FINAL REPORT
HYBRID HEAT ENGINE / ELECTRIC
SYSTEMS STUDY
VOLUME II:
APPENDICES A through F
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
Report No.
TOR-0059(6769-01)-2,
Vol. II
FINAL REPORT
HYBRID HEAT ENGINE/ELECTRIC SYSTEMS STUDY
Volume II: Appendices A through F
71 JUN 01
Office of Corporate Planning
THE AEROSPACE CORPORATION
El Segundo, California
Prepared for
Division of Advanced Automotive Power Systems Development
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Contract No. F04701-70-C-0059
-------
FOREWORD
Basic to analyzing the performance of the hybrid vehicle was the importance
of understanding the characteristics of each major component since each
would be operating in a nonstandard mode required by the hybrid arrange-
ment. In addition, the potential for improvement had to be understood to
predict the performance of advanced designs. This report, therefore, con-
tains two types of information: (a) hybrid system analysis and results; and
(b) major component state-of-the-art discussions, characteristics used in
this study, and advanced technology assessments. Heat engine operating
characteristics, mechanical parameters, and exhaust emissions are covered
extensively because of both their primary importance and the difficulty
involved in collecting a reliable comprehensive set of data; this should relieve
future investigators making studies of nonconventional propulsion systems of
the necessity of repeating th~ burdensome task of assembling a data bank.
It should be recognized that calculated results are based on data compiled in
this study. The magnitude and trends were established on the basis of a
comprehensive survey and evaluation of the best data from both the open
literature and current available unpublished data sources. These data are
considered suitable for use in the feasibility study conducted under this con-
tract. However, for further detailed design a substantial refinement of the
data base would be necessary.
The report is organized to give a logical build-up of information starting with
study specification, analytical techniques, and component characteristics and
concluding with system performance results and recommendations for develop-
ment. However, selective reading of major systems performance results Is
possible and to assist those so interested, the following brief guide is pre-
sented:
Section 1 Summary of study results and recom-
mendations
Sections 2, 3, 10, and 11 Presentation of study objectives, design
specifications, and results
Sections 3 and 4 Description of computational techniques
and performance requirements
Sections 6 through 9 Review of contemporary and projected
technology of major components
Section 12 Cost estimates for high-volume produc-
tion of hybrid cars
Section 13 Presentation of a technological plan for
component and system development
-in-
-------
This report is published in two volumes for convenience; however, separation
of the material is made with due regard to organization. Volume I consists of
Sections 1 through 13 and presents the essential study information, while
Volume II consists of Appendices A through F and presents supplementary
data.
The period of performance for this study was June 1970 through June 1971.
-IV-
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The extensive diversity in technological capabilities necessary for a thorough
evaluation of the hybrid electric vehicle has required the reliance for support
and expertise on select members of The Aerospace Corporation technical
staff as well as members of the national technical community. Recognition
of this effort is expressed herewith:
The Aerospace Corporation
Mr. Dan Bernstein
Mr. Lester Forrest
Mr. Gerald Harju
Mr. Merrill Hinton
Dr. Toru lura
Mr. Dennis Kelly
Mr. Jack Kettler
Mr. Harry Killian
Mr. Robert La France
Mrs. Roberta Nichols
Mr. Wolfgang Roessler
Dr. Henry Sampson
Mr. Raymond Schult
University of California, Berkeley
Dr. Robert Sawyer
University of California, Irvine
Dr. Robert M. Saunders
Electrical System-Control System
Heat Engines (Internal Combustion)
Programming for Computations
Vehicle Specifications/Conceptual Design
and Sizing Studies
Heat Engines (Internal Combustion)
Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions
Vehicle Exhaust Emissions Test Program
Electrical System - Motor and Generator
Electrical System - Batteries
Heat Engines (External Combustion)
Computational Techniques
Electrical System - Batteries
Electrical System - Motor, Generator,
Control Systems
Vehicle Exhaust Emission Test Program
Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions
Vehicle Exhaust Emission Test Program
Vehicle Specifications
Computational Techniques
Vehicle Power Requirements
Electrical System - Motor, Generator,
Control Systems
Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions
Electrical System - Motor Generator,
Control Systems
-v-
-------
It is to be noted that considerable data of great value to this study were
kindly provided by individuals in industry, universities, and government
agencies. Acknowledgment of these data sources is given in Appendix F
to this report.
DoVfald £. Lapedes
Manager, Hybrid Vehicle Program
Meltzer
Pollution anfl'Resources
"rograms
Jffice of Corporate Planning
-VI-
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CONTENTS
The major sections and appendices of Volumes I and II are listed below. For
detailed tables of contents and lists of illustrations see the individual sections
and appendices.
Volume I
Section Page
1. Summary 1-1
2. Introduction 2-1
3. Vehicle Specifications and Study Methodology 3-1
4. Computational Techniques 4-1
5. Vehicle Power Requirements 5-1
6. Electrical System - Motor, Generator, and Control
Systems 6-1
7. Electrical System - Battery CharacteT is tics and
Operation 7-1
8. Heat Engine Performance Characteristics and Operation ... 8-1
9. Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions 9-1
10. Conceptual Design and Sizing Studies 10-1
11. Summary of Results 11-1
12. Vehicle Production Cost Comparison 12-1
13. Technology Development Program Plan 13-1
Volume II
Appendix
A. Hybrid Vehicle Performance Evaluation Computer
Program A-1
B. Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions Collation and Analysis .... B-l
C. Vehicle Exhaust Emissions Test Program C-l
D. Vehicle Characteristics Over Emission Driving Cycle .... D-l
E. Heat Engine Data Compilation E-l
F. Acknowledgments to Sources of Subsystems/Component
Data F-l
- vii-
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APPENDIX A
HYBRID VEHICLE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
COMPUTER PROGRAM: HEVPEC
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CONTENTS
A. HYBRID VEHICLE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
COMPUTER PROGRAM: HEVPEC A-l
A. 1 Introduction A-l
A. 2 HEVPEC Input List A-l
A. 3 Flow Charts A-5
A. 4 HEVPEC Output List A-12
A. 5 Sample Output A-14
A. 6 Nomenclature for HEVPEC Flow Charts A-19
A-i
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FIGURES
A-l. HEVPEC-S Flow Chart A-6
A-2. HEVPEC-P Flow Chart A-10
A-3. Generator Output Current (IG) Versus Time A-15
1': »
A-4. Electric Drive Motor Input Current (IM) Versus Time. . A-16
A-5. Battery State of Charge (S) Versus Time A-17
A-6. Battery Cell Voltage (VBD) Versus Time A-18
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A. 1
APPENDIX A
HYBRID VEHICLE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
COMPUTER PROGRAM: HEVPEC
INTRODUCTION
This appendix illustrates the logical structures of the series and parallel
versions of the HYBRID Program (HEVPEC) along with the necessary input
list and a sample of the output format. The series and parallel programs
will henceforth be referred to as HEVPEC-S and HEVPEC-P.
A. 2
HEVPEC INPUT LIST
Both the series and parallel versions of HEVPEC use FORTRAN IV
NAME LIST input format. The following symbols and abbreviations are a
list imd description of the input variables.
(S) Indicates variable used in HL'VPEC-S only
(P) Indicates variable used in HEVPEC-P only
A
C
COIN
CR
DELTAT
KTA
ETAG
ETARB
ETAM
Vehicle frontal area
Air resistance coefficient
Battery capacity at beginning of driving cycle
Rated capacity battery (C )
Interval between consecutive time points of driving
profile (At)
Battery charge efficiency (n)
Generator efficiency CV)
Regenerative braking conversion efficiency (n R)
Average electric motor efficiency (q )
A-l
-------
EOF
(S)
IG
IGF LAG
(S)
IGMIN
(S)
IHDR
IMIN
(P)
INK835
IPROF
1REGEN
ITORQUE
LAST LIN
KBAR
(S)
Flag specifying last case:
EOF = 0 not the last case
EOF = 1 the last case
Gear ratio between electric drive motor and wheels
Generator current. If generator current is calculated
in the program (i.e., IGFLAG=2), then this variable
will not be input. •:• •
IGFLAG=1 I_ is an input constant
IGFLAG=2 I_ is calculated internally
Minimum allowable value of IG (See nomenclature
Section A. 6)
IHDR=1 80 character BCD description read in after
NAME LIST data and printed out at the bottom of each case
Minimum allowable value of IG., (See nomenclature
Section A. 6)
INK835 = 1 No plots requested
INK835 = 2 Plots produced on Cal Comp pen plotters
INK835 = 3 Plots produced on 835 film
IPROF = 1 for DHEW driving profile
IPROF = 2 for design driving profile
Flag specifying regenerative braking option:
IREGEN = 1 (not included)
IREGEN = 2 (included)
ITORQUE = 1 Determine motor torque from TIN table
ITORQUE = 2 Calculate motor torque from equation
(Refer to HEVPEC-S flowchart)
LAS T LIN = 1 Print out every NPRINT time step
LASTLIN = 2 Print out last time point only
Electric drive motor torque constant (K)
A-2
-------
NPOINT
NPROF
r(S)
NPRM1
(S)
NCURR
P
PAUX
PER
PROFILE
PVSEHC
PVSECO
PVSENO
R
RPM(S)
SVSIBC
THETA
TIMEUN
TIN
(S)
TMVSTH
An integer 2 1 if plots are requested to indicate that
every NPOINT time point will be plotted
Number of prints in driving profile
Number of entries in RPM table
Number of I values in TIN array
Tire pressure
Accessory equipment power
Rated heat engine output (P )
A tabular driving profile (velocity-time points)
An emission index table for unburned hydrocarbons (e,..-.)
An emission index table for carbon monoxide (e^^O
An emission index table-for nitric oxide («,»./-, )
Rolling radius of wheels
Table of values of motor speed corresponding to torques
in TIN array
A table of S versus IMBC (refer to nomenclature
Section A. 6 for definition
*
Grade angle of road (6)
Number of seconds per inch for the time scale (X axis)
to be used for the plots
Table of T versus I for given values of motor speed
(Nm) m
A table of time versus sin 6 to be used whenever a design
driving cycle is used. If the particular design driving
cycle does not require grades, then this table need not
be input.
Symbols in ( ) are used in flow charts presented in Section A. 3.
A-3
-------
VB
VG
VIBDS
VMA
VMC
WI
XI
Voltage of electric drive motor (VR)
Generator output voltage (V_)
Table of normalized maximum available battery dis-
charge current [%MAX/ C ] versus state of charge
Maximum allowable cell voltage
Minimum allowable cell voltage
Gross vehicle weight (W,)
Mechanical linkage loss factor (|)
A-4
-------
A. 3 FLOW CHARTS
The HEVPEC-S and HEVPEC-P Flow Charts are shown in Figure A-1
and Figure A-2, respectively.
A-5
-------
START
READ IN
INPUT DATA
PR INT OUT
INPUT DATA
INITIALIZE ALL
VARIABLES
WHERE
NECESSARY
DO LOOP
STEPS OFF THROUGH
DRIVING PROFILE IN
EQUAL At INCREMENTS
BEGINNING WITH
DETERMINE v,
CORRESPONDING TO t,
FROM PROFILE ARRAY
DETERMINE IBMAX
FROM n
VIBDS ARRAY FOR
CURRENT STATE OF
CHARGE S,
MAX
W I
DO LOOP j • 1, 50
STARTS WITH INITIAL GUESS OF THROTTLE SETTING
OF f • tt 25 WITH INITIAL UPPER AND LOWER
BOUNDS OF fH|CH • L 0 AND FLOW • 0 AND THEN
CONVERGES ON THE PROPER Fj VALUE SO
RESULTING VELOCITY v, MATCHES v, ON PROFILE
NERATOR
CURRENT/1G)
TO BEV '
ILCULATE!
J,
[NO
USE INPUT IG
YES
l/j-MAX (A00267*! FD745.7\.IGMINl
l\ VG / J
CALCULATE MOTOR CURRENT
CALCULATE MOTOR RPM
Nfn*MAx|(l4Gv|/R).NMIN
^ IWIUK \^
.XTORQUE^)^^
X. TO BE ./
\CALCULATEDX^
^^
-------
PATH FROM
PRECEDING
PAGE
DETERMINE PROPULSIVE FORCE
F/>-TmG£/R
DETERMINE DRAG FORCE
-••£(" ?'¥*!)
+ CAvf_j + WySINfl
CALCULATE ACCELERATION (3j>
a, . FP ' FD
J m»
DETERMINE VELOCITY RESULTING
FROM fj THROTTLE SETTING
Vj • MAX r{vH + ajAt), Ol
RETURN TO
©
'HIGH • f
i 'LOW* 'HIGH
2
THROTTLE
TOO HIGH
YES
UNRESOLVED ERROR
CONDITION - ABORT
CASE AND GO TO
j -50?
. DID NOT CONVERGE ON
YES | AN (VALUE TO SATISFY
v, IN 50 ITERATIONS
YES .
BRAKES
MUST BE
APPLIED
BRAKE
vi - vj • 50
VEHICLE LACKS SUFFICIENT
POWER TO FOLLOW DRIVING
PROFILE - ABORT CASE GO
SETTING BRAKE FLAG
INCREMENT THE
DISTANCE TRAVELLED
IN MILES
DETERMINE BATTERY
CURRENT
IS
THE
REGENERATIVE
BRAKING OPTION
USED?
••SUBROUTINE REGEN CALCULATES THE CHARGING CURRENT AVAILABLE DUE
TO A REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM AND ADDS IT TO IB
CONTINUE ON
NEXT PAGE
Figure A-l. HEVPEC-S Flow Chart (Continued)
A-7
-------
PATH FROM
PRECEDING
PAGE
1
COMPUTE THE INSTANTANEOUS CELL VOLTAGE FOR A GIVEN ID AND CR
USING THE BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS UNDER
CONSIDERATION FOR THIS CASE. CHECK IF THE RESULTING VOLTAGE
HAS DROPPED BELOW THE ALLOWABLE LIMIT (VMC) AND IF SO ABORT
THE CASE. IF THE VOLTAGE EXCEEDS THE UPPER ALLOWABLE LIMIT
(VMA), SET THE VOLTAGE EQUAL TO VMA AND RECOMPUTE THE
ALLOWABLE BATTERY CURRENT. COMPUTE THE CUMULATIVE AMP-HR
DISSIPATED IN THIS CASE VIA THE EQUATION
BEGIN
EMISSION
CALCULATIONS
UPDATE THE STATE
OF CHARGE OF THE
BATTERY
BUF (SEE NOMENCLATURE
SECTION A.6 FOR
DEFINITION)
COMPUTE
WHEEL
HORSEPOWER
WHp.0.00267V,Fp
DETERMINE HEAT ENGINE
OUTPUT (PE)
Pe-PAUX^
e VG
746
CALCULATE CUMULATIVE HEAT
ENGINE HORSEPOWER
HOURS OUT PUT
(Et). ft),.!* io
DETERMINE THE EMISSION INDICES
CHC- eCO. eNQ BY INTERPOLATING
IN THE PVSEHC, PVSECO, AND
PVSENO TABLES USING THE INDE-
PENDENT VARIABLE Pe/Per
DETERMINE THE TOTAL EMISSIONS
FOR HC. CO AND NO
1 fe *'
1 H SOO e t,.j
(Irn) • (Epn) + — =- ernP At '
\T/0/| \M<0/|.i jxgo CO e J
Vi
(END), • (ENO),^ + ^ eNOpeAt '
CALCULATE AVERAGE EMISSION
RATES PER MILE
Mi ' -^
(ECO)
if \ . 'i
^oy, d
(ENO)I • '
1 d
CONTINUE ON
NEXT PAGE
Figure A-l. HEVPEC-S Flow Chart (Continued)
A-8
-------
PATH FROM
PRECEDING
PAGE
ARE
PLOTS
REQUESTED
IS
ONLY THE
LAST TIME STEP
TO BE PRINTED
IS
THIS AN
N PR INT
TIME STEP
IS
THIS THE
LAST TIME
STEP
SAVE DATA POINTS TO PRODUCE PLOTS
ON EITHER THE CAL COMP PEN AND INK
PLOTTER OR THE.CAL COMP 35MM FILM
PLOTTER (SEE SECTION A. 4 FOR PLOT
OUTPUT LIST)
PR INT OUTPUT (OUTPUT LIST IS
PRESENTED IN SECTION A. 4)
NO
PERFORM FINAL
PRINT-OUT
PRODUCE
CASE PLOTS
GOTO
AND BEGIN
NEXT CASE
Figure A-l. HEVPEC-S Flow Chart (Concluded)
A-9
-------
® START
READ IN
INPUT DATA
1 '
PRINTOUT
INPUT DATA
i
INITIALIZE ALL
VARIABLES
WHERE
NECESSARY
®
00L00P
STEPS OFF THROUGH
DRIVING PROFILE IN
EQUAL At INCREMENTS
BEGINNING WITH tj
DETERMINE v,
CORRESPONDING TO t(
FROM PROFILE ARRAY
^^^^ REMAINDER
[NO OF LOOP
j SEQUENCE
DETERMINE IB
FROM MAXn
VI 80S ARRAY FOR
CURRENT STATE OF
CHARGE S,
'BMAX-Cr'BMAXn
a,.(vrv,.,)/At
v-(vv,.,)/2
V^VVC
I
X^s7\ »i>\ , .^vf/, ., voi
* ci ,](MIN ty \
8| <0^>s^
n\ • 0 *
~^^r v, . n? ^^.i , , >. 'r • 'MIM
INO
c .MAX f( MIN " (G V °1 * 1 • 0
4
Nm.MAx[(l4Cv/R).NM|N|
Tm • 0
Fp • FH£ WHERE FH[ • PROPULSIVE
FORCE FROM HEAT ENGINE
FD -fFORa, -OAND
FH£ • 0 FOR a| < 0
BRAKING /VX. N0
THISPATV
1 ' I f^n \f> »y
fN THE HP
a. ,-ai^F FLOWCHA
THE CONS1
WHERE lc
\ '
SET
, ,
POINT©
PROCEED TO POINT (
IN HEVPEC-S LOGIC
USING 1C
Figure A-2. HEVPEC-P Flow Chart
A-10
-------
The remainder of the procedure for HYBRID-P is the same as that for
HYBRID-S with the following exceptions:
Pe =
1
746
Wi "
p , G Gl
aux n,-
u
^F° ro/'^o
375 0
i
v. * 0
i
or
Pe - _L_ p + VG Imin
^e '"746 aux + n^
a. < 0 a. = 0
c I- I
for or
v. * 0 v. = 0
A-ll
-------
A. 4
HEVPEC OUTPUT LIST
The following symbols and abbreviations are a list of HEVPEC-S and
HEVPEC-P output variables and plots.
ACC Acceleration, mph/sec
BUF Battery utilization factor (see nomenclature list)
CO Emission rate of CO, gm/mi
CYCLES Cumulative number of battery charge-discharge cycles
D Cumulative distance traveled, mi
DELTAC Change in battery capacity, amp-hr
ECO Cumulative amount of CO emitted, gm
EHC Cumulative amount of HC emitted, gm
ENO Cumulative amount of NCL emitted, gm
ER Cumulative energy dissipated in resistive load, amp-hr
F Throttle setting
FD Total road resistance force, Ib
FP Propulsive force, Ib
HC Emission rate of HC, gm/mi
IBC Maximum current available for battery charging, amps
IBD Battery discharge current, amps
IBMAX Maximum battery discharge current, amps
IG Generator output current, amps
IG1 Input current to electric drive motor
IG2 Electric current analogue of mechanical power delivered by
heat engine directly to wheels, amps
A-12
-------
IM Electric drive motor input current, amps
IMBC Battery charging current, amps
NM. Electric drive motor speed, rpm
NO Emission rate of NG>2> gm/mi
PE Power output of heat engine, 'hp
S Battery state of charge, percent
TIME Profile time, sec
TM Electric drive motor output torque, ft-lb
V Vehicle speed, mph
Vm~> Cell voltage, volts
W1IP Net output power ;»t wheels, hp
Plots:
S vs Time
VBD vs Time
IBC vs Time
IBD vs Time
1C vs Time
IG2 vs Time
IM vs Time
A-13
-------
A. 5 SAMPLE OUTPUT
The following computer printouts are samples from the HYBRID-S and
HYBRID-P programs where
DELTAT = 1
NPRINT = 1
LASTLJN = 1
1. HEVPEC-- S
97* TSN«X= 2i>)E»01 C/C
HC= 3.06682E-OI CO: 9.20023C-01 NO* 2.U8003E»00 CTCLCS ' 11?
HEVPEC - P
7"50 IM« 0.0 N*»1200 TH» 0 F»« 0 F0« 31 F«
OFLT»C«-.0097Z »CC» 0.00 V« .20 0* «..0» S»1DO.OOO IRC" 91.000 I«0« O.tOO
IGt« SO. 00 1C?" 0.00 VBO«?.«iO THBC* 12.0(1 ER- t.tSPl 6UF> 5.00318778E-92 HHP> 0.00
<"> 18.6 EMC» 2.$1630;-01 FCO< 1.35?6?F«00 FNO« «.78228C»«0 C/C
HC« 6.20M5F-OI R0> ?.3?607F-01 NO- 2.1660%C»00 CYCLES • 38
Sample plots of several HEVPEC-S output variables are shown in
Figures A-3, A-4, A-5, and A-6.
A-14
-------
I
>—'
.01
200. 300.
TI ME. SECONDS
Figure A-3. Generator Output Current (1C) Versus Time
-------
>
I
- TI ME, SECONDS
Figure A-4. Electric Dr i Motor Input Current (IM) Versus Time
-------
00. 201). 300.
ME, SECONDS
Figure A-5. Battery State of Charge <8) Versus Time
-------
I
I—'
00
TIME. SECONDS
Figure A-6. Battery Cell Voltage (VBD) Versus Time
-------
A. 6
NOMENCLATURE FOR HEVPEC FLOW CHARTS
a.
i
a.
BUF
C
C
2 i
D
Frontal area of vehicle, ft
Acceleration based on profile velocity, mph/sec
Acceleration based on net fprce at wheels, mph/sec
Battery utilization factor = (cumulative energy drained
from battery/cumulative charging energy available)
Air resistance coefficient = 0.002558 C, , lb/(ft-mph)
Aerodynamic drag coefficient
Rated capacity of battery, amp-hr
Cumulative distance traveled, mi
Cumulative energy dissipated in parasitic load, amp-hr
Cumulative amount of unburned Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon
Monoxide (CO), and Nitric Oxide (NO?) emitted, grams
Specific emission rate of HC, CO, and NO_, grams/mi
Throttle setting
Cumulative energy output of heat engine, hp-hr
Total drag force (rolling resistance plus aerodynamic drag), Ib
Propulsive force at wheels, Ib
Gear ratio
A-19
-------
m
1B
IMBC
IR
MAX
IGMIN
IMIN
IG2
K
m'1'
m
N
m
NMIN
er
P
P
aui
R
At
T
m
TIN
Generator output current (HEPVEC-S only)
Generator output current (HPEVEC-P only)
Input current to electric drive motor, amps
Battery current, amps
Maximum allowable battery charge current, amps
Maximum allowable battery discharge current, amps
Minimum value of !„, amps
Minimum-value of IG?, amps
Electric current analogue of mechanical power output of
heat engine directed to wheels, amps
Motor torque constant, volt-amp/rpm-ft-lb
Effective vehicle mass (includes rotational inertia effects)
(lb-sec)/mph = 1. 1 m
Vehicle mass, (lb-sec)/mph
Speed of electric drive motor, rpm
Minimum value of N , rpm
m r
Power output of heat engine, hp
Rated power output of heat engine, hp
Tire pressure, psi
Accessory power requirement, watts
Rolling radius of tire, ft
t. - t. ,, sec
i i-l
Output torque of electric drive motor, ft-lb
Input array (see input list, Section A. 2)
A-20
-------
t.
1
VB
VG
V.
i
V.
J
VIBS
wv
e
e
V
T
Indices
L
i time step in driving cycle (velocity profile), sec
Battery voltage (input constant), volts
Generator output voltage (input constant), volts
i speed step in velocity profile, mph
Computed speed, mph
Input array (see input list, Section A. Z)
Vehicle weight, Ib
Road grade
Mechanical linkage loss factor (series), percent
Average efficiency of electric drive motor, percent
Battery recharge-efficiency, percent
Average efficiency of generator, percent
Transmission efficiency (parallel), percent
driving cycle (speed-time profile) index
internal program iteration index
A-21
-------
APPENDIX B
HEAT ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS
-------
CONTENTS
B. HEAT ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS B-l
B. 1 General B-l
B. 1. 1 Introduction B-l
B. 1.2 Pollutants B-l
B. 1.2. 1 Hydroca'rbons B-l
B. 1.2.2 Carbon Monoxide B-2
B. 1.2. 3 Nitric Oxide B-2
B. 1.2.4 Sulfur Dioxide B-2
B. 1.2.5 Aldehydes B-2
B. 1.2.6 Particulates B-2
B. 1. 3 Exhaust Emission Data Format B-3
B. 2 Spark Ignition Engine Emissions B-4
B.2. 1 General B-7
B. 2. 2 Combustion and Emission Characteristics. . . B-7
B. 2. 3 Methods to Reduce Emissions B-9
B.2.3.1 Air/Fuel Ratio B-10
B. 2.3.2 Spark Timing B-10
B. 2. 3. 3 Design Modifications B-ll
B.2.3.4 Catalytic Converters . B-ll
B. 2. 3. 5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation B-12
B. 2.3.6 Water Injection B-12
B. 2.3.7 Exhaust Manifold Reactors .... B-14
B.2.4 Other Engine-and Fuel Types B-14
B. 2.4. 1 Wankel Rotary Engine B-15
B. 2.4. 2 Stratified Charge Engine B-15
B.2.4. 3 Liquified Petroleum Gas . . . • • B-15
B. 2. 5 Parametric Engine Emission Data B-16
B-i
-------
CONTENTS (Continued)
B.2.6 Design Load Emissions B-21
B. 2. 6. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology. . . . B-21
B. 2. 6.2 Projected Technology B-29
B. 2. 7 Part-Load Emission Characteristics B-31
B. 2. 8 Cold Start Emissions B-33
B. 2. 9 Instrumentation B-36
B.2. 10 Other Pollutants B-37
B. 3 Diesel Engine Emissions B-37
B.3.1 General B-37
B. 3. 2 Combustion and Emission Characteristics . . B-41
B. 3. 3 Design Load Emissions B-44
B.3.3.1 State-of-the-Art Technology. . . , B-44
B.3.3.2 Projected Technology B-49
B. 3, 4 Part-Load Emissions Characteristics B-51
B. 3.4. 1 Actual Engine Part-Load
Emissions B-51
B.3.4.2 Selected Part-Load Emissions. . . B-86
B. 3. 5 Cold Start Emissions B-99
B.3.6 Instrumentation • B-100
B.3.7 Other Pollutants B-100
B. 4 Gas Turbines -.. . B-101
B.4. 1 General B-101
B. 4. 2 Design Load Emission Characteristics B-101
B.4.2. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology. . . . B-101
B.4.2.2 Projected Technology . B-106
B. 4. 3 Part-Load Emissions Characteristics B-108
B.4.4 Cold Start Emissions B-112
B. 4. 5 Effect of Fuel on Gas Turbine Emissions . . . D-114
B. 4. 6 Instrumentation B-114
B.4. 7 Other Pollutants B-114
B-ii
-------
CONTENTS (Continued)
B. 5 Rankine Engine Emissions B-115
B.5. 1 General B-115
B.5.2 Engine and Test Description B-116
B. 5. 3 Combustion and Exhaust Emission
Characteristics B-118
B. 5. 4 Design Load Emissions B-130
B.5.4. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology . . . . B-130
B. 5.4.2 Projected Technology B-136
B. 5. 5 Part-Load Emissions B-137
B. 5. 6 Cold Start Emissions B-137
B. 5.7 Instrumentation B-139
B. 5. 8 Other Pollutants. B-139
B. 6 Stirling Engine Emissions B-140
B. 6. 1 General B-140
B. 6. 2 Design Load Emissions B-140
B.6.2. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology . . . . B-140
B. 6.2.2 Projected Technology B-145
B. 6. 3 Part-Load Emissions B-149
B.6.4 Cold Start Emissions B-150
B. 6. 5 Instrumentation B-150
B. 6. 6 Other Pollutants B-152
B. 7 References B-153
B-iii
-------
TABLES
B-l. Spark Ignition Engines (Gasoline) and Design Load
Specific Mass Emissions B-6
B-2. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated, Direct-Injection
Diesel Engines and Design Load Specific Mass
B-3.
B-4.
B-5.
B-6.
B-7.
B-8.
B-9.
B-10.
Four-Cycle, Turbocharged, Direct- Injection Diesel
Engines and Design Load Specific Mass Emissions ....
Four-Cycle, Turbocharged, Prechamber Diesel Engines
Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel Engines and
Rankine Engine A - General Motors SE-101
Burner Emissions
Rankine Engine Automobile Emissions, DHEW
Driving Cycle, Hot Start
Rankine Engine B - Williams Steam Car Emissions . . .
Rankine Engine C - Marquardt Burner Emissions,
B-38
B-39
B-39
B-40
B-102
B-122
B-122
B-122
Vaporized, Premixed Injection TMH Fuel, 50
B-ll.
B-12.
B-13.
B-14.
B-15.
Rankine Engine D - Thermo Electron Corporation
Rankine Engine E - Bessler Boiler Emission Data ....
Rankine Engine Automobile Cold Start Emissions ....
General Motors Research 10 hp Stirling Engine
Philips 80 ho Stirling Engine Emissions
B-128
B-131
B-131
B-142
B-144
B-iv
-------
FIGURES
B-l.
B-2.
B-3.
B-4.
B-5.
B-6.
B-7.
B-8.
B-9.
B-10.
B-ll.
B-12.
B-13.
B-14.
B-15.
B-16.
Typical Spark Ignition Engine Exhaust Emissions
Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on NO Emissions
and Performance - Spark Ignition Engines
Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Hydrocarbon Emissions ....
Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Carbon Monoxide Emissions . .
Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Nitric Oxide Emissions
Toyota 115. 7 CID Engine Air/Fuel Ratio Versus
Brake Horsepower
CFR Engine - Emission Test Data (1000 rpm; Gasoline) .
