REPORT FOR CONS 'N THE
AIR QUALITY 0
S. DEPARTM
ion am
National Control Admin
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REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE
METROPOLITAN MILWAUKEE INTRASTATE
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
June 1969
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CONTENTS
PREFACE 3
INTRODUCTION 4
EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS 12
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS .31
THE PROPOSED REGION .42
DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL .42
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PREFACE
The Secretary, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is
directed by the Air Quality Act of 1967 to designate "air quality
control regions" as an initial step toward the establishment of
regional air quality standards and the implementation of air quality
control programs. In addition to listing the major factors to be
considered in the development of region boundaries, the Act stipulates
that the designation of a region shall be preceded by consultation
with appropriate State and local authorities.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration, DHEW, has
conducted a study of the greater Milwaukee area, the results of which
•are presented in this report. The Region* boundaries proposed in this
report reflect consideration of available and pertinent data; however,
the boundaries remain subject to revision suggested by consultation
with State and local authorities. Formal designation will be withheld
pending the outcome of the meeting. This report is intended to serve
as the starting point for the consultation.
The Administration is appreciative of assistance received either
directly during the course of this study or indirectly during previous
studies from the official air pollution agencies of the affected state
and counties, the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission,
and the Bureau of State Planning.
*For the purposes of this report, the word "region," when capitalized,
will refer to the proposed Metropolitan Milwaukee Intrastate Air
Quality Control Region. When not capitalized, unless otherwise
noted, it will refer to air quality control regions in general.
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INTRODUCTION
"For the purpose of establishing ambient air
quality standards pursuant to section 108, and for
administrative and other purposes, the Secretary,
after consultation with appropriate State and local
authorities, shall, to the extent feasible, within
18 months after the date of enactment of the Air
Quality Act of 1967 designate air quality control
regions based on jurisdictional boundaries, urban-
industrial concentrations, and other factors including
implementation of air quality standards. The
Secretary may from time to time thereafter, as he
determines necessary to protect the public health
and welfare and after consultation with appropriate
State and local authorities, revise the designation
of such regions and designate additional air quality
control regions. The Secretary shall immediately
notify the Governor or Governors of the affected
State or States of such designation."
Section 107(a), Air Quality Act of 1967
Air pollution, because of its direct relationship to people and
their activities, is an urban problem. Urban sprawls often cover
thousands of square miles; they quite often include parts of more
than one State and almost always are made up of several counties
and an even greater number of cities. Air pollution, therefore, also
becomes a regional problem, and the collaboration of several govern-
mental jurisdictions is prerequisite to the solution of the problem
in any given area. Air quality control regions called for in the
above-quoted section of the Air Quality Act of 1967 are meant to
define the geographical extent of air pollution problems in different
urban areas and the combination of jurisdictions that must contribute
to the solution in each.
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5
The regional approach set up by the Air Quality Act is
illustrated in Figure 1. The approach involves a series of steps
to be taken by Federal, State, and local governments, beginning
with the designation of regions, the publication of air quality
criteria, and the publication of information on available control
techniques by the Federal Government. Following the completion of
these three steps, the Governors of the States involved in a region
designation must file with the Secretary within 90 days a letter
of intent, indicating that the States will adopt within 180 days air
standards and within another 180 days plans for the implementation,
maintenance, and enforcement of those air quality standards in the
designated air quality control regions.
The new Federal legislation provides for a regional attack on
air pollution and, at the same time, allows latitude in the form
which regional efforts may take. While the Secretary reserves approval
authority, the States involved in a designated region assume the
responsibility for developing air quality standards and an implemen-
tation plan which includes administrative procedures for abatement
and control.
The basic objective in the designation of an air quality control
)
region is that it be self-contained, i.e. that the transfer of air
pollution out of or into a region is minimized. This objective
recognizes the fact that an air quality control region cannot be
delineated in a way to make it completely independent with respect
to the air pollution problem. Because air polluants can be carried
long distances, the air over a region can be subjected occasionally or
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HEW DESIGNATES
AIR QUALITY
CONTROL REGIONS.
HEW DEVELOPS AND
PUBLISHES AIR
QUALITY CRITERIA
BASED ONSCIENTiFJC
EVIDENCE OF AIR
POLLUTION EFFECTS.
HEW PREPARES
AND PUBLISHES
REPORTS ON
AVAILABLE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
STATES INDICATE
THEIR INTENT
TO SET STANDARDS.
(PUBLIC
HEARINGS)
STATES SET
AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS
FOR THE AIR
QUALITY CONTROL
REGIONS.
STATES ESTABLISH
COMPREHENSIVE PLANS
FOR IMPLEMENTING
AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS.
STATES SUBMIT
STANDARDS FOR
HEW REVIEW.
I
STATES SUBMIT
IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
FOR HEW REVIEW.
STATES ACT TO CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION IN ACCORDANCE
WITH AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION.
Figure 1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ACTION TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION ON A REGIONAL
BASIS, UNDER THE AIR QUALITY ACT.
