AP-119
Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
A Bibliography with Abstracts
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
Air Pollution Technical Information Center
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
June 1973
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The AP series of reports is published by the Technical Publications Branch of the
Information Services Division of the Office of Administration for the Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Environmental Protection Agency, to report the
results of scientific and engineering studies, and information of general interest
in the field of air pollution. Information reported in this series includes cover-
age of intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted in conjunction
with state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial organizations.
Copies of AP reports are available free of charge to Federal employees, current
contractors and grantees, and nonprofit organizations as supplies permit - from
the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, or from the.. Superintendent of
Documents.
Publication Number AP-119
ii
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION v
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Emission Sources. 1
B. Control Methods 8
C. Measurement Methods 19
D. Air Quality Measurements 22
E. Atmospheric Interaction 24
F. Basic Science and Technology 25
G. Effects - Human Health 26
H. Effects - Plants and Livestock 32
I. Effects - Materials no entries
J. Effects Economic 42
K. Standards and Criteria 44
L. Legal and Administrative 45
M. Social Aspects no entries
N. General 47
AUTHOR INDEX 49
SUBJECT INDEX 51
ill
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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
INTRODUCTION
The Air Pollution Technical Information Center (APTIC) of the Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards prepared, selected, and compiled the abstracts in
this bibliography. The abstracts are arranged within the categories listed in the
Contents. The abstracted documents are thought to be representative of available
literature, and no claim is made to all-inclusiveness.
The subject and author indexes refer to the abstracts by category letter and
accession number. The author index lists all authors individually; primary author-
ship is indicated by an asterisk. Generally, higher accession numbers have been
assigned to more recent documents.
Current information on this subject and many others related to air pollution may be
*
found in APTIC's monthly abstract bulletin.
All of the documents abstracted by APTIC are currently on file at- the Air Pollution
Technical Information Center, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711. Readers
outside of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency may seek the documents directly
from publishers, from authors, or from libraries.
Air Pollution Abstracts, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. 20402. Includes more than 6300 abstracts and subject and
author indexes in each issue, and two separate cumulative indexes. Subscription
price: $27.00 per year; $6.75 additional for foreign mailing.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
07650
Otlowski, George J., Louis Farkas, George Boyd, and Joseph
Hynes
TAKE A DEEP DEADLY BREATH. Middlesex County Dept.
of Public Welfare, New Brunswick, N. J., Board of Chosen
Freeholders, 35p., ((1967)). (110 refs.)
A proposal was made to construct an aluminum reduction
plant in the Raritan Bay area in New Jersey. In an effort to
prevent the location of the plant in this area, a report is
presented describing the air and water pollution deriving from
this industry. The aluminum reduction process is described
and sulfur dioxide and fluorides are cited as being major ef-
fluents from the process. The health hazards associated with
these two pollutants are discussed, and several law suits are
mentioned which were brought against various aluminum com-
panies for damages sustained by plants, animals, and humans
attributed to emissions from the companies. It is concluded
that the Raritan Bay area, which already has an air pollution
problem, cannot tolerate the additional burden that the alu-
minum reduction plant would impose on the atmosphere.
12622
Boehlen, B.
FLUORINE EMISSION AT ALUMINIUM WORKS. Chem.
Eng., No 221, CE266-268, Sept. 1968.
The most important of the extraneous substances in the air
which arise from alumina reduction are inorganic fluorine
compounds, alumina, tar, carbon, sulfur dioxide, and carbon
monoxide. The fluorine compounds are particularly important
because of their toxicity to livestock and plants. Waste gas pu-
rification systems must be of two types: One for purification
of the furnace waste gas and the other for purification of air
from the premises. The first system for use with the Soderberg
furnace consists of a combustion step with cyclone and elec-
trostatic precipitator dust removal, and spray-type scrubbers
or filter-plate columns for hydrogen fluoride removal. The
system for purification of air from the premises consists of a
spray chamber with synthetic fabric lining mounted on the
roof. Purification of waste furnace gases from Soderberg fur-
naces results in a fluorine concentration in the pure gas of less
than 10 mg/cu m, while the purification of air from the
premises results in a fluorine concentration in the pure gas less
than 2 mg/cu m.
13701
Colombini, M., C. Mauri, R. Olivo, and G. Vivoli
OBSERVATIONS ON FLUORINE POLLUTION DUE TO
EMISSIONS FROM AN ALUMINUM PLANT IN TRENTINO.
Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc. Fluoride Res., 2(l):40-48,
Jan. 1969. 5 refs.
For many years, women and children complained of skin le-
sions similar to suffusions in an area of Trentino, near an alu-
minum plant. These lesions were first observed in the same
place about 30 years ago. The symptomatology is related to
damage to the vegetation due to emission of fluorine com-
pounds. Since March 1966, three permanent stations were in-
stalled in the area in order to collect volatile fluorine com-
pounds. Since February 1967, five deposit gauges were
established at progressively increasing distances from the
source. Fluorine air pollution has reached values close to and
sometimes above 10 micrograms/ cu m of air. Rain water col-
lected for two weeks in the deposit gauges showed decreasing
concentrations of fluorine the greater the distance from the
source. The highest value of 7.13 mg/L was found in the
deposit gauge closest to the factory. In the inhabited area, the
fluorine content ranged between 0.14 and 2.55 mg/L. Since
May 1967, the degree of fluorine pollution has decreased fol-
lowing installation of modern purification equipment at the
plant. (Author summary modified)
17116
Balazova, G., A. Rippel, E. Hluchan, and J. Ambrus
EVALUATION OF FLUOR CONTENT IN LIVING ORGAN-
ISM STANDING UNDER THE EFFECT OF FLUOR EX.
HALATIONS. (Zhodnotenie hladiny fluoru v zivom organizme
ovplyvnovanom fluorovymi exhalatmi). Text in Czech. Cesk.
Hyg. (Prague), 13(1):12-17, 1968. 21 refs.
Such parameters as air quality, atmospheric fluor content, and
content of fluor in dust fall, drinking water, and agricultural
products were evaluated in a long-term study carried out in the
vicinity of an aluminum plant. At the same time, the fluor con-
tent in the teeth, hair, nails, and urine of children living close
to the plant was assessed. The mean values of the total fluor
content in the air fluctuated from 0.02 to 0.14 mg/F per cu m,
and in fallen dust reached up to 7.34 tons of fluor per sq m per
yr. The mean fluor content in the drinking water was 0.2
mg/liter. Fluor content in food produced from plants grown in
the region fluctuated within 0.5 and 10.0 mg/F/kg, in foods of
animal origin within O.S and 1.2 mg/F/kg. The fluor content in
bones of sparrows, frogs, and rats was two to fourteen times
higher than in the controls. The teeth, nails, hairs, and urine of
children living in the nearest residential quarter contained an
amount of fluor which was twice to three times as large as
that of the control children. Examinations in children living in
the neighborhood of the plant did not reveal any signs of en-
demic fluorosis. (Author summary modified)
17471
Knop, Wilhelm
INDUSTIRAL DUSTS AND WASTE GASES. (Industri-
estauebe und-abgase). Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb,
14(2):63-66. Feb. 1970. 22 refs.
The most dangerous and annoying pollutants emitted by vari-
ous industries are enumerated. Steel mills emit primarily iron
oxides and fluorine compounds. Half of the original fluorine
input is emitted; the other half goes into the slag. The iron
oxide emissions, primarily the small particles below 5 micron,
form the brown smoke. The non-ferrous metal fabricating and
finishing plants emit metal oxides (cadmium oxide). When in-
haled, the latter may be extremely harmful. The TLV
(threshold limit value) is 0.1 mg/cu m air. In aluminum produc-
tion, dust-laden waste gases develop, despite the wet process.
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PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
The aluminum oxide dust content in the rotary furnace is 300-
400 g/standard cu m. In electrolytic reduction of aluminum ox-
ide, cryolite also dissociates. As a consequence, hydrogen
fluoride and dusts of fluorine compounds are found in the
waste gas. The TLV for fluorides is 2.5 mg/cu m; for hydrogen
fluoride, 2 mg/cu m. In lead plants 3 to 3.5 cu m waste gases
per kg sinter develop in the sintering and roasting station.
They contain 1.5 to 5% by volume SO2 and up to 15 g/cu m
dust. The dust contains lead, zinc, sulfur, and small amounts
of other elements. Considerable amounts of metal vapors
develop. In the fly dust of the shaft furnaces, cadmium oxide
or sulfate, arsenic, zinc, and thallium compounds may be
found. In copper smelting plants, the waste gases contain fly
dust and SO2. In zinc refining, fly dust (0.1 g/standard cu m)
and SO2 are emitted to the waste gas. In ferro-alloy produc-
tion, dusts of various kinds are carried along in the waste
gases. The waste gas quantity of a 10 MW furnace amounts to
70,000-250,000 cu m/h; the dust content, to 0.25-2.5 g/cu m.
23022
Solntsev, S. S.
COMPUTATIONAL METHOD OF DETERMINING
FLUORINE BALANCE DURING ALUMINUM ELECTROLY-
SIS. (Raschetnyy me tod opredeleniya balansa flora pri elek-
trolize alyuminiya). Text in Russian. Tesvetn. Metal., 40(2):59-
62, 1967. 8 refs.
The following quasiempirical formulas for fluorine loss during
electrolytic production of aluminum are presented: 1) loss with
exhaust gases as a function of cryolite content of the elec-
trolyte and electrolyte temperature; 2) loss with fettlings as a
function of service interval; 3) loss in the form of CF4 as a
function of the number of anode effects, duration of anode ef-
fect, and % yield in terms of current; 4) mechanical loss as a
function of the fluoride content of the raw material; and 5)
loss with the coal ash. Fluorine loss through exhaust gases is
reported for three installations and ranges from 18.97 to 25.63
kg/t. It is estimated that cooling the process by 5 degrees C
will reduce fluorine consumption by 0.2 kg/t, while increasing
the cryolite ratio by 0.1 will affect approximately a 3 kg/t
savings.
23580
Reinhard, H.
FLUORINE DAMAGE IN THE LOWER FRICK VALLEY.
(Die Fluorschaden im unteren Frichtal). Schweiz. Arch. Tier-
heilk., 101(l):l-4, 1959. (Presented at the Swiss Veterinary
Society, General Convention, Brunnen, 1959.) Translated from
German. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 5p., July 10,
1970.
Even though the only aluminum produced in Germany today is
manufactured by an electrolytic method, fluorine emissions
are still 500 kg per day. In the area of one plant, the quantity
of fluorine sedimented per acre in 1956 amounted to approxi-
mately 7 kg at 300 m from the plant, decreased rapidly to 0.9
kg at 700 m, and then decreased slowly with increasing
distance. Severe clinica phenomena have been observed on
vegetation at quite distant locations and can be attributed only
to airborne fluorine. Moreover, feed plants (hay and grass)
have been damaged, even when their fluorine levels were
below those considered toxic by most authors.
24116
McCabe, Louis C.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION. Ind. Eng. Chem., 47(8):95A-
96A, Aug. 1955. 1 ref.
In the electrolytic reduction of alumina, oxygen libertated in
the cryolite bath combines with the carbon of the node to
produce carbon dioxide. As the CO2 rises through the blanket
of alumina covering the electrolytic cells, small amounts of
alumina dust and fluorides are entrained. On striking the air
the fluorides are hydrolyzed, in part, to hydrogen fluoride gas.
Heat generated in the reduction process requires that effective
ventilation be maintained to provide satisfactory working con-
ditions in the potrooms, but the high velocities of an induced
draft pick up some of the fine dust from the top of the pots.
The collecting systems consist basically of a dry type dust
separator, an induced draft fan, and a wet scrubber. A typical
system of this type uses a dry dynamic precipitator exhauster
that is so designed that the dust is separated from the main gas
stream within the fan by means of specially shaped blades and
a separate outlet in the scroll. The main gas stream, containing
some fine dust, is discharged directly to an open tower type
scrubber of redwood construction with suitable spray headers.
At one large plant, the basic system has been supplemented by
an electrostatic precipitator. Fumes generally can be controlled
by accurate regulation of the temperature of the bath, the rate
of firing, and the amount, method, and type of flux used.
24370
Stuewe, A. Howard
HYDROGEN FLUORIDE: WHERE IT GOES, HOW IT'S
MADE, WHY IT'S GROWING. Chem. Eng. News., vol.
36:34-38, 57, Dec. 22, 1958.
Consumption of hydrogen fluoride is expected to reach
215,000 tons in 1963. Grouped under four major categories, the
principal market for HF are primary aluminum production,
fluorocarbons (refrigerants aerosols), uranium production, and
petroleum alkylation (in the production of high octane blending
components for gasoline). All HF production is dependent on
the reaction of sulfuric acid with fluorspar, domestic reserves
of which could become exhausted by the end of the century.
Fractional distillation is employed to remove high-boiling im-
purities (sulfuric acid and water) and lower-boiling impurities
(silicon tetrafluoride, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide) from
HF.
25135
Rossano, August T., Jr. and Michael J. Pilat
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CONTROL OF AIR
POLLUTION FROM PRIMARY ALUMINUM SMELTERS IN
THE UNITED STATES. Preprint, International Union of Air
Pollution Prevention Associations, 19p., 1970. 9 refs.
(Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-16F.)
The alternative processes and equipment employed in the
production of aluminum are described. Details of the types
and relative magnitudes of pollutants emitted from both the
prebaked and continuous anode type of electrolytic refining
processes are briefly reviewed and illustrated. Air pollution
regulations recently adopted by the Department of Ecology of
the State of Washington are presented. These regulations
stipulate the maximum permissible concentrations! of fluorides
in the ambient air surrounding an aluminum smelter and the
maximum fluoride content of forage, both expressed on a time
average basis. In addition, the regulations restrict the amount
of paniculate matter emitted. A brief resume of current efforts
by industries to meet these new regulations is given. Engineer-
ing control measures being developed and tested include wet
scrubbers, wet electrostatic precipitators and a new chemis-
orption technique involving a fluidized bed followed by bag fil-
ters. It is concluded that rapidly growing emphasis on the
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
maintenance and improvement of air quality throughout the
United States will serve to stimulate new and better technolo-
gy for the control of emissions from primary aluminum smel-
ters. (Author abstract)
25178
Teworte, W. M.
SPECIFIC AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ARRANGEMENTS
AT NON-FERROUS METAL WORKS. Preprint, International
Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, 41p., 1970. 20
refs. (Presented at the Internationa Clean Air Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, Paper EN-28B.)
Information on the cost problem and on the necessity for air
pollution control technology in the field of non-ferrous metals
production is presented. Their price, high in comparison with
that of steel, is an incentive to developing any means of in-
creasing the yield and, thus, to recovering the metals from flue
dusts. Therefore, the center of air pollution control arrange-
ments shifts to the side of extracting accompanying elements
in the ores, auxiliary materials, and highly volatile compounds.
The negative biological effects of a large number of metals
require particularly effective arrangements for waste gas pu-
rification. More recent specific methods of air pollution con-
trol are illustrated by several examples. Fluorine emissions
from the flux are fought in aluminum works by means of ef-
fective wet purification processes; dry absorption methods are
also being tried. Fluorine levels of 0.5-1.5 ppb were detected
even in industrial areas where there was no aluminum produc-
tion at all. Waste gas purification at aluminum re-melting
works presents a particularly difficult problem with regard to
the extraction of very fine salt fumes. The utilization of the
sulfur content in the non-ferrous metal ores is discussed in
detail. Here, the solution to the economic problem of market-
ing a sulfuric acid, aptly called 'acide fatal' by Belgian smelt-
ing works, is as important as the solution to the process-
technical problem. The latter was dealt with very successfully
by means of the development of a double-contact process with
intermediate absorption for roasting gases poor in sulfur diox-
ide. The final gases contain less than 0.5% of the SO2 charge.
More and more processes favorable to air hygiene are being
used by zinc metallurgy. Methods of recovery that cannot be
controlled by waste gas technology, will be discarded. General
and particular information is given on the cost problem of air
pollution control. Frequently, the wrong conclusions are drawn
from the fact that only 0.2% of the value of industrial produc-
tion are required for direct steps, with secondary injurious ef-
fects, amounting to 1-2%, being prevented in this manner.
Production at some works is hard hit by specific costs of 1-5%
of the proceeds from sales. (Author abstract)
i
26441
Oglesby, Sabert, Jr. and Grady B. Nichols
A MANUAL OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
TECHNOLOGY. PART II - APPLICATION AREAS.
Southern Research Inst., Birmingham, Ala., NAPCA Contract
CPA 22-69-73, 875p., Aug. 25, 1970. 118 refs. NTIS: PB 196381
The application of electrostatic precipitators is reviewed for
the electric utility industry, the pulp and paper industry, the
iron and steel industry, the rock products industry, the chemi-
cal industry, in cleaning municipal incinerator dusts, for the
petroleum industry, and in the nonferrous metals industry.
Particular emphasis is placed on the dust and gaseous emis-
sions of the processes discussed. This is followed by a tabula-
tion of input and design parameters for precipitators operating
on various types of dust control problems and an analysis of
critical design parameters and test results. Cost data are also
presented. The electrolytic reduction of aluminum, the produc-
tion of copper, primary lead, and zinc reduction are discussed
in the area of the nonferrous metals industry. In the petroleum
industry, catalytic cracking and detarring are indicated as ap-
plication areas. Refuse properties are discussed, as well as
types of incinerators. Sulfuric acid production, the production
of elemental phosphorus, phosphoric acid, and carbon black,
warrant the use of precipitators in the chemical industry. In
the rock products industry, the manufacture of Portland ce-
ment and the gypsum industry present problems. Coke ovens,
sinter plants, blast furnaces, open hearth furnaces, basic ox-
ygen converters, electric arc furnaces, scarfing machines, and
iron cupolas are areas of application in the iron and steel in-
dustry. In the pulp and paper industry, precipitators are in-
dicated for the recovery of boiler participate emissions and
sulfate process flue gases. Fly ash precipitators are needed in
the electric utility industry.
30296
Teworte, W.
THE USE OF FLUORINE-BEARING MATERIALS IN THE
GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC. (Einsatz von fluorhaltigen
Materialien in der BRD). Text in German. VDI (Ver. Oeut.
Ingr.) Ber., no. 164:11-18, 1971. 13 refs.
Before World War II, Germany was the world s largest suppli-
er of fluorine. In 1938, it produced 30% or 140,000 tons out of
a total world production of 462,000 tons. Since then, the situa-
tion has changed completely. In 1969, the world consumption
amounted to about 3.6 million tons, out of which Mexico as
the largest producer provided one million tons; Germany s par-
ticipation was only 90,000 tons which placed it eighth after
Mexico. This latter production was practically used up
completely by the domestic industry; in addition, some 160,000
tons were imported to cover the overall demand of 250,000
tons. Of the world s consumption of fluorine in 1969, 45%
were used for steel manufacturing, 15% for aluminum, 33%
for producing chemicals, and 7% for glass and ceramics. The
chemical industry requires fluorite, CaF2, primarily for
producing hydrofluoric acid, HF. Two tons of CaF2 are
needed for producing one ton of HF. Hydrofluoric acid in turn
is used as an intermediate product for the manufacture of nu-
merous inorganic and organic fluorine compounds. Among the
inorganic compounds are aluminum fluorides, used as flux
material in the production of primary aluminum. The organic
fluorine compounds include the aliphatic chlorine-fluorine-
hydrocarbons, such as freon, which are used as spraying and
cooling substances. Other important fluorine- bearing products
are synthetic materials, such as teflon. Direct applications for
fluorspar can be found in the manufacture of steel, of welding
electrodes, enamel, glass wool, and other industrial products.
30447
Nelson, Kenneth W.
NONFERROUS METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS. In: Air
Pollution. Arthur C. Stern (ed.), Vol. 3, 2nd ed., New York,
Academic Press, 1968, Chapt. 37, p. 171-190. 16 refs.
While sulfur dioxide from the smelting of copper, lead, and
zinc has been the principal pollutant of interest in nonferrous
metallurgy, gaseous and paniculate fluorides from aluminum
smelting are also of concern. Fluoride problems first came to
attention because of adverse effects on grazing animals rather
than effects on vegetation, as with SO2. The mining, milling,
and concentrating of copper, lead, and zinc are discussed, as
well as their refining and smelting, emissions, and controls.
The mining and ore treatment of aluminum is considered, its
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PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
electrolysis, and emissions and controls. Copper, lead, zinc,
and aluminum produced from scrap are also discussed. The
production of nonferrous alloys is noted.
31935
Nakamura, Keigo
ON AIR POLLUTION CAUSED BY HYDROGEN FLUORIDE.
(Fukka suiso ni yoru taiki osen ni tsuite). Text in Japanese.
Kogai To Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 6(4):50-58, July 1971.
9refs.
When the atmosphere contains as little as 10 ppb of hydrogen
fluoride, crops can be damaged, because the HF is accumu-
lated in the leaves. Teeth and bones are also affected when
cattle eat feed containing 30-50 ppm HF over an extended
period of time. Fluoride emissions are issued from plants
which process ores containing fluoride compounds. Steel mills
in Japan are using about four kg fluorspar/ton steel. Various
types of scrubbers are utilized to recover fluoride from alu-
minum smelter and phosphorus fertilizer exhaust gases. Col-
lectors are then used to trap fluoride and sulfuric acid mists.
32483
Commoner, Barry, Michael Corr, and Paul J. Stamler
THE CAUSES OF POLLUTION. Environment. 13(3):2-19,
April 1971. 24 refs.
Growth in population, per capita consumption, and environ-
mental impact per unit of production are examined as possible
factors contributing to the problem of air pollution. United
States data for the years 1946-1948 are examined. The change
in pollution'level for that time increased the range from 200 to
1000%. Population growth, however, was only 43%. The Gross
National Product (GNP) increased about 126% and the GNP
per capita increased about 59%. The general production
classes that increased sharply in per capita consumption in-
cluded synthetic organic chemicals and the products made
from them; wood pulp and paper products; total production of
energy; total horsepower of prime movers, especially petrole-
um driven vehicles; cement; aluminum; mercury used for
chlorine production; and petroleum and its products. The in-
crease was in the range of 100 to 1000%, which concurred
with changes in the pollution level. The possible contributions
of these activities to air pollution are examined and the use of
mercury in the chemical process industries is chosen as an in-
formative example.
34484
Mark, W. van der
AIR POLLUTION DUE TO FLUORIDES. (Luchtverontreinig-
ing door fluor). Text in Dutch. Chem. Tech. (Amsterdam),
26(15):413-417, 1971. 30 refs.
The destructive effects of fluorides on plants, animals, and hu-
mans are described. Sources of fluorides such as aluminum in-
dustries and phosphate factories are discussed. The measure-
ment and sampling of fluoride contents are explained. Two
methods of measurement are described: measurement of total
fluoride content in air and collection of gaseous fluorides or
fluoride containing materials. The advantages and disad-
vantages of each method are discussed. Electrochemical, spec-
tropbotometric, and activation analyses are mentioned. The
separation of fluorides by a microdiffusion method is briefly
described.
34916
Bureau of Census, Washington, D. C.
PRODUCT CLASSES - VALUE SHIPPED BY ALL MANU-
FACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS: 1947, 1954, 1958, 1963 TO
1967. In: Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous Metals and Al-
loys, p. 33C-29, 1970.
Quantities shipped by all manufacturing establishments of
copper, lead, zinc, aluminum, primary nonferrous metals, and
secondary nonferrous metals are tabulated for 1947, 1954,
1958, and 1963 to 1967. Both smelter and refined materials are
included.
34921
Bureau of Census, Washington, D. C.
MATERIALS CONSUMED, BY KIND: 1967 AND 1963. In:
Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, p.
33C-31, 1970.
The quantity consumed in the smelting and refining of nonfer-
rous metals and alloys of aluminum ingot, aluminum and alu-
minum-base alloy scrap, copper, lead, zinc, and tin is listed
for 1963 and 1967. Delivered costs are also indicated.
35381
ALUMINUM. In: Bureau of Mines Mineral Yearbook.
Washington, D. C., Government Printing office, 1969, 22p. 14
refs.
The aluminum industry is reviewed with respect to domestic
production, costs, recycling of aluminum scrap, consumption,
foreign trade, and technology. Improvements in aluminum pot-
line efficiency, the use of electric charges in the processes,
producing alumina from aluminiferous raw materials, with no
waste products emitted into the atmosphere, and strengthening
the superficial characteristics of aluminum are examined.
35592
National Materials Advisory Board, Washington, D. C., Panel
on Fluorspar
TRENDS IN THE USAGE OF FLUORSPAR. National Acade-
my of Sciences - National Academy of Engineering, Washing-
ton, D. C., Pub. NMAB-269, 54p., Dec. 1970. 21 refs.O NTIS:
PB 198339
Three major segments of American industry (steel, aluminum,
and fluorocarbon producers) use approximately 93% of the
fluorspar consumed in the United States and will probably
continue to require large and assured supplies well beyond the
next decade. The fluorspar demand of the aluminum industry
may decrease because of fluorine recovered from waste
products and phosphate production. However, the overall
fluorspar demand should contiue to grow as the result of in-
creasing requirements for the product of steel and fluorcar-
bons. The total fluorspar demand was 1.24 million tons in 1968
and is projected to increase to 1.8 million in 1975 and to 2.2
million in 1980. Due to environmental concern, secondary
sources of fluroine are beginning to be exploited in greater
volume. The principal source is a by-rooduct from the produc-
tion of phosphates. (Author abstract modified)
39462
Midwest Research Inst., Kansas City, Mo.
PARTICULATE POLLUTANT SYSTEM STUDY. VOLUME
III - HANDBOOK OF EMISSION PROPERTIES. Air Pollu-
tion Control Office Contract CPA 22-69-104, MRI Proj. 3326-
C, 626p., May 1, 1971. 302 refs.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
Details of the methodology employed to obtain daSk concern-
ing the kind and number of stationary paniculate sources, the
chemical and physical characteristics of both the participates
and carrier gas emitted by specific sources, and the status of
current control practices, are presented. Emission factors and
rates, chemical and physical properties of effluents, and con-
trol practices and equipment are given for stationary com-
bustion processes (power generation and furnaces); mineral
processing; agricultural operations (field burning, grain eleva-
tors, cotton gins); iron and steel manufacturing; cement manu-
facturing; forest products industry (sawmills, pulp industry);
primary nonferrous metallurgy (copper, lead, zinc, and alu-
minum smelting and refining); clay products; fertilizer manu-
facturing; asphalt; ferroalloy manufacturing; iron foundries;
secondary nonferrous metals industry; coal preparation; car-
bon black manufacturing; petroleum refining; acid manufac-
ture (sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid); and incineration. The
control equipment includes cyclones, wet scrubbers, electro-
static precipitators, fabric filters, mist eliminators, and after-
burners. Effluents include dusts, particulates, fly ash, sulfur
oxides, hydrocarbons, and other noxious gases. Costs for con-
trol equipment purchase and operation are given. This hand-
book constitutes a reference source for available information
on the distinguishing features of the various particulate pollu-
tion sources and should be of value to air pollution regulatory
agencies, control equipment manufacturers, and industrial con-
cerns.
40182
Takahashi, Noboru
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY METAL INDUSTRIES.
(Kinzoku sangyo ni yoru kankyo osen). Text in Japanese.
Kagaku (Science), 41(10):5Sl-556, Oct. 1971.
Iron works produce mineral powder and coke powder as par-
ticulates and sulfur dioxide. More than 50% of the SO2 is from
the sintering process. By an approximate calculation, a plant
with a capacity of annual production of 1000 tons crude steel
produces 7,000,000 cu m SO2 every year. The SO2 gas from
an iron works also contains extremely poisonous arsenic triox-
ide. The same plant discharges about 2400 tons of waste water
yearly. Casting industries generate approximately 6000 tons of
particulates yearly, of which about 50% are silicon dioxide. In
zinc production industries, cadmium is generated since its con-
tamination in zinc mineral is approximately 0.25%. It is
discharged as dust into air and as waste in waste water. In alu-
minum refining, fluorides are generated, and for a production
of 1 ton aluminum about 20 to 30 kg of fluorine are also
produced as fluorides. Cyanides are largely used in metal gild-
ing and thermal treatment, approximately 50% for the former
and 30% for the latter. These cyanides, accompanied with cad-
mium, have been the major pollutants in the rivers in large ci-
ties.
42676
Ministerium fuer Arbeits, Gesundheit und Soziales des Landes
Nordrheim-Westfalen, Duesseldorf (West Germany)
NONFERROUS METALLURGY. (NE-Metallerzeugung). Text
in German. In: Reine Luft fuer morgen. Utopie oder Wir-
klichkeit. Moehnesee- Wamel, West Germany, K. ron Saint
George, 1972, p. 60-65.
The present situation and future trends in the output and emis-
sions in the nonferrous metallurgy of North Rhine-Westphalia
are described. The aluminum industriy, which accounts for
more than 50% of the total output of West Germany, will ex-
perience rapid growth. The basic pollutants are gaseous
fluorine compounds (0.8-1.5 kg/t), aluminum- and fluorine-
bearing dust (9-20 kg/t), sulfur dioxide (3-15 kg/t/, and carbon
monoxide. Aluminum remelting is expected to increase 100%
by 1980. Chloride aerosols, metal oxides, and gaseous fluorine
compounds are the chief pollutants. Oust separation at a rate
of 15% was applied to rotary furnaces in 1970. Dust emissions
will decrease from 1320 tons in 1970 to 680 tons in 1980 by
lowering the dust concentration to 150 mg/N cu m and 100
mg/N cu m for rotary furnaces and thermal chips treatment
facilities, respectively. Gaseous fluorine emissions, 90 tons in
1970, will be reduced to 50 tons in 1980 by applying wet-type
gas cleaning. Sulfur dioxide emissions from lead manufactur-
ing will be reduced 90% due to waste-gas desulfurization. The
efficiency of SO2 separation at sulfuric acid production facili-
ties is 98%. Lead and zinc emissions, amounting to 350 and
180 tons in 1970, will decrease to 50 tons each in 1975. Sulfur
dioxide emissions from copper manufacturing, for which a 2%
yearly rate of growth is predicted, will rise from 900 tons in
1970 to 1100 tons in 1980, the waste-gas SO2 concentration
being 0.2 g/N cu m. Hydrochloric acid emissions, now 500
tons, will decrease by 50%. While total dust emission will be
reduced from 600 to 300 tons, no further reduction in lead,
zinc, and copper emissions is possible. The dust emissions
from copper alloy manufacturing will be 10% of the 1970 level
by 1980, as an upper limit of 50 mg/N cu m will be set in 1973.
Sulfur dioxide emissions from zinc manufacturing, for which
electrolytic processes are increasingly used, will decrease from
1800 tons in 1970 to about 1500 tons in 1980. The imposition of
a maximum allowable dust emission of 50 mg/N cu m in 1973
will result in zinc and lead emissions, now 160 and 40 tons,
decreasing to 80 and 20 tons, respectively, despite a growth
rate of 40%.
42731
Safonov, V. N., V. A. Limanskii, V. P. Klyushkin, E. G.
Levkov, N. G. Bulgakova, G. I. II inskaya, N. A. Borisenko.
and A. S. Levkova
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL COMPOSI-
TION OF DUST FORMED DURING THE PRODUCTION OF
ALUMINUM AND SILUMIN. Tsvetn. Metal., 44(4):42-44,
1971. 12 refs. Translated from Russian. Trans-Chem, Inc.,
Knoxville, Tenn., 6p.
The physical properties and chemical composition of dust have
a significant effect on the basic operating character of dust
removal devices, and these determine the expediency of using
a specific type of dust removal system. Hence, methods for
the determination of physical properties and chemical com-
position of dusts are reviewed. The dispersion of dust particles
by particle size at four different plant locations was deter-
mined by methods of three dust extractors and an impactor (a
multistage jet precipitator). Both methods measure the disper-
sion of dust particles directly in a gas conduit; the latter, how-
ever, gives more reliable results. For measuring the specific
electrical resistance of electrolyzer and silumin dust, a device
was used in which a dust layer is formed between two filtering
surfaces under conditions found in a gas conduit. An ad-
vantage of this method for forming the dust layer lies in the
fact that it is not necessary to measure the thickness of the
dust layer, since it is always constant and equal to the distance
between the discs. Regarding chemical composition, fluorine
components are of special interest since they are harmful to
the attendant personnel as well as being valuable components.
Fluorine which is tied up in the form of complex fluorides was
determined by a gravimetric method on lead fluorochloride
and also by a mercurous and mercuric method using diphenyl
carbazone as an indicator. Results are also given for the
fluorine determination by a thorium method using alizarin red
S as an indicator. Aluminum, calcium, and magnesium were
-------
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
determined by compiexometric methods. Silicon was deter-
mined photometrically by the dark blue silicomolybdenum
complex with elimination of the interference of fluoride ion by
boric acid. The basic method for determining the resinous
material requires the extraction of polynuclear aromatics with
non-fluorescing benzene and then measuring the fluorescence
of the extracts. Iron was determined by an
orthophenanthroline method after the fluorine was extracted
by fusing with potassium pyrosulfate.
43271
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.
C., Office of Ah: Programs
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY. In: Compilation of Air Pol-
lutant Emission Factors. OAP Pub-AP-42, p. 7-1 to 7-22, Feb.
1972. 61 refs. NTIS: PB 209559
Primary and secondary metal industries are discussed. The pri-
mary industries, producing metals from ore, reviewed are:
non-ferrous operations of aluminum ore reduction, copper
smelters, lead smelters, zinc smelters, iron and steel mills, fer-
roalloy production, and metallurgical coke manufacture. Large
quantities of sulfur oxides and particulates are emitted by
these industries. The secondary metallurgical industries, which
recover metal from scrap and salvage and produce alloys from
ingot, include aluminum operations, brass and bronze ingots,
gray iron foundries, lead smelting, magnesium smelting, steel
foundries, and zinc processing. The major air contaminants
from these operations are particulates in the forms of metallic
fumes, smoke, and dust. Control methods used are: cyclones,
electrostatic precipitators, filters, and baghouses.
44490
Environmental Engineering, Inc., Gainesville, Fla.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF
NATIONAL STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW
SOURCES: PRIMARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Div. of Abatement Contract CPA-
70-142, Task Order 2, 55p., March 15, 1971. 25 refs.
Aluminum processes are reviewed, and emissions from prima-
ry aluminum smelters are listed. Sulfur oxides are generally
considered to be an insignificant air pollution problem in the
smelting process. Nitrogen oxides are also insignificant, except
as developed in ancillary activities. No information is available
on the emission of alumina dust. Fluorides are the emissions
of greatest concern. Total fluoride emission increases with
temperature. Total fluoride emissions from the best run plants
are reported at 2.3 to 6 lb/i of aluminum with 16 to 48% in the
gaseous form. Particulates from these same sources range
from 9 to 50 Ib/t of aluminum. Some gaseous hydrogen
fluoride is evolved. Reduced sulfur compounds have not been
found. Odors are not thought to present a problem. The
recommended standard for gaseous and particulate fluorides is
2.4 Ib/t Al; total particulates, 5 Ib/t Al; and visible emissions,
Ringelmann No. 1.
44605
Less, L. N. and J. Waddington
THE CHARACTERISATION OF ALUMINUM REDUCTION
CELL FUME. Preprint, American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgi-
cal, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), New York, N. Y., 10p.,
1971. (Presented at the American Institute of Mining, Metallur-
gical, and Petroleum Engineers, Annual Meeting, New York,
Feb. 26-March 4, 1971.)
The nature of the fume emitted by aluminum reduction cells
with prebaked anodes was investigated. The gaseous and par-
ticulate contributions under different conditions of cell opera-
tion were assessed, and the constitution and particle size dis-
tribution of the dust determined by chemical and X-ray ex-
amination, together with optical and scanning electron
microscopy. Approximately 50% of the fluorine emission is in
the form of hydrogen fluoride. The particulate material ex-
hibits a double size distribution with one fraction consisting
substantially of dust greater than 5 micron diameter and the
other of fine material considerably less than 1 micron diame-
ter. The principal components of the coarse fraction are alu-
mina, carbon, and frozen droplets of cryolite; the fine fraction
appears to consist mainly of condensed fluoride vapor approx-
imating in composition to chiolite (5Naf.3AlF3). This fine par-
ticulate material accounts for about 35% of the total fluorine
emission from the cells. Some parallel observations on the
character of the fume evolved from vertical stub Soderberg
cells are also discussed. The principal differences are that ap-
proximately 90% of the fluorine is present as HF, and that the
dust, and particularly the alumina content, is lower than from
a prebake cell. (Author abstract)
45420
Lelyuk, V. P., Ye. G. Levkov, and L. A. Fesenko
PHASE CONVERSION OF TARRY PRODUCTS OCCURRING
IN GASES EMITTED BY ALUMINUM ELECTROLYSIS
WORKSHOPS. (Fazovyye prevrashcheniya smolistykh
veshchestv v otkhodyashchikh gazakh tsekhov elektroliza
alyuminiya). Text in Russian. Tsvetn. Metal., no. 4:41-43, 1972.
4 refs.
Phase conversions of aluminum electrolyzer-generated tarry
products were investigated by determining solid-to-gaseous
phase ratios at four different points of the waste gas line (elec-
trolyzer outlet after the burner, before the inlet of the collec-
tor pipe, as well as before and after the electrostatic dust
precipitator). The solid-to-gaseous phase ratios obtained for
the first two sampling points at high temperature gradient were
equal; increased ratios for the last two points due to the
prevalence of condensation over solid phase precipitation were
observed. A sharp decrease in the phase ratios at the electro-
static filter outlet was found. The tarry products continued to
condense within the electrostatic filter, depending on the tem-
perature gradient. The degree of condensation was a direct
function of the temperature gradient near the electrolyzer with
burner cut off. Gaseous products were burned by the burner in
much higher proportions than solid phase, with corresponding
reductions to 1/45 vs. 1/6 of the original amount. Considerable
increase in the precipitation in the waste gas pipe with burner
cut off was observed. The bulk of the unturned gaseous
products has a condensation interval of 70-200 C, which means
that electrostatic filters should be operated at 60 C tempera-
ture. The residual dust after the electrostatic filter was mainly
in a fraction of 0-5 micron; at this point, the content of tarry
substances was highest at 27.65%.
45858
Lukey, Michael E. and M. Dean High
EXHAUST GAS CONVERSION FACTORS. Preprint, Air Pol-
lution Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 16p., 1972. '(Presented
at the Air Pollution Control Assiciation, Annual Mejeting; 65th,
Miami, Fla., June 18-20, 1972, Paper 72-88.)
The exhaust gas parameters from 76 combustion and industrial
sources are given including fuel combustion processes, refuse
incineration, mineral industries, chemical industries, metallur-
gical processes, pulp mills, and refineries. The main objective
of the study was to define a relationship of the exhaust gases
being emitted, to the process weights. Each of the 76 industrial
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
source factors includes a process description, the potential air
contaminants, operating time, abatement equipment, an input-
output relationship, and the exhaust gas parameters: gas flow
rate, gas temperature, gas velocity, and stack height. An at-
tempt was made to relate the exhaust gas parameters to an
input or output quantity. Thus by knowing the production rate
of a plant, one can use these exhaust gas source factors and
pollutant emission factors to obtain engineering estimates of
specific plant emission and its community inpact through
modeling. Sources include coal, oil, natural gas, and wood
combustion, incineration; burners; chemical processes such as
ammonia, carbon black, chlorine, hydrofluoric acid, paint,
phosphoric acid, plastics, ink, soap, sulfuric acid, synthetic
fibers, and rubber production; food and agricultural processes;
primary metallurgy; steel, lead, zinc, and aluminum production
including sintering, blast furnaces, electric furnaces, and open
hearth furnaces; petroleum refining, pulp mills; dry cleaning;
and surface coating.
47061
Dobbs, C. G.
FLUORINE, THE FAVOURED POLLUTANT.
Protectio
Vitae, no. 3:105-109, 1972. 37 refs.
