
3
21
*
4
329
89
127
59
313
560
168
400
295
22
137
1
26
2,197
1,276
2,641
2,339
2,762
3,963
1,287
3,810
2,660
464
200
2
64
21,468
2,034
4,809
3,119
4,465
8,597
2,572
6,453
4,677
837
630
3
95
38,291
(DTE/103
cu. ft.)
10.2
12.5
7.9
10.4
16.7
14.5
11.2
11.8
12.3
37.1
10.7
9.5
12.1
Footnotes appear on the following page.
-------
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLE A-4
See Footnote 2, Table A-2.
2
See Footnote 2, Table A-3.
Tops and branches, including foliage, estimated as 25% of the sum of;
timber harvested (including bark), total residues from growing stock
volume, and total residues from non-growing stock volume.
See Footnote 3, Table A-2.
See Footnote 5, Table A-3,
Assumed hardwood specific gravity of .59, based on dry weight and green
volume.
7See Footnote 7, Table A-3.
See Footnote 8, Table A-2,
57
-------
TABLE A-5. ESTIMATES OF LOGGING RESIDUES PER ACRE HARVESTED, BY REGION
Regionl
New England
Middle Atlantic
Lake States
Central States
South Atlantic
East Gulf
Central Gulf
West Gulf
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
Total U.S.
Average per Acre
Harvest Volume^
(cubic feet/acre)
1,076
949
776
607
916
705
779
817
3,395
2,698
1,709
1,193
1,236
Average Residues
Above-Ground
(DTE/acre)
8.3
11.0
5.4
6.2
10.3
5.6
6.4
6.7
24.0
17.3
9.5
6.8
9.1
per Acre Harvested
Stump-Root Systems
(DTE/acre)
9.8
10.3
7.1
6.3
9.5
6.4
7.3
7.6
27.8
22.1
13.5
9.7
10.9
See Footnote 8, Table A-2.
2
Estimates based on average timber inventories per acre (growing stock plus
non-growing stock) in 1970, and average proportions of inventories harvested
in 1970.
Source: Inman, 1977.
58
-------
TABLE A-6. ANNUAL MORTALITY OF GROWING STOCK VOLUME,
BY REGION, 1970
Region
Northeast
North Central
Southeast
South Central
Amount
(106 cubic feet)
564.8
691.8
616.2
554.3
Mortality
Percent of Total Growing
Stock Volume
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.7
Pacific Northwest
- Douglas fir
Pacific Northwest
700.4
0.6
- Ponderosa pine
Coastal Alaska
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
Total U.S.
248.6
167.1
349.4
392.1
220.7
4,505.4
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
Source: Inman, 1977.
59
-------
TABLE A-7. CALCULATEDv°' ANNUAL MORTALITY OF GROWING
STOCK IN UNITED STATES' FORESTS
NORTHEASTERN FORESTS
State
Connecticut
Delaware
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont
West Virginia
Total Mortality
NORTH
State
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Wisconsin
Total Mortality
ROCKY
State
Arizona
Colorado
Kansas
Nebraska
New Mexico
North Dakota
South Dakota
Wyoming
Total Mortality
106 cubic feet
15.200
3.2
44.6
111.8
15.8
16.800
13.600
11.600
65.6
22.0
106.6
1.300
30.100
70.9
for Region 529.1
CENTRAL FORESTS
106 cubic feet
13.7
21.5
6.900
98.3
69.7
67.9
for Region 291.0
MOUNTAIN FORESTS
106 cubic feet
33.1
84.2
3.5
3.5
43.5
2.1
14.5
32.4
for Region 216.8
SOUTHEASTERN FORESTS
State 106
Florida
Georgia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Virginia
Total Mortality for Region
SOUTHERN FORESTS
State 106
Alabama
Arkansas
Louisiana
Mississippi
Oklahoma
Tennessee
Texas
Total Mortality for Region
INTERMOUNTAIN FORESTS
State 106
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
Utah
Total Mortality for Region
PACIFIC COAST FORESTS
State 106
Alaska (coastal)
California
Oregon
Washington
Total Mortality for Region 1,
Total Mortality for U.S. = 4,138
106 cubic feet.
cubic feet
65.0
155.600
140.500
75.7
119. 5 00
556.3
cubic feet
103.500
85.1
108.705)
72.6
8.0
43.300
54.9
476.1
cubic feet
203.6
198.0
2.1
32.4
436.1
cubic feet
240.1
374.7
576.8
441.6
633.2
.6 x
(a)
(b)
Mean percentage mortality of growing stock calculated from reported values.
Reported values in appropriate state Forest Resource Bulletin (see References at the
end of this appendix).
60
-------
TABLE A-8. STUMP-ROOT SYSTEM RESIDUES, 1970
Region1
New England
Middle Atlantic
Lake States
Central States
South Atlantic
East Gulf
Central Gulf
West Gulf
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mtn.
Southern Rocky Mtn.
Total U.S.
Amount ^
(103 DTE)
2,665
701
1,014
122
5,809
6,594
7,251
8,158
23,702
6,401
5,122
1.519
69,058
Softwood
Residue Coefficient^
(DTE/103 cubic feet)
7.9
8.0
7.4
7.2
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.6
8.0
7.7
7.8
7.6
7.7
Amount2
(103 DTE)
2,107
4,359
3,860
4,558
6,539
2,124
6,286
4,389
765
328
3
106
35,424
Hardwood
Residue Coefficient?
(DTE/103 cubic feet)
10.5
11.3
9.8
10.6
12.7
11.9
10.9
11.1
11.3
19.3
10.7
10.6
11.2
Total
Amount
(103 DTE)
4,772
5,060
4,874
4,680
12,348
8,718
13,537
12,547
24,467
6,729
5,125
1,625
104,482
See Footnote 8, Table A-2.
2
Assumes that stump-root systems represent 25% of total tree biomass, as per Young, 1974. Includes only
stump-root systems of trees of commercial species 5 inches or more in diameter at breast height.
o
Residue coefficient is the weight of stump-root systems left as residue per unit volume of timber harvested.
Source: Inman, 1977.
-------
REFERENCES
Bassett, P. M., and G. A. Choate. I974a. Timber Resource Statistics
for Washington - January 1, 1973. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. PNW-53.
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR.
31 p.
Bassett, P. M., and G. A. Choate. 1974b. Timber Resource Statistics
for Oregon - January 1, 1973. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. PNW-56.
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR.
32 p.
Bellamy, T. R. 1971. Forest Statistics for Southeast Georgia - 1971.
USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-21. Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station. 34 p.
Beltz, R. C. 1975a. Albania's Timber Resources Updated - 1975. USDA
For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SO-55. Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA. 10 p.
Beltz, R. C. 1975b. Arkansas' Timber Resources Updated - 1975. USDA
For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SO-56. Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA. 10 p.
Cathey, R. A. 1972. Forest Statistics for Centeral Georgia - 1972.
USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-22. Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station. 34 p.
Cost, N. D. 1974. Forest Statistics for the Southern Coastal Plain of
North Carolina - 1973. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-26. Southeastern
Forest Experiment Station. 34 p.
Cost, N. D. 1975. Forest Statistics for the Mountain Region of North
Carolina - 1974. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-31. Southeastern
Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Cost, N. D. 1976. Forest Statistics for the Coastal Plain of Virginia -
1976. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-34. Southeastern Forest Experi-
ment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Dickson, D. R., and T. M. Bowers. 1976. Forest Statistics for Connecti-
cut. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NE-44. Northeastern Forest Experi-
ment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 40 p.
Earles, J. M. 19.75. Forest Statistics for Louisiana Parishes. USDA
For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SO-52. Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA. 85 p.
Ferguson, R. H., and C. E. Mayer. 1975. The Timber Resources of New
Jersey. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NE-34. Northeastern Forest Ex-
periment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 58 p.
62
-------
Green, A. W., and T. S. Setzer. 1974. The Rocky Mountin Timber Situa-
tion - 1970. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. INT-10. Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 78 p.
Hedlund, A., and J. M. Earles. 1971. Forest Statistics for Tennessee
Counties. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SO-32. Southern Forest Exerpi-
ment Station, New Orleans, LA. 58 p.
Kingsley, N. P. 1976. The Forest Resources of New Hampshire. USDA
For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NE-43. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station,
Upper Darby, PA. 71 p.
Kingsley, N. P. 1977. The Forest Resources of Vermont. USDA For. Serv.
Resour. Bull. NE-46. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Upper
Darby, PA. 58 p.
Knight, H. A. 1971. Forest Statistics for Southwest Georgia - 1971.
USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-19. Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station. 34 p.
Knight, H. A. 1972. Forest Statistics for North Central Georgia -
1972. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-24. Southeastern Forest Experi-
ment Station. 34 p.
