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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF
AEROALLERGENS (POLLENS)
Prepared for the
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Consumer Protection & Environmental Health Services
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
(Contract No. PH-22-68-25)
Compiled by Harold Pinkelstein, Ph.D,
Litton Systems, Inc.
Environmental Systems Division
7300 Pearl Street
Bethesda, Maryland 20014
September 1969
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FOREWORD
As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-
cern over the less ubiquitous but potentially harmful contami-
nants that are in our atmosphere. Thirty such pollutants have
been identified, and. available information has been summarized
in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,
effects, and control technology for their abatement.
A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the
30 pollutants. These reports were developed under contract
for the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) by
Litton Systems, Inc. The complete listing is as follows:
Aeroallergens (pollens) Ethylene
Aldehydes (includes acrolein Hydrochloric Acid
and formaldehyde) Hydrogen Sulfide
Ammonia Iron and Its Compounds
Arsenic and Its Compounds Manganese and Its Compounds
Asbestos Mercury and Its Compounds
Barium and Its Compounds Nickel and Its Compounds
Beryllium and Its Compounds Odorous Compounds
Biological Aerosols Organic Carcinogens
(microorganisms) Pesticides
Boron and Its Compounds Phosphorus and Its Compounds
Cadmium and Its Compounds Radioactive Substances
Chlorine Gas Selenium and Its Compounds
Chromium and Its Compounds Vanadium and Its Compounds
(includes chromic acid) Zinc and Its Compounds
I
These reports represent current state-of-the-art
literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected
knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal
Government. They do not however presume to be a synthesis of
available information but rather a summary without an attempt
to interpret or reconcile conflicting data. The reports are
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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for
some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-
sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemio-
logic studies were available.
Initially these reports were generally intended as
internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound
decision-making on program guidance for future research
activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating
to the development of criteria and control technology docu-
ments. However, it is apparent that these reports may also
be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,
such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a
library of information on which to base informed decisions on
pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas. Addi-
tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators
to pursue research in needed areas. They also provide for the
interested citizen readily available information about a given
pollutant. Therefore, they are being given wide distribution
with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge
of their value and limitations.
This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the
Litton personnel listed below:
Ralph J. Sullivan
Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
Norman L. Durocher
Yanis C. Athanassiadis
Sydney Miner
Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
James L. Haynes
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The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C.
Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.
Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both
outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed
draft copies of these reports. Appreciation is also expressed
to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications
for their support in providing a significant portion of the
technical literature.
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ABSTRACT
Aeroallergens (pollens) are airborne materials
which elicit a hypersensitivity response in susceptible in-
dividuals. The two major responses exhibited are allergic
Rhinitis and bronchial asthma. The importance of aero-
allergens as air pollutants is shown by the statistic that
an estimated 10 to 15 million people suffer from seasonal
allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in the United States. The
pollens of wind-pollinated plants are the most important of
the aeroallergens, and ragweed pollen is commonly found in
this group. Ragweed pollen is the cause of more than 90
percent of pollinosis in this country. Other aeroallergens
include molds, house dust, danders, and a miscellaneous
group of insecticides, cosmetics, paints, and vegetable
fibers. There is evidence to indicate that the aeroallergens
and other air pollutants can act synergistically in affect-
ing human health.
Most of the aeroallergen investigations have been
concerned with ragweed. The plant is found primarily in the
North Central and Northeastern parts of the United States/
but it has spread to some degree to the remaining portions
of the country. Ragweed grows best in soil which has been
disturbed, and therefore is found in abundance both in farm-
lands and in urban areas. Pollen counts are taken daily in
many local areas throughout the country. These counts are
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used as guidelines for anticipating and understanding the
incidence of pollinosis in a given area rather than as
standards.
Local programs of ragweed eradication generally
have met with little success in controlling pollen concen-
trations. The pollen can be windborne for many miles, and
therefore pollen entering a city from the outside usually
is sufficient to cause pollinosis in the susceptible popula-
tion. An adequate program for control would perhaps require
an approach on a regional rather than a local basis. There
are no adequate estimates of cost values for illnesses
caused by aeroallergens, nor are there estimates for the
cost of abatement on the scale that would be required for
adequate control.
The gravity slide method has been accepted as the
standard procedure for pollen sampling by the Pollen Survey
Committee of the American Academy of Allergy. However,
because of inherent limitations in the procedure, other
methods have been devised and are used for special sampling
situations.
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CONTENTS
FOREWARD
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. EFFECTS 3
2.1 Effects on Humans 3
2.1.1 Natural Effects 3
2.1.2 Dose-Effect Relationship 6
2.1.3 Synergistic Responses and Effects
of Unknown Substances 9
2.1.4 Effects of Vegetable Dusts 13
2.1.5 Effects of Molds 16
2.2 Effects on Animals 18
2.3 Effects on Plants 19
2.4 Effects on Materials 19
2.5 Environmental Air Standards 19
3. SOURCES 22
3.1 Natural Occurrence 22
3.2 Production Sources 26
3.3 Product Sources 27
3.4 Environmental Air Concentrations . . - 27
4. ABATEMENT 34
5. ECONOMICS 40
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 43
6.1 Qualitative Methods 43
6.2 Quantitative Methods 45
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 51
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
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LIST OP FIGURES
1. Seasonal Variations in Respiratory Illness 67
2. Seasonal Fluctuations in Respiratory Illness
for Several Years 67
3. Ragweed Pollen Concentrations During the 1958
Ragweed Season at and near Ann Arbor, Mich 68
4. Variations in Ragweed Pollen Concentrations Close
to the Pollen Source 69
5. Ragweed Pollen Concentration Patterns (grains/m3) ... 70
6. Seasonal Average Concentration of Ragweed Pollen
(grains/m3) 70
7- Diurnal Ragweed Pollen Concentration Patterns at
a Location Distant from a Local Source .71
8. Diurnal Pollen Emission Patterns from Fields of
Ragweed 71
9. Diurnal Pollen Emission Patterns from Fields of
Timothy, Corn and Castor Bean Plant 72
10. Weekly Average Pollen Counts, El Paso, Tex 73
11. Pollen Count for New York City, 1946-1954 74
12. Ragweed Pollen Refuges in the United States 75
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LIST OF TABLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Common Aeroallergens
Pollen Seasons Throughout the United States
Most Common Aeroallergenic Fungi
Summary of Differences Between Hospital Admission
Rates for Days of High and Days of Low Air Pollution .
Percentage Distribution of Emergency Visits by
Month, 1960 .
Average Daily Number of Emergency Clinic Visits
for Asthma, 1962, 1961, 1957
Average Daily Number of Emergency Clinic Visits
for Asthma, September, 1964, 1965
Annual Admissions, Brisbane Children's Hospital . . .
Comparison of Mold and Pollen Counts (Israel) ....
Maximum Desitometric Readings for Compound A ....
Dermal and Bronchial Reactivity to Candida
Albicans (81 Patients)
Abundance of Ragweeds According to Land use
Categories
Pollen Counts, St. Louis Site, 1963-1964,
Recommended Conditions for Use of Common Germicidal
76
77
79
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
100
101
Substances (At Room Temperature, 25°C) for Fungi . . . 102
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
19. Resource Costs of Diseases Associated with
Air Pollution 103
20. Asthma-Hay Fever Purchased Acquisition of
Prescribed Medicine, July 1964-June 1954 104
21. Six Most Frequent Causes of Non-major Activity
Limitation, July 1963-June 1965 105
22. Average Number of Persons Reported as Limited in
Activity Due to Selected Chronic Conditions, July
1961-June 1963 106
23. Death Rate (1950 to 1966) and Deaths (1965 and
1966) from Selected Causes 107
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INTRODUCTION
Aeroallergens (pollens) are airborne materials that
elicit a hypersensitivity or allergic response in susceptible
individuals. The most common aeroallergens are the pollens
of wind-pollinated plants—especially ragweed pollen, which
is the main cause of hay fever. Not all individuals are
allergic or susceptible, but those who are become sensitized
by initial exposure (s) to the allergen (e.g., pollen) and
respond with acute allergic symptoms on subsequent challeng-
ing exposures. In addition to the pollens, aeroallergens
include molds, danders, house dust, cosmetics, and others.
These will be discussed briefly in this report; the major
emphasis will be on the pollens, and especially ragweed
pollen.
,' There is no question of the adverse effects of aero-
allergens on human health. It has been estimated that
between 10 and 15 million people in the United States are
affected by seasonal allergic rhinitis (hay fever). In
addition, many individuals exhibit the more severe syndrome
of bronchial asthma, and it is believed that 5 to 10 percent
of untreated hay fever patients develop the latter illness.
Ragweed pollen, the most common and the most import-
ant aeroallergen in North America, is the cause of more than
90 percent of all pollinosis. Although most common in the
Northeastern and North Central part of the United States,
the plant is found in other regions of the country as well.
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Ragweed grows best in soils which have been disturbed by
plowing or other means and, therefore is found in abundance
along railroad tracks, highways, in new urban subdivisions,
and in farmlands. It has been estimated that one-third of
the 60 million acres of wheat stubble fields are infested
with ragweed. Since more and more soil has been disturbed
over the years, both ragweed growth and the number of hay
fever sufferers have been increasing. Therefore, if one
considers that man's progress is correlated with urbanization
and increased breaking of the soil for new roadways, sub-
divisions, and farms, then the increase of ragweed and hay
fever is a problem resulting from this progress.
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2. EFFECTS
2.1 Effects on Humans
2.1.1 Natural Effects
The major effects of aeroallergens on human health
are allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma. Acute allergic
dermatitis also sometimes occurs.
Allergic rhinitis is characterized by a profuse,
clear, watery nasal discharge, sneezing, and itching of the
nose, eyes, roof of the mouth, and posterior pharynx. If
these symptoms occur during a particular season of the year,
the rhinitis is commonly called hay fever or rose fever and
is likely to be caused by plant pollen or mold spores. If
the symptoms occur randomly or nonseasonally, they may
result from such materials as house dust and animal danders,
or nonairborne allergens.
Bronchial asthma is a syndrome characterized by
recurrent, periodic paroxysms of wheezing that are frequently
associated with dyspnea, choking, and coughing due to ob-
struction of expiratory air flow. The patient is free of
symptoms during periods between attacks. Aeroallergens are
associated with bronchial asthma.
Some authorities divide bronchial asthma into two
groups: extrinsic and intrinsic.20 Others consider the
syndrome too complex and do not attempt any special group-
ings.^2 Extrinsic bronchial asthma is thought to be an
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atopic condition (i.e., a state of clinical hypersensitivity
associated with a family history of allergy.) It seems
to occur primarily in individuals before the age of 45.
Skin tests with known allergens are positive, and the in-
dividual has had other clinically determined allergies.
Infection of the respiratory tract is not a factor in the
symptomatology, although it might complicate the condition
later. The symptoms are brought on by exposure to pollens,
molds, occupational or house dusts, animal danders, foods,
etc. Intrinsic bronchial asthma is not associated with any
demonstrable evidence of atopy or family history of allergy,
and skin tests are negative. It is more common after age
45, and is associated with infection in the upper respira-
tory tract.
Allergic dermatitis occurs less commonly than rhinitis
or asthma. It is characterized by hives, eczema, or con-
junctivitis.
The potential aeroallergens present in nature are
numerous. The ease with which humans can be sensitized to
these materials varies greatly. Approximately 15 percent
of the population in this country is sensitized easily to
many materials. These sensitivities often appear at an
early age and are severe enough to be obvious, producing
symptoms of hay fever, asthma, and eczema. Another 25 to
30 percent of the population is progressively less easily
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sensitized, and their symptoms are subtle. Most of the
remaining 55 to 60 percent appear never to become sensitized.
The family history for obvious allergy is usually strongly
positive in the first group, less so in the second, and
absent in the third. However, on the basis of the physiolog-
ical processes-whereby allergies are manifested, individuals
of the third group could also become sensitized, given the
proper condition.^^
In addition to the specific syndromes elicited by
the aeroallergens, an additional health problem exists in
that further complications may appear in time. There is
evidence indicating that sensitivity to one allergen pre-
disposes a sensitivity to other allergens. In addition, some
hay fever sufferers develop bronchial asthma, which may be
complicated by intractable asthma, pulmonary emphysema,
bronchitis, and pneumonitis.^S in a continuing community
survey of Tecumseh, Mich., begun in 1957, hay fever and
asthma were separately diagnosed in approximately 10 percent
of the 9,800 population, and both hay fever and asthma in
approximately 2 percent of the population.10 Of those
persons with a history of asthma, the first attack commonly
occurred under the age of 5 years; hay fever frequently began
at a later age. The analysis also indicated that 5 to 10
percent of persons subject to hay fever will develop asthma
if the disease runs unchecked.11
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Of the common allergens listed in Table 1, Appendix,
the most important natural sources of air pollution concerned
with inhalant allergy are the wind-pollinated plants (Table
2, Appendix). Their seasonal and geographical occurrence
are shown in Table 3, Appendix. Plants of the ragweed
family (Ambrosiaceae) are the most frequent cause of hay
fever in North America; grass pollens seem to cause most of
the cases in Europe; and in the Scandinavian countries blue
grass (Poa pratensis), timothy (Phleum pratense), orchard
grass (Dactylis glomerata), rye grass (Lolium), and rye
(Secale cereale) are the chief offenders.*^ in addition,
trees are an important source of pollen, causing hay fever
throughout North America in the early spring of the year.60
The ubiquitous allergenic saprophytic molds are found both
outdoors and indoors. A list of the most common aeroaller-
genic molds is presented in Table 4, Appendix.