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7
even frequently to trace amounts of pollution from other cities
and individual sources located outside its boundaries. Under
episodic conditions such contributions can even reach significant
quantities. The problem of a boundary designation is further
compounded in that urban areas generally do not end abruptly but are
surrounded by activities that can contribute to the pollution of the
urban area as well as be the recipients of its generated pollution.
Consideration of all these possibilities would result in regions
substantially larger than is practical or even necessary to get to the
brunt of the problem. The boundaries of regions, however, should
encompass areas that contain sources that add significantly to the
pollution load of the air as well as the areas that are significantly
and continuously affected by it. For this purpose, the delineation
of regional boundaries is based on evaluation of annual and seasonal
air pollutant emissions and resultant ambient concentrations rather
than those based on short-term and specific conditions.
The selection of regional boundaries should not be based solely
on today's conditions and needs, but, perhaps more importantly, should
give consideration to future development and growth of the area.
Consideration should be given to prescribed metropolitan plans as
!
well as the forecasted growth. Such considerations should result
in the designation of regions that will contain the region-wide air
pollutant source-receptor system for a number of years to come. This
is not to say that the regional boundaries should remain stationary
and unchanged. Periodic review of boundaries is desirable, and changes
in the boundary should be considered if conditions warrant.
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8
The delineation of region boundaries solely on the basis of
source locations and distributional patterns of ambient air pollution
would most likely result in regions that do not follow any existing
governmental boundaries, are difficult to define, and,more importantly,
extremely difficult if not impossible to administrate. It is for this
reason that existing jurisdictional entities are reviewed; wherein
practical the boundary lines of a region include that combination
of whole jurisdictions which encompasses the problem area. There can
be exceptions to that philosophy, however The presence of overly
large jurisdictions, marked topographical features (mountains), or
notable differences in development within a given jurisdiction may,
in some cases, make it desirable to include only portions of some
jurisdictions.
A region, then, will represent a balance between the various
objectives discussed so far to the extent that any two of them lead
to different conclusions. The strength of some factors over others
may lead to region boundaries which exclude some sources of pollution
that might affect the air quality of part or all of the nearby region
under certain conditions. Even though the impact of such sources would
probably be minimal, the implementation plan required under the Air
Quality Act for the region should provide a mechanism for the control
of point sources that are located just beyond the region boundary.
Such a provision would be consistent with the basic objective of
providing desirable air quality within an area being designated as
an air quality control region.
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9
Figure 2 summarizes the procedure used by the National Air
Pollution Control Administration for designating air quality control
regions.
A preliminary delineation of the region is developed by bringing
together two essentially separate studies—the "Evaluation of Engineering
Factors" and the "Evaluation of Urban Factors."
The study of "Engineering Factors" indicates the location of
pollution sources and the geographic extent of serious pollutant
concentrations in the ambient air. Pollutant sources are located by
an inventory of emissions from automobiles, industrial activities, space
heating, waste disposal, and other pollution generators. Pollutant
concentrations in the ambient air are estimated from air quality
sampling data by a theoretical diffusion model. When it exists, air
quality sampling data is more reliable than the theoretical diffusion
model results since the data is directly recorded by pollutant measuring
instruments. Unfortunately, in many cases extensive air quality
sampling data is unavailable in the rural areas surrounding an urban
complex.
The study of "Urban Factors" encompasses all non-engineering
considerations. It reviews existing governmental jurisdictions,
current air pollution control programs, present concentrations of
population and industry, and expected patterns of urban growth. Other
non-engineering factors are discussed when they are relevant. As a
whole, the study of urban factors indicates how large an air quality
control region must be in order to encompass expected growth of
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ENGINEERING EVALUATION
• EMISSIONS INVENTORY
• METEOROLOGY
• AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS
EXISTING AIR QUALITY DATA
DIFFUSION MODEL OUTPUT
URBAN FACTORS
• Jurisdictional Boundaries
• Urban-Industrial Concentrations
• Cooperative Regional Arrangements
• Pattern and Rate of Growth
• Existing State and Local Air
Pollution Control Legislation & Programs
Preliminary
Delineation
of
Regions
Consultation
with State
and Local
Officials
Formal
Designation
by
Secretary-HEW
Figure 2. Flow diagram for the designation of air quality control regions.
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11
pollution sources in the future. It also considers which group of
governmental jurisdictions will most effectively administer a
strong regional air quality control program.
The conclusions of the engineering study are combined with the
results of the urban factors study to form the basis of an initial
proposal for an air quality control region. As shown in Figure 2,
the proposal is then submitted for consultation with State and local
officials. After reviewing the suggestions raised during the
consultation, the Secretary formally designates the region with a
notice in the Federal Register and notifies the Governors of the
States affected by the designation.
The body of this report contains a proposal for the boundaries
of the Metropolitan Milwaukee Intrastate Air Quality Control Region
and supporting studies on engineering and-urban factors. The report
itself is intended to serve as the background document for the formal
consultation with appropriate State and local authorities.