Knight, H. A. 1973. Forest Statistics for North Georgia - 1972. USDA
For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-25. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.
34 p.
Knight, H. A., and J. P. McClure. 1975. North Carolina's Timber - 1974.
USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-33. Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station, Asheville,' NC. 52 p.
Ostrom, A. J. 1976. Forest Statistics for Iowa - 1974. USDA For.
Serv. Resour. Bull. NC-33. North Central Forest Experiment Station,
St. Paul, MN. 25 p.
Peters, J. R., and T. M. Bowers. 1977a. Forest Statistics for Massa-
chusetts. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NE-48. Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 43 p.
Peters, J. R., and T. M. Bowers. 1977b. Forest Statistics for Rhode
Island. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NE-49. Northeastern Forest Ex-
periment Station, Upper Darby, PA. 38 p.
Sheffield, R. M. 1976a. Forest Statistics for the Southern Piedmont of
Virginia - 1976. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-35. Southeastern
Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
63
-------
Sheffield, R. M. 1976b. Forest Statistics for the Northern Piedmont of
Virginia - 1976. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull SE-39. Southeastern
Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Sheffield, R. M. 1977a. Forest Statistics for the Northern Mountain
Region of Virginia - 1977. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-41.
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Sheffield, R. M. 1977b. Forest Statistics for the Southern Mountain
Region of Virginia - 1977. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-42.
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Spencer, J. S., Jr., and B. L. Essex. 1976. Timber in Missouri - 1972.
USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. NC-30. North Central Forest Experiment
Station, St. Paul, MN. 108 p.
Welch, R. L. 1975. Forest Statistics for the Piedmont of North Caro-
lina - 1975. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull. SE-32. Southeastern Forest
Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
Welch, R. L., and H. A. Knight. 1974. Forest Statistics for the Northern
Coastal Plain of North Carolina - 1974. USDA For. Serv. Resour. Bull.
SE-30. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. 33 p.
64
-------
APPENDIX B
MILL RESIDUES
TABLE B-l. USES OF WOOD AND BARK RESIDUES PRODUCED BY PRIMARY WOOD
PROCESSING PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1970^a'
Percent
Uses of wood residues
Pulp 47
Fuel 19
Other products (particle board, etc.) 8
Unused 26
100
Uses of bark residues
Industrial fuel and charcoal 23
Domestic fuel 4
Fiber products 1
Miscellaneous products and uses 3
Unused (burned or dumped) 69
100
(a)U.S. Forest Service, 1973.
65
-------
TABLE B-2. ESTIMATED MILL RESIDUE VOLUMES, BY TYPE - 1970
Coarse wood residues
Used
Unused
Total
Fine wood residues
Used
Unused
Total
Bark residues
Used
Unused
Total
Lumber Industry
(JLO6 DTE)
32.3 85%
5.7 15%
38.0 100%
5.3 38%
8.8 62%
14.1 100%
8.8 60%
6.0 40%
14.8 100%
Plywood Industry
(106 DTE)
9.0
0.7
9.7
0.4
0.1
0.5
1.7
1.1
2.8
93%
7%
100%
80%
20%
100%
60%
40%
100%
Miscellaneous
Cio6
3,0
0.3
3.3
0.6
0.7
1.3
1.1
0.7
1.8
DTE)
90%
10%
100%
45%
55%
100%
60%
40%
100%
Total
UO6
44.3
6.7
51.0
6.3
9.6
15.9
11.6
7.8
19.4
DTE)
87%
13%
100%
40%
60%
100%
60%
40%
100%
Source: Inman, 1977
-------
TABLE B-3. 1970 REGIONAL MILL RESIDUES (WOOD AND BARK)
Region
Northeast
North Central
Southeast
South Central
Pacific Northwest
Pacific Southwest
Northern Rocky Mountain
Southern Rocky Mountain
Total
Total Residues
Generated
(106 DTE)
6.6
6.4
11.4
16.7
27.8
8.8
6.6
1.8
86.1
Residues
Amount
(106 DTE)
4.3
4.3
6.9
12.1
23.6
5.5
4.5
0.8
62.0
Used
% of Total
65
67
61
72
85
63
68
44
72
Residues
Amount
(106 DTE)
2.3
2.1
4.5
4.6
4.2
3.3
2.1
1.0
24.1
Unused
% of Total
35
33
39
28
15
37
32
56
28
Source: Inman, 1977
Footnotes appear on the following page
-------
FOOTNOTES FOR TABLE B-3
Regions are defined as follows:
Northeast - Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont, Delaware, Maryland,
New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia
North Central - Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota (East),
Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio.
Southeast - North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Florida, Georgia.
South Central - Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma, Texas.
Pacific Northwest - Oregon, Washington, Coastal Alaska.
Pacific Southwest - California, Hawaii.
Northern Rocky Mountain ~ Idaho, Montana, South Dakota (West), Wyoming.
Southern Rocky Mountain - Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah.
68
-------
TABLE B-4. MILL RESIDUES IN 1970 BY INDUSTRY
SO
Lumber
Timber consumed,
including bark
Primary product
Total residues
Wood residues used
Wood residues unused
Total wood residues
Bark residues used
Bark residues unused
Total bark residues
(106 DTE)
113.4
46.5
66.9
37.6
14.6
52.2
8.8
6.0
14.8
Percent
100
41
59
33
13
46
8
5
13
Plywood
(10 DTE) Percent
20.9
7.9
13.0
9.5
0.8
10.3
1.7
1.1
2.8
100
38
62
45
4
49
8
5
13
Miscellaneous
(106 DTE)
13.4
7.2
6.3
3.5
1.0
4.5
1.1
0.7
1.8
Percent
100
53
47
26
8
34
8
5
13
Total
(106 DTE)
147.7
61.6
86.2
50.6
16.4
67.0
11.6
7.8
19.4
Percent
100
42
58
34
11
45
8
5
13
Assumptions - Average specific gravity, softwoods, of .50.
- Average specific gravity, hardwoods, of .59.
- 60 Percent of bark residue used, as estimated by Ellis, 1975.
Includes cooperage, piling, poles, mine timbers, shingles and other minor industries.
Source: Inman, 1977, after U.S. Forest Service, 1973.
-------
TABLE B-5. ESTIMATED RESIDUE GENERATION IN THE LUMBER,
PLYWOOD AND MISCELLANEOUS WOOD PRODUCTS
INDUSTRIES - 1970, 1980, 2000 AND 2020
Industry
and Year
Lumber
1970 (actual)
1980 - Low
- High
2000 - Low
- High
2020 - Low
- High
Plywood
1970 (actual)
1980 - Low
- High
2000 - Low
- High
2020 - Low
- High
Miscellaneous
Wood Products
1970 (actual)
1980, 2000,
and 2020
Total
1970 (actual)
1980 - Low
- High
2000 - Low
- High
2020 - Low
- High
Coarse
Residues
106 DTE)
38.0
41.4
54.7
36.3
55.1
29.7
61.7
9.7
12.9
15.2
13.9
19.6
14.1
25.0
3.3
3.9
51.0
58.2
73.8
54.1
78.6
47.7
90.6
Fine
Residues
(106 DTE)
14.1
15.4
20.3
11.8
17.9
8.2
16.9
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.8
1.1
0.8
1.4
1.2
1.4
15.9
17.6
22.6
14.0
20.4
10.4
19.7
Bark
Residues
(106 DTE)
14.8
16.1
21.3
14.0
21.3
11.4
23.8
2.8
3.6
4.3
4.0
5.6
4.0
7.2
1.8
2.1
19.4
21.8
27.7
20.1
29.0
17.5
33.1
Total
Residues
(106 DTE)
66.9
72.9
96.3
62.1
94.3
49.3
102.4
13.1
17.3
20.4
18.7
26.3
18.9
33.6
6.3
7.4
86.3
97.6
124.1
88.2
128.0
75.6
143.4
Source; Hewlett and Gamache, 1977.
70
-------
TABLE C-l. WOOD-REFUSE-BUBNING INSTALLATIONS, UNITED STATES
Company
American Can Company
International Paper Company
Delta Industries, Inc.
Russell Corporation
Hanmermill Paper Company
Kimberly-Clark Corporation
Allied Paper, Inc.
Union Camp Corp.
MacMillan Bloedel, Inc.
~-J Lee Timber Products
1-1
Ketchikan Spruce Mills
Alaska Lumber & Pulp Co., Inc.
Western Pine Industries
Patlach Corp.
International Paper Co.
Nekoosa Edwards Paper Co., Inc.