CFR Engine - Power Output Versus Air/Fuel Ratio. . . .
Spark Ignition Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
Spark Ignition Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
Spark Ignition Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
Spark Ignition Engines - HC, CO, NO, Emissions,
Steady State Part- Load, Air / Fuel - 15-16
Ratio of Cold Start Emissions to Hot Start
Emissions, DHEW Cycle
Typical Diesel Engine Exhaust Emissions Versus
Air/Fuel Ratio
Diesel Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission, Steady State
Design Load
Diesel Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
B-8
B-13
B-17
B-18
B-19
B-ZO
B-Z2
B-23
B-Z4
B-25
B-26
B-32
B-34
B-42
B-45
B-46
B-v
-------
FIGURES (Continued)
B-17. Diesel Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission, Steady State
Design Load B-47
B-18. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine A - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions B-52
B-19. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine A - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions B-53
B-20. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesels - Engine A - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions B-54
B-Z1. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine B - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions B-55
B-22. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine B - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions B-56
B-23. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine B - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions B-57
B-24. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine C - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions B-58
B-25. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine C -, Part-Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions . B-59
B-26. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine C - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions B-60
B-27. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine D - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions B-61
B-vi
-------
FIGURES (Continued)
B-28. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct- Injection
Diesel - Engine D - Part- Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions .......................... B-6Z
B-29. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct- Injection
Diesel - Engine D - Part- Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions .......................... B-63
B-30. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct- Injection
Diesel - Engine E - Part- Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions .......................... B-64
B-31. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine E - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions .......................... B-6^
.B-32. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct- Injection
Diesel - Engine F - Part- Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions .......................... B-66
B-33. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine F - Part- Load Carbon Monoxide
Emissions .......................... B-67
B-34. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Directr Injection
Diesel - Engine F - Part- Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions .......................... B-68
B-35. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct- Injection Diesel -
Engine I - Part- Load Hydrocarbon Emissions ....... B-69
B-36. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection Diesel -
Engine I - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions ..... B-70
B-37. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct- Injection Diesel -
Engine I - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions ....... B-71
B-38. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct- Injection Diesel -
Engine J - Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions ....... B-72
B-39. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection Diesel -
Engine J - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions ..... B-73
B-vii
-------
FIGURES (Continued)
B-40. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection Diesel -
Engine J - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-74
B-41. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection Diesel -
Engine K - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions. . . . B-75
B-42. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection Diesel -
Engine K - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-76
B-43. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
EngineL - Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions B-77
B-44. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
EngineL - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions . . . B-78
B-45. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine L - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-79
B-46. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine M - Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions B-80
B-47. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine M - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions. . . . B-81
B-48. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine M - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-82
B-49. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine N - Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions B-83
B-50. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine N - Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions. . . . B-84
B-51. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber Diesel -
Engine N - Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-85
B-5Z. Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine P -
Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions B-87
B-53. Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine P -
Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions B-88
B-54. Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine 1' -
Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions B-89
B-viii
-------
FIGURES (Continued)
B-55.
B-56.
B-57.
B-58.
B-59.
B-60.
B-61.
B-62.
B-63.
B-64.
B-65.
B-66.
B-67.
B-68.
B-69.
Two-Cycle, Direct- Injection Diesel - Engine Q -
Two-Cycle, Direct- Injection Diesel - Engine Q -
Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine Q -
Part- Load Nitric Oxide Emissions
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Part- Load, Rated Speed
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Carbon Monoxide
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Part- Load, Rated Speed . . .
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Part- Load, Variable Speed
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Part- Load, Variable Speed
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Part- Load, Variable Speed
Gas Turbines-Hydrocarbon Emission, Steady State
Design Load
Gas Turbines-Carbon Monoxide Emission, Steady State
Gas Turbines-Nitric Oxide Emission, Steady State
Design Load
Gas Turbine -Test Data Part- Load Emissions
Gas Turbine-Test Data Part-Load Emissions
B-90
B-91
B-92
B-93
B-94
B-95
B-96
B-97
B-98
B-103
B-104
B-105
B-109
B-.110
B-lll
B-ix
-------
FIGURES (Continued)
D-70. Gas Turbines - HC, CO, NO, Emissions, Steady State
B-71.
B-72.
B-73.
B-74.
B-75.
B-76.
B-77.
B-78.
B-79.
B-80.
B-81.
B-82.
B-83.
B-84.
B-85.
Part- Load
Rankine Engines - General Motors Research SE-101
Burner Emissions (60 Percent Design Air Flow)
Rankine Engines - General Motors Research SE-101
Burner Emissions (Air/ Fuel Ratio ~ 25)
Rankine Engines - Marquardt Burner A Emissions
(Vaporized, Premixed Injection TNH Fuel, 50 Percent
Rankine Engines - Marquardt SUE Burner Emissions
(Vaporized TMH Fuel, 50 Percent Design Flow)
Rankine Engines - Marquardt Burner A Emissions
(TMH Fuel)
Rankine Engines - Thermo Electron Corporation
Burner Emissions
Rankine Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission, Steady
State, Design Load „
Rankine Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission, Steady
State Design Load
Rankine Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission, Steady
Rankine Engines - HC, CO, NO, Emissions, Steady
State Part-Load
Stirling Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission, Steady
Stirling Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission, Steady
Stirling Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission, Steady State
Stirling Engines - HC, CO, NO, Emissions, Steady
State Part- Load
B-113
B-119
B-120
B-124
B-125
B-126
B-129
B-132
B-133
B-134
B-135
B-138
B-146
B-147
B-148
B-151
B-x
-------
APPENDIX B
HEAT ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS
B. 1 GENERAL
B. 1. 1 Introduction
Engine exhaust emission characteristics were established for the following
five types of heat engines considered in the Hybrid Heat Engine/Electric
Vehicle Systems Study:
Spark Ignition Engine (Otto Cycle)
Compression Ignition Engine (Diesel Cycle)
Gas Turbine Engine (Brayton Cycle)
Rankine Cycle Engine (Steam)
Stirling Cycle Engine
The main pollutants emitted from heat engines are hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, aldehydes, and particulates.
This study was limited to the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitric
oxide emissions primarily due to a lack of available quantitative informa-
tion on other pollutants. Evaporative hydrocarbon emissions were not
considered in the study since methods have been developed which essentially
eliminate this problem. To provide a better understanding of the problems
associated with engine exhaust emissions the following section presents a
brief discussion of the various pollutants.
B. 1. 2 Pollutants
B.I.2.1 Hydrocarbons
Although not toxic, the hydrocarbons participate in the chemical smog for-
mation process in the atmosphere. Theoretically, the hydrocarbon (HC)
concentration in combustion gases decreases with increasing air/fuel ratio
and becomes essentially zero for stoichiometric air/fuel ratios. However,
an actual engine will always have some HC emissions as a result of incom-
plete combustion in the wall zone of the chamber.
B-l
-------
B. 1.2.2 Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic substance. Its concentration in the exhaust
of heat engines is determined primarily by air/fuel ratio and quench effects
in the combustion chamber.
B.I.2.3 Nitric Oxide
Nitric oxide (NO) emitted from heat engines is converted to nitrogen dioxide
(NO,) in the atmosphere. The NO_ is rather toxic and is one of the species
C» Lt
involved in the photochemical smog formation process. Formation of NO in
the combustion chamber is kinetically controlled and is a function of the
combustion temperature. The NO concentrations in the exhaust of heat
engines are generally lower than the equilibrium concentrations computed
for the combustion chamber, but higher than those computed for the exhaust
temperature. Initially, the exhaust NO2 concentration is very low, generally
less than five percent of NO.
B. 1.2.4 Sulfur Dioxide
The sulfur dioxide (SO?) concentration is directly related to the sulfur
content in the fuel. Thus, SO? control is accomplished by limiting the
amount of sulfur in the fuel.
B. 1.2.5 Aldehydes
Aldehyde concentration is related to combustion in lean air/fuel ratio zones.
Also, combustor design and temperature-time history of the combustion
products affect aldehyde formation. Odor and aldehydes are related, and
odor generally tends to be more severe in gas turbines and diesels than in
spark ignition engines.
B. 1.2.6 Particulates
Particulate matter can potentially be emitted as a result of impurities and
additives contained in the fuel. Frequently carbon particles (smoke) are
found in the exhaust. Formation of carbon is related to combustion in fuel
rich zones in the chamber.
B-2
-------
B. 1.3 Exhaust Emission Data Format
The heat engine exhaust emission data for HC, CO, and NO are presented
in terms of specific mass emissions, grams /bhp-hr. Selection of this
term was based on the conclusion that the emissions of the various heat
engines have to be compared on a mass basis rather than a concentration
basis. The specific mass emissions were computed from the measured
specie concentrations by the following equations:
Hydrocarbon:
14 x 10"6 x 454 x W x C
HC =
Mwxbhp '
Carbon Monoxide:
28 x 10"6 x 454 x W x CCQ
CO = - ' ...... ' g"ms /bhp-hr
G
Nitric Oxide:
30 x 10"6 x 454 x W x Cvo
NO = - r-nrrS — , .NO . grams /bhp-hr
MW x bnp
where
= Hydrocarbon concentration, ppm c
= Carbon monoxide concentration, ppm
C _ = Nitric oxide concentration, ppm
W = Exhaust How rate, Ib/hr
MW = Molecular weight of exhaust gases
bhp = Engine brake horsepower
B-3
-------
Steady state design load and part-load emission characteristics for both
current state-of-the-art and projected technologies were established for
each of the five engine types. The emissions of the three pollutants at
engine design load are presented in terms of specific mass emission versus
engine design brake horsepower. The part-load emissions are characterized
by part-load emission factors, defined as the ratio'of part-load specific mass
emission to design load specific mass emission versus percent design load.
Except for the state-of-the-art technology diesel engines, there was not
sufficient data available to correlate exhaust emissions and engine speed.
No attempt was made to characterize the emissions for transient operation
of the heat engines under changing load conditions, in the case of the hybrid
system, the energy required for vehicle acceleration above that provided by
the heat engine is supplied by the battery/electric motor system. Heat
engine cold start emissions have been considered where data was available;
however, additional work is required before a complete assessment can be
made of cold start emission characteristics.
Whereas the emission characteristics presented in this report have been
derived from the most accurate data available, additional efforts are
necessary to establish a more comprehensive and reliable data base for
heat engine emissions.
B. 2 SPARK IGNITION ENGINE EMISSIONS
During the past several years, much has been accomplished in the effort to
characterize and minimize the emissions from spark ignition engines. In
spite of this achievement and the wealth of information gathered by many
investigators, it still was not possible to acquire a sufficiently large data
sample for use in this study, and, as a result, a number of assumptions
had to be made. Although some of the required information is undoubtedly
available at various organizations, additional work is needed to determine
the emission characteristics of spark ignition engines as a function of air/
fuel ratio, speed, load, and design modifications.
B-4
-------
Most of the published spark ignition engine emission data are concerned with
the emissions over the seven-mode and Department of Health, Education
and Welfare (DHEW) driving cycles. Since the engine operating conditions
are continuously changing during these cycles, it is very difficult to
accurately convert these emission data to the specific mass emission num-
bers required for this study. Another difficulty arises from the fact that
the air/fuel ratio of current spark ignition engines varies with operating
point and from engine to engine between approximately 11 and 16. This
results in very large variations in HC, CO, and NO emissions.
The HC, CO, and NO emission data from automotive spark ignition engines
were made available by the Toyota Motor Company (Refs. B-l and B-Z)
and another engine manufacturer (Ref. B-3). More recently, addi-
tional part-load data were provided informally by General Motors Corpo-
ration (Ref. B-4), and TRW Systems (Ref. B-5). Unfortunately, these data
were not received in time to be fully incorporated into this study. However,
a brief comparison of this latter data with the part-load emissions derived
from the Toyota and the engine manufacturer's data indicates reasonable
agreement in the trends. Emission data from single-cylinder engines were
obtained from R. Hurn (Ref. B-6) and H. Newhall and El-Messiri (Ref. B-7).
Hum has tested a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine over a wide range
of air/fuel ratios using gasoline, methane, and propane as the fuel. The
engine used by Newhall had a prechamber and was also tested over a wide
range of air/fuel ratios using gasoline as fuel. These data were used
primarily to characterize the emissions in the "ultra lean" operating regime
(air/fuel ratio > 20).
Performance data were gathered on a number of devices and techniques aimed
at reducing the emissions from spark ignition engines. These include cata-
lytic converters, exhaust manifold reactors, exhaust gas recirculation, and
water injection. All these systems were considered for potential application
in spark ignition engines and provided the basis for establishing the projected
emission levels of these engines.
The engines considered in this study are listed in Table B-l.
B-5
-------
Table B-l. Spark Ignition Engines (Gasoline) and
Design Load Specific Mass Emissions
Engine Identification
Engine
Rated HP
Rated Speed
Compression Ratio
Displacement
Air /Fuel Ratio
HC, grams /bhp-hr
CO, grams /bhp-hr
NO, grams /bhp-hr
Reference
A
Toyota
NAV*
NA
8:1
115. 7
15*
0.68
8.0
12.5
B-l
B
NA
191
3200
8:1
400
.1.
16"
0. 30
3.0
13.0
B-3
C
CFR
NA
NA
NA
NA
15
NA
3.0
18. 0
B-6
D
CFR
NA
NA
NA
NA
22
NA
2. 1
1. 00
B-6
E
Prechamber
NA
NA
NA
NA
25
0.7
16
0.7
B-7
^At selected operating points, not at rated condition
Not available
B-6
-------
D. 2. 1 General
The exhaust emissions from spark ignition engines are affected primarily by
air/fuel ratio. Other factors affecting emissions include spark timing,
chamber and induction system design, mixture ratio non-uniformity, and fuel
atomization.
The effect of air/fuel ratio on exhaust emission is illustrated in Fig. B-l
which shows HC, CO, and NO emission concentrations versus air/fuel ratio.
Below stoichiometric, not enough oxygen is available and, as a result,
considerable amounts of HC and CO are emitted. Both HC and CO concen-
trations decrease rapidly with increasing air/fuel ratio. The HC concen-
tration decreases to minimum for air/fuel ratios between approximately 15
and 18 and then increases again as a result of quench effects. The point of
minimum HC concentration is a function of many parameters, including
degree of mixture ratio non-uniformity and combustion chamber design.
The CO concentration remains essentially constant for air/fuel ratios above
16. However, it is also conceivable that the CO concentration might increase
again at ultra high air/fuel ratios as a result of quenching of the chemical
reactions by the additional air.
The NO concentration is rather low for air/fuel ratios much below stoichio-
metric, however, it increases sharply as air/fuel ratio increases. This
increase is primarily due to a higher combustion chamber temperature. The
maximum concentration is obtained at an air/fuel ratio approximately 10
percent greater than stoichiometric as a result of the combined effects of
combustion temperature and oxygen concentration. Beyond that point NO
decreases rather rapidly due to the reduction in combustion temperature.
B. 2. 2 Combustion and Emission Characteristics
As reported by Daniel (Refs. B-8 and B-9), the hydrocarbons emitted from
spark ignition engines are partly the result of quench effects in the boundary
layer adjacent to the cylinder walls. In addition, some of the larger fuel
droplets may not be completely vaporized or combusted within the time
B-7
-------
4000 —
td
i
00
§ 3000
cc
UJ
0.
CO
h-
or
o_
cf
1000
CURRENT
SPARK IGNITION
ENGINE A/F RANGE
,^ \
"LEAN" ENGINE
A/F RANGE
2000 —
14 16
AIR/FUEL RATIO
22
Figure B-l. Typical Spark Ignition Engine Exhaust Emissions
Versus Air/Fuel Ratio (Gasoline)
-------
frame typical of spark ignition engines. The molecular structure of the
emitted HC is generally quite different from that of the fuel used in the
engine (Ref. B-10).
Starkman (Ref. B-ll) has shown that the CO exhaust concentration of spark
ignition engines is generally lower than the calculated equilibrium value
in the chamber. However, the CO concentration in the exhaust is much
higher than the equilibrium value corresponding to the exhaust temperature,
particularly in the lean regime. This points out that the CO reactions are
too slow to remain in equilibrium during the expansion of the gases in the
cylinder. Sawyer (Ref. B-12) has predicted similar trends for gas turbines.
Much experimental and theoretical work has been undertaken in an effort to
provide a basic understanding of the formation processes of nitric oxide.
Newhall and Shahed (Ref. B-13) have determined the formation of NO experi-
mentally and have concluded that NO is formed primarily in the post flame
gases. Eyzat and Guibet (Ref. B-14) and Lavoie, Heywood and Keck
(Ref. B-15) have shown theoretically that the NO formation in internal com-
bustion engines is kinetically controlled. The predicted NO concentrations
in the chamber are generally much lower than the equilibrium values,
particularly in the lean regime because the reactions are too slow. As the
gases expand in the cylinder the temperature decreases rapidly and, as
a result, the NO reactions freeze at a level which is much higher than the
equilibrium value computed for the exhaust temperature. This has been
verified experimentally by Newhall and Starkman (Ref. B-16). Caretto et al
(Ref. B-17) have theoretically analyzed the effect of engine speed on NO
emission and have obtained results which are in reasonable agrement with
experiments. As speed decreases, the NO concentration decreases.
B. 2. 3 Methods to Reduce Emissions
In addition to air/fuel ratio, there are many other factors affecting emis-
sions, including variation of spark timing, chamber and induction system
design, mixture preparation, and manifold pressure. Also, exhaust gas
recirculation, water injection, and catalytic converters affect engine
B-9
-------
emissions. These factors were considered in estimating the projected
engine emission characteristics and are briefly discussed in the following
paragraphs.
B.2.3.1 Air/Fuel Ratio
As indicated in Fig. B-l, the emissions of HC, CO, and NO can be reduced
simultaneously by increasing the air/fuel ratio beyond stoichiometric. How-
ever, driveability of the engine generally deteriorates at high air/fuel
ratios, particularly when the mixture ratio distribution is not uniform.
Operation in the fuel rich regime results in low NO emissions. However,
the corresponding HC and CO emissions are high and would have to be
controlled externally by other means, such as thermal or catalytic devices.
At an air/fuel ratio of approximately 13 there are equal mole fractions of
NO and CO. Thus the reaction, 2 CO + 2 NO=2CO2 + N_, is theoretically
feasible. This reaction, however, is too slow unless a catalyst is added in
the exhaust line.
B. 2.3.2 Spark Timing
Huls and Nickol (Ref. B-l8), Hagen and Holiday (Ref. B-19), Jackson et al
(Ref. B-20), Fagley et al (Ref. B-21), Freeman and Stahman (Ref. B-22),
and Hittler and Hamkins (Ref. B-23) have demonstrated the effects of spark
timing on HC and NO emissions. When retarding the spark, ignition of the
air/fuel mixture in the cylinder is delayed. This results in lower chamber
temperatures and less NO. Also combustion of part of the mixture then
occurs during the expansion stroke. Thus higher exhaust gas temperatures
are obtained and additional oxidation of HC can occur in the exhaust system
provided, of course, that oxygen is available. Eltinge et al (Ref. B-24)
have shown that HC can be further reduced by insulating the exhaust mani-
fold. No effect of spark ignition timing on CO has been reported. It
should be mentioned that engine power and fuel consumption are adversely
affected by spark retardation.
B-10
-------
B. 2. 3. 3 Design Modifications
Modification of the conventional air/fuel induction system can potentially
result in lower HC and CO emissions. Jones and Gagliardi (Ref. B-25),
Bartholomew (Ref. B-26), Trayser and Creswick (Ref. B-27), and others
have shown experimentally that smaller mixture ratio excursions and
lower HC and CO emissions can be obtained when using a preheated and
premixed air/fuel charge. Similar effects might be realized by using
optimized carburetor intake manifold configurations or fuel injections.
As previously mentioned, part of the HC emission from internal combustion
engines results from quench effects occurring in the film zone adjacent to
the cylinder walls. Thus, a reduction of the cylinder surface area to volume
ratio should be effective in minimizing HC emissions.
Huls, Myers, and Uyehara (Ref. B-28) have shown that reduction of engine
compression ratio can result in lower HC emissions. As compression
ratio decreases the exhaust gas temperature increases and this promotes
additional HC reactions in the exhaust system.
B.2.3.4 Catalytic Converters
The potential effectiveness of catalytic converters has been previously stated.
Schwochert (Ref. B-29) has conducted experiments with non-leaded gasoline
and a precious metal catalyst on two automobiles. When warm, the HC and
CO conversion efficiencies of the catalyst were initially 88 percent and 91
percent, respectively. After 50,000 miles of driving over the modified
American Manufacturers Association (AMA) cycle, the HC conversion
efficiency of the catalyst was reduced to approximately 74 percent while the
CO efficiency remained unchanged. For a cold start, the HC and CO effi-
ciencies were 70 percent when new and decreased to 55 percent after 50,000
miles. Osterhaut et al (Ref. B-30) have published similar results.
It was recently reported that a base metal catalyst manufactured by Universal
Oil Products (UOP) is very effective in simultaneously reducing HC, CO,
and NO emissions so long as the air/fuel ratio is maintained between
B-ll
-------
approximately 13. 5 and 16. 5. In that case HC, CO, and NO effectiveness
values are approximately 75 percent, 90 percent, and 80 percent, respec-
tively. No information is available on the cold start characteristics of the
UOP catalyst.
B. 2. 3. 5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Exhaust gas recirculation has been shown to be one of the more effective
methods for reducing NO emissions. Kdpa (Ref. B-31) has demonstrated
that significantly lower NO can be obtained by adding exhaust gas recircula-
tion which results in lower combustion temperatures. This is illustrated
in Fig. B-2, where the NO reduction efficiency obtained by Kopa is shown
as a function of percent exhaust recirculated. Also shown in the figure are
SFC and engine power. For 15-percent recirculation, the NO concentration
was reduced by approximately 80 percent with a 15-percent loss in power
and a 10-percent increase in fuel consumption. According to Kopa, HC and
CO emission were not adversely affected by recirculation. Newhall (Ref.
B-32) has conducted a theoretical study of exhaust gas recirculation and
his analysis supports the data measured by Kopa. The study by Newhall
indicates that the maximum amount of recirculation possible might be lower
in the lean regime. Benson (Ref. B-33) has reported NO emission reduction
efficiencies of approximately 80 percent when combining exhaust gas recir-
culation and spark retardation. W. Glass et al (Ref. B-34) have tested two
automobiles with exhaust gas recirculation. Reductions in NO of approxi-
mately 60 percent were achieved with approximately 12. 5 percent recycle
flow rate with little change in HC and CO emissions.
B. 2. 3. 6 Water Injection
Nicholls et al (Ref. B-35) have presented test data showing the effects on NO
emissions of water injection into the intake manifold. At water flow to fuel
flow rates of 1.0, the NO reduction efficiency is approximately 60 percent
and increases for air/fuel ratios below stoichiometric. It appears that
water injection becomes less effective above stoichiometric. Water injec-
tion has very little effect on engine power and fuel consumption.
B-12
-------
160
140
120
CL
-C
o'lOO
CO
00
o
LU
CJ>
LU
Q_
80
60
40
20
0
0
BRAKE SPECIFIC
FUEL CONSUMPTION
NO-CONCENTRATION
0.05 0.10
EXHAUST FLOW/AIR FLOW
0.15
Figure B-2. Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on NO
Emissions and Performance - Spark
Ignition Engines
B-13
-------
B. 2. 3. 7 Exhaust Manifold Reactors
Exhaust manifold reactors provide a high temperature zone in the engine
exhaust system to promote further oxidation of the HC and CO. Secondary
air is provided when the engine is operated below stoichiometric. Mikita
et al (Ref. B-36) have tested such a device on two cars and have demonstrated
HC, CO, and NO emission levels below the 1975 standards. Although
basically feasible, the system presently has a number of disadvantages such
as large volume and high cost.
Cantwell et al (Ref. B-37) have presented emission data for cold and hot
starts using this device. Based on test data from the seven-mode driving
cycle, the HC and CO emissions for a cold start test are 1. 65 and 1. 35 times
those obtained with a hot start. These factors are comparable to those of
standard engines. This is further discussed in Section B. 2. 8.
Glass et al (Ref. B-38) have reported on a synchrothermal reactor concept
which is designed to operate at air/fuel ratios below stoichiometric in order
to minimize NO emissions. Small amounts of recirculation are used to
further promote NO reduction. Secondary air is injected into the exhaust
manifold of each cylinder, and, in order to maximize temperature, the air
injection is synchronized with the valve opening. For the seven-mode cycle,
the reported exhaust concentrations are 10 ppm HC, 0.3 percent CO, and
150 ppm NO. At 50 mph, the concentrations are higher.
B.2.4 Other Engine and Fuel Types
In addition to the standard spark ignition engines, two advanced spark ignition
engines show some promise with respect to the hybrid application. These
are the Wankel rotary engine and the Stratified Charge engine. Also, con-
sideration has been given to conventional spark ignition engines using
natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as fuel.
B-14
-------
B. 2.4. 1 Wankel Rotary Engine
Owing to its light weight and small volume the Wankel engine warrants fur-
ther consideration. While the emission characteristics of the Wankel
engine with an exhaust manifold reactor are similar to standard spark
ignition engines, it appears that those emissions might be further reduced
by design modifications and additional development work. Although some
emission data have been reported by Cole and Jones (Ref. B-39), the scope
of this study and the lack of a comprehensive data sample did not permit
further examination of the Wankel engines and its emission characteristics.
B.2.4.2 Stratified Charge Engine
Mitchell et al (Ref. B-40) have presented a description of a Stratified Charge
engine originally designed for low SFC and multifuel capability. The engine
has an air swirl chamber, fuel injection, and spark ignition and is designed
to operate at air/fuel ratios above 20. The engine has demonstrated low
fuel consumption characteristics and the HC and CO emissions are reasonably
low. Since an adequate emission data sample is not available at this time,
no attempt was made to characterize the emissions of this engine for use in
the hybrid study.
B. 2. 4. 3 Liquified Petroleum Gas
McJones and Corbell (Ref. B-41) have reported emission data from a spark
ignition engine operated with natural gas. The engine used in the program
was operated with approximately 25 percent excess air and with retarded
spark. The principal HC constituent found in the exhaust was methane which
is considerably less reactive than the HC species normally present in the
exhaust of spark ignition engines. The HC, CO, and NO emissions were
lower for natural gas and LPG, primarily because the air/fuel ratio was
increased compared to operation on gasoline. Engine power output was
reduced by approximately 15 percent. Driveability was excellent over a
wide range of operating conditions. Baxter et al (Ref. B-42) have reported
some emission data gathered from a spark ignition engine operated on LPG.
B-15
-------
The reactivity of the hydrocarbon in the exhaust was approximately 30
percent of the reactivity of typical gasoline engine exhaust.
B. 2. 5 Parametric Engine Emission Data
Steady-state mass emission data for the Toyota engine are presented in
Figs. B-3 through B-5 in terms of specific mass emissions versus engine
brake horsepower. These data were computed from the specie concentra-
tion data presented by Matsumoto et al (Ref. B-l) and the engine air flow
data subsequently provided by Toyota upon Aerospace request (Ref. B-2).
The HC data presented by Matsumoto were measured by nondispersive
infrared (NDIR) instrumentation. To account for sensitivity differences
between NDIR and flame ionization detector (FID), the HC concentrations
were multiplied by a factor of 2 before conversion to specific mass emis-
sions. Tyree and Springer (Ref. B-43) have shown that this value is
reasonable. However, there are indications that the factor varies with
varying operating conditions as a result of a shift in molecular structure
of the emitted hydrocarbons. As indicated in Fig. B-3, the HC specific
mass emissions increase with decreasing speed and rise sharply at very
low power levels. This trend is the direct result of the air/fuel ratio
variations of the Toyota engine presented in Fig. B-6. As expected, the CO
mass emissions show similar trends. Also, the NO emission plotted in
Fig. B-5 is as expected, considering the air/fuel ratio schedule depicted in
Fig. B-6.
The data plotted in Figs. B-3 through B-5 were used to determine the design
load specific mass emissions for operation of the engine at air/fuel ratios
between 15 and 16. It should be mentioned that the highest power output of
the engine at an air/fuel ratio of 15 was approximately 75 percent of design
horsepower. The emissions at that load point were then considered full-
load points for the purpose of this study. The data obtained from another
engine manufacturer (Ref. B-3) were analyzed accordingly. That engine was
operated at air/fuel ratios of approximately 16 over a wide range of load
B-16
-------
7
I
T
T
T
N = IOOO rpm
w
03
E
(NDIR DATA MULTIPLIED BY 2
TO SIMULATE EID)
4000
0
0
10
20 30 40 50 60
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
70
80
90
Figure B-3. Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Hydrocarbon Emissions
-------
td
t—•
00
0
30 40
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-4. Toyota 115.7 C1D Engine Carbon Monoxide Emissions
-------
w
t—•
vO
12
10
JE 8
Q.
JT
CO
*E i
CT>
0
0
10 20
30 40 50 60
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
70 80 SO
Figure B-5. Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Nitric Oxide Emissions
-------
td
i
t\j
o
16
15
o 14
»—
a:
—i
UJ ,-7
ID IJ
U_
12
10
0
4000 _
N = IOOO rpm
I
10 20
30 40 50 60
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
70
80
90
Figure B-6. Toyota 115.7 CID Engine Air/Fuel Ratio
Versus Brake Horsepower
-------
conditions. Again, the HC emissions were measured by NDIR, and, for the
purpose of this study, the data were increased by a factor of 2 to account
for sensitivity differences between the NDIR and FID instrumentation. The
design load specific mass emissions of these engines are also listed in
Table B-l.
The CO and NO specific mass emissions for a single-cylinder CFR engine
operated at 1000 rpm with gasoline are presented in Fig. B-7. These data
were computed from concentration, flow rate, and indicated horsepower
data informally obtained from R. Hurn (Ref. B-6). The test data shown in
the figure are. for two flow conditions: 50 percent and 86 percent of maxi-
mum flow. The dashed NO curve was drawn to represent a flow rate of
approximately 60 to 70 percent. This curve was used as the basis for
estimating the NO specific mass emissions of engines operated at air /fuel
ratios of 19 and 22. The air/fuel ratio of 19 was considered a maximum
value for the present state-of-the-art technology, while 22:1 is a projection.
