United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
ndustrial Environmental Research
Nwatory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/7-79-159
October 1979
Research and Development
Proceedings of the
Second U.S.-Polish
Symposium
Coal Surface Mining
and Power Production
in the Face of
Environmental
Protection
Requirements
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program
Report
-------
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
-------
EPA-600/7-79-159
October 1979
PROCEEDINGS
of the
Second U.S.-Polish Symposium
COAL SURFACE MINING AND POWER PRODUCTION
IN THE FACE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
September 26-28, 1979
Castle Ksiaz, Poland
Symposium Director
Dr. Jacek Libicki
Central Research and Design Institute for Openpit Mining
POLTEGOR
Wroclaw, Poland
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory-Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
ii
-------
FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even
on our health often require that new and increasingly more efficient
pollution control methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory-Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating
new and improved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently
and economically.
An essential part in the progress of environmental research is the
continuing seven-year cooperative venture between the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency and the Polish organization for open-pit mining (Poltegor).
Of the ten studies conducted by Poltegor and sponsored by the EPA, at a
value of more than 3 million U. S. dollars, five are already completed and
final reports have been edited and distributed in both countries. The
large demand for these reports demonstrates the interest in this work.
The completed projects have clarified the problem of ground water pollution
by disposal of the coal refuse and ashes, demonstrated improved methods
of reclamation of toxic spoils and alkaline ash piles, shown methods of
mine water purification, and developed methods of drying tailings and
thickening sludge.
A significant part of the cooperative EPA/Poland efforts has been the
direct contacts between the specialists from each country. An outgrowth
of this exchange of experiences has been joint conferences and symposia.
This 1979 Symposium in Poland is the second—the first one took place in
Denver, Colorado, in 1975. This Poland Symposium further develops the
understanding of mutual problems and achievements for the protection of the
environment in mining and power production operations.
The success of both these meetings allows us to express a. hope that
these meetings and the whole cooperation will continue to the benefit of
both our countries.
This report is a compilation of the research papers presented at the
Poland Symposium on "Coal Surface Mining and Power Production in the Face
of Environmental Protection Requirements." These papers will be of interest
to individuals or organizations concerned with environmental aspects of coal
and lignite mining and their relationship with power generation. Further
information can be obtained from the Resource Extraction and Handling
Division, lERL-Cincinnati.
Dr. Wladyslaw Witek Roger Williams David G. Stephan
President Deputy Regional Administrator Director
Lignite Mines and Power USEPA Industrial Environmental
Plants Corporation Denver, Colorado Research Laboratory
Poland USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
iii
-------
ABSTRACT
This report is the Proceedings of the second U.S.-Polish Symposium held
at Castle Ksiaz, Poland, September 26-28, 1978. Nineteen papers were presented
as follows: (1) Overview of the U. S. Environmental Research Pcogram Related
to Coal Extraction, (2) Present and Future Role of Lignite in Polish Power
Production and Basin Problems of Environmental Protection, (3) Legislation and
Regulations Controlling Coal Extraction and Conversion in the U.S.,
(4) Legislation, Laws and Regulations Controlling the Surface Mining of
Lignite and Environmental Protection in Poland, (5) EPA Enforcement and New
Source Surface Mining Requirements and Application in West Virginia, USA,
(6) Present and Future Surface Coal Extraction Technologies in the U.S.,
(7) Surface Mining of Lignite with Belt Conveyors and Its Environmental
Advantages, (8) Coal Mining and*Ground Water, (9) Impact of Surface Mining
and Conversion of Coal on Ground Water and Control Measures in Poland,
(10) The Impacts of Coal Mining on Surface Water and Control Measures Therefore,
(11) The Impact of Lignite Mining on Surface Water and Means of its Control,(12)
Coal Refuse Disposal Practices and Challenges in the United States, (13)
Reclamation Practices for Coal Refuse and Fly Ash Disposal, (14) Successful
Revegetation of Coal-Mined Lands in the U.S., (15) Efforts of Agricultural
Reclamation of Toxic Spoils in Lignite Surface Mining in Poland, (16)
Environmental Consequences of Coal Mining - Eastern United States,
(17) Selected Problems of Environmental Protection in Designing Coal Fired
Power - Plants and High Tension Systems, (18) The Impacts of Coal Extraction
and Conversion on Air Quality - and Control Measures Therefore, and (19) Air
Pollution in the Vicinity of Large Thermal Power Plants and Control.
iv
-------
CONTENTS
Page
OVERVIEW OP THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH PROGRAM RELATED TO COAL EXTRACTION
CONVERSION THROUGH THE YEAR 2000
Ronald D. Hill
PRESENT AND PUTURE ROLE OP LIGNITE IN POLISH POWER
PRODUCTION AND BASIC PROBLEMS OP ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Wiadyslaw Witek .......................... 1:L
LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS CONTROLLING COAL
EXTRACTION AND CONVERSION IN THE UNITED STATES
Roger L. Williams
LEGISLATION, LAWS AND REGULATIONS CONTROLLING THE
SURPACE MINING OP LIGNITE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION IN POLAND
Roman Kraus
EPA ENFORCEMENT AND NEW SOURCE SURPACE MINING
REQUIREMENTS AND APPLICATION IN WEST VIRGINIA, USA
Stephen R. Wassersug
PRESENT AND PUTURE SURPACE COAL EXTRACTION
TECHNOLOGIES IN THE UNITED STATES
LeRoy D. (Bud) Loy, Jr., ................... 53
SURPACE MINING OP LIGNITE WITH BELT CONVEYORS
AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGES
Henryk Turala and Wladysiaw Wysocki ............ 83
COAL MINING AND GROUND WATER
John Hardaway ...................... .... 103
IMPACT OP SURPACE MINING AND CONVERSION OP COAL
ON GROUND WATER AND CONTROL MEASURES IN POLAND
Jacek Libicki ........................... 127
-------
Page
THE IMPACTS OP COAL MINING ON SURFACE WATER
AND CONTROL MEASURES THEREFORE
Ronald D. Hill ......................... 143
THE IMPACT OF LIGNITE MINING ON SURFACE WATER
AND MEANS OF ITS CONTROL
Henryk Janiak
COAL REFUSE DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND CHALLENGES
IN THE UNITED STATES
John F. Martin . . . . ..................... 173
RECLAMATION PRACTICES FOR COAL REFUSE AND FLY
ASH DISPOSAL
Wladyslaw Wysocki ... ................... 191
SUCCESSFUL REVEGETATION OF COAL-MINED LANDS
IN THE UNITED STATES
Willie R. Curtis ........................ 207
EFFORTS OF AGRICULTURAL RECLAMATION OF TOXIC
SPOILS IN LIGNITE SURFACE MINING IN POLAND
Kazimierz Bauman ...................... 221
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF COAL MINING -
EASTERN UNITED STATES
Scott M. McPhilliamy ..................... 241
SELECTED PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
IN DESIGNING COAL FIRED POWER - PLANTS AND HIGH
TENSION SYSTEMS
Jerzy Kucowski ........ ................ 255
THE IMPACTS OF COAL EXTRACTION AND CONVERSION
ON AIR QUALITY - AND CONTROL MEASURES THEREFORE
Terry L. Thoem ........................ 265
AIR POLLUTION IN THE VICINITY OF LARGE THERMAL
POWER PLANTS AND CONTROL
Ludwik Pinko . ...... .................. 281
vi
-------
OVERVIEW OP THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
PROGRAM RELATED TO COAL EXTRACTION CONVERSION
THROUGH THE YEAR 2000
Ronald D. Hill
ENERGY SUPPLY
The United States leads the World in per capita use of energy.
President Carter's April 1977 National Energy Plan projected the
15
energy needs to be 123.5 x 10 BTU by 2000 up from the 1975 level
15
of 73.2 x 10 BTU. In Table 1, the energy sources for 1975 and
those projected for 1985 and 2000 are presented. As noted oil will
continue to be the greatest source through 1985. However, the Natio-
nal Energy Plan calls for coal to be the major source by 2000.
Table 1
PROJECTED ENERGY SUPPLY PATTERN (1975 - 2000)
(io15 BTU)
Energy source
Coal
Oil
Oil Imports
Gas
Gas Imports
Nuclear
Solar
Geothermal
Hydropower
National Total
1975
15.3
20.7
12.8
18.6
1.0
1.8
0
0
3.0
73.2
1985
NEP
28.2
22.1
13.3
17.6
1.8
7.6
0.3
0.3
3.1
94.3
2OOO
NEP
44.9
20.8
13.0
15.4
1.1
18.7
1.8
2.7
3.6
123.5
x/ Ronald D. Hill, Director - Resource Extraction and Handling Division,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory - Cincinnati U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
-------
Table 2
ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COAL (1975 - 2000)
(1015 BTU)
NEP
Underground Mines
1975 7.3
1985 9.8
2000 15.7
Surface Mines
1975 7.9
1985 18.3
2000 29.2
Total
1975 15.2
1985 28.1
2000 44.9
NEP - Projection based on President's National Energy Plan,
April 29, 1977.
As noted in Table 2, the largest increases in coal will come from
surface mines. The 1975 coal productions in the United States was
50 million tons, of which slightly over half came from surface mines.
COAL DEPOSITS
Figure 1 presents the coal deposits of the United States and
Table 3 important data on each coal region. The Appalachian and
Eastern Interior regions have bituminous coal of high BTU values and
Iso often high sulfur contents. The coal seams are usually thin. The
'estern Region is predominantly subbituminous and lignite coals. The
ZTU content and sulfur content are low and often the coal seams are
thick.
-------
Fig.1 COAL DEPOSITS IN THE UNITED STATES.
Legend:
I I Coal Deposits
D Scattered Coal
Deposits
A — Appalachia
El — Eastern Interior
WI - Western Interior
TG - Texas Gulf
PR - Powder River
PU - Port Union
GR - Green River
PC - Pour Corners
-------
Table 3
COAL REGION CHARACTERISTICS
Recoverable Meets Can be Average Acres
Reserves x/ Physically Seam
' . (billions tons) ^ Cleanable Thick-
Re§lon S°2 to Meet ness
Western 141
Powder
River —
Port Union —
Green
River -
Pour
Corners -
Western
Midwest 11
Eastern
Interior 51
Appalachia —
Northern 36
Southern 20
Total 260
Stan- EPA Peet
dards SO Stan-
dards
70 94-98
26
10
8
8
3 6 5.5
1 2-4% 5.5
6.0
4 12-31
35 50-63
14 24-32
Disturbed
per million
tons of
Coal Sur-
face Mi-
ned
PW
22
57
71
71
104
104
95
—
-
-
x/
' Standard - 1.2 Ib S02 per million BTU,
EPA SULPATE TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
EPA has been instrumental in developing, testing, and assessing
alternative sulfur control technologies since the early 1960 's. Their
research has emphasized the demonstration of technical feasibility to
ensure economic acceptance by industry.
There are three basic points at which sulfur pollutants can be
removed from the coal power cycle—before combustion (physical or
chemical cleaning, synthetic fuels), during combustion (fluidized bed
combustion), or from the exhaust gases after combustion (flue gas
desulfurization). EPA has had a major national research role in all
of these areas.
4
-------
COAL CLEANING
Less than 15 % of the coal mined in the United States today can
meet federal standards governing sulfur oxide emissions from new
sources. At EPA, work has continued on the development of several
sulfur removal options for coal. This work includes testing system
feasibilities, determining cost figures for industry application, and provi-
ding information that can be used by regulating authorities for asse-
ssing practical and optimum emission control strategies.
The coal cleaning process is complicated by the very nature of
coal. Coal is not homogenous. Different seams, or different locations
within the same seam or mine, can yield vastly different coal samples
in terms of heat value, sulfur, ash and water content. Sulfur itself,
within the coals, takes two forms: pyritic sulfur is separable from the
coal by physical means (e.g., crushing), organic sulfur is tightly bound
to the coal and is difficult to remove.
Part of the work of EPA is determining the physical cleanability
of various U.S. coals. Under this program, the ultimate cleanability
of most major deposits has been determined. This work, which has been
performed in conjunction with the U.S. Bureau of Mines, has tested
more than 450 samples of coal representing more than 7O % of the
coal used for U.S. utilities. Prom these tests EPA and the Bureau of
Mines have determined the level of sulfur reduction that can be achie-
ved by physical cleaning as the degree of energy loss associated
with the cleaning process. There are two basic methods of removing
this sulfur: physical coal cleaning and chemical coal cleaning.
CHEMICAL COAL CLEANING
Chemical coal cleaning requires run-of-mine coal to be ground
to fine granules, after which it is reacted with chemical agents at ele-
vated temperatures and/or pressures to remove impurities and sulfur
compounds. Again, this 'cleaning* is performed before combustion.
-------
Several chemical coal cleaning processes are under development.
The Meyers Process is the most advanced of these and is currently
being evaluated in a 1/3-ton-per-hour pilot plant in Capistrano, Califor-
nia. This process has the potential to remove more than 95 % of the
pyritic sulfur.
At least eight other processes are in various stages of develop-
ment in benchscale studies. These processes include microwave desuL-
furization, hydrotreatment and hydrothermal processes, the latter proce-
sses claiming 90 % removal of pyritic sulfur and 40 % removal of or-
ganic sulfur. While most of the chemical coal cleaning processes being
examined by EPA are capable of removing both organic and pyritic
sulfur, the effectiveness of any given process depends on the chemical
makeup of the mined coal. Under accelerated development, several
chemical processes could be ready for commercial demonstration in 3
to 5 years.
SCRUBBERS
The most promising sulfur-control technology to date has been a
flue gas desulfurization (FGD) 'scrubbing* technique for which nearly
$ 4 billion has been committed by industry. The combined electrical
power output represented by this investment is 40,000 megawatts or
10 % of this nation's generating capacity.
RESEARCH INTO FGD
RGD systems can either be throwaway systems which require
that the by-product sludge be discarded, or regenerable systems that
produce a by-product with some use. The PGD systems now in the
greatest use are the lime and limestone sludge-producing systems.
In these systems, the sludge comes from a lime or limestone that pre-
cipitates S02 into a calcium sulfate or calcium sulfite salt.
The year 1977 saw the initiation of a major test of what may
become the next generation scrubber system, the double alkali scru-
-------
bbing process. Earlier pilot plant tests using the double alkali scru-
bbing process have indicated improved reliability, significantly impro-
ved energy efficiency, and potentially lower capital and operating costs
than other scrubbing systems.
FLUID BED SYSTEMS
The third method of reducing SO emissions from fossil fuel com-
bustion is fluidized bed combustion (PBC). This technology involves
the combustion of pulverized coal or 'dirty* residual oil in a bed of
limestone that has been fluidized (held in suspension by the controlled
injection of air through the bottom of the bed). During combustion, the
S02 released reacts with the limestone to form a dry solid waste along
with the coal ash. This waste thus removes much of the pollution
before it enters the exhaust gas. High heat transfers, low sulfur and
nitrogen oxide emissions, and responsiveness to varying loads and
composition are just a few of the PBC's advantages. EPA anticipates
relatively early commercial availability of this process. In 1977, EPA
work on PBC has continued on technical applications, emissions con-
trol, environmental impact, projected cost comparisons with other sulfur
control technologies, and applications to electric utility and large indu-
strial boilers. The process offers the potential of solving the problem
of clean energy for medium-scale operations, but it is currently not
commercially available for the large boilers required by electric power
plants and heavy industry. Although fluidized bed combustion is not a
cleaning process per se, it serves a similar environmental function and
is, therefore, of interest to ORD.
Other promising technologies involve the creation of low—sulfur
synthetic liquid or gaseous fuels from coal. These technologies, under
development by the Department of Energy (DOE), are being reviewed
in a cooperative ORD/DOE environmental monitoring program. Such
synthetic fuels technologies, however, are not expected to make a
significant contribution to the nation's energy supply for several years.
-------
These control technologies are essential for establishing alterna-
tive strategies to meet the sulfate hazards of the future. The focus of
the control technology research in both 1977 and future years is to
make technical options available to coal users as well as control
options for regulation. The research is paying close attention to costs
of control, to a phasing of controls into new plants, and to the retrofit
problems of existing plants.
COMBINING TECHNOLOGIES
Additional studies performed by ORD indicate that, in many instan-
ces, a combination of two or more of coal cleaning and sulfur removal
methods can be the most cost effective and efficient method of meeting
a specified S02 emission standard. Among the determining factors are
the emission standards to be met, the location of the plant, the type
and makeup of coal, the available water and other necessary resour-
ces, the location of end users, and the technical feasibility and costs
of the methods.
Continued R8cD on all feasible sulfur removal options is essential
as the need for energy increases, and as more and better use must
be made of the U.S. resources of high-sulfur coals.
COAL EXTRACTION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
EPA has a national effort on the research, development, and de-
monstration of pollution control technology for mining operations. Met-
hods and management programs are being developed for the prevention,
alleviation, and abatement of all types of pollution caused by coal
extraction and transportation activities. Research efforts are directed
toward the assessment of new mining methods which will minimize envi-
ronmental impact; this includes better preplanning and more effective
mine closing techniques and other types of at-source control which will
be applicable to both abandoned and active mines. Demonstration pro-
jects are initiated to determine the engineering and economic feasibility
-------
of large-scale treatment and at-source control methods. Technical re-
ports and recommendations are provided as a basis for development
of planning and implementation programs as well as provide support to
other Agency programs.
UNDERGROUND MINES
The emphasis of the current program is to develop methods to
dewater underground mines to prevent the flushing of acid waters. The
high pyrite coals and associated overburden often result in waters
with a high acid content and a low pH value. Methods being evaluated
are drainage pumps surrounding the mine and located in major water-
producing areas, and wells that collect water above the mine and dis-
pose of it to an aquifer below the mine.
Several different types of mine seals have been developed to
flood worked out portions of the mine and prevent air from entering
after the mining has ceased. These seals are only effective in contro-
lling acid waters under very specific conditions.
The ultimate answer to most underground environmental problems
lies with the development of mining methods that prevent the discharge
of acid waters upon completion of mining.
SURFACE MINES
The research program in surface mining is divided into eastern
and western mining because of the great difference in the coal, climate,
topography, mining methods, etc. (see Table 3 ). Large scale surface
coal mining in the western United States in relatively new. The major
effort in this area is making assessments of the environmental impacts
of mining. For example, the impact on surface and groundwater, air
and land productivity are being determined.
The control of erosion and sediment are of primary interest in
eastern surface mines. Evaluations of erosion control methods and
-------
sedimentation basins are not being made. As a result of new federal
and state mining laws, many new mining methods have been developed
by industry. Environmental Assessments are being made of these.
EPA has been conducting research on eastern surface mining
since the 196O's. Much information is available and thus EPA is pre-
paring manuals of practice for the mining industry and state and federal
pollution control agencies. Two of these are complete, an "Erosion Con-
trol Manual" and an "Overburden Analysis Manual". A "Premine Pla-
nning Manual" and "Revegetation Manual" will soon be published.
TREATMENT
Since acid mine drainage is a major problem at many mines, EPA
has been conducting research to treat this type of water since the
late 1960's. Neutralization, Ion Exchange, and Reverse Osmosis have
been shown to be technically feasible. However, only neutralization
has proven to be economically feasible at this time.
REFERENCES
1. The national Energy Plan, Executive Office of the President,
Energy Policy and Planning, Washington, DC. 1977.
2. Research Highlights 1977. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
report 600/9-77-044, Washington, DC. Dec. 1977.
3. Energy/Environment Fact Book, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency report 600/9-77-041, Washington, DC. Mar. 1978.
10
-------
PRESENT AND FUTURE ROLE OP LIGNITE IN POLISH
POWER PRODUCTION AND BASIC PROBLEMS
OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
by
x/
Wiadyslaw Witek '
The role of Lignite in the Polish power production has a strong posi-
tion in respect to the quantities fired in power plants for a nurr.ber of
years and in produced kilowatt hours of power. Considerable contribu-
tion of lignite to the power production occurred in Poland 20 years
ago with the construction of the first units (165 MW) of the Konin
power-plant at the turn of the 1958/59. This contribution was at that
time 5.9 percent of the Polish power production. Lignite was supplied
to this power plant from the nearby Konin Mine which at that time was
using only one open-pit in Goslawice.
The development of the Konin power plant (next 150 MW in 1961,
and 250 MW in 1963) with the construction of the Pq.tn6w open-pit,
opened in 1962, and more importantly the construction of the power
plant Turow (1400 MW) in 1962-1965 with the Turow open-pit (in
1963) increased the contribution of lignite in power production to 30
per—cent.
In the late sixties and early seventies this contribution achieved
its peak value of 40 percent of the entire power production by Polish
thermal power plants. This was achieved in newly put into operation:
Ada mow power plant (600 MW) with the Adamow open-pit in 1964-1967,
the Painow power plant (1200 MW), with the new Kazimierz and J6z-
x/ Dr. Wiadyslaw Witek, President of Lignite Mines and Power Plants
Corp. - Wroclaw, pi. Powstancow Slaskich 20.
11
-------
win open-pits in Konin region (in 1966 - 1969), and also due to the
extension of the Turow power plant by another 600 MW. In the seven-
ties the Polish power production by lignite - fired power plants equals
4500 MW.
In 1977 the lignite fired power plants produced about 30 billion
kWh of energy which was 30 per cent of total Polish power production.
During the winter peak power demand they supplied 22 per-cent of the
country's requirements.
The lignite mines extracted 41 million tons of lignite in 1977, 36 million
of which were delivered to the power plants. This corresponded to
27 percent of the fuel (counted by BTU) used for the production of
electric energy by all industrial thermal power plants.
Apart from this large production the lignite fired power plants, con-
tributed considerably to the technological progress in the domestic
power engineering.
In 1962 the first 200 MW power rating block, with a secondary
steam superheating, was installed in the Turow power plant. This fact
began the construction of the whole series of 200 MW blocks in lignite
fired power plants.
In the early seventies the development of new lignite mines and
Lignite fired power plants was stopped, and the activities were limited
to maintain or increase of the production in existing mines and power-
plants.
During that time the Turow power plant, due to successful moder-
nising operations, achieved high time rate of work in more than 7000
hours per year and the local open—pit extracted much above the pre-
vious production.
That proves, that large lignite fired power plants connected with
open-pits may be the principal source of electric power supply, and
their work is sufficiently reliable to the requirements.
New situation in energy which occured all over the world in the
middle of seventies, as well as obvious advantages of lignite as a fuel
12
-------
for large power plants suggest necessity of increase its contribution
in the power production in Poland. Following reasons speak for the
lignite utilization and extraction increase:
- considerable increase of the demand of fuel for energy production,
- large domestic deposits of lignite,
- over 30 years of experience in construction and exploitation of both
surface mines of lignite and lignite-fired power plants,
the feasibility of substituting other fuels such as bituminous coal,
gas, crude oil, or nuclear fuels with lignite which considerably
affects the balance of fuel import and export,
- lower costs of lignite surface extraction as compared with deep
extraction of bituminous coal (in calculation per BTU) which causes
that cost of electric power generated from lignite is lower by more
than 20 percent than the cost of the power generated from bituminous
coal,
elimination of rail-road transport (due to j oint ventures-surface mine
with power plant)
- lower by about 30 percent employment in surface mines as compa-
red with the employment in bituminous coal deep mines,
greater security and better work conditions in lignite surface mines
as compared with the conditions in deep mines of bituminous coal.
These factors determined the decision to construct in 1974-1985 the
Beichatow Mining-Power Complex which involves surface mine with pro-
duction of 40 million tons /year and the power plant w~ith capacity of
more than 4000 MW. This power plant will also introduce the techno-
logical progress in Poland both considering the new construction of
360 MW blocks, and so large power output concentration in a single
plant.
Realization of that task will enable the lignite industry to achieve
back 30 percent of the total power production in 1985 and to reach
about 50 percent in the increase of power production between 1981-85.
13
-------
The investigations carried out for the last two years allowed to
prepare a long term program of lignite mining and utilization development
•which anticipates:
- participation of lignite fired power plants in the polish electric power
production of 40 percent in 1990 to 2000 what means requires about
3,5 and over 6-times increase of lignite surface mining respectively,
to compare with 1977,
participation in the total increase of new power facilities on the
level of 50 percent in 1981-1985, -45 percent in 1985-1990, and
30 percent in 1990-2000 which gives the total sum of 23 000 MW.
Such a significant contribution of lignite in the future power pro-
duction puts this industry on the position of one the most important
factors of country's welfare.Present situation discussed above as well
as projections for the future cause now and will cause many environ-
mental protection problems "which have to be solved. The main environ-
mental elements exposed to the surface mining effects and to power
production are:
- land surface
- atmosphere (mainly by the activity of power plants)
ground water
surface water.
LAND SURFACE
Directly converted by surface mining are open-pits areas, disposals
of overburden, of coal refuse and of ashes. Transformed are also the
areas assigned: for the construction of facilities, for machine assembly
places, for power engineering arrangements, transportation facilities
hydrotechnical constructions etc, as well as protective zones around
the pits and disposals. The area presently affected by the lignite mining
is about 23 thousands ha. This area will be at least doubled in next
20 years.
The area effected by negative influence of particulate and gas
emissions from power plants are much larger however very difficult to
estimate, due to the considerable urbanization of the country and to the
emission from other pollution sources.
14
-------
The greatest environmental changes occur in the pits and external
disposals. These are terrains of greatly differentiated configuration,
covered by heterogeneous materials with different degrees of usefulness
for later utilization, In deep open-pits older and older geological forma-
tions of a significant salinity, sulphurization, and adverse physical pro-
perties are incised and removed. Additionally the differences of altitude
in these post-mining terrains and external spoil disposals will increase.
Exploitation of deep deposits extends the difficulties in such terrains
reclamation all the more, the application of large working and stacking
machines makes difficult the selective management of the most suitable
for reclamation layers.
Owing to both the size of the converted grounds and to the difficul-
ties in reclamation of post-mining terrains following factors will become
more and more important:
a) protection of agricultural and forest lands by limiting of the utilized
areas,
b) protection of top soils and utilization of waste lands and poor
areas for the disposals of spoils, and ashes, and also for other
facilities location,
c) utilization of top soil or peat, taken from the forefront of advancing
pits and disposals, for the melioration of adjoining terrains or
terrains to be reclaimed.
Despite of the mentioned above growing difficulties in selective
working and transportation of overburden there is a trend to utilize
the lignite accompanying sands, gravels, clays and silts for various
needs. It will diminish the use of agricultural and forest lands in other
regions for their separate extraction.
Simultaneously -with the rise of the power production based on
coal, the problems of ash storage will increase. Despite of the planned
greater ash utilization in industry, building industry agriculture etc.,
the storage of ash excesses can not be avoided. So more and more
efforts and means will have to be devoted to problems of ash disposals
15
-------
reclamation and to the protection against harmful emission of chemical
substances to soil, to water and air.
Owing to both environmental protection and economy utilization,
of coal deposits with worse overburden coal ratio, preparations
to gasify such deposits are carried out. Similar studies are carried out
for deposits with a favourable overburden - coal ratio but where the
coal is strongly salined or sulphated.
GROUND WATER
Polish deposits of lignite occur at depths of 40 to 200 m below
the ground water table, and both the overburden and the layers below
the deposits are saturated. Safety of mining requires therefore lowering
the ground water table depth below the bottom of the exploitation.
Applied drainage systems are:
- systems of underground galleries executed in coal and connected
with draining holes
systems of pumping wells, located around the pits and within them.
About 30 percent of the drainage is effected by the open pit itself.
Present and future quantities of ground water which must be pumped
out from the Polish surface mines of lignite are showed below:
Year Quantity of Average depths of
drained water required draw - down
3
1975 115 miUrr. 80 m
1985 370 " " 140 m
1990 870 " " 200 m
2000 1100 " " 340 m
The offtake of such big water quantities and the depth of the
drainage will cause the increase of areas where ground water table
will be lowered. These areas will achieve:
in 1985 - about 1500 km2
in 1990 - about 2500 km2
in 2000 - about 10000 km2'
16
-------
Due to the geological conditions one must take into account that
about 30-40 percent of these areas will have to change their agricultural
structure. About 30 new water intakes and water supply systems will
have to be built on about 50 percent of these areas by 1985, about 60
by 1990 and about 1OO by 2000.
SURFACE WATER
One the most important impacts of lignite open-pit mining is effected
on surface water. This influence depends on the quantity and quality of
water offtaken from the mine drainage and on the required class of
receiver (stream or lake) purity. These problems are controlled by
appropriate regulations concerning -water protection.
The main and often the only pollutant of the water drained from
lignite mines are suspensions, and due to its turbidity, colour and oxygen
demand. Chemical composition of these waters only seldom deviates from
obligatory standards.
Technology of water purification was based on sedimentation pro-
cesses in large field sedimentation basins which presently occupy totaly
more than 70 hectars of land.
The expected increase of lignite production from new deposits will
affect water quantity increase and quality changes. About 50-70 percent
3
of total drainage will require a treatment. It means that about 200 miUm
3
annually by 1980, and about 800 mil. m annually by 2000 of the mine
drainage will require purification.
Purification of such large quantities of water with conventional
methods would require the occupation of large terrains (as big as
300 ha) for sedimentation basins construction.
Assuming the present level of suspension reduction as a satisfac-
tory, a significant amounts of difficult to settle mineral and organic
fractions, would be introduced into surface waters which could serio-
usly disturb the biological belance in streams. So is planned to use
new, more effective techniques based on application of synthetic flo-
17
-------
cculants and on biological purification by grass filter.
A separate problem is the expected deterioration of the chemical
composition of -water from some new mines. Waters from these mines
are expected to contain large amounts of salt.
There is lack, so far, of effective methods for purification of large
water amounts with the average or low salts' concentrations. Having
this in view we plan to diminish harmful effects of such water on envi-
ronment by construction of storing - dosing reservoirs. It enable con-
trol of the saline water discharge. Thus, permitted concentrations of
mineral could be controlled in receiving streams.
FINAL REMARKS
Our considerations above showed that the lignite surface mining
would be one of the main power production sources in Poland during
the next twenty years.
Extraction increase will require adopting new terrains, and will
cause changes in the natural environment. Therefore these problems
are now of our central interest and will be require much effort in future.
Environmental protection studies, carried out in cooperation with the
US EPA, well serve this purpose and so do international meetings such
as our today conference.
18
-------
LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS CONTROLLING COAL
EXTRACTION AND CONVERSION IN THE UNITED STATES
by
xl
Roger L. Williams '
INTROD UCTION
Delegates to the Symposium, respected scientists, and, above all,
friends, I'm pleased to speak to you about our common interests.
I*m also honored to have been invited to your wonderful country, and
to experience first hand the fascinating combination of European charm
and modern technological advances that exist here. I am especially
looking forward to learning more about surface coal mining and recla-
mation in Poland. The respect you have for the post-mining condition
of your lands is invaluable. I know that EPA has learned a great deal
with your help over the past six years.
I appreciate the complex environmental issues that confront you
in developing the large open cast mines and underground mines most
of which are much larger than in the United States. Hydrologic systems,
land use systems, and biological systems are affected by surface mining
and to varying degrees by underground mining. When reclamation is
poorly done there are far—reaching effects into the social and economic
well-being of a country. Such effects were not really recognized in the
United States until the late 1960's. In response to this new-found con-
cern, a number of the States began the long and often tedious job of
updating their regulations controlling the adverse environmental effects
of coal mining.
Roger L. Williams, Deputy Regional Administrator, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
19
-------
HISTORY
Prior to 1920, strip mining for coal was occasionally practiced
while reclamation was nearly unheard of. Strip mining of coal began to
expand rapidly in the 1920's and 1930's and some reclamation was
practiced where a return of investment was clearly recognized. During
this same period degradation of land and water by coal strip mining
grew rapidly. Local concern surfaced during the period and was met
by small remedial mine drainage control projects conducted by the
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Works Progress Administra-
tion (WPA) programs.
In late winter of 1939 a heated debate over strip mining took place
in the central Appalachian region. Should strip mining be prohibited?
The acid-laden and lifeless streams were commonplace. The mountain-
sides were beginning to exhibit the scars of unreclaimed contour strip
mining. Debate in the West Virginia Legislature was strong in favor of
outright prohibition of strip mining, and on March 6 of that year the
West Virginia House of Delegates overcame a last-minute effort to table
debate and passed House bill 390, "A bill to promote and preserve the
public health and welfare by prohibiting the strip mining of coal". The
vote was 69 yeas to 15 nays. Almost at the same time the West Vir-
ginia Journal of the Senate was considering legislation to "regulate",
as opposed to "prohibiting", strip mining, and on March 10 passed a
regulatory bill by unanimous vote. One day later, on March 11, 1939,
the West Virginia House of Representatives amended its bill to coincide
exactly with the Senate bill and, by a vote of 65 to 4, enacted the
Nation's first state strip mining law.
- -Six other states enacted similar laws during the next 16 years.
- -The environmental Problems of coal mining in Appalachia rece-
ived national attention in 1963 with the publication of Harry
Caudill's book,
20
-------
Night Comes to the Cumberlands
In 1965 our National Congress, reacting to increasing national
concern, authorized a national study of the effects of surface mining
with the passage of the Appalachian Regional Development Act.
In 1967 the Department of the Interior published the study entitled
"Surface Mining and Our Environment", "which called for a strong natio-
nal regulatory program and a program to restore abandoned, unreclaimed
mined lands.
In 1968 the Administration proposed to the National Congress the
Surface Mining Reclamation Act providing for a strong Federal - state
regulatory program to control strip mining. The Senate held 3 days of
hearings but took no further action.
By 1970, 23 states had enacted legislation to control surface
mining activities.
In 1971 the Administration again proposed a revised Mined Area
Protection Act which would have regulated both surface and undergro-
und mining. Again, Congress did not enact legislation,' although the
House of Representatives did pass a bill.
On August 3, 1977, 38 years after the first state reclamation law-
was enacted and following 10 years of heated debate in the National
Congress, President Carter signed the Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 which is designed to establish national stan-
dards that ensure coal mining and reclamation in a manner that mini-
mizes environmental damage. I will discuss that Act in a moment.
There are additional national laws in the United States that impact
coal mining and processing in the United States, These include three
maj or laws,
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
The Clean Water Act and
The Clean Air Act.
21
-------
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires Federal
agencies to develop and implement environmental evaluations of major
actions they propose to take that might adversely affect the human
environment. Implementation of the Act has generally been in the form
of preparation of internal documents such as environmental assessments
and more widely distributed documents called "environmental impact
statements".
Whenever federally owned coal, which comprises the majority of the
coal in the West, is proposed to be leased or mined, the federal govern-
ment will be faced with potentially major decisions generally subject to
the provision of the NEPA. The Agency must then examine the existing
environments,' the impact of the proposed action on that environment,
and alternatives to the proposed action if the effects are adverse.
The purpose of the environmental impact statement is to provide
full and fair discussion of significant changes that may occur as a
result of the proposed action. This discussion is then made available
to decision makers and the public as a whole. It is most important that
these analyses identify alternatives to or modifications of the proposed
action that would minimize adverse impacts.
A few States require the same sort of analysis. In one western
state, this environmental review resulted in protection of a significant
surface drainage channel and flood plain and in the recovery of millions
of tons of coal more than was initially proposed by the operator. So
there may be direct benefits to both coal mining and the environment
in this process.
CLEAN WATER ACT
The Clean Water Act specifies environmental requirements adminis-
tered and enforced by EPA and the state. The Clean Water Act requ-
ires control of point source discharges from all industrial and municipal
22
-------
facilities including active coal mines; requires environmental evaluations
of dredging or filling operations prior to any approvals; and requires
comprehensive planning for nonpoint sources of pollution. More speci-
fically, surface water discharges from active surface and underground
mines must meet the following water effluent standards, or more strin-
gent standards established by individual states:
Table 1 Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available (BPCTCA) Coal Preparation Plants
and Associated Areas
pH 6.0 or Pe 10 mg/1
(in milligrams per liter)
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent limitations
Maximum for
any 1 day
Average of daily values
for 30 consecutive days
shall not exceed
Manganese, total . . .
pH
7.O
4.0
70.0 . .
Within the
range 6.0 to
9.0
3.5
2.0
35 O
pH 6.0 or Pe 10 mg/1
(in milligrams per liter)
Effluent
Characteristic
Effluent limitations
Maximum for
any 1 day
Average of daily values for
30 consecutive days shall
not exceed
Iron, total
TSS . . .
PH . . . .
7.0
70.0
Within the .
range 6.0 to
9.0
3.5
35.0
23
-------
Table 2 Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available
Coal Mines
pH 6.0 or Pe 10 mg/1
(in milligrams per liter)
_,_ . Effluent limitations
Effluent
Characteristic Maximum for Average of daily values
any 1 day for 30 consecutive days
shall not exceed
Iron, total 7.0 3.5
Manganese, total . 4.0 ....... 2.0
TSS 70.0 ^ 35.0
pH Within the
range 6.0 to
9.0
I/ These TSS effluent limitations shall not apply to discharges from
coal mines located in the following States: Colorado, Montana, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. In these States, TSS limita-
tions shall be determined on a case-by-case basis.
pH 6.0 or Pe 10 mg/1
(in milligrams per liter)
Effluent limitations
Effluent
Maximum for Average of daily values
Characteristic Qny ^ day for 30 consecutive days
shall not exceed
nH . . ,
, . 70.01/
. . Within the
range 6.O to
9.0
3.5
35.0
I/ These TSS effluent limitations shall not apply to discharges from
coal mines located in the following States: Colorado, Montana, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. In these States, TSS limita-
tions shall be determined on a case-by-case basis.
These standards are designed to be followed by the States.
Those States qualified to implement this water quality control program
my, and often have, developed more stringent standards.
24
-------
SURFACE MINING CONTROL AND RECLAMATION ACT
The most important national legislation which can ensure a substan-
tial degree of protection from the potentially adverse environmental
impacts of coal mining is Public Law 95-87. This new law is titled the
"Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977". The law has
numerous purposes, but the ones of greatest importance to this discu-
ssion are the following:
— to establish a nationwide program to protect society and the
environment from the adverse effects of surface coal mining opera-
tions;
— to assure that surface mining operations are not conducted where
reclamation as required by this Act is not feasible;
- to assure that surface coal mining operations are so conducted
as to protect the environment; and
- to assure that adequate procedures are undertaken to reclaim
surface areas as contemporaneously as possible with the surface
coal mining operations;
The "Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act" (SMCRA) is basically
designed to ensure that coal mining is conducted in a manner that mi-
nimizes adverse impacts on the hydrology of an area. Yes, it includes
wildlife protection, blasting controls, and revegetation requirements, but
the emphasis is on protection of the hydrologic system. Quite frankly,
much of the legislative history includes testimony on control of adverse
hydrologic impacts of western coal mining. The Act applies to both sur-
face and underground mining State Delegation:
Before preceding to examine environmental protection performance
standards of the Act and the federal regulations developed to apply
the Act, one more purpose of the Act is important to this discussion.
That purpose is to assist the States in developing and implementing
a program to achieve the purposes of this Act.
The thrust of the SMCRA is to assist the states in developing programs
25
-------
judged to qualify the states to assume exclusive jurisdiction for coal
mining regulatory activities designed to protect the environment. There
are at least four different ownership arrangements which affect the re-
gulatory authority over western coal. The coal can be privately owned,
Indian owned, or federally owned. The state has had jurisdiction over
the first two and will continue to under the SMCRA if it develops an
approvable regulatory program. With such a program, the state will also
have initial jurisdiction over environmental matters affected by deve-
lopment of federally-owned coal though the federal government will retain
final mine plan approval authority for federal coal. If a state does not
develop an adequate regulatory authority, then environmental regulations
for all coal mining and reclamation will be the exclusive jurisdiction of
the federal government.
Regulatory Framework:
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act provides for all
of the usual and traditional mechanism for the administration and moni-
toring of extraction activities such as:
- permit application and issuance
- reclamation plans
- performance bonds
- monitoring requirements and
- enforcement, etc.
I will not discuss these as they are fairly .straight forward. However,
I would like to briefly discuss an important and unique, at least in the
USA, requirement and then go into more detail on the specific, on site,
reclamation requirements and performance standards.
The unique requirement that I'm referring to is a very important
procedure that allows the designation of lands as being unsuitable for
surface coal mining. Under this authority the State is to establish a
planning process, based on federal criteria, that enable objectives and
sound discussion, as to what lands in a particular state should not be
surface coal mined. The criteria for designation include:
26
-------
- reclamation is not technologically or economically feasible
- incompatible with state or local land use plans
- fragile or historic lands
- loss of long range productivity and
- endanger life and property
Performance Standards:
In terms of the ultimate goal of reclamation, the regulations require:
(l) a determination of the premining use of the land that is proposed
to be disturbed, (2) an identification of the premining land use cate-
gory, and (3) if the land use category is to be changed, use of a set
of criteria to determine if the proposed post-mining land use meets the
standards of the Act. This is essentially a planning procedure.
The performance Standards require:
1. Grading to an "approximate original contour".
2. Control disposal of spoil which is excess to achieving appro-
ximate original contour, that is, disposal in areas other than that mined.
Requirements are divided into two sections, one for disposals which do
not encroach on natural drainage channels and one for those that do.
The more stringent performance standards are contained in the latter
section where so-called "head-of-hollow" or "valley" fills are addressed.
Here there are requirements for rock drains, diversion of drainage,
controlled placement of fill, and terracing.
3. Specifies (a) tcpsoil removal in terms of essential horizons and
thicknesses, (b) topsoil redistribution, and (c) topsoil storage. The
section also allows the use of alternative strata if the resulting soil
medium is demonstrated to be more suitable for restoring land capabi-
lity and productivity. The regulations provide that "where the removal
of topsoil results in erosion that may cause air or water pollution, the
regulatory authority shall limit the size of the area from which topsoil
may be removed at any one time and specify methods of treatment co
control erosion of exposed overburden.
4. Protection of the hydrologic system. This hydrologic system
protection section of the Act is considered by many to be the critical
27
-------
section. It is the broadest requirement of the initial regulatory program.
It also authorizes the regulatory authority to take "other actions" nece-
ssary to minimize disturbances to the prevailing hydrologic balance
both on and off the mine site.
5. That all surface drainage from disturbed areas must pass through
sedimentation ponds and that any discharges therefrom meet effluent li-
mitations, (-which are essentially the same requirements mentioned in
Table 2 as provided in the Clean Water Act).
6. That all runoff from storms up to that resulting from a 10 year-
24-hour storm be controlled. The surface water monitoring provisions
of the regulations require the development of an adequate water flow
and quality monitoring system and routine reporting of data. Diversions
are encouraged to the degree necessary to keep water away from dis-
turbed areas and thus there are no quantitative effluent limitations that
apply. Rather the diversions are to be designed, constructed, and
"operated" in a manner that prevents additional contributions of suspen-
ded solids to the extent possible, using the best technology currently
available. The standard for temporary diversions of overland flow has
been reduced to a 1-year event. A one-hundred-year event is used
for permanent diversions. Streams can be dlvert€&i only if the average
stream gradient is maintained and the channel is designed to be stable.
The regulations also require that any coal mining and reclamation acti-
vities conducted within 100 feet of the stream channel receive special
authorization.
7. Provide guidance on area and depth of ponds, retention time,
sediment storage, and credits for upstream sediment controls.
8. Provide for ground water protection. Reclamation to restore
"aaproximate pre-mining recharge capacity", is required, as is ground
water monitoring. Thus the effects of surface mining on the ground
water system are acknowledged and are to be mitigated or avoided.
9. Address an agricultural phenomena - the "alluvial valley floor"
of the interior western United States. Those alluvial valley floor areas
determined to be of significance to agriculture are essentially excluded
28
-------
from surface mining of coal. If alluvial valley floors are mined, their
essential hydrologic functions must be preserved.
10. Require that plans for permanent impoundments show probable
future compliance with criteria developed to ensure that the impound-
ment would serve a useful purpose rather than be a shortcut to rele-
ase of a reclamation bond. The regulations require coal waste piles
to be constructed with a margin of safety under various stability con-
ditions.
11. Specify limitations on the impact that explosives me.y have,
generally on any dwelling within one-half mile of the blasting area.
More specifically, the weight of explosives fired is limited to that
causing a maximum peak particle velocity of the ground motion of
1 inch per second and to that causing an air blast of 128 decibel
(linear peak) at any structure within one-half mile outside the permit
area.