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Permaneer
Location
Naheola
Nobile
Livingston
Alexander City
Selma
Coasa Pines
Jackson
Montgomery
Pine Hill
Ope Ilka
Ketchikan
Sitka
Snowflake
Warren
Gurdan
Ashdown
Crossett
Hope
Supplier
Riley Stoker Corp.
Foster Wheeler
Energy Corp.
Energy Products of
Idaho
—
Zurn Industries
—
—
—
Combustion Engineering
Energy Limited
Ultrasystems, Inc.
—
Ultrasystems, Inc.
/
Ultrasystems, Inc.
—
—
Energex Limited
Type of Capacity
Equipment Ibs, hr
Alabama
Grate stoker boiler 300,000
C.A.D. grate boiler 450,000
FB-180 with boiler 27,600
and direct fired
veneer dryers
Boiler 120,000
Boiler to be in 1979 160,000
Boiler
Boiler
Power boiler 460,000
Power boiler 900,000
Direct fired 26 X 106
drying kiln Btu
Alaska
PSMD stoker boiler 34,500
Power boilers
Arizona
HRT stoker boiler 15,000
Arkansas
Keeler CP boiler 32,000
dry plywood
Power boiler
Power boilers —
Rotary drier 27 X 10
Btu
Design Temperature,
Pressure F Fuel
975 825 Unlogged bark, coal
and gas
1,275 900 Wood/oil
300 — Wood wastes
500 tpd wood wastes
600 — Waste bark
Coal/bark
Gas/oil/bark
800 — Oil/gas/bark
850 — Gas/oil/bark
Wood waste
Wood waste
Oil/bark
Wood
Wood
— — — Shavings, dust chips
and bark
Gas/oil/bark
Gas/oil/bark
Wood wastes
>
5
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t"*
M
H
O
^__
§
C/5
H
P;
§
O
a
*i
pa
6
2
n
t-i
M
H
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-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
to
Company
Lindsay Olive Growers
Roddls Plywood Corp.
Simpson Plywood
California Cedar Products Co.
Union Lumber Company
Diamond National Corp.
Diamond National Corp.
Georgia Pacific Corp.
Placerville Lumber Co.
Commander Industries
Erlckson Lumber Co.
Plumas Lumber Co.
Paul Bunyan Lumber Co.
American Forest Products
American Forest Products
Commander Industries
Sierra-Pacific Industries
Sierra-Pacific Industries
Wetsel-Oviatt Lumber Co.
Coin Lumber Co.
Masonite Corp.
Sierra-Pacific Industries
Pine Mountain Lumber Co.
Simonson Lumber Co.
Hambro Forest Products
Location
Lindsay
Arcata
Arcata
Stockton
Fort Bragg
Red Bluff
Red Bluff
Samoa
Placerville
Elk Creek
Marysville
Crescent Miles
Anderson
Foresthill
North Fork
Red Bluff
Happy Camp
Inyokern
Elderado Hills
Foresthill
Susanville
Cloverdale
Susanville
Yreka
Smith River
Crescent City
Supplier
Energy Products of
Riley Stoker Corp.
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Type of
Equipment
California
Idaho FB-75 with
boiler
Boiler
Union iron works
boiler
Keeler stoker
MKB boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
T)_ 1 -t a ..
DOiiet
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
10,000 150 — Wood wastes
50,800 225 397 Logged wood waste
50,000 — — Waste wood
34,000 — — Waste wood
105,000 400 700 Logged wood
60,000 300 sat. Wood refuse & Gas
60,000 325 sat. Logged refuse wood
125,000 620 750 Wood and oil
— — — Wet sawdust
— — Wet sawdust
Logged bark, sawdust,
trim
— — — Shavings
Wet sawdust
Wet sawdust
Wet sawdust
— — — Wet sawdust
Wet sawdust & shavings
— — — Wet sawdust
— — — General waste, sawdust
and bark fines
— — — — — — Wet sawdust
— — — Bark and wet sawdust
14,000 15 — Green redwood planer
shavings
Bark and wet sawdust
24,000 250 — Bark and wet sawdust
— — — .Kark and wet sawdust
Logged wood & plywood
trim
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
to
Company
Location
Supplier
Type of Capacity Design
Equipment Ibs, hr Pressure
Temperature,
F Fuel
California (Continued)
Pickering Lumber Co.
Sierra-Pacific Industries
Sierra-Pacific Industries
Llr-.le Lake Industries
Schniedbauer Lumber Co.
Anderson Lumber Industries
Arcata Redwood Co.
Maaonite Corp.
California Cedar Products Co.
Wicks Forest Industries
Diamond Sunsweet, Inc.
Humboldt Flakeboard
Humboldt Flakeboard
Crauen Simpson Pulp Co.
Louisiana-Pacific Corp.
Michigan River Timber Co.
Kremmling Timber Co.
Southern Plywood Corp.
St. Regis Paper Co.
Duval Lumber & Supply Co.
Procter & Gamble Co.
(Buckeye Cellulose Corp.)
ITT Rayanier, Inc.
Standard
Central Valley
Arcata
Willits
Eureka
Redding
Arcata
Ukiah
Stockton
Chawchilla
Stockton
Arcata
Arcata
Eureka
Samoa
Walden
Krenmllng
Cantonment
Pensacola
Jacksonville
Perry
Fernandia Beach
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Foster Wheeler
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Ultrasystems, Inc.
—
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
—
—
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Energex Limited
—
—
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
1-SF boiler 150,000 950
inclined grate
Keeler HKB boiler 34,000
Rotary dryer 25,000
Boiler
2 Rotary Dryers 27 X 106
Btu
1 Stationary and 27 X 106
flash dryer Btu
Power boilers — —
Power boiler 530,000 875
Colorado
Boiler
Boiler
Florida
Boiler 25,000 150
Boiler 250,000 450
2 Boilers 15 X 106
drying kilns Btu
—
Power boilers
Bark and wet sawdust
— Wet sawdust
— Logged wood & bark
Logged bark
Logged bark
Planer shavings
Sawdust & shavings
Hogged redwood bark
Wood waste
Sander dust
Walnut shells
Wood waste
Wood waste
Oil/log waste
— Log waste
Shavings
Shavings
sat. Bark
650 Bark/gas
Planer shavings
Bark, dust
Waste wood
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
Container Corp. of America
Alton Box Beard Co.
St. Regis Paper Co.
Hudson Pulp & Paper Co.
St. Mary's Kraft Corp.
Great Northern Paper Co.
Union Camp Corp. (Operate by
1980)
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Continental Can Company, Inc.
Brunswick Pulp & Paper Co.
ITT Rayonier, Inc.
Continental Can Co., Inc.
Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar
Co.
Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar
Co.
Honokaa Sugar Company
C. Crewer & Company Ltd.
Potlach Forest, Inc.
Potlach Forest, Inc.
Location
Fernandia Beach
Jacksonville
Jacksonville
Palatka
St. Marys
Cedar Springs
Savannah
Adel
Augusta
Brunswick
Jesup
Port Wentworth
Valdosta
Puunene
Puunene
Haina
Naaleha
Jaype
Lewiston
Type of
Supplier Equipment
Florida (Continued)
Power boilers
Power boilers
— Power boilers
— Power boilers
Georgia
Riley Stoker Boiler
Babcock i Wilcox
Combustion Engineering Boiler and
generator
2 direct fired
drying kilns
Power boilers
Power boilers
Combustion Engineering 4 power boilers
Power boiler
Power boiler
Hawaii
Foster Wheeler 1-FW C.A.D.
grate boiler
Foster Wheeler 1-FW C.A.D.
grate boiler
Foster Wheeler 1-FW Pinhole
grate
Ultrasystems, Inc. Beglow boiler
stoker
Idaho
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
Bark/oil
Oil/bark
Oil/bark
Oil/bark
160,000 675 750 Unlogged bark & oil
Bark
350,000 15,000 — Waste wood, oil & coal
27 X 106 — — Wood waste
Btu
Oil/gas/bark
Oil and bark
Coal/bark
Gas/oil/bark
Oil/gas/bark
319,000 425 740 Bagasse
290,000 425 740 Bagasse 4 #6 oil
288,000 610 800 Bagasse/oil
125,000 — — Bagase and oil
180,000 325 sat. Wood waste
180,000 300 sat. Wood refuse
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
St. Maries Veneer & Plywood
Bennett Lumber Company
Idaho Stud Mill
Konkolville Lumber Company
Idaho Veneer Company
Idaho Forest Industries
Merrltt Bros. Lumber Co.
Boise Cascade Company
Boise Cascade Company
DeArmond Stud Mill
American Greetings Corp,
All is Chalmers Mfg. Co.
DeKalb Corp.