2.1.2 Dose-Effect Relationship
Some efforts have been made to establish a quanti-
tative dose-effect relationship for pollens. Blumstein8
and Tuft et aJL,.^0^ dipped a toothpick into pollen and held
it under the patient's nose as the patient inhaled vigorously.
Using different pollens, they were able with this method to
determine to which pollen the patient was sensitive. The
disadvantages of this technique were these: (l) quantitation
of the pollen dosage (through dilution with talc)was crude;
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(2) a clinical episode of hay fever could be produced by
one or two inhalations, thus suggesting that the dosages
were massive as compared to ordinary environmental exposure;
and (3) the administration of hazardous dosages was possible.
Although the quantity of pollen constituting an overdose is
unknown, there is evidence which suggests that an overdose
is not a fixed amount but probably varies from patient to
patient, and even varies in the same patient under differing
conditions.16
Solomon1^ hag reported data which suggest that in
persons with allergic rhinitis, prior exposure, body position,
and breathing patterns may be important modifying factors
in nasal responses. He has initiated studies, the results
of which have not yet been reported, utilizing a large test
chamber in which the temperature, relative humidity, and
duration of extraseasonal pollen exposure of test subjects
is possible.1(^
Connell16'1^'1^ has devised an apparatus for exposing
subjects to quantitative dosages more analogous to environ-
mental exposure levels. The apparatus consists of a 22-liter
flask in which the pollen is kept in suspension. The patient
applies a face mask connected to the flask and inhales
through his nose. Sensitive individuals respond with the
clinical signs and symptoms of hay fever: itching of the
eyes, ears, nose, and throat; nasal discharge; etc. Dosages
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8
can be controlled so that the total accumulative nasal
exposure (challenge) in an hour is from 100 to 300 pollen
grains. It was found that hay fever symptoms were frequently
produced by as little as 100 grains in a 1-hour challenge.
Nonallergic individuals have showed no response to as much
as 50,000 grains in 30 minutes. Connell's studies showed
that with daily ragweed pollen challenges, smaller and
smaller doses were required each succeeding day to cause the
same or greater degree of hay fever. He called this increased
sensitivity the "priming effect" and concluded that environ-
mental exposure during the ragweed pollinating season
similarly caused priming of the nasal membranes. The priming
was reversible, and the time period (days to weeks) for
priming was dependent upon the degree of exposure to the
pollen. When pollen was administered only to one nostril,
unilateral priming and allergic rhinitis occurred only in
that nostril, and resistance of the other nostril remained
unchanged. In the case of one individual, after 2 weeks
of daily priming of one nostril, response was obtained to a
total dose of 30 ragweed pollen grains, but the non-primed
nostril showed no response to 303 grains. It took additional
exposure to pollen (priming and challenge) before the latter
nostril also responded. Connell further observed that in
subjects sensitive to more than one pollen, priming could be
accomplished with one pollen (such as sorrel) and the hay
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fever symptoms produced by challenge with another pollen
(such as ragweed)-
2.1.3 Svnercfistic Responses and Effects of Unknown Substances
Naturally occurring aeroallergens such as pollens
have been known and studied for several decades. However,
the ability of .other air pollutants to cause a potentiating
or synergistic response with the natural allergens has become
a new area of study in recent years.
Schoettlin and Landau^4 studied 137 asthmatic
patients in the Los Angeles area for 98 days (September 3 to
December 9, 1956). This period roughly corresponded to the
smog season. They studied the number of asthmatic attacks
in relationship to air pollution as measured by total atmo-
spheric oxidants, particulates, carbon monoxide, relative
humidity and temperature, and plant damage. Low positive
correlations were found between chemical measures of air
pollution and the number of persons suffering attacks. Low
correlations were also noted for temperature, relative
humidity, and water vapor pressure. A significantly greater
number of persons had attacks on days with oxidant values
high enough to cause eye irritation or cause plant damage
than on other days. Sterling et jal^P-06 aiso in Los Angeles,
observed an increase in hospital admission rates for allergic
disorders as well as a number of other respiratory syndromes
on days of high air pollution (Table 5, Appendix).
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10
Zeidberg et ^.l17 reported on an extensive air
sampling and medical evaluation study of Nashville, Tenn.
They observed a group of 84 patients with bronchial asthma—
49 adults and 35 children—for a 10-month period (October
1958 to July 1959). A total of 3,647 asthmatic attacks
occurred during 27,440 person-days of observation. An
overall attack rate of 0.133 per person-day was reported.
In adults, the asthmatic attack rate varied directly with
the sulfate level in their residential environment and was
three times as high for those living in the high pollution
area as for those in the low. This correlation could not
be demonstrated with the children.
Following a 2-year epidemiological study of asthma
in children in Philadelphia, Girsh et aJL.40 concluded that
the occurrence of stable weather conditions with stagnant
air seemed to correlate with peak incidences of bronchial
asthma. They had observed a total of 1,346 patients during
the two-year period; the average normal 24-hour incidence
of asthma was 2.5 patients (standard deviation of +. <2).
The incidence was considered high when five or more patients
were seen in 24 hours; and on 70 days of the 676 days, the
incidence was 5 to 14 per 24 hours. The incidence of bronchial
asthma was three times greater during days of high air
pollution, and there was a fourfold increase during days with
high barometric pressure. When both air conditions coincided,
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11
there was approximately a ninefold increase in bronchial
asthma. The authors concluded that the greater incidences
were not due to ragweed pollen, but speculated that some
unknown pollutant was present which was not being measured.
Booth et al.9 studied the records of asthma emer-
gency visits for 10 hospitals in seven cities during 1960.
For most of the hospitals, noticeable peak months for
asthma occurred in the autumn of the year, as shown in
Table 6, Appendix. No single cause could be established; the
investigators' conclusions were that multiple causes probably
had existed.
Greenburg and co-workers have analyzed records of
emergency clinic visits for asthma and for other respiratory
illnesses in New York City hospitals for a number of years
in relationship to air pollution episodes. Although they
observed an increase in upper respiratory infections during
the November 1953 air pollution incident, there was no
associated increase in asthma clinic visits.4^ Continuing
their analysis, Greenburg .et §JL.47'48'49 observed that peak
rates of asthma clinic visits occurred in September for the
years 1957, 1961, 1962, 1964, and 1965 (Tables 7 and 8,
Appendix), but that there was no correlation of the visits
with air concentrations of pollens, molds, or other air
pollutants. The best correlation seemed to be with the
onset of cold weather. They speculated either that the
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12
first onset of cold weather was the "triggering" factor, or
that the first indoor home heating following the summer
months stirred up dormant allergenic dust and mold particulates,
or that something was present in the air which was not being
measured.
The monthly admissions for asthma and asthmatic
bronchitis to the Brisbane Children's Hospital in Australia
for three yearsr July 1955 to June 1958 (Table 9, and Figures
1 and 2, Appendix)f showed a minor increase during the
spring months and a major wave in autumn and early winter.23
It was concluded by Derrick et al. that the seasonal occur-
rences of these attacks were not correlated with atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfalls, hours of sun-
shine, or wind velocity or direction. They suspected the
cause of the seasonal peaks was an unidentified pollen or
pollens.
New Orleans has been a subject of study since 1958
when an outbreak of asthma occurred resulting in approximately
100 cases and 3 deaths. This pattern reoccurred in following
years. In earlier reports, asthmatic attacks have been
associated with certain local wind conditions.68 At first,
spontaneous underground combustion in abandoned city dumps
seemed to be responsible. However, a recent study suggests
that there is more than one air pollution source causing an
asthmatic-type disease in New Orleans, and that there are
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13
probably multiple sources.
Kantor et al..63 reported on an aerobiological survey
conducted concurrently with a study of 56 clinically deter-
mined asthmatics who lived for a period of one year in the
new Judean desert town of Arad. The pollen and mold con-
centrations in the air of Arad were about one-third and one-
half, respectively, of those observed at the same time of
day in the central coastal community of Beilinson, Israel,
where the humidity was higher and more vegetation existed.
(See Table 10, Appendix). Excellent to moderate clinical
responses were observed in 84 percent of the patients during
their stay in Arad, followed by relapse on their return
home to Beilinson. The speculation was that the mold and
pollen concentrations represented a subthreshold level for
the patients, which they could tolerate without any adverse
effects.
2.1.4 Effects of Vegetable Dusts
The harmful effect of grain dust on health has been
recognized for many years. However, there was little interest
in the scientific literature concerning this subject until
Duke29 described four cases of bronchial asthma among flour
mill workers, who experienced asthmatic attacks on exposure
to the dust from the first cleaning of the wheat grain.
Other reports have since appeared describing adverse health
effects caused by grain dust among workers loading and
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14
unloading grain30'54 and mill workers.101 Williams et al.13-6
surveyed 502 country grain elevator agents in Saskatchewan.
Of these, 54 percent had a history of one or more asthmatic
symptoms, including attacks associated with exposure to
grain dust (oats, wheat, barley, and rye), with barley re-
ported as the most responsible. There was some evidence
indicating that the allergic response was due to mold spores
(Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, and Rhizopus) present in
the grain.
Industrial plants that handle, process, and mill
cereal grains have been suspected of emitting allergenic
dust into the surrounding atmosphere. The University of
Minnesota campus in Minneapolis is surrounded by such storage
and processing plants. Outbreaks of asthma have occurred
from time to time among students at the University, and it
was considered that these outbreaks were due to some pollu-
tants from the plants.41 However, although air samples taken
in the vicinity revealed pollens (dependent upon seasonal
release), fungi, plant hair, and starch grains from the
nearby mills, no correlation was observed between their
presence and the incidence of asthmatic attacks. Coppers
and Paulus43 collected air samples from a similar grain
milling plant area. Two substances (compounds A and B)
were extracted from the collected particles that could cause
allergic reactions in persons susceptible to bronchial asthma
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15
and hay fever. The investigators extracted a number of
grains, seeds, plants, and weed pollens in the same manner
and were able to isolate one of the two substances (compound
A) from each material examined. Their results are presented
in Table 11, Appendix.
Allergic reactions to the castor bean and its products
are well known to the allergist. Apen et al.7 have reviewed
the literature on the health aspects of castor bean dust up
to 1967. Castor pomace is the residue that remains after
the castor oil has been removed from the beans of the castor
plant, Ricinus communis. This pomace contains one of the
most potent allergens known, which, in a fine, light powder
form, is readily carried by the wind from the processing
plant and shipping areas into the surrounding community. A
number of well-documented outbreaks of illnesses have been
traced to this aeroallergen. For example, Ordman77 reported
an outbreak of bronchial asthma in South Africa caused by
inhalation of castor bean dust. The highly allergenic dust
affected 200 persons in a castor oil processing plant.
The pressed castor bean has been used increasingly
in recent years as a fertilizer. Small100 reported two
patients with bronchial asthma and two with hay fever caused
by inhalation of castor bean pomace used as a fertilizer-
Additional patients showed positive skin test reactions to
the castor bean extract. This investigator anticipated that
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16
more cases will occur as the use of the pomace as fertilizer
increases.
Panzani and Layton80 recorded 478 cases of castor
bean dust allergy in Marseilles and the neighboring country-
side during the period 1951 to 1962. Pollinosis caused by
the pollen of the castor bean plant also can occur. Linden-
baum observed a patient who had symptoms of hay fever
complicated by asthma. The many castor bean plants growing
in the vicinity of the patient's home were the source of
the pollen. Layton et al.67 concluded that apparently
castor pollen and castor pomace share common antigens. Re-
actions to the pollen are milder than to the pomace, but
the pollen can induce sensitivity to the pomace.
2.1.5 Effects of Molds
The allergies discussed thus far are considered to
be atopic allergies13—that is, usually characterized by
hereditary predisposition and high and immediate sensitivity.