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12
EVALUATION OF ENGINEERING FACTORS
The engineering evaluation for the Milwaukee area was based
on a study of topography, air pollutant emissions, meteorology,
estimated air quality levels, and available ambient air quality data.
The emission inventory indicated the location of point and area
sources and the quantity of pollutants emitted from these sources.
Emission densities were calculated from the emission quantities
and grid zone areas. Emissions and average meteorological data
were used in a diffusion model to estimate air quality levels in
*
the Milwaukee study area.
TOPOGRAPHY
Four of the seven counties in the study area border Lake
Michigan; Ozaukee, Milwaukee, Racine, and Kenosha account for
approximately 100 miles of Lake Michigan shoreline. The land near
the lake is fairly flat and slowly changes to gently rolling prairie
terrain towards the western side of the study area. The Menomonee
and the Milwaukee Rivers converge in the center of urban Milwaukee,
producing a harbor for Lake Michigan water commerce.
METEOROLOGY
The climate in the Milwaukee study area is influenced by the
general storms which move eastward along the northern border of
the United States and by those which move from the southwestern part
of the country to the Great Lakes. The high barometric pressure
systems which move eastward or southeastward across the country
also affect the area. For this reason the weather changes frequently.
* The Milwaukee study area refers to the seven counties of Kenosha,
Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Walworth, Washington, and Waukesha.
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13
The shore areas are also influenced by Lake Michigan, especially
in the spring, summer, and fall, when the Lake water temperature
varies to a great extent from the air temperature. During the
spring and early summer, a shift of wind from a westerly to an
easterly direction frequently causes a sudden 10°-15° drop in
daytime temperatures. In the autumn, the relatively warm water of the
Lake prevents nighttime temperatures on the shore line from falling
as low as they do a few miles inland.
Annual and seasonal wind roses for the Milwaukee area are
shown in Figure 3. During the winter months, the frequency of
occurrence of wind from the western directions (NNW-SSW) is
greatest indicating that air pollution in the study area is
transported most of the time towards Lake Michigan. Wind roses
for summer and annual conditions are more evenly balanced.
EMISSIONS INVENTORY
The National Air Pollution Control Administration conducted an
2
inventory of air pollutant emissions for the Milwaukee area. Five
pollutants were inventoried--sulfur oxides, total particulates,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Sulfur oxides, total
particulates and carbon monoxide are considered in this report since
they provide an indication of the general geographic extent of the
overall problem. Sulfur oxides pollution levels illustrate the
impact of fuel burning activities at stationary sources. Levels of
carbon monoxide provide the best indication of the impact of gasoline-
powered motor vehicles on the regional air pollution pattern.
Particulate emissions primarily show the extent of industrial, power,
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14
f.f
Figure 3. Percent Frequency of
Wind Direction for
Various Averaging Times,
Based on 1951-1960 Data.
Winter
1-1
Summer
Annual
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15
incineration, and heating sources. Results of the emissions inventory
are tabulated in Table 1.
Figure 4 breaks the total emissions down into percent contribution
by the vaiious source categories. Power plants emit the majority
of sulfur oxides pollution (69% of the total). Total particulate
emissions are more evenly distributed by source category; industrial
sources contribute 45% and power plants, 28% of the total. Trans-
portation sources contribute the over-whelming majority of carbon
monoxide pollution. Approximately 94% of all CO emitted in the
study area is attributed to transportation sources.
To show the geographical distribution of emissions, the study
area was divided into the grid system shown in Figure 5. The
estimated annual emissions of each of the three pollutants by grid
zone were converted to average daily emissions for average, maximum,
and minimum space heating days. Average emission densities were
determined by relating the total quantity of pollutants emitted in
each of the grid zones to the land area of each zone. The resulting
emission densities for average space-heating days are shown in
Figures 6, 7, and 8. The general pattern of emission densities for
each of the three pollutants is closely related to the pattern of
urbanization in the Milwaukee area.
Figure 9 shows the major point sources in the study area which
contribute to the air pollution problem.
AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS
The geographical distribution of pollutant sources illustrates
the core of the problem area. It does not, however, elucidate the
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Table I. Pollutant Emissions by Source Category
and Political Jurisdiction in the Milwaukee Area
(Tons/Year)
CO
X
a
§3
S
i
H
f6
PH
n
}_4
s
g
§
§
O
County
Kenosha
Milwaukee
Ozaukee
Racine
Walworth
Washington
Waukesha
Total
Kenosha
Milwaukee
Ozaukee
Racine
Walworth
Washington
Waukesha
Total
Kenosha
Milwaukee
Ozaukee
Racine
Walworth
Washington
Waukesha
Total J^
Industrial
1760
42300
500
2900
NA
175
130
47765
2190
40000
315
2810
NA
75
90
45480
80
1300
10
90
NA
10
5
:. 1495
Commercial
and
Institutional
10
70
NA
10
NA
NA
NA
90
10
110
NA
10
NA
NA
NA
' 130
• m* M
NA
NA
NA
NA
Neg.
