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TECHNICAL REPORT
MOUNT STORM, WEST VIRGINIA -
GORMAN, MARYLAND, AND LUKE,
MARYLAND - KEYSER, WEST VIRGINIA,
AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT ACTIVITY
PRE-CONFERENCE INVESTIGATIONS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Air Pollution Control Office
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
April 1971
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Air Pollution Control Office Publication No. APTD-0656
ii
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FOREWORD
This report is based upon an investigation of air pollution conducted in the
Mt. Storm, West Virginia - Gorman, Maryland, and Luke, Maryland - Keyser, West
Virginia, areas in 1969 and 1970. The report is intended to assist the governmental
agencies concerned with such air pollution in their consideration of the following:
1. Occurrence of air pollution subject to abatement.
2. Adequacy of measures taken toward abatement of the pollution.
3. Nature of delays, if any, in abating the pollution.
4. Necessary remedial action, if any.
To simplify and clarify reporting reporting of information and data on the
diversified air pollution problems in the interstate area, the report has been
organized into two parts. Part One is concerned primarily with the Mt. Storm, West
Virginia —Gorman, Maryland, area where air-pollution-related damage to commercial
tree-growing operations has been cited as a major problem. Part Two deals with
air pollution problems in the Luke, Maryland - Keyser, West Virginia, area caused
by particulate matter and noxious sulfur gases released from industrial plants in
the area.
iii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1-1. Aerial Photograph of Mt. Storm Power Station Showing Existing
Facility and Construction Underway for New Steam-Generating
Unit 1-6
1-2. Mt. Storm, West Virginia Gorman, Maryland, and Luke, Maryland
Keyser, West Virginia Abatement Activity Area 1-9
1-3. Geographical and Topographical Features of Study Area 1-12
1-4. Location of Study Area in Relation to Urban Areas in Eastern
Maryland and Neighboring States 1-13
1-5. Wind Rose of Surface and Upper-Level Winds at El kins, West
Virginia, for Period 1948 through 1952 1-15
1-6. Photograph of Premium-Quality Eastern White Pine Growing on
Steyer Farm, 1964 1-24
1-7. Location of Tree Farms Surveyed for Damage 1-32
1-8. Aerial Photograph Showing Proximity of Stony River Farm
(Foreground) to Mt. Storm Power Plant 1-33
1-9. Branch of Scotch Pine from Stony River Farm Showing Three
Types of Abnormal Growth Symptoms: Early Needle Loss, Lateral
Bud Failure, and Random Dwarfing of Needles 1-34
1-10. A. Damaged Spruce at Steyer Farm. B. Normal Spruce at
Custer Home Farm 1 -35
1-11. Stunted Growth of Scotch Pine Seedling Severely Burned by
S02 in 1969 Compared with Nearly Normal-Sized Seedling of
Same Age 1_37
1-12. A. Typical Severely Damaged Branches on Scotch Pine Recently
transplanted from Stony River Farm to Custer Home Farm .... 1-39
B. Healthy Current Growth on Trees Transplanted in 1969 That
Recovered from Previous Damage 1-39
1-13. Abnormal Growth on Branches from Formerly Healthy Scotch Pine
Transplanted to Stony River Farm 1-40
1-14. Laboratory-Induced Dwarfing of Needles 1-42
1-15. Cross Section of Pine Leaf 1-43
1-16. Location of Potential Air Pollution Sources in Study Area 1-49
1-17. Location of Static Sampling Stations 1-56
1-18. Location of Continuous Air Monitoring and Wind Observation
Stations 1-57
iv
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1-19. Continuous Recording of S0? Concentration for 0800 to
1800 Hours on September 12, 1970 1-58
1-20. Distribution of Sulfation Rates 1-60
1-21. Diurnal Variation of Ozone on August 26, 1970 1-62
1-22. Mean Diurnal Variation of Ozone/Oxidant for August 26
to September 9, 1970 1-63
1-23. Distribution of Dustfall Rates 1-65
1-24. Distribution of Fluoridation Rates 1-67
2-1. Aerial View Looking West Over Westernport; Denuded Ridge to Left
Bears Brunt of Emissions. Plume Rising to Left Center Locates
the Luke Mill 2-4
2-2. Topography of Luke - Keyser Area 2-6
2-3. View of Luke Mill Showing Electrostatic Precipitators to Left
of Stack 2-12
2-4. Flow Chart of Sulfur Dioxide Control Program at Westvaco Mill
in Luke, Maryland 2-17
2-5. Spatial Distribution of Sulfur Dioxide as Indicated by
Sulfation Plate Data 2-27
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1-1. Winds at 1000 feet above Pittsburgh Airport for Period June
through September Compared for 5-year Base Period and 1970 1-17
1-2. Percent Frequency of Inversion with Bases <. 500 feet, Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, June 1955 through May 1959 1-18
1-3. Persistence and Frequency of Episodes of Mixing Height 1 2500
feet and Wind Speed ±13.5 mph, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
1960 through 1964 .(NCC Tabulations) 1-18
1 -4. Summary of Damage on Tree Farms v 1 -28
1-5. Total Sulfur Accumulation in Scotch Pine Needles from
Sel ected Si tes 1-45
1-6. Estimated Source Emissions 1-54
1-7. Summary of Hourly Sulfur Dioxide Measurements, May 28 through
September 28, 1970 1-56
1-8. Summary of Hourly Nitrogen Oxides Measurements, May 28 through
September 27, 1970 1-60
1-9. Summary of Hourly Oxidant Measurements, May 29 through September
28, 1970 1-61
1-10. Cumulative Percent Frequency of Occurrence of Daily Average Total
Fluoride, May 28 through September 28, 1970 1-64
1-11. Cumulative Percent Frequency of Occurrence of Daily Average
Suspended Particulates, June 13 through September 28, 1970 1-66
1-12. Major S02 Sources, Their Locations Relative to Three Air Monitor-
ing Sites, and Percent Contributions to Total S02 Received by
Each Site During an Average Growing Season 1-71
1-13. Peak 1-hour Average S02 Concentrations 10.05 ppm Grouped by
Prevailing Wind Direction 1-74
A-l. Location of Static Sampling Stations 1-84
A-2. Sulfation Network Results 1-86
A-3. Settleable Particulate Network 1-88
A-4. Daily Suspended Particulate Concentrations 1-89
A-5. Daily Total Fluoride Concentrations, June 13 through September
28, 1970 1-90
A-6. Fluoridation Network Results 1-91
B-l. Mt. Storm Power Plant Equipment Data 1-94
B-2. Monthly Power Generation from Coal and Coal Consumption for Mt.
Storm Power Plant T-95
B-3. Mt. Storm Power Plant Coal Information for 1970 1-95
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C-l. Wind Direction and Speed at Three Locations and Corresponding SO^
Concentrations Recorded at Stony River Farm Air Monitoring Site,
September 12, 1970 1-99
D-l. Comparison of Frequency of Wind Directions at Indicated Stations,
June through September 1970 1-104
2-1. Population of Luke — Keyser Region 2-7
2-2. Precipitation and Temperature in Westernport, 1968 2-7
2-3. Principal Malodorous Gases from Kraft Process 2-10
2-4. Plant Emissions, 1970 2-14
2-5. Particulate Emissions 2-15
2-6. Sulfur Dioxide Emissions 2-16
2-7. Total Reduced-Sulfur Emissions 2-19
2-8. Suspended Particulates 2-23
2-9. Dustfall, 1969 2-24
2-10. Silver Tarnishing Rates, 1968 2-24
2-11. Average Sulfation Rates, 1968 2-25
2-12. Average Sulfation Rates, 1970 2-26
2-13. Effects Comparison, 1968 2-30
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CONTENTS
PART ONE
MT. STORM, WEST VIRGINIA - GORMAN, MARYLAND, INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
ABATEMENT ACTIVITY AREA
I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1-1
II. INTRODUCTION 1-5
HISTORY OF PROBLEM 1-5
FEDERAL ABATEMENT ACTIVITY 1-6
III. DESCRIPTION OF AREA.. 1-H
GEOGRAPHY 1 -11
CLIMATOLOGY 1-14
AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 1-16
IV. ASSESSMENT OF TREE DAMAGE 1-21
AIR POLLUTION-RELATED TREE INJURY 1-21
Studies of Conifer Damage 1-21
Coni fer Injury Symptoms 1-22
CHRISTMAS-TREE FARMS 1-23
Injury Classification 1-25
Damage Survey 1 -27
Transplantation Experiment 1-38
Entomological Studies 1-40
Histological Studies 1-42
Chemical Studies 1-44
Vegetation Experiments 1-45
Impact of Tree Damage 1 -46
REFORESTATION AREAS (. 1-47
V. DESCRIPTION OF SOURCES T-49
MT. STORM POWER PLANT 1-50
WESTVACO PULP MILL 1-51
OTHER SOURCES IN STUDY AREA 1-51
Burning Coal Refuse Banks 1-51
Kingford Charcoal Plant 1-52
SOURCES OUTSIDE STUDY AREA 1-52
Albright Power Plant 1-52
Manganese Corporation Plant 1-53
ix
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Other Coal-Fired Power Plants Outside Study Area 1-53
VI. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS 1-55
SULFUR DIOXIDE 1-55
Continuous Measurements 1-55
Static Sulfation Measurements 1-58
NITROGEN OXIDES 1-59
OXIDANTS 1-61
PARTICULATE MATTER 1-63
Suspended Particulate Matter Measurements 1-63
Settleable Particulate Measurements l-B^
FLUORIDES 1-65
Total Fluoride Measurements 1 -65
Static Fluoride Measurements 1-66
VII. ANALYSIS OF POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION AND IMPACT 1-69
LONG-TERM DISTRIBUTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE 1-70
Application of Diffusion Model 1-70
Potomac River Valley Airflow Study 1-72
SHORT-TERM DISTRIBUTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE 1-72
Impact and Analysis 1-72
Acute Injury to Pi ne Trees 1 -72
Aerial Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide 1-73
Correlation of Peak Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations and
Wind Direction 1-73
LAPPES Anal ogy 1-75
FLY-ASH PROBLEM NEAR MT. STORM POWER STATION 1-76
VIII. REFERENCES 1 -79
APPENDICES
A. AIR QUALITY DATA 1-83
B. MT. STORM POWER STATION DATA 1-93
C. SPECIAL METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES 1-97
D. METEOROLOGICAL DATA '. 1-103
PART TWO
LUKE, MARYLAND - KEYSER, WEST VIRGINIA, INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION ABATE-
MENT ACTIVITY AREA
I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 2-1
II. INTRODUCTION 2-3
HISTORY OF ABATEMENT ACTIVITY 2-3
DESCRIPTION OF AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM 2-3
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III. AREA DESCRIPTION 2-5
IV. WESTVACO PULP AND PAPER MILL 2-9
PLANT OPERATIONS 2-9
Pul p-Maki ng Processes 2-9
Power Boi 1 ers 2-13
Summary 2-14
CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPLIANCE SCHEDULE 2-14
Control of Participate Emissions 2-15
Control of Sulfur Oxides Emissions 2-16
Control of Total Reduced-Sulfur Emissions 2-18
V. OTHER EMISSION SOURCES 2-21
VI. AIR QUALITY 2-23
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE 2-23
DUSTFALL 2-23
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 2-24
SULFUR DIOXIDE 2-25
Continuous Monitoring Equipment 2-25
Sulfation Plates 2-25
VII. EFFECTS 2-29
VISIBILITY REDUCTION 2-29
MATERIAL DAMAGE : 2-29
VEGETATION DAMAGE 2-30
EFFECTS ON MAN 2-30
VIII. REFERENCES 2-31
APPENDIX. WESTVACO COMPLIANCE PLAN 2-33
xi
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PART ONE
MOUNT STORM, WEST VIRGINIA
GORMAN, MARYLAND,
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
ABATEMENT ACTIVITY AREA
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I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Commercial Christmas-tree farms in the mountainous rural area of Maryland and
West Virginia bordering the North Branch of the Potomac River have suffered extensive
damage in recent years. The poor quality of the trees was first noticed in early
1968 and became of increasing concern to the growers as the trees continued to decline
in 1969 and 1970. Observations made by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Air
Pollution Control Office (APCO) confirm that the quality of trees on many of the
farms has been seriously impaired. Affected trees have poor color, lack foliage,
and frequently are disfigured to the extent that they are unsalable as Christmas
trees. The existence of the large coal-fired power plant owned by Virginia Electric
Power Company (VEPCO), which began operation in 1966 in close proximity to the tree
farms, combined with injuries symptomatic of air pollution damage, suggests a cause-
and-effect relationship.
Some of the tree injuries, such as discoloration and browning of needles, were
found to be typical of S0£ damage. Histological evaluation of needles exhibiting
tip burn confirms that the causative agent is of a chemical nature, which clearly
precludes the possibility that the damage results from insect or fungus infestation,
winter damage, or wind exposure.
Abnormal growth symptoms such as random short needles, bud failure, and
stunted growth were also noted. These symptoms are not typical of previously
reported air pollution damage. Infestation by a relatively unknown species of
eriophyid mite has been suggested as a cause of injury. Although the etiology of
the damage is not fully understood, macroscopic and microscopic examinations of the
injured needles and tissues indicate that inanimate causes such as acid burn are
more likely to have been responsible. Laboratory tests presently are being con-
ducted to confirm the existence of air-pollution-induced growth alterations.
VEPCO's 1160-megawatt Mt. Storm Power Plant south of Mt. Storm, West Virginia,
is the largest source of particulate matter and sulfur oxides in the area. Located
on a well-exposed site, it has the potential to affect air quality throughout the
area. Expansion of the plant, which is currently underway, will significantly
increase emissions and, accordingly, will increase the area affected and the
potential for tree damage. The Mt. Storm plant is primarily responsible for the
long-term S02 levels in an area within a 12-mile radius of the plant (which does not
include that portion of the area beyond Backbone Mountain). The area includes all
the tree farms where serious damage has been found.
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The pollutant emissions from a large, isolated source such as the Mt. Storm
plant would be expected to result in measurable S02 concentrations throughout the
area. Long-term average concentrations will tend to decrease with increasing
distance from the source. A source of this size could also produce very high short-
term S02 levels whenever a relatively undispersed plume is brought to the ground
through mechanical or thermal turbulence. Within the topographical boundaries of
the area, the potential for acute exposure during inversion breakup or other
atmospheric phenomena would not necessarily decrease with distance from the source.
Although on most growing-season days some part of the area will be subjected to
these high short-term concentrations, the incidence at any particular location will
be infrequent. This limits the probability that representative measurements of short-
term peak concentrations can be obtained at fixed sampling sites.
During APCO's LAPPES study of S02 concentrations associated with power-
generating plants similar to the Mt. Storm plant, high ground-level concentrations,
detected by mobile samplers, were found more than 20 miles from the plants. A
similar episode was identified once during a 4-month period in 1970 at a sampling
site on a tree farm close to the Mt. Storm Power Plant.
Even though the annual frequency of these acute exposures is low, the potential
for serious damage exists during the 8-year period normally required to grow
Christmas trees.
During 1969, severe burns-characteristic of acute S02 exposure-appeared on a
number of tree farms, particularly those farms located southeast of Backbone Mountain
in the vicinity of the Mt. Storm plant. Subsequent data evaluation showed that
meteorological conditions favorable for the occurrence at the farm sites of acute
ground-level concentrations of emissions from the Mt. Storm Power Plant were present
during the period in which the damage occurred.
Eastern White Pine, noted for its susceptibility to air pollution, has exhib-
ited damage area-wide, indicating that injury may be caused by low-concentration
chronic exposure or by more than one pollutant or pollutant source. This finding
is verified by the geographical distribution of sulfation rates measured in 1970,
which indicates that power plants located outside and to the northwest of the study
area are capable of influencing long-term S0£ levels in the vicinity of some of the
tree farms, particularly in the northern part of the area. Atmospheric diffusion
calculations suggest that long-term S02 levels on the northwest side of Backbone
Mountain are contributed to as much by these outside power plants as by the Mt.
Storm Power Plant.
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Air quality measurements obtained at three sites during the 1970 growing sea-
son showed sulfur dioxide concentrations below the proposed national air quality
standards associated with vegetation damage. The almost complete absence of tip burn
in 1970 on farms that showed severe burn in 1969 was commensurate with the generally
low S02 values present in 1970. On the other hand, oxidant concentrations in the
area reached levels considerably in excess of published criteria regarding damage
to sensitive plants. Levels of oxidants also exceeded by a considerable margin the
proposed national air quality standards. The source of the oxidants could not be
determined on the basis of the available data. The presence of oxidants, because
of possible synergistic effects, may magnify the potential for tree injury resulting
from exposure to $03.
In conclusion, extensive damage to conifers has occurred in the study area.
The damage is generally similar to air pollution damage; however, there are symptoms
that have not as yet been linked to air pollution. Although measured air contaminant
levels are below the proposed national air quality standards, the probability exists
that short-term episodes sufficient to cause extensive damage will occur.
The large VEPCO plant has been identified as the main pollutant source. The
emissions from this plant are capable of producing long-term pollution and excep-
tionally high short-term pollution concentrations throughout the area. Power plants
outside the study area also were found to contribute to background or long-term
pollution.
Until air pollution in the area is reduced, the quality of the trees will
probably continue to decline. Because of the widespread air pollution damage
evidenced on susceptible varieties of pine, serious doubts have been raised con-
cerning the production of quality trees of these varieties anywhere in the area (
in the future. The prospect that trees on farms in the VEPCO vicinity can grow
to maturity without being subjected to damaging concentrations of pollutants from
the VEPCO plant appears doubtful unless the emissions from this plant are reduced.
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II. INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM
In the mid-1950's, commercial Christmas tree farms were started around the
headwaters of the Potomac River in western Maryland. Christmas tree production in
the area has had strong and steady growth since that time. More than 30 tree farms
now exist in Garrett County, Maryland, with over a million trees being grown for
future Christmas harvests and ornamental purposes. Until recent years, the tree
growers were producing trees having the good color, shape, density, and needle-
holding ability-qualities preferred by tree buyers-with no insurmountable problems.
Some of the farmers developed reputations as producers not only of high-quality
Christmas trees, but also of conifer seedlings and nursery stock.
In 1967, poor-quality trees began to appear in the field; and, as the spring
and summer of 1968 passed, it became apparent to the Christmas tree growers that
they were being confronted with a major problem. The trees were showing poor color,
abnormal growth, premature needle drop, and a variety of other strange symptoms that
appeared to grow progressively worse with each growing season. In searching for the
cause of decline in quality of their trees, the growers learned that some of the
symptoms were characteristic of air-pollution-related injury. They associated these
symptoms, both in time and proximity, with the start-up of the Mt. Storm Power
Station on the New Stony River Reservoir in West Virginia. The plant, owned by the
Virginia Electric and Power Co. (VEPCO), is shown in the aerial photograph in
Figure 1-1.
i
After a field investigation, VEPCO officials assured the growers that the
Mt. Storm Power Station was not responsible for their troubles.1 The growers
then sought expert opinion from several sources—the U.S. Forest Service, the West
Virginia Department of Agriculture, the Universities of Maryland and West Virginia,
and the National Air Pollution Control Administration (now the Air Pollution Control
Office). Not surprisingly, a variety of opinions resulted, ranging from winter
injury and poor choice of tree stock to sulfur dioxide fumigation. The growers were
understandably confused and widened their search for the cause of the continuing
deterioration of their trees. Attention generated by newspaper stories of their
plight in August 1969 resulted in widespread interest in the problem. Many experts
in plant pathology, horticulture, entomology, and air pollution visited the farms
during late summer and fall of 1969. While there were various points of view as to
what kinds of injury were being experienced and what the causes of these injuries
1-5
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Figure 1 -1. Aerial photograph of Mt. Storm Power Station showing existing facility and construction
underway for new steam-generating unit.
might be, nearly all of the experts agreed that air pollution was causing at least
some of the damage. Other kinds of growth aberrations not usually associated with
air pollution were also exhibited by the trees.
FEDERAL ABATEMENT ACTIVITY
Senators Joseph D. Tydings and Charles McC. Mathias, Jr., and Representative J.
Glenn Beall, of Maryland, were cognizant of the damage to the Christmas tree farms
in the western part of their state and actively encouraged various government
agencies working in related fields to investigate the problem. Senator Tydings, in
a letter dated August 20, 1969, to the Secretary, U.S. Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, urged that a Federal survey be made to confirm officially the
1-6
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existence of interstate pollution, and that appropriate enforcement action be taken
after review of the relevant data.
The conditions were found to warrant an investigation by specialists from the
National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA). A brief survey of tree
damage and air quality of the area in November 1969, however, served to confirm the
complexity of the problem and to establish the need for more data.
Extensive investigations of the meteorology, vegetation damage, and concentra-
tion of air pollutants in the area were performed during the 1970 growing season.
The principal objectives of these studies were:
1. An assessment of the type and extent of damage on the affected tree farms.
2. Observations of the entomological conditions prevailing on the tree farms
during the growing season.
3. Observations of the change in growth habits of trees that had been trans-
planted, grafted, or grown in filtered air of plant chambers.
4. A determination of air quality by means of static and continuous monitors
and measurement of wind direction and speed.
5. A study of the symptoms of conifer injury, both chemically and histologi-
cally, to determine their cause.
In the formulation of the study, it was recognized that certain aspects of the
project would of necessity continue for more than one growing season before defini-
tive conclusions could be obtained. Because of this and the complexity of such
tests, all the data from these various experiments have not yet been analyzed com-
pletely.
Since many of the symptoms exhibited by the affected trees were characteristic
of sulfur dioxide fumigations, and since damage was seemingly greater at locations
nearer the Mt. Storm Power Station, it seemed logical to conclude that the station
caused at least part of the damage. Accordingly, on October 21, 1970, Governor
Marvin Mandel of Maryland requested the Secretary, U.S. DHEW, to call an abatement
conference in Garrett County, Maryland, regarding air pollution originating in West
Virginia and allegedly affecting the health or welfare of persons in Maryland.
On November 19, 1970, NAPCA representatives met with officials of the West
Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission and Maryland Department of Health and
Mental Hygiene concerning an abatement conference. On January 8, 1971, Acting
Commissioner John T. Middleton, of the Air Pollution Control Office of the newly
formed Environmental Protection Agency, announced that a conference of air pollution
1-7
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control agencies would be held to consider interstate air pollution in the Mt. Storm,
West Virginia - Gorman, Maryland, and the Luke, Maryland - Keyser, West Virginia,
areas. The latter area, having a significant but more localized air pollution
problem, is discussed in Part Two of this report.
The geographic area of the abatement action is defined as those counties, or
portions thereof, encompassed by the following districts:
State of Maryland
Red House, Kitzmiller, Mountain Lake, Deer Park, Swanton, East Oakland,
Sang Run, Westernport, McCoole, and Bloomington election districts in
Garrett and Allegany Counties.
State of West Virginia
Union, Elk, New Creek, and Piedmont magisterial districts in Grant and
Mineral Counties.
These districts are identified in Figure 1-2.
1-8
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Figure 1-2. Mt. Storm, West Virginia - Gorman, Maryland, and Luke, Maryland - Keyser, West Virginia,
abatement activity area.
1-9
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III. DESCRIPTION OF AREA
GEOGRAPHY
Garrett and Allegany Counties in western Maryland, and Grant and Mineral
Counties of eastern West Virginia are part of a rugged mountainous region in the
Allegheny Mountain Range of the Appalachians.
The Mt. Storm Gorman portion of the abatement area centers on a high, rough,
triangular-shaped plateau bounded by the Allegheny Front along its southeastern rim
and by Backbone Mountain on the northwest. To the southwest, Cabin Mountain, with
peaks more than 4,000 feet above mean sea level (MSL), forms a boundary. The
average elevation of the area is above 2,600 feet, with the lowest point being
about 1,000 feet near Bloomington, Maryland. The Allegheny Front towers almost
1,000 feet above any of the ridges to the southeast, whereas to the northwest of
Backbone Mountain the ridges become progressively lower until relatively few peaks
reach 2,000 feet MSL in the region of Morgantown, West Virginia.
The North Branch of the Potomac River flows northeastward through the western
portion of the region, falling 2,500 feet in a twisting, scenic gorge over a
distance of 25 miles to Luke, Maryland. The river forms the boundary between Mary-
land and West Virginia. Natural features of the area, referred to in later sections,
are shown in Figure 1-3.
Sparsely settled and remotely situated from any major urban areas, as shown in
Figure 1-4, the region is essentially rural and nonindustrialized. There are no
major population centers, and the region's largest towns are well scattered through
the two counties.
Garrett County, Maryland, had a population of 21,476 in 1970, and a land area
of 659 square miles. Oakland, population 2,300, is the county's largest town and
the center of population and trade. Grant County, West Virginia, had a population
of 8,607'in 1970 and a land area of 478 square miles. The communities of Mt. Storm
and Scherr are located in this county.
Both counties are mountainous and largely forested; some of the forests are
state owned and some privately owned. Garrett County ranks first in Maryland in
the sale of forest products.
1-11
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f
ALLEGANY COUNTY
Figure
1-3. Geographical and topographical features of study area.
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PITTSBURGH ""
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WEST VIRGINIA
V
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PENNSYLVANIA^
MARYLAND
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Figure 1 -4. Location of study area in relation to urban areas in eastern Maryland and neighboring
states.
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More than 30 commercial tree farms covering over a thousand areas are situated
in the two-county area, with the majority of these being in Garrett County. An
estimated 1 million commercial Christmas trees are currently being grown on these
farms for future harvests. Tree growers normally expect to place some 40,000 to
60,000 trees on the market annually; the actual number harvested during the last
three seasons (1968-1970) ran well below expectations, however, because of the poor
quality of trees on some of the farms.
For the past 20 years, the Maryland Department of Forests and Parks has been
engaged in an extensive program of planting trees on abandoned or submarginal farm
land for reforestation. Some 1,500 sites with a total of about 17,000 acres have
been planted as reforestation areas in Garrett County.2 Some tree stands started in
the 1930's are now providing a return from thinnings for pulpwood. About half of
the trees planted were Eastern white pine.
Between 1956 and 1969, approximately 1,200 acres in Grant County were planted
for commercial Christmas tree production, strip mine reclamation, and reforestation.^
CLIMATOLOGY
The climate of the high plateau region around Mt. Storm, West Virginia, is
comparable to that of the northern half of Maine5 Red spruce and balsam fir,
typically cold-climate trees, are the dominant types of forest growth on the slopes
of Cabin Mountain. The protected valleys and the eastern, lower part of the region
have a wet continental climate more in keeping with the latitude. Rainfall in the
area-generally plentiful throughout the year-ranges from 38 to 50 inches.
During the colder half of the year, frontal storm systems moving from the west
bring most of the precipitation. Occasionally storms moving along the coast 150
miles to the east deposit substantial amounts of rain or snow 1n the eastern portion
of the area, but generally not beyond the crest of Backbone Mountain. In summer
most precipitation occurs as showers and thunderstorms in the broad current of moist
tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico.
A frost-free season 1s expected between the first of June and the first of
September at the 3,300-foot (MSL) level, whereas 1,000 feet lower 1n the Oakland,
Maryland, region, the period is between May 23 and September 22 during an average
year.
Climatologlcal records for the Oakland, Maryland, area, covering the past 70
years, have been used by W. J. Moyer, climatologist for Maryland and Delaware, to
compare with the region's weather, principally temperature and precipitation, during
the years 1969 and 1970.5 Mr. R. 0. Weedfall, climatologist for West Virginia, has
1-14
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also made such a comparison for the West Virginia portion of the study area.6
In general, the climatologists reported that the winters 1968-69 and 1969-70
were colder than normal, and snowfall was greater than usual during both periods.
The 1969 growing season began under severe drought conditions, but summer rainfall
arrived in time to benefit plant growth. In fact, yields of several field crops
(corn, wheat, barley, etc.) were average, or above, for the year. The past two
summers (1969 and 1970) in the area have been characterized in the West Virginia
Climatological Data Bulletin as being cool and moist with respect to growing con-
ditions, with both years having longer-than-average growing seasons.7
In mountainous terrain, both the wind direction and speed are strongly influ-
enced by the particular mountain-valley terrain configuration and orientation.
Figure 1-5 shows the wind-rose pattern for El kins, West Virginia, at the surface
and 3,000 feet above the surface. Elkins lies about 40 miles southwest of Mt.
Storm in a north-south-oriented mountain valley. The 3,000-foot level above the
surface at Elkins is only a few hundred feet above the level of the Cabin Mountain
watershed between Elkins and Mt. Storm. Figure l-5b shows prevailing westerly
winds in the flow aloft. In Figure l-5a, south winds are most frequently observed
at the surface, closely corresponding to the orientation of the valley in which
Elkins is located. The Elkins wind roses show the normal pattern of lighter winds
at the surface than aloft. In fact, the surface winds are unusually light, evi-
dently because of the topographically sheltered location of Elkins.
A. SURFACE 1,973 FEET (601 METERS) MSL
B. 4,921 FEET (1500 METERS) MSL
PERCENT FREQUENCY
1-10 11-34 35 & over
SPEED, mph
Figure 1 -5. Wind rose of surface and upper-level wind at Elkins, West Virginia, for period 1948 through
1952.
1-15
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AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY
In estimating the transport and dispersion of pollutants over the study area,
wind measurements above ridge level were employed instead of surface measurements
because the latter are markedly affected by local topography. The transport of
effluents from sources at well-exposed, high-ground elevations such as the Mt.
Storm Power Plant will be determined primarily by the relatively unobstructed flow
above the valleys and ridges.
Emissions from other sources located along river valleys, such as the pulp mill
at Luke, Maryland, are confined by local topography so that emissions escape the
surface-layer circulation and enter the higher-level flow pattern only through
vertical mixing. Ultimately, all of the pollutants that remain in the atmosphere
are entrained in the general circulation pattern above the ridges.
Since upper-wind measurements at El kins were discontinued in 1952, Pittsburgh
radiosonde data probably provide the most nearly representative wind data for the
Mt. Storm area. Official radiosonde observations of winds, temperature, and
humidity aloft are obtained at Pittsburgh as part of a national network of such
stations operated by the National Weather Service. Table 1-1 gives Pittsburgh's
5-year mean winds at the 1000-foot level above the surface for the growing season
(June-September). For comparison, the corresponding 1970 season winds are also
shown in the tabulations. The most notable difference between the two periods is
the excess of west winds during 1970. The unusually high frequency of west winds
was also reflected in surface-based wind measurements made at two locations in the
study area, at the Mt. Storm Power Plant and at Steyer No. 2 Farm. The wind-
direction frequencies for these stations are shown in Appendix D.
The Pittsburgh radiosonde data also provide a basis for estimating atmospheric
stability in the study area. Radiosonde measurements of the change in temperature
with height are used to infer stability, an important factor in dispersing and
diluting pollutants. Considering carefully the differences in exposure and eleva-
tion, Pittsburgh data provide useful approximations of stability in the study area.
Well-exposed locations in the area should have a low-level stability pattern similar
to that at Pittsburgh.
In estimating the impact of peak levels of S0£ on area receptors, primary con-
sideration must be given to the incidence of temperature inversions. Inversions are
layers in which temperatures increase with height and are indicative of stable air
and poor dispersion conditions. Peak ground-level concentrations from stack efflu-
ents are likely to accompany the following inversion-associated conditions:
1. Inversion break-up fumigation —A plume, embedded in an inversion based at
or near the surface, undergoes fumigation in mid-morning when surface
1-16
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Table 1-1. WINDS AT 1000 FEET ABOVE PITTSBURGH AIRPORT
FOR PERIOD JUNE THROUGH SEPTEMBER
COMPARED FOR 5-YEAR BASE PERIOD AND 1970
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
ssw
sw
usw
w
WNW
NW
NNW
Occurrence, %
1960-64
5.8
5.1
3.3
4.3
2.7
3.2
4.2
3.7
3.3
6.7
11.9
11.4
11.0
8.9
7.2
6.4
1970
7.1
3.8
4.2
1.4
1.8
1.9
6.7
3.0
2.9
9.1
12.6
10.1
16.7
6.2
6.2
5.7
Mean speed, mi/hr
1960-64
11.6
11.2
9.4
9.6
11.4
11.4
11.2
11.9
13.9
14.1
15.2
16.6
15.7
14.6
13.4
13.7
1970
10.3
9.2
9.2
8.1
10.3
9.2
11.4
11.6
10.3
13.9
15.0
16.1
17.2
16.1
12.5
12.8
heating dissipates the inversion through plume height and the effluent is
mixed to the ground. Such fumigations generally last for 30 to 45 minutes,
occasionally longer. Because inversion break-up fumigations over an area
tend to be random, any particular location is affected only occasionally.
2. Limited mixing -The plume is inhibited from mixing upward by a persistent
inversion or stable layer aloft and is dispersed to the surface with
resulting high ground-level concentrations. Although generally less fre-
quent than inversion breakup, limited mixing conditions may persist for
periods of from a few hours to a few days. Limited mixing is especially
relevant to effluents from tall stacks of large power stations. Power
station stacks are often designed to carry effluent plumes above low-level
surface-based inversions, but not above stable layers situated aloft.
Such plumes are thus trapped and confined within the limited mixing layer
beneath.
Hosier,8 using radiosonde data, estimated the low-level inversion frequency for
several locations in the United States. A summary of inversions based at or below
500 feet for Pittsburgh is shown in Table 1-2. Such inversions are estimated from
1-17
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Table 1-2. PERCENT FREQUENCY OF INVERSIONS WITH BASES
<500 FEET, PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA,
JUNE 1955 THROUGH MAY 19598
Winter
Spr! ng
Summer
Fall
Annual
Time of day (EST)
0700
41
68
64
62
59
1000
24
6
1
15
12
1900
20
5
4
25
14
2200
33
34
55
56
45
Total
time
24
31
27
34
29
observations to occur 29 percent of the time. Seasonally, they range from 24 per-
cent in the winter to 34 percent in the fall. Of greater significance, however, is
the incidence of early morning inversions in the spring and summer. At 7 a.m. EST,
inversions occur on 68 percent of the spring and 64 percent of the summer days.
Particularly during these seasons, low-level inversions nearly always dissipate or
break up between 7 a.m. and 10 a.m.
In another study, Holzworth9 summarized the persistence and frequency of epi-
sodes of limited mixing at heights to 2,500 feet and mean layer wind speed limited
to 13.5 miles per hour by means of radiosonde data. A summary of Pittsburgh data
is shown in Table 1-3. The table shows that episode conditions are most persistent
in fall and winter. A sizable portion of these persistent cases are likely to
be limited mixing cases. In spring and summer, episodes are least persistent.
In summer only 4 of 324 cases persisted for 12 hours or more; this indicates that
nearly all cases are likely to have occurred in the morning, and dissipation subse-
quently occurred due to intense daytime heating. Therefore inversion breakup is
indicated to be the predominant critical dispersion condition in summer. The 324
cases would represent nearly 70 percent of the total summer cases.
Table 1-3. PERSISTENCE AND FREQUENCY OF EPISODES OF MIXING HEIGHT
* 2500 FEET AND WIND SPEED * 13.5 MPH, PITTSBURGH, PA.,
1960 THROUGH 1964 (NCC TABULATIONS)9
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
Duration, consecutive hr
12
30
8
4
13
24
12
3
1
9
36
6
0
0
1
48
4
0
0
1
60
4
0
0
1
72
2
0
0
0
84
2
0
0
0
96
1
0
0
0
Na
176
205
324
285
aColumn N lists the number of cases in which criteria were met without
regard to consecutiveness.
1-18
-------
The data presented in Tables 1-2 and 1-3 strongly indicate that some critical
inversion condition, either inversion breakup or limited mixing, occurs on a high
percentage of days during the growing season. In summer, it is estimated such con-
ditions, primarily inversion breakup likely accompanied by fumigations, occur in the
study area on about one-half to three-fourths of summer days.
1-19
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IV. ASSESSMENT OF TREE DAMAGE
AIR POLLUTION-RELATED TREE INJURY
Air pollution damage to vegetation has been observed since the late nineteenth
century, particularly damage to crops and forest lands near large pollution sources.
In recent years, evidence has rapidly accumulated that suggests that damage from air
pollution is sufficiently widespread to rank this cause with other traditional
causes, such as bad weather and harmful insects, as a chief plunderer of crops and
trees.
Damage to citrus trees and other hardwoods and softwoods has been described
and a number of studies of injuries associated with specific pollutants have been
made. The body of literature associated with these studies is voluminous and is
extensively reviewed elsewhere.10 As background for subsequent discussions, a brief
review of directly pertinent information is presented here.
Studies of Conifer Damage
Conifers, because of their year-round foliage, are generally more susceptible
to air pollution than hardwoods. Conifer needles are normally retained for several
growing seasons, during which they perform the photosynthetic functions essential
for tree growth. Thus, cumulative damage to and premature loss of needles are
thought to have a relatively greater impact on the growth of conifers than on hard-
woods, which are deciduous—that is, the leaves are completely replaced annually.
Several documented studies show that pine trees are susceptible to injury from
low concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SOa), ozone (03), and other pollutants. ' '
Sheffer and Hedgcock report that with moderate dosages of S02 the older
needles of conifers tend to become chlorO|tic (yellow) and to drop off prematurely
(premature abscission). Eastern white pine and Scotch pine are especially suscepti-
ble to SO2 damage.
Healthy but dwarf-susceptible Eastern white pines manifest tip burn and banding
when exposed to low concentrations of S02 and 03. New foliage in its vigorous
growth stage is most susceptible to this type of injury. In White pine, concentra-
tions of S02 in the 0.01 to 0.15 ppm range for 2 hours can cause injury to new
foliage and ozone at a concentration of 0.25 ppm for 2 hours can cause needle necro-
sis. In susceptible grafted seedlings, acute symptoms may even be produced by 03 or
1-21
-------
S02 at concentrations of less than 0.05 ppm over a 3-hour fumigation. The suscepti-
bility of certain plants to ozone and sulfur dioxide is enhanced when the two gases
are present simultaneously and this synergism may apply to conifers as well.
Linzon noted that banding and excessive needle drop may be produced by long-
term exposure to low concentrations of S02- These phenomena have been reported for
locations where the mean annual concentration of SO, in ambient air is below 0.03
1819
ppm. Reports of deteriorated vegetation in areas polluted by sulfur dioxide '
make it clear that injury can occur where annual average concentrations are quite
low, even when the sources of pollution and/or the meteorological conditions are
such that the injury threshold is exceeded only occasionally. For example, growth
suppression and, particularly, chronic injury have been shown to occur where con-
on
centrations of S02 never exceed 0.1 ppm.
In Eastern Tennessee, mortality of Eastern white pine has occurred from a
disease called post-emergence chronic tip burn. The disease has been noted only in
industrial areas, generally within about 20 miles of plants producing substantial
stack emissions. Convincing evidence indicates that air pollutants are the causal
agents. Although some investigators consider S02 to be the most likely cause of
the disease, others attribute it to repeated or continuous low-level fumigations
with some other unidentified gas or gases produced in the affected area. Whatever
the causal agent may be, some Eastern white pines are so sensitive to it that trees
21
located many miles from the pollution source develop striking foliage symptoms.
Complicating the diagnosis of air pollution damage to vegetation are the
problems associated with measuring the minute concentrations of contaminants
involved, the possibilities of synergistic effects, the delay in onset of symptoms,
the demonstrated existence of genetic differences within species, and the frequent
production of similar injury symptoms by insects, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
Further, the modifying effects of climate—that is, rainfall, temperature, and wind-
are often difficult to assess. In spite of these complications, an experienced
observer can frequently diagnose the existence of air pollution damage with con-
fidence.
Conifer Injury Symptoms
Air Quality Criteria for several pollutants have been published by the National
Air Pollution Control Administration (now the Air Pollution Control Office). Air
22
Quality Criteria for Sulfur Dioxide and Air Quality Criteria for Photochemical
Oxidants contain a summary of current scientific knowledge of the effects of these
pollutants on vegetation. The descriptions of vegetation injury as presented in
these documents are useful in categorizing the types of damage that may be expected
in conifers.
1-22
-------
The visible symptoms of air-pollution-related injury to conifers may be class-
ified as acute, chronic, and physiological.
Acute injury is associated with high concentrations over relatively short
intervals and usually occurs in conifers as discolored bands on the tips of the
needles. The injured needles change from the usual dark green to a lighter green,
and the areas actually injured turn yellow-brown and then red-brown, resulting in a
banded appearance. The discoloration in conifers may involve the whole needle or
limited areas of any portion. Abscission (loss of needles) may follow after some
interval so that the affected trees are often deficient in needles.
The development of chlorosis (the gradual yellowing of needles symptomatic of
chronic injury) from sublethal concentrations of pollutants may require several days
or weeks. The slow fading of green color over a period of several days suggests
that the chlorophyll-making mechanism is being destroyed and that this pigment,
essential to photosynthesis, cannot be replenished. Although chlorosis is a common
and nonspecific symptom in plants, often indicative of some nutrient deficiency,
the chlorosis caused by air pollution can sometimes be distinguished, because of the
gross pattern of damage, from that caused by other agents. Microscopic examination
of the leaf's cellular structure also helps distinguish pollutant-caused damage from
naturally caused damage.
A third kind of plant damage manifests itself as alterations in growth patterns.
Presently there are few distinctive alterations that can be attributed to a specific
air pollutant, although generally poor growth is a very real effect in some cases.
Certain growth abnormalities will undoubtedly come to be associated with specific
gases as future studies are carried out.
When visible symptoms of injury, such as acute lesions, chronic chlorosis,
or excessive needle abscission occur, growth or vitality of the tree may be affected.
Some investigators have suggested that suppression of growth may also occur in long-
term low-concentration exposures even if visible symptoms of foliage injury do not
develop. s
CHRISTMAS-TREE FARMS
Christmas-tree growers in the Mt. Storm area became concerned with the declining
quality of'their trees in 1968.25 Excessive browning of needles was the first
symptom noticed by two growers, Dr. F. D. Custer, owner of Mountaintop Tree Farms,
and Mr. V. T. Steyer, owner of Steyer Tree Farms, at their farms near Mt. Storm,
West Virginia, and Kitzsmiller, Maryland.
Prior to 1968, these two men had grown Christmas trees commercially in this
locality for more than a decade without encountering any unusual problems. In fact,
1-23
-------
the growers had consistently raised trees of premium quality much in demand by
commercial buyers. Figure 1-6 is a photograph taken in 1964 of near-perfect Eastern
white pine growing on a Steyer Farm that subsequently produced award-winning trees.
Figure 1-6. Photograph of premium-quality Eastern white pine growing on Steyer Farm, 1964.
These growers found that some of their trees were showing, in addition to
needle browning, the abnormal growth symptoms that were to increase in severity and
number in subsequent growing seasons. Among these abnormalities were premature
abscission, lack of lateral side growth, and irregular branch and needle develop-
ment. Trees thus affected took on a sparse, ragged appearance that rendered them
undesirable as ornamentals or Christmas trees.
The severity of this damage to the Christmas trees, as viewed by the growers,
increased with proximity of the farms to the Mt. Storm power plant. Stony River
Farm, which is in Grant County, West Virginia, only 2.5 miles from the power plant,
exhibited the most severe damage. Trees on farms farther away from the power plant
on the opposite side of Backbone Mountain in Maryland remained generally healthy,
although some injury to Eastern white pine has been reported throughout that area.
During 1969 and 1970, the area farms were examined and studied by many experts
from APCO as well as from various universities and state agencies. Their reports
1-24
-------
form an impressive body of literature from which much of the information presented
26 31
in this document has been abstracted.
Injury Classification
A variety of tree injuries have been noted in the Mt. Storm studies. The
diversity of the injuries observed suggests strongly that they cannot be ascribed to
any one toxicant or other cause. In order to identify them clearly, the various
types of injury found are described in this section.
Tip Burn or Tip Necrosis - Tip burn, an acute injury symptomized by "burning" and
browning of the needle tips, has been closely identified with the exposure of coni-
fers to S02 as well as 03 and fluoride. This injury has been seen on nearly all
conifer species growing in the area, but most often on Eastern white pine, Scotch
pine, and Austrian pine. The injury varied in severity from slight tip browning
and banding to death of the needles. Tip burn was more prevalent in the 1969
growing season than in the 1970 season, when it occurred mainly on the more sensi-
tive species, Eastern white pine and Austrian pine.
Chlorosis This chronic condition, indicated by the yellowing of needles, can be
caused by nutritional or hormonal deficiencies but, in sensitive pines, it can also
be induced by exposure to 03 and S02. Eastern white pine is particularly sensitive.
Chlorotic needles and chlorotic banding of needles were observed on this species
throughout most of the study area. The "chlorotic dwarf" symptoms on White pine
are not uncommon throughout the Eastern United States. In this injury, yellowing of
needles is accompanied by stunted growth and sparse foliage.
Early Needle Drop (Early Abscission) - Needles were shed prematurely by the conifers
that suffered some form of injury. Green needles on two- and three-needle pines
(Scotch, Virginia, and Austrian) are normally retained 3 years. The normal reten-
tion for five-needle pine (Eastern white) is 2 to 3 years, depending on the moisture
level in the habitat. Chlorotic needles, or prematurely necrotic needles (as dis-
tinct from normal senescence necrosis), were frequently shed by the affected trees
in the Mt. Storm area, and the resulting1 reduction in foliage gave the trees a
sparse or bare appearance. Early needle drop has been observed on nearly all of the
farms in the area.
Random Short Needles - This form of injury to conifers was first observed in the
Mt. Storm area but, now that it has been described, it is being found in other parts
of the country. A healthy conifer has needles of a length characteristic of the
species; that is, the length of the needles on a tree varies only minutely. Trees
with the "long-short needle" syndrome, however, have randomly distributed short or
long needles. The short needles vary in length from one-tenth normal to normal
length, with most being shorter than one-half normal length on severely damaged
1-25
-------
trees. Sometimes only one needle in a fascicle is shortened, sometimes all of them
are shortened, with the needles in the adjacent fascicle being normal. At other
times, abnormally long needles are found on a twig that also has normal and short
needles. An extreme example of random needle dwarfing seen consisted of needles
that never quite emerged from the fascicle. Dwarfed needles were observed to be
more susceptible to early abscission.
The long-short needle syndrome was found predominantly on Scotch pine, although
it was present to some extent on all pines. The trees affected have such a rough,
ragged appearance that they are unmarketable.
Twisting and Elongation of Needles - A variation of the "long-short needle" syndrome
occurs in which one surface of the needle grows faster than the other, causing the
needle to bend and curl. If the top surface of the needle grows faster than the
lower surface (epinasty), the needle bends down. Conversely, if the lower surface
grows faster than the upper (hyponasty), the needle bends up. Examples have been
found in which the needles formed a right angle.
Bud Failure - Conifer buds are normally formed at the end of branches, and new
branches and needles grow from them the following year. If the buds fail to open,
then, normal growth does not occur and the trees become stunted and malformed.
Sometimes bud failure results in excessive growth from the surviving buds.
A number of variations in the bud-failure syndrome have been observed on the
farms. Sometimes the main axial terminal buds develop but the sub-terminal buds
fail, which results in a long scraggly leader that must be cut back. Sometimes the
lateral terminal buds and the lateral sub-terminal buds fail. Trees with any of
these combinations of bud failure are loose and open-branched, and are frequently
lacking in foliage.
Failure of the sub-terminal buds to develop on both the main axial terminal
and the lateral side branches seriously affected the growth of Scotch pine and
spruce at some of the more severely damaged farms. This growth aberration does not
seem to occur on other pine species or on fir.
Adventitious Budding In adventitious budding, an excessive number of buds form,
usually at branch terminals but in other positions on the branches as well. The
normal number of buds on a terminal cluster on unsheared pine is four to six. As
many as 9 to 31 buds appeared on some of the trees, with additional sub-terminal
buds occurring on stems immediately below the terminal cluster. A few of the trees
even had compound buds on the main terminal, some having as many as six main buds,
each with a crown of three to seven buds. This bizarre growth appeared only at a
few farms and is a phenomenon not encountered before.
1-26
-------
Brooming of needles (numerous fascicles in close proximity to each other) was
observed at a few farms, where it affected Scotch pine and Eastern white pine.
Basal Spotting of Needles - In this injury, small necrotic spots occur at the
extreme base (inside the sheath) of living needles. The spots are located on the
outside of the needles next to the basal sheaths and between the needles composing
each fascicle. These dead spots are present on most of the pine needles growing on
the more severely affected farms. Needles that showed random dwarf symptoms were
highly inclined to basal spotting. Basal spots were sometimes observed on some of
the seemingly healthy needles of normal length, but less frequently than on short
needles.
Damage Survey
In connection with the APCO study, several visits were made to the Christmas-
tree farms in Garrett and Grant Counties. Two surveys of damage were made in the
last 4 months of 1969 and five were made in the 1970 growing season. During the
surveys, attention centered on farms where damage was most severe, although other
farms were inspected to determine the geographical distribution of the damage.
During these surveys, Christmas trees and indigenous vegetation were examined
for possible damage by plant diseases, sulfur dioxide and other pollutants, and
other etiologic agents. Vegetation samples were collected for chemical, morphologi-
cal, and microscopic analysis.
The first inspection of tree farms for injury in September and November of 1969
revealed a complex pattern of symptoms. Injury typical of sulfur dioxide fumigation
was readily observed as were a variety of growth aberrations for which the cause
and extent could not be readily defined. A more extensive inspection schedule was
then carried out during the 1970 growing season.
Observations as to the nature and extent of tree damage are presented in Table
1-4. Brief factual data on the farms are also given and are keyed by identifying
numbers to the map in Figure 1-7.
The injuries observed on the tree'farms have been previously classified accord-
ing to a number of distinct symptoms. For our discussion of the possible causes of
the damage and the extent to which it occurred, the various symptoms can be grouped
into two broad categories:
1. Injury affecting needle tissue, such as tip burn, banding, chlorosis, or
other symptoms of air pollutant damage.
2. Various growth alterations, such as early needle loss, bud failure, short-
and long-needle syndrome, and other symptoms previously listed that are not
generally typical of air pollutant damage.
1-27
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Table 1-4. SUMMARY OF DAMAGE ON TREE FARMS
Farm description
Damage description
2.
3.
Stony River Farm
Located 2-1/2 miles NW of Mt. Storm plant;
consists of 170 acres of Scotch pine, Norway
spruce, and a few Austrian pine and Eastern
white pine.
VEPCO Experimental Farm
(formerly Steyer No. 1)
Located 7 miles NW of Mt. Storm plant (east
slope of Backbone Mountain); consists
of 25 acres of Scotch pine, Eastern
white pine, and a few Norway spruce.
Steyer No. 5 Farm
Located 10 miles N of Mt'. Storm plant
(east slope of Backbone Mountain); con-
sists of 50 to 70 acres of Eastern
1969 Trees were severely affected by abnormal growth symptoms.
Long-short needle syndrome and early needle loss were pre-
valent on Scotch pine and white pine. Norway spruce and
Scotch pine showed extreme lateral bud failure. Variety
of other growth symptoms adventitious budding, needle "broom-
ing," and crooked needles were manifested on Scotch pine.
Slight tip burn appeared on Austrian pine and Scotch pine.
Severe tip burn showed on red pine and white pine growing
in reforested area near farm. Indigenous vegetation also
showed injury characteristic of S02 fumigation.
1970 Trees throughout farm were generally in advanced state of
decline. Majority of Scotch pine were affected by long-short
needle syndrome and had only 1 year needles, which gave them
a ragged and bare appearance. Although only a trace of tip
burn was observed on the farm in 1970, trees exhibited such
extremely poor appearance that nearly all were considered
unsaleable.
1969 Tip burn, discoloration, and banding were observed on many
Scotch and white pine. Scotch pine experienced growth al-
terations, long-short needles, and lateral bud failure, but
to a lesser degree than at Stony River Farm. White pine
had started to decline, showing yellowing of needles, early
needle loss, and chlorotic dwarf symptoms. Squash planted
as an indicator of air pollution damage showed typical SOo
injury.
1970 VEPCO engaged in experimental spray program on 40% of tree
stand to determine whether damage was related to insect in-
festations.32
1969 Widespread injury was observed on all pine species. Severe
tip burn was present on a number of trees. Long-short needle
syndrome affected Scotch pine, Virginia pine, and some of the
white pine. Premature shedding of needles was especially
-------
Table 1-4 (continued). SUMMARY OF DAMAGE ON TREE FARMS
Farm description
Damage description
white pine, Virginia pine, Scotch pine,
and Norway spruce.
4.
5.
Steyer No. 4 Farm
Located adjacent to Steyer No. 5 Farm;
consists of 13 acres of scotch pine with
some Eastern white pine.
Steyer No. 3 Farm
Located 12 miles NNW of Mt. Storm plant (west
slope of Backbone Mountain); consists
of 10 acres of Eastern white pine.
Steyer No. 2 Farm
Located 12 miles N of Mt. Storm plant (east
slope of Backbone Mountain); consists
of 40 acres of Scotch pine, Eastern
white pine, and Norway spruce, with
some Douglas fir and Frazier fir; 1
acre of seedlings.
noticeable. White pine had deteriorated badly and had begun
to show pronounced chlorotic dwarf symptoms.
1970 Condition of the farm remained essentially as observed the
previous year. Tip burn was not particularly noticeable,
with only a slight burn appearing on a few trees. All of
the trees have declined to the point where they are not
saleable.
1970 A stand of high-quality, large white pine trees grown for
ornamental stock had started to decline and lose foliage.
The 1969 needle growth that showed severe tip burn and
chlorosis were shedding prematurely by mid-summer.
1970 The farm has reportedly in the past produced exceptional
high-quality white pine trees. Some of the trees were still
of high quality and had near-perfect shape. Other trees,
however, were beginning to lose color and exhibit thin
foliage. Definite tip burn was observed on a few trees
and chlorotic dwarf symptoms were becoming noticeable.
1969 Extensive tip burn was evident on large portions of a Scotch
pine field in November. The trees were unharmed only a few
weeks earlier. 1- and 2-year pine seedlings in a nearby bed
were also severely burned at the same time. The type of in-
jury and the manner in which it occurred indicated that a
S02 fumigation involving relatively high concentrations had
probably occurred. In contrast to the acute injury seen in
pines, Norway spruce on this farm exhibited chronic failure
of sub-terminal buds on both lateral and axial branches.
Trees were loose, oper-branched, and frequently of grotesque
shape. Earlier years' growth on the same trees appeared
normal, which suggests that the onset of the abnormal growth
was in recent years.
«o
-------
CO
o
Table 1-4 (continued). SUMMARY OF DAMAGE ON TREE FARMS
Farm description
Damage description
Taylor Farm (Kempton Road)
Located 9 miles NW of Mt. Storm plant
(east slope of Backbone Mountain);
consists of 21 acres with al-
ternate rows of Eastern white pine
and Scotch pine and a few Norway
spruce on the periphery.
8. Taylor Farm (Shady Dell)
Located 11 miles NW of Mt. Storm plant
(west side of Backbone Mountain);
consists of 22 acres with alternate
rows of red pine and Eastern white
pine.
Custer Home Farm
Located 17 miles NW of Mt. Storm plant
and 16 miles ESE of Albright
power plants; consists of 60
acres of Scotch pine, Eastern
white pine, red pine, Austrian
pine, and Norway spruce.
1970 No evidence of fresh tip burn on the Scotch pine was observed.
Seedlings that were severely damaged by tip burn in 1969
never fully recovered and were stunted and unsaleable. Long-
short needle syndrome appeared on current growth of Scotch
pine affected by tip burn in 1969. Needles severely burned
in 1969 were being prematurely lost. Norway spruce con-
tinued to be severely effected by bud failure.
1969 Banding and yellowing of Scotch and white pine needles were
observed and a few needles show tip burn. White pine was
affected more than the Scotch pine. There was little evidence
of abnormal growth symptoms in either species.
1970 Chlorosis of current needles and early needle loss on Eastern
white pine was prevalent. The trees were thinly needled,
holding only one-year needles. Some chlorotic dwarfs were
seen.
1969 Trees were generally in good condition. A few white pine
showed tip burn and chlorosis, but the red pine were un-
affected.
1970 Farm remained in good condition with no observable change.
The farm was the least affected of any of the farms in the
area.
1969 Austrian pine on exposed hilltop showed tip burn and a few
Scotch pine showed yellow banding on current needles.
Chlorotic dwarfs of Eastern white pine were scattered through-
out the farm.
1970 The tip burn on the Austrian pine was more severe but other-
wise the conditions were the same. Trees on this farm are
generally thriving, high-quality trees.
-------
Table 1-4 (continued). SUMMARY OF DAMAGE ON TREE FARMS
Farm description
Damage description
10. Weise-McDonald Farm
(near Deep Creek Lake)
Located about 18 miles from the Mt.
Storm and Albright plants and
Luke pulp mill; consists of 35 acres
of Scotch pine and some Norway spruce.
11. White Face Farm
Located 25 miles N of Mt. Storm plant
and 16 miles NE of Albright Power
plant; consists of 90 acres of
White pine and a few red pine and
Norway spruce.
12. Dr. Feister Farm ~~
Located 22 miles NW of Mt. Storm Plant
and 14 miles SW of Albright Power
plant; consists of 40 to 50 acres
of Eastern white pine.
1969 Trees appeared healthy without any visible signs of damage.
1970 Evidence of slight tip burn and long-short needle syndrome
had appeared in limited areas of the farm.
1970 Tip burn and chlorosis were common on the current needles
of white pine. A few trees were severely burned but most
were slightly to moderately affected. Chlorotic dwarfs
of varying size and shape were present throughout the field.
1969 Trees appeared reasonably healthy and exhibited normal growth.
1970 Excessive yellowing of the foliage was noted, with needles
being prematurely shed. Deterioration of the trees affected
quality and was said to have significantly reduced the number
of trees sold.
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• 11
ALLEUNY COUNTY
PRESTON COUNTY
Figure 1 -7. Location of tree farms surveyed for damage.
Early needle loss could be placed in either category since premature abscission of
severely injured needles is frequent whether the injury was caused by chemical (air
pollution) burn, harmful organisms, or natural stresses.
As commonly observed on damaged trees in the Mt. Storm area, an abnormal growth
symptom is often accompanied by other symptoms on the same tree. For example,
several types of injury have appeared on the branch of a Scotch pine growing at the
Stony River Farm (Figure 1-8). On this branch, which is typical of those on many of
the trees on this farm, the combined effects of early needle loss (only 1-year
needles still present by late summer), lateral bud failure (lacking normal comple-
ment of side branches), and random dwarfing of needles are all present. The pattern
shown here is sufficiently common that the individual growth aberrations are fre-
quently referred to as the "abnormal growth symptom complex."
As mentioned earlier, the damage that now affects trees on a number of farms
in the area first appeared at the Stony River Farm. The location of this farm in
relation to the Mt. Storm Power Plant is shown in Figure 1-9. When inspected in
1-32
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Figure 1 -8. Branch of Scotch pine from Stony River Farm showing three types of abnormal growth sym-
ptoms: early needle loss, lateral bud failure, and random dwarfing of needles.
1969, trees on the Stony River Farm, as well as on several other tree farms on the
southeastern slope of Backbone Mountain, showed extensive damage. The damage at the
Stony River Farm is principally a manifestation of abnormal growth symptom complex.
At the Steyer Farms (Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5), 8 to 12 miles from the power plant in
Maryland, growth aberrations were also prevalent but to a lesser extent than at the
Stony River Farm.
Figures 1-1Oa and 1-1 Ob show a Norway spruce, on the Steyer No. 2 Farm, that was
severely affected by bud failure, and a high-quality spruce of the same variety on
the Custer Home Farm near Oakland. On the northwestern slope of Backbone Mountain,
and further north, Christmas-tree farms have not been noticeably affected by the
abnormal growth symptom complex.
1-33
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...,„. -
Figure 1-9. Aerial photograph showing proximity of Stony River Farm (foreground) to Mt. Storm River
Power Plant.
Needle burn was also observed on several farms in the area during the 1969
growing season. Severe tip burn and banding occurred on a variety of conifer
species at those farms nearer to the Mt. Storm plant. The burn was sufficiently
typical of sulfur dioxide injury to leave little question as to the causative agent.
Incidents of severe tip burn, except on those farms where Eastern white pine
and Austrian pine are grown, were not observed or reported by the growers on farms
located northwest of Backbone Mountain. The presence of needle burn on Austrian
pine on the upper elevations at the Custer Home Farm, and of tip burn on white
pine at White Face Farm (at the northern end of Deep Creek Lake), also at a higher
elevation, suggests that SO^ emissions from sources other than the Mt. Storm Power
Plant may be contributing to the area's problems. It is significant that damage
to white pine was noted at farms many miles from the Mt. Storm plant. Relevant
1-34
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Figure 1 -10. a. Damaged spruce at Stayer Farm. b. Normal spruce at Custer Home Farm.
sulfation and oxidant data are presented in later sections.
The inherent sensitivity of Eastern white pine to both sulfur dioxide and ox-
idants makes it difficult to assess the relative effects of these pollutants on
this species. The possibility that one pollutant enhances or aggravates the
effects of the other complicates the diagnosis in this species of oxidant and SCL
injury. Proximity to the Mt. Storm Power Plant appears to have at least a limited
effect on the damage seen in white pine. On farms along the Potomac River on the
southeastern slope of Backbone Mountain (Steyer No. 5 and Taylor's Kempton Farm),
1-35
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the decline of white pine is rapid and drastic; whereas, on farms at lower ele-
vations on the other side of the mountain (Steyer No. 3 and Taylor's Shadydell
Farms), the decline is more subtle. Farms such as Ouster's Home Farm and White
Face Farm that are located at ridge level, potentially if not actually within the
realm of influence of other power-plant effluents, may demonstrate effects more
directly related to these sources.
Whereas the occurrence of chronic injury such as needle chlorosis and abnormal
growth show geographical patterns and temporal trends in the area, the occurrence
of acute burn episodes exhibits no pattern and is completely unpredictable. Because
local topography and overall atmospheric conditions affect air flow and the disper-
sion of pollutants, they affect the exposure of the trees to pollutants, and are,
therefore, critical factors in the occurrence of burn injury. As such, they can
result in wide variations in the tree damage observed in a particular area and
even on the same farm from year to year. Although the combination of factors needed
to produce needle burn may occur only occasionally in the area, the episodes are of
special importance to the grower because severe injury is inflicted on the trees
when they do occur.
The tree injury incident observed at the Steyer No. 2 Farm in November 1969
illustrates how serious this problem is to the growers. The acute needle burn
injury that occurred to an entire field of Scotch pine at this farm over a short
time period is highly indicative of an SO- fumigation. The resultant damage was
readily discernible, with some of the trees having a scorched appearance on one
side and others on all sides of the tree. Results of histological examinations of
the injured needles taken from these trees are presented later.
Severe burn symptoms appeared in nursery seedling beds on the Steyer No. 2 Farm
at the same time. One-year Scotch pine seedlings were burned so severely that the
bed was virtually ruined. Figure 1-11 illustrates the drastic stunting the burn
produced in the seedlings. All of the seedlings shown in the photograph were 2
years of age in 1970 and were previously burned during the 1969 episode. The two
seedlings on the left, although still living, have ceased growing whereas the one
on the right, only slightly burned at the time, managed to achieve nearly normal
growth in 1970. All of the beds were heavily damaged, although some seedlings -re-
covered sufficiently in 1970 to be usable.
Acute burn of this type, although not as severe, was noticed in 1969 on sev-'
eral of the farms in this portion of the study area. In 1970, however, no burns of
this magnitude were observed at any of these same farms. Nevertheless, since the
growers had observed tree injury of this nature off and on since 1967, it is likely
that the conditions will again appear on the farms in time.
1-36
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Figure 1-11. Stunted growth of Scotch pine seedling severely burned by S02 in 1969 compared with
nearly normal -sized seedling of same age.
The onset of damage to the Christmas-tree farms in recent years is of interest.
On several of the severely damaged farms the growers have contracted with the pro-
perty owners for cutting rights which specified that the trees were to be removed
from the field within a certain time period. Trees on the Stony River Farm were
contracted for in 1964. Contracts for Steyer No. 4 and No. 5 Farms were negotiated
as late as 1967 and 1968. The growers leasing these properties for cutting purposes
are experienced and have indicated that they would not have entered into these con-
tracts if the trees had been of other than satisfactory condition and quality at
that time. The damaged trees themselves demonstrate that injury had occurred only
1-37
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during recent years. The Norway spruce, in Figure l-10a, had normal branch develop-
ment during earlier years' growth (lower portion of tree), with the growth becoming
progressively more open-branched in the last 3 years (top portion).
Formerly high-quality white pine at several locations reached the height of
8 feet or more without any indication of serious problems and now are rapidly
deteriorating, becoming yellowed, thinly needled, and visibly less vigorous; in
time they will show true chlorotic dwarf symptoms. As noted in Table 1-4 and as
shown in Figure 1-6, many of the farms in the Mt. Storm area were able to produce
high-quality white pine in earlier years and up to as late as 1969 on some farms.
In summary, the abnormal growth problems constitute without doubt the most
serious damage problems faced by growers in the Mt. Storm area. Uniformity of
growth is directly related to the quality and, thus, the saleability of the tree.
The onset in 1970 of abnormal growth symptoms, however slight, on farms where in
1969 symptoms were supposedly absent is a cause for concern.
Although acute burning of the trees from S02 fumigation appears to happen only
occasionally at a given farm or location, the injury developed may seriously impair
the growth and vitality of the tree for at least one or more growing seasons.
Young seedlings or nursery stock may be permanently damaged from a single incident
of severe S02 burn. Repeated burns over a period of time may likewise cause
irreversible damage to older trees. Premature loss of needles resulting from
burn before harvest directly affects the grade and saleability of the trees.
The general overall decline of white pine and the greatly increased prevalence
of chlorotic dwarf symptoms suggest that this and other pine species (such as the
Austrian pine) that are especially susceptible to air pollution injury may not be
profitably grown in this area in future years unless air pollution can be reduced.
Transplantation Experiment
In April 1968, Dr. F. D. Custer transplanted Scotch pine with severe growth
alteration symptoms—that is, needle-dwarfing, bud failure, early abscission,
and retarded growth—from the Stony River Farm to the Custer Home Farm where such
symptoms had not occurred. Trees lacking these symptoms were transplanted from the
Custer Home Farm to the Stony Farm. His objectives were: (1) to see if damaged
trees would improve when removed from a farm on which severe damage had occurred
and to a farm where damage had not occurred, and (2) to see if healthy transplanted
trees would show damage when transplanted from a damage-free farm to a farm where
damage had occurred.
The following two growing seasons, 1969 and 1970, the severely injured trees,
while still retaining remnants of the 1968 short-long needle syndrome, recovered
1-38
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and produced healthy, normal growth. Although needles produced immediately following
transplant were uniformly short because of transplant shock, even this foliage pre-
sented a good appearance. Figures l-12a and l-12b show: (1) a damaged branch of a
Scotch pine recently transplanted to the Custer Home Farm, and (2) the healthy 1970
growth on a tree transplanted in 1969 that at one time showed damage equally as
severe. In contrast, trees that had been moved to Stony River Farm in 1969 began
to show pronounced symptoms of abnormal growth by 1970. A branch from one of the
Scotch pine moved to Stony River Farm is shown in Figure 1-13. Needles set before
the tree was moved are normal, whereas later needles are damaged.
Figure 1 -12. a. Typical severely damaged branches on Scotch pine recently transplanted from Stony
River Farm to Custer Home Farm. b. Healthy current growth on trees transplanted in
1969 that recovered from previous damage.
The Custer Home Farm is more remote from any of the major sources of pollution
(Section V) than the Stony River Farm. The improvement in trees transplanted to
the Custer Home Farm appeared to be the result of lower levels of air pollution.
It has been suggested, however, that insect infestations, if responsible for
the damage, might also be lower at Custer Home Farm, which would account for the
1-39
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DWARFED NEEDLES
EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANT SHOCK
Figure 1 -13. Abnormal growth on branches from formerly healthy Scotch pine transplanted to Stony
River Farm.
improvement of the transplants. A survey, however, of insect and mite population
31
at the two farms showed little or no difference. Other factors such as the pos-
sibility of different soil conditions and exposure at the two farms were not con-
sidered.
Although the results can be interpreted to indicate that air pollution is the
cause of growth aberrations on severely damaged trees at Stony River Farm, trans-
plantation experiments designed to minimize influence of the variables would
be required to prove the validity of this interpretation.
Entomological Studies
A survey was made of the farms listed in Table 1-4 for the purpose of determining
whether insects or other small organisms might be involved in causing the damage.
Dr. R. F. Anderson, Forest Entomologist, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina,
examined trees in the field on several occasions in November 1969 and June through
August 1970.
1-40
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Samples collected during the field surveys and at other times by the growers were
returned to his laboratory for microscopic examination. Detailed results of the
entomological study are contained in a report prepared as a supplement to this
technical report.
Field and laboratory examinations revealed that numerous insects and mites had
been present or were presently infesting the trees to various degrees. The tree
growers had already recognized some of the insect species and had taken remedial
measures. Other species were found in numbers too small to be significant in
contributing to the problem. At no location were there enough insects of any kind
to cause the kind and amount of injury observed.
The complexity of the symptoms on injured trees further argued against
insects as the cause. The types of injury suffered by the trees have never before
been associated with the insects found, even when the insects were present in
large numbers. The fact that so many tree species are involved is another reason
to question insects as the cause, because one kind of insect seldom infests species
as diverse as pines, spruces, and firs.
Necrotic spotting at the needle bases beneath the fascicle sheaths on the
pines was not thought to be the effect of insect infestation either. Dr. F. A. Wood
has suggested that feeding by eriophyid mites (Setoptus sp.) found infesting the
32
trees was the cause of the basal spots and, in turn, the needle-dwarfing.
Based on his observations and microscopic examination of injured needles,
Dr. Anderson has suggested that the basal necrotic spotting of needles may not
be caused by an organism, but instead may be the result of "acid burn." The
ambiguous presence of flyash particles deposited on emerging needles around scales
of the opening buds and needle sheaths on trees in severely affected areas is of
interest. Acid or alkali leached from the particles is considered as a possible
source of a protoplasmic poison. Also under consideration are acid aerosols
emitted by the power plant and sulfur gases absorbed in dew or rainfall. Studies
have shown that some of the S02 in power plant effluents may be oxidized to S03
by accompanying particulate matter or flyash, which react with moisture to form
acid aerosols.33' 34
Work is continuing at the present time to establish possible mechanisms in-
volved in any air-pollution-induced growth abnormalities. Preliminary investigation
by Dr. C. C. Gordon, University of Montana, has shown that needle dwarfing can be
induced in the lab by the topical application of weak acid to young, elongating
needles as shown in Figure 1-14.
1-41
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Photo. Court«ty Don Dodg*
Figure 1-14. Laboratory-induced dwarfing of needles.
Histological Studies
For histological studies, injured and intact needles were collected from several
plantations, processed microtechnically, and examined microscopically by Dr. I.
Hindawi and Dr. C. C. Gordon, plant pathologists from APCO and the University of
Montana, respectively.
The samples prepared by the APCO laboratory were hand-sectioned in order to
obtain specimens without the distortion induced by killing, dehydrating, or freezing
the tissue. Sections were taken at three points on damaged needles: the brown tip;
the transition zone between the tip and banded areas; and from the banded area itself.
A drawing of a pine leaf cross section is provided in Figure 1-15 to assist in iden-
tifying leaf parts referred to in the following discussion of histological data.
In needles having brown tips, collected in November 1969 from several farms
(including Steyer No. 2) with trees showing severe burn symptoms, the endodermis was
found to be partially or completely collapsed. In the mesophyll layer, chloroplasts
were collapsed and disintegrated and both the cytoplasm and the nucleus had lost
their identity. The xylem was intact, but the phloem was crushed and collapsed.
The epithelial cells of the resin canals showed extreme expansion and swelling or
had collapsed and broken down. In the transition zone the epithelial cells of the
1-42
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STOMA
MESOPHYU
RESIN CANAL
ENDODERMIS
(BUNDLE SHEATH)
PARENCHYMA
Figure 1-15. Cross section of pine leaf.
resin canals were expanded and swollen and many of them were in various stages of
disintegration. Some of the phloem cells had become swollen.
In banded areas, the epithelial cells were enlarged and swollen as were a few
phloem cells. The hypodermis contained yellow-brown pigmentation not found in
healthy cells. Some chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells had broken down.
Healthy-appearing needles collected from the Weise-McDonald farm in 1969 were
also sectioned and studied under the microscope. All of the tissues of these needles
were intact, including the epithelial lining of the resin canals.
The epithelial cells of resin canals are apparently the cells most easily
affected by sulfur dioxide or hydrogen fluoride. In general, cross sections from
the tips of the injured areas showed resin canals completely occluded with swollen
epithelial cells. In all of the affected zones, the mesophyll layer contained
chloroplasts in various stages of disintegration.
The morphology of the plant damage described above clearly shows that the
causative agent of tip burn observed on the tree farms was of a chemical nature.
This is borne out by the extensive changes that occurred throughout the plant tissues.
These pathologic changes could not have been caused by insect or fungus infestation,
winter damage, or wind exposure.
Histological studies made by Dr. Gordon confirm APCO's findings that injury
on needle samples collected from farms where severe tip burn manifested itself in
November 1969 (previously described) is of a chemical nature.
1-43
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In addition to many of the symptoms already described, Dr. Gordon found
hypertrophy of the parenchyma! cells of the transition tissues, which is indicative
of sulfur dioxide or hydrogen fluoride toxicity. He found, as well, that the
horseshoe-shaped mesophyllic cells located directly beneath the stomata were
destroyed, which,, again, is symptomatic of toxicity of sulfur-containing gases
and acids. Too, the disintegration of the chloroplasts and the hypertrophy of
the epithelial cells of the resin canals can be attributed to sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen fluoride, or hydrogen sulfide toxicity. Since the nuclei of the epithelial
and mesophyllic cells were disintegrated, however, hydrogen fluoride toxtcity can
be ruled out.
Thus, these studies implicate sulfur dioxide as the major causative agent in
the extensive needle burn observed on Scotch pine growing in field and nursery
beds at the Steyer Farms.
Details of Dr. Gordon's studies and illustrative photomicrographs of sectioned
injured and healthy needle tissue are contained in his report to APCO prepared on a
supplement to this report.^
Chemical Studies
Sulfur dioxide entering the stomata of a leaf is thought to be oxidized in
the leaf to form sulfuric acid, which reacts with organic bases. The resulting
sulfates are apparently translocated and deposited in the leaf tissue. Large
amounts of sulfate are found in leaves with chronic symptoms whereas only a small
increase in sulfate content occurs in leaves with acute injury.
Conifer needles were collected in the fall of 1969 from a number of farms in
the area for analysis of total sulfur content. The analysis was made to determine
the relative sulfur concentration in needles from different locations in the area
and to correlate variations in concentration with proximity to known S(>2 sources.
Scotch pine trees were selected for analysis because they were being grown at
the majority of the farms and generally retained both first- and second-year needles.
Needle samples were sent to the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation Laboratory
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for total sulfur analysis. The collection sites, year of
needle emergence, and results of chemical analysis are listed in Table 1-5.
The sulfur concentration in the needles ranged from 500 to 3,750 ppm. Unpub-
lished work indicates that sulfur concentrations greater than 500 ppm generally
indicate SOy contamination but that concentrations greater than 1,000 ppm definitely
indicate S02contamination.
1-44
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Table 1-5. TOTAL SULFUR ACCUMULATION IN SCOTCH
PINE NEEDLES FROM SELECTED SITES
Site
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Location3
Stony River Farm
Steyer No. 1 Farm
Steyer No. 5 Farm
Steyer No. 2 Farm
Weise-McDonald Farm
4-H Club Farm
(northeast bound-
ary of study area)
Custer Home Farm
Taylor (Kempton)
Farm
Pulp mill vicinity
(Westernport, Mary-
land)
Year of
needle
growth
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1968
Sulfur,
ppm
1,000
1,200
800
1,100
3,200
3,750
1,100
700
500
600
500
500
500 to 600
500 to 1,000
900
600
2,500
3,100
Location of farms shown in Figure 1-7.
Samples from tree farms in the vicinity of the Mt. Storm Power Plant (Sites 1,
2, 3, 4, and 8) contained higher concentrations of sulfur than were found in
samples from those farms farther away, in the northern portion of the area (Sites
5, 6, and 7). The sulfur content of needles collected near the pulp mill was
significantly higher than it was in most of the needles from the other sites and
was exceeded only at the Steyer No. 5 Farm. Analysis of needles from several
sites showed that more sulfur was present in current-year needles (1969) than in
needles from the previous year (1968), which perhaps indicates greater S02 con-
tamination during the 1969 growing season at these location.
Vegetation Experiments
In addition to the field inspection in 1970, vegetation experiments were con-
ducted at three of the farms. These experiments are described in this section but
conclusive results are not yet available.
The first of these experiments was designed to show the effect on conifers
of proximity to the power plant. At the Stony River Farm, fifty 8-year-old,
1-45
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3- to 4-foot Scotch pine trees showing severe damage were transplanted into baskets.
Half of these were kept on the farm; the other half were taken to the Weise-Mac-
Donald Farm, where damage to Scotch pine was minimal. Half of the basketed trees
at both sites were sprayed with an insecticide.
In a similar manner, fifty healthy Scotch pine were dug at the Weise-MacDonald
plantation and basketed. Half were taken to the Stony River Farm, and set beside
those trees that were dug out and kept on the farm. Again, half of each group was
sprayed with the same insecticide used on the damaged trees. Improvement in growth
of those trees taken from the Stony River Farm and grown at the Weise-MacDonald
plantation would demonstrate a proximity effect. Similarly, a decline in vitality
of those trees removed from the latter plantation and grown near the power plant
on the Stony River Farm would likewise show the effect.
The second experiment was designed to investigate the genetic susceptibility
of individual trees as well as the possibility that viral infections were the
cause of the difficulties. One hundred scions (live cuttings) from Scotch pine
exhibiting abnormal growth habits on the Stony River Farm were taken. Half were
grafted to healthy stock on the farm and the other half grafted to healthy trees
on the Weise-MacDonald plantation.
A third experiment was designed to determine if vegetation growth improves
in clean air. Two growth chambers (5 by 7 by 6 feet) were built on the Stony
River Farm. One chamber was equipped with an air-filtration system to remove
gaseous and, to some extent, particulate pollutants, while the other chamber was
ventilated with unifiltered ambient air. In both chambers several special plant
varieties were grown: tobacco, pinto bean, petunia, gladiolus, Scotch pine (one
in natural soil and one in a pot), and assorted small pine trees (in pots). An
identical experiment was carried out at the Steyer No. 2 Farm. Plants were ex-
posed in this manner for a 10-week period beginning in June 1970.
Results of these experiments are not available at this time. The basketed
trees showed transplant shock, which will delay the appearance of any definite
proximity effect until next growing season. Similarly, the grafts will not ex-
hibit effects until the 1972 growing season. The growth-chamber experiments are
showing results, but the effect of clean air on Scotch pine growth may have been
partially obscured by the stimulating effect of higher temperatures in the chamber
and generally low ambient sulfur dioxide levels present during the test.
Impact of Tree Damage
Christmas-tree farms are characteristically high-volume, low-margin operations.
The saleability of trees is ultimately decided by individuals on the basis of
1-46
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subjective evaluation of shape, foliage, and color. Injuries of the type observed
in the Mt. Storm area render a large percentage of the trees unmarketable or
bring reduced prices. As a result, the owners of the more severely damaged
Christmas-tree farms are in danger of going out of business. There have been no
plantings on the farms on the Mt. Storm side of Backbone Mountain in the last 2
years because of the uncertainty of bringing future harvests to full maturity
without sustaining damage. Stands of trees that over a period of years have been
planted, fertilized, and sheared will not be harvested.
The field survey has indicated that a similar trend may occur in time at
the farms more distant from Mt. Storm. It is likely that, as time passes, a
larger area will be incapable of supporting a viable Christmas-tree farming
operation.
The further implications of the tree injuries are less tangible. The damage
to the sensitive pines, however, is indicative of potential damage to other trees
and vegetation throughout the region. The worsening conditions observed over the
past several years can be expected to continue, with observable effects becoming
more numerous.
REFORESTATION AREAS
The Maryland State Division of Forestry inspected a number of the reforestation
areas in Garrett County in the fall of 1970 and found damage symptoms similar to
op
those on the Christmas-tree farms. The trees planted for reforestation differ
from trees being grown for ornamental or Christmas-tree production only in that
they are unsheared and are allowed to grow to maturity. Several of the state-
operated forest areas are located near the Christmas-tree farms where air-pollution-
related damage has occurred. One prime Eastern white pine stand on state forest
land near Steyer No. 5 Farm has been set aside by the state agency as a major
seed-producing orchard for its program.
Chlorosis, or yellowing of needles, and early abscission appeared to be
affecting white pine on forest plantations throughout Garrett County. "Twisted"
or severely kinked needles were also frequently observed on the white pine. As a
consequence of this needle damage, few of the trees are holding more than 1-year
needles.
Although no estimate of the degree of damage or the number of trees affected
was made, damage was most noticeable on reforestation areas in western and southern
Garrett County. Scotch pine and Virginia pine in these areas showed long-short
needle syndrome, bud failure, and early abscission, whereas Scotch pines located
northeast of Deep Creek Lake were healthy and holding 2- and 3-year needles.
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Although unsightly foliage does riot affect the value of trees for pulp
purposes, as it does those destined for the Christmas-tree market, the state agency
is concerned that the damage may, in time, cause the trees to become less vigorous,
affecting growth rate or weakening them so that they become more susceptible to
insect or desease injury.
39
Linzon in a recent study of economic effects of sulfur dioxide on forest
growth found a gradual decline in the growth of white pine in areas close to
sources of pollutant. Atmospheric S02 at relatively low long-term concentrations
(>0.01 ppm to 0.045 ppm) caused perennial fol.iage injuries to white pine and upset
physiological processes. Reduced chloroplasts, the pigtnented cells necessary for
photosynthesis, resulted in reduced annual growth and increased tree mortality.
1-48
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V. DESCRIPTION OF SOURCES
Potential sources of air pollution in the survey area include several burning
coal-refuse banks in Garrett and Grant Counties, a charcoal plant in Garrett County,
a Kraft pulp mill in Allegany County, and, as previously mentioned, the Mt. Storm
Power Station in Grant County. Location of these sources in relation to the tree
farms is shown in Figure 1-16.
ALLEGANY COUNTY
Figure 1-16. Location of potentisl air pollution sources in study area.
Large coal-burning power plants that exist outside the area may, under certain
meteorological conditions, contribute measurable levels of pollution in the vicinity
of the farms. One of these, the Albright Power Station, is situated in Preston
County, West Virginia, within 8 miles of the Maryland-Garrett County line, whereas
the others are located farther to the northwest, in the Morgantown and Pittsburgh
vicinity (Figure 1-4). Located near the Albright plant is a metallurgical plant,
a potential source of fluorides.
1-49
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Descriptions of the sources and their relative contributions of sulfur oxides
and other pollutants follow.
MT. STORM POWER PLANT
The Mt. Storm Power Station, designed as a mine-mouth power plant, is part of
the Virginia Electric and Power Company (VEPCO) system. The installed generating
capacity of the plant is 1,159,074 kilowatts, which constitutes about 29 percent of
the company's total generating capacity. The plant is located next to the New Stony
River Reservoir about 5 miles south of Mt. Storm, West Virginia.
The facility includes two 570,240-kilowatt, coal-fired, steam electric-power
generating units. The first unit went into commercial operation in the fall of 1965;
the second began in the summer of 1966. The plant also includes 18,594 kilowatts of
oil-fired turbogenerator capacity. The company has received approval from the Public
Service Commission of West Virginia to install an additional 555,000-kilowatt unit
for service by March 1973. Provisions for this unit were included in the original
plant design.
The existing boilers are of the dry-bottom type and are fired with pulverized
coal. Both of the units are equipped with electrostatic precipitators designed for
96 percent efficiency at full load, and each unit is connected to a 350-foot stack.
Data on the steam electric-power-generating units, the electrostatic precipitators,
and the stacks are given in Table B-l (Appendix B). During 1968 the plant generated
about 69 percent of its full-load capacity. Tables B-2 and B-3 (Appendix B) show
monthly power generation and coal consumption for the years 1967 through 1970.
The electrostatic precipitator fly-ash-removal systems at the Mt. Storm plant
have not performed according to expectations and, at times, the system is unable
to remove all the fly ash collected. The company is correcting this condition by
replacing the existing fly-ash-handling equipment. Installation of the new system
was scheduled for completion by May 1970. Because of the poor performance of the
fly-ash-handling systems, at times all of the fly ash from the steam generators
can be discharged to the stacks. When that occurs, particulate emissions are
estimated to be 30 tons per hour per unit at full load, or a total of 60 tons per
hour. When the electrostatic precipitators perform at 96 percent efficiency, total
particulate emissions are estimated to be reduced from 60 to 2.4 tons per hour.
Total plant sulfur oxides emissions for 1968 are estimated at 120,000 tons,
or an average of 13.6 tons per hour. At full load, sulfur oxides emissions from
the burning of coal with an average sulfur content of 2.4 percent are estimated at
19.8 tons per hour. Of the sulfur oxides emitted, 1 to 2 percent is as sulfur tri-
oxide and the remainder as sulfur dioxide. Some West Virginia coal contains up to
1-50
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0.02 percent fluoride, which is released to the atmosphere during combustion. This
amount of fluoride in the coal charged to the Mt. Storm plant boilers at full load
would result in an emission rate of about 170 pounds per hour.
The plant site is more than 3000 feet aboue mean sea level and is in a well-
exposed area of the Allegheny Plateau. The site experiences higher wind speeds,
greater turbulence, and less frequent inversions than do valley locations in the
area. Air contaminant emissions are discharged directly into the high-level wind
pattern. These features facilitate pollution dispersion and reduce long-term,
ground-level concentrations, particularly in the plant vicinity. They do not,
however, affect plume behavior conducive to the infrequent but high short-term levels
that are sometimes experienced many miles from the plant under certain meteorological
conditions.
WESTVACO PULP MILL
The Westvaco pulp mill is located along the Potomac River in Luke, Maryland.
A complete description of the mill and an estimate of emissions are given in Part
Two of this report. For the purposes of this section, only total plant emissions
of S02 and particulates are considered.
The major sources of particulate and sulfur oxides emissions are the plant
boilers and two recovery furnaces. Annual particulate emissions are estimated at
3,700 tons per year from the boilers and 2,300 tons per year from the recovery
furnaces. Sulfur oxides emissions are estimated to be 21,000 tons per year from the
boilers and less than 300 tons per year from the recovery furnaces. The pulp mill
along with the towns of Westernport, Luke, and Piedmont, is situated in a box-like
canyon that empties to the northeast, down the Potomac River drainage. The mountains
to the west, south, and east, which enclose the towns and pulp mill, rise 1000 to
1,500 feet above the 1,020-foot elevation of the pulp mill site. Air contaminants
emitted by the plant are inhibited by the topography from dispersing widely over
the study area.
OTHER SOURCES IN STUDY AREA
Burning Coal Refuse Banks
Coal refuse banks in the area were inspected in the fall of 1969 to determine
the extent of burning activity and to estimate the sulfur oxides emitted. Five
burning "gob" piles were surveyed, three of which-Polino, Island Creek, and
Taskers Corner-are located near enough to Steyer No. 1 and Steyer No. 5 tree
farms to be potential sources of air pollution affecting the farms.
Although some burning activity was noted at all of the piles, total sulfur
oxides emissions are estimated to be less than 100 tons per year. In comparison
1-51
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with emissions from other sources, burning coal refuse does not contribute signi-
ficantly to sulfur oxides levels in the area. The fact that SC>2 was barely
detectable in the immediate vicinity of these piles further indicates that they do
not appreciably contribute to the ambient levels.
Kingsford Charcoal Plant
The Kingsford plant produces charcoal by charring wood in kiln-like ovens.
Although copious quantities of dense white smoke are given off as the wood is
charred, because of the low sulfur content of wood, sulfur oxides emissions are
negligible.
SOURCES OUTSIDE STUDY AREA
Albright Power Plant
The Albright Power Plant is owned jointly by the Potomac Edison Company and
Monongahela Power Company. The Monongahela Power Company's installed generating
capacity is 209,250 kilowatts, and the Potomac Edison Company's capacity is 69,000
kilowatts. This plant, which is located northwest of the study area near Kingwood,
West Virginia, began full-scale operation in 1954. The plant includes three steam
electric-power generating units. Units 1 and 2 are equipped with mechanical
dust collectors rated at 84 percent efficiency; both units have separate 160-foot-
high stacks. Unit 3 is equipped with a combination mechanical collector and
electrostatic precipitator system rated at 97 percent efficiency; it is connected
to a 225-foot-high stack. During 1968, the Albright Plant generated about 88
percent of its full-load capacity. Peak hourly demand on Unit 1 was 82,900 kilo-
watts as compared with a 69,000-kilowatt capacity rating. Peak hourly demand
on Units 2 and 3 was 225,000 kilowatts as compared with a total 209,250-kilowatt
capacity rating. Particulate emissions at full load are estimated at 2.1 tons per
hour when the dust-collection equipment is operating at rated efficiency. Annual
emissions are estimated at 16,000 tons.
Sulfur oxides emissions are estimated at 7.2 tons per hour under full-load
conditions and when coal with an average sulfur content of 2.75 percent is burned;
annual emissions are estimated at 55,000 tons. Assuming a fluoride content in the
coal of 0.02 percent, approximately 55 pounds fluoride per hour would be emitted at
full load.
The plant is located in the Cheat River bottom at an elevation of 1,200 feet
above MSL. Surrounding valley ridges rise several hundred feet above the plant
stacks. Air contaminants emitted from the plant are generally entrained in the low-
level wind patterns and dispersed. Although nearby ridges are subjected to high
concentrations of pollutants, the plant is not expected to appreciably influence
pollutant levels area-wide.
1-52
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Manganese Corporation Plant
A metallurgical plant operated by the Manganese Corporation is located near
Kingwood, West Virginia (in the vicinity of the Albright Power Plant). Emissions
from the 14 electric-arc furnaces at this plant include gaseous and particulate
fluorides. A venturi scrubber operating with a pressure drop of 20 inches of water
has been installed at the plant and reportedly reduces fluoride emissions to a
minimum.
Other Coal-Fired Power Plants Outside Study Area
In addition to the Albright Power Station, several other power plants are
located outside the study area and to the northwest, but within 50 miles of the
tree farms. Three power plants, because of fuel quantities burned and prevailing
wind direction, are possible contributors to background levels of sulfur dioxide
in the Mt. Storm area. These plants are:
1. Fort Martin Power Plant - a 1,140-megawatt station owned by Monongahela
Power Company and located north of Morgantown, West Virginia, on the
Monongahela River.
2. Rivesville Power Plant a 175-megawatt plant owned by Monongahela Power
Company and located near Fairmount, West Virginia.
3. Hatfield Ferry Power Plant - a 1,016-megawatt station owned by West Penn
Power Company and located near Masontown, Pennsylvania.
A theoretical analysis of the relative sulfur dioxide contributions of these
plants, as well as of the power stations at Albright and Mt. Storm, to long-term
levels in the area appears in Section VII. For the purpose of this analysis,
emission rates were calculated using annual fuel consumption data^O and assuming
a uniform fuel sulfur content of 2 percent. Future emission quantities were
derived for each plant based on projected generating capacity and present fuel
quanity burned per megawatt output.
In summary, coal-burning power-generation facilities were responsible for more
than 96 percent of the particulate emissions and nearly all of the sulfur oxides
emissions in the study area. There are two such units in the area—the Mt. Storm
Power Station and the power boilers associated with the Westvaco Pulp and Paper
Mill. Emissions from sources in the study area and from the Albright Power Station
are summarized in Table 1-6. Only the pollutants of primary interest-particulates
and sulfur oxides-are listed.
The Mt. Storm Power Station is the major source of both sulfur oxides and
particulates in the study area. Its higher elevation relative to the surrounding
1-53
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TABLE 1-6. ESTIMATED SOURCE EMISSIONS
(tons/yr)
Source
Mt. Storm Power Station
Westvaco
Kingsford Charcoal Plant
Coal refuse banks
Albright Power Station
Participates
59,500
6,000
Unknown
Negligible
16,000
Sulfur oxides
120,000
21 ,000
Negligible
<100
55,000
mountainous area is conducive to a more area-wide distribution of contaminants
than other sources, and occasional high concentrations from fumigation on high
plateaus and ridges.
The Westvaco Mill and the Albright Power Station also emit significant
quantities of air contaminants. The deep valley locations of these plants, however,
undoubtedly inhibit the distribution of pollution over a large area. While
emissions from these plants create localized air pollution problems of a
considerably greater magnitude than any found in the vicinity of the tree farms,
the potential for area-wide contamination from these sources appears slight.
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VI. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
In order to determine the presence and concentrations of air pollutants in the
study area, both static and continuous air measurements were made during a 4-month
period, June through September 1970. Air monitoring stations were located at three
farms: Stony River Farm, the Steyer No. 2 Farm, and the Weise-McDonald Farm. Sulfur
dioxide, oxidants, and nitrogen oxides were measured continuously at these locations
and, on alternate days, 24-hour suspended particulate and fluoride samples were
collected.
The static sampling network consisted of 76 stations. Dustfall containers for
measuring settleable dusts were placed at 24 sites, sodium formate plates for esti-
mating fluoride levels were placed at 60 sites, and lead peroxide plates for de-
termining sulfation rates were placed at every station. The static sampling de-
vices were exposed for monthly intervals and returned to the laboratory for chem-
ical analysis. The sampling locations were widely distributed over the area in an
attempt to characterize the spatial distribution of these substances. The static
sampling locations are listed in Table A-l (Appendix A) and shown in Figure 1-17.
In addition to air quality measurements, observations of surface wind
direction and speed were made at four sites in the area during the survey to
augment National Weather Service observations at the Pittsburgh Airport. The
meteorological measurements provided information necessary for proper interpretation
of air sampling data. The continuous air monitoring and meteorological stations
are shown in Figure 1-18.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Sulfur dioxide (S02) is a gaseous pollutant formed principally by the com-
bustion of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels.
Continuous Measurements
Coulometric analyzers were used to measure SO? concentrations at the three
farm sites. The analyzers were dynamically calibrated during the study period,
and electronic and static checks were performed on each instrument daily.
Results, expressed as hourly averages (Table 1-7), generally indicate low long-
term S0? concentrations during the measurement period. An average concentration of
only 0.01 ppm was observed at the Stony River Farm, while at the other two locations,
1-55
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ALUGANY COUNTY
PRESTON COUNTY
Figure 1-17. Location of static sampling stations.
concentrations were below this level. The maximum hourly value recorded during the
4-month period was 0.36 ppm at the Stony River Farm, 0.11 ppm at the Steyer No. 2
Farm, and 0.10 ppm at the Weise-McDonald Farm.
Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides notes that adverse health effects can
occur when SOp levels exceed 0.11 ppm for 3 or 4 days, and chronic plant injury and
excessive leaf drop are to be expected at an annual mean of 0.03 ppm. Values pre-
sented in Table 1-7 show that measured concentrations at the three sites were lower
than these levels during the study period.
Table 1-7. SUMMARY OF HOURLY SULFUR DIOXIDE MEASUREMENTS,
MAY 28 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
Station
1 - Stony River
2 - Steyer No. 2
3 - Weise-
McDonald
No. of
observations
2,060
2,572
2,479
Concentration, ppm
Maximum
value
0.36
0.11
0.10
Average
value
0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Percent observations equal
to or exceeding
0.02 ppm
10.6
10.3
9.0
0.10 ppm
1.2
<0.1
<0.1
1-56
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The Environmental Protection Agency has proposed primary and secondary nation-
al air quality standards for several pollutants, including SO,, particulates, and
42
oxidants. Primary standards are based on health effects, and secondary standards
are based on effects on vegetation, materials, animals, visibility, personal com-
fort, and well-being.
PRESTON COUNTY
Air Monitoring
. Meteorological
SLLECANY COUNTY
Figure 1 -18. Location of continuous air monitoring and wind observation stations.
Standards proposed for SO. expressed in pg/m , are:
Primary
Secondary
Maximum 24-hour
concentration
365 (0.14 ppm)
260 (0.10 ppm)
Annual mean
80 (0.03 ppm)
60 (0.023 ppm)
Average concentrations measured at the three sites were less than the proposed
secondary standard for annual mean concentration. Only at Stony River Farm did the
24-hour maximum value (0.08 ppm) approach the secondary 24-hour standard.
1-57
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Particularly important, however, were the several incidents of very high short-
term S02 concentrations that did occur at the Stony River Farm. On September 12, a
peak 15-minute concentration in excess of 0.50 (off analyzer scale) was recorded,
and the peak concentration was extrapolated to be in the range of 0.8 to 1.0 ppm.
Prior to reaching this peak, S02 levels had shown a gradual buildup and had aver-
aged 0.25 ppm for over an hour. The chart graph taken during this period at the
Stony River Farm Station is shown in Figure 1-19. The repeated occurrences of high
S02 concentrations throughout the day indicate that the episode was probably the
result of limited vertical mixing conditions. At such times the dispersion of the
pollutants is restricted by an elevated, presistent inversion. Whenever the station
is downwind of the source, high concentrations occur. Correlations of this and
other instances of high S02 pollution with wind direction are contained in Section V.
I I I I I
0.0
0600
1600
Figure 1 -19. Continuous recording of SO2 concentration for 0800 to 1800 hours on September 12, 1970.
Static Sulfation Measurements
Sulfation plates were used to measure sulfur dioxide activity (sulfation rate)
throughout the study area. This static monitor consists of a small plastic dish
filled with an absorbing paste, primarily lead peroxide. Atmospheric sulfur dioxide
is absorbed upon contact with the paste and held chemically until the sample can be
returned to the laboratory for total sulfate analysis.
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Monthly and seasonal results are presented in Table A-2 (Appendix A). These
values range from a high of 41 micrograms per square centimeter per day (yg/cm2-day)
to only 1 ijg/cm -day. Sulfation values obtained on the tree farms were generally
low, reflecting minimal pollution levels. High short-term concentrations, however,
such as those experienced at the Stony River Farm would not necessarily result in
elevated monthly sulfation rates since the latter measurement averages concen-
trations over a much longer period.
Figure 1-20 shows isopleths of SO, levels based on average sulfation rates from
2
the data obtained at each station. Values greater than 3 ug SCWcm -day were mainly
confined within 4 miles of the three major pollution sources, except in the northern
portion of Garrett County where the extended sulfation isopleths may reflect the
influence of wind direction in transporting pollutants from more distant sources into
2
the area. Sulfation values of greater than 3 \ig S0?/cm -day also occurred at higher-
elevation sampling sites in other directions and at some distance from these major
pollution sources, particularly in the vicinity of tree farms near Backbone Mountain.
2
For example, average values of 3 to 4 ug/cm -day were recorded at sampling locations
405, 431, and 443, all of which were more than 10 miles from the nearest pollution
source. These data indicate the importance of considering topography and occur-
rence of limited vertical diffusion conditions, as well as distance and wind di-
rection frequency, in assessing the impact of pollution in areas more remote from the
pollution sources.
NITROGEN OXIDES
Nitrogen oxides (NO ), particularly nitrogen dioxide (N02) and nitric oxide
(NO), are important because they are toxic pollutants as well as precursors of
photochemical smog. Nitric oxide is produced by the fixation of nitrogen and oxygen
at high combustion temperatures; it is subsequently oxidized to N02 in the ambient
atmosphere.
Continuous measurements for NO were made by means of colorimetric analyzers
X
employing a potassium permanganate scrubber in the sample air intake line. Nitric
oxide in the air was oxidized to N02 and measured along with the ambient NOg by
means of the Saltzman colorimetric technique. Maintenance problems were experienced
with these analyzers, and missing data can be attributed to instrument malfunctions.
Daily maintenance and static calibration checks were performed on all instruments,
however, and dynamic calibrations were made several times during the summer.
Hourly sampling results are presented in Table 1-8. Although the data are not
continuous, results indicate that average concentrations of NO were extremely low--
less than 0.01 ppm at all locations. The maximum hourly value recorded during the
period of study was only 0.08 ppm at Stony River Farm. Even lower maximum values of
0.02 and 0.03 ppm were recorded at Steyer No. 2 and Weise-McDonald Farms, respec-
tively.
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ALLEGANY COUNTY
Figure 1 -20. Distribution of sulfation rates
Table 1-8. SUMMARY OF HOURLY NITROGEN OXIDES MEASUREMENTS,
MAY 28 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 27, 1970
1 -
2 -
3 -
Station
Stony River
Steyer No. 2
Weise-
McDonald
Concentra
L
No. of Maximum
observations value
1,958
1,156
1,362
0.08
0.02
0.03
tion, ppm
Average
value
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Percent observations equal
to or exceeding
0.02 ppm
1.9
1.3
4.8
0.05 ppm
0.4
0.0
0.0
The national air quality standards proposed for nitrogen oxides are 100 micro-
grams per cubic meter (0.055 ppm) for annual mean values and 250 micrograms per
cubic meter (0.135 ppm) for 24-hour concentrations, not to be exceeded more than
once per year. Concentrations in the study area are near background levels, so that
they are not likely to cause adverse effects and should not contribute much to the
formation of photochemical oxidants.
1-60
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OXIDANTS
Oxidants are a class of pollutants derived from photochemical reactions in-
volving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight pro-
vides energy to initiate reactions between these constituents that produce ozone
(the principal component), peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), and various other oxidant
radicals. Concentrations normally follow both a diurnal and seasonal pattern, with
maximum concentrations occurring during hours and seasons of maximum solar intensity.
Colorimetric analyzers employing the neutral buffered-potassium iodide tech-
nique were located at the three tree farms to measure oxidants. Chromium trioxide
filter-paper scrubbers were placed in the air-sample intake of each instrument to
minimize interference from reducing agents such as S02> Daily electronic and static
checks were performed and each instrument was dynamically calibrated several times
during the study period.
Relatively high oxidant levels were recorded at all three locations. Table
1-9 indicates a maximum hourly value of 0.15 ppm recorded at Stony River Farm, with
values of 0.13 ppm recorded at the other two locations. Four-month average concen-
trations of 0.05 ppm or greater were observed at all three stations. Significantly,
during the study period the oxidant readings did not always follow the classic
diurnal pattern in which maximum values occur during maximum solar intensity. In-
stead, some of the highest recorded values occurred during late evening to midnight.
Table 1-9. SUMMARY OF HOURLY OXIDANT MEASUREMENTS,
MAY 29 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
Station
1 - Stony River
2 - Steyer No. 2
3 - Weise-
McDonald
No. of
observations
1,782
2,351
1,911
Concentration, ppm
Maximum
value
0.15
0.13
0.13
Average
value
0.06
0.05
0.06
Percent observations equal
to or exceeding
0.06 ppm
60.8
47.0
46.0
0.10 ppm
5.7
3.0
3.6
In late August 1969, additional measurements were made to verify the oxidant
readings bei'ng obtained and to determine the percentage of the oxidant due
to ozone. A chemiluminescence instrument, specific for ozone, was placed at the
Steyer No. 2 Farm to operate in parallel with the colorimetric analyzer. Ambient
air was sampled simultaneously by both instruments from August 26 through September 9,
1970. Results showed that virtually all of the oxidant present was ozone. In fact,
the chemiluminescence reading occasionally exceeded the colorimetric reading, pos-
sibly due to slight calibration inaccuracies. A maximum hourly measurement of 0.13
1-61
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ppm was recorded on the chemiluminescence instrument during this 2-week period, with
an average concentration of 0.06 ppm occurring. Thus, oxidant levels during this
study period exceeded the levels of 0.01 to 0.05 ppm that have previously been re-
ported for nonurban areas.
The diurnal variation of ambient ozone concentrations measured at the Steyer
No. 2 Farm for the day (August 12) during which the maximum hourly concentration
of 0.13 ppm was reached is shown in Figure 1-21. The long-term pattern or the mean
diurnal variation of ozone/oxidant for the period August 26 to September 9 is illus-
trated in Figure 1-22. The average concentration (0.06 ppm) for the 2-week period
approximated the 4-month study period average, and the diurnal change is typical of
the pattern observed at all the stations where oxidants were measured.
10 11 12 13
HOURS
Figure 1 -21. Diurnal variation of ozone on August 26, 1970.
23
Air Quality Criteria for Photochemical Oxidants cites certain levels of ox-
idants for which the following effects have been reported to occur: (1) adverse
health effects on athletes at 0.03 to 0.3 ppm, (2) eye irritation at 0.10 ppm, and
(3) adverse effects to sensitive vegetation at 0.05 ppm. Oxidant concentrations
recorded during this study in many instances equaled or exceeded these levels.
The national air quality standard proposed for photochemical oxidants is 125
micrograms per cubic meter (0.06 ppm) for a maximum 1-hour concentration, not to be
exceeded more than once per year. About 60 percent of hourly oxidant values measured
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0.08
0.07
0.06
§
i
0.05
0.04
0.03
S
o
0.01
• OZONE BY CHEMILUMINESCENT OZONE METER
• TOTAL OXIDANT BY BECKMAN MODEL 2050 ANALYZER
J I
I I
01234567
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME (EST) hours
Figure 1 -22. Mean diurnal variation of ozone/oxidant for August 26 to September 9, 1970.
over the 4-month growing season in the study area were above this level; more than
5 percent of the hourly readings were greater than 0.10 ppm.
PARTICULATE MATTER
Particulate matter in the atmosphere is generally classified according to par-
ticle size. Larger particles greater than 10 microns in diameter tend to settle
rapidly from the air and are classified as settleable; particles that are smaller
tend to remain airborne for longer periods of time, and are classified as suspended.
Suspended Particulate Matter Measurements
High-volume air samplers were used to measure suspended particulate concen-
trations at the three tree-farm sites in the study area. Every other day 24-hour
filter-paper samples were collected. Results, expressed in micrograms per cubic
o
meter (yg/m ), are presented in Table 1-10.
.44
Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter indicates that levels greater
than 80 ug/m3 annual geometric mean may cause adverse effects on health, and 60 v
annual geometric mean may cause adverse effects on materials. The national air
1-63
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Table 1-10. CUMULATIVE PERCENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF DAILY-AVERAGE
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES, JUNE 13 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
Location
1 - Stony River
2 - Steyer
No. 2
3 - Weise-
McDonald
Number of
observa-
tions
47
54
59
Concentration, vg/m3
Minimum
value
26
16
21
Percent of time
concentration exceeded
90
28
26
21
75
36
42
40
60
44
48
48
25
70
69
75
10
95
91
100
Maximum
value
120
101
130
Arithmetic
mean
54.6
55.0
59.1
Geometric
mean
50.2
50.7
54.5
quality standards proposed for particulate matter are as follows:
Primary 75 micrograms per cubic meter for annual geometric mean and 260
micrograms per cubic meter for a maximum 24-hour concentration
not to be exceeded more than once per year.
Secondary - 60 micrograms per cubic meter for annual geometric mean and 150
micrograms per cubic meter for a maximum 24-hour concentration not
to be exceeded more than once per year.
Geometric mean values recorded during this 4-month study period did not exceed
any of these levels. Instead they were generally low, only slightly higher than
values expected in a nonurban area.
Settleable Particulate Measurements
An index of settleable particulate matter was obtained through a limited net-
work of dustfall containers placed principally on the tree farms and adjacent to
the VEPCO Power Plant. After a month's exposure, the plastic containers were re-
moved and their contents gravimetrically analyzed.
Monthly and seasonal settleable particulate values expressed in grams per
square meter per month (g/m2-mo) are presented in Table A-3 (Appendix A). A
maximum monthly value of 33 g/m2 (94.8 tons/mi2) and an average seasonal value of
17 g/m2-mo (48.62 tons/mi-mo) were recorded at Station 409, which is located
approximately 0.75 mile south-southeast of the power plant. High readings were
also obtained at Stations 413 and 433, both within 4 miles of the power plant.
A comparison of values measured in the study area with national averages ob-
tained by the Interstate Surveillance Project (ISP) Network in 1967 and 1968
showed that 13 locations in the study area exceeded the rural ISP average of 2.3
22 22
g/m -mo (6.5 tons/mi -mo). The ISP average of 5.1 g/m -mo (14.6 tons/mi -mo) for
commercial areas was exceeded at five locations, and the industrial average of 6.6
22
g/m -mo (18.9 tons/mi -mo) was exceeded at three locations
1-64
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Figure 1-23 shows geographic distribution of settleable particulates in terms
of seasonal mean values. Measurements were taken at only 24 sampling locations, a
number considered insufficient to accurately determine the distribution of dustfall
levels. The distribution of settleable particulates around the Mt. Storm Power
Plant was similar to the pattern of sulfation rates, with relatively higher dustfall
values extending to the Stony River Farm (Station 433).
ALLEGAfn COUNT*
PRES1UK COUNTY
$>
Figure 1-23. Distribution of dustfall rates (g/m^-mo).
FLUORIDES
Fluorides are released as both gaseous and particulate pollutants from certain
manufacturing processes that use fluoride-containing raw materials and from the com-
bustion of large quantities of solid fuels containing trace fluorides. Fluoride
is an active phytotoxin and can affect sensitive vegetation at very low concen-
trations.
Total Fluoride Measurements
Total fluorides (gaseous and particulate) were determined at the three tree-
farm stations by means of 24-hour filter-paper samples collected on 4-inch-diameter
Whatman No. 541 filters impregnated with sodium formate. Extractions were made with
a sodium citrate solution, and measurements were made with a specific ion electrode.
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Fluoride values obtained with this method, reported in parts per billion (ppb),
are summarized in Table 1-11. A complete listing of all the data appears in
Table A-5 (Appendix A). Average concentrations at the three locations ranged
from 0.06 to 0.08 ppb, with no significant difference between locations.
Table 1-11. CUMULATIVE PERCENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF DAILY-AVERAGE
TOTAL FLUORIDE, MAY 28 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
Location
1 - Stony River
2 Steyer
No. 2
3 - Weise-
McDonald
Number of
observations
50
53
56
Concentration, ppb
Minimum
value
0.03
0.01
0.02
Percent of time
concentration exceeded
90
0.039
0.033
0.035
75
0.047
0.044
0.048
50
0.060
0.060
0.070
25
0.075
0.082
0.100
10
0.091
0.110
O.T38
Maximum
value
0.15
0.33
0.39
Arithmetic
mean
0.06
0.07
0.08
Static Fluoride Measurements
Static monitors consisting of a fluoride-reactive medium (small circle of
sodium-formate-impregnated Whatman No. 41 filter paper) inserted inside a plastic
dish were exposed throughout the study area. These plates were mounted with the
exposed surfaces of the filter paper facing downward. After a 30-day exposure, the
samples were returned to the laboratory for analysis.
Monthly and seasonal mean fluoridation values in nanograms of fluoride per
square centimeter per day (ng F/cm2-day) are presented in Table A-6 (Appendix A).
Seasonal mean values ranged from 3 to 56 ng F/cm2-day with an average value of 9
ng F/cm^-day for the 15 tree-farm sampling locations and 13 ng F/cm^-day for the
remainder of the sampling locations.
Figure 1-24 shows the seasonal mean geographic distribution of the fluoridation
rates. The relative geographic distribution of fluoridation is similar to sulfation,
which indicates that the sources of fluorides and sulfur dioxide are the same.
1-66
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ALLECANr COUNT?
PRESTON COUNTY
Figure 1 -24. Distribution of fluoridation rates (ng F/cm2-day).
1-67
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VII. ANALYSIS OF POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION AND IMPACT
Review of the vegetation damage observations and the air pollutant measure-
ments suggests that sulfur dioxide, oxidants, and settleable particulates are the
pollutants of primary concern in the Mt. Storm area. Evidence indicates that sulfur
dioxide and oxidants are responsible for extensive tree damage, and fly ash has been
suggested as being a possible contributor to one type of tree injury as well as a
soiling nuisance to residents in the area.
The sources of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter are identifiable, but the
sources of the relatively high oxidant levels encountered are not clearly established.
Both ground-level and upper-air measurements are still required to identify the
sources and determine the reactions producing the oxidants.
The major sources of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter in the Mt. Storm
area are the Mt. Storm Power Plant and the Westvaco pulp mill. Power plants outside
the area that could have an appreciable effect on air quality of the area are
located at Rivesville, Albright, and Fort Martin in West Virginia and at Hatfield
Ferry in Pennsylvania. Other emission sources discussed earlier in this report are
not considered here because their emissions are judged too small and localized to
have a regional impact. These include coal used for home heating, the smoldering
"gob piles" near old mines, and the charcoal plant.
In assessing the contribution of the various emission sources to air pollution
levels in the Mt. Storm area and the potential for tree farms being affected, it is
necessary to consider the expected temporal and spatial variation of pollutants
about the area over an extended period of time that corresponds to the several years
required for Christmas-tree growth. For this assessment, use is made of atmospheric
transport and diffusion models, which a,llow calculation of concentrations at par-
ticular locations of air contaminants that originate at specific sources. These
models are employed in a manner that takes into account meteorologic and topographic
aspects of the region. They are particularly useful in establishing the possibility
and probability of certain concentrations of air contaminants being attained at a
specified location over a period of time.
These calculations, as well as evaluation of meteorological conditions existing
at times when high concentrations of S02 were measured, and at times when tree
damage indicative of S02 fumigation occurred, demonstrate the probability of SC>2
1-69
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emissions from the Mt. Storm Power Plant producing ground-level S02 concentrations
capable of affecting tree farms in the area.
LONG-TERM DISTRIBUTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE
Application of Diffusion Model
A simplified transport and diffusion model was employed to assess the relative
long-term effects of six sulfur dioxide sources that could make a significant con-
tribution to air pollution in the Mt. Storm area. Such a long-term application of
diffusion techniques has the advantage of averaging out short-term and periodic
variations in transport and dispersion patterns resulting from terrain or other
effects. Relative contribution was calculated at three tree-farm sampling sites.
The S02 sources and measurement sites are identified and the results are given in
Table 1-12. The Gaussian plume model described by Turner was used with the follow-
ing assumptions:
1. At each receptor, the ground-level centerline concentration was computed
for each of the six sources. The resulting values were then prorated by
the percent frequency of occurrence of wind direction (16 points) that
would transport effluent from each source directly to the receptor. Cor-
respondingly, the average wind speed for each appropriate wind direction
was used initially in computing centerline concentration. The relative
concentration estimates thus derived were converted to a percentage basis
to indicate the relative percent contribution of each source.
2. The Pittsburgh 1000-foot, 5-year seasonal wind data given in Table 1-1
were used.
3. Stability class "C" was used to determine vertical and lateral dispersion
parameters. This "slightly stable" class is considered to provide a reason-
able estimate of average atmospheric stability conditions in the area con-
sidering the roughness of the terrain.
4. Plume rise was applied after Briggs^' for each of the six sources. The
calculated plume rise was less than the height of the intervening mountains,
except for that of the Mt. Storm Power Plant; hence, surface releases were
assumed for the other five.
5. Sources were assumed to operate at installed capacity.
6. Emissions of SOg for each source were computed with the assumption that the
coal consumed had a 2 percent sulfur content.
1-70
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Table 1-12. MAJOR SOa SOURCES, THEIR LOCATIONS RELATIVE TO THREE AIR MONITORING SITES, AND PERCENT
CONTRIBUTIONS TO TOTAL S02 RECEIVED BY EACH SITE DURING AN AVERAGE GROWING SEASON
Receptor data
Bearings and distances from:
Site No. 1 , degrees
miles
Site No. 2, degrees
miles
Site No. 3, degrees
miles "
1969 installed capacity, mw
Relative S02 contribution, %
Site No. 1
Site No. 2
Site No. 3
1973 projected capacity, mw
Relative SOg contribution, %
Site No. 1
Site No. 2
Site No. 3
Source
Westvaco
Mill at
Luke, Md.
034
21
052
12
093
14
a
1
9
7
a
1
7
5
Mt. Storm,
W. Va.
162
2
189
12
171
21
1,160
92
65
28
1,715
91
68
30
Rivesville,
W. Va.
295
50
285
49
271
44
175
1
2
4
175
1
2
3
Albright,
W. Va.
316
28
295
24
270
17
278
2
11
31
278
2
8
23
Ft. Martin,
W. Va.
312
49
300
45
301
37
1,152
3
8
20
1,152
2
6
15
Hatfield
Ferry, Pa.
324
54
315
48
311
39
576b
1
5
10
1,656
3
9
24
Combined power plant and process emissions of sulfur dioxide are estimated to be 608 g/sec.
Plant facility recently expanded to 1016-mw capacity.
-------
It is evident from Table l-12that locations within a 12-mile radius of the Mt.
Storm Power Plant are affected primarily by that source. Under the projected 50
percent increase in power production for 1973, the impact of Mt. Storm Power Plant
will be materially greater, and the circle of potential contamination will be
expanded over a significantly larger area of both Maryland and West Virginia.
Potomac River Valley Airflow Study
Also pertinent to analysis of the impact of sources in the area was a special
study of the airflow in the valley of the North Branch of the Potomac River carried
out in 1970. Wind measurements were taken along the Potomac River Valley to ascer-
tain whether the Luke pulp mill effluents could appreciably affect tree farms up-
river from the plant, lip-valley winds required to transport significant emissions
to the area of the farms were seldom continuous over that region of the valley.
Only infrequently, when the overall pressure pattern drove a wind from the north-
east, could the effluent transported to the farm be of any significance. The study
data are presented in more detail in Appendix C.
SHORT-TERM DISTRIBUTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE
Impact and Analysis
In contrast to the long-term effect resulting from large point source emissions,
peak short-term concentrations, particularly those associated with inversion breakup
fumigations, do not necessarily decrease with increasing distance from the source
within a range of about 15 to 20 miles. In fumigation situations the distance and
magnitude of the peak concentrations are primarily governed by the stack height and
transport wind speed; impact in the absence of topographic constraints tend to be
random in nature.
The temporal and spatial distribution of short-term concentrations in the Mt.
Storm area contrasts with the less extreme variations typically found in urban
environments having a multiplicity of pollution sources. This distribution about
the area affected by a single large power plant is significant both in terms of the
potential for vegetation damage and difficulty in obtaining representative air
quality data. The following sections are descriptive of the short-term ground-level
pollution episodes and related impact associated with emissions from large S02
sources.
Acute Injury to Pine Trees
An insight into the nature of at least one type of short-term impact of sulfur
dioxide was recorded during the course of investigation of possible pollution in
the study area. Severe tip burn characteristic of S02 fumigation at the Steyer No.
2 Christmas tree farm was noted in November 1969. This observation was significant
1-72
-------
because the period during which readily perceptible injury occurred was clearly
constrained to the 4-week period ending on November 6, 1969. Concurrent wind data
were examined to determine whether meteorological conditions during any part of that
time were consistent with and suggestive of fumigation of that farm by the plume
from the Mt. Storm Power Plant.
A review of weather records indicated that the damage probably occurred on
October 30 and 31. At that time, observations at Pittsburgh indicated that very
stable air existed beneath a persistent inversion. The stable air mass confined by
an inversion layer would have restricted the rise of a plume to the lower 1,200 to
1,600 feet above the surface for the 2-day period. Mean winds in this layer
varied in speed from 9 to 19 miles per hour, and in direction between south-
east and south-southwest. These conditions were substantiated by detailed
upper-air measurements obtained during the same 2-day period on another
study being conducted by APCO in western Pennsylvania. Under the existing
conditions, the plume from the M£. Storm Power Plant could have impacted on
Steyer No. 2 Farm during part of the above 2-day period.
Assuming the Mt. Storm plant operated at installed capacity with 2 percent
48
sulfur coal, Pooler's formula for a limited mixing situation was used to estimate
centerline concentrations 12 miles downwind (the distance between the Mt. Storm
Power Plant and Steyer No. 2 Farm). These calculations indicate that with wind
speed of 10 miles per hour, maximum S02 concentrations of 0.77 ppm would be obtained,
whereas with an 18-mile-per-hour wind speed, 0.43 ppm would occur.
Wind direction during the period was very steady and shifted slowly. It was
quite probable that the farm was subjected to high S02 levels for a significant
portion of the 2-day period.
Aerial Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide
An aircraft and mobile van survey of pollution during the period from November
18 through 23, 1969, is reported in Appendix C. An instrumented helicopter measured
the S02 concentration in the Mt. Storm Power Plant plume near Steyer No. 2 Farm,
over 10 miles (16 km) downwind, at 0.23 ppm. At this same time up to 0.10 ppm S02
was measured in the northwest corner of Garrett County; this 502 was apparently from
sources in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. In the Piedmont - New Creek section of
the Potomac Valley, 0.38 ppm S02 was found beneath a shallow, strong inversion.
This S02 was thought to have originated in Luke, Maryland.
Correlation of Peak Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations and Wind Direction
Sulfur dioxide levels were continuously monitored at the three farm sites-
Stony River, Steyer No. 2, and Weise-McDonald—from May 28 through September 28,
1-73
-------
1970. There were 25 incidences in which the hourly average concentration of S02
equalled or exceeded 0.05 ppm at one or more of the three monitoring sites. These
cases are tabulated in Table 1-13 according to the prevailing wind direction. Wind
directions during the period of elevated S02 levels fall into one of three distinct
groups: northeast, south, and west through northwest. The S02 values shown in the
table are the highest hourly average concentrations recorded at each site during
the case period indicated. Only a single case with northeasterly wind was found,
but 14 cases occurred with southerly and 10 with westerly airflow. During the sole
northeasterly wind case, Station No. 2 reached 0.07 ppm S02, and Station No. 1
recorded no S02- (Station No. 3 was not operating.)
Table 1-13. PEAK 1-HOUR AVERAGE S02 CONCENTRATIONS ±0.05 PPM GROUPED
BY PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION
Case
No.a
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Mean
South
No. 1
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.03
0.17
0.03
0.11
0.18
0.13
0.12
0.36
0.06
0.09
0.15
0.13
No. 2
0.13
b
b
0.05
0.00
0.05
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.02
No. 3
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
West through northwest
No. 1
0.04
0.00
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.00
0.02
b
0.01
0.10
0.03
No. 2
0.01
0.07
0.08
o.n
0.05
0.00
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.04
No. 3
0.05
0.03
b
0.04
0.02
0.07
0.10
0.06
0.08
0.07
0.06
Northeast
No. 1
0.00
0.00
No. 2
0.07
0.07
No. 3
b
b
Case determined by level of >. 0.05 ppm occurring at one or more stations.
Station not operating.
The 14 south-wind cases were characterized by significant S02 levels at Station
No. 1; little more than a trace was recorded during these times at Stations No. 2
and 3. Levels of S02 at all sites were lower with westerly winds than with south
winds. The S02 concentration during westerly winds tended to be higher at Stations
No. 2 and 3 than at Station No. 1. These data show that, although the area 1s some-
times subjected to significant levels of S02 with a westerly wind and occasionally
1-74
-------
with northeasterly wind, the highest levels are consistently recorded with a south-
erly wind flow. Only Station No. 1 recorded readings above 0.10 ppm frequently,
and these occurred only when the wind was from the south.
LAPPES Analogy49
The Division of Meteorology of the Air Pollution Control Office is conducting
the Large Power Plant Effluent Study (LAPPES) in western Pennsylvania, where three
mine-mouth generating stations are being put into operation. The topography of
this region is similar to that of the Mt. Storm area, and the individual power
plants are about the size of the Mt. Storm Power Plant; therefore, reasonable com-
parisons can be drawn.
Mr. Frank Schiermeier, on-sitemeteorologist in charge of LAPPES, reported an
hourly average S0£ concentration of 0.35 ppm, a 5-hour average of 0.14 ppm, and
peaks to 0.64 ppm were recorded by samplers operated continuously at an airport
some distance from the power plants. The suspected source was one of the power
plants of the 1,200-megawatt range with two 800-foot stacks installed less than a
year earlier about 10 miles from the airport. Higher S02 concentrations had been
frequently recorded during the LAPPES project by means of helicopter and portable
bubbler sampling.
This information is significant relative to Mt. Storm by verifying the poten-
tial, although infrequent occurrence of high peak concentrations at ground-level
locations some distance from the source. Even though inversion-breakup fumigations
probably occur on most mornings during the growing season somewhere in the Mt.
Storm area, it is unlikely that samplers operated at a fixed location less than a
third of a year would have been placed in a position to record the high S02
concentrations that must have occurred occasionally. Furthermore, westerly winds
were more dominant during the period. This may have abnormally limited southerly
wind cases and correspondingly inversion-breakup situations occurring with this
wind direction. A southerly wind was necessary to carry the power plant effluent
toward the air monitoring sites.
Pooler and Niemeyer reported that a plume from one of the LAPPES cooperating
power plants was followed by an instrumented helicopter during an inversion breakup
to a distance 29.2 miles from the plants. Surface-level S02 values exceeded 0.20
ppm at a distance of between 19.9 and 26.1 miles; a peak of 0.36 ppm was measured
at 22.4 miles. They also found indications of greater ground-level pollution con-
centrations on ridges than in adjacent lowlands. Many of the more severely damaged
tree farms in the Mt. Storm area are located on or near ridge-top level.
1-75
-------
The LAPPES project has obtained measurements that confirm the occurrence of
substantial ground-level concentrations of S02 tens of miles downwind from 1,000-
megawatt-class power plants despite the use of tall stacks to disperse the emissions.
Project experience also indicates, however, that during any one year, it is unlikely
that any one geographic point will be subjected to an extremely high S02 level.
Information has been presented that, during the forenoon of about half of the
days during the growing season in the Mt. Storm area, an inversion breakup does
occur somewhere along a segment of the downwind radii from the Mt. Storm Power
Plant. Whether these high concentrations occur at a given point in the area once
a year or every few years, the implication is the same. It is extremely unlikely
that a tree farm anywhere within the area of impact of the Mt. Storm plant will
bring a single crop of Christmas trees to maturity without the trees being subjected
to short-term S02 episodes of sufficient concentration to cause severe injury to
sensitive pines.
Since Pooler reported 0.36 ppm SO* more *nan 20 miles downwind from a 1,000 mega-
watt-class plant, concentrations of this magnitude also should be expected in the
Mt. Storm area, with perhaps higher levels at the distance of maximum impact and
near the top and on the lee side of ridges. The valleys east of the Allegheny
Front Range are much less subject to high S02 levels during inversion breakup
because of their much lower elevation and the deep layer of air below the plume.
FLY-ASH PROBLEM NEAR MT. STORM POWER STATION
Particulate fallout in the vicinity of coal-burning plants frequently presents
a major nuisance by damaging materials and painted surfaces, and contributing to the
general dirtiness of the surrounding area. Complaints registered by residents
living in Grant County, West Virginia, have indicated that particulate matter from
the Mt. Storm Power Plant places an economic burden upon area residents and also
affects the aesthetic quality of their environment.
Residents living within 2 miles of the plant reported severe soiling problems
as a result of particulate fallout. Windows were coated with dust-like particles;
fly ash and particulate matter were deposited on window sills. Windows and doors
have to be kept closed regardless of season to minimize the penetration of this
dirt into the interior of homes. Exterior finishes of homes and automobiles of
residents in the area have deteriorated as a result of constant contact with partic-
ulate matter from the plant. Exterior drying of laundry was reported to be impos-
sible because of the high frequency of particulate fallout, and as a consequence,
driers have to be utilized.
1-76
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Residents as far as 9 miles from the plant reported that windows are darkened
by participate matter, and automobiles are frequently covered with fly-ash material.
Yards are often coated with particulate matter, and snowfall in this area is fre-
quently turned a dingy gray as a result of this fallout.
The combined effects from particulate fallout in the area tend to place an
economic burden on the residents in the form of increased laundry and cleaning costs,
as well as property deterioration. In addition, the particulate fallout appears to
cause an inconvenience to persons residing as far as 10 miles south-southeast of
the power plant.
1-77
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VIII. REFERENCES
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Air Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C. NAPCA Publication
No. AP-50. January 1969.
45. Cavender, J. H. et al. Interstate Surveillance Project: Measurement of
Air Pollution Using Static Monitors. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Air Pollution Control Office, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
(In Press ).
46. Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. U. S. DHEW, PHS,
CPEHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C.
PHS Publication No. 999-AP-26, 2nd Printing 1969.
47. Briggs, G. A. Plume Rise. Atomic Energy Commission Critical Review Series
TID 25075. 1969.
48 Pooler, F. Jr. Potential Dispersion of Plumes from Large Power Plants.
U.S. DHEW, PHS, CPEHS, NCAPC. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-16. 1965.
49. Large Power Plant Effluent Study (LAPPES). Volume 1-Instrumentation, Pro-
cedures, and Data Tabulations (1968). U.S. DHEW, PHS, EHS, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Raleigh, N. C. NAPCA Publication No.
APTD 70-2. June 1970. Volume 2—Instrumentation, Procedures, and Data Tabu-
lations (1967 and 1969). U.S. DHEW, PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control
1-81
-------
Administration, Raleigh, N. C.. NAPCA Publication No. APTD 0589. November 1970.
50. Private communication from F. Schiermeyer, APCO meteorologist, to Herschel
Slater, Division of Meteorology, Air Pollution Control Office of U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N. C. 1971.
51. Pooler, F- Jr. and L. E. Niemeyer. Dispersion from Tall Stacks: An Evaluation.
Paper No. ME-14D, 2nd International Clean Air Congress, Washington, D. C.
December 1970.
1-82
-------
APPENDIX A.
AIR QUALITY DATA
1-83
-------
Table A-l. LOCATION OF STATIC SAMPLING STATIONS
Station
number
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
Pollutant
type3
SF
SF
SF
SFD
SF
SF
SFD
S
SFD
SFD
SFD
SF
SFD
SF
SFD
SFD
SF
SF
SF
S
SF
SF
SF
SFD
SF
SF
SF
SFD
SFD
SFD
SF
SFD
SFD
SFD
SFD
SFD
SF
SF
SFD
SF
SFD
SF
SFD
MSL
elevation
3,350
2,620
2,590
3,000
2,790
3,100
2,660
2,260
DIb
3,400
3,250
2,980
DI
DI
DI
DI
2,600
2,810
2,750
2,450
1,300
1,180
1,220
920
900
880
1,100
2,750
2,640
2,620
3,010
2,700
3,300
2,850
2,730
2,700
2,800
2,100
2,540
2,700
2,560
1,600
2,660
Location description
Stony River Farm; at air monitoring site.
Steyer No. 2 Farm; at air monitoring site.
Weise-McDonald Farm; at air monitoring site.
W. U. Relay Tower; 1/2-mile SSW of junction of U.S.
50 and W. Va. 42.
U.S. 50; where highway crosses Allegheny Front Mt.
W. Va. State Road 50/2; 2 miles SW of U.S. 50.
Custer's Home Farm; hilltop level.
Elk Garden, W. Va.; near center of town on W. Va. 42.
Kline residence; 1-1/2 miles ESE of VEPCO.
W. Va. 93; 2 miles west of VEPCO.
W. Va. 93; 5 miles west of VEPCO.
W. Va. 42; 2-1/2 miles SSE of Mt. Storm, W. Va.
Lakeside; ENE of VEPCO.
Bismarck, W. Va.; junction of W. Va. State Road 50/3
and W. Va. 93.
Park Residence, Sherr, W. Va.; 1/4 mile north of
junction of W. Va. 42 and W. Va. 93.
Hawk Farm; 3-1/2 miles NNE of Sherr, W. Va.
W. Va. State Road 50/3; near junction with U.S. 50.
W. Va. State Road 50/3; 1.7 miles south of U.S. 50.
Rehoboth Church Cemetery; W. Va. State Road 50/4.
W. Va. 42; north of Sulfur City, W. Va.
Shaw, W. Va.; W. Va. 46.
Barnam, W. Va.; W. Va. State Road 46/2.
W. Va. 46; overlooking paper mill at Luke, Md.
Westernport, Md.; roof of Municipal Sewage Treatment
Plant.
Md. 135; 1.4 miles south of Piedmont-Westernport
Bridge.
Md. 135; 1.7 miles NW of junction of Md. 135 and U.S.
220.
County Rd. No. 1; west of Beryl, W. Va.
White Face Farm.
Weise-McDonald Farm.
Steyer No. 3 Farm.
Bethleham Rd; where road crosses Backbone Mt.
Steyer No. 2 Farm.
Stony River Farm; flat portion of farm.
Mt. Storm, W. Va.
Taylors Farm; Kempton Rd.
Taylors Farm; Shady Dell Rd.
Southeast of Charcoal Plant; north of junction of
White Church - Steyer Rd. and A. Riley Rd.
Laurel Run Rd; vicinity of Potomac River.
Vicinity of Taskers Corner gob pile.
Oak Grove Rd; west of junction with Md. 560.
Steyer No. 4 Farm.
Blaine, W. Va.; east of W. Va. 42.
Steyer No. 5 Farm.
aS = Sulfation plate; F = fluoridation plate; and D - settleable particulate (dust-
.fall).
DI Data incomplete.
1-84
-------
Table A-l (continued). LOCATION OF STATIC SAMPLING STATIONS
Station
number
444
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
476
477
478
479
480
Pollutant
typea
SFD
SF
SF
SFD
SFD
SF
SF
SFD
SFD
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
S
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
MSL
elevation
2,740
2,400
1,700
2,760
2,500
3,160
2,710
DI
DI
1,140
2,910
DI
DI
2,440
2,680
DI
DI
2,740
3,300
DI
2,450
1,100
1,070
3,252
2,510
DI
DI
DI
DI
2,320
DI
DI
DI
DI
DI
f
Location description
Steyer No. 1 Farm.
Nethken Church Cemetery; W. Va. State Rd. 42/1.
Shallmar, Md.
Riley Farm.
Feister's Farm; 1/2 mile south of Crellin, Md.
Fire Tower on Snaggy Mt.
W. Va. State Rd. 50/5; west of Mt. Pisgah, W. Va.
W. Va. 42; between Allegheny Front Mt. and Scherr,
W. Va.
Schell residence; south of Scherr, W. Va.
U.S. 50; vicinity of Claysville, W. Va.
W. Va. 42; 1.3 miles SSE of Mt. Storm, W. Va.
W. Va. State Rd. 42/1; 1.6 miles SSE of VEPCO.
Keplinger residence; W. Va. 42.
Herrington Manor Rd.; vicinity where power lines
cross road.
Oakland-Sang Run Rd.; west of junction with Bray
School Rd.
W. Va. State Rd. 42/1; 2.3 miles east of VEPCO.
Side road east of W. Va. State Rd. 42/1
Upperman Rd.; between junction of Boiling Springs Rd.
and Potomac Camp Rd.
W. Va. State Rd. 90/1; where power line crosses road.
Relay Tower; 1.2 miles ENE of VEPCO.
W. Va. 42; 1 mile NNW of Sulfur City.
Piedmont, W. Va ; 0.4 mile NNE of paper mill.
Beryl, W. Va.
Kempton Rd. Fire Tower; on ridge of Backbone Mt.
Mutton Rd; east of junction with Jackson Lane.
Off W. Va. State Rd. 45/3; 1.3 miles ESE of Albright
Power Plant.
Off W. Va. State Rd. 45/1; 2.2 miles NE of Albright
Power Plant.
Off W. Va. State Rd.45/1; 7 miles NE of Albright
Power Plant.
W. Va. State Rd. 7/12; across Cheat River from
Albright Power Plant.
On Md. 560 at Gorman, Md.
Luke, Md.; 0.2 mile NW of paper mill.
Junction of W. Va. 2 and W. Va. State Rd. 2/2.
Keyser, W. Va.
W. Va. 46; 0.4 mile from paper mill.
Potomac Camp Rd.; south of junction with N. Hill Rd.
1-85
-------
Table A-2. SULFATION NETWORK RESULTS
Sampling
station3
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
113
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
Sulfation rate, u9 S02/cm2-day
June
5
3
2
2
4
3
3
-
12
3
1
4
5
4
5
3
1
-
2
2
1
1
29
6
13
15
6
7
3
1
4
4
5
2
1
1
July
7
2
3
4
5
7
3
-
13
3
2
6
5
3
3
5
1
3
2
3
5
4
41
8
12
12
5
4
7
2
7
3
5
2
4
3
August
2
2
1
1
4
3
2
1
9
3
2
3
5
3
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
22
5
9
10
3
2
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
September
4
2
1
1
3
4
3
1
13
2
1
4
10
5
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
35
8
9
13
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
Arithmetic
mean
4
2
2
2
4
4
3
1
12
2
1
4
6
4
3
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
33
7
10
12
4
4
3
1
4
3
3
1
2
1
1-86
-------
Table A-2(continued). SULFATION NETWORK RESULTS
Sampling
station9
437
438
439
440
442
443
444
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
.468
469
470
471
472
473
474
Sulfation rate, ug S02/cm2-day
June
5
0
2
3
2
3
2
3
1
4
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
July
3
5
5
2
-
7
6
3
2
5
4
6
4
8
3
5
-
8
-
5
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
August
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
-
3
4
1
2
2
3
2
-
1
9
4
3
2
3
' 2
5
2
1
2
8
9
16
9
2
September
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
4
2
6
2
2
1
3
4
2
2
13
7
-
1
4
2
8
3
1
1
-
6
14
-
1
Arithmetic
mean
3
1
2
2
1
3
3
2
1
3
2
5
3
6
2
3
1
4
3
4
3
11
6
3
2
3
2
7
3
1
2
8
7
15
9
2
1-87
-------
Table A-2 (continued). SULFATION NETWORK RESULTS
Sampling
stationa
476
477
478
479
Sulfation rate, yg S02/cm2-day
June
-
-
-
-
July
-
August
-
-
-
-
September
2
1
4
22
Arithmetic
mean
2
1
4
22
Index to station locations given in Table A-l
Table A-3. SETTLEABLE PARTICULATE NETWORK
Sampl i ng
station9
404
407
409
410
411
413
415
416
424
428
429
430
432
433
434
435
436
439
443
444
448
449
452
453
Settleable particulate (dustfall), g/m^-mo
June
3.8
1.3
33.7
-
1.5
28.0
6.2
-
3.8
1.6
-
1.1
1.2
10.5
4.1
-
2.3
2.4
2.0
2.3
-
3.7
-
-
July
1.5
1.6
18.7
1.4
1.7
7.2
7.1
2.4
5.2
2.4
2.0
1.2
1.6
12.8
3.3
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.9
1.1
7.2
2.6
5.3
5.3
August
1.3
1.6
9.0
4.4
3.4
4.5
5.4
3.5
6.8
1.7
1.7
2.5
3.5
10.7
6.1
2.5
2.5
4.1
2.1
3.4
2.7
2.7
5.5
5.9
September
0.7
1.8
6.4
1.5
1.4
5.2
5.2
4.2
3.9
1.7
1.4
1.7
1.2
7.1
-
1.9
1.7
2.4
1.3
1.5
-
1.4
8.1
1.8
Arithmetic
mean
1.8
1.6
17.0
2.4
2.0
11.2
6.0
3.4
4.9
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.9
10.2
4.5
1.9
2.0
2.6
1.6
2.1
5.0
2.6
6.3
4.3
Index to station locations given in Table A-l.
1-1-88
-------
Table A-4. DAILY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE CONCENTRATIONS
(vg/m3)
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Stony River
June
76
41
47
26
47
July
83
27
51
49
86
46
45
54
26
29
62
79
38
58
August
37
29
81
50
52
57
103 ,
53
115
37
105
55
72
75
75
September
30
46
31
42
37
36
36
53
120
38
32
43
57
Steyer No. 2
June
28
93
16
36
72
48
29
53
57
45
59
25
75
July
100
48
47
46
17
57
92
55
38
62
30
43
64
79
43
49
August
49
27
92
49
59
101
41
50
76
84
94
78
September
32
80
57
47
55
42
44
68
45
50
57
64
23
Weise-McDonald
June
73
25
29
39
49
54
54
29
54
57
37
65
111
28
48
July
130
43
45
55
79
62
no
46
48
83
36
56
72
71
44
53
August
74
32
101
71
59
70
44
59
78
60
77
104
91
85
72
September
38
48
47
102
39
40
38
52
91
38
45
21
29
co
-------
Table A-5. DAILY TOTAL FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS,
JUNE 13 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
(ppb)
Stony River
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
June
0.08
0.05
0.03
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
July
0.15
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.09
0.08
0.04
0.06
August
0.06
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.05
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.06
0.11
0.07
Farm
September
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.11
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.05
Steyer No. 2 Farm
June
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.12
0.13
July
0.14
0.04
0.07
0.15
0.06
0.33
0.08
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.07
August
0.12
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.05
0.10
0.09
0.07
September
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.04
Weise-McDonald Farm
June
0.09
0.07
0.13
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.07
0.06
0.12
0.03
July
0.39
0.16
0.20
0.13
0.11
0.20
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.07
August
0.18
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.08
0.05
0.08
0.06
September
0.11
0.06
0.05
0.14
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.08
0.07
0.08
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.09
1-90
-------
Table A-6. FLUORIDATION NETWORK RESULTS
Sampl i ng
station3
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
409
410
411
Fluoridation rate, ng F/cm^-day
June
22
20
10
15
9
11
July
5
7
5
August
12
12
12
6
15 3
19 22
8 I 12
47 36
12
o
412 1
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
42
14
17
9
15
7
4
4
40
13
25
22
14
19
9
13
3
15
12
4
4
15
10
7
7
15
10
14
3
7
11
3
4
3
81
10
3
5
8
3
9
8
6
6
3
3
8
11
30
13
12
13
28
14
14
3
8
14
5
-
37
12
-
-
13
10
8
10
6
10
19
6
6
5
September
15
4
6
-
14
8
39
6
6
14
31
13
6
5
-
9
6
-
-
9
14
11
9
8
7
4
11
6
10
12
3
4
13
Arithmetic
mean
12
10
8
10
10
17
10
38
11
8
11
29
13
13
5
10
10
3
5
3
56
11
21
18
6
10
12
6
11
6
10
12
4
4
11
1-91
-------
Table A-6(continued). FLUORIDATION NETWORK RESULTS
Sampling
station3
438
439
440
442
443
444
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
460
461
462
463
464
Fluoridation rate, ng F/cm^-day
June
4
6
17
13
16
9
11
6
21
9
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
July
3
5
8
6
8
5
10
4
14
7
-
7
11
8
-
-
-
-
9
-
-
-
-
-
August
3
8
13
6
8
9
7
4
17
10
-
-
15
10
-
5
13
10
-
21
16
7
10
18
September
3
6
9
4
9
10
8
3
9
9
14
-
14
6
6
-
12
-
7
51
30
-
6
14
Arithmetic
mean
3
6
12
8
10
8
10
4
15
8
14
7
13
8
6
5
13
10
7
31
20
7
8
16
Index to station locations given in Table A-l,
1-1-92
-------
APPENDIX B.
MT. STORM POWER STATION DATA
1-93