Desensitization is difficult and usually only partial at
best, skin reactions are marked and specific, and considerable
amounts of antibody are demonstrable in the serum. However,
in nonatopic allergy, the converse is true; i.e., sensitivity
is low and delayed, desensitization is usually successful,
skin reactions are weak and nonspecific, and few antibodies
are demonstrable in the serum. Nonatopic allergy can also
be associated with an infection. Authorities differ on the
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17
significance of this classification and whether distinction
between atopic and nonatopic allergy is quantitative rather
than qualitative. However, most agree that the distinction
has clinical utility. This section primarily discusses
nonatopic allergy.
Watkins-Pitchford112 reviewed the occurrences of
"farmer's lung" in Great Britain, Europe, and the United
States. Pulmonary disability among agricultural workers
handling moldy hay and composts has been known for genera-
tions, and many of the early descriptions of such cases un-
doubtedly were what is presently called "farmer's lung."
Some hours after exposure to the hay, acute attacks begin
that are characterized by shortness of breath, fever, and
cough generally followed by recovery. If the acute attack
has been severe or if exposure is continued, the illness
progresses to a severe dyspnea and cough which become pro-
gressively worse. It is generally agreed that "farmer's
lung" is an inhalant allergic response to Thermopolvspora
polyspora growing in the hay.24 Although the true incidence
of the disease can only be conjectural, it has been estimated
that approximately 1,000 cases occur annually in Great
Britain.
Sakula92 reported respiratory symptoms resembling
those seen in farmer's lung in workers at mushroom-growing
farms. The process of composting on these farms favors the
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18
growth of fungi, and the inhalation of their spores is re-
sponsible for allergic response of certain mushroom workers.
Four cases were reported in Sussex, where 50 percent of the
mushrooms in England are commercially grown, and 16 cases
among immigrant Puerto Ricans working in the Chester County
area of Pennsylvania, where 90 percent of the mushrooms con-
sumed in the United States are cultivated. Similar allergic
responses occur in "bagassosis," caused by inhalation of the
moldy dust of the bagasse fiber (the sugar cane residue left
after removal of the sugar). Asthma symptoms have developed
in some individuals following exposure to specific wood
dusts. 0' Byssinosis, or cotton lung resulting from inhala-
tion of cotton dust, has been included in this group in the
past,24 but gome recent studies indicate that it has a re-
versible chemical component resembling that of metal fume
fever and a chronic component.58
Itkins and Dennis^^ tested 81 patients for sensitivity
to the common fungus Candida albleans. Forty percent gave
positive bronchial reactions to inhalation of the fungus.
These results are presented in Table 12 (Appendix).
2.2 Effects on Animals
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals
Commercial and domestic animals generally are not
affected by inhalation of aeroallergens.
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2.2.2 Experimental Animals
Experimental animals generally are not affected by
inhalation of aeroallergens. However, animals are used in
allergy studies. Dogs sometimes show spontaneous sensitivity
1 82
to ragweed pollen. ' Also, researchers at the National In-
stitutes of Health have begun to work with inbred strains of
guinea pigs to study the inheritance of allergic tendencies.
2.3 Effects on Plants
The physiological response of allergy cannot occur in
plants, and, therefore, no allergic effects of aeroallergens
on plants are possible. However, as an anomalous effect,
growers of genetically pure seeds for crops and flowers are
faced with the problem of airborne cross pollination with
ft 7
undesirable plants. The disease-producing effects of molds,
and other microorganisms on plants is discussed in the com-
panion report on Biological Aerosols.
2.4 Effects on Materials
As in the case of plants, aeroallergens do not
produce allergic response on materials. The effects of the
growth of molds and other microorganisms on materials are
discussed in the companion report on Biological Aerosols.
2.5 Environmental Air Standards
Insufficient information exists on which to establish
environmental air standards for the aeroallergens. However,
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20
a pollen count, from which a pollen index is derived, is
determined daily in many local areas and is compared to
previously observed indexes in the same area. The comparison
is used as an indication of the incidence of pollinosis to
be expected in the susceptible population. Generally,
although the values vary from locality to locality, an index
of 5 to 15 is considered moderate, and at this level acute
hay fever symptoms generally last only a few days. An
index above 15 is indicative of heavy pollen concentrations,
and 25 or more on any given day will usually cause severe
symptoms of hay fever in most of the susceptible population.^
However, individual sensitivities to the pollen vary, and an
extremely sensitive individual may suffer intensely with a
low index of 10 while another less sensitive individual may
show no response to a count of 100. This situation may even
reverse itself in another geographical area, where the prev-
alence of certain pollens may be different.
The pollen index should be considered only as a
guideline rather than as a standard.38 The counts are ob-
tained on rooftops, and the actual exposure value at street
level may be greater or less than this. Also, the counts
represent integrated values for the 24-hour period and do
not reveal surges of high concentrations which exist for
only short periods of time. In addition, small clouds of
pollen could occur in certain areas due to local point
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21
sources or micrometeorological conditions (i.e., local air
calms, turbulences, etc.) and yet not be reflected in the
count obtained short distances away. Shapiro and Rooks,96
in 1951, placed pollen samplers near known stands of ragweed
in residential areas of Iowa City. They noted higher values
and marked variation of the pollen counts as compared to
the counts obtained with the standard procedure of a central
sampler on a rooftop.
Regardless of their limitations as a standard, the
pollen counts do serve a useful purpose. The more data of
this type which are accumulated and analyzed with related
meteorological, medical, and control data, the better will
be the total understanding of the problem. In addition,
the pollen counts aid both the practitioner and the patient.
The symptoms of pollinosis can be better diagnosed and
understood when there is reported evidence that a certain
pollen is prevalent in a given area. After a period of
time some individuals may even be able to anticipate an
attack of pollinosis on the basis of the daily pollen count
and take some precautionary steps, such as avoiding areas
high in vegetation and taking medication before the onset
of symptoms.
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3. SOURCES
3.1 Natural Occurrence
The aeroallergens encompass a wide variety of materi-
als, as shown in Table 1 (Appendix), but the pollens are the
most important member of this group. The plants which pro-
duce allergenic pollens are widely distributed geographically,
and their distribution and seasonal growth characteristics
in part determine their importance as aeroallergens. The
most prevalent pollen-producing plants have been listed in
Table 2 (Appendix), and the most important pollens of each
State and their seasonal occurrence are presented in Table
3 (Appendix).
Ragweed has been found in all 50 States; it produces
large quantities of pollen, and the pollen grains are especially
adapted for aerial dissemination by virtue of their size (20
|j), shape, and density.60 In addition, because of its aller-
genic property for a large percent of the population, it has
been the most studied.
Approximately 40 species of ragweed are known at the
present time, the majority of which occur in North America.83
Ragweed is most prevalent in the North Central and North-
eastern States followed by the Southern, Great Plains, Inter-
mountain, and Pacific Coast States. The weed has also been
introduced into Hawaii.91 Six species are sufficiently
widespread and abundant within the United States to be of
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23
importance as pollen sources on the State or national level.
These ragweed species characteristically establish themselves
quickly in freshly turned soil, and their special ability to
grow as weeds enables them to flourish in cultivated grain
fields, where they are most abundant today. Pollination is
by aerial dissemination. Because pollination by wind is very
inefficient, many thousands of pollen grains must be liberated
and disseminated for effective pollination.
Ragweed tends to be crowded out by other vegetation
if the soil is not disturbed. Therefore, the plowing of
fields, especially cereal grain fields, is responsible for
the growth of a major portion of the ragweed in many areas
of the country. The ragweed seedlings develop during the
ripening stage of the cereal grain and grow rapidly in the
stubble after the grain has been harvested in late summer.
An estimated one-third of the 60 million acres of wheat
stubble is infested with ragweed.39 In fields of winter
wheat, oats, and barley, with no cover crop, about 172,000
ragweed plants per acre have been observed, which is more
than 300 times the plant density in pastures.55 Ragweed is
found also in urban areas where soil has been disturbed.
For example, in a new subdivision where the soil had been
overturned but untouched during the spring and summer, rag-
weed concentration amounted to 56,500 plants per acre.55
Along railroads, one count gave 13,000 plants per acre.55
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24
Gorlin44 has estimated that an acre of giant ragweed may
produce as much as 50 pounds of pollen during a single
season. A ragweed survey was conducted within parts of the
Ann Arbor and Superior Townships of Washtenau County, Mich.
Land along selected roads and highways was classified by
land use/ and the density of ragweed was then determined.
The results of the survey showed that the general pattern
of ragweed distribution prevailed: high density in crop-
lands and low density in marshes and woodlands, as shown in
Table 13, Appendix.
The fungi (molds and yeasts) are an important group
of aeroallergens; the most common ones are listed in Table
3, Appendix. These microorganisms are ubiquitous and sapro-
phytic in nature. Their usual habitats are soil and dust, and
they become airborne by means of local air disturbances. Their
concentration in the air is dependent upon the magnitude of
the source, their death rate in the air, humidity, temperature,
and other factors. The largest percent of the airborne fungi
are found in the air up to 5,000 feet, and their number de-
creases rapidly above that level. However, viable mold
spores have been recovered up to 90,000 feet.12
Danders, which include feathers of fowl and hair of
animals (including humans), are found in the air close to
their source point. Their concentration in the air is limited,
and they are allergenic to humans when the source is in close
proximity to the susceptible individuals.
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House dust consists of the small particulate organic
materials (fragments of animal hair, wool, cotton linters.
Kapok, feathers, pollen which has seeped in from outdoors,
et;c.) found in the home. Molds are also frequently found in
the home—especially in old, damp dwellings (e.g., basements)
—and can be included in house dust. The house dust which
is of concern in this connection does not include sand, soil,
and powdered rock, which are not allergenic.
Voorhorst et al_.HO concluded from their studies that
the mite Dermatophagoides pteronysissimus was the allergenic
agent in house dust. They were able to isolate the mite
from such dust, and skin reactions to extracts of this mite
in sensitive individuals were both quantitatively and quali-
tatively indistinguishable from those obtained with house
dust. In addition, the mite has a worldwide distribution, as
well as seasonal variation of occurrence similar to the fre-
quency of house dust allergenicity (peak in the autumn).
Although a nonspecific house dust extract is available
for skin testing, some clinicians believe that house dust is
specific for each home. Because it is found in every indoor
environment, house dust is probably the most common aero-
allergen after pollens.52 Jaggi and Viswanathan61 skin-tested
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26
patients with seasonal and perennial rhinitis and asthma with
extracts of pollen, house dust, and fungi. Of the 462 patients
tested, 61.9 percent reacted positively to house dust. Of
these positive subjects (286), 17.5 percent were positive to
house dust alone, and the rest were positive to one or more
of the other allergens beside house dust.
The miscellaneous aeroallergens—which include
vegetable fibers and dust, cosmetics, paints, and varnishes
—are limited in the air and affect susceptible individuals
only when in close proximity to the source. They constitute
a minor problem in terms of the total number of people
affected.
3.2 Production Sources
The occurrence of certain aeroallergens in the air
has been due to production sources. A survey of country
grain elevator agents in Saskatchewan showed a greater than
50 percent prevalence of asthmatic and related symptoms in
these individuals.116 Grain dusts produced in flour-milling
plants similarly have been the(cause of asthmatic and other
symptoms in mill workers29'101 and workers loading and un-
loading grain.30*54 There has been some evidence that flour
mills can emit the allergenic dust into the surrounding
atmosphere. Coppers and Paulus43 in 1967 were able to isolate
both from the air near a flour mill and from grains an un-
identified compound which could cause allergic reactions in
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27
persons susceptible to bronchial asthma and hay fever.
Inhalation of castor bean dust in castor oil process~
ing plants has been the cause of outbreaks of bronchial
asthma.7 In addition, the use of the pressed castor bean
pomace as fertilizer has caused bronchial asthma attacks in
individuals.7
The syndrome of farmer's lung has been observed in
farm workers handling moldy hay and compost.U-2 similar
symptoms have occurred among workers on mushroom-growing
farms, 2 and workers inhaling the dust from bagasse fiber
(sugar cane residue) and cotton dust.^4»52
3.3 Product Sources
There are many materials which are aeroallergenic to
sensitized individuals. Since some of these materials are
incorporated into other items, their presence cannot always
be recognized. For example, pillows often contain allergenic
chicken, duck, or goose feathers, or kapok; and stuffed toys
may contain kapok or cat hair- Table 14, Appendix, presents
a list of some common items which may be aeroallergenic
because of their contents. '
3.4 Environmental Air Concentrations
The concentration of aeroallergens present in the
air at any given time is a function of many factors: source
strength, distance from source, humidity, temperature, and
sunlight. Of the aeroallergens, pollens have been studied
most; and of the pollens, ragweed, the major cause of
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28
pollinosis in this country, has been studied the most ex-
tensively. Table 15, Appendix, lists a number of pollens and
dispersal data.