It should be pointed out that a considerable penalty in engine horsepower
output occurs when operating at these very high air/fuel ratios. This is
shown in Fig. B-8 where the ratio of engine power to maximum engine power
is plotted as a function of air/fuel ratio. This power loss must be considered
in engine weight and volume calculations for current hybrid applications, but
it is anticipated that this power loss can be circumvented in future engine
designs (viz., stratified charge) and, hence, was not included in calculations
of engine weight and volume. In addition, there is some loss in fuel economy.
Newhall and El-Messiri (Ref. B-7) have published data from their prechamber
work over a range of air/fuel ratios. A set of HC, CO, and NO specific
mass emissions selected from that data for an air/fuel ratio of 25:1 is listed
in Table B-l. As indicated, this device has rather low HC and NO emissions.
However, the CO specific mass emission appears to be on the high side.
B. 2. 6 Design Load Emissions
IJ.2. 6. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology
The design load specific mass emission points listed in Table B-l are plotted
in Figs. B-9 through B-ll. These data points provided the basis for the
B-21
-------
12
14
NO
ESTIMATED TREND
60-70% LOAD
86% LOAD
50% LOAD
16 18 20 22
AIR/FUEL RATIO
24 26
Figure B-7. CFR Engine - Emission Test Data
(1000 rpm; Gasoline)
B-22
-------
1.0
0.6 -
0.5
14
16 18 20 22 24 26
AIR/FUEL RATO, A/F
Figure B-8. CFR Engine - Power Output
Versus Air/Fuel Ratio
B-23
-------
I I I
I I
T I I
i
ex
oo
Cd
A/F = 22
A/F = 19
= 15-16
= 22 + CATALYST + EGR
A/F = 19 t CATALYST + EGR
10'
A/F =15-16 t CATALYST t EGR
1
I I
J I
10 10'
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
10'
Figure B-9. Spark Ignition Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
-------
10
I
o.
CD
G
w
i I r
•E
i i
I I
A/F = 22
A/F = I9
A/F =15-16 + CATALYST t EGR'
A/F=22 + CATALYST t EGR
A/F =19 H- CATALYST + EGR
i i i
i i
10 10'
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-10. Spark Ignition Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
-------
10
1 I
B
A/F = I5-I6
CL
CD
e
en
7
2
4
DO
D
A/F= 15-16 4- WATER INJECTION
A/F=I9
A/F = 15-16+
A/F = I9+EGR
j L
A/F =
A/F = 22+ EGR
i L
I I
10 10'
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-ll. Spark Ignition Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load (Gasoline)
-------
emission characteristics selected for the various spark ignition engine con-
figurations and operating conditions considered in this study. Obviously,
the data available are hardly sufficient to draw very accurate conclusions.
However, all efforts to obtain additional test data were unsuccessful. This
attests to the need for a comprehensive spark ignition engine emission test
program covering primarily the high air/fuel ratio regime.
Curves No. 1 in Figs. B-9 through B-ll were drawn between multicylinder
engine points A and B and are for air/fuel ratios between approximately 15
and 16. Curves No. 2 represent an air/fuel ratio of 19. Based on discus-
sions with R. Hum (Ref. B-6) and D. Cole (Ref. B-44), an air/fuel ratio of
approximately 18 to 19 is considered a maximum for the present state-of-
the-art technology of multicylinder engines. However, the problems nor-
mally associated with lean engine operation should be minimized for a hybrid
vehicle because the engine can be designed for operation at a single point
or for a relatively small range of operating conditions. Also, operation
under transient conditions can be minimized in the hybrid. These factors,
however, cannot be fully evaluated at this time. The assumed increase of
the HC specific mass emissions at air/fuel ratio of 19 compared to air/fuel
ratio of 15-16 is due to the combined effects of power loss and increasing
quench effects (Fig. B-9).
As previously mentioned, the CO concentrations in the exhaust of spark
ignition engines are very low. This is reflected in Curve No. 2 of Fig. B-10
which represents an air/fuel ratio of 19.
The NO specific mass emissions of engines A and B are in excellent agree-
ment, indicating again that air/fuel ratio is the principal parameter affecting
NO emissions in current engines. Curve No. 2, representing an air/fuel
ratio of 19, is based primarily on the data obtained from R. Hum and includes
spark timing adjustments to minimize NO emissions. It should be noted that
the data by Hum are for a small single-cylinder engine; large multicylinder
engines may show different emissions.
B-27
-------
The effect of catalytic converters in the exhaust system and exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) on emissions is illustrated by Curves No. 4 to No. 6.
Curve No. 4, representing an air/fuel ratio of 15-16,was obtained from
Curve No. 1 by using an HC and CO conversion efficiency of 80 percent and
an NO effectiveness of 75 percent. The assumed catalyst effectiveness is
conservative by comparison with the data published by Schwochert and by
Universal Oil Products. However, the catalytic converter effectiveness is
lower during engine warmup. Also, addition of EGR tends to increase HC
and CO. Identical conversion efficiencies were used for CO and HC. This
assumption may be somewhat conservative since CO conversion efficiencies
tend to be higher than HC efficiencies, at least over the range of air/fuel
ratios presently used in spark ignition engines. Since the CO mass emis-
sions are already very low at air/fuel ratios above approximately 15, the
assumption of a more conservative CO conversion effectiveness is not that
critical. This is even more apparent when considering a cold start. In
that case, a large portion of the total CO emitted over a driving cycle is
generated during the engine/catalyst warmup period.
The selected exhaust gas recirculation effectiveness is based upon the
previously discussed test data using a recirculation rate of approximately
15 percent.
Catalytic converters were not considered as a means to reduce NO, pri-
marily because of insufficient data. Although NO conversion efficiencies of
approximately 75 percent were reported by Universal Oil Products for air/
fuel ratios of 15-16, it appears that NO effectiveness decreases very rapidly
at lean air/fuel ratios. Combining NO catalysts and EGR might be feasible
for operation at stoichiometric or slightly higher air/fuel ratios and very
low NO emissions might be achieved with that approach. This concept
should be further investigated.
Curves No. 5, representing an air/fuel ratio of 19, were obtained from
Curves No. Z by assessing a HC and CO conversion efficiency of 75 percent
and an EGR efficiency of 67 percent. Reduced efficiencies were used to
B-28
-------
account for the lower combustion chamber and exhaust gas temperatures.
The assumed reduction in catalytic converter efficiency may be conservative
in view of a number of possible catalyst design modifications. For instance,
the catalyst could be electrically heated thereby improving its effectiveness.
In a hybrid/electric engine system there is always an adequate supply of
stored electrical energy.
The effect of water injection into the intake manifold of the engine on NO
emissions is illustrated by Curve No. 7 of Fig. B-ll for an air/fuel ratio
of approximately 15-16 and a water flow to fuel flow rate ratio of 1. 0. In
accordance with the data by Nicholls et al (Ref. B-35), an NO reduction
efficiency of 60 percent was used. In view of the relatively low effectiveness
of water injection on NO, it appears that this approach may not be attractive
due to the added complexity of such a system.
The HC, CO, and NO specific mass emissions are assumed to be constant
for engine design power levels above approximately 50 hp. Below that point,
the HC emissions are assumed to increase due to decreasing engine efficiency
and increasing quench effects.
B. 2. 6. 2 Projected Technology
The design load specific mass emissions for the projected technology are
presented by Curves No. 3 and No. 6 of Figs. B-9 through B-ll. Curves
No. 6 are for air/fuel ratio of 22 and Curves No. 7 for air/fuel ratios of
22 plus catalytic converter and exhaust gas recirculation. The selected
air/fuel ratio of 22 is considered the practical limit for spark ignition engines,,
However, this value should not be taken too literally but merely as an
indication of an ultra lean operation. Further studies are required to deter-
mine the optimum ultra lean air/fuel ratio by considering emissions as
well as engine performance aspects.
As shown by Curve No. 3 of Fig. B-9, the HC emissions at an air/fuel ratio
of 22 are somewhat higher than at an air/fuel ratio of 19. This small
increase is the result of a number of opposing effects. Generally, for very
B-29
-------
lean mixtures, the HC specific mass emissions tend to increase due to lower
engine power output for a given air flow rate and increased quench effects.
However, the HC emissions might be further reduced by means of additional
chamber and induction system design optimization.
The CO specific mass emissions at an air/fuel ratio of 22 are slightly higher
than those at an air/fuel ratio of 19 due to a loss in engine power at the
i
higher ratio.
The NO specific mass emissions at an air/fuel ratio of 22 are considerably
lower than at an air/fuel ratio of 19. The assumed reduction is based on
single-cylinder data by Hurn and by Newhall, with the assumption of
optimized spark timing.
The effects of catalytic converters and exhaust gas recirculation on emis-
sions at an air/fuel ratio of 22 are shown by Curves No. 6- An even lower
HC and CO conversion efficiency of 70 percent was assumed to account for
the lower exhaust temperatures. A recirculation efficiency of 50 percent
was used to construct the NO Curve in Fig. B-ll. This trend reflects to
some degree the observations made by Newhall (Ref. B-32) and Matsumoto
et al (Ref. B-l).
Again, the HC, CO, and NO specific mass emissions are constant for engine
design horsepower output levels of 50 and above. Below that point, the NO
specific mass emissions increase somewhat to reflect decreasing engine
efficiency and increasing wall quenching effects.
Since HC and CO emissions can be effectively controlled by means of a
catalytic converter and engine component design modifications (at least under
hot start conditions), the principal problem remaining is NO emissions.
Since EGR and spark timing changes are not sufficiently effective, it appears
that a leaner mixture is required to meet future NO emission goals. Addi-
tional efforts should be directed towards this approach which theoretically
looks very interesting, but may develop practical problems such as poor
driveability, reduced power output, and increased fuel consumption.
B-30
-------
However, these potential problems are believed to be less severe in the
case of a hybrid engine configuration. More work in that area is needed to
resolve these questions.
B. 2. 7 Part-Load Emission Characteristics
The part-load emission characteristics of spark ignition engines operating
at air/fuel ratios of 15-16 are presented in Fig. B-12 in terms of the ratio
of species specific mass emission at part-load to species specific mass
emission at design load versus percent design load. These curves were
derived for constant engine speed from the very limited data sample provided
by Toyota and another engine manufacturer. The two engines show some-
what different part-load emission characteristics and the curves presented
in Fig. B-12 are averages from the two engines. Part-load emission data
for CO and NO recently received from General Motors (Ref. B-4) and TRW
Systems (Ref. B-5) indicate similar trends. The part-load specific mass
emissions at an air/fuel ratio of approximately 15 are obtained by multiplying
the part-load emission factors from Fig. B-12 and the design load specific
mass emissions presented in Figs. B-9 through B-ll.
It is realized that engine exhaust emissions are also a function of engine
speed. As a result, lower part-load emission factors might be obtained by
varying speed as load is varied. The optimum speed versus load schedule
must be determined for each hybrid system application by considering heat
engine emissions as well as other parameters which affect the operation of
engine system components, such as generator, motor, and controls.
Presently, there is a serious lack of applicable engine data, and thus speed
could not be used as an emission correlation parameter in this study. More
work is required in that area before these questions can be adequately
answered.
For the purpose of this study, HC, CO, and NO part-load specific mass
emission factors of 1.0 were used for air/fuel ratios of 19 and 22. This
choice wae made primarily because of the lack of applicable test data.
B-31
-------
2.5
CO
CO
-------
Also, it appears that changes in spark timing and engine design modifica-
tions and the addition of catalytic converters and EGR can have a significant
effect on the engine part-load emission characteristics. Currently, these
changes cannot be anticipated and systematic research and development
programs are required to resolve these questions.
B. 2. 8 Cold Start Emissions
For light-duty vehicles, Federal test procedures specify that the vehicle
be kept at ambient temperature for 12 hr prior to the DHEW and seven-mode
cycle tests. The vehicle exhaust emissions obtained over the DHEW driving
cycle are determined by the constant volume bag sampling technique, and
therefore reflect all the emissions generated during the warmup period of
the engine from the moment the key is turned on. Thus it is necessary to
ascertain the effect on emissions of this cold start period, which can be
considerable, depending on engine operating conditions. In the case of an
engine equipped with a catalytic reactor, there is an additional degradation
of emission during the period that the catalyst is cold and relatively inactive.
Since the engine exhaust emission data compiled for this study were based
on steady-state, hot engine data, it was necessary to ascertain the influence
of both engine and/or catalyst warmup on emission. Data obtained during
the latter part of the study which give some feel for the magnitude of cold
start emissions are discussed in the following paragraphs.
A cold start emission correction factor was derived that could be applied
to the vehicle emissions which were calculated on the basis of steady-state,
hot engine data in grams /mi over the DHEW cycle. This factor is defined
as the ratio of cold start cycle emissions to hot start cycle emissions. At
the onset of the study, very little information was available on cold start
emission characteristics. Data was obtained, however, from several
sources by various techniques which are summarized in Fig. B-13.
B-33
-------
cr
o
§
W
i
00
UJ
en
cc
o
CO
CO
NAPCA-VW TRW-VW TRW-VW
UNMODIFIED 8.5hpCOLD 8.5hpCOLD
20 hp llhpHOT 2lhpHOT
BMW
LA-4
PLYMOUTH AUDI
LA-4 LA-4
NSU-R080
(WANKED
LA-4
GM-LPG
LA-4
Figure B-13.
Ratio of Cold Start Emissions to Hot
Start Emissions, DHEW Cycle
-------
Information was obtained from APCO (Ref. B-45) for vehicles tested over
the DHEW (or LA-4) cycle, comparing the emissions generated during the
normal test procedure with a 12-hr soak to that of a test initiated when the
engine was hot. The emission correction factors shown in Fig. B-13 for
the BMW, Plymouth, Audi, and NSU-R080 were derived from these test
data. The NO correction factor for these tests seem suspect, since
all other data indicate a lower NO emission level during engine warmup.
X
During the latter portion of the study period, engine tests were conducted
by TP.W Systems. (Ref. B-46) to derive cold start emission characteristics
for an engine operating over the hybrid mode of operation; that is, steady-
state conditions. The TRW System tests were conducted with the objective
of determining what changes could be made to minimize cold start emission
in the hybrid mode of operation. To complement this activity, tests were
run at APCO to derive the cold start characteristics of an unmodified VW
engine. In order to approximate the hybrid system engine operation, the
vehicle was tested on a chassis dynamometer with the engine being started
as rapidly as possible to 2000 rpm and running steady-state at approximately
20 shaft horsepower. Both the TRW and APCO tests were conducted with
two bags. In the APCO test, one bag was used to collect the emissions
generated over the first two minutes, and the second bag was used to collect
the hot engine emissions over a hot two-minute period. The TRW tests were
based on three-minute bag samples.
Preliminary results from the TRW tests indicate that by modifying the choke
operation and spark advance, and also by ramping the engine power output,
the cold start emissions can be reduced from that indicated by an unmodified
engine. Emission correction factors derived from these tests are shown
in Fig. B-13. The factors derived from the TRW tests are for the hybrid
mode of engine operation with 8. 5 hp output during the first three minutes
followed by the indicated power levels for the remainder of the DHEW cycle.
B-35
-------
Also shown in Fig. B-13 are correction factors derived from General
Motors vehicle test data (Ref. B-47). The General Motors test was con-
ducted with LPG fuel over the DHEW cycle. The engine had some spark
advance control and was operated at an air/fuel ratio of approximately
17. 5. It had a catalyst and EGR. A bag sample was taken of the total
emissions over the cycle, and a separate bag was used to collect the
emissions generated during the first 124 sec of the cycle.
From these data it can be seen that a wide range of correction factors can
result which are influenced by engine design and operation. Much work
remains to be done to minimize cold start emissions.
Based on the data presented in Fig. B-13, the following cold start correction
factors were selected to represent the spark ignition engines.
Pollutants
HC
CO
NO
Cold Start Correction Factors
State-of-the-Art
Technology
1.3
1. 3
0.95
Projected
Technology
1.2
1.2
0.95
B. 2.9
Instrumentation
The HC concentrations of Engines A and B were measured by means of NDIR
instrumentation. To account for the different sensitivities of NDIR and FID
instruments, the HC concentrations were multiplied by a factor of 2 before
conversion to specific mass emissions. The data obtained from Hurn and
from Newhall are FID data. In all cases, NDIR was used to measure CO
and NO. Generally, NO? was ignored. Since the NO^ concentration in the
exhaust of spark ignition engines is less than five percent of the total oxides
of nitrogen, the error is negligible.
B-36
-------
B.2.10 Other Pollutants
No quantitative data on other pollutants are available for spark ignition
engines. Sulfur and lead oxides can be controlled by limiting the sulfur and
lead content in the fuel. Smoke is generally not a problem in spark ignition
engines except in poorly maintained engines.
B. 3 DIESEL ENGINE EMISSIONS
B. 3. 1 General
Emission test data from a large number of automotive diesel engines were
extracted from-the literature or were obtained directly from the manufac-
turers. The engines considered in this study and some of the important
specifications and operating parameters are listed in Tables B-2 through
B-5. Also presented in those tables are the design load specific mass
emissions of hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide. The engine
speeds are the maximum speeds used in the various tests which, in some
instances, are slightly different from the rated speeds quoted by the manu-
facturers. The listed output power is the maximum value observed at the
highest engine speed. All engines were tested without fan, but with fuel
pump and a simulated air cleaner pressure drop.
The four-cycle, naturally-aspirated, direct-injection diesels of domestic
and foreign origin are listed in Table B-2. The four-cycle, turbocharged,
direct-injection engines manufactured by Mack and by another manufacturer
are shown in Table B-3. Turbocharged, prechamber engine data from two
Caterpillar 1674 engines are presented in Table B-4. Engine points M and
N are the same engine tested by two different laboratories. Data from three
domestic two-cycle direct-injection engines are presented in Table B-5.
Engine P had been run in a bus for approximately 190,000 mi before testing.
That engine was retested after installation of the General Motors Environ-
mental Improvement Package.
B-37
-------
Table B-2. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated, Direct-Injection Diesel
Engines and Design Load Specific Mass Emissions
td
i
OJ
00
Engine Identification
Manufacturer
Displacement, in.
No. of Cylinders
Compression Ratio
Maximum Power, bhp
Maximum Speed, rpm
HC, grams/bhp-hr
CO, grams/bhp-hr
NO, grams/bhp-hr
Reference
A
Perkins
354
6
...
112
2800
0. 6
14.9
5.45
B-48
B
General
Motors
478
6
17. 5
155
3200
2.05
5.71
3.24
B-48
C
Mack
673
6
16. o
180
2100
1.26
5.29
10. 9
B-48
D
Caterpillar
573
E
707
h ! 8
17
186
lo. 5
230
F
Cummins
495
4
...
113
G
M. A. N
913
8
...
274
: i
3000
0. 81
4.26
5.41
B-48
2cOO
4. 76
-.. 1 1
B-49
1800
0. 67
9.42
3.03
B-48
2200
4. 95
9. 31
B-49
H
Mercedes Benz
347
4
17. 0
118
2800
5.89
B-49
-------
Table B-3. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged, Direct-Injection Diesel
Engines and Design Load Specific Mass Emissions
Engine Identification
Manufacturer
Displacement, in.
No. of Cylinders
Compression Ratio
Maximum Power, bhp
Maximum Speed, rpm
HC, grams /bhp-hr
CO, grams /bhp-hr
NO, grams/bhp-hr
Reference
I
Mack
673
6
16.6
232
2100
2. 94
5. 16
7.97
B-48
J
Mack
673
6
16.6
250
2100
1.55
4. 14
6.99
B-48
K
. Another Manufacturer
950
8
15.5
400
2500
3.52
7.46
B-49
Table B-4. Four-Cycle Turbocharged, Prechamber Diesel
Engines and Design Load Specific Mass Emissions
Engine Identification
Manufacturer
Displacement, in.
No. of Cylinders
Compression Ratio
Maximum Power, bhp
Maximum Speed, rpm
HC, grams/bhp-hr
CO, grams/bhp-hr
NO, grams/bhp-hr
Reference
L
Cater-
pillar
638
6
17
285
2200
0. 19
0.96
3.60
B-48
M
Cater-
pillar
638
6
17
285
2200
0.07
0. 86
3. 10
B-50
N
Caterpillar
638
6
1.7
320
2200
0. 10
0.96
3.30
B-51
B-39
-------
Table B-5. Two-Cycle, Direct-Injection Diesel Engines and
Design Point Specific Mass Emissions
Engine Identification
Manufacturer
Displacement, in.
No. of Cylinders
Compression Ratio
Maximum Power, bhp
Maximum Speed, rpm
HC, grams /bhp-hr
CO, grams /bhp-hr
NO, grams /bhp-hr
Reference
O
Detroit Diesel
284
4
17
127
2100
1.41
4. 09
6. 85
B-48
pd)
Detroit Diesel
426
6
180
2100
5. 18
13. 10
8.69
B-53
Q(2>
Detroit Diesel
426
6
180
2100
0.44
5.42
7. 38
B-53
R<3>
45
1
45
--
--
1. 5
B-52
w
.k
o
(1)
(2)
(3)
Engine tested as received after 190,000 odometer miles
Same engine after installation of General Motors Environmental Improvement Package
Turbocharged
-------
B. 3. 2 Combustion and Emission Characteristics
To provide a better understanding of the exhaust emission characteristics of
diesel engines, a brief discussion is presented of the combustion processes
and exhaust emission trends of various diesel engine types. In direct-
injection, naturally-aspirated, and turbocharged diesels, the fuel is injected
during the compression stroke and combustion is generally initiated before
the piston reaches top dead center, resulting in high peak pressures,
temperatures, and NO concentrations in the exhaust. Some reduction in
peak temperature and NO emission can be achieved by retarding fuel injec-
tion, generally without much deterioration in specific fuel consumption.
In prechamber diesels, all the fuel is injected into the small prechamber
and is ignited there. The hot, fuel-rich combustion products are then
expanded into the main chamber where combustion is then completed.
Generally, injection timing is set such that combustion in the main chamber
is initiated just before top dead center. As a result, part of the combustion
takes place while the piston moves downward and the peak temperatures and
the formation of NO are reduced without adversely affecting the other pollut-
ants and fuel consumption.
The general trend of diesel engine exhaust emissions is illustrated in
Fig. B-14, showing HC, CO, and NO concentrations as a function of air/
fuel ratio. These data are from a four-stroke, naturally-aspirated, direct-
injection diesel engine tested by Yumlu and Carey (Ref. B-54) over a speed
range between 50 and 110 percent of rated speed. According to Yumlu and
Carey (Ref. B-54), Marshall (Ref. B-48), and Perez and Landen (Ref. B-55),
similar trends are obtained for turbocharged and prechamber diesels.
However, the magnitude of the emissions is generally different for various
engine types. The emission concentrations of diesels are not directly
representative of the mass of pollutants emitted, because of the wide varia-
tions in air/fuel ratio.
B-41
-------
1500
1400
1200
1000
CL
Q.
o
o
;. 800
600
400
200
0
1
1
0 10
20 30 40
AIR/FUEL RATIO
I
50 60 70
Figure B-14. Typical Diesel Engine Exhaust
Emissions Versus Air/Fuel
Ratio
B-42
-------
The HC concentrations remain essentially constant over a wide range of
air/fuel ratios. Although not shown in Fig. B-14, the HC concentration
shows some variation with engine speed. This is supported by data from
Marshall (Ref. B-48). As expected from theoretical considerations, the
HC concentrations tend to increase at very high air/fuel ratios as a result
of lower combustion temperatures. As air/fuel ratios approach stoichio-
metric, the increase is due to the reduction in oxygen concentration.
The CO concentration in the exhaust is primarily a function of the air/fuel
ratio of the mixture. It decreases rapidly with increasing air/fuel ratios
as a result of the increasing oxygen concentration, and reaches a minimum
at air/fuel ratios of approximately 30 to 40. At air/fuel ratios below
approximately 60, the CO concentration generally rises again as a result
of quench effects. These trends are essentially independent of engine speed
and are characteristic of all diesel engine types.
The NO concentration in diesels increases steadily with decreasing air/fuel
ratio. This trend agrees with theory and reflects the rise in combustion
temperature. For simplicity, only a single NO curve is drawn in Fig. B-14,
although the data indicate some speed effect and show decreasing NO con-
centrations as speed is reduced at constant air/fuel ratio. This may be
the combined result of lower residence time of the gases in the chamber
and changes in the injection spray characteristics. The data presented by
Marshall for engines of different makes show less variation and no clear
trend of NO concentration with speed.
Saadawi (Ref. B-56) has observed similar CO and NO trends, but the HC
concentration of his engine decreases as engine speed is increased.
According to Saadawi this may be the result of higher turbulence and better
fuel mixing obtained at the higher speeds. Marshall and Hum (Ref. B-57)
have investigated the effects of engine component design, operational mode,
and fuel characteristics on engine emissions. Based upon this work it is
concluded that all these parameters have some effect on the emissions.
B-43
-------
From the simplified emission concentration curves presented in Fig. B-14,
the conclusion is drawn that the emission of CO from diesel engines does
not present a problem except perhaps at very high load conditions where the
air/fuel ratio becomes relatively low. The principal problem of diesel
engines is the emission of NO which, at high load conditions, can reach the
levels of spark ignition engines.
It should be pointed out that diesel engine exhaust contains other potentially
noxious species including aldehydes and smoke. These problems are
generally more serious In diesels than in spark ignition engines.
B. 3. 3 Design Load Emissions
B. 3.3.1 State-of-the-Art Technology
The hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide design load emissions
of diesel engines are listed in Tables B-2 through B-5. These values were
computed from the species concentration, flow rate, and engine brake
horsepower data presented in the references, using the conversion correla-
tions discussed in Section B. 1.3. In all cases, an exhaust gas molecular
weight of 29.0 was used, which is a good approximation for the range of
air/fuel ratios used in diesels.
As previously mentioned, the highest speed and power settings used in the
various test programs are considered the engine design conditions for the
purpose of this study. Comparison with the engine rating by the manufac-
turer has indicated that the differences are small enough to be neglected,
especially in view of the normally observed hardware-to-hardware variations
in engine performance.
The design load specific mass emissions for the various engines considered
are presented in Figs. B-15 through B-17. These data points provided the
basis for establishing the present state-of-the-art design load emission
characteristics of four-cycle, naturally-aspirated and turbocharged, direct-
injection and turbocharged, prechamber diesel engines. Insufficient data
B-44
-------
W
I
I
Q.
-C
OQ
E
o
10'
i i
I I
I I
TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION
NATURALLY ASPIRATED,
DIRECT INJECTION
- TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION,
CATALYST, EGR
NATURALLY ASPIRATED,
DIRECT INJECTION, CATALYST, EGR
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER-
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER-
'CATALYST, EGR
I I I
I
BO
o
D
-A
N.
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-15. Diesel Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load
10'
-------
i
ex
00
E
o»
o"
CJ
10
10
-I
T
NATURALLY ASPIRATED,-
CIRECT INJECTION
-TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION
-NATURALLY ASPIRATED.
DIRECT INJECTION, CATALYST, EGR
-TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION,
CATALYST, EGR
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
-TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER-
CATALYST, EGR
I I
AO
FO
j I
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
L N
I03
Figure B-16. Diesel Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
QQ
E
o»
W
10
10'
I I
. TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION
NATURALLY ASPIRATED.
" DIRECT INJECTION
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER —
I I
TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION,
EGR ^
NATURALLY ASPIRATED,
DIRECT INJECTION, EGR
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER,—
EGR
TURBOCHARGED PRECHAMBER-
ADVANCED PROJECTED
I l
10
10
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-17. Diesel Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
10
-------
were available to classify the two-cycle diesels. As shown, constant
specific mass emissions were assumed for each engine type for design power
levels above 50 hp. Below that point, the emissions are assumed to
increase primarily to reflect the lower engine efficiency and the higher
wall quenching effects, resulting from less favorable cylinder surface area-
to-volume ratios. The NO increases at a lower rate than the HC and CO.
The HC specific mass emissions of the four-cycle, turbocharged, direct-
injection engine are the highest of the three engine types, although theore-
tically the HC emissions of turbocharged diesels should be lower than those
of naturally-aspirated engines. The curve representing this engine type
was drawn through the lower of the two points. This points out the need
of additional emission data for turbocharged, direct-injection diesels.
Very low HC emissions were obtained from the two turbocharged, pre-
chamber diesels manufactured by the Caterpillar Tractor Company. One
of the engines was tested both at the Southwest Research Institute (Ref. B-51)
and by another Laboratory (Ref. B-50). The other engine was analyzed at
the Bureau of Mines (Ref. B-48). The observed differences in the emissions
provide some indication of hardware-to-hardware and test-to-test effects.
A study of test-to-test variabilities was reported in Ref. B-58. A small,
single-cylinder diesel engine was tested successively at 13 different labora-
tories using different test procedures. The standard deviation in the .HC
concentration was about 50 percent. Part of this variability is attributed to
real differences in the emissions and part to the different techniques and
instrumentation used by the various investigators.
The design load emission characteristics of the turbocharged, direct-injection
and prechamber diesels were derived from a very limited data sample, and,
as a result, the effects of manufacturing tolerances may not be adequately
accounted for. This should be considered when using the curves.
As indicated in Fig. B-17, the variations in CO specific mass emissions
from the various engines are considerably smaller. This trend was expected
since CO concentration is determined primarily by air/fuel ratio. The
B-48
-------
design load air/fuel ratios of the diesels are quite comparable. In accordant
with expectations, the highest CO emissions are obtained with the naturally-
aspirated, direct-injection diesels and the lowest emissions with the Cater-
pillar turbocharged prechamber engines. Data from the two prechamber
engines are in excellent agreement.
Nitric oxide represents the major emission problem in diesel engines. As
expected, the turbocharged, direct-injection diesel has the highest NO emis-
sions, and these values are comparable to the NO emitted from present
spark ignition engines. The naturally-aspirated, direct-injection diesels
show somewhat lower NO emissions. The NO emissions of turbocharged
prechamber engines are even lower. It is apparent that the NO emission
levels of present diesels have to be reduced significantly before future emis-
sion goals can be met.