12. Lastly, they implement the revegetation requirements of the
SMCRA. It requires that a vegetative cover consisting of diverse,
effective, and permanent species be established, generally in compari-
son to site—specific, premining vegetation surveys. Revegetation success
is to be measured on the basis of the approved seeding procedures
producing a ground cover of at least 90 percent of that measured in
the site-specific, pre-mining, vegetation surveys.
CLEAN AIR ACT
The Clean Air Act, a principal authority behind EPA's air quality
control activities controls emissions from both coal conversion facilities
and from coal mines. It is thus an appropriate finale for this discussion
since I have not mentioned controls over coal conversion facilities to
date.
Fugitive dust from coal mines has received new attention as a re-
sult of the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act. The Clean Air Act
contains requirements for EPA to administer and enforce along with the
29
-------
States. Recently promulgated regulations (June 19, 1978) require that
fugitive dust from surface mines be controlled using the Best Available
Control Technology (BACT) if the mine has the potential to emit 250
tons per year or more. This requirement is in the context of reviews
of stationary sources of air pollution to prevent significant deteriora-
tion of air quality. Based upon recent measurements, any western coal
mine producing more than 500,000 tons per year would likely "qualify"
for review. A qualifying surface or underground coal mine must then
apply best available control technology for particulates unless the incre-
ase in allowable emissions of that pollutant would be less than 50 tons
per year. Once it is determined that an applicant wishing to construct
a surface coal mine will employ whatever controls are determined to
be BACT for the operation, the remaining nonfugitive dust emissions are
modeled to predict the resulting air quality impact. The burden of sho-
wing to what extent emissions from a proposed or modified coal mine
would be made up of fugitive dust rests with the operator. Specified
incremental concentrations depending upon the natural of the location
(e.g. National Parks) must not be exceeded. Also, in no case may the
actual concentration exceed the national secondary ambient standards
of 60 ug/m (annual geometric mean) and 150 ug/m (24-hour maximum
not to be exceeding more than once per year).
BACT for fugitive dust determinations are to be made on a case-by-
case basis by the reviewing authority taking into account such factors
as cost, energy, and technical feasibility. BACT's may be a design,
equipment, work practice or operational standard if imposition of an
emission standard is infeasible.
Air quality Standards of Performance have been established for coal
preparation plants. The standards are:
Table 3 Coal Preparation Plant Emission Standards
Emission Source Particulate Opacity
Concentration
Thermal dryer 0.070 g/dscm 20 %
Pneumatic coal cleaning 0.049 g/dscm 10 %
Coal processing, conveying,
storage, transfer or loading 20 %
30
-------
The operations must be monitored after construction.
EPA and State air quality control agencies have a major role in
siting coal-fired power plants and will continue to have a strong role
in any other coal conversion facility. I will only briefly discuss the
pertinent environmental controls.
The EPA has established standards of performance for coal-fired
power plants. These standards control the following in pollutants and
are measured at the power plant stack (chimney).
Table 4 Coal-Fired Power Plan to Emission Standards
Pollutant Emission Limit
Particulates 0.1 pounds per million BTU heat input
Sulfur Dioxide 1.2 pounds per million BTU heat input
Nitrogen Oxides 0.7 pounds per million BTU heat input
These standards in general require 99.0 + percent control for parti-
culates, some flue gas desulfurization (depending upon the sulfur and
heat content of coal) for SO , and good combustion design for NO .
<£ -A.
National Ambient air quality standards have been established to protect
human health and welfare. These standards are given in Table 5.
Table 5 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
o
Concentration, ug/m
Aye raging Time Primary Secondary
Sulfur dioxide Annual 80 60
24 hour 365 260
3 hour - 1300
Participate Annual 75 60
24 hour 260 150
Nitrogen Oxides Annual 100 100
Ozone 1 hour 160 160
Carbon Monoxide 8 hour 10,000 10,000
1 hour 40,000 40,000
Requirements have also been established to protect clean air areas
such as national parks and wilderness areas. Incremental Ambient air
quality limits for particulate and sulfur dioxide are shown in Table 6.
31
-------
Table 6 Incremental Ambient Air Quality Limits
Pollutant Maximum allowable increase
(micrograms per cubic meter)
Class I
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean ------------------ 5
Twenty-four hour maximum ---------------- 10
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean ----------------- 2
Twenty-four hour maximum -______-------- 5
Three-hour maximum ____---_------- 25
Class II
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean -------------- ---- 19
Twenty-four hour maximum ---------------- 37
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean _______--_ 20
Twenty-four hour maximum ---------------- 91
Three—hour maximum — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 512
Class III
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean ------------------ 37
Twenty-four hour maximum 75
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean 40
Twenty-four hour maximum ---------------- 182
Three-hour maximum ------------------- 700
The review mechanism is to perform computer modeling prior to the
construction and operation of a facility in order to judge the potential
compliance with the appropriate ambient concentrations.
FINAL REMARK
I hope that this general introduction into applicable environmental
regulation affecting coal mining in the United States has been helpful,
I would be glad to answer any question that you may have.
32
-------
LEGISLATION, LAWS AND REGULATIONS CONTROLLING
THE SURFACE MINING OP LIGNITE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION IN POLAND
by
x/
Roman Kraus '
INTRODUCTION
Mining is in Poland one of the main branches of industry. Annual
extraction of various raw materials and minerals has already passed
the 500 million tons mark, of which nearly 300 million tons was extrac-
ted by surface mining methods. One of the more important directions of
surface mining activity is the extraction of lignite, amounting to 41 million
3
tons per year which requires the removal of about 150 million m of
overburden.
At least a fourfold increase in the extraction of lignite is expected
in the next 20 years.
The geological structure of deposits, the technology of exploitation
and the enormous extent of operations required a regularization of
mining activity with a number of laws and regulations governing the
routine of preparation and of performance of mining operations, safety
at work, and also the issue of the influence exerted on the environment.
This influence concerns equally land surface, surface water, ground
waters and, to a smaller extent, the atmosphere.
The large variety of mining operations methods and the above men-
tioned impacts on the environment suggests that a wide range of com-
pulsory regulations, must be taken into account to suit the activities,
x/Roman Kraus, M.Sc. Chief Engineer- POLTEGOR, Rosenbergow 25,
Wroclaw 03
-------
starting with issues of land ownership through to problems of safe
performance of exploitation work, and ending with the returning of
terrains in good conditions to their original owners. If must be empha-
sized that 75 % of land in Poland is privately owned.
In order to present the issues considered in the latter part of this
report more clearly, the structure of the governing bodies in Poland
should be presented.
The legislative and controlling authority is Parliament, elected in
General Elections, and the Council of State with its presiding Chairman,
elected by Parliament. The government constitutes the executive power,
consisting of a Prime Minister and Ministers appointed by Parliament;
from this group is appointed a Cabinet presided by a Prime Minister
the Chairman of Cabinet.
The Ministers direct the departments entrusted to them as well as
the heads of Central Offices (Agencies) appointed for specific fields
such as the Central Office for Geology, the Bureau for Mines (Bureau
of Mines supervises all mining operation in the country), etc.
Acting within the jurisdiction of the Chairman of the Cabinet is the
State Board for Mining appointed in accordance with the Mining Law.
Within Board's jurisdiction is the preparation of advice and opinions
regarding methodology of the rational exploitation of deposits, as well
as advice on proposed regulations for different minerals and different
mining methods.
Besides the central authorities, there also local administrative
authorities.
The territory of Poland is divided into 49 administrative regions
(voivodships) subdivided into communes. At the head of these units
are National Councils at appropriate levels elected in General Elections.
The Voivodes (head of administrative regions) appointed by the Chair-
man of the Cabinet, and the Heads of Municipalities are appointed by
the Voivodes.
Industry in Poland is entirely state owned, and operations in this
34
-------
area are conducted by state enterprises supervised by intermediate
bodies, such as corporations or groups of enterprises.
The extraction of bituminous coal is controlled by the Ministry for
Mining, through regional corporations. The extraction of lignite is super-
vised by the Ministry of Power and Atomic Energy through the Lignite
Mines and Power Plants Corporation, which also controls power plants
operating with lignite.
INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATING IN DRAFTING OP LAWS AND
REGULATIONS REGARDING MINING ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Dependent on onis field of reference could be distinguished:
i) the laws
— the laws passed by the Parliament of Polish People Republic,
- the decrees issued by the State Council,
ii) the regulations
- the regulations issued by Cabinet, the Ministers, the Heads of
Central Offices (i.e. the bodies of central administration),
- the ordinances issued by Voivodes and Voivodship councils,
(i.e. the bodies of regional administration,
- the ordinances, instructions, guidelines and standards issed and
established on various administrative levels.
Beside the Mining Law the mining activity and related to regulations
protection of natural environment are in force regulations issued by
the Ministers of:
x/
- Mining and Power Industry '
- Power and Atomic Energy
— Mining
- Forestry and Wood Industry
x/ From the year 1976 divided into the Ministry of Mining and the
Ministry of Power and Atomic Energy
35
-------
- Agriculture
XX;
- Municipal Attains
- Administration, Local Economy and Environmental Protection.
Additionally in the area of mining (other than coal) the following
Ministers also participate in the supervision and regulation of mining
activities:
- Metallurgy
- Building and Building Materials Industry
- Transport.
All mining operations must follow the regulations extablished by the
Chairman of Bureau for Mines.
INSTITUTIONS' FUNCTIONS IN THE ISSUANCE OF LAWS AND
REGULATIONS
As mentioned in the preceding chapter, the Parliament of the Polish
Peoples Republic passes laws of State-Wide application, while the
State Council issues Decrees, which have a similar (for less essential
problems) scope, but are issued between Sessions of Parliament.
Decrees have .the same legal force as laws.
The Cabinet of the Government formulate regulations which form
a basis for later ministerial orders, and executive orders or have a
nation wide or inter-ministerial character.
The Ministers, however, issue executive regulations and ordinances
with legal force in a given ministry, or nation-wide if the given ministry
has exclusive jurisdiction in a given subject matter.
This concerns also various kinds of instructions and guide-lines.
The Bureau of Mines, subordinated directly to the Chairman of
Cabinet, controls the entire national mining activity in the field of
proper performance of operations, and the correct management in depo-
sit; it issues in this matter detailed regulations binding in all mining
undertaking.
xx/ Transformed into the Ministry of Administration, Local Economy and
Environmental Protection
36
-------
THE MORE IMPORTANT ACTS RELATING TO MINING OPERATIONS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Basic documents relating to mining operations including lignite
extraction, are:
a) The Laws
- The Mining Law passed by the Parliament in 1961, with amen-
dments in 1971, 1977 and 1978, determines useful minerals
(contained in natural deposits and being subject to this law),
the principles and conditions of their extraction and the accom-
plishment of geological work connected with mining operations,
it regulates matters of designing, constructing, and dismantling
(liquidation) of a worked out mines and constructions on mining
terrains, also protection of mined terrains, as well as the respon-
sibility of Bureau of Mines and other organisations in this matter.
- Water Law - approved by the Parliament in 1974, defines the
property of waters, the principles of issuance of water permits
for water utilization, the protection of water, also flood control
principles of hydrotechnical works; it determines also the rules
and forms of activity of water companies, the keeping of books
and all aspects of water management.
- Construction and Building Law is a Parliament act of 1974 regu-
lating activities regarding the land use in accordance with
settlements local plans for terrain utilization, the design, con-
struction, maintenance and the demolition of constructions; it
defines the rules for state and local administration bodies in
in these fields.
Owing to the limitations of size of paper for the regulations cited
below, reference is confined to their designations and the year of
their issue only, nonetheless their designations allow us to infer their
contents:
- the act of 1961 regarding economic planning of areas
37
-------
- the act of 1966 on air protection
- the act of 1971 on protection of arable and forest lands and on
reclamation of disturbed terrains
- the act of 1973 on reforestation.
b ) decrees and resolutions of the Council of Ministers
of 1970 on the protection of forests against impacts of harmful dusts
and gases emitted by industrial works
- of 1963 regarding the compensation for damages incurred by the
effects of mining operations on the sowing of crops, for irreparable
damages to arable and forest lands, and in matters of remunerations
for mining damages
of 1966 in matters of permissible concentration levels of substances
in atmospheric air
- of 1976 in matters of standards of permissible pollution levels in
waters, and conditions of waste waters discharge to surface waters
and to the ground
of 1972 in matters of detailed rules for reclamation and restoration
of lands
of 1975 in matters of water classification, of conditions which waste
waters should fulfil and of penalties for the infringements of these
standards
- of 1976 in matters of operations and activities, the performance of
which is forbidden in the neighbourhood of water-works.
c) Regulations of the Chairman of the Cabinet
of 1965 in matters of safety and work hygiene as well as fire
hazards in surface mining
_ of 1971 in matters of acquisition, storage and use of explosives
in mining operations
38
-------
d) Regulations of the Chairman of Bureau of Mines
- of 1967 in matters of preparation and of sanctioning plans of
mining operations (with riders added to it in 1973 and 1976)
- of 1970 in matters of criteria of estimating water hazards and of
principles and methods of estimating mineral deposits or their
parts included in particular hazard zones
- of 1971 - executive regulations in matters of acquisition, storage
and use of explosives in mining operations.
e) Regulations of Ministers
- of Agriculture and of Forestry and Wood Industry of 1972 in
matters of determination of arable and forest lands threatened
with erosion, with rules and procedures for control erosion
- ordinance of the Forestry and Wood Industry of 1976 in matters
of inclusion and of exclusion of State owned forestry lands and
in changes of forest cultivation to a different type of utilization.
f) Ordinances of Ministers:
- of Mining and Power Industry of 1975 complementing "Detailed
principles of operations performance and management of lignite
deposits in surface mines (issued in agreement with the Chairman
of the Bureau of Mines)
- of Mining and Power industry of 1972 in matters of reclamation
and restoration of postindustrial terrains and of afforestation within
the Ministry of Mining and Power Industry
- of Agriculture and Communal Economy of 1969 in matters of
terrain inventory
- of Agriculture and Forestry and Wood Industry of 1974 in matters
of maintaining a register of terrains subjected to reclamation and
restoration
- of Forestry and Wood Industry in matters of rules the calculation
of compensation for premature cutting down of forrests
39
-------
- of Power and Atomic Energy of 1976 in matters of environmental
protection and work hygiene in the years 1976-1980.
Prom the above it appears that the considerable number of legally
binding acts makes impossible their wider discussion within the frame-
work of this presentation.
Independently of the regulations, there is a great number of com-
pulsory instructions and guidelines concerning particular issues. In the
mining of lignite, similarly as in other fields of industry, there are many
state and departmental standards in force.
DIVISION OP JURISDICTION POR OP EXECUTION AND CONTROL
IN THE PIELD OP MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
As evident from the previous chapter, in the last few years a parti-
cular emphasis hasbeen placed on the safety of work and environmental
protection on industrial operations, and on mining in particular. The
jurisdiction of particular bodies in the field of execution and control
were clearly definated.
In chapter 2 ministries controlling particular divisions of mining of
Poland are same. They have a similar type of jurisdiction, namely the
control of correct operations and the development of minign in accor-
dance with domestic demand for particular raw materials mined.
The Bureau of Mines fulfils its controlling function through the
Regional Offices of Mines, localized in regions with intensive mining
activities, namely in Bytom, Cze^stochowa, Gliwice, Katowice, Kielce,
Krakow, Krosno, Lublin, Poznari, Rybnik, Sosnowiec, Tychy, Watbrzych
and Wrociaw. The Regional Offices operate in the areas assigned to
them (the whole territory of the country being under their supervision).
The following are included in their sphere of activity:
- protection of the public interest, public health and of human life
- control of mine operations, and the protection of land surfaces within
the mined areas from needless devestation in the course these ope-
rations
4O
-------
- inspection of lands undergoing reclamation, or involved in reclamation
activity
- approval of plans for mine operation, and reclamation and their control.
As a sidenote, it is worth mentioning that the plan for mine opera-
tions is a fundamental document, on the basis of which every mine •works.
Such plan, as a rule, is prepared for two years, and comprises details
of mine operations in this period, with a description of all relevant ele-
ments.
Within the jurisdiction of the Voivode, and therefore, of a body of
regional administration on a higher level belong the following:
— cooperation in the elaboration of programs and plans of region deve-
lopment together with environmental protection and suggestions on
proposals on the siting of establishments
- control of the rational utilization of land and the protection of arable
and forest lands
_ control of industrial enterprises in the area of environmental protection
- investigation and assessment of the state of environment
- issuing water permits for use of water and for discharge of waste
waters
— coordination of all operations connected with environmental protection
- coordination of investments, to be developed in his area of activity.
The jurisdiction of the head of the Municipality, and so of a regio-
nal unit of lowest status, can be described as follows:
- the determination of the direction of use with indication of responsible
persons
— record keeping of land subject to reclamation,
_ the approval of reclamation designs
- the assignment of deadlines for detail reclamation execution
- the inspection of reclamation activity.
Apart from this it is worth mentioning jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Forestry and Wood Industry which
41
-------
- takes decisions regarding the exclusion of terrains from State-owned
Forestry lands; it also determines the amounts of payments and dues
for the acquisition of arable and forest lands without standing timber
- coordinates both the research an the field of economic utilization of
reclaimed lands, and the realization of this land reclamation.
CONCLUSION
The res port's objective was to present the state of legislature
regulating lignite surface mining and environmental protection in Poland.
As can be seen, the majority of legal acts in force also concern other
divisions of mining and even the entire industry. These had to be men-
tioned all the same.
In conclusion it is worth mentioning one more initiative, whose objec-
tive is to raise the standard of reclamation in Poland. The problems
connected with it area regulated by a number of legal acts, the engaged
employees therefore having a great number of relevant formal obliga-
tions, independent of problems of merit. Por this reason a few years
ago research was undertaken in Poltegor few and completed this year
with the title "Guidelines for the reclamation of terrains transformed by
industrial activity". This is report - manual in which participated many
specialists and scientists from various fields. The coordination of the
whole project took place in POLTEGOR. These guide-lines constitute
a kind of manual for people engaged in designing, organizing and exe-
cuting reclamation work. It contains, apart from the set of rules gover-
ning these problems, instructions regarding the organization of opera-
tions and ways of financing, and also the essential solutions of problems
pertinent to all divisions of Polish mining, and to waste disposal from
power plants.
This manual will shortly be disseminated in the country.
42
-------
EPA ENFORCEMENT AND NEW SOURCE
SURFACE MINING REQUIREMENTS AND
APPLICATION IN WEST VIRGINIA, USA
by
x/
Stephen R. Wassersug '
INTRODUCTION
It is with great pleasure that I have this opportunity to speak at
this fine symposium, to visit once again your beautiful country, and to
meet with colleagues and friends. I will be discussing the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency's (EPA) enforcements and their application in
West Virginia,
Enforcement
EPA was created by Congress as a regulatory agency; as such,
a fundamental mission is to enforce the environmental laws created by
Congress. EPA has over 10,000 people with over 20% directly respon-
sible for enforcing EPA laws. When Congress passes a law, EPA is
responsible for further defining of those laws by developing appropriate
regulations, guidelines, and standards. Often, perhaps more often than
not, these regulations and standards are challenged in the U.S. Federal
Courts by concerned people. Environmental citizen interest groups often
feel that our regulations are not stringent enough, while industry might
feel they are too stringent. Often, the same regulation is challenged by
x/ Stephen R. Wassersug, Enforcement Division Director,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region III, Philadelphia 19106.
43
-------
Table 1
Surface Mines
Existing Effluent Limitations and Monitoring Requirements
Effluent Characteristic
Plow - M^/Day
Iron, Total
Manganese, Total
Total Suspended Solids
At all times Alkalinity shall be
At all times Acidity shall be
Discharge Limitations
Monitoring Requirements
Daily Average
Daily Maximum Measuring
3.5 mg/l 7.0 mg/l
2.0 mg/l 4.0 mg/l
35.0 mg/l 70.0 mg/l
Greater than Acidity
Less than Alkalinity
Frequency
Two per month
Two per month
Two per month
Two per month
Two per month
Two per month
Samp le
Type
Measured
Composite
Composite
Composite
Grab
Grab
The pH shall not be less than 6.0 standard units nor greater than 9.0 standard units and shall
be monitored twice per month by a grab sample.
940 CER Part 434, Federal Register Vol. 42, No. 80. Tuesday, April 26, 1977.
Proposed Standards of Performance for New Source
b
Surface Mines
Effluent Characteristic Discharge Limitations
Daily A\
Iron, Total
Manganese, Total
Total Suspended Solids
The pH shall not be less than 6.O standard units nor greater than 9.O standard
units and shall be monitored twice per month by a grab sample.
Daily Average
3.0 mg/l
2.0 mg/l
35.0 mg/l
Daily Maximum
3.5 mg/l
4.0 mg/l
70.O mg/l
40 CPR Part 434, Pederal Register Vol. 42, No. 181, Monday, September 19, 1978.
-------
both groups for these reasons, and our Federal Courts must interpret
of technological infeasibility or where it is felt that the standard will
not adequately protect health, fish, wildlife, drinking water or other areas.
Some of these court challenges might take years before final resolution,
while EPA may be restricted from enforcing the regulations during the
period of challenge.
EPA attempts to actively pursue all violations of its environmental
laws. In fact, it is EPA's policy to enforce against all major violating
dischargers of air and water pollution including mines and power plants.
Further, it is EPA policy that all such violators pay penalties commen-
surate with the economic gain obtained by violating pollution control re-
quirements. Table 1 denotes technology standards required to be met
by surface mines in 1977. Failure to install, operate and maintain the
proper control equipment will require EPA to institute its penalty policy.
The penalties will be based on the cost of equipment and operation,
maintenance costs, cost of any environmental harm and willfullness of
the violators not to comply. However, the total penalties can be offset
by a partial credit where the violator now agrees to install pollution
control equipment greater than necessary to meet the standard.
The penally policy was designed to ensure that the few violators
were properly penalized since over 80% of the industries voluntarily
committed large resources to meet the requirements of Federal laws.
If widespread voluntary compliance is to continue, violators must not
gain benefit from noncompliance. Also, it is important that industry reco-
gnize that the Federal policy is uniform in the United States. The Clean
Water Act authorizes penalties up to ^ 10,000 per day and the Clean
Air Act $25,000 per day including possible jail sentences.
New Source Surface Mining Requirements
The remainder of my discussion will focus upon opening new surface
mines in West Virginia and compliance with EPA requirements. As the
demand for coal increases, states like West Virginia are pressured to
ignore environmental concerns over energy demands. Table 2 denotes
45
-------
Table 2
Coal Mining in West Virginia
Mining Employment
2
Coal Reserves
Tonnage Per Year
New Coal Mines
Mines less than
100.00O T/v
Mines more tftan
100,000 T/v
Total
55,000
39,590 million tons
109,000,000 T/y
300 per year
90 %
3 %
Surface Mining
6,600
5,212 million tons
20,000,000 T/y
Other Facts
48% of nation's coal
exports from West Virginia
Most lands for mining
have slopes greater than
25 %
Land reclaimed since
1961 is 206,000 acres
70 % consumed in power
plants
16.5 % of the coal from
79 % of the mines
Sulfur ranee < 1.5% - > 3%
Low 54% Southern West Virginia
Medium Sulfur 31%
High Sulfur 15% Northern West Virginia
Most data based on 1974-75 figures and extracted from Final Report on Environmental
Aspects of the New Source NPDES Permit Program for the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining
Industry, 1977-1980
Based on current mining techniques.
-------
compilation of summary coal mining data for West Virginia.
For a new mine to open, a permit from EPA must be issued, allo-
wing the discharge to a body of water. This National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit is also required of existing dischar-
gers where there is a point source. This permit is probably similar to
Poland's Water Rights Permit. Proposed new Source surface mining
requirements (table l) will require the coal mine operator to meet the
standards upon commencement of operation.
Of great concern to the Government, the coal mine operator, and
citizen is the requirement for a detailed environmental review. Under the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), a major Federal action, like
issuing a permit, requires that an environmental assessment of the action
first be prepared and considered. All aspects of the environment must
be reviewed, including land use planning, alternative site options, effects
to the air and water, reclamation, waste noise, and related impact upon
the infrastructure. When Congress first passed this law in 1970, no one
realized its full impact. The law, through the environmental assessment
and impact statements, has at times been responsible for slowing or
stopping development of highways, dams, etc., while leading to sound
environmental programs.
Where the environmental assessment shows no negative environmental
effects, EPA will prepare a negative declaration and the project could
proceed. However, if the environmental assessment indicates potential
negative environmental impacts, an environmental impact statement is
then prepared. The results of this statement and significant citizen inte-
raction might then lead to abandonment or continuation of the Federal
action or selection of an alternative action with less environmental con-
sequences.
West Virginia Surface Mining
As noted in table 2, some 300 new coal mines open each year. To
comply with NEPA it is necessary to compile substantial information on
West Virginia mining and to recommend an approach for dealing with the
47
-------
environmental assessments. A consultant working with EPA undertook
a study "Environmental Aspects of the New Source MPDES Permit
Program for the West Virginia Surface Mining Industry". Information in
this report includes:
1. Surface mineable coal resources
2. Geographic distribution
3. Geological occurrence of surface mineable coal
4. Current production
5. Probable location of new surface mines
6. Current reclamation procedures, and State laws
7. Archaeological resources
8. Historic resources
9. Wilderness areas
10. Parks and recreational facilities
11. Wild and scenic rivers
12. Water resources - high quality streams, trout waters,
polluted (acid) streams
13. Lakes and reservoirs
14. Public water supplies
15. Groundwater resources
16. Flood-prone areas
17. Wetlands
18. Critical habitats for imperiled species
19. Prime agricultural land
20. EPA responsibilities
21. Recommendations.
The conclusions in the report indicate that "EPA will have a very
large number of NPDES permits to process each year, many of which
will be for very small surface mines that will operate for three years
or less. Consequently, the opportunity for piecemeal decision making is
great". A separate environmental assessment for each mine would not
only be a cumbersome job, but the overall environmental impact would
not necessarily be analyzed. Figure 1 is a map of West Virginia, de-
48
-------
picting the distribution of coal mining throughout the state by size of
mines and county.
In determining the most effective program to meet Federal laws, ca-
refully balancing available manpower and environmental benefit, an area-
wide environmental assessment and impact statement is most feasible
for specific geographic areas. There are strong advantages of an
'area-wide review* over a 'mine-by-mine' approach.
1. EPA can make intelligent exeditious environmental decisions
with limited data. The aggregate impact of development could
be more adequately assessed.
2. Strategies and plans could be developed to prevent discharges
where problems abound. EPA can prioritize permit issuance by
degree of pollution in a watershed.
3. Mining operators could carefully review the area-wide assess-
ment before planning to develop in sensitive areas and prioritize
development in non-sensitive areas.
4. Area-wide reviews could benefit the mine operator by expedi-
ting NPDES permit approvals where it can already be shown
that environmental considerations have been made.
5. EPA will work with the Office of Surface Mining on best mana-
gement practices and possible joint permits.
6. Areas unsuitable for mining can be demarcated.
7. Small mines often do not have the capability of developing pro-
per assessments and can take advantage of the area-wide
review.
Gauley and Monongahela River Basins
EPA is now reviewing the area-wide approach in two high priority
river basins in West Virginia. These areas are outlined in Figure 1.
River basins are an excellent geographic unit for study since partial
data bases are already avialable in these watersheds. The river basins
49
-------
O
, . J MORE THAN 1000000 TONS
^i\
^J) 501000- 1000000 TONS
©101000 -500000 TONS
© 1000 -100000 TONS
Fig.1 1975 WEST VIRGINIA SURFACE MINE PRODUCTION.
50
-------
are also an effective way to relate the interaction of mining in a limited
area.
The Gauley River Basin is 1,400 square miles and now contains 64
active mines. Both the Gauley and Monongahela are expected to be
areas of prime active mining in the future, representing 43% of the new
applications in West Virginia. Our study, when completed, will map out
sensitive/non-sensitive areas, potential environmental impacts, non-envi-
ronmental type concerns, techniques to reduce environmental problems,
monitoring sites, assimilative capacity, and other related impacts.
The area-wide study should highlight environmentally sensitive areas
that could pose limitations to mining from acquifer recharge areas, sites
of historic or archaeological significance, areas of soil with water table
problems and other limiting characteristics such as flood plains, prime
agricultural lands, air quality problem areas, or where the infrastructure
(transportation systems, water supply, sewage, utilities) exceeded or
were close to exceeding the capacity of that infrastructure. Mitigation
measures could then be identified to eliminate the adverse impact with
plans to accommodate projected growth. The mining community and citi-
zenry of the State were informed of our process through hearings and
although not informed of our conclusions at this time, have endorsed
the concept.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, because of current requirements in the U.S., it appe-
ars that an area-wide approach is one way to meet the requirements
of the EPA using limited resources while considering the need for coal
reserves and protection of the environment. By recognizing problem
issues as early as possible in the pre-development phase, the most
environmentally sound development patterns may be chosen and site
specific problems minimized. In utilizing the area-wide approach, some
Limitations should be recognized, and new data should be continually
generated allowing EPA to make informed decisions for the opening of
new coal mines. This report only briefly considered the new Surface
51
-------
Mining Reclamation Act. Significant effort is already underway to review
application of all Environmental Laws and minimize the burden on both
the administrative agencies and mine owners, while protecting the envi-
ronment.
REFERENCES
1. Preparation of Environmental Impe.ct Statements - New Source
NPDES Permits, C PR 40, Vol. 42, No. 7, (January 11, 1977, Part 6)
2. Rebecca W. Hanmer, Policy on Application of NEPA to New Source
Coal Mines: Interirr. Guidance, Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Federal Activities (September 1, 1977)
3. Jack McCormick Associates, Inc. (WAPORA, Inc.), Final Report on
Environmental Aspects of the New Source NPDES Permit Program
for the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining Industry, 1977-1980, pre-
pared for Environmental Protection Agency (March 1977).
52
-------
PRESENT AND FUTURE SURFACE COAL
EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE UNITED STATES
by
x/
LeRoy D. (Bud) Loy, Jr., P.E. '
INTRODUCTION
It is an honor for me to present a paper to this Second Polish/
EPA Symposium. "Present and Future Coal Extraction Technologies
in the United States" is a challenging topic because, as you know,
there are many different types of terrain and geology in America; and
threre are also many different surface mining methods.
The United States may be divided into three mining regions:
l) Western United States - including Montana, North Dakota, Colorado,
Wyoming, New Mexico, and Arizona; 2) Central United States - con-
sisting of western Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Oklahoma,
Kansas, Arkansas, and Iowa; and 3) Eastern United States (Appa-
lachia) - covering eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennsessee,
Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, and southeastern Ohio.
Major mining technologies utilized and under development within each
region vary due to the necessity of adapting to the predominant geology
and topography of the area. For each mining method discussed, there
is a separate captioned illustration. Most of the new mining methods
now under development and described here are being accomplished by
the United States Department of Energy.
x/ LeRoy D. (Bud) Loy, Jr., P.E. Partner, Skelly and Loy Consulting
Engineers.
53
-------
WESTERN UNITED STATES
Present Mining Methods
Only two major types of surface mining methods are presently
employed in western United States. These are: l) Area Type Mining;
and 2) Open Pit Mining.
Area Type Mining in the West is characterized by removal of one
or two moderately thick coal seams (usually between 6 and 10 feet
thick), with extraction activities ultimately progressing over a relatively
large tract of land. The topography is usually flat or gently sloping,
with an arid climate. As shown by the illustration, spoil is directly
placed in adjacent previous cuts, using either shovels or draglines
for excavation. Lack of substantial precipitation is the most difficult
problem confronting mine operators during post-mining revegetation.
In cont rast, two basic types of Open Pit Mining are employed in
western United States, depending on the thickness and pitch of the
coal seams to be mined. These are both shown on one illustration.
Open Pit Mining of thick coal seams (up to 100 feet thick) involves
removal of thin amounts of overburden in flat terrain. Shovels are the
most common equipment used to remove overburden and coal into a
series of benches 40 to 50 feet high. The low ratio of overburden to
caol adds to reclamation difficulties associated with the arid climate.
With the second approach, Open Pit Mining removes steeply pit-
ching seams, either single or multiple, which vary in thickness from
as little as 4 feet to as much as 90 feet. This type of Open Pit Mining
is performed by having the stripping operation follow the coal down-dip.
One particular Open Pit Mine in western United States is characterized
by a whole series of steeply pitching seams which are mined by a
series of pits on each specific coal seam; that is, each seam has its
own pit, and overburden is placed both above and below the seam.
Direct backfilling is not feasible and bulldozers must be employed to
cover the exposed pit areas prior to revegetation.
54
-------
Fia.1 AREA TYPE MINING - WESTERN U.S.
55
-------
FIG-2 Ot»EM PIT MINING
-------
Mining, Methods Now Being,_ Developed
Methods now being developed with regard to western Area Type
surface mining include application of bucket wheel excavators and con-
veyors. These pieces of equipment are used to extract coal and/or
overburden, in contrast with central United States where they will more
than likely be used to extract and move overburden only. In part this
is due to the higher ratio of overburden to coal found in most central
United States mines.
A series of four Cross-Pit Conveyor Systems have been conceptuali-
zed for western Area Type Mining, and the United States Department
of Energy is working to select the best of these for development.
Puture mining methods related to Open Pit Mining of steeply pit-
ching seams include applications of more mobile equipment and use of
an existing highway construction machine, the Gradall. Since it can ope-
rate on steeper grades than front-end loaders or shovels, the Gradall
may be useful for extracting coal from steeply pitching Western coal
seams. Under a new terrace pit project, research is being conducted
to find a different and more efficient extraction technology for both types
of Open Pit Mining in the West.
CENTRAL UNITED STATES
Present Mining Methods
In central United States, Area Mining is used almost exclusively.
The terrain varies from relatively flat to slightly rolling, and the tech-
nique is similar to western Area Mining. The climate of central United
States is wetter than western United States, permitting easier reclama-
tion, and the overburden is thicker. In rolling terrain, cropline to crop-
line coal mining is permitted: this slight alteration is called Modified
Area Mining. Stripping shovels are used where the overburden is
approximately 40 to 50 feet deep and draglines where overburden
ranges as deep as ISO feet.
57
-------
oo
FIG. S COAL REMOVAL SCHEME USING BWE
-------
V/l
vo
FIG.
CROSS-PIT CONVEYOR SYSTEM
-------
FIG. S GRADALL COAL REMOVAL SYSTEM
-------
FIG. 6 TERRACE PIT MINING SYSTEM
-------
FIG. 7 MODIFIED AREA MINING - CENTRAL U.S.
62
-------
U)
BULLDOZER
F1Q
TRENCH STRIP AND AUGER MINING
-------
Mining Methods Now Being Developed
Portable conveyor units have been used in Europe for a number
of years, but so far they have not been put to use in central United
States stripping operations. However,' their potential for application in
this region is excellent. Conveyor units are described later in this
paper under the topic of eastern United States.
Another new technique under development which shows promise
for central United States is called Trench, Strip, and Auger Mining.
This system disturbs much less land than other methods of mining.
It is environmentally sound and allows recovery of deep resources with
fairly thin coal seams. The method is very simple. A large trench or
ditch is excavated down to the coal seam, from which the coal is then
removed. Large augering machines bore into both sides of the trench
previously excavated. With this method there is no problem with drain-
age from augered seams, because when reclamation is accomplished
and the mined area backfilled, there is no place for water to go. When
the trench has been excavated and augering completed on each side
of the trench, the process is advanced by repeating the entire sequ-
ence over and over.
Now let's turn to eastern United States where much more complica-
ted methods of mining exist.
EASTERN UNITED STATES (APPALACHIA)
Present Mining Methods
There are a number of different mining methods employed in
Appalachia. This is principally because Appalachia has three distinct
topographic areas: "flat or gently rolling terrain", which is common to
Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Plat or Gently Rolling Terrain
There are two major mining methods utilized in flat or gently rolling
terrain:
-------
ON
BLOCK AREA MINING
-------
Block Area Mining - - The first is called Block Area Mining, used
where overburden is usually less than 70 feet deep. This mining method
employed bulldozers and front-end loaders almost exclusively. Success-
ive 70 foot wide cuts are taken, with overburden from one cut placed
into the mined out cut behind it. Very thin seams can be recovered
with little equipment. Flexibility and ease of mining are advantages of
this type of mining operation.
Modified Area Miningi - - The second method used in flat or gently
rolling terrain is called Modified Area mining, which was already dis-
cussed as a major surface mining method in central United States. As
the illustration shows, mining can take place from cropline to cropline,
usually with 150 feet maximum overburden. One of the requirements of
the new Surface Mine Law is that the land be re graded to approximate
original contour. However, there are exceptions that can be made to
this requirement. In this case, because Modified Area Mining is accom-
plished in rather flat or gently rolling terrain, return to approximate
original contour is fairly easy to accomplish.
Hilly or Moderately Rolling Terrain «• - Where "hilly or moderately
rolling terrain" is present, primarily in northern West Virginia, Pennsyl-
vania and western Kentucky, two major techniques are employed.
Modified Block Cut -- One is called Modified Block Cut, which is
a contour method of mining. All spoil is moved laterally along the
bench, mainly by direct placement, with dozer/loaders. The Modified
Block Cut Method is primarily applied in Pennsylvania. The advantage
here is that there is no spoil placed downslope following the initial cut
removal and, in fact, the new surface mine law prohibits placement of
spoil downslope. This ensures that environmental disturbances are
restricted to the actual area being mined. The mined area also must
be returned to approximate original contour as required by the new law.
66
-------
1O MODIFIED AREA MINING - EASTERN U.S.
67
-------
ON
CD
\ \ 2
It MODIFIED BLOCK CUT MINING
-------
o\
VO
CONTOUR HAULBACK MINING
-------
Haulback -- Haulback is also a contour mining method, and is
cometimes called Controlled Placement or Lateral Movement Mining.
Trucks move the material along the bench, requiring longer open high-
walls than with dozer/loader Modified Block Cut operations. A valley
fill or head— of-hollow fill or old mine bench is required for placement
of waste material from the first cut, because no material is allowed
downslope. Overburden is transported by trucks after its excavation
by bulldozers, front-end loaders, shovels, hydraulic shovels, or even
an occasional dragline. As with Modified Block Cut Mining, this method
is environmentally sound. Reclamation is fairly easy to accomplish,
and the approximate original contour can be returned after mining is
completed.
Mountainous or Very Steep Terrain
In "mountainous or very steep terrain" such as is common to
eastern Kentucky, southern West Virginia, and Tennessee, there are
several methods used:
Haulback -- Use of Haulback in mountainous or very steep terrain
is much more difficult. The new law requiring return to approximate
original contour means that no highwall can be left exposed. However,1
when the terrain is steep, it is very difficult to completely backfill the
highwall. Less than half of the steep terrain areas are now being
mined with the Haulback technique; most are being mines with the
mountaintop removal method.
Mountaintop Removal — - Mountaintop Removal is a technique where,
as the name implies, the entire top of the mountain is taken away,
permitting total resource recovery of both single and multiple seams.
This type of mining operation is allowed under the new strip mine law,
and with good premine and future land use planning, it is a desirable
and environmentally sound method. Previously, mine operators took
contour cuts, ringing the mountain and leaving an "applecore", or
unmined center section, because it was not economical to remove the
70
-------
—1
H
CONTOUR HAULBACK MINING- STEEP TERRAIN
-------
ro
Ss-s&rr^
>' v-c
•J$ ^*K
MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL SCHEME
-------
overburden in the thicker center. Leaving these "applecores" is not
permitted under the new law. Cross-ridge mining, discussed in the next
section of this paper, is being developed in order to make removal
of the entire top of the mountain economical. As with Haulback Mining,
in Mountaintop Removal operations, valley fills or old strip mining
benches must be used to deposit the first cut of waste overburden
removed from the mountain.
Mining methods now being developed
The most promising mining methods now being developed for
Appalachia involve use of Portable or Mobile Conveyor Systems. These
Portable Conveyor Systems are being developed for all three Appa-
lachian terrains: "flat or gently rolling"; hilly or moderately rolling"; and
"mountainous or very steep" terrain.
Portable Conveyor Systems - — Taking them one at a time, we'll
start with the "gently rolling terrain" where Modified Area Mining is
used.
Modified Area Mining -- The artist's sketch shows how conveyors
can be used to help accomplish Modified Area Mining. Modified Area
Mining has traditionally required double handling of overburden material
where draglines have been working beyond their boom capacity. When
draglines reach the limit of their boom length, they must work on an
extended bench (create a bench for themselves), and then remove it,
thus handling material twice.
Using conveyors, double handling can be eliminated and spoil
placement controlled. Conveyors facilitate tops oil replacement and final
vegetation, including seeding, liming, and mulching. All of these materials
can be added to the conveyor at the appropriate time as the tops oil
passes by. This type of mining, as mentioned earlier, is also being
developed for application to central United States Area and Modified
Area Mining Methods.
73
-------
MODIFIED AREA MINING WITH CONVEYORS
-------
FIG. -16 CONVEYORS CONTOUR HAULBACK MINING
-------
—]
cr\
17 CONVEYOR MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL SCHEME
-------
Haulback — Haulback is also being developed with Portable Con-
veyor Systems. This is primarily practiced in "moderately rolling to
slightly steep" terrains. As shown here, the conveyor units are placed
along the low wall, or outbound side, of the haulback operation.
Excavated overburden is loaded on the conveyor units to be carried
along the low wall and deposited at the reclamation end of the project.
Since this restricts haulage of the coal in and out of the pit, an ele-
vated type conveyor unit must be used to bring the coal up over the
low wall conveyors and into the waiting haul trucks.
Use of conveyors provides many environmental benefits, including
segregation of overburden - that is, the overburden can be placed
back in the same sequence in which it was excavated. Since materials
handling is continuous, reclamation can be accomplished quickly. Soil
supplements, including lime, seed, fertilizer, and even mulch can be
added to the topsoil as it moves along the belt. Use of conveyor units
offers many safety benefits, since the truck congestion on short narrow
benches associated with Haulback operations is eliminated.
Mountaintop Removal - - The next category is Mountaintop Remo-
val in very steep terrain. Continuous material handling afforded by
mobile conveyors allows greater safety, facilitates valley fill construc-
tion, and enhances the environment if preplanning for future land use
is done well. Aesthetic reclamation is a necessity in this type of ope-
ration; otherwise the final result is flat mountaintops which are unusable
and undesirable from an aesthetic and environmental standpoint.
Cross-Ridge Mining
Because of the new law prohibiting exposed highwalls to be left
after mining, a new technique of removing the entire top of a mountain
is under development. The Cross—Ridge technique requires mining per-
pendicular to the long axis of the mountaintop. Since approximately two-
thirds of the Appalachian landform consists of hilly and mountainous
areas, this method has wide potential application in the eastern United
States.
77
-------
OO
CROSS-RIDGE MINING
-------
The equipment used is flexible and mobile. Most operations use
dozers with front-end loaders, but hydraulic shovels and power shovels
are becoming popular. By extracting the accessible outcrop coal and
the thicker overburden at the center of the mountain simultaneously, the
operator's cash flow is equalized over the life of the mine. Complexi-
ties of Cross-Ridge Mining require good planning of the entire opera-
tion from beginning to end.
One of the major advantages of Cross-Ridge from an environmental
standpoint is that, by backstacking waste overburden on the area that
has been previously mined, valley fills for overburden disposal disturb
only one-fifth of the land that is normally disturbed by a Contour
Mountaintop Removal operation. This is because Contour Mountaintop
Removal requires placing nearly all of the waste overburden material
in valley fills, whereas Cross-Ridge Mining requires use of a valley
fill for only the first cut of waste overburden. This technology has
been developed and is being demonstrated by the United States Depar-
tment of Energy on several Appalachian sites with typical topography,
facility typical geology, and conventional equipment usage.
Anthracite Open Pit Mining
There are large anthracite deposits in eastern Pennsylvania which
have traditionally been mined by relatively small surface open pit oper-
ations. Some have been large enough to employ draglines. Because of
the steeply pitching seams prevalent in this region, large scale open
pits have excellent potential for application to anthracite coal mining.
While they are used for iron ore and other hard rock mining in western
United States, they have not yet been applied to anthracite mining.