It has been observed that emission of pollen from
ragweed plants is not continuous but is dependent upon-
the time of day, temperature, and humidity.^5 Pollen re-
lease from the ragweed flower is accomplished in the several
hours after sunrise, as shown in Figures 3, 4, and 8,
Appendix. The release is triggered by the drop in humidity
resulting from the warmth of the sun. Usually, only a small
percentage of the pollen becomes directly airborne. The
great majority of the grains fall on nearby vegetation and
soil but may become airborne at a later time.14 it has
been estimated that only approximately 6 percent of the
released pollen becomes airborne.99
Once airborne, the dispersal of the pollen is depen-
dent upon the horizontal and vertical air movements. Raynor
and Ogden®^ in 1965 sampled the air from a cultivated ragweed
source 180 feet in diameter and found that if the horizontal
air flow is relatively slow (a wind of about 1 m/sec) and
the vertical flow is small, the airborne pollen concentration
becomes negligible within a short distance. The pollen
concentration had dropped to 1/100 of the source concentration
at 500 feet from the source. The patterns observed at three
different sampling heights of a similar 90-foot-diameter
ragweed source are presented in Figure 5, Appendix. Day-to-day
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29
concentration patterns varied primarily because of changes
in wind direction, speed, and turbulence. A composite of
these daily patterns showed the seasonal average concentra-
tion around the source, sample at a 5-foot height (Figure 6,
Appendix). Although the wind was primarily in one direction,
significant amounts of pollen spread in all directions.
Allessio and Rowley4 in 1956 took a daily pollen
count for 7 months at two sites on the University of Massa-
chusetts campus, while looking for and tabulating 42 differ-
ent pollens plus fern, moss, and fungal spores. Although
they could not rule out long-distance dispersal by their
results, the presence of all materials observed could be
accounted for by local vegetation.
If there is sufficient upward air flow due to warmed
air and other processes, the ragweed pollen may be carried
aloft to high elevations. Pollen grains at 40,000 feet have
been reported, and not infrequently there may be a higher
concentration of pollen at an altitude of 4,000 to 6,000
feet than nearer the surface of the ground.60 Although
some grains may fall to the ground, horizontal dispersal over
long distances can occur. As local air movement and turbulence
diminish during the day, the pollen grains fall back to earth
at a rate of 3 to 10 ft/min,14'60 and a minimum surface air
concentration occurs just prior to sunrise. Figures 7 and 8
in the Appendix show this diurnal ragweed pollen emission cycle
^ 75
Other pollens also exhibit a diurnal periodicity.
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30
Acalypha pollen has been reported to reach a maximum between
6 and 7 a.m.,79 Corvlus at 1 p.m., Artemisia at 9 a.m., and
Pinus at 3 to 5 p.m.50 The patterns for timothy, corn, and
castor bean plant are presented in Figure 9.
The ability of rain to cleanse the air of pollen has
been investigated.27 Pollen showed a rapid decrease in the
air during heavy rain, with a partial recovery between
separated showers. There was a possibility that a more or
less continuous replenishment of the airborne pollen con-
tamination into the storm was necessary in order for pollen
to be found in the rain that fell more than a few minutes
after the beginning of the rainfall.
During the ragweed season, daily pollen concentrations
over much of the Eastern and Central United States may reach
350 to 1,000 grainsper cubic meter of air. During the peak
day of the 1966 season, the pollen count in Ann Arbor, Mich.,
exceeded 4,400 grains per cubic meter.^3 Durham-^ in 1947
estimated that during the ragweed pollen season in the
District of Columbia, an individual would inhale approximately
4,000 ragweed grains in 24 hours. However, during periods
of maximum air contamination, the grass and ragweed pollen
concentration may reach millions of grains per cubic meter.
Raynor and Ogden^7 (1965) reported that the general back-
ground ragweed pollen concentration at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory, New York, ranged between 10 and 150
grains per cubic meter. The area within a mile or two of
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31
the Laboratory is relatively ragweed-free, but at greater
distances ragweed grows in normal profusion in all directions.
Table 16, Appendix* summarizes the monthly average
counts obtained by the gravity slide method for the most
common pollens found in the St. Louis area from March
through September in both 1963 and 1964.36 The pollen
season begins in early spring with tree pollination, and
continues through the summer with grass pollination, and
into the fall with ragweed pollination. The weather condi-
tions under which pollen usually was emitted were light
winds, clear to partly cloudy skies, and at least moderate
convection, all of which contribute to vertical movement of
air.
Hornedo and Tillman57 (1959) reported the results of
a 2-year pollen survey in El Paso, Tex. Using the gravity
slide method, they observed that weed pollens (Russian
thistle, careless weed, and ragweed) predominated in early
fall; tree pollens (elm, cedar, cottonwood, ash, pine, and
mulberry) in late winter and'early spring; and mulberry,
pine, and oak in late spring. Peaks in pollen counts
occurred in the fall (about September 30) and in February
and April; and lows were in January, June, and November.
The highest daily count (89 grains per cubic centimeter)
occurred October 4, 1957 (see Figure 10, Appendix).
Many fungi are common in the air since their spores
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32
are adapted for aerial dissemination. Production of vast
numbers of spores in periodic waves is characteristic of
many fungi. Allergy to fungi may occur seasonally, depending
upon climate and geography. Hormodendrum and Alternaria are
especially abundant during May to September in the Central
States.20
Morrow et al. have summarized the most frequently
isolatedmolds from 41 sampling stations across the country.
No two stations had the same lists/ but a basic group of
dominant genera appeared to occur. These were:
Alternaria Trichoderma
Homodendrum Fusarium
Aspergillus Helmintho sporium
Penicillxum Cryptococcus
Pullularia Rhodotorula
Phoma
Similar genera of fungi were observed in Tucson,
Ariz.,35 in Phoenix, Ariz.,42 in Albuquerque, New Mex..31
and in Los Angeles, Calif.97
The airborne concentration of fungi changes from
season to season, from day to day, and even from hour to
hour. Table 17, Appendix, illustrates the hourly fluctua-
tions of Alternaria spores observed by Pathak and Pady.
Some fungi appear to have a diurnal periodicity.79'81 One
explanation offered for the latter fact is that—as, for
example, in Cladosporum—a single crop of spores is pro-
duced per 24-hour period, maturing at night and ready to be
released just before daylight. Morning turbulence produces
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33
a midmorning peak by carrying the spores into the air in
large numbers/(for example, 100 per cubic foot (3,500 per
cubic meter)). Decreasing air turbulence later in the day
produces a late afternoon or early evening peak.88 pady^S
found fungi spores present in the atmosphere at an elevation
of 150 feet throughout the year in Kansas, with peaks in
July and August. In summer their number varied from 50 to
700 per cubic foot (1,765 to 24,700 per cubic meter), while
in winter they ranged from 5 to 20 per cubic foot (175 to
700 per cubic meter).
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4. ABATEMENT
The abatement and control of aeroallergens have been
primarily directed at the control of ragweed. Ragweed grows
very quickly in areas where the soil has been disturbed; it
is not found in areas shaded by trees or in heavy growth of
grass, shrubs, or ferns. If soil is not disturbed, grass will
eventually crowd out ragweed. Although some ragweeds are
annual plants, the seeds can remain viable for many years
and ready to germinate once the soil is disturbed. Therefore,
control of ragweed by pulling it up is not satisfactory,
since the soil is thus disturbed and the growths may be
heavier the following year. Control by cutting is satisfac-
tory only if done prior to flowering; otherwise, flower
heads will continue to develop and pollinate. Soil steri-
lants are toxic to most other plants as well as to ragweed;
and if successful, their use leads to the problem of soil
erosion.
Herbicides such as 2,4-D (dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid salts) have been used successfully where applicable.
Since 2,4-D is lethal to most broadleaf plants (including
ragweed) and to vegetables, flowers, and some grasses, its
use on crop acreage is limited.
The recommended application of 2,4-D is one-half
pound per acre, although 0.1 pound per acre has also yielded
good results.39 It is best used when diluted in water (5
to 100 gallons per acre). The spraying program for ragweed
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35
should be initiated just before the flower buds open. The
herbicide 2,4,5-T (trichlorophenoxyacetic acid), a compound
similar to 2,4-D, has also been used. The potential side
effects and toxicity of herbicides are discussed in a sepa-
rate report of this series, "The Air Pollution Aspects of
Pesticides."
Considerable money and effort have been expended by
several municipalities in attempts to reduce or eliminate
ragweed within their boundaries, but generally these attempts
have not significantly changed pollen concentrations.^^
Walzer and Siegle^-H reported on the effectiveness of a
ragweed eradication program in New York City. After the
program was initiated in 1946, a 50 percent reduction in
ragweed plants within the city was observed at the end of 4
years. However, the program did not produce any further de-
cline during the next 5 years. Also, during this 9-year
period there was no change in the pollen count from 30
stations in and around New York City (see Figure 11, Appendix).
i
During certain seasons/ pollen counted on a lightship in
New York harbor, at a point 9 miles from the nearest land,
amounted to as much as 45 to 60 percent of the pollen collected
in New York City, and on some days exceeded those of the city.
The data indicated that the city probably received as much
windborn pollen from areas to the west as was generated
locally. Furthermore, no differences were found on comparing
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36
the New York City counts and those from neighboring New
Jersey and Connecticut, where no eradication programs were
underway. These authors concluded that the elimination of
ragweed pollen in the air cannot be accomplished on a local
level, but that any program must be developed on a regional
basis. Obviously, if the pollen entering a city from outside
is enough to cause pollinosis in all susceptible individuals,
local control is inadequate. On the other hand, if the
background pollen reaching a given local area is low—that
is, insufficient to cause symptoms in the population—
eradication of any local sources would be a beneficial
preventive measure which could be undertaken by a local
authority. The latter situation prevailed in Detroit, where
a ragweed control program was accomplished. Nearly all of
the pollen observed in sampling counts was produced in the
immediate vicinity. Local eradication of ragweed plants,
therefore, was beneficial in controlling the pollen concen-
tration.39
Some aeroallergens are troublesome only in close
proximity to susceptible individuals. Eradication of the
nearby source often can reduce the daily exposure to such
a degree that the individual's threshold sensitivity is
decreased and he will not experience severe symptoms with
normal background levels. In particular* the allergenic
effects traceable to trees, plants/ and flowers can be
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37
avoided by not growing them in the yard. Similarly, some
allergies can be prevented by not keeping pets that produce
danders and by avoiding certain cosmetics.
Molds, like pollens, are found in the outside air,
and to some extent in the home. The concentration found in
the home is associated with house dust which may also be
allergenic to susceptible individuals. Many of the allergies
due to molds arise from specific molds found in damp places
in the home (e.g., basements). These can be reduced in
concentration or eliminated by the use of disinfectants.
21
Criep et al. have recommended the use of inexpensive
Roccal (benzalkonium chloride) at 1:1,000 to 1:10,000
dilution as a spray, or 1:1,000 dilution of trioxymethylene
(crystalline paraformaldehyde) as a wash solution or vapor
for treating musty houses. Table 18, Appendix, lists other
germicidal substances which can be used.
Another approach to the control of pollinosis has
been for sensitive individuals to avoid contact with the
pollen by remaining indoors as much as possible during the
hay fever season. Since 67 percent of the ragweed pollen
collected during 24 hours was found between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m.,
Smith and Rooks102 (1954) have recommended that sensitive
individuals seek "shelter" during those hours. However,
Dingle26 (1957) has demonstrated that ragweed and other
pollens can penetrate the cracks around doorways and windows
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38
of the average house. The amount of penetration was dependent
upon the meteorological conditions. Air-conditioned buildings
give some relief to susceptible individuals, but most air
systems are not designed for aeroallergen control. This is
especially true of home systems where house dust and/or
molds are involved. The air ducts harbor large quantities of
dust and molds, and the filters usually are not adequate to
remove them from the air stream. However, present-day
technology is capable of adequately designing air systems
which benefit sensitive individuals.22
Control of pollinosis is often accomplished by
temporary or permanent departure of the individual from a
given area to one which is free of the specific pollen to
which he is sensitive. A map of the United States showing
&reas relatively free of ragweed pollen is shown in Figure
12, Appendix. Although moving has been of benefit to many,
some individuals after moving may develop a sensitivity to
a new local pollen, or a plant to whose pollen he was already
sensitized may be introduced into the area as an ornamental
plant.
Many susceptible individuals can be treated so that
exposure to the aeroallergen does not produce symptoms or
the symptoms are reduced in severity. Extracts of various
allergens are available which can be injected in small
amounts into susceptible individuals to desensitize them
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39
temporarily to the allergen. Some persons routinely undergo
a preseasonal series of desensitizing injections and later
develop few symptoms during the aeroallergen season. The
antihistaminic drugs have been used quite extensively to
alleviate the acute symptoms of hay fever. However, anti-
histamines hav.e not been a cure-all, and some individuals
react adversely to these medications.