Midwest Walnut Company
American Walnut Company
Hamroermlll Paper Company
Location
St. Maries
Princeton
St. Anthony
Oraf ino
Post Falls
Coeur d'Alene
Priest River
Emmet t
Boise
Colur d'Alene
Payson
LaPorte
Crawfordsville
Council Bluffs
Kansas City
Kansas City
Supplier
Riley Stoker Corp.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Energy Products of
Energy Products of
Energy Products of
—
Energy Products of
(Being built)
Riley Stoker Corp.
Energy Limited
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Type of
Equipment
Idaho (Continued)
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Idaho FB-140
boiler
Idaho FB-100
boiler
Idaho FB-160
Boiler & direct
fired dryer
Boiler
Idaho FB-140
boiler
Boiler
Indiana
Boiler
Flash dryer
Iowa
Boiler
Kansas
Boiler
Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
80,000 250 sat. Wood waste
Wet sawdust
— — — Shavings
— General waste
— — — Logged bark
40,000 150 — Wood waste
20,000 150 — Wood waste
26,000 ISO — Wood waste
— — — Logged bark
40,000 150 — Log fuel
Wood waste
60,000 200 440 Bark & coal, unhogged
wood
15 X 106 — — Wood waste
Btu
Hardwood, sawdust and
Logged bark
— — — Logged wood & bark,
wet sawdust
Logged wood & Bark,
(Frank Purcell Walnut
Lumber Co.)
Hallmark Cnrd Company
Leavenworth
Boiler
vet sawdust
Waste paraffin
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
Westvaco Corp.
Westvaco Corp,
Wood Mosaic
Wescor Corp.
Gaylord Container Corp.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Joe Miles Lumber Co.
Anthony Forest Products
Anthony Forest Products
Leesville Lumber Company
Boise Southern Co.
Calcasiew Paper Co.
Continental Can Co., Inc.
Pineville Kraf t Corp .
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
OlinKraft, Inc.
Kelly Enterprises
Location
Wickliffe
Wickliffe
Louisville
Hawesville
Bogalusa
Bogalusa
Bogalusa
Plain Dealing
Plain Dealing
Leesville
Deridder
Elizabeth
Hodge
P inevi lie
Port Hudson
West Monroe
Pittsfield
Supplier
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Wellons, Inc.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
(Operate Nov., 1978)
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
—
—
—
1— Combust ion Eng inee
l-Erie City
Babcock & Wilcox
~
Type of
Equipment
Kentucky
C.A.D. grate
stoker boiler
C.A.D. grate
stoker boiler
Boiler
VO boiler
Louisiana
Boiler
Boiler
Drying kiln
2 drying kilns
Rotary dryer
Drying kiln
Power boilers
Power boilers
Power boilers
Power boilers
Power boilers
Massachusetts
Energy Products of Idaho FB-75
boiler
Capacity
Ibs, hr
300,000
450,000
—
—
250,000
350,000
27 X 106
Btu
27 X 106
Btu
15 X 106
Btu
27 X 106
Btu
—
—
—
525,000
—
10,000
Design Temperature,
Pressure F Fuel
625 750 Wood hog
625 750 Log fuel/oil
— — Wood waste
— — Wood waste and oil
1,000 830 Unlogged wood bark
and coal
— — Log fuel
— — Wood waste
— — Wood waste
Wood waste
Wood waste
— — Gas/bark
Gas/bark
Gas/bark
__ Gas/bark
850 — Gas/oil/bark
Gas/oil/bark
15 — Log fuel
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
Boise-Cascade Company
Great Northern Paper Company
Blier Cedar Company
Georgia-Pacific Company
Old Town Pulp Products, Inc.
Oxford Paper Company
Scott Paper Co.
Conway Corporation
Hoerner Waldorf Corp.
Cody High School
U.S. Plywood Corp.
Abitibi Corp.
Escanaba Paper Co.
St. Regis Paper Co.
Anderson Corp.
U.S. Plywood Corp.
Koppers Company, Inc.
International Paper Co.
Location
Rumford
Millinockette
Van Buren
Woodland
Old Town
Rumford
Wlnslow
Grand Rapids
Ontonagon
Detroit
Gaylord
Alpena
Escanaba
Sartell
Bauport
Oxford
Grenada
Natchez
Type of Capacity Design
Supplier Equipment Ibs, hr Pressure
Maine
Zurn Industries Paper dryer 170,000 —
boiler
Combustion Engineering Boiler —
Energy Products of Idaho FB-100 20,000
boiler
Boiler to
generate electricity
Power boilers
Power boilers, 170,000 700
4-oil, 1 bark
Power boilers
Michigan
Ultrasys terns. Inc. Keeler CP 32,000
Stoker boiler
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler 250,000 1,500
Boiler
Energex Limited 2 rotary dryers 27 X 10
Btu
— Power boilers — —
— Power boilers — —
Minnesota
Power boilers
Boiler
Mississippi
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler 70,000 235
Wellons, Inc. Boiler
Foster Wheeler C.A.D. grate 300,000 1,275
boiler
Temperature,
F Fuel
Wood waste
Wood
Wood refuse
Log fuel, bark, chips
Oil/bark
Bark
Oil/bark
Wood
900 Bark
Wood chips
Wood refuse
— Cool/wood waste
Oil/gas/bark
Gas/coal/logged waste
Sawdust and shavings
sat. Bark & powder dust
Wet logged wood
900 Wood log
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
oo
Company
Madison Furniture
St. Regis Paper Co.
Walnut Products, Inc.
Iowa-Missouri Walnut Co.
Midwest Walnut Company
Plum Creek Lumber
Yellowstone Pine Lume Co.
CiC Plywood Corp.
American Timber Co.
Pyramid Mtn. Lumber Co.
Louisiana Pacific Corp.
Eastmont Forest Products
Plum Creek Lumber Co.
Montana-Pacific
Amalia Lumber Co.
Navajo Forest Products
Location
Canton
Mont ice llo
St. Joseph
St. Joseph
Willow Springs
Columbia Falls
Belgrade
Kalispell
Olney
Ceeley Lake
Trout Creek
Ashland
Columbia Falls
Roundup
Amalia
Navajo
Supplier
Misi
Energex Limited
—
Energy Products of
Energy Products of
Ulllons, Inc.
Riley Stoker Corp.
We lions, Inc.
Wei Ions, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Uellons, Inc.
Energy Products of
Enerex Limited
Energex Limited
Foster Wheeler
Energex Limited
Type of
Equ ipment
iissippi (Continued)
Drying kiln
Power boilers
Missouri
Idaho FB-75
Boiler
Idaho FB-75
Boiler
Boiler
Montana
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Idaho FB-1QO
Boiler
2 flash dryers
Boiler
New Mexico
Pinhole grate
Boiler
Rotary dryer
Capacity
Ibs, hr
6 X 106
Btu
—
10,000
6,900
—
120,000
—
—
—
—
—
20,000
27 X 106
Btu
27 X 106
Btu
40,000
15 X 106
Btu
Design Temperature ,
Pressure F Fuel
— Waste wood
Gas/bark
150 — Log fuel
150 — Log fuel
— Hardwood saw dusc and
log bark
325 sat. Wood
Shavings
— — General waste
Logged bark
Logged bark
Sawdust and bark
15 — Log fuel
— Wood waste
Wood waste
250 sat. Wood
— Wood waste
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
Hooker Chemical Company
Celotex Corp.
Weyerhaeuser Company
Weyerhaeuser Company
H4B Lumber Company
Atlantic Veneer Corp.
-J
VO
Boise Cascade Corp.
The Champion Paper t
Fiber Co.
Rlshel Furniture Industries
Genwave Furniture Industries
Jordan Lumber Co.
Weyerhaeuser Company
Federal Paper Board Co.
Albermarle Paper Co.
Little River Box Company
Lane Plywood
Carolina-Pacific
Location
Niagara Falls
Deposet
Plymouth
Plymouth
Marlon
Beaufort
Mancure
Canton
Loulsburg
Indian Trial
Mt. Gllead
Plymouth
Rlegelwood
Roanoke Rapids
Glide
Eugene
Grants Pass
Type of
Supplier Equipment
New York
Foster Wheeler 2 C.A.D.
grate boilers
Power Boiler
North Carolina
Foster Wheeler C.A.D. grate
Boiler
Foster Wheeler C.A.D. grate
Boiler
Energy Products of Idaho FB-100
Boiler
Energy Products of Idaho FB-75
Boiler
Energy Products of Idaho FB-160 boiler
& veneer dryers
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Energex Limited Drying kiln
Energex Limited Hot logs
Power boilers
Power boiler
Oregon
Foster Wheeler Plnhole grate
boiler
Energex Limited Veneer dryer
Energex Limited 2 -veneer dryer
Capacity Design
Ibs, hr Pressure
300,000 1,200
30,000 150
400,000 1,300
550,000 875
120,000 100
34,500 200
26,500 150
200.000 500
_
15 X 106
Btu
15 X 106 —
Btu
_
750,000 —
35,000 150
27 X 106
Btu
27 X 106
Btu
Temperature
F Fuel
750 Municipal refuse
Gas/logged waste
925 Wood log
825 Wood/oil
— Log fuel
— Log fuel
Log fuel
750 Unlogged wood, bark
and coal
Wood chips
Veneer scrap, bark,
boards
Wood waste
Wood waste
— Coal/oil/gas/bark
— Oll/coal/bark
sat. Wood and oil
Wood waste
Wood waste
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
00
o
Company
Dillard Lumber Company
Eugene Beirrell Lumber Co.