The annual average fluorine content in rainwater of 0.16 mg/1
was raised to a range varying from 0.28 mg/1 to 10 mg/1 in the
neighborhood of industries using fluorine. Test plants with a
normal F-ion content of 7-15 mg/kg dry weight could have had
as much as 500 to 1850 mg/kg in the polluted areas. Also, a
direct correlation between the F-ion level in the rainwater and
in the test plants was found. A much higher F-ion content in
food plants such as lettuce, leeks, parsley, and various fruits
grown in industrial areas was found. The hazards of pollution
are of two main types - intensive and extensive. The intensive
type usually causes acute and visible damage which result,
eventually, in some sort of action to eliminate it. Unfortunate-
ly, the action often consists in the transformation of intensive
into extensive pollution, as with the high stack policy. All it
did was to spread the pollutant over a wider area where its ef-
fects will be more difficult or impossible to distinguish from
those of other factors. A case in point is the large aluminum
plant near Holyhead in North Wales. At the Public Enquiry in
1968 the estimated total emission was 928 Ibs/day of fluoride.
By 1970 this amount had risen to 1436 Ibs. The stack was
raised from 300 ft to 400 ft and provided with an additional
rise from an internal hot pipe from the anode plant.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
01687
S.C. Rothman
ENGINEERING CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLU-
TION: STATE OF THE ART, 1966. Heating, Piping, Air Con-
ditioning Mar. 1966. 141-8 pp. (Presented before the First
World Air Pollution Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Nov.
1965.)
Problems encountered by the engineer are illustrated through
analysis of air pollution control in the aluminum production in-
dustry. Prebaked pots and Soderburg pots and their fluoride
emissions are considered.
05090
A. J. Teller
CONTROL OF GASEOUS FLUORIDE EMISSIONS. Chem.
Eng. Progr. 63, (3) 75-9, Mar. 1967.
Emission factors for fertilizer manufacture and for aluminum
manufacture are presented. The primary design problems of
recovery systems are stated. The pressure drop requirement,
transfer unit requirements, effluents from phosphoric acid
production, some scrubbing systems, design criteria, and
hybrid systems are considered, efluents from phosphoric acid
production, some scrubbing systems, design criteria, and
hybrid systems are considered.
05601
R. R. Ott and R. E. Hatchard
CONTROL OF FLUORIDE EMISSIONS AT HARVEY ALU-
MINUM, INC. - SODERBERG PROCESS ALUMINUM
REDUCTION MILL. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc 13 (9) 437-
43, Sept. 1963. (Presented at the 29th Annual Meeting,
Northwest Pollution Control Association, Salen, Ore., Oct. 24-
27, 1962.)
A 300 Soderberg, vertical-stud type aluminum mill, located
just north of the municipal boundaries of The Dalles, Ore.,
began production in July 1958. Multiclone type dust collectors
and scrubber towers were provided as part of the initial mill
installation. Tests have shown that the fluoride removal effi-
ciencies of the scrubbers are 95% or higher if satisfactory
maintenance and operation are provided. In response to com-
plaints filed by a private party in 1959 and by agricultural in-
terests in The Dalles area in the spring of 1960, the Sanitary
Authority intensified the area, mill, complaint, and air sample
surveys and evaluations. Horticultural damage from fluorides
has been shown to occur in certian foliage and fruit grown in
The Dalles area. Research investigations by the Oregon State
University's Agricultural Experiment Station are continuing
and include a proposed project for the evaluation of any effect
of fluorides upon sweet cherry crop production. The emissions
from individual reduction cells, which by-pass the vacuum col-
lection ducts to the control system, have been a suspected
source of fluoride discharges that were contributing to the hor-
ticultural damage. These emissions originate at the cells during
several operational steps including inadequate maintenance of
the cell. Roff monitor fluoride sample data obtained in 1961
led to a pilot project including an evaluation of fluoride
removal efficiencies. The Authority has granted conditional
approval for the roof monitor control system subject to its
operation at a maximum fluoride removal efficiency. The five
cell building roof monitor systems were completed in Sep-
tember 1962. These controls include an arrangement of spray
nozzles for wetting fluoride particulates, aerosols, and gases
prior to impingement or absorption on poly-vinyl plastic
screens - built into the cell building roof monitors. The final
evaluation of the effectiveness of this fluoride removal system
will depend upon its over-all reduction in the occurrence of
horticultural damage in The Dalles area. (Authors' summary)
06587
R. C. Specht and R. R. Calaceto
GASEOUS FLUORIDE EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY
SOURCES. Chem. Eng. Progr. 63, (5) 78-84, May 1967.
Methods of controlling the emission of fluorides from the
brick and tile, steel, aluminum, and phosphate fertilizer indus-
tries are examined. The brick and tile industry receives brief
treatment and a concluding statement mentions that a venturi
type scrubber was used in bottle manufacture with 92% effi-
ciency. In the steel industry, the emission of fluorides from
sintering plants exceeds those from open hearth furnaces and
different control measures are required. The addition of 6%
weight of ground limestone to the sintering mix reduced
fluoride emission by nearly one half. The final treatment con-
sists of the means for supplying and injecting pulverized
limestone and the final dust separation equipment. Reduction
of fluorides is estimated at 96%. The basic difference between
the treating systems of the sintering and open hearth processes
is the pressure under which they operate and the material used
as a reactant; CA (OH) 2 is used in the open hearth process.
Among the methods discussed in regard to the aluminum in-
dustry are the wetting by sprays of the hot gases escaping
through roof monitors, the use of a sieve-plate gas absorber
column, and a floating bed type of scrubber which overcomes
the tar-fouling problem and is reported to remove 95% of
fluorides. Fluoride control is achieved with cyclones and
packed towers. The effects of fluorides on vegetation, cattle,
and man are briefly discussed including the effects of inhala-
tion of HF at various concentrations.
07815
Borenstein, Murray
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN NON-FERROUS METAL-
LURGICAL INDSUTRY. (THE USE OF WET SCRUBBERS).
Ind. Heating, 34(10):1866, 1868, 1870, Oct. 1967.
Fumes emitted from the processes involved in the non-ferrous
metallurgical indsutry consist of extremely fine particulate
matter of submicron size. These fumes result from the heating
operations, from the use of fluxes and from reduction
processes, all of which produce highly corrosive emissions.
Types of controls include wet-scrubbers and bag filters. A typ-
ical Airetron installation for capturing fluoride emissions dur-
ing electrolysis of aluminum ore is described; it employs 20
cyclonic air scrubbers operating at a low pressure drop of 3 in.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
w.g. which neutralizes gaseous fluorides at the rate of 90,000
cfm at 200-250 deg F. for a total of 1.8 million cfm of gas pu-
rified. Recovery of the metal is accomplished, in this case, by
permitting it to settle out of the resulting liquid and recharging
it into the furnace. In this system all solids are recovered
through the recycling. In the wet-scrubbers, the fumes become
highly corrosive when wetted and linings such as rubber or
polyester-fiberglass must be used in their construction. Bag fil-
ters provide high cleaning efficiency and operate at relatively
low power costs. However, the replacement of the filter bags
themselves is a high maintenance item. The non-ferrous indus-
try thus requires some of the most sophisticated air pollution
control equipment for production of an essentially low-cost
product.
07925
Beighton, J.
THE SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES. Roy. Soc. Health
J. (London). 87(4):215-218, July-Aug. 1967. 2 refs. (London)
The air pollution problems of a group of industries which
produce: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, petroleum and petrochemi-
cals, iron and steel, copper, aluminum, gas, ceramics and elec-
tric power are reviewed. The basic technical approach is to
avoid the formation of the emission by design of the process,
then to require the treatment of any unavoidable emission, and
finally to require adequate dispersal of any residual amount
which has to be discharged. The legislation is designed to com-
promise between safeguarding of public health and amenities
and providing for a realistic acceptance with adequate control
of special processes. Although the loss of gases in the manu-
facture of sulfuric acid is limited to 2% of the sulfur burned,
the loss from a contact acid plant with a 500-ton-pcr-day
capacity may be considerable so that chimney heights as high
as 450 ft may be required. Acid mist from contact plants burn-
ing sulfur is a special problem as it is difficult to control and
its occurrence is unpredictable. There are two nitric acid
plants in Britain equipped with catalytic tail-gas reduction
units which should solve the problem of brown nitrous fume
emission to the air. The use of special flares is required to
control H2S and mercaptans emitted by oil refineries. In the
steel industry the development of the Fuel-Oxygen-Scrap
process is regarded as an alternative to the electric arc fur-
nace. It is claimed that melting and refining can be carried out
without exceeding a fume level of 0.05 grains per cu ft.
10372
Erga, Olav, Kare Ryan and Adolf K. Syrdal
GAS CLEANING PRACTICES AT MOSJOEN ALUMINUM
WORKS. ((Gassrenseanlegg ved Mosjoen Aluminiumverk.))
Text in Norwegian. Tek. Ukeblad (Oslo), 114(12):232-237,
March 30, 1967. 3 refs.
Mosjoen Aluminum Works' solution to cleaning the oven
gases given off by the electrolytic aluminum production
processes is outlined, with emphasis on the fluoride com-
pounds which have adverse effects on the environment.
Mosjoen has developed the construction of a practical model
(by Erga et. al.) which uses selective absorption of fluorine
from the gases from aluminum reduction cells with vertical
spike Soderberg anodes. Economic and efficiency statistics are
given to justify the method in the Norwegian industrial en-
vironment. Diagrams showing the components of the equip-
ment are given illustrating the fluoride recovery technique.
11686
H.R. Hickey
CONTROLLING ALUMINUM EFFLUENT REDUCTION. Air
Eng., 10(10):20- 22, Oct. 1968.
In the manufacture of aluminum from alumina by electrolytic
reduction, fluorides and hydrocarbons are the principal ef-
fluents. Fluoride removal from collected gases poses no
problem with conventional scrubbing equipment. However, the
hydrocarbons condense as submicron tar particles which plug
multiple cyclones and baghouses thereby limiting the options
available in selecting control devices. Research to overcome
the hydrocarbon problem is needed.
13676
Erga, Olav, Kare Ryan, and Adolf Syrdal
RECOVERY AND UTILIZATION OF FLUORINE PRODUCTS
FROM ALUMINUM ELECTROLYSIS WASTE GASES. In:
Abwasser, Abgas Schwebstofftechni Dechema-Monograph.,
59(1045-1069), Frankfurt am Main, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
chemisches Apparatewesen E.V., 1968, p. 191-198. 4 refs.
Gases released during aluminum electrolysis contain HF, S02,
and CO2 which are all absorbed with the alkaline solution used
in present recovery procedures. A method and apparatus are
presented for the selective recovery of HF for hydrofluoric
acid production. A sieve plate scrubber utilizing water as the
absorption agent was developed by Elektrokemisk. The device
features a tower consisting of sieve plates and funnels and a
circulation pump for gas distribution. One unit is sufficient for
HF recovery. Pilot plant tests showed more than 99% of the
HF was absorbed, producing an acid of 3% HF by weight. The
co-absorption of SO2 was negligible. Use of the tower for
cryolite production also results in an economically feasible by-
product.
16446
Vypov, A. I. and G. N. Makarets
PROTECTION OF THE AIR AND WATER BASINS AT
NOVOKUZNETSK. (Zashchita vozdushnogo i vodnogo bas-
seynov v novokuznetske). Text in Russian. In: Sanitation Mea-
sures Against Air and Water Pollution in the Planning of Ci-
ties. (Ozdorovleniye vozdushnogo i vodnogo basseynov
gorodov). Government Committee on Civil Building and
Architecture (ed.), Lecture series no. 2, Kiev, Budivel 'nik,
1968, p.37-38.
An overall examination of the pollution problems of Novokuz-
netsk was made in 1965-1966 by the Deputy Commission on
Natural Conservation and the Presidium of the Novokuznetsk
Branch of the Association for Natural Conservation. Dust
emission from the Kuznetsk cement plant was 260 tons per
day in 1962; it was reduced to SO tons per day by the end of
1966, and the installation of electrofilters at two roasting fur-
naces in 1968 reduced emission to 10 tons per day. Measures
were also taken to reduce emission from the aluminum and
iron-smelting plants. Efforts at pollution control in this city are
regarded as successful and similar measures are recommended
for other Soviet cities.
16537
Fujiwara, Masahiro
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN ALUMINIUM WORKS
UNDER ALKALI AND WORKS REGULATION ACTS IN EN-
GLAND AND WALES. (Eikoku no arukariho ni motozuku
aruminyumu kojo niyoru taikiosen boshi gyosei). Text in
Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 3(3): 13-15,
March 15, 1967.
-------
10
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
Air-pollution control in England is based on the Alkali and
Works Regulation Acts and the Clean Air Act. The country is
divided into seven Alkali Inspectors' Districts administered by
25 inspectors who maintain close contact with local health and
smoke inspectors. The annual reports compiled by the inspec-
tors form the basis of the Manual Reports submitted to the
Ministry of Housing and Local Government. These reports
contain the air pollution plans and policies currently hi prac-
tice. The contents of the Manual Report of 1960, 1964, and
1965 are summarized. Though England does not have a prima-
ry aluminum refining industry, it has aluminum manufacturing
industries which mainly treat aluminum scraps. Air pollution
problems due to aluminum manufacturing, and countermea-
sures, are discussed in the 1960 Manual Report. A number of
plants found venturi scrubbers unsatisfactory for reducing
smoke emissions. Better results were obtained by rinsing the
aluminum scrap and discharging smoke from taller stacks. The
1964 Manual Report shows that the problem of an oily smoke
was partly solved by afterburners and that of fumes solved by
employing hearth furnaces (flat type) which do not require
flux. The reports emphasize the cooperation between legal
authorities and industry. This approach to practical control
measures has implications for countries which are trying to
control air pollution by legal means alone.
16962
Kielback, A. W.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FLOATING-BED SCRUBBERS.
Chem. Eng. Progr. Symp. Ser., 57(35):51-54, 1961. 6 refs.
Aluminum is produced by the electrolysis of alumina dissolved
in an electrolyte consisting of cryolite and other fluoride salts.
The reduction process is carried out in cells called pots. Dur-
ing operation of the pots, fluoride-bearing fume, gaseous
hydrogen fluoride, carbon oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particu-
late matter such as alumina, carbon, and tar are released from
the pots. Containment of these materials has been a problem
in wet scrubbers with grids or other fixed packing and
impingement surfaces because the surfaces requiring the most
wash receive the least. Cleaning problems are severe when the
gas contains either tar particles or tar-coared solids. Floating-
bed scrubbers eliminate these problems by virtue of a self-
cleaning device. Gas is passed upward through a bed of light
spheres, increasing liquid hold-up and sphere buoyancy. As a
result, the spheres are free for rotational movement and for
movement in relation to each other. High gas turbulence is set
up in the bed when the upward flowing gas contacts the
descending liquor. The effect is intimate mixing of gas and
liquor to promote a hard scrubbing action. About 95% removal
of fluorides at pressure drops of 3 1/2 to 4 in. water gauge was
obtained in pilot studies of scrubbers containing polyethylene
spheres. Other proven application of the floating-bed scrubber
are treatment of aluminum-fluoride converter tail gas to
remove silicon tetrafluoride and treatment of magnesium
chlorinator tail gas to remove silicon tetrachloride.
17463
Hoeke, Bert and Horst Arnim Wittbold
WASH SOLUTION FOR PURIFYING FLUORINE-CONTAIN-
ING WASTE GASES IN ALUMINIUM INDUSTRY.
(Waschloesung zur Reinigung fluorhaltiger Abgase in der Alu-
miniumindustrie). Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb,
14(l):24-29, Jan. 1970. 7 refs.
The separation of fluorine compounds and dust from waste
gases of aluminum plants was studied in the laboratory. A
suitable scrubbing liquid was determined for the waste gas; the
developing compounds had to be soluble to avoid crystalliza-
tion in the dust collectors and on pipes. Four test series were
carried out with a rotating wet collector. The fluorine com-
pounds could be removed to a large extent with an alkaline
scrubbing liquid. A slight dependence of the degree of efficien-
cy on the pH value of the scrubbing liquid was observed. At
pH 8 to 12, the gaseous fluorine compounds could be removed
to a residual concentration of less than 0.5 mg/standard cu m.
The salt content of the circulating scrubbing liquid increased in
the course of the experiments to a maximum of 64 g salt/liter
water. The fluoride content of the scrubbing water reached 7 g
F/l. Maintenance of a pH of more than 10.5 and a salt content
of less than 70 g/1 helped to prevent any incrustations. This
necessitated periodic replenishment of the spent scrubbing
liquid by fresh water. The spent liquid was treated with alu-
minum salts to precipitate the fluoride in the form of kryolith.
The dry precipitant contained between 48 and 51% F which
could be reused. The sludge collecting in the circulating
scrubbing liquid had a settling time of 2 hours. Flocculants did
not reduce this settling time. The water content of the sludge
was 98%.
18002
Tomany, James P.
A SYSTEM FOR CONTROL OF ALUMINUM CHLORIDE
FUMES. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 19(6):420-423, June
1969.
During primary aluminum processing the molten aluminum is
periodically fluxed with chlorine to separate impurities from
the metal. The gaseous effluent from the chlorination process
contains submicron particulates and gaseous vapors which
produce a dense, white plume. The plume is acidic with
hydrogen chloride and chlorine vapors, which cause a variety
of corrosion problems. Since the stack discharge temperature
can range as low as 200 F — and aluminum chloride sublimates
at about 360 F, blockage of ductwork can also occur. For ef-
fective removal of both the particulates and chloride gases in
the effluent, a sodium hydroxide solution is recommended.
Since, such a scrubbing liquor produces a flocculent
precipitate, a nonplugging type of scrubber is required. The
solution UOP advanced was a 'mobile packing* type of
scrubber, utilizing a bed of polypropylene spheres in random,
turbulent motion. The motion of the packing prevents
plugging. The paper describes the design for such a system,
describing the optimum use of ductwork, scrubber placement,
gas saturation, and recirculation equipment. Instrumentation
requirements, both minimum and optimum are discussed. A
case study is detailed in which gases containing 5 gr/sef of
particulates and 4 gr/sef of hydrochloric acid and chlorine
vapors were passed through such a system. The cleaned ef-
fluent contained only 0.009 gr/sef of particulates and 0.002
gr/sef of vapors. (Author's Abstract)
18255
Tomany, J. P.
METHOD FOR REMOVING CHLORINE AND ENTRAINED
ALUMINUM CHLORIDE PARTICLES FROM A WASTE GAS
STREAM. (Universal Oil Products Co., Des Plaines, 111.) U. S.
Pat. 3,445,182. 5p., May 20. 1969. 2 refs. (Appl. Feb. 15, 1965,
6 claims.) ;
A method is described for scrubbing and removing Cl and en-
trained A1C13 particles in a gaseous effluent stream from an
aluminum purification process. The waste gas is brought into
contact with a liquid spray stream to effect an initial ag-
glomeration and removal of a portion of entrained particles as
well as humidification of the effluent stream by direct contact
with the liquid. The humidified effluent is passed upward
through a contacting zone having at least one stage of low
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
11
density contact elements. The upward movement of the gas
causes the contact material to form a loose, mobile, floating
bed in this stage which is retained by a perforated barrier. An
alkaline scrubbing liquid is introduced into the top of the stage
to continuously wet the floating contact particles and to pro-
vide countercurrent contacting. The scrubbed gases are exited
from the top of the contact zone and the spent liquid from the
bottom. A typical scrubbing liquid for the process is a 5%
NaOH solution.
19210
Matsuda, Norikazu
ABATEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION CAUSED BY
FLUORIDE. (Fukkasuiso oyobi kakushu fukkabutsu niyoru
taikiosen no taisaku). Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J.
Pollution Control), 6(7):S09-514, July IS, 1970.
Sources of fluoride pollutants include aluminum refining and
phosphate fertilizer, brick, glass, glass-fiber, steel, and cement
manufacturing. Fluorides emissions from an aluminum refinery
and a phosphate fertilizer plant, both subject to large numbers
of damage claims, are shown in a block diagram. Examples of
fluoride pollution by the Showa Denko plants in Fukushima
and Chiba and Sumitomo Chemicals in Ehime are presented.
Regulations applicable to pollutant sources in Osaka and Fu-
kushima Prefectures are noted. A common method of
processing fluorine compounds is the use of caustic soda.
Fluorine becomes sodium fluoride, which is subsequently con-
verted to calcium fluoride by lime. In aluminum refineries, the
recovery rate of fluorine by the method is over 99%. Exhaust
gas, however, shows a recovery rate of only 60-70%, even in
factories equipped with a recovery device. If the density at the
source is lowered to several ppm, the use of chimnneys
around 200-m high will reduce the ground concentration to .1
ppb. At present, the recovery of fluorides is accomplished by
wet methods, which give rise to mists such as hydrofluoric
acid. The efficient processing of the mist is a future problem.
Since the demand for aluminum is predicted to be 2,000,000
tons in 1975, an increase in aluminum refineries is expected. In
the process of construction, future refineries must be
thoroughly evaluated for fluoride pollution.
19487
Knapp, Lester L. and Clayton C. Cook
TREATMENT OF GASES EVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION
OF ALUMINUM. (Aluminum Co. of America, Pittsburgh, Pa.)
U. S. Pat. 3,503,184. 3p., March 3, 1970. 5 refs. (Appl. March
7, 1968, 5 claims). '
A process for removing hydrogen fluoride and finely divided
solids from gas evolved in the electrolytic production of alu-
minum entails passing the gas stream upward for 0.25 to 1.5
sec through a 2- to 12-in. bed of finely divided alumina parti-
cles. The hydrogen fluoride is sorbed by the alumina particles
and the finely divided solids are entrapped in the fluidized
bed, which contains 50 to 150 pounds of alumina per pound of
hydrogen fluoride. The alumina particles containing hydrogen
fluoride are removed from the bed and fed to the fluoride
baths of electrolytic cells. The gas stream leaving the bed is
passed through bag filters on the surfaces of which any
remaining finely divided solids and alumina particles small
enough to be carried upward are deposited. The average re-
sidence time of alumina particles in the bed is 2 to 14 hrs.
20248
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Air Pollution
Control Administration
A STATUS REPORT: PROCESS CONTROL ENGINEERING;
R & D FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. 37p., Nov. 1969.
The various phases of the work of the Process Control En-
gineering Division of the National Air Pollution Control Ad-
ministration are described as of late 1969. These include sulfur
oxides control (dry and wet limestone processes, coal clean-
ing, and new processes such as those employing molten alkali
carbonates), industrial process control (nonferrous smelting,
iron and steel, sulfuric acid, papermaking, graphic arts, iron
foundries, aluminum smelting, etc.), combustion emissions
control (e.g., fluidized-bed combustion, nitrogen oxides), ap-
plied equipment research (wet scrubbers, fabric filters, electro-
static precipitators, incinerator control), supporting measure-
ments (detection, spectroscopy, dust- and gas-sampling analy-
sis, holographic determinations, continuous monitors, etc.),
and advisory and supporting services. A special report is also
given on the alkalized alumina process for control of SO2. A
list of 110 specific research projects and 11 services is given.
More than eleven million dollars was budgeted for the Process
Control Engineering programs in 1969. The 1970 budget is ex-
pected to be more limited, necessitating an emphasis on
sustaining rather than new programs.
20366
Jueng, Carl F.
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR EXHAUSTING GASES
FROM INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS. (Robertson (H. H.) Co.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.) U. S. Pat. 3,492,789. 4p., Feb. 3, 1970. 2 refs.
(Appl. May 16, 1968, 10 claims).
A ventilation procedure for factories producing aluminum or
similar compounds is described that produces a single exhaust
stream of relatively low velocity exhaust gases, thereby per-
mitting all of the surface area of filter mats in the wet
scrubbing zone to be utilized. The invention also concerns the
placement of exhaust fans to prevent their corrosion by
hydrofluoric acid escaping from the wet scrubber. The exhaust
gas is divided into two separate streams, each stream separate-
ly pressurized by fans and impinging against one another in a
mixing zone prior to emergence into the wet scrubbing zone as
a single stream. Since the fans are placed at fixed intervals
along the length of the mixing zone, which extends continu-
ously above the heat-generating apparatus, the pressurized
streams expand horizontally and vertically. This reduces their
velocity to a low value prior to introduction into the wet
scrubbing zone. Contact between the fans and any corrosive
fluids escaping from the wet scrubbing zone is avoided by
positioning the fans upstream of the scrubbing zone. Ap-
paratus for carrying out the method is provided.
21324
Kato, Yujiro
PLANS AND OPERATIONAL EXAMPLES ON FILTER TYPE
DUST COLLECTOR SYSTEM AT VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
(VI). THE ROLE OF BAG FILTERS IN THE METALWORK-
ING INDUSTRY. (Gyoshubetsu ni mini rokashiki shujin sochi
no keikaku to unten jisshi rei (VI). Kinzoku kogyo ni okeru
baggu firuta). Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution
Control), 4(10):663-668, Oct. 15, 1968.
The operational conditions of bag filters used for emission
.control in the metalworking industry are illustrated by exam-
ples. In the zinc refining industry, bag filters are used at vari-
ous points. The baghouse for the independent electric power
-------
12
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
plant which is provided to allow the exhausted material to cool
down is one example. Another is the baghouse for controlling
emissions from a smelting furnace exhaust. The applications of
bag filters to the aluminum industry is illustrated by the
baghouse used to control emissions from an alumina coveying
process. In a powdered lead manufacturing plant, a complete
dust collector has to be provided since the lead dust is ex-
tremely toxic and cannot be allowed to escape into the at-
mosphere. Complete hooding is also necessary. In the nonfer-
rous metal working industry, emissions are commonly worth
recovering. High efficient dust collectors are adequate for this
purpose. In the iron and steel industry, the collected material
from the exhaust is generally of little value, but dust collectors
are necessary for air pollution control. Their use is typified by
baghouses equipped for controlling emissions from electric-arc
steelmaking furnaces and from electric furnaces for ferro-alloy
manufacture. In the metal processing industry, bag filters are
also used for controlling emissions from various processes. An
example is the baghouse equipped for controlling emissions
from the finishing process of iron casting.
22566
Donoso, Julius J.
DEVELOPMENT OF A PRACTICAL AND ECONOMICAL
PROCESS FOR REMOVING THE ALUMINUM CHLORIDE
SMOKE NUISANCE DURING THE CHLORINATION OF
ALUMINUM ALLOYS. Smoke Prevention Assoc. of America,
New York, Proc. Smoke Prevent. Assoc. Am. 40th, 1947, p.
39-42.
Chlorination of molten aluminum alloys for the removal of ele-
ments such as magnesium results in the formation of alu-
minum chloride vapor which, when exhausted to the at-
mosphere and hydrolyzed, creates dense and voluminous
smoke. The smoke nuisance is not abated by tall stacks. How-
ever, a steam injection process for treating the vapor has been
developed and successfully tested in a pilot plant. By introduc-
ing the steam into the furnace effluent gas, the aluminum
chloride vapor is converted to stable aluminum hydroxide,
which decomposes at 600 F into aluminum oxide and water.
The solid and stable aluminum oxide particles are readily
precipitated in a Cottrell treater. The corrosive hyperchloric
acid formed by the reaction of aluminum chloride and water
vapor is recovered by passing furnace gases through a
scrubbing tower and fiberglass filter before exhausting them to
the atmosphere. At the pilot plant, the effluent visible gas has
consisted of condensed steam that is rapidly absorbed in the
atmosphere.
22853
Cochran, C. N., W. C. Sleppy, and W. B. Frank
FUMES IN ALUMINUM SMELTING: CHEMISTRY OF
EVOLUTION AND RECOVERY. J. Metals, 22(9):54-57, Sept.
1970. 7 refs. (Presented at the TMS-AIME Annual Meeting,
1970.)
Traces of gaseous and participate fluoride must be removed
from the effluent of aluminum smelting cells. Fluoride emis-
sion, both particulate and gaseous, increases with increase of
temperature and decrease of bath ratio and aluminum oxide
content. Hydrogen fluoride from reaction of moisture with alu-
minum fluoride- containing bath species increases with in-
creasing partial pressure of H2O. The water vapor originates
from the atmosphere, from constitutional water or water ad-
sorbed on the aluminum oxide or from burning of hydrogen or
hydrocarbons from the anodes. The particulate is removed by
electrostatic precipitators, mechanical precipitators, scrubbers
or bag filters. Gas scrubbers or adsorption on aluminum oxide
are used for removal of HF. Adsorbing HF on aluminum oxide
as a chemisorbed monomolecular layer permits recovery of the
sorbed fluoride and the direct return of the fluoride to the pot.
The chemisorbed fluoride is initially amorphous but forms alu-
minum fluoride upon heating. Physically adsorbed HF (in con-
trast to the chemisorbed layer) is re-evolved as HF on adding
the recovery product to the pot. Thus, the fume removal
process should be limited to the chemisorption reaction. Effi-
ciency of HF recovery with aluminum oxide increases as fume
concentration increases and the ratio of recovery product to
pot feed increases. (Author abstract)
22983
Lyons, A. L.
ALUMINA KILN DUST COLLECTION. Minerals Process.,
11(8):13-15, Aug. 1970.
Dust collection systems for hot abrasive materials such as
those discharged by an alumina kiln require special design con-
siderations. The system described not only curtails alumina
dust losses from belt transfer points but permits the recovery
of dust-laden air from fluidized-bed coolers. Ore, which enters
the cooler at 600-650 F, is fluidized and cooled to 300 by
passing it over water-filled coils. A multiple cyclone a£ti an
electrostatic precipitator are employed in series to collect the
calcined dust, which is too abrasive for bag filters. Deteriora-
tion of duct work and elbows is minimized by seamless pipe
and welding fittings. Other components of the collecting
system are reducers with specially designed branch entries and
a butterfly damper.
23370
Boehlen, B.
FLUORINE EMISSION AT ALUMINIUM WORKS. Chem.
Engr. (London), 46(7):266-268, Sept. 1968.
The electrolysis of fused alumina, with cryolite as the fluxing
agent and electrolyte, gives rise to waste gases with a fluorine
content. The method by which the electrolysis furnaces
operate requires two separate waste-gas purification systems,
one for interception and conveyance of waste furnace gases to
a purification plant, and one for cleaning fluorine-con-
taminated air used for ventilation of furnace room premises.
The purification processes for both systems are described
briefly, and the problems are reviewed. Because of the large
quantities of waste air involved, considerable costs are in-
curred to provide the power required for ventilation, the large
quantities of scrubbing water, and the pumps to convey the
water; the presence of corrosive hydrogen fluoride creates
added difficulties. The possibility of replacing cryolite by elec-
trolytes which do not contain fluorine is recommended for fu-
ture research.
24743
Damon, W. A.
ABATEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION IN THE CHEMICAL IN-
DUSTRY. Chem. Ind. (London), vol. 41:1266-1270, Oct. 8,
1955. 11 refs. (Presented at the London Section of the Society
of Chemical Industry Symposium on the Prevention of At-
mospheric and Water Pollution in the Chemical Industry, Lon-
don (England). (April 4-5, 1955.) j
The special problems of air pollution arising from chemical
processes are largely dealt with under the provisions of the Al-
kali etc. Works Registration Act, 1906, and the Alkali, etc.,
Works Regulation (Scotland) Act, 1951, as extended by sub-
sequent legislation. Those processes that are considered to be
the greatest potential contributors to air pollution are defined
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
13
and not permitted to operate in the absence of control equip-
ment for noxious or offensive gases. In connection with cer-
tain processes, e.g., sulfur acid manufacture, statutory limits
of acidity are laid down; but, in general, reliance is placed on
the use of the best practicable means. Suitable methods of
treatment are given for noxious constituents of chemical re-
agents, odorous permanent gases from petroleum refining
processes, sulfur oxides from fuel combustion, and waste
gases from metallurgical processes, including electrolysis of
alumina. It is emphasized that the control of these sources
often requires changes in the processes themselves.
26317
Gelperin, N. I., V. M. Tarasov, and A. Yu. Valdberg
REMOVAL OF HYDROGEN FLUORIDE FROM GASEOUS
MIXTURES WITH THE AH) OF FLUIDIZED BED SCRUB-
BERS WITH SPHERICAL PACKING. (Ochistka gazov ot
ftoristogo vodoroda v scrubberakh s psevdoozhizhennoy
sharovoy nasadkoy). Text in Russian. Khim. Prom. (Moscow),
no. 10:62-64, 1970. 4 refs.
A fluidized-bed scrubber designed to remove hydrogen
fluoride from exhaust gases generated during electrolytic
production of aluminum is described. A 40-50 g/1 sodium car-
bonate solution was used at an irrigation density of 2.2-31 cu
m/sq m/hr, a linear gas flow rate of 2.2-5.6 m/sec, and an ini-
tial HF concentrations of 15-150 mg/cu m. The static column
packing height was variable from 35 to 175 mm. Operating
characteristics in terms of the unit transfer number, defined as
the logarithm of the ratio of HF concentrations before and
after scrubbing, are presented.
28320
FILTER PROGRAM. (Filterprogramm). Text in German.
Wasser Luft Betrieb, 15(l):36-39, Jan. 1971.
Various types of filters for cleaning waste gases are described.
Gases escaping from electrolytic cells used in the melting of
aluminum are cleaned by passing them through an aluminum
oxide layer where the gaseous fluorides are absorbed. Next
the gases are passed through envelope-type cloth filters which
retain the aluminum oxide particles. The aluminum oxide is
returned to the reduction cells, the fluorides to the melting
zone. The process is a dry one which has the advantage of not
converting an air-pollution problem to a water pollution
problem. A new wet dust collector consists of a high-capacity
precipitator, 1200 mm high and 3000 mm long packed with
synthetic material. Collection efficiency is about 99.4%. Water
consumption is to 0.1 to 0.2 liters/cu m waste air. A filter for
radioactive, pathogenic, and toxic substances consists of a rim
board with O- grooves and a plastic sack that allows con-
tamination-free replacement of the air filter. In a metallurgical
plant, the dust-laden waste gases are conducted through water-
cooled pipes to a scrubber, where the gases are washed with
water. The scrubbing water circulates in a closed system to
avoid water pollution.
30519
Ball, D. F. and P. R. Dawson
AIR POLLUTION FROM ALUMINIUM SMELTERS. Chem
Process Eng., 52(6): 49-54, June 1971. 16 refs.
Control methods for a number of the pollutants emitted during
aluminum production are discussed. The production process is
briefly described. The main pollutants which arise in electroly-
sis are alumina, tar-pitch distillation products, inorganic
fluorine, compounds including hydrogen fluoride, sulfur diox-
ide, hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, sil-
icon tetrafluoride, and water vapor. The gases from the fur-
nace contain fluorine compounds, carbon monoxide, carbon
dust and tar, and hydrocarbons. These gases are sent to an af-
terburner, a cyclone, and an electrostatic precipitator. The
gases may still contain HF and SO2, which can be removed by
scrubbing with an alkaline solution. Ventilation is important in
the potrooms to keep temperatures low and to remove fluorine
compounds and dust from the room air. The large volumes of
air withdrawn through the roof are usually cleaned with sprays
or wet scrubbers. One new development is to clean the gases
by absorption of fluoride on alumina followed by the removal
of solid from the gas stream using bag filters. The costs and
operating charges associated with the gas cleaning will vary
with the design and location of the installation. The effects of
fluorides on man and air quality standards are briefly
discussed.
31567
Cook, C. C., G. R. Swany, and J. W. Colpitts
OPERATING EXPERIENCE WITH THE ALCOA 398
PROCESS FOR FLUORIDE RECOVERY. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc. J., 21(8):479-483, Aug. 1971. 1 ref.
Following the application of water scrubbers, cyclones, and
electrostatic precipitators, Alcoa Research Laboratories at
New Kensington, Pennsylvania, discovered that small quanti-
ties of hydrogen fluoride would react at low temperature with
alumina. The Alcoa 398 Process was developed, incorporating
a fluidized bed reactor to contact pot gases with incoming feed
alumina. Bag filters are used to separate entrained solid
materials from pot gases. Ninety-five percent interception of
pot gases is reported with 99% recovery of fluorides from
gases treated. Installation costs are in the range of $18-37 per
annual ton for new installations and about 50% more for con-
version of old plants. Direct operating costs range from $2.90
to $4.70/ton of aluminum and recover eight dollars worth of
fluorine, giving a net credit. A general description of the Alcoa
398 Process is included, and applicability and limitations are
discussed. Performance efficiency, effect on metal purity, and
maintenance are mentioned.
31644
Dahlquist, Evald
ELECTROFILTERS. (Elektrofilter). Tek. Tidskr., 73(27): 116-
125, July 3, 1943. Translated from Swedish. Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 29p., June
1957.
The history of electrofilters was reviewed. The modern elec-
trofilter apparatus consists of high-tension machinery and a
filter. The high-tension machinery consists of the instrument
cabinet, a high-tension transformer, a mechanical high-tension
rectifier, and a milliamperemeter. Filter theory was also
discussed. An exponential formula for dimensioning electrofil-
ters is based on two assumptions: the amount of powder
precipitated at a certain point on the filter is proportional to
the amount of powder present in the gas at that point, and the
particles migrate toward the precipitation electrode with a con-
stant velocity. Because of manufacturing costs, the tendency
is to use plane filters rather than tube filters. Applications of
electrofilters include quartz dust factories, smelter dust, sulfur
trioxide, tar, sulfur, and aluminum oxide.
32319
Konopka, A. P.
PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY IN PRIMARY
NON-FERROUS SMELTING. Preprint, American Inst of
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14
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
Chemical Engineers and Inst. Mexicano de Ingenieros
Quimicos, 10p., 1970. 9 refs. (Presented at the American In-
stitute of Chemical Engineers and Institute Mexicano de In-
genieros Quimicos Joint Meeting, 3rd, ODenver, Colo., Sept.
1970.)
The sources and nature of paniculate emissions and control
technology in the primary smelting of aluminum, copper, lead,
and zinc are described. The high dust concentrations generated
by bauxite drying and alumina calcining frequently require
multicyclones for preliminary collection, followed by electro-
static precipitation. Installed costs for the combined system
are $4.60-$2.30/CFM, at 99+% collection efficiencies. Elec-
trolytic aluminum reduction cells pose a more complicated
emission problem: moderate-energy wet scrubbers, glass filter
bags, or flushed precipitator installations are used. Representa-
tive installed costs for the three methods are S3.00/CFM,
S2.00/CFM, and S2.00/CFM, respectively. Dry electrostatic
precipitators, preceded by mechanical collectors, are univer-
sally applied in copper smelting. Installation costs for the com-
bined equipment are S6.00/CFM for 50,000 CFM flows and
S3.00/CFM for 2,000,000 CFM flows. Large lead blast fur-
naces employ electrostatic precipitators, smaller units use
fabric filters. Installation costs of vertical flow pipe-type
precipitators in the 100,000 CFM range are S6.00/CFM. Con-
tinuous baghouses for smaller volumes cost S5.00/CFM in-
stalled. Horizontal flow plate precipitators are used on new
zinc sintering machines. Mild-steel construction is common,
and installed costs for 50,000 CFM collectors are S3.50/CFM.
Emissions from flash roasting of zinc ore are also controlled
by plate-type precipitators of mild steel construction. Installed
costs are S3.50/CFM.
32963
McClain, R. S., G. V. Sullivan, and W. A. Stickney
RECOVERING ALUMINUM AND FLUORINE COMPOUNDS
FROM ALUMINUM PLANT RESIDUES. U. S. Bureau of
Mines, Kept. 5777, 16p., 1961. 1 ref.
Residues from aluminum plants were investigated to determine
if carbon could be removed by flotation while recovering
fluorine and aluminum compounds for recycling to the reduc-
tion process. Samples of flue dust, pot skimmings, and pot
linings all responded to a simple turpentine flotation scheme to
reject 90-97% of the carbon. Aluminum compound recoveries
were 42-94% on the flue dust, about 95% on the pot
skimmings, and 75-89% on the pot linings. Fluorine recoveries
from the same samples were 35-63, 92-95, and 77-86%, respec-
tively. The pot linings contained soluble aluminum and fluorine
salts that were recovered by precipitation with sodium alu-
minate and carbon dioxide gas. Composites of residues
responsed to flotation much the same as the individual sam-
ples. (Author summary modified)
33918
Okumura, Eijiro and Hiroyasu Matsumoto
DESIGN OF FLOATING SCRUBBER AND TURBULENT AB-
SORBER. (Shisshiki shujin oyobi gasu kyushu sochi no sekkei
Furotingu sukurabba, taburento abusoba ni tsuite). Text in
Japanese. Kagaku Sochi (Plant and Process), 9(10):ll-22, Oct.
1967.4 refs.