Because of its low specific mass emission-s, the turbocharged, prechamber
diesel curves were used to represent state-of-the-art technology diesel
engines for the vehicle emission comparisons. It should be noted, however,
that the specific fuel consumption of prechamber diesel engines is slightly
higher than that of direct-injection engines (See Section 8).
In addition to relating specific mass emissions to engine design load,
attempts were made to correlate the data with the power output per cylinder.
This type of presentation would certainly have merit. However, it was not
possible to achieve a better correlation owing to the large variability in the
data and the small data sample.
B. 3. 3. 2 Projected Technology
The projected design load emissions are also presented in Figs. B-15
through B-17. For each engine type, the projected emissions are based on
an arbitrary reduction by a factor of 4. These improvements are considered
reasonable goals that might be achieved with modified injection systems,
combustion chambers, injection timing, and the addition of catalytic con-
verters and EGR. The effects of catalytic converters on diesel engine
B-49
-------
emissions have been investigated by Springer (Ref. B-59) and more recently
by Aerospace (See Appendix C). The catalytic devices tested by Springer
had been used on a bus for a time period of approximately one month. The
effectiveness of these catalysts was generally rather low. The precious
metal catalysts showed somewhat higher effectiveness than the base metal
devices. A precious metal catalytic converter was used in the Aerospace
program on aDaihatsu diesel. High HC and CO conversion efficiencies were
obtained but NO remained essentially unchanged. At this time there is no
information available to determine the effects of operating time on the
effectiveness of that catalyst. In addition to reducing HC and CO, the odor
of the exhaust was practically eliminated. A test program is needed to
evaluate catalyst performance as affected by operating time.
The projected NO emissions are also plotted in Fig. B-17. The curves
shown for the three engine types were reduced by a factor of 4 to reflect
the effects of EGR, chamber and injection system modifications, and the
possible addition of a catalytic converter for NO. Although presently the
prospects for NO catalysts are not optimistic, such a device might become
feasible in the future. Since no data are available on diesel engine EGR
and its effect on NO emission, the selected factor of 4 is approximate, at
best. Research work should be conducted, particularly in the area of
EGR to provide the parametric data required for a complete assessment of
this concept, including the effects on engine performance and driveability.
One equipment manufacturer feels that the projected NO emissions might be
further reduced by a factor of approximately 2. Although not supported by
data, a factor of 8 was used to construct the lowest NO curve in Fig. B-17
from the state-of-the-art technology curve of the prechamber diesel engine.
This curve was not used in the vehicle emission calculations of this study.
Since HC and CO emissions of diesel engines are generally already low,
future efforts should be aimed primarily at NO. This becomes even more
evident when catalytic converters are utilized for HC and CO control. Again,
l.he specific mass emissions are assumed to be constant for engine design
B-50
-------
power outputs above 50 hp. At lower design power levels the specific mass
emissions increase to reflect the lower engine efficiency and the higher
specie concentrations.
B. 3. 4 Part-Load Emissions Characteristics
B. 3. 4. 1 Actual Engine Part-Load Emissions
The part-load emissions of some of the engines are presented in Figs. B-18
through B-57 in terms of specific mass emissions versus percent design
load at rated speed. Figures B-18 through B-34 are for four-cycle,
naturally-aspirated, direct-injection engines. For each speed, the HC
emissions increase with decreasing load. At constant load, HC decreases
with decreasing speed, except for engine F which shows little change for
the two speeds considered. The CO part-load emissions of the naturally-
aspirated engines show similar trends. As load is reduced at each speed,
the specific CO mass emissions decrease initially as a result of increasing
air/fuel ratio, and then increase again as load is further reduced. This
increase is the result of lower engine efficiency and some increase in the
CO concentration. The part-load NO specific mass emissions for these
engines show small and somewhat irregular variations with load. It appears
that the opposing effects of increasing air/fuel ratio and decreasing engine
efficiency obtained with decreasing load (at constant speed) tend to cancel
each other.
The part-load specific mass emission characteristics of the four-cycle,
turbocharged, direct-injection diesels considered in this study are plotted
in Figs. B-35 through B-42. The trends are similar to those of the naturally-
aspirated engines. However, the NO emissions of engines J and I. increase
with decreasing speed. Engine L shows the opposite trend.
The part-load emissions of the two Caterpillar turbocharged, prechamber
diesels are presented in Figs. B-43 through B-51. As for the other two
engine types, the HC emissions increase with decreasing load and increasing
speed. The CO emissions increase steadily with decreasing load. It is not
B-51
-------
I
o.
GO
e
CT>
CO
CO
CO
CO
-------
I
o_
CD
'e
CO
CO
UJ
CO
CO
-------
12
10
£• 8
QQ
E
en
O
&
CO
co
CO
CL
CO
0
0
2200 rpm
1600 rpm
2800rpm
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-20. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesels - Engine A - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-54
-------
.5
QL
m 4
IE
cr>
CO
CO
CO
CO
Q_
CO
0
1
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-21. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine B - Part-Load
Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-55
-------
CL
-C.
OD
^
CO
CO
CO
CO
-------
O-
m 4
E
CO
CO
CO
CO
3200 rpm
2000rpm
o ?
LU C
Q_
CO
O
0
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-23. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine B - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-57
-------
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-24.
Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine C - Part-Load
Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-58
-------
CD
E
C7>
GO
GO
CO
CO
O
LU
Q_
CO
O
O
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-25. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine C - Part-Load
Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-59
-------
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-26. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine C - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-60
-------
0
20
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-27. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine D - Part-Load
Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-61
-------
12
10
CL-
OD
8
CO
CO
CO
CO
o
Q_
CO
O '•
O
2000 rpm
~ 1500 rpm
-3000 rpm
•2500 rpm
0
0
20 40 .60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-28. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine D - Part-Load
Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-62
-------
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-29. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine D - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-63
-------
I
Q.
03 1C _
e
en
CO
CO
CO
CO
o
LU
Q.
CO
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-30.
Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine E - Part-Load
Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-64
-------
12
10
ex.
€ 8
CO
CO
CO
CO
2600 rpm
a 4
Q_
CO
1800 rpm
2
0
I
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-31.
Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine E - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-65
-------
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-32. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine F - Part-Load
Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-66
-------
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-33. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine F - Part-Load
Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-67
-------
ex
QQ 4
'E
3
CO
CO
CO
CO
o
C_y o
UJ C.
Q_
CO
1600 rpm
2IOOrpm
0
1
1
0
20 40 50
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-34. Four-Cycle, Naturally-Aspirated Direct-
Injection Diesel - Engine F - Part-Load
Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-68
-------
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-35. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine I - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions
B-69
-------
I
CL
GO 4 —
E
en
O
CO
CD
CO
CO
LU
Q_
CO
O
O
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-36.
Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine I - Part-Load Carbon
Monoxide Emissions
B-70
-------
CD
CO
o
CO
CO
CO
CO
-------
5
QL
.c:
QD
E
en
CO
CO
00 3
CO J
— 1600rpm
Q- 2
CO c
1200rpm
0
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-38. Four-Cycle, Turbo charged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine J - Part-Load Hydrocarbon
Emissions
B-72
-------
I
CL
CD
CO
CO
00
CO
-------
I
CL
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO
Q_
CO
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-40. Four-Cycle,Turbocharged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine J - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions
B-74
-------
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-41. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine K - Part-Load Carbon
Monoxide Emissions
B-75
-------
0
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-42. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Direct-Injection
Diesel - Engine K - Part-Load Nitric Oxide
Emissions
B-76
-------
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-43. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine L - Part-Load Hydro-
carbon Emissions
B-77
-------
I
Q.
-C
QD
IE
en
CO
CO
CO
CO
Q_
CO
o
0
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-44. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine L - Part-Load Carbon
Monoxide Emissions
B-78
-------
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-45. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine L - Part-Load Nitric
Oxide Emissions
B-79
-------
o.
m
~E
CP
CO
CD
1.6
.4
1.2
1.0
^ 0.8
CO
CO
£0.6
Q_
CO
0.4
0.2
0
0
.1000 rpm
^\ /IGOOrpm
rpm
rpm
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-46. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine M - Part-Load Hydro-
carbon Emissions
B -80
-------
o_
-C
GO
O
CO
CO
CO
CO
LU
Q_
CO
5 -
•J
2 -
0
I -
0
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-47. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine M - Part-Load Carbon
Monoxide Emissions
B-81
-------
0
40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-48. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine M - Part-Load Nitric
Oxide Emissions
B-82
-------
I
o.
GO
E
CO
CO
CO
CO
UJ
Q.
CO
o
:r
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-49. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Engine N - Part-Load
Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-83
-------
CL
E
cr>
O
CO
CO
CO
CO
Q_
CO
0
40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-50. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechamber
Diesel - Fjigine N - Part-Load Carbon
Monoxide Emissions
B-84
-------
8
^ 7
o_
.C
CO
e 6
o
CO
CO
CO C
J
co
CO
S 3
« »/
Q_
CO
2
0
0
I
20 40 60 80 100
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-51. Four-Cycle, Turbocharged Prechambep
Diesel - Engine N - Part-Load Nitric
Oxide Emissions
B-85
-------
clear whether this trend is characteristic of all prechamber engines or only
the Caterpillar design. The NO emissions increase with decreasing load
and increasing speed.
Insufficient information is available to characterize the part-load emissions
of two-cycle diesel engines. The only part-load data were provided by one
laboratory (Ref. B-53) for a General Motors 6V-71 engine which had been
'•'•«.
operated in a city coach for approximately 190,000 odometer miles.
This engine was tested as received and after incorporation of the General
Motors Environmental Improvement Package (EIP), which consists of a
modified injection system having lower dribble volume and a catalytic muffler.
The emissions of the non-modified engine are shown in Figs. B-52 through
B-54 as a function of percent design load at design speed. The emissions
after installation of the EIP are presented in Figs. B-55 through B-57 and
show significant reductions in HC and CO. This improvement is primarily
due to injection system modifications and, to a lesser degree, the addition
of the catalyst. Although not used to characterize the emissions of two-cycle
engines, the data are included for general information.
B. 3. 4. 2 Selected Part-Load Emissions
Based on the part-load data presented in Figs. B-18 through B-51, two
extreme sets of part-load characteristics were constructed for each of the
three engine configurations representing the state-of-the-art technology.
The ratio of the part-load specific mass emissions to the full-load emissions
at design speed versus percent full load is presented in Figs. B-58 through
B-63. These factors and the design load emissions presented in Figs. B-15
through B-17 provide all the information necessary for computation of the
specific mass emissions at any part-load operating point.
The first set of part-load emission factors, plotted in .Figs. B-58 through
B-60, are based on constant engine speed, equal to the rated speed. In the
second set, Figs. B-61 through B-63, the engine speed is varied with load
to minimize part-load emissions. In general, it is more desirable from an
B-86
-------
60
50
Q.
-C
GO
E 40
en
CO
co
CO
CO
o
30
20
a.
CO
10
0
700 rpm
^ ENGINE TESTED
AS RECEIVED
2100 rpm
1600 rpm
1200 rpm
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-52. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel-Engine P-
Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-87
-------
NOTE: ENGINE TESTED
AS RECEIVED
1600 rpm
2100 rpm
0
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-53. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine P-
Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-l
-------
30
25
ex
J=.
GO
20
NOTE-' ENGINE TESTED
AS RECEIVED
o
CO
CO
CO
CO
15
LU
Q_
CO
10
700 rpm
1200 rpm 160.0 rpm
0
0
20
40 60
PERCENT DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-54. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine P
Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-89
-------
12
10
NOTE = AFTER INSTALLATION OF
GENERAL MOTORS ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPROVEMENT PACKAGE
Q.
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^
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CO
CO
CO
CO
!±i 4
LU
Q_
CO
0
0
•700 rpm
•1200 rpm
2100 rpm
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-55. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine Q -
Part-Load Hydrocarbon Emissions
B-90
-------
CD
E
cr»
Q 20-
AFTER INSTALLATION OF GENERAL
MOTORS INVIRONMENTAL
IMPROVEMENT PACKAGE
CO
CO
00 1C
co ID
P. 12 -a
Q_
CO
8-
4 -
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN IDAD
Figure B-56. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine Q
Part-Load Carbon Monoxide Emissions
B-91
-------
17
16
14
ex
GO
o
CO
CO
CO
12
8
LU r
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CO
O
0
0
T
T
T
AFTER INSTALLATION OF
GENERAL MOTORS INVIRONMENTAL
IMPROVEMENT PACKAGE
700 rpm
1
1
1
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-57. Two-Cycle,Direct-Injection Diesel - Engine Q
Part-Load Nitric Oxide Emissions
B-92
-------
CO
CO
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-------
4.0
— °°
co co
CO ~
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2.0
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0
TURBOCHARGED, PRECHAMBER _
NATURALLY ASPIRATED -\
TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT
INJECTION
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
100
Figure B-59.
Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Carbon Monoxide
Emission, Steady State Part-Load, Rated
Speed
B-94
-------
CO
CO
o
-------
CO
CO
UJ
I
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-------
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CO
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CO
UJ
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-------
2.5
£ 2.0
CD
CO
I
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CO
UJ
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CO
CO
o
o
g
cc
1.5
TURBOCHARGED, PRECHAMBER
TURBOCHARGED, DIRECT INJECTION
1.0
"— NATURALLY ASPIRATED
0.5
0
0
20 40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
80
100
Figure B-63. Four-Cycle Diesel Engines - Nitric Oxide
Emission; Steady State Part-Load,
Variable Speed
B-98
-------
emission and SFC point of view to vary engine speed with load. However,
in the case of a hybrid, the operating characteristics of the other system
components must also be considered in selecting the optimum engine speed
schedule.
A comparison of the two sets of part-load emission factors indicates that
the HC emissions of the three engine configurations are lower for the variable
speed schedule. For example, at 25 percent of design load, the variable
speed HC emission.factors are approximately half of those obtained with
constant speed. In the case of CO, the differences are somewhat smaller.
At 25 percent of design load, the variable speed emissions are approxi-
mately 75 percent of the constant speed values. The NO part-load emission
factors of the turbocharged, prechamber diesels are lower when the speed
is varied. For the naturally-aspirated, direct-injection engines, the factors
are essentially independent of speed. However, the NO part-load emission
factors of the turbocharged, direct-injection diesels are higher when the
speed is varied. It is emphasized again that these trends were established
by averaging available test data. In the case of the turbocharged, direct-
injection and prechamber engines, only three sets of data each were con-
sidered and, as a result, the selected trends may not be truly representative
of this engine type.
No attempt was made to establish part-load emission factors for two-cycle
engines owing to a lack of available data.
The part-load emission characteristics in Figs. B-58 through B-63 are
representative of the present state-of-the-art technology. Flat part-load
characteristics were used in the vehicle emission calculations for the
projected technology. This choice was made because of a lack of test data
from engines designed for minimum emissions.
B. 3. 5 Cold Start Emissions
The only cold start emission data available for diesel engines are from the
tests conducted by The Aerospace Corporation as a part of this study. The
B-99
-------
details of this program are contained in Appendix C of this report.
Multiple bag vehicular tests indicate that there is no change in CO emissions
from cold to hot conditions. HC emissions also appear to be the same for
both cold and hot conditions, based on comparison of seven-mode data
calculated from hot FID concentration data. The NO emissions are some-
what lower for a cold start.
B. 3. 6 Instrumentation
All the HC data used in this study were recorded by means of continuous
hot FID instrumentation. ' As discussed by Hum and Marshall (Ref. B-59),
Pearsall (Ref. B-60), and Johnson et al (Ref. B-61), heating of the sample
line to approximately 400 F is mandatory to prevent condensation of the
heavier HC constituents contained in the exhaust of dies el engines.
Continuous NDIR instrumentation was used exclusively to measure the
CO and NO concentrations. In some instances, NO'- was measured by
nondispersive, ultraviolet (NDUV) instruments, but in the majority of the
tests the NO? was ignored. This introduces a small error, less than
10 percent. In view of the uncertainties in the concentration, flow rate,
and power output data, this error is negligible for this study.
B. 3. 7 Other Pollutants
The diesel engine can emit other pollutants, primarily odor and smoke.
Much work has been conducted in the past to study the odor characteristics
of diesels (Refs. B-6Z through B-64) and it is generally concluded that a
relationship exists between odor and aldehydes. However, further study is
required before this problem is completely understood. There are indica-
tions that the odor/aldehyde emissions from prechamber diesels are lower
than those from naturally-aspirated engines. Odor from diesel engines
might be reduced by fuel injection system modification. Some reduction in
odor was also achieved by using a catalytic converter in the exhaust
(Ref. B-62).
B-100
-------
Smoke is largely dependent upon engine air/fuel ratio and load; however,
it is also affected by combustion chamber and injection system design, type
of fuel used, and engine maintenance (Refs. B-63, B-65, and B-66). For-
mation of smoke has been reduced by using barium additives in the fuel
(Refs. B-63 and B-67).
B.4 GAS TURBINES
B. 4. 1 General
This section presents a detailed discussion of the exhaust emission data used
to characterize the full load and part-load emissions of gas turbines. The
data were acquired from both the manufacturer and the available literature.
The gas turbines .considered in this study and important engine design
parameters are listed in Table B-6. Additional information on these engines
may be obtained from the references listed.
B. 4. 2 Design Load Emission Characteristics
B. 4.2. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology
The design load specific mass emissions are presented in Figs. B-64
through B-66. The data were computed from engine flow rates and species
concentrations, using the equations presented in Section B. 1. 3. The specific
mass emissions of engines B, C, and D were obtained from the manufacturer.
A comparison of the specific mass emission data indicates large variations
in unburned hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide due, to some extent, to the
degree of sophistication used in the design of the combustion system. Since
minimization of exhaust emissions was not a design consideration on engines
A, B, C, E, and F, the relatively high HC and CO emissions, although low
by comparison to uncontrolled internal combustion engines, are not repre-
sentative of modern automotive gas turbines. These data are presented
primarily to indicate trends. The variations in the NO emissions are
considerably smaller. Engines E and F showed the lowest NO emissions
of the group. However, their HC and CO emissions are among the highest,
possibly indicating that rapid quenching of the chemical reactions in both
primary and secondary zones of the combustor is occurring in these engines.
B-101
-------
Table B-6. Gas Turbine Engines
tt
i
Engine Identification
Manufacturer
Design hp
Engine Designation
Compressor
Turbine
Regenerator
Pressure Ratio
Turbine Inlet Temp.,°F
Number of Shafts
References
A
540
400 kw
2-stage,
radial
Yes
8.2
1600
1
B-68
B
Willian
440
131 L
1-stage,
radial
1-stage,
axial
No
5. 1
1600
1
C
is Research
65
WR 9-7
1 -stage.
radial
2-stage.
axial
No
4.0
1980
1 .
D
Corp.
75
131 Q
Yes
3.8
1700
1
B-69 and B-70
E
Sola
1100
Saturn
8-stage,
axial
3-stage,
axial
No
6.5
1500
1
F
r
350
Spartan
single-
stage
radial
s ingle-
stage
radial
No
3. 5
1500
1 ;-
B-71
G
General IV
275
GT 309
Yes
1700
2
H
lotors Research
275
GT 309
Mod. Comb.
Yes
1700
2
B-72, B-73, B-74
-------
I
Q.
DO
10'
i
•—•
o
10
r2
I I
I I T
\ I
D
STATE OF THE ART. TECHNOLOGY
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
i i
103
Figure B-64. Gas Turbines-Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
10
I
o_
m
O
O
I I I
I I
'D
I I I
.STATE OF THE TECHNOLOGY G
I I I
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY .
I ill I I
103
Figure B-65. Gas-Turbines-Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
10
I I I
I I 7
I I I
w
i
»—•
o
I
o_
CO
E
o»
O
STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
10"
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
I03
Figure B-66. Gas Turbines-Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
The design load specific mass emission correlations representing present
state-of-the-art technology were drawn through points G and H, Figs. B-64
through B-66. Engine G is the General Motors Research gas turbine which
was designed for automotive applications. The so-called standard burner
is used on this engine (Refs. B-73 and B-74). Engine H is basically the
same GT-309 gas turbine as engine G, with the exception of a modified
burner designed for minimum NO (Ref. B-74). A more detailed discussion
of the effects of burner design on emissions is presented below. Although
there is some indication that the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions
of engine tj are actually somewhat higher than for engine G, the G levels
are considered as representative of present state-of-the-art technology.
The design load emission correlations shown in Figs. B-64 through B-66
are flat for engine design loads above 50 hp. Below that point, the specific
mass emissions are assumed to increase as a result of lower turbomachinery
efficiencies. In addition, wall quench effects may become increasingly
important, resulting in higher HC and CO concentrations. The HC and CO
specific mass emissions are assumed to increase similarly, while NO
increases less.
B.4.2.2 Projected Technology
A comparison of the specific mass emission data presented in Figs. B-64
through B-66 indicates that nitric oxide poses the most serious emission
problem in gas turbines, and significant improvements must be made before
the future emission goals can be met.
Studies performed by Cornelius and Wade (Ref. B-74), Sawyer et al (Refs.
B-7^ through B-78), have pointed the way towards lower nitric oxide emis-
sions. The formation of nitric oxide is kinetically controlled and is rather
slow by comparison to the other chemical reactions in the burner. The most
direct approach towards NO control is to reduce the maximum local tempera-
ture in the c.ombustion chamber. The use of a lean primary zone is a
prom is in).' method of reducing that temperature. Another approach of NO
controJ is tht-> quenching of the NO formation reactions immediately
B-106
-------
downstream of the primary zone of the burner. This is accomplished by
adding secondary air further upstream in the burner, thereby reducing the
residence time of the combustion gases in the primary zone. A similar
approach has been used by Bell (Ref. B-79) in stationary gas and steam
turbine burners. Although this method has been shown to be effective in
reducing nitric oxide (Ref. B-74), it may actually result in higher HC and
CO emissions because of thermal quenching of the HC and CO reactions. As
shown by Sawyer (Ref. B-78), the CO concentrations in the primary zone of
the burner are initially very high. At the relatively low temperatures in the
secondary zone, the HC and CO reactions are progressing at a slower rate,
and generally the stay time is not sufficiently long to reach completion of
these reactions.
In addition to primary zone quenching. General Motors Research has also
investigated the effect of primary zone equivalence ratio variations on nitric
oxide emissions (Ref. B-74). Results from that program indicate that the
nitric oxide emissions were reduced by a factor of approximately 2 without
adversely affecting engine and burner operation and the emissions of hydro-
carbon and carbon monoxide. Further improvements are believed to be
possible through additional work on the burner, including optimization of
primary and secondary zones, inlet air temperature, mixture and mass flow
distribution, and addition of EGR. Based on these considerations, a reduc-
tion of the NO emissions by a factor of 5, compared to present state-of-the-
art values appears to be feasible. This factor was used to draw the projected
NO curve in Fig. B-66. The projected HC and CO emissions are reduced
by a factor of 2.
Again, constant specific mass emissions were assumed for design power
levels above 50 hp. At lower design powers the emissions are assumed to
increase.
B-107
-------
B. 4. 3 Part-Load Emissions Characteristics
The part-load emission characteristics of engines A, B, C, D, G, and H
are depicted in Figs. B-67 through B-69. No part-load data were available
from engines E and F. The information is presented as the ratio of part-
load emission to design load emission versus percent of design load. The
specific mass emission factors for engine configurations G and H were
computed from species concentration and flow rate data (Refs. B-73 and
B-74) and engine HP versus gasifier speed curves (Ref. B-72). According
to discussions with General Motors (Ref. B-80), this approach is acceptable.
However, there is some uncertainty in the specific mass emission data of
engines G and H below approximately 25 percent of design load because of
uncertainties in the corresponding power output values taken from Ref. B-73.
The HC and CO specific mass emissions increase with decreasing load
(Figs. B-67 and B-68). Engines C, D, and G have comparable hydrocarbon
and carbon monoxide emission characteristics, while engines A and B show
greater increases with decreasing load. In all cases, this increasing trend
is due largely to a reduction of turbomachinery efficiency. In addition, cycle
efficiency decreases with decreasing load as a result of decreasing turbine
inlet temperature, except for engine G which operates at constant turbine
inlet temperature down to approximately 35 percent of design load.
There are basic differences in the part-load nitric oxide emission charac-
teristics of the turbines considered in this study. According to Fig. B-69,
the nitric oxide specific mass emissions of engines A, B, and C increase
with decreasing load. The increase is primarily the result of lower thermo-
dynamic cycle efficiency at part-load. This is a typical characteristic of
simple gas turbines. Initially, the part-load nitric oxide emissions of
engines G and H increase with decreasing load primarily as a result of
increasing burner inlet air temperature. As the degree of power transfer
is reduced, both burner and turbine inlet temperature decrease rapidly,
resulting in lower specific mass emissions of nitric oxide. At very low
B-108
-------
12
° 10
CO
CO
ENGINE B
o 8
-------
14
12
CO
CO
O
ENGINES
ENGINEC
0
I
I
0 20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-68. Gas Turbine Test Data Part-Load Emissions
100
B-110
-------
40 60
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-69. Gas Turbine Test Data Part-Load Emissions
B-lll
-------
part-loads, the NO emissions increase again as a result of rapidly decreasing
turbomachinery efficiencies. Since the General Motors Research GT-309
gas turbine was designed for automotive use, with exhaust emissions a
design consideration, its part-load emission characteristics were selected
for use in this study. The part-load specific mass emission factors for
gas turbines are presented in Fig. B-70. It should.b(e pointed out that the
NO part-load curve could be modified somewhat by changing burner and
turbine inlet temperatures.
The part-load emission characteristics for the projected technology are
assumed to be identical'to the present state-of-the-art characteristics.
Thus the curves presented in Fig. B-70 are considered applicable to both
state-of-the-art and projected technologies.
B. 4. 4 Cold Start Emissions
The effect of a cold start on gas turbine emissions was evaluated from the
data published by Korth and Rose (Ref. B-81 ) and Cornelius et al (Ref. B-73).
A Chrysler gas turbine automobile was road-tested by Korth and Rose over a
composite 7. 5-mi route at an average speed of approximately 25 mph.
Based on three cold start and six hot start cycle tests, the ratios of cold
start versus hot start emissions for HC, CO, and NO are 1.21, 1. 17,
and 0. 89, respectively. These ratios are in reasonable agreement with the
spark ignition engine factors.
According to Cornelius (Ref. B-73), the CO concentration is approximately
160 ppm for a cold cycle of the seven-mode test procedure and approximately
50 ppm for a hot cycle. This ratio agrees qualitatively with the data from
Ref. B-81. Additional experimental work is required before the question of
cold start versus hot start emissions from gas turbines can be adequately
answered.
B-112
-------
CO
z
o
£ 5
LU
Q
O
CD 4
CO
LU
O
CO
O
CO "2
CO J
or
-------
B. 4. 5 Effect of Fuel on Gas Turbine Emissions
Although it is recognized that exhaust emissions may be affected by the type
of fuel used in the burner, no attempt was made to use fuel type as a
correlating parameter. Also, the reactivity of the hydrocarbon constituents
was neglected in this study. Analysis by General Motdrs (Ref. B-73)
indicates that the reactivity of the HC emissions from gas turbines is very
comparable to that from gasoline engines.
B. 4. 6 Instrumentation
To assure'validity of the test data obtained from the various sources, a brief
review was made of the instrumentation and experimental techniques used
in the tests. It is concluded that the data are accurate within the normal
band of uncertainty.
Heated FID was used on all tests and as a result, condensation of the heavy
hydrocarbon species was largely eliminated. Carbon monoxide was always
measured by NDIR. Different techniques were used for NO. The phenol
disulfonic acid procedure (PDS) was used on engine A and the grab sample
wa.c analyzed approximately 24 hr after the tests. A modified Saltzman
method was used on engines B, C, and D, and NDIR on engines E and F.
All three methods were used on engine G and good agreement was achieved
over the whole range of engine operating conditions (Ref. B-74), provided
adequate time was allowed before the Saltzman method was used.
It should be pointed out that the hydrocarbon emissions from gas turbines
are often very low in concentration and the background HC level can no
longer be neglected. Since this is not always recognized, some of the
reported HC levels might be too high.
B.4.7 Other Pollutants
Although this study is only concerned with the emission of hydrocarbon,
carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide, a few comments on the other pollutants
emitU:c' fi.:i ^as turbines are in order. Often smoke can be observed in
B-114
-------
the exhaust of gas turbines, primarily at high loads. This is the result of
locally fuel-rich zones in the combustor. Much progress to alleviate this
problem has been made. For example, pre-vaporization of the fuel has
been an effective method to reduce smoke. Aldehydes are believed to be
related to lean combustion and to the temperature-time history of the
combustion products (Ref. B-73). The only aldehyde data available are
from engines A and G. In both cases the level is of the order of 2 ppm,
which is the limit of sensitivity. Sulfur dioxide emission is directly related
to the sulfur content in the fuel and control is achieved by limiting the allow-
able sulfur content. Control of smoke and sulfur dioxide appears to be well
in hand. However, additional work is required to characterize the emis-
sions of aldehydes from gas turbines and to develop methods which will
effectively reduce these products.
B. 5 RANKINE ENGINE EMISSIONS
B. 5. 1 General
The Rankine engine emission characteristics presented in this report were
derived from test data published in the available literature. The emission
data reported by Vickers et al (Ref. B-82) were obtained from an experi-
mental burner/boiler test setup that was designed to simulate the operating
conditions of the General Motors SE-101 automotive Rankine cycle engine.
Emission data from the General Motors SE-124 steam car and from a Doble
automobile, tested by General Motors, are reported by Vickers et al
(Ref. B-83). Miner (Ref. B-84) presents emission data from a Williams
steamer. The work of Burkland et al (Ref. B-85), Morgan and Raymond
(Ref. B-86), and Altshuler and Caretto (Ref. B-87) was primarily concerned
with burner and nozzle development or evaluation. Since exhaust emissions
from Rankine cycle engines are strongly affected by the burner and boiler
design, the configurations are briefly described.