Spalding & Sons, Inc.
Cane Lumber Company
Western Wood Mfg. Co.
Agneu Timber Products
Stuckart Lumber Co.
Superior Lumber Cp.
Murphy Veneer Co.
Taylor Lumber Sales
Je Id-Wen, Inc.
Louisiana Pacific Corp.
Round Prairie Lumber Co.
Tomco, Inc.
Warrenton Lumber Co.
Boise Cascade Corp.
Fort Hill Lumber Co.
Eugene Water & Elec. Board
Hanel Lumber Co.
Olson-Lawyer Lumber, Inc.
Boise Cascade
Leading Plywood
SWF Plywood
SWF Plywood
Llnnton Plywood
Kinzua Corp.
Location
Dillard
White City
Grants Pass
Gashen
Lake Oswego
Brookings
Lyons
Glendale
Florence
Sheridan
Klamath Falls
Lake view
Dillard
Sweet Home
Warrenton
Will lamina
Grande Ronde
Eugene
Hood River
Medford
Sweet Home
Corvallis
Grants Pass
Albany
Portland
Kinzua
Supplier
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons , Inc .
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Riley Stoker
—
Herreschof f
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Type of
Equipment
Oregon (Continued)
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Veneer Dryer
Veneer dryer
2 Veneer dryers
2 Veneer dryers
Veneer dryer
Veneer dryer
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
— — Wood chavings
15,000 15 — Wood bark
— — — Bark and sawdust
Wet sawdust
— — Shavings & sander
Bark
Bark
Bark
Bark
24,000 150 — Bark & sawdust
Combination bark
sawdust
24,000 150 — Combination bark
sawdust
Combination bark
sawdust
Logged bark
— — — Logged bark
— — Logged bark
Planer shavings &
sawdust
175,000 725 835 Logged firewood,
& oil
Wood
Bark
6 X 10 — — Wood waste
Btu
15 mm Btu — — Wood waste
27 mm Btu — — Wood waste
27 mm Btu — — Wood waste
27 mm Btu — — • Wood waste
45 mm Btu — — Wood waste
dust
& wet
& wet
& wet
wet
coal
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
00
Company
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Permaneer
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Henasha Corp.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Grenco, Inc.
Riclkinl Lumber Co.
Western States Plywood Corp.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Masonite Corp.
Hammermill Paper Co.
The Proctor & Gamble Co.
P. H. Glatfelter Co.
York -Shipley, Inc.
Kane Hardwood Division of
Collins Pine Co.
Robert Mallery Lumber Co.
True Temper Corp.
Catawissa Lumber &
Location
North Bend
Springfield
Dlllard
Coos Bay
Klamath Falls
Lebanan
North Bend
West Linn
Portland
Cottage Grove
Portland
Craig
Towanda
Erie
Hehoopany
Springs Grove
York
Kane
Emporium
Union City
Catawissa
Supplier
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
—
—
—
—
—
—
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Ultrasy stems. Inc.
Energex Limited
—
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Energy Products of
Wellons, Inc.
Perry Smith Co.
—
—
Type of Capacity Design
Equipment Ibs, hr Pressure
Oregon (Continued)
Rotary dryer 27 mm Btu
Rotary dryer 45 mm Btu
Rotary dryer 27 mm Btu
Power boilers — 200
Power boilers 30,000
Power boilers —
Power boilers
6 Power boilers
Boiler
2 Boilers
Erie City Stokers
2-Keeler CP 20,000
Stoker boiler
Oklahoma
Flash dryer 27 X 106
Btu
Pennsylvania
Power boilers — —
Boiler 200,000 759
Boiler 50,000 600
Boiler 200,000 850
Idaho FB-50 3,800 15
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Temperature ,
F Fuel
— Wood waste
Wood waste
Wood waste
— Log wood
Wood waste
Oil/gas/logged waste
Logged wood/oil
Oil/gas/logged waste
Wood/paper refuse
— Wood waste
Wood waste
Wood waste
Gas/wood
675 Unlogged wood and coal
550 Unlogged wood, coal
oil
800 Bark & coal
Various
Hemlock
— Logged wood
Dry shavings
Wood waste
&
Specialty Co.
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Company
Sonoco Products Co.
Bowaters Carolina Corp.
Westvaco Corp.
South Carolina Industries,
Inc.
Ingram Lumber Co.
Hovestake Forest Products
00
10
Tibbals Flooring Company
Bowaters Southern Paper Corp.
TEX-O-Cal Hardwoods, Inc.
Eastex, Inc.
Southland Paper Hills, Inc.
Southland Paper Hills, Inc.
Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Champion Papers Division
Burlington Electric Dept.
Burlington Electric Oept.
Vermont State Hospital
Location
Uartsvllle
Catawaba
Charleston
Florence
Florence
Splarfish
Oneda
Calhoun
Temple
Evadale
Houston
Lufkin
Orange
Pasadena
Burlington
Burlington
Waterbury
Type of
Supplier Equipment
South Carolina
Riley Stoker Corp. Boiler
— 2 Boilers
5 Power boilers
2 Power boilers
direct fired
Energex Limited Drying kilns
South Dakota
We lions, Inc. Boiler
Tennessee
Boiler
— 5 Power boilers
Texas
We lions, Inc. Boiler
3 Power boilers
Babcock & Wilcox 2 Power boilers
7 Power boilers
2 Power boilers
7 Power boilers
Vermont
Power boiler
In planning stage Power boiler
Energy Products of Idaho FB-75
Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure f
275,000 1,400 950
_
--
—
15 X 106
Btu
15,000 15 150
_
—
—
__
__
—
._
—
10 raw •—— -*—
50 mw
10,000 — 150
Fuel
Unlogged wood, gas/oil
& coal
Gas/oil/bark
Gas/oil/bark
Bark/oil/gas
Hood waste
Bark and wet sawdust
Wood waste
Gas/oil/bark
Dry shavings
Gas/bark
Gas/oil/bark
Gas/bark
Gas/bark
Gas/bark
wood 25
Wood waste
Log fuel
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
oo
to
Company
Continental Can Co.
Union Camp Corp.
St. Regis Paper Co.
Westvaco Corp.
Chesapeake Corp. of Virginia
Gray Lumber Co.
Hasonite Corp.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Scott Paper Co.
Longview Fibre Co.
Inland Eapire Paper Co.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Boise Cascade Corp.
St. Regis Paper Co.
M&R Lumber Co.
Buffelln Woodworking Co.
Kerns Furniture Co.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
ITT Rayanier, Inc.
Boise Cascade Corp.
Boise Cascade Corp.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Bico Dlv.
Location
Hopewell
Franklin
Franklin
Covlngton
West Point
Waverly
Waverly
Caaas
Everect
Longview
Millwood
Port Angeles
Stellacooa
Tacoma
Port Angeles
Tacoma
Oakwood
Port Townsend
Port Angeles
Spokane
Kettle Falls
Oaak
Supplier
Rlley Stoker Corp.
Babcock & Wllcox
Babcock & Wilcox
—
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
—
—
—
—
—
—
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Ultrasystems, Inc.
Ultrasysteas, Inc.
—
Energex Lialted
Energex Lialted
Energex Limited
Type of
Equipment
Virginia
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
5 Power boilers
3 Power boilers
Direct fired
dry kiln
Rotary dryer
Washington
9 Power boilers
9 Power boilers
4 Power boilers
2 Power boilers
1 waste
8 Power boilers
3 Power boilers
6 Power boilers
2 Erie City-oil
4 Logged waste
Washington
Boiler (Deltak)
2 Stoker boilers
2 Stoker boilers
Boilers
Boiler
Veneer dryer
Veneer dryer
Veneer dryer
Capacity
Ibs, hr
135,000
—
—
—
15 X 106
Btu
27 X 106
Btu
—
—
—
1,750
103,000
—
230,000
36,000
30.000
10,000
200,000-
27 X 106
Btu
27 aa Btu
45 aa Btu
Design Teaperature,
Pressure F Fuel
490 650 Logged wood
— Wood
Wood
Gas/coal/bark
Oil/bark/coal
Wood waste
Wood waste
Gas/oil/bark
Gas/bark
Oil/gas/log waste
200 — Log waste
Oil/bark
011/gas/bark
425 — Logged waste
Wood waste
— Wood waste
Wood waste
Log fuel
Waste wood
Wood waste
Wood waste
Wood waste
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
oo
Company
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Broughton Lumber Co.