Dimensions of anthracite open pits are expected to be 800 feet
deep, one-half mile wide, and three-quarters mile long. As excavation
takes place in the advancing face of the mine and reclamation takes
place behind, the pit will "move" across the landscape. This is an
environmentally sound method because reclamation follows mining right
away. In eastern Pennsylvania, there are many old unreclaimed surface
79
-------
oo
o
ANTHRACITE OPEN PIT MINING
-------
mine scars which would be removed and reclaimed as part of the
mining operation. This method would also help eliminate deep mine sub-
sidence problems as abandoned underground mines are removed by
the large open pit.
81
-------
SURFACE MINING OF LIGNITE WITH BELT
CONVEYORS AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGES
by
Henryk Turala x/
Wladyslaw Wysocki
INTRODUCTION
The belt conveyor transport with its many advantages is now repla-
cing rail haulage in surface mines in Europe. With the use of belt con-
veyor transport there are no limitations regarding the depths of open
pits, the thickness of overburden or magnitude of uncovered sources of
useful mineral. Also there are no limitations in respect to the lithologica I
composition of the excavated rocks except rocks of great hardness, for
the working and transport of which multi bucket excavators or the belt
conveyors are not used. The advantage of belt conveyors is possibility
of transportation over inclines up to 18 angle and so helps to shorten
transport routes, thus reduces the volumes of development cuts, and
allows to reach great depths of excavation or great heights of spoil
disposals. Owing to the possibility of effecting changes in the length of
working fronts, the technological system with belt conveyor transporta-
tion makes possible deposit development with volumes of opening cut 2
to 4 times smaller than with circumferential rail or truck transportation
(with the same thickness of overburden).
xj Dr. Henryk Turala - Director of Poltegor, Dr. Wladyslaw Wysocki
Principal Investigator, POLTEGOR, Rosenbergow 25, Wroclaw,
83
-------
The economic range of the belt transportation depends on the size
3
of assignment. For the task of transporting 10-30 mil. m of material
annually this range comes to 2-5 km. Optimum length of the multi bucket
excavators working front, with the method of output transportation under
discussion comes to 1.0 - 2.5 km. The system of shifting a working
face may be fan-wise or parallel. To diminish the frequency of shifting
the conveyors the parallel shifting of faces is desirable. The use of
conveyors allows initial desintegration of output directly at the faces or
on the exploitation level and ensures a continuous flow of out put.
Attention is also draw to the fact that with rocky raw material
deposits the amount of overburden removal per ton of extracted raw
3
material amounts to 0.13 m in Poland, while in the exploitation of lignite
3
this rate exceeds the 3 m value. It means that, with the growing pro-
duction of lignite, and the constantly diminut of the above mentioned
rate, the displaced overburden masses are ever increasing (e.g. the
11O million m annually of overburden from the Beichatow mine. The
scope of increasing mining operations continuously causes transforma-
tions of natural environment, as yet unencountered, manifested mainly
in deformations of earth surface, in changes of water conditions in the
vicinity of workings and disposals, and in the indirect impact on mines,
as well as in the economic utilization of the terrains.
The main parameters affecting environment transformation in the
course of surface mining operations are:
2
the area of open pits up to 60 km
relative depth of excavations up to 350 m
- relative height of external spoil disposals up to 250 m
3
- volume of external disposals above 900 mil. m
the extent of depression cone more than 20 km (in an area more
2 x
than 1200 km )
3
output per excavator amounting to 33 mil. m per year.
The intensity of influence as exerted by mining operations (cha-
racterized by the above parameters) warrants the recognition of a
mined terrain as an industrial area. Economic potential and areal
layout of such a region depends not only on the extent of mining and
84
-------
power engineering investments but also on the direction and fixed dates
of other investment plans, (connected with the development of the region)
undertaken.
The restoration of environment and the economic utilization of post-
industrial terrains requires, among other things, reclamation treatments,
comprising first of all:
- the profiling of crown tops and slopes of disposals and excavations,
reconstitution of soils on the surfaces of disposals assigned for
agricultural or forest reclamation,
- regulation of water conditions within the vicinity of disposals and
abandoned workings and on adjoining terrains.
In a wide ranging reclamation activity the tendency (in order to
improve the efficiency of operations) is to carry out these basic treat-
ments during the course of performed mining activity.
Discussed in this paper are some aspects of restoration of the
natural environment arising from the technology of belt conveyor trans-
port.
USEFULNESS OP ENGINEERING SCHEME IN SHAPING OP DISPOSALS
AND EXCAVATIONS
In Poland it is considered that, for an agricultural type of reclama-
tion, one can utilize terrains with gradients less than 15 percent i.e.
1:7. Excessive flattening of the slopes is related to the reservation of
greater areas for disposals or excavations, and hinders their drainage.
The slopes usually are made more steep and are parted by horizontal
terraces, or transportation benches, serving also to control surface wa-
ters. The tendency is to make slopes with 30 % percent gradients. In
the grading of such slopes bulldozers can be used, without excessive
wear of same.
As stated above the formation of slopes in the excavations the
method of output transportation back from the working machines, as a
rule, has no influence.
85
-------
In high dumping with belt conveyor stackers, the slopes may be
formed according to an optionally devised profile; then the additional
grading to be carried out in the course of reclamation is limited only
to levelling of uneven places.
In low dumping the possibility of manoeuvering with stacker boom
terminal is limited by the range of the machine. With a required incli-
nation of slopes 30 percent, with terraces of 5-6 m width, vertical spa-
cings of 5-7 m and 20 m height of dump layer, the length of horizon-
tal projection of the slope will come to 75 - 80 m. If the safe distance
of the stacker axle from the top edge of the low dumped slope amounts
to 50 m, then the minimal length of the stacking boom should be 130 m.
Such booms have the biggest stackers (e.g. in the Belchatow mine the
A2Rs-B-12500.95+BRs stacker has a parameter of only 95 m), also
the profiling of 20 m high dump layers would entail loss of efficiency
of the stacking machines (too often it would follow the shifting of over-
burden stacking belt conveyors, and with it the whole technological
system). For this reason the profiling of low dumped slopes is usually
done by bulldozers, and the volume of earth work is considerable, and
3
may exceed 8 thous m /ha, even with the height of stacked layers
being 20 m.
The planning of general inclinations on the crown top faces is
possible in the course of designing. In the course of stacking with belt
conveyor stackers there remain on the crown tops characteristic ridges
and trenches resulting from the limited reach of the stacker and the
travel of its boom. The stages travel of the boom is caused by belt
conveyor shifting in the transport of overburden for longer distances
than the definite width in flow sheet of low or high dump blocks. The
width of the trench equals the excess of standarised belt conveyor
shift in stacking in blocks, with employed maximum horizontal reach of
the stacking boom. The depth of trench is:
h - 2TT'
where: s — width of trench
k = cotangent of the dumped soil natural slope angle.
86
-------
The ridges and trenches have shapes in plan corresponding to the
slewing movement of the stacker boom terminal.
In order to determine the value of a single shift forward of the
stacking boom terminal, it was assumed that the final grading of the
crown top is made by truncation of ridges to half their height and the
depths of trenches should not exceed the 1/2 h = 0.50 m value. So
then this single shift may not be more than
p = 2 h«k
With k = 1.5 most frequently, the maximum shift of stacker boom ter-
minal may amount to 3 m.
USEFULNESS OP MINE ENGINEERING SCHEME RESTORATION
OP SOILS
Agricultural production requires the formation of near-to-surface
layers from such types of soils where by in a relatively short time
soils of minimum average fertility could be obtained. The procedure for
such management of overburden is defined as the technical production
of soils. Among the methods of technical production of soils selective
storage of overburden and plays a fundamental role. The feasibility of
soil production depends on:
a) usefulness of particular layers of overburden for formation of near
to surface layers on a disposal
b) usefulness of particular elementary machines and of whole engi-
neering systems in selective storage of overburden.
The overburden in Polish lignite surface mines is widely differen-
tiated in respect of composition and properties, and this gives a wide
diversification in reclaiming usefulness. The assessment of its suitabi-
lity is carried out on the basis of a geological and pedological classi-
fication. Geological research concerns occurrences of distinct layers,
their origin and hydrogeological conditions. Pedological research con-
cerns the composition and properties of samples taken from particular
87
-------
distinquished overburden layers, also of samples of waters occurring
in particular aquifers. Vegetation tests concern the observations of
germination, growth, health conditions and yields of test plants grown
in selected samples of soils.
Usefulness of particular elements of engineering systems for the
technological production of soils was analysed on the basis of machines
and systems working in Polish mines.
The working of overburden and of spoil benches is carried out
with bucket wheet or chain excavators. The working with bucket wheel
excavators in horizontal slice favours better disintegration excavated
material and affords a better sorting of particular formations in the
selective storage of overburden. Working in vertical slice gives a better
mixing of solis from a given few thin layers, and this is very important
in the model of steered storage of overburden presented below.
In working with bucket chain excavators on a rail undercarriage
the degree of output disintegration depends on the methods of shifting
and the shifting frequency of the excavator track and on the duty of
the machine. In directed storage of overburden one acquires a uniform
mix of the output coming from the entire exploitation cut. There is a
small potentially for selective workings with crawler mounted excavators
with sliding articulated booms.
The usefulness of belt conveyors for selective overburden trans-
portation is dependent on the system of excavators interlocking with
stackers. In the Konin open-pits the technological systems are functio-
ning at present defined as monoblock-branching, in which two excava-
tors feed overburden onto one collecting belt conveyor transporting it
to one stacking machine. On this mother belt conveyor, material useful
for good reclamation is obtained only when both excavators are working
simultaneously with overburden suitable for reclamation needs. In the
case of the shutting down of one excavator the system (the excavator-
belt conveyor-stacker), becomes a mono-block, where a material suitable
for soil production could be acquired. So that the belt conveyor can
ensure delivery of selectively worked overburden to the stacker it must
work in practice only in the situations described above. Such a solu-
88
-------
tion cannot, however, be accepted due to the considerable cost of con-
struction and of attendance of the belt conveyors in mono-block systems.
Por this reason one strives for the construction of mother belt conve-
yor lines, on which transportation of selected overburden masses would
be connected with a simultaneous shutting down of excavators working
other layers of overburden. In the system applied in the Belchatow mine,
the use of a sorting belt conveyor line will enable connection of appro-
priate series of excavators to optional stacking series. This may enable
the displacement of optional overburden layers on the surface of dispo-
sal, and will help to locate the toxic tertiary formations in deep put of
disposal. This enables to obtain top layers of disposal of better recla-
iming usefulness.
In belt conveyor transport a selective storage is possible only
in cases where the selected masses of overburden are supplied to stac-
king machine separately. There in only a limited chance of high stac-
king of disposal with thinner by two to three meters layer (when the de-
livered material not suitable for reclamation) and afterwards to grade
the uneven surface by bulldozers; in these operations the better material
could be placed on the top of disposal. In this situation stacked layers
of such a height should be designed that the described operation could
be feasible.
METHODS OF TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OP SOILS WITH BELT CON-
VEYOR TRANSPORT
By analysing geological structures of overburden one may easily
state, that there is no possibility of such a division of spoils into
exploitation levels, to enable selective working of desired amounts of
potentially productive soils keeping the full capacity of mining equipment.
For geological conditions of Polish coal deposits and for the feasibilities
of technological systems, 2 methods of technical soil production have
been designed:
l) covering with top soil,
2) directed management with overburden.
89
-------
The first method is based on the gathering from the foreland of
the openpit of adequate amounts of top soils and covering with it dis-
posals, formed from toxic layers. This operation requires transport and
stacking of top soil a distinct, auxiliary technological system. In these
systems two alternative solutions are to be taken into account:
System I - loosening of soil and gathering into heaps with the use
of bulldozers, loading with loaders transport with trucks
and spreading on the top of reclaimed disposals with bull-
dozers
System II - based on scrapers, striping the top soil carrying it, and
subsequently surfacing.
The method of directed management with overburden was elaborated
for geological conditions in the Konin mine. Here the possibility was
created of directing good overburden mass derived from one or two top
levels of open-pits onto the highest levels of disposals. In this way
there exists the chance of placing the toxic formations not suitable for
reclamation deep in disposals. In the surface layers of disposals mix-
tures of suitable for reclamation quaternary formations are placed.
Their suitability for reclamation was confirmed in analytical and vegeta-
tive investigations. This method does .not cause any apparent decrease
in the output of elementary technological machinery and does not re-
quire the creation of auxiliary systems. Therefore it is much more eco-
nomic than cover with top soil described above.
OTHER FACTORS OP HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Physical-mechanical hazards to environment are:
a) dusting derived from excavating, transport, and storage operations,
b) air pollution caused by spontaneous combustion of coal residues
in disposals, and of uncovered coal in the open-pit,
c) surface water pollution with mine waters and waters coming from
drainage of disposals,
d) seismic waves, noise, and the scattering of rocks as a result
blasting,
90
-------
e) landslides of slopes of open-pits and disposals,
f) subsidence of terrains as a result of deep drainage of aquifers,
g) the noise caused by machines and transport systems mining and
during repairs of said machines,
Biological-chemical hazards are:
a) liquidation of arable land in areas occupied for mining and for
supporting activity,
b) effect of drainage on the change in use of arable land cultivation
within the range of depression cone.
Belt conveyor transport allows the construction of deep surface
mines of large capacity, thus, in some opinions, hazard to the environ-
ment seems to be greater here than in the mines with use of different
machinery. So far no systematic investigations and calculations have
be made in Poland to compare the extent of degradation of the envi-
ronment with different exploitation technologies. It seems, however, that
advantages of belt conveyors such as surmounting the differences in
height with steeper routes and the large concentration of mining opera-
tions contribute to a decrease in area directly transformed as per unit
of useful mineral out put. There is no need to build developed routes
of rail or truck transport.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The use of mining systems with belt conveyor transport allows
open-pit exploitation of deep deposits and allows the formation of
high disposals of overburden, as well as continuous transport of
3
out put up to 150 mil. m per year from one pit; this can be not
achieved in loose rocks by other system.
2. The use of belt conveyor transport does not require long and
carefully prepared roads for trucks or rail output haulage; therefore
the area of terrains occupied for development cuts and transport
facilities, can be reduced.
91
-------
3. In certain geological - mining conditions utilization of basic equip-
ment for grading of disposals and for technical spoil production in
the process of reclamation is possible.
4. It is recommended to carry out comparable studies of, the effects
of surface mining with different technologies on the selected environ-
ment components.
92
-------
U)
Length of route
Pig. 1. Dependence of the length of haulback roads on the type
of transport means
-------
ARRANGEMENT OF THE DISPOSAL STACK SLOPES
VO
lower
protective belt
I horiion of disposal
communication
shelf
protecfife pelt
S-fln 5 -7m 5-7ml
• * —1 -* -•- *-
vAngl* of stop* inclinofion
Fig. 2. Formation of slopes - diagram
-------
bucket wheel stacker
(XxXx
p**2
1
<$r
&>
direction of
stacker travel
r
Pig. 3. Formation of spoil disposal top with the bucket
wheel stacker in block operation
95
-------
Pig. 4. Horizontal slice cut with
bucket wheel excavator
Pig. 5. Vertical slice cut with
bucket wheel excavator
-------
MD
a) parallel working
b) fan-wise working
Pig. 6. Working with bucket chain excavator
-------
t ( Stch R s »6 0 Q i_ __t__ t
OPEN PIT
vo
CD
DISPOSAL STACK
ARs - B 125OO
Pig. 7. Monoblock technological scheme of excavator - belt
conveyor - stacker work
-------
vo
| T
t !
1
) 1
ol ol
o| of
CD. 00|
-t "1
et' at\
-5} S
co| co|
i
1 1
1
1
1
1
§1
CM1
1
OPEN
1
ol
i
i
PIT
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
I §
t *
1 00
1 :
1 5
1
1
O
0
CD
CO
m
i
VI
at
0
1 DISPOSAL STACK
1
| POWER PLANT
Pig. 8. Monoblock - branching technological scheme of excavator
belt conveyor - stacker work
-------
POWER PLANT I
POWER PLANT II
H
O
O
,
HI [
IMF
DISTRIBUTION STATION
DISPOSAL STACK
ARs-B 12500
ARi-B 12500
ARs - B 12500
ARj- B 12500
Pig. 9. Excavator - belt conveyor - stacker scheme with distributing
belt conveyor
-------
Fig. 10. Model of spoils covering with top soil.
(l - Removal of humus layer;
II - Removal of remaining parts of overburden;
III - Exploitation of useful mineral;
IV - Spoil disposal; V - Covering graded of
disposal with top soils; VI - fertilization,
agrotechnical treatments, introduction of
vegetation).
101
-------
O
10
Pig. 11 Model of selective overburden management
-------
COAL MINING AND GROUND WATER
by
John Hard away '
INTRODUCTION
Coal mining has the potential to measurably disrupt local ground
water systems. In addition, coal mining on a regional scale may disrupt
regional ground water systems. Both surface mining, which requires
removal and thus extensive disturbance of overburden, and underground
mining have this disruption potential. In-situ extraction also has a high
potential for disruption of ground water systems. The extent and tenure
of such disruptions will vary, often in proportion to the size of the mine
and the degree of hydrologic complexity of the ground water system.
Documented impacts to the ground water system have included lowered
water tables and deterioration of water quality.
The objectives of this paper are to discuss the potential effects
of coal mining on ground water systems and to report on the measu-
rement of such effects by others. It should be noted that the documen-
tation of such efforts as they relate to coal mining in the United States
is limited. Perhaps one reason for this limited documentation is the fact
that until the last four years, affected ground water systems have not
been thorounghly evaluated. To date the majority of reported data has
dealt with acid and iron production from the oxidation of sulfide mine-
rals associated with coal mining activities in the Eastern and Midwes-
tern United States. It is hoped that the recentlypassed Surface Mining
x/ John Hardaway - Physical Science Administrator. Office of Energy
US EPA, Region 8, Denver Col. 80203.
103
-------
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87) will serve
to improve future efforts to evaluate the ground water impacts of coal
mining in the United States.
Potential disruptions of the ground water system brought about
by coal mining may be divided into "physical impact" and "chemical
impacts". Hamilton and Wilson (1977 ) prepared a generic analysis of
the effects of the surface strip mining of coal which emphasized the
theoretical impacts of this mining on the ground water flow system.
McWhorter et. al. (1977 ) also reported on the possible effects on the
flow system. This paper makes use of Hamilton and Wilson's analysis
in addition to textbook presentations of ground water flow systems such
as those contained in standard texts.
PHYSICAL IMPACT
The geohydrologic setting in the vicinity of coal seams is varied.
(See Figure l) Coal seams may like anywhere within the regional
recharge-discharge system. The coal may be overlain or underlain by
significant ground water aquifers. The coal itself may be part of an
aquifer. In most cases, the older the coal, the less will be its water
transmission capabilities since it is denser and less likely to contain
open fractures. The majority of the ground water found in coal seams
flows through the fractures in the coal, rather than through the coal
matrix itself since the internal permeability is low.
Underground mining and the first stages of surface mining, namely
the excavation of overburden and coal, both create a void in the geolo-
gic system which then affects the ground waters system by forming a
"sink". If saturated strata are encountered in a mine, the active mine
will lower the piezometric surface at the mine itself, usually to the
bottom of the active mine area. Seldom are conditions in the United
States such that dewatering wells are required and thus the active mine
pit itself serves as a large well and causes a cone of depressions in
the piezometric surface. The horizontal extent of this depression is
predictable and has ranged from a few hundred to a few thousand
104
-------
MINING
DURING MINING
AFTER MININC
UNCONFINEO AQUIFER A80VE COAL
MININC CAUSES DROP IN GROUND
VWTER LEVELS IF LEAKAGE TO
CO»L 4NO IELOW
o
01
UNCONFINEO AQUIFER IS COM.
MINING CAUSES NO SIGNIFICANT
CHANCE IN GROUND WATER LEVELS
IF NO DOWNWARD IEAKAOE.
IF COll WAS CONFINED WATER
LEVEL WOULD RISE".
J5L
CONFINEO AQUIFER BELOW COAl
MINING WSTUR8ES STRATA SO AS TO
REMOVE CONFINMENT AND ALLOW
UPWAW LEAKAGE
wolvr Itvll
p*ov arto if Saturotcd Slrato
ilolltd casing («ll compltud at thii localion)
Fig.1 GENERALIZED GEOHYDROLOGIC SETTINGS
-------
meters from the active mine. This distance is a function of the perme-
ability and the storage coefficient of the surrounding geologic strata
as well as the premining ground water gradient through the mine area.
Three hydrogeologic situations are identified for purposes of exa-
ming the physical impacts of mining saturated strata. These are (l)
saturated strata above the coal, (2) saturated strata including the coal,
and (3) saturated strata below the coal. In the first two cases, the
drawdown caused by active mining may be approximated by an appro-
priate potentiometric equation. The accuracy of the prediction depends
on the degree to which pre-mining hydrologic measurements have des-
cribed the hydraulic complexity of the ground water flow system.
In the case of saturated strata above the coal, mining will generally
cause these strata to be drained. Reclamation may allow reestablishment
of the piezometric surface if the disturbed area is small in relationship
to the size of the ground water flow system. If, however, the disturbance
is relatively large, and the transmissivity of the reclaimed area is high,
the piezometric surface of the overlying strata may be permanently lowe-
red. In the case where saturated strata occur at the level of the coal
seam, the piezometric surface will generally be lowered during mining.
However, following mining a trend toward re-establishment of the piezo-
metric surface should take place. If saturated strata exist below the coal
seam, they will be affected if they contain water under sufficient pressure
to cause the water to flow upward into the mined area.
It would appear from the literature available that only in limited
cases in the interior western United States has there been adequate
ground water monitoring during coal mining to document the drawdown
effect of coal mining. In addition, all of monitoring reported in the litera-
ture has been performed at surface mine sites. Hamilton and Wilson
(1977. page 22) report that the large surface mining operation conduc-
ted along Caballo Creek in eastern Wyoming (the AMAX Belle Ayr Mine)
has not produced drawdown past 300 meters from the mine edge.
Van Voast and Hedges (1975. Plate 9) report drawdown out to at least
3.2 kilometers from the edge of the Decker mine (in the up-gradient
direction ).
1O6
-------
As surface mining progresses, disturbed and broken overburden is
returned to the mine and the ground water system begins to approach
some physical equilibrium with the disturbed material. In the case of
most underground mining, the hydrologic equilibrium reached after the
mining is likely the same as that produced during mining since no ma-
terial is back-stowed into the mined—out seam to fill the void and since
adits will in many cases permit continued drainage to the surface. While
active surface mining causes voids with infinite permeability, subsequent
backfilling again gives a finite value to permeability in the mined area.
It is postulated that the postmining permeability of backfilled areas in
the majority of cases will be greater than that existing prior to mining.
This does not mean to infer that the surface infiltration rate in most
cases will be greater since impermeable surfaces may be created if the
spoiled overburden surface is inadequately treated. However, unless
spoiled overburden is selectively placed, overburden moisture is con-
trolled, and heavy equipment is used for compaction, it is belived that
permeability cannot be reduced to that created over geologic time by
pressure and chemical action. An exception occurs in those areas of
the Midwest and West of the United States where the undisturbed over-
burden is not indurated. Van Voast et. al. (1975 ) have graphically port-
rayed ranges in hydraulic conductivity for coal and spoil aquifers at
surface coal mines located near Colstrip and Decker, Montana. These
are repeated here as Figure 2. Rahn (1976 pp 26-31. 54) has indica-
ted that hydraulic conductivities of spoil measured in the vicinity of
Sheridan, Wyoming probably will never approach the values of natural
formations (i.e., hydraulic conductivities are always higher).
McWhorter et. al. (±977, pp 91 ) presented a streamflow equation
that was used to project postimining flow patterns. The equation may be
used to project streamflow affected by surface coal mining as follows:
Stream functions outside the disturbed area are described by
Y = q~ y i - (ko"kj ) ( R2 )
k + k. 2 2
o i x + y
107
-------
Stream functions inside the disturbed area are described by
k.
1
The Notations are:
q = solution flux
* oo
k
hydraulic conductivity of undisturbed strata located
outside the mine
k.
i
hydraulic conductivity of spoil
R, x, y = the coordinates
McWhorter et. al. used a circular mine area and assumed a simple
hydrologic flow system of two-dimensional, steady flow. The stream
function outside the disturbed area is controlled by the following term:
2
k - k.
0 1
k + k.
0 1
2 2
x + y
which is set equal to "C" where C is
treated as a decimal measure of the
significance of the differences between
premining and postmining streamflow
functions.
The perimeter of the area within which the flow paths are is signifi-
cantly modified forms a circle of radius "r" given by:
2 2
x + y
R
Tic
k - k.
o i_
k + k.
o i
-2.0 -1.0 0 TO
Flow pattern in a disrupted aquifer,
kj » inside mine area
k0 = outside mine area
108
-------
-30 -2.0 -1-O
0 if ki = 2 ko and we assume
that C=5% or C=05,
then r=2.6R where R = radius of mine
R
0 if k
0 or e>o
Thus the effects of mining are projected as minimal part of radius of
2.6 times the radius of the mine. Rogowski et. al. (1977) observe that
many air pockets (i.e., large voids ) are evident in mine spoils. They
point out that these voids may contribute to non-Darcian flow behavior
of the spoil. This heterogeniety of the spoil maybe further complicated
by the existence of respred topsoil on top of coarser spoil. Thus the
wetted front that occurs as a result of infiltration may be unstable
(Hill and Parian ge. 1972. cited in Rogowski et. al., 1977).
Data provided by Gilly et. al. (1977) show how water movement
into spoils can be significantly and positively affected by tilling (i.e.,
cultivating) the spoil.
Thus water movement through spoils may not be as simplistic as
assumed, and anomalous flow patterns may be found.
CHEMICAL IMPACTS
Major consideration has been given by the research community to
the effect of coal mining and reclamation on ground water quality (at
least as that quality subsequently affects the surface water system).
McWhorter (1977). Dollhopf et. al. (1977). Van Voast and Hedges (1975)
109
-------
Van Voast, (1974 ) and Rahn (1976 ); have addressed, in varying de-
grees, potential and measured effects. Ground water quality impacts
during mining are not considered to be particularly significant due to
the fact that the mine acts as a sink for ground water flow and the
chemical changes in the quality of the interrupted water are relatively
small since the active mine is kept as dry as possible during opera-
tions and discharged water is treated to meet water quality effluent limi-
tations. However, when mining is completed, water infiltration and satura-
tion of the mined area will likely reoccur and ground water quality will
be changed. The reaction of sulfide minerals with oxygen and water is
well documented ^ Ohio State University Research Foundation. 1971 ).
In the case of pyrite, an idealized chemical reaction is:
2 Pe S2 + 702 + 2H20 2 Fe
This is a characteristic reaction in coal bearing formations with
a pyrite content of more than a few percent, where neutralizing carbo-
nates are in short supply, and where water is readily available. Thus,
thus chemical reaction is persuasive with respect to coal mining in much
of the eastern and midwestern United States. Interestingly, acid formation
had been either ignored or overemphasized in the coal mining regions
of the western United States until the past year. At this time certain
researchers including Croft, et. al. (1977 ) have identified oxidation of
sulfide minerals and formation of sulfuric acid as a key step in the
commonly observed increase in alkalinity caused by coal mining in the
interior western United States. The chemical reactions, as identified by
Croft, and others in ground water associated with a lignite mine in
North Dakota, are caused by rain water (containing Ca (HCO_)0 + O )
O ^ £
as this water passes through the lignite are:
and Ca(HC03) 2+H2S04 CaS04+C02+H20 and CaC03
Ca(HC03)2+ CaS04.
110
-------
An additional source of SO is through dissolution of gypsum. The
water then becomes saturated with CaSO . However, if it flows through
a sodium clay, the calcium is exchanged for sodium (cation exchange)
resulting in water with a high NaSO content (and high in HCO_).
Rogowski et. al. (197?) note that a considerable amount of clay
must be present and that it must possess a high exchange capacity to
significantly alter the acid character of acid drainage from pyrite-rich
strata. The hydrogen ions react with the crystal lattice to produce char-
ged aluminium species. The lauminum will then be dissolved, to some
degree.
Pagenkopf et. al. (1977) have tabulated water quality data for two
mine areas in Montana. Table 1 shows increased concentrations for a
number of parameters. As indicated in Table 1, iron and pH tend to
change much less than do the other common elements shown. Dollhopf,
et. al. (1977) have found somewhat high concentrations of manganese
in some ground water in spoils at one mine site. However, the natural
levels of manganese also appear high suggesting that the coal mining
may not be the source of high manganese water.
McWhorter et. al. (1977, pp 41) also noted sporadically high con-
centrations of manganese in Colorado streams and suggested, in the
case of high manganese in ground water passing through spoils, that
the source was older spoils (ca year or more) and a time delays in
manganese dissolution.
Thorstenson, Fisher, and Croft are reported by Feder and Saindon,
1976 to have found that as ground water moves naturally downdip from
recharge areas, a combination of chemical reactions with clays, sulfate-
reducing bacteria, and other minerals gradually causes a change in the
water of one of the Port Union aquifers of Montana (the Pox Hills) from
a Ca++ Mg++ HC03S04 type with a pH of about 8.0 to a Na HC03 -
type with a pH above 8.5. Peder et. al. (1977) utilized data from nine-
teen randomly-selected wells in supporting this generalization showing
statistically that Na, pH, HCO and TDS tend to increase together in
natural ground waters of the Port Union, while SO , Ca and Mg tend to
decrease in relative relationship.
Ill
-------
TABLE 1
Comparison of Natural Ground Water and Spoil Waters
in Southeastern Montana
Decker Colstrip
Wells g,.-w. in spoil Wells g.w. in spoil
3.2
0.9
445
1143
0
4.7
8.6
15.3
1626
1590
0.02
8.1
31
13
1355
1996
19
1320
8.6
16
4801
5010
0.02
8.3
35
70
27.4
366
0
118
15
4.3
641
776
0
8.1
429
346
655
0
3306
21
63
5380
5300
0.85
7.6
Ca
Mg
Na
HC03
C°3
SOy
Si02
Cl
TDS
SPC
Pe
PH
Pagenkopf, Whitworth, and VanVoast
The data developed by Peder et. al. are repeated here as Tables
2 and 3 to characterize the geochemistry of ground water from the Port
Union Pormation in eastern Montana and western North Dakota. These
data give background conditions for the area studied, and show the
natural changes in water quality that must be separated from changes
caused by coal mining and reclamation. Pietz et. al., (l974) through
a ground water study conducted at a surface mining site in Illinois,
identified changes in ground water quality similar to those found in the
western United States. Ground water collected from the mine spoils
contained significantly higher concentrations of sulfate, sodium, calcium,
112
-------
magnesium, manganese, and iron than did ground water collected from
undisturbed sites (see Table 4).
Regardless of the climate or geographical region in which coal
mining is conducted, mining processes, both surface mining and under-
ground mining, expose fresh rock surfaces to an oxidizing environment.
After some as yet undetermined time period of time, this oxidation poten-
tial should be satisfied. Prom Pagenkopf et. al.? it's estimated that cer-
tain freshly-broken spoils collected in the western United States will
require four volumes of pore water before the oxidation potential is sa-
tisfied to the degree that the additional waters passing through the spoils
show little changes in dissolved solids content. The period of time for
the oxidation potential to be satisfied then depends on the rate that
water is available. McWhorter et. al. (1977. pp 5) suggest that the
effects of leaching of spoils will not become apparent until about one
pore volume of water passes through the spoil, thus in the more arid
climates, where recharge to saturated aquifers does not excees a few
centimeters a year, a long time period would occur before the effects
of leaching are noticeable in terms of a measureable increase in total
dissolved solids. Laboratory experiments conducted by McWhorter et. al.
(1977, pp 59) on a spoil specimens collected in Colorado gave the
results shown in Figure 3. Samples were collected for total dissolved
solids analysis after passing 100 ml samples. Fresh water was continually
added to maintain a head of 5 cm during the test. The spoil was aera-
3
ted three times during the test, and the results suggest that 6.8 m of
3
deionized water must pass through 1m of spoil material to achieve a
95 percent reduction inconductivity. McWhorter et. al. use an example
3
of spoils 20 M thick requiring 136 m of water per square meter for
leaching to achieve a 95 percent reduction in the original (high) con-
ductivity. At an infiltration rate of 1O cm, it would then take 680 years
to reduce conductivities by 95 percent and longer if the effects of weat-
hering are considered (McWhorter et. al.. 1977 pp 60). These leaching
studies produced at least 2.4 kg of SO solubilized elements per cubic
meter of spoil.
113
-------
Table 2
Chemical analyses of samples representing a typical recharge
water (sample A) and a typical discharge water (sample B)
in the Powder River coal region
After Peder et. al. 1977
Parameter
Ca (mg/L)
Mg (mg/L)
Total hardness
(as CaC03) (mg/L)
HC03 (mg/L)
Na (mg/L)
S04 (mg/L)
SAR
PH
TDS (mg/L)
Si02 (mg/L)
Cl (mg/L)
K (mg/L)
P (mg/L)
I (mg/L)
Br (mg/L)
Al (Mg/L )
As (Mg/L )
Ba (jug/L)
B (jug/L)
Cd Oug/L)
Cu (Mg/L )
Pe Oug/L)
Hg (Mg/L)
Pb (Mg/L)
Li (Mg/L)
Mn (Mg/L)
Mo (Mg/L)
Se (,ug/L)
Sr (jug/L )
Zn (Mg/L)
U (Mg/L)
Ra (pCi/L)
Sample A
180
82
790
362
250
1,100
3.9
6.8
1,830
11
6.1
9.3
.5
< . 01
.1
20
< 1.0
<6
80
<1.0
6
2,500
<.l
180
40
2,200
<12
< 1.0
2,000
40
.30
. 1
Sample B
1.9
. 6
7
1,150
450
5.5
73
8.3
1,110
7.8
47
1.5
14
.07
.7
20
<1.0
1OO
240
<1.0
<5
30
< .1
15
20
10
12
< 1.0
160
200
.09
.2
I/ Sodium adsorption ratio.
114
-------
Table 3
Geochemical summary of ground, water from the Powder
Ri ver coal region, Montana and Wyoming. After Peder et.al.
1977
(Detection ratio: number of samples in which constituent
was determined to total number of samples analyzed.)
_ , Detection
Parameter
ratio
Al (Mg/L)
Ba (Mg/L)
B (Mg/L)
Cu (Mg/L)
Li (jug/L)
Sr (ug/L)
As (Mg/L)
Se (Mg/L)
Cd (Mg/L)
Hg (Mg/L)
Zn (Mg/L)
Fe (Mg/L)
Mn (jug/L)
Br (mg/L)
F (mg/L)
I (mg/L)
Cl (mg/L)
S04 (mg/L)
HC03 (mg/L)
Ca (mg/L)
Mg (mg/L)
K (mg/L)
Na (mg/L)
SiO (mg/L)
THD (mg/L)
pH^
Specific con-
ductance
(mhos/cm)
TDS (mg/L)
NO- + N00
3(mg/L)2
SAR J/
Ra (pCi/L)
U (ug/L)
Beta (pCi/L as
Cs-137 )
19/19
9/15
19/19
4/19
20/20
15/16
6/20
5/20
3/20
4/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
13/20
2O/20
4/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
20/20
18/20
20/20
17/18
16/18
12/18
Geometric Geometric „„
. . .. Maximum
mean deviation
17
24
148
-
36
444
.^
-
—
_
50
170
21
.15
.68
.01
8.7
292
504
24
13
3.9
173
11
112
7.7
1,494
1,076
.08
6.9
.23
.25
6.6
1.9
2.7
2.2
—
2.4
4.1
^ ^
_
—
—
5.5
10.5
9.5
2.0
2.8
1.4
2.1
5.1
1.6
6.5
7.0
2.0
3.0
1.6
6.9
.6
1.8
1.9
8.3
6.0
2.0
6.0
1.8
60
128
422
14
180
2,754
6
12
1
.2
1,800
28,000
4,800
.7
14
.02
47
1,800
1,400
530
150
12
1,000
26
1,900
8.5
4,000
3,190
3.2
73
.80
7.3
14
Minimum
6.0
6.0
32.0
1.0
10.0
19.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
,.10
.70
7.0
.70
.10
.10
.01
1.9
5.5
195.0
1.9
.60
1.5
24.0
5.8
7.0
6.5
582.0
345.0
.01
.40
.10
.01
4.0
I/ Arithmetic mean and standard deviation.
2/ Sodium adsorption ratio.
115
-------
Table 4. Means and ranges of groundwater chemical characteristics for monthly
samples collected during 1971-1973 from selected placed land and
mine-spoil monitoring wells at the Pulton County, Illinois Land Reclamation
site. Pietz et. al., 1974
Chemical
Characteristic
pH
Total P, mg/1
Cl~, mg/1
SO^, mg/1
Kjeldahl N, mg/1
NH -N, mg/1
N03+N02-N, mg/1
Alkalinity, mg/1
E.C., umhos/cm
K, mg/1
Na, mg/1
Ca, mg/1
Mg, mg/1
Znr mg/1
Cd, mg/1
Cu, mg/1
MDL2
0.01
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.01
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.01
o.ol
Placed Land Wells
Range
6.40
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.00
0.00
0.00
110
200
0.0
7.0
38.5
23
O.O
O.OO
0.00
- 8.90
- 2.10
- 87.0
- 1253
- 6.5O
- 4.00
- 30.5
- 700
- 1500
- 20
- 131
- 226
- 102
- 140
- 0.03
- 0.82
Mean
7.48 +
0.14 i
11.9 ±
127 t
1.22 ±
1.04 ±
0.82 ±
363 ±
786 ±
1.5 ±
30.4 i
103.2±
56.8 ±
8.2 *
0.0021
0.04 i
0.034
O.02
1.0
15
0.1O
0.07
0.30
10
90
0.2
1.9
3.3
1.6
1.2
0.001
0.01
Mine-Spoil
Range
6.20 -
0.00 -
2.0 -
21.0 -
0.00 -
0.00 -
0.00 -
100 -
1000-
2.0 -
19.0 -
35.0 -
86.0 -
0.40 -
O.OO -
0.00 -
8.90
0.41
44.0
1812
7.30
6.90
0.43
1600
400O
18.7
657
707
625.O
10OO
0.20
0.52
Wells
Mean
7.19 *
0.08 ±
17.5 ±
609 ±
1.65 ±
1.25 ±
0.05 ±
661 ±
2406 ±
8.3 ±
246.8 ±
0.03
0.01
0.6
32
0.21
O.O6
0.01
19
63
0,3
14.4
26O.3 ±13.6
207.4±
14.5 ±
O.010±
0.06 ±
8.8
1.5
0.002
0.01
T-test for
Means -3
X
X
X
X
n.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
n.
X
X
X
X
X
s.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
s.
-------
Table 4. Means and ranges of groundwater chemical characteristics for monthly samples
(Cont'd) collected during 1971 - 1973 from selected placed land and mine-spoil monitoring
wells at the Pulton County, Illinois Land Reclamation site. 1
Pietz et. ai., 1974
2
Chemical MDL
Characteristic
Cr,
Ni,
Mn,
Pb,
Fe,
Al,
Hg,
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
>ug/l
0.02
0.1
0.01
O.03
0.1
1.0
0.1
Placed Land Wells
Range
O.OO -
0.00 -
0.21 -
0.00 -
.0 -
0.0 -
0.00 -
0.04
0.30
2.79
0.44
78.8
5.8
1.40
Mean
O.OO3
0.02
0.86
0.08
17.3
0.8
0.17
i o.ooi
i o.oos
± 0.04
± 0.01
i i.o
i o.l
i 0.02
Mine-Spoil Wells
Range
0.00
0.00
0.39
0.00
2.7 O
0.0
0.00
- 0.05
- 1.10
- 9.0O
- 0.66
-i9ao
- 8.20
- 2.40
Mean
0.008 i
0.08 i
2.53 ±
0.15 ±
52.1 ±
0.8 t
0.22 ±
T
I\
0.001
0.01
0.22
0.01
3.4
0.2
0.02
West
for
/leans
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
n.s.
n.s.
1. Groundwater data from six placed land and six mine-spoil
monitoring wells were used.
2. MDL is the minimum laboratory detection limit.
3. The use of x denotes significance at the 0.05 level, xx denotes significance at the 0.01
level, and n.s. denotes not significant.
4. Standard error of mean, S- = S/y—7 where S is the standard deviation and n is the sample
population.
-------
Pagenkopf et. al. (1977) also performed laboratory experiments for
the purpose of analyzing the leachates from spoil. They concluded,
from the data presented in Figures 4 and 5, that the majority of the
leaching took place in the first hour in weathered spoil, but was delayed
in unweathered spoil. The weathered spoil also produced less leachable
salts to the solution. These experiments "were steady state mixtures of
12.5 grams of spoil in contact with 172.5 ml of distilled water (i.e., 10%
spoil). The spoil sample designated D-3 is concluded to have produced
8.5 kg of dissolved solids per cubic meter during the test. Other sam-
ples produced the amounts of dissolved solids shown in Table 5.
SUMMARY
In conclusion, both surface and underground coal mining activities
have a high potential to impact the quantity and quality of both local
and regional ground water systems. Such impacts may be short-term
and/or longterm in duration. As identified in this paper, the local hydro-
geologic system plays the principal role in the extent of quantity -
related imports to the ground water system. Ground water quality effects
as they relate to coal mining activities are primarily related to the che-
mical characteristics of the local geologic system.
Table 5
Soluble Salts in Spoil
kg/m
C-l 0.84 (from Pagenkopf et.al.,
C-2 1.10
C-3 1.89
D-l 2.73
D-2 3.14
D-3 8.50
D-4 4.29
lie
-------
REFERENCES
1. Van Voast, Wayne A. and Robert B. Hedges, 1975. Hydrogeologic
Aspects of Existing and Proposed Strip Coal Mines Near Decker,
Southeastern Montana . Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology
Bulletin 97.
2. Van Voast, Wayne A, 1974. Hydrologic Effects of Strip Coal Mining
In Southeastern Montana - Emphasis: One Year of Mining Near
Decker. Montana Bureau of Mines and Ecology, Bulletin 93.
3. Croft, M.G., Donald W. Fisher, and Don Thorstenson, 1978. Preli-
minary Report Hydrologic Effects of Strip Mining in the Gascoyne
Area, Bowman County, North Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey,
Bismark, North Dakota.
4. Van Voast, Wayne A., Robert B. Hedges and John J. McDermott,
1976). Hydrologic Aspects of Strip Mining In The Subbituminous
Coal Fields of Montana. Proceedings Fourth Symposium on Surface
Mining And Reclamation - National Coal Association and Bituminous
Coal Research, Inc. (pp. 160 - 172).
5. Pennington, Dennis, 1975 Relationship of Ground-Water Movement
and Strip Mine Reclamation - Natural Coal Association and Bitumi-
nous Coal Research, Inc. (pp. 170-178).
6. Pietz, R.I., J.R. Peterson and C. Luatling, 1974. Ground Water
Quality at a Strip-Mine Reclamation Area in west central Illinois.
Proceedings. Second Symposium On Surface Mining Reclamation -
Natural Coal Association and Bituminous Coal Research Inc.
(pp. 124-149).
7. Rogowski, A.S., H.B. Pionke, and J.G. Broyan, 1977. Modeling the
Impact of Strip Mining and Reclamation Processes on Quality and
Quantity of Water in Mined Areas: A Review Journal of Environmen-
tal Quality, Volume 6, Jul., 1977. No. 3.
119
-------
8. Peder, Gerald L., Roger W. Lee, John F. Busby, and Linda G.
Saindon, 1977. Geochemistry of Ground Waters in the Powder
River Coal Region in Geochemical Survey of the Western Energy
Regions, Fourth Annual Progress Report, July 1977, U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, Open-
File Report 77-872.
9. McWhorter D.B., J;W. Rowe, M.W. Van Liew, R.L. Chandler, R.K.
Skogerboe, D.K. Sunda, and G.V. Skogerboe, 1977. Surface and
Subsurface Water Quality Hydrology in Surface Mined Watersheds,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Report No.
10. Pagenkopf, Gordon K., Clarence Whitworth, and Wayne A. Von
Voast 1977. Influence of Spoil Material on Ground Water Quality.
In Energy Communications, 3 (2), 107-126.
11. Dollhopf, D.J., I.B. Jenson and R.L. Hodder, 1977. Effects of Sur-
face Configuration in Water Pollution Control on semi acid Mined
Lands. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Report No.