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5. ECONOMICS
Ridker90 has stated that because in many cases there
are either insufficient or no data concerning the number of
persons with an illness and very little information concern-
ing the cost of treatment, the economic loss due to the health
effects of air-pollutants is most difficult to estimate.
This applies equally to the economics of aeroallergens.
Ridker has attempted to place a conservative dollar value
estimate on some diseases (Table 19, Appendix), with diseases
other than asthma listed for comparative purposes. The
costs of prescribed medicine for asthma and/or hay fever as
reported by the National Health Survey are presented in Table
20 (Appendix)-
Because of this difficulty in estimating the cost of
effects on health, another approach is to consider the in-
cidence and prevalence of the illnesses. The Allergy Founda-
tion of America has estimated that 8 to 9 million people in
the United States are adversely affected by seasonal hay
fever." The addition of nonseasonal sufferers would increase
this figure. • The National Health Survey has reported that
the number of asthma and/or hay fever sufferers was over
14,000,000 in 1964.3 It has been estimated that 5 to 10
percent of the untreated patients with hay fever develop
bronchial asthma.10 Some estimates place the number of work
days lost each year due to hay fever at 25 million.
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41
Data pertaining to the "limitation in activity" by
asthma and/or hay fever sufferers as reported by the National
Health Survey are shown in Tables 21 and 22 in the Appendix.
Besides the direct cost and discomfort associated
with hay fever and bronchial asthma, there are secondary
economic effects: the ensuing lack of sleep and fatigue
lowers efficiency at work. Additional secondary economic
consequences are the sedative effect of medications, the
danger of a sneezing attack while driving an automobile or
while operating some mechanical device which could be hazard-
ous to others, and the fact that swollen respiratory passages
are prone to bacterial overgrowth and infection which may
continue far beyond the hay fever "season."
The death rate due to asthma for 1964-1966 compared
to other selected causes of death is presented" in Table 23,
Appendix.
Of the aeroallergens, the pollens are the worst
offenders, and ragweed pollen specifically is responsible
for greater than 90 percent of the pollinosis in the United
States. Some costs are available for the control of ragweed.
Freedman39 (1967) has reported that in New Hampshire in 1948,
ragweed control cost about $2.00 for one mile of highway on
both sides. This figure included labor, cost of the chemical,
and truck mileage. In 1967, a similar control program along
roadsides and rights-of-way, using a combination of chemical
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42
and mechanical measures, probably would have cost in the
range of $5 to $10 per acre.39 in open areas, such as
pasture and wheat fields, the weed could have been controlled
with 2,4-D at an annual cost of $1.50 per acre; in congested
areas the cost of control by mechanical techniques or in
combination with sprays would have been approximately $25
to $50 per acre.39
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6. METHODS OP ANALYSIS
The methods used for the analysis of aeroallergen
pollution are based primarily on microscopic observations of
collected samples from the air. Basically, these procedures
are qualitative, but a relative degree of quantitation is
introduced by standardization of the procedure. Some
quantitative procedures are used that sample a given volume
of air, and the results are expressed in terms of a count
per unit volume of air. Most of the procedures have been
concerned primarily with pollen and molds; little attempt
has been made to sample for the other aeroallergens.
6.1 Qualitative Methods
The "gravity slide" method for pollen sampling, first
used by Durham^S in 1946, was accepted as the standard pro-
cedure by the Pollen Survey Committee of the American Academy
of Allergy8^ in the same year. This standard air sampling
device consists of two circular parallel planes of polished
steel 9 inches in diameter and 3 inches apart, with a slide
holder raised 1 inch above the lower plane. It is supported
by a 30-inch metal rod on a tripod laboratory stand. A
petrolatum-coated slide is placed in the slide holder and
exposed to the air on an unobstructed seven- to eight-story
rooftop for 24 hours. The entire exposed area of the slide
(4.84 cm2) is examined microscopically and the pollen counted.
The count is divided by 4.84 and expressed as a count per
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44
square centimeter, or simply as a number- The count can be
converted into short ragweed pollen grains per cubic yard
by multiplying by the factor of 3.6; to giant ragweed by
3.87; to timothy by 1.14; to corn by 0.17; and so forth.32
The pollen count is determined (by many local authori-
ties) by daily exposing a series of these Durham gravity
slides at various sites in and about an area. Some slides
may be exposed at ground level. The number of particles
trapped on the slide is dependent upon wind conditions during
the sampling period, and therefore, it is difficult to relate
the counts to actual concentrations in the air. However, the
pollen counts thus obtained, after several years, show a
pattern of pollen concentration increase and decrease and
correlate to some degree with the general incidence of hay
fever in a given local area.
The gravity slide method for pollen determination
has a number of limitations. In particular, the sampling is
for a 24-hour period and does not give any indication of
pealc concentrations which might have existed at any time
during the sampling period. Also, Ogden and Raynor74
demonstrated that slides placed parallel to the airflow
collect much more pollen than those placed at right angles,
and this difference becomes greater at the higher wind
speeds prevalent at greater heights. An increase of 3 to 4
miles per hour in wind speed may result in a 50 percent
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45
increase in the amount of pollen trapped.2 Therefore, the
gravity slide method yields values which may not be entirely
comparable to neighboring sampling sites because sampling
heights and wind speed and direction cannot be standardized.
6.2 Quantitative Methods
Several volumetric devices are available for drawing
a measured amount of air (using a vacuum pump) into a
sampler. The intent here is to determine as accurately as
possible the actual concentration present in the air at any
given time. A photoelectric, continuous-recording particle
sampler has been used by Smith and Rooks (1954) for studying
the diurnal fluctuations of airborne ragweed pollen. ^2
Raynor®6 made use of a membrane filter device with an attached
timer and measured air intake to obtain a series of sequen-
tial pollen samples. The membrane filters were then viewed
through a microscope and the counts determined. The Hirst
Spore Trap draws a measured amount of air through an orifice,
and the pollen is impacted on a microscope slide moved past
the orifice at a rate of 2 mm/hr by a clock mechanism. A
24-hour sample thus can be obtained, but the deposition has
been spaced in time along the slide.56
Volumetric sampling devices have presented the problem
of isokinetic sampling. That is, with volumetric samplers,
the intake opening must be continuously oriented into the
wind, and the airflow through the sampler must be equal at
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46
all times to the wind speed in the free air approaching the
intake. If these conditions are not met, a true representa-
tive sample cannot be obtained for particles the size of
pollens. ^3
Because the use of volumetric samplers is too difficult
in routine pollen sampling, the simple Durham gravity slide
method has remained the standard technique in spite of its
deficiencies. Although it is inaccurate for short-term (1
day or less) measurements, it has been satisfactory for de-
termining seasonal patterns. However, a number of devices
have been devised which attempt to retain simplicity but yet
improve upon the gravity slide method. The simplest sampler
has been a vertically-oriented wire of about 1 mm in diameter
which is placed in the air stream containing pollen. The
air can go around the wire but the pollen is impacted on the
surface. The wire is then examined through a microscope
and the pollen grains counted. An improvement upon this has
been the flag sampler.^1 It consists of an ordinary house-
hold pin set in a glass bearing in which it moves freely. It
has a flag of transparent tape wound about it that works like
a weather vane to keep the coated leading edge of the pin
facing into the wind. Particles unable to follow the air
stream around the curved surface of the pin impact upon it
and are counted by means of a microscope. A similar device
uses a larger wind vane to keep the edge of a microscope
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47
slide facing into the wind to act as the trapping surface.
Such samplers are inexpensive and are suitable for use when
a large number of samples are to be taken. However/ their
disadvantages are that they are efficient only when there is
some wind (at least 5 m.p.h.), and the impaction surfaces
are quickly covered and require frequent changes. Also, the
wind velocity and fluctuations need to be known, which re-
quires the use of a separate recording anemometer.
Another approach to impaction sampling has been to
mechanically move an adhesive-coated surface through the air
to be sampled. The rotorod sampler-^ consists of two
vertical rods (plastic or metal) rotated about a vertical
axis approximately 2 inches away at a speed of about 2,000
rpm. The coated collecting surface of the rods moves at a
tangential speed of approximately 25 mph, which is higher
than most air velocities sampled and thereby has a relatively
high collection efficiency independent of wind speed. The
rods are examined through the microscope and pollen counts
made. Modifications of this'device have been the rotobar,51
with a bar-shaped surface used instead of a rod, and the
rotoslide,74 which uses a microscope slide. The main dis-
advantage of these samplers has been that a high concentra-
tion of pollen can build up on the impaction surface in a
short time (an hour or less) and, therefore, frequent changing
is required when continuous sampling is desired. To obviate
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48
this difficulty, the rotodisk sampler15 has been devised,
which substitutes disks for the rods. The vertical edge of
the disk is covered except for a small slit, and a timing
mechanism automatically shifts the slit to expose a fresh
sampling surface.
Fungi have also been sampled by the methods given
above. As the pollen are being counted, some investigators
may also count mold spores. However, fungi lend themselves
to other sampling procedures that utilize growth of the or-
ganisms as a means of measurement. The basic methods are:
(l) Sedimentation:8"In this simple method of
sampling airborne organisms, the suspended particulates are
allowed to settle on plain surfaces or on surfaces coated
with a nutrient growth medium. This method yields informa-
tion on the total number of viable particles that have
settled out during the given sampling period of time.
(2) Impingement into liquids:19'37'45'72 Air is
drawn through a small jet and is directed against a liquid
surface, the suspended fungi being collected in the liquid.
Because of the agitation of the particles in the collecting
liquid, aggregates are likely to be broken up. Therefore,
the counts obtained by this method tend to reflect the total
number of individual cells in the air and are higher than the
value obtained by other methods.
(3) Impaction onto solid surfaces:6'28 Air is
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49
drawn through a small jet(s) and the particles are deposited
on dry or coated solid surfaces, or on an agar nutrient.
This method has been used to determine total cellular numbers,
size distribution, total viable numbers, and variation in
concentration per unit of time during a long sampling period.
(4) Filtration:70'73,95,108 T^ particulates are
collected by passage of the air through a filter which can
be cellulose-asbestos paper, glass wool, cotton, alginate
wool, gelatin foam, or membrane material. The particulates
are washed from the filters and assayed by appropriate
microbiological techniques. Since the viability of the
organisms can be detrimentally affected by dehydration in
the air stream, the results may be biased in this method.
(5) Centrifugation:93,114 The particulates are
propelled by centrifugal force onto the collecting surface,
which can be glass or an agar nutrient. Particulate size
and particulate concentration can be obtained by this
method.
(6) Electrostatic precipitation:66 Particles are
collected by drawing air at a measured rate over an electri-
cally charged surface of glass, liquid, or agar. The
number of particles or viable number is then determined.
(7) Thermal precipitation:65 The organisms are
collected on surfaces by means of thermal gradients. The
design is based on the principle that airborne particles
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50
are repelled by hot surfaces and are deposited on colder
surfaces by forces proportional to the temperature gradient.
The particle size distribution can then be determined.
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51
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Aeroallergens are airborne materials which elicit
a hypersensitivity or allergic response in susceptible in-
dividuals. The major effects of aeroallergens on human
health are the production of allergic rhinitis and bronchial
asthma. If the symptoms of allergic rhinitis occur during
a particular season of the year, it is commonly called hay
fever. It has been estimated that there are 10 to 15 million
hay fever sufferers in the United States and that 5 to 10
percent of the untreated patients will develop bronchial
a sthma.
The common aeroallergens affecting human health are
pollens of wind-pollinated plants/ molds, house dust, and a
miscellaneous group of vegetable fibers, cosmetics, paints,
and others. The pollens are the most important of the entire
list, and ragweed provides the most common of the pollens.
More than 90 percent of the pollinosis occurring in this
country is due to ragweed pollen.
Laboratory animals are used routinely in allergy
studies, but exposure is usually by injection? most animals
do not exhibit allergenic reaction to inhalation of aero-
allergens. There is no evidence that aeroallergens have
adverse effects on plants or materials.
Insufficient information exists to establish environ-
mental air standards for the aeroallergens. Daily pollen
counts are taken and pollen indexes derived in many local
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52
areas of the country by the use of a standardized procedure.
However, because many variables are involved, these values
are used more as guidelines than as standards. Generally,
indexes of 5 to 15 are considered moderate, and acute hay
fever symptoms last only a few days. Indexes above 15
are indicative of heavy pollen concentrations, and an index
of 25 or more on any given day will usually cause severe
symptoms of hay fever in most of the susceptible population.
These values are relative, however, and may vary considerably
between local areas.
Ragweed establishes itself readily in freshly turned
soil, and therefore is found in abundance both in farmlands
and in urban areas in most parts of North America. Of the
other aeroallergens, the molds are ubiquitous; their usual
habitat is the soil and dust, and they become airborne
through local air disturbances. House dust consists of
small organic particulates. Because it is found in every
indoor environment, house dust is probably the most common
aeroallergen after pollens. Danders and other similar aero-
allergens are found in the air close to their source, and
their concentration in the air is therefore limited. They
are allergenic to humans when the source is in close proximity
to the susceptible individual.