Residential
1990
15920
810
2480
520
890
3170
25780
440
3500
180
550
110
200
700
5680
460
3710
190
580
120
210
740
6010
Power
Plants
...
144900
28120
...
...
M «•»
173020
w «-
16330
12000
...
___
•• « •>
28330
_ _ _
840
190
— — H
1030
Total
Fuel
3760
203190
29430
5390
520
1065
3300
246655
2640
59940
12495
3370
110
275
790
79620
540
5850
390
670
120
220
745
8535
Industrial
Process
Losses
...
220
*" ™ ~
220
15
2400
55
180
40
2240
4930
•• — •
— — —
•• _ w
Transportation
175
1390
135
355
70
140
495
2760
300
4575
240
560
110
210
790
6785
28030
344030
20790
60550
13960
25920
87740
581020
Refuse
Disposal
Neg
240
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
240
430
6730
180
560
180
190
660
8930
2300
19790
930
2950
960
1000
3510
31440
Total
3935
205040
29565
5745
590
1205
3795
249875
3385
73645
12970
4670
400
715
4480
100265
30870
369670
22110
64170
15040
27140
91995
620995
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17
\
Power Plants
69%
\-T
(Commercial & Institutional)
/Industrial Process f2%
(^Refuse Disposal j
ransportation 1%
SULFUR OXIDES
Residential 6%
-Industrial Process 5%
Commercial & 1
institutional) <17.
ransportation
7%
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
CARBON MONOXIDE
Transportation
94%
Figure 4. Emissions of Sulfur
Oxides, Particulates, and
Carbon Monoxide in the
Total Study Area by
Various Sources.
[Industrial
I Residential f 1%
(.Power Plants]
—Refuse Disposal
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18
1
1
1
N
•N
WALWOR1
1
••^^^^H
1
1
1
1
1.
n
*
H
WAUKESF
!
1
. _ _____ _ ___
WASHINGTON
A
"1
1 RACI
1 j
h-J
| KENOS
.1
•^••B
\
ME
••i
HA
_» •
r
i
i-
1
I
J OZAUKEE
1 f
\
«
MILW
••«•
_»
^
\
\
f^UKEE
_____ _ .
/
\
I
I
1
\
A
V
j
-f
\
1
_\
Figure 5. The Milwaukee Study Area Grid
Coordinate System.
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on s mi *•
Figure 6. Mean daily density of particulates in the Milwaukee study area, 1967.
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20
0.00 - 0.009
0.01 - 0.099
0.10 - 0.99
1.0 - 5.0
> 5.0
WALWOF TH
•
WAUK SHA
WASHINGTON
RAC
r
KENO
Figure 7, Mean daily density of sulfur oxides in the Milwaukee study area, 1967.
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Figure 8. Mean daily density of carbon monoxide in the Milwaukee study area, 1967.
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22
^ Industrial
• Power Plants
f Incineration
A Process
WASHINGTON
WAUKESHA
OZAUKEE
MILWAUKEE
WALWORTH
RACINE
KENOSHA
Figure 9. Point Sources that emit 1 ton or more per day of
of any single pollutant (SOX, Particulates, or CO).
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23
extent of the influence of pollution sources on the people and
property located outside the highly urbanized portion of the Milwaukee
area. A study of air quality levels known or estimated to occur
is useful in determining the area affected by the pollution sources
and thus subject to inclusion in the Air Quality Control Region.
Such analysis can be based directly on air sampling data in those
instances where the sampling program covers a large enough area and
has been in existance long enough to provide reliable patterns of
air quality throughout the region under study. Since such compre-
hensive air quality data rarely exists, it becomes necessary to
develop estimates of prevailing air quality. Diffusion modeling is
a technique by which such estimates can be made based on the location
and quantity of pollutant emissions and on meteorological conditions.
Topography is reflected in the results of .the model, but only to the
extent that it influences general meteorological conditions.
The diffusion model was applied for each of the three pollutants
for an average summer day, winter day, and annual day. Figure 3 and
Table 2 show the meteorological data required to apply the model for
each of the three average days. Figure 3 shows the percent frequency
of occurrence of wind direction from 1951 through 1960 in Milwaukee for
I
summer, winter, and annual conditions. The wind speed and direction
data used in the diffusion model were considered representative of the
prevailing wind patterns throughout the Milwaukee area. Since the
Martin-Tikvart model1 used in this study attempts to show long-term
rather than episodic air quality conditions, only average emissions
and long-term meteorology are considered.
The mixing depths for the time periods are averages of the
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24
morning and afternoon values as shown in Table 2; these data were
obtained from tabulations prepared by the National Weather Records
Center (ESSA). Combined with wind data, these data are used in the
diffusion model to assess the spatial distribution of concentrations
of suspended particulates, sulfur oxides, and carbon monoxide.
Table 2. Average Mixing Depths for
Milwaukee Area by Season
Season
Winter
(Dec. , Jan., Feb.)
Summer
June, July, Aug.)