12. Hamilton, David A. and John L. Wilson, 1977. A Generic Study of
Strip Mining Impacts on Ground-Water Resources. Ralph M.
Parsons Laboratory For Water Resources and Hydrodynamics
Department of Civil Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Techno-
logy, Report No. 229 (R-77-28).
13. Rahn Pery H. 1976. Potential of Coal Strip-Mine Spoils As
Aquifers in the Powder River Basin. Project Completion Report
prepared for the Old West Regional Commission by the Engineering
and Experiment Station, South Dakota School of Mines Rapid City,
S outh D akota.
14. Ohio State University Research Foundation, The 1971 Acid Mine
Drainage Formation and Abatement, Report DAST - 42, 14010FPR
04/71 Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office,
Washington, D.C.
120
-------
15. Peder, Gerald Land Lynda G. Saindon, 1976, Geochemistry of
Ground Waters In the Port Union Coal Region, in Geochemical
Survey of the Western Energy Regions, Third Annual Progress
Report, 1976, U.S. Department of the Interior Geological Survey,
Denver, Colorado open Pile Report 76.
121
-------
ro
ro
100
200
3OO
TIME ,min
-------
200
ro
u>
150
s.c.
/jmhos
100
50
0
o
0
100
_L
_L
c
m
z
o
m
O
-n
c/i
s
m
>
500
200 300
TIME, min
Fig.4 LEACHING OF COLSTRIP SPOIL WITH TIME, 10% SOLUTION, C-1, C -2, C-3 DESIGNATE THE PARTICULAR SPOIL
PAGENKOPF ET.AL.
-------
1600
1200
10
o
vt
o
.s
o
o
o
800
Samples every 10O ml
constant head 5cm
After 120 hours aeration
After 60 hours
aeration
oL
After drying and
f^ crushing
2000
i»000 6000 8000
Volume of Water Added, ml
10000
120OO
Fig.3 RESULTS OF LEACHING TEST WITH AERATION OF SAMPLE TO PRODUCE WEATHERING.
AFTER McWHORTER ET. AL
-------
Extremes Means
l\J\J
10
>-
>
>- »»
o >.
gw 1.0
u S.
HYDRAULIC
/meters
01
0.01
: v o COAL :
I T • SPOILS ~
15 NUMBER OF
CO
i
•
-
-
-
1
i
^_
.
_
LSTRIP DECKER TEST
I
2 _
r
i
i
>
^
3
— i
r
(
i
j
1
' HANGING
WOMAN
CREEK
r
YOUNGS
CREEK
V7
)
<
\
U
/
1
<
)
'
-
)
I
-
_
5ARPY
CREEK
T -
i }
>. A —
Fig.2 HYDRAULIC - CONDUCTIVITY RANGES AND MEANS FOR COAL AND MINE
SPOILS IN SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA. AFTER VAN VOAST.
125
-------
IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING AND CONVERSION OF COAL
ON GROUND WATER AND CONTROL MEASURES IN POLAND
Jacek Libicki
INTRODUCTION
Current trends in energy development in Poland and in the United
States - and practically throughout the world - point to coal as a fun-
damental power source for the next twenty years. In many countries the
surface mining of coal contunually gains the advantage over undergro-
und mining. This is attributable to better work conditions, larger mecha-
nization possibilities and lower exploitation costs of an openpit mine.
Surface mining, however, exerts an undesirable effect on the environ-
ment in general, and ground water in particular. The impact of coal
surface mining on the ground water should be considered in both quan-
titative and qualitative categories. The mining operation conducted below
the ground water table requires a drawdown of the water table. This
drawdown is caused both by the mine itself and by the draining sys-
tems. Such depression of the water table, is not limited to the mine
area only; dependently on hydrogeological conditions it may extend for
a number of kilometers outwards from the center of work. Therefore,
regardless of the draining system (the pit itself, the system of wells or
galleries) natual hydrogeological conditions are disturbed quantitatively.
Quality of the ground water independently of the used drainage system
remain unchanged.
x/ Dr. Jacek Libicki, Chief Geologist, POLTEGOR, Rosenbergow 25,
Wroclaw
-------
The mine drainage in general, and the adopted method of its perfor-
mance in particular, affects the quality of the water offtaken from the
mines. This problem is a subject of a separate report. Thus the ground
water is not as much affected by the mining operation itself as by con-
siderable amounts of wastes and ashes due to the coal conversion pro-
cesses which are very often stored in old open pits.
Thus coal mining affects the ground water quantity and quality.
QUANTITATIVE IMPACT
The horizontal and vertical range of the ground water table draw-
down, due to mining operation, is a function of many factors. The most
important are:
- depth of the depression in the center of drainage
- structual elements of the spatial geological structure of the entire
region
- permeability parameters (filtration coefficients and specific yield)
- time.
Weight of the problem induced the relevant Polish regulations to
require investigations on the possible effect of coal mining on the hydro-
geological conditions of the exploitated area, already at the stage of
the geological deposit recognition. Therefore plans of geological inves-
tigations of coal deposits must not be limited only to the assigned for
the exploitation deposits, but consider also the adjoining lands. Basic
elements of these studies are the bore holes, made in rectangular
pattern or radial lines starting at the center of exploited area (i.e. from
the place with the greatest anticipated water table drawdown). The
number of lines most often varies from 4 to 8. Concentration of these
bore holes is greater near the center (most frequently about 0,5 km)
and smaller far from it (most frequently one to three km and depends
on the distance from the center). Length of these radial lines depends
on the preliminary forcasted range of the depression cone which in the
Polish mines oscillates from 5 to 15 km, what is the value 50 to 1OO
128
-------
times greater than the water draw-down in the center of the drainage.
Such bore holes serve to determine geological structure of the region,
thickness of the particular aquifers and links between them, and also
to determine filtration parameters of aquifers, situation of the water table
and its changes in time (Pig. l). Many of these bore holes are provi-
ded with filters and hermetically locked. They can be used later as
monitoring wells for the periodic control of the changes in the ground
water table, due to the mine exploitation.
Results of the mentioned above investigations together with the
results of the other investigations are specified in the Official Geological
Report which must be presented to the official approval by the Central
Geological Administration, and are the basis for mine design.
Mine construction design must, include the forcast of mining impact
on the ground water at this area and also the appropriate control
methods. These design have to be approved by the local authorities.
(Pig. 2).
A forecast of the depression cone development in time has to be
prepared in aim to evaluate probable damages due to the ground water
table drawdown. Various methods can be used according to the geolo-
gical structure of the considered area and to the required degree of the
results accuracy (l). Recently the mathematical modelling method for
computer simulation has been introduced (Pig. 3). The model is based
on the Boussinesque non-linear equation and includes three dimensional
variation of anisotropy of permeability and the precipitation infiltration (2).
Program consists of the BEtrCHATOW initial data basis. The subprogram
WODA, written in FORTRAN 1900 language with operating verses for
the XPAM translator, performs the conversion of the initial data entered
in square pattern to a quasi—radial system. It is followed by the nece-
ssary rendering average of filtration coefficients and of specific yield in
particular sectors, performed by the WODA 1 sub-program, also written
in FORTRAN. This sub-program prints the results for each radial sector
in a separate verse. The following subprogram WODA 2, computes the
range and shape of the depression cone and water inflow to the mine
in each sector for the steady flow condititions. This subprogram is also
129
-------
written in FORTRAN. The subprogram WODA 3 computes the filtration
curves in the nonsteady flow for the optional time step and considers
only those initial data in each sector, which for a given time step are
within the depression cone range.
At present this program is being tested in practice in the Betchatow
mine.
The deep drawdown of the ground water table affects not only the
agriculture, forests and water supply (l), but changes the entire hydro-
logical balance in the region (Pig. 4). Investigations based on the equ-
ation of the developed hydrological balance in the aeration zone and
the hydrogeological balance have indicated (3) that within the range of
the deppression cone (effected by mine draining operation) occur chan-
ges presented by the table no. 1.
The table no. 1 indicates that within the range of the depression
cone the surface run-off decreases by about 30 percent, ground water
evaporation by 100 percent, evaporation from the land surface by about
15 percent while infiltration of precipitation increases by 70 percent,
and the underground runoff by about 10O percent.
Great economic and environmental significance of the discussed
phenomena requires not only forecasting but current control as well.
Por this purpose a network of piezometers (consisted of prospection
holes provided with filters and the currently executed special holes,
together with network of the existing wells) is built around the mine.
Regular measurements of the ground water table are carried out in all
those piezometers as often as once or twice a month. These measure-
ments are so far carried out manually, but introduction of remote sen-
sing methods is planned for the future. Obtained data are used to check
the forecasts and to plan the damage removal in the following periods
of time. The last problem has been solved so far by the changes of
cultivation structure and construction of new water supply systems (l).
These are only defensive methods, and therefore not the best. More
active methods based on the construction of tight screens around mines
which on one hand would stop the inflow of water into the mine, and on
130
-------
Natural and enforced hydrological balance in the Widawka
river basin (mm)
Table no. 1
H
U)
H
Type of Kind of
soil cover balance
Sands natural
enforced
by dewa-
tering
diferences
natural
Clays enforced
by de wa-
tering
differences
Precipita-
tion
P
615
615
0
615
615
0
Infiltration
of the pre-
cipitation
W = H +E
e, s
223
359
+ 136
68
91
+ 23
Undergro-
und
runoff
H
g
144
359
+ 216
48
71
+ 23
Groundwater
evaporation
E
s
79
0
-79
20
20
0
Superficial
runoff
H
P
65
42
-23
65
42
-23
Superficial
evaporation
E
a
327
214
-113
482
482
0
-------
the other hand could limit the depression cone development would be
developed in future (4). Such methods although technically possible are
not used in practice due to high costs of their construction. The future
however may change such point of view, when prices of water and
agriculturally rich lands will raise, as it is now in the case of fuels.
QUALITATIVE IMPACT
As it has been said already, the influence of coal surface mining
on ground water quality is indirect and is due mainly to the storage of
coal conversion and treatment wastes in old openpits. This problem
has been neglected for a long time. Increasing of environmental require-
ments induced investigations on that problem. The first large project i n
.this field was the project (4:) realized by POLTEGOR (and sponsored
by US EPA) having in goal:
- to determine qualitatively and quantitatively the impact of coal refuse
and ashes storage on the ground water quality
- to determine spatial and temporal interrelations of pollutants' propa-
gation
- to suggest some improved methods of storage
- to prepare recommendations for tests, prognoses, and for control
systems.
A research plan has been prepared with regard to the actual state
of art and technological and financial possibilities. This plan was based
on:
field investigations on two test disposals of wastes
- laboratory analyses of water and wastes
model tests of the selected aspects of pollutants' migration.
Por the realization of this program two waste disposals have been
built.
132
-------
Disposal No. 1 - has a length of about 40 m, width 20 m, thickness
" 3
about 2 m, and volume about 1500 m . It was located at the bottom of
a stowing sand open-pit, with a layer of sand 1,5 to 2 m thick and
filtration coefficient about 50 m/24 hours. The ground water table was
a few centimeters below the sand surface, i.e. just under the floor of
the disposal.
The stored material consisted in 70 percent of coal refuse, and
in 30 percent of ashes from the coal fired power plants.
Within this disposal and in its immediate vicinity 12 monitoring wells,
have been constructed. During the period of 15 months water was sam-
pled from these wells for chemical and physical analyses every 3 weeks.
Measurements of the water table level were simultaneously carried out.
Then these tests were continued at 6 weeks and 3 months time intervals.
Each time a comparative sample of "pure" groundwater was taken before
its entering the zone of disposal influence in a point situated up the
ground water stream. Prior to taking samples water was being scouped
from each well in the quantity of the well double volume. Simultaneously
in the nearby hydro-meteorological station observations of average air
temperature and of local precipitation were carried out. This was that
much important as the disposal was being washed by the rain water,
leaching and carrying away pollutants.
Apart from the mentioned analyses, the wastes have been leached
in laboratory filtration columns at optimum inflow conditions, with the
object to obtain maximum possible concentrations of particular compo-
polJutants.
All water samples have been physico-chemically analysed to obtain
17 determinations, and every third series to obtain 45 designations
together with heavy metals.
First small symptoms of pollution have been found in the immediate
subsoil of the disposal after one month of storage. The main amount
of pollutants hasbeen found downstream of the ground water after a
heavy rains period i.e. about 7 months after storage.
133
-------
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
from
3.0
10.0
2.0
1O.O
100.0
0.05
0.2
O.O05
O.O03
0.07
O.O02
0.002
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
500 mg/1
400 mg/1
40 mg/1
30 mg/1
900 mg/1
0.3 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
0.2 mg/1
0.4 mg/1
0.005 mg/1
0.008 mg/1
Maximum content rise in ground water as follows:
sodium
chlorides
potassium
magnesium
sulphates
phosphates
boron
molybdenum
copper
strontium
cadmium
cyanides
No increase, however, was observed in the content of iron, manganese,
aluminium and chromium. Increase in content of zinc, mercury and lead
was doubtful.
Comparing the pollution levels with the requirements of Polish
Drinking Water Standards one can notice, that the greatest hazard were
sulphates which concentration in the water (affected by the disposal)
exceeded 4 - times the admissible values for the third class, total
dissolved substances exceeded by 100 percent, chlorides by 150 per—
^
cent, boron by 100 percent. In general, during the last 2 /2 years'
11.500 kg of pollutants i.e. 0.7 percent of its totalvolume, and about
70 percent its all soluble substances have been washed out from the
1500 m disposal.
The main bulk of the pollutants (90 percent) has been washed out
in the direction of the greatest downgrade of the ground water table,
and only 10 percent in the directions of smaller gradients of water
table.
134
-------
Disposal No. 2
An old open-pit of stowing sand in Boguszowice (with disposed vo-
•3
lume 1 million m ) has been used as a second test disposal. The
storage of wastes, mainly of coal wastes in amounts 20-40.000 m /month
in this pit began in 1975. Fourteen monitoring wells were constructed
around the disposal at the distances of 1OO-1OOO m to control hydro-
geological conditions and water quality.
Investigations carried out as in the disposal No. 1 enabled to find
out that during the first 2 years of observations, despite of the similar
pollution potential, less pollutants passed to the ground water. In the
third year the considerable amounts of pollutants were found in disposal
vicinity. Interpretation of results has not been concluded yet.
MODEL TESTS
Investigations carried out on soil models and on analogous models
showed that:
- within the limits of 2 percent difference between the polluted water
and pure water density no vertical migration of the polluted water
has been found below the disposal,
- the main migration takes place in the zone close to the ground
water table and in the zone of capillary rise; this tendency is the
greater the smaller are doses of pollutants,
- if the disposal has smaller permeability than the surrounding
aquifer the stream of pollutants leaving the disposal has a tendency
to get thinner,
- local depression of the aquifer floor increases thickness of the
pollution stream, while local elevations cause the local thickness
reduction.
The tests on AEHD model enable to reproduce hydrodynamic network
and migrations velocity quite accurately but give poorer results in pre-
dicting of particular components' concentrations.
135
-------
SUMMARY
All tests allowed to make recommendations in the following groups
of problems:
I - Classification of the wastes
- mine wastes: dry wastes and wet wastes (from flotation, from
water medium washer and heavy medium washer)
- power plant wastes: ashes and slags (fly ash and bottom ash).
Each group has different physical and chemical properties which
cause their different behaviour on disposals.
II - Methods of laboratory analyses of wastes for preliminary evalu-
ation of their impacts on ground water.
Investigation methods recommended before and during the storage
have been, distinguished here with regard also to time and to the
importance of the problem for water management in the region.
Ill - Classification and evaluation of disposals
1. With regard to spatial relations, between the disposal and
aquifer
A. Dry disposals - above ground water table
a) impermeable
b) permeable
B. Wet disposals - below ground water table
a) impermeable
b) floor impermeable, slopes permeable
c) floor permeable, slopes impermeable
d) floor and slopes permeable.
2. With regard to the disposal permeability in relation to the
aquifer.
3. With regard to the protection requirements of the entire
aquifer of ground water or its part.
136
-------
4. With regard to the mutual situation of the disposal and the pro-
tected element.
5. With regard to the degree of ground water protection
a) total
b) partial (certain parameters of their values).
IV - Planning and designing of disposals.
The formulated here recommendations refer to the scope and
methods of hydrogeological investigations (requirred before the
storage), to the initial data for the planned utilization of ground
water in the considered region, to the stipulations of local authorities,
to the actual quality of the ground water, to forecasting methods,
to the possibility of storage in the determined hydrogeological con-
ditions and to the methods of preventing aquifiers from the pollution
migration.
V - Designing of monitoring systems and control work.
Recommendations referring to the situation of monitoring wells,
to the technology of their execution, to the frequency and methods
of water sampling and to the interpretations of results have been
given.
VI - Directions of further studies for the ultimate solution of the
problem.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The surface mining may often cause lowering of the ground water
table, and in effect could form a widely developed depression cone.
It can also change hydrological balance of the region and cause
the necessity to change cultivation profile and to build substitute
water intakes.
2. Storage of coal refuse and ashes in open pits substantially affects
the ground water quality.
137
-------
3. Prior to planning of mines and disposals* siting, investigations and
prognoses should predict the scope of possible changes in the
ground water.
4. More effective methods of protection the ground waters from the
effects of mining industry should be introduced instead of solving
already existing disturbances in this field.
REFERENCES
1. Jacek Libicki, Hydrogeological Aspects of Environmental Protection
in Polish Openpit Mining. Proceedings of Polish - US Symposium.
University of Denver 1975 r.
2. Andrzej Krzywicki, Adam Rybarski, Roman Zuber, Mathematical
Modell of the Development of Depression Cone Peeded with Preci-
pitation. Report 1977.
3. Jozef Sawicki, Elements of Hydrological Balance of Widawka River
in Betchatow Mining Region. Surface Mining no. 1-2, 1977.
4. Jacek Libicki, Effects of the Disposal of Coal Waste and Ashes in
Open Pits. EPA (Rand D) - 600/7-78-067.
138
-------
®
p
OJ
10
®
o o o
Mine
©
000
®
oo®ooo©oo
®
®
®
o Rectangular net of prospector)
holes for construction of flow
pattern
@ Monitoring weds for the
cleppression cone
Rg1 Scheme of Investigation and Monitoring of Cone Deppression Development
-------
ACTION...
RESPONSIBLE.
Geological prospec-
tion plan
/Including regional ground
water pattern /
Oppinion
Approval
Prospect ion
Geological Report
Oppinion
Approval
Evaluation of
Ground water
Impact and Control
System Design
Approval
Executioi
Control <
Monitor if
1 Of
jnd
tg Measure
Geological
Prospection
Company
POLTEGOR
Central
Geological
Administration
Geological
Prospection
Companv
Geological
Prospection
Company
POLTEGOR
Central
Geological
Administration
POLTEGOR
Mining Company
and
Local Authorities
Mining Company
Fig.2 SEQUENCE OF ACTIONS FOR GROUND WATER
CONTROL IN MINING REGIONS.
140
-------
BELCHATOW-
-HYD
Input Data
PROGRAM
WODA
PROGRAM
Changing rectangular net
of input data to radial net
WODA-1
PROGRAM
Blending input data in
sectors
WODA -2
PROGRAM
Computing the shape of
cone of deppresion in
steady flow
WODA-3
PROGRAM
Computing deppresion curve
for optional time in unsteady
flow
Fig. 3 SCHEME OF MATHEMATICAL MODELL COMPUTING
THE CONE OF DEPRESSION DEVELOPMENT
/PROGRAMS IN FORTRAN 1900 LANGUAGE/
-------
Main Ground Water Effects of Surface Mining
Quantitative
Agriculture
Chang* of
• Type of plants
• Productivity
* Cultivation
Water Supply
• Dedication of wells
• Decrease of output
Hydrological Balance
Changes of
• Infiltration rote /*/
• Underground runnoff /*/
• Evaporation from ground woltr /—/
• Superficial runnoff /-/
• Superficial evaporation /-/
Fig.
-------
THE IMPACTS OP COAL MINING ON SURFACE
WATER AND CONTROL MEASURES THEREFORE
by
x/
Ronald D. Hill '
INTRODUCTION
During 1971, coal provided 19 percent of the 68,975 trillion BTU's
of energy consumed. Seventeen percent of the projected 1985 demand
of 133,396 trillion BTU's is to be supplied by coal. In 1972 an esti-
mated 582 million tons of coal were consumed. The forecasted coal
production in 1985 is 1,088 million tons of which 245 million tons will
be used to make synthetic gas. (l) These figures indicate the impor-
tant role that coal plays in the energy picture.
Two important trends are occurring, i.e., increased surface mining
and Western mining. In 1972 for the first time, surface mining produ-
ced over half the coal. Surface mining will probably hold this position
in the near future. With the above projected increase in demand, the
amount of land disturbed each year will nearly double by 1985.
Another trend is the shift to western coals. Approximately 60 per-
cent of the coal mined in 1970, mostly eastern coals, will not meet the
EPA air quality standards, (l) The low sulfur content of the western
coal and improved coal prices has offset the high transportation cost.
Mine mouth power plants and coal gasification are projected added
x/ Ronald D. Hill - Director, Resource Extraction and Handling Division,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory - Cincinnati U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
143
-------
incentives to utilizing western coal. Peabody Coal Company estimated
that by 198O the states of Montana and Wyoming will rank with the
top five states in surface mining. Arizona, Colorado, Utah and New
Mexico will also be up in the rankings. (2)
WATER PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING
Acid Mine Drainage
One of the most troublesome mine drainage problems is caused by
acidity. Although the exact mechanism of acid mine drainage formation
is not fully understood, it is generally belived that pyrite (PeS ) is
oxidized by oxygen (equation l) or ferric iron (equation 2 ) to pro-
duce ferrous sulfated and sulfuric acid. (4)
(l)
( Pyrite) — •- (Perrous Iron) + ( Sulfuric Acid)
2-
PeS + 14Pe + 8H20— * 15Pe + 2S04 + 16H (2)
( Pyrite) + (Perric Iron) ( Perrous Iron) + (Sulfate) (Acid)
The reactions may proceed to form ferric hydroxide and more
acid:
4PeS01 + 202 + 2H2S04— 2Pe2(S04)3 + 2H20 (3)
Pe2(S04)3 + 6H20 -^ 2Pe(OH)3 + ^^ (^
A low pH water is produced (pH 2-4.5 ). At these pH levels, the
heavy metals such as iron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper and
zinc, are more soluble and enter into the solution to further pollute
the water. Water of this type supports only limited water flora, such as
acid-tolerant molds and algae; it will not support fish life, destroys and
corrodes metal piers, culverts, barges, etc., increases the cost of water
treatment for power plants and municipal water supplies, and leaves
the water unacceptable for recreational uses.
144
-------
As estimated 10,OOO miles of streams have been degraded in
Appalachia alone. (3) Additional acid problems in Western Kentucky,
Indiana, Illinois, and Montana have been documented. (4,5,6,7).
Alkaline Mine Drainage
Alkaline mine drainage may result where no acid-producing material
is associated with the mineral seam or where insitu neutralization of
that acid which is produced has taken place, Alkaline mine drainage
may be, but is not usually, as bad as acid mine drainage. Drainage
from freshly exposed strata usually has a higher mineral content than
that from undisturbed land because the strata has high levels of readily
leachable materials.
Some alkaline waters have high concentrations of ferrous iron and
upon oxidation and hydrolysis, form acid which lowers the pH and
changes the drainage to the acid type. These types of discharges are
more common to underground mines than surface mines.
The Western mines present new problems. In many areas the over-
burden material is highly alkaline and sometimes saline. (8). Improper
handling of this material can lead to pollution of surface water, stock-
watering ponds and maybe even groundwater.
Documentation of the alkaline and saline problem is almost none
exist ent.
Sedimentation and Erosion
The removal of the vegetation and the loosening and breaking up
of the overburden by blasting, shovels, draglines, and dozers creates
materials and conditions conductive to erosion. Curtis (9) and Collier,
et al, (10) have documented the increased sediment and suspended
solid loads from surface mined areas.
Sediment fills creek beds destroying fish habitat and creating
flooding conditions. Suspended solids increase treatment cost for indus-
trial and municipal supplies.
145
-------
Erosion is influenced by the soil type, (sand, clay, salt, infiltration
rate and percolation rate ), the climate (temperature and amount and
type of rainfall), the topography (steepness, length of slope, land con-
figuration and exposure), and the vegetation cover. Each of these
factors should be considered in the planning, development and reclama-
tion of a surface mine to prevent erosion.
SOURCES OP MINE DRAINAGE
Surface mines
Surface mines fall into two broad types: area and contour. Area
surface mining is practiced on relatively flat terrain and usually
encompasses a large tract of land, up to several hundred or more
acres. It can be found mainly in Ohio, Western Kentucky, Illinois,
Indiana, and west of the Mississippi River. Contour mining is practiced
on rolling to very steep terrain. Usually only a few cuts are made
into the hillside and the coal seam is followed along the edge of the
hill or mountain, leaving a trace which appears as a "contour line".
In general, the pollution from area mines is not as severe as that
from contour mines. Overburden can more easily be segregated during
mining and the acid producing or saline material buried. Silt from
erosion can often be confined to the mining area. The overburden can
be graded to a slope that is less erosive. Final cuts can be filled
with water to prevent oxidation of the pyrite material. Areas that have
been area mined have been shown to have lower peak flows and
increased base flows. (4,11 )
The common practice in the past was the placement of the over-
burden from a contour mine onto the downslope of the adjacent area.
This material was subject to severe erosion and landslides. Plass (12)
made a survey of eastern Kentucky and found that 12 percent of the
outslope area had failed (landslides). Because of the landslide problem,
West Virginia has limited the bench width on steep slopes greater than
65 percent, (l?). Even with these precautions, landslides still occur.
146
-------
Many water problems arise from this type of mining. The highwalls and
spoil piles, because of their long, bare, steep, uninterrupted slopes are
subject to severe erosion. Sediment coming off these slopes has been
known to clog stream channels, cover highways, settle on cultivated
land and kill crops, cover fish spawning beds, fill water courses, and
thus, subject adjacent land to flooding, etc.
A study of water sheds draining to Beaver Creek, Kentucky, (9),
(13) showed that a partially stripped watershed (6.4 percent of area)
had an average erosion rate of 5.9 tons per acre per year as compa-
red to 0.7 tons per acre per year for an unmined area.
Curtis (14 ) has found that contour mines in Kentucky in non-acid
areas still cause changes in water quality in the adjacent streams.
Among the elements showing greatest increase are sulfate, calcium and
magnesium. Aluminum, manganese, iron and zinc also increase some.
In general the increase did not reach a serious magnitude.
Even when spoil piles are graded, problems, occur. If the grading
is toward the highwall, the water may accumulate in an area of poor
quality spoil, (i.e., a spoil high in pyritic material) and may therefore
be degraded in quality. Where underground mines are located behind
the highwalls, grading toward it often causes water to flow into the
underground mine. This flow often flushes toxic material from the mine.
When spoil piles are graded away from the highwall, erosion may
be as bad or worse, unless good water management practices are
followed, such as diversion ditches across the top of the highwall,
ditches or terraces across the slope to break the slope length and
control structures to remove the water from the mining area.
Underground Mines
During the period when an underground mine is active, water must
be removed either by gravity or by pumpage. The characteristics of
this water will vary from seam to seam and even within the same mine.
Following active mining, below drainage mines usually fill with water
147
-------
and are often no longer a source of pollution. However, those above
drainage continue to discharge polluted water for decades.
The Appalachian Study (3) reported that active underground mines
produced 18.8 percent of the acid mine drainage and inactive under-
ground mines 52.5 percent. An additional 9.2. percent came from a com-
bination surface-underground. Thus, underground mines were involved
with 80.5 percent of the acid mine drainage.
Siltation is not usually associated with underground mines, however,
the waste "gob" removed and piled outside the mine is a major source
of silt, acid mine drainage and often air pollution from ignition.
Whereas control technology for surface mines is highly developed,
the technology for underground mines is severely limited.
Refuse Piles and Slurry Ponds
Associated with many coal mines is a cleaning or processing plant
where the coal is processed to remove dirt and impurities present in
the coal. Two types of wastes are discharged from a cleaning plant —
refuse and slurry. The refuse is the coarse portion consisting largely
of coal intermixed with pyrites, sandstones, clays and shale. Refuse
has historically been piled adjacent to the cleaning plant and has
created major silt and acid water pollution problems and air pollution.
Slurry is the fine reject material which contains mostly coal, shale
and clay. The slurry is usually placed in lagoons adjacent to the plant.
Slurry can create major sediment problems in streams when it is dis-
charged directly to the stream or escapes from lagoons because of
poor design, construction or maintenance. Upon abandonment, slurry
lagoons continue to be a menace unless they are stabilized. Often slurry
ponds are not acid.
148
-------
CONTROL OF MINE DRAINAGE
Acid Problems
The ultimate solution to the acid mine drainage problem is preven-
ting its formation. As noted in equations 1 through 4, the reaction is
dependent on air (oxygen) and water coming in contact with the sulfi-
des. In addition to water being a reactant, it serves as the transport
media for the metals. All prevention techniques are based on excluding
water and/or air from the mining environment.
Air: Air is necessary during the active operation of an underground
mine. After the coal has been extracted, excluding air should be an in-
tegral part of the mining plan. As areas are worked out, blockages
should be made to prevent air from entering that section of the mine.
Mines should be developed downdip so that they flood when abandoned.
In this manner, water serves as an oxygen barrier. Injecting solid ma-
terial into the mine, such as stope filling, should be encouraged and
expanded. Not only can the mine drainage problem be decreased by
blocking the flow of air, but a solid waste disposal problem can be re-
solved simultaneously..
Sealing adits to prevent air from entering an underground mine has
been in practice in the coal fields since the 1920's. This procedure at
its best, has only been marginal. Seals can be built to orevent air from
entering the adit, but air reaches the mine readily through the fractured
outcropping and overburden. With each change in barometric pressure,
air is pumped in and out of the mine. Air sealing should not be consi-
dered as an acceptable method.
Bulkhead or hydraulic mine seals have been shown to be successful.
(15) For this method, a seal is built in the adit and the outcrops is
grouted to prevent water from leaving the mine. In time, the mine wor-
kings are flooded and oxygen is excluded from the sulfides.
Excluding oxygen from the active surface mine is not feasible.
Usually there is a delay between the time the sulfides are exposed to
149
-------
air and acid mine drainage is formed. High sulfide bearing material
should be exposed for the shortest time possible. As part of the mining
operation, this material should be covered with material containing little
or no sulfides. The saving and replacement of top soil should be prac-
ticed. The cover material acts as an oxygen barrier. Wind and diffusion
are the only driving forces for moving air through the cover material
to the sulfides. The cover material should be vegetated with grasses,
legumes, shrubs, forbs, etc. Not only does the vegetation serve to sta-
bilize the cover material and prevent it from eroding, but upon dying,
it decays and acts as an oxygen absorber.
Refuse dumps at mines are major sources of mine drainage and
should be constructed to prevent air movement into them. Sound tech-
niques are compacting waste material as it is placed and sandwiching
layers of compacted clay between layers of waste. The slopes of the
dumps should be kept to 33 percent or less to prevent wind from dri-
ving air into the pile. Upon abandonment, the surface of the pile should
be sealed with an air barrier. Although many different materials have
been evaluated, soil still remains the best. As in the case of surface
mines, the surface should be vegetated.
Water: Enough water is usually available in the moist air within an
underground mine or within the material itself in a surface mine or
waste dump to meet the requirement for the formation of mine drainage.
The other function of water is as a transport media. If flushes the
oxidation products from the sulfide and carries them into the environ-
ment. By controlling the water, these products can be contained.
Provisions should be made to prevent water from entering the mining
environment, except where it is to be used for flooding and an oxygen
barrier. Diversion ditches, dewatering of the working and sealing of
fractures are just a few of the methods available. Water that does enter
the workings should be removed as rapidly as possible.
Silt Problems
The control of silt from surface mines starts in the mine planning
stage and follows through mining and final reclamation. During the
150
-------
planning state, water handling throughout the operation should be care-
fully planned. This stage includes the location of diversion ditches to
keep water out of the mine working, protection of natural drainageways,
location of silt traps and basins, and the selection of a mining method
to minimize erosion and landslides. The Statesof Kentucky (16) and
West Virginia (l?) have developed drainage handbooks as guidelines.
In recent years several new mining methods such as slope reduction,
box cut and block cut have been developed to reduce silt and slides.
(18), (19) The removal, storage and replacement of topsoil are other
valuable tools in erosion control. Backfilling and planting should follow
mining closely to minimize the period that bare materials is exposed.
Grading should be planned to keep slope length and steepness to a
minimum. Terraces and benches should be included to reduce runoff
rate. Pinal grading should be across the slope.
Grasses should be planted on all areas fro rapid erosion control.
Trees may follow if needed or desired. Before planting, soil analysis
should be made and the proper fertilizer and lime added. On steeper
slopes mulches may be needed.
In some cases the silt basins may not be capable of reducing the
sediment load to an acceptable level because of the colloidal nature of
the material. The addition of lime, alum and other flocculating chemicals
might be required in conjunction with the silt basin.
Treatment
Treatment has three places in the acid mine drainage scheme: (l)
during active operations to produce a water acceptable for discharge to
a stream, (2) in those situations where the production of acid mine
drainage cannot be prevented and (3) in those cases where water is
needed for industrial or domestic use.
Neutralization
The most commonly used method for treating acid mine drainage and
removing heavy metals is neutralization. A typical system would include
151
-------
adding an alkaline reagent, mixing, aerating, and removing the precipi-
tate. Alkaline reagents that may be used are ammonia, sodium carbo-
nate, sodium hydroxide, limestone, and lime. In most cases, lime is used
because of its lower cost and higher reactivity.
Most heavy metals tend to precipitate as the pH is raides. Metals
such as copper, zinc, iron, aluminum, manganese, nickel and cobalt can
be reduced to low levels, less than half mg/1, with pH adjustment, pre-
cipitation and solids separation.
In removing iron, aeration is used to convert the ferrous from to
the ferric form to take advantage of the precipitation of ferric iron at
a lower pH.
In most cases, lime is used for neutralizing. Except for limestone,
it is the cheapest reagent, and also reacts rapidly. The disadyantage
is the voluminous sludge produced. Although limestone is cheaper and
produces a denser sludge, it is not effective above a pH of 6.5 beca-
use of the slow attack of limestone by acidity at higher pH's. Two -
sta^e treatment with limestone followed by lime appears to offer the
advantages of both reagents. EPA has studied its use on coal acid
mine drainage. (20)
Although neutralization can be used to remove heavy metals and
a portion of the sulfate, the resulting water is high in dissolved solids
and sulfate. The disposal of the sludge is also a problem.
Ion Exchange
Various ion exchange schemes had been applied to the treatment of
coal acid mine drainage. (10) These schemes can upgrade the water
quality to potable use. Modification can be incorporated to recover
heavy metals. Ion exchange has not received wide acceptance because
of difficulties encountered with resin fouling, interfering ions, limited
loeading capacity, cost of operating and disposal of regenerating solu-
tions. Further development is needed.
152
-------
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (R.O.) has effectively removed, multivalent ions
from mine drainage. Table I presents data from the treatment of coal
mine drainage. All heavy metals should be removed at about this same
level (99 percent or better). Reverse osmosis is a concentrating pro-
cess in which the pollutants are contained, on one side of a membrane
while the water passes through. Water recoveries (percent of water
fed to unit that is available as treated water) have been as high as
90 percent. Water recovery is limited by the precipitation of material
on the membrane when they have been concentrated beyond the ma-
terials saturation point. Calcium sulfate is usually the first material to
be precipitated in mine drainage. Equations have been developed to
predict the highest water recovery allowable under any influent condi-
tion. (22,23)
Since R.O. is a concentrating system, the disposal of the waste
stream is a major problem. EPA has developed a system whereby the
waste stream is neutralized, the sludge removed, and the neutralized
water returned to the influent of the R.O. unit. This system has been
named "Neutrolosis" and has obtained water recoveries in excess of
99 percent.
TABLE I
TREATMENT OF MINE DRAINAGE BY REVERSE OSMOSIS
Removal - Percent
Ca 98 - 99.8
Mg 98.5 - 99.8
Pe, Total 98.5 - 99.9
Al 91.7 - 99.2
Mn 97.8 - 99.1
Cu 98.7 - 99.5
SO 99.3 - 99.9
Acidity 81.0 - 91.7
Specific Conductance 95.0 - 99.9
153
-------
SUMMARY
Coal will continue to provide a significant amount of the energy of
this country. The very concept of disturbing the earth to remove any
material, -whether by surface or underground methods will cause chan-
ges in the environment. We must strive to make these changes create
a minimum of temporary or long- term damages.
With our present technology, most acid mine drainage problems can
be controlled during active mining and upon abandonment of surface
mines and refuse piles. This statement cannot be made of underground
mines. In the majority of cases, acid mine drainage cannot be controlled
from abandoned or orphaned underground mines.
We are still short on technology for controlling silt and landslides
from surface mines. Great strides are being made in these areas and
we can be optimistic. The opening of the Western fields has raised
many issues for which -we do not fully understand or have solutions for.'
REFERENCES
1. Beall, John V. Muddling Through the Energy Crisis, Mining Engi-
neering 24, 1O, October 1972.
2. Anonymous, Peabody Looks at the Future of Surface Coal Ming,
Mining Engineering 24, 10, October 1972.
3. Appalachian Regional Commission. Acid Mine Drainage in Appalachia,
Appalachian Regional Commission. Washington, D.C. June 1969.
4. Grubb, H.F. and Ryder, P.D. Effects of Coal Mining on the Water
Resources of the Tradewater River Basin, Kentucky. Geological
Survey Water - Supply Paper 194O, U.S. Geological Survey,
Washington, D.C. 1972.
5. Corbett, D.M. Acid Mine Drainage Problem of the Patoka River
Watershed, Southwestern Indiana, Water Resources Center Report
of Investigation No. 4, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1969.
154
-------
6. Dime/Limestone Neutralization of Acid Mine Drainage, EPA Grant
14010 DAX, Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmen-
tal Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1968.
7. Perris, Orrin, Sand Coulee Creek Mine - Acid Pollution Abatement,
Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation, Kelena
(personal letter dated March 13, 1972).
8. Hodder, R.L., Surface Mined Land Reclamation Research in Eastern
Montana, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mon-
tana, Research and Applied Technology Symposium on Mined-Land
Reclamation, National Coal Association, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
1973.
9. Curtis, Willie R., The Effects of Strip-Mining on the Hydrology of
a Small Mountain Watershed in Appalachia, U.S. Forest Service
paper, Berea, Kentucky, 1969,
10. Collier, C.R., et al, Influence of Strip Mining on the Hydrological
Environment of Beaver Creek Basin, Kentucky, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Geological Survey, Prof. Paper 427-B 1964 and
Geological Survey, Prof. Paper 427-C, 1966.
11. Corbett, D.M. Water Supplied by Coal Surface Mines, Pike County,
Indiana, Water Resources Research Center Report of Investigation
No. 1, Indiana University, Bloomington, December 1965.
12. Plass, William T. Land Disturbances from Strip Mining in Eastern
Kentucky, U.S. Forest Service Research Notes, Berea, Kentucky,
1967.
13. Musser, John J., Description of Physical Environment and of Strip-
mining Operations in Parts of Beaver Creek Basin, Kentucky,
U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Prof. Paper
427-A, 1963.
14. Curtis, W.R. Chemical Changes in Streamflow Following Surface
Mining in Eastern Kentucky, U.S. Forest Serive, Berea, Kentucky,
155
-------
Fourth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research, April 1972.
15. Foreman, J.W. Evaluation of Mine Sealing in Butler County, Penn-
sylvania, Fourth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research,
Bituminous Coal Research, Incorporated, Monroeville, Pennsylvania,
April 1972.
16. A Manual on Kentucky Reclamation, Kentucky Department for
Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, Frankfort, 1973.
17. Drainage Handbook for Surface Mines, West Virginia Department
of Natural Resources, Division of Reclamation, Charleston, 1972.
18. Green Lands, Quarterly, West Virginia Surface Mining and Reclama-
tion Association, Charleston, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 17-28, spring 1973.
19. Grim, E.G. and Hill, R.D. Surface Mining Methods and Techniques,
National Environmental Research Center, Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268.
20. Wilmoth, R.C., Scott, R.B., and Hill, R.D. Combination Limestone-
Lime Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage, Fourth Symposium on Coal
Mine Drainage Research, Bituminous Coal Research, Incorporated,
Monroeville, Pennsylvania, April 1972.
21. Holmes, J. and Schmidt, K. Ion Exchange Treatment of Acid Mine
Drainage, Fourth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage, Bituminous
Coal Research, Incorporated, Monroeville, Pennsylvania, April 1972.
22. Gulf Environmental Systems Company, Acid Mine Waste Treatment
Using Reverse Osmosis, EPA Water Pollution Control Research
Series #14010 DYG, August 1971, Washington, D.C. 1971.
23. Wilmoth, R.G., Mason, D.G., and Gupton, M., Treatment of Ferrous
Iron Acid Mine Drainage By Reverse Osmosis, Fourth Symposium
on Coal Mine Drainage, Bituminous Coal Research, Incorporated,
Monroeville, Pennsylvania, April 1972.
156
-------
24. Hill, R.D., Wilmoth, R.C., and Scott, R.B. Neutrolosis Treatment
of Acid Mine Drainage, 26th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Con-
ference, Lafayette, May 1971.
157
-------
THE IMPACT OF LIGNITE MINING ON SURFACE
WATER AND MEANS OF ITS CONTROL
by
Henryk Janiak
INTRODUCTION
The surface mining of lignite affects environment in many ways.
It can be seen in the change of micro-climate, in the change of the
ground water and surface water regimes and in the change in the
regional water balance.
Drawdown of the water table during exploitation affects simultane-
ously the drawdown of the ground water in the adjoining large areas
of land. It causes disappearance or lowering of the water table in sur-
face reservoirs, change of the flow character in the area of depre-
ssion cone, reduction in the superficial run-off rate, and change in the
air and soil humidity parameters.
Mine drainage changes water quality in surface flows and in reser-
voirs, (which serve as receivers of these waters). The magnitude of
these changes is dependent on the rate and type of discharged pollu-
tant load. Urbanization of the region due to the development of mining
causes increase of the pure water consumption and increases also
amount of sewage, which is important for water management in the
region.
x/ Henryk Janiak, M.Sc. POLTEGOR, Rosenbergow 25, Wroclaw.
159
-------
The overburden storage which often occurrs on the elevated dis-
posals, may induce local changes in direction and velocity of winds.
This may also cause changes in the character and in the rate of
surface run-off, in the distribution of atmospheric precipitation and chan-
ges in the phenological seasons of the year. There is also to remem-
ber, that lignite is usually being fired in locally sited power plants, the
influence of which on surface waters is also very important, and it often
combines with the influence of the mines.
Prom such a wide range of problems the paper presents only main
problems referring to the influence of lignite surface mines on the water
quality in surface receivers and to the means of protection within this
range.
The aspects of quantitative effects are also briefly considered.
QUALITY OP WATERS DRAINED PROM LIGNITE SURFACE MINES
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE RECEIVERS
In the mine drainage one can distinguish two types of water i.e.
"pure waters" and "dirty waters" (mine waste waters).
,,Pure waters" are usually coming from the well system of deep
drainage, and occassionally also from the underground galleries in the
periods of time when in the galleries no mining operation takes place.
This water is as a rule free of suspensions, colorless, with a chemical
composition typical for the ground water in a given aquifer. It usually
correspond to the first class purity of surface water and is discharged
directly to the receivers without any treatment.
Polluted waters are coming from the active draining underground
galleries and from surface drainage of an open pit.
Chemical composition of these waters during rainless periods is
similar to the composition of the ground water, and differs from it during
rainy periods.
Some parameters of the mine drainage are presented for particular
mines in Table 1.
160
-------
Table 1
Type of pollutants
B.O.DC
5
Oxygen consumption
Chlorides
Sulphates
D.S.