The potential of other air pollutants to act syner-
gistically with the natural allergens has become a new area
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53
of study in recent years. Several investigators have ob-
served an increase in hospital admissions for bronchial
asthma on days of high air pollution.
There are many materials which are aeroallergenic
to sensitized individuals. However, some of the allergens
are incorporated into products in such a way that their
presence cannot always be recognized. Stuffing in pillows,
mattresses, and toys may be of feathers, kapok, or other
materials that can be highly allergenic.
The emission and dispersal of ragweed pollen have
been studied in much detail. It has been found that pollen
release occurs primarily in the early morning, and once the
pollen is airborne, its dispersal is dependent upon horizontal
and vertical air movements. If there is little air movement,
dispersal of the pollen from a given source may be negligible.
However, upward air flow can carry pollen up to high eleva-
tions, whereas horizontal air movements can carry the pollen
great distances in all directions. During the ragweed
season, daily pollen concentrations over much of the Eastern
and Central United States commonly reach 350 to 1,000 grains
per cubic meter of air.
The abatement and control of aeroallergens have been
concentrated on ragweed. Considerable money and effort have
been expended by local municipalities in attempting to
reduce the pollen concentration in the air by reducing the
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54
ragweed plant density. Herbicides such as 2,4-D have been
used extensively for this purpose. However, many of the
eradication programs have had little success, primarily be-
cause windborne pollen from outside the control area usually
has entered the city in sufficient quantities to cause
pollinosis in the local susceptible population.
The economic costs incurred by the effects of and the
control of aeroallergens cannot be adequately estimated.
Insufficient data are available regarding the costs of allergic
illnesses, and there are no estimates for the cost of abatement
on the regional scale that would be required for adequate
control.
The standard procedure for the analysis of pollens
recommended by the Pollen Survey Committee of the American
Academy of Allergy is the gravity slide method. Basically,
the procedure involves exposing an adhesive-coated slide to
the air for 24 hours, following which it is examined micro-
scopically and a count made of the particles deposited.
Based on the material presented in this report,
further studies are suggested in the following areas:
(1) Additional investigations are needed concerning
the cause of periodic peak occurrences of bronchial asthma
and associated illnesses.
(2) There is need for a relatively inexpensive
automatic device for both research and routine sampling and
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55
and counting of pollen and other aeroallergens.
(3) A cost benefit analysis of regional versus local
ragweed control programs is warranted.
(4) Better estimates are needed of economic costs
associated with the illnesses caused by aeroallergens.
(5) The design of air systems, especially for homes/
should be evaluated and improved for indoor control of
aeroallergens.
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87- Raynor, G. S., and E. C. Ogden, Twenty-Four-Hour Dispersion of
Ragweed. Pollen from Known Sources, Brookhaven National Labora-
tory Report BNL 957 (T-398) (1965).
88. Rich, S., and. P. E. Waggoner, Atmospheric Concentration of
Cladosporum Spores, Science 137;962 (1962).
-------
63
89. Richardson, J. P., and E. R. Wooding, The Use of Sedimentation
Cell in the Sampling of Aerosols, Chem. Eng. Sci. .4:26 (1955).
90. Ridker, R. G., Economic Costs of Air Pollution. Studies in
Measurement (New York: Praeger, 1968).
91- Roth, A., and 0. Durham, Pollen and Mold Survey in Hawaii,
July 1963 to June 1964, J. Allergy 36:186 (1965).
92. Sakula, A., Mushroom-Workers' Lung, Brit. Med. J. .3:1708 (1967).
93. Sawyer, K. F., and. W. H. Walton, The Conifuge—A Size Separating
Sampling Device for Airborne Particles, J. Sci. Instr. 27:272
(1950).
94. Schoettlin, C. E., and E. Landau, Air Pollution and Asthmatic
Attacks in the Los Angeles Area, Public Health Repts. (U.S.)
76_:545 (1961).
95. Sehl, F. W., and B. J. Havens, Jr., A Modified Air Sampler
Employing Fiber Glass, A.M.A. Arch. Ind. Hyg. Occupational Med.
3.:98 (1951).
96. Shapiro, R. S., and R. Rooks, The Accuracy of the Reported
Ragweed. Pollen Count as a Measure of the Actual Pollen Expo-
sure of Individuals in That Community, J. Allergy 22:397 (1951).
97. Shapiro, R. S., B. C. Eisenberg, and. W. Binder, Airborne Fungi
in Los Angeles, California, J. Allergy 36;472 (1965).
98. Sheldon, J. M., and. E. W. Hewson, Atmospheric Pollution by
Aeroallergens, University of Michigan, Progress Report No. 4,
0344-I-P (1960).
99. Sheldon, J. M., and E. W. Hewson, Atmospheric Pollution by
Aeroallergens, Progress Report No. 5, Natl. Inst. of Allergy
and. Infect. Diseases, Res. Grant No. E 1379(c). The University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1962).
100. Small, W. S., Increase in Castor Bean Allergy in Southern
California Due to Fertilizer, J. Allergy 33:406 (1952).
101. Smith, A. R., L. Greenburg, and W. Siegel, Respiratory Disease
Among Grain Handlers, Ind. Bull. (Dept. of Labor, New York
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-------
64
102. Smith, R. D., and R. Rooks, The Diurnal Variation of Airborne
Ragweed Pollen as Determined by a Continuous Recording Particle
Sampler and Implications of the Study, J. Allergy 25:31 (1954).
103. Solomon, W. R., Comparative Effects of Transient Body Surface
Cooling, Recumbency and Induced Obstruction in Allergic Rhinitis
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104. Solomon, W. R., Air Pollution by Ragweed Pollen. IV. Aspects
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105. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1968, 89th ed.,
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C. (1968).
106. Sterling, T- D., S. V. Pollack, and J. Weinkam, Measuring the
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107. Susman, A. J., et al., Hyper sensitivity to Wood Dust, J..
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108. Thomas, D. J., Fibrous Filters for Fine Particle Filtration,
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109. Tuft, L., G. I. Blumstein, and Y. M. Hecks, Pollen Tolerance
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110. Voorhorst, R., F. T. M. Spieksma, H. Varekamp, M. J. Leupen,
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113. Watson, H. H., Errors due to Anisokinetic Sampling of Aerosols,
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-------
65
114. Wells, W. F., Apparatus for Study of Bacterial Behavior of
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115. Wilder, C. S., Chronic Conditions and Activity Limitation
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Dust. I. A Survey of the Effects, J. Occupational Med. 6_:319
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A Preliminary Report, Am. Rev. Respirat. Diseases 84:489 (1961),
-------
APPENDIX
-------
67
Asthma
Ul
C
o
E
•0
o
6
Asthmatic Bronchitis
JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY
FIGURE 1
Seasonal Variations in Respiratory Illness.
Monthly admissions to the Brisbane Children's Hospital in
Australia, 1955-58, for asthma, asthmatic bronchitis, and
bronchitis.
1955-56
JULY OCT. JAN. APR. JULY
FIGURE 2
Seasonal Fluctuations in Respiratory Illness for Several Years
Monthly admissions for asthma (including asthmatic bronchitis)
to the Brisbane Children's Hospital in Australia for each year
of the study. The spring and autumn waves occurred in each
year, with some variation in height and ^
-------
68
4 h
O
Morning
(0830-1030)
Afternoon
(1330-1530)
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 01 02 03 04 05 06
AUG SEPT
FIGURE 3
Ragweed Pollen Concentrations During the 19
Season at and near Ann Arbor/ Mich.
Ragweed
-------
14000
12000 -
10000 -
8000 -
.E
(/>
c
6000 —
4000 —
2000 —
0626
I I
0650 0714 0738 0802 0826
Hours ( E.S.T. )
0850
0914
0938
1002
<^
vO
FIGURE 4
Variations in Ragweed Pollen Concentrations Close to the Pollen Source.
-------
70
5 FEET
10 FEET
F£CT 0 20 40 60 8O IOO
is FEET
FIGURE 5
Ragweed Pollen Concentration Patterns (grains/mr' ) .
These patterns were observed at heights of 5, 10, and 15 ft in
an east field plot', August 10-11, 196187
100
100
100
0 50 100
FEET
FIGURE 6
Seasonal Average Concentration of Ragweed Pollen (grains/m3)
Sampled at 5 ft, east field plot, in-season, 1961.»
-------
o
_>
§ 10
Q>
O
o
0600
BACKGROUND RAGWEED
1961-64
1200 1800
Time ( E.S.T. )
2400
FIGURE 7
Diurnal Ragweed Pollen Concentration Patterns at a
Location Distant from a Local Source
5 20
PRESEASON
RAGWEED
1961-63
IN-SEASON
0600
1200
1800
2400 0
Time ( E.S.T. )
0600
1200
1800
2400
FIGURE 8
Diurnal Pollen Emission Patterns from Fields of Ragweed
76
-------
40
20
>
S 20
Q
«-^
o
-------
Pollen Count
60
50
40
30
20
10
I I I
i I
SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR.APR, MAY JUNE JULY AUG.
1957 1958 1959
FIGURE 10
Weekly Average Pollen Counts, El Paso, Tex.
57
-------
74
55
50
45
40
V 35
30
o
0
£ 25
20
15
1946
1948
1950
1952
1954
FIGURE 11
Pollen Count for New York. City, 1946-1954
111
-------
LEGEND
* Excellent
+ Good
® Fairly Good
All solid discs represent by smaller or larger
size the varying pollen pollution in different
area] or in specific communities.