The Floating Scrubber (FBWS), wet type dust collection
device, and the Turbulent Absorber (TCA), a gas absorption
device, were discussed including their basic mechanisms, con-
struction, and design theories. Practical applications include
dust removal in iron manufacturing plants; dust removal, sul-
fur dioxide recovery, and gas absorption in pulp factories;
dust removal in steel manufacturing dust removal in sulfuric
acid manufacturing plants; absorption of SO2 from waste gas
in H2SO4 manufacturing plants; recovery of fluoride com-
pounds from waste gas phosphoric acid manufacturing indus-
try and from waste gas in aluminum manufacturing industry.
Both the FBWS and TCA are scrubber columns filled with
lightweight plastic balls between two grids. The washing liquid
is sprayed through a nozzle from above and the gas to be
treated is fed in from below; the gas causes a violent turbulent
motion as it ascends to contact the wash liquid. Since the gas-
liquid contact system occurs in the space between the two
grids, the balls contact the media, float with the gas and liquid.
Since the gas-liquid contact system occurs in the space
between the two grids, the balls contact the media, float with
the gas and liquid, revolve, and hit each other, thus causing
stirring. This keeps the surface of the balls clean so that a new
liquid film can form. Also, the area of contact between the gas
and the liquid is enlarged for effective dust collection and gas
absorption. The constant stirring keeps the grid meshes free
from viscous or other substances formed by the absorption
reaction. This is known as self-cleaning. Both FBWS and TAC
are patented to UPO of the U.S.A. and feature no clogging,
even with viscous substances; low pressure loss compared
with its high gas velocity; higher contact effect resulting in
higher efficiency; and stable and long-life performance.
35115
Descolas, Jean
ACTION OF BUILDERS OF SEPARATORS AND OF SCRUB-
BERS. (Action des constructeurs de separateurs et epu-
rateurs). Text in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), vol. 13:48-51,
Oct. 1971.
Dry dust arresters are steadily gaining over wet one because
they eliminate the sludge problem. Still, the venturi scrubber
has found wide application in the steel industry in the purifica-
tion of gases from blast furnaces. Bag filters are also widely
used because of their high efficiency and their dry dust
recovery. Newer models tolerate higher temperatures than
older ones, thus broadening their field of application (glass
wool tolerates up to 315 C). Electric filters have also vastly
improved (emission electrodes with increased mechanical re-
sistance), as have scrubbers which absorb sulfur dioxide,
fluorine, and other noxious or malodorous gases. Modern
scrubbers work with solutions of various chemical compounds.
An increasing number of industries is introducing them (the
aluminum industry for fluorine control and the cellulose indus-
try for the control of mercaptans). Of all dust arresters,
cyclones account for 15%, wet dust arresters for 20%, electri-
cal dry and wet dust arresters for 35%, bag filters for 25%,
and other systems for five percent. The investment in dust ar-
resters per capita in France comes to two Francs, thus France
is in fifth place behind Sweden, United States, West Germany,
and England. A 15-20% yearly increase in expenditures for pu-
rification equipment can be foreseen.
36552
Smith, Peter V.
ADVANCEMENT IN THE CONTROL OF PARTICULATES.
Tennessee Univ., Knoxville, Proc. Ind. Air Pollut. Control
Conf., Annu., 1st, Knoxville, Tenn., 1971, p. 56*71. d refs.
(April 22-23.)
In addition to participate control, the familiar collectors such
as the precipitator, scrubber, mechanical collector, and fabric
filterhouse can also remove gaseous emissions such' as sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, and fluorine. The precipita-
tor can remove enough participate matter to enable the gas
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
15
removal device to operate effectively, independently of the en-
trained paniculate matter which could be detrimental to its
operation. In many instances where upgrading fly ash removal
of an existing boiler is necessary to meet new regulations, the
use of scrubbers is preferred because their compact size is
compatible with the amount of available land area. The most
recent innovation in the use of electrostatic precipitators is the
application of the hot precipitator to utility boilers firing low
sulfur coal. In the aluminum industry, electrostatic precipita-
tors have been used on prebake potlines. Packaged, low ener-
gy, venturi-slotted type scrubbers have been successfully ap-
plied to remove particulate emissions from apartment house
incinerators.
36755
Cook, C. C. and G. R. Swany
EVOLUTION OF FLUORIDE RECOVERY PROCESSES.
ALCOA SMELTERS. Tennessee Univ., Knoxville, Dept. of
Civil Engineering, Proc. Ind. Air Pollut. Control Conf., Annu.,
1st, Knoxville, Tenn., 1971, p. 145-157. (April 22-23.)
Fluoride recovery processes developed by Alcoa and various
techniques of pollution control instituted in their aluminum
plants are reviewed with respect to early history, development
of gas cell technique and treatment facilities, dry process
development, and the Alcoa-398 process. Wet scrubbers to
capture gaseous fluorides, fume collection equipment, electro-
static precipitators, and filter bags comprise most of the con-
trol systems. The Alcoa-398 process consists of a fluidized bed
of alumina, dust collector, conveyors for alumina transport,
and storage space. Typical investment and operating costs are
discussed.
37293
THE INAUGURATION OF THE NEW ALUMINUM PLANT
PECHINEY IN VLISSINGEN BY PRINCE BERNHARD OF
THE NETHERLANDS. (Einweihung der neuen Pechiney
Huette Vlissingen durch Prinz Bernhard der Niederlande).
Text in German. Aluminium, 47(12):782-784, Dec. 1971.
The new aluminum plant with 256 furnaces in Vlissingen (The
Netherlands) has not been equipped with a central waste air
cleaning system. After extensive experiments in the wind tun-
nel, it was decided to install individual groups of ventilators
and gas scrubbers. The 34 ventilators with which the plant has
been equipped have a throughput of 30 million cu m/hr, each
ventilator has a throughput of 63 cu m/sec. In the gas scrub-
bers, 30,000 cu m water are atomized/hr for binding the
fluorine gases. The fluorine is precipitated and recovered and
returned to the production process. Air monitoring stations
both of the stationary and mobile type are in operation to a
distance of 18 km from the plant. The costs for installation of
this system amounted to 1.68 million dollars, the power con-
sumption amounts to 90 million kWh/yr.
37544
Burkat, V. S., E. Ya. Tarat, V. A. Baevshii, E. M. Voronin,
and M. T. Tsurenko
PURIFICATION OF ALUMINUM-INDUSTRY GASES IN A
HOLLOW HIGH-SPEED SCRUBBER. Soviet J. Non-Ferrous
Metals (English translation from Russian of: Tsvetn. Metal.),
10(9):61-63, Sept. 1969. 3 refs.
A pilot gas purifier consisting of an electric separator and a
hollow scrubber with spray nozzles was tested for its ability to
remove gaseous and solid fluoride compounds from exhaust
gases at an aluminum plant. The efficiency of gas purification
in the scrubber was determined at gas linear velocities of 3-7
m/sec, gas inlet temperatures of 40-50 C, and spraying densi-
ties of 20 and 30 cu m/sq m/hr. Spray density had a greater in-
fluence on the degree of hydrogen fluoride entrainment than a
change in gas velocity. The degree of purification remained
constant within the gas-velocity range tested, but increased
with an increase in spraying density. An equation is given that
predicts the performance of the hollow, high-speed scrubber
under various operating conditions.
38082
Schwegmann, I, C. and L. Leder
PURIFICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS-FURNACE FLUE GAS
FROM ALUMINUM FOUNDRIES. (Abgasreinigung der Elek-
trolyseofen-Abgase von Aluminum-Huetten). Text in German.
Luftverunreinigung, 1969:17-20, Oct. 1969.
A technique for the purification of waste gases emitted from
the electrolytic cells of aluminum manufacturing plants is
presented. The problems of withdrawing the gases from each
cell individually or from the building housing the cells are
reviewed. The best method of removing the gases from each
cell is individual encapsulation. The exhauster must be
designed to leave sufficient access to the cells but simultane-
ously prevent any emission of the waste gases into the work
shop. A negative pressure must be maintained in the exhauster
spanning the surface of the cell; removable sheet steel plates
are installed on the sides. In cases where individual withdrawal
is not feasible, centralized cleaning, using ventilators and
scrubbers, is possible. Due to the great volumes of air to be
drawn off in centralized cleaning, the cleaning efficiency of
the diluted gases withdrawn centrally is much lower than that
of the concentrated gases withdrawn individually. The process
for individual withdrawal is reviewed. The control equipment
consists of an exhaust system for waste gas drawing, cyclones
for dust removal, scrubbers for removal of gaseous fluorine,
and high stack discharge.
38188
Zhulin, N. V. and A. A. Komlev
USE OF FLOCCULANTS FOR PRECIPITATING PARTICLES
IN GAS PURIFICATION SOLUTIONS. (Primeneniye floku-
lyantov dlya osazdeniya chastuts v rastvorakh gazoochistki).
Text in Russian. Tsvetny. Metal., 8(44):36-37, 1971. 3 refs.
The effect of flocculants on the settling of suspended solids
from sodium bicarbonate scrubber solutions used after the
electrostatic precipitation of noxious gases from aluminum
cells was examined. The solution contained approximately 25
g/1 sodium fluoride, 53 g/1 sodium carbonate and sodium bicar-
bonate, 47 g/I sodium sulfate, and 30 g/1 suspended solids con-
sisting of about 80% cryolite, aluminum fluoride, magnesium
fluoride, and calcium fluoride and about 15% of calcination
loss products, i.e., unburned coke and pitch. Decreasing the
solution sodium sulfate concentration from 52 to 32 g/1 and in-
creasing the temperature from 20 to 50 deg increased the set-
tling rate by 50 and 100%, respectively. Soap chips, sodium
oleate, oleic acid, tall oil and its hydrolysis products, and
hydrolyzed polyacrylamide accelerated the settling; of these,
30 mg/1 of tile hydrolyzed polyacrylamide was the best addi-
tive.
38775
Ryaguzov, V. N. and I. V. Kaydalov
EFFECT OF THE METHOD OF STOPPING THE ANODE EF-
FECT ON THE POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE WITH
FLUORINE. (Vliyaniye sposoba grsheniya anodnogo effekta
na stepen zagryazneniya atraosfery ftorom). Text in Russian.
Tsvetn. Metal., 44(8):26-28, Dec. 27, 1971. 6 refs.
-------
16
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
Fluorine salt losses and abatement of air pollution with
fluorine from aluminum producing plants can 'be achieved by
substituting the use of wood pulp or other hydrogen containing
compounds with compressed air in the extinguishing of the
anodic effects. However, the wide use of this procedure was
prevented because of the explosion hazards involved, if the air
included humidity drops. An air drying device should be ap-
plied before its use for this purpose. Since each hydrogen
atom introduced into the electrolyte system produces an emis-
sion of one fluorine atom, and the carbon constituent of the
wood pulp produces contamination of the electrolyte and thus
increases its electrical resistance, the advantage of the com-
pressed air use is emphasized.
38823
Bender, Rene J.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL: ITS IMPACT ON THE METAL
INDUSTRIES. Power, 116(4):56-60, April 1972. 1 ref.
While the control of air pollution can be accomplished readily
in a reasonable period of time by the larger steel, aluminum,
and nickel producers, and with a little greater effort by the lar-
gest copper and copper-derivative companies, it can have dis-
astrous consequences upon small, low-capital enterprises. One
of the most difficult problems in the steel industry is to
eliminate emissions while loading and unloading coke ovens.
The basic oxygen process, bag houses, and other steps being
taken by the steel companies to modernize their equipment to
maintain a clean environment are mentioned. Tall chimneys
and electrostatic precipitators are being utilized by the nickel
industry, while a new molten aluminum fluxing process and a
chemically coated filter-bag system are under development for
the aluminum industry. The effect of strict emission regula-
tions on the copper industry and the plight of small foundries
are mentioned. Costs for pollution cleanup are given.
38874
Fialkov, Yu. G., M. L. Cherkasskiy, V. S. Malts, and B. P.
Gromov
INDUSTRIAL HIGH-SPEED HOLLOW SCRUBBER FOR
ALUMINUM MANUFACTURING-GENERATED GAS
CLEANING. (Promyshlennyy polyy skorostnoy skrubber dlya
ochitski gazov alyuminiyevogo proizvodstva). Text in Russian.
Tsvetn. Metall., no. 12:28-31, Dec. 1971. 4 refs.
Scrubbers with diameters exceeding 5 m used in electrolysis
shops were investigated. Before scrubber treatment the gas to
be cleaned contained, per N cu m, 10-30 mg hydrogen
fluoride, 30-100 mg dust, and 10-60 mg tar. The scrubber was
sprayed with soda solution as an absorbing agent. Hydrogen
fluoride absorption was dependent on the linear gas velocity
and the spray density. The efficiency could be influenced by
the site and direction of the spray. Spraying from the topside
gave the best result up to a gas speed of 5 m/sec. The effects
of the spray density were studied under various spraying con-
ditions. Efficiencies of 97.5-98.0% were reached with a density
of 37 cu m/sq m.hour. Single-stage dust separation and
scrubbing were applied in the hollow scrubber. Increased gas
speed and spray density resulted in increased efficiency, while
the nozzle placement had only a slight influence. The residual
dust concentration was 30-60 mg/N cu m. Efficiency for total
dust was 73% with a gas speed of 3.3 m/sec and a spray of 30
cu m/sq m.hour. Efficiencies above 90% can be reached with
appropriate gas velocities and spray density. The drop separa-
tor had a hydraulic resistance of 15-20 kg/sq m.
39434
Tomany, James P.
THE CONTROL OF ALUMINUM CHLORIDE FUMES. Light
Metal Age, 26(9/10): 19-20, 36, Oct. 1968. (Presented at the Air
Pollution Control Association, Annual Meeting, 61st, St. Paul,
Minn., June 23-27, 1968.)
Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, aluminum chloride, and alu-
minum oxide may be produced from aluminum processing fur-
naces. The latter two contaminants are in the form of solid
particles which if untreated, will produce a white plume of
varying density at the stack. Flow rates and other process con-
ditions are indicated. Bag filters will collect a reasonable
amount of the particulates, but they may become clogged by
the hygroscopic aluminum chloride, while the elevated tem-
peratures of the hot gases create a fire hazard. The collection
of particulates in aluminum processing requires scrubbing with
alkaline solutions in equipment which will not plug. The UOP
floating-bed scrubbing system for handling aluminum chloride
fumes is described. The major process variables which deter-
mine the scrubber design are the chlorination rate, the
chlorination cycle, and the size and type of melt furnace.
39519
Muhlrad, W.
THE PROBLEM OF THE SMOKES EMITTED BY ELEC-
TROMETALLURGICAL FURNACES. (Probleme des fumees
emises par les fours electrometallurgiques). Chaleur Ind., no.
422:237-255, Sept. 1960. 6 refs. Translated from French. 53p.
Problems, techniques, and equipment involved in controlling
smoke from electrometallurgical furnaces are considered. The
dusts from electric furnaces are extremely fine, and the topo-
graphic locations of most of the factories favor inversions.
The characteristics of different types of furnaces and the na-
ture of their smoke emissions are described. Ferrosilicon fur-
naces, ferromanganese and ferrosilicon-ferromanganese fur-
naces, ferrochrome and ferrosilicon-chrome furnaces, fer-
rotungsten furnaces, ferronickel furnaces, calcium carbide fur-
naces, and aluminum electrolysis tanks are included. Dust fil-
tration, precipitators, and scrubbers are indicated for control
purposes.
42287
Bamag Verfahrenstechnik G.m.b.H. Butzbach (West Germany)
REMOVAL OF FLUORINE FROM WASTE GASES. (Entfer-
nen von Fluor aus Abgasen). Text in German. Umwelt (Dues-
seldorf), 2(3):62-64, June-July 1972. 4 refs.
Aluminum plants emit waste gases containing at times
150/mg/cu m elemental fluorine or fluorine compounds. For
each ton of crude aluminum produced, the plants emit 4 kg or
more of fluorine. The waste gases of superphosphate plants
contain volumetric concentrations between 0.5 and 1.0% sil-
icon tetrafluoride according to some sources even up to 3%
gaseous fluorine components. The design and operation of a
waste air cleaning plant for a test stand for rocket engines is
described. The waste air enters the cleaning system below the
packed layer of a scrubber and passes countercurrent to the
scrubbing fluid, an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide.
For removal of the droplets of scrubbing fluid which are car-
ried along by the air another packed layer is arranged ahead of
the exit to the stack. The scrubbing fluid enriched with
fluorine is recovered, the sludge which accumulates at the
recovery is subjected to special treatment for conversion of
the fluorine compounds into harmless calcium fluoride. After
this treatment it can be dumped.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
T7
42458
Lobos, J. S., J. P. McGeer, and D. P. Sanderson
REACTIVITY OF ALUMINA TOWARDS HYDROGEN
FLUORIDE. Preprint, American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgi-
cal, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), New York, N. Y., 10p.,
1971. 2 refs. (Presented at the American Inst. of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Annual Meeting, New
York, Feb. 26-March 4, 1971.)
A simple method was developed to measure reactivity of alu-
mina toward hydrogen fluoride. The apparatus consisted of a
heated alumina desiccator. A platinum dish containing a
known volume of HF solution was placed in the lower com-
partment and the desiccator was allowed to heat to a desired
temperature. Weighed samples of the alumina in 40 ml
platinum crucibles were then placed in the upper compartment.
After a known length of time the samples were removed, put
in an ordinary desiccator and after cooling analyzed for
fluoride. Alpha-type alumina was about 10 times less reactive
than the gamma-type. In plant tests using various dry
scrubbing systems for pot gases, the gamma-type alumina ab-
sorbed over 2% fluorine in a fraction of a second. Other rela-
tionships between absorption of fluorine and alumina proper-
ties such as degree of calcination and reactivity towards water
were investigated. Preliminary operation of a two-stage cell
gas scrubbing system with a cyclone incorporated demon-
strated flexibility and a number of other benefits, including
segregation of impurities such as iron and phosphorus and
economic tar fume handling.
43299
Iversen, Reid E.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL: ENGINEERING AND COST
STUDY OF THE PRIMARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY.
Preprint, American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgical and Petrole-
um Engineers, New York, Metallurgical Society, 22p., 1972. 3
refs. (Presented at the American Institute of Mining, Metallur-
gical and Petroleum Engineers, Metallurgical Society, San
Francisco, Calif., Feb. 22, 1972.)
Gaseous and particulate Fluorides are the most serious pollu-
tants emitted from aluminum reduction plants. Other pollutants
such as cryolite, aluminum fluoride, calcium fluoride, chiolite,
hydrocarbons, and carbon have been identified. The gaseous
emissions, in addition to the fluorides, have been identified as
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen ox-
ides, hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, sil-
icon tetrafluoride, and hydrogen fluoride. The greatest source
of pollutants of all types is normally at the individual electric
cells or pot lines. The anode bake plant is potentially the
second greatest source. Emissions from an uncontrolled pre-
bake potline have been measured at 92 Ib/t Al, total solids, 60
Ib/t SO2, and 46 Ib/t total F as well as volatilized hydrocar-
bons. Primary controls collect emissions at the pot head;
secondary controls are located in the roof monitor area. About
75% of the plants in the U. S. have primary controls only, 7%
have primary and secondary, 15% have secondary controls
only, and 3% have no controls. The industry as a whole
showed an emission control factor for total F of 73%. This
amounts to 12 Ib gaseous/t of Al and 19 Ib/t for solids. A well
designed pre-bake plant with primary and secondary controls
could reduce emissions to 1.6 Ib/t gaseous and 5 Ib/t solids.
Annual costs to the industry for control devices are now S58/T
for capital and S16/T for operating expenses. Control systems
include baffles, spray towers, wet cyclones, packed towers,
bubbler towers, venturi scrubbers, mechanical collectors, mul-
ticyclones, electrostatic precipitators, bag filters, absorption,
and fluidized beds.
43840
Hemming, Charles
WHAT INDUSTRY IS DOING ABOUT POLLUTION CON-
TROL. Civil Eng. (N. Y.), 41(9):59-62, Sept. 1971.
Developments in air and water pollution control by five major
industries are reviewed. Hercules, Inc. is constructing an ad-
vanced solid-waste reclamation plant in Delaware that will
convert 500 tons of refuse and 70 tons of sewage sludge/day
into marketable products. Dow Chemical Company has a
number of projects underway at its Midland, Michigan, Divi-
sion, including brine purification, the installation of detection
devices on sewers, and environmental monitoring in the form
of a specially designed van which tours potential trouble areas
around the plant. Alcoa has perfected a system for recycling
fluoride effluents in smelting operations. The fumes given off
in a aluminum smelting, heavy with particulate and gaseous
fluorides, are ducted through a bed of alumina which chemis-
orbs the gaseous fluoride. Particulate fluoride is captured in
filter bags. Recovered fluorides are recycled to potline cells
where they contribute to the continuous smelting process. The
Alcoa 398 Process is more than 99% efficient in recovering
potential pollutants. General Motors is active in planning aban-
doned-car cleanup campaigns. Allied Chemical Corporation
has developed a pipeline-charging system that controls air pol-
lution resulting from coke ovens by reducing smoke and gases
from by-products by as much as 70%.
44343
Waki, Koichi
ALUMINUM REFINERIES. (Aruminyumu seirenjo). Text in
Japanese. (Kinzoku Zairyo (Metals in Engineering), 12(5):45-
51, May 1972. 19 refs.
Pollution at aluminum refineries and its control is discussed.
The major material for the production of aluminum by the
electrolytic method is cryolite to which aluminum trifluoride is
usually added to increase the current efficiency, decrease the
melting point, and protect the electrolyzer. The addition
results in the formation of sodium aluminum tetrafluoride,
which is volatile and reacts readily with water vapor to form
hydrogen fluoride. The amount of fluoride discharged depends
largely on the residue hydrocarbon on the anode, the alumina
in electrolyzer, and the temperature and bath ratio. A com-
bination of dust collector, such as a cyclone or an electrostatic
precipitator, for the removel of participates, and a washing
tower for the removal of HF gas is used for the purification of
flue gas from Al refineries.
44838
Rush, Dumont, John C. Russell, and Reid E. Iversen
EFFECTIVENESS AND COST OF AIR POLLUTION ABATE-
MENT ON PRIMARY ALUMINUM POTLINES. Preprint, Air
Pollution Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 23p., 1972.
(Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association, Annual
Meeting, 65th, Miami, Fla., June 18-22, 1972, Paper 72-78.)
Effluent data from aluminum potlines permits the construction
of models of smelter effluents, representative of present prac-
tice in the United States, which may be acted upon in ac-
cordance with various demonstrated collection and removal ef-
ficiencies of control systems and their costs in order to evalu-
ate the cost-effectiveness of various control schemes and to
estimate the costs involved in upgrading pollution abatement in
the industry. Representative capital and operating costs and
removal efficiencies for a number of kinds of applicable con-
trol equipment have been developed and organized in a way
which permits approximate evaluations among alternative ap-
-------
18
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
preaches to pollution abatement. The application of the best
demonstrated pollution abatement technology to the collected
primary effluents from aluminum potlines would result in
representative total fluoride emissions of from 1.2 to 4.7
lbs/1000 Ibs of aluminum produced depending on the type of
potline. The addition of scrubbing equipment on the secondary
or building ventilation streams would reduce total fluoride
emissions to the range of 0.8 to 2 lbs/1000 Ibs aluminum, at
considerably increased costs. A systems analysis was applied
to the entire United States aluminum production industry
showing the expected costs and performance parameters as-
sociated with upgrading the industry control from the present
74% to four higher levels of control. This analysis indicates
that the application of best demonstrated control technology to
the entire industry would raise overall control efficiency from
74 to 92%; it would increase invested industry capital for pol-
lution control from $51 to $17S/ton capacity, and would raise
the industry operating cost of pollution abatement from $13 to
$43/ton of aluminum produced at capacity. Pollutants from
aluminum smelters include fluoride, hydrogen fluoride, alu-
Kiima, particulates, and sulfur oxides. Control equipment in-
cludes scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, cyclones, venturi
scrubbers, and lime desulfurization.
45078
Robinson, J. M., G. I. Gruber, W. D. Lusk, and M. J. Santy
ENGINEERING AND COST EFFECTIVENESS STCDY OF
FLUORIDE EMISSIONS CONTROL. (FINAL REPORT).
VOLUME II. Resources Research, Inc., McLean. Va. and
TRW Systems Group, McLean, Va., Office of Air Programs
Contract EHSD 71-14, APTD 0944, 171p., Jan. 1972. 1026 refs.
NTIS: PB 209647
The appendix and bibliography of a report on the costs of
fluoride emissions control are presented. Two general types of
pollution control equipment are currently used for fluoride
emissions, wet collection equipment and dry collection equip-
ment. The majority of capture devices used for fluoride
removal are of the wet type. Wet collection systems simultane-
ously remove gaseous and particulate pollutants. The types of
wet collection equipment described include: spray towers,
packed bed scrubbers, wet cyclones, self-induced spray scrub-
bers, orifice plate bubblers, venturi scrubbers, jet scrubbers,
and dynamic wet scrubbers. Under certain conditions, dry col-
lection systems have been applied to fluoride emissions con-
trol. Three main classes are available: mechanical collection
equipment, such as settling chambers, baffle chambers,
skimming chambers, louver type collectors, dry cyclones,
impingement collectors, and dry dynamic collectors; electro-
static precipitation; and fabric filtration. Inventories of indus-
trial plant locations and capacities were prepared for the in-
dustries which are known or potential sources for fluoride
emissions. The industries covered include: phosphate rock
processing, iron and steel production, primary aluminum
smelting, coal burning, steam electric power generation,
hydrogen fluoride production; clay products, glass products,
enamel frits, and non-ferrous metal smelters. A bibliography
containing more than 1000 references is included.
47274
Adama, Robert J. and Carson L. Brooks
TRIGAS FLUXING. J. Metals, 24(8):21-24, Aug. 1972.
Fluxing of molten metal with a mixture of chlorine, carbon
monoxide, and nitrogen (trigas) to remove suspended non-
metallic particles, as well as hydrogen gas, is described for the
manufacture of aluminum. This mixture of three gases also
dramatically reduces the amount and visibility of stack ef-
fluent as compared with that from chlorine fluxing. The results
of test runs with a trigas system are indicated, and compared
to results from a chlorine system.
47463
Hoeke, Engelbert
WET REMOVAL OF DUST FROM FLUORINE-CONTAIN-
ING EXHAUST GASES IN ALUMINUM MANUFACTURE.
(Verfahren zur Nassentstaubung fluorhaltig Abgase bei der
Herstellung von Aluminium). Text in German. Fried Krupp
G.m.b.H., Essen (West Germany)) W. Ger. Pat. Appl.
2,039,588. Aug. 8, 1970. (3 claims).
Dust in fluorine-containing exhaust gases from aluminum
manufacture can be removed by * wash solution with a pH
equal to or greater than 10.5 and a salt content of less than
6%. The salt concentration can be maintained by replenishing
the washing solution with fresh water.
48423
Weisburd, Melvin I.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY NON-FERROUS SMELTING
AND REFINING. In: Field Operations and Enforcement
Manual for Air Pollution Control. Volume III: Inspection
Procedures for Specific Industries. Pacific Environmental Ser-
vices, Inc., Santa Monica, Calif., Office of Air Programs Con-
tract CPA 70-122, Rept. APTD-1102, p. 7.8.1-7.8.50, Aug. 1972.
6 refs.
The smelting and refining of non-ferrous metals are primarily
concerned with the production of copper, lead, zinc, and alu-
minum ingots and alloys. Primary smelters usually constitute
large, difficult to control single sources of air pollution, are
usually located outside of urban areas, and can be significant
sources of visible emissions and plant damage. Secondary
smelters are commonly found in industrial and urban areas,
close to sources of scrap and other raw materials generated by
population centers. They are significant sources of pollution,
as well as local public nuisance problems. Sources of emis-
sions, processes, and inspection points are discussed for pri-
mary and secondary non-ferrous smelting and refining. Roast-
ing, reverberatory furnaces, converters, and contaminants
emitted are included for copper production. Sintering, blast
furnaces, refining, and contaminants emitted are included for
lead production. Roasting, sintering, extraction, and contami-
nants emitted are included for zinc production. Operations and
equipment for reclaiming metals from scrap, drosses, and slag
are considered, for brass and bronze, lead, zinc, and alu-
minum. Smoke, dust, fumes, sulfur oxides, fluxing, and
degreasing agents are typically emitted.
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
03940
A. S. Filatova, A. I. Kuz'minykh, F. D. Vedernikova, N. S.
Solomennikova
DETERMINATION OF 3,4-BENZPYRENE LIBERATED BY
SUBLIMATION OF ANODE MATERIAL IN ELEC-
TROLYTIC SHOPS OF ALUMINUM PLANTS. Hyg. Sanit.
31, (4-6) 381-4, Apr.-June 1966. Russ. (Tr.) CFSTI, TT 66-
51160/4-6
An investigation of the group of neutral multinuclear cyclic
hydrocarbons with the intention of subsequent isolation and
quantitative determination of 3,4-benzpyrene which is the most
actively carcinogenic hydrocarbon was undertaken. Samples at
the electrolytic shop of an aluminium plant of dust from the
anode, from the inlet connector of the cell, from the anode pin
and from the 'fog* evolving from under the pins as well as at
the position occupied by the operator were taken. Air was
drawn at a rate of 20 1/min through a filter made of the FPP-
15 fabric fixed on a steel funnel, taking larger volumes of air
in order to concentrate the small quantities of 3,4-benzpyrene
assumed to be present. Since the carrier of carcinogenic sub-
stances is represented by tarry substances, the dust samples
were extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus and quantitative deter-
minations were made of the yield of tarry substances. Non-
fluorescent benzene was used as the solvent. From the com-
plex mixture of tarry substances by 3,4-benzpyrene was iso-
lated by partition paper chromatography and fluorescence. The
contents of 3,4-benzpyrene in the air samples taken in the
electrolytic shop of an aluminum plant were as follows: 0.0137
to 0.022 1 micrograms/l at the worksite, 0.0361 to 0.2250
micrograms/1 during the removal of the pins and 0.0519 to
1.3200 micrograms/1 in the 'fog* issuing from under the anode
pins.
14897
Centre Departemental d'Etude des Pollutions Atmospheriques,
Paris, Section Sante et Meteo.
A DAY OF POLLUTION IN THE LACQ REGION. (Journee
de pollutin vecue dans la region de Lacq). Text in French. Pol-
lut. Atmos. (Paris), n(Special):36-40, Feb. 1969.
Observations and measurements of pollution are reported for
the period from Oct. 4 to 5, 1968, in the 15 km-w'ide valley of
the Gave de Pau. On the night of Oct. 4, a 4-day old descend-
ing inversion reached an 11-degree amplitude with a 700-m
thickness. Early morning pollution was near zero, but as the
fog cleared and wind conditions of less than I knot prevailed,
pollution indices rose greatly. Later in the day the wind rose,
and in the absence of any inversion, pollution dropped by a
factor of 10. A gas desulfurization plant in the valley emits 500
to 1000 tons of sulfur dioxide daily. Measurements made by
absorption of acid gases in glycerinated 0.5 NaOH, in
hydrogen peroxide solution, or in glycerinated zinc acetate
gave qualitatively similar results. Emissions were from a 104-m
high chimney, but maximum ground level pollution was found
5 km from the chimney, a distance about 40 times the theoreti-
cal chimney height, i.e., the plume height above the chimney.
Another source of pollution in the valley is an aluminum ex-
traction plant which employs the Soderberg process and emits
150 kg per day of fluoride ions. Measurement by exposure of
lime-impregnated papers, with colorimetric estimating
techniques, correlated in 70% of the cases with direct absorp-
tion on fiberglass, and was reproducible to better than 10%.
Decrease of pollution with distance was found to be exponen-
tial, with the worst pollution occurring within 2 km of the
plant.
15372
MAINTENANCE OF AIR PURITY AND DETERMINATIONS
OF IMMISSION BY THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY:
FLUORINE POLLUTION, ESPECIALLY HYDROGEN
FLUORIDE GAS, IN WASTE GASES CAUSES DAMAGE TO
VEGETATION. (Luftvard och immissionskontroll i aluminiu-
mindustrin: fluorforeningarna, sarskilt det gasformiga fluor-
vatet, i avgaserna). Text in Swedish. Tek. Tidskr., 99(12):25t-
253, May 27, 1969.
The Sundsvall aluminum plant, the only alumina-electrolysis
plant in Sweden, operates 300 cells currently producing 65,000
tons of Al per year, representing a fivefold increase of produc-
tion since 1962. To date the company has spent 20 million
kronor (about $4,000,000 in 1969) on air pollution control
equipment, but there is still some damage to vegetation from
hydrogen fluoride gas. Comfort of workers requires 20 to 30
changes of air per hour (12 million cu m/hr) in pot-line area,
which complicates air pollution control. Most recent of several
air-washing devices used in a 'spin bath' in which plastic balls
are sprayed with water from jets. Exhaust gases escape
through four 70-m concrete chimneys, 10-11 m in diameter and
lined internally with plastic. The equipment removes 90% of
water- soluble fluorides from exhaust. The company also
maintains 160 inspection stations in the area, which by means
of pollutant- sensitive plants record the immission of toxic
material, which is the basis of a map of Sundsvall region with
'isofluoride' lines to indicate pollution zones.
17098
Radczewski, O. E.
FINE POWDERS (DUSTS) IN NATURE AND IN INDUSTRY,
THEIR DETERMINATION AS CONTAMINANTS AND
DETERMINATION OF FLUORINE COMPOUNDS IN THE
AIR. (Feine Teilchen (Staeube) in Natur und Technik, ihre
Bestimmung als Verunreinigungen und der Nachweis von
Fluonrerbindungen in der Luft). Text in German. Ber. Deut.
Keram. Ges., 45(H):551-556, Nov. 1968. 9 refs.
The morphological significance of particles for their properties
and the demonstration of industrial powders in the form of
photographs and samples was presented. Electron diffraction
is an important method because it allows a clear identification
of extremely fine particles. Kaolinite and illite can be distin-
guished from each other or amorphous silica can be detected
in Kaerlich clay. Contaminants in the air surrounding an alu-
minum factory were collected and electron-optically studied.
Crystalline impurities in the atmosphere and the type and
bonding of fluorine compounds in the exhausts of furnaces
and kilns was also investigated with an electron-optical device.
-------
20
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
An unequivocal determination was made possible by examin-
ing cell sizes in the selected area of diffraction and by measur-
ing the angles between the different lattice directions. The
results showed that chlorides, sulfates, and fluorine com-
pounds were present in the air above the North Sea and in the
exhaust gases of an aluminum smelting furnace. (Author sum-
mary modified)
29738
Moser, E.
MEASUREMENT OF GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE
FLUORINE EMISSIONS. (Messung von gas- und staubfoer-
migen Fluor-Emissionen). Text in German. VDI (Ver. Deut.
Ingr.) Ber., no. 164:91-99, 1971.
The emission from manufacturing plants which produce or
process fluorine bearing products usually comprises a gaseous
part and a paniculate part. The gaseous part contains predomi-
nantly hydrofluoric acid, whereas the fluorine compounds in
the dust may be composed of sodium fluoride, aluminum
fluoride, cryolite, sodium silicofluoride, and calcium fluoride.
With regard to the gaseous components, for instance in the
case of an electrolytic aluminum smelting plant, where the
emission of pollutants rises drastically at the time of metal
pouring, charging of raw materials, and changing of elec-
trodes, it is necessary to extend the sample taking at least over
one complete cycle. For determination of peak concentrations,
short time sampling is advised. In a plant with installed air pu-
rification, the air has to be sampled at points of entry and of
exit of the purification system. An automatically working
system of sample taking is described. The apparatus is divided
into two groups, one of which is mounted directly next to the
measuring point and comprises the filtering apparatus and gas
absorption bottles, including a drip separatajr and a heater for
the filters. The second group, connected by a hose line to the
first, and conveniently located on the floor, comprises the
pump arrangement with valves, thermometer, flow meter, and
other necessary instruments. Tubular filters are lately being
preferred to flat ones, due to their larger surface and better
adaptability to the mounting of electric heaters. Absorption of
gaseous HF in the bottles is best effected by a caustic soda
solution.
30958
Monteriolo, S. Cerquiglini and A. Pepe
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF METHODS FOR THE DETER-
MINATION OF AIRBORNE FLUORIDES. Pure Appl. Chem.,
24(4):707-7I4, 1970. 17 refs. (Presented at the International
Symposium on the Chemical Aspects of Air Pollution, Cortina
d Ampezzo, Italy, July 9-10, 1969.)
Some methods for the determination of gaseous and particu-
late fluorine compounds present in the air as pollutants are
described and compared. Particulates were collected by means
of membrane filters; gaseous compounds were sampled by ab-
sorption in alkaline solution. The operation included air and
stack sampling, the separation of fluoride from interfering sub-
stances, and its final determination. Results obtained for the
separation of fluoride by distillation and by other microdiffu-
sion techniques are presented. The application of various
methods to the subsequent determination of fluoride are also
discussed. Spectrophotometric methods were used for the final
quantitative determination of the fluoride content. It is con-
cluded that when an aluminum smelter is involved, the mean
amounts of fluoride, collected in a five kilometer area sur-
rounding the plant, are higher than five micrograms, with
values as high as 375-500 micrograms for 24 hours of sampling.
(Author abstract modified)
33045
Triplett, Gary
ESTIMATION OF PLANT EMISSIONS. Preprint, p. 15-27.
1970 (?). 21 refs.
There are times when it is not possible or practical to deter-
mine emission rates by stack sampling; in these cases emission
rates may be estimated by utilizing available emission factors.
An emission factor is the statistical average of the mass of
contaminants emitted/unit quantity of material handled,
processed, or burned. The emission factor may also be ex-
pressed as the quantity of contaminant/unit quantity of final
product or effluent volume. These factors have been
developed through stack testing or by material balance calcula-
tions. Emission factors are normally given in terms of uncon-
trolled emissions. Therefore, the type and effectiveness of
control equipment must be considered when calculating emis-
sions from controlled sources. Particle size distribution and ef-
fective stack height should also be considered. Emission fac-
tors are given for coal, fuel oil, natural gas, and wood burning;
solid waste disposal; incinerators; paint manufacturing; the
food and agriculture industry; primary metallurgical processing
including iron and steel manufacturing, open hearth furnaces,
basic oxygen furnaces, electrical arc furnaces, and blast fur-
naces; smelting and foundries for aluminum, brass, lead mag-
nesium, steel, and zinc; mineral processing of asphalt, calcium
carbide, cement, concrete, glass and lime; petroleum produc-
tion, and the kraft pulp industry. (Author abstract modified)
37107
Malakhina, A. Ya., M. I. Til kov, and Yu. K. Shaposhnikov
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF POLYNUCLEAR ARO-
MATIC HYDROCARBONS. (Bumazhnaya khromatografiya
poliyadernykh aromaticheskikh uglevodorodov). Hyg. Sank.
(English translation from Russian of: Gigiena i Sanit.), 36(1-
3):97-100, Jan.-March, 1971. 7 refs. NTIS: TT 71-50122
Acetone, benzene, or octane extracts of poly nuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) in dusts at three aluminum works were
separated by paper chromatography and analyzed by thin-layer
chromatography or fluorometric spectroscopy. The following
PAH were determined in dusts deposited in ventilation pipes
during the manufacture of electrolytic aluminum: 20-
methylcholanthrene, 3,4-benzypyrene, 1,2-benzpyrene, 1,2-
benzanthracene, 1,3,3,4-dibenzanthracene, 9,10-dimethyl-l ,2-
bezanthracene, and anthracene. The compounds were quantita-
tively determined by cutting out chromatogram spots and elut-
ing them into a solution followed by fluorometric analysis. The
3,4-benzpyrene concentrations in 1-gram dust samples from
the three plants were 0.051, 0.039, and 0.042 mg, respectively.
The method is also applicable to investigations of PAH in
gaseous discharges and effluents.
38905
Haneda, Mikiko and Tsunoda, Fumio
MEASUREMENTS OF AIR POLLUTION BY FLUORIDE BY
MEANS OF THE LIME TREATED FILTER PAPER
METHOD. (Lime treated filter paper ho ni yo fukkabutsu no
ta taikiosen sokuteiho). Text in Japanese. Kankyo Hoken Re-
port. (Environ. Health Kept.), no. 8:23-30, Jan. 1971. 22 refs.