Total suspended matter
pH reaction
Total iron
Color
Turbidity
Concentra-
tion unit
mg02/l
mg02/l
mgCl/1
mgS04/l
mg/1
mg/1
-
mgPe/1
mg/1 Pt
mg/lSi02
Turow
I
0.8-4.2
3-96 (3O)
22-42
270-480
650-1050
traces-lOOO
7.5-8.1
0.02-0.5
10-3O
10-1000
Turow
n
1.2-2O
22-160(60)
16-52
204-350
560-1000
20-7200
7.5-8.1
0.07-3.7
30-90
50-1000
1-4.0
6.4-39.0
20-100
50-150
do 400
6O-2800
7.0-8.1
0.0-2.0
15,20
10-1000
Open-pits
of the Konin
mine
3.0-6.0
8-52
do 26
0-40
270-600
44-350
7.0-8.0
do 0.7
3-50
5-150
-------
As it can be seen the main and often the only pollutant of the mine
water exceeding the admissible levels are suspensions and attributable
to it turbidity, and oxygen consumption.
The suspension consists of sand, dust, silts and coal grains of
different shapes, dimensions and sedimentation characteristics.
The composition of suspensions greatly varies depending on the
totality of mining, geological, drainage, and also of atmospheric para-
meters. The Table 1 indicates that concentrations of suspensions may
vary from 20 to 8000 mg/1. The rise in suspension quantity is particu-
larly evident after atmospheric precipitations and in times of snow
melting, which is due to the increased intensity of a superficial run-off
and to the erosion increase caused by the flowing water.
Taking into account given above concentrations annual quantities
of suspensions (off-taken to the surface receivers from particular sur-
face mines) have been listed in the Table 2
Table 2
Surface mine
Adamow
Pqtnow
Jozwin
Kazimierz
Turow
Belchatow (constr. )
Legnica (constr.)
Average
quanti-
ties of
drained
dirty "wa-
ters
m /min.
156
70
33
43
31
120
35
Average s us pen- Annual
'load
sion concentra- of suspensions
tion in
mine
waters
Before
treat-
ment
/ 3
g/m
300
180
180
180
1000
200
200
After
treat-
ment
/ 3
g/m
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Without
treat-
ment
tons/
year
2400
6600
3100
4100
16300
12600
3700
After
treat
ment
tons/
year
240
1100
520
680
490
1900
550
As it can be seen, the annual quantities of suspensions drained
with the mine water are considerable. If not treated they could sub-
stantially affect purity of water in the receivers causing:
162
-------
_ decreasing of the flow cross-section and rising water of the table
level by silting up and overgrowing of flows and reservoirs,
_ increasing of the turbidity in receivers which inhibits the processes
of photosynthesis and self purification,
_ hindering of water purification processes in the case of its commer-
cial or municipal utilization.
Increase of flows' pollution may in result change the utility value
of flows and decrease disposable water reserves in the region. There-
fore it is necessary to purify water so that not to exceed the admi-
ssible suspension level in the water receivers, which in majority of
flows in the mine regions is 30 ppm as per the third class of water
purity standard. Other types of pollutants usually do not exceed values
admissible for the II class of water purity and bring no difficulties in
mine waste water handling.
METHODS OP MINE WATERS PURIFICATION
Till now purification of mine waters is limited practically to the
removal of suspensions in natural sedimentation processes in large
field sedimentation basins. Initial removal of coarse fractions is taking
place already in the basins adjoining the draining pumping stations.
The constructed basins for particulates sedimentation, have consi-
derable capacities approaching 3OO.OOO m and surfaces of 22 ha.
Their average depth varies from 1.8 to 3,0 m, and in the sedimentation
part from 0.6 to 1.0 m.
The retention time according to the year of the basin construction
varies from 1.4 full days to 7 days.
These retention times were used in the sedimentation basins con-
structed before the 1970. Present day basins have retention times
within the active capacity zone of about 1 full day.
The effect of purification depends on the type of water and suspen-
sions and varies from 2O to 60 ppm, which makes 65-95 percent of
163
-------
the total reduction. It can be reffered to the water from Konin and
Adamow and mine region, where average level of suspensions do not
exceed 300 ppm. More difficult to purify is water from the Turow mine,
containing usually 500 - 1000 ppm of suspensions, and periodically
even above the 7000 ppm. A design of the treatment plant basing on
coagulation with lime is being prepared for these waters purification
and the expected purification affect is to be 30 ppm.
STUDIED TECHNOLOGIES OP WATER PURIFICATION
Initiated in 1971 investigations on purification of mine waters had
in view mainly improvement of the efficiency of sedimentation basins
work. These investigations were performed on full scale and their
subjects were mainly the hydraulics of water flow in large field sedi-
mentation basins and the determination of interrelations between the
retention time and reduction of the suspensions. As a result of these
studies time of water retention in sedimentation basins with changed
construction was cut down to 16-20 hrs, decreasing thereby its volume,
while the results of purification remained the some.
On the basis of these investigations new recomendations for de-
signing of field sedimentation basins have been prepared. The basic
requirements regarding the dimensions of sedimentation basin elements
necessary to optimum results in the suspension reduction, have been
given.
According to these recommendations a new sedimentation basin
has been constructed in the Konin Lignite Surface Mine. The effects
of its work are very good. Also sedimentation basins for the Wladysta-
wow and Bogdalow open-pits were designed according to these guide-
lines. Realization of these basins is expected in 1978/79. These inves-
tigations showed that in properly constructed sedimentation basins mine
waters polluted to an average or small level can be purified down to
the value of about 30 ppm.
In the case of water with high level of difficult to sediment suspen-
sions, e.g. Turow mine waters, this technology may appear to be insu-
fficient. 164
-------
Studies of other more effective purification methods, based on
application of:
- gamma radiation
-. flocculation
- filtration through sandbeds
_ coagulation
- filtration through a so called "grass filter" were started as a part
of work initiated in 1975.
The tests of the first three processes usefulness have been realized
in cooperation with the US Environmental Protection Agency. They had
shown a desirable radiation effect on the acceleration of suspensions
sedimentation which is usually proportional to the absorbed dose rate
of radiation. A practically good effect is observed at the dose rate
500 kRad and more. The greatest changes in the speed of purification
under the influence of radiation shows water with high natural oxygen
consumption and high turbidity. This was particularly apparent with
waters from the Turow mine.
This technology was tested on a laboratory scale. Its practical
utilization must follow multidirectional investigations on a full scale
carried out in a pilot research station. The scope of the research work,
apart from the observations of purification effects should include long
term observations and investigations of the purified water influence on
plants and animals. Therefore one does not expect practical introduc-
tion of this method in the Polish lignite mines.
The second investigated technology involved use of synthetic flc—
cculants in purification of mine waters. These investigations were per-
formed on a laboratory and on a full scale in a special experimental
sedimentation basin built in the Adamow mine. Eighteen types of floccu-
lants (of Polish and American production) have been used for the tests.
Laboratory and field tests have proved high usefulness of kationic
polymers in water purification from suspensions. Most effective were
kationic polymers of the Calgon firm, particularly the Calgon M-502
and Calgon M-502. The best of the Polish polymers was Rokrysol -
165
-------
WP-5. Required doses of these flocculants were from 0.1 to 5 ppm,
and were dependent on the origin and quality of the treated water, and
also on the method of flocculation process.
Good for purifying with flocculants was water from the Adamow and
Konin mines. Results of these tests represent curves of the dependence
between the retention time, the flocculant dose and the percent of tur-
bidity reduction, shown on Pig. 1.
The Turow mine water frequently required doses exceeding 5 ppm
and the their purification results were not always sufficient. An essential
factor in the process of water purification with use of flocculants was
application of their right dosing and the method and time of rapid
mixing.
With the use of Calgon M-502 optimum concentration of the solution
was from 0.1 to 0.5 percent, while the optimum time of rapid mixing,
independently of the dose amount, was from 8 to 10 mns (when mecha-
nical or air and mechanical mixing was applied).
Detailed results of the above studies can be found in special
report published by EPA.
NEW IDEAS IN THE STUDIES ON WATER PURIFICATION
The investigated techniques of water purification, based on dosing
chemicals, which accelerate sedimentation of suspensions, are rather
burdensome, costly and labour consuming in exploitation. Hence the
reluctance to use them in practice. This dictated the necessity to ana-
lyse such methods which together with natural sedimentation would
allow to increase the effects of water purification and to make them
independent of the atmospheric conditions.
A two stage technology of water purification has been suggested.
At the first stage water would be purified in a sedimentation basin with
retention time of 10-16 hours where sedimentation of coarse fractions,
partial reduction of turbidity, heating of water, and levelling of runoffs
would take place. At the second stage initially purified water would flow
166
-------
through the area planted with selected species and water or of plants,
called a grass filter.
Preliminary observations of the periodical flow of mine water through
lands covered with bog and peat vegetation had shown a very high
(almost total) removal of the suspensions. Literature data from Polish,
American and German publications indicate that almost all marsh plants
show the ability to purify water. Such plants as the common reed
(phragmites communis), yellow flag (iris pseudocorus L.), sweet flag
(Acorus calamus) common rush (Juncus effesus), sedge (Corex
rostrata), and many others were found to have such properties.
These plants can also neutralize toxic substances such as cyani-
des, rhodanates, phenols in water. They show also disinfecting pro-
perties killing the pathogenetic germs not only in summer, but also in
winter, though to a smaller extent. They have also the ability to accu-
mulate solts in their tissues and thereby contribute to de-eutrophization
of water.
Finally one may state, that marsh vegetation complexes are functio-
ning in nature as an immense grass filter and at the same time as a
powerful sorbet disinfecting water media from toxic organic and inor-
ganic substances and from pathogenic bacteria.
These properties induced many countries to establish artificial plan-
tations of these plants to purify all sorts of sewage.
Such plantations purify domestic, sewages in West Germany, sewage
from camping sites for 5000 people in Holland, sewage from a slaughter-
house in U.S.A., from a sugar factory in East Germany, from a steel
works in Romania.
These are vegetation biocenoses rather than single species.
The above data induced to analyse the usefulness of march plants
for purification of mine water.
These waters are characterized by a relatively even temperature,
high turbidity, and often high oxygen consumption and high content of
biogenic substances. These factors have an essential influence on
growth and development of marshy vegetation.
167
-------
These problems are a subject of research initiated in 1977 in co-
operation with Academy of Agriculture in Wrociaw.
Financing of this research from the Polish—American M. Curie -
Sklodowska fund is expected since 1979.
These investigations have mainly in view:
- determination of a specie or of a complex of species of marsh plants
which well tolerate conditions of the mine water medium,
- determination of a selected species' usefulness for purifying water
from suspensions, and defininf of the expected effects,
- providing of basic technical parameters for the design of a grass
filter.
These investigations are carried out in the Adamow lignite mine.
In future observations are planned to be carried in the sedimentation
basin for water purification of the Belchatow Lignite Mine, constructed
in 1978/79.
In this mine drainage water will be purified with use of this tech-
3
nique in quantity of about 160 m /min.
This sedimentation basin will consist of 5 main chambers.
In every main chamber the inlet part is the normal sedimentation bay
and the outlet part the grass filter bay. The basic plants intended to
introduce are:
- marsh sedge (Corex acutiformis)
- common reed (Phragmites communis)
- ribbon grass (Phalaris arundinacea)
- reed sweet grass (Glyceria aquatica).
The expected effect of water purification in the designed sedimen-
tation basin in the Belchatow Lignite Mine is under 30 ppm, at the
reduction value of about 85 percent. This sedimentation basin is at
the same time used as pilot basin for the observations on full scale
of this technique usefulness, which are carried out as a part of inves-
tigations on grass filter application in mine waters purification.
168
-------
Positive results of these tests will enable to prepare an effective
and cheap technique of water purification and thereby will, contribute
to the decrease of undiserable effects of lignite surface mining on
environment.
QUANTITATIVE IMPACT OP SURFACE MINING ON SURFACE WATER
Problems related to the quantitative impact of lignite surface mining
on surface water have not been so far a subject of specialistic, com-
plex studies. Fragmentary investigations, comprising often short obser-
vation periods, resulted from the need of planning of a hydrographic
network regulation in the mine region, draining an excavation or disposal
ground, and are not sufficient to provide detailed characteristics of all
aspects of this impact. Nevertheless they served together with obser-
vations carried out on lands of the depression cone reach - in the
Konin and Befchatow region of - to find basic directions of this influ-
ence. It has been found surface mining causes:
1. Disappearance or drawdown of the water table in water reservoirs,
dewatering of the marshland or peat lands, liquidation of fish
ponds etc.
2. Decrease, and even disappearance of average and low flows in the
water-courses which are not receivers of drainage water, and their
increase and levelling in flows being a part of the mine water off-
take from the system.
3. Lowering of water filling and increasing of water flow velocity in
flow beds effected by their canalization.
4. Serious changes in movements of rubble in water courses.
5. Changes of the elements of the region's water balance, mainly due
to the decrease of surface water drifts, to evaporation, to the incre-
ased infiltration of rain water, and to underground flows.
6. Changes of soil and air humidity.
Extent of particular elements' influence depends on such factors as:
169
-------
- type and permeability of soil
- degree of self-sealing of water race beds and reservoirs bottoms
- distribution density of hydrographic network
- morphology of land
- land utilization etc.
Problems of the mine impact are additionally complicated by the
influence of power plants. Therefore while studying these problems one
should distinguish two periods.
The first period includes the construction of mine until the power
plant is put into exploitation, and the second period which comprises
exploitation of the mine and the power plant.
Occurring in the first period surplusses of water in low and average
flows are used in the second period by the power plant, affecting nega-
tively water balance in the region. Then can occur a necessity supply
water from other, frequently very remote, watersheds. This can be very
expensive.
The attempt to forecast changes of basic elements of water balance
was for the first time undertaken in the region of the newly constructed
Belchatow mine.
It has been indicated, that as a result of draining the surface run-
off in the mine region will diminish by 30 percent, evaporation from the
terrain surface by about 16 percent, and evaporation of the ground
water by 70 percent. However the underground run-off to the draining
system will increase by 107 percent, and the rain water infiltration rate
by about 70 percent.
These parameters are essential for general determination of mine
impact on environment. They are assumed to be introduced on the
basis of field experiments. It requires however long term and complex
regional investigations carried out on a large area and long before the
mine construction.
170
-------
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DOSE OF CALGON M-502,THE TIME OF RETENTION IN SEDIMENTATION
CHAMBER,AND THE TURBIDITY REDUCTION
3
O
80
70
60
50
1*0
30
20
10
Optimal retention times in sedi
mentation chamber
o-
_ 0 ppm
0.5 ppm
16 ppm
1.5 ppm
2.0 ppm
10 11
12 13 1*. 15
16
Time /h /
-------
COAL REFUSE DISPOSAL PRACTICES AND
CHALLENGES IN THE UNITED STATES
x/
John P. Martin '
INTR OD U CTION
On August 3, 1977, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act of 1977 was signed into law. The Surface Mining Reclamation and
Enforcement Provisions supporting the law define coal waste as "earth
materials, which are combustible, physically unstable, or acid-forming or
toxic-forming, wasted or otherwise separated from product coal and are
slurried or otherwise transported from coal processing facilities or pre-
paration plants after physical or chemical processing, cleaning, or con-
centrating of coal. (l). The regulations also state that "toxic-forming
materials means earth materials or wastes which, if acted upon by air,
water, weathering, or microbiological processes, are likely to produce
chemical or physical conditions in soils or water that are detrimental
to biota or uses of water". The handling of waste, refuse, slurry, and
gob is a practical problem for the coal industry and one set apart for
special consideration by law. Proper disposal of these by-products or
utilization of them for construction or production of other products re-
mains as a challenge to the United States and to all coal producing
countries.
Statistics for the coal industry in the United States show that 1975
production for bituminous coal and lignite was 588 million metric tons (2).
John P. Martin, Extraction Technology Branch, Industrial Environmen-
tal Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
173
-------
This figure can be further divided into underground production of 266
million metric tons and surface production of 323 million metric tons.
In 1971 approximately 50 % of the domestic lignite and bituminous coal
produced was the result of underground mining methods. The production
emphasis has since moved to surface mining. Of the coal produced in
1975, 41.2 % was mechanically cleaned yielding 97 million metric tons
of waste material.
The mechanical coal cleaning plants in the United States are clus-
tered in the eastern and interior coal provinces east of the Mississippi
River. The 1975 statistics show that the largest number of cleaning
plants are in West Virginia, and the eastern states as a whole account
for more than 360 of the total 388 plants recorded. Wet jigging and
dense medium processing continue to be the most popular mechanical
coal cleaning techniques.
A summary of production trends indicates that the waste handling
problem is increasing. Bituminous and lignite coal cleaning wastes rose
from 81 million metric tons in 1971 (3) to 97 million metric tons in
1975. As a result of increased production of low sulfur coal and more
careful and selective mining procedures, the percentage of coal that
was cleaned in 1975 (41.2 %) was less than that in 1971 (49.1 %).
Selective mining or washing of all coals, however, is becoming more
important as environmental concern increases (4).
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
The coal waste disposal problem bears equally on air pollution,
water pollution and land use. In addition, the disposal site is often
considered to be aesthetically offensive.
A loosely packed refuse pile that contains a large amount of com-
bustible material is a prime candidate for spontaneous ignition and
a refuse pile fire is extremely difficult and dangerous to quench. The
resulting fumes have a high sulfur oxide content and present a serious
health hazard to the nearby population. Of 135 active refuse piles
174
-------
recently visited in Pennsylvania, 19 had signs of fire. In addition to
fumes from refuse fires, fine refuse particles carried by the wind are
a source of considerable dust.
A source assessment performed by Monsanto Research (5 ) attem-
pted to summarize the severity of the air pollution problem resulting
from burning coal refuse piles. Estimates of the yearly national mass
emissions from burning coal refuse were: participates - 190 metric tons;
sulfur oxides - 39,000 metric tons; nitrogen oxides - 34,000 metric
tons; total hydrocarbons 34,000 metric tons; carbon monoxide -
4,500,000 metric tons. Other atmospheric pollutants detected from bur-
ning waste areas included polycyclic organic materials, hydrogen sul-
fide, ammonia, and mercury.
Water is polluted by coal waste in basically two forms: acid draina-
ge and siltation. The acid drainage formed by mine waste varies accor-
ding to location, seams, compaction, cover material, etc. Although coal
seams vary locally and by region, there appears to be less of an acid
drainage problem in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and the
western coal provinces of the United States than in other coal produ-
cing areas.
Siltation is directly influenced by the steepness, compaction, drainage
control structures, and cover material of a waste or refuse pile, Work
at the Truax Traer refuse pile (EPA Grant 14010 DDK) in Illinois has
shown that even the moderately sloping sides of a pile are susceptible
to severe erosion (&). A stable grass cover, often difficult to establish
on refuse, is essential if erosion is to be controlled.
Water moving through coal waste picks up the sulfuric acid that
has been generated by oxidation of pyritic materials. The acid, in turn,
enables the water to dissolve extremely large quantities of iron, alumi-
num, and other heavy metals. Previous studies have indicated that
effluents from coal waste areas contain significant quantities of zinc,
copper, nickel, iron, lead, boron, magnesium, and manganese. An Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) survey (?) found that the effluent
from an Indiana waste site had a pH of 2.4, acidity of 6500 mg/1, and
175
-------
iron concentration of 2600 rng/1. In addition, the zinc and manganese
concentrations were 7.2 mg/1 and 120 mg/1 respectively. The suspended
solids loads may range into the thousands of milligrams per liter, de-
pending on the amount of flow, stream gradients, and characteristics
of the waste pile.
Studies at the University of South Carolina (8,9) have shown that
only the framboidal form of pyrite (smaller than 0.5 micron) in coal
and coal wastes produces abundant acidity. In disposal or reclamation
efforts it would be of benefit to be able to predict the acid potential
of the waste material, so research was undertaken to present a point
counting technique for quantitatively estimating acidity production.
Very few studies have been carried out in the United States to
document groundwater pollution problems associated with mining, espe-
cially regarding the effects of coal waste disposal.
One short-term monitoring effort of an abandoned coal waste pile
was undertaken by Argonne National Laboratory at Consolidated Mine
No. 14 in Illinois (10). The mine waste was highly eroded and gene-
rated an acidic surface discharge. Twenty-seven wells were placed in
and around the disposal site in order to monitor the shallow ground-
water system. Thirteen residential wells in the area were also sampled.
The water table was about 3 m below the ground surface near the
waste pile and sloped away from the pile in all directions. At wells
within 130 m of the waste pile the pH values were low, while acidity,
sulfates, and several metal ions were extremely high. At one particular
well near the waste pile, the pH was 2.4 and acidity, sulfate, and alumi-
num concentrations were 8370 mg/1, 2722 mg/1, and 980 mg/1, respecti-
vely. Values of iron, manganese, and zinc were recorded at 394 mg/1,
7.0 mg/1 and 123 mg/1, respectively. Water quality greatly improved at
distances greater than 130 m from the pile. Combinations of dispersion,
adsorption, cation exchange, and precipitation were cited as possible
processes involved in improving the water quality.
A joint study by Poland's Central Research and Design Institute
for Opencast Mining Poltegor and the United States Environmental
176
-------
Protection Agency, carried out in Poland, showed that coal "waste dis-
posal piles had a negative effect on groundwater quality (11). The
study, involving disposal of coal waste and fly ash, showed there was
significant contribution of sulfates, chlorides, sodium, potassium, boron
and other ions from the waste material to the groundwater.
Streams affected by drainage from poorly constructed coal waste
disposal sites are rendered useless for many miles. The most abvious
effect of such pollution is the destruction of aquatic life. Even after a
waste pile is reclaimed, the effects of silt accumulation on the bottom
impact the spawning areas of fish populations for many years. Such
streams, polluted by acid drainage and suspended materials, afford no
recreational use. They are basically unfit for cooling water, of no good
for irrigation, and require extensive treatment before they can serve as
a domestic or industrial water supply.
The impact of coal waste disposal on land use is basically one of
reducing future alternatives for development. In some cases reclamation
efforts have turned waste piles and slurry ponds into pasture land,
building sites, and recreational areas, but these examples are in the
minority. It is expensive to correct a problem area after the damage has
been done. Proper planning and construction, aimed toward pollution
control and post-reclamation land use, is a proven, effective tool for
solving the land area problems associated with disposal of waste or
toxic-forming materials. Often the flat surface of a coal waste disposal
area can serve as an economic asset in mountainous or steeply slo-
ping terrain where flat building sites are scarce.
CURRENT PRACTICE
The culm bank; refuse pile, or coal waste heap was, in the early
coal mining days, the easiest spot for random dumping. It may have
been adjacent to the preparation plant, over the nearest hillside, or
in a stream bed. Our failure to properly plan and engineer these waste
sites has caused many of them to be environmental hazards. Today,
the careful construction of refuse piles is essential.
177
-------
Various methods have been employed to transport material to the
waste dump (±2,13). Each system was developed to take advantage of
the terrain and to apply to the type and quantity of waste material pro-
duced. Small size wastes in slurry form are readily pumped to the dis-
posal site, while coarser fractions must be transported in some other
manner. The most popular haulage technique today for coarse wastes
is by truck. It is essential that the disposal site be well shaped and
compacted. Ground machinery should be used in conjuction with trucks
to spread and compact material. A sheep's-foot roller greatly increases
the effectiveness of the dozer in compacting thin layers. On many active
disposal sites the truck drivers are being encouraged to drive to the
dumping location on a slightly different course each trip .to aid in com-
paction. Pans or scrapers also can be used effectively to spread the
material in thin layers, to form the waste pile, and to compact it.
The aerial tram is a popular haulage tool for solid wastes in
mountainous regions, but it does a rather poor job of forming a stable
pile. As the material drops, it tends to segregate into coarse and fine
fractions. The side slopes rest at a steep natural angle of repose,
and there is relatively no compaction. A dozer, when used in conjun-
ction with a tram is helpful in building the pile, but can accomplish
less compaction than when trucks are used for haulage. Belt haulage
of waste also requires some type of ground machinery to spread and
compact material at the site.
Many of the huge anthracite culm banks in Pennsylvania were
formed by dumping material over the end of the pile, and raising the
road or mine car tracks as the pile grew. Often these piles burned
because of their porous structure and low density they were riddled
by erosion and polluted the surface drainage with silt. Excessive sur-
face acidity or heat from the sun kept most of them devoid of vegeta-
tion (14).
The angular character of coal waste particles or refuse often allows
it to rest at a steep slope. One anthracite refuse pile in Eastern Penn-
sylvania held 35 degree side slopes; bituminous coal refuse on a
178
-------
hillside dump in Eastern Kentucky held 30 degree side slopes. These
slopes are often subjected to high pressure from winds, and allow air
to be forced through the pile contributing to pyrite oxidation and spon-
taneous combustion.
Since combustion and acid mine drainage require oxygen in their
processes, oxygen most logically is the factor to control at the waste
disposal site. With regard to runoff and leachate, oxygen is necessary
to convert pyritic material into ferrous iron and sulfuric acid. The acid
in turn increases the ability of the water to dissolve heavy metals and
to carry them to the receiving stream. The density of the pile, size of
material, water content, and side slopes contribute to the rate of oxy-
gen entry.
Por stabilization and control of the refuse pile, it is necessary to
compact the material as it is placed. This reduces the air voids, incre-
ases the bearing capacity, and reduces the possibility of slides and
slope failures due to excessive water content. To aid in halting the
movement of oxygen, a sealant (such as plastic, cementing agents, clay)
can be placed over the pile (is). Vegetation on a refuse bank further
aids in trapping oxygen, because the humus that develops forms a
moisture barrier and demands oxygen itself. In certain instances it may
prove feasible to seal only the sides of a compacted pile, thereby
cutting off most of its oxygen supply. Various research projects are
currently investigating a host of surface sealants, including gypsum,
wood chips, fly ash, waste cement, and various types of vegetation
and earth materials (16,17,6).
In response to the Buffalo Creek Disaster of 1972, the Mining
Enforcement and Safety Administration published design and inspection
manuals (18,19) to establish uniform construction and regulatory pro-
cedures for coal refuse disposal facilities. The design manual covers
such topics as the origin of coal refuse and waste, classification of
disposal techniques, general planning and design techniques, geotech-
nical investigations, hydrologic considerations, environmental factors,
construction procedures, and monitoring systems. The Administration
179
-------
classifies disposal facilities as impounding (cross-valley, side-hill,
diked pond, incised pond, other) or non-impounding (valley-fill, cross-
valley, side—hill, ridge, heaped, other) structures to facilitate monitoring
and inspection. The current regulations of the Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act of 1977 do not cover disposal of coal refuse
except in surface mine pits or other backfilled and regraded areas.
The final regulations are expected to cover environmental and safety
considerations in off-site disposal of waste in ponds, piles, or various
types of valley-fills.
Recently, many mining companies have begun to return waste ma-
terials, refuse, and toxic—forming materials to the surface mine pit for
disposal when feasible. They have made efforts to integrate disposal
and reclamation plans to safely and effectively solve their coal waste
problem. A pronounced advantage of returning waste to the surface pit
is the fact that no pile or fill is constructed and no other land distur-
bance is required beyong the actual mine pit. Operations of this type
are extremely well suited to area mining operations with onsite coal
preparation or washing facilities.
Returning coal wastes to the worked— out voids in underground
mines is much less common. Backfilling has long been common prac-
tice in metal mines, but it is rare for coal mines (20). Some hydra-
ulic backfilling is accomplished, however, in abandoned mines for sub-
sidence control. In this case, utilization and disposal of coal waste
materials is combined into one operation.
The initial regulations (2l) published by the Department of the
Interior in support of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
of 1977 set forth partial guidance for future waste disposal operations.
The regulations basically provide for covering all toxic-forming, acid-
forming, combustible, and waste materials with a minimum of 1.2 m of
nontoxic material as a part of the backfilling and grading operation of
a mine site. In addition, it must be demonstrated to the regulatory
authority that the use of waste materials will not adversely affect water
quality, flow, vegetation, or stability in the backfilled area, and that the
180
-------
use of waste -win not present a public health hazard. All activities
associated with the mining operation are to be conducted in such a
manner as to minimize impacts to the prevailing hydrologic balance.
The section of the regulations dealing with disposal of spoil and waste
materials in areas other than the mine workings or excavations does
not currently deal with waste or toxic forming materials except to spe-
cifically prohibit disposal of combined spoil and waste in valley or head—
of—hollow fills.
Water quality standards set forth in the regulations apply to all
surface drainage from the disturbed area. This provision would nece-
ssarily include waste materials being returned to the mine pit for back-
filling and disposal. After being routed through a sedimentation pond or
series of pond, the surface drainage must meet effluent limitations as
indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. Point source coal mine effluent
limitations
Effluent
Characteristics
Iron, Total
Manganese, Total
Total Suspended Solids
PH
Maximum
Allowable
7.0 mg/1
4.O mg/1
70.0 mg/1
Range 6-9
Average of Daily
Values for 3O
Consecutive Dis-
charge Days
3.5 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
35.0 mg/1
There are exceptions to the limitations on a case-by-case basis for
some western states and in cases where high manganese levels are
encountered. In addition, discharges from the disturbed area within the
permit area, resulting from precipitation in excess of the 10-year,
24-hour event will not be subject to the above effluent limitations.
The use of coal waste material in dam construction, and any dam
to impound waste materials must be directly approved and supervised
by the regulatory authority to ensure stability, safety, and operating
characteristics.
181
-------
DISPOSAL RESEARCH
In order to develop more advanced and economical methods of coal
refuse disposal and abandonment of disposal areas, various research
and demonstration projects have been undertaken by state and federal
agencies and private industry. One such project was accomplished as
a joint venture between EPA and the Consolidation Coal Company at
the New Kathleen Mine in Illinois (23). An abandoned refuse pile was
regraded and covered with soil material to determine the effectiveness
of different thicknesses of earth cover in reducing acid runoff from the
refuse. In general, it was found that acid production was controlled by
covering and revegetating the pile and that no significant difference was
observed among 0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 m soil covers. Before reclamation,
runoff from the pile had a high iron content with a pH value of 2.0.
After completion of the project, the effluent from the pile was of good
quality with but a few tiny acidic seeps along the toe.
Two problems related to the surface soil covering were encountered
in the reclamation of the pile. First, although no significant water
quality or vegetation difference was detected among the various soil
cover thicknesses there was a problem in controlling the 0.3 m soil
application. With such a thin soil blanket, the construction equipment
gouged some spots of the pile and overcovered others. Secondly, seve-
ral of the side slopes on the pile were so steep that gullies eroded
into the waste material. Later, remedial action was necessary to repair
the damage.
Prom a feasibility study conducted by EPA and the State of Indiana
at the Greene-Sullivan State forest, it was pointed out that leveling
and covering large refuse areas is extremely expensive (23). The pro-
ject area consisted of a large refuse pile and adjacent acid lake. The
restoration program was to include grading, covering, revegetating and
permanently inundating portions of the refuse. These procedures were
designed to break the cycle of erosion, exposure of pyritic material,
oxidation, acid formation, and erosion. The lake had a pH value of 2.8,
with sulfate, iron, and magnesium concentrations of 1,700 mg/1, 100 mg/1,
182
-------
and 100 mg/1 respectively. The demonstration phase of the project was
not accomplished because of the prohibitive cost.
In 1971 the Peabody Coal Company and Illinois Department of
Mines and Minerals began a cooperative study for direct seeding of
coal refuse after lime was added to soil (24). Seed and fertilizer were
added at two study areas but growth at the end of the first growing
season was almost neglible. Additional plots were vegetated with incre-
ased lime application rates and these showed more favorable results.
One area also received a 15-cm soil layer in addition to a lime treat-
ment of 48 tonne/ha. This area showed what seemed to be superior
vegetation compared to the others that received lime only. The study
showed that vegetation could survive on refuse material with proper
lime neutralization. Initial results showed that about 11 tonne/ha of lime,
incorporated to a 15-cm depth, was necessary for each one percent
of sulfur in the refuse material.
Disposal of fine coal refuse is also receiving some research and
demonstration efforts. Pine refuse in slurry form may be dewatered
mechanically and placed in a waste landfill, dewatered in a holding
pond for future landfill disposal, or permanently impounded in slurry
form. With many preparation plants now recycling the slurry water,
excavation of settling or storage ponds is becoming more common. The
fine coal refuse is, however, difficult to excavate, difficult to haul by
truck, and nearly impossible to compact in a fill.
An approach to the problem, which seems to be gaining popularity,
is to add a stabilizing agent to the slurry material in order to help
it again shear strength and reduce its permeability. The Island Creek
Coal Company and Dravo Lime Company have demonstrated that treated
refuse can be excavated and used in a landfill (25). The slurry ma-
terial, treated with Calcilox, was handled, spread and compacted with
conventional equipment immediately after being excavated from the
holding lagoon.
183
-------
COAL WASTE UTILIZATION
Utilization of coal refuse and waste materials offers several advan-
tages over mare disposal. As a by-product material, coal waste can
be used as a fill or construction material, processed for use as an
aggregate material, or supplied as a raw feed for extraction of coal
and other elements carried in it.
Use of coal mine waste material for backfilling of mine workings
in the United States dates back to at least 1864 when a church in
Pennsylvania was saved from coal mine subsidence by stowing prepa-
ration waste in the void beneath the building. The practices of contro-
lled placement and blind flushing of refuse into abandoned mines has
continued to be a control technique for subsidence. Because of the
porous and compressible nature of the backfilled material, the use of
a binding agent such as portland cement, would be necessary to con-
sider a coal waste backfill as a total subsidence prevention technique.
In 1972 and 1973, the Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the
Interior, undertook a full-scale demonstration of coal waste backfilling
(26). Nearly 344,900 cubic meters of refuse were pumped in water-
slurry form into mine voids below Scranton, Pennsylvania. Pive injec-
tion boreholes were used with a network of observation holes to minitor
progress of the operation. Pressure at the slurry pump delivering ma-
terial to the holes was maintained at a gauge reading of 4.2 to
6.7 g/sq cm. The waste material ranged in size up to 12.7 mm.
The work demonstrated that coal mine waste could not only pro-
vide some measure of protection against subsidence, but that utilization
of waste material eliminates the need for surface disposal. This secon-
dary environmental benefit also extends to a reduction in air pollution
from burning of abandoned waste piles and reduction of surface water
pollution emanating from acid drainage. Hopefully, the backfilling pro-
cess will effectively seal any acid generating materials from oxygen
contact and thereby eliminate any future water leachate problems.
184
-------
At the Orient No. 4 mine in Illinois, the Freeman United Coal Mi-
ning Company conducted a similar demonstration of stowing mine waste
underground (20). Their work differed from that previously cited in
that the mine was active and not abandoned. Since 80 % of the refuse
material at Orient No, 4 was less than 1mm in size, it was pumped
directly from a preparation plant to a worked out section of the mine.
The refuse slurry was fed to the underground void by gravity at 5.3 %
solids. It appears that the total extra cost of injecting the slurry under-
ground as opposed to ponding it on the surface was about £>0.60 per
metric ton. Even with the extra crushing required., the costs of retur-
ning both coarse and fine refuse to the mine void may be economically
feasible where surface disposal systems are either impractical or expen
sive.
Various other coal refuse utilization projects have been undertaken
in the United States. In Pennsylvania, refuse has been used for hig-
hway fills and shoulders, and has been reprocessed and leveled for
equipment parks and industrial building sites. A major concern about
the use of coal waste is its potential for water pollution. Any utilization
project must consider the composition of the refuse material, its size,
and strength.
The Extraction Technology Branch of EPA performed an in-house
study of coal waste material used as a base course for construction
of a parking apron. Three test sections were installed to investigate
the water quality of leachate from an all-refuse base, a refuse - fly
ash base, and a refuse - fly ash - lime base. After five years the
latter two areas exhibited a yearly average leachate pH value greater
than 6.0, and iron and aluminium contents were less than 1 mg/1 and
15 mg/1, respectively. The test section using an all-refuse base con-
tinues to leach acid water with high metals content. These preliminary
results indicate that the refuse needs to be blended with an alkaline
material before use. Though the water quality of leachate from the all-
refuse area is relatively poor, only a very small quantity collected;
thus drainage protection, encapsulation or surface sealing might serve
to protect the environment from adverse impacts.
185
-------
Considerable research and development efforts have gone into the
utilization of coal mine waste and refuse in a slightly altered form.
Through sintering or roasting processes, coal refuse can be converted
to a fairly inert, durable, lightweight aggregate for use as a medium
for vegetation or construction material. When coal waste is subjected
to high temperatures, on the order of 1300 C, sulfur tends to gasify,1
volatile materials are driven off, and carbonates and organics are
decomposed. Other constituents are either reduced or oxidized leaving
a stable product which is sterile, chemically inert, and full of fine
holes. Studies at the University of Kentucky (2?) have demonstrated
that this type of product from coal refuse serves well as a growing
media for containerized plants and does not release chemicals which
are toxic to the plants.
The material described above is similar to the incinerated refuse
produced at burning refuse and gob piles. Por years, incinerated re-
fuse or "Red Dog" has been excavated for use as a highway fill ma-
terial and skid preventive road coating. This naturally occurring ma-
terial may vary considerably in physical and chemical composition,
however, from one refuse dump to another.
Other studies at the University of Kentucky were undertaken to
investigate the use of sintered coal refuse in portland cement concrete,
bituminous concrete, and concrete blocks (28). This lightweight aggre-
gate performed well in all three applications. Its strength was slightly
lower than that of control specimens constructed with limestone aggre-
gate, but this is more than offset by the benefits of the lower unit
weight of the sintered coal refuse mixtures. One benefit noted in the
use of coal refuse for sintered aggregate production was the extra
heating value from coal left in the refuse by the cleaning process.
Coal refuse material is also being used in the United States as a
resource for additional yields of coal and for a source of other raw
materials. Advanced processing methods and equipment have made
possible the reclamation of thousands of tons of coal from old waste
piles and slurry ponds. In the area of fine coal recovery, tremendous
186
-------
resources are available from disposal sites where fine coal was placed
as an unuseable waste. Anthracite coal waste banks are especially
suited for reprocessing because of the relative cleanliness of the fuel
from an environmental standpoint and the economic value of the product.
Immediately proceeding the mine backfilling work at Scranton, Pennsyl-
vania, the refuse piles were reprocessed for a second yield of steam
coal.
Aside from coal itself, aluminium seems to be the next most econo-
mically recoverable component of coal waste. The U.S. Bureau of Mines
has found that ash from most any type of coal refuse contains about
24 % A12
-------
6. Kosowski, Z.V. Control of Mine Drainage from Coal Mine Mineral
Wastes, Phase II. EPA-R2-73-230. Office of Research and Monito-
ring U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,' Washington, D.C., May,
1973, 83 pp.
7. Martin, J.P., Quality of Effluents from Coal Refuse Piles, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Paper given at the First Sym-
posium On Mine and Preparation Plant Refuse Disposal, Louisville,
Kentucky, October 1974, 12 pp.
8. Caruccio, P.T., Estimating the Acid Potential of Coal Mine Refuse;
The Ecology of Resource Degradation and Renewal, Edited by
Chadwick and Goodman, Blackweel Scientific Publications, pp.197-
-205.
9. Caruccio, P.T., et. al., Pale ©environment of Coal and Its Relation
to Drainage Quality. EPA-600/7-77-067. Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio, June, 1977, 108 pp.
10. Schubert, J.P., R.D. Olsen, and S.D. Zellmer, Monitoring the Effects
of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation on Water Quality in
Southwestern Illinois. Paper presented at the Forth Joint Conferen-
ce on Sensing of Environmental Pollutants, American Chemical
Society, 1977, 8 pp.
11. Libicki, J., Impact of GOB and Power Plant Ash Disposal on Ground
Water Quality and Its Control. Paper given at the Third Symposium
on Coal Preparation, Louisville, Kentucky, October, 1977, 20 pp.
12. Coalgate, J.L., D.J. Akers, and R.W. Frum. Gob Pile Stabilization,
Reclamation, and Utilization. Office of Coal Research, DOI, Report
No. 75. Coal Research Bureau School of Mines, West Virginia
University, Washington, D.C. May 1973. 127 pp.
13. Hummer, H.D. and L.J. Vogel. Refuse Removal and Disposal, pp.
16.3-16.37 in Leonard and Mitchell, eds., Coal Preparation. The
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgaical, and Petroleum Engi-
neers, Inc., New York. 1968.
188
-------
14. Schramm, J.R. Plant Colonization Studies on Black Wastes from
Anthracite Mining in Pennsylvania. Trans,1 Am. Phil. Soc. 56:30 -
40, February 1966.
15. Scott, R.B. Sealing of Coal Refuse Piles. Project Report - Mining
Pollution Control Branch. National Environmental Research Center,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. July 1973,
15 pp.
16. Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation. U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Pittsburg, Pa, Information Circular 8576. 36 pp.
17. Wahler, W.A. Coal Wastes: What Can Be Done? Coal Mining and
Processing, pp. 71-74, 102, 104, January 1974.
18. E. D'Appolonia Consulting Engineers, Inc., Engineering and Design
Manual - Coal Refuse Disposal Facilities, Mining Enforcement and
Safety Administration. Washington, D.C.
19. E. D'Appolonia Consulting Engineers, Inc., Coal Refuse Inspection
Manual, Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration. Washington,
D.C. April 1975.
20. Jankovsky, C.K., Disposal of Coal Refuse Slurry Underground.
Mining Congress Journal :6871, September, 1977.
21. Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement Provisions, U.S.
Department of the Interior. Federal Register, Vol. 42, No. 239,
December 13, 1977, Part II. pp. 62639-62715.
22. Truax—Tracer Coal Company, Control of Mines Drainage from Coal
Mine Minerals Wastes, Phase 1. 14010 DDK. Office of Research
and Monitoring, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C. August, 1971, 148 pp.
23. Greene-Sullivan Demonstration Project, Draft Report of Grant No.
S802593, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,1 Cincinnati, Ohio
November, 1977.
24. Medrick, C. and A. F. Grandt, Lime Treatment Experiments - Gob
Revegetation in Illinois. Paper Presented at the Illinois Mining
Institute.
189
-------
25. Snyder, G.A., P.A. Zuhl, and E.P. Burch, Solidification of Pine
Coal Refuse. Mining Congress Journal :43-46. December,1 1977.
26. Allen, Alice S., and C.W. Anderson, Recent Developments in the
Use of Mine Wastes for Subsidence Control. Paper presented
before the Pourth Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium. Chicago,
Illinois, May, 1974, 9 pp.
27. Buxton, J.W., D.E. Knavel, and G. Yost, Sintered Coal Refuse as
a Growing Medium for Plants. Paper presented at the Third Ken-
tucky Coal Refuse Disposal and Utilization Seminar, Lexington,
Kentucky, May 1977, 4 pp.
28. Rose, J.G. Sintered Coal Refuse as a Construction Aggregate.
Paper presented at the Third Kentucky Coal Refuse Disposal and
Utilization Seminar, Lexington, Kentucky, May 1977, 6 pp.
29. Kealy, D. et, al., Those Waste Banks Could Be Sources for Puelj
Alumina. Coal Mining and Processing :46-49. August 1976.
190
-------
RECLAMATION PRACTICES FOR COAL REFUSE
AND FLY ASH DISPOSAL
by
Wtadyslaw Wysocki
INTR OD UC TI ON
Coal mining industry and power industry using coal produce con-
siderable quantities of wastes.
In 1977, the total quantity of coal refuse in Poland reached 46 mill-
o
ion m (4). Every ton of coal is excavated with 0.41 ton of waste, and
in some mines this index increases up to 1,4O t. It is predicted that the
production of coal refuse will continue to increase, and by 1990 the
production of wastes will rise to about 56 million m yearly. Today,
deep mines make up some 37.6 % of the total coal refuse. The contri-
bution of coal processing plants equals 60.2 %, and that of the mine
boiler houses (fly ash and bottom ash) is 2,2 %. Hydraulic stowing has
a considerable part in a reasonable utilization of coal wastes (17 miUrn ).
3
About 26 mil. m of wastes are yearly stored on disposals. The ave-
rage height of the piles is 10 m, which increases the area of storage
by more than 260 ha yearly (incidental terrains not included).
The areas of disposal for coal refuse generated by the coal indus-
try can be-classified into 2 groups (9):
A - tailing ponds are used for the storage of hydraulicalty offtaken
waste sludge generated during coal dressing (floatation or washery)
in treatment plants; the deposited sludge is compacted with time
Dr. Wiadysiaw Wysocki- Principal Investigator, POLTEGOR
Rosenbergow 25, Wroclaw
191
-------
due to the loading exerted by the superimposed layers; related to
the ground level, these disposals are either above-level disposals
(staging) or sublevel disposals.