Layman Lumber Co.
linger* Plywood Co.
Arden Lumber Co.
Vaagen Bros. Lumber Co.
Pacific Uood Treating Corp.
Allen Logging Company
Bo tee Cascade Dorp.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Ueyerhaeuaer Co.
Ueyerhaeuaer Co.
Coast Saah 4 Door Co.
Tyee Lumber Co.
Location
Cosmo polls
Underwood
Mac has
Bin gen
Colvllle
Colvllle
Rldgefleld
Forks
Goldendale
Raymond
Longvlew
Tacoma
Tacoma
Seattle
Supplier
Washington
Energex Limited
Uellons. Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Uellons. Inc.
Uellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Wellons, Inc.
Energy Products of Idsho
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Ultrssystems, Inc.
Ul traaystems. Inc.
Type of
Equipment
(Continued)
2 Rotary dryers
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Butler
Boiler
Boiler
FB-1SO
Boiler
C.A.D.
Crste boiler
C.A.D.
Great boiler
H.R.T.
Stoker boiler
H.R.T.
Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Preasure F Fuel
27 X 106 — — Wood waste
Btu
Planer shavings
Bark and sawdust
Logged plywood trim 4
aander dust
General waste
Bark fc wet sawduat
Wood, bark, wet i dry
aawdust
Logged bark * wet
sawdust
Logged bark 4 wet
sawdust
60,000 150 -- Log fuel
550,000 1,250 950 Wood log
400,000 1,250 950 Log fuel
Wood
15,000 — — Wood
Wisconsin
Webster Lumber Co.
Boise Cascsde Corp.
Nagel Lumber Co., Inc.
Continental Forest Products,
Co.
Bangar
Phillips
Land O' Lakes
Ashland
Energy Products of Idaho
Energy Products of Idaho
Energy Products of Idaho
Foster Wheeler
FB-120
Boiler
FB-120 boiler
& Direct fired
fiber dryer
FB-1AO
Boiler
Plnhole
grate boiler
26,000 150 — Log fuel
20.000 250 — Log fuel
20,700 175 — Log fuel
35,000 150 sat. Wood A »6 oil
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
00
Company
Superior Fibre Products
International Paper Co.
Scott Paper Co.
Badger Paper Mills, Inc.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Oweni-IllinolH, Inc.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Richardson Brothers Co.
Nines Lumber Co.
Brandt i Wlcklund Forest
Products
Inc.
Nelman Sawmill. Inc.
Location
Superior
Fond du Lac
Oconto Falls
Peshtlgo
Rothschild
Tomahawk
Hanhfleld
Sheboygan
Saratoga
Fox Park
Hulett
Type of
Supplier Equipment
Wisconsin (Continued)
Foster Wheeler Pinhole
Create boiler
Babcock & Uilcox Boiler
3-power boilers
3-power boilers
6-power boilers
Power boilers
Energex Limited Rotary dryer
Boiler
Wyoming
Wellons, Inc. Boiler
Wellons, Inc. Boiler
Wellons, Inc. Boiler
Uellons, Inc. Boiler
Capacity Design Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
44,000 300 sat. Wood
Wood waste
Gas/bark/oll waste
liquor
Cas/oll/bark
Coal/oll/bark
Coal/bark
27 X 10* — — Wood waste
Btu
400 hp — — Wood scraps & sawdust
Shavings
Bark & wet sawdust
Bark & wet sawdust
-------
TABLE C-2. WOOD-REFUSE-BURNING INSTALLATIONS, FOREIGN
Company
Location
Supplier
Type of
Equipment
Capacity Design
Ibs, hr Pressure
Temperature,
F Fuel
British Columbia, Canada
Pasta Industries, Ltd.
Northwood Pulp (Mead)
Tahsls Company, Ltd.
(International Paper)
Intercontinental Pulp
(Reed Paper)
Kamloops Pulp & Paper Co.
(Weyerhaeuser)
Cariboo Pulp & Paper
(Weldwood & Daishawa
Maruheul)
B. C. Forest Products
oo
Prince George Pulp & Paper,
Ltd.
Tahsis Company, Ltd.
International Paper Co., Ltd.
Van Isle Moulding
MacMillan Bloedel, Ltd.
MacHillan Bloedel, Ltd.
ITT Rayonier, Inc.
Canadian Forest Products
ITT Rayonier, Inc.
Consolidated Bathurst, Ltd.
(Laurentide Div.)
Consolidated Bathurst, Ltd.
(Portage DuFort)
Gaspesia Pulp
J. H. Normick, Inc.
Maibec Industries
Grand Forks
Prince George
Gold River
Prince George
Kamloops
Quesnel
Crofton
Prince George
Gold River
Prince George
Victoria
Vancouver
Powell River
Port Alice
New Westminister
Port Carter
Grand 'Mere
Pontiac County
Chandler
LaSarre
St. Pamphile
—
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
Energex Limited
—
Foster Wheeler
—
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Energex Limited
Energy Products of Idaho
—
Pinhole
grate boiler
Pinhole
Boiler
Pinhole
Boiler
C.A.D.
2 grate boilers
C.A.D.
grate boiler
C.A.D.
grate boiler
Inclined
grate boiler
Pinhole
grate boiler
Pinhole
grate boiler
Direct fired
dry kiln
2 rotary dryers
2 rotary dryers
Boiler
Inclined
grate boiler
Boiler
Inclined
grate boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Direct fired
2 dry kilns
FB-75 for direct
fired kiln
—
250,000 625
230,000 625
145,000 600
350,000 625
480,000 600
400,000 625
250,000 600
525,000 625
450,000 600
45 X 106
Btu
27 mm Btu
27 mro Btu
„
250,000 850
—
215,000 150
400,000 600
110,000 600
15 X 106
Btu
10,000
Wood waste
750 Wood log
750 Wood log
700 Wood log
750 Wood bark, gas or oil
750 Wood log, gas or oil
750 Wood log
700 Bark & wood/gas
625 Logged wood
700 Oil/logged wood
— Wood waste
Wood waste
Wood waste
Waste wood
850 Log fuel/oil
Waste wood
sat. Bark & wood, coal
750 Wood/oil
735 Wood/oil
Wood waste
Log fuel
-------
TABLE C-2. (Continued)
CO
Company Location
Dominian Electrohome Inds. Kitchener
Canadian Splint & Lumber Co* , Pembroke
Ltd.
Chapleau Lumber Co. Chapleau
Boise Cascade Corp. Kenora
Great Lakes Paper Co. Thunder Bay
M.P. Industrial Mills, Ltd. The Pas
Manitoba Forestry Resources, The Pas
Ltd.
New Brunswick International Dalhousie
Paper Co. , Ltd.
Fraser Companies Edmundston
Bissell Bros. Lumber, Ltd. Eirela
San Carlos Milling Co., Inc. San Carlos City
Central Azucarera Don Pedro
W. R. Grace Paramonga
Laredo, Ltda.
Supplier
Foster Wheeler
Energy Products
Energy Products
—
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
—
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Foster Wheeler
Type of
Equipment
Ontario, Canada
Grate boiler
Grate boiler
of Idaho FB-140
Boiler
of Idaho FB-180
Boiler
Boiler
Manitoba, Canada
Grate boiler
Grate boiler
New Brunswick, Canada
Grate boiler
Boiler
Alberta. Canada
Boiler
Philippines
HS Boiler
SF-X Boiler
Peru
Boiler
Pinhole
grate boiler
Capacity Des:*gn Temperature,
Ibs, hr Pressure F Fuel
10,000 125 sat. Wood refuse/oil
20,000 15 — Log fuel
45,000 250 — Bark & Sludge
Wood waste
275,000 775 825 Wood refuse/oil
275,000 775 825 Log fuel/oil
120,000 450 650 Wood/bark/oil
150,000 650 750 Wood/chips/shavings/oil
— — — Wood waste
90,000 160 420 Bagasse
300,000 400 500 Bagasse/oil
200,000 450 700 Bagasse/oil
88 000 370 662 Bagasse/oil
-------
TABLE C-2. (Continued)
oo
oo
Company Locat ion
Negoclacion Azucarera Hacienda San
Nepena, S.A. Jacinto
C.A.P. San Jacinto, Ltda. Chimbote
Ingenio San Carlos, Ltda. Tulua
Compania Azucarera Valdez, Guayaqiul
S.A.