FIGURE 12
Ragweed Pollen Refuges in the United States
34
- 1
(J1
-------
APPENDIX
76
TABLE 1
COMMON AEROALLERGENS52'64
Aeroallergens
Source
Pollens
Molds
Danders
House dust
Mi scellaneous
Vegetable fibers
and dusts
Cosmetics
Insecticides
Wind-pollinated plants, grasses
weeds, and trees
Usually saprophytic, prevalence
depending upon humidity
Feathers of chickens, geese,
ducks; and hair of cats, dogs,
horses, sheep, cattle, labo-
ratory animals,'and humans
A composite of all dusts found
about the home
Cotton, kapok, flax, hemp, jute,
straw, castor bean, coffee
bean, oris root, rye, wheat
Wave set lotions, talcs, per-
fumes, hair tonics
Insecticides containing pyre-
thrum as a common ingredient
Paints, varnishes,
and glues
Linseed oil and organic solvents
-------
APPENDIX
77
TABLE 2
COMMON WIND-POLLINATED
Common Name
Botanical Name
Diameter
(microns)
Specific
Giant ragweed
Burweed marsh elder
Short ragweed
False ragweed
Marsh elder
Southern ragweed
Western ragweed
Cocklebur
Russian thistle
Palmer's amaranth
Western water hemp
Mexican fireweed
Annual sage
Tall wormwood
Sagebrush
Nettle
Red sorrel
Hemp
English plantain
Bluegrass
Bluegrass
Bermuda grass
Orchard grass
Timothy
Rye
Corn
Sycamore
Mountain cedar
Hazelnut
Birch
Alder
Ash
Cottonwood
Elm
Bur oak
Shingle oak
Ambrosia trifida 19.25
Iva xanthifolia 19.3
Ambrosia elatior 20.0
Franseria a.canthicarpa 22.0
Iva ciliata 23.0
Ambrosia bidentata 23.0
Ambrosia psilostachya 26.4
Xanthium commune 27.0
Salsola pestifer 23.6
Amaranthus palmeri 25.8
Acnida tamariscina 27.5
Kochia scoparia 32.7
Artemisia annua 20.4
Artemisia caudata 21.0
Artemisia tridentata 25.85
Urtica qracilis 14.0
Rumex acetosella 21.45
Cannabi^ sativa 25.0
Plantago lanceolata 27.5
Ppa pratensis 28.0
Poa pratensis 30.0
Capriola dactvlon 28.5
Dactylis glomerata 34.0
Phleum pratense 34.0
Secale cereale 49.5
Zea mays 90.0
Platanus occidental's 22.22
Juniperus sabinoides 22.8
Corylus. americana 23.6
Betula niqra 24.6
Alnus glutinosa 26.0
Fraxinus_ americana 27.1
Populus virainiana 30.0
Ulmust americana 31.2
Quercus macrocarpa 32.3
Quercus imbricaria, 33.1
0.52
0.79
0.55*
0.75
0.58
0.50
0.57
0.45
0.90
1.02
1.01
0.97
1.02
1.04
1.03
0.77
0.78
0.82
0.97
0.90
0.90
1.01
0.91
0.90
0.98
1.00
0.92
1,
1,
,08
,09
0.94
0.97
0.90
0.79
1.00
1.04
1.04
(continued)
-------
78
APPENDIX
TABLE 2 (Continued)
COMMON WIND-POLLINATED PLANTS11
Common Name
Walnut
Beech
HicTcory
Scotch pine
Bull pine
Botanical Name
Juqlans niqra
Faqus grandifolia
Carya ovata
Pinus svlvestris
Pinus pondero sa
Diameter
(microns)
35.75
44.0
45.0
52.0
60.0
Specific
Gravity
0.93
0.94
0.79
0.45
0.45
-------
TABLE 3
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
60
Location
Alabama
Montgomery
Arizona
Phoenix
, Kingman
Arkansas
Little
Rock
California
North
Western
Southern
Area
San Fran-
cisco Bay
Area
Tree
1/15
6/7
2/1
5/1
2/7
5/7
2/1
7/1
1/15
3/1
2/15
6/15
Grass
4/1
10/1
4/1
11/1
5/15
10/1
4/1
8/7
3/1
12/1
4/1
1/1
Rag-
weed
9/1
10/7
9/15
11/1
8/1
10/15
8/15
10/15
7/1
11/15
7/7
11/1
6/22
11/1
Ama-
ranth
5/15
12/22
Russian
thistle
6/15
10/1
7/1
11/1
Salt
bush
6/15
10/1
4/1
9/22
Saqe
7/1
11/15
7/7
11/1
6/22
11/1
Chene-
pod
4/1
9/22
Dock
5/1
9/1
Plan-
tain
5/1
9/1
Kochia
Hemp
Elm
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Location
Colorado
Denver
(Connecticut
(Delaware
1
District of
Couiribia
Washing-
ton
Florida
Miami
Tampa
teorgia
Atlanta
Tree
3/15
4/15
3/15
5/22
3/1
5/15
2/1
5/15
2/1
4/1
2/7
5/15
1/15
5/7
Grass
6/7
7/15
5/15
7/15
5/15
7/7
5/15
7/7
3/1
6/1
1/1
12/31
5/1
9/15
Rag-
weed
8/1
10/1
8/15
9/15
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
5/15
9/15
8/7
12/1
8/15
10/1
Ama-
ranth
Russian
thistle
7/7
9/15
Salt
bush
Saqe
8/15
10/1
Chene-
pod
Dock
Plan-
tain
Kochia
7/7
9/15
Hemp
i
Elm
(continued)
oo
o
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Location
Idaho
Southern
Area
Illinois
Chicago
Indiana
Indiana-
polis
Iowa
Ames
Kansas
Wichita
Kentucky
Louisville
(Louisiana
1 New
1 Orleans
Tree
3/15
5/1
3/15
6/1
3/15
6/7
3/15
5/15
3/1
6/1
3/1
6/1
1/1
4/1
Grass
5/1
8/7
5/22
7/15
5/15
7/7
5/15
9/1
5/1
6/15
5/15
7/1
4/1
12/1
Rag-
weed
8/15
9/22
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/22
Ama-
ranth
7/15
10/1
Russian
thistle
7/7
10/1
7/15
10/1
Salt
bush
7/7
10/1
Sage
7/22
10/15
Chene-
pod
Dock
Plan-
tain
Kochia
Hemp
Elm
(continued)
oo
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Location
[Maine
(Maryland
1 Baltimore
Massachu-
setts
Boston
Michigan
Detroit
Minnesota
Minneap-
olis
Mississippi
Vicksburg
Missouri
St. Louis
Kansas
City
Tree
4/1
6/1
3/1
5/7
4/1
6/1
3/1
6/1
4/1
6/1
2/1
5/1
3/1
6/1
Grass
5/15
7/7
5/7
7/1
5/15
7/15
5/15
7/15
5/22
7/7
5/7
10/1
5/15
7/7
Rag-
weed
8/7
9/22
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
9/22
9/1
10/7
8/7
10/1
Ama-
ranth
6/1
10/1
Russian
thistle
Salt
bush
Saqe
Chene-
pod
6/1
10/1
Dock
Plan-
tain
Kochia
Hemp
Eln
(continued)
oo
to
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
1
Location
Montana
Miles City
iebraska
Omaha
evada
Reno
New Hamp-
shire
New
Jersey
JNew Mexico
1 Ro swell
New YorTc
1 New York
North Caro-
lina
Raleigh
Tree
4/1
6/1
3/1
6/1
4/1
6/1
4/1
6/1
3/15
6/1
3/15
5/1
3/15
6/1
2/1
6/1
Grass
5/1
9/22
5/15
7/15
6/1
8/1
5/15
7/22
5/15
7/15
5/15
10/15
5/15
7/15
5/15
7/15
Rag-
weed
8/1
10/7
8/15
9/22
8/22
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/22
10/22
8/15
10/1
8/15
10/1
Ama-
ranth
7/1
10/1
Russian
thistle
7/7
9/7
7/7
9/7
7/1
10/1
,
Salt
bush
7/1
10/1
7/1
10/1
Saqe
8/1
10/7
8/1
10/7
8/22
10/22
Chene-
pod
Dock
Plan-
tain
Kochia
Hemp
8/1
9/7
Elrr
(continued)
oo
00
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
jocation
forth Dakota
Fargo
Dhio
Cleveland
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
City
)regon
Portland
Area East of
1 Cascade
1 Mountains
Pennsylvania
Rhode
1 Island
Tree
4/1
6/1
3/15
6/15
2/15
6/15
2/22
5/1
3/15
4/15
3/15
5/15
3/15
6/1
Grass
6/1
8/1
6/1
7/15
5/1
10/1
4/22
9/1
5/7
7/1
5/7
7/15
5/22
8/1
Rag-
weed
7/22
9/7
8/15
9/22
8/22
10/7
8/15
9/15
8/15
10/7
8/15
10/1
Ama-
ranth
7/1
10/7
Russian
thistle
7/1
9/15
7/7
10/1
Salt
bush
7/7
10/1
Saqe
8/15
9/22
8/22
10/1
Chene-
pod
Dock
5/1
10/1
Plan-
tain
5/1
10/1
Kochia
Hemp
Elm
(continued)
CO
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Location
South Caro-
lina
Charles-
ton
South
'Dakota
Tennessee
Nashville
Texas
Dallas
Utah
Salt Lake
City
Vermont
Virginia
Richmond
Tree
2/15
5/22
3/1
5/1
2/22
5/22
12/15
5/1
4/1
5/22
4/1
6/1
2/1
6/15
Grass
5/15
8/7
5/15
7/15
5/1
9/7
4/1
10/1
5/7
7/22
5/22
7/15
5/15
7/15
Rag-
weed
8/15
10/7
7/22
10/1
8/22
10/7
9/1
10/1
8/15
10/1
8/15
9/22
8/15
10/1
Ama-
ranth
Russian
thistle
7/1
10/1
7/15
9/15
Salt
bush
Saqe
8/22
10/1
9/7
10/1
9/7
10/11
Chene-
pod
Dock
Plan-
tain
Kochia
Hemp
Elm
7/7
10/1
8/22
10/1
(continued)
CO
-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
POLLEN SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
Location
Washington
Seattle
Eastern
Area
West
Virginia
Wisconsin
Madison
Wyoming
Trees
2/22
5/1
3/15
4/15
3/15
6/15
4/1
6/1
3/22
5/1
Grass
4/22
10/15
4/22
7/7
5/22
7/15
6/1
7/22
6/7
8/1
Rag-
weed
8/15
9/22
8/15
9/15
8/15
9/22
7/7
9/15
Ama-
ranth
Russian
thistle
7/15
10/1
7/1
9/15
Salt
bush
7/15
10/1
Saqe
8/22
10/1
8/15
10/15
Chene-
pod
Dock
5/1
10/15
Plan-
tain
5/1
10/15
Kochia
Hemp
Elm
00
-------
APPENDIX
87
TABLE 4
MOST COMMDN AEROALLERGEN1C FUNGI20'52
Alternaria
Aspergillus
Botrytis
Cladosporium
Curyularia
Epicoccuiu
Fusarium
Helm intho spor i urn
Hormodendrum
Macro spor ium
Penicillium
Phoma
Pullalaria
Spondvlocladium
Stemphyllum
-------
TABLE 5
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOSPITAL ADMISSIO^ RATES
FOR DAYS OF HIGH AND DAYS OF LOW AIR POLLUTION 106
Oxi-
Disease Groupings dants CO SO-? NO?
Allergic disorders x x
Acute upper respira- - x +
tory infections
Pneumonia x + x
Bronchitis 4- + x
Oxides
of
NO Nitrogen
x
+ X
X X
Oxi-
dant
Precur-
Ozone sor
-
X. X
X X
— X
Partic-
ulate Temper-
Matter ature
x x
x x.
x +
X
Humid-
ity
+
—
x.
Diseases of tonsils
and adenoids
x
Other diseases of
respiratory system
x
x
X
*Differences of 5 percent or less are not shown.
Differences of 6-10 percent indicated by + or —.
Differences of 11 percent or more indicated by x or x. (if negative).
oo
oo
-------
APPENDIX
Table 6
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OP EMERGENCY VISITS BY MONTH, 1960
9
Hospital
and City
Harlem
New York
Metropol it an
New York
D.C. General
Washington
General
Philadelphia
Cook County
Chicago
St. Francis
Evanston
Thomas Memorial
Charleston
Michael Reese
Chicago
De Paul
Norfolk
Charity
New Orleans
Month
Jan.
8.45
7.49
9.60
7.98
5.95
3.70
7.76
7.23
6.22
5.94
Feb.
7.58
7.33
6.33
7.38
4.93
2.47
5.94
6.54
6.73
5.12
Marcli
7.82
7.93
8.25
5.57
4.64
7.41
5.02
5.22
2.85
4.08
April
5.82
5.96
6.44
5.65
5.53
3.70
8.68
6.41
5.96
5.22
May
6.29
6.55
5.99
7.55
7.09
7.41
3.20
6.60
8.81
8.18
June
5.89
5.95
5.31
6.91
7.72
8.64
5.02
6.22
7.77
5.89
July
5.12
5.58
6.55
7.81
6.30
8.64
4.57
7.10
6.48
8.00
Aug.
7.11
5.73
4.97
8.20
7.46
9.88
9.13
8.04
4.40
6.64
Sept.
8.09
7.47
7.91
7.51
10.30
17.28
15.07
7.92
9.07
7.93
Oct.
12.85
14.76
14.69
13.29
17.34
18.52
10.50
15.65
14.77
15.01
Nov.
13.40
14.41
13.67
13.72
12.78
6.17
13.24
12.51
14.51
17.10
Dec.
11.58
10.82
10.28
8.42
9.96
6.17
11.87
10.56
12.43
10.89
Total
No. of
Cases
10,684
5,432
885
2,317
3,795
81
219
1,591
386
8,163
Percent
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
00
-------
APPENDIX 90
TABLE 7
AVERAGE DAILY NUMBER OF EMERGENCY CLINIC
VISITS FOR ASTHMA, 1962, 1961, 195747
Hospital
Year Bellevue Metropolitan Harlem
1962
September 1-18 12.0 23.2 39.7
September 19-26* 21.0 42.4 60.3
September 27-30 12.3 30.3 57.0
1961
September 1-15 7.4 27.3 14.5
September 16-19* 30.5 60.8 44.8
September 20-30 12.9 40.2 24.1
1957
September 16-25 6.6 9.0 25.0
September 26-30* 16.2 24.0 52.4
October 1-15 9.7 11.2 26.3
*Critical period.
-------
APPENDIX
91
TABLE 8
AVERAGE DAILY NUMBER OF EMERGENCY
CLINIC VISITS FOR ASTHMA, SEPTEMBER, 1964, 196549
Location and Time
1964
Bellevue Hospital
September 1-12
September 13-16*
Harlem Hospital
September 1-12
September 13-16*
Metropolitan Hospital
September 1-12
September 13-16
1965
Bellevue Hospital
September 1-24
September 25-30*
Harlem Hospital
September 1-24
September 25-30*
Metropolitan Hospital
September 1-24
September 25-30*
Average
Visits Percent
Per Day Increase Probability
13.3
28.0 +110.5% <0.01
37.9
55.5 + 45.4% <0.01
16.8
37.0 +120.2% <0.01
12.1
35.7 +195.0% <0.01
32.5
66.7 +105.2% <0.01
16.6
47.2 +134.3% <0.01
*Critical period
-------
92
APPENDIX
TABLE 9
ANNUAL ADMISSIONS, BRISBANE CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL23
Group 1955-1956 1956-1957 1957-1958 Total
Asthma 115 98 107 320
Asthmatic
bronchitis 71 93 72 236
Total 186 191 179 556
-------
APPENDIX
93
TABLE 10
COMPARISON OF MOLD AND POLLEN COUNTS63
(Israel)
Town
Arad
Beilinson
Mold Counta
Monthly Mean per Plate
6.5-15.5
20.0-61.5
Pollen
Monthly Mean
per can2
962
1,934
Countb
Mean per cm2
530
1,222
a9 cm sediment plate exposed J
^Durham gravity slide sampler,
-------
APPENDIX
94
TABLE 11
MAXIMUM DESITOMETRIC READINGS FOR COMPOUND A*43
Grains
Botanical Name
Readings
Stem Husk
Bran Grain
Wheat
Corn
Oats
Barley
Rye
Triticum vulqare
Zea mays
A vena sativa
Hordeum vulqare
Secale cereale
58
53
47
15
94
88
84
78
22
86
85
82
79
10
12
14
13
9
4
Seed
Group
Botanical Name
Readings
Husk
Seed
Flax
False Flax
Rape
Turnip Rape
Linum usitatissum
Camelina sativa
Brassica napus
Brassica rapa
94
93
95
82
95
94
95
92
Pollen
Group
Botanical Name
Readings
Short ragweed
Oak
Cottonvrood
Maple
Elm
Alfalfa
Ambrosia, artemisiifolia
Quercus alba
Populus trichocarpa
Acer saccharum
Ulmus americana
Medicago sativa
96
95
92
87
63
38
*A high reading represents a high relative concentra-
tion of Compound A.