B - disposals contain solid wastes generated in deep mining and me-
chanical treatment plants.
The classification of disposals is as follows and depends on (9):
a) the location (in relation to the place of waste production):
- disposals on plant sites (mines) belong to a particular mine,
usually cover a small surface area and are situated in urbanized
terrains,
- central disposals are located outside the urbanized area; they
are utilized by a number of mining companies, and serviced by
a special company;
b) their shape:
- the sublevel disposals, whose crown tops flush with the ground
level or are below the ground level (depressions in the land as
caused by subsidence in effect of deep coal mining, or adopted
roof fall operations),
- the above-level disposals with crown tops above the level of
the adjacent lands; included here are also cone-shaped disposals;
c) the type of the material stored:
- deep mine sterile rocks accompanying coal (clay rocks, mudsto-
nes, sandstones, gritstones, limestones, tuffites )
- sterile separated in dry processing plants
- washery wastes
- non-homogeneous combinations of the waste materials mentioned
above;
d) thermal activity
- the not overheated, thermally passive disposals, constructed of
inflammable materials
192
-------
- overheated disposals, in •which the process of coal substance
combustion was completed,
- thermally active disposals (burning, aflame) or containing large
admixtures of coaly substance»
- thermally passive disposals, with fires put out, or cool;
e) the grain size of the materials stored and the degree of weathering,
with emphasis on the soil content and susceptibility to weathering
processes.
Ply ash and bottom ash produced by power plants, as well as
heat and power generating plants fired with bituminous coal or lignite,
form a special group of waste materials. The quantity of fly ash and
bottom ash generated from bituminous coal approaches 17.5 million tons,
and that generated from lignite equals about 12 million tons per year.
Considering that the average height of the disposal is 10 m, it is evi-
dent that additional surface areas of at least 3OO ha will be needed
each year for the storage of these waste materials. The production of
fly ash and bottom ash, however, will continue to increase, and in 1990
is predicted to exceed 30 million tons and 20 million tons for bituminous
coal and lignite, respectively.
Wastes generated by the power industry are classified to two gro-
ups, depending on the coal burnt (9):
a) ashes produced from burning bituminous coal, and
b) ashes produced from burning lignite.
The waste materials referred to as (b) are characterized by various
chemical composition and may therefore be divided into sulphatic-calci-
ferous ashes (from the Miocene deposits in Central Poland), into alumi-
nous silicates (from Miocene deposits in the region of Turoszow) and
into calcium aluminous ones (from the Belchatow Miocene deposits).
Considering their pH' reaction, the wastes of interest are either alkaline
(those from Central Poland and Belchatow) or neutral (those from the
Turoszow region).
193
-------
There are two methods of storing and transportation of those was-
tes from the power plants;
a) wet storage with the use of hydraulic transportation - the disposals
are characterized by flat, even surfaces, the escarpments are made
of mineral soils (lower layers) and have a considerable grain dis-
tribution which is due to the sedimentation process of material in
the water,
b) dry storage with the use of pneumatic transport or haulage - the
surface of the disposals is fairly irregular, and the chemical com-
position and the grain size of the waste materials stored are non-
homogeneous.
With respect to location two types of ash disposals are distinguis-
hed:
- above-level disposals with escarpments made of soily material or of
consolidated ash, and
- sublevel disposals located in land depressions.
CONSTRUCTION OP DISPOSALS AND THE RECLAMATION
REQUIREMENTS
Considering the serious environmental hazard created by toxic -
waste disposal on a site near the power plant (air pollution, contami-
nation of ground -and surface waters, run-off etc.), a reasonable mana-
gement of those waste materials requires that they be disposed off on
large central sites. Abandoned old open pits and waste land, depressed
and with no run-off, as well as arable and forest lands of a poor soil
quality are especially fit for this purpose. Forbidden is disposals lo-
cation on arable and forest lands of good quality. Forbidden also is
planning of such disposals in protection zones of springs and water
intakes and in flood areas of rivers.
The design of hazardous waste disposals should include an opti-
mum utilization of transporting and stacking machines, to achieve the
194
-------
required geometrical shapes which will allow a later reclamation of the
surface with minimum earth work, and grading. The storage of wastes
is conducted in a manner affording an eventual future utilization of the
materials stored as secondary raw materials.
Hence, it is required that the wastes be disposed of separately:
a) with the exception when a combination of different waste materials
is indispensible for a reasonable disposal or management, and
b) the properties determining the future utilization of the wastes be
preserved.
To prevent their vicinity the following safeguards are considered:
l) Run-off and seepage water can be discharged to the superficial
water system, if either no toxic substances are present or appear
in admissible concentrations; in any other case a pretreatment is
needed, to prevent contamination.
2) In the adjacent land the ground water table should be maintained
as required by agricultural or forest use of such terrains.
3) Aquifers should be protected against entering the seepage water
especially when the disposal subsoil is permeable.
4) The site for hazardous waste disposal should be managed in such
a manner that no emissions of particulates and gases to the air
in excess concentrations take place; this can be achieved by con-
solidation of the surface and planting of protective woody species.
ASH RECLAMATION
Coal refuse produced by the coal industry can be classified from
the petrographic point of view as (2):
a) carbonaceous rocks (containing 32-70 % of coal derived from car-
bonaceous vegetation), which constitute about 5 % of wastes and
are characterized by the readiness to selWgnition;
b) argillaceous rocks (with predominant occurrence of clayey minerals
195
-------
such as kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite) of a low coal content;
c) sandy shales (with high quartz content), which occur in large
quantities and considerably affect the physical-chemical composi-
tion of the disposal stacks;
d) sandstone with a diversified grain size, less susceptible to weat-
hering;
e) gritstones very resistant to weathering;
f) calcacerous rocks occurring in small quantities, and
g) tuf files.
The size composition of the not overheated wastes is chiefly con-
tributed by the stony skeleton. Owing to the weathering process the
quantity of fine fractions increases, and is then leached out by water.
During the storing operation the waste materials become scattered,
placing itself so that the bottom layers chiefly contain coarse materials,
and the top layers include first of all fine fractions. If the disposals
contain considerable amounts of carbonaceous substances and show a
porous structure facilitating gas exchange, a weathering of pyrites and
heat emission take place, which in turn give rise to the oxidation of
coal and contribute to a further increase in temperature. Under favo-
rable conditions this thermal activity develops toward external parts of
the disposal, to cause open fire. The burning process initiates a number
of chemical reactions, which change the properties and composition of
the rocks. The pH reaction of the stored materials also undergoes
variations.
Recent disposals are characterized by a marked variation in pH
reaction. This variation in a horizontal arrangement - owing to the
effect of weathering and leaching - restores its equilibrium in a relatively
short time, and in the vertical section under goes slow changes. The
high concentration of salts does not permit higher vegetation growth.
The weathering of pyrites causes the acidification of the medium, caused
by the formation of sulfuric acid transforming calcium carbonates into
gypsum. The pH of the "soil" substrate is the resultant of weathering,
desalination and acidification (2,5).
196
-------
The nutrient content of the coal refuse depends on the thermal
activity and age of the disposals, as well as on the processes mentio-
ned above. P0^ and N accumulation is low, whereas the K 0 content
<£ O ^
is satisfactory.
The properties of the power-plants' refuse depend both on the
type of the coal fired and on the disposal method (7,8). Ashes from
bituminous coal contain about 40 % of silicon dioxide, and considerable
amounts of iron and aluminium oxides. The non-combustible coal varies
from a few to several percents. The pH is strongly alkaline (12,8) and
decreases with time. The nutrient content is low except for potassium.
The salinity of ashes is high. Owing to the disadvantageous grain size,
these wastes are characterized by decreased "water-^ur" and sorption
properties (low ability to store water available for plant intakes).
Ashes from lignite are more differentiated, as they depend on the cal-
cium, magnesium and boron concentrations.
The properties of the ashes are chiefly responsible for the poor
usability of these wastes in vegetation growth, which manifests in a
sparse natural succession. The surfaces of the disposals are bare and
highly susceptible to water and air erosion, until man interferes to improve
these undesirable conditions.
FIRE PROTECTION
There is a number of methods for fire prevention in coal waste
disposals or for the prophylaxis of fire control (l) . The methods
listed below are amongst the most effective.
a) Surface covering of the centers of the open fire with a scaling
clay layer (O.3 - 0.5 m thick) and a compaction of this layer.
b) Injection of the sealing pulp into cased holes 168 mm in dia.; the
composition of pulp: water 56 %, dry components 44 % (including
smoke-box dust 20 %, limestone dust 19.5 %, bentonite about 2.2 %
and water-glass about 2.3 %); spacing of holes, one per 8.6 m
of the surface.
197
-------
c) Injection of whitewash in 7 percent concentrations in pipes sunk
2
into disposals with pile-drivers; spacing of pipes, one per 7 m
of the disposal surface; diam. of pipes, 52-80 mm.
d) Application of clayey mud, covering the crown top and slopes of
the disposal, the sealing layer being 0.3 m thick, and that on the
slopes 0.5 to 1.0 m thick; transport of pulp with rigid and flexible
pipelines.
e) Compaction of waste with the use of heavy vibratory roller of
VT-8 type on graded tops and on slopes (maximal slope gradient
1:5), and surface covering with 2-6 layers of waste material, each
0.4-1.0 m thick, with simultaneous compaction.
f) Gradual saturation of old conical disposals with whitewash using
perforated pipes placed along the slopes of the disposals.
To protect newly formed disposals of wastes encumbered with
coaly fractions, the methods described above and the sealing with clay
or silt layers are employed,
DUSTING PROTECTION
To prevent secondary dust the following procedures are applied
with variable success:
a) cover with film forming or binding substances,
b) biological consolidation,
c) combination of both methods.
The cover with film-forming or binding substances is based on the
consolidation of surface through:
- spraying of film-forming substances such as asphalt emulsion, curasol,
hlhls, osacryl, oil-water emulsions, water solutions of elastomers;
- surface covering with a layer of mineral soil (fertile soil, sand, clay).
The biological methods used for this purpose are based on the
consolidation of the disposal surfaces with herbaceous vegetation
(usually perennial) or with woody species. Grasses and perennial
legumes are most often grown on disposals.
198
-------
Present-day recommendations involve biological methods in a com-
bination with initial surface consolidation with film-producing substances,
preventing dusting until the vegetation is fully developed.
A mechanical system was tested for spraying mixtures of consoli-
dating emulsions, spreading mineral fertilizers and seeding seeds (hydra-
ulically on pneumatically). Experimental studies on ash slope consoli-
dation have revealed that the cover with grass mats, cut from lawns
outside the disposal, yields the best results. A detailed discussion both
of the treatment procedure and. plant species selection is presented in
a number of reports (2,3,5,7).
PRELIMINARY RECLAMATION
A reasonable management of the disposals depends first of all on
the possibilities of productive soil creation and availability of the terrains
for future users. If for example, a disposal situated high above the
ground level does not meet the agricultural requirements it may be uti-
lized as a recreational area (lawns, garden plots, sports). Large flat
disposals seem to be most suitable for agricultural uses. If the reclaimed
area contains large quantities of less fertile soil, it may be utilized for
afforestation.
According Polish Standards preliminary reclamation for agricultural
or forest utilization comprises (with reference to the new disposals)
the following procedures:
a) removal of the top layers of fertile soil, or other potentially pro-
ductive strata, from the areas to be occupied by disposals and a
safe storage of this soil for the needs of future reclamation,
b) implementation of reclamation requirements as specified in chapter 2,
during the construction and exploitation of the disposal and the
storage of wastes in a manner ensuring a proper profile of the
crown tops and slopes,
c) final grading of crown tops of all above-level and sublevel waste
disposals and their slopes in a manner permitting their use in
199
-------
accordance with the determined direction of final utilization,
d) control of water conditions in the adjacent terrains in a manner
ensuring an adequate level of the ground water table for the
available utilization of these terrains,
e) utilization of top soils (as discussed in (a) ) for the technological
and biological consolidation of the slopes, and for the reproduction
of soils on the crown tops,
f) reproduction of soils on the crown tops,
g) construction of the service road system
h) control of surface waters excess in accordance with the environ-
ment protection rules, to prevent contamination of the adjacent
land.
The preliminary reclamation procedures should not be carried out
without prior clearance with the future users and with the local Autho-
rities.
The crown tops of the disposals are formed in a manner ensuring
a gravitational run -off spring waters and storm waters or of waters
drifted from the adjacent higher terrains if any. Por this purpose, the
surface is so arranged that the main draining ditches have a minimum
gradient of 1-2 per mille, and particular drift faces are inclined in the
direction of the draining ditches with a minimum gradient of 1-2 percent.
The gradients in the micro-relief cannot exceed 10 % on agricultural
land, and 15 % in forest type land. Low slopes of sublevel disposals,
connecting the adjacent land, should be formed with a gradient of about
16 percent (l:6). The slope systems of the above-level disposals can
be left without additional earth work, as it could cause a damage to the
technological and biological consolidation.
The method of soil reproduction depends on the characteristics
of the wastes. The disposals of inactive or weakly acid wastes, with
a significant content of fine fractions may require an enrichment with
organic matter and nutrients for the vegetation growth. Bottom ash and
coal refuse characterized by decreased water-air and chemical properties
2OO
-------
may either need an insulation with fertile soil, or an enrichment with
floating parts, to improve the ability of water storage and the sorption
capacity, as well as the content of macro- and microelements. Most
difficult for reclamation are strongly alkaline, saline ashes and the
saline or strongly acidified coal wastes. The only effective method of
reclamation is then the production of new cover soil through the insu-
lation with a layer of fertile soil. This treatment procedure is very
expensive. It is therefore advisable to minimize the thickness of the
insulating layer. The results obtained in Poland, as well as in other
European countries, show, that the minimal layer thickness required
varies from 0.3 to 0.5 m for agricultural reclamation, and from 1.9 to
2.0 m for forest reclamation.
Larger thickness es are adopted for more toxic formations and in
the in growth of vegetation less resistant to the influence of a toxic
substance. This is to emphasize that for the needs of agricultural recla-
mation there are higher requirements regarding the quality of the insu-
lating soil.
The surface drainage of the reclaimed disposals should be desig-
ned in a way which permit discharge the surface water at one point,
to control the degree of pollution with toxic substances and suspended
solids. If these substances occur in very high the superficial water
should be subject either to a treatment procedure or to dilution. In the
case of soil production with technical methods, or in the case of soil
neutralization, the draining ditches should be conducted in a non-toxic
medium.
SPECIFIC RECLAMATION
Specific reclamation is designed for agricultural and forest resto-
ration and comprises the following procedures:
a) the control of hydrological conditions on the of the crown tops and
slopes - where a necessity arises to perform additional operations
following preliminary of elementary reclamation; for disposals erec-
ted above the ground level the construction of systems for both
201
-------
observation and adjustment of the ground water table according
to the needs could be advised;
b) disposal (treatment) of toxic wastes (and particularly of ashes or
alkaline deep mine wastes) with chemical and biological methods;
these methods involve deconcentration of toxic substances by
leaching, additions of humic soils, peats, or bentonite etc., pH
changes by additions of acid materials; acid wastes are treated
with lime or alkaline ashes etc.;
c) fertilization of the refuse with the use of organic, mineral or com-
bined fertilizers, which contributes to the enrichment of the pro-
duced soils with organic substances and nutrients initiating and
intensifying biochemical processes (supply of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and other energy sources for microorganisms growth);
d) improvement of the physico-chemical and chemical properties of
the refuse and of the insulating layers by the application of agro-
meliorating treatment which increases the water and sorption capa-
cities, and produced the required structure for the soils formed;
e) introduction of vegetation to reproduce the biological conditions
on the crown tops and prevent wind and water erosion; it is re-
commended to introduce (during the first growth period) perennial
legumes and grasses in mixtures;
f) supplementary biological or mechanical-biological consolidation of
slopes together with their protection belts, utilizing their lining made
during the disposal exploitation, also of the dykes of tailing ponds
for high vegetation establishment; for planting of woody species
one should use top-quality seedlings of trees and shrubs resistant
to air pollution and sustaining the difficult soil conditions that occur
on the on slopes, where a mechanical production of the soils is
generally inhibited.
On the disposals already managed, as well as for the consolida-
tion and the establishment of greenery or land reclamation for other
purposes than agriculture and afforestation, any decision should be
202
-------
made in clearance with the user and local authorities.
A cheap method of temporary verdure planting on old conical
disposals with steep slopes and on disposals endangered by thermal
activity is to use vegetative of deciduous trees (3). Cuttings (sections
of shoots of the parent tree, 18-25 cm long and 0.8-1.8 cm thick with
few leaf buds) are planted with the aid of a sharp ended planter, and
on the slopes (due to the sliding of the material) with the aid of
shovels. Satisfactory results are obtained with poplar cuttings (Populus
hybrida 275).
CONCLUSIONS
The correct the reclamation procedure depends chiefly on the
method of soil reproduction. The application of an insulation layer of
productive soil is very expensive but has the advantage of facilitating
the neutralization and fertilization processes, and permits the introduc-
tion of a wide range of vegetation. Thus, there is an undoubtedly
greater certainty that the reclamation will be effective.
The investigations on the reclamation of coal and of power—plants
waste disposals point to greater possibilities of agricultural rather than
of forest re cultivation. It seems therefore advisable to assign the recla-
imed arable land to the production of industrial vegetation only, until
the toxic, substances contained in the refuse are rendered harmless
to humans and animals.
REFERENCES
1. Bystron H., Urbariski H. Metody gaszenia palq.cych sie. hatd
i neutralizacja ich szkodliwego oddzialywania na srodowisko.
Materialy konferencyjne: "Ochrona srodowiska naturalnego w gor-
nictwie we,glowym". Ed. Zarz. Gt. Stow. Inz. i Techn. Gornictwa,
Katowice 1977, p. 79-85.
203
-------
2. Greszta J., Morawski S. Rekultywacja niuzytkow poprzemyslowych.
Ed. PWRiL Warszawa 1972 pp. 264.
3. Harabin Z., Strzyszcz Z.: Zazielenienie zwalow stozkowych towa-
rzyszqcych gornictwu w^gla kamiennego. Ochrona Terenow Gorni-
czych 1973 nr 25, p. 5-7.
4. Kukucz J., Panas S.: Zagospodarowanie odpadow w gornictwie
w^jgla kamiennego. Materiaiy konferencyjne: "Ochrona srodowiska
naturalnego w gornictwie wqjglowym". Ed_ Zarz. Gl. Stow. Inz.
i Techn. Gornictwa Katowice 1977 p. 86-92.
5. Strzyszcz Z.: Chemiczne przemiany utworow karboriskich w aspek—
cie biologicznej rekultywacji i zagospodarowania centralnych zwa-
lowisk. Ed. Polska Akademia Nauk, Wroclaw - Warszawa 1978,
pp. 116.
6. Wysocki W.: Centralne skladowisko Kotlarnia i jego rekultywacja.
W: "Skladowanie i zagospodarowanie odpadow energetycznych
i hutniczych". Symposium. Ed. Geologiczne, Warszawa 1973.
p. 251-254.
7. Wysocki W.: Reclamation of alkaline ash piles and protection of
their environment against dusting (in print).
8. Wysocki W.: Rekultywacja skiadowisk popiolowych w energetyce.
Materiaiy konferencyjne: "Zagospodarowanie hald gorniczych,
terenow poeksploatacyjnych i innych nieuzytkow" - Kamien 1977,
Ed. NOT Stow. Inz. i Techn. Wodnych 1973, p. 86-108.
9. Wysocki W.: Wytyczne rekultywacji gruntow przeksztalconych
dzialalnosciq. przemyslowq.. Ed. POLTEGOR Wroclaw 1978, pp. 143.
204
-------
Some properties of mine wastes
Table 1
to
o
at
No. Specification
1 Grain size (%):
1.0 mm
1.0 mm
1.0-0.1 mm
0.1-0.02 mm
0.02 mm
2 pH (in KCl):
3 Salinity (mg NaCl/1 dm ):
4 Content of organic (%)'.
5 Content of assimilable components:
- f>2°5 after Egner (mg/100 g)
- K20 after Egner (mg/100 g)
- Mg (mg/lOO g)
6 Content of CaC03(%):
7 Content of microelements (ppm):
- B
- CU
- Mn
- Mo
- Zn
Central
Disposal
Brzezinka
Argilla-
ceous
schist after
4—6 years of
weathering
17.0
37
14
49
6.8-7.0
1.9-4.4
1O.6-11.9
0.9-1.3
42-49
35-52
0.0-0.2
4.8-14.5
6.6- 9.1
8-14
0.2-0.3
12-17
Central
Disposal
Bor-Zachod
Sandstone
(not wea-
thered)
12.0
60
11
29
7.1-7.5
0.6-1.1
11.5-12.5
0.3-0.6
33-40
12-15
O.O-0.2
1.7
8.0
3-4.5
0.04-0.09
10-13
Mine Szczygiowice
(tailings+mine
Waste ma-
terial (not
weathered)
43
56
14
30
7.2-7.6
1.2-1.7
9.0-31
0.2-3.0
0.9-5.4
33
0
2.0-2.7
7.7-8.3
0.6-0.9
0.3-0.4
4-57
wastes )
Waste ma-
terial (wea-
thered)
(4—6 years)
3-6
67
13
20
2.9-4.0
0.6
7.8-12
0.3-4.6
6.5-9.0
35
0
0.6
7.4-9.1
3.9-4.7
0.10-0.14
7-9
-------
Some properties of power industry wastes
Table 2
No. Specification
1. Grain size (%):
1 mm
1 mm:
1.0-0.1 mm
0.1-0.02 mm
0.02 mm
2 pH (in KCl)
10 o
° 3 Salinity (mg NaCl/ldm ):
4 Content of assimilable components
- P?OC - after Egner (mg/100 g)
- K_0 - after Egner (mg/100 g)
- Mg (mg/100 g)
5 Content of CaCO (%):
•J
6 Content of microelements (ppm):
- B
- Cu
- Mn
- Mo
- Zn
Ashes from
bituminous coal
(Halemba Power
Plant)
2
37
37
26
8.4-12.8
O.8- 5.1
94
19
13
2.25
48
20
O
O.6
32
Ashes from
Turow
Power Plant
0
8
76
16
8.2
2.1
6.2
30
27
O.25
7.75
12.3
8
2.0
13
lignite
Konin
Power Plant
2
36
36
28
8.2-12.8
9.0
0.7
55
60
32
20.5-35
0.0
8
0.2
0.5
-------
SUCCESSFUL REVEGETATION OP COAL-MINED
LANDS IN THE UNITED STATES
by
x/
Willie R. Curtis '
INTRODUCTION
Surface mining for coal in the United States began in Illinois just
over 100 years ago. Natural revegetation of many of these areas pro-
bably began soon after mining ceased, because natural forces continu-
ally operate to vegetate disturbed land. For example, many of the 10-
to 30-year-old coal surface mines in Alabama have been naturally re-
forested with loblolly pine and Virginia pine and now produce more
commercial softwood timber than the surrounding unmined forest land
(Lyle et. al. 1976).
Although some surface mines have been revegetated by natural
means, the vegetation process can usually be hastened by planting.
Among the earliest documented attempts at reclamation is the seeding
of sweet clover on spoil-bank ridges by the Wayne Coal Company in
Ohio as early as 1918 (Kohnke 1950). Tree planting followed in 1920,
and several species of trees were planted on coal mine spoils in
Illinois during that year. Reforestation of spoil banks was started in
Pennsylvania as early as 1923. Then in 1929 research was started in
Indiana to determine the adaptability of various tree species to condi-
tions on spoil banks.
x/ Willie R. Curtis, M.Sc. Hydrologist and Project Leader, Northeastern
Forest Experiment Station Forest Service, U.S. Dep. Agriculture
370 Reed Road, Broomall, Pa. 19008.
2O7
-------
RESEARCH
A formal research program on the forestation of strip-mined land
was started in 1937 by the U.S. Forest Service through its Central
States Forest Experiment Station at Columbus, Ohio (Lane 1968).
Research was conducted in cooperation with the coal mining industry,
state agencies, and agricultural experiment stations. The results of this
early research were summarized by Limstrom (i960). It involved mostly
the evaluation of survival and growth of many different tree species.
The value of planting "nurse trees" such as black locust and. European
alder in mixture with other tree species received much attention.
Limstrom's reasons and recommendations for planting the black locust
are still valid. Successful forestation has been accomplished on thou-
sands of acress of surface mined land through the use of species and
planting procedures recommended by the research foresters. This early
research still serves as the basis for many revegetation guides in use
today.
Before the 1960s, most of the research and consequently most of
the reclamation centered on tree species; there was little concern for
erosion and sedimentation. Anyway, most of the sediment from erosion
on the ungraded spoil piles was trapped in the valleys between these
piles. Herbaceous cover was considered a hindrance to the establis-
hment and growth of planted tree seedlings.
Beginning in the early 1960s more and more emphasis has been
given to the quick establishment of herbaceous cover for erosion con-
trol and for aesthetic purposes. This new emphasis coincided with
greatly expanded surface mining activity in the Appalachian region.
Here, water runoff and erosion produce severe sedimentation problems.
Subsequently, the use of herbaceous vegetation for ground cover and
erosion control increased to the extent that for the past 10 year or
so relatively few trees have been planted. Now it seems that the move
is again toward planting of trees for more permanent cover. At the
same time there is need for the quick cover of herbaceous species
for erosion control. This has lead researchers to concentrate on simul-
208
-------
taneous establishment of herbaceous cover and •woody plants. Diversi-
fied plantings of grasses, legumes, shrubs, and tree species are still
needed to provide for a variety of future uses of the land. Reforesta-
tion is anticipated as a result of natural plants succession in much of
the eastern United States, especially where an herbaceous cover is
established for erosion control without further management.
As early as the mid~1940s some research on the use of herbace-
ous species in reclamation was reported (Tyner and Smith 1945).
Subsequent trials and other research have been conducted by the
Forest Service, Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Research Ser-
vice, and various state experiment stations. The results of these
experiments have been incorporated into revegetation guides published
by Federal, State, and private agencies.
Many plantings have been made by industry-related groups such
as reclamation associations and coal producers' associations, and by
many individual mining companies. These plantings may also be used
in evaluating reclamation success.
Almost everyone who engages in surface mine revegetation rese-
arch begins with experiments related to the adaptability of species and
varieties to spoil conditions at hand. Results often vary widely from
area to area, even for the same species. If the spoils were described
more specifically perhaps we could begin to understand the reasons
for this. For example, spoil with a pH of 3.5 to 4.0 derived from one
geologic formation may be no more toxic to plants than spoil with a
pH of 4.5 derived from a different formation. Soil pH is often the only
analysis reported and the implication is that particular plants will grow
in all spoils of similar pH.
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING SUCCESSFUL REVEGETATION EFFORTS
Several of the more important factors that affect the successful
establishment of vegetation on surface mine spoils will be discussed.
209
-------
Seedbed preparation
That a suitable seedbed is necessary for the rapid and successful
establishment of seeded vegetation on mine spoils was shown by Vogel
(1974). On plots that were roto-tilled before seeding, vegetative cover
was established faster and was more dense at the end of the first and
second growing seasons than on plots that were not tilled. Tillage was
more beneficial for seedings made between April 1 and October 15.
The main advantage of tillage is that it breaks up the crust on the
surface of the spoils and increases the number of micro—sites favorable
for germination of seed and growth of the plants. Seeding on freshly
graded spoils would provide the same advantages as tillage at lower
cost.
Amendments
The amendments to be discussed are lime, fertilizer, and mulch.
Lime. The chemical properties that most often influence the esta-
blishment and growth of vegetation on strip-mine spoils are related to
chemical reaction and imbalances in plant nutrients. Acidity or alkalinity
is a very useful criterion for predicting the capacity of spoil to support
vegetation. Its intensity is expressed as pH a measure of the concen-
tration of hydrogen ions present. Most spoils in the eastern United
States are in the acid range (below pH 7.0) while most spoil in the
western states is alkaline.
Some plant species are more tolerant than others of acid conditions.
Nearly all plant species will grow in spoils with a pH above 5.5. A
more limited number will grow when pH is between 4.5 and 5.5 Pewer
species can tolerate spoil below 4.5 and only a few will grow where
pH is below 4.0. In the West, species tolerant of alkaline conditions
must be selected.
There are other problems in establishing vegetation on acid spoils.
Toxic levels of aluminium and manganese are soluble at low pHs and
210
-------
become harmful to plants. Roots of many plants will not grow into ma-
terials -with toxic levels of soluble aluminium. Thus plant growth is
stunted because the roots do not take up nutrients.
Some things can be done to ameliorate acid spoils. Amendments
such as organic matter, fly ash, and topsoil may be added, but lime is
the most used. Topsoiling is considered the most economical way of
treating alkaline western spoils.
The most common practice now is to apply enough lime to raise
pH to 5.5. At this pH, manganese and aluminium become less soluble
and are no longer available in a form toxic to plants. Also phosphates
and other nutrients become more readily available to plants.
Pertilizer. Most surface mine spoils are deficient in essential
plant nutrients. Nitrogen is almost universally lacking; phosphorus is
limited in most spoils but is adequate in some. Potassium generally is
not limiting for the establishment of herbaceous vegetation.
A deficiency in nitrogen severely limits establishment and growth
of herbaceous species, especially grass. Thus, the addition of nitrogen
fertilizer is a must for successfully reclaiming mine spoils.
Purther applications of nitrogen fertilizer may be avoided by plan-
ting or seeding nitrogen-fixing plant species. Legumes are used for
this purpose, although the long-lived legumes usually take more than
1 year to get established. This means that annual legumes or grasses
must be used for the initial quick cover needed to control erosion.
Mulches. Various mulches can be used during the critical period
of seedling establishment to improve the microclimate and help conserve
soil moisture. Among the many materials that have been tested for use
on surface mine spoils are pulp fiber, grain straw, hay, wood chips,
wood bark, leaves, and some chemical binders.
Generally wood pulp fiber is mixed with seed and fertilizer and
applied with a hydroseeder. The amounts of this mulch usually used
211
-------
(900-1100 kg/ha) are inadequate to significantly reduce erosion. Also,
it is doubtful that they have a significant effect on moisture conservation.
Straw at 2200 to 3400 kg/ha, distributed evenly over the surface
after seeding, can be a factor in the successful establishment of vege-
tation on spoils. However, it is often necessary to hold the straw in
place with a binder or to run over it with a disc or crimper. Hay falls
into the same category as straw. Both may retain seed which can re-
sult in a volunteer stand of vegetation. However, seed of some weeds
may be undersirable.
Wood chips are good because they stay in place on the spoil.
However, efforts to establish vegetation with wood chips as mulch
have been disappointing.
Shredded tree bark applied at the rate of about 94 cubic meters
per hectare has been found to be quite effective in conserving moisture,
retarding runoff and erosion, and providing microclimatic conditions
favorable to plant establishment and growth.
Leaves, too, have been found to be a valuable mulch. They can
be applied with a blower or with a regular farm manure spreader.
Leaves must be disced into the spoil to hold them in place.
Naturizer is a trade name of a mixture of composted municipal
waste and sewage sludge. Initial tests indicate that reclaiming surface
I/
mine sites may be a beneficial way to dispose of these waste products. '
Many chemical binding agents have been developed over the past
few years and many of them are purported to work well in erosion
control. Additional research is necessary to support those claims. When
used alone these chemicals cannot serve all the same purposes as
mulch; i.e., they cannot provide moisture conservation, stabilize the soil,
and moderate surface temperature.
I/ The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is
for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not
constitute an official endorsement or approval by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture or the Forest Service of any product or service to the
exclusion of others that may be suitable.
212
-------
Sewage sludge and effluent have been used successfully in efforts
to vegetate some problem spoils. Much research is underway at present
into the use of these and other waste materials in reclamation.
Topsoiling is now required on nearly all surface mine disturbance
in the United States. The so-called "topsoil" is removed from the area
about to be mined and stockpiled for later spreading on the graded
site. Almost all the unconsolidated overburden may be classed as top-
soil. In many cases the importance of topsoiling cannot be disputed,
but in some cases another stratum in the overburden may have more
desirable characteristics for vegetating than the topsoil. In these cases
the best material for plant growth should be placed on the surface.
Time of seeding
For a long time most seedings of mine spoil in the Appalachian
region were made in the spring or fall, with spring generally being
preferred. Many people believed that even in a humid region it was
impossible to vegetate mine spoils by direct seeding in the summer.
Vogel (1974) has shown that selected mixtures of temporary and long-
lived herbaceous species can be used anytime between March 1 and
October 15 in eastern Kentucky. Results of his study have been
applied with success to other areas in the Appalachian region. Best
initial cover was achieved during early spring and late fall with Balbo
rye or annual ryegrass. Pearl millet, sudangrass-sorghum hybrid, and
weeping lovegrass provided quickest cover from mid-May to mid-July.
Kentucky-31 fescue and sericea lespedeza became the primary cover
on the areas after two or three growing seasons.
In humid regions, barren areas should be seeded anytime mining
is completed between March 1 and October 15. The seed mix can be
changed to fit climatic conditions throughout this period. Seeding a
temporary species for quick cover with the permanent species is desi-
rable in most situations. The permanent species generally becomes
established and replaces the temporary ones.
213
-------
In any seeding, the species selected often is less important than
adherence to good vegetation practices; i.e., preparation of a suitable
seedbed, application of sufficient fertilizer, and, when necessary, appli-
cation of lime and mulch.
In the Southwest it is important to seed when moisture conditions
are best. For example, fourwing saltbush should be planted only when
the probability of summer thunderstorms exceeds 50 percent and exis-
ting soil water stress is less than 2 atmospheres of tension.
Climate
The amount and distribution throughout the year of rainfall are
strong factors in the establishment of vegetation. In the East rainfall
is not usually a problem, but in the West and Southwest it may be the
limiting factor in plant establishment. Supplemental water is recommen-
ded for areas that receive less than 200 mm of precipitation.
Species selection
Species of vegetation for use on surface mine spoils should be
selected according to the time of year, type of spoil, purpose of
seeding or planting, and the expected future use of the land.
One of the first considerations is to establish a quick cover for
erosion control. This generally means a mixture of herbaceous annuals
and perennials. Some woody species may be desirable. When tempo-
rary quick-cover species are mixed with permanent species, there is
a chance that the temporary cover will prevent or retard the develop-
ment of a satisfactory stand of the permanent cover. It is important to
limit the amount of seed of the annual or quick-cover species to pre-
vent this.
Many experiments have been conducted to determine the adapta-
bility of various herbaceous and woody species for vegetating strip-
mine spoils. Some species have been selected for their tolerance to
214
-------
acid conditions; others have been selected specifically for use on alka-
line spoils. Many species of grasses are well suited to surface mine
reclamation because they are adapted to a wide range of climatic and
spoil conditions. Some species are desirable because germination is
usually rapid and growth is quite good during the first growing season.
Many plant species have been tried with varying degrees of
success in the United States. For each of the major coal producing
regions there are preferred plant species in each of four major cate-
gories: grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees. The grasses and forbs may
be further classified as temporary, semi-permanent, or permanent. Tem-
porary species are used to give quick cover for site protection; semi-
permanent species are reasonably persistent perennials; permanent
species are those expected to persist for many years.
Annual grasses can be used for quick cover and as companion
crops with slower developing perennials. Some species are better
adapted to spring seeding, others should be seeded in the summer, and
still others in the fall.
Leguminous forbs are considered essential in ground-cover mixtu-
res. Associated plants generally benefit from the nitrogen fixed by the
legumes. Annual legumes germinate quickly and provide good cover
within a few months. Perennial leguminous forbs often are more difficult
to establish; many have hard seed coats or other specific dormancy
requirements that delay germination. The availability of soil phosphorus
is generally more critical for the establishment of legumes than for
grasses. Seeding rates of companion grass species should be carefully
regulated to prevent excessive competition and possible failure of the
legumes. Each species of legumes must be inoculated with specific
strains of Rhizobium bacteria to stimulate nodulation and to assure ni-
trogen fixing.
Shrubs for reclamation plantings have not been emphasized although
they have significant value for site protection, wildlife food and cover,
and aesthetics. Possibly in the future more emphasis will be placed on
the use of shrubs.
215
-------
Trees have generally been the mainstay of reclamation efforts.
A few tree species can be directly seeded but most are normally
established by planting seedlings. Many species are adapted to sur-
face mine spoils, but species native to the area are usually recommen-
ded. Unfortunately, high value tree species are usually the most diffi-
cult to establish on spoils. Grass and legume ground covers generally
reduce tree growth, at least in the early stages. In later years legumes
may enhance growth. Black locust, autumn olive, and bristly locust are
nitrogen fixers and can be beneficial as nurse trees for other tree
species.
CURRENT PRACTICES
Revegetation practices in the U.S. are determined or influenced
mainly by legal requirements. The seeding of grasses and herbaceous
legumes to establish a cover for erosion control and for aesthetics is
generally recommended. Thus, watershed protection automatically be-
comes the primary concern in land use. Once the herbaceous vegeta-
tion is well established it can be used for pasture and hay because
species good for forage usually are used for vegetating mine spoils -
for example, smooth bromegrass and alfalfa in Illinois and tall fescue
and annual lespedeza in southern Appalachia. Livestock grazing is
becoming common on vegetated strip mines even in the mountainous
areas of Appalachia. Unfortunately, the tendency is to overgraze or
start grazing before the vegetation is well established, which hinders
the development of adequate cover.
The land use in effect at time of mining often influences the choice
of revegetation practices. Por example, prime agricultural land in the
flatlands of Illinois is reclaimed for immediate return to row crop pro-
duction.
On the other hand, forested land is usually not replanted to forest
species. Some states require that woody species be planted in addition
to the herbaceous species on steep slopes and other sites not intended
for agricultural use. Normally the planting of woody species is optional
216
-------
for the landowner or mining company. The legal requirements in some
states unintentionally discourage tree planting because they permit
release of vegetation bonds as soon as the requirements for the her-
baceous vegetative cover are met.
Black locust is still the most commonly used tree species. It is
especially popular for use on steep slopes because it can be establis-
hed by direct seeding in mixture with herbaceous species. Locust
seedlings respond to fertilizer, especially phosphorus, as herbaceous
legumes do, and first-year seedling heights of 30 err or more are not
uncommon. Unpopular "doghair" stands of locust sometimes develop
where seeding rates are excessive. European black alder and autumn
olive are other nitrogen-fixing woody plants that are used as nurse
plants or site improvers and for wildlife habitat.
Red pine, white pine, and hybrid poplar have been successful
in the northern Appalachian coal field. European white birch has been
the most successful tree species on extremely acid spoils in Pennsyl-
vania. Virginia pine has been widely planted in the middle and sout-
hern Appalachian region, and loblolly pine is often planted or direct-
seeded in southern Appalachia. Most species of pine are tolerant of
acid spoils, especially in association with the acid-tolerant mycorrhizal
fungus Pisolithus tinctorius (Marx 1975).
Tree planting now is rare in the Midwest even though reforesta-
tion studies showed that high value hardwoods can be produced on
spoils. This is due in part to political and social pressures that favor
agricultural uses of all surface-mined lands. Also, hand planting of
tree seedlings costs more and entails more labor-related problems than
seeding of herbaceous species. Another reason for choosing agricul-
tural uses over forestry is the greater and quicker economic return
from the reclaimed land. Yet some of the 30- to 50-year-old hardwood
stands, especially of black walnut, in Indiana and Illinois demonstrate
the economic potential of growing forests on mined lands.
There is a need to establish a quick cover for erosion control
at the same time that trees are planted, but the herbaceous vegetation
217
-------
may adversely affect survival and growth of the planted trees. Some
people recommend seeding the herbaceous species one year and
planting trees the next. Others suggest using herbicides to kill patches
of herbaceous vegetation where tree seedlings will be planted.
A more practical method is to plant trees and herbaceous species
at the same time. The herbaceous cover should consist mainly of
legumes because the growth of trees usually is enhanced by legumes
but is suppressed by grass (Vogel 1973). When seeding must be done
in late spring and summer, and herbaceous cover can be established
with summer annuals. These will die in the fall and provide a mulch
over winter. Trees and perennial herbaceous species can be planted
the following spring.
On areas that can be traversed with farm machinery, early com-
petition of herbaceous species with trees can be avoided by planting
the herbaceous species and trees in alternate strips. To further assure
their establishment and early growth, tree seedlings should be inocula-
ted with the appropriate mycorrhizal fungi (Marx 1975 ).
Revegetated surface mines can provide excellent wildlife habitat
and water-based recreation, as is shown on many old strip mine sites.
Present revegetation practices in the East often provide poor wildlife
habitat because they use mainly a few species of grasses and legumes
such as tall fescue and sericea lespedeza that provide little food or
diversity of habitat.
SUMMARY
Several species of hardwoods and pines planted 30 years ago
have been reasonably successful on spoils in both the Midwest and
Appalachian coal fields. Especially encouraging is the success of high-
value hardwoods such as black walnut, red oak, yellow poplar, and
white pine. Many of the older strip mined lands are providing excellent
wildlife habitat and water—based recreational uses.
218
-------
Currently, most surface mines are being vegetated with herbaceous
species to provide quick erosion control. Tree planting has been dis-
couraged by economic, legal, and social pressures. Establishment of
both trees and herbaceous cover is feasible especially be concurrent
planting of tree seedlings and unaggressive herbaceous legumes.
LITERATURE CITED
Kohnke, H. 1950. The reclamation of coal mine spoils. In A.G.Norman
(ed. ) Advances in Agronomy, Vol. II p. 317-349. Academic Press,
New York.
Lane, R.D. 1968. Porest Service reclamation research. Min. Congr.
J. 54: 38-42.
Limstrom, G.A. 1960. Porestation of strip mined land in the central
states. U.S. Dep. Agric., Agric. Handb. 166. U.S. Gov. Print. Off.,
Washington, D.C.
Lyle, E.S., Jr., D.T. Janes, D.R. Hicks, and D.H. Weingartner.
1976. Some vegetation and soil characteristics of coal surface
mines in Alabama. In Proc. 4th Symp. Surf. Min. Reclam. Oct.
19-21, Louisville, Ky. Natl. Coal Assoc., Washington, D.C.
p. 140-152.
Marx, D.H. 1975. Mycorrhizae and establishment of trees on strip-
mined land. Ohio J. Sci. 75: 288-297.
Tyner, E.H., and R.M. Smith. 1945. The reclamation of the strip-mined
coal lands of West Virginia with forage species. Soil Sci. Sco.
Am. Proc. 10: 429-436.
Vogel, W.G. 1973. The effect of herbaceous vegetation on survival
and growth of trees planted on coal-mine spoils, p. 197-207.
In Proc. Res. Appl. Technol. Symp. Min. Land Reclam. Mar. 7-8,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Bitum. Coal Res., Inc., Monroeville, Pa.
219
-------
Vogel, W.G. 1974. All-season seeding of herbaceous vegetation for
cover on Appalachian strip-mine spoils, p. 175-186. In Proc. 2nd
Res. Appl. Technol. Symp. Min. Land Reclam. Oct. 22-24, Louis-
ville, Ky. NatL Coal Assoc., Washington, D.C.
220
-------
EFFORTS OF AGRICULTURAL RECLAMATION
OF TOXIC SPOILS IN LIGNITE SURFACE MINING IN POLAND
by
x/
Kazimierz Bauman '
In surface mining of lignite in Poland the problem of agricultural
recultivation of even toxic postindustrial soils is important owing to the
lack of arable lands in relation to the demand for food products. This
issue is particularly apparent with the lignite surface mine "Turow",
where the spoil disposals will jointly comprise about 400 ha of land:
- external spoil disposals - about 23OO ha
- internal spoil disposals - about 1700 ha.
Due to the grading of the disposals, agricultural restoration is po-
ssible in almost the whole area of internal disposal and on the flat
crowns of external disposal. One can assume that the conditions of
proper grading of the disposals suitable for agricultural utilization will
be met in an area of about 2000 ha.
The geological structure (3 coal beds), deep excavation (down to
200 m), and low quality of top soils on the area where external dispo-
sals were localized and the open pit ruled out the advisibility of selec-
tive removal of top soil for covering the surfaces of disposals. Appro-
ximate lithological composition of spoil material is as follows:
x/ Kazimierz Bauman, M.Sc. eng. POLTEGOR , Rosenbergow 25,
Wroclaw.