Measurements were carried out for fluoride within a radius of
5 km from the aluminium factory, which was considered as a
source of pollution, using the Lime Treated Filter Paper
method reported by Miller, and Adams, and also the followup
measurements were taken to prove the usefulness of this
method. Paper filter No. 51A was used in the LTP method.
The filters were treated with 1% lime suspension and when
they were dried, exposure was made. Two or three LTP were
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
21
placed in the air screen at six spots which were located in the
different distances and directions from the source of pollution.
The variation coefficient of the values obtained from within
the premises of the factory was 22.3%. The variation coeffi-
cients of values in the polluted area outside of the factory
were 3.8 - 8.9% and the average of them of 8.7%. As for the
relationship between the exposure duration of LTP and the ac-
cumulated amount of fluorine, decreased amounts were ob-
served on the eighth week. Any correlation was not seen
between the values obtained by the LTP method and the
fluorine amount in soluble components by the dust fall
method.
40705
Desbaumes, Paul, Eric Desbaumes, and Claude Imhoff
USE OF A FLUIDIZED SILICAGEL POWDER BED AB-
SORBER FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF FLUORINE EMIS-
SIONS AND IMMISSIONS. (Emploi d un absorbeur a lit
fluidise de poudre de gel de silice pour la mesure des emis-
sions et immissions de fluor). Text in French. Pollut. Atmos.
(Paris), 14(53):56-61, Jan.-March 1972. 6 refs.
A portable fluidized silicagel powder bed absorber, developed
for the sampling of fluorine emissions, was tested in an artifi-
cial atmosphere and in an aluminum plant area, and compared
to conventional alkaline absorbers. The silicagel powder was
impregnated with 3% alcoholic solution of triethanolamine,
and then dried at 100 C. The sampling rate applied was 2
1/min. A comparative test of three different techniques for the
extraction of the fluoride from the silicagel (maceration,
maceration with simultaneous agitation, and elution) revealed
the superiority of the latter method which had a maximum ef-
ficiency of 99%, depending on the amount of hot water used.
Tests with different hydrofluoric acid concentrations revealed
a slight decrease (below 99%) in the absorbing capacity of the
fluidized silicagel bed absorber for concentrations exceeding 5
mg of F/cu m. The fluorine determination in samples from an
aluminum plant area was made by means of the Belcher-West-
Sulzbcrger method, using alizarine complexion and a sodium
hydroxide solution as standard solutions.
41064
Boyev, I. Ya., Ye. G. Levkov, V. A. Limanskiy, V. P.
Bugayev, and A. S. Levkova
SAMPLING, SEPARATION AND FLUORINE DETERMINA-
TION TECHNIQUES IN ALUMINUM MANUFACTURING
PLANT-PRODUCED ELECTROLYSIS DUSTS. (Metodika ot-
bora prob, otdeleniya i opredeleniya flora v elektroliznykh py-
lyakh alyuminiyevogo proizvodstva). Text in Russian.
Zavodsk. Lab. (Moscow), 38(3):278-281, 1972. 3 refs.
Various filter materials were tested and optimum conditions of
fluorine separation and determination were determined. The
dust samples were collected with a 0.074-micron filter made of
carbon fibers. The retention for finely dispersed dust was
above 99%. Preliminary extraction of hydrocarbons by
benzene or trichloroethylene was followed by high-efficiency
hydropyrolytic separation in the presence of vanadium pentox-
ide as catalyst. The optimum conditions for the above
procedure were a maximum temperature of 1100 C in the reac-
tion zone, 95 C in the steam generator, a vapor-air mixture
flow rate of 1.2 1/min, a dust sample-to-catalyst ratio of 1:1,
and a reaction time of 60 min. The hydrogen compounds of
fluorine that were obtained were absorbed in a basic solution.
A current measurement method, based on the Zirconium sub-
stitution of iron ions in their fluoride complexes, was used for
analysis. Titration with zirconium oxichloride was made after
hydrochloric acid was added. The recording of the equivalent
points provided high accuracy. A platinum electrode and satu-
rated calomel were applied as reference electrode.
43371
Hanna, Thomas R. and Michael J. Pilat
SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICULATES EMITTED FROM
A HORIZONTAL SPIKE SODERBERG ALUMINUM REDUC-
TION CELL. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 22(7):533-536,
July 1972. 4 refs. (Presented at the Pacific Northwest Interna-
tional Section-Air Pollution Control Association, Annual Meet-
ing, Nov. 1970, Paper 70-AP-12.)
Aerosol size distributions were measured in the air exhausted
from a horizontal spike Soderberg aluminum reduction cell at
the Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation plant in
Tacoma, Washington. The particle size distributions were mea-
sured with the University of Washington cascade impactor.
Particle mass concentrations and size distributions were found
to vary significantly with changes in the cell process opera-
tions. For a typical aerosol size distribution at the exit of the
cell hood the mass mean particle diameter was 5.5 micron and
the particle size standard geometric deviation was 25. (Author
abstract modified)
44689
Lemoine, R.
MONITORING METHODS FOR THE GASEOUS EF-
FLUENTS OF ALUMINUM PLANTS. Preprint, American
Inst. of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers
(AIME), New York, N. Y., 10p., 1972. (Presented at the
American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum En-
gineers Annual Meeting, New York, Feb. 26-March 4, 1971.)
The methods used by aluminum plants to monitor gas-
scrubbing processes are still rather empirical and the rigorous
distinction between gaseous and solid fluorides is not possible
due to the lack of precise knowledge of the adsorption and
desorption properties of the solids. It is very difficult to gel an
accurate measure of the gas flow, and thus to know the actual
amount of released fluorides. There is a pressing need for in-
ternational standardization, mainly hi sampling methods, to
allow the aluminum producers to make process comparisons.
These same difficulties exist for ambient air measurements of
gaseous and solid fluorides. The relative toxicities of the solid
fluorides are not well understood. Two general approaches
exist for measuring the atmospheric concentration of gaseous
fluorides. Automalic apparalus give punctual short-lerm data,
but this data requires further data processing and the equip-
ment is expensive. The inexpensive static methods in existence
yield abundant but inaccurate data. Sampling procedures are
discussed and special precautions for avoiding the common
pitfalls of fluoride determination are outlined.
-------
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
14066
Hluchan, E., J. Mayer, and E. Abel
AMBIENT POLLUTION FROM FLUORINE COMPOUNDS IN
THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF AN ALUMINUM FACTORY.
(Inquinamento ambientale da composti del fluoro nelle
vicinanze di una fabbrica di alluminio). Text in Italian. Med.
Lavoro (Milan), 59(5):370-375, 1968.
Measurements conducted from 19S8 to 1965 show that fluoride
emissions from an aluminum factory near Bratislava ranged
from 3.6 to 4.2 tons per day. In the zone surrounding the fac-
tory, the total concentration of fluoride in the air averaged
0.14 mg/cu m, five times the amount of the maximum allowa-
ble concentration. The gaseous fluorides HF and SiF4 con-
stituted 39% of the total fluorides in this area, and the panicu-
late fluorides CaF2, NaF, and A1F3 about 61%. At a distance
of about 8 to 9 km, the gaseous forms were 85% of the total,
and the participates only 15%. Values up to 135 mg F/100 g
were found in the soil near the factory. Grass in this area had
a fluorine content as high as 135 mg/100 g dry weight. Drink-
ing water in the area was relatively unaffected, but the pollu-
tion of marsh and stagnant waters averaged 10.9 mg/liter. The
high environmental F concentrations were reflected in animals:
ashes from the bones of sparrows and frogs caught near the
factory contained, respectively, from 101.3 to 352.7 and 85.2 to
788 mg/100 g. The following measures are proposed to protect
the health of the inhabitants of the region: limitations on the
food products grown even in the least contaminated zones and
on the number of persons allowed to settle in the area, clinical
control of the exposed population, and a plan of development
for the entire region. These measures should be implemented
by technological steps to reduce the pollution caused by the
factory.
27254
Kumamoto Prefectural Government (Japan), Public Nuisance
Section
REPORT OF INVESTIGATION OF THE AIR AND NOISES.
(V): JANUARY, 1969 - MARCH, 1970. (Taiki, soon chosa
hokoku sho. Dai V ho. (Showa 44 nen 1 gatsu - Showa 45 nen
3 gatsu)). Text in Japanese. 212p., May 1970.
Investigations of air pollution, meteorology, and environmental
pollution were carried out at Kumamoto, Arao, Udo, Yat-
sushiro, Taura-cho, and Minamata of Kumamoto Prefecture
from January 1969 to March 1970; the results are reported.
The average annual amounts of dust fall are within a 5.15
12.34 t/sq km/month level (by the deposit gauge method) and it
is decreasing in all cities with every year. Among the contents
of dust fall nitrate (-) was frequent in the cities where they use
coal for fuel and sulfate (-2), chlorine (-), and calcium (+2) in
the cities where there were carbide or chemical factories. Con-
centrations of sulfur dioxide (by the PbO2 method) are in-
creasing in all cities; the highest value of the average annual
concentrations was 0.94 mg/100 sq cm/day at Arao and the
lowest was 0.23 mg/100 sq cm/day at Taura There was about
33% increase in general compared with those of the previous
year. The results of automatic measurements of SO2 and float-
ing dust at Arao and Yatsushiro revealed that the average an-
nual values were 2.60 ppm at Arao and 0.86 ppm at Yat-
sushiro; the average annual index of the degree of pollution by
floating dus was 12.5% and 4.29%, respectively. Measurement
of concentration of fluorine in falling dust and in indicator
plants has been carried out since June 1969 in order to per-
form examinations before the establishment of a factory for
electrolysis of aluminum at Arao. Carbon monoxide, nitric ox-
ide, nitrogen dioxide, and the amount of floating dust and its
contents were measured in order to investigate the effects of
automobile traffic volume and automobile exhaust gases.
33309
Lindberg, Walter
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN NORWAY.
National Society for Clean Air, London (England), Intern.
Clean Air Conf. Proc., London, England, 1959, p. 21-22. 4
refs. (Oct. 20-23.)
In the past, air pollution in Norway was not a serious problem
and only caused rare effects on human health, such as man-
ganese pneumonias. Recently, air pollution from the aluminum
industry has led to grass pollution with fluorides and resulting
fluorosis in cattle. Public interest has led to the creation of a
committee on air pollution to investigate prevention and to
recommend abatement laws and regulations. Although air pol-
lution in Norway is not as serious as in other countries, it is a
considerable nuisance. The most serious problems are caused
by the location of industry in deep valleys on the coast. A ust
fall survey in Oslo showed 20 to 55 per cent of the average
values found in London. The amount of dust and ash
decreased in December and increased in April, when the snow
melted, leaving the sand and gravel exposed. Since 1958, air
pollution has been measured at 11 sites by smoke filters
(reflectometer readings), volumetric sulfur dioxide apparatus
(titration of total acidity following absorption in peroxide solu-
tion), and tarry matter fluorescence measurements. The pollu-
tion varied markedly in the winter due to high fuel consump-
tion for domestic heating. Also, pollutants accumulated during
the winter in calm weather and with inverse vertical tempera-
ture gradient. The use of hydroelectric power should reduce
pollution.
37823
Voytov, V. T.
EVALUATION OF GASEOUS CONTAMINATION IN THE
ELECTROLYSIS SHOPS OF THE BRATSK ALUMINUM
PLANT. (Operativnaya otsenka zagazovannosti tsekha elek-
troliza na BrAZe). Text in Russian. Tsventn. Metal., no. 10:45-
47, Oct. 1971.
The quality of the technological equipment was studied, and
the contributions of human carelessness to air pollution were
analyzed. Based on the weekly surveys of electrolyzers', bur-
ners, and exhaust fans, contribution indices were established
for the different equipment and stages of technology. The
number of non-hermetic electrolyzers was regularly deter-
mined. As a result of the steps taken, the number on non-her-
metic electrolyzers dropped from 32.3% in Sept. 1969 to 15%
-------
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
23
in Feb. 1970. General improvement in air quality was reached,
with concentrations below the threshold. Hydrofluoric acid
and fluoride concentrations of 0.27 mg/cu m and 0.42 mg/cu
m, respectively, were measured in Feb. 1970, against the max-
imum allowable values of 0.8 mg/cu m and 1 mg/cu m. In addi-
tion, drastic drop in the volume of atmospheric emissions was
obtained.
39182
Bourbon, P.
ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS POSED BY POLLUTION BY
FLUORINE COMPOUNDS. (Probleme analytique du dosage
de 1 ion fluor). Text in French. National Society for Clean Air,
London (England), Intern. Clean Air Congr. Proc., London,
England, 1966, p. 174-176. (Oct. 4-7, Paper VI/6.)
Analytical problems from fluoride pollution are discussed; a
critical analysis of air sampling methods is made. Discussions
are illustrated by determinations carried out at 20 sampling lo-
cations situated at a 20 km radius around an aluminum factory
of one of the Pyrenean valleys in France. Sampling methods
focus the utilization of an impinger which is a modification of
the Greenberg-Smith device and which allows accumulation of
fluorine ions 70 ml of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solutions with
no dust or hydrogen fluoride interference. Determinations of F
ion were made monthly. Fluorine containing dusts were deter-
mined at a 1.0 km radius around the factory whereby separa-
tion from hydrogen fluoride was carried out with Millipore fil-
ters (0.8 micron pores). These filters were utilized when sam-
pling was made in dry weather conditions and heated air flows
(80 C) were bubbled into NaOH- containing impingers. The
amounts of HF carried along did not exceed 5.0% of the total
amount of fluorine thus trapped. Additional information was
obtained from F ion determinations carried out on rain water
samples at the 20 pluviometer network installed at a 10 km
radius around the factory. Determinations made once monthly
according to the Spanos-Zirconium method showed only the
presence of ionisable fluorine in the rain water. Of the
thoroughly described sample preparation and analytical
methods the Lanthane-Alizarine-complexone specrophotomet-
ric procedure was the best one for below 10 micrograms F ion
in 50 ml aliquots. Average values (from 100 samples) showed
F ion from hf to be 57% and F ion from dust to constitute
47%. The dust composition included coke, tar, aluminum triox-
ide (50-60% of the dust weight), sodium carbonate and sodium
sulfate (traces), and fluorine compounds. Fluorine pollution
ranged from 0-3.0 micrograms/cu m referred to as F ion.
Amounts below the 1.0 micrograms/cu m level were the most
frequent. Extreme values of 10-20 micrograms/cu m were
found incidentally in the immediate vicinity of the plant under
inversions.
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24
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
15604
Bovay, E. and A. Bolay
DISPERSION OF FLUORINATED GASES IN THE CENTRAL
VALLEY. (La dispersion des gaz flucres cans le Valais cen-
tral). Text in French. Agr. Romande. Ser. A, 4(5):33-36, 1965.
The movement of air masses in the Rhone Valley, based on
topography, have a considerable effect on the location and the
amount of fluoride pollution from the aluminum plants in the
area. A map of the Rhone Valley indicates that the area of
greatest pollution seems to be oh the south side of the valley
near the town of Martigny. Fluoride levels were determined in
plants at verying distances from the source of pollution. In
general, plants in the Martigny area seemed to have the
highest fluorine content; the highest fluorine samples were
from trunks of poplar trees in the Martigny area. High levels
were also recorded in pear trees, potatoes, and apricots in the
same area.
16567
Martin, J. F. and F. Jacquard
INFLUENCE OF FACTORY SMOKE ON LICHEN DIS-
TRIBUTION IN THE ROMANCHE VALLEY (ISERE). (In-
fluence des fumees d'usines sur la distributi des lichens dans
la vallee de la Romanche (Isere)). Text in French. Pollut. At-
mos. (Paris), 10(38):95-99, April-June 1968. 15 refs.
Four manufacturing plants produce pollutants in the
Romanche Valley, between Le Roure-d'Oisans and Vizille;
one produces hydrogen fluoride and three produce particulate
matter. The plant farthest down the valley produces calcium
carbonate and gives off smoke, the solid matter of which con-
sists of 50% calcium oxide and oxides of magnesium, silicon,
iron, aluminum, and carbon. The second and fourth factories
produce ferro-alloys and calcium carbonate and have similar
pollutants. The third factory is an aluminum plant and
produces fumes of hydrogen fluoride and other fluorides.
Micrometeorological studies showed that the direction of the
smoke was usually up-valley, with local and minor variations.
The pH of the snow fall in the region of the factories averaged
about 10, with values of 11.2 and 12.2 registered during
February 1965 and December 1966. The pH of the rain
averaged 10, and the pH of the bark of trees growing near the
factories was also alkaline. Bark from similar trees near
Grenoble had an. acid pH. Rock surfaces in the area were
covered with a gray-blue patina. Three zones of lichen growth
were identified: poor growth of toxitolerant and coniophile
lichens, up to approximately 500 meters from the factories; a
transition zone; and a 'normal' zone, the boundaries of which
varied within wide limits, but were approximately 1 km from
the factory. Growth in the third zone corresponded to that in
non-polluted areas. A list of lichen species identified is
presented.
37639
Ivos, J., Hania Ciszek, A. Rezek, and Lj. Marjanovic
FLUORINE WASTE GASES IN THE SURROUNDING AT-
MOSPHERE OF YUGOSLAV FACTORIES. (Otpadni plinovi
fluora u okolisnoj atmosferi nasih tvornica). Text in Serbo-
Croatian. Vet. Arh., 40(3-4):61-77, 1970. 20 refs.
The dispersion of fluorides was investigated in three areas of
Yugoslavia jeopardized by fluorosis: Kidricevo, Lozovac, and
Razine. Fluorides were measured in both aluminum electroly-
sis rooms and the open atmosphere to determine the direction
and extent of their dispersion. The annual average levels in the
electrolysis rooms were 4.6 mg/cu m at Kidricevo; 5.6 mg/cu
m at Lozovac; and 3.6 mg/cu m at Razine. In the Ptuj field
(Kidricevo), the average annual amount of fluoride in
precipitation was 0.4 mg/1 at six locations representing various
directions and distances from the source of contamination.
The annual average amount of fluorides for all six locations
was 1.04-0.14 mg/1. The fluoride-containing waste gases moved
in the direction of prevailing winds to a definite distance, after
which the concentrations decreased.
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25
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
39861
Seligman, Richard
ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION BY ELECTROLYSIS: A NOTE
ON THE MECHANISM OF THE REACTION. J. Inst. Metals,
17(1):141-144, 1917. 3 refs. (Presented at the Institute of
Metals, Annual Meeting, London, England, March 21, 1917.)
The conventional formula for the production of aluminum by
electrolysis of a fused mixture of cryolite and alumina is A1203
+ 3C equals 3CO + A12. Experiments in an electric furnace
indicate that this formula, which assumes a carbon consump-
tion very near to theoretical, is not correct. A carbon con-
sumption well below the theoretical was attained and the fact
that carbon monoxide is not necessarily the sole gaseous
product of the reaction was demonstrated. Whether oxygen,
carbon dioxide, or carbon monoxide result from the reaction
depends on such factors as temperature, current density,
physical properties of the anode, and the rapidity with which
the gases are removed from contact with the anode.
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26
G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
06241
P. Macuch, G. Balazova, L. Bartosova, E. Hluchan, J.
Ambrus, J. Janovicova, and V. Kirilcukova
HYGIENIC ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF NOXIOUS
FACTORS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND STATE OF
HEALTH OF THE POPULATION IN THE VICINITY OF AN
ALUMINIUM PLANT. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immu-
nol. (Prague) 7, 389-403 (1963).
The state of health of all children aged 6-14 years living for at
least six years in the fall-out area of the aluminum works was
studied. Special attention was paid in their history and in ob-
jective examination to the signs described in the literature as
the manifestations of the action of fluorine compounds on the
human organism, i.e. the haemoglobin percentage, the erythro-
cyte and leucocyte count and the differential white cell count.
Fluoride excretion was controlled in a single urine sample col-
lected over a period of four hours. Bone radiograms were
made of the lumbar spine, together with the hip joint, and of
the shoulder and arm, together with the elbow. In all the chil-
dren the teeth were also examined. The average haemoglobin
values among children in the given age group (6-14 years) in
the fall-out area of the aluminium plant were significantly
lower than in the controls. Average erythrocyte values were
significantly higher. Average leucocyte values in children aged
6-8 in the fall-out area were higher than in the controls. In the
higher age groups the situation was reversed. In the dif-
ferential white cell count no significant differences were found
between average granulocyte values. The significant difference
between the amount of haemoglobin in children in the fall-out
area of the aluminium plant and in the control group shows
that the lower haemoglobin findings in the affected community
could be attributed to the less favourable environmental condi-
tions resulting from its proximity to the aluminium plant. The
experiences and the individual results obtained from these
analyses are used as a basis for suggestions for essential
health measures in concrete situations and for the formulation
of principles of preventive hygienic protection when projecting
and selecting the site of large industrial plants.
I0203T
Balazova, G., L. Balazovjechova, and V. Kirilcukova
DEPTH ANALYSIS OF THE HEALTH OF CHILDREN LIV-
ING IN THE VICINITY OF ALUMINUM WORKS. (Hlbkovy
rozbor zdravotneho stavu deli v sidlis- kac z okolia zavodu na
vyrobu hlinika.) Translated from Slovak. Cesk. Hyg., 5(10):573-
579, 1960. 20 refs.
Children living in a village in the vicinity of an aluminum plant
and in u control village were examined for hemoglobin per-
centage, erythrocyte and leucocyte counts, differentiation of
the blood coun amount of fluorides eliminated in urine, and
general state of healt In the case of the children of the af-
fected village radiographs we also taken of the bones, and the
children's teeth were examined. I the affected village the
average percentage of hemoglobin was 62.85 in the 6-8-year-
old group and 69.53 in the 9-11-year-old group as compared to
70.95 and 72.25 respectively in the control village. T average
erythrocyte count in children of the affected village was
3,958,000 in the 6-8-year- old group and 4,208,000 in the 9-11-
year old group as compared to 3,741,000 and 3,783,000 respec-
tively in th control village. No substantial differences were
found in the valu of segmented and unsegmented neutrophiles,
eosinophiles, basophiles and the lymphocyte and monocyte
counts between children of the affected village and the control
village. The average level of fluorides eliminated in urine was
0.91 mg/l in children of the affected village as compared to
0.48 mg/l in those of the control village. Evaluation of subjec-
tive complaints and objective symptom shows no perceptible
differences between children of the affected village and those
of the control village. Radiographs of bones for children of the
affected village showed no changes which could be suggestive
of pathological and significant fluorosis. The teeth of the chil-
dren from the affected village also showed no traces of fluori-
sis as yet. (Authors' summary)
10333
M. C. Sadilova, K. P. Seliankina O. K. Shturkina
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF CONCENTRATIONS
OF HYDROGEN FLUORIDE DETECTED IN THE AMBIENT
AIR. ((Zksperimentalnaya otsenka kontsentratsii ftorictogo
vodoroda, obnaruzhivaemkh v atmosfernom vozdukhe.)) Text
in Russian. Vrachebnoe Delo No. 1:89-91, Jan. 1967. 4 refs.
The aluminum, cryolite, superphosphate and other industries
which use fluorine compounds all emit NF, NaF, AIF3, and
Na3AIF6 into the air. Air containing fluroine levels of 0.20,
0.10 or even 0.03 mg/cu m has a noxious effect, particularly on
children, and raises their general susceptibility to illnesses, at-
tacks their breathing system, and destroys tooth enamel. White
male mice, two months old, were exposed to different levels
of hydrogen fluoride around the clock for five months, except
for a four-week recess. Concentrations of the 0.10, 0.03 and
0.01 mg/cu m level were administered to three groups of
animals. The 0.10 concentration was found to produce a
profound, generally toxic, effect. Less intense but still clearly
defined, were damages caused by the 0.03 concentration. The
0.01 concentration had no detrimental effect. Data from these
experiments are thought to be conclusive as to the dangers to
children who reside within industrial pollution zones.
11482
Kyartovkina, L. K.,R. M. Kazanskaya.A. E. Kantemirova, A.
S. Kryufcov.N. P. Kuleva.E. A. Meerson, and O. I.
Tarannikova
EFFECT OF DISCHARGES FROM AN ALUMINUM WORKS
ON HEALTH OF CHILDREN. ((Vliyanie uybrosov alyu-
minievogo zavoda na zdorov'e detei.)) Hyg. Sanit. (English
translation of: Gigiena i Sanit.), 33(4-6):106-108, April-June
1968. «2)) refs. CFSTI: TT 68-50449/2 , ;
The population's living conditions and the state of health of
the children living in settlements situated within a radius of
500 to 1,000 m from the aluminum works were studied. The
population were questioned by means of a special standard
questionnaire 3 times in three years. The inhabitants voiced
numerous complaints about the impossibility of airing their
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G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
27
apartments and the obnoxious odrr of the air which caused
headaches, cough and nausea. An analysis of medical statistics
revealed that the most common causes for the children's visits
to the physicians were upper respiratory infections, bronchitis,
pneumonia, laryngitis and Iracheitis. The highest incidence of
respiratory diseases occurred among the youngest children (up
to 4 years old) who had been born and had always lived close
to the aluminum works, being 11.2 times higher than in the
control group. The incidence of respiratory diseases among the
children aged 4-5, who were born I year before the opening of
the aluminum works was 3.7 times higher than in the control
group; it was 2.7 times higher at the age of 5-6; 2.2 times
higher at the age of 6-8; 1.3 times higher at the age of 8-9; 1.8
times higher at the age of 9-10; 2.8 times higher at the age of
10-11; and double at the age of 11-12. There was a distinct
relationship between the incidence of respiratory diseases and
age. According to our findings, these discharges were most in-
jurious in the youngest age group (up to 4 years). The effects
of the industrial discharges from the aluminum works on the
children's health were investigated among 113 creche children,
186 preschool children and ISO schoolchildren. Creche children
residing in the settlement exposed to pollution displayed a
statistically significant though not very large increase in their
RBC (P less than 0.01). Hemoglobin concentrations were prac-
tically identical in summer, but in winter the level was signifi-
cantly lower in the children exposed to the discharges (62 + or
- 0.69 and 68.8 + or - 0.9). The WBC was practically the same
in both groups at all seasons. The eosinophil counts were
identical in summer but significantly higher in winter in the
children exposed to pollution (P less than 0.02). Monocyte and
lymphocyte counts as well as the ESR were practically the
same in both groups. Various other findings are presented.
13215
Colombini, M., C. Mauri, R. Olivo, and G. Vivoli
EXPERIMENTS ON RABBITS FED FORAGE GROWN NEAR
AN ALUMINUM FACTORY. Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern.
Soc. Fluoride Res., 2(i):49-54, Jan. 1969. 2 rets.
Skin lesions resembling bruises were exhibited by individuals
living near an aluminum factory in Chizzola, Italy. To study
the etiology and pathogenesis of this phenomenon, male albino
rabbits were fed forage grown near the factory and forage ar-
tificially contaminated by substances collected from the facto-
ry's purification system. At regular intervals, serum alkaline
phosphatase, serum calcium, serum phosphate, leucocyte al-
kaline phosphatase, and nonspecific esterases were deter-
mined. After about five months, the animals were killed and
fragments of their tibia were analyzed for fluoride. The serum
alkaline phosphatase, calcium, and phosphorous levels did not
show any significant changes in the treated animals. A
decrease in the leucocyte alkaline phosphatase activity of posi-
tive cells was observed. Nonspecific esterases were present in
very small quantities in pseudo-eosinophils, in traces in
lymphocytes, and in slightly greater amounts in monocytes.
The fluoride content of the bones of treated rabbits was al-
most twice as high as that of control rabbits, who received
forage from unconlaminatcd areas. (Author summary
modified)
13700
Balazova, G., P. Macuch, and A. Rippel
EFFECTS OF FLUORINE EMISSIONS ON THE LIVING OR-
GANISM. Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc. Fluoride Res.,
2(l):33-36, Jan. 1969.
Health parameters were measured in children living in an area
near an aluminum factory. In the area near the factory, exces-
sively high F levels were found in the air and in dust. This fact
was reflected in high F levels of agricultural products. High F
levels were noted in urine, hair, nails, and teeth in the child
population residing in the immediate vicinity of the factory. In
children living in the exposed area since birth, hemoglobin
values were lower and erythrocyte values were higher than in
a control area. The average daily total F intake was calculated
at 2.15 mg for the exposed children as compared with about 1
mg in the controls. (Author summary modified)
13837
Steinegger, S.
ENDEMIC SKIN LESIONS NEAR AN ALUMINUM FACTO-
RY. Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc. Fluoride Res., 2(1):37-
39, Jan. 1969. 6 refs.
Numerous cases of endemic skin lesions were encountered in
children living near Chizzola, Italy, and were attributed to air
pollution from a neighboring aluminum factory. The lesions,
consisting of grayish-brown to blue patches 1 to 2 cm in
diameter, are fleeting in character. After they fade, new ones
appear on other parts of the body. None can be identified
historically with any trauma. All are readily differentiated
from suffusion because their bluish color does not gradually
change to yellow during the healing stage. Between June 20
and September 1967, 72 cases were encountered in kindergar-
ten pupils. They occur less frequently in women. Up to S6p-
tember 1967, none had been encountered in men. When the
children were temporarily removed from the area, the lesions
cleared up promptly. Endemically, the lesions are confined to
the area where farmers have reported damage to livestock and
vegetation. This suggests that fumes or paniculate matter
emanating from the aluminum factory are responsible for the
condition.
14112
Balazova, G. and A. Rippel
A STUDY OF THE HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE PEOPLE
LIVING AROUND AN ALUMINUM FACTORY. (Studio sulle
condizioni di salute della popolazione abitante nelle vicinanze
di una fabrica di aUuminio). Text in Italian. Med. Lavoro
(Milan), 59(5):376-380, 1968. 4 refs.
The physical condition of children living in the area of an alu-
minum factory was studied. Ambient air around the factory
was heavily polluted by fluorine and high concentrations of
fluorine were present in the agricultural products of the region.
In the children examined, absorption of fluorine by digestive
and respiratory systems was approximately 2.15 mg/day. In
contrast to children living considerable distances from the fac-
tory, these children showed marked increases in the fluorine
content of their teeth, nails, hair, and urine. Clinical and
laboratory studies indicated a moderate decrease of
hemoglobin values and a slight increase of red blood cells
among the affected children.
14319
Cavagna, G., G. Locati, and L. Ambrosi
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN NEWBORN RATS AND MICE
ON THE SUPPOSED CAPILLARY-DAMAGING EFFECTS OF
FLUORINE AND FLUORINE-CONTAINING INDUSTRIAL
POLLUTANTS. Med. Lavoro (Milan), 60(4):267-273, 1969. 12
refs.
Bluish skin-spots occurring in women and children living in the
vicinity of a fluorine-emitting aluminum factory have been at-
tributed to a poorly understood capillary-damaging effect of
fluorine. To clarify this phenomenon, a study was carried out
-------
28
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
on rats born of mothers which were injected subcutaneously
for the whole pregnancy period with NaF and an extract of
dust emitted from the aluminum factory at a dose of 2 mg
fluorine per day. The total dose of fluorine given was 40-52
mg. No cutaneous lesions, or even an increased capillary
fragility of the skin, as proved with the suction cup test were
observed. In a second experiment, newborn rats were injected
subcutaneously with NaF and the dust extract at a dose of 0.2
mg fluorine per day in the first 10 days of life. Again no cu-
taneous lesions or increased capillary fragility of the skin were
observed. Studies on subacute toxicity were carried out in
female mice injected subcutaneously with NaF and with the
dust extract in a dose of 0.2 mg fluorine per day for 24 days.
No cutaneous lesions or capillary alterations as studied in
histologic preparations of the mesentery were observed.
(Author summary modified)
17642
Tomson, N. M., Z. V. Dubrovina, and E. N. Bondareva
SANITIZATION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTED BY AN
ALUMINUM PLANT DISCHARGES. U.S.S.R. Literature on
Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases, vol. 8:136-
140, 1963. (B. S. Levine, ed.) CFSTI: 63-11570
Air in the vicinity of a plant where aluminum oxide is elec-
trolyzed on carbon electrodes was analyzed for dust content.
fluorides, sulfur dioxide, and tars. Dust settling at 500 meters
from the plant accumulated to 63 g/sq m in 30 days; at 1000
meters, to 200 g/sq m; and at 2000 meters, to 50 g/sq m. Sulfur
dioxide concentrations of 6.0 mg/cu m in the plant's sanitary
clearance zone were 12 times in excess of the 0.03 mg/cu m al-
lowable limit and hydrogen fluorides were 68 times in excess
of the allowable 0.3 mg/cu m limit. At 2000 meters, the con-
centration of tarry substances was 100-200 mg/cu m. In
neighboring residences, sulfur dioxide concentrations were al-
most identical with those outdoors, while fluoride concentra-
tions were even greater. Forty-one percent of the patients
from the village where the plant was located had active tu-
berculosis or were carriers of tubercule bacilli. It is proposed
that the pollutant discharge be reduced by the use of tall
stacks, fluoride trapping devices, and more suitable electrodes.
19215
Tsunoda, Humio
THE INFLUENCE OF AIR POLLUTION BY FLUORIDE ON
THE HUMAN HEALTH. (PART 1). (Fukkabutsu niyoru
taikiosen to ningen no kenko (sono I)). Text in Japanese.
Kogai To Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 6(7):504-508, July 15,
1970.
Air pollution by fluorides has two main aspects: the fluorides
are extremely toxic for plants, parts per billion being critical
for most plants, and the fluorides are accumulated in plants.
Livestock feeding on them develop chronic fluorosis. To sur-
vey the air and environmental pollution caused by fluorides
around the large aluminum plant in Fukushima Prefecture, a
high volume air sampler was used. Within 1 km from the fac-
tory, 5.2-14.0 mg of fluorine per 1 cu m air was observed.
Secondly, a relative measurement by lime treated filter paper
technique was employed. The fluorine concentration in the
factory was 100 times that of the adjacent villages. A method
of airborne participates was used to monitor the fluorine con-
centration. In the factory premises, the particulate concentra-
tion was 20 times as dense as that in villages. The fluoride pol-
lution of the soil and subterranean water was also monitored.
Among vegetables and cereals cropped in the area, some of
the green vegetables showed 10 times more fluoride content
than in plants from other areas. The inhabitants of the area
take in 4.2 mg fluorine daily, which is above the daily limit of
3.5 mg of an average Japanese. After the physical check-up of
the inhabitants, dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, and crip-
pling fluorosis were found.
19880
Balazova, G. and A. Rippel
A STUDY OF HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE POPULA-
TION LIVING IN THE VICINITY OF AN ALUMINUM FAC-
TORY. (Studio sulle condizioni di salute della popolazione
abitante nelle vicinanze di una fabbrica di alluminio). Med.
Lavoro (Milan), 59(5):376-380, 1968. 4 refs. Translated from
Italian. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 6p., Jan. 27,
1970.
The health conditions of children living near an aluminum fac-
tory were studied. The ambient pollution from fluorine emitted
by the factory was very high. High fluorine values were found
in the agricultural products of the areas near the factory. In
the children examined, the absorption of fluorine by the
digestive and respiratory systems was approximately 2.15
mg/day. The children showed a marked increase in the fluorine
content in their teeth, hair, nails, and urine when compared
with children living in a non-polluted area. Clinical and labora-
tory studies revealed a moderate decrease in hemoglobin
values and an increase in the red blood cell count in children
exposed to a high absorption of fluorine. When some of the
children were transferred to a non-polluted zone, the urinary
excretion of fluorine decreased by 40% after one month. It
may, therefore, be assumed that the accumulation of fluorine
is reversible. (Author summary modified)
23003
Tsunoda, Fumio
THE INFLUENCE OF AIR POLLUTION BY FLUORIDE ON
HUMAN HEALTH. (Fukkabutsu ni yoru taiki osen to ningen
no kenko). Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution
Control), 6(8):577-582, Aug. 15, 1970. 25 refs.
The health condition of employees under the influence of at-
mospheri fluoride in an aluminum refinery and the health con-
dition of neighboring residents under the influence of con-
taminated air from the refinery were surveyed from the view-
point of epidemiology and clinical toxicology. The people liv-
ing in the fluoride-bearing atmosphere did not have clear sub-
jective symtoms as to skin and mucous troubles when the
fluoride level was between 1.0 and 1.9 ppm. This is quite con-
trary to the effects of other stimulative gaseous substances
like SO2 which is particularly irritating to olfactory organs and
skin. Fluoride concentration between 1.0 and 1.9 ppm may
cause light obstructive trouble to the pulmonary function but
not seriously. The investigation of atmospheric Ht variation
and of both tooth spot trouble and osteomalacia, which are
representative of chronic fluoride poisoning, has indicated that
daily exposure to fluoride-bearing air did not provide any con-
clusive evidence as to its effect on health as long as the con-
centration remains between 1.0 and 1.9 ppm. Some dubious
aspect in view of clinical loxiology are presented, however. As
in the case of the influence of excessive fluoride intake
through agricultural products, the direct effect of atmospheric
fluoride on respiratory organs is a subject still to be studied.
26136
Tauda, F.
PRESENT SITUATION AND OUTLOOK OF FLUORIDES
AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION TECHNOLOGY-TACK-
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G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
29
LING WITH ALUMINUM SMELTING POLLUTION. (Fuk-
kabutsu ni yoru taiki osen boshi gijutsu no genjo to tenbo
arumi seiren kogai ni torikumu). Text in Japanese. Kinzoku
(Metals) (Tokyo), 41(1):122-125, Jan. 1 and 15, 1971. 9 refs.
Sources of fluoride pollution and the effects of fluorides on
man and plants are reviewed. Aluminum electrolysis uses
cryolite which is 54% fluoride. Raw materials containing
fluorides are also used in the production of phosphate fertil-
izers and iron and steel. Raw materials containing smaller
amounts of fluorides are required for the production of glass
fibers, bricks, tiles, cement, and porcelain. Coal burned by
thermal power stations can be a problem since coals contain
20-295 ppm of fluorides, averaging 120 ppm. Fluorides affect
plants more than any other atmospheric pollutant, accumulat-
ing in a large number of species in polluted areas. Fluorides
affect man in two ways, directly through air pollution or in-
directly through contaminated vegetation. They are present in
considerable amounts in both green vegetables and rice. Symp-
toms of chronic fluoride poisoning in man are abnormal
hardening of bones and spots on teeth. Cases of chronic
poisoning have appeared among workers exposed to cryolite
dust and among individuals whose drinking water contains
more than 6 ppm fluorides Existing technology, the use of
scrubbers for controlling fluoride emissions from aluminum
electrolysis or electric furnaces, is effective only with concen-
trations up to 1 ppm. New production technologies should be
developed which dispense with the use of raw materials con-
taining fluorides.
26846
Tsunoda, Fumio
NEW ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS: SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO FLUORIDES. (Taiki osen mondai no arata
naich: kyokumen - fukkabutsu ni yoru baai o rei ni). Text in
Japanese. Igaku No Ayumi (Progr. Med.), 70(13):621-623, Sept.
1969. 2 refs.
Fluorine in air pollution mainly originates from aluminum
refineries, phosphate fertilizer factories, and ceramic indus-
tries. Fluorides have a strong toxicity against plants and tend
to become accumulated in them. For example, in the western
mountain areas of Fukushima Prefecture, silk production has
been destroyed due to damages to mulberry trees since the
establishment of an aluminum refinery plant in the area. The
process involves the use of 3NaF-AlF3. An epidemiological in-
vestigation was conducted on pollution by fluorides, and the
subjects chosen for this purpose were 35 to 54- year old farm
workers exposed for a long time to hig concentrations of
fluorides in air. The items examined were the determination of
fluorine in urine, pulmonary function, existence of effects on
teeth, and hardening of bones. Although it will take a long
time to get any results from the investigation, it is also neces-
sary to evaluate the effects of fluoride pollution in water, soil,
and food.
28754
Tsuji, Yoshihito and H. Tsunoda
AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEY ON THE HUMAN EF-
FECTS OF FLUORIDE AIR POLLUTION IN KITAKATA,
FUKUSHIMA PREF. IN JAPAN. (Fukkabutsu ni yoru taiki
osen no seitai ni oyobosu eikyo ni tsuite no ekigaku chosa.