B-115
-------
B. 5. 2 Engine and Test Description
The General Motors steam engine SE-101 (Ref. B-82) is a closed Rankine
cycle engine designed for 160 hp. Its maximum efficiency is approximately
15 percent. The boiler is a monotube design and is divided into three
sections: an economizer, an evaporator, and a superheater. The burner
is designed for high combustion efficiency, uniform temperature profile of
the combustion gases leaving the burner, good off-design operating charac-
teristics, and low emissions. No air preheater is used, since the combus-
tion gas temperature at the boiler exhaust is relatively low. The specific
heat release rate is 3. 7 x 10 Btu/hr-ft . Since the burner is operated at
ambient pressure, it is considerably larger than an equivalent gas turbine
combustor. Depending upon load, the air/fuel ratio of the burner varies
between approximately 25 and 40. The corresponding combustion gas
temperatures at the boiler inlet are approximately 2500 and 1900 F, respec-
tively. An air atomizing fuel nozzle is utilized on the engine. Kerosene
was used on all emission tests.
The burner used with the General Motors SE-124 steam engine is a vortex
type and uses air atomized fuel injection. The specific heat release rate
was reduced to 950,000 Btu/hr-ft in an effort to reduce HC and CO emis-
sions. The burner is operated at constant fuel flow rate and power is
controlled by means of OFF/ON operation.
A 1923 Doble automobile was also tested at General Motors (Ref. B-83).
The burner of that engine was designed for a specific heat release rate of
only 300,000 Btu/hr-ft . Thus, the residence time of the combustion gases
is much longer than that of the SE-124, and particularly longer than that of
the SE-101.
The Williams steamer was tested for emissions at the Mobil Oil Company
Laboratories, Paulsboro, New Jersey. The car was operated on a chassis
dynamometer over the California seven-mode driving cycle. Little detail
was given about the engine except that the design was based upon the experi-
ence gained over the last 30 years.
B-116
-------
A very extensive burner development program has been conducted by the
Marquardt Company, Van Nuys, California (Ref. B-85), under contract to
APCO. The Marquardt effort was primarily aimed at developing design
criteria for continuous flow, low emission, external burners for use in
Rankine cycle engines. Many component and operating variables were
varied, including air /fuel ratio, air/fuel mixing, residence time of the
combustion gases in the burner, and fuel type, The burners were designed
for a heat release rate of 500,000 Btu/hr and are of cylindrical shape,
having an outside diameter of 5 in. and a length of 36 in. The design specific
heat release rate is 1.25 x 10 Btu/hr-ft , approximately one-third of that
in the General Motors SE-101 burner and may, in part, explain the lower
emissions of the Marquardt burner. A heat exchanger was installed at the
end of the burner to simulate the cooling of the combustion gases in the
boiler.
Three fuel injection configurations were analyzed in the Marquardt program.
In the first configuration, fuel vapor is injected into a small mixing section
and the premixed air/fuel mixture was then injected into the combustion
chamber. The second injector has multiple slots arranged around the
periphery at the inlet of the burner. Fuel vapor is injected through these
openings radially inward, and the vapor jets are then broken up by the high-
velocity air being injected axially through a small tube at the heat of the
burner and by the recirculating gases. This configuration represents the
sudden expansion (SUE) burner concept patented by Marquardt. The third
injector is a pressure atomizing spray nozzle designed and manufactured
for liquid fuels by the Spraying Systems Company. Three types of fuels were
tested in the program: trimethylhexane, kerosene, and methane.
The emission data presented in Ref. B-86 are from a burner developed by
Thermo Electron Corporation, Waltham, Massachusetts, for use in a 3 kw
engine/generator set. The burner is designed for a specific heat release
rate of 2. 8 x 10 Btu/hr-ft . No other details are available.
B-117
-------
A boiler designed by Bessler Boilers, Emeryville, California was used in
the program conducted by Altshuler and Caretto (Ref. B-87). This boiler is
a single-pass monotube type and is similar in design to the boiler used on
the Doble steam cars. The integrated burner/boiler is 15 in. in diameter
and 17 in. high. The volume of the burner is approximately 0. 18 ft and
the specific heat release rate is approximately 1. 1 x 10 Btu/hr-ft . Air is
used to cool the inner wall of the burner before entering the combustion
chamber. Four Monarch F-80 high-pressure fuel nozzles, having different
flow rates and spray patterns, were used in the program. Axial location
of the nozzles was varied and emission data were gathered for the optimum
positions.
B. 5. 3 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Characteristics
Exhaust emission concentration measurements have been conducted by
General Motors over a range of air/fuel ratios, air flow rates, burner air
inlet temperature, and for a number of burner configurations. Some of the
test results obtained by General Motors from the SE-101 burner testing
are presented in Figs. B-71 and B-72. The effect of air/fuel ratio on hydro-
carbon, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide emission is shown in Fig. B-71
for an air inlet temperature of 100 F and an air flow rate that is 60 percent
of design. The HC and CO concentrations have a minimum at an air/fuel
ratio of approximately 30. This is explained by two opposing effects. -As
air/fuel ratio increases, the combustion temperature decreases which tends
to increase the exhaust concentration of these constituents as a result of
thermal quenching of the reactions. However, the increasing concentration
of oxygen has a tendency to reduce the concentration of CO. Sawyer (Ref.
B-76) and Altshuler and Caretto (Ref. B-87) have come to similar conclusions.
As expected, the nitric oxide concentration decreases with increasing air/
fuel ratio, reflecting the slower rate of NO formation at lower temperature.
Figure B-72 shows the part-load emission characteristics of the SE-101
burner for an air/fuel ratio of 25 and an air inlet temperature of 100 F.
B-118
-------
1400 140
1200 £120
E
o.
S 1000
i:
- 100
o
§
cr
o
800 | 80
cr
LU
o
8 60
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-------
1200 120
1000 EIOO
E CL
CL Ck
Q.
o S
,.-800 £ 80
o
§
-------
The HC and CO concentrations decrease somewhat as load is reduced.
This might be explained by the longer residence time of the combustion
gases in the burner as a result of the lower gas velocity obtained at lower
air flow. The NO concentration remains essentially constant over the range
of loads tested in the study. A comparison of these trends with the General
Motors Stirling engine data discussed in the following section indicates
similar trends for HC and NO. However, in the case of the Stirling engine,
the CO concentration increases as load is reduced. Since the two burners
are similar in design, this discrepancy is difficult to explain. The HC and
CO concentrations of the Rankine cycle burner are higher and the NO con-
centrations lower than on the Stirling engine as a result of the lower burner
air inlet temperatures used on the Rankine engine. It appears that the
Rankine engine HC and CO emissions of the SE-101 engine could be reduced
by increasing the residence time Ln the burner and by modifying the admis-
sion schedule of the secondary air. The HC concentration data presented by
General Motors (Ref. B-82) were measured by FID and are reported in
equivalent hexane.
The specific mass emissions listed in Table B-7 for a number of selected
engine operating conditions of the SE-101 engine were computed from the
data of Fig. B-71. Conversion of the concentration data to specific mass
emissions was based on the assumption of a 15-percent engine efficiency
and a fuel heat of combustion of 18,600 Btu/lb.
The HC and CO emissions obtained from the SE-101 automobile test program
(Ref. B-83) are higher than those from the burner test facility (Ref. B- 82).
In the simulated test setup, only two preheater sections were used, and as a
result, wall quenching effects were probably not adequately duplicated. This
points out the importance of large combustor volumes so that the HC and
CO reactions are completed at the boiler inlet.
B-121
-------
Table B-7. Rankine Engine A - General Motors
SE-101 Burner Emissions
Point
No.
Al
At
A5
Air/Fuel
Ratio
40
30
25
HC
ppm Hexane
21
6.5
7
CO
ppm
410
250
295
NO
ppm
35
57
74
HC
grams/
bhp-hr
1. 03
0.24
0.22
CO
grams/
bhp-hr
6.72
3. 11
3.09
NO
grams/
bhp-hr
0. 62
0. 76
0. 82
Table B-8. Rankine Engine Automobile Emissions,
DREW Driving Cycle, Hot Start
GM. SE-101
CM. SE-124
Dohle
HC, grams/mi
1. 0
0. 3
1.4
CO, grams /mi
8.0
1.0
3.9
NO, grams /mi
2.2
1.7
2.0
Ref.
B-84
B-84
B-84
TahJe B-9. Rankine Engine B - Williams Steam Car Emissions
HC
CO
NO
Concentration
20 ppm hexane
500 ppm
70 ppm
Air/Fuel Ratio
25
25
25
Specific Mass Emissions,
grams /bhp-hr
0.63
5.2
0.78
B-122
-------
The General Motors SE-101 and SE-124 and the Doble steam car were
tested at General Motors over the DHEW driving cycles. The hot start
emission data obtained in these tests are presented in Table B-8. As
indicated, the HC and CO emissions of the SE-101 are significantly lower
than those from the other two cars. The NO emissions of all three cars
are quite comparable. Although part of the improvement shown by the
SE-124 is the result of the lower weight of that car, the beneficial effects
of the lower specific heat release rate are quite apparent.
Data from the Williams steamer (Ref. B-84) and specific mass emissions
computed on the basis of an engine efficiency of 15 percent are listed in
Table B-9. The question of the instrumentation used on these tests could
not be resolved.
Part of the data published by the Marquardt Company (Ref. B-85) are
presented in Figs. B-73 through B-75. The emission concentration charac-
teristics of the prevaporized, premixed, fuel injection configuration
(Burner A) are shown in Fig. B-73 for a 50-percent design fuel (trimethyl-
hexane, TMH) flow. The emissions are rather insensitive to variations in
the overall burner equivalence ratio. The effect of primary zone equivalence
ratio on emissions is also shown in Fig. B-73.
While HC and CO remain essentially constant, the NO concentration decreases
considerably as the primary zone mixture is enriched (increasing equivalence
ratio), emphasizing again the importance of primary zone design on the
emissions of NO. As further discussed below, the HC concentrations
reported by Marquardt are probably too low as a result of the measuring
technique used in that program. The emission data obtained with the SUE
burner, Fig. B-74, show similar trends. The SUE burner gives slightly
lower CO and slightly higher NO values than Burner A.
The effect of load on the emissions from Burner A is illustrated in Fig. B-75
for TMH fuel and a primary zone equivalence ratio of 1. 2.. The species
concentrations plotted were corrected to stoichiometric. Unlike the General
Motors data, HC and CO show a tendency to increase as load is reduced,
B-123
-------
140
600
500
400
E
CL
^300
o
o
200
100
120
100
80
E
Q.
CL
40
20
SYMBOL ^PRIMARY
A 1.0
D 1.2
O 0.8
NO
CO
— •— HC(ppmc)
0
0.4
E 16—:—
0.5 0.6 0.7
OVERALL EQUIVALENCE RATIO, Q
0.8
Figure B-73. Rankine Engines - Marquardt Burner A
Emissions (Vaporized, Premixed Injec-
tion TMH Fuel, 50 Percent Design Flow)
B-124
-------
140
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
120
100
80
E
a.
d.
o 60
o"
40
20
0
0.5
SYMBOL PR|MARY
D
1^1 O A
&
0.6 0.7 0.8
OVERALL EQUIVALENCE RATIO, 0
0.9
Figure B-74. Rankine Engines - Marquardt SUE Burner
Emissions (Vaporized TMH Fuel, 50 Per-
cent Design Flow)
B-125
-------
600,-
500
100-
400
E
Q.
300
200
100
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
FRACTION OF DESIGN FUEL FLOW
.0
Figure B-75. Rankine Engines - Marquardt Burner A
Emissions (TMH Fuel)
B-126
-------
while NO exhibits the opposite trend. Similar tendencies are shown by the
other two burners used in the Marquardt program. Kerosene and methane
resulted in comparable emission levels.
Specific mass emissions computed from the Marquardt data are presented
in Table B-10. It should be emphasized that the HC data points are probably
too low. This is further discussed in Section B. 5. 7.
Exhaust emission data obtained from Thermo Electron Corporation (TECO)
(Ref. B-86) are depicted in Fig. B-76 as a function of percent excess air.
These data are from the tests conducted with the design heat release rate
of 105,000 Btu/hr. The CO concentration shows a minimum value which is
believed to be the result of the combined effects of decreasing combustion
temperature and increasing oxygen concentration obtained with increasing
excess air. The HC concentration remains almost constant over a fairly
wide range of mixture ratios and then increases sharply as more excess air
is used. As expected, the NO concentration decreases with increasing
excess air as a result of decreasing temperature and residence time. These
trends are quite comparable to the General Motors data (Fig. B-71). It
should be pointed out, however, that the HC concentrations measured by
TECO are probably too low because an unheated FID setup was used. This
is further discussed in Section B. 5. 7. The HC data reported by TECO arc
in equivalent CH?.
Specific mass emissions computed from the TECO data are listed in Table B-11
for a number of air/fuel ratios. Thermo Electron Corporation also took data of a
burner heat load of 50,000 Btu/hr. The measured emissions are considerably
lower than those obtained at 105,000 Btu/hr. For instance, CO and NO are
reduced by a factor of almost 3. Although the trend is correct, reflecting the
longer residence time, the magnitude of these changes is somewhat unex-
pected and certainly much higher than that observed by General Motors and
by Marquardt.
B-127
-------
Table B-10. Rankine Engine C - Marquardt Burner Emissions,
Vaporized, Premixed Injection TMH Fuel, 50
Percent Design Flow
Point
No.
Cl
C2
C3
C4
Air /Fuel
Ratio
27.2
25
21.4
20
HC
ppmc
5
5
5
5
CO
ppm
100
90
85
80
NO
ppm
35
40
51
55
HC
grams/
bhp-hr
0.028
0. 026
0.022
0.021
CO
grams /
bhp-hr
1. 13
0.94
0.76
0.68
NO
grams/
bhp-hr
0.42
0.45
0.49
0. 50
Table B-ll. Rankine Engine D - Thermo Electron Corporation
Burner Emissions
Point
No.
Dl
D2
D3
D4
Air /Fuel
Ratio
22. 5
21
19.5
18
HC
ppmc
95
45
22
14
CO
ppm
117
72
57
60
NO
ppm
16
24
45
84
HC
grams /
bhp-hr
0.45
0.20
0.09
0.053
CO
grams/
bhp-hr
1. 11
0.63
0.47
0.456
NO
grams/
bhp-hr
0. 16
0.23
0.40
0.68
B-128
-------
320.
E
a.
ex
CO
CO
UJ
2801
240
200
60
120
80
40
0
0
0 = 105,000 Btu/hr
FUEL JP-4
20
30 40 50
EXCESS AIR, %
60
Figure B-76. Rankine Engines - Thermo Electron
Corporation Burner Emissions
70
B-1Z9
-------
Data taken by Altshuler and Caretto (Ref. B-86) are plotted in Fig. B-77.
These data were obtained with the 1. 5-gal/hr-30 R nozzle which showed
the best emission characteristics. This nozzle has a design fuel flow rate
of 1. 5 gal/hr and a spray angle of 30 deg. The HC data are reported in
terms of hexane and appear to be somewhat high. This may be due to
inadequate fuel atomization and subsequent quenching at the boiler walls.
Specific mass emissions for a number of operating points are presented in
Table B-12.
B. 5. 4 Design Load Emissions
B. 5.4. 1 State-of-the-Art Technology
The Rankine engine exhaust emission concentration data, Figs. B-71 through
B-77, were converted to specific mass emission numbers using a 15-percent
engine efficiency and a fuel heating value of 18,600 Btu/hr. These data
points which provided the basis for establishing design load emission charac-
teristics of Rankine cycle engines are depicted in Figs. B-78 through B-80.
The uppf-r curves in these figures are considered representative of the
present state-of-the-art technology.
As indicated in Fig. B-78, there is a large scatter in the HC data. Much
hotter aj/reement is achieved in the NO and CO data. Inadequate HC
measuring techniques were used in several of the programs and this may
partly explain the large spread in the HC data. Also, the differences in
burner specific heat release rates (residence time) have some effect on the
emissions, particularly on HC and CO. In view of these uncertainties, it
was decided to use the Stirling engine HC data discussed in Section B.6 as a
guideline to establish the design load emission characteristics of Rankine
engines. As discussed in Section B. 6, the Stirling engine HC data are based
on hot FID instrumentation.
The- .->pe< ilu mass emissions are assumed constant for engine design power
levels .iiji-v. 5(J hp. Below that point, however, the specific mass emissions
inert- '• t- reflect the reduction in engine component efficiencies.
B-130
-------
Table B-12. Rankine Engine E - Bessler Boiler Emission Data
Point
No.
El
E2
E3
Air/Fuel
Ratio
37. 5
30
25
HC
ppm Hexane
28
30
36. 5
CO
ppm
75
29
33
NO
ppm
30
50
65
HC
grams/
bhp-hr
1.29
1. 12
1. 14
CO
grams /
bhp-hr
1. 16
0. 36
0.34
NO
grams /
bhp-hr
0. 50
0. 67
0.73
Table B-13. Rankine Engine Automobile Cold Start Emissions
CM. SE-101
CM. SE-124
Doble 1923
fHC
1. 12
1. 62
2.32
fco
1.22
2.48
1.73
fNO
1. 12
1.57
1.43
fH_, £/~Q, fNQ = Ratio of emissions including engine warmup to
emissions with warmed up engine
B-131
-------
104
E
Q.
Q.
co"
o
or
t—
2
LU
O
O
O
^
o"
O
n:
10'
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
FUEL/AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO
1.4
1.6
Figure B-77. Rankine Engines - Bessler Boiler Emission
Data
B-132
-------
1 I
EL
'E3
Al
ex
.c.
CO
.02
A2,
'A3
10
04,
STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
tCI
C2-JC3
C4
10
-2
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figu - = B-78. Rankine Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
10
I
Q.
CD
E
D2,
D3<
s*
04
E3
A2.A3,
STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
10'
j i
I 1
I I
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-79. Rankine Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
W
CO
^
E
o"IO'
10
-2
03,
D2,
DL
STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY
PROJECTED TECHNOLOGY
I I
10
10
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
Figure B-80. Rankine Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
10'
-------
B.5.4. 2 Projected Technology
The critical emission species of the Rankine cycle engine is NO. Both
HC and CO emissions are already very low for the present state-of-the-art
technology. Reduction of NO is believed to be possible by means of opti-
mizing the primary and secondary zones of the burner and increasing
residence time. In addition, exhaust gas recirculation may be feasible.
This technique has been used successfully on the Philips Stirling engine
(Section B. 6). Based on these considerations, it is estimated that the NO
emission for the projected technology can be reduced by a factor 2. 5 from
the present state-of-the-art technology value. The projected reduction in
HC and CO is somewhat lower, reflecting the general tendency of obtaining
higher HC and CO concentrations with the burner design modifications
required for NO control.
Comparison of the design point specific mass emissions of the Rankine
engines and the Stirling engines which are discussed in Section B. 6 indicates
that the HC emissions of the Rankine engines are higher by a factor of 3. 3.
This increase is the result of lower engine efficiency and higher HC concen-
trations obtained at the lower burner inlet air temperature of the Rankine
engines. In addition, wall quenching effects are potentially more serious
in the Rankine engine because of the relatively low temperature of the boiler.
The CO follows the same trend as HC except that the wall quenching effects
may be less serious and as a result the difference in the CO specific mass
emissions is slightly less. The NO emissions of the Rankine engine are only
moderately higher than those of the Stirling engine because of the compensating
effects of engine efficiency and burner inlet air temperature.
Again, the specific mass emissions of the projected technologies are assumed
to be constant for engine design power levels above 50.hp. Below that point
the specific mass emissions increase.
B-136
-------
B. 5. 5 Part-Load Emissions
There is little agreement in the part-load emission characteristics of the
engines and burners tested (Refs. B-82 through B-87). The General Motors
and Thermo Electron data indicate some reduction in the concentration of CO
and HC with decreasing load. However, the Marquardt data show little
change over a wide range of part-load conditions. For NO, there is reason-
able agreement and very little change in NO concentration with load is
observed.
Considering the lack of a sufficiently large data sample and the contradictory
•trends observed in the data, it was decided to use engine efficiency as a
measure of the part-load emissions for both present state-of-the-art and
projected technologies. The specific mass emissions of each species
at part-load are then computed by multiplying the design load emissions
obtained from Figs. B-78 through B-80 and the part-load factors presented
in Fig. B-81. Obviously, this is a rather crude assumption and points out
the need of reliable Rankine engine part-load emission data.
B. 5. 6 Cold Start Emissions
The only cold start emission information available is the data published by
General Motors (Ref. B-83) for the General Motors SE-101 and SE-124
engines and the Doble steam car. In each case, the emissions were
measured during engine warmup. Factors were derived from these
data relating the total emissions, including warmup and hot DHEW
cycle, to the emissions obtained during the hot DHEW cycle. These factors
are presented in Table B-13. As indicated, the warmup emissions have
only a small effect on the total emissions of the SE-101 engine, resulting
from the fact that only a 2. 8-min warmup period was required to achieve
adequate steam pressure. In the case of the SE-124 and the Doble, the
warmup emissions represent a significant portion of the total emissions,
primarily because a much longer warmup time was required.
B-137
-------
1.0
0
20 40 60 80
PERCENT OF DESIGN LOAD
Figure B-81. Rankine Engines - HC, CO, NO, Emissions,
Steady State Part-Load
B-138
-------
B. 5. 7 Instrumentation
The difficulty of obtaining reliable exhaust emission data has been previously
pointed out. General Motors has used the most accurate set of instruments
commercially available, including low range NDIR for CO and NO, and hot
FID for HC, which is mandatory when kerosene or other heavy fuels are
used. Formaldehyde was determined by wet chemical analysis, and smoke
was observed visually.
NDIR instrumentation was also used by Marquardt for measurement of CO
and NO, and HC was determined by means of FID. However, to remove
water vapor which primarily affects NO measurements, all the sample gas
was run through an ice bath. As a result, an undetermined amount of the
heavier HC constituents was condensed, and the HC data reported by
Marquardt are considered too low and should be used with caution.
Thermo Electron Corporation has used NDIR to measure CO and NO and
"cold" FID for HC. Thus, the HC data are considered too low.
Altshuler and Caretto used NDIR for the measurement of CO and NO. The
exhaust gas sample used to determine CO and NO was run through a conden-
sation trap to remove water vapor which affects the NO readings. Hot FID
was used for HC analysis and that part of the sample gas was not cooled.
B.5.8 Other Pollutants
In addition to measuring the emissions of HC, CO, and NO, General Motors
has made attempts to determine the odor and smoke characteristics of their
engine. No offensive odor was detected so long as air/fuel ratio was below
40:1. Smoke was never observed at air/fuel ratios of 25:1 or higher.
B-139
-------
B. 6 STIRLING ENGINE EMISSIONS
B. 6. 1 General
Characterization of the exhaust emissions of Stirling engines are based upon
emission data from two engines built and tested by General Motors Research
Laboratories and by Philips Research Laboratories of the Netherlands.
Although heat may be supplied to the engine from any type of high tempera-
ture energy source, the two engines considered were operated only on
diesel fuel.
The General Motors Stirling engine is a single-cylinder engine rated at
10 hp (Ref. B-88). Its design speed is 3000 rpm and all tests discussed
in this section were conducted at that speed. An air preheater is used to
increase engine efficiency. The burner was designed for high combustion
efficiency and uniform gas temperature distribution across the burner exit
plane. The engine was tested at General Motors for .emissions over a wide
range of operating conditions using diesel fuel No. 2.
The Philips engine is also a single-cylinder configuration designed for
80 hp. The emission tests were conducted in the Netherlands using
European diesel fuel (Ref. B-88). Two burner designs were considered.
The standard slit burner demonstrated very good flame stability and uniform
temperatures across the burner exit plane over a wide range of operating
conditions. The advantage of the experimental louver burner is its ease
of fabrication. Various amounts of EGR were used in the test program
which was designed primarily to assess the effects of recirculation on
NO emission.
B. 6. 2 Design Load Emissions
B.6.2.1 State-of-the-Art Technology
Generally, Stirling engines running on diesel fuel are designed to operate
at air/fuel ratios of 20 or above. Under those conditions, burner tempera-
ture and oxygen concentration are sufficiently high to assure low emissions of
B-140
-------
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide. The nitric oxide concentrations are high
unless special provisions are made.
The exhaust emission data of the General Motors engine reported by Lienesch
and Wade (Ref. B-88) for different engine operating conditions are listed
in Table B-14. Also presented in that table are other important parameters
which are required to convert the concentration data to specific mass
emission numbers. The CO, NO, and NO_ measurements were made by
£
General Motors, both upstream and downstream of the air preheater. The
downstream concentrations of CO are approximately half of the upstream
values, indicating that additional reactions are occurring in the preheater.
This trend is reasonable considering the high temperature of the exhaust
gases entering the preheater and the kinetics of the CO oxidation reaction.
The downstream nitric oxide concentrations were slightly lower than the
corresponding upstream values on all tests. This is surprising since no
significant changes in the NO~ concentration were observed. Since the
upstream versus downstream measurements of NO differ by only 10 percent,
no further attempts were made to resolve this apparent discrepancy. Hydro-
carbon concentrations were only measured upstream of the preheater and
no background HC measurements were made. Since that level may have
been as high as 1 ppm equivalent hexane, the HC values are probably on the
high side. The CO concentrations are the downstream values. For NO ,
the upstream values were used primarily because the NO2 concentrations,
which were always less than 30 ppm, were not available. This approach is
considered reasonable since the variations seem to be well within the normal
band of test data uncertainty.
In addition to providing a basis for establishing Stirling engine emissio .
characteristics, the data were used to assess the effects of various engine
operating parameters on emissions. The data from tests A2 to A6,
Table B-14, run at essentially constant air/fuel ratio, indicate that the HC
emissions decrease with increasing burner inlet air temperature, while NO
increases. This trend agrees with theoretical calculations. However, the
B-141
-------
Table B-14. General Motors Research 10 hp Stirling
Engine Emissions
tfl
i
Point
No.
Al
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
AT
(
A8
A9
A10
Al 1
A12
Brake.
hp
2.48
4.72
4. 84
4. 84
4. 75
4. 72
4 7ft
T . / O
4.84
4.83
4.91
9. 65
9. t9
Air Flow,
Ib/hr
114
118
118
Q4. 2
78.3
75. 5
80 •*
O 7 * J
109. 5
136. 1
58. 1
137. 7
108. 5
Air/Fuel
Ratio
27. 1
25. 3
25. 7
26. 0
24.5
26.4
2Q 8
t. 7 . O
35.2
39. 6
20.2
25.4
19. 9
Burner
Air Inlet
Temp..°F
80
249
440
800
994
1210
i 7 fin
1 L* \J \J
1200
1150
1167
1350
1360
HC
ppm, Hexane
b
4
2
2
1. 5
1
0. 5
0. 5
• 3
2
1. 5
CO NO
ppm ppm
365 . 80
325 95
45 120
68 230
68 380
75 475
47 320
^ ( J £. v
35 202
35 130
130 880
30 550
35 1160
HC
grams /
bhp-hr
0. 375
0. 137
0. 067
0. 053
0. 034
0. 022
0. 015
0. 019
0. 049-
0. 039
0. OZ3
CO
grams /
bhp-hr
7. 6
3. 7
0. 5
0. 6
0. 51
0. 55
0 40
\J • ^ \J
0. 36
0. 44
0.71
0. 20
0. 18
NO
grams /
bhp-hr
1. 78
1. 16
1.43
2.21
3. 07
3. 7
2 Q
** . 7
1. 83
1. 76
5. 13
3.85
6.4
-------
CO emissions increase somewhat with increasing temperature, and th.it is
difficult to explain. Since the CO level is sufficiently low to meet almost
any future emission goals, no attempts were made to explain this trend.
Tests A6 through A10 show the effect of air/fuel ratio on emissions at half-
load for burner inlet air temperatures of approximately 1200 F. As
expected, the NO concentration increases rapidly as air/fuel ratio is
reduced, primarily as a result of increasing temperature and residence
time. Since burner flow rate decreases with decreasing air/fuel ratio,
the specific mass emissions increase at a slower rate. This is supported
by the full load data from tests All and A12. At half-load, the HC and CO
concentrations remain essentially constant over the air/fuel ratio range
between approximately 30 and 40. Further reduction results in rapidly
increasing HC and CO concentrations. As shown in Table B-14, the cor-
responding specific mass emissions decrease at a slower rate because of
the reduction in air flow rate at lower air/fuel ratios.
Test data from the Philips engine is presented in Table B-15 (Ref. B-88).
The engine was operated without and with EGR. Two burners, the slit
burner and the louver burner, were used in the program. In all cases, a
burner inlet air temperature of 1100 F was maintained. Hydrocarbon
concentrations were not measured in this particular test series. Philips
reports that the hydrocarbons of their burners are between 1 and 2 ppm
equivalent hexane. A constant value of 2 ppm was used to compute the HC
specific mass emission values listed in Table B-15 for the slit burner.
This assumption is considered reasonable in view of the fact that the CO
concentration of the slit burner increases only moderately as the recircu-
lation rate is increased from 0 to 33 percent. In the case of the louver
burner, the data show a significant reduction of the CO emissions as the
air/fuel ratio is decreased from 22.4 to 20. 3 (Tests B2 and B3). This
appears abnormal and disagrees with the trends derived from the General
Motors data.
B-143
-------
Table B-15. Philips 80 hp Stirling Engine Emissions
Point
No.
Bl
B2
B3
B4
B5
Bfc
Burner
Type
Louver
Louver
Louver
Slit
Slit
Slit
Brake.
hp
29. 3
29. 7
28. 0
31. 3
31. 3
31. 3
Air Flow.
Ib/hr
272
272
272
292
292
285
Air/Fuel
Hatio
20. 3
20. 3
Recirru- '
lar.on. ! HC
Percent ' ppm. Hexane
ICO ! =2
3? ; =2
t •
22.4 0 j =2
20. 5
20.9
20. n
100 I = 2
33 j =2
0 ! .2
1
CO
ppm
76'1
330
811
16H
122
7H
NO
ppm
47
160
263
38
40
107
HC
g rams /
bhp-hr
0. 026
0. 026
0. 027
0. 025
0. 025
0. 025
CO
g rams /
bhp-hr
3.25
1. 39
3. 62
0. 72
0. 52
o. n
NO
grams /
bhp-hr
0.21
0. 73
1. 25
0. 17
0. 18
0. 48
w
I
-------
It should be pointed out that the CO measurement technique used by Philips
is also sensitive to hydrocarbons and, as a result, the reported CO values
are on the high side. However, considering the low hydrocarbon content of
the exhaust, the error appears to be small. The NO concentrations are
j£
the sum of all the oxides of nitrogen species measured by Philips and were
used to compute NO specific mass emissions.