Annual
(Four Seasons)
Mixing Depths
Average
Morning
505
285
420
Average
Afternoon
630
1560
1134
, meters
Average, Morning
and Afternoon
568
923
779
The air pollutant concentration contours produced by the diffusion
model are theoretical in nature and are not meant to show exact
concentration levels. In this report, the contour maps are used as
a guide to help indicate the areas most affected by pollutant
emissions in the study area.
Suspended Particulates
Figure 10 shows the diffusion model contours for the Milwaukee
and Chicago study areas. * The two sets of contours were produced
independently and were based on average meteorology and particulate
emissions for each respective study area. Since the two study areas
are contiguous, it is assumed that there is some interaction between
* The Chicago study area included six counties in Illinois (Lake,
Cook, Will, McHenry, Kane, and Dupage), and two counties in
Indiana (Lake and Porter).
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25
Mi Iwaukee
Study -
Area
Figure 10. Theoretical particulate concentrations,
annual average for Chicago Study Area (eight
counties in Illinois and Indiana), and Milwaukee
Study Area (seven counties in Wisconsin).
Concentrations given in tig/m*.
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26
the two. To show the interaction, the contours of Figure 11
were developed based on a summation of the two sets of isopleths in
Figure 10.
Comparison of the values for the adjusted isopleths with measured
air quality data indicated that theoretical values in the Milwaukee
area were generally lower than measured data. This discrepancy may
by explained in part by the fact that the theoretical estimates do
not take into account background levels of suspended particulates.
Q *
By adding the assumed background level value (approximately 35/Łg/mJ)
to the contours values, the adjusted values correlate better with
measured data. Figure 11 shows the theoretical suspended particulate
isopleths after adjustment for the influence of Chicago and for the
background-level error. Also shown in Figure 11 are measured
suspended particulate data from Milwaukee, Racine, and Kenosha, and
a dotted contour representing the background level of 35 /(g/m3.
Although the background level contour line cannot be described
exactly, Figure 11 shows that background is reached somewhere in
Rock, Walworth, Jefferson, Waukesha, Washington and Sheboygan Counties.
The approximate location of the background level contour is important
since it is beyond this boundary that the influence of the urban
area or areas loses its significance.
Sulfur Oxides
Concentration contours for sulfur oxides are presented in
Figure 12. The contours are theoretical; the diffusion model output
was ad lusted in the same fashion as that for suspended particulates,
* The geometric average of five non-urban stations (1958-1966, 448 samples)
in Michigan, Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin is 32.5/Łg/m3.
The arithmetic average is 41 /Lg/m3. /
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27
Measured
Station
A (Down-
town)
aB (Mid-
j4
3 town)
jtC (Sub-
•H urban)
Air Quality
Suspended
Particulate
Level (>fcg/m )
169
91
90
' D (Racine) 96
E (Kenosha) 77
Data
Time
Period
June '67-
Julv '68
June '67-
Feb. '68
June '67-
Nov. '67 &
Mar. '68-
Julv '68
1957-1967
1963-1966
Dodge
I
•\
Dane
I
I Jef
/
35
Winnebago
45
f\
Scale—miles
0 5 10 20
" " ~~"~ State Boundary
County Boundary
Suspended particulates--//g/m
Figure 11. Adjusted theoretical suspended
particulate concentration, annual
average.
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28
Scale—miles
0 5 10 20
"Station located in downtown Milwaukee
-ppm
State Boundary Figure 12. Adjusted theoretical SOX
concentration, annual average.
County Boundary
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29
i. e., a summation of the concentrations was made for the two sets
of contours to show the influence of Chicago.
Measured samples were available from only one station in the
study area. The S02 concentration for January, 1967, to July, 1968,
is plotted on the figure. The theoretical values of the contours
seem to be high, at least compared to the one station in downtown
Milwaukee. Two centers of high concentrations are apparent in
Figure 12, and both are attributed to the sulfur oxides emissions
from power plants.
Theoretical SOx concentrations of 0.01 ppm (27 Ag/nr*) and
greater are shown in Figure 12. The 0.01 ppm diffusion model isopleth
has been used in past air quality control region studies as a guide
in determining the size of the region. This value is considered to
be close to background levels. Parts or all of the following
jurisdictions are encompased by the 0.01 ppm contour: Milwaukee,
Waukesha, Racine,Ozaukee, and Kenosha.
Carbon Monoxide
Gasoline-powered motor vehicles are the main contributors of
carbon monoxide in most urban Areas. In the Milwaukee study area,
transportation sources account for approximately 94% of all carbon
monoxide emissions.
Figure 13 shows diffusion model contours based on all CO emissions
in the area and adjusted to show the influence of the Chicago area.
These contours are presented as theoretical relative rather than
absolute. Highest relative carbon monoxide levels are found in
Milwaukee where traffic density is greatest.
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30
3 I Green ! Fond du Lac
"" ' Lake '
Wisconsin
Illinois
Winnebago Boone
Scale--miles
0 5 10 20
~ •""—• State Boundary
County Boundary
Figure 13. Adjusted relative
carbon monoxide levels,
annual average.