Kitakata-shi no baai). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J.
Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 5(1): 145, 1970. (Proceedings of the
Japan Society of Air Pollution, Annual Meeting, llth, 1970.)
An epidemiological study was conducted on the relationship
between contamination of air by fluorides emitted from an alu-
minum refining factory and the health of adults permanently
residing in the area. The subjects were residents, aged 35-64
yrs, in the polluted village and of a control village. Subjective
symptoms of fluoride poisoning, bone x-rays, cardiac and pul-
monary functions, blood characteristics, and fluoride content
of urine were studied. 'Discomfort' was obviously more
frequent among men and women of the polluted area, but
there was little difference between the two villages with
respect to irritation of skin and eyes and pain in the joints.
Results of pulmonary and cardiac function tests were also
similar. Bone x-rays showed that osteosclerosis was relatively
more frequent in the polluted area only for knee joints. As far
as blood characteristics were concerned, there were no abnor-
mal findings in either village. Urine fluoride levels were higher
among men in the polluted area, but the concentrations were
ion concentrations and the measurements were made only over
a short period. Thus no conclusive statements could be made
as to the effects of fluorine on the urine of the residents.
31319
Schlipkoeter, H. W. and R. Dolgner
HEALTH PERILS DUE TO AIR POLLUTION. (Gesundheit-
sgefaehrdung durch Verunreinigung der Luft). Text in German.
Atomwirtschaft, 16(6):288-293, June 1971. (Presented at the
Reaktortagung Kerntechnischen Gesellschaft im Deutschen
atomforum, Bonn, West Germany, March 30-April 2, 1971.)
Health risks through air pollution are discussed by means of
specific examples. Emissions emanating from large industries
are of limited importance only, since they effect merely the
closer vicinity of the source of emission. Furthermore, the
typical composition of pollutants is known for each of these
industries, and their health risks can be evaluated and corn-
batted individually. More reason for concern are emissions
originating ubiquitously from all processes of incineration.
Domestic heating, atuomobile engines, and a multiplicity of
smaller industries produce a variety of air pollutants such as
carbon monoxide, soot, polycyclic hydrocarbons, sulfur diox-
ide, lead compounds, and gaseous hydrochloric acid which
arises in the incineration of polyvinyl compounds. Lead from
automobile exhausts and fluorine compounds from aluminum
works can be absorbed by food plants, and thus indirectly
cause damage to the human organism. Sulfur dioxide and some
hydrocarbons can attack the human respiratory tract and the
lung. Dust in the air absorbs part of the ultraviolet radiation
from the sun which is vital for some biological functions, for
instance, the body development of children. Rickets, and af-
fliction of the growing bone structure, and retardation in the
growth of children can be ascribed to a lack of ultraviolet
radiation. Carbon monoxide, when inhaled, combines with the
hemoglobin of the blood to which it has a 200 time greater af-
finity than oxygen, and thus impedes the function of the blood
in transporting oxygen.
33766
Leloczky, Maria
STUDIES ON THE HEALTH-DAMAGING EFFECT OF THE
FLUORINE-POLLUTION OF THE AIR AROUND AN ALU-
MINUM FACTORY. (A levego fluorszennyezodesenek egesz-
seguyi hatasa az Inotai Aluminumkoho kornyeken vegzett viz-
sgalatok alapjain). Text in Hungarian. Egeszsegtudomany, vol.
15:74-80, July 1971. 21 refs.
Children in the housing estate Varpalota-lnota were examined
for the effects of fluorine pollution from a nearby aluminum
foundry. The presence of fluorine in the urine of the children
was demonstrated, in some cases at a level usually found in
the urine of the foundry workers. In a fluorine-free control
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30
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
area, no fluorine could be demonstrated in urine from chil-
dren. The hemoglobin level of the children at risk was low. A
causal relationship between these findings and the fluorine pol-
lution of air cannot be established because fluorine is only one
of the air pollutions around Varpalota-Inota. Further investiga-
tions are in progress. (Author abstract modified)
37282
Steinegger, S.
HISTOLOGY OF CHIZZOLA MUCULAE. Fluoride, S(l):14-
17, Jan. 1972. 4 refs.
In recent years, skin lesions resembling traumatic suffusions
have occurred in epidemic proportion in two Italian cities
located near aluminum and other fluoride-emitting factories:
Chizzola and Bolzano. Morphologically, the lesions are round
or oval in shape. They have reddish-brown color when they
originate but change to a bluish-brown prior to their disap-
pearance. As determined by skin biopsies on three children
with characteristic maculae, pericapillar lymphocytic infiltra-
tion and proliferation of endothelial cells of capillaries are the
principle pathological features of the lesions. These features
suggest a toxic inflammatory process.
37569
Balazova, G.
LONG TERM EFFECT OF FLUORIDE EMISSION UPON
CHILDREN. Fluoride, 4(2):85-88, April 1971. 4 refs.
(Presented at the International Society of Fluoride Research
Conference, Annual, 3rd, Vienna, Austria, March 22-25, 1970.)
Five years after an aluminum smelter began operation, an 8-
year study was initiated of the health status of 6- to 14-year-
old children living in close proximity to the smelter. In the
study area, the daily fluoride intake averaged 1.4 mg from
food, 0.4-0.7 mg from air, and 0.1-31 mg/I from water. In a
control area, the daily F(-) intake from food was 0.8 mg, and
that from air was negligible. No evidence of skeletal fluorosis
was found in the exposed children. Nevertheless, the average
hemoglobin decreased and the F(-) content of teeth, nails,
hair, and urine increased in the children. In teeth, fluoride
levels averaged 45.02 mg/100 g (450 ppm) of the original
weight compared to 15.71 mg in controls. Nail fluoride levels
were 20.9 mg/100 g (209 ppm) for the exposed children versus
14.3 mg/100 g (143 ppm) for the controls. The F(-) content of
hair in the affected area averaged 1.6 mg/100 g (16 ppm) com-
pared to 0.75 mg/100 g (7.5 ppm) in the control area. Urinary
fluoride values were 0.8 ppm and 0.4 ppm, respectively for the
exposed children and the controls. In the smelter area, the uri-
nary excretion of F(-) was lower in the 12-14 age group than in
children aged 6-11.
37684
Balazova, G.
THE EFFECTS OF A PROLONGED INDUSTRIAL AT-
MOSPHERIC POLLUTION FROM FLUORINE ON CHIL-
DREN S ORGANISM. (Der langfristige Einfluss von
Fluoremissionen auf den Kinderorganismus). Text in German.
Med. Lavoro (Milan), 62(4):202-207, April, 1971. 11 refs.
The effect of fluorinye emissions from an aluminum factory
on the health of children living near the plant was investigated
after 8 yrs of plant operation. The absorption of fluorine
through food and in the air was examined. The theoretical
daily intake of fluorine should be 1.4 mg food and 0.4-0.7 mg
from air; in the control zone, the absorption in food was 0.9
mg/day and was practically insignificant in air. The fluorine
content of drinkable water in both the control and exposed
areas was 0.1-0.3 mg/I. Although no signs of fluorosis de-
tected, the fluorine content of teeth, nails, hair and urine of
the children exposed to plant emissions was higher than that
of controls. The average values for the exposed and control
groups, respectively, were 45.02 and 15.7 mg/100 g in the
teeth; 20.9 and 14.3 mg/100 g in the nails; 1.6 and 0.7 mg/100 g
in the hair; and 0.8 and 0.4 mg/1 in the urine.
38942
Tsunoda, Fumio, Hiroko Kunida, and Kazuo Sasaki
A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION DUE TO
FLUORIDES ON HUMANS IN THE VICINITY OF MANU-
FACTURING FACTORY (1). (Arumi kojo shuhen ni okeru
fukkabutsu ni yoru taikiosen no seitai ni oyobosu eikyo ni kan-
suru chosa kenkyu (1)). Text in Japanese. Kankyo Hoken Re-
porto (Environ. Health Rept.), no 8:41-51 Jan. 1972.
Effects of fluorides on human and the results of epidemiologi-
cal studies carried out in Japan, were described. Schoolchil-
dren living near an aluminum factory in Japan were tested as
to subjective symptoms, mottled teeth, lung ventilation, x-ray
examination of the bones, and fluorine concentration in urine.
The incidence of malaise was remarkably higher in schoolchil-
dren from a polluted area. Many schoolchildren of the polluted
area showed mottled teeth and osteosclerosis of the knee joint.
The amount of fluorine taken into body/day was investigated
in fifty 30-60-year-old residents living around the same factory.
A farming area within 500 m under the lee of the main wind
was determined as a polluted area, and the other farming area
over 6 km from the factory was determined as the control. In-
vestigated items were staple foods intake and fluorine intake
from them, fluorine intake from subsidiary foods, fluorine in-
take from drinking water, and excretion of fluorine in urine.
Intake of fluorine from staple foods was significantly higher in
residents of the polluted area, and its mean value was 2.89
ppm, 40% higher than that of the control. Fluorine taken from
the air and the water by residents of the polluted area was
suspected to be 0.1 mg higher/day than that by residents of the
control area. Fluorine in urine was higher in residents of the
polluted area, but the relationship between the intake and
excretion of fluorine was not clarified.
39799
Cristiani, H. and R. Gautier
EXPERIMENTAL FLUORINE CACHEXIA: CHRONIC AC-
TION OF SODIUM FLUOROSILICATE IN SMALL DOSES.
(La cachexie fluorique experimentale: effets chroniques de
petites doses de fluosilicate de soude). Text in French. Compt.
Rend. Soc. Biol. (Paris), 1925:946-948, 1925.
The chronic action of small doses of sodium fluorosilicate was
studied on two groups of guinea pigs. The feed was powdered
with two different doses of fine sodium fluorosilicate, in both
cases. In the first group of 13 animals, treated with doses of 2
g, deaths occured, on an average, 35 days after the experiment
started, with maximum and minimum of 64 and 9 days, respec-
tively. The same symptoms were observed in all animals (loss
of weight, cachexia, bulbous lesions). Special symptoms oc-
curred a few days before death in some cases (stiffening of
the spinal column, respiration troubles, tremors, and convul-
sions). The second group of 10 animals was exposed to 1/10 of
the above dose. Death occurred, on an average, after 149
days, the maximum and minimum being 553 and 41 days. The
cachexia was preceded by loss of weight. Similar symptoms
and results were obtained with fluorine contaminated feed col-
lected near aluminum plants.
-------
G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
31
40527
Tsunoda, Fumio
FLUORIDES AS AIR POLLUTANTS. PREVENTIVE
TECHNOLOGY. POLLUTION IN ALUMINUM METALLUR-
GY. (Fukkabutsu ni yoru taiki osen boshi gijuts no genjo to
tenbo). Text in Japanese. Kinzoku (Metals) (Tokyo), 41(1):122-
125, Jan. 1971. 9 refs.
Fluorine in the air easily reacts to dust, soot, and other inor-
ganic matter. It is easily adsorbed by flue gas and reacts to
vapor in the air to form hydrogen fluoride. Even the smallest
amount of fluorides give a considerable damage to plants such
as pine, iris, and gladioli. Furthermore, fluorides are accumu-
lated in the plant leaves in polluted areas, and cause chronic
fluoride poisoning of silkworms, cattle, and other animals that
feed on such plants. The effects of fluorides in the air to
human health is not severe if the content is on the order of the
present 0.75 mg. However, fluoride can accumulate by con-
sumption of agricultural produce grown in the areas that are
polluted. There is a considerable amount of fluoride in rice
and vegetables. Accumulation of fluoride taken over along
period of time can cause chronic poisoning such as streaked
teeth or hardening of bones. In the past, mass poisoning oc-
curred in the area where natural ground water contained more
than 1 ppm of fluorine or in crystal mines. Streaked teeth ap-
pear only when a child takes in a large dosage of fluorine daily
between his infancy and 8 years old. Taking the same dosage
after maturation does not cause streaked teeth. However
hardening of bones will occur. Various methods of treating
fluoride containing gas are reviewed. Spray tower, venturi
scrubber, water jet scrubber, packed tower, and floating bed
scrubber are compared. The most efficient are venturi
scrubber and floating bed scrubber; but the operation is ex-
tremely costly.
40635
Cavagna G, and G. Bobbio
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EFFLUENTS FROM AN ALU-
MINUM PLANT. (Contribute allo studio delle charatteristiche
chimico-fisiche e degli effetti biologic! degli affluent! di una
fabbrica di alluminio). Text in Italian. Med. Lavoro (Milan),
61(2):69-101,Feb. 1970.
In 1932, three years after the Mori aluminum plant at Chizzola
in the Italian province of Trento went into operation, school
children observed round skin spots of a bluish color. By 1937,
786 such cases (the vast majority were children and women)
were examined at the local clinic. No symptoms of fluorosis
nor an elevated fluorine level in urine were observed. Bioptic
examination of the cutaneous lesions revealed a great variety
of different manifestations among them congestion of the deep
dermo-hypodermic blood vessels, perivasal edema, and
diapedesis of neutrophile granulocytes. After 1937, the
phenomenon disappeared only to reappear again in July 1965.
At Ziar and Hronom in Czechoslovakia another eluminum
plant emitting times the amount of fluorine did not produce
this phenomenon, even though fluorosis there was frequent.
Also the Rheinfelden aluminum plant in Germany whose
fluorine emission is 23 times that of the Mori plant did not
produce the above phenomenon. To relate the appearance of
the skin spots to fluorine emissions, dust from the Mori elec-
trofilter was fed and injected subcutaneously to rats, mice,
guinea pigs, and rabbits and the biological effects were studied
by examining their capillary fragility. None of the anatomical,
pathological, and biochemical parameters determined showed
any difference between experimental and control animals.
Thus, in the absence of any other explanation the phenomenon
must be ascribed to the toxic or toxic-allergic effect of
hydrofluoric acid and fluorides. Chemical analysis of the dust
disclosed the presence of many elements in trace quantities,
none of which could be relevant to the phenomenon.
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32
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
04368
H. Schnitt and E. Moser
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS OF THE FLUORINE
PROBLEM IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY. Weitere Ent-
wicklungen zum Fluorproblem in der Aluminium-Industrie. Z.
Erzbergbau Metallhuettenwesen 18, (3) 111-5, Mar. 1965. Ger.
This paper reports on the state of the arts concerning control
and scrubbing equipment for fluoride inside working premises
as well as directly from electrolytic furnaces. Far reaching
research has improved the already very effective methods and
installations. An optimal aerodynamic air ventilation is used
very effectively. Control of dust and gaseous components,
measurements of fluorine from the air inside of working
premises and from the exhaust are done separately. Measure-
ment and control is accomplished according to VDI-Richtlinien
(guides) No. 2093 and 2452. The success of reduction in
fluorine content with the installation of control equipment can
be measured by the reduction of the fluoride content in grass,
in the vicinity of the plant, which is used as cattle feed.
05871
K. T. Semrau
EMISSION OF FLUORIDES FROM INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES - A REVIEW. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 8,
(2) 92-108, Aug. 1958. (Presented at the 130th Meeting, Amer-
ican Chemical Society, Atlantic City, N.J., Sept. 1956.)
Fluorine contaminants may be emitted to the atmosphere by a
wide variety of industrial processes in which fluorine com-
pounds are manufactured, utilized as catalysts or fluxes, or
are present as impurities in the process materials. In some
cases, the possibility of contamination is obvious, and control
measures are generally provided as a matter of course. These
include manufacture of HF, use of HF as an alkylation
catalyst in the manufacture of motor fuels, and use of elemen-
tal fluorine. However, some of the most serious cases of pol-
lution have arisen from processes in which fluorine com-
pounds are used as fluxes or are present as impurities. In
some instances, the fluorine has been present in the process
material in a concentration so low that its presence was not
considered to constitute a potential problem, or perhaps was
not even recognized. Fluorosis in cattle, or damage to vegeta-
tion, ahs occurred primarily in the vicinity of plants manufac-
turing phosphate fertilizers, aluminum, brick, enamel frit, and
iron and steel. Maclntire considers that the most important
sources are probably the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers,
aluminum, and steel. Thermodynamic considerations and a
review of the literature indicate that the principal mechanism
of liberation of fluorides in high temperature processes is
pyrohydrolysis, which results in formation of HF. The prin-
cipal variables in pyrohydrolysis in most industrial processes
appear to be the equilibrium of the reaction, the water vapor
concentration in the process atmosphere, and the factors
determining mass transfer. Reaction rates appear to be
generally high, although little information is available. Signifi-
cant formation of SiF4 appears to be limited to cases involving
thermal decomposition of fluosilicates or reaction of fluorides
and silica with acids at relatively low temperatures. Formation
of volatile metal fluorides may be a significant mechanism of
liberation in some cases, but is generally of less importance
than pyrohydrolysis. By analogy to known cases, it should be
possible to make order-of-magnitude estimates of the probable
fluorine emissions from a given process if the quantity of
input fluorine is known or can be estimated.
09553
Crampton, E. W.
HUSBANDRY VERSUS FLUORIDE INGESTION AS FAC-
TORS IN UNSATISFACTORY DAIRY COW PER-
FORMANCE. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 18 (4):229-234,
April 1968. 7 refs.
During 1965 and 1966 a critical study was made of the quality,
condition, and performance of some 1000 dairy cows on 45
farms in four compass areas in the region centering on Arvida,
Quebec, where an Aluminum Smelting operation emits effluent
that results in a contamination of their forage of from about 10
to as high at times of 105 ppm fluoride. Cattle winter forage in
this area is consistently poor in quality, partly because of the
species that can be grown, but more importantly because of
adverse spring climatic conditions which in many year prevent
harvest of hay until the plants have fully matured and ripened.
Its effective feeding value, measured by recorded voluntary
consumption and in vivo digestibility, has been found to be
about half that of high quality legume hay. Commercially
prepared meal mixtures constitute the non -roughage portion
of the winter rations fed, and these by analysis have been
found individually to contain from 65 to 85 ppm fluoride con-
tributed chiefly, and probably exclusively, by some form of
rock phosphate included as a source of the necessary
phosphorus supplement. The factors statistically examined in
the study included: growthiness, size, fleshing, and milking
cows; the incidence and degree of dental fluorosis, and
skeleton accumulation of fluoride (by tail bone biopsy of 48
representative cows); the makeup and amounts of ration fed
daily during the winter farm feeding; and the feeding and
breeding management followed. The statistical procedures of
variance and covariance, and of correlation and partial regres-
sion were computer analyzed. The results indicated that in-
adequacy of energy intake traceable largely to the nutritional
nature of the hay fed was of significantly greater importance
than any of the other factors recorded. Fluorine ingestion car-
ried a statistical weight of only about 3 percent as a cause of
the performance of the cattle. By difference it appeared that
breeding and the generally unsatisfactory management of the
cows, especially the feeding practice, was about twice as im-
portant as feed allowances as causes of the poor quality and
performance of the cows. (The terms fluorine and fluorine and
the symbol F are used interchangeably in this paper. Levels of
fluorine are reported on the elemental basis.) (Author's ab-
stract)
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H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
33
13203
Lezovic, Ian
THE INFLUENCE OF FLUORINE COMPOUNDS ON THE
BIOLOGICAL LIFE NEAR AN ALUMINUM FACTORY.
Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc. Fluoride Res., 2(l):25-27,
Jan. 1969.
Quantitative and qualitative analyses of tissues, milk, and
teeth, along with fluoride level determination of bones, show
that animal and vegetable life near an aluminum factory is ad-
versely affected by fluoride emissions. The factory is located
in a mountain valley, within 300 meters of the nearest village.
All trees examined showed a marked increase in the fluoride
levels of their leaves or needles. The leaves of exposed fruit
trees were harder, glossier, more fragile than normal, and
covered with a whitish-gray crust. Similar changes occurred on
leaves of garden vegetables, especially cabbage, turnips, and
cucumbers. Fruit on trees was visibly deformed. The first
signs of damage to animal life occurred two years after the
factory went into operation, when about 95% of the goats and
cattle were afflicted with fluorosis. Swine, horses, and poultry
were less sensitive. The weight of the affected cattle gradually
decreased to the point of cachexia. Calcium and phosphorous
levels in the blood of the diseased animals averaged, respec-
tively, 7.5 and 5.06 mg%. As an indicator of damage, fluoride
deposits on snow were of the order of magnitude of 15 to
234.8 mg/sq m.
13838
Macuch, P., E. Hluchan, J. Mayer, and E. Able
AIR POLLUTION BY FLUORIDE COMPOUNDS NEAR AN
ALUMINUM FACTORY. Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc.
Fluoride Res., 2(l):28-32, Jan. 1969.
From 1958 to 1965, contamination near an aluminum factory in
the vicinity of Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, averaged 0.14 mg
F/cu cm. This average represents a fivefold increase above the
maximum allowable concentration of 0.03 mg F/cu cm. The
gaseous fluorides HF and SiF4 constitute 39% of the fluid
values in the air near the plant as compared to 61% solids,
namely CaF2, NaF, and Alf3. The proportion varies with the
distance from the factory: at an area 8 to 9 km from the facto-
ry, 15% solid and 85% gaseous F compounds were present in
the atmosphere. The relative increase in gaseous compounds is
apparently due to sedimentation of the solid F compounds
near the factory. Values of the yearly F fallout in the con-
taminated area were 44 to 7337 kg sq km. F values obtained
for soil in the area of the factory were 135 mg/100 g (1350).
This is 4 to 7 times higher than the usual F content of soil.
Grass near the factory contained F values as high as 133
mg/100 g dry substances. While running surface waters
showed only slightly increased F levels, standing surface
waters contained as much as 10.9 mg/1. Determination of F
fallout and of F content in plants and biological materials is
the best means of assessing long term effects of fluoride emis-
sions. Meteorological influences appear to be less significant in
evaluating F damage. The composition of soil, the presence of
F dust on plants, and the F content of flowing and ground
waters are of little use in determining F damage to human,
plant, and animal life.
14678
Hadjuk, Juraj
REACTION OF SOME RELATIVELY RESISTANT PLANTS
TO SUDDEN INCREASE IN THE CONCENTRATION OF
FLUORINE EXHALATIONS. (Reakcia niektorych relativne
rezistentnych rastlin na narazove zvysenie koncentracie
fluorovych exhalacnych splodin v okoli hlinikarne). Text in
Slovakian. Biologia, 21 (6):421-427, 1966. 19 refs.
Since 1961, annual studies have been conducted to determine
the effect of fluorine emissions from an aluminum factory in
the Hron valley, central Slovakia, on local vegetation. The
checkered pattern of phytopathological symptoms observable
on individual plants is the result of irregular diffusion and
dispersion of pollutants, unequal intake of nutrients, and
unequal physiological processes taking place in different parts
of a plant. Different degrees of resistance to pollution encoun-
tered among plants of the same species are explained by plant
location. In June 1964, large necrotic markings appeared on
plant leaves, and the growth of plants relatively resistant to
fluorine was inhibited. The spontaneous appearance of necro-
sis might have been provoked by a gradual accumulation of
fluorine in the soil surrounding plant roots, finally reaching
toxic levels, or by a sudden increase in fluorine concentrations
emitted to both air and soil. The period of spontaneous necro-
sis was found to coincide with a period when, because of
technical adjustments, factory emissions of fluorine were dou-
ble the average of previous years. It is concluded that plants
can serve as indicators of increased fluorine emissions result-
ing from modifications of electrolytic installations or break-
downs in operating procedures. (Author abstract modified)
18269
Trautwein, K., and Ch. Kopp
EFFECTS OF FLUORINE ON CATTLE UNDER EXPERI-
MENTAL AND PRACTICAL CONDITIONS. (Fluor-Wirkun-
gen beim Rind unter experimentellen und praktischen Bedin-
gungen.) Translated from German. Franklin Inst. Research
Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, Contract No.
CPA 22-69-30, Project No. C 2439, 31p., 1968. 16 refs.
In the period from 1961 to 1967 fluorosis was experimentally
induced in test cattle by feeding them primarily with locally
grown, fluorine-containing forage to which sodium fluoride or
cryolite had been added. The total fluorine intake by the NaF-
fed cows was 1.94 mg F/kg body weight per day, and by
cryolite-fed cows 2.48 mg F/kg body weight per day. The
fluorine intake thus exceeded the threshold value of about 1.75
mg F/kg body weight per day given in the pertinent literature.
Fluorine elimination with the feces was found to be about 0.5
g of F per animal per day with NaF-fed cows and 0.9 g of F
per animal per day with cryolite-fed cows. Along with the
urine, 0.45 mg of F per animal per day were discharged by
NaF-fed cows and 0.3 mg of F per animal per day by cryolite-
fed cows. The analysis of tail vertebrae biopsies yielded a
fluorine retention of 245 to 890 mg F/100 g ash over the period
from 1960 to 1966 for the NaF-fed cows, and of up to 655 mg
F/100 g ash for the cryolite-fed cows. The clinical symptoms
of fluorosis were slight to moderate yellowish, brownish spots
as well as hypoplasia of the incisors, furthermore, weak and
temporary functional disturbances of the motility were ob-
served with some cows. The severity of these clinical symp-
toms were found to be dependent on the degree of fluorine
emission. The general physical condition as well as the produc-
tivity of the test cows were in most cases satisfactory to ex-
cellent. Observations concerning spontaneous fluorosis in the
Rheinfelden (Baden) emission area during the past 15 years
show that the number and the severity of the disease in six
communities had reached a peak in 1958 from whereon a
steady decrease of the number of cases is found. This
downward trend was parallelled by a decrease of the average
fluorine content in the locally grown forage below the
tolerance limit.
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34
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
19124
Compton, O. C., L. F. Remmert, J. A. Rudinsky, L. L.
McDowell, F. E. EUertson, W. M. Mellenthin, and P. O.
Ritcher
NEEDLE SCORCH AND CONDITION OF PONDEROSA PINE
TREES IN THE DALLES AREA. Preprint, Oregon Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Miscellaneous Paper 120,
6p., 1961. 8 refs.
A survey was designed to determine the nature of the injury to
pine trees growing in and around the Dalles area in Oregon.
Considerable injury from 'blight', or needle scorch, was
found. Scorched needles contained considerably more fluorine
than unscorched needles and were typical of 'ponderosa pine
blight.' In the Dalles area, the percentage of scorch in 1960
needles varied from 0.9% at Station 12, which was 4 miles
south of an aluminum factory, to 67.7% at Station 4, which
was 1.2 miles WNW of the factory. The fluorine contents were
23% and 98%, respectively. The greatest amount of scorch
was associated with higher fluorine content. No scorch was
found in samples outside the Dalles area, and these samples
were low in fluorine content. There was no pathological, en-
tomological, or soil conditions that would account for the nee-
dle scorch found in the area. (Author conclusions modified)
19358
Compton, O. C., L. F. Remmert, and W. M. Mellenthin
COMPARISON OF FLUORINE LEVELS IN CROPS BEFORE
AND AFTER ALUMINUM FACTORY OPERATIONS IN THE
DALLES AREA. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station,
Corvallis, Miscellaneous Paper 95, 27p., 1960. 7 refs.
The fluorine content of seven crops in the Dalles fruit area in
Oregon were studied, beginning in August, 1953. Determina-
tions of leaf fluorine were made four times previous to and
three times since July 26, 1958, when a local aluminum reduc-
tion factory began operations. Leaf samples taken before July
1958 averaged less than 12 ppm fluorine. Similar samples taken
after the start of operations at the factory ranged from 16 to
197 ppm, averaging 68 ppm fluorine. The June 1959 samples
ranged from 6 to 106 ppm, averaging 26 ppm fluorine; those
collected in August ranged from 18 to 207 ppm, averaging 73
ppm fluorine. The fluorine samples taken in October 1958
decreased from an average 140 ppm, 1 mile from the factory
to 54 ppm, 4-5 miles away. Fluorine burn on leaves was severe
in 1959 on certain apricot and prune trees growing within 2
miles of the factory. Peaches collected in 1959 showed a pre-
mature ripening and softening along the suture, the swelling
often extending to the apex. This condition has not been ob-
served previously in this area. (Author summary modified)
20872
Rippel, A
LONG TERM EFFECT OF FLUORIDE EMISSIONS UPON
VEGETATION. Fluoride Quarterly, J. Intern. Soc. Fluoride
Res., 3(1): 18-21, Jan. 1970. 7 refs.
The results are presented of an eight-year study of the fluoride
content of fruit, vegetables, and grain grown in four communi-
ties near a Czechoslovak aluminum factory. In the community
nearest the factory, the fluoride levels in fruit and grain were
five and six times higher, respectively, than those of controls.
However, the fluoride levels in grain were only 2.6 times as
high as in the controls. Root vegetables, especially potatoes,
exhibited only minor changes in fluoride content, suggesting
that fluoride uptake by plants is independent of fluoride levels
in soil. In tuberous vegetables, fluoride accumulated in the
portions of the plants growing above ground rather than in the
tubers. This fact points to fluoride uptake from the air. The
fluoride levels observed after the long-term exposure of plants
were above normal. Fruit trees deteriorated progressively, par-
ticularly the sensitive plum trees and grape vines. The long-
term emissions also distinctly decreased the biological and or-
ganoleptic values of the agricultural product and the produc-
tivity of agricultural plants.
21062
Sobocky, E.
PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF ECONOMIC AND SYLVICUL-
TURAL MEASURES AGAINST THE EFFECTS OF
FLUORINE IN THE REGION OF ZIAR N.HRONOM.
(Predbez vysledky lesnickohospodarskych opatreni proti
pusobeni fluoru v oblasti Ziaru n.Hronom). Scientific and
Technical Society, Prague (Czechoslovakia), Agriculture and
Forestry Section, Proc. Conf. Effect Ind. Emissions Forestry,
Janske Lazne, Czechoslovakia, 1966, 10 refs. (Oct. 11-14.)
Translated from Czech. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.,
Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, p. XIII-1 to XIII-13.
April 24, 1969.
Results of research and sylvicultural and economic measures
taken to reduce the harmful effects of emissions in the area of
Ziar N.Hronom were summarized. The source of the emissions
was a metallurgical plant producing aluminum. The sylvicul-
tural measures were first directed toward the most severely at-
tacked zone I of the area, and on non-sylvan areas, which
were not used to grow trees, located within the reach of the
maximum smoke attack between the forest boundary and the
plant. In zone I, practically all degrees of injury were found,
starting with depigmentation and necrosis formation in as-
similation organs, up to the loss of foliage and decay of
conifers. From among four-year plants on unfcrested lan^,
which were subjected to various cultivation operations includ-
ing mineral fertilization, best results were obtained for black
alder, birch, red oak, pedunculate oak, and Austrian pine. Fer-
tilization with lime and ground Thomas slag proved efficient
only in the case of black alder. A much better result was pro-
vided by hoeing and mowing. Successful foresting depends not
only on exposure to the emitting source, but also on a lower
HF concentration. Terrian relief creates a natural barrier to
penetrating emissions. The beech stand, situated 2110 m east-
ward of the emitting source, reduced the detrimental effect of
HF hi its above surface layer by approximately 30% in com-
parison to a free area in front of the stand boundary. A ten-
year pine culture, 1950 m south-southeast from the source,
reduced the harmful effect of HF by approximately 50% by
comparison to total clearing, and thus fulfilled the protective
function by being in front of the sheltered trees.
22085
Compton, O. C., L. F. Remmert, and W. M. Mellenthin
FLUORINE LEVELS IN CROPS OF THE DALLES AREA IN
1964. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Spe-
cial Rept. 204, 21p., 1965. 5 refs.
In 1964, the fluorine content of sweet cherry leaf samples col-
lected in July ranged from 4 to 31 ppm, averaging II ppm.
Samples collected in September contained from 6 to 52 ppm
fluorine, averaging 19 ppm. The data for peach trees were
similar. Even though these fluorine levels were much lower
than in 1960-62, the effect of distance and direction from the
aluminum reduction factory is evident. There was no discerni-
ble trend in fluorine levels because of location within The
Dalles area before the opeation of the factory. Fluorine sam-
ples from the air varied from none to 2.5 micrograms/cu m of
air. The relationship between the fluorine in the air and in
-------
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
35
foliage of Royal Ann cherry trees indicated that the higher the
air fluorine, the greater was the leaf fluorine content. (Author
summary modified)
22092
Compton, O. C., L. F. Remmert, and W. M. Mellenthin
FLUORINE LEVELS IN 1961 CROPS OF THE DALLES
AREA. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis,
Special Kept. 153, 25p., 1963, 6 refs.
The fluorine content of the foliage or forage of alfalfa,
apricot, cherry, sour cherry, grape, peach, and prune crops
grown in The Dalles area in Oregon during 1961 are reported.
These data are compared, in tabular form, to similar data ob-
tained previously. Leaf samples collected from the crops in
July 1961 ranged from 12 ppm to 217 ppm fluorine, averaging
65 ppm. Samples taken in September ranged from 16 to 204
ppm, averaging 68 ppm fluorine. Leaf Scorch on apricot trees
and soft suture on peaches were observed. These conditions
were noted in 19S9 and 1960, but not before the operation of
an aluminum factory located in this area. The effects of calci-
um chloride and fluoride spray treatments were also in-
vestigated. (Author summary modified)
22496
Kazantseva, E. N.
ASSORTMENTS OF GAS-RESISTANT LAWN GRASSES. In:
American Institute of Crop Ecology Survey of USSR Air Pol-
lution Literature. Effects and Symptoms of Air Pollutes on
Vegetation; Resistance and Susceptibility of Different Plant
Species in Various Habitats, In Relation to Plant Utilization
for Shelter Belts and as Biological Indicators. M. Y. Nutton-
son (ed.), vol. 2, Silver Spring, Md., American Institute of
Crop Ecology, 1969, p. 50-55. (Also: Tr. Inst. Ekologii
Rasteniy Zhivotnyhk (Sverdlovsk), vol. 54:91-95, 1967.)
Investigations concerning the gas resistance of lawn grasses
were conducted at a Ural aluminum plant where fluorine pollu-
tion is present. Photosynthesis and the water regimen were
studied in meadow fescue, red fescue, Kentucky bluegrass,
red top, and timothy grass. Damage was observed in early
spring when the leaves were appearing. There was burn on the
tips of the leaves; then spotting and blotching appeared. The
damage increased and reached a peak toward the end of the
growing season. The smallest percentage of damage was ob-
served on meadow fescue, red fescue, and Kentucky
bluegrass, while the greatest damage was found on red top and
timothy grass. Fluorine compounds decreased photosynthesis,
water-holding capacity, and the quantity of free water. Slightly
damaged species have a lower photosynthetic intensity, greater
water-holding capacity, and more free water than the severely
damaged grasses. Meadow fescue, red fescue, and Kentucky
bluegrass are recommended for industrial sectors with severe
fluorine pollution. Red top, 'regneria', Awnless bromegrass,
and timothy grass are suggested for sectors with little pollu-
tion.
23386
Cormis, L. de
ABSORPTION AND ACCUMULATION OF ATMOSPHERIC
FLUORINE BY THE LEAVES OF CERTAIN HERBACEOUS
PLANTS. (Absorption et accumulation du fluor atmospherique
par les feuilles de certains vegetaux herbaces) Ann. Physiol.
Veg., 10(4):251-262, 1968. 16 refs. Translated from French.
Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 24p., June 18, 1970.
The effects of atmospheric fluorine compounds, such as are
emitted from aluminum industries, on various leafy plants are
investigated. Tomato, bean, and tobacco plants were grown
under controlled conditions and subjected to varying hydrogen
fluoride concentrations and different atmospheric conditons.
The rate of absorption of atmospheric fluorine is clearly pro-
portional to the concentration, time of exposure, and relative
humidity. The fluorine is accumulated near the edges of the
leaves and results in necroses in that area. The level of toxici-
ty varies from plant to plant. It can be attained from a heavy
concentration of short duration, or more probably from a
semi-permanent pollution of low concentration. The difference
between fluorine and sulfur dioxide absorption is explained.
23579
Hluchan, Eugen, Jan Mayer, and Emil Abel
THE INFLUENCE OF ALUMINUM-WORKS EXHALATIONS
ON THE CONTENT OF FLUORIDES IN SOIL AND GRASS.
Pol'nohospodarstvo, 10(4):257-262, 1964. Translated from
Slovak. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo. 7p., June 26,
1970.
Between 1958 and 1962, fluoride analyses were carried out on
338 soil samples and 72 grass samples from the vicinity of an
aluminum plant. Soil from the south side of the plant showed
fluoride values as high as 91.0 mg. Values for the remaining
area ranged from 4.8 to 53.1 mg, averaging 20 to 29 mg. In
contrast, the average fluoride value for soil from an uncon-
taminated area was 13.6 mg. Grass samples showed fluorides
to a value of 118.7 mg in 100 g of dry substance, while the
fluorine content of light dust reached a value of 5.0 mg/100 g
of fresh grass. The content of fluorine compounds in soil and
grass decreased with increasing distance from the plant. The
determined values in the proximity of the plant represent a
multiple transgression of the natural content of fluoride in soil
and grass.
25195
Lindberg, Gosta
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE SWEDISH ALUMINI-
UM INDUSTRY. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollu-
tion Prevention Associations, 18p., 1970. (Presented at the In-
ternational Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec.
6-11,1970, Paper SU-24C.)
Aluminum metal is produced from aluminum oxide through an
electrolytic reduction process at an elevated temperature (950-
970 C) thereby generating atmospheric impurities containing
gaseous and particulate fluorides. The polytoxic effect of even
small amounts of fluorides on vegetation is well known and
emitted gases from the process have therefore been carefully
collected and cleaned in efficient scrubbing equipment. The
smelter plant of AB Svenska Aluminiumkompaniet is located
close to the town of Sundsval with 65,000 inhabitants. For the
latest production stages it has been necessary, not only to
clean the primary process gases, but also the huge volumes of
ventilation air-at present amounting to 10 million cu ft/hr (6
mill cfm). The collection and cleaning system applied has an
overall cleaning efficiency of fluorides exceeding 90%.
Damage caused partly by fluoride emission from the older
smelter plant on vegetation in adjacent regions has neces-
sitated further dilution of released fluoride impurities. As a
result of a combined meteorological and topographical study.
70-m (210 ft) high discharge stacks have been erected. As an
instrument for vegetation contrrol in the smelter environment,
a botanical study is recommended. Fluorine content determina-
tion of pine needles from a number of stations in the sur-
rounding area has proved to be a method of considerable value
in this respect. Sampling and analyses are made toward the
end of the growing season. Isopleths for fluorides are obtained
-------
36
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
by combining testing stations with the same amount of fluoride
content. The position of the curves yield information about the
actual emission situation an the cleaning system efficiency.
The isopleth positions have, however, changed somewhat from
year to year- even without changes being carried out at the
plant installations. Meteorological conditions such as amount
of rainfall, prevailing wind directions, and rate of inversion ap-
pear to be confusing factors when judging the effects of plant
extensions or other changes affecting the fluoride emission.
Amount of rainfall and wind direction has been measured for
years. To study the rate of inversion a mast of 40 m (130 ft)
has been erected and equipped with temperature recording in-
struments at different heights above the ground. Comprehen-
sive meteorological and ecological investigations should be a
significant part of the preparatory work when examining the
possibilities for further extension of existing plants or the loca-
tion of new plants. (Author abstract modified)
25661
Rippel, A. and J. Janovicova
THE INFLUENCE OF FLUORINE EXHALATION ON THE
FLORA IN THE SURROUNDINGS OF AN ALUMINUM
PLANT. (Der Einfluss von Fluorexhalaten auf die Pflanzen-
welt in der Umgebung eines Aluminumwerkes. Air Pollution
Proc., First European Congr. Influence Air Pollution Plants
Animals, Wageningen, 1968, p. 173- 178. Translated from Ger-
man. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 5p., Nov. 3, 1970.
Examinations of the forest vegetation and agricultural life in
the surroundings of an aluminum plant over a period of six
years revealed intoxication and injuries to the vegetation by
fluorine compounds. The degree of injury differed in correla-
tion with the distance from the plant and the prevailing wind
direction. Further studies revealed that plums were a more
sensitive indicator to fluorine pollution than apples, pears,
cherries, and grapes. Among vegetables the most striking dif-
ferences were noted with leaf vegetables such as lettuce and
cabbage. Wheat showed higher fluorine contents than rye.