The Philips data indicate that EGR represents a feasible and effective method
towards control of NO emissions for Stirling engines without adversely
affecting the emissions of HC and CO. The slit burner has superior emis-
sion characteristics and slightly better efficiency. Specific mass emissions
and fuel consumption of the Philips engine are lower than on the General
Motors engine. To some degree, this reflects the inherently higher efficiency
of the larger Philips engine.
The specific mass emission data presented in Tables B-14 and B-15 are also
shown graphically in Figs. B-82 through B-84. The upper curves in these
figures are considered a reasonable representation of the present state-of-
the-art technology. As in the case of the other heat engines, the specific
mass emissions are considered constant for design power levels above 50 hp.
Below that point the specific mass emissions are assumed to increase to
reflect the deterioration of engine efficiency. It should be pointed out that
several of the HC and CO data points in Figs. B-82 and B-83 are actually
below the selected state-of-the-art curves. The reason is that the cor-
responding NO emissions are excessive. This points out the importance
of selecting the proper combination of engine operating parameters in order
to minimize all emissions. Since HC and CO are inherently low, attention
must be primarily focused on NO. The curves reflect this approach.
B. 6. 2. 2 Projected Technology
It is apparent that nitric oxide presents the principal emission problem in
Stirling engines. Based on the trends derived from the data, a number of
approaches can be suggested, including burner modifications, EGR, lower
B-145
-------
I I
I I
I I I
OA!
I
ex
CD
E
10'
10
-2
cc.
A2O
A30
A4O
'All
L J^ L
OB6
NOTE'
• FULL LOAD
O PART LOAD
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
o
I I
I03
Figure B-82. Stirling Engines - Hydrocarbon Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
10
I I I I
OAI
i I 1
i I r
OA2
I
O_
QQ
OB2
A6
8
A3, A5
10-
i i i
i i i
10
10'
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
10*
Figur; 3-83. Stirling Engines - Carbon Monoxide Emission,
Steady State Design Loa
-------
10
1 1
iii
AI2
w
00
I
ex
m
en
o
OAI
OA6
OA5
OA4
OA3
OA2
All
10'
i i i
Bl
0
i i i
iii
10 I02
DESIGN BRAKE HORSEPOWER
I03
Figure B-84. Stirling Engines - Nitric Oxide Emission,
Steady State Design Load
-------
burner inlet air temperature, and reduction of residence time of the
gases in the primary zone of the burner.
As shown by Philips, the slit burner has much lower NO emissions than
the louver burner. It is conceivable that the NO emissions could be
further reduced by means of additional burner modifications. Incorporation
of EGR has been shown to be an effective method in reducing NO emissions
from Stirling engines. As previously pointed out, the addition of EGR
results in lower combustion temperatures and, for a given burner design,
lower residence time of the gases in the primary zone of the burner.
Reduction of burner inlet air temperature and/or increase of the air/fuel
ratio also result in lower NO emissions. This has been demonstrated by
both General Motors and Philips. Although effective from an NO emissions
point of view, both methods show a tendency towards higher fuel consump-
tion and HC and CO emissions. Since NO formation in the burner is kineti-
cally controlled, a reduction in the residence time tends to reduce forma-
tion and concentration of nitric oxide.
It appears that the methods outlined above are potentially effective in lower-
ing exhaust emission in Stirling engines. Further optimization of these
approaches, separately and in combination, is required to determine the
most desirable burner configurations with respect to exhaust emissions,
fuel consumption, and engine operation.
With these considerations in mind, the projected specific mass emission
curves were drawn in Figs. B-82 through B-84. The projected NO emis-
sions are by a factor of 3 lower than the corresponding present state-o -thw-
art values. Since the various approaches aimed at reducing NO have
tendency to increase the HC and CO emissions, it is assumed that the
projected HC and CO emissions are reduced by only a factor of 1.5.
B. 6. 3 Part-Load Emissions
Lacking sufficient test data, a meaningful part-load emission study could
not be conducted for the Stirling engine. To account for at least some of
B-149
-------
the part-load effects, it was decided to use the cycle efficiency versus
percent of design load correlation as the basis for estimating the emissions
at part-load. The same approach was used to characterize the part-load
emissions of Rankine engines. The recommended part-load emission fac-
tors are presented in Fig. B-85 in terms of the ratio of part-load emission
to design-load emission versus percent of design Ipad. These factors are
applicable to HC, CO, and NO, for both present state-of-the-art and
projected technologies. The absolute value of the emissions at a certain
part-load point is then computed by multiplying the emission factors from
Fig. B-85 and the design load specific mass emissions from Figs. B-82
through B-84. This approach is approximate, at best, and points out the
need of a comprehensive Stirling engine emission test program.
B. 6. 4 Cold Start Emissions
There is no information available to characterize the cold start emissions
of Stirling engines. Obviously, these factors have to be resolved before a
complete assessment can be made of the emissions from Stirling engines.
B. 6. 5 Instrumentation
The significance of an evaluation of the test procedures and instrumentation
used in emission test programs has been previously stated.
In the General Motors tests,* HC was measured by means of a hot FID setup.
A sample line temperature of 375 F was maintained, which provides a
reasonable compromise between additional oxidation of the hydrocarbons to
be recorded and condensation of the heavy components. Continuous NDIR
instruments were used for NO and CO. The NO- was measured by means
of continuous NDUV. This set of instrumentation represents the most
reliable presently available.
A somewhat different approach was taken by Philips. The hydrocarbons
were measured with electrically-heated FID. Wet chemical methods were
used to determine CO and NO. The CO was determined by first removing all
B-150
-------
2.0
CO
1.8
CO
CO
LU
1.6
CO
LU
Q
CO
O
CO
CO
Q
-------
the CO- contained in the exhaust sample and then burning all the carbon
compounds, including HC. Then the CO2 was measured and converted
analytically to CO. Since the HC concentrations in the exhaust of Stirling
engines are very low, the error resulting from the oxidation of the HC
species is small and the reported CO concentrations are considered accurate.
The oxides of nitrogen species are determined through conversion into
ammonia. The ammonia content of the solution is then determined spectro-
photometrically. At the NO concentration levels of Stirling engine exhausts,
X
this method is sufficiently accurate.
B. 6. 6 Other Pollutants
Little information is available on smoke and odor from the Stirling engine
exhaust. According to Ref. B-88, the General Motors engine is smoke-free
at all operating conditions, including cold start. Also, no odor was detected.
The Philips engine shows some smoke during warmup. However, it
appears that this problem might be alleviated by means of burner modifica-
tion and/or variation of the air/fuel ratio during warmup.
B-152
-------
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1970).
B-76. R. F. Sawyer, D. P. Teixeira, and E. S. Starkman, "Air Pollution
Characteristics of Gas Turbine Engines, " Transaction of the ASME
Journal of Engineering for Power (October 1969).
B-77. D. S. Smith, R. F. Sawyer, and E. S. Starkman, "Oxides of Nitrogen
from Gas Turbines, " Journal of the Air Pollution Control Associa-
tion, vol. 18, no. 1 (January 1968).
B-78. R. F. Sawyer, Fundamental Processes Controlling the Air Pollution
Emissions from Turbojet Engines, ALAA Paper No. 69-1040, A1AA
6th Annual Meeting and Technical Display, Anaheim, California
(20-24 October 1969).
B-79. A. W. Bell, N. Bayard de Volo, and B. P. Breen, Nitric Oxide
Reduction by Controlled Combustion Processes, Paper No. WSCI-
70-5, Western States Section, Combustion Institute, Spring
Meeting (20-21 April 1970).
B-80. Personal Communication with W. Cornelius, C. Amann, and W. Wade,
General Motors Research Laboratories, Warren, Michigan.
B-159
-------
B-81. M. W. Korth and A. H. Rose, Jr., Emissions from a Gas Turbine
Automobile, SAE Paper 680402, Mid-Year Meeting, Detroit,
Michigan (20-24 May 1968).
B-82. P. T. Vickers, C. A. Amann, H. R. Mitchell, and W. Cornelius,
The Design Features of the CM SE-101 - A Vapor Cycle Powerplant,
SAE Paper 700163, Automotive Engineering Compress, Detroit,
Michigan (12-16 January 1970).
B-83. P. T. Vickers, J. R. Mondt, W. H. Haverdink, and W. R. Wade,
General Motors Steam Powered Cars - Emissions, Fuel Economy
and Performance, SAE Paper 700670, National West Coast
Meeting, Los Angeles, California (24-27 August 1970).
B-84. S.S. Miner, Developments in Automotive Steam Powerplants,
SAE Paper 690943, International Automotive Engineering Congress,
Detroit, Michigan (13-17 January 1969).
B-85. C. V. Burkland, W. B. Lee, G. Bahn, and R. Carlson, Study of
Continuous Flow Combustion Systems for External Combustion
Vehicle Powerplants, Final Report under Contract CPA 22-69-128,
The Marquardt Corporation, Van Nuys, California (June 1970).
B-86. D. T. Morgan and R. J. Raymond, Conceptual Des ign-Rankine Cycle
Power System with Organic Working Fluid and Reciprocating
Engine for Passenger Vehicles, Thermo Electron Corporation
Report No. TE 412 1 - 1 33-70 (June 1970).
B-87. S. L. Altshuler and L. S. Caretto, The Air Pollution Characteristics
of a Prototype Automotive Steam Generator (To be Published).
B-88. J. H. Lienesch and W. R. Wade, Stirling Engine Progress Report:
Smoke, Odor, Noise and Exhaust~Emissions, SAE Paper 680081,
Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Michigan (8-12 January
1968).
B-160
-------
APPENDIX C
VEHICLE EXHAUST EMISSIONS TEST PROGRAM
-------
CONTENTS
C-l
v iL,ni
C. 1
C.2
C.3
C.4
C.5
C. 6
Introduction
Test Vehicles
Test Program. ..."
C. 3. 1 Driving Cycle Tests
C.3. 2 Steady-State Tests
C. 3. 3 Vehicle Modifications
C.3. 3.1 Catalytic Converter
C. 3. 3. 2 Turbocharger
Instrumentation
C. 4. 1 Exhaust Emissions
C. 4. 2 Engine Parameters
C.4. 2.1 Fuel Flow .'
C. 4. 2. 2 Power Output
C. 4. 2. 3 Manifold Pressure
C.4. 2.4 Engine Speed
C. 4. 2. 5 Exhaust Gas Temperature ....
Results
C. 5. 1 Comparison of Mass Emissions by
Various Driving Cycles
C. 5. 1. 1 Comparison of Bag Results with
C. 5. 1. 2 Comparison of Seven -Mode
Cycle with DHEW Cycle .-..'..
C. 5.2 Cold Start Emissions
C. 5. 3 Diesel Catalyst
C.5. 4 Steady-State Results
References
C-l
C-l
C-4
C-4
C-7
C-8
C-8
C-9
C-9
C-9
C-10
C-10
C-10
C-ll
C-ll
C-ll
C-ll
C-12
C-12
C-12
C-12
C-15
C-15
C-16
C-i
-------
TABLES
C-l. Engine Specifications for Test Vehicles C-2
C-2. Vehicle Specifications for Test Vehicles C-3
C-3. Test Results for Seven-Mode Driving Cycle C-5
C-4. Test Results for DHEW Driving Cycle C-6
FIGURES
C-l. Comparison of Cold Start Automotive Diesel Exhaust
Emissions by Different Methods C-13
C-2. Comparison of Cold Start Exhaust Emissions for
Ford Pinto by Different Methods C-14
C-ii
-------
APPENDIX C
VEHICLE EXHAUST EMISSIONS TEST PROGRAM
C. 1 INTRODUCTION
As part of the overall study of Hybrid Heat Engine/Electric System Vehicles,
an automobile exhaust emission test program was conducted at Scott
Research Laboratories, San Bernardino, California. The objective of the
program was primarily to obtain data on exhaust emissions from automotive
engines of less than 100 hp during cold start, hot start, and steady-state
..operating conditions. Three prechamber-type diesel engines were used in
the program, and the effects of a turbocharger and a catalytic converter on
exhaust emissions were investigated. A domestic subcompact automobile
with a spark ignition engine was also used.
The automobiles were operated on a chassis dynamometer over the seven-
mode and DHEW driving cycles and under a number of steady-state engine
operating conditions.
Scott Research Laboratories was selected as the test facility primarily
because of their prior experience with diesel-powered vehicles gained during
the 1970 MIT/Cal Tech Clean Air Car Race.
C.2 TEST VEHICLES
Four vehicles were used in the test program: three with compression-
ignition (diesel) engines and one with a spark ignition gasoline engine. Tht
engine and vehicle specifications are given in Tables C-l and C-2, re-;^ec-
tively.
The diesel-powered vehicles were domestic automobiles that had their
factory-installed gasoline engines replaced by small foreign-manufactured
diesel engines. The diesel conversions were made by the Wilcap Company,
Torrance, California, which contributed the Valiant/Daihatsu and the
C-l
-------
Table C-l. Engine Specifications of Test Vehicles'
Vehicle
Mustang/Daihatsu
Valiant/Daihatsu
Cadillac/Peugeot
Ford Pinto
O
I
Manufacturer
ModeT
Displacement
Cylinders
Bore and Stroke
Compression Ratio
Rated Horsepower
Maximum Torque
Cooling
Fuel Supply
Governor
Weight
Combustion Chamber
Ignition System
Electrical System
Daihatsu Kogyo Co. ,
Osaka, Japan
DE, four-cycle diesel
138.5 cu in. (2270 cc)
Four. OHV
3. 34 X 3.94 in.
(85 x 100 mm)
18. 5 : 1
63 at 3600 rpm
107 ft-lbf at 2000 rpm
Water, no fan
Injection, Bosch,
throttled nozzle
Pneumatic
470 lbf
Swirl type
Glow plugs for starting
12 V
Daihatsu Kogyo Co.
DG, four-cycle diesel
145 cu in. (2500 cc)
Four, OHV
3.46 X 4.09 in.
(88 x 104 mm)
20 : 1
75 at 3800 rpm
126 ft-lbf at 2000 rpm
Water, with fan
Injection, Bosch,
throttled nozzle
Pneumatic
528 lbf
Swirl type
Glow plugs for starting
12 V
Peugeot-Lille,
Paris, France
XDP 6.90, four-cycle
diesel
193. 3 cu in. (3168 cc)
Six. OHV
3.543 X 3.267 in.
(90 X 83 mm)
22.8 : 1
106 at 4000 rpm
147 ft-lb£ at 1950 rpm
Water, with fan
Injection, roto-diesel
Mechanical
525 lbf
Ricardo "Comet V"
Glow plugs for starting
12 V
Ford of Germany,
Cologne, Germany
Four-cycle, overhead
cam
122 cu in. (2000 cc)
Four, OHV
3.574 X 3.092 in.
(90.8 X 77 mm)
8.6 : 1
100 at 5600 rpm
120 ft-lbf at 3600 rpm
Water, with fan
Carburetion, Weber-
design by Holly
NA
297 lbf
Modified hemisphere
Bosch; Autolite spark
plugs
12 V
From Refs. C-l - C-4.
-------
Table C-2. Vehicle Specifications for Test Vehicles'
O
i
Vehicle
Body
Transmission:
Gear Ratios
Torque Converter
Overdrive
Differential
Tires
Weight
Vehicle
Engine
Turbocharger
Mustang /Daihatsu
1965 Ford Mustang
Four-speed manual
(Ford)
3. 16. Z.21. 1.41. 1.00
NA
No
3. 23 : 1 at rear axle
6.50 x 13
3000 lbf loaded
150.000
52. 000
12.000
Valiant/ Daihatsu
1969 Plymouth Valiant
Three-speed automatic
(Chrysler)
2.45, 1.45, 1.00
Yes
30% reduction
3. 80 : 1 at rear axle
7.00 X 13
3200 lbf, loaded
Odometer Milea
18,000
18.000
NA
Cadillac/Peugeot
1963 Cadillac Sedan
de Ville
Three -speed automatic
(Chrysler)
2.45, 1.45. 1.00
Yes
No
3. 21 : 1 at rear axle
J78 X 15
5000 lbf, loaded
82.000
1. 200
NA
Ford Pinto
1971 Ford Pinto
Three-speed
automatic (Ford)
2.46, 1.46, 1.00
No
No
3. 81 : 1 at rear axle
6.00 x 13
2500 lb£. GVW
1,900
1,900
NA
From Refs. C-l - C-4.
-------
Cadillac/Peugeot for the test program. The Mustang/Daihatsu was acquired
on a rental basis. The Ford Pinto with the gasoline engine was provided
*
by two new car dealers who agreed to support the program.
C. 3 TEST PROGRAM
A rather extensive test plan was delineated at the beginning of the program.
However, some modifications had to be made in the original plan as circum-
stances and results dictated. The test plan accomplished two objectives:
(a) it established the seven-mode and DHEW driving cycle emissions for both
cold and hot starts, and (b) it established the steady-state engine emissions
over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
In accordance with the Federal Testing Procedure, indolene-30, with a
specific gravity of 0. 746 at 61 F, was used as the fuel in the spark ignition
engine tests. ARCO Supreme (Atlantic Richfield Co. ), with a specific gravity
of 0. 859 at 77 F, was used as the diesel fuel.
C. 3. 1 Driving Cycle Tests
Results of the seven-mode and DHEW driving cycle tests, together with the
emission data for the four vehicles, are listed in Tables C-3 and C-4,
respectively. All of the driving cycle tests except one were made from
cold starts. Since the federal test procedures do not call for repetitive use
of the DHEW driving cycle, one hot start DHEW driving cycle was made for
direct comparison with the cold start DHEW cycle for the Valiant/Daihatsu
with catalyst installed. The seven-mode cold start test with the Mustang/
Daihatsu with turbocharger was made with a 4-hr cold soak (instead of the
usual 12 hr ) in order to duplicate the procedure used in the Clean Air Car
Race.
In accordance with the specified procedure, continuous emission readings
were taken during the seven-mode tests. In addition, bag samples were
taken using the constant volume sampling procedure (CVS) described in the
See Appendix F. 4.
C-4
-------
Table C-3. Test Results for Seven-Mode Driving Cycle
O
i
vn
Vehicle
Mustang /Daihatsu
With Turbocharger
Mustang /Daihatsu
With Turbocharger
Mustang /Daihatsu
Without Turbocharger
Valiant/ Daihatsu
Without Catalyst
Ford Pinto
Ford Pinto
Start
Cold
Hot
Cold
Cold
Cold
Hot
Gas
HCd
CO
NOxe
HCd
CO
NO/
HCd
CO
N0xe
HCd
CO
NO e
HCd
CO
N0xe
HCd
CO
NO e
Calculated
per CACR.
grams per mile
1. 16
a. is
1. 44
1. 16
3.08
1.51
2.01
3.87
Z.07
0. Z6
0.81
1.89
1.63
50. 67
1.91
1.91
35.94
2.38
Total Bag
Sample.
grams per mile
NVf
2.87
2.25
.
-
NVf
6.47
1.80
NVf
2.89
2.47
3.94
80.96
3.32
.
.
-
Bag A. a
grams per mile
NV(
2.87
1.62
.
-
NVf
3. 23
1. 54
NVf
2.89
2.00
6. 33
112. 76
2. 21
.
.
-
BagB.b
grams per mile
NVf
2.87
1.99
.
-
NVf
3.23
1.48
NVf
2.89
2..00
4.45
98. 30
2.90
.
-
-
Bag C.c
grams per mile
NVf
2.87
2. 09
_
-
NVf
3. 23
1. 38
NVf
1.45
2.00
2.87
72. 28
3.79
.
.
-
Taken during first cycle.
Taken during second cycle.
Taken during third cycle.
Hot FID as propane; however, bag samples were cold FID.
°Aa NO,.
f '
Bag results not considered valid for diesels.
-------
Table C-4. Test Results for DHEW Driving Cycle
O
i
Vehicle
Mustang/ Da ihalsu
With Turbocharger
Mustang/ Daihat su
Without Turbocharger
Valiant/Daihatsu
Without Catalyst
Valiant/Daihatsu
With Catalyst
Valiant/ Daihatsu
With Catalyst
Cadillac/Peugeot
Ford Pinto
Start
Cold
Cold
Cold
Cold
Hot
Cold
Cold
CAS
HCC
CO
NO e
HCC
CO
NO e
X
HCC
CO
NO e
HCC
CO
NO e
X
HCC
CO
NO/
HCC
CO
NO e
HCC
CO
NO e
Total Bag
Sample.
grams per mile
A
N\'d
3. 20
2. 79
A
NVd
3. 26
2. 52
NVd
3. 20
3. 05
NVd
3.20*
3. 44
NVd
of
3. 42
NVd
3. 20
' 3. 52
2. 76
76. 82
2. 79
Bag A, a
: grams per mile
NVd
3. 20
1. 79
A
NVd
3. 26
2. 25
NVd
3. 20
2. 79
NVd
3.20f
2. 54
NVd
of
2. 52
NVd
3. 20
2.84
5. 71
1 4 1 . 00
2. 52
Bag B, b
gram s pe r mile
NVd
3. 20
2. 26
NVd
6. 52
3. 11
NVd
3. 20
3. 89
NVd
3.20f
4. 02
NVd
0<
3. 63
NVd
3. 20
5. 68
3. 33
96. 02
4. 89
Taken during first 143 sec.
Taken between 143 and 340 sec.
Cold FID as propane.
Bag results not considered valid for diesels.
As NO?.
*•
Least detectable level (O.JI%|.
-------
Federal Register of 15 July 1970 (Ref. C-5). The DHEW driving cycle
presented in that document was used in the program. Although a revised
DHEW cycle was presented in the Federal Register of 10 November 1970
(Ref. C-6), close examination revealed that the revisions were minor and
did not justify delay of the test program until the new driving charts became
available.
For both the Mustang and Valiant, the chassis dynamometer was set at an
inertia load of 3000 lbf and a road load of 8 hp. The road load was deter-
mined by making a manifold pressure reading at 50 mph cruise on the
highway and then-duplicating that reading with the vehicle on the dynamometer
rollers. For the Pinto, this same procedure indicated an inertia load of
2500 lb. and a road load of 4 hp.
For the Cadillac, the dynamometer load settings were arbitrarily matched
with those of the Mustang and Valiant since the primary objective was to
obtain a valid comparison of the engines and rrot the vehicles.
C.3.2 Steady-State Tests
The objective of these tests was to determine the engine specific mass
emissions over a wide range of engine operating conditions for use in the
analysis and evaluation of hybrid heat engine/electric vehicle systems. The
tests were made at four different engine speeds (3000, 2400, 1800, and
1400 rpm), with a variation in load at each speed from full throttle to
approximately 10 percent load to provide four or five load settings at each
rpm. The emissions were also monitored at idle speed.
Attempts to operate the vehicles at their rated engine speeds were unsuccess-
ful. At wide-open throttle and rated speed, the engine temperature reached
the boiling point before the emission levels were completely stabilized
because of inadequate auxiliary fan capacity. Since no temperature problems
were experience at 3000 rpm, this speed was selected as maximum.
C-7
-------
At full load, approximately 3 min were required for the diesels and approxi-
mately 5 min for the gasoline engine emissions to stabilize. At part load,
approximately 2 min were required.
Wheel horsepower is measured on the chassis dynamometer, whereas engine
brake horsepower is required to convert the measured pollutant specie
concentrations to specific mass emission numbers. ' In view of the uncer-
tainties in the drive train efficiency at the various speed and load conditions,
the computed specific mass emissions are only approximate.
C. 3. 3 Vehicle Modifications
C. 3.3.-1 Catalytic Converter
It was originally planned to test the Pinto, as well as one of the diesels,
with and without a catalytic converter in the exhaust system. However, it
was not possible to obtain the proper catalytic device for the Pinto in time
to include it in the program.
A catalytic converter for diesel exhaust (Model 4D23S) was obtained from
Engelhard Industries, Newark, N. J., and installed in the Valiant/Daihatsu
exhaust system after completion of the driving cycle and steady-state tests
without catalyst. Engelhard advised that the catalyst required a minimum
operating temperature of about 375 F. Therefore, it was installed as close
as possible to the exhaust manifold.
The previous tests made with the Valiant/Daihatsu were repeated, with
exception of the seven-mode driving cycle. Instead, a hot and a cold DREW
cycle tests were run.
It was subjectively observed that the strong diesel exhaust odor usually
present was not detected when the vehicle was tested with the catalytic con-
verter in the system.
C-8
-------
C. 3.3.2 Turbocharger
The first tests with the Mustang were made with an AiResearch (Model TO-4)
turbocharger installed in the system. The pneumatic governor control was
arranged such that the turbocharger operated at about 30 percent maximum
manifold pressure. The earlier tests were repeated with the turbocharger
removed and with the engine operating in its standard configuration. The
most notable difference, other than power output, was in the amount of
particulates trapped in the filters of the emission detectors. With the turbo-
charger in the system, the amount of smoke (particulates) was significantly
reduced.
C.4 INSTRUMENTATION
In addition to the instrumentation required to monitor exhaust emissions,
measurements of several engine parameters were made that permitted
correlation of vehicle exhaust emissions with engine characteristics.
C. 4. 1 Exhaust Emissions
The exhaust species monitored were CO, CO,, HC, NO, and NO2. The
CO, CO?, and NO were measured with nondispersive infrared (NDIR)
detectors; the NO2 was measured with a nondispensive ultraviolet (NDUV)
detector. The hydrocarbons were measured with both a heated flarne ioni-
zation detector (FID) and an NDIR detector. Detection of the diesel exhaust
species requires that the FID have a heated sample line and a heated detector
in order that the heavier hydrocarbons found in the exhaust gases do not
condense before reaching the detector. Continuous on-line monitoring
of all emission species was carried out for both the driving cycles and
steady-state tests. In addition, bag sample readings were made for the
driving cycles in accordance with federal procedures for CVS. Multiple
bag samples were also taken. This provided values for segments as well as
totals for the driving cycle tests and made it possible to examine the exhaust
emission characteristics during engine warmup. Bag A was used for the
C-9
-------
first cycle and bags B and C for the following two cycles of the seven-mode
test. For the DHEW cycle, bag A was used to monitor the emissions during
the first 143 sec of the cycle and bag B for the period between 143 and 340
sec.
The readings obtained from the bag samples for the hydrocarbons in the
diesel exhaust were inaccurate because of condensation of the heavy hydro-
carbons in the bag. The conversion of the NO to NO.,' in the bag samples
was also quite apparent, even though sample readings were taken immediately
at the end of the test cycles.
C. 4. 2 Engine Parameters
The engine operating parameters recorded for the driving cycle tests were
fuel consumption, fuel and intake air temperature, humidity, and barometric
pressure. Air flow rate, power output, engine speed, manifold pressure,
arid exhaust gas temperature were also recorded for the steady-state tests.
C.4.2.1 Fuel Flow
The total fuel consumption was recorded for each of the driving-cycle tests.
For the steady-state tests, the fuel flow rates were measured by measuring
the fuel volume consumed in a known period of time after a stable point was
attained. A sufficient volume of fuel was consumed in 1 min to permit a
reading that was approximately 2 percent accurate. However, at idle speed,
5 min were required before a measurement could be made.
C.4.2.2 Power Output
The horsepower at the rear wheels was measured with a newly calibrated
Clayton chassis dynamometer with 20-in. rollers. Since this load includes
both dynamometer friction and the power absorbed by the absorption unit, a
calibration curve was made at 50 and 40 mph in accordance with the proce-
dure outlined in the Federal Register.
C-10
-------
C.4. 2.3 Manifold Pressure
The manifold pressure gauges already installed in the Mustang and Valiant
•were used to measure manifold pressure. However, a standard pressure
gauge was installed in the Pinto. Manifold pressure measurements were
not made with the Peugeot engine because of its characteristic to admit a
full charge of air on each suction stroke.
C. 4. 2. 4 Engine Speed
Both the Mustang and Valiant had tachometers previously installed. The
tachometer readings on the vehicle instruments were checked by using a
Strobotac in conjunction with the crankshaft pulley. However, for the
Cadillac/Peugeot, only the Strobotac was used.
For the steady-state tests made with the Pinto, the engine speed was
measured by using an electric tachometer connected to the engine's ignition
system.
C. 4. 2. 5 Exhaust Gas Temperature
For the Valiant, a chromel-alumel thermocouple was installed at the inlet
to the catalytic converter for measurement of exhaust gas temperature.
The temperature history of at least one driving cycle was recorded.
C. 5 RESULTS
The mass emission data for the seven-mode driving cycle and the DHEW
driving cycle for the various test vehicles are listed in Tables C-3 and C-4,
respectively. Values are given for individual bag samples as well as for
total bag samples in order to illustrate the trend in the various emissions
as a function of engine temperature during warmup. Data are not shown for
the hydrocarbon measurements obtained from the bag readings for the
diesels because they were not considered to be quantitatively valid. More-
over, the HC levels were too close to the background levels (in some cases
the background bag even gave higher readings) to derive any meaningful
qualitative results.
C-ll
-------
Data reduction for the steady-state tests was not completed in time to be
included in this preliminary report. However, the results will be included
in the final report. The data presented should not be considered final until
publication of the Scott Research Laboratories final report (Ref. C-7).
C. 5. 1 Comparison of Mass Emissions by
Various Driving Cycles
Figure C-l shows the emission levels measured for the diesel-powered
vehicles in the two driving cycles. In addition, the seven-mode data are
shown for two different methods of calculation. Figure C-2 shows the equi-
valent data for the gasoline-powered vehicle.
C. 5. 1. 1 Comparison of Bag Results with Calculated Values
The seven-mode cycle emissions were determined by the current method of
calculation as well as by CVS bag sampling techniques. The current method
utilizes data on pollutant species concentration combined with weighting
factors for the various modes. In general, the calculated seven-mode
results were lower than those obtained from the bag readings. Similar
observations have been made by other investigators for spark ignition engines.
For the Pinto, the observed difference was more pronounced than for the
diesel-powered automobiles.
C.5.1.2 Comparison of Seven-Mode Cycle with PHEW Cycle
Comparison of the bag data from the two driving cycles indicates that the
seven-mode and DHEW cycles yield similar results for the diesels. For
the Pinto, the DHEW cycle HC and NO emissions are somewhat lower and
the CO levels are about the same.