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31
EVALUATION OF URBAN FACTORS
A number of urban factors are relevant to the problem of
defining air quality control region boundaries. The location of
population is an important consideration since human activity is
the ultimate cause of air pollution, and humans are the ultimate
victims. The projected population growth pattern is another
important consideration, since an air quality control region
should be designed not only for the present but also for the future.
The location of industrial activity and industrial growth patterns
are relevant considerations for similar reasons. Political and
jurisdictional considerations are important since the 1967 Air
Quality Act envisions regional air pollution programs based on
cooperative efforts among many political jurisdictions. The
following discussion of urban factors will .present these considerations
as they apply to the Milwaukee area.
POPULATION
4
Figure 14 and Table 3 display present population and population
densities in Milwaukee and surrounding areas. About 745,000 people
reside in the city of Milwaukee. Over one million live in Milwaukee
County (includes the city of Milwaukee) which represents 63% of the
study area population. Another 28% live in the counties of Kenosha,
Racine, and Waukesha; the remaining 9% reside in the three counties
of Ozaukee, Walworth, and Washington. Thus, over 90% of the study
area population is located in four of the seven counties. This
distribution is reflected in Figure 14, which shows population
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32
V // //
iSheboygan
Scale--railes
0 5 10 20
~ " State Boundary
- County Boundary
Figure 14. 1968 Population Density
Residents per square mile
>1000
•gj
2
30O— 10OO
100 — ~300
<100
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Table 3. Population and Employment Data for Milwaukee Area
County
Columbia
Dane
Dodge
Fond du Lac
Green Lake
Jefferson
Kenosha
Milwaukee
Ozaukee
Racine
Rock
Sheboygan
Walworth
Washington
Waukesha
Area
mi.
776
1198
889
725
585
564
272
236
236
337
721
505
557
817
555
Population
1968
37300
275000
64900
77400
15600
54200
118000
1080000
48000
164000
127100
87900
58500
54000
204000
Pop. Den.
1968
p
res. /mi.
48
230
73
107
27
96
434
4580
204
486
177
174
105
66
368
Population
1980
38700
360700
70600
78200
23600
56200
157000
1305000
75000
217000
149300
94700
73000
74000
322000
Pop. Den.
1980
res. /mi.
50
293
80
108
40
100
578
5540
318
644
207
188
131
91
580
Additional Res.
per square mile
1968-1980 %
2 (4%)
63 (31%)
7 (9%)
1 (1%)
-6 (-10%)
. 4 (4%)
144 (33%)
960 (21%)
114 (56%)
158 (32%)
30 (17%)
14 (8%)
26 (25%)
25 (37%)
212 (58%)
Manufacturing
Employment
1963
2542
13452
6467
8560
1715
7171
22516
75335
5686
22185
17140
14900
5016
6348
12824
Manuf. Employ.
Density--1963
Employees /mi. ^
3
11
7
12
3
13
82
320
24
66
24
30
9
8
23
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34
density by county. Milwaukee County has the highest population
density in the study area with 4580 residents per square mile.
Racine, Kenosha, and Waukesha, respectively, follow with densities
between 300 and 500 residents per square mile.
Population growth ' ' in the next decade is shown in Table 3 and
in Figures 15 and 16. Milwaukee County is expected to show the
greatest absolute growth with over 950 additional residents per
square mile. Waukesha, Racine, Kenosha, and Ozaukee, respectively,
are expected to follow with population increases of over 100
additional residents per square mile. By percent rate of population
growth from 1968 to 1980, Waukesha and Ozaukee are predicted to
grow most rapidly with increases of over 50%. Washington, Kenosha,
Racine, and Dane Counties should experience increases of over 30%
while Walworth and Milwaukee Counties are forcasted to grow by 25%
and 21% respectively.
In summary, with respect to 1968 population, the core of the
study area is Milwaukee County. Waukesha, Racine,, and Kenosha also
have high population densities. Greatest population growth in terms
of additional residents per square mile will also take place in
these counties. By percent rate of population growth, Waukesha and
Ozaukee are expected to grow most rapidly.
INDUSTRY
Two methods are used to show the location of industrial activity.
The first method is based on the density by county of people employed
4
in manufacturing firms. According to 1963 data, Figure 17,
Milwaukee County has by far the greatest density of manufacturing
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Scale—miles
0 5 10 20
• •""' State Boundary
County Boundary
Figure 15. Population Growth, 1968-1980,
Expressed in Absolute Terms
Additional Residents per square mile
"~™>500
20O— 500
100—200
25-^100
<25
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36
o
o
w
Wisconsin
Illinois
Scale—miles
0 5 10 20
Figure 16. Population Growth From 1968 to
1980 in Percent.
Percent Growth
" State Boundary
- County Boundary
—-307o
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37
u :
Scale--rniles
0 5 10 20
" State Boundary
- County Boundary
Figure 17. Manufacturing Employment Density
(1963)
Manufacturing Employees per square mile
MOO
50 100
20 »-50
< 20
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38
employees with 320 per square mile. Figure 17 illustrates that most
of the manufacturing industry is located in the counties on the
Lake Michigan shore. Employment densities fall off rapidly to the
west of these counties.