(Author summary modified)
25665
Balazova, G. and E. Hluchan
THE EFFECT OF FLUORINE EXHALATION ON ANIMALS
IN THE SURROUNDINGS OF AN ALUMINUM PLANT. (Der
Einfluss von Fluorexhalaten auf die Tiere in der Umgebung
einer Ahiminiumfabrik). Air Pollution Proc., First European
Congr. Influence Air Pollution Plants Animals, Wageningen,
1968, p. 275-279. Translated from German. Belov and As-
sociates, Denver, Colo., 5p., Nov. 3, 1970.
In the vicinity of an aluminum plant, the presence of fiuor was
examined in the air as well as in the organs of house sparrows
and pigeons. The fluor in milk and eggs produced in the im-
mediate vicinity was simultaneously determined. To a various
extent and in the majority of samples, a significant increase of
fluor contents was observed. The first evidence of damaging
results was fluorosis in the cattle. (Author summary modified)
26258
Williams, Charles R.
AIR POLLUTION FROM FLUORIDES. J. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc., 6(2):100-102, Aug. 1956. (Presented at the Air Pol-
lution Control Association, 49th Annual Meeting, Buffalo,
May 20-24, 1956.)
There has been a long history in the country of severe crop
and cattle damage in several areas caused by air pollution
from fluorides. Rock phosphate and fluorspar and other ores
of fluorine compounds are the major sources responsible for
this pollution problem. A brief review of production figures
for these materials defines the extent of the problem.
Phosphate rock is utilized primarily for the production of su-
perphosphates (fertilizers), food and medicinal phosphates,
elemental phosphorus, phosphoric acid, ferro-phosphorus, and
stock and poultry feed. The important sources are in Florida,
Tennessee, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming. Utilization
of fluorides, particularly in production of aluminum and steel,
provides another large-scale source of fluoride pollution. The
use of fluorides in the production of aluminum is discussed, as
well as the release of fluoride in the production of elemental
phosphorus and superphosphates.
26978
Kazantseva, E. N.
RESISTANCE OF SOME GRASSES TO FLUORINE. In:
American Institute of Crop Ecology Literature. Effects and
Symptoms of Air Pollutes on Vegetation; Resistance and
Susceptibility of Different Plant Specie in Various Habitats, in
Relation to Plant Utilization for Shelter Belts and as Biological
Indicators. M. Y. Nuttonson (ed.), Vol. 2, Silver Spring, Md.,
American Institute of Crop Ecology, 1969, p. 56-59, 4 refs.
(Also: Okhrana Prirody na Urale, 1966:45-47.)
Experiments were set up in an aluminum plant to select some
grasses resistant to fluorine. Test pilots were located near the
electrolysis shop where the concentration of fluorine was 0.612
mg/cu m, while the control plots were located at a distance
some 2000 m from the source of pollution. Additional experi-
ments were conducted in chambers where the plants were fu-
migated for 8 hours with concentrations of 0.8 and 0.03 mg/cu
m. The species planted were as follows: meadow fescue, red
fescue, Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, meadow fox-
tail, timothy grass, red top, awnless bromegrass, meadow
brome, and roegneria. Observations were recorde regarding
damage to the leaves, and the plant height was noted in rela-
tion to the fluorine concentration. The water retention abilit of
leaves was studied, and the quantity of oxidizable substances
was determined. At the end of the growing period, injury to
the meadow foxtail, awniess bromegrass, meadow brome, and
roegneria was 50-60%. The least injury (25-35%) was noted
with Kentucky bluegras and red fescue. Compared with the
control plants, the plants grown at the aluminum mill were
smaller. The species having the greater water retention capaci-
ty were least injured. Determination of oxidizable substances
in the cell content showed that meadow fescue has the least
amount of them, whereas redtop the largest. Meadow fescue,
red fescue, and Kentucky bluegrass are recommended as
suitable for planting in the industrial areas having the highest
fluorine concentrations.
32516
Knabe, Wilhelm and Karl-Heinz Guenther
CONTRIBUTIONS OF FORESTRY TO THE ENVIRONMEN-
TAL PROTECTION IN NORTH RHINE WESTPHALIA.
(Forstwissenschaftliche Beitraege zum Umweltschutz in
Nordrhein-Westfalen). Text in German. Allg. Forstz.,
26(24):503-506, 513-514, June 1971. 28 refs.
The contribution of forestry to environmental protection con-
sists primarily of observations of the effects of air pollutants
on trees and plants. The results from indoor exposure test (in
greenhouses) do not always reflect the true situation. In open
air exposure experiments, young spruce trees grown from
seeds were less resistant than scions, whose needles had all
the characteristics of those of an old tree. In outdoor gasifica-
tion experiments, spruces, set up at different levels above the
-------
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
37
ground, were exposed to the emissions from an aluminum
plant. The higher elevated plants were exposed to more
fluorine because of greater air ventilation. Tall old trees were
injured while young ones growing next to them were
seemingly healthy. Although more fluorine was absorbed by
the plants, it was eliminated again after some time. In North
Rhine Westphalia, forests with an average sulfur dioxide con-
centration of more than 0.08 mg/cu m during the growing
season over three quarters of all measurement years were un-
suitable for the growth of any coniferous trees with the excep-
tion of Pinus nigra Arn.
32535
Bovay, E. and R. Zuber
NECROSES ON APRICOTS: CASING EXPERIMENTS WITH
HYDROFLUORIC ACID. (Necroses sur abricots: essais de
gazage au moyen d acide fluorhydrique). Text in French.
Revue Suisse de Viticulture et Arboriculture (Lausanne),
3(3):78-81, May-June 1971.
Necroses on apricots were frequently observed in the alpine
valleys where certain chemical and metallurgical industries,
particularly aluminum factories, were emitting fluorine into the
atmosphere. Casing experiments were conducted with various
concentrations of hydrofluoric acid on apricot trees and picked
fruit. Meteorological conditions of temperature, humidity, and
precipitation were observed. Exposure to hydrofluoric acid
caused necroses to appear on the leaves and the apricots
similar to the necroses on the fruits affected by industrial
fluorine emissions. A dry climate, high temperature, fine
precipitation followed by long periods of sunny weather, fol-
lowed in turn by more dry spells were favorably correlated to
the appearance of necroses.
32536
Bolay, A., E. Bovay, G. Neury, J. P. Quinche, and R. Zuber
DAMAGE TO APRICOTS AND OTHER FRUITS CAUSED BY
FLUORINE COMPOUNDS. (Degats causes aux abricots et a d
autres fruits par les composes fluores). Text in French. Revue
Suisse de Viticulture et Arboriculture (Lausanne), 3(3):82-92,
May-June 1971. 49 refs.
Stone fruits (apricots, peaches, plums, and cherries), pears,
and applies grown in the alpine valley (Valais, South Tirol,
and Savoy) were examined for fluorine-induced damages. Cli-
matic conditions, particularly temperature, humidity, and
precipitation, were observed and correlated. Symptoms of
fluorosis on the stone fruits were characterized by well-
delimited brown-black necroses, sometimes surrounded by a
reddish aureole. The necroses were deep and reached to the
stone on very young fruits and were rather superficial on
fruits approaching maturity, which were most sensitive to
fluorine. Pears gave similar results. Fluorosis on apples ap-
peared as a reddening of the epidermis and rifts appearing
around the apex or on the most exposed side. The apples were
deformed. Damage symptoms were identical regardless of the
origin of the fluorine: atmospheric pollution, fluorine salts
sprayed on the fruit, or absorption by the roots from fertilizers
containing fluoborate compounds.
32539
Bolay, A., E. Bovay, J.-P. Quinche, and R. Zuber
AMOUNTS OF FLUORINE AND BORON IN THE LEAVES
AND FRUITS OF FRUIT TREES AND VINEYARDS, FERTIL-
IZED BY CERTAIN BORON- AND FLUORINE-CONTAINING
FERTILIZERS. (Teneurs en fluor et en bore des feuilles et
des fruits d arbres fruitiers et de vignes, fumes avec certains
engrais composes, boriques fluores). Text in French. Revue
Suisse de Viticulture et Arboriculture (Lausanne), 3(3):54-61,
May-June 1971. 14 refs.
Various orchards and vineyards were examined for absorption
of fluorine and boron from the atmosphere and certain fertil-
izers by the fruits and leaves. Apricot trees grown in the
orchards of Rechy were affected by fluorine emissions from
certain aluminum factories. The amount of fluorine in the
leaves was proportional to the age, regardless of the fertilizer.
Young leaves, that emerged in the hot summer months, were
most damaged by the fluorine emissions but contained the
least fluorine. Conversely, the youngest leaves were richest in
boron content. Apricot orchards in Bieudron and Fey, areas of
minimal air pollution, had very few appearances of necroses.
The fluorine content in the leaves remained in the range of 17-
28 ppm. A stronger application of fertilizer increased the
fluorine content but had no notable effect on the boron con-
tent or chemical composition of the apricots. Comparable
results were gathered in one of the apricot orchards in Martig-
ny. The other, exposed to fluorine emitted by an aluminum
factory, had a higher fluorine content in the leaves. The treat-
ment of apricot trees by a fungicide containing fluorine had no
effect on the fluorine content. The boron content was clearly
increased upon application of the boron-containing fertilizer,
but the fruits did not absorb the fluorine of the fertilizer. Tests
on orchards in Marcelin and Changins, areas virtually free of
fluorine in the atmosphere, determined an increase in fluorine
content in the leaves and of necroses due to the fertilizer.
Plum and pear trees examined under similar conditions gave
comparable results, with slight variations for different varia-
bles of pollution and fertilizer. Vineyards were also tested in
Valais. General results indicated that the combined boron-con-
taining fertilizers determined an evident accumulation of
fluorine in the leaves of the plants but had no effect on the
fluorine content in the fruits, which was proportional to the
degree of pollution by industrial fluorine emissions in the at-
mosphere.
32897
Desbaumes, P. and E. Bovay
DETERMINATION OF FLUORINE-IMMISSIONS BY MEANS
OF STATIC ABSORPTION APPARATUS (MODIFIED HARD-
ING METHOD). (Determination des immissio fluorees au
moyen d appareils d absorption statique, type Harding
modifie). Text in French. Revue Suisse de Viticulture et Ar-
boriculture (Lausanne), 3(3):75-77, May-June 1971.
A modified Harding apparatus was used to determine the cor-
relation between fluorine in the air and in plant leaves. The
device consists of a galvanized armature attached to a pole, a
group of superimposed discs holding filter paper, and a conical
roof protecting the device from rain and bird droppings. The
fluorine content was determined by the Belcher and West
method modified by Sulzberger after the calcination of a one
gram filter paper sample with calcium hydroxide. Measure-
ments were taken near an aluminum factory and near a fertil-
izer plant. The fluorine content in the filters was directly pro-
portional to the duration of exposure and inversely propor-
tional to the distance from the source of the fluorine. The ab-
sorption of fluorine by filter paper is much less than by plant
tissues because of respiration and evapotranspiration.
33906
Paluch, Jan and Irina Schalenkowa
AIR POLLUTION BY FLUORINE IN POLAND AND ITS
TOXIC EFFECT ON HUMANS, ANIMALS AND PLANTS,
(Die Luftverunreinigung durch Fluor in Polen und ihre tox-
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38
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
ische Wirkung auf Menschen, Tiere und Pflanzen). Text in
German. Wiss. Z. Humboldt Univ. Berlin Math. Naturw.
Reihe, 19(5):489-492, 1970.
The major sources of the emission of fluorine compounds to
the atmosphere are aluminum phosphorus fertilizer manufac-
turing plants. In Poland, the superphosphate industry alone
produces a fluorine emission of some 4000 to 5000 tons an-
nually, the aluminum industry some 2000 tons. Fluorine has a
toxic effect on plants and animals, generally in an area within
a radius of 1.5 to 3 km. External symptoms on plants are
necrosis of leaf borders which can lead to destruction of their
metabolic system and eventual plant death. Some plants, like
cabbage, are more resistant than others in this respect. Peach
leaves, for instance, are extremely sensitive to fluorine con-
centrations. The plants in general absorb the fluorine through
their leaves and store if, such afflicted plants represent a
danger to animals and human beings if taken in as food. The
biological and clinical symptoms of fluorosis are due to
changes in the calcium and iodine balance in the human or
animal organism. Typical externally noticeable symptoms in
animals are deformations of long bones, ribs, and joints, fol-
lowed by lameness. Young animals show disturbances in
growth and changes on their teeth. In humans, the most well-
known effects are those brought about by fluorine in drinking
water. Acute fluorine poisoning can be caused by intake of
food which has been contaminated by fluorine compounds.
These occur in some insecticides and in some plant sprays.
36883
LeBlanc, Fabius, Gilberte Comeau, and D. N. Rao
FLUORIDE INJURY SYMPTOMS IN EPIPHYTIC LICHENS
AND MOSSES. Can. J. Botany, 49(9):1691-1698, 1971. 22 refs.
To study in situ the effects of fluorides on lichens and mosses,
lichen- and moss-bearing bark discs were cut from trees in an
unpolluted area of Arvida, Quebec, and transplanted in groups
of six onto trees in an area polluted by an aluminum factory.
Fifteen sites, in addition to a control site, were selected in dif-
ferent directions from the factory. At each site, two boards on
which the bark discs were fixed were nailed to a tree. One
board was removed after four months exposure and the other
after 12 months. The lichens and mosses in both control and
polluted areas were compared with respect to color, external
morphology, plasmolysis in algal cells, loss of green color, na-
ture of reactions toward neutral red and 2,3,5-triphenyl-2H-
tetrazolium chloride, absorption spectra of chlorophyll, and
fluoride concentrations. Results indicate that fluoride pollution
affects moisture balance, causes chlorophyll damage, and
produces other symptoms of injury which could lead to the ul-
timate death of these organisms. At the end of 12 months,
lichen fluoride concentrations ranged from 134 ppm at IS km
NE of the factory to 990 ppm at one km E. Moss fluoride con-
centrations were always lower than lichen concentrations.
(Author abstract modified)
36996
Hajduk, Juraj
EXTENSION GROWTH IN SEEDLINGS AS A BIOLOGICAL
TEST OF SOILS CONTAMINATED WITH FLUORINE EX-
HALATES. (Verlaengerungswachstum de Keimlinge als
biologischer test von durch Fluorexhalate intoxizierten
Boeden). Text in German. Biologia, 24(10):728-737, 1969. 19
refs.
Biological tests based on measurements of pea and barley
seedling root extension growth to evaluate the toxicity of
fluorine exhalates from an aluminum plant were carried out.
The aluminum plant is located in the Hron River Valley and
exposed to northwest and north winds with a hilly background
on its southern side; the location is characterized by 30% still
days/year. Soil located varying distances from the emission
source and control soil treated with known amounts of dust
from the fusion electrolysis shop of the factory were used for
the seedling growth experiments. Lowest growth rates of pea
seedling roots appeared on the soil exposed to the highest
amounts of fluorine contamination as affected by meteorologi-
cal and topographic interactions. Inhibition of pea seedling
root growth was well correlated with the amounts of fluorine-
contaminated dusts added to the control soils. Pea seedlings
can be utilized as a biological testing species for the evaluation
of fluorine contamination of soils exposed to this pollutant.
Barley seedlings elicited irregular reactions and, thus, were re-
jected as unsuitable for similar tests.
37480
Rippel, A.
EFFECT OF FLUORIDE EMISSION ON ANIMAL
PRODUCTS. Fluoride, 4(2):89-92, April 1971. 8 refs.
(Presented at the International Society of Fluoride Research
Conference, Annual, 3rd, Vienna Austria, March 22-25, 1970.)
Fluoride assays were made over a 3-year period of milk and
eggs produced by animals raised within 100 m of an aluminum
smelter. Milk from eight cows, 4 to 9 yrs old, averaged 0.6 mg
fluoride/1. Milk produced in the morning contained an average
of 0.5 mg F, while evening milk contained 0.7 mg F/l. The
highest fluoride, content, an average of 0.94 mg/1 for 18
months, was noted in the milk of a young heifer. The F(-) in th
yoke of chicken eggs averaged 1.2 ppm. This value was only
slightly higher than that of the controls (1.1 ppm). However,
the fluoride content of egg shells in the exposed area was nine
times higher than in the control eggs. The differences in thr
fluoride content of milk and eggs confirms the fact that
poultry are relatively more resistant to fluoride emissions than
cattle. (Author abstract modified)
38017
Guderian, R., H. van Haut, and H. Stratmann
PLANT-DAMAGING HYDROGEN FLUORIDE CONCENTRA-
TIONS. (Pflanzenschaedigende Fluorwasserstoff-Konzentra-
tionen). Text in German. Umschau (Berlin), 71(21):777, 1971. 2
refs.
Because of increased emissions of fluorine-containing gases
from plants manufacturing aluminum, copper, superphosphate,
glass, or cement, tests were conducted to determine the effect
of various concentrations of atmospheric hydrogen fluoride on
a variety of plants. Varying harmful effects were noted with
concentrations of 0.85-4.2 micrograms/cu m in air, but no
definite conclusions regarding allowable concentration limits
were reached.
38404
Maclntire, Walter H.
AIR VERSUS SOIL AS CHANNELS FOR FLUORIC CON-
TAMINATION OF VEGETATION IN TWO TENNESSEE LO-
CALES. Interdepartmental Committee on Air Pollution,
Washington, D. C., Air Pollut., Proc. U. S. Tech. Conf.,
Washington, D. C., 1950, p. 53 - 58. 2 refs. (May 3-5, Louis C.
McCabe, ed.)
Long-term (20-year) field and experimental studies are re-
ported of the processes through which forage vegetation may
acquire an abnormal fluorine content; the work was initiated in
-------
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
39
response to complaints that fluorine emissions from nearby in-
dustry were causing damage to plants and livestock. Results
indicate that soils possess distinctive capacities to fix additive
fluorides against rain-water leaching and against migration of
the fluorine ion into above-ground forage crops, and that such
migration is repressed in soil systems that contain adequate
supplies of calcium. Abnormal fluorine content in the vegeta-
tion of certain locales in Blount County (eastern Tenn.) is at-
tributed to direct contamination from the hydrofluoric acid
that is emitted to the atmosphere through the manufacture of
aluminum. In the absence of fluoric dusts and without
mechanical pollution from phosphatic soils, fluoric contamina-
tion of forage vegetation in Maury County (middle Tenn.) ap-
parently comes directly from the fluoric effluents present in
that atmosphere, rather than through uptake of florides from
the soil. (Author summary modified)
38417
Largent, Edward J.
THE EFFECTS OF AIR-BORNE FLUORIDES ON
LIVESTOCK. Interdepartmental Committee on Air Pollution,
Washington, D. C., Air PoUut., Proc. U. S. Tech. Conf.,
Washington, D. C., 1950, p. 64 - 72. 12 refs. (May 3-5, Louis
C. McCabe, ed.)
Fluorides carried through the air and deposited on pastures
and fields of forage pose a hazard of chronic fluorosis to
livestock fed on these plants. Previous reports on the
mechanism and symptoms of fluorosis occurring hi livestock
near factories are reviewed. An investigation is described in
which cattle kept on a farm in the vicinity of a rock phosphate
plant developed clinical fluorosis. The results of measurements
of fluoride concentrations in the atmosphere over the farm, in
samples of vegetation grown on the farm, and in the tissues of
the exposed cattle are given. Fluoride levels in both air and
vegetation decreased as the distance from the factory in-
creased. Concentrations of fluoride in the bones of affected
animals were abnormally high.
38568
Treshow, Michael
FLUORIDES AS AIR POLLUTANTS AFFECTING PLANTS.
Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., vol. 9:21-44, 1971. 91 refs.
The pathological effects of fluorides on plants are reviewed
with respect to fluoride sources, symptomatology, environ-
mental influences, host-parasite relations, injury control, and
air quality standards. The major sources of flouride emissions
are producers of aluminum, ceramics, phosphate, and occa-
sionally steel. Toxic concentrations of fluoride are largely air-
borne and absorbed by the leaves. Fluorides occur naturally in
soils, but soil contamination may occasionally also provide an
index of corresponding air contamination. Toxicity is in-
fluenced primarily by fluoride concentration, duration of expo-
sure, and sequence and frequency of exposure, but may be
modified by climate, e.g., temperature and humidity, soil fac-
tors, synergistic effects of other pollutants, and biological fac-
tors. Visible symptoms of fluoride damage, e.g., chlorosis,
necrosis, and tip burn, metabolic and cytogenetic effects, and
effects on growth and production are considered. The effects
of fluorides on host-parasite interaction are also discussed.
Fluoride injury controls include the application of protective
chemicals, the development of resistant species, and basic
elimination of the pollutant. For the highest degree of control,
air quality standards are best based on the atmospheric
fluoride concentrations capable of injuring the most sensitive
plant species.
39159
Rippel, A.
FLUORIDE INTAKE FROM FOOD. Fluoride, 5(2):89-91,
April 28, 1972. 3 refs. (Presented at the International Society
for Fluoride Research, Annual Conference, 4th, the Hague,
Netherlands, Oct. 24-27, 1971.)
In order to evaluate the safety of food grown near a
Czechoslovakia!! aluminum smelter, grain and vegetables were
assayed for their fluoride content at varying distances from
the smelter during a 10 year period. The fluoride content of
green parsley leaves was 11.57 ppm (control 0.66); the roots
contained 0.08 ppm (control 0.03) and the outer surface of root
contained 0.12 ppm (control 0.03). Relatively little fluoride was
found in potatoes. At a distance of 80-130 m in the area of the
prevailing winds, the fluoride content of the grain varied
within 6.34-19.64 mg/kg. At a distance of 500 m, the fluoride
levels of grain were reduced to about 35% and at 1 km to
about 15% of these values. Grain cultivated in a circular area
with a diameter of 2 kilometers from the source of emission
should not be consumed locally but can be exported for use in
uncontaminated areas, and fluoride should not be added to
drinking water in the vicinity of a fluoride-emitting factory.
(Author summary modified)
39684
Plagnat, Francois
MISTLETOE, INDUSTRIAL FUMES AND THE MAURIENNE
FORESTS (SAVODE). (Gui, fumees industrielles et forets de
Maurienne (Savoie)). Text in French. Rev. Geog. Alp., no.
59:326-342, 1971. 23 refs.
Attention is drawn to the dramatic situation of the fluorine-
damaged Maurienne forests. The first damage of these mis-
tletoe forests, consisting of 90% coniferous trees, were ob-
served in 1910 when nearby aluminum production started. The
upper limit of the fluorine damage rose successively to al-
titudes of 1600 and 2200 m, while the attack of mistletoe was
unimporant above 1000- 1400 m. Now, a forest area of nearly
10,000 ha is affected. The damage caused to mistletoe ag-
gravated by the severe damage due to hydrofluoric acid. The
losses due to smoke damage show an increase of 58% in the
period 1956-1968, compared to the period 1950-1955. At the
same time, production by the nearby aluminum plants in-
creased from 43,000 t/yr in 1954 to 92,000 t/yr. The total
fluorine emission is 1820 t/yr. Gas cleaning should be in-
troduced. Irrespective of such steps, however, experiments are
being carried out with American smoke-resistant Thuya plicata
in a 75 ha-area. Measures by the newly-established Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection are anticipated.
40201
Huffman, W. T.
EFFECTS ON LIVESTOCK OF AIR CONTAMINATION
CAUSED BY FLUORIDE FUMES. Interdepartmental Commit-
tee on Air Pollution, Washington, D. C., Air Pollut., Proc. U.
S. Tech. Conf., Washington, D. C., 1950, p. 59-63. 16 refs.
(May 3-5, Louis C. McCabe, ed.)
Chronic fluorine toxicosis in livestock can be caused by aerial
contamination of forage with fluorine effluents from nearby
industry, principally phosphate and aluminum processing
plants, although cement plants and enameling works may also
be involved. The extent of the area involved is governed by
the volume of fluoride effluents, the form in which they oc-
cur, and meteorologic factors. Effects on livestock depend on
the level of intake, duration of the feeding period, the class of
animals involved, and feeding and management practices. The
symptomatology is described; dental fluorosis and bone lesions
-------
40
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
are prominent. Normal and threshold levels of fluorine in bone
tissue and normal and excess urinary levels are noted. Dairy
cattle appear more susceptible to fluorosis than beef breeds,
but neither meat nor milk from affected animals is likely to be
injurious. Complicating factors unrelated to fluorosis should be
considered, since most of the symptoms may be present in a
variety of diseases. Disease control requires reduction of emis-
sions to the point where nearby forage contains a safe level of
fluoride.
40472
Neustein, S. A., and N. P. Danby
POTENTIAL ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION FROM THE 1N-
VERGORDON INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX. Scot. Forest., vol.
24:270-273, Nov. 1971. 5 refs.
The main atmospheric pollutants from the Invergordon com-
plex will be fluorine and hydrogen fluoride from the aluminum
smelter and sulfur dioxide and hydrocarbons from the oil
refinery. Both acute and chronic tree damage is expected. The
effects of F and SO2 on the trees via the soil is expected to be
insignificant. Acute tree damage results from high concentra-
tions of pollutants as a result of meteorological conditions or
industrial cleansing failure. Chronic tree damage results from
long term low level pollution. Broad leaved trees are not re-
garded as susceptible to chronic pollution. All the conifers are
susceptible. Clean air sampling has begun in order to provide
before and after comparison. Foliage samples will be taken for
a radius of 16,000 M. A survey of lichens has been completed.
Lichenology may assist in discrimination between F and SO2
injuries.
45604
Carlson, Clinton E. and lerald E. Dewey
ENVIRONMENTAL POLUTION BY FLUORIDES IN
FLATHEAD NATIONAL FOREST AND GLACIER NA-
TIONAL PARK. Forest Service, Missoula, Mont., Forest In-
sect and Disease Branch, 62p., Oct. 1971. 27 refs.
The major cause of vegetation injury and damage on forested
lands near the Anaconda Aluminum Company was studied.
Research took the form of studies of visual burn, chemical
analysis, histologieal analyses, aerial photography of area, and
entomological (insect) sampling. Fluorides generated by the
Anaconda Aluminum Company were determined to be the pri-
mary cause of the injury and damage to vegetation in the sur-
rounding area. Highest fluoride concentrations, up to 1000
ppm, in foliar tissue were found near the Anaconda aluminum
plant. Data indicated the fluorides were carried by air move-
ment from the aluminum plant through a saddle in Teakettle
Mountain to Glacier National Park, following the pattern of
the prevailing winds in the area. Elevated fluorides (greater
than 10 ppm) were found in vegetation on Columbia Mountain
and Teakettle Mountain, in vegetation near the towns of
Columbia Falls, Hungry Horse, and Coram, Montana, and in
the southwest portion of Glacier National Park. Varying
degrees of visible fluoride injury were found on vegetation
over more than 69,120 acres. Although fluoride emissions were
reduced during the summer of 1970, fir and spruce trees con-
tinued to accumulate fluorides at the same rate as in 1969.
Definite histologieal reactions to elevated fluorides occur in
conifer needle tissue, including hypertrophy of parenchy-
matous cells. Fluorides also accumulated in insect tissue. All
groups of insects studied contained high fluoride levels. Pol-
linators possessed the highest, up to 406 ppm. Cambium
feeders contained in excess of 52 ppm, indicating that fluoride
must be translocated in the cambium of trees. Predatory in-
sects had fluoride counts over 53 ppm, showing fluoride is
passed along the food chain. Insect population samples in-
dicated that elevated fluoride levels in pine needles lead to a
buildup of the pine needle scale. During the summer of 1971,
evaluations of possible timber growth losses and pasture graz-
ing lands the should not be utilized due to fluoride were evalu-
ated. Environmental damage can be stopped only by installa-
tion of pollution abatement equipment to limit fluoride emis-
sion to 0 Ib/day, which is impossible, or by closing the plant,
which is also impossible. The only possibility left is installing a
permanent system to monitor fluoride pollution. (Author con-
clusions modified)
45663
Compton, O. C., F. W. Adams, Stanley Elliott, Jack H. Wood,
D. W. Claypool, and R. K. Marsh
FLUORINE LEVELS IN PLANTS OF THE WARRENTON
AREA, 1968-1970: CULTIVATED AND NATIVE WOODY
AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS PRIOR TO ALUMINUM FAC-
TORY OPERATIONS. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Corvallis, Rept. 335, 30p., July 1971/32 refs.
The flourine level of plants in an area intended for construc-
tion of an aluminum plant was studied to supply reference
data in anticipation of pollution after start of plant operation.
Cultivated and native plants within 6 mi of the factory site
were sampled. Pasture herbages contained an average of 0.8-
3.2 ppm fluorine, with only 11% of the samples exceeding 3.4
ppm. The fluorine content of each of the other six species
averaged 2.9 ppm, with the exception of spruce needles con-
taining 4.2 ppm. Five improved strains of pasture grasses
maintained in pure strands were consistently and uniformly
low in fluorine content. Within the area, differences in terrain,
river valley, or distance from projected factory site produced
no trends in fluorine concentrations. (Author summary
modified)
46217
Swieboda, Maria
CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE EFFECT OF ADJ POLLUTION
BY INDUSTRIAL FLUORINE COMPOUNDS UPON
FORESTS. (Niektore zagadnienia wplywu na lasy prezemys-
lowych zanieczyszczen powietrza zwiazkami fluoru). Text in
Polish. Sylwan, 108(6):45-54, 1964. 27 refs.
A brief review is given which emphasizes that the content of
fluorine compounds in air, soil, and plants differs in different
areas depending on the distance from industry (especially
metallurgical aluminum, and fertilizers industries). The signs of
the adverse effects of fluorine pollution are described in detail.
Resistance of plants differs in different species. Of the ever-
greens, the most sensitive are the pine (75-85%), spruce (26-
75%), and fir (3-12%), and least sensitive is the larch (less than
1%). Of deciduous trees, the most sensitive is the beech tree,
while maple, oak, and plane trees are much more resistant.
Different methods for determining the cause of damage
(chemical, botanical, biometric, and histochemical) and
methods of plant protection (spraying with lime or special oil
emulsions) are briefly described. The need for better control
of sources of fluorine pollution is stressed.
46721
Schoenbech, H. and W. Hoelte
DETECTION OF AIR POLLUTION BY THE TRANS-
PLANTED FOLIOSE LICHEN, PARMELIA PHYSODES.
(Zum Nachweis von Luftverunreinigungen durch die transplan-
tierte Blattflechte Parmelia physodes). Zentralbl. Bakteriol.,
Parasitenk. Infektionskr. Hyg.:Abt. l:Orig., Reihe B,
-------
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK 41
212(2/4):356-3S7, Feb. 1970. 1 ref. Translated from German. sured by the withering of individual thallus pans. Reactions
2p. were photographically recorded at predetermined time inter-
Open air and fumigation studies indicate that the foliose lichen vals. An investigation conducted in the vicinity of an alu-
Parmelia physodes reacts to ground level concentrations of minum plant ascertained that Parmelia physodes is a quantita-
sulfur dioxide and hydrogen fluoride, and that it can be mea- lively reacting biological indicator.
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42
J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
29923
Schreiber, Michael
THE COSTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF CLEAN AIR. THE IN-
FLUENCE OF SOCIAL COSTS ON THE SELECTION OF AN
INDUSTRIAL SITE. (Kosten der Luftreinhaltung. Der Ein-
fluss der social costs auf die industrielle Standortwahl). Text
in German. Wasser Lnft Betrieb, 1S(4):14S-148, 1971. 27 refs.
Because of the cost of eliminating brown smoke emissions,
Thomas converters were replaced by oxygen lancing conver-
ters. An 80-ton Thomas converter emits about twice as much
waste gas as an oxygen lancing converter of the same capaci-
ty. Similar changeovers to processes with less waste gas
production were made i the chemical industry to save waste
gas cleaning costs. Sulfur emissions are reduced mainly by
switching to low-sulfur fuels, a much less expensive means
than desulfurization of the fuel or the flue gases. Such steps
are not always possible. In many cases investment in dust col-
lectors, electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers are unavoida-
ble. The economy of such units depends on the ratio between
collection efficiency and maintenance costs. For electrostatic
precipitators investment costs rise proportionally to the degree
of collection in the efficiency range between 80 and 95%. A
collection efficiency of 95 to 98% requires facilities which are
50% larger, increasing costs by 35% and more. The aluminum
industry spends an estimated $50/ton of aluminum of its an-
nual production for facilities to eliminate fluorine emission.
The annual operating costs per ton of aluminum are estimated
at $8.40. Metallurgical plants spent similar amounts for reduc-
tion of their emissions.
30696
LeSourd, D. A., M. E. Fogel, A. R. Schleicher, T. E.
Bingham, R. W. Gerstle, E. L. Hill, and F. A. Ayer
COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SPECIFIED AIR POLLU-
TION SOURCES TO ASSESS THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS. VOL. I. (FINAL REPORT).
Research Triangle Inst., Durham, N. C., Operations Research
and Economics Div., APCO Contract CPA 70-60, RTI Proj.
OU-534, Rept. FR-OU-534, 395p., Dec. 1970. 328 refs. NTIS:
PB 197647
Air pollution control costs for mobile sources are presented on
a national basis and in terms of unit investment and annual
operating and maintenance costs-as well as total annual operat-
ing and maintenance costs. The analyses cover the estimated
emissions and control costs for new cars for Fiscal Year 1967
through Fiscal Year 1976. Control costs for each stationary
source, except for residential heating, are shown for 298
metropolitan areas by investment and annual expenditures by
Fiscal Year 1976. The impact of control on selected industries
and the Nation are also determined. Finally, an extensive
bibliography is included. The pollutants from mobile sources
selected for analysis are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and particulates. The six pollutants for which
control cost estimates are made for stationary sources are par-
ticulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
fluorides, and lead. Emission standards applied are considered
stringent in comparison with many currently in use throughout
the Nation. Mobile sources include automobiles and light and
heavy-duty trucks. Stationary sources studied include solid
waste disposal, commercial and institutional heating plants, in-
dustrial boilers, residential heating plants, steam- electric
power plants, asphalt batching, brick and tile, coal cleaning,
cement, elemental phosphorus, grain handling and milling
(animal feed), gray iron, iron and steel, kraft (sulfate) pulp,
lime, petroleum products and storage, petroleum refineries,
phosphate fertilizer, primary non-ferrous metallurgy (alu-
minum, copper, lead and zinc), rubber (tires), secondary non-
ferrous metallurgy, sulfuric acid, and varnish. Data essential
for defining metropolitan areas, emission control standards,
and relevant process and air pollution control engineering
characteristics required to support the cost analyses for each
source and the cost impact on each industrial process are
presented and analyzed in separate appendixes to this report.
(Author abstract modified)
39910
Robinson, J. M., G. I. Gruber, W. D. Lusk, and M. J. Santy
ENGINEERING AND COST EFFECTIVENESS STUDY OF
FLUORINE EMISSIONS CONTROL. (FINAL REPORT).
(VOLUME I). TRW Systems Group, McLean, Va. and
Resources Research Inc., McLean, Va., Office of Air Pro-
grams Contract EHSD 71-14, Rept. APTD-0945, SN 16893.000,
411p., Jan 1972. NTIS: PB 207506
Industrial emission sources were inventoried and a study was
made of the technical and economic aspects of implementing
soluble fluoride emission controls for major industrial sources.
Industries included in the study were primary aluminum smelt-
ing, iron and steel, electrical power generation, phosphate rock
processing, glass manufacture, frit smelting, heavy clay
products, expanded clay aggregate, cement manufacture,
hydrofluoric acid alkylation processes, HF production, and
nonferrous metals smelting and refining. It is technically possi-
ble, though not economically profitable, to control soluble
fluorides with available devices such as wet scrubbers; the im-
mediate problem lies in implementation of that control, includ-
ing collection of the evolved fluorides by hoods and similar ef-
fluent capture systems for treatment in the abatement devices.
Included in the study are discussions of production trends ex-
trapolated to the year 2000, process flow diagrams, estimates
of current and projected fluoride emissions analyses of
production and control process economics, recommendations
for additional research and development programs, environ-
mental and ecological effects of the emitted fluorides on
animals, plants, man, glass, and materials, and techniques for
sampling and measurement of fluoride pollutants in the various
effluent streams.
46362
INCREASING CONSUMPTION STABILIZES SITUATION IN
ALUMINUM MELTING PLANTS. (Steigender Verbrauch
festigt die Lage der Aluminiumschmelzhuetten). Text in Ger-
man. Metall (Berlin), 26(9):969-971, 1972.
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J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
43
The Organization of European Aluminum Melting Plants
(OEA) forecast an increase of aluminum consumption of more
than 9% for 1972. Manufacturing costs also will rise by 10%.
This cost rise is mainly due to measures for the protection of
the environment. Dust, chlorine, and salt emissions must be
limited. Many aluminum melting plants which have not yet
been forced to control air pollution still hold illusionary ideas
concerning the costs of such measures. The costs comprise
costs for filters and buildings, low maintenance and power
costs, secondary costs such as filter repairs, during which the
furnace operation is halted. Primary and secondary costs
amount to about 0.55 to 0.70 cents/lb.
48171
Fredriksen, Heige
POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE NORWEGIAN INDUSTRY.
(Forurensningsproblemer in norsk industri). Text in Norwegi-
an. Tidsskr. Kjemi, Bergvesen, Met., 32(2):9-14, Feb. 1972.
The state of pollution control and planned investments in vari-
ous branches of industry in Norway are reviewed. In addition
to $70,000,000 already invested in industrial emission control,
about $14,000,000 more will be necessary over the next few
years. The aluminum industry, with a yearly output of 500,000
tons, has completed a comprehensive emission control pro-
gram. Some 8000 tons of fluorides, out of a total of 10,000
tons, are collected. The operating cost of cleaning equipment
adds $5.60 to the cost of 1 ton of aluminum. Red smoke emis-
sions from iron and steel plants have been considerably
abated, from 1000 to 20 kg/hr in one case. The additional costs
are 70-118 cents. The chemical industry has invested $9.52 mil-
lion for emission control equipment, whose operating costs are
$9.3 million/yr. Oil refineries, emitting considerable amounts
of sulfur dioxide, soot, and hydrocarbons, will invest $1.4 mil-
lion over the next 2 years in addition to a $2.1 million invest-
ment already realized. One refinery recovers 6000 tons of sul-
fur from high-sulfur raw products yearly. Cement works have
invested $5.60 million for electrostatic dust precipitators. Some
70-90% of the total SO2 emission is bound to the clinker. The
fish processing industry has invested $.84 million for odor con-
trol; while combined scrubbing and incineration would require
another $11.9 million. The melting industry has invested $7.28
million for the control of dust emissions. The investments by
the wood processing and pulp and paper industries run to $14
million.
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K. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
14443
Knop, W.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN NON-FERROUS METAL IN-
DUSTRIES. II. PARTICULATE AND GASEOUS EMISSIONS
OF THE NON-FERROUS METAL INDUSTRY AND EMIS-
SION STANDARDS. (Luftreinhaltung im NE-Metall-Betrieb.
II. Staub-und gasfoermige Emissionen der NE-Metallindustrie
und die Emissionsbegrenzung.) Text in Gcnnan. Metall.,
22(12):1266-1271, Dec. 1968. 21 refs.
In this review article, the West German air pollution laws and
regulations as applied to metallurgical plants are compiled and
discussed. In the aluminum industry, dust arises both in the
production of aluminum oxide from bauxite and in the elec-
trolytic furnaces. The most dangerous component of the waste
gas is fluoride of which the maximum allowable concentration
is 2.5 mg/cu m. Lead refineries emit considerable amounts of
dust, up to 15 g/cu m waste gas, which contains metal com-
pounds in the form of sulfates, oxides, sulfides, and coke
dust. The pollutants originating in the various steps of lead
production are discussed in detail. The threshold limit value
(TLV) of lead is 0.2 mg/cu m. Electrometallurgical furnaces
for iron and steel alloys emit very fine dusts (less than 0.4
micrometer), typically up to 250 kg/hr at 10,000 kva capacity.
Metal oxides predominate, especially iron and silicon oxides.
The waste gases of copper ore refineries contain mostly fly
dust and sulfur compounds. The dust contains copper, zinc,
and sulfur. Typical concentrations at various stages are listed.
The TLV of copper is 1 mg/cu m. Emissions of zinc plants are
listed, and waste gas and soot emissions of oil, coke, and coal
furnaces are discussed in detail. Special problems are posed by
scrap metal refineries, where plastics and varnishes cause air
pollution. Typical examples are cited.