-------
APPENDIX
95
TABLE 12
DERMAL AND BRONCHIAL REACTIVITY TO CANDIDA ALBICANS59
(81 Patients)
No. of
Patients
19
23
16
23
Total
Immediate
Immediate Delayed Bronchial
Skin Skin Reaction
Response Response Only
+ + 8
+ - 4
+ 3
3
18
Immediate
& Delayed
Bronchial
Reaction
4
8
1
2
15
Negative
Bronchial
Reaction
7
11
12
18
48
-------
APPENDIX -_
96
TABLE 13
ABUNDANCE OF RAGWEEDS ACCORDING TO LAND USE CATEGORIES98
Percent of Areas Represented in
Each Abundance Scale Rating3
Land Use Category
Cropland — corn
Cropland — wheat
Cropland — oats
Alfalfa meadow
Pasture
Grass Meadow
Park lands
Woods
Marshes
Roadsides
Residence property
Soybeans
Clover and clover mixtures
Timothy and timothy mixtures
One to three-year abandonment
Summer-fallowed fields
0
8.5%
0
0
75
81
91
90
100
100
87
100
0
40
100
0
50
1
50%
0
0
25
0
0
10
0
0
10
0
50
0
0
44
50
2
33%
0
33
0
9.5
0
0
0
0
1
0
50
40
0
14
0
3
8.5%
33
33
0
0
9
0
0
0
2
0
0
20
0
28
0
4
0%
67
33
0
9.5b
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
0
aAbundance Scale Rating:
0—No ragweeds observed.
1—Ragweeds present, but averaging less than 0.5
plants per square meter.
2—Ragweed density averaging from 0.5 to 1 plant
per square meter.
3—Ragweed density averaging from 1 to 10 plants
per square meter.
4—Ragweed density averaging over 10 plants per
square meter.
is value is based on observations of pastures
used exclusively by swine at the time the study was made
-------
APPENDIX
97
TABLE 14
COMMON ALLERGEN1C PRODUCTS52'64
Product
Pillows
Stuffing in mattresses
and toys
Rugs
Fabrics
Brushes
Purs
Wigs
Cosmetics (wave set lotions,
hair tonics, talcs, and
perfumes)
Insecticides
Paints and varnishes
Fertilizer
Chicken, duck, and geese
feathers, kapok
Kapok; cat, cattle, and horse
hair
Cattle and horse hair, wool
Goat, cattle, and horse hair;
wool
Cattle and horse hair, hog
bristles
Sensitivities exist to indi-
dual furs
Human and horse hair
Many contain orris root or
flaxseed
Many contain pyrethrum derived
from dried flowers of the
chrysanthemum family, which is
related to ragweed
Flaxseed is used to produce
linseed oil, an ingredient in
many paints and varnishes
Castor bean pomace
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 15
10LLEN DISPERSAL5
Species (Means of Dispersion)
Horizontal Distances and Units Dispersed
lAgropvron cristatum (Wind)
JA. intermedium (Wind)
r
JBeta sp. (Wind)
JBromus sp. (Wind)
1
Cedrus atlantica (Wind)
b. libani (Wind)
jDactvlis sp. (Wind)
[Fraxinus sp. (Wind)
Juglans regia (Air currents)
Lolium SP. (Wind)
Malus pumila (Wind)
3ryza sativa (Dehiscense and
1 Wind)
Rods from field
Pollen grains
Rods from field
Pollen grains
Meters from seed fields
Pollen grains/cm2
Rods from field
Pollen grains
Feet from source tree
Pollen grains
Feet from source tree
Pollen grains
Meters from field
Pollen grains/cm2
Feet from source tree
Pollen grains
Feet from pollen source
Pollen grains/mm2y24 hr
Meters from ryegrass field
Pollen grains/cm3
Feet from source tree
Pollen grains
Centimeters from pollen source
Pollen grains
5
72
5
44
0
5
146
40
189
15
127
0
3,096
25
2,545
60
4
0
0
13
25
22
15
29
12
17
300
15
41
120
116
75
62
200
447
50
1,008
150
2.8
200
165
2
50
9
25
10
25
4
500
25
21
240
71
135
37
400
172
150
141
500
1.4
500
330
0.9
100
3
800
40
10
325
51
195
22
600
120
400
29
1,000
0.6
700
150
1
60
4
700
0.1
800
86
1,600
0
900
200
0.4
(continued)
00
-------
TABLE 15 (Continued)
POLLEN DISPERSAL
Species (Means of Dispersion)
[Panicum virqatum (Wind)
1
IParthenium arqentatum (Wind)
iPenniselum qlaucum (Wind)
iPhleum pralense (Wind)
iPicea sp. (Wind)
r
JP. cembroides (Wind)
L
Populus sp. (Wind)
P. deltoides
Secale cereale (Wind)
•
Ulmus sp. (Wind)
Zea mays (Wind)
Horizontal Distances and Units Dispersed
Rods from field
Pollen qrains
Yards from guayule plants
Pollen qra ins/in2
Yards from release point
Pollen, percent
Meters from timothy field
Pollen qra ins/cm3
Feet from source tree
Pollen qrains
Feet from source tree
Pollen qrains
Feet from source tree
Pollen qrains
Feet from source tree
Pollen qrains
Rods from rye field
Pollen grains
Meters from rye field
Pollen qra ins/cm2
Feet from source tree
Pollen qrains
Rods from field
. Pollen qrains
Feet from pollen source
Pollen grains
5
27
100
4
100. C
0
0
9.7
10
8,479
50
107
25
115
5
453
100
4,181
500
115
5
18
10
7,330
15
7
400
50
8.9
100
165
0.1
75
462
500
86
250
62
15
232
300
2,579
L,100
152
15
6
30
341
25
4
850
200
0.8
200
330
0.7
150
86
1,400
76
500
46
25
124
500
1,834
2,700
12
25
3
50
121
40
2
1,200
400
0.4
300
225
38
3,200
69
1,550
20
40
52
700
1,343
5,500
8
40
2
70
30
60
0.5
500
300
52
4,200
66
3,550
0.3
60
11
60
0.8
-------
TABLE 16
POLLEN COUNTS, ST. LOUIS SITE, 1963-196436
(In Grains per Cubic Yard*)
Month Year
March 1963
1964
Upril 1963
1964
May 1963
1964
IJune 1963
1964
July '1963
Aug. 1963
1964
Sept. 1963
- r
Average Count Per Month
Elm
ackberrv
134.9
40.4
1.7
12.8
0.2
0.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Poplar
Cottonwood
30.5
0
7.5
10.0
0
1.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maple
4.9
1.1
0.4
2.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Oak
17.5
0
254.3
117.2
6.2
78.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sycamore
4.2
0
92.1
78.6
0.3
9.4
0
4.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
Hickory
Walnut
2.5
0
13.4
3.3
12.3
39.3
0.3
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
Grass
0
'0
0.2
0
5.0
4.6
7.6
4.3
2.8
0.8
0
0
0
0
Plantain
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
2.8
1.9
1.3
1.6
0
0
0
Goosefoot
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
0.7
0.9
21.9
11.2
31.4
30.7
Ragweed
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.8
86.4
47.8
112.7
144.3
*Multiply by 1.3 = grains per cubic meter.
o
o
-------
101
APPENDIX
TABLE 17
NUMBER OP ALTERNARIA SPORES PER CUBIC FOOT81
Time
5 a.m.
6 a.m.
7 a.m.
9 a.m.
11 a.m.
1 p.m.
2 p.m.
5 p.m.
6 p.m.
Number per Cubic Foot
12
7
9
13
16
17
13
16
19
-------
APPENDIX
102
TABLE 18
RECOMMENDED CONDITIONS FOR USE OP COMMON
GERMICIDAL SUBSTANCES (AT ROOM TEMPERATURE, 25°C)62
FOR FUNGI
Germicide
Phenol
Lysol
Hypo chlorite + 1% wet-
ting agent (Naccanol,
etc.)
Caustic sodium hydroxide
Formalin (37% HCHO)
Steam formaldehyde vapor
in closed area
-Propiolactone
Ethyl ene oxide gas
Concentration
5%
3%
2,000 ppm
10%
5% solution
1 ml/ft3 in air with
Rh* above 80%
200 mg/ft3 in air with
Rh* above 80%
300 mg/liter
Exposure
Time
15 min
15 min
10 min
30 min
10 min
30 min
30 min
8-16 hr
*Rh = relative humidity.
-------
TABLE 19
RESOURCE COSTS OF DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH AIR POLLUTION57
Basis
of
Cost
Premature
death
Premature
burial
Treatment
Absenteeism
Annual Costs Associated With Selected Diseases,* Millions of Dollars
Cancer
of the
Respiratory
Svstem
518
15
35
112
Chronic
Bronchitis .
18
0.7
89
52
Acute
Bronchitis
6
0.2
Common
Cold
-
200
131
Pneumonia
329
13
73
75
Emphysema
62
2
Asthma
59
2
138
60
*Using a discount rate of 5 percent.
O
CO
-------
APPENDIX 104
TABLE 20
ASTHMA-HAY FEVER PURCHASED ACQUISITION
OF PRESCRIBED MEDICINE, JULY 1964-JUNE 19543
Number of conditions 14,375,000
Percent of total prescribed medicine
acquisitions 2.7%
Number of purchased acquisitions of
prescribed medicine 21,194,000
Percent of total number purchased
acquisitions of prescribed medicine:
Cost under $2.00 26.0%
2.00-2.99 25.2%
3.00-4.99 33.4%
5.00-6.99 9.3%
7.00
Average cost per purchase of prescribed
medicine $3.30
-------
APPENDIX 105
TABLE 21
SIX MOST FREQUENT CAUSES OF NON-MAJOR
ACTIVITY LIMITATION, JULY 1963-JUNE 196525
Cause Percent of Total
Arthritis and rheumatism 11.9
Heart condition 10.7
Impairment of back or spine 7.7
Mental and nervous conditions 7.0
Asthma-hay fever 6.8
Impairment of lower extremities and hip 6.3
-------
106
APPENDIX
TABLE 22
AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS REPORTED AS LIMITED IN ACTIVITY
DUE TO SELECTED CHRONIC CONDITIONS, JULY 1961-JUNE 1963115
Usual Activity Status
(Average Number of Persons with Conditions X 1,000)
All Usually Keeping
Cause of Limitation Activities Working House Retired (Age; 17+ yrs)
All conditions 22,275 6,384 7,525 4,668 2,257
Asthma-hay fever 1,118 242 281 190 117
-------
APPENDIX
107
TABLE 23
DEATH RATE (1950 TO 1966) AND DEATHS (1965 AND 1966)
FROM SELECTED CAUSES*05
Cause
All Causes
Tuberculosis
(all forms)
Meningococcal
infection
Asthma
Influenza and
pneumonia
(except pneu-
monia of
newborn )
Influenza
Pneumonia
Bronchitis
Deaths per 100,000 Population
1950
963.8
22.5
0.6
2.9
31.3
4.4
26.9
2.0
1955
930.4
9.1
0.6
3.6
27.1
1.7
25.4
1.9
1960
954.7
6.1
0.4
3.0
37.3
4.4
32.9
2.4
1964
939.6
4.3
0.4
2.3
31.1
0.9
30.2
2.8
1965
943.2
4.1
0.5
2.3
31.9
1.2
30.8
3.0
1966
951.3
3.9
0.4
2.2
32.5
1.4
31.0-
3.1
Deaths
1965 1966
1,828,136 1,863,149
7,934 7,625
850 876
4,520 4,324
61,903 63,615
2,295 2,830
59,608 60,785
5,772 6,151
------- |