221
-------
Type of formations Intercoal plys Overburden over
coal beds II and III
silts and clays 90 - 95 % 65 - 75 %
sands and gravels 5 - 10 % 15 - 20 %
coal plys 1 % 10 - 15 %
The content of essential components from an agricultural point of
view is in spoil variable: nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium carbonate occur
in very small amounts; potassium and magnesium in low or average
amounts: microelements occur in average quantity: acidity of formations
is high and variable - pH of quaternary formations is from 5.8 to 4.8,
of tertiary formations from 5.1 to 3.O. A strong acid reaction is induced
mainly by the presence of sulphuric acid produced largely by the effect
of weathering compounds containing iron sulphates, pyrites, marcasites,
hydroilites and others.
The overburden in respect of its usefulness for agricultural reculti-
vation, using a 5-grade classification can be included mainly in the
classes:
- D - bad soils, sterile, not fit for recultivation
— P - toxic soils
and to a small extent in the C class - of faulty soils, not suitable for
agricultural recultivation, but fit for forest cultivation after partial impro-
vement.
In such soil conditions nonselective removal and stacking of over-
burden is practised in Poland.
Neutralization and fertilization carried out in the course of reclama-
tion is in such cases in use. This up-to-date practice is standard for
the forest reclamation.
The positive effects of toxic soils reclamation in long-term research,
the size of transformed terrains with active surface mines, and also the
considerable anticipated development of surface mining created the need
to start research on agricultural recultivation of this type of spoil dis-
posals.
222
-------
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OP RESEARCH
This up-to-date research carried out for the needs of reclamation
was focussed on technology of the establishment of grass, legume and
wood vegetation on toxic and sterile post mines terrains. In 1978 in
cooperation with the US Environmental Protection Agency, detailed field
tests on plants of higher agricultural utility started. It is the first so
wide project on agricultural cultivation of cohesive and toxic soils. The
basic objective of this research is the determination of the feasibility
and profitability of agricultural cultivation in these types of soils. Field
research performed in natural conditions will help to establish the most
important elements of this problem, i.e.:
- the size of crops which is possible to obtain by different methods of
early treatment of toxic and sterile terrains adopted for agricultural
cultivation
- the quality of crops with particular attention to contents of chemical
compounds harmful to humans and animals.
Experimental plots were set up on an external disposal of the
lignite surface mine "Turow" on a fully graded part. Pour groups of
plots were established. The first group was set up on a terrain, on
which in the years 1973-1975 grass and legumes under reclamation
project were established.
Three other groups were set up on raw terrains not yet reclaimed-
completely without vegetation growth.
In the first and second group of plots identical tillage will be per-
formed and identical plants introduced. The aim of this part of research
is to assess the extent to which earlier reclamation effects the results
of vegetation cultivation.
On plots of the third and fourth groups organic substances regarded
as incentive are applied additionally to initiate and intensify the soil
producing processes. On the plots of the third group straw in a form of
chaff was applied, and on plots of fourth group the sewage from local
223
-------
treatment plant was added. The object of this part of research is the
determination of influence of the application of generally available orga-
nic substances on the effects of cultivation.
In order to compare the results obtained on plots set up on the un
reclaimed soils the same neutralization was used as on plots of the
first group and an additional compensating fertilization in the first year
was applied. In the first year of research on plots of the first and
second group the following species of plants were planted:
1. winter rye
2. winter wheat
3. spring barley
4. oats
5. sugar beetroots
6. late potatoes
7. corn
8. sunflower
9. broad-bean
10. pea
- on plots of the third and fourth group:
1. oats
2. spring barley
3. sugar beetroots
4. corn
5. pea.
In the second year of research, due to a very wet fall making
impossible the performance of appropriate tillage treatments, seeding of
winter crops was abandoned. Buckwheat and spring wheat were used
instead. As an effect of observations made in the first year, sugar bee-
troots were substituted with fodder beetroots.
It is planned that in next years crops will be investigated in a ty-
pical agricultural crop rotation:
- root crops
- spring crops
224
-------
- legume crops
- winter crops
- fodder crops.
The programmed observations anticipate the following operations:
1. Observations of the growth and development of particular species
of plants
2. Crop harvest and laboratory examination of their quality based on
the designation of the following elements:
- sprouting ability
- mass of 1000 seeds
— content of nourishing components: protein, fats, hydrocarbons,
cellulose, ash and basic elements.
3. Soil sampling for laboratory analyses in the first year (at the
beginning of investigations) and after the harvest of plants; in follo-
wing years only after harvest.
4. Laboratory analyses of soil samples involve the designations:
- of physical properties: mechanical composition, specific gravity
and bulk density, porosity, water adherence ability, water capacity,
- of chemical properties: pH reaction, content of organic carbon,
macro- and microelements,
— of biological properties: number of bacteria, of actinomyces, the
the azotobacter occurrence, nitrification intensity and cellulose
decomposition.
RESULTS OP TWO YEARS' RESEARCH
The plans of experimental plots are shown in figs. 1 and 2, which
show also the general characteristics of habitat conditions, the doses
of fertilizers, and crop rotation during the 2 years of experiments.
In table 1 levels of dust fall are shown and in table 2, the contents
of some elements in dusts.
225
-------
FIG. 1. PLAN OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS SET-UP ON TERRAINS PREVIOUSLY RECLAIMED
I SERIES OF PLOTS
(6m
to
10
Z_ wimgr wngpT ^,-
~~\~~Li6"i^LiSO»» •»*'
FcrtlUwtion
M -120 kq/ha N in closes of 40 kq/ha (presowinq and outside tta roots)
P-200laq/ha
K -150 kg/ha
Habitat condiHons;
-flat terrain -crown of external disposal
-soils ctaijey with pH J3 -4.5 in KCL,
-surface covering - 3 y*ara growth of
grasses,
-neutralization -lime in CHS cm layer in
quantity of 5t/na, »
- qrcwnd phoiphate rock in
-------
FIG.2. PLAN OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS SET UP ON RACO TERRAINS WITHOUT RECLAMATION
1 SERIES OF PLOTS
ro
ro
._ . -_
4 _ 'winter wft«p>
{1,5'ugar baetrppH
Zs opts " •;/; ."•• ." .
2 cSrn
95 poo.*:
riey .^
97 .epf'n*
.8 -DCO"-
9. .prloqTparje^-
(COSud
t
ET
10 SERIES OF PLOTS
Habitat conditions : -fiat terrain -of external disposal
- soils - 0104214 w.rn pH 3,5 -4,5 in ICCl
•terrain surface with no vegetation
-nzutralizat.cn- i.mj in iai.er 0-<5cm in c^Jantitij of 5t/ha
ground phospnate rock in layer 15-30cm in quantity of 3t/ha
plonts: I wnes t-'i sa-^z os Isenes
~ ana vse-,2}: 1,winter Ahsat
Crop rotation =
-thz same as in I
3. sugar
A.ccri 5. paa
Special treatments: -
5 .snes- cereal straw cut as cnaff
in (^uantitL) of 10t/ha
fertilization:
~i saries the same as in scries I
iLancI 5 series N-l20kq/ha-N
P-2oOkq/ha -
K-(50 kg/ha-
Apart from it on plot j of », 3 and jy scries
was applied compensatory fertilization
to I series in quantities:
N-92 kg/ha
-90 kg/ha
-!!! series- sewage sediment in quantify of 50 t/ha
-------
Fig. 3.
to
10
00
-------
DUST PRECIPITATION
Table Ho
Months
Strand
Turtfw Lignite
Surface Mine
Bogahjnia sewage
treatment plant
Experimental —
plots 1
n
Yaar
1973
1
-------
In fig. no. 3 a comprehensive diagram of treatments and observations
is shown and in table no. 3, characteristics of atmospheric precipitation.
Table no. 2
Content of some elements in precipitated dust
Ord.
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Specification
Sodium
Potassium
Zinc
Copper
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Lithium
Manganese
Strontium
Chromium-
Cadmium
Content in mg/g of sample
27.117.7
26.601.3
3.964.6
165.5
32.071.2
35.234.2
13.284.8
133.4
727.4
126.6
120.0
70.7
QUANTITY AND QUALITY OP CROPS
The quality of crops of plants in the first year of tests were low.
Almost all species gave much lower harvests than the ones from normal
cultivation fields. Some species were not even harvested due to the low
numbers of plants growing on plots. Such as pea and sugar beet, which
were collected only from 2 plots of the no. 4 series.
Some species such as the winter rye gave a relatively high harvest
close to average harvest level in the country. The value of the crops
and some of their qualitative parameters will be discussed successively
for each species.
230
-------
Table no. 3
Precipitation amounts typical values for the meteorological
station in Bogatynia
ro
Time u . _ Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. JuU Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year
period ]\r C!ID ""
tion in mm
Values
for years
1949-1972
average 34.3 39.0 38.5 57.5 79.5 84.9 95.4 74.4 57.5 48.2 39.6 44.7 693.5
maximum 75.8 99.7 81.0 108.8170.0 192.0197.9 150.8 218.7 136.5 75.3 97.8 93O.1
minimum 7.3 11.9 12.O 1O.7 27.5 13.1 25.1 35.6 1.9 2.8 3.6 5.9 479.2
-------
Winter rye
Year 1977
Rye gave better yields on experimental plots of no. 1 series. The
harvest amounting to 27.8 q/ha of grain and 36.4 q/ha of straw has to
be considered as very good. Particular attention is drawn to the consi-
derable ability of rye to germinate up to 96 and 94 %. By this ability
to germinate, the grain so obtained from these plots can be used as
sowing material. The content of nutritious components and elements does
not deviate from average contents obtained in standard agricultural
experiments. Favourable also is the ratio of grain yields to straw yield.
It approaches normal and amounts to 1.3 for no. 1 series, and 2.3 for
no. 2 series.
In 1978 the winter rye was not sown out.
Winter and spring wheat
V/-11- VriH,-,Kr Grain
in q/ha Straw q/ha
* Plot series Plot series
I II
HI IV I II III IV
1977 Winter
wheat 4.7 8.60 12.40 24.30
1978 Spring
wheat 19.5O 12 8 16 42 48 41 46
Year 1977
Crop of wheat was very low, to compare with standard fields of
discussed region where the Grana variety gives from 40 to 60 q/ha.
The ability to germinate was also very low and this grain was not
suitable for sowing. With wheat as with rye, the high content of ash in
the straw occurred. Also high was the content of protein in the straw in
the experiment of no. 1 series. The remaining elements were within
normal limits.
232
-------
Year 1978
Crops were higher. Differences in grain yields between plots were
as anticipated — highest on plots previously reclaimed, and on plots
with addition of sewage. The yields of straw show no such relationship.
Oats
Year
1977
1978
Grain q/ha Straw q/ha
Plot series Plot series
I II III IV I II III IV
15.00 4.20 4.00 6.30 24.50 16.50 17.60 24.10
33.00 20.00 - - 57.00 48.00
Year 1977
The crop of oats in the 1-st series was much higher than in second
and third series. In fourth series the crop was little higher than in no.2
and 3 series. Crops of oats under standard conditions are in this area
a (30-60 q/ha)number of times higher than the ones obtained from tests.
Attention is drawn to the low ability of germination of acquired grain
and a relatively high content of fibrine caused by a high content of
husks in the crop. The other parameters were normal for oats.
Year 1978
The yield of oats was considerably higher, one may even regard
it as very good.
The lack of results of quality analyses does not allow the full assess-
ment of acquired crops.
233
-------
Spring barley
Y Grain q/ha Straw q/ha
plot series plot series
I II III IV I II III IV
1977
1978
8.60
20.00
15.00
14.00
16,
11.
50
00
12.
35.
40
00
42.00
25.00
22.
35.
40
00
Year 1977
Crops of barley were low, particularly in first series. Barley of the
variety Aramir in this region normally gives crops from 40-70 q/ha.
Germination ability of grain acquired from experimental plots was quite
high and reached (particularly in fourth series) the level of 90 %.
The grain obtained from the first series had a low ability to germinate.
The other parameters were within average limits for spring barley.
Year 1978
The crops were higher although continued to be lower than the
ones obtained on normal arable lands.
Pea
Year
1977
1978
Seeds
plot series
I II
_ _
8.00 8.50
Straw
plot series
I
_
16.00
II
_
13.00
In 1977 peas was not gathered due to the loss of too many plants.
In 1978 the promised yield was very good. The results acquired after
harvest differed from expectations, due to considerable uncontrolled
consumption by random passers-by.
234
-------
Broadbean
Year
1977
Seeds
plot series
I
16.50
II
7.40
I
Straw
_plot series
24.20
II
15.80
Crops of broadbean were quite low and of low ability to germinate.
Harvest of broadbean from normal fields in this area at reaches a
level of 20-30 q/ha of seeds and about 40-60 q/ha of straw. Content
of protein in seeds of the second series was also lower than average-
amounting to about 30 %. The other parameters were at a normal level,
staying within average values, for the standards production of broad-
beans.
Year 1978
The crops have not yet been harvested. The first phase of plant
development was very promising. Lack of pesticides application during
flowering period caused practically total destruction of seeds.
Sugar beet
In 1977 crops of sugar beetroots were diversified. On Plots of the
fourth series the crops were: the roots - 245 q/ha, leaves - 260 kg/ha.
On remaining plots the size of beetroots was very small: the diameter
ranged from 2 to 5 cm, with a large portion smaller still.
In 1978 fodder beet roots were sown. The crops do not seem to
be very good. In small local depressions-often filled with rain water -
the root seeds • did not germinate, or perished in the later development
phase.
235
-------
Potatoes
Crops of potatoes in 1977 on plots of first series were 122 q/ha
to compare with the average crops on a national production scale,
which in 1977 was 203 q/ha. However the crops in second series II
amounted to 12 q/ha which was much less than the planting norm.
Corn (maize) and Sunflower
Year 1977
The cron and the sunflower did not attain their full development
level. The corn was collected when still at the grain filling, and part
also at the phase of wax-milk ripeness. The sunflower was harvested
at the time when a part of the growing fruit was completely ripe and
part was still in florescence. Therefore only the harvest of whole corn
plants was specified and for sunflower the crop of seeds from the
ripened fruitification. Por corn the crop of green mass from the first
series amounted to 380 q/ha with a content of 23 % dry mass, and from
the remaining series no crop was gathered due to great losses of
plants on the plots. The crop of sunflower seeds amounted to 4.2 q/ha,
which makes about 20 percent of normal production in this region.
Year 1978
The crops this year will be similar as last year's
QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN SOIL CONDITIONS
To investigate changes that occur in soil due to the effect of
reclamation work carried out on it as well as fertilization, and cultiva-
tion of vegetation, samples of soil were taken from each series of the
plots in autumn (Sep. 16. 1977). Particular attention was drawn to the
chemical and of microbiological properties, as these characteristics
differentiate themselves more quickly than any other soil characteristics.
236
-------
Mechanical, physical and water characteristics did not differ at all
from the ones determined in spring. In chemical properties attention was
drawn to the continuing considerable soil acidity, the small reserve of
nitrogen, and lack of CaCo_. Addition of straw (third series) and of
*j
sewage (fourth series) effected small increases in phosphorus reser-
ves. In all series of experiments the content of potassium decreased,
while the content of magnesium was unchanged. Content of microelements
did not undergo any greater changes, fluctuations were small and within
normal limits.
Content of some microelements and microbiological activity
of soils after one year of experiments — determinations
being made in surface layer of 0-20 cm
Ord.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Specification
Content of Cu
Content of Pb
Content of Mn
Content of Ni
Content of Zn
Bacterium rank
number
Actinomyces
Fungi
Auotobacter
Decomposition of
cellulose
Units
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
mill-
ions
thou-
sands
it
it
%
loss
Series
1
17
33
201
13
138
6.9
480
lack
lack
80
Series
2
22
35
348
17
170
8.7
400
lack
lack
30
Series
3
26
22
357
22
215
10.7
320
lack
lack
30
Series
4
43
81
248
17
128
10.6
300
lack
lack
70
Microbiological activity of soils increased quite conspicuously, particu-
larly in series 3 and series 4 where the amount of bacteria increased
3 times in comparison with the spring season, and as well as the de-
composition of cellulose, the intensity of which rose about 7-fold.
237
-------
CONCLUSIONS
The first year of research provided certain information data regar-
ding the orientation of further research -work on agricultural economic
restoration of spoil disposal of the lignite surface mine Turow. The
changes which should be introduced in the second year of study con-
cern the selection of plant species, the norms of sowing, the fertiliza-
tion doses, the soil sampling for laboratory analyses, and the scope
of laboratory designations.
In the selection of the plant species, winter crops will be replaced
by spring cereal plants. This change was effected due to the unfavo-
urable weather occurring in the fall of 1977, that prevented the perfor-
mance of preparatory work and the sowing of winter crops. In the follo-
wing year the expediency of a resumed introduction of winter crops
should be considered. In place of sugar beet fodder beet will be intro-
duced. This change is necessary as the roots of sugar beet don't
develop properly, due to the subsoil being too compacted at a depth
of about 20 cm, which causes furcation of roots. Introduction of fodder
beet that develop roots above the surface soil, with only a small
portion growing in the soil, would be a better solution.
Por soil conditions occurring in the experimental plots the quotas
of sowing material should be increased. This goes both for the cereal
and for legumes. The quotas of sowing should be increased by some
2O percent. The increase in the quantity of seeding material ensues
from the fact that not all seeds sprout after germinating, besides the
cereal plants spread less than in normal soils.
The level of fertilization should be increased to 200 kg/ha of N,
200 kg/ha of P00 and to 200 kg/ha of K 0 values. Reserves of basic
^ o *~
nourishing components in soil were very low, therefore the fertilization
should be increased to such a level as to provide basic nutrients for
the plants and for micro—organisms present in the soil.
The method of soil sampling for laboratory analyses should be
changed. Due to considerable soil heterogeneity the number of sampling
238
-------
points is to be increased, especially for the layer of 0-20 cm. The
surface layer undergoes the action, strongest, with these transformations
taking place in it being the most intensive. The determination of chan-
ges occurring in this layer will be possible when the number of points
of soil sampled for analysis will increase. Increasing the number of
points will decrease the incidence of heterogeneity in designations of
laboratory results.
In next years the expediency of soil liming is to be considered
in order to change soil acidity, should the results of the second year
of tests vouch for such an expediency.
239
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
OP COAL MINING - EASTERN UNITED STATES
by
xl
Scott C. McPhilliamy '
INTRODUCTION
Coal mine operations in the United States have been ongoing
probably since the mid 1700's. References to coal were made as
early as 1672. One early active coal mine operation was reported in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1760. Since the date of these early
exploitations, the coal industry has expanded to the point where more
than 6,000 active mines produced 685 million tons of coal in 1977.
The ratio of the number of surface mines to underground mines is
approximately 60:40 while production also favors surface mines in the
ratio of 55:45 (surface: underground).
The coal fields of the United States are generally divided into
three distinct geographical areas. They are: eastern, midwest and
western fields. The eastern fields may be further -subdivided into the
bituminous and anthracite fields. In 1976 coal production was reported
in 26 states. West Virginia and Kentucky are the largest eastern field
producers, Illinois is the leading midwest producer, and Wyoming and
Montana are the largest western producers. Production figures for
the eastern coal field states are shown on Table I, by mining method
for the years 1970-1976.
x/ Scott C. McPhilliamy _ Environmentalist. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region III. Wheeling Field Office, Wheeling, W.VA.
241
-------
The western coal field areas of the United States are rapidly
expanding and large production increases are expected. A National
Coal Association study has projected that the western operations will
account for approximately two-thirds of new coal production in the
U.S. In contrast, underground mining will be the main source of new
coal production (aaproximately 75 %) in the eastern U.S.
EASTERN COAL EXTRACTION
Todays discussion of the environmental consequences of coal
mining will be limited to the eastern coal field areas. This area is
commonly referred to as the Appalachian coal field. Although small
areas of the eastern coal fields lie outside the boundaries of Appa-
lachia (notably in Ohio) and the Appalachian boundaries include
areas of no coal deposition, the areas are sufficiently similiar to be
used interchangeably for todays discussion. Coal is the most abundant
mineral resource in Appalachia and about 70 percent of total cumula-
tive production in the United States has been from this area. Coal
deposits underlie more then 185,000 square kilometers, about 40 per-
cent of the total Appalachia region. The coal strata are generally flat
to gently dipping with occasional steepening. There are approximately
90 mineable seams, of which 6O may be surface mined, depending on
local conditions and equipment. The sulfur content of the coal ranges
from 0.5 to 6 percent.
In general, topographic features of the eastern coal field areas
can be classified as hilly or rolling in contrast to the relatively flat
terrain of the midwest or western coal fields. Consequently contour
mining, auger mining and mountain top mining have been the predomi-
nate surface methods used to mine the steeply sloping coal areas.
Approximately 50 % of Appalachian coal production is from areas exhi-
biting slopes in excess of 20 degrees. Modified mining techniques have
also been adapted to areas with rolling terrains. Underground mining
techniques include drift, slope, and shaft methods for coal extraction.
242
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
The environmental consequences of both surface and underground
mining are readily apparent throughout the eastern coal field areas.
Past mining operations were planned and developed to minimize the
cost of coal production and transportation with little or no regard for
pollution control. Water pollution problems related to coal mine operations
were apparent prior to 1900. The earliest recorded references to de-
graded water quality in coal mining areas were made by communities
and industries which utilized such streams for water supply. Pish kills
due to acid mine drainage were reported as early as 1890 in Penn-
sylvania. By the early 1930's the problem of mine drainage had grown
to such magnitude that the Federal Government authorized a program
of sealing worked-out underground coal mines to prevent or reduce
acid mine drainage. For example, in West Virginia it was reported that
3,644 mine openings were sealed. Initial evaluation of the mine sealing
program was quite favorable. However, the outbreak of World War II
saw the abandonment of the program and the loss of opportunity for
subsequent evaluation of the sealing programs as an abatement tech-
nique. Many of the sealed mines were put back into production during
the war and no maintenance was provided for the undisturbed seals.
As a result, much of whatever benefit was achieved has been lost.
In general, the stream water pollution problems resulting from both
surface and underground mining operations are most apparent in the
eastern coal field areas of the U.S. It has been estimated that 16,800
kilometers of Appalachian streams are affected by coal mine drainage
pollution, 10,700 kilometers of these on a continuous basis. The mine
drainage pollution of these streams probably qualifies as the most signi-
ficant pollution problem in terms of the severity of damage to streams
and in terms of the effort and cost that will be required to abate this
pollution. Approximately 80 percent of acid pollution comes from abando-
ned or inactive mines and over 70 percent originates in underground
mines. There are entire river basin systems (as large as 10,000 sq. km.)
where nearly all major streams within the basin have been degraded
243
-------
due to the deleterious effects of acid mine drainage. It is not uncommon
for coal mines to continue the production of acid mine drainage even
though the operations may have been abandoned in excess of 100
years. Relatively small amounts of acid mine drainage can prevent the
use of surface waters for some recreational uses as well as for fish
and aquatic life production.
Table II present a summary of mine drainage pollution in the
subbasin areas of Appalachia.
During the period 1930 - 1971, approximately 610,000 hectares
of land -was surface mined for coal in the United States. Approxima-
tely two-thirds of this affected land area occurred in the eastern
United States. Varying degrees of reclamation were conducted on about
60 percent of this eastern land area. Coal surface mine operations
presently mine about 600 hectares per week in the United States.
Although little comparison can be made between past and present sur-
face minign practices, the eastern U.S. has inherited a residual prob-
lem of thousands of hectares of unreclaimed or inadequately reclaimed
surface mined area. Due to the generally steep slopes encountered in
the eastern U.S., coal has historically been surface mined by methods
which have allowed the downslope deposition of spoil material and per-
mitted highwalls to remain intact. Although such mining practices are
no longer allowed, the earlier use of such practices have been respon-
sible for significant aesthetic and environmental problems which will
require massive post mining reclamation efforts. It is noteworthy that
the prohibiting of outslope spoil deposition and highwalls are rather
recent modifications of standard surface mining practices. It has been
estimated that 32,000 kilometers of highwall and 2,700 kilometers of
massive landslide outslope exist in the Appalachian coal field states.
There is no complete inventory or listing of abandoned or inactive
underground coal mines in the United States. Conservatively, this num-
ber is estimated in excess of 68,000 such sites. The number of esti-
mated sites for all underground mineral mining is in excess of 90,000.
The more serious adverse environmental effects resulting from under-
244
-------
TABLE II
MINE DRAINAGE POLLUTION IN APPALACHIA
Subarea in
^Appalachia
Drainage Area
(Vq. km)
Kilometers of Polluted Streams
Intermittently Continuously Total
Unreclaimed Surface
Mine Land {hectares')
Anthracite Region 10,878
(Susquehana and
Delaware)
Tioga 7,252
West Branch Sus-
quehana 17,871
Juniata 8,806
North Branch
w Potomac 5,698
<5T Allegheny 30,380
Monongahela 19,166
Beaver 3,885
Muskingum 11,240
Hocking 3,108
Little Kanawha 5,957
Kanawha 31,857
Scioto 5,957
Guyandotte 4,325
Big Sandy 11,137
Ohio and Minor
Tributaries 32,634
Kentucky 11,655
Cumberland 28,101
Tennessee-Black
Warrior 72,520
564
32
966
32
64
140
465
64
174
227
40
876
13
18
712
267
692
491
250
6,087
419
56
869
97
209
1576
2225
109
666
359
8
1383
464
93
1874
105
330
10,842
983
88
1835
129
273
1716
2690
173
840
586
48
2259
13
482
805
2141
797
821
250
16,929
34,000
1,600
29,000
8,300
2.0OO
32.OOO
32,000
8,100
12,000
1,600
1,6OO
26,000
400
4,400
12,500
19,000
4,000
12,000
7.500
248,000
-------
ground mining include: (l) damage to surface and structures from sub-
sidence: (2) water pollution: (3) accumulations of solid waste: (4) bur-
ning refuse banks: and (5) fires in abandoned mines and in virgin coal
deposits.
An estimated 81,000 hectares of land has subsided following under-
ground mining. However, the majority of this subsidence has occurred
under forest, agricultural, or idle lands.
Coal preparation plants are faced with the problem of disposing
of millions of tons of rock and mining debris, much of which is combus-
tible. This material is usually directed to a common dump which creates
a sizable refuse bank. Fires are started in these banks by human ca-
relessness, spontaneous combustion,' or freak accidents of nature. Once
ignited such banks may burn for years or even decades, polluting the
atmosphere with smoke and noxious gases. Such fires are extinguisha-
ble only at great expense. More than 200 such fires were reported in
the U.S. during a survey conducted about eight years ago.
Pires in abandoned coal mines and in virgin coal deposits cause
air pollution, promote surface subsidence by burning out the support
for overlying strata, and destroy valuable fuel reserves. As early as
1776, a coal bed fire was reported in Pennsylvania and remained active
until at least 1846 (last reported date). In New Straitsville, Ohio and
underground mine fire was ignited in 1884 and continues to burn today
in an isolated area under a relatively thin rock and earth cover. During
the 1930's over one million dollars was spent at this site constructing
incomustible barriers but failed to effect control. In a U.S. Bureau of
Mines study, 131 uncontrolled underground mine fires and 106 fires in
virgin coal seams were reported. On an overall basis, no single program
approach or technique can be used to effectively abate or control acid
mine drainage. A -wide range of technology exists that enables •withdra-
wal users of water to adjust to acid mine drainage. This technology
includes water treatment, the substitution of materials and processes to
reduce the effects of acid, and the use of alternative sources. Similiarly,
a wide variety of techniques is available that can be used to reduce
the amount of acid drainage pollution in surface waters. These pollution
246
-------
control measures include land reclamation and stabilization, drainage
diversion, sealing of underground mines and water treatment.
The choice of pollution control techniques depends on the type of
mining source producing the pollution - whether it is active or inactive,
the geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the mine, anticipated se-
condary effects, and the expected water quality improvement. Some
techniques are relatively inexpensive, such as land reclamation and
drainage diversion. Since only a small amount of the total acid drainage
problem (10-12 %) emanates from surface sources, only limited water
quality improvements can be achieved by using land reclamation and
drainage control techniques. Consequently, significant results can be
realized in only small areas. Other pollution control techniques that
prevent acid formation are generally quite costly, highly dependent upon
suitable geologic and hydrologic conditions, and less predictable in
their effectiveness.
As a result, the practical methods available for pollution control
at many sites are usually limited in number, relatively expensive,
uncertain in their predictability, and do not produce uniformly accep-
table results. Unfortunately, such sites are often the ones producing
significant amounts of pollution.
FEDERAL AND STATE ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
During the late 1930's and early 1940's several of the major coal
producing states began to enact surface mine legislation. The first of
these states to pass such legislation was West Virginia in 1939, soon
followed by Indiana in 1941. By this time the adverse environmental
consequences (both actual and potential) of surface mining were beco-
ming more and more apparent. Such legislation was necessary to hope-
fully minimize future environmental damages and to help insure that
existing problems did not grow in magnitude. However, the requirements
of such early legislative actions were quite minimal by todays standards
and serious environmental damages occurred even after the early attempts
of legislative control. Alabama was the last of the Appalachian states to
247
-------
pass surface mine legislation in 1970. Amendments to the original acts
were passed in all the Appalachian coal field states by 1977.
In 1977, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act was
passed. This act is administered by the U.S. Department of Interior.
This was the first nationwide surface mining legislation enacted in the
United States. Under this act performance standards for surface mines
were established. Such standards involve restoring mined lands so
these lands can support their original uses, minimizing hydrologic dis-
turbances, maintaining and then removing waste piles when they are no
longer used, and establishing permanent vegetative cover after the site
is restored to its original contour. The operator is responsible for
successful vegetation on the affected area for a period of five years
if the operation is located in a region where the average annual pre-
cipitation is greater than 66 cm, and for 10 years in a region with less
than 66 cm of average annual precipitation. These standards are to be
implemented by states through their own regulatory programs approved
by the federal government or by the federal government in states that
do not develop approvable programs. Permits for minign are to be issued
requiring maximum coal utilization, stabilizing areas and waste piles to
control erosion, treatment of acid-forming and toxic materials, construc-
tion of water impoundments and reclamation of abandoned areas to mini-
mize long-term environmental effects of mining activities. Another facet
of the law is that if prior to the initiation of mining an area is deemed
not reclaimable, the regulatory authority may designate the area unsui-
table for mining.
In addition, special performance standards are applicable for mining
on steep slopes, mountain top removal operations, and mining on prime
farm lands. Special provisions are also included for coal mines in
Alaska, anthracite mines in Pennsylvania and some bituminous coal
mines in Wyoming.
The ability of coal operators to comply with the federal regulations
will vary with the individual states. Prior to the federal program the
individual states had no uniform reclamation standards. States such as
Ohio and West Virginia enacted stringent reclamation laws prior to
248
-------
passage of the federal requirements. As a result these states will have
much less difficulty complying with the nationwide performance standards
than will the states which had minimal requirements.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, as amended, was
responsible for the development of effluent guidelines reflecting best
practical treatment technology for all industrial categories. Such criteria
were developed for the coal industry. The development criteria included
the industry as a whole, i.e. surface mines, underground mines and
coal preparation plants.
The effluent guidelines developed for the coal industry under the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act and the Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act, in combination, provide for the first uniform and
nationwide comprehensive program for environmental control of the coal
industry.
It should be noted that the effluent criteria developed for the coal
industry, which are presently applicable, represent minimum requirements.
The individual states have the alternative of adopting standards even
more restrictive than the federal requirements.
State requirements for mine water discharges from active surface
mines in the eastern U.S. range from a minimum of pH control in
Virginia to the more stringent control required by Tennessee. In Tenne-
ssee the controlled parameters include pH, total iron, settleable solids,
suspended solids, manganese, and sulfate. In general, state programs
have been developed to control pH, iron and solids.
As mentioned above, present federal effluent limitations are appli-
cable to both surface and underground coal operations. The require-
ments were initially developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and have now been adopted by the Office of Surface Mining.
The present limitations are shown below.
249
-------
„„. . _. . . .. Daily Maximum Daily Average
Effluent Characteristic Trr— * • • =-
Value Value
Manganese 4 mg/1 2 mg/1
Total Suspended Solids 70 mg/1 35 mg/1
Total Iron 7 mg/1 3.5 mg/1
pH within 6.0 - 9.0 range
The surface mine operator is required to direct all surface water coming
from a disturbed area through a sedimentation pond, or a series of
ponds, prior to discharge to the receiving stream. These discharges
must achieve compliance with all applicable state requirements in addi-
tion to meeting the minimum federal effluent limitations listed above.
Any overflow from the disturbed area resulting from a precipitation
event larger than a 10 year, 24 hour frequency are exempted from the
effluent limitations. However, if the pH value of the normally discharged
effluent exhibits a pH value less than 6.0, then an approved neutraliza-
tion process must be installed. All operators must maintain an approved
water monitoring program that will provide adequate information on the
daily and seasonal variation in discharges in terms of flow rate, pH,
total iron, manganese, and suspended solids. The data must then be
reported within 60 days of collection.
Mine drainage neutralization facilities are common throughout the
coal fields of the eastern U.S. Such facilities may treat from less than
2O liters per minute to more than four thousand liters per minute. The
larger of such facilities are associated with underground mines.
FUNDS POR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Hopefully, existing federal and state mining regulations relating to
environmental protection are now adequate to prevent further degradation.
However, it is the residual problem of abandoned and unreclaimed mine
lands which will require major, remedial work in future years. The
problem of highly acid discharges from abandoned underground mines
will undoubtedly be the major challenge which must be addressed before
any complete mined land remedial program can be accomplished.
250
-------
A number of the eastern states have established special funds for
the purpose of abandoned mine reclamation. Generally the source of
these funds are from fines imposed on operators for violations of mining
procedures and from bond forfitures. West Virginia, however, was the
first state to develop a special reclamation fund for the specific purpose
of reclaiming lands which have been mined but not reclaimed in accor-
dance with modern standards. The West Virginia program was initiated
in 1963 when an aerial survey revealed there were nearly 50,000 hec-
tares of unreclaimed or inadequately reclaimed lands within the state.
Under this program every coal operator was required to pay the Depart-
ment of Natural Resources a fee of £ 150,00 per hectare for each hec-
tare from which overburden was to be removed. To date, this program
has reclaimed more than 10,000 hectares. Most of the reclamation work
is conducted by a Soil Conservation District, a private reclamation
contractor, or by a mining company that is operating in the area. In
addition to the Special Reclamation Fund, the present day trend toward
"restripping" or mining areas that were previously mined is having a
significant impact on the reduction of orphaned lands. With this increase
in restripping, over 150 linear kilometers of old highwalls have been
eliminated since 1975. These areas are reclaimed under present day
standards.
In 1967, Pennsylvania authorized £500 million for a Land and Water
Conservation and Reclamation Pund. This fund specifically allocated
£200 million for the elimination of land and water scars created by
past coal mining practices. To date, more than 400 projects have been
completed with expenditures in excess of £75 million.
Until the present, mined land reclamation and water pollution control
projects have been limited to state programs or to federal demonstra-
tion projects which have been limited to small geographical areas.
One of the unique aspects of the Surface Mining Control and Recla-
mation Act is the stablishment of the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Pund.
This capital will provide for land and water reclamation, for acquisition
of unreclaimed lands and for research and demonstration projects on
251
-------
reclaiming abandoned lands. The fund is primarily derived from fees of
35 ^/ton of surface mined coal, 15<£ /ton of underground mined coal, and
10<£/ton of lignite. User fees on reclaimed lands and funds from the
sale of reclaimed lands are also deposited in the fund. Based on past
coal production information, it is estimated that £ 140 million will be
collected during the first program year.
The State of West Virginia anticipates receipt of £ 10 million per
year from this program in order to correct past coal mining abuses
on orphaned land program will equal all the money that was generated
during the past fourteen years by the State's Special Reclamation Pund,
Similiar funds are available to all other states where remedial actions
are required.
SUMMARY
Todays discussion has touched briefly on some of the environ-
mental problems, and their causes, associated with the coal industry.
Todays discussion has touched briefly on some of the environmental
problems, and their causes, associated with the coal industry. Todays
problems are generally the aftermath of a mining philosophy which was
not required to consider the long term environmental consequences
of coal mining. Today, such practices have been discontinued and
uniform minimum performance standards have been adopted for the
industry. Por the first time the United States has the mechanisms by
which the ongoing operations are required to consider environmental
issues during normal daily operating procedures which will help to
insure no additional environmental problems while at the same time
action has been initiated to correct past environmental damages.
252
-------
TABLE r
EASTERN STATES COAL PRODUCTION 197O - 19711' (million Ions)
Ul
w
1970
Alabama
Kentucky
Maryland
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Virginia
We«t Virginia
Surface
11,482
62,693
1,377
37,240
25,108
3,886
6,998
27,657
Undergro-
und
9,078
62,610
238
18,111
55,382
4,350
28,018
116,414
Surface
11,194
66,172
1,467
38,568
28,546
5,728
8,997
25,821
1971
Undergro.
und
6,751
53,216
176
12,862
44,289
3,543
21,631
92,437
1972
- Surface
13,226
64,693
1,500
34,098
28.8O6
5,394
10,035
22,080
1973
Un dgrfiro— Surface
und
7,588
56,494
141
16,269
49,133
5,886
23,993
101,i562
11,613
64,750
1,722
29,558
30,195
4,584
10,524
l'),932
TJnderfiro
und
7,618
62,895
66
16,225
46,207
3.636
23,437
95,516
- Surface
12,771
73,700
2,247
31,045
38,213
4,435
11,559
20,243
1974
1975
Undergro- Surface
und
7.O53 15.O3O
63,497
90
14,365
42,249
3,106
22,767
82,220
77.981
N'/A
31.315
39,506
4,400
12,329
20,926
Undergro
und
7,614
65,632
N/A
15,455
44,631
3,806
23,181
88,357
1976
- Surface
14,200
75,900
2,500
29.30O
39.900
4.2OO
12,800
21,000
und
7.4OO
64,100
0,18
16.2OO
43.800
4,100
24.OOO
87,800
I/ Prom NCA Coal Data Publication
-------
SELECTED PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
IN DESIGNING COAL FIRED POWER - PLANTS
AND HIGH TENSION SYSTEMS
x/
Jerzy Kucowski
INTRODUCTION
The prevailng position of conventional coal fired power plants in
Polish power industry, cause that much of attention nowadays is devo-
ted to environmental problems connected with these facilities.
These are the problems:
pollution of air and land with dust (fly ash) and gaseous compounds
(chiefly SC>2), entrained in furnace gases escaping through the power
plant chimney stacks
- secondary environmental pollution with solid waste products
- impact on soil and water
- effect of noise
- influence of cooling towers and ventilators
- influence of power industry facilities on landscape changes
- influence of high tension systems.
The most serious of the above cited problems are pollution of air
and land and the impact on water, (especially water heating). There-
fore most attention is devoted to those problems, especially to the air
and land pollution control. Increasing investment expenses for environ-
x/ Jerzy Kucowski, M.Sc. - Chief Engineer ENERGOPROJEKT-Warsaw,
Krucza 12
255
-------
mental protection have been planned for construction of new plants as
well as for the modernization of working ones with the aim to minimize
the harmful influence on environmental. Development of this activity is
essential for the continuous fast development of power production. One
should emphasize the fact that quality of coal fired in Polish power
plants is not the best, and the. trend of its further deterioration in the
last few years is evident. There is more and more lignite fired in
Polish power plants too. Basic parameters of coal fired in Polish power
plants is illustrated by the following table:
Calorific value
Ash
Moisture
Sulphur
Bituminous
I Rank
kcal/kg 4700-5000
% 20-25
% 10-12
% 0.8-1.2
'coal
II Rank
35OO-43OO
20-35
15-30
1.1-2.8
L/ignite
-
1600-2100
10-27
45-55
0.6-1.1
Problems of environmental protection are broadly considered just in
designing power plants fired with coal and high tension power systems.
Environmental factors also strongly affect location of new power plants
and considerably determine technological solutions. Only three following
subjects have been discussed in this paper:
- chimney stacks of power plants
- utilization of lakes as cooling circuits with respect to environment
protection aspects
- high tension systems design from the forest protection point of view.
CHIMNEY STACKS OP POWER PLANTS
In the Polish power industry as in other countries which use
conventional power fuel, one of the basic solutions for limiting atmos-
pheric pollution by sulphur dioxide is up to now the construction of
stecks - as high as 30O m.
256
-------
Calculations and measurements indicated that use of the greatest
possible concentration of power per single chimney stack is essential
ue. by adding of a large number of boilers to one stack. It can be
illustrated by the case of a 2OOO MW power plant where application of
one chimney stack 300 m high to the whole power plant gives 2 to
3 times less S02 emission as compared to the application of two or
three stacks of the same height. However the adoption of a chimney
stack with one conduit is not advisable in this case. More advisable
is use of a multi-conduit stack.
Multi-conduit chimney stacks for power plants have been construc-
ted in many countries such as England, Austria, Prance, Japan, Canada,
Hungary, East and West Germany, Sweden, and the Soviet Union. This
construction has been also introduced in Poland.
The advantages of multi-conduit chimney stacks are as follows:
- concentration of a great mass of furnace gases in one point which
gas a fundamental impact on thermal uplift, and thereby, on the better
dispersion of gases and on the decrease of the concentration of
pollutants,
avoidance of gases being scrubbed by the retention of high outlet
velocity from particular conduits,
establishment and unification of the conditions of furnace gases flow
independently of the number of boilers in use or their of engagement,
- possibility of better control of waste gases flow (pollution, velocity),
possibility of a succesive link-up of particular conduits as the power
plant develops,
after the erection of a ferroconcrete external shaft there is the
possibility to continue the work inside, without the necessity of for-
ming a protection zone around the chimney,
possibility of easy visual control and repairs of particular conduits
during exploitation time (including replacement of particular segments),
avoidance of switching off a great number of blocks,
257
-------
smaller cost as compared with a few one-conduit chimneys (A one-
conduit collecting stack, with a number of boilers connected to it
is cheaper, but does not have the above advantages of a multi-
conduit stack).
Drawbacks of multi-conduit chimney stacks are:
more complicated construction (several elements require very careful
execution ),
difficulty in acquisition of appropriate ceramic materials for the con-
duits of boiler gases,
eventual necessity to employ stainless steel for conduits of gases
or difficulties of adequate prevention of carbon steel corrosion
(when the design involves).
Prom the above considerations it appears that multi-conduit chimney
stacks have their advantages and disadvantages. However this is to
emphasize that in countries, in which this construction, was used very
exact and universal analyses were performed which showed its useful -
ness. Similarly, in Poland the complex optimizing analysis (elaborated
by the "Energoprojekt" with contributions from specialistic agencies
engaged in designing of chimney stacks) was carried out.
In this analysis many variants were elaborated, assuming that the
requirements of the Polish standards, regarding air pollution, will be met.
Single conduit stacks were compared with multiconduit stacks. Taken
into account among other things were investment costs, feasibility of
execution, exploitation costs and reliability of the power plant work.
The results of analysis confirmed the advisability and the feasibility
of the construction of multi-conduit chimney stacks in our conditions.
Several chimney stacks of this type, have been erected in Poland
and further ones are in construction or on the drawing board. These
are the chimneys 150 to 300 m high with the number of conduits from
3 to 6. External shafts of chimneys are in ferroconcrete, and internal
conduits in steel or in ceramic.
258
-------
In the designs of new power plants and of heat and power gene-
rating plants, the construction of multi-conduit chimney stacks is usually
anticipated.
UTILIZATION OP LAKES IN COOLING CIRCUITS OF THERMAL
POWER PLANTS
The problem of lakes' utilization in cooling circuits of power plants
will be discussed in an example of a complex of power plants with
joint rating 2200 MW, fired with lignite.
The lakes used to cool the water of these power plants were
subjected to wide investigations of changes, affected by heat, in physico-
chemical water composition, and in biological life.
Results of these tests helped to determine the influence of such
cooling systems on the water medium of lakes.
The natural water reservoir, used to cool the water there, con-
2
sists of 5 lakes with total surface area about 13.0 km , and total
3
volume 66 million m of water.
2
The lakes have their own watershed with 411 km area, in which
surface mines of lignite are located. Water is drawn to the lakes from
3
the drainages of these mines in amounts of about 3.0 m /sec. Some
drainage is discharged to the nearby flowing river.