48204
Jenkins, Richard E. and Gary D. McCutchen
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS. Environ. Sci.
Technol., 6<10):884-888, Oct. 1972.
The concept and procedure followed in establishing Federal
performance standards for new sources and the standards that
have been established to date are summarized. Air emission
limitations were considered for nine source categories: primary
nonferrous smelters, aluminum reduction plants, kraft paper
mills, gas turbines, coal cleaning plants, phosphate fertilizer
plants, ferroalloy plants, secondary aluminum smelters, and
electric arc steel furnaces. Emission tests were conducted and
standards were set for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particu-
lates, visible emissions, and acid mists from fossil fuel-fired
steam generators, municipal incinerators, Portland cement
plants, nitric acid plants, and sulfuric acid plants. Testing
procedure and data acquisition are described and the emission
test results are listed. Emission improvement required and
costs resulting from the performance standards are presented.
Control equipment is also mentioned.
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45
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
20273
Fletcher, R. H.
KITIMAT POLLUTION CONTROL BY-LAW. Pulp Paper
Mag. Can. (Quebec), 71(7):78-90, April 3, 1970. (Presented at
the 5th Paper Industry Air and Stream Improvement Con-
ference, Toronto, Ontario, Oct. 21-23, 1969.)
Land use in the 16-yr-old town of Kitimat, B. C., was planned
to minimize the conflicts that can exist between residential
areas and industry. Prior to the advent of a pulp and paper
complex with a 930 tpd Kraft mill and a ISO million fbm per
year saw mill, the town's principle industry was an aluminum
smelter. To preserve the quality of its environment, the town
passed a waste emission by-law that requires the monitoring of
selected emissions from the pulp mill and smelter. The law, to
become effective in December 1970, identifies a tolerable level
of pollution which is expected to be met, but no exceeded, by
the two industries. The level of emission from an industry is
related both to the type of equipment used and to the way in
which it is operated. The levels, determined from experience
recorded elsewhere and those found tolerable by local authori-
ties in an assimilation study, are as follows: cinders from
power boilers, 150 gr per 1000 cu ft; sodium compounds, 200
gr per 1000 cu ft. all participate matter; volatile organic sulfur
compounds, 0.2 Ibs/ton; calcium compounds, 250 gr per 1000
cu ft all particulate matter; and volatile fluorine compounds,
2.5 Ibs/ton.
24949
Behle, Calvin A.
INDUSTRY-THE VIEWS OF THE REGULATED. Arizona
Law Rev., 10(1): 74-80, Summer 1968. 19 refs.
Scientific evidence is brining home the fact that perhaps one-
fifth or less of the principal atmospheric pollutants in the
United State is released from manufacturing plants, including
electric power generating complexes. However, industry has
shared the irresponsibility of the rest over the decades, and
the law books contain many interesting reports of the litigation
which hammered out the available legal remedies. In addition
to invocation of the law of nuisance, other remedies available
and effectively employed were actions sounding in trespass for
damage to real property, trespass on the case, and the newer
and somewhat more difficult but flexible action of negligence.
Among the principal considerations involved in the choice of
remedies would be the applicable statute of limitations in the
particular forum. Cases are cited which pertain to smelters, oil
refineries, aluminum interest, and many other lawsuits arising
out of mining and earth processing operations. The National
Association of Manufacturers feels that the federal role should
emphasize the necessary research and development to prevent
and control air pollution, making possible the establishment,
scientifically, of criteria to define which levels of pollutants
are harmful. Then, the executive branch of the government
should have the responsibility of 'leading' rathe than 'driving'
the states and communities to abate and control air pollution.
28014
LEGAL NOTE ... LIABILITY FOR AIR POLLUTION. Public
Health Rept. (U. S.)> 74(2):I04, Feb. 1959. 1 ref.
In a suit for damages resulting from fluoride poisoning al-
legedly caused by the defendant's aluminum reduction plant,
the plaintiff was unable to specify any particular acts of
negligence by the defendant and was compelled to rely on the
legal doctrine of 'res ipsa loquitur' (the thing speaks for itself).
This doctrine, according to which the facts of the occurrence
warrant the inference of negligence, was held applicable by a
court of appeals. The defendant's evidence of reasonable care
was considered insufficient to require finding as a matter of
law that inference of negligence had been overcome.
29598
Toyama Prefecture (Japan), Dept. of Environmental Pollution
PRESENT SITUATION OF ADMINISTRATION CONCERN-
ING POLLUTIONS. (Kogai gyosei no genkyo). Text in
Japanese. 74p., Oct. 1970.
Aluminum smelters and thermal generation stations in the hin-
terland of Toyama prefecture, have signed an agreement with
Toyama Prefecture concerning the prevention of air pollution,
but the problem of air pollution is becoming complicated and
diversified. Although no concentration is as high as the en-
vironmental standard, control was strengthened by amending
K 29.2 to 20.4 and adding five observation stations, and a cen-
tral telemeter monitoring system. Dust collector facilities for
electric furnaces lowered the concentration of exhaust smoke
from electric furnaces to within the range of standard. With
the increase of ferro-alloy, iron, and steel production, on-site
checks will be made and guidance will be given on high effi-
ciency dust collecting equipment. With the revision in the sul-
fur dioxide standard, 56 production facilities, 17% of the fac-
tories under control, no longer qualified. At the moment, the
chimney height is being raised, a switch to LS heavy oi is
being made, and as of the end of March, 1970, about 40% had
completed the improvement. Carbon monoxide checks were
made in 196 at major locations on traffic congestion in two ci-
ties, and they will be continued this year. Since the start of
aluminum productio by Sumitomo Chemical Industry, an
agreement was signed with the company concerning fluorine.
Indicator plants were placed, and on-site checks have been
made. Of the 13 staffs on environmental pollution at the pre-
fectural government, four are in charge of air pollution. Of 192
complaints concerning pollution received in 1969 42 were on
air pollution. Between September 19, 1969 and October 30,
1969, $583.60 was spent on a survey of air pollution by the
prefectural government. As of end of March, 1970, 430 facili-
ties which emit smoke reported in accordance with Air Pollu-
tion Prevention Law. Between 1967 and 1969, nine smaller en-
terprises were given financial aid to improve facilities to
prevent air pollution.
36879
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan) and
Okayama Prefecture (Japan)
REPORT ON THE SECOND CONFERENCE ON THE
MIZUSHIMA AREA AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. (Dainiji
Mizushima chiku taiki osen boshi taisaku kyogikai chosa
hokokusho). Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai (Ind. Public
Nuisance), 7(12):709-723, Dec. 1971.
-------
46
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
Okayama prefecture and Kurashiki city formed the Mizushima
Area Air Pollution Control Council in Sept. 1967 and began a
comprehensive study of the area s air pollution conditions with
the general development plan of the coastal industrial complex
in the Kurashiki-Mizushima area. A pollution monitoring
center was constructed at a central location and the pattern of
pollution and transition were studied since then. In spite of the
fact that the total emission of sulfur dioxide increased between
1967 and 1971 from 2,751.84 N cu m/hr to 7,981.75 N cu m/hr,
the total pollution index has not increased in the area. Up to
1969, high stack emission sources were increased without
decreasing the emission amount from low sources, and no im-
provements had been made on systems at sources. After 1970,
collectivization of low emission sources and the use of low-
sulfur oil progressed and some measure of pollution control
was achieved. As part of the planning for the future develop-
ment, an air pollution prediction was made upon the projected
plan for an area to be newly developed by landfill. Factory
layout, possible industrial classifications, production scales,
and locations were designed; projected classifications were oil
refining, petroleum chemicals, copper refining, aluminum
manufacturing, copper wire stretch formation, special steel,
glass manufacturing, and shipbuilding. Of these eight indus-
tries, three, to six were combined, forming four different com-
binations for simulation tests. Wind tunnel tests were con-
ducted with considerations for seasonal, climatic, fuel, emis-
sion gases. If the average sulfur content in fuels is kept under
0.8%, even with the combinations of multi-industries and with
the conditions of already functioning industries in the sur-
rounding area, the environmental standard could be main-
tained.
46561
Loewa, Ortwin
MOSTLY PROTEST AGAINST CITY PLANNING. (Meist
Proteste gegen die Stadtplanung). Text in German. Umwelt
(Duesseldorf), 2(5):38-42, 1972.
Hamburg is trying to get the help of each resident to combat
environmental pollution. In order to create a green belt in the
city, newlyweds were asked to plant a tree at a point of their
own choice. Unfortunately the trees are threatened by automo-
bile exhaust gases. The erection of an automatic air monitoring
station at a cost of 1 million dollars is planned, as is the use of
electrically driven garbage collection trucks. The planned
erection of an aluminum plant in Stade met heavy opposition
from public authorities. The emitted gases from such a plant
which contain fluorine compounds which would be carried
with the main wind direction East to Pinneberg, which has the
largest tree nursery of the world. Another aluminum plant in
Hamburg itself is scheduled to begin operation in 1973.
Because of the regulations concerning fluorine emissions and
red sludge, this plant will begin operation at a later date. Eight
agencies deal with the protection of the environment. One en-
vironmental protection center coordinates information between
the agencies. Since Mid-May of this year, an advisory panel of
seven representatives of industry, research, and the public has
been created, headed by the mayor of Hamburg. A first report
by this panel concerning environmental protection will come
out in November.
46586
Frankenfeldt, R. £.
COMPARATIVE CONSIDERATION OF THE ENVIRONMEN-
TAL PROTECTION REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE
ALUMINUM INDUSTRY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
(Vergleichende Betrachtungender Vorschriften zum Umwelt-
schutz fuer die Aluminiumindustrie in verschiedenen Laendern).
Text in German. Preprint, Gesellschaft Deutscher Metall-
huetten und Bergleute, Clausthal-Zellerfeld (West Germany),
13p., 1972. (Presented at the Gesselschaft Deutscher Metall-
huetten Bergleute-, Hauptversammlung, Stuttgart, West
Germany, April 26-30, 1972.)
The countries of West Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy,
the Netherlands, Norway, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, and
Spain have laws concerning environmental protection which
are of special interest to the aluminum industry. The laws in
West Germany are listed as example. West Germany, Italy,
Norway, Sweden, and Spain have laws specifically regulating
the fluorine emissions. The regulations differ among the vari-
ous countries. In Germany and in the Netherlands the regula-
tions pertain solely to the emission of gaseous fluorides, this
is, hydrogen fluoride. In Norway and Sweden the regulations
pertain to both gaseous and paniculate fluorine. The maximum
allowable emission in the Netherlands is 0.4 kg gaseous F/t
aluminum. In Norway the maximum allowable emissions are
1.0 and 2.6 kg gaseous and particulate F/t Al. Gaseous F is
damaging to plants and ruminants. The laws and regulations
affect only new industrial plants, with the exception of Ger-
many and the Netherlands where already existing aluminum
plants may have to comply with the law if its emissions affect
the environment in any way. A short-term (0.002 mg gas F/cu
m air) and a long-term (0.005 mg F/cu m) maximum allowable
value will be issued for West Germany. In Italy the value of
0.020 mg gaseous and particulate F/cu m may not be exceeded
during 24-hour measurements and 0.060 mg gas and particulate
F/cu m during 30-minute measurements.
-------
47
N. GENERAL
14783
Popescu,C.
NEW CONTROL METHODS FOR THE GATHERING AND
TREATMENT OF GASES WITH FLUORINE CONTENT
FROM ALUMINA ELECTROLYSIS. (Methode noi de control
la captarea si tiatarea gazelor cu continut de fluor de la elec-
troliza aluminei). Text in Romanian. Rev. Chim. (Bucharest),
vol. 20:445-447, July 1969. 2 refs.
By developing new methods of determining the content of
NaF, NaAlO2, and Na2SO4 in the wash water used for
recovering HP, it is possible to reduce by half the time
required for checking the recovery process in the aluminum
plant laboratory. Detection of NaF is by titration of a solution
adjusted to a pH of 2.7 with Th(NO3)4 in the presence of
Alizarine S. The NaAlO2 is titrated with a IN solution of HCI
until permanent turbidity is reached, then titrated with
bromothymol blue until greenish-yellow. The sulfate is deter-
mined by titration with BaC12 dissolved in acetone or alcohol,
in an acetic acid milieu, with Alizarine S as an indicator.
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
ABEL E D-14066, H-23579
ABLE E H-13838
ADAMO R J *B-47274
ADAMS F W
AMBROSI L
AMBRUSJ
AMBRUS, 3
AVER F A
H-45663
G-14319
A-17116
G-06241
J-30696
B
BAEVSKO V A B-37544
BALAZOVA G A-17116, 'G-13700,
•G-14112, 'G-19880, *G-37S69,
•G-37684, "H-25665
BALAZOVA, G G-06241, 'G-10203
BALAZOVJECHOVA. L G-10203
BALL D F 'B-30519
BARTOSOVA. L G-06241
BEHLE C A 'L-24949
BEIGHTON, J *B-07925
BENDER R J *B-38823
BINGHAM T E J-30696
BOBBIO G G-40635
BOEHLEN B 'B-23370
BOEHLEN, B 'A-12622
BOLAY A E-15604, 'H-32S36, 'H-32539
BONDAREVA E N G-17642
BORENSTE1N, M -B-07815
BORISENKO N A A-42731
BOURBON P *D-39182
BOVAY E 'E-15604, «H-32535, H-32536,
H-32539, H-32897
BOYD, G A-07650
BOYEV I YA 'C-4I064
BROOKS C L B-47274
BUGAYEV V P C-41064
BULGAKOVA N G A-42731
BURKAT V S *B-37S44
CALACETO, R R B-06587
CARLSON C E -H-45604
CAVAGNA G 'G-I43I9, *G-40635
CHERKASSKIY M L B-38874
CISZEK H E-37639
CLAYPOOL D W H-45663
COCHRAN C N "B-22853
COLOMBINI M "A-I3701. "G-13215
COLPITTS J W B-31567
COMEAU G H-36883
COMMONER B 'A-32483
COMPTON O C 'H-19124, -H-19358.
•H-22085, 'H-22092, 'H-45663
COOK C C B-19487, *B-31567, 'B-36755
CORMIS L D 'H-23386
CORR M A-32483
CRAMPTON, E W 'H-09553
CRISTIANI H *G-39799
D
DAHLQUIST E 'B-31644
DAMON W A -B-24743
DANBY N P H-40472
DAWSON P R B-30519
DESBAUMES E C-40705
DESBAUMES P *C-40705. -H-32897
DESCOLAS J 'B^SllS
DEWEY I E H-45604
DOBBS C G "A-47061
DOLGNER R G-31319
DONOSO J J "B-22566
DUBROVINA Z V G-17642
ELLERTSON F E H-19124
ELLIOTT S H-45663
ERGA O «B-13676
ERGA, O *B-I0372
FARKAS, L A-07650
FESENKO L A A-45420
FIALKOV YU G *B-38874
FILATOVA, A S 'C-03940
FLETCHER R H 'L-20273
FOGEL M E J-30696
FRANK W B B-22853
FRANKENFELDT R E 'L-46586
FREDRIKSEN H 'J-48171
FUJIWARA M 'B-16537
FUMIO T C-38905
GAUTIER R G-39799
GELPERIN N I *B-26317
GERSTLE R W J-30696
GROMOV B P B-38874
GRUBER G I B-45078, J-39910
GUDBRIAN R 'H-38017
GUENTHER K H H-32516
H
HAJDUK J 'H-14678. 'H-36996
HANEDA M 'C-38905
HANNA T R 'C-43371
HATCHARD, R E B-05601
HEMMING C 'B-43840
HICKEY, H R 'B-11686
HIGH DM A-45858
HILL E L J-30696
HLUCHAN E A-17116, 'D-14066,
H-13838. 'H-23579, H-2S665
HLUCHAN, E G-06241
HOEKE B *B-17463
HOEKE E 'B-47463
HOELTE W H-46721
HUFFMAN W T -H-40201
HYNES, J A-07650
IL INSKAYA G I A-4273!
IMHOFF C C-40705
IVERSEN R E -B-43299, B-44838
IVOS J *E-37639
JACQUARD F E-16567
JANOVICOVA J G-06241, H-25661
JENKINS R E -K-48204
JUENG C F -B-20366
K
KANTERMIROVA, A E G-11482
KATO Y 'B-21324
KAYDALOV I V B-38775
KAZANSKAYA, R M G-11482
KAZANTSEVA E N *H-22496, 'H-26978
KIELBACK A W *B-16962
KIRILCUKOVA V G-06241
KIRILCUKOVA, V G-10203
KLYUSHKIN V P A-42731
KNABE W 'H-32516
KNAPP L L 'B-19487
KNOP W 'A-17471,'K-14443
KOMLEV A A B-38188
KONOPKA A P 'B-32319
KOPP C H-18269
KRYUKOV, A S G-11482
KULEVA, N P G-11482
KUNIDA H G-38942
KUZ MINYKH, A I C-03940
KVARTOVKINA, L K 'G-11482
LARGENT E J 'H-38417
LEBLANC F -H-36883
LEDER L B-38082
LELOCZKY M 'G-33766
LELYUK V P 'A-45420
LEMOINE R 'C-44689
LESOURD D A M-30696
LESS L N *A-44605
LEVKOV E G A-42731
LEVKOV YE G A-45420, C-41064
LEVKOV A A S A-42731, C-41064
LEZOVIC J 'H-13203
LIMANSKH V A A-42731
LIMANSK1Y V A C-41064
LINDBERG G 'H-2S195
LINDBERG W 'D-33309
LOBOS J S 'B-424S8
LOCATIG G-14319
LOEWA O 'L-46561
LUKEY M E 'A-45858
LUSK W D B-45078, J-39910
LYONS A L 'B-22983
-------
50
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
M
MACINTIRE W H *H-38404
MACUCH P G-I3700. 'H-13838
MACUCH, P -G-06241
MAKARETS G N B-16446
MALAKHINA A YA -C-37107
MALTS V S B-38874
MARJANOVIC L J E-37639
MARK W V D 'A-34484
MARSH R K H-45663
MARTIN J F 'E-16567
MATSUDA N -B-19210
MATSUMOTO H B-339I8
MAURI C A-13701, G-13215
MAYER J D-14066, H-13838. H-23579
MCCABE L C 'A-24I16
MCCLAIN R S 'B-32963
MCCUTCHEN G D K-48204
MCDOWELL L L H-19124
MCGEER J P B-42458
MEERSON, E A G-11482
MELLENTHIN W M H-19124, H-193S8,
H-22085. H-22092
MONTERIOLO S C 'C-30958
MOSER E 'C-29738
MOSER, E H-04368
MUHLRAD W 'B-395I9
N
NAKAMURA K * A-3193 5
NELSON K W 'A-30447
NEURY J H-32536
NEUSTEIN S A *H-40472
NICHOLS G B A-26441
o
OGLESBY S JR 'A-26441
OKUMURA E 'B-33918
OLIVO R A-13701, G-13215
OTLOWSKI, G J 'A-07650
OTT, R R 'B-05601
PALUCH J 'H-33906
PEPE A C-30958
PILAT M J A-25135. C-43371
PLAGNAT F 'H-39684
POPESCU C -N-14783
QUINCHE J P
QUINCHE P
H-32539
H-32536
RADCZEWSKI O E *C-17098
RAO D N H-36883
REINHARD H 'A-23580
REMMERT L F H-19124, H-19358,
H-22083, H-22092
REZEK A E-37639
RIPPEL A A-17116, G-13700, G-14I12,
G- 19880, *H-20872, 'H-25661.
•H-37480, 'H-39159
RITCHER P O H-19124
ROBINSON J M 'B-45078, -J-39910
ROSSANO A T JR 'A-2S135
ROTHMAN, S C *B-01687
RUSSELL J C B-44838
RYAGUZOV V N *B-3877S
RYAN K B- 13676
RYAN, K B-10372
SADILOVA, M C *G-10333
SAFONOV V N 'A-42731
SANDERSON D P B-42458
SANTY M J B-45078, J-39910
SASAKI K G-38942
SCHALENKOWA I H-33906
SCHLEICHER A R J-30696
SCHLIPKOETER H W 'G-31319
SCHMITT, H 'H-04368
SCHOENBECH H *H-46721
SCHREIBER M 'J-29923
SCHWEGMANN J C 'B-38082
SELIANKINA, K P G-10333
SELIGMAN R 'F-39861
SEMRAU, K T 'H-05871
SHAPOSHNIKOV YU K C-37107
SHTURKINA, O K G-10333
SLEPPY W C B-22853
SMITH P V *B-36552
SOBOCKY E 'H-21062
SOLNTSEV S S 'A-23022
SOLOMENNIKOVA, N S C-03940
SPECHT, R C 'B-06587
STAMLER P J A-32483
STEINEGGER S »G-13837, 'G-37282
STICKNEY W A B-32963
STRATMANN H H-38017
STUEWE A H TA-24370
SULLIVAN G V B-32963
SWANY G R B-31567, B-36755
SWIEBODA M 'H-46217
SYRDAL A B-13676
SYRDAL, A K B-10372
TAKAHASHI N 'A-40182
TARANNIKOVA, O I G-11482
TARASOV V M B-26317
TARAT E YA B-37544
TAUDA F 'G-26136
TELLER. A J 'B-05090
TEWORTE W -A-30296
TEWORTE W M «A-25178
TIL KOV M I C-37107
TOMANY J P 'B-18002, 'B-18255,
•B-39434
TOMSON N M 'G-17642
TRAUTWEIN K 'H-18269
TRESHOW M 'H-38568
TRIPLETT G "C-33045
TSUJI Y *G-28754
TSUNODA F 'G-23003, *G-26846,
•G-38942, *G-40527
TSUNODA H -G-19215, G-28754
TSURENKO M T B-37544
VALDBERG A YU B-26317
VAN HAUT H H-38017
VEDERNIKOVA, F D C-03940
V1VOLI G A-13701, G-13215
VORONIN E M B-37544
VOYTOV V T 'D-37823
VYPOV A I *B-1«
WADDINGTON J A-44605
WAKI K *B-44343
WILLIAMS C R 'H-26258
WITTBOLD H A B-17463
WOOD J H H-45663
ZHULIN N V 'B-38188
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
51
ABATEMENT A-47061, B-16537, B-24743,
J-46362, L-24949, L-29598, L-36879,
L-46561
ABSORPTION A-25135, A-2S178, B-10372,
B-13676. B-17463, B-18255, B-30519,
B-33918. B-42458, B-43299, C-40705,
G-19880, G-31319, H-04368. H-20872,
H-23386. H-32S39, H-32897, H-38404,
H-38417
ABSORPTION (GENERAL) B-33918
ACETONE C-37107
ACETYLENES B-07925
ACIDS A-07650, A-1747I. A-24116,
A-24370, A-25178, A-26441, A-30296,
A-31935, A-39462, A-42676, A-44490,
A-44605, A-458S8, B-05090, B-06587,
B-07925, B-13676, B-16962, B-18002,
B-19487, B-20248, B-22853, B-23370,
B-26317, B-30519, B-31567, B-33918,
B-37544, B-38874, B-39434, B-42458,
B-43299, B-44343, B-44838, B-4S078,
C-15372, C-29738, C-30958, C-40705,
D-37823, D-39182, E-16567, G-10333,
G-28754, G-31319, H-05871. H-23386.
H-32535, H-32S36, H-38017, H-38404,
H-38417, H-39684, H-40472. H-46721,
J-30696, J-39910, K-48204, L-46586
ACUTE H-14678, H-40472
ADMINISTRATION B-I6446, B-16537,
B-20248. D-14066, D-33309, E-37639.
H-45663, L-24949, L-29598, L-36879,
L-46561
ADSORPTION B-19487, B-22853
ADULTS G-28754, G-38942
ADVISORY SERVICES L-29598, L-46561
AERODYNAMICS H-04368
AEROSOLS A-42676, B-05601, C-43371
AFTERBURNERS A-39462, B-07925,
B-16537, B-30519
AGE G-10203, G-11482, G-26846, G-28754,
G-37569, G-38942, H-32516
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT
PROGRAMS D-33309, E-37639,
H-45663, L-29598, L-36879, L-46561
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
A-13701, A-17116, A-42731, A-44490,
B-47274, C-I4897, C-17098, C-30958,
C-37107, D-14066, D-27254, D-33309,
D-37823, D-39182, E-37639, G-17642,
G-19215, H-13838, H-22085, H-32897,
H-38417, H-39159, H-45663. L-36879
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS A-25135,
B-01687, B-30519, D-37823, H-38568,
K-14443. L-29598, L-36879, L-46586
ALFALFA H-22092
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS B-07925,
C-37107
ALKALINE ADDITIVES B-17463,
B-20248, B-39434. B-44838
ALKALIZED ALUMINA (ADSORPTION)
B-36755
ALLERGIES G-40635
ALTITUDE D-14066, H-32516, H-36996
ALUMINUM OXIDES A-17471, A-24116,
A-44605, B-18002, B-20248, B-22853,
B-22983, B-28320, B-31567. B-31644,
B-39434, B-42458, B-44838, D-39182.
E-16567, F-3986I
AMMONIA A-45858
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS A-45858
ANALYTICAL METHODS A-34484,
A-42731, B-20248, C-03940, C-17098,
C-309S8, C-37107, C-40705, C-41064,
D-39182, H-18269, H-32897, N-14783
ANIMALS A-31935. A-34484, B-06587,
D-33309, G-10333, G-13215, G-13700,
G-14319, G-39799, G-40527, G-40635,
H-05871, H-09SS3, H-13203, H-18269,
H-25665, H-26258, H-33906, H-37480,
H-38417, H-40201, H-45604, J-39910
ANNUAL B-35115, D-27254, E-37639,
H-13838, H-39684
ANTHRACENES C-37107
APPLES H-32536
AREA SURVEYS D-33309. E-37639,
H-45663, L-29598, L-36879
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS A-42731,
B-07925. C-03940, C-37107
ARSENIC COMPOUNDS A-40182,
K-14443
ASHES B-07925, D-33309
ASIA A-31935, A-40182, B-16537,
B-19210, B-21324, B-33918, B-44343,
C-38905, D-27254, G-19215, G-23003.
G-26136, G-26846, G-28754, G-38942.
G-40S27. L-29S98, L-36879
ASPHALT A-39462, C-33045, J-30696
ASPIRATORS C-40705
ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS A-07650,
E-16567, E-37639, H-25195, H-25661,
H-36996
AUTOMATIC METHODS C-29738,
D-27254
AUTOMOBILES D-27254, G-31319.
J-30696
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL
J-30696
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS D-27254,
G-31319, L-29598, L-46561
B
BAFFLES B-43299, B-45078
BAG FILTERS A-25135, A-43271,
A-44490, B-07815, B-07925, B-19487,
B-21324, B-22853, B-30519, B-31567,
B-32319, B-35115, B-36755, B-38823.
B-39434, B-43299
BARLEY H-36996
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES A-26441,
B-07925, B-38823, C-33045
BENZENES A-42731, B-07925, C-37107
BENZO(3-4)PYRENE C-03940
BENZOPYRENES C-03940, C-37107
BERYLLIOSIS C-03940
BERYLLIUM H-05871
BESSEMER CONVERTERS C-33045
BIOCHMATOLOGY H-38568
BIOPSY G-37282, G-40635
BIRDS H-25665
BLAST FURNACES A-26441, A-45858,
B-32319, B-35115. B-48423. C-33045.
H-05871
BLOOD CELLS G-06241, G-10203,
G-11482, G-13215, G-13700, G-14112,
G-19880, G-28754, G-37569, H-13203
BLOOD CHEMISTRY G-06241. G-10203,
G-13215, G-37569
BLOOD VESSELS G-14319, G-40635
BODY FLUIDS G-13215
BOILERS B-07925, B-36552, J-30696
BONES A-13701, A-31935, G-10203,
G-13215, G-13700, G-26846, G-28754,
G-31319, G-37684, G-38942, H-13203,
H-18269, H-33906, H-38417, H-40201
BORON COMPOUNDS H-32539
BREATHING G-37569
BRICKS B-06587, B-19210, H-05871.
J-30696
BRONCHITIS G-11482
BUBBLE TOWERS B-07925, B-43299,
B-45078
BUDGETS B-20248, L-29S98
BUILDINGS E-37639
BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY A-25178,
A-30296, A-35381, A-35S92, B-07815,
B-13676, B-17463. B-19210. B-22853.
B-31567, B-32963, B-36755, B-43840,
N-14783
CABBAGE H-13203
CADMIUM COMPOUNDS A-17471,
A-40182, K-14443
CALCIUM COMPOUNDS A-30296,
A-35592, A-42731, B-38188, B-42287,
C-29738, D-27254, E-16567, H-05871.
H-22092, H-38404, L-20273
CANADA B-16962. B-42458. H-09553.
H-36883, L-20273
CARBON BLACK A-26441. A-39462,
A-45858, B-32963, C-41064
CARBON DIOXIDE A-24370, B-16962,
B-43299, F-39861
CARBON DISULFIDE B-07925, B-30519.
B-43299
CARBON MONOXIDE A-42676, B-01687,
B-16962, B-30519, B-43299, B-47274,
D-27254. F-39861. G-31319. J-30696,
L-29598
CARBONATES B-20248. E-16567
CARBONYLS B-30519, B-43299
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN G-31319
CASCADE SAMPLERS A-42731, C-43371
CATALYSIS C-41064
CATALYSTS C-41064
CATALYTIC AFTERBURNERS B-0792S
CATALYTIC OXIDATION A-35381
CATTLE A-31935. B-06587, D-33309,
H-09553, H-13203, H-18269, H-25665,
H-26258. H-37480, H-38417, H-40201
CELL GROWTH G-31319
CELL METABOLISM H-38568
-------
52
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
CELLS G-06241, G-10203, G-11482.
G-13215. G-13700, G-14112, G-19880,
G-28754, G-37569, H-13203
CEMENTS A-26441, A-32483, A-39462,
B-16446. B-19210, C-33045, H-05871,
H-38017, H-40201,1-30696,1-39910.
J-48171, K-48204
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS A-39462,
A-43271, B-05601, B-06587, B-22853,
B-22983, B-23370, B-30519, B-3I567.
B-32319. B-38082, B-43299, B-44343,
B-44838, B-45078
CERAMICS A-30296, B-06587, B-07925,
B-45078, G-26846, H-38568
CHAMBER PROCESSING B-07925
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION A-42731,
C-37107, H-39159, H-45663
CHEMICAL METHODS A-34484,
A-42731. C-41064. D-39182, H-I8269,
H-32897
CHEMICAL REACTIONS A-24116,
A-26441. B-11686, B-42458. G-40527,
H-05871
CHILDREN A-13701, A-17116, G-06241.
G-10203. G-10333, G-11482, G-13700,
G-13837. G-14112, G-19880. G-33766,
G-37569, G-37684, G-38942. G-40635
CHLORIDES A-42676, B-22566. B-39434,
H-22092
CHLORINE A-45858, B-0781S, B-18255,
B-36552, B-39434. B-47274, J-46362
CHLORINE COMPOUNDS A-42676,
B-18002, B-22566, B-39434, D-27254.
H-22092
CHLOROSIS H-38568
CHROMATOGRAPHY C-37107
CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS B-39519
CHRONIC G-10333, G-26I36, G-37569,
G-39799, H-38417, H-40201, H-40472
CINDERS L-20273
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM G-10203,
G-14319. G-28754, G-4063S
CLAY A-39462, B-45078, J-39910
CLEAN AIR ACT B-07925
COAL A-39462, A-45858, B-07925,
B-36552. B-45078. C-33045, D-27254,
G-26136, J-30696, K-48204
COAL PREPARATION B-20248
COAL TARS A-44490, B-30S19, D-33309,
D-39182
CODES K-14443
COKE A-26441, A-43271, B-07925,
B-38188, B-38823, B-43840, D-39182
COLLECTORS A-24116. A-31935,
A-39462. A-43271, B-05601, B-06587,
B-21324, B-22853, B-22983, B-23370,
B-30519. B-31567, B-32319, B-36552,
B-36755, B-38082, B-43299, B-44343,
B-44838, B-45078, J-29923, J-48171,
L-29598
COLORIMETRY A-42731, N-14783
COMBUSTION A-45420, B-24743
COMBUSTION GASES A-12622, A-23022,
A-26441, A-42676, A-45858, B-07925,
B-I3676, B-17463, B-20366, B-22566,
B-26317. B-30519, B-31567, B-32963,
B-33918, B-365S2. B-37544, B-38082,
B-39434, B-42287, B-45078, B-47274,
B-47463, C-14897, C-309S8, C-33045.
C-43371, E-37639, G-31319, G-40527,
G-40635. H-23386, H-2519J. H-32535,
H-32S39, H-37480. H-38017, H-38404.
H-38417, H-39684, J-39910, K-14443,
L-20273, L-29S98, L-36879
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS A-12622.
A-23022. A-26441, A-30447, A-42676,
A-45858, B-07925, B-13676, B-17463,
B-20366. B-22566, B-26317, B-30519,
B-31567. B-32963, B-33918, B-36552,
B-37544. B-38082. B-39434, B-42287,
B-45078, B-47274, B-47463, C-14897,
C-30958, C-33045. C-43371, D-33309.
E-37639, G-31319, G-40527, G-40635,
H-23386. H-25195, H-32535, H-32539,
H-37480, H-38017, H-38404. H-38417,
H-39684, J-39910, K-14443, L-20273,
L-29598, L-36879
COMMERCIAL FIRMS B-43840, L-29598
COMPLAINTS G-11482, L-29598
COMPRESSED GASES B-38775
CONCRETE C-33045
CONDENSATION A-45420
CONDENSATION (ATMOSPHERIC)
C-14897
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS A-26441,
A-32483, A-39462. B-06587, B-16446,
B-19210. B-45078, C-33045, H-05871,
H-38017, H-40201, J-30696, J-39910,
J-48171, K-48204
CONTACT PROCESSING B-07925
CONTINUOUS MONITORING B-07925,
B-20248,G-10333
CONTROL AGENCIES L-46561
CONTROL EQUIPMENT A-12622,
A-24116, A-25135, A-26441, A-30296,
A-30447. A-31935, A-39462, A-42731,
A-43271, A-44490, A-45420, B-01687,
B-05090, B-05601, B-06587, B-07815.
B-07925, B-10372, B-11686, B-13676,
B-16446, B-16S37, B-16962, B-17463,
B-18002, B-18255, B-19210, B-19487,
B-20248. B-20366, B-21324, B-22566,
B-22853. B-22983. B-23370, B-26317,
B-28320, B-30519, B-31567, B-31644,
B-32319, B-33918, B-35I15, B-36552,
B-36755, B-37293, B-37S44, B-38082,
B-38188, B-38823, B-38874, B-39434,
B-39519, B-42287, B-42458, B-43299,
B-44343, B-44838, B-45078, B-47463,
B-48423, C-15372, C-29738, C-33045,
C-38905, C-41064, D-37823, G-26136,
G-40527. H-04368, H-25195, H-32897,
H-38017, J-29923, J-39910, J-46362,
J-48171, L-29598, L-36879
CONTROL METHODS A-24116, A-24370,
A-25135, A-25178, A-30296, A-30447,
A-34484, A-35381, A-35592, A-42676,
B-01687. B-05601, B-07815, B-07925,
B-10372, B-13676, B-17463, B-18255,
B-19210. B-19487, B-20248, B-20366,
B-22566, B-22853, B-23370, B-24743.
B-30519, B-31567, B-32963, B-33918,
B-35115, B-36755, B-37293, B-38082,
B-38188, B-38775, B-38823, B-39434.
B-42458, B-43299, B-43840. B-44838,
B-47274, B-48423, C-14897, C-15372,
C-40705, G-19880, G-31319, H-04368,
H-20872, H-23386, H-32539, H-32897,
H-38404, H-38417, H-38568, J-29923,
J-30696, J-39910, J-46362, N-14783
CONTROL PROGRAMS B-20248,
D-33309, L-29598, L-36879, L-46561
COOLING A-23022
COPPER A-17471, A-30447, A-34916,
A-39462, A-42676, A-43271, B-07815,
B-07925, B-32319, B-38823, B-48423,
C-33045. H-38017, J-30696, L-36879
COPPER ALLOYS A-30447, A-42676,
B-07815,C-33045
COPPER COMPOUNDS A-26441,
A-30447, B-07925, K-14443
CORROSION B-20366
COSTS A-25178, A-26441. A-34921,
A-35381, A-39462, B-01687. B-10372,
B-23370. B-30519, B-31567, B-32319.
B-35115. B-36755, B-38823, B-43299,
B-44838, B-45078, J-29923, J-30696.
J-39910, J-46362, J-48171, K-48204
COTTON GINNING A-39462
CRITERIA A-44490, A-45420, B-10372,
B-35115, L-24949
CROP SPRAYING H-22092, H-32536,
H-38568
CROPS A-23580, D-33309, G-19215,
G-31319. H-04368, H-18269, H-20872.
H-22092, H-22496, H-23386, H-26978.
H-36996, H-38404, H-38417, H-39159,
H-40201. H-45663
CUMULATIVE METHODS D-33309
CUPOLAS A-26441, B-07925, C-33045
CYANIDES A-40182
CZECHOSLOVAKIA A-17116, D-14066,
G-06241, G-10203, G-13700, G-19880,
G-37569. G-37684. H-13203, H-13838.
H-14678, H-20872, H-21062, H-23579,
H-25661, H-25665, H-36996, H-37480,
H-39159
D
DATA HANDLING SYSTEMS B-44838
DECISIONS L-28014
DENSITY B-37544, B-38874
DEPOSITION H-38417, H-38568
DESIGN CRITERIA A-26441, B-05090,
B-07925. B-13676, B-16962, B-18002,
B-18255. B-20366, B-22983, B-31567,
B-31644. B-33918, B-38874, B-42287,
H-04368
DESULFURIZATION OF FUELS
B-20248. C-14897
DETERGENT MANUFACTURING
A-32483, A-45858
DIAGNOSIS G-37282, G-40635
DIFFRACTION C-17098
DIFFUSION A-34484, H-45604
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM G-10203, G-19880
DIOLEFINS B-07925
DISPERSION A-34484, A-42731, E-15604,
E-37639, H-32516, H-32897, H-45604
DIURNAL C-30958, D-27254
DOMESTIC HEATING D-33309, G-31319,
J-30696
DRY CLEANING A-45858
DRYING B-38775
DUST FALL A-17116, D-27254, D-33309,
H-13838
DUSTS A-12622, A-17116, A-17471,
A-26441, A-39462, A-40182, A-42676,
A-42731, A-43271, A-44490, A-44605,
A-45420, B-OS601, B-07925, B-13676,
B-16446. B-17463, B-22983, B-23370,
B-30519, B-31644, B-32319, B-32963,
B-33918, B-35115, B-38082, B-38874,
B-39519, B-47463, B-48423, C-17098,
C-29738, C-37107, C-41064, D-33309,
D-39182, G-14319, G-31319, G-40527,
G-40635, H-04368, H-36996, H-38417,
J-46362, J-48171, K-14443, L-29598
ECONOMIC LOSSES H-18269
ELECTRIC FURNACES A-12622,
A-26441, A-45858, B-07925, B-39519,
C-33045, H-05871, K-48204, L-29598
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
53
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
A-26441, A-32483, A-39462, B-01687.
B-07925, B-21324, B-36552, B-45078.
D-33309, J-30696, J-39910, K-48204.
L-29598
ELECTRIC PROPULSION L-46S61
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES A-42731,
B-31644, B-35115
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE A-42731.
B-35115
ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
A-34464, C-41064
ELECTROLYSIS A-23022, A-24116.
A-30447, A-42676, A-44605, A-4S420,
B-13676, B-23370, B-24743, B-26317,
B-30519, B-38082, B-3877S. B-38874,
B-44343. C-03940, C-41064, D-272J4,
D-37823, F-39861, H-26978
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY C-17098
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
A-25135, A-26441. A-39462, A-42731,
A-43271, A-44490, A-4S420, B-01687,
B-0792S, B-16446, B-20248, B-228S3,
B-22983, B-23370, B-28320, B-30519.
B-31567, B-31644, B-32319, B-35115,
B-36552, B-36755, B-37544, B-38188.
B-38823, B-43299, B-44343, B-44838,
B-45078, J-29923, J-48171
EMISSION INVENTORIES A-13701
EMISSION STANDARDS B-01687.