The second method shows the probable general location of
major industry in 1990 by the proposed land use map developed by
the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission. According
Q
to Figure 18, most major industry will still be located in
Milwaukee County. Five of the seven counties in the study area,
however, are expected to have land devoted to major industry.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS
In Wisconsin, responsibility for air pollution control on the
state level is charged to the Bureau of Air Pollution Control and
Solid Waste Disposal under the Department of Natural Resources,
Division of Environmental Protection. Legal authority is granted by
Chapter 83, Laws of 1967, which authorizes appropriations for the
State and county programs, the creation of an advisory council, and
rule-making power. Further, the Law provides the power to conduct
informational programs, hold hearings, control motor vehicle
emissions, and organize a comprehensive program of air pollution
control.
Regarding local programs, the air pollution control law
encourages local governmental units to handle air pollution problems
in their respective jurisdictions provided their ordinances meet the
State's approval and are at least as stringent as those set by
State law.
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WASHINGTON
WAUKESHA
OZAUKEE
39
MILWAUKEE
WALWORTH
RACINE
KENOSHA
Figure 18. Proposed Major Industrial
Land Use, 1990,8
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40
Milwaukee County has the oldest program in the state. Control
activities are the concern of the Milwaukee County Department of
Air Pollution Control, which was created as the Department of Smoke
Regulation in 1948. Until 1961 when the Department of Air Pollution
Control was formally created, activities of the Department were
«
limited to smoke control. An ordinance was odopted in 1961 (amended
in 1964) to regulate smoke and dust particle emissions. The
Department was given the authority to promulgate regulations regarding
combustion process and incineration emissions.
In 1966, the Department adopted a five-year plan consisting
of a ten-point program to improve its existing control program.
Included in the ten points are plans for air quality monitoring,
public information, rules governing new non-combustion process
installations, expanded authority in odor control,- and an
enforcement program against open burning. Another objective of the
plan is to study the possibility of a regional air pollution control
program through the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission.
REGIONAL PLANNING IN THE MILWAUKEE AREA9
Regional planning in the Milwaukee area is handled primarily
by the Southeastern Wisconsin Planning Commission. The area served
«
by the Commission is comprised of seven counties in the southeast
corner of Wisconsin: Kenosha, Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Walworth,
Washington, and Waukesha. The seven counties represent about 5% of
the area of the State of Wisconsin and about 42% of the State's
population.
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41
The Commission was established in 1960 under the Wisconsin
statutes and is one of four commissions to be created in Wisconsin
to date under the state regional planning enabling act. The
Commission is composed of 21 members, three from each county.
The activities of the Commission are numerous and include the
collection, analysis, and dissemination of basic planning and
engineering data on an areawide basis, the preparation and adoption
of a master plan for the physical development of the Region, and
the promotion of plan implementation.
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42
THE PROPOSED REGION
Subject to the scheduled consultation, the Secretary,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, proposes to designate
an air quality control region for the Milwaukee area, consisting
of the following jurisdictions in Wisconsin:
Kenosha County
Milwaukee County
Ozaukee City
Racine County
Walworth County
Washington County
Waukesha County
As so proposed, the Metropolitan Milwaukee Intrastate Air
Quality Control Region would consist of the territorial area
encompassed by the outermost boundaries of the proposed jurisdictions.
The proposed Region is illustrated in Figure 19. Figure 20 locates
the Region in relation to the rest of Wisconsin, the surrounding
states and existing air quality control regions.
DISCUSSION OF PROPOSAL
The proposed Region boundaries coincide with the boundaries
of the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission. In
general, state or locally defined planning regions do not automatically
qualify as air quality control regions. However, the Air Quality
Act of 1967 requires region boundaries to take into account existing
jurisdictions, among other factors. Clearly, a regional planning
commission created under a state enabling act is an important
jurisdictional consideration. Therefore, this study of the
geographic extent of the air pollution problem indirectly evaluates
the suitability of the regional planning area as a geographic basis
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43
Scale--miles
0 5 10 20
" State Boundary
• - County Boundary
Figure 19. Proposed Metropolitan
Milwaukee Intrastate Air Quality
Control Region.
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Proposed Minneapolis
St. Paul AQCR
Proposed Metropolitan
Milwaukee Intrastate
Air Quality Control
Region
Chicago
AQCR
Cleveland
AQCR
Proposed
Indianapolis AQCR/
Proposed Kansas
City AQCR
St. Louis
AQCR
Figure 20. Relationship of Proposed
Metropolitan Milwaukee Intrastate
Air Quality Control Region to
Surrounding Areas.
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45
of attack on the problem. As discussed below, the seven counties
in the planning commission area satisfy the three requirements
for air quality control region boundaries.