Compania Azucarera Valdez, Guayaquil
S.A.
Compania Azucarera Valdez, Guayaquil
S.A.
J. Wray & Nephew, Ltd. Appleton Estate
Stadler Hurter, Ltd. for Tehran
Gllan Forest Prod. Complex
Type of Capacity
Supplier Equipment Ibs, hr
Peru (Continued)
Foster Wheeler Grate boiler 110,000
Foster Wheeler Grate boiler 110,000
Columbia
Foster Wheeler Pinhole 30,000
Grate boiler
Ecuadar
Foster Wheeler HS-OB boiler 70,000
Foster Wheeler Marshal furnace boiler 70,000
Foster Wheeler Horseshoe furnace 120,000
boiler
Kingston, West Indies
Foster Wheeler Inclined grate 70,000
boiler
Iran
Foster Wheeler Inclined grate 352,800
Boiler
grate boiler
Design Temperature,
Pressure F Fuel
600 700 Bagasse/oil
600 700 Bagasse, oil
150 470 Bagasse
300 465 Bagasse/oil
300 465 Bagasse/oil
300 465 Bagasse/oil
300 530 Bagasse/oil
853 833 Wood/oil
896 842 Log fuel/oil
-------
APPENDIX D
CONCISE REPORTS OF SITE VISITS
Plant A
The Wellons unit was put in almost 3 years ago and works very well.
Burn hogged bark, chips, and sawdust. All hardwood-maple, beech, cherry, oak,
and hemlock. Sometimes do custom planning of pine and burn the chips. Wood
waste may contain up to 55 percent water, but usually is below 50 percent.
The hogged waste from the mill is conveyed to a silo, which is agitated
to deliver the waste to screw conveyor that dumps it in a surge bin. Feed
from this bin is automatically fed to the combustor depending on steam
demand. Both gasification and combustion occur in the "fuel cell". The feed
drops about 10 ft. to the water cooled grates, allowing gasification during
fall and combustion on the grates. Off-gases go to the boiler to generate
steam. The boiler is rated at 25,000 Ib/hr, 155 Ib pressure, with saturated
steam. Steam goes to run the log turner, kicker, carriage, stop and loader,
and to the drying kiln.
The unit has no auxiliary fuel. To restart after shutdowns, they simply
pile some chips and sawdust on the grate, add a small quantity of oil and
ignite.
Ash removal is simple. They open the access door, pull out the ash, and
restart. Presently they are putting the ash in a ravine at the back of the
property. No complaints so far.
Multiclones are used to remove participates and can meet EPA regu-
lations. Particulates are being piled up now but someone want them for
mulch and fertilizer.
Plant runs 2-10 hour shifts, 4 day/week. Dry about 45,000 board feet/
shift or 90,000 board feet/day. All lumber goes for furniture manufacture.
The unit is quite dependable, and most problems are people errors.
Sometimes the fireman lets the water level in boiler get too low. This
causes trouble with the sequential automatic system. When the waste fuel
is not burning hot enough a lot of participates collect on the boiler tubes.
Plant A is located fairly high on top of a knob. The stack is too
short and during a high wind the exit gases are blown back to the boiler.
Would like another way to drive the agitator in the silo. The universal joint
now used is immersed in fuel and get's fouled up occasionally and has to be
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cleaned, so they shut down for several hours. Also, they can't keep the
universal joint greased.
Would like to have another, short conveyor to deliver fuel to the com-
bustor thus bypassing the silo. Would speed things up if required. Would
like to put "wrappers" on the silo walls to jar the fuel and make it flow
better.
Originally the silo had an open top, they put one on and installed
heaters for use in winter time. Also, they made a winter cover for the con-
veyor to the silo.
Burns about 5 units of wood/hr in the winter, and 3 units of wood/hr
in the summer. According to Wellons, one unit is 200 cu. ft. Operating 5
kilns now and expect to put in 5 more later this year. This will require
a new boiler and will recommend another Wellons unit. The Wellons unit cost
about $350,000 originally.
Plant B
Plant B is installing an Ultrasystems unit with a Keeler boiler. The
unit was scheduled to be in operation last month and now appears it will be
operating about mid-June. The boiler is rated at 35,000 Ib steam/hr, 150 Ib
pressure, 250-300° temp. The steam will be used for drying kilns and a minor
amount for space heating during cold weather.
This plant produces only hardwood lumber. Over 70 percent is red oak,
the remainder is maple, cherry, walnut and ash. The wood fuel will be a
mixture of sawdust, planer shavings, and hogged wood—all dry. May try to
burn some wet sawdust.
Have an old Johnson wood fired boiler, 100 Ib pressure, at the lumber
yard operation which is hand controlled. Works well on fairly dry wood waste,
but can't handle wet bark. Plant B is setting up to sell bark as mulch.
The plant runs 2 shifts on the mill and 3 shifts on the kilns. The
cycle in the kilns varies depending on the wood being dried and the moisture
content. The variation is from 2-3 days for light lumber to 2 months for
heavy green stock. Figures the average per charge is 1 month. Have 32 drying
kilns and produce 15 x 10^ ft. dried lumber per year.
Selected the Ultrasystems units because thinks it is the best one and
cheaper than some others. Has seen Ultrasystems, Wellons, Energex, and
Energy Products of Idaho units in operation as well as some of the big units
made by B&W, Riley, FW, and CE. Stated that the Wellans unit is more expen-
sive because of the firebrick lined fuel cell combustor. Also, the Ultra-
systems unit does not require auxiliary fuel.
The wood fuels will be mixed in 2 large silos and feed into the com-
bustion chamber as triggered by the steam demand. Likes the automatic
operation.
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Has 2 Carter Day baghouse units for particulate control. The bag-
house is continuously cleaned by forced air and the particulates blown back
to the feed silo.
The unit will burn 3 tons of wood/hr during startup, then drop to
2T/hr for remainder of drying cycle. Have been burning oil and sometimes
gas. Will save money when burning wood waste, oil is 45c/gal now and now
have to pay to dispose of the waste. Figures a ton of wood waste equals
91 gal. of oil or 12.7 x 106 Btu.
91 gal <§ 0.45 = $40.95
IT wood = 13.50
$27.45 savings
Total cost for the entire new system is about $850,000.
Talked briefly about ash disposal. Assumes 3 percent ash in the wood
and burn 2T/hr.
4000 Ibs x 0.03 x 24 hrs = 2880 Ibs = 1.44T/day ash
Is trying to find someone to haul the ash away either for free or to
pay him for the K content.
Woodex Co., Woodburn, Oregon's President Rudolph Gunnerman makes en-
truded wood waste pellets but is being sued by three men who claim Woodex
stole their process.
Lawyer is close to Morbark in Wynn, Michigan and says they are really
pushing to set up central stations for chipping wood within a radius of
25-39 miles. Says Morbark has been out talking to loggers trying to sign
them up.
American Fyrefeeder is preparing a proposal to install pyrolysis unit
at Plant B. This would replace the old Johnson boiler.
Plant C
Plant C has a Riley stoker, traveling belt and turntable that spreads
the fuel on the grate. Coal and bark in a ratio of 60-40 are used normally,
sometimes 50-50. The bark contains about 36 percent moisture. The boiler
is rated at 200,000 Ib per hour, 425 Ib pressure and operates at 750 F.
Installed in 1954.
Normally uses mainly unhogged bark, wood and coal, but also buys saw-
dust and bark from sawmills to save money. Burns 500 T/day.
A dependable operation with very few problems. Occasionally the hopper
screw gets plugged up if the wood is really wet. Have also experienced
visible emissions of unburned, unhogged wood upon occasion.
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Use 2 multiclone collectors and Zurn wet scrubbers. Can meet State and
Federal EPA emissions specs, claim to be one of the best in the country.
Primary collector does most of the work, while the secondary collector often
plugs up due to bad design and presently is not working. Are considering
putting in a baghouse.
Do not reinject the ash because it plugs up the system. The ash and
participates recovered to to an approved landfill, no problesm. Have sold
some char from boiler as mulch to commercial growers.
The stack gas has pH 2.3 so maintain the scrubber at pH 7.0. Use
NaOH from own chlorine-caustic operation.
The plant produces 1370 T pulp and 1450 T paper and board per day.
Whole tree chipping is done haere as it cleans up the forest. However,
can only load 10 percent of whole tree chips to the pulpers because too
much dirt gets into the system.
Estimates that wood has 8300-8500 Btu/lb on a dry basis. Figures that
theoretically 2 tons wood = 1 ton coal. Plant C has its own coal mine and
the plant pays $30/T delivered. Can buy 3 tons of wood for $30, or $10/T.