B-38823, J-30696, K-48204, L-20273,
L-46586
EMISS1VITY C-03940
ENCAPSULATION B-38082
ENGINE EXHAUSTS D-27254, G-31319
ENZYMES G-13215
EPIDEMIOLOGY G-23003, G-26846,
G-28754, G-38942
EPITHELIUM G-14319
EQUIPMENT CRITERIA B-10372,
B-35115
ETHYLENE B-07925
EUROPE A-13701, A-17116, A-17471,
A-23022, A-23S80, A-25178, A-30296,
A-34484, A-42731, A-44605, A-45420,
A-47061, B-05090, B-07925, B-10372,
B-13676, B-16446, B-16537, B-17463,
B-24743, B-26317, B-28320, B-30519,
B-31644, B-3S115, B-37293, B-37544,
B-38188, B-38775, B-38874, B-39519,
B-42287, B-47463, C-03940, C-14897,
C-15372, C-17098, C-29738. C-30958,
C-37107, C-40705, C-41064, C-44689,
D-14066, D-33309, D-37823, D-39182,
E-15604, E-16567. E-37639, F-39861,
G-06241, G-10203, G-10333, G-11482,
G-13215, G-13700, G-13837, G-14112,
G-14319, G-17642, G-19880, G-31319,
G-33766, G-37282, G-37569, G-37684,
G-39799, G-40635, H-04368, H-13203,
H-13838. H-14678, H-20872, H-21062,
H-22496, H-23386, H-23579, H-2S195,
H-25661, H-25665. H-26978, H-32516,
H-32535, H-32536, H-32539, H-32897.
H-33906, H-36996, H-37480, H-38017,
H-39159, H-39684, H-40472, H-46721,
J-29923, J-46362. J-48171, K-14443,
L-46561, L-46586, N-14783
EXCRETIONS G-13700, G-37569
EXHAUST SYSTEMS A-24116, A-44490,
B-01687, B-20366, B-38082, D-37823,
H-04368, J-39910
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS H-18269
EXPLOSIONS B-38775
EXPOSURE CHAMBERS H-32516
EXPOSURE METHODS G-39799
EYE IRRITATION G-23003
FANS (BLOWERS) B-01687, B-20366
FARMS G-26846, G-38942
FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS B-07925,
K-48204, L-24949
FEMALES A-13701, G-40635
FERROALLOYS A-39462. A-43271,
K-48204
FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING
A-31935. A-34484, A-35592, A-39462,
B-19210, G-26136, G-26846, H-26258.
H-32897, H-33906, H-38017, H-38404,
H-38417, H-40201, H-46217, K-48204
FERTILIZING B-05090, B-06587, H-21062,
H-32536, H-32539
FILTER FABRICS A-30296, A-39462,
B-19210. B-20248, B-22566, B-28320,
B-32319, B-45078, C-33045, C-41064,
H-38017, J-39910, L-36879
FILTERS A-25135, A-30296, A-39462.
A-43271, A-44490, B-07815, B-07925,
B-I1686, B-19210, B-19487, B-20248,
B-21324, B-22566, B-22853, B-28320,
B-30519, B-31567, B-32319, B-35115,
B-36552, B-36755, B-38823, B-39434,
B-43299, B-45078, C-29738, C-33045,
C-38905, C-41064, H-04368, H-32897,
H-38017, J-39910, J-46362, L-36879
FIRING METHODS B-07925, B-43840
FLAME AFTERBURNERS B-07925
FLARES B-07925
FLOW RATES A-45858, B-37544,
B-38874, B-39434, C-33045, C-41064.
C-44689
FLUID FLOW A-45858, B-05090, B-37544.
B-38874, B-39434, C-33045, C-41064,
C-44689
FLUORESCENCE A-42731, C-03940,
C-37107, D-33309
FLUORIDES A-07650, A-12622, A-17471,
A-23022, A-25135, A-302%, A-30447,
A-31935, A-34484, A-35592, A-40182,
A-44490, B-01687, B-OS090, B-OS601,
B-06587, B-07815, B-10372, B-11686,
B-16962, B-17463, B-19210, B-22853,
B-28320, B-30519, B-31567, B-33918,
B-36755, B-37544, B-38188, B-42287,
B-43299, B-43840, B-44838, B-45078,
C-14897, C-29738, C-30958, C-38905,
C-44689, D-14066, D-33309, D-37823,
D-39182, E-15604, E-37639, F-39861,
G-06241, G-10203, G-10333, G-13215.
G-13700, G-14319, G-17642, G-19215,
G-23003, G-26136, G-26846, G-28754.
G-37282, G-37569, G-40527, G-4063S,
H-04368, H-05871, H-09553, H-13203,
H-J13838, H-20872, H-22092, H-23579,
H-25195, H-26258, H-36883, H-36996,
H-37480, H-38017, H-38417, H-38568,
H-39159, H-40472, H-45604, H-46721,
J-30696, J-48171, L-28014, N-14783
FLUORINATED HYDROCARBONS
A-23022, A-30296
FLUORINE A-47061, B-05090, B-17463,
B-30519, B-31567, B-35115, B-36552,
B-37293, B-3877S, B-42287, C-29738,
G-10203, G-19880, G-33766, G-37684,
G-38942, G-40527, G-40635, H-04368,
H-05871, H-09553, H-21062, H-22085.
H-22092, H-32535, H-32536, H-32539,
H-32897, H-36996, H-40472, J-29923,
J-39910, L-29598, L-46586
FLUORINE COMPOUNDS A-07650,
A-12622, A-13701, A-17116, A-17471,
A-23022, A-23580, A-25135, A-25178,
A-30296, A-30447, A-31935, A-34484.
A-35592, A-40182. A-42676, A-42731,
A-44490, A-44605, A-47061. B-01687,
B-05090, B-05601, B-06587, B-07815,
B-07925, B-10372, B-11686, B-16962,
B-17463, B-19210, B-22853, B-23370,
B-28320, B-30519, B-31567, B-32963,
B-33918, B-36755. B-37293, B-37544,
B-38082, B-38188. B-38775, B-38874,
B-42287. B-43299, B-43840. B-44838,
B-45078, B-47463, C-14897, C-17098.
C-29738. C-30958. C-38905. C-40705,
C-41064, C-44689, D-14066, D-27254,
D-33309, D-37823, D-39182, E-15604.
E-37639, F-39861, G-06241, G-10203,
G-10333, G-13215, G-13700. G-14112,
G-14319, G-17642, G-19215, G-23003,
G-26136, G-26846, G-28754, G-37282,
G-37569, G-38942, G-39799, G-40527,
G-40635, H-04368, H-05871, H-09553.
H-13203, H-13838, H-14678, H-18269,
H-19124, H-19358, H-20872, H-22092,
H-22496, H-23386, H-23579, H-25195,
H-25661, H-25665, H-26258, H-26978,
H-32516, H-33906, H-36883, H-36996,
H-37480, H-38017, H-38404, H-38417,
H-38568, H-39159, H-39684, H-40201.
H-40472, H-45604, H-45663, H-46217,
H-46721, J-30696, J-39910, J-48171,
L-20273, L-28014. L-46561, L-46586,
N-14783
FLUOROSIS B-06587, B-30519, D-33309,
G-10203, G-19215, G-26136, G-37282,
G-37569, G-38942, G-39799, G-40527,
G-40635, H-09553, H-18269, H-25665,
H-32S36, H-32539, H-33906. H-38417,
H-40201
FLY ASH A-26441, A-39462, B-07925,
B-36552
FOG C-14897
FOOD AND FEED OPERATIONS
A-39462, A-45858, C-33045, H-09553.
J-30696. J-48171
FOODS A-47061, G-37684, G-38942,
G-40S27, H-09553, H-13203, H-37480,
H-39159
FORESTS H-21062, H-32516, H-39684,
H-4S604, H-46217
FRACTIONATION A-24370
FRANCE B-35115, B-39519, C-14897,
C-44689, D-39182, E-15604, E-16567,
H-23386, H-39684. L-46586
FRUITS A-13701. E-15604, G-13700,
H-13203, H-19358, H-20872, H-22085,
H-22092, H-32535, H-32536, H-32S39
FUEL GASES A-45858, B-07925, C-14897,
C-33045
FUEL OILS A-45858, B-07925, C-33045.
L-29598
FUELS A-26441. A-39462, A-43271,
A-45858, B-07925, B-24743, B-36552,
B-38188, B-38823, B-43840, B-45078,
C-14897, C-33045, D-27254. D-39182,
G-26136, J-30696, K-48204, L-29598,
L-36879
FUMES A-24116, A-43271, A-44490,
A-44605, B-01687, B-05601, B-07815,
B-07925, B-16537, B-18002, B-22853,
B-36755, B-39434, B-48423, G-06241,
G-40527
FURNACES A-12622, A-26441, A-39462.
A-4S858, B-06587, B-0792S, B-10372,
B-23370, B-31567, B-32319, B-35US.
B-37293, B-38823, B-39434, B-39519,
B-48423, C-17098. C-3304S. D-37823.
F-39861, H-05871, J-46362. K-14443.
K-48204, L-29598
-------
54
PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
GAS SAMPLING B-20248, C-29738,
C-30958
GAS TURBINES K-48204
GASES A-44605, A-45420, B-05090,
B-05601. B-16962, B-37544, B-3877S,
B-38874, C-44689, E-15604, H-05871,
H-13838
GERMANY A-17471, A-25178, A-30296,
B-17463, B-28320, B-42287, B-47463.
C-17098, C-29738, G-31319, H-04368,
H-32516, H-38017, H-46721, J-29923,
1-46362, K-14443. L-46561, L-46586
GLASS B-45078
GLASS FABRICS A-30296, B-19210,
B-22S66, B-32319, C-33045, H-38017,
J-39910, L-36879
GOATS H-13203
GOVERNMENTS B-07925, B-16446,
K-48204, L-20273, L-24949, L-29598
GRAIN PROCESSING A-39462, J-30696
GRAPES A-13701, H-32539
GRASSES D-33309, H-04368, H-18269,
H-22496, H-26978, H-45663
GREAT BRITAIN A-44605, A-47061,
B-07925, B-16537, B-24743, B-30519,
F-39861, H-40472, L-46586
GROUND LEVEL D-14066, H-32516,
H-36996
GUINEA PIGS G-39799, G-40635
H
HALOGEN GASES A-4S858, A-47061,
B-05090, B-07815, B-17463, B-I8255,
B-30515, B-31567, B-35115, B-36552,
B-37293, B-38775, B-39434, B-42287,
B-47274, C-29738, G-10203, G-I9880,
G-33766, G-37684, G-38942, G-40527,
G-40635, H-04368, H-05871, H-09553,
H-21062, H-22085, H-22092, H-32535,
H-32536, H-32539, H-32897, H-36996,
H-40472, J-29923. J-39910, J-46362,
L-29598, L-46586
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
A-23022, A-30296
HEALTH IMPAIRMENT G-06241,
G-10203, G-31319, G-40527, H-2S665,
H-33906, L-28014
HEALTH STATISTICS G-14II2
HEART G-28754
HEAT TRANSFER A-23022
HEIGHT FINDING C-33045
HEMATOLOGY G-06241, G-10203,
G-13215, G-141I2, G-19880, G-31319,
G-33766. G-37569
HEMOGLOBIN INTERACTIONS
G-14112. G-33766
HI-VOL SAMPLERS G-19215
HOGS H-13203
HUMANS A-13701. A-17116, A-34484,
G-06241, G-10203, G-10333, G-11482,
G-13700, G-13837. G-14112, G-17642,
G-19215, G-19880, G-23003. G-26846,
G-28754, G-31319, G-33766, 0-37282.
G-37569, G-37684, G-38942, G-40527,
G-40635, H-32516, J-39910, L-28014
HUMIDITY B-38775, H-23386. H-32S35,
H-32536, H-38568
HYDROCARBONS A-39462, A-42731.
B-01687, B-07925, B-11686, B-30519,
B-43299, C-03940, C-37107, G-17642,
G-31319, H-40472, J-30696, J-48171
HYDROCHLORIC ACID A-42676,
B-06587, B-18002, B-39434, G-31319,
H-05871
HYDROFLUORIC ACID A-07650.
A-17471, A-24116, A-24370, A-30296.
A-31935, A-44490, A-44605, A-45858,
B-05090, B-13676, B-16962, B-19487,
B-22853, B-23370, B-26317, B-30519,
B-31567, B-37544, B-38874, B-42458,
B-43299, B-44343, B-44838, B-45078,
C-15372. C-29738, C-30958, C-4070S,
D-37823, D-39182, E-16567, G-10333,
G-28754, G-31319, H-23386, H-3253S,
H-32536, H-38017, H-38404, H-38417,
H-39684, H-40472, H-46721, J-39910,
L-46586
HYDROGEN B-37544, B-38775. B-39434,
H-38017
HYDROGEN SULFIDE B-07925, B-30519,
B-43299
HYDROLYSIS H-05871
IMPINGERS D-39182
INCINERATION A-2644I, A-39462,
A-45858, B-05601, B-20248. B-36552,
C-33045, G-31319, J-48171, K-48204
INDUSTRIAL AREAS A-47061, C-40705,
D-37823, D-39182, E-37639, G-10333,
G-19215, G-19880, G-28754, G-33766,
G-37282, G-37569, G-38942, H-18269.
H-36883, H-36996, H-37480, H-40472,
H-46217, L-29598, L-36879
INGESTION G-14112. G-37569, G-37684,
G-38942, G-39799, H-13838, H-18269,
H-33906, H-38417, H-40201
INHIBITION H-14678
INORGANIC ACIDS A-07650, A-17471,
A-24116, A-24370, A-2SI78, A-26441,
A-30296, A-31935, A-39462, A-42676,
A-44490, A-44605, A-45858, B-05090,
B-06587, B-07925, B-13676, B-16962,
B-18002, B-19487, B-20248, B-22853,
B-23370, B-26317, B-30519. B-31567,
B-33918, B-37544, B-38874, B-39434,
B-42458, B-43299, B-44343, B-44838,
B-45078, C-15372, C-29738, C-30958,
C-40705, D-37823, D-39182, E-16567,
G-10333, G-28754. G-31319, H-05871,
H-23386, H-32535, H-32536, H-38017,
H-38404. H-38417, H-39684, H-40472,
H-46721, J-30696, J-39910, K-48204,
L-46586
INSPECTION B-48423, C-15372
INSTRUMENTATION B-31644
INTERMITTENT MONITORING H-32897
INVERSION A-07650, B-39519, C-14897,
D-33309, D-39182, H-25195
IRON A-17471, A-30296, A-31935,
A-35592, A-39462. A-40182, A-43271,
A-45858. B-06587, B-07925, B-16446.
B-19210, B-20248, B-21324, B-33918,
B-35115, B-38823, B-45078, C-33045,
G-26136, H-05871, H-38568. J-29923,
J-30696, J-39910, J-48171, K-48204,
L-29598, L-36879
IRON COMPOUNDS A-42731, B-07925,
B-39519, K-14443
IRON OXIDES A-17471, B-07925,
E-16567, K-14443
ITALY A-13701, C-30958, G-13215,
G-13837. G-14112, G-14319, G-37282,
G-40635, L-46586
JAPAN A-31935, A-40182, B-16537,
B-19210, B-21324, B-33918, B-44343,
C-38905, D-27254, G-19215. G-23003,
G-26136, G-26846. G-28754, G-38942,
G-40527. L-29598, L-36879
K
KETONES C-37107
KILNS B-07925, B-22983, B-44838,
C-17098, C-33045, C-38905, H-05871,
H-38568
KRAFT PULPING A-26441, A-39462,
A-45858, B-20248. C-33045, J-48171.
K-48204, L-20273
LABORATORY ANIMALS G-10333,
G-13215, G-13700, G-14319, G-39799,
G-40635
LABORATORY FACILITIES L-36879
LAND USE L-46561
LANDFILLS L-36879
LARYNGITIS G-11482
LEAD A-30447, A-34916. A-34921,
A-39462, A-42676, A-43271, A-45858,
B-21324, B-32319, B-48423, C-33045.
J-30696
LEAD ALLOYS A-30447
LEAD COMPOUNDS A-26441, A-30447.
G-31319, J-30696, K-14443
LEAD PEROXIDE CANDLE D-33309
LEAVES A-31935, H-19124, H-19358,
H-2208S, H-22092, H-23386, H-32535,
H-32539, H-32897, H-33906, H-38J68,
H-45663
LEGAL ASPECTS A-07650, A-25135,
A-44490, B-01687, B-07925, B-16537,
B-24743, B-38823, H-21062, K-14443,
L-20273, L-24949, L-28014, L-29598,
L-36879, L-46561, L-46586
LEGISLATION B-01687, B-07925,
B-16537, B-24743, K-14443, L-20273,
L-29598
LEUKOCYTES G-06241, G-10203,
G-13215
LIGHT RADIATION G-31319
LIME B-44838, C-33045, C-38905
LIMESTONE B-06587
LIQUIDS G-37569, H-22496
LITIGATION A-07650. L-24949
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS B-16446,
L-20273
LUNGS G-31319
LYMPHOCYTES G-10203
M
MAGNESIUM A-43271, C-33045, H-05871
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS A-42731,
B-18002. B-38188, E-16567
MAINTENANCE B-31567, B-33918,
J-30696, J-46362
MALES G-10333
MANGANESE COMPOUNDS I B-39519,
D-33309 !
MATERIALS DETERIORATION B-20366,
J-39910
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSES A-23022,
B-31644, C-33045
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
CONCENTRATION A-25135,
D-37823, K-14443, L-46586
MEASUREMENT METHODS A-34484,
A-42731, B-05601, B-07925, B-20248,
-------
B-37293, B-42458, C-29738, C-3304S.
C-38905, C-44689, D-27254. D-33309,
G-10333, H-32897, J-39910, L-20273
MEETINGS L-36879
MEMBRANE FILTERS C-309S8, D-39182
MERCAPTANS B-07925, B-35115
METABOLISM H-22496, H-38S68
METAL FABRICATING AND FINISHING
A-1747I. A-30447, A-3193S, A-39462,
A-40182, A-458S8, B-078I5, B-07925,
B-10372, B-20248, B-21324, B-32319,
B-38823, B-395I9, B-4S078, C-33045,
G-40527, H-04368, H-46217, J-29923,
J-30696, J-39910, J-48171, K-14443,
K-48204, L-36879
METEOROLOGY A-07650, A-47061,
B-38775, C-14897, D-33309, D-39182,
E-16567, E-37639, G-06241, H-23386,
H-25195, H-25661, H-32S35, H-32536,
H-36996, H-38568, H-40472
MICE G-10333, G-14319, G-40635
MICROMETEOROLOGY C-14897,
E-16567
MICROORGANISMS H-38568
MILK H-09553, H-13203, H-37480
MINERAL PROCESSING A-26441,
A-30296, A-30447, A-31935, A-39462,
A-45858, B-05090, B-07925, B-10372,
B-16446, B-19210, B-31644, B-45078,
C-33045, E-16567, G-26136, G-26846,
H-05871, H-38017, H-38404, H-38417,
H-40201, J-30696, J-39910, J-48171,
K-14443, K-48204, L-24949, L-36879
MINERAL PRODUCTS A-24370, A-35592,
A-39462, B-06587, B-31644, B-45078,
H-26258, J-39910
MISSILES AND ROCKETS B-42287
MISTS A-39462, B-07925, K-48204
MOBILE B-18002, B-37293, J-30696
MONITORING B-0560I, B-07925,
B-20248, B-37293, B-42458, C-44689,
G-10333, H-32897, L-20273
MONTANA H-45604
MONTHLY D-27254, D-39182, H-38417
MORTALITY G-39799
MOTTLING H-22496
MOUNTAINS H-45604
MOUTH G-10203
N
NATURAL GAS A-45858, C-33045
NECROSIS H-14678, H-22092, H-23386,
H-32535, H-32536, H-32539, H-38568
NETHERLANDS L-46586
NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS
A-34484
NEW JERSEY A-07650
NICKEL B-38823
NITRIC ACID B-07925, K-48204
NITRIC OXIDE (NO) D-272S4
NITROGEN B-47274
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) D-27254
NITROGEN OXIDES A-44490, B-01687,
B-07925, B-36552, B-43299, D-27254,
J-30696, K-48204
NITROGEN TRIOXIDE (NO3) D-27254
NON-INDUSTRIAL EMISSION SOURCES
A-26441, A-39462, A-40182, B-01687,
B-05090, B-06587, B-28320, B-42287,
B-43840, C-33045, D-33309, G-31319,
H-095S3, H-21062, H-22092, H-32536,
H-32S39, H-38568, J-30696, L-36879
NON-URBAN AREAS G-19215, G-19880,
G-26846, G-28754. G-38942
NORWAY J-48171, L-46586
SUBJECT INDEX
NOSTRILS G-10203, G-23003
o
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH G-23003
OCTANES C-37107
ODOR COUNTERACTION B-24743
ODORS A-44490, J-48171
OIL BURNERS A-45858
OLEFINS B-07925
OPEN BURNING A-39462, B-01687
OPEN HEARTH FURNACES A-26441,
A-45858, B-06587, C-33045, H-05871
OPERATING CRITERIA A-44490,
A-45420
OPERATING VARIABLES B-21324,
B-26317, B-3I567, B-37544, B-38188,
B-38874, B-39434, B-47274, B-47463.
B-48423, C-41064, F-39861
ORCHARDS E-15604, H-32539
OREGON B-05601, H-22092
ORGANIC SULFUR COMPOUNDS
B-07925, B-35115, L-20273
OXIDES A-07650, A-17471, A-24116,
A-24370, A-26441, A-30447, A-39462,
A-40182, A-42676, A-43271, A-44490,
A-4460S, B-01687, B-07925, B-16962,
B-18002, B-20248, B-22853, B-22983,
B-24743, B-28320, B-30519, B-31567,
B-31644, B-33918. B-35115, B-36552,
B-39434. B-42458, B-43299, B-44838.
B-47274, B-48423, C-14897, D-27254,
D-33309, D-39182, E-16567, F-39861,
G-17642, G-31319, H-23386, H-32516,
H-40472, H-46721, J-306%, J-48171,
K-14443, K-48204, L-29598, L-36879
OXYGEN F-39861
OXYGEN LANCING J-29923
PACKED TOWERS B-05090, B-06587,
B-18002, B-26317, B-28320, B-42287,
B-43299, B-45078, G-40527
PAINT MANUFACTURING A-45858,
C-33045
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY C-37107
PAPER MANUFACTURING A-26441,
A-32483, A-39462, A-45858, B-33918,
J-48171
PARTICLE GROWTH B-38188
PARTICLE SIZE A-42731, A-44605,
B-39519, C-33045, C-43371
PARTICULATE CLASSIFIERS A-39462,
A-42731, A-44605, B-39519, C-33045,
,C-43371
PARTICULATE SAMPLING B-20248,
C-29738, C-30958
PARTICULATES A-12622, A-17116,
A-17471. A-24116, A-25135, A-26441,
A-39462, A-40182, A-42676, A-42731,
A-43271, A-44490, A-44605, A-45420,
B-01687, B-05090, B-05601. B-07815,
B-07925, B-11686, B-13676, B-16446,
B-16537, B-17463, B-18002, B-18255.
B-19487, B-22566, B-22853, B-22983,
B-23370, B-30519, B-31644, B-32319,
B-32963, B-33918, B-35115, B-36S52,
B-367S5, B-38082, B-38188, B-38874,
B-39434, B-39519, B-43299, B-44343,
B-44838. B-45078, B-47274, B-47463,
B-48423, C-17098, C-29738, C-30958,
C-37107, C-41064, C-43371, D-27254,
D-33309, D-39182, E-16567, G-06241.
G-14319, G-31319, G-40527, G-40635,
H-04368, H-05871. H-36996, H-38417,
55
H-39684. J-30696, J-46362, J-48171,
K-14443, K-48204, L-29598, L-46586
PATHOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
G-39799, G-40635
PESTICIDES A-32483
PETROLEUM PRODUCTION A-26441,
A-32483, B-07925
PETROLEUM REFINING A-24370,
A-26441. A-39462, A-45858, B-07925,
H-40472, J-48171, L-24949, L-36879
PH B-17463, B-47463, E-16567
PHOSPHATES A-34484, A-35592,
B-05090, B-06587, H-05871, H-26258,
H-38404, H-38417, H-38568, H-40201,
J-39910
PHOSPHORIC ACID A-39462, A-45858,
B-05090, B-06587, B-33918
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS A-26441,
A-34484, A-35592, B-05090, B-06587,
H-05871, H-26258, H-38404. H-38417,
H-38568, H-40201, J-39910
PHOTOGRAPHIC METHODS H-46721
PHOTOMETRIC METHODS A-42731
PHOTOSYNTHESIS H-22496, H-36883
PHYSICAL STATES A-44605, A-45420,
B-05090, B-05601, B-16962, B-22566,
B-37544, B-38775, B-38874, C-44689,
E-15604, G-37569, H-05871, H-13838,
H-22496
PILOT PLANTS B-22566, B-37544
PINTO BEANS H-23386
PLANNING AND ZONING H-21062,
L-36879, L-46561
PLANS AND PROGRAMS B-16446,
B-20248, D-33309, E-37639, H-45663,
L-24949, L-29598, L-36879, L-46561
PLANT DAMAGE A-23580, A-31935,
A-34484, B-01687, B-06587, C-15372,
G-19215, G-26846, G-40527, H-05871,
H-13203, H-14678, H-19124, H-19358,
H-21062, H-22092, H-22496, H-23386,
H-25195. H-25661, H-26258, H-26978,
H-32516, H-32535, H-32536, H-32539,
H-33906, H-36883, H-38017, H-38S68,
H-39684, H-40472, H-45604, H-46217
PLANT GROWTH E-16567, H-14678,
H-22496, H-26978, H-32516, H-32536,
H-32539, H-36883, H-36996, H-38568
PLANT INDICATORS C-15372, D-27254,
E-16567, H-14678, H-25195, H-25661,
H-46721
PLANTS (BOTANY) A-13701, A-17116,
A-23580, A-2513S, A-31935, A-34484,
A-47061, D-33309, E-1S604, E-16567.
G-13700, G-19215, G-26136, G-31319,
G-40527, H-04368, H-13203, H-13838,
H-18269, H-19124, H-19358, H-20872,
H-21062, H-22085, H-22092, H-22496.
H-23386, H-23579, H-26978, H-32516,
H-32535, H-32536, H-32539, H-32897,
H-33906, H-36883, H-36996, H-38404,
H-38417, H-38568, H-39159, H-39684.
H-40201, H-40472, H-45604, H-45663,
H-46217, H-46721, J-39910, L-46561
PLASTICS A-32483, B-33918
PNEUMONIA D-33309, G-11482
POLYNUCLEAR COMPOUNDS C-03940,
C-37107, G-31319
POTATOES E-15604
POTENTIOMETRIC METHODS C-41064
POULTRY H-13203, H-37480
POWER SOURCES K-48204, L-46561
PRECIPITATION A-07650, A-47061,
D-33309. D-39182, E-16567, E-37639,
H-25195, H-32535, H-32536
PRESSURE B-05090, B-38082
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PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
PROCESS MODIFICATION A-24116.
B-0792S, B-3877S. B-38823, B-43840,
B-47274
PROPOSALS D-14066
PUBLIC AFFAIRS G-11482, L-29598
PULMONARY FUNCTION G-23003,
G-26846, O-28754
PYRENES C-03940, C-37107
PYROLYSIS H-OS871
QUARTZ B-31644
RABBITS G-13215. G-40635
RADIOACTIVE RADIATION B-28320
RADIOGRAPHY G-10203. G-38942
RAIN A-07650, A-47061, D-39182,
E-16567. H-23I95
RATS G-13700. G-I43I9, G-4063S
REACTION KINETICS H-05871
REACTION MECHANISMS F-39861
RECORDING METHODS H-4672I
REDUCTION A-24116, A-26441, B-1I686
REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS L-29598
REGULATIONS A-2S135, A-44490,
B-01687, B-16537, B-38823, L-46561,
L-46586
REPRODUCTION H-18269
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES A-39462
RESEARCH PROGRAMS D-14066
RESIDUAL OILS L-29598
RESPIRATION H-32897
RESPIRATORY DISEASES D-33309,
G-10203. G-11482, G-I7642
RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS G-11482.
G-23003, G-26846. G-28754. G-37569,
G-38942. H-38417. H-38568
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM G-10203,
G-19880, G-23003. G-31319
RETENTION G-13700, G-19880, G-37S69,
G-37684, H-20872, H-32539, H-36883,
H-37480, H-38417, H-4S604
RINGELMANN CHART A-44490
RIVERS H-36996
RUBBER A-32483, A-45858, J-30696
RUBBER MANUFACTURING A-4S858
SAMPLERS A-42731, C-30958, C-40705,
C-43371, D-39182, G-19215
SAMPLING METHODS A-42731. B-20248,
C-29738, C-30958, C-33045, C-40705,
C-41064. C-43371. C-44689, D-39182,
G-I92I5, H-25665, J-39910
SCANDINAVIA J-48171, L-46586
SCRUBBERS A-12622, A-24116, A-25135,
A-3I935, A-39462, A-44490, B-01687,
B-05090, B-05601, B-06587, B-07815,
B-07925. B-11686, B-13676. B-16537,
B-16962, B-17463. B-18002. B-I8255,
B-20248. B-20366. B-22566, B-22853,
B-23370, B-26317, B-28320, B-30519,
B-3I567, B-32319, B-33918, B-3S115,
B-365J2, B-36755, B-37293, B-37544,
B-38082. B-38188, B-38874, B-39434,
B-42287, B-42458, B-43299. B-44343,
B-44838, B-45078, B-47463. C-15372,
G-26136. G-40527. H-04368, H-25195,
J-29923, J-39910, J-48171
SEASONAL D-33309, G-11482, H-22092,
H-32539, H-40201
SEDIMENTATION B-32963, B-38188
SETTLING CHAMBERS B-45078
SETTLING PARTICLES A-12622,
A-17116, A-17471, A-26441, A-39462,
A-40182, A-42676, A-42731. A-43271.
A-44490, A-44605, A-45420, B-05601.
B-07925, B-11686, B-13676. B-16446.
B-17463. B-22983, B-23370. B-30519,
B-31644. B-32319, B-32963, B-33918.
B-35115, B-38082, B-38874, B-39519.
B-47463, B-48423, C-17098. C-29738.
C-37107, C-41064, D-33309, D-39182,
G-14319. G-31319. G-40527. G-40635.
H-04368, H-36996, H-38417. J-46362,
J-48171, K-14443, L-29598
SEWAGE B-43840
SHIPS L-36879
SILICATES G-39799
SILICON COMPOUNDS A-42731,
B-05090, B-06587, B-30519. B-39519,
B-42287. B-43299, G-39799, H-05871
SILICON DIOXIDE A-40182, E-16567,
K-14443
SINTERING A-17471. A-30447, A-40182.
A-45858, B-06587, B-32319, B-48423
SINUSES G-23003
SKIN A-1370I, G-10203, G-13837,
G-14319, G-19880. G-23003, G-37282,
G-40635
SMOKE SHADE A-44490, B-47274
SMOKEMETERS D-33309
SMOKES A-43271. B-07925. B-16537.
B-22566, B-39519, B-47274. B-48423,
D-33309. E-16567. H-39684. L-29598
SNOW D-33309, E-16567
SOAP MANUFACTURING A-45858
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS A-25178,
A-32483, B-38823, J-30696
SODIUM CARBONATE B-38188. D-39182
SODIUM COMPOUNDS B-38188,
C-29738, D-39182, G-26846, G-39799,
H-05871, H-18269, L-20273
SOILS H-14678, H-23579, H-36996,
H-38404, H-38417. H-38568, H-40472,
H-46217
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL A-26441,
B-43840, C-33045, J-30696, L-36879
SOLIDS A-45420. B-37544. C-44689.
H-I3838
SOOT G-31319, J-48171
SOURCE SAMPLING C-29738, C-30958,
C-33045. J-39910
SO2 REMOVAL (COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS) B-17463, B-20248,
B-30519, B-33918, B-3511S. B-367S5,
B-39434, B-44838
SPECTROMETRY B-20248, C-37107
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY A-34484,
A-42731, C-03940, C-30958, C-40705,
D-39182
SPRAY TOWERS A-12622, A-24116,
B-05090, B-05601, B-06587. B-18255,
B-37544, B-45078, C-15372, G-40527
SPRAYS B-38874
STABILITY (ATMOSPHERIC) A-07650,
B-39519, C-14897, D-33309, D-39182,
H-2519S, H-36996
STACK GASES A-12622, A-23022,
A-42676. A-45858, B-07925, B-17463,
B-20366, B-22566. B-26317, B-30519,
B-31567, B-32963, B-33918, B-37544,
B-38082, B-39434, B-42287, B-45078,
B-47463, C-14897, C-30958, C-33045,
C-43371, E-37639, G-31319, G-40527,
G-40635, H-23386, H-25195, H-32S35,
H-32539, H-37480, H-38017. H-38404,
H-38417. H-39684. J-39910. K-14443,
L-20273, L-36879
STACK SAMPLING C-30958, C-33045
STACKS A-45858. A-47061, B-07925,
B-38082, B-38823, H-25195, L-29598,
L-36879
STAGNATION H-36996
STANDARDS A-25135, B-01687, B-30519.
B-38823, D-37823, H-38568. J-30696,
K-14443. K-48204, L-20273, L-29598,
L-36879, L-46586
STATISTICAL ANALYSES G-11482,
G-23003, H-09553, J-30696
STEAM B-22566
STEAM PLANTS B-07925, B-45078.
D-33309, K-48204. L-29598
STEEL A-17471, A-30296, A-31935,
A-35S92, A-39462. A-40182, A-43271,
A-45858, B-06587, B-07925, B-19210,
B-20248, B-21324, B-33918, B-38823,
C-33045, G-26136, H-05871, H-38568,
J-29923, J-30696, J-39910. J-48171,
K-48204, L-29598, L-36879
STREETS L-29598
SUBLIMATION C-03940
SULFATES B-38188. D-27254, D-39182
SULFIDES B-07925, B-30S19, B-43299
SULFUR COMPOUNDS A-25178,
B-07925, B-30519, B-31644, B-38188,
B-43299, D-27254, D-39182, J-29923
SULFUR DIOXIDE A-07650, A-17471,
A-24370, A-30447, A-40182, A-42676,
B-01687, B-07925, B-16962, B-30519,
B-33918, B-35115, B-43299, B-44838,
C-14897, D-27254, D-33309, G-17642,
G-31319. H-23386, H-32516, H-40472,
H-46721, J-48171, K-48204, L-29598,
L-36879
SULFUR OXIDES A-07650, A-17471,
A-24370, A-26441, A-30447, A-39462,
A-40182. A-42676. A-43271, A-44490,
B-01687, B-07925, B-16962, B-24743,
B-30519, B-31644, B-33918, B-35115.
B-36552, B-43299, B-44838, B-48423,
C-14897, D-27254, D-33309, G-17642,
G-31319, H-23386, H-32516, H-40472,
H-46721, J-30696, J-48171, K-48204,
L-29598, L-36879
SULFUR OXIDES CONTROL A-25178,
B-17463, B-20248, B-30519, B-33918,
B-35115, B-36755, B-39434, B-44838,
C-14897, J-29923
SULFUR TRIOX1DE B-31644
SULFURIC ACID A-24370, A-25178,
A-26441, A-31935, A-39462, A-45858,
B-06587. B-07925, B-20248, B-33918,
J-30696, K-48204
SURFACE COATING OPERATIONS
A-45858, H-40201, J-30696
SURFACE COATINGS J-30696
SURFACE PROPERTIES A-35381,
B-33918
SURVEY METHODS L-29598
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES A-24116,
A-26441, A-39462, A-43271, A-44490,
A-44605. B-01687. B-05601. B-0781S.
B-07925, B-11686, B-16537, 8-^8002,
B-22566, B-22853, B-36552. B-36755,
B-38188, B-39434, B-39519. B-47274,
B-48423, D-27254, D-33309, E-16567,
G-06241, G-40527, H-39684, K-48204,
L-29598
SWEDEN B-05090, B-31644, C-03940,
C-15372, H-25I9S, L-46586
SYNERGISM H-38568
SYNTHETIC FIBERS A-32483, A-45858
SYNTHETIC RUBBER A-45858
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SUBJECT INDEX
57
TAR A-45420, B-16962, B-31644, B-38874
TEMPERATURE A-4S420, A-45858,
B-22983. B-3S115, B-37544, B-38188,
B-39434, C-41064
TEMPERATURE (ATMOSPHERIC)
H-32535. H-32536, H-38568
TENNESSEE H-38404
TESTING FACILITIES H-32516, L-36879
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING A-45858
TEXTILES A-32483, A-45858
THERMODYNAMICS H-05871
THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
C-37107
THRESHOLDS B-01687, H-4020I
TIN A-34921
TIP BURN H-19358, H-22496, H-38568
TISSUES G-37684. H-13203
TOBACCO H-23386
TOLUENES B-07925
TOMATOES H-23386
TOPOGRAPHIC INTERACTIONS
B-39519, D-33309, E-15604, H-25195,
H-369%
TOXIC TOLERANCES B-06587, G-23003,
H-09553, H-224%, H-38017, H-38568,
H-46217
TOX1CITY A-47061, G-10333, G-132I5,
G-14112, G-14319, G-19215, G-26846,
G-37282, G-39799, G-40527, G-40635.
H-13203, H-23386, H-33906. H-36883,
H-36996, H-38017, H-38568, H-40201,
H-46217
TRANSPORTATION A-32483, B-01687,
D-27254, G-31319. J-30696, K-48204,
L-36879, L-46561
TREATMENT AND AIDS G-10203,
G-37282, G-38942, G-40635, H-46217
TREES E-15604, H-13203, H-19124,
H-21062, H-22085, H-22092, H-32516,
H-32535, H-32897, H-39684, H-40472,
H-45604, H-45663, H-46217, L-46561
TRUCKS J-30696
TUBERCULOSIS G-17642
U
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION G-31319
UNITED STATES A-32483
URBAN AREAS A-32483. A-47061.
B-16446, C-38905, C-4070S, D-27254,
D-33309, D-37823, D-39182. E-37639,
G-10333, G-19215. G-19880, G-28754,
G-33766. G-37282, G-37S69, G-38942,
H-18269, H-36883, H-36996, H-37480,
H-40472. H-46217, J-30696. L-29598,
L-36879, L-46561
URINALYSIS A-17116. B-01687, G-10203,
G-14112. G-19880, G-26846, G-28754,
G-33766, G-37569, G-37684, G-38942,
H-18269, H-4020I
USSR A-23022, A-42731, A-4S420,
B-16446, B-26317, B-37544, B-38188.
B-38775, B-38874, C-37107, C-41064.
D-37823, G-10333, G-11482, G-17642,
H-22496, H-26978
VALLEYS C-14897, D-33309. D-39182,
E-15604, E-16567. H-32535, H-32536,
H-36996
VANADIUM COMPOUNDS C-41064
VAPORS B-16962, B-22566
VARNISHES J-30696
VEGETABLES E-15604, G-13700,
G-19215. H-13203, H-20872. H-23386.
H-36996, H-39159
VEHICLES A-32483, D-27254. G-31319,
J-30696
VENTILATION B-20366, B-23370,
B-305I9, B-37293. B-38082. B-44838.
C-15372
VENTILATION (PULMONARY) G-38942
VENTURI SCRUBBERS B-05090,
B-06587, B-07815. B-16537, B-35115,
B-36552, B-43299, B-44838, B-45078,
G-40527
W
WATER G-37569. H-22496
WATER POLLUTION A-40182, B-28320,
B-43840
WET CYCLONES B-01687, B-05090,
B-06587, B-07815, B-17463, B-35115,
B-38082, B-43299. B-45078, H-04368
WINDS A-07650, E-16S67, E-37639,
H-25195, H-25661, H-36996
WOOD A-39462, A-45858. C-33045,
J-48171
XYLENES B-07925
ZINC A-17471, A-34916, A-34921,
A-39462, A-40182, A-42676, A-4327I,
A-45858, B-0781S, B-21324, B-323I9,
B-48423, C-33045, J-30696
OU.S. G.P.O.: 1973— 747-785/303r Region No. 4
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