To be successful, an air quality control region should meet
three basic conditions. First, its boundaries should encompass
most pollution sources as well as most people and property affected
by those sources. Second, the boundaries should encompass those
locations where industrial and residential development will create
significant air pollution problems in the future. Third, the
boundaries should be chosen in a way which is compatible with and
even fosters unified and cooperative governmental administration of the
air resources throughout the region. The "Evaluation of Engineering
Factors" (discussion beginning with page 12 ) discussed the first of
these conditions, and the "Evaluation of Urban Factors" (pageSl ),
the second and third.
The first consideration—that most air pollution sources and
receptors be within the Region boundaries—is satisfied by the
proposed Region. Point sources emitting over one ton per day of any
single pollutant (SOX, particulates, or CO) are located in five
counties—Ozaukee, Waukesha, Milwaukee, Racine, and Kenosha.
Emission densities of particulates and SO are greatest in these five
jurisdictions. Carbon monoxide emission densities are fairly evenly
distributed throughout the seven counties except in Milwaukee
County. Higher densities result here because of the high traffic
density.
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46
The theoretical pollutant concentrations contours, produced
by the diffusion model and adjusted to reflect measured air
quality data and the influence of Chicago, showed that parts of
all seven counties have annual suspended particulate concentrations
greater than background levels. Sulfur oxides pollution is less
wide-spread. Enclosed by the theoretical 0.01 ppm contour are parts of
Ozaukee, Waukesha, Milwaukee, Racine, and Kenosha Counties.
Milwaukee has the highest levels of carbon monoxide in the study
area on the basis of a relative comparison of predicted concentrations.
Over 1,700,000 people live in the proposed Region, which
represents over 40% of the population of the State. By including
Kenosha and Walworth Counties, the Milwaukee Region becomes
contiguous with the Chicago Region.
The second consideration is directed towards future population
and industrial expansion. Milwaukee County is expected to register
the greatest absolute growth over the next decade with over 950
additional residents per square mile. Four counties—Waukesha,
Racine, Kenosha, and Ozaukee are expected to experience population
growth of over 100 additional residents per square mile. According
to proposed land use map for 1990, Milwaukee County will still have
most of major industrial sites. Racine, Waukesha, Kenosha, and
Washington Counties will also have some major industry.
The third objective relates to governmental administration in
the area. Regional planning is handled by the Southeastern Wisconsin
Regional Planning Commission, whose jurisdiction includes the Counties
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47
of Kenosha, Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Walworth, Washington, and
Waukesha. The Commission was established in 1960 and consists of
21 members, three from each county.
Based on the technical data presented on air pollutant emissions
and resultant ambient air concentrations, only five counties need be
part of the Region to attack the air pollution problem. Washington
and Walworth are mostly rural at present and are expected to remain
so through 1990. Population forecasts support this conclusion.
However, since Walworth and Washington Counties have been joined
with the other counties in the Regional Planning Commission, it is
logical to include them in the Air Quality Control Region for
administrative purposes, despite their low air pollution potential.
As is true of most efforts to draw boundaries around an area
to differentiate it from surroundings, there is always a likelihood
of boundary conditions existing or developing. In the case of air
quality control regions, such a boundary condition would exist
where sources of pollution on one side of the Region boundary affect
in some real way air quality on the other side of the boundary.
Relocating the boundary would only rarely provide relief from this
condition. The solution is to be found in the way in which control
efforts are implemented following the designation of an air quality
control region. Consonant with the basic objective of providing
desirable air quality within the problem area being designated
as an air quality control region, the implementation plan that
follows the designation should have provisions for the control of
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48
sources located close to but beyond the region boundaries. The
level of control for such sources should be a function of, among
other factors, the degree to which emissions from sources cause
air quality levels to exceed the standards chosen for application
within the Air Quality Control Region.
•
In summary, the Region proposed is considered on the whole to
be the most cohesive and yet inclusive area within which an effective
regional effort can be mounted to prevent and control air pollution
in the Milwaukee area.
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49
REFERENCES
1. "General Atmospheric Diffusion Model for Estimating the Effects
on Air Quality of One or More Sources," Martin, D. and Tikvart,
J., Paper No. 68-148, 6lst Annual Meeting, APCA, St. Paul,
Minnesota, June, 1968.
2. "Rapid Survey Technique for Estimating Community Air Pollution
Emmissions," PHS Publication No. 999-AP-29, Environmental Health
Series, USDHEW, NCAPC, Cincinnati, Ohio, October, 1966.
3. "Report for Consultation on the Metropolitan Chicago Interstate
Air Quality Control Region (Indiana-Illinois)," USDHEW, Public
Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration,
September, 1968.
4. Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide, Ninety-ninth Edition, 1968,
Rand McNally and Company.
5. "Wisconsin Population Projections," April, 1969, Bureau of State
Plannin, Department of Administration.
6. "Planning Report Number 7»" Volume 3, page 93, Southeastern
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission.
7. "Population Projections: Economic Growth Prospects," Department
of Business and Economic Development, State of Illinois.
8. "Proposed Land Use and Freeway System in the Southeastern
Wisconsin Region--1990," Land Use-Transportation Study,
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission.
9. "1968 Annual Report," Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission, April, 1969.
ft U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : l«S93JS-«6 (W
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