C. 5. 2 Cold Start Emissions
Comparison of the emission levels from the different bags shows that the
CO emissions appear to be the same for the diesels whether hot or cold.
However, it should be stressed that the measured CO levels were near the
sensitivity threshold of the available ND1R instrument; hence, the observed
C-12
-------
o
OJ
50,— NOTE: HC VALUES FOR BAG
TEST NOT VALID
_o> 4.0
CO
CO
CO
3.0
2.0
CO
1.0
0
— 7-MODE
7-MODE DHEW
(BAG) (BAG)
o
o
o
o
DE
>
0
1
<
>
o
i
c
O
'//
!
MUSTANG/DAIHATSU DIESEL
WITH TURBOCHARGER
7-MODE DHEW
VALIANT/DAIHATSU DIESEL
DHEW
(BAG)
)DE
C
X
O
i
e
o
O
M
0
1
' 1
c
*^r-
O
o
X
O
xx
1
O
o
7/
/
p
I
CADILLAC/
PEUGEOT
DIESEL
Figure C-l. Comparison of Cold Start Automotive Diesel Exhaust Emissions
by Different Methods
-------
O
100
80
60
o>
40
0
o>
'i.
o»
o 3
o~
L 0
CO
7-MODE
(CALC.)
7-MODE
(BAG)
DHEW
(BAG)
x
O
Figure C-Z. Comparison of Cold Start Exhaust Emissions for Ford Pinto
by Different Methods
-------
insensitivity of CO emissions to engine warmup should be a tentative con-
clusion. Since the HC bag data for the diesels are not valid because of
condensation of the heavier HC molecules in the sample line, no conclusion
can be made regarding HC based on the bag data. The calculated seven-
mode cycle emissions indicate that there is no change in HC levels between
hot and cold start tests.
For the Pinto, as expected, a definite decrease is shown in the CO and HC
emissions during the warmup period.
As expected, the NO emissions increased for all engines during the warm-
up period. However, the observed changes were greater for the Pinto.
For the DHEW cycle, bag B contained data taken at the greatest rate of
acceleration and the highest cruise level. The increasing high temperature^
are reflected in the results.
In general, the data indicate that the diesel engine stabilizes faster than
the spark ignition engine, and that the cold start effects are less severe.
The same trend was observed during the steady-state runs. The Pinto
results indicate that it was operating with a rich mixture during warmup
because of the extremely high CO emission levels.
C. 5. 3 Diesel Catalyst
When the exhaust emissions were measured for the Valiant with a catalytic
converter in the exhaust system, there was essentially no change observed
in the NO level, as was expected with this particular catalyst. However,
ji
the HC and CO emissions were reduced significantly, although Table C-4
shows 3.2 g/mi for CO for the cold start test, which is the least detectable
level of the instruments used.
As mentioned previously, the strong diesel odor usually present was quite
mild when the catalyst was installed.
C. 5.4 Steady-State Results
Data reduction for the steady-state tests was not completed in time to be
included in this report.
C-15
-------
C. 6 REFERENCES
C-l. Workshop Manual, Model DE, Daihatsu Kogyo Company, Osaka,
Japan.
C-2. Workshop Manual, Model DG, Daihatsu Kogyo Company, Osaka,
Japan.
C-3. Technical Data Brochure, Societe Comrc*e.rciale de Moteurs -
C. L. M., Model XDP 6. 90.
;**
C-4.' Private Communication, Jim Rhodes, Resident Engineer, Ford
Motor Company, Pico Rivera, California.
C-5. Federal Register (Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
15 July 1970), Vol. 35, No. 136.
C-6. Federal Register (Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
10 November 1970), Vol. 35, No. 219.
C-7. Diesel-Powered Passenger Car Emission Tests, Final Report,
Project No. 2933, Scott Research Laboratories, Inc., San
Bernardino, California (to be published).'
Not available outside The Aerospace Corporation.
C-16
-------
APPENDIX D
EMISSION DRIVING CYCLE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
AND DESIGN DRIVING CYCLES
-------
CONTENTS
D. EMISSION DRIVING CYCLE PERFORMANCE CHARAC-
TERISTICS AND DESIGN DRIVING CYCLES D-l
D. 1 Introduction D-l
D. 2 Results of Emission Cycle Analysis D-l
D. 2. 1 Emission Cycles D-l
D. 3 Design Driving Cycles D-43
D-i
-------
TABLES
D-l. Design Driving Cycle for Family Car D-44
D-2. Design Driving Cycle for Commuter Car D-45
D-3. Design Cycle for Low-speed Delivery Van . ..!r D-46
D-4. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Van D-46
D-5. Design Driving Cycle for Low-speed Intracity Bus D-47
D-6. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Intracity Bus D-48
D-ii
-------
APPENDIX D
EMISSION DRIVING CYCLE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
AND DESIGN DRIVING CYCLES
D. 1 INTRODUCTION
An emission driving cycle is a set of velocity-time points which defines a
velocity profile for use in determining vehicle exhaust emissions. This is
in contrast to a design driving cycle which was used to verify that vehicle
performance is sufficient to meet APCO specifications and maximum driving
demands. An analysis of the operation of a family car, a commuter car, a
delivery van and an intracity bus over their respective emission driving
cycles was performed in order to determine the horsepower, energy and
torque levels involved. These data are useful to insure that power/drive -
train designs are adequate to meet the demands of these cycles. Also, they
may be used in making preliminary exhaust emission estimates. Plots of
the results are presented here. In addition, the design cycles used in this
study are presented in tabular form in Section D. 4.
D. 2 RESULTS OF EMISSION CYCLE ANALYSIS
An analysis of the emission driving cycles for each class of vehicle studied
was performed as discussed in Section 5. Vehicle powerplaht outpxit torque,
horsepower, and energy requirements for each cycle were calculated using
a computer program to solve the equations involved. Graphs of the computed
results are presented.
D. 2. 1 Emission Cycles
D. 2. 1.1 PHEW Cycle
Page
Fig. D-l. Velocity Profile - DHEW Emission Cycle D-4
D-2. Acceleration Profile - DHEW Emission Cycle D-5
D-3. Distance Profile - DHEW Emission Cycle D-6
D-l
-------
D.Z.I.2 New York City Comprehensive Cycle
Page
Fig. D-4. Velocity Profile - New York City Emission Cycle D-7
D-5. Acceleration Profile - New York City Emission D-8
Cycle
D-6. Distance Profile - New York City Emission Cycle D-9
D. 2. 1.3 Delivery Van Emission Cycle (High and Low Speed)
Fig. D-7. Velocity Profile - Delivery Van Emission Cycle D-10
D-8. Acceleration Profile - Delivery Van Emissions D-11
Cycle
D-9. Distance Profile - Delivery Van Emission Cycle D-12
D. 2.1.4 High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
Fig. D-10 Velocity Profile - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle D-13
D-ll Acceleration Profile - High-speed Bus Emission D-14
Cycle
D-12 Distance Profile - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle D-15
D. 2. 1. 5 Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
Fig. D-13. Velocity Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle D-16
D-14. Acceleration Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission D-17
Cycle
D-15. Distance Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle D-18
D. 2. 2 Power Versus Time
Kin. D-H>. Power Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-19
Family Car
D-17. Power Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-20
Commuter Car
D-18. Power Requirements - Delivery Van Emission Cycle D-21
D-19. Power Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission D-22
Cycle
D-20. Power Requirements - Low-speed Bus Emission D-23
Cycle
D-2
-------
D. 2. 3 Cumulative Energy (to Wheels) Versus Time
Page
Fig. D-21. Energy Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-24
Family Car
D-22. Energy Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-25
Commuter Car
D-23. Energy Requirements - Delivery Van Emission Cycle D-26
D-24. Energy Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission D-27
Cycle
D-25. Energy Requirements - Low-speed Bus Emission D-28
Cycle
D. 2.4 Torque (Shaft) Versus Time
Fig. D-26. Torque Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-29
Family Car
D-27. Torque Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - D-30
Commuter Car
D. 2.
Fig.
D. 2.
Fig.
D-28.
D-29.
D-30.
5
D-31.
D-32.
D-33.
D-34.
D-35.
6
D-36.
D-37.
D-38.
D-39.
Torque Requirements - Delivery Van Emiss ion Cycle
Torque Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission
Cycle
Torque Requirements - Low- speed Bus Emission
Cycle
Total Road Resistance (Rolling Plus Aerodynamic
Drag) Versus Time
Road Resistance - DHEW Emission Cycle -
Family Car
Road Resistance - DHEW Emission Cycle -
Commuter Car
Road Resistance - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
Road Resistance - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
Road Resistance - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
Family Car (New York City Comprehensive Cycle)
Family Car - Power Requirements - New York City
Emission Cycle
Family Car - Energy Requirements - New York
City Emission Cycle
Family Car - Torque Requirements - New York
City Emission Cycle
Family Car - Road Resistance - New York City
Emission Cycle
D-31
D-32
D-33
D-34
D-35
D-36
D-37
D-39
D-40
D-41
D-42
D-3
-------
200.
« TI HE.SECONDS
Figure D-l. Velocity Profile - DHEW Emission Cycle
-------
0
I
01
100. 200.
TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-2. Acceleration Profile - DREW Emission Cycle
-------
=dfr
T
-I
.. ^_i_
-4-
It:
JK
^-pzz:
m
iis
SfP
-:tt CJ
I
iri
1
4-
~
-''-I;;:-
00. ZOO.
- TI ME.SECONDS
600
?00.
MOT
TOUT
20U7
300.
Figure D-3. Distance Profile - DHEW Emission Cycle
-------
0
I
-J
TI ME, SECONDS
Figure D-4. Velocity Profile - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
•" T I HE, SECONDS
Figure D-5. Acceleration Profile - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
o
vO
-207- 40. 607
TI ME. SECONDS
Figure D-6. Distance Profile - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
0
1
"' TINE. SECONDS
Figure D-7. Velocity Profile - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
D
i
uu.
TIME,SECONDS
Figure D-8. Acceleration Profile - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
o
i
t—•
[XI
u. at. 30
TI ME. SECONDS
Figure D-9. Distance Profile - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
m
—4—
_i. i j.
-M
:.l :.
;
= !::r
rtr
*5?TT
fir
•^i^.--
ffl
m c-r
^mm
fr, SECONDS
Figu e D Velocity Profile - W speed Bu» Emission Cycle
-------
D
i
I ME,SECONDS
Figure D-ll. Acceleration Profile - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
66-
3±
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:"tt±t
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yjKj
ffl
y^
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35T
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5.
1 TIME-SECONDS
Figure D-12. Distance Profile - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
9. • 10.
- TI ME. SECONDS
Figure D-13. Velocity Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
D. nr~ -rsr IRT
TINE,SECONDS
Figure D-14. Acceleration Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
0
I
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- TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-15. Distance Profile - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
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HE. SECONDS
Figure D-16. Power Requirements - DREW Emission Cycle - Family Car
-------
o
I
TI ME.SECONDS
Figure D-17. Power Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - Commuter Car
-------
o
I
- TIME,SECONDS
Figure D-18. Power Requiremer delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
rx>
10. 5.
TIME,SECONDS
50.
Figure D-19. Power Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
o
t\>
- TmE. SECONDS
Figure D-20. Power Requirements - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
i
N
00. 200.
•" T I ME. SECONDS
Figure D-21. Energy Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - Family Car
-------
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Figure D-22. Energy Requirements - DREW Emission Cycle - Commuter Car
-------
ro
0s
- TIME. SECONDS
Figure D-23. Energy Requirements - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
TI ME.SECONDS
Figure D-24. Energy Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
a
oo
5. TO.
- TI ME. SECONDS
so.
Figure D-25. Energy Requirements - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
301
- TI ME. SECONDS
Figure D-26. Torque Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - Family Car
-------
OJ
o
D. 1000. 1UU.
TIME. SECONDS
Figure D-27. Torque Requirements - DHEW Emission Cycle - Commuter Car
-------
0
i
00
ill:
.i ^?s Wtf
in
t--t—
~r
— 4-
I
0. 20. 30.
TIME.SECONDS
..{..
(IRfiG
4:-
r
#RE*-
£E4&
501
_L
flSS
:i
BO.
70.
_. ' .
^P-
-I- -
^r^-^
80.
100.
Figure D-28. Torque Requirements - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
<_0
r\>
•« T I ME. SECONDS
Figure D-29. Torque Requirements - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
d
I
OJ
OJ
- TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-30. Torque Requirements - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
o
I
OJ
TI ME.SECONDS
Figure D-31
Road Resistance - DHEW Emission Cycle - Family Car
-------
d
I
UJ
Ul t
TIME. SECONDS
Figure D-32.
Road Resistance - DHEW Emission Cycle - Commuter Car
-------
p
00
- TIME,SECONDS
Figure D-33. Road Resistance - Delivery Van Emission Cycle
-------
ri
0
I
OJ
- TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-34. Road Resistance - High-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
00
00
9. 0. 15.
- TI ME. SECONDS
Figure D-35. Road Resistance - Low-speed Bus Emission Cycle
-------
u
to
ZOO.
- TTHE.SECONDS
Figure D-36. Family Car - Power Requirements - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
d
I
40. 60. 80.
40. e07
TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-37. Family Car - Energy Requirements - New YorkCity Emission Cycle
-------
d
I
0. 607
TfHE. SECONDS
Figure D-38. Family Car - Torque Requirements - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
0
N>
20. 40. 60.
TIME.SECONDS
Figure D-39. Family Car - Road Resistance - New York City Emission Cycle
-------
D. 3 DESIGN DRIVING CYCLES
Design driving cycles were used in the present study to size power train
components as discussed in Section 4. The respective driving cycles for
each type of vehicle are presented in Tables D-l through D-6.
In order to increase the total number of computer simulations that could be
performed within the time constraints of the pee sent study, reduce the
turnaround time between simulations, and reduce the overall computer
costs. Each of the design driving cycles presented in the tables was
abbreviated. This was achieved by reducing the duration of the maximum
speed cruise and'range demonstration events to 1 sec each and by reducing
the constant speed operation on a grade event to 60 sec.
D-43
-------
Table D-l. Design Driving Cycle for Family Car
Event
Maximum Accleration to Maximum Cruise Speed
Maximum Cruise Speed for - 5% of Range* (-10 Miles)
Slow Down to Cruise Speed for Range Demonstration
Ranfje Demonstration at Constant Speed (~182 Miles)
Slow Down for Grade
M.iint.'im Constant Speed on Grade (~8 Miles)
Slow In Ui-sl
Elapsed Time,
sec
0
1
Z
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
1
475
476
I
479
480
I
10. 330
10. 331
1
10. 340
10. 341
1
1 1, 060
1 1. 061
1
1 1, 07S
Speed.
mph
0.0
8. 5
16. 8
24. 7
31.2
37.2
42. Z
46. 7
50. 5
54.0
57.0
59.6
62. 1
64.2
66.4
68.4
* 70.2
72.0
73.6
75. 1
76. 5
77. 7
78. 5
79.2
79. 8
80. 0
80.0
80.0
76.0
1
68.0
66. 5
!
66. 5
62.0
1
40. 0
40. 0
1
40. 0
41). 0
1
0. U
Grade.
sin 6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
1
0.0
0.0
1
0.0
0.0
I
o'o
0. 0
1
0.0
0. 1 19
1
0.119
0. 0
1
(1. 0
Tnl.11 DI-I.IIK »• .il h.:n
-------
Table D-2. Design Driving Cycle for Commuter Car
Y. vent
Maximum Acceleration to Mnximuni Cruise Speed
Maximum Cruise Speed for ~5% of K.-muc1-'' (~-i. S Miles)
Slow Down to Cruise Speed for Range Demonstration
Range Demonstration at Constant Soeed (~43. 5 Miles)
Slow Down for Grade
Maintain Constant Speed on Grade (~4 Miles)
Slow to Rest
Elapsed Time.
8«<
0
1
2
}
4
5
fa
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
IS
16
»17
18
19
20
21
ii
23
24
25
26
1
155
156
157
158
159
1
2. 795
2. 796
I
2.805
2.806
1
3.240
3.241
1
3.250
Spcc'l,
mph
0.0
7.0
1 1.0
I'l.O
24. ')
30. 1
34.6
38.0
41.5
44. 5
47. 3
49. 8
52. 1
54. 1
56. 1
57.8
59.8
60. 0
62. 3
63.7
64.9
66.0
67. 0
(>H. 0
<>•>. 0
70. 0
70. 0
1
70. 0
66.0
62.0
60.0
59.4
' 1
59.4
55. 4
1
33.0
33.0
1
33.0
30.0
1
0.0
(Ir.-ioY.
sinO
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
1). 0
1
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
1
0.0
0. 0
i
00
0. 119
r
0. 1 19
00
0*0
Total Distance at End of Cycle ~ 50 Miles
D-45
-------
Table D-3. Design Cycle for Low-speed Delivery Van
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed
Maxim'mi Cruise Speed and Range Demonstration* (-S9.5 Miles)
Slow Down for tirade
M.iim •!" ( onslanl .Speed on Grade (-0. 5 Mile)
' low to Kr ,1
Elapsed Time,
sec
0
1
2
3
4
"•«• 5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
I
5. 365
5. 366
1
5. 575
5. 376
1
• S, 600
5.601
' 1
5.605
Speed,
mph
0.0
6.5
12.2
17.3
21.9
25.9
29.6
32.9
35.8
38. S
40.0
40. 0
1
40.0
40.0
' I
8. 0
8.0
i
8.0
8.0
1
00
Grade,
sin 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
1
0. 0
0.0
1
00
0. 196
I
0. 196
0. 0
1
0. 0
Tola! Distance al End of Cycle • 60 Miles.
Table D-4. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Van
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed
Elapsed Time,
sec
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Speed,
rnph
0.0
6. 5
12.2
17. 3
21.9
25.9
29.6
32.9
35. 8
38. 5
41.0
43.2
45.3
47. 2
48. 9
Grade,
sin 6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. (i
0. 0
D-46
-------
Table D-4. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Van (Continued)
Event
Maximum Accelerntion to Maximum Cruise Speed (cont)
Maximum Sperd Cruise; :md H.inxe nnnonsl r:ilicin'» (-59. 5 Miles)
Slow Down for Grade
Mninlnin Constant Speed on Grade (~0. S Mile)
Slow to Hest
Elapsed Time,
nee
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
. 24
2%
26
27
28
29
30
M
32
13
1-
). 12H
3, 129
3. 339
3, 343
3. 344
3. 568
3. 569
i
3. 573
Spued,
mph
50. 5
51.9
53. 3
54.5
55. 7
56. 7
57. 7
5H. 0
59.5
60. 3
61.0
61.7
62.3
62.9
63.4
63.9
64.4
65.0
65.0
I
65. 0
61.0
21.0
8.0
8.0
1
8.0
6.2
1
0. 0
Gr.lrlr,
X i II 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
II. 0
IJ. 0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1). 0
il 0
I
1). 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 196
1
0. 196
0. 0
i
0.0
Total Distance at End of Cycle ~ 60 Miles.
Table D-5. Design Driving Cycle for Low-speed Intracity Bus
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed
Elapsed Time,
sec
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Speed.
inph
0. 0
4.4
8.6
12.4
16.0
19.3
22.3
25.0
27. 5
Gr;irlc,
sin 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
D-47
-------
Table D-5. Design Driving Cycle for Low-speed Intracity Bus
(Continued)
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed (cont)
Maximum Speed Cruise nnd Range Demonstration * (~199 Miles)
Slow Down for Grade
Maintain Constant Speed on Grade (-0. 5 Mile)
Slow i<> Host
Elapsed Time,
sec
9
10
1 1
12
,13
14
15
16
17
18
1
17. 930
17. 935
17. 940
17. 941
1
18. 240
18.241
18, 245
18/250
Speed,
mph
29.7
31. 7
33. 4
35.0
36.4
37. 7
' 38. 8
39. 7
40. 0
40.0
1
40.0
23.0
6.0
6.0
1
6.0
6.0
0.0
1'J.O
Grade,
sin 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
!
0.0
0.0
o.o
0. 196
I
0. 196
0.0
0.0 .
0.0
IJist.imc :.t Knrl of Cycle 200 Miles
Table D-6. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Intracity Bus
Event
M.:xiniuni Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed
Elapsed Time.
sec
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
13
14
15
16
17
IB
19
Speed.
mph
0.0
3.5
6. 1
8.6
10. 7
12.5
14.2
15.6
16.9
18. 1
19. 1
20. 1
21.0
21.8
22. 5
2J.2
23.8
24. 4
2n. (1
/.*>. 5
Grade.
sin o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
D-48
-------
Table D-6. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Intracity Bus
(Continued)
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum C'.ruise Speed (cont)
Elapsed Time,
sec
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
Speed,
mph
25.9
26.4
26.9
27. 3
il. 8
28. 3
28. H
i'l. I
2<).H
10. t
30.7
31.2
32. 2
32. 7
33.2
33. 7
34.2
34. 7
35.2
35. 7
36.2
36.7
37.2
37.6
38. 1
38.6
39. 1
39.6
40.0
40. 5
41.0
41.4
41. V
42. 3
42. 8
43.2
43.6
44. 1
44. 5
44. 9
45. 3
45.7
46. 1
46. 5
46.9
47. 3
47. 7
48.0
48.4
48. 8
49. 1
49. 5
49.8
50. 1
50.4
50.8
51. 1
51.4
51.7
52.0
Tirade,
sin fl
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. U
0. 0
U. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
U. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
D-49
-------
Table D-6. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Intracity Bus
(Continued)
Event
Maximum Acceleration to Maximum Cruise Speed (cont)
.VI, i xi mum Cruise Spce'l .'mrl K-'inyr Drmorist IM 1 ion
Elapsed Time,
sec
82
83
' ' 84
85
86
87
88
89
'10
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
9H
99
100
101
102
IOJ
• 10-1
IOS
!<>(,
107
IOH
109
ID
1 1
12
1 <
14
1 5
16
1 7
18
19
20
12 1
122
12 i
124
I2S
I2t,
127
I2K
I2'>
1
1 1, 'MB
Speed,
mph
52. 3
52.5
52.8
53. 1
53. 4
53. 6
53.9
54. 1
54. 3
54.6
54. 8
55.0
55.2
55. 5
55. 7
»55. 9
56. 1
56.2
56.4
S6.6
56. H
57. 0
57. 1
S7. 3
57. 4
f)7. ii
S7. 7
57. ')
5M. U
5H. i
5H. !
5H. 4
58. 5
5«. 7
58. 8
58. 9
59.0
59. 1
S9. i
5.9: 3
59. 4
59. 5
59. i.
59. 7
5
-------
Table D-6. Design Driving Cycle for High-speed Intracity Bus
(Concluded)
Event
Slow Down t'or Grade
'
Maintain Constant Speed on Grade (-1.0 Mile)
Slow to Rest
Elapsed Time.
sec
11.949
11. 954
11. 959
11. 964
1 1. 965
1
12. 124
\i. 125
12. 329
Speed,
mph
59.0
42. 0
26.0
10.0
10.0
1
10.0
8.0
0.0
Grade,
sin 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 10
1
0. 10
0. 0
1) 1)
"•Total Distance at tnrl of Cycle ~ 200 Milrs.
D-51
-------
APPENDIX E
HEAT ENGINE DATA COMPILATION AND COMPARISON
-------
TABLES
E-l. Spark Ignition Engines (Reciprocating) E-3
E-2. Spark Ignition Engines (Rotary) E-5
E-3. Compression Ignition Engines E-5
FIGURES
E-l. Comparison of SFC Maps - Toyota Versus Ref. E-l. . . . E-10
E-2. Comparison of SFC Maps - Toyota Versus Ford E-ll
E-3. Comparison of S. I. Engine WOT SFC Characteristics . . . E-12
E-4. Comparison of SFC Maps - Comet Versus Ref. E-3. . . . E-13
E-5. Comparison of SFC Maps - Comet Versus Mercedes . . . E-14
E-6. Comparison of CI Engine Optimum SFC Characteristics. . E-15
E-i
-------
APPENDIX E
HEAT ENGINE DATA COMPILATION AND COMPARISON
A listing of the internal combustion engines used as a data base for the plots
of SFC, weight, and volume shown in Sectioh 8 is provided in Tables E-l
through E-3 (The external combustion engines are identified in Section 8. ).
Additionally, Figs. E-l through E-6 are presented to provide justification
for the selection of certain engines as being representative of a given heat
engine type (See Section 8).
• The validity of Using the Toyota data (Toyota Corona 3RC, 115. 7 CID engine)
•
to represent typical S. I. engine fuel consumption characteristics (Section
8. 2. 2) was examined. Comparison plots of data from other sources are
shown in Figs. E-l, E-2, and E-3. Figure E-l is an overlay on Fig. 8-4
of a "typical carbureted engine" SFC map obtained from Ref. E-l. The
bumps in the rpm curves near the wide open throttle (WOT) point may be
noted. These are a characteristic of the particular device used for power
enrichment (power jet or economizer). In general, the shapes of the two
sets of curves are in good agreement, although the optimum SFC for the
Ref. E-l engine is flatter than the Toyota characteristic.
Another overlay of an SFC map is shown in Fig. E-2. These data, from
Ref. E-2, are for a Ford engine (model and year unspecified). Again, there
is general agreement with the Toyota characteristics.
The rpm envelopes shown in Figs. E-l and E-2 represent the sum total of
information acquired on optimum throttle SFC. However, a great deal of
SFC data for wide open throttle operation was obtained. These data are
shown with the Toyota WOT characteristic in Fig. E-3. Considerable varia-
tion between engines is evident; however, the Toyota curve falls nicely
within the extremes of the data scatter. This may indirectly provide some
additional confidence in the use of Fig. 8-7 as a representative sample of
S. I. engine optimum throttle performance.
E-l
-------
The validity of using the Comet data as a representative sample of diesel
engine performance (Section 8.3.2) is examined in Figs. E-5, E-6, and E-7.
In Fig. E-5, the Comet SFC map is compared with data identified as being
typical of small, automotive-type diesels (Ref. E-3). The comparison
indicates excellent agreement.
Figure E-6 compares the Comet (turbulence chamber, TC) engine with a
Mercedes-Benz 123 CID (precombustion chamber, PC) engine rated 55 hp
at 4400 rpm (Ref. E-4). At the higher speeds it will be noted that the
Mercedes data indicate higher SFC and that there is an increasing disparity
in the position of comparable percent rpm curves. This trend may reflect
a characteristic difference in the performance of the two combustion chamber
types (PC versus TC), or it may simply be due to the fact that the Mercedes
is rated at a higher speed than Comet (4400 versus 3500 rpm). If the latter,
the effects observed in Fig. E-6 could easily be explained in terms of friction
losses. It is noted that when the data are compared at equal rpm (instead
of percent rpm) the relation between the SFC characteristics for the two
engines improves considerably.
In Fig. E-7, the Comet optimum SFC characteristic is compared with the
optimum curves for eight different divided chamber engines (all automotive),
including the PC-type Mercedes discussed under Fig. E-6. It can be seen
that the Comet curve falls well within the scatter of data over the complete
power range. At the high end of the power range, where a true representation
of performance has significance, the Comet curve approximates a mean fit
to the data spread.
E-2
-------
Table E-l. Spark Ignition Engines (Reciprocating)
M
i
u>
KEY
A
I
B
T
Automobile
Industrial
Bus
Truck
DI
TC
PC
s
Direct Injection
Turbulence Chamber
Precombustion Chamber
Indicates Data Plotted
Make
Alfa-Romeo
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
American Motors
Briggs/Stratton
Briggs/Stratton
Briggs/Stratton
Chrysler
Datsun
Datsun
Datsun
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Model
Ciulia 1300
Hornet
Gremlin
Jeep/155
Hornet SST
Ambassador
Ambassador SSI
AMX
Jeep F4
Jeep LA
Z00400
243430
3204ZO
Dart
J
L-13
L-16
091CF
104CF
Saab
134
172
170
Mustang
Galaxie
Application
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
1
A
A
A
A
I
I
A.
I
1
T,B
A
A
Rated11'
HP
89
128
13S
136
145
ISO
210
245
75
60
8
10
14
230
67
77
96
58
TO
83
48. 5
68
105
120
150
Rated
RPM
bOOO
4400
4000
4200
4300
3800
4400
4400
4000
4000
3600
3600
3600
4500
5200
oOOO
5600
4000
4000
5200
2800
2800
4200
4000
4000
Displace-
ment, in. J
79
199
232
225
232
258
304
360
134
134
20.3
23.9
32.4
318
79. 3
79. 1
97.3
91
104
104
134
172
170
200
240
Weight.
Ib
260*
470*
437*
410*
485*
491*
593
594*
390
344
74
96
116
535*
306*
282*
290*
267
267
267*
489
489
360
337-
473*
Volume, ft3
13.5*
14. 4*
13. 5*
8.85*
7. 70*
2. 38-
3.03*
3.47*
7.99*
8.01
18. 11*
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0. 500*
0.454*
0.467*
0.434*
0 . 4 54 *
0.510*
0.568*
0.441*
0.480-
0.470-
0. 300-
0. 500-
0.501"
0. 500-
ll I
Refers to bare engine peak power output at the engine flywheel
-------
Table E-l. Spark Ignition Engines (Reciprocating) (Continued)
M
i
Make
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
General Motors
General Motors
General Motors
General Motors
General Motors
Onan
Onan
Opel
Opel
Tecumseh
Toyota
Toyota
Toyota
Universal
Universal
Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Waukesha
Waukesha
Wisconsin
Model
6-300
330HD
391EHD
V8-477
V8-534
Nova
Camaro
Vega
Vega
Corvette
N4-MS-NH-3
CCKA
19US
IIS
HH120
Corona
Corona MK II
Corolla
AF-UJ
UF-HF
HZ
124A
126A
1200
1500
1600
ICK
FC
VG4D
Application
T.B.I
T.B.I
T.B.I
T.I
T.I
A
A
A
A
A
1
I
A
A
1
A
A
A
M
M
I
I
I
A
A
A
I
T.I
I
Rated
HP
165
190
235
253
266
90
140
90
110
300
25
16. 5
90
59
12
90
108
60
30
70
40
53
53
36
65
53
17
34
37
Rated
RPM
3600
4000
4000
3400
3200
4000
4500
4800
3600
3600
5200
5600
4600
5500
6000
3500
3500
3600
3600
3600
3700
4600
4200
3200
2600
2400
Displace-
ment, ir .*
300
330
391
477
534
153
230
140
140
350
60
49.8
115.8
65.8
27.7
115.7
113.4
65.6
64.5
141
72.7
96.7
96.7
72.74
96.6
96.6
61.3
133
154
Weight,
Ib
438
720
721
1044
1044
350'
444 *
285*
290-
607*
112
148
107
386*
382*
217*
247
391
206
235
220
198*
277*
253*
195
290
410
Volume, ft
10. 5*
16. 2*
3. 93*
3. 81*
2.68*
5.61*
9.6t*
11.63*
11.40*
11. 75*
3.88*
8.91*
14. 40*
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0.505*
0.475*
0. 500*
0. 500*
0.480*
0. 584*
0.7J3*
0.542*
0.491*
0.478*
'11
Refers to bare engine peak power output at the engine flywheel
-------
Table E-2. Spark Ignition Engines (Rotary)
Make
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss-Wright
Curtiss- Wright
Curtiss-Wright
Model
RC1-6.6
RC1-9.8
RC1-18. 5
RC2-20
RC2-28
RC2-30-10A
RC2-30
Application
1
1
1
I
1
A
A
Rate./"
HP
6.55
8
20
40
55
1 10
128. 5
Rated
RPM
5500
4700
5000
4500
4500
7000
5500
Displace-
ment, in.