Doesn't like the coal they are presently getting because of 25 percent ash.
Overall has few problems and can handle any found.
Plant D
York-Shipley installed the Energy Products of Idaho boiler system for
lumber drying kilns in July, 1974. Had 6 kilns and put in 5 more recently,
may put in more. Dry about 400,000 bd/ft lumber per week. Hogged wood is
the fuel.
The system is described as "beautiful" all automatic, and no real
problems. Have to be careful in adding too many shavings because they burn
at the top of the combustor and create too much heat. The plant works 3
shifts, 350 days, with 2 weeks off at Christmas.
Close down one 8 hour shift every 5-6 months to replace the olivine
inert bed. Throw this into a landfill. The plant is 11 miles "up the holler"
and no one is living very close to the plant.
Use Zurn Industries Multiclone collectors and were recently checked
OK by EPA.
Burns 4 cu yds/hr now and estimates a saving of $1400 in oil per month.
Use a small quantity of oil to heat the bed occasionally when it has been
shut down. The bed is heated to 700 F, the oil shut off, and wood fuel does
the job from then on.
Can't see any need for R&D on this system. Have an oversupply of
chips and sells them.
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Plant E
Have a Riley stoker boiler, 275,000 Ib/hr, 1250 Ib pressure, 950 F.
Use unhogged wood, gas, oil, and coal as fuels. This is an older boiler
that works satisfactorily.
Most talk centered around a Weiss boiler (Germany) that was installed
2 years ago, and numerous changes have been made since then. Boiler rated
at 55,000 Ib/hr, 400 Ib pressure, and 650 F. Burns 8 T of hogged hardwood
bark containing 50 percent moisture per hour. The bark is fed in at the top
and is all burned when it gets to the bottom. The boiler output is used to
drive a turbogenerator and for turbo drives in the plant.
Improper grate design and feeder slope incline were bad at first but
have been corrected. Turnage says its working fine now. The grate affords
a drying zone as the wood enters at the top and progressively burns as it
goes to the bottom.
The plant makes 200-300 T/day of pulp and 500-550 T/day of paper
products.
A German design multiclone system is used for air emissions, meets
State limits easily. Thinks participates are <0.2 Ibs/million Btu. EPA
regulations are too severe and difficult to meet. Ringelman opacity test is
bad when burning very wet bark. Ash from the boiler goes to a landfill.
Certain growers have asked to buy the ash because of its K content to use
as a fertilizer.
Burned 1100 tons of other waste in March using own bark. May purchase
bark in the future, figure 4500 Btu/lb. Estimate saved $2 million spent
for oil annually.
Only R&D needed is on lowering H20 in bark. Usually stored in a
concrete silo and can get wet during a hard rain. Could the flue gas be used
to dry bark? Is there a practical heat trasfer technique that would not
require too much horsepower?
The Weiss system is the best (since problems taken care of). The system
is cheaper than American built and Weiss offers to design for the specific
wood fuel to be burned. A number of other company representatives have
visited this plant. All could find problems with American equipment and
like the Weiss system.
Weiss also makes a real neat sawdust burner. One is at High Point,
North Carolina.
Mentioned the Woodex Process for pelletizing wood or cellulose wastes.
The advantage offered is ease of handling and transportation. Pellets appear
to be well suited to a Riley spreader or traveling grate stoker as they
cascade better than hogged wood. Burning them doesn't require an ESP as
multiclone will handle emissions. But require power to make pellets. Thinks
the company is located in Northwest Oregon.
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Plant F
Energex Limited combustor for a direct fired drying kiln. Burn ground
planing mill shavings all passing 1/8 in. screen.
A silo, containing 3 days supply of wood, feeds _the wood into a fine
grinder, then to a hopper, then to the combustion unit. Small system but
works great. The burner fires the wood and the heated off gases go directly
to the drying kilns. Burner capacity is 15 million Btu/hr.
A drying kiln holds 120,000 bd. ft. of rough lumber and 18 tons of wood
(less than 15 percent H_0) per charge are burned. The cycle is 32 hours for
drying, temperature rises from ambient to 230°, use maximum feed to the
burner to raise temperature at the start (8-10 hrs) and gradually lower until
the last 8-10 hrs. are only fueled to maintain desired temperature. Ac-
tually, the heat required for drying is only a small part of the total energy
used in the plant. The majority is electricity for equipment such as saws,
planers, grinding, etc.
Plant F changed from oil to wood fuel for the kilns to save money.
Their estimates are:
#2 oil - 140,000 Btu/gal
wood with 10 percent HJD = 8000 Btu/lb
1 gal oil = 17 1/2 Ibs wood
2500 gal oil/charge = 2500 x $0.40 = $1000
20 tons wood at $10 = 200
$ 800
deduct $50 for grinding and storing wood = $750 saved.
Presently operate kilns 7 da/24 hrs. The system is cleaned every 10-15
charges to remove the ash solids. The amount of ash is small, but apparently
larger than they expected from discussions with others. They are putting in
another Energex system that should be fired for test this week. When the
second unit is on stream will go to a 5 da/3 shift operation thus cutting
shift premium pay. Also afraid of a fire that would put them out of busi-
ness for at least 4 months. This is costly.
Have had no real problems with present unit. Major complaint is that
a vortex system is dirty because there is no smoke stack and there are par-
ticulates in the hot gases that deposit on the lumber. Of course they dress
lumber and remove the ash. When clean rough lumber is needed you must use
steam for drying. The ash particulates on the lumber also create more dust
in the dressing operation and is bad for the operators of the planers. Would
like to clean this up.
Overall thinks it is a very good system, else wouldn't install another.
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The Energex Limited unit used only on drying kilns was installed in
June, 1975. Have had no real problems. Burn pine sawdust (10 percent H-O)
and ground pine shavings. The rating is 15 million Btu/hr. The plant op-
erates 6 da/3 shifts, cycle time in the kiln is 24 hrs., 100,000 bd ft/day,
at 235 F. Essentially operate same as others, maximum feed and temperature
for 8 hrs., gradual decrease, then 8 hrs. of just maintenance heat.
Have had no EPA violations, either State or Federal. The system cost
$200,000.
Burn about 18 tons of wood waste a day. Clean the system once a week
and remove about 3-5 gallon buckets of ash that is dumped in pot holes in the
yard. Used 2000 gal/da oil prior to the wood burning system. Oil costs
43
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4. Occasionally the fluid bed hardens into a rather crystalline mass.
This happens when they burn veneer scraps along with hogged wood.
Thinks the resin is to blame.
5. Is sure that some part of the fluid bed is being carried out of the
burner, because the bed depth decreases. Was not sure what the bed
material is except it is crystalline and maybe a silicate.
6. Feels the fuel handling system is not large enough for an all out
operation of the burner. Wants one twice as big.
Prior to installation of this unit oil was used for the boiler and
natural gas for the veneer dryers. Still have an oil burner for emergencies.
Natural gas contract was terminated January 1, 1978. Have a propane system
to preheat the bed when needed. Propane has been used entirely for the
dryers when the wood burner is out of commission.
Alan Mejac of the Coe Manufacturing Company, Painesville, Ohio was at
the plant and introduced to me. Coe had done the actual installation for
Energy Products and are trying to help Porter work out the bugs. Mejac ad-
mitted he was stumped as to why the unit was down except for the extremely
wet fuel being used. He volunteered to talk with me if I had any questions.
96
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-80-102
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Environmental and Technological Analysis of the Use of
Surplus Wood as an Industrial Fuel
5. REPORT DATE
June 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHOR(S)
E.H. Hall, J.E. Burch, M.E. Eischen, and R.W. Hale
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Battelle Memorial Institute — Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE 623
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R-805050-01-0
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Lab. - Cinn, OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final: 9/77-12/78
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
IERL - Ci. Project Officer is Harry M. Freeman,
5555 Ridge Ave., Cincinnati, 513/684-4363
16. ABSTRACT
The report examines the technology and the environmental aspects of the use of
surplus wood as an industrial fuel. It includes a review of various wood-burning
technologies and a listing of existing facilities. Information on operational
problems obtained through site visits is summarized. Estimates are presented of
the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions achieved by burning wood instead of coal
or oil. Industrial fuel requirements are compared with the quantities of unused
wood residues available on both regional and national levels. Ecological impacts
of wood residue utilization and non-technical barriers to the use of wood fuel
are explored.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Air Pollution
Wood
Industrial Boilers
Sulfur Oxides
Ecological Impacts
Non-technical Barriers
Air Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Wood Fuel
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
105
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R.v. 4-77)
PREVIOUS EDITION IS OBSOLETE
97
US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OMICE 1*0 -657-146/5685
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