The circulation of the cooled water, due to interdependent posi-
tioning of the lakes, is very complicated. The realization of coaling
circuits required the construction of about 30 km of canals, 5 pumping
stations and a number of water intakes and offtakes. The most impor-
tant elements in the problem of environmental protection are discharge
points of cooling water to the lakes, and the canals taking warm water
from the power plant.
Biological investigations have shown that in heated lakes more
intensive development of all forms of life, of flora and fauna ocurred.
The effect of water heating was most evident on the composition of
the fish species and their habitat.
259
-------
Warming of water in lakes did not eliminate any fish species such
as living prior to the cooling circuit of power plants being put to work.
All species were preserved, however a clear change in quantitative
relations of particular species was noted. The increase of water tempe-
rature greatly affected the growth rate of all fish species. Particularly
large increases were noted in case of the herbivorous fish these fishes
weight increased from two to twenty times depending on the fish specie.
Investigations of fish resistance to high temperatures of water indi-
cated that average lethal temperatures dependent on fish species varied
from 34.5°C to 40.6°C, and alarm temperatures from 28.5 C to 34.5 C.
The only dinstinctly negative effect the for fish cultures was more
frequent occurrence of parasites.
The performed studies enable further conclusions also.
Thermal load, determined as the average value for the whole area
of lakes may be:
2
for summer months up to 160 kcal/m (in
2
- for winter months up to 400 kcal^-i /h.
Particular lakes of the whole complex or separate parts of lakes
2
in the region of canal discharges may be loaded up to the 200 kcal/m /h
in summer.
Water temperatures in relation to the values observed in normal
conditions may increase:
o
- on the average by about 7 C
o
- in summer months by about 5 C
o
- in winter months by about 10 C.
Maximum temperatures of the water from the power plant in points
of its discharge to the lakes should not exceed 35 C. Average monthly
temperatures of the water calculated as average values for the whole
area of lakes should not exceed 28.5°C.
Design of cooling circuts should anticipate construction of canals
(which draw warm water from power plants) of possibly large surfaces.
The water should be introduced to the lakes by the overflows with a
small unitry water flow. Velocity of the water in direct offtakes from the
260
-------
canals should not exceed 0.2 m/sec.
Lakes used for water cooling should be under rational fish culture
system to maintain the balance in biological life, and to avoid disturban-
ces in exploitation of cooling circuits. Finally it should be emphasized
that the investigations were carried out, on models and in the field, by
"Energoproj ekt" - Warsaw. Under the "Energoprojekt" direction, the
Institute of Meteorology and Water Management has performed long-term
observations and tests of the thermal balance of lakes, of phisical and
chemical properties of water and of flora and fauna.
The Institute of Pish Cultures investigated the behaviour of ichtio-
fauna under the influence of warm water and experimented on the feasi-
bility of warmth liking herbivorous fish cultures.
The results of the research indicated the lack of a real negative
influence of heating on lake water ecosystem. A positive effect of this
heating on fish cultures has been stated.
DESIGN OP HIGH TENSION SYSTEMS FROM THE FOREST
PROTECTION POINT OF VIEW
Economic development of the country, and environmental protection
problems provide also difficulties in the construction of power lines'
routes.
The network of lines of 110 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV voltage is
presently much longer than the total length of rail lines in Poland, and
it increases annual by about 100O km. Power lines frequently collide
with various elements such as for instance a forest where a glade
should be cut through. Low suspended power lines with large spacing
between wires are'more advantageous for power industry becouse of
the smaller cost of installation and greater operational certainty. However,
such lines cause more collisions with various elements and require wider
forest glades.
Taking these factors into account the overhead lines of 110 kV,
220 kV and 400 kV have been designed by "Energoprojekt" on the poles
261
-------
with narrow construction, Minimum width of the line was achieved by
substituting of horizontal or triangular arrangement of the wires with a
vertical arrangement. In the case of the double circuit overhead lines
introduction of insulator strings in "V" arrangement additionally decre-
ases the line width. This helps to decrease the width of forest glades,
and thereby save many hectares of the forest which is very important
for national economy and for environmental protection too.
The decrease of the forest glade width by application of the poles
of narrow construction have been listed below:
Voltage
kV
110
110
220
220
400
400
Circuit
numbers
pieces
1
2
1
2
1
2
Width of a
for normal
poles
construction
m
13.8
14.1
23.2
27.0
31.4
27.1
glade ' Di
for narrow
poles
construction
m
7.3
10.2
8.0
14.3
10.8
20.5
fference between
Drmal and narrowed
glades
m
6.5
3.9.
15.2
12.7
20.6
6.6
per cent
47
28
65
47
66
24
Application of narrow construction poles saves annually about 70 ha
of forest.
The further research stage aiming at greater decrease of the width
of forest glades is the preparation of a working plan for the lines sus-
pended on the poles above the forest. For example if a 400 kV line in
normal design requires to remove trees in a 31.4 m wide belt, and a
narrow construction line on 10.8 m wide belt, then the line suspended
on the poles above the forest can limit this glade to the width of 6 m.
Moreover the two first solutions require removing of single tall trees
situated on the edges of the glades to prevent their possible falling on
the wires, while in the over-forest line case such thing can not happen.
Therefore over-forest-lines are very advantageous for forest protection.
However, they also have certain disadvantages i.e. worse operation
262
-------
certainty, greater thunderbolt hazard, higher cost, longer time of con-
struction. Because of these disadwantages one does not expect a uni-
versal use of the over-forest-lines. Besides, one has to note that con-
struction of the lines suspended on the poles as high as 60 m or more,
is not every where possible. There will be constructed experimental
sectors of such line in aim to test in practice all its advantages and
drawbacks. It has been anticipated, that over-forest-lines will be in the
first place used in cases of absolute necessity such as preservation of
compact forest stands, or of unique trees or trees monuments of Nature,
and also there where no other route is possible.
263
-------
THE IMPACTS OP COAL EXTRACTION AND CONVERSION
ON AIR QUALITY - AND CONTROL MEASURES THEREFORE
x/
Terry L. Thoem
INTR OD U CTION
It is apparent to all of us that the demand for energy resource
development continues to increase. Vast coal reserves in the Western
United States provide an attractive option for meeting this demand.
Approximately 650 million tons of coal were mined in the United States
in 1976 of which about 450 million tons were used in steam electric
generating plants. Of this total about 70 million tons were mined in
the six Region VIII states of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. This figure of 70 million tons is projected
to go to 300 million tons by 1985 at the same time that the U.S. supply
is projected to go to slightly in excess of 1 billion tons. A tripling of
fossil fuel fired generating capacity from 1977 to 1985 (lO thousand
megawatts to 30 thousand megawatts) is in store for the Region VIII
states. Coupling this increase in coal mining and combustion in the
Region VIII States with a concern as expressed in the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1977 for information on health effects of arsenic, cad-
mium, Polycylic Organic Material, and certain radioactive pollutants
places a demand on trace element data collection. With some foresight,
Region VIII EPA has been funding research in order to provide trace
element emissions data. In addition to the expressed concern over these
x/ Terry L. Thoem, Deputy Director, Office of Energy, Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, Denver, Colorado.
265
-------
trace element emissions from coal conversion, research programs have
attempted to define the amount of particulate matter which will be intro-
duced into the atmosphere as a result of surface coal mining activities.
This paper attempts to summarize the results of these field rese-
arch programs with particular emphasis on the power plant trace ele-
ment emissions.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions which may be reached from the results of these rese-
arch programs are...
1. Good emission control practices are necessary and are available
to prevent significant air quality degradation from mining activities.
2. Coal conversion results in the release of certain toxic trace ele-
ments. A number of these trace elements are preferentially enriched
in the fly ash/flue gas stream. Also, the enrichment of certain tra-
ce elements may be characterized as a function of particle size.
3. The magnitude of enrichment and hence release to the atmosphere
is significantly dependent upon whether the trace elements is
associated with the inorganic or organic phase of the coal.
4. The magnitude of trace element emissions is dependent upon the
concentration in the coal, the particulate control device collection
efficiency, and the control device operating temperature.
5. Although there are variations in trace element concentrations in
coal a general conclusion can be reached that Western coal
exhibits less trace elements per BTU than midwestern coal.
6. Although it was expected that hot side electrostatic precipitators
would be poorer trace element collectors than cold side precipi-
tators, results provided mixed conclusions depending upon the
specific element of interest.
266
-------
DISCUSSION OF TRACE ELEMENT PROGRAMS
1975 Program
The combustion process produces a wide variety of emissions
and effluents ranging from sulfur and nitrogen oxides and particulates
in the flue gas to solid and liquid wastes. In addition to carbonaceous
material, coal contains inorganic matter in the form of mineral inclu-
sions in the coal which become part of the emissions and effluents from
the generating station. The distribution of this material among the efflu-
ent streams of a generating station is dictated by 1) the coal compo-
sition, 2) station boiler configuration, and 3) the flue gas participate
control devices utilized.
The 1975 study described the detailed characterization of 27 inor-
ganic elements in the flows around three coal-fired steam generating
stations. The three stations include examples of two boiler designs -
tangentially fired and cyclonic; and three flue gas particulate control
techniques-venturi scrubber, electrostatic precipitator, and mechanical
cyclones.
Materials and Methods
The sampling scheme for each of the stations was designed to
collect representative samples and mass flow rate data for each inco-
ming and exiting material stream. The three stations operated at rela-
tively constant boiler load during the sampling periods, thus approxima-
ting steady state conditions. Therefore, long-term averaging of samples
and flow rates were not required to obtain representative data.
Plant Descriptions
Station I consists of four individual units with a total generating
capacity of 75O MW fired with Wyoming sub-bituminous coal. Unit No. 4
was sampled for this program. This unit is a tangentially-fired, balanced
267
-------
draft 330 MW boiler with three venturi scrubbers for particulate emission
control.
Station II has a 350 MW tangentially fired boiler using Wyoming
sub-bituminous coal. A hot-side electrostatic precipitator provides fly
ash control.
A North Dakota lignite is fired in a 250 MW cyclonic boiler with
mechanical cyclone particulate collectors at Station III.
Sampling Techniques
All incoming and exiting streams at each plant were sampled con-
currently over a two-day period. Ply ash in the exiting flue gas was
collected using wet electrostatic precipitator (WEP) sampling devices.
The collection efficiency of this device was found to be 99+% when
compared to the recommended EPA filter technique. The capacility of
long-term sampling and excellent sample recovery coupled with its high
collection efficiency make this sampling technique especially suitable
for trace element determination in the flue gas.
Solid, liquid, and slurry streams were sampled periodically during
the sampling period. The individual solid samples were combined and
representative portions obtained by random splitting either by quartering
or with riffle buckets. Composite samples of the solids and liquids in
slurry streams were obtained by combining the individual samples and
separation of solids and liquids by filtration. Composite samples of
liquid streams were also obtained by combination of the individual sam-
ples. Liquid samples were acidified to prevent absorption of trace con-
stituents on the walls of the polypropylene containers during storage.
Analytical Strategy
The samples were quantitatively analyzed for 27 trace and minor
inorganic elements. These analyses were based on five general techni-
ques:
268
-------
(l) atomic absorption spectroscopy (Ag, Cr, Hg, Al, Mg, Pe,
Ca, V, As, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Be, Pb, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ni);
(2) X-ray fluorescence (Ba);
(3) ion selective electrodes (Cl, P);
(4) fluorometry (U, Se); and
(5) colorimetry (Ti, B).
Pour general sample types were encountered at the three plants:
(1) coal,
(2) coal ash and sludge,
(3) lime, and
(4) aqueous, including WEP liquor.
Semi quantitative analyses were performed by spark source mass
spectrometry (SSMS) for 53 elements, including the 27 analyzed quan-
titatively. Due to several limitations of the techniques, the results of
SSMS survey analyses generally agree only within an order of magni-
tude with the quantitative results.
Plow Rates
The mass flow rate of each stream was determined either by direct
measurement, from plant operating data or from material balance expres-
sions for total mass flow or mass flow of a major consituent.
Prom the analytical results and mass flow rate determinations, mass
flows for each element in each plant stream were calculated. These
data were used as input to trace element material balance expressions.
Results and Discussion
As previously mentioned, it was found that the quantity of an ele-
ment leaving a generating station in each of the various exiting ash
streams is dependent on its concentration in the coal, boiler configura-
269
-------
tion and load, flue gas emission control devices employed, and the
properties of the element and its compounds.
The first factor, i.e., concentration in coal is a function of the
type and source of coal. The last three factors influence the fractional
distribution among the various exiting ash streams. The distribution of
the total ash among these streams is dictated by the boiler configura-
tion and the collection efficiency of the flue gas particulate control
devices.
Coal Ash Distribution
The trace and minor constituents entering the power stations -with
the coal are distributed among the following exit ash streams:
(l) fly ash or vapor phase in the flue gas;
(2) bottom ash;
(3) scrubber ash (Station l), precipitator ash (station II), or
cyclone ash (station III).
In all three cases, the economizer ash was an extremely small stream.
It was combined with bottom ash at Station II because the two were
sluiced together with pyrites from the mills and separate samples were
not available.
The tangentially-fired boilers at Stations I and II produce approxi-
mately the same portion ( 20 percent) of bottom ash. The cyclonic
boiler at Station III yields significantly more bottom ash ( 65 percent)
as is common with this burner design. This separation between bottom
ash and fly ash leaving the boiler is the first significant point of frac-
tionation of the coal ash the accompanying elements. The second major
fractionation comes at the flue gas particulate control devices. Stations
I and II are again comparable at this point. The venturi wet scrubbers
at Station I and the hot—side electrostatic precipitators at Station II exhi-
bit collection efficiencies for the fly ash of 99.6 % and 99.1 %, respecti-
vely. The mechanical cyclone collectors at Station III retain approxima-
tely 85 % of the fly ash leaving the boiler with the flue gas.
270
-------
Element Distributions
The majority of the trace and minor elements contained in coal
are associated with the mineral matter which forms the major portion
of the coal ash. This association with mineral matter or with the car-
bonaceous portion of the coal was further investigated in the 1977
program. Unless some mechanism produces a selective partition of the
elements during one of the major fractionations of the ash, the elements
would be distributed among the ash streams in the same proportion as
the total ash. However, from the examination of the data, it became
evident that many of the elements are enriched in the flue gas and fly
ash and correspondingly depleted in other streams.
Ply ash in the Flue Gas
It was found that enrichment in the flue gas at all three stations
(arsenic at two of the three stations) is indicated for:
sulfur lead copper
mercury molybdenum cobalt
chlorine nickel uranium
antimony boron arsenic
fluorine zinc silver
selenium cadium
vanadium chromium
The remainder of the elements exit the stack in the same proportions
as the ash. These include:
barium aluminium manganese
beryllium calcium magnesium
iron titanium
Bottom Ash
At all of the stations, the bottom ash was sluiced to settling ponds.
During sluicing some of the elements are leached from the ash by the
sluice water.
271
-------
The fractions of the elements in the scrubber ash (Station l), pre-
cipitator ash (station II) and cyclone ash (station III) are similar to
the total ash fractions for most of the elements. Sulfur, mercury and
chlorine are markedly depleted in these ash streams. These three ele-
ments appear to be leaving the stations predominantly as gaseous spe-
cies.
Enrichment mechanism
The enrichment of certain elements in the fly ash and flue gas of
the various stations can be partially explained by the volatilization of
these elements or their compounds in the fire box of the boiler. The
volatilization provides the mechanism for the selective partitioning of
elements during the fractionation of the ash between fly ash and bottom
ash. The volatilized elements or their compounds can subsequently;
(l) remain gaseous,
(2) recondense partially, or
(3) recondense completely.
In the first case a high percentage of an element incoming with
the coal will be discharged through the stack unless the flue gas con-
trol devices are designed for their collection. This behavior seems to
be exhibited by the elements sulfur, mercury, and chlorine.
Partial or complete condensation will lead to an increase in the
concentration of these elements in the fine particulate fraction of the
fly ash. Condensation can occur by nucleation or deposition on availa-
ble surfaces. At the relatively low residence times between volatilization
and condensation, any nucleation that occurs will result in small parti-
cles. Deposition on the fly ash particles will be surface area dependent.
This also will result in increased concentrations in the small particula—
tes due to their greater specific surface area. This trace element con-
centration dependence on the fly ash particle size has also been obser-
ved by other researchers.
272
-------
1977 Program
In order to further investigate the fly ash trace element enrichment
concept and mechanism two coal fired power plants were sampled in
1977. Coal analyses were made and fly ash samples were collected
as a function of particle size. The two facilities differed in the place-
ment of their electrostatic precipitators relative to the combustion air
preheaters. The hot-side (HS) precipitator operated on a gas stream
with temperature of 830 P. The cold side (CS) precipitator gas tempe-
rature was about 250 P.
Ply ash was collected at each plant by three methods:
o High volume (5ACPM) source assessment
sampling system cyclones,
o Low volume (lACPM) cyclones, and
o Anderson cascade impactor
A wet electrostatic precipitator served as the secondary collector for
fine particulates escaping the primary collector.
Sample Analyses
Samples of coal and fly ash were analyzed for 15 elements:
arsenic manganese
beryllium nickel
calcium lead
cadmium selenium
chromium titanium
copper uranium
fluorine zinc
mercury
Analytical techniques employed were:
o flame atomic absorption (Hg, Be, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ca, Mn)
o flameless atomic absorption (Cd, Pb, Ni, As)
273
-------
o specific ion electrode (p)
o fluorometry, (Se, u) and,
o colorimetry (Ti).
Coal samples were crushed to 200 mesh and separated into sink
and float fractions using mixtures of benzene and carbon tetrachloride
to provide separation liquor specific gravities of 1.35 and 1.45.
Some preliminary organic analyses were performed using the gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. Concentrations of orga-
nics in the flue gas stream were extremely low.
Results and Discussion
It was hypothesized that if an element was strongly associated
with the organic portion of coal it would tend to be strongly enriched
in the flue gas because of the tendency to form a vapor or fine parti-
cle metal oxide. The sink float results as presented in Table 1 were
plotted as illustrated in figure 1. Extrapolations to 0 and 100 percent
ash content were used to define the percent of association of a trace
element with the inorganic and organic phase. The preliminary reports
tend to indicate that Be, Cr, Ni, and Mn are strongly associated with
the organic portion. Also differences among coal are significant as is
indicated by the elements of Cd, Pb, Zn and Hg.
Enrichment ratio is defined as the ratio of an element's concentra-
tion in a given ash fraction to its ash equivalent concentration in the
coal. Data presented in Table 2 indicate that the following elements are
enriched in all fly ash fractions: As, Cu, P. Ni and Se.
Those elements enriched increasingly in the small fractions include
Be and Hg. Only Ti and Mg of the 15 elements studied did not show-
enrichment. It has been illustrated that the enrichment ratio is inversely
proportional to mean particle size. Only two elements (As and Se) were
more enriched in the flue gas existing from the hot side plant than the
cold side plant coal. The amount of trace element in the vapor phase
as collected by the WEP may also provide additional explanation. These
274
-------
preliminary data tend to indicate that in general there exists more of
the trace element in the vapor phase for the gas exiting the hot side
plant vs the cold side plant.
Trace element emissions data may be used along with represen-
tative coal analyses to determine similar splits for other power plants.
Similar data is available for potential trace element emissions from coal
gasification facilities,
Two additional concepts were surfaced during these programs.
(l) the conversion of sulfur in the coal into sulfur dioxide out the
stack and (2) a comparison of Illinois coal vs. Western coal on a
trace element pounds per BTU basis. It was shown that the combustion
of a Wyoming coal resulted in a conversion of sulfur to SO_ of 87,3
and 87.8 during two separate tests. Conversion of sulfur to SO? of a
North Dakota lignite resulted in 98,1 percent conversion,
A comparison of Western Coal vs. Eastern Coal on a pounds per
BTU basis concentration in the coal for some 27 elements showed that
for two of those 27 elements Eastern coal had lesser concentration
than Western coal; for 10 of the trace elements Western coal was less
than Eastern coal and for the remaining 15 elements Eastern coal was
about the same as Western coal. The elements for which element
Western coal has lower concentrations are S, Cl, Sb, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cd,
Co, As, and Pe, Eastern coal is lower in concentration for Mg and Ti,
IV. DISCUSSION OP COAL MINING AIR QUALITY STUDIES
Air quality impacts may be expected as a result of surface mining
activities in the form of coal dust and soil-like particulate matter. The
magnitude of the ambient air quality impact will be dependent upon se-
veral factors including, l) the size of the mining operation, 2) the
amount of fugitive dust control, 3) meteorological conditions, and 4) the
distance from the mine. The last factor is extremely important because
a large portion of the fugitive dust emissions are large particles (i,e0
greater than 10 microns) which settle out fairly rapidly. This concept
275
-------
as a function of downwind distance and atmospheric disperion poten-
tial has been illustrated. It is seen that for a normal atmospheric stabi-
lity (D") about 75 percent of the initial emissions settle out within the
first 5 kilometers of the mine emission point.
A field research program was conducted at 5 surface coal mines
in the Western United States in 1977. The primary objective of the
program was to quantify the amount and particle size nature of particu-
late emissions from individual mining activities. Applying typical emission
factors to a typical 1 million ton per year mine in the Western United
States it was calculated that the emission rate will be about 3000 ton
per year of particulate matter. It should be noted that about 800 percent
of these emissions result from haul roads. It was observed through this
research program that if a very general estimate of the amount of emi-
ssions is necessary and limited information on the mine is available
a figure of 1.2 pounds of particulate per ton of coal mined may be
used.
Control practices to minimize fugitive dust are available and to
a certain extent practiced at Western U.S. coal mines. Best available
control technology is required at all new coal mines.
SUMMARY
Continued research in the areas of quantification of mining emi-
ssions and the effectiveness of control measures is necessary. Conti-
nued investigations regarding the mechanism of trace element volatili-
zation and effectiveness of control practices during coal conversion
will refine our knowledge and ability to estimate trace element air
quality impacts.
276
-------
Figure 1
Coal HS
Coal CS
£
a
a
o
o
c
o
u
.2
Ash Content
.U .6
Ash Content
.8
1.0
Figure 4-2. Arsenic Concentration vs Ash Content
2.8
2.U •
2.0-
1.6
1.2
0.8-I
OA
0
.2 M .6
Ash Content
.8
1.0
.2 .4 .6
Ash Content
.8
1.0
^ 10000-
0. 12000-
a
'—' 10000-
0 8000-
'5
0 6000-
0
U
2000-
Figure 4-3. Beryllium Concentration vs Ash Content
H.OOOH
.6
.8
1.0
.2 .4 .6
Ash Content
Ash Content
Figure 4-4. Calcium Concentration vs Ash Content
277
-------
TABLE 1. ANALYSIS OP COAL SINK-FLOAT FRACTIONS
to
-si
00
Coal (r«ct Ion
Coal HS
Float at 1.35
Float at 1.4.5
Raw Coal
Sink at 1.33
Sink at 1.45
Coal CS
Float at 1.33
Float at 1.45
Raw Coal-
Sink at 1.35
Sink at 1.45
V* ol
Raw
Coal
1.6
98.4
100
98.4
1.6
41.3
86.5
10O
5O.5
13.5
&•
Ash
5.6
6.8
7.7
7.9
43.4
3.9
5.6
11.4
1O.4
51.5
An
1.5
1.1
1.2
2.3
20
0.85
1.2
3.9
9.3
15.0
Be
1.00
0.53
1/O5
0.75
1.4
1.15
1.60
O.O5
O.95
0.75
Co
8690
92OO
939O
9240
B46O
31OO
318O
3730
4140
7975
Cd
0.50
0.47
0.90
1.4
8.6
0.55
0.45
0.70
0.7O
1.2
Cr
9.5
19
14
11
31
16
10
13
21
14
Cu
12
12
14
17
70
6.3
10
14
25
43
P
61
60
52
67
19O
25
32
54
54
92
Hg
0.24
0.12
O.14
O.14
2.0
O.ll
0.09
O.ll
0.19
0.40
Hn
23
24
24
23
41
27
32
34
37
50
,Ni
7.3
5.0
7.0
5.9
18
4.4
a.a
5.1
3.9
5.1
Pb
3.0
4.1
6.7
5.4
43
5.9
5.6
11.7
12.1
16.0
Se
0.7 O
1.1
1.2
1.4
6.1
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.O
4.5
Ti
52O
62O
670
66O
2640
450
80O
990
111O
200O
U
l.O
0.88
0.90
0.83
2.3
1.4
1.2
2.0
1.5
2.2
Zn
7.0
5.8
11.7
7.5
89
4.O
6.5
6.5
0.9
15.6
x All concentrations calculated on a dry weight basic and reported aa ppm (Hg/g) Lin Less otherwise noted.
All values represent the average of duplicate deterrrinAtions.
-------
TABLE 2. ELEMENTAL ENRICHMENT RATIOS OF ANDERSEN COLLECTED PLY ASH
FRACTIONS
r ly /*sn
ei »n — _
size ^^
Fraction
Station HS:
8.O
5.O - 8.O
3.3 - 5.O
2.3 - 3.3
1.5 - 2.3
0.74-1.5
O.45-O.74
O.3O-O.45
-C 0.3O + Vaporona
ro Exx
-J
VO Station CS:
•• 8.2
5.1-8.2
3.4-5.1
2.4-3.4
1.5-2.4
8.77-1.5
0.47-0.77
0.32-0.47
O.32 + Vaporona
E xx
An
4.1
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.6
4.7
5.6
44.6
5.2
1.0
1.7
1.8
2.6
2.2
2.2
2.6
4.1
22
2.8
Cd
0.6
0.5
O.6
O.8
0.7
O.4
0.5
1.1
4.4
O.7
0.7
O.5
O.6
O.8
0.7
O.9
l.O
0.9
14.5
1.2
Cr
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
O.5
O.5
0.5
0.6
2.8
0.6
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.8
1.8
3.0
5.O
1.9
Ca
1.4
1.8
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.4
2.6
2.7
9.7
2.1
2.7
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.5
4.0
4.8
4.9
9.3
3.7
He
0.8
0.7
O.8
0.9
1.1
1.1
1.0
O.8
7.8
1.0
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.9
3.2
3.6
3.4
6.5
2.9
Ni
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.4
3.2
1.3
3.4
2.9
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.3
3.3
6.4
2.9
3.2
Pb
,
0.6
0.5
O.6
0.7
O.9
O.5
l.O
1.0
_
-
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.7
1.9
2.O
2.1
2.O
—
—
Se
7.O
7.2
9.4
11.0
11.0
16.3
19.5
27
563
21
3.7
2.8
2.6
2.7
2.6
2.0
2.O
5.3
2OO
9.2
Zn
0.9
0.9
0.8
1.1
1.2
1.6
1.8
2.1
30
1.7
6.4
4.6
1.3
1.9
4.8
5.5
10.5
23
109
9.7
Ash Fraction
Distribution (%)
9.5
11.4
16.6
11.6
2O.9
17.2
8.6
2.7
1.6
1OO
15.3
6.8
1O.1
10.4
16.6
21.8
13.2
2.5
3.3
100 %
* Ratio of ash fraction concentration to ash equivalent concentration of coal
xx Mean enrichment of flue participate fractions determined by combining the individual values in proportion to the ash
distribution by Andersen collection.
-------
AIR POLLUTION IN THE VICINITY OP LARGE
THERMAL POWER PLANTS AND CONTROL
by
x/
Ludwik Pinko
INTRODUCTION
The production of electric energy doubles every 7-10 years almost
in all developped countries, Poland not excluded. Today, as well as in
the next two decades - despite the large - scale program of developing
nuclear power plants - the energy generated there will cover only a
small percentage of the total power demand. Hence, recent emphasis is
laid on the utilization of coal as a fuel for power plants. It follows that
the amounts of the coal burnt continue to increase, and so do the
emissions to the atmosphere. The magnitude of the emission is contri-
buted by many factors, and especially by:
the quality of fuel used
- the type of the burning systems, and
the efficiency of the treatment installations employed.
As much as 95 % of the electric power and about 100 percent of
heat in Poland is generated by coal-fired plants. In 1977 the domestic
power industry has burnt 47.8 million tons of coal and 36 million tons
of lignite. In this situation, the harmful emissions to the atmosphere
produce many problems to be solved.
x/ Ludwik Pinko, M.Sc. Director of Power Industry Environmental
Laboratory "Energopomiar", Gliwice, Sowinskiego 3.
281
-------
The observations made so far, as well as the investigation results
obtained show that it is not so much the fly ash which accounts for
the increased pollution level, as some of the elements occurring in the
fuel (such as sulfur, sulfur compounds and heavy metals) or some
products generated in the burning process (e.g. nitric oxide). These
are the toxic pollutants which create a serious hazard to the environ-
ment.
The most toxic substances contained in the process gases are
sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide. Although a certain success has been
achieved by reducing the dust emissions (for the least few years they
have been kept on a level of 1.0-1.2 million tons yearly), the problem
of gaseous pollutants (chiefly SOO or NO ) is still far from being satis-
*— X
factorily solved. The emissions of sulfur compounds from domestic
power industry amounted to. 1.2 million tons in 1972 and 1.8 million tons
in 1977, which accounts for 50 % of the total for Poland.
In different countries there are held different views as to the signi-
ficance of increased emissions to the atmosphere. Some experts in this
domain conclude that immission, i.e. the concentration of pollutants in
the near-ground-level air, is the factor which first of all affects the en-
vironment and leads to undesirable damage. It is therefore sufficient to
increase the height of the smokestack, and in this way the concentra-
tion of the pollutants in the lower layers of the atmosphere will become
lower this is a false idea. Despite this improvement, i.e. the construc-
tion of increasingly tall smokestacks, environmental damage continues to
spread, and there is no evidence, that all of the pollutants released
into the atmosphere will be precipitated in the form of fallout in the vici-
nity of the emission source. On the contrary, there is ample evidence,
that the pollutants pass into higher atmospheric layers, where they are
transported over a considerable distance. These conditions lead either
to a widely dispersed fallout deposition of the pollutants over a much
greater area or to their accumulation in the atmosphere, which results
in the decrease of the solar radiation.
The results obtained from air pollution monitoring in a number of
countries show that air pollution over large industrial and municipal
282
-------
agglomerations should be considered in an approach different from the
one practiced for agricultural regions -with no industrial pollution or
single emission sources.
The measurement results for Warsaw (Poland), Ostrava-Havirov
(Czechoslovakia), Dayton and Cleveland (U.S.A.) indicate that the con-
tribution of power industry to S02 pollution in these regions amounts
to 65-75 %, and the contribution to S02 concentrations in the near-
ground air makes from 10 to 30 % only. This is due to the construc-
tion of tall smokestacks and to the application of technological pro-
cesses effecting a wide-spread dispersion of pollutants.
In Polish power industry air pollution monitoring has already been
carried out for many years. Nowadays every power plant being erec-
ted is at the same time equiped with a monitoring system. Such sys-
tems are operated for the following power plants: "Turow", "Kozienice",
"Dolna Odra", Gdansk, Power System, "Opole", "Belchatow", and Warsaw
Agglomeration Power System.
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE POWER PLANTS
"Turow" Power Plant and Turow region
This is the largest Polish power plant with an installed power
rating of 2000 MW, located in south-west Poland, in an agricultural
region, near the border with the German Democratic Republic. In the
immediate vicinity, on the German side of the border, two power plants
and a few industrial plants are operated.
The "Turow" power plant fires yearly 19 million tons of lignite
with a calorific value of about 1600-1800 kcal/kg, and a sulfur content
of about 0.5-0.6 %. The 4 smokestacks are 150 m high. One of the
German power plants operates with two chimneys, 98 m high, and fires
yearly 3 million tons of lignite of the same parameters as that fired
by the "Turow" power plant.
The other German power plant fires yearly about 6 million tons
of lignite with a calorific value of 1800 kcal/kg and a 0.6 % sulphur
283
-------
content, and has five smoke stacks each 100 m high.
The industrial plants located in the frontier zone in the German
Democratic Republic burn a yearly total of 2 million tons of lignite.
The height of the smokestacks varies from 60 to 90 m.
"Kozienice" Power Plant
The power plant is situated in a typical agricultural plainland.
The recently installed power rating is 1600 MW (with further 1000 MW
capacity in construction). The two smokestacks are 200 m high. The
power plant is fired with bituminous coal of a calorific value of 4800
kcal/kg, and a sulfur content of about 1 %. The fuel used amounts to
about 5 million tons per year. The immediate vicinity of the power plant
is covered with forests. Two industrial plants: are located 19 km south
and 40 km south west of the power plant, respectively.
Heat and power generating plants of Warsaw
The heat demand in the City of Warsaw is being covered from
several sources, as shown in the Table below:
Table 1
No. Heat source
1 Heat and Power Generating
Plants of Warsaw
2 Municipal District Heating
Plants
3 Individual boiler rooms
4 Tiled stoves and individual
heaters
Total
Heat rating
Gcalfo
3,368
617
995
620
5,600
Percent
60.5
10.9
17.6
11.0
100.0
284
-------
The Central Heating System of the City of Warsaw includes four
heat generating plants.
The Zerari Heat and Power Generating Plant with an available
heat rating of 1235.0 Gcal^i, is situated on the right-bank side of the
Vistula River in the northern part of the city. The plant is fired with
bituminous coal (with a 1.15 % sulfur content) in a quantity of 1.3
million tons/year. The two smokestacks are 100 and 200 m high.
The Siekierki Heat and Power Plant with an available heat rating
of 1.216 Gcal^i is situated in the left-bank side of the Vistula River
in the southern part of the City, has two smokestacks, 120 m and 200 m
high, and fires bituminous coal with a sulfur content of 1.15 % in a
yearly amount of 1.0 million tons.
The Powisie Heat and Power Plant is located on the left-bank
side of the Vistula River, has an available heat rating of 230 Gcal/h.
The two chimneys are 30 m and 36 m high. The plant is fired with
bituminous coal with a sulfur content of 0.75 % in a yearly quantity of
about 250,000 tons.
The Wola Heating Plant is situated in the western periphery of
the City. Its available heat rating is 240O Gcal^n. The plant operates
only during heating seasons, and is fired with mazout.
The Capital City of Warsaw is located at the Vistula River in the
Central Plain in moderate climate and is characterized by a micro
climate typical of large cities. The principal features of this local cli-
mate are raised temperatures, low humidity, increased volumes of over-
cast and precipitation, and decreased wind velocity within the boun-
daries of the municipal development as compared to open areas.
285
-------
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
"Turow" Power Plant
Dust fallout deposition measurements
The monitoring system consists of 24 sampling sites. Maximum
dust fallout depositions are recorded in the vicinity of the first German
power plant. The yearly average dust fallout deposition in the area of
2
the "Turow" Power Plant in 1977 varied from 9O t/km , 12 km from the
2
Plant, to 670 t/km at a distance of 1.2 km from the Plant.
At a distance of 2.5 km the recorded dust fallout deposition equalled
2
215 t^uri . At a distance of 0.4-7.2 km from the Plant the yearly ave-
rage dust fallout depositions exceed the admissible Standard Level
o
(250 t/km /year).
SO concentrations
SO- concentrations were measured by coulometry. It follows that
the average SO concentrations measured in 20-min tests varied from
3
0.0 to 1.50 mg SO /Nm . Daily averages ranged from O.O to O.48 mgSOo/
3
Nm , These concentrations were recorded 2. 9 - 13.2 km from the emis-
sion source. The admissible Standard Values for 20-min tests were
rarely exceeded (0.5 %), and the admissible Standard Level for daily
testing was exceeded more frequently (3.3 %), as compared to the per-
missible values of 0.9 and 5 %, respectively.
90 % of theS00 concentrations measured in 20-min tests ranged
3
from 0.0 to 0.10 mgSO /Nm .
The Standard values for both 20-min and daily average concen-
trations are more often exceeded in the direction of prevailing winds.
286
-------
"Kozienice" Power Plant
Dust fallout deposition measurements
The measurements were carried out at 22 sampling sites located
at a distance of 1.2 - 35 km from the Plant.
Q
The yearly dust fallout deposition varies from 34 to 80 t/km
and accounts for 13 - 32 % of the permissible level for protected
areas, which is 250 t/km fyear,
The highest dust fallout depositions were recorded in the direc-
tion of the prevailing wind (E and ESE) at a distance of 10 km from
the Plant. These values make up an increase of 30 percent in rela-
tion to the background.
SO concentrations
SO concentrations measured in 20-min tests varied from 0.0 to
0.50 mgSO /Nm and occurred at a distance of 5 km from the Plant
in the direction of prevailing winds. The highest concentrations were
recorded in January.
In all sampling sites, 90 % of the SO concentrations measured
3
in 20-min tests fell in the range 0.0 - 0.05 mgS02/Nm .
Average daily concentrations measured during the full testing
. 3
period ranged from 0.0 to 0.122 mgSO /Nm , and met 11.4 - 34.8 % of
3
the permissible values (0.35 mgS02/Nm ).
Heat and Power Generating Plants of Warsaw
Dust fallout deposition measurements
On the northern fringe of the City, district Zoliborz, in the vicinity
of the Warsaw Metallurgical Works, the fallout deposition approached
220 t/km /year. In the district Praga-North with many other industrial
287
-------
o
pollution sources the dust fallout deposition exceeds somotimes 300 t/km /
year. In the central down-town an enormous temporary increase in dust
fallout was observed in 1973 through 1975 within the area of the buil-
ding site of the new Central Rail Station. The nearly dust fallout was
2
as high as 900 t/km , and after completion of this construction in 1975
2
decreased down to 200 t/km .
In the vicinity of the Siekierski Heat and Power Generating Plant
2
the dust fallout reaches somotimes about 300 t/km /year. This area is
less inhabited so that the distribution of the dust fallout is similar to
the one observed in an open area.
SO concentrations
S02 concentrations were measured in 1973 through 1975 at 16
sampling sites. The average daily SO concentrations in the atmosphere
3
during the heating season varied from 0.06 to 0.30 mgSO /Nm and
met the Standards.
INTERPRETATION OP MEASUREMENT RESULTS
In the nearby vicinity of the power plant Turow the concentrations
of pollutants are relatively high, but do not exceed the admissible level
established by Polish Standards. In the power plant Kozienice the si-
tuation is evidently better. Both the dust fallout and the SO concentra-
tions are below the admissible level. They are also lower than the con-
centrations calculated in the foredesign.
The same pollutants emitted by the Warsaw agglomeration behave
in a different manner. The complex of a large city is characterized by
a specific climate preferring intensive thermal turbulence, which contri-
«
butes to a. better dispersion of the pollutants as compared to their dis-
persion outside the city boundaries. However, the present state of the
art does not permit a quantitative assessment of the "isle and of heat"
effect. An analysis of the maps of the dust fallout distribution in the
area of the city of Warsaw shows that the influence of heat and power
288
-------
plants on the dust content in the atmosphere is of a local character
only. The emissions from these plants are not responsible for the
occurrence of the maximums observed, which markedly exceed those
established by Polish Standards. The calculations and measurements
of average SO concentrations during heating periods show that the
contribution of the heat and power plants to the overall S02 concen-
tration level generated by all emission sources of the Warsaw agglo-
meration is as low as 10 %.
The development of the existing heat supply system, as well as
the design of new heat and power plants operating with high stacks,
will considerably decrease the air pollution over the city of Warsaw.
This improvement will first of all consist in the elimination of individual
heating and of small industrial boiler rooms.
PREVENTION METHODS
Long-term development programs are being prepared, -which are
aimed at decreasing the environmental hazard. Each Department has
prepared a program of its own. In these programs some modifications
in the technology of heat and power generation are proposed so as
to abate the atmospheric emission of pollution. These are either waste-
free technologies or such that produce minimum wastes. The programs
also include a wide application range of treatment systems for process
gases.
The power industry itself is interested in preventing air pollution
and develops
extensive R+D activities with the aim to introduce to fluidized bed
combustion, that will allow for a considerable abatement of both
sulfur compounds and nitric oxides emissions (the latter will be
decreased down to one third those emitted nowadays),
- in all newly constructed power plants modern electro filters are being
installed with an efficiency of at least 99.8 %; old power plants are
modernized, so as to eliminate less efficient treatment systems at the
latest in 1985,
289
-------
a comprehensive program of heat production is developed for large
industrial and municipal agglomerations,
- where possible, special coal mills with pyrite separators are installed,
which reduce the sulfur content in the power coal by some 50 %,
a system is designed for the desulfurization of coal by a dry method,
and will be set in operation in one of the Silesian power plants in
the very near future; this is a pilot plant and should its operation
be a success, similar desulfurization systems would be applied on
a larger scale;
- an installation is constructed for the desulfurization of furnace gases
by a wet limestone method; the first installation of that type is now
being set in operation; if the efficiency of the system proves to be
satisfactory, further desulfurization systems of that type will be built
and installed where possible.
The simplest solution to decrease the environmental pollution gene-
rated by power plants applied now everywhere is the construction of
tall smokestacks (250-270 m high).
On of the larger power plants (1200 MW) operates a system with
special storage of coal of calorific value of 5500 kcal/kg and a sulfur
content of 0.5 % to be mixed with worse coal when needed. Itis
expected thaf the programs presented above should bring positive results
in the early eighties.
REFERENCES
1. Prediction of power industry development to 199O and forcast for
the 2OOO year. Institute of Power Engineering. Warsaw 1974.
2. Analysis of future demand and supply of energy, taking into consi-
deration the requirements of rational environment formation, to the
2000 year. Committee: "Man and Environment" and "Committee of
Power Engineering" PAN 1976.
290
-------
3. Report of air pollution in the vicinity of existing and of newly con-
structed power plants. ZPBE Energopomiar for 1975, 1976, 1977.
4. Assessment of impacts of the Warsaw heat and power plant
complex on the level of air pollution in the city. ZPBE Energo-
pomiar, dr. eng. S. Minorski, and M. Lewandowski, M.Sc. eng. 1977.
5. Materials of EKG, UNO Seminar on desulfurization of fuels and
furnace emissions, Washington, USA, 1977.
6. Sulfur problems in the processes of burning, ZPBE Energopomiar,
Mr. Ludwik Pinko, M.Sc., eng., 1977.
291
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-79-159
2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
PROCEEDINGS of the Second U.S.-Polish Symposium
COAL SURFACE MINING AND POWER PRODUCTION IN THE FACE
OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Editor - Jacek Libicki
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
5. REPORT DATE
October 1979 issuing date
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
POLTEGOR - Central Research and Design Institute for
Openpit Mining
Wroclaw, Poland
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1NE826
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
J-5-533-12
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Proceedings - 1978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Proceedings of the second U.S. - Polish Symposium - September 26-28, 1978,
16. ABSTRACT
This report is the Proceedings of the second U.S.-Polish Symposium held at
Castle Ksiaz, Poland, September 26-28, 1978. Nineteen papers were presented as
follows: (1) Overview of the U. S. Environmental Research Program Related to Coal
Extraction, (2) Present and Future Role of Lignite in Polish Power Production and
Basic Problems of Environmental Protection, (3) Legislation and Regulations
Controlling Coal Extraction and Conversion in the U.S., (4) Legislation, Laws and
Regulations Controlling the Surface Mining of Lignite and Environmental Protection
in Poland, (5) EPA Enforcement and New Source Surface Mining Requirements and
Application in West Virginia, USA, (6) Present and Future Surface Coal Extraction
Technologies in the U.S., (7) Surface Mining of Lignite with Belt Conveyors and Its
Environmental Advantages, (8) Coal Mining and Ground Water, (9) Impact of Surface
Mining and Conversion of Coal on Ground Water and Control Measures In Poland,
(10) The impacts of Coal Mining on Surface Water and Control Measures Therefore,
(11) The Impact of Lignite Mining on Surface Water and Means of its Control, (12)Coal
Refuse Disposal Practices and Challenges in the United States, (13) Reclamation
Practices for Coal Refuse and Fly Ash Disposal, (14) Successful Revegetation of
Coal-Mined Lands in the U.S., (15) Efforts of Agricultural Reclamation of Toxic
Spoils in Lignite Surface Mining in Poland.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Lignite Mining
Coal Mining
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Power Plants
Environment
Poland, Legislation,
Regulations, Surface
Mines, Mining Methods
Groundwater, Surface
Water, Coal Refuse,
Symposium
02D
02F
05D
08G
08H
081
10A
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
298
JO SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form Z2ZO-1 (9-73)
292
r, U S GOVEKNMENI PRINTING OFFICE 1)79 -657-146/5476
------- |