6.6
9.8
18. 5
40
5b
60
60
Weight.
Ib
34*
' 37*
56*
120*
1 36*
225*
285 =
Volume, ft3
2.0*
2 . 3'
3. 2*
4.8*
6. 6-
6.4*
6. 4-
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0.68*
0.71*
0.69"
0.604*
0.604 =
0.48*
0.51*
Table E-3. Compression Ignition Engines
W
i
Ul
Make
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
American Marc
Caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillar
Cat. /;>illar
Caterpillar
Model
AC-1
WC-1
AC -2
WC-2
WD-2
3015
3020
3030
3040
1140
1145
1150
! 160
73
lo74TA
Type
TC
PC
TC
PC
TC
01
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
PC
PC
Application
I
I
1
1
1
T.B
T,B
T,B
T,B
T
T
Rated
HP
9
9
18
18
28
15
20
30
40
150
175
200
225
250
270
Rated
RPM
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
3000
3000
3000
3000
3200
3200
3000
2800
2200
2200
Displace-
ment, in.-*
35
35
72
72
94
4T
46
82
91
522
522
573
636
o38
o38
Weight
Ib
205°
210*
360*
360*
365*
210*
212*
324*
335*
1196*
1196*
1196*
1196*
1940
2260
Volume, ft3
7.^5*
8. 16-
I3.o0«
13. 54*
»9. 68*
4. 57*
4. 62'-
7. 12*
7.23-
23. 78*
23. 78*
23. 7B»
23. 78*
45.83*
46. 06*
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
III
Refers 10 bare engine peal ;jower output at the engine I'lvwheel
-------
Table E-3. Compression Ignition Engines (Continued]
M
i
Make
Chrysler-Nissan
Chrysler -Nissan
Comet
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cumm ins
Cummins
Cunim ins
Curr.mins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Cummins
Oeutz
Deutz
Deutz
Model
CN432
CN633
MK V
V6-140
V-352
V6-15S
C-464
V8E-170
V8-185
V-470
H-743
V6E-195
V-588
V6-200
V8-210
N-743
NH-230
V8-235
N-855
V-785
V8E-265
NHCT-270
NHTF-295
V-903
NHF-240
NT-350
F1L410
F2L310
F2L812
Type
TC
TC
TC
DI
Dl
Dl
Dl
DI
Dl
DI
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
DI
DI
DI
Dl
Dl
Dl
DI
DI
Dl
DI
Dl
Dl
TC
TC
TC
Application
T
T
A
T,B
I
T
I
T
T,B
I
I
T
1
T
T
I
I
T
1
I
T
1
T
T,B
T
T
1
1
I
(11
Rated
HP
61
92
83
140
140
155
168
170
185
185
190
195
200
200
210
220
230
235
250
265
2o5
270
295
320
340
350
14
28
29
Rated
RPM
4000
4000
3500
3300
3300
3300
2500
3300
3300
3300
2000
2500
2600
2600
3300
2100
2100
2400
2100
2t>00
2600
2100
2300
2bOO
2300
2100
3000
3000
2300
Displace-
ment, in.
132
198
173
352
352
378
464
470
470
470
743
588
588
588
504
743
855
785
855
7.95
785
855
855
903
855
"855
39
78
104
Weight
Ib
474*
662*
1145*
1 175
' 1195*
1580
1380*
1380*
1410
3100
1640"
1790
lt>40*
1460*
2470
2430
2080*
2590
2180
2080*
2540
2510'
2160*
2430-
2750*
242*
330*
617*
Volume, ft
11. 17*
14. 93*
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0.452*
0.448*
0.403*
0.400*
0.430*
0.396*
0.400*
0.400*
0. 385*
0.370*
0. 390*
0.365*
0. 371*
0.435*
0.370*
0.362'
0. 362*
.-•e:'er.- to hare engine peak power output at the eneine flywheel
-------
Table E-3. Compression Ignition Engines (Continued)
W
Make
Deutz
Deutz
Deutz
Deutz
Deutz
Deutz
Deutz
Daihatsu
Daihatsu
Ford
Ford
Ford
CMC
CMC
Henschel
Henschel
International
International
International
International
Isuzu
Isuzu
Isuzu
Isuzu
Isuzu
Isuzu
Isuzu
Ley land
Ley land
Model
F2L912
F3L812
F3L912
F4L812
F4L912
F6L812
F6L912
D-138
D-154
158-D
144
172
DH478
DH637
4R1010
6R1010
D-354
DV-462
DV-550
DV-550
8110
C201
C221
DA220
D400
DA120
DA640
100
120
Type
Dl
TC
DI
TC
DI
TC
DI
TC
TC
Dl
Dl
Dl
DI
DI
TC
TC
DI
DI
DI
Dl
PC
TC
TC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
Application
I
T.B.l
T.B.I
T.B.I
T.B.I
T.B.I
T.B.I
A
A
I
1
I
T.B
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
I
I
T
I
T
T.B
T.B
T
T
Rated
HP
32
50
60
67
80
100
120
63
74
36. 5
46
59.5
165
210
88
126
131
160
180
200
19. 3
36. 5
48.7
68
74
103.4
111.5
42
68
Rated
RPM
2300
2800
2800
2800
2800
2800
2800
3600
3800
2000
2400
2400'
2800
2800
3400
3400
28'00
3000
3000
3000
2600
2600
3000
2200
2800
2200
2400
3500
3500
Displace-
ment, in. ^
115
156
173
207
230
311
345
138
154
158
144
172
478
637
192
287
354
461
549
549
67
-122
135
249
243
374
399
91
102
Weight
Ib
618*
661*
660*
694*
695*
903*
904 *
470*
528
684*
596
596
1056*
1270*
706«
882«
1095*
1220*
1270*
1270*
403*
570*
Volume, ft3
15.51*
13.83*
18. 81"
15. 74'---
25.23*
22. 34*
22. 34*
27. 08*
-
30.44*
30.44*
30.44*
M inimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0.444*
0.425*
0.399*
0.408*
0.375*
0.493*
0.459*
0.459*
0.459*
0.482*
0.426*
0.426*
0.440*
0.410'
(1)
Refers to bare engine peak power output at Ihf engine flvwheel
-------
Table E-3. Compression Ignition Engines (Continued)
W
oo
Make
Leyland
Ley land
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland
Leyland .
Leyland
Leyland
Mack
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz
Nissan
Nissan
Nissan
Nissan
Nissan
Onan
Onan
Onan
Perkins
Perkins
Perkins
Mode I
200
300
310
400
401
AV505
500
AV691
b80
AV760
801V
AVI 100
END864C
DM636
DM621
DM314
DM352
DM3S5
SD20
SD22
SD33
ND601
PD601
DJA
DJBA
DJC
4-108
4-203
4-203C
Type
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
Dl
PC
PC
Dl
Dl
Dl
TC
TC
TC
Dl
Dl
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
PC
Application
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
I
A
T.B.I
T.B.I
I
T.B.A
T.B.A
T.B.A
A
T
I
1
1
T
T
T
(1)
Rated
HP
69
89
110
134
149.5
162
183
215
216
236
291
310
270
43
55
80
126
235
63.5
70
105
140
190
7
15
28
60
70
71
Rated
RPM
2400
2400
2400
2400
2600
2400
2600
2200
2200
2200
2600
J900
2300
3500
4350
2800
2800
2000
4000
4000
4000
2800
2300
2400
2400
2400
4000
2600
2600
Displace-
ment, in.
230
312
345
399
399
502
500
690
677
761
800
1087
8 o4
108
122
231
346
707
121
132
198
418
629
30
61
120
107
203
203
Weight
Ib
862*
1080*
1080*
1 181*
1181*
1365*
1659*
1890
2000*
1904
20SO»
3375
355
660
850
1780
412*
412*
606*
1345*
1885»
228
270
438
450*
635*
635*
Volume, ft3
11. 52*
16. 55*
4.86*
5.90*
9.49*
6.66*
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0. 380*
0. 380*
0.380*
0.365*
0.365*
0. 375*
0. 355*
0.372*
0.350*
0.368*
0. 357*
0. 348*
0.428*
0.420*
0. 362*
0. 359*
0. 337*
0. 370*
(1),
Refers to bare engine peak power output at the engine flywheel
-------
Table E-3. Compression Ignition Engines (Concluded)
W
i
Make
Perkins
Perkins
Perkins
Perkins
Peugot
Peugot
Peugot
Witte
Witte
Model
4-154
4-236
6-354
V8-510
XDP4.88
XDP4.90
XDP6.90
100
120
Type
PC
DI
DI
DI
TC
TC
TC
PC
PC
Application
T
T
T
T
A
A
A
I
1
(1)
Rated
HP
80
88
131
185
68
75
106
26. 3
31
Rated
RPM
3600
2600
2800
J300
4500
4500
4000
1800
1800
Displace-
ment, in.
154
236
354
511
1 19
129
193
100
120
Weight
Ib
555*
740*
1020 =
1550*
396*
413-'
591*
Volume, ft3
1 1.86*
22. 92"
25. 12-
Minimum
SFC.
Ib/hp-hr
0.440::
0.438''
0.432-
0.400-'
0.400-
(II
Refers to bare engine peak power output at the engine flywheel
-------
w
I
— 00 000
* aoo*>
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
GROSS HORSEPOWER OUTPUT,-% OF RATED
90 100
Figure E-l. Comparison of SFC Maps -
Toyota Versus Ref. E-l
-------
200
183245 73
I i • x ^
LoOO 000
|r: ro ID r- oo CD
RPM,% OF RATED
50 60 70^x^80 90
CO
100
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
GROSS HORSEPOWER OUTPUT, % OF RATED
90 100
Figure E-2. Comparison of SFC Maps -
Toyota Versus Ford (Ref. E-2)
-------
W
AM HORNET
AM REBEL
AM AMBASSADOR
AM AMX
FORD MUSTANG
0 FORD GALAXIE
o FORD INDUSTRIAL
TOYOTA
40 50 "60 " 70
GROSS HP OUTPUT, PERCENT OF RATED
Figure E-3. Comparison of S. I. Engine WOT SFC
Characteristics
-------
M
i
>—•
OJ
O
Li-
CO
RPM, % OF RATED
50 60 W-
., — --.
GROSS HORSEPOWER OUTPUT, % OF RATED
Figure E-4. Comparison of SFC Maps -
Comet Versus Ref. E-3
-------
M
i
200
80
160
o
^°
o o o o
ro 10 Is- CD
1IM \ \ \
III \ \ \ \
I \ M \ \ \
_u \\\\ \
11 \ \ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \ \
_ \ \ M \ \ \ REF E-4
30 40 50 60 70. 80
- 140
CO
100
GROSS HORSEPOWER OUTPUT, % OF RATED
Figure E-5. Comparison of SFC Maps - Comet
Versus Mercedes (Ref. E-4)
-------
W
i
DAIHATSU D-154 (1C)
PEUGEOT XDP 4.88 (TC)
O PEUGEOT XDP 4.90 (TC)
PEUGEOT XDP 6.90 (TC)
Q CHRYS-NISSAN CN4-33 (TC)
CHRYS-NISSAN CN6-33 (TC)
0 DAIMLER-BENZ OM 621 (PC)
— COMET MKV (TC)
20
30
40 50 60 70 80
GROSS HP OUTPUT, PERCENT OF RATED
Figure E-6. Comparison of CI Engine Optimum
SFC Characteristics
-------
REFERENCES
E-l. Bishop and Simko, A New Concept of Stratified Charge Combustion -
the Ford Combustion Process (FCP), SAE Paper No. 680041
(January 1968).
E-2. D. N. Hwang, Fundamental Parameters of Vehicle Fuel Economy and
Acceleration, SAE Paper No. 690541 (30 October 1968).
E-3. E. F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines, International Textbook
Company, Scranton Pennsylvania (December 1968).
E-4. E. Eisele, Daimler-Benz Passenger Car Diesel Engines - Highlights
of 30 Years o£ Development, SAE Paper No. 680089 (January 1968).
E-16
-------
APPENDIX F
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO SOURCES OF
SUBSYSTEMS/COMPONENT DATA
-------
CONTENTS
F. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO SOURCES OF
SUBSYSTEMS/COMPONENT DATA F-l
F. 1 Electrical System - Motor, Generator,
and Control Systems F-l
F. 2 Electrical System - Battery Characteristics
and Operation F-4
F. 3 Heat Engine Performance Characteristics
and Operation F-8
F. 4 Heat Engine Exhaust Emissions F-ll
F-i
-------
APPENDIX F
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO SOURCES OF SUBSYSTEMS/COMPONENT DATA
This appendix acknowledges the data of great value to this study that were
provided by individuals in industry, universities, and government agencies,
F.I
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM-MOTOR. GENERATOR. AND
CONTROL SYSTEMS " ——
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Aeroflex Labs.
Newport Beach, Calif.
Airsupply Co.
Santa Monica, Calif.
Representing Hartman
Electrical Mfg. Co.
Mansfield, Ohio
Bose Corp.
Natick, Mass.
Electric Fuel Propulsion
Detroit, Mich.
Electric Motion Control
Pasadena, Calif.
Ford Motor Co.
Dearborn, Mich.
W.S. Roth
M. Ruder me
R.J. Leckey
H.T, Fuller
S. Hendryx
T. Froeschle
J. Veranth
R.R. Aronson
D. Middlebrook
H. deJong
W.H. Koch
Data on brushless
dc motors.
Data on relays and
provisions for
protection of
motors.
Information on
inverter state of
the art.
Information on
electric vehicles
and electric motor
performance
curves.
Information on new
smooth accelera-
tion drive system
without semicon-
ductors. Demon-
stration of model.
Electric vehicle
test results and
numerous discus-
sions on motor
operation and
selection criteria.
F-l
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Fort Belvoir Army
Res. and Dev. Labs.,
Virginia
R.E. Hopkins
Garrett Corp.
AiResearch Mfg. Div.
Los Angeles, Calif.
General Electric Co.
Erie, Pa.
General Motors
Research Labs.
Warren, Mich.
Gulton Industries
Metuchen, N.J.
K.M. Chirgwin
W.G. Brighton
R.W. Johnston,
et al.
V. Wouk
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
Cambridge, Mass.
R.D. Thornton
Information on ac
motors, inverters,
and motor mounted
in wheel. Review
of motor operation,
selection criteria,
and advance design
considerations for
Army hybrid
vehicle.
Information on
separately excited
motors and
controls.
\
Information on
motors applied to
or proposed for
electric vehicles.
Results of research
efforts on ac induc-
tion motor -
inverter for elec-
tric vehicles.
Information on
electric motor
drive systems in
Europe and design
criteria for Gulton
all-electric car.
Extensive informa-
tion on research in
electric vehicle
design and advance
design techniques
for power train
components.
F-2
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Minicars, Inc.
Goleta, Calif.
Permag Pacific
Los Angeles, Calif.
Representing Indiana
General and Arnold
Engineering
TRW Systems
Redondo Beach, Calif.
D. Friedman
I. Barpal
J. Anton
D. Warburton
N.A. Richardson
G.H. Gelb
T.C. Wang
B. Berman
Univ. of California
Los Angeles, Calif.
G.A. Hoffman
Data on design
considerations and
component data for
hybrid vehicle
parallel
configuration.
Data on per-
manent magnets.
Design considera-
tions and data on
hybrid vehicle
parallel configura-
tion. Numerous
discussions on
design philosophy,
system operation,
and component
performance
characteristics.
Data on future
electric cars.
F-3
-------
F.Z
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM - BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS
AND OPERATION
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Argonne National Lab.
Argonne, 111.
Atomics International
Canoga Park, Calif.
Battelle Memorial Inst.
Columbus, Ohio
Bell Telephone Lab.
Murry Hill. N. J.
Dartmouth College
Hanover, N. H.
Dow Chemical Co.
Midland, Mich.
Eltra Corp.
C&D Battery Div.
Plymouth Meeting, Pa.
Eagle-Picher Co.
Joplin, Mo.
E. S.B. Corp.
Carl Norberg Res. Lab.
Yardley, Pa.
E. Pischotti
E.J. Cairns
L. Heredy
L. R. McCoy
J. McCallum
L. D. Babusci
R.V. Biagetti
D. Ragone
R. P. Ruh
J. Macres
(Costa Mesa,
Calif.)
E. Broglio
F. Dittman
P. Eddy
E. Morse
M. Barr
(Los Angeles)
G. Frysinger
J. Smyth
J. Norberg
(Philadelphia)
Data on metal-air
battery.
Data on alkali-
metal battery.
Data on nickel-
zinc and lithium-
sulfur batteries.
General battery
technology.
Data on lead-acid
battery.
Advice on battery
selection, design
and technology.
Advanced battery
technology.
Lead-acid battery
data and
technology.
Data on lead-acid,
nickel-zinc, and
nic ke 1 - c adm ium
batteries.
Lead-acid battery
data and
technology.
F-4
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Fort Belvoir Army
Res. and Dev.
Labs. , Virginia
Fort Monmouth Army
Electronics Command,
New Jersey
General Electric Co.
Gains ville, Fla.
General Motors Corp.
Allison Div.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Globe-Union, Inc.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Gould-National Battery Co.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Gulton Industries
Metuchen, N.J.
Lead Industries Assn.
New York, N.Y.
I
Mallory Battery Co. '
Ruben Labs. :
New Rochelle, N. Y. '
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Cambridge, Mass.
H. Barger
R. Hopkins
J. Huff
J. MacDonald
J. O'Sullivan
M. Sulkes
G. Rampel
L. Nuttall (Lynn,
Mass.)
R. Casler
(Los Angeles)
L. Johnson
V. Halsair
W. Towle
S.S. Nielsen
K. Christiansen
D. Douglas
C. Laurie
C. Rosen
W. Ryder
R. Shair
V. Wouk
C.A. Baker
S. Ruben
E. Gilliland
R. Thornton
Battery data and
technology.
Nickel-zinc battery
technology.
Data on nickel-
cadmium, nickel-
zinc, and metal-
air batteries.
Lead-acid battery
technology.
Data on lead-acid
battery.
Data on lead-acid
battery.
Data on nickel-
zinc, lead-acid
and lithium
halogen batteries.
Data on lead-acid
battery.
Lead-acid battery
technology.
Data on nickel-
zinc and lead-acid
batteries.
F-5
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
McCulloch Motors
Los Angeles, Calif.
Standard Oil of Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Textron Corp.
Heliotek Div.
Sylmar, Calif.
TRW Systems
Rcdondo Beach, Calif.
Tyco Labs.
Waltham, Mass.
Union Carbide Corp.
Consumer Products Div.
Parma, Ohio
Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Redlands, Calif.
Yuosa Battery
(America), Inc.
Gardena, California
J. Bigby
J. Dooley
J. Orsino
D.O. Maxwell
H. Sieger
G. Gelb
J. Giner
R. Jasinski
J. Perry
R.J. Brodd
R. Bell
C. W. Poole
S. Kawata
Data on lead-acid
and nickel-
cadmium
batteries. Change
control data.
Advanced battery
technology.
Data on aluminum-
chlorine battery.
Lead-acid and
nickel-cadmium
battery data and
technology.
Battery technology.
Battery technology.
Lead-acid battery
technology.
Lead-acid battery
technology.
* # * * * # * >;< * * * >;-- * * * * * * * *
Steering Committee on Secondary Battery Selection for Hybrid Vehicle:
Dept. of Defense
J. Lander, U.S. Air Force Aeropropulsion Laboratory, Dayton, Ohio
M. Sulkes, Fort Monmouth Army Electronics Command, New Jersey
R. Hopkins, J. R. Huff, Fort Belvoir Army Research and Development
Laboratories, Virginia
I
I
F-6
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact I Remarks
Steering Committee on Secondary Battery Selection for Hybrid Vehicle
(Continued):
L. R. Pollack, S. Szpak, Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Vallejo, Calif.
J.C. White, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
D. Icenhower, U.S. Naval Ship Research and Development Center,
Annapolis, Md.
Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare
G. Hagey, C. Pax, Air Pollution Control Office, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Dept. of Transportation
R. Strombotne, Urban Mass Transport Administration,
Washington, D.C.
M. Solomon, Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, Mass.
NASA
T. Hennigan, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
L. Rosenblum, H. J. Schwartz, Lewis Research Center,
Cleveland, Ohio
Civilian
J. Kettler. D. Lapedes, The Aerospace Corporation,
El Segundo, Calif.
D.V. Ragone, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.
F-7
-------
F.3
HEAT ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
AND OPERATION
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Aerojet-General Corp.
Azusa, Calif.
American Motors Corp.
Detroit, Mich.
Barber-Nichols,
Consulting Engineers
Arvada, Colo.
Closed Cycle Systems
Maspeth, N.Y.
Ford Motor Co.
Engine and Foundry Div.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Fort Belvoir Army
Res. and Dev. Labs.,
Virginia
Garrett Corp.,
Signal Companies
Los Angeles, Calif.
General Motors Corp.
Chevrolet Motor Div.
Warren, Mich.
Lear Motors Corp.
Reno, Nev.
R. Barrett
P. A. Lundy
R. Barber
D. Kelly
F. E. Cashel
H. Barger
R. Hopkins
J. Huff
J. MacDonald
J. O"Sullivan
D. Furst
H. Egli
R. Hoffman
E. Alford
Data on organic
Rankine engine.
Data on American
Motors engine and
accessory
products.
Rankine engine
technology.
Data, on Stirling
engine.
Performance and
cost data on Ford
Motor Co. indus-
trial engine
products.
Heat engine
controls data.
Gas turbine engine
technology.
Nova engine per-
formance
characteristics.
Data on Rankine
engine.
F-8
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Cambridge, Mass.
McCulloch Motors
Los Angeles, Calif.
Paxve, Inc.
Costa Mesa, Calif.
R. J. Smith
Consulting Engineer
Midway City, • Calif.
Rotron Research Corp.
Woodstock, N.Y.
Solar Aircraft
San Diego, Calif.
Southwest International
Albuquerque, N.M.
Sunstrand Corp.
Rockford, 111.
Steam Energy Systems
Waltham, Mass.
Thermo Electron Eng. Co.
Waltham, Mass.
E. Gilliland
J. Bigby
J. Dooley
J. Orsino
E. Zwick
R.J. Smith
D. Carlson
M. Bull
P. Carlson
W. CompCon
W. Owens
G. Backes
P. Bencoe
W. Heidrick
L. Hoagland
D. Morgan
Engine data.
Data on diesel and
Rankine engines.
Data on Rankine
engine.
Rankine engine
technology.
Turbomachinery
and engine
technology.
Gas turbine engine
data and
technology.
Engine technology.
Rankine engine and
transmission data
and technology.
Rankine engine
technology and
emission data.
Rankine engine
data and
technology.
F-9
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
United Aircraft Corp.
Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
Div.
Hartford, Conn.
Univ. of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Mich.
White Motor Corp.
Torrance Calif.
Williams Research Corp.
Walled Lake, Mich.
E. White
P. Grevstad
R. Kiefer
(Los Angeles)
D. Patterson
A.J. Feeney
S. Williams
Data on gas
turbine engine.
Heat engine
technology.
Diesel engine
smoke rating rela-
tionships and data.
Gas turbine engine
data and
technology.
F-10
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F. 4
HEAT ENGINE EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Adam Opel Aktiengesellschaft
Ruesselsheim, W. Germany
Automobile Club of Southern
Calif.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Calif. Air Resources Board
Air Resources Lab.
Los Angeles. Calif.
Caterpillar Tractor Co.
Peoria, 111.
Chaffee Motor Co.
Hawthorne, Calif.
Clayton Mfg. Co.
El Monte, Calif.
Cummins Engine Co.
Columbus, Indiana
H. Zincke
L. Bintz
A. J. Hocker
R. D. Henderson
R. Crane
L. Tinkhaum
L. Eltinge
Engine
specifications for
several Opel
engines.
Steady-state
emission tests on
two vehicles at
various engine
speeds and load
conditions.
Data on engine
emissions during
seven-mode
driving cycle.
Information on
Caterpillar diesel
engine emissions.
Donated Ford
Pinto for test
program at Scott
Research Labs.
Engine emission
data and informa-
tion on chassis
dynamometers
and measuring
techniques.
Present and pro-
jected diesel
engine emission
characteristics.
F-ll
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Curtiss Wright Corp.
Wood-Ridge, N. J.
C. Jones
Du Pont de Nemours Co.
Los Angeles, Calif.
D. L. Pastell
Engine Manufacturers Assn.
Chicago, 111.
Engelhard Industries
Newark. N. J.
T. C. Young
J. Mooney
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air Pollution Control Office
Ypsilante, Mich.
Ford Motor Co.
Pico Rivera, Calif.
W. R. Stahmann
T. Ashby
J. Rhodes
Engine
specifications and
performance data
for several
Curtiss Wright
Rotating Combus-
tion (Wankel)
engines.
Test data and
general informa-
tion on Du Pont
low-emission
vehicle.
Data%on diesel
engine emissions.
Catalytic con-
verter provided for
test program.
General informa-
tion on catalytic
converter
characteristics.
Data on cold start
emissions.
Ford Pinto engine
and vehicle data.
F-12
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
General Motors
Research Labs.
Warren, Mich.
Marquardt Co.
Van Nuys, Calif.
Mercedes-Benz of
North America, Inc.
Fort Lee, N. J.
Minicars, Inc.
Goleta, Calif.
Mobile Res. and Dev. Center
Paulsboro, N. J.
F. W. Bowditch
C. Marks
W. Cornelius
C. A. Amann
W. R. Wade
P. T. Vickers
T. H. Lievesch
C. V. Burkland
R. Theusner
D. Friedman, et al.
P. W. Snyder
Engine exhaust
emission charac-
teristics, part
load emission
data for spark
ignition engine,
operation and
emission charac-
teristics of the
General Motors
gas turbine, and
emission charac-
teristics of
Rankine and
Stirling engine
burners.
Discussions of
Marquardt's
study of external
combustion
engines.
Information on
Mercedes-Benz
OE 302 city bus
with hybrid
engine.
Discussions of the
Minicar Hybrid
Heat Engine/
Electric Vehicle.
Emission data
from the Inter-
Industry
Emission Control
Program.
F-13
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Renault, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, N. Y.
Sierra Ford Co.
San Bernardino, Calif.
Solar Aircraft
San Diego, Calif.
Southwest Research Inst.
San Antonio, Tex.
Texaco, Inc.
Beacon Research Labs.
Beacon, N. Y.
Thermo Electron Corp.
Waltham, Mass.
F. Louis
K. Waddell
N. Tangedahl
W. A. Compton
K. J. Springer
E. Mitchell
D. T. Morgan
Data on emission
concentration vs
engine speed and
engine specifica-
tions for the
Renault engine
810-20 (1289 cc).
Donated Ford
Pinto for test
program at Scott
Research Labs.
Emission test
data from two
Solar gas turbines
and general infor-
mation on gas
turbine and com-
bustor design.
Reports on diesel
and gasoline
engine emissions
and discussions
of diesel engine
test procedures
and techniques.
Emission test
data from Texaco
Controlled Com-
bustion System
(TCCS).
Information on
the Thermo
Electron Rankine
engine program.
F-14
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Thermo Mechanical Systems
Co.
Tarzana, Calif.
H. W. Welsh
TRW Systems
Redondo Beach, Calif.
G. Gelb
Toyota Motor Co.
Lyndhurst, N. J.
Ltd.
K. Nakajima
U. S. Dept. Interior
Bureau of Mines
Bartlesville Petroleum
Research Center
Bartlesville, Okla.
R. Hum
W. F. Marshall
General
information on
diesel and gaso-
line engine
emissions.
13-mode emis-
sion data for
several diesel
engines.
Data on steady-
state part load
and cold start
emissions from
TRW Systems
Hybrid Engine
System.
Data on intake air
volume vs RPM
and manifold
pressure for
Toyota 1 15. 7
C. D. engine.
Data on emis-
sions from a CFR
engine operated
with gasoline,
propane, and
methane over a
wide range of
air/fuel ratios.
Data on para-
metric diesel
engine emissions
and general dis-
cussions on die-
sel engine
emission
characteristics.
F-15
-------
Data Source
Primary Contact
Remarks
Universal Oil Products
Research Center
Des Plaines, 111.
Univ. of Michigan
Ann Arbor. Michigan
Univ of Wisconsin
Madison, Wis.
Wilcap Co
Torranrt-, Calif.
R. Allen
D. E. Cole
H. K. Newhall
O. A. Uyehara
T. Capanna
Williams Research Corp.
Walled Lake. Mich.
A. J. Feeney
C. Hubin
General
discussion on
performance of
the UOP catalytic
converter.
Discussions on
state-of-the-art
and projected
automobile engine
emissions.
Discussions on
ante chamber and
spark ignition
engine operation
and emission
characteristics.
Donated two
dies el-powered
vehicles for test
program at Scott
Research Labs.
Emission and
performance test
data from several
Williams gas tur-
bines and
combustors.
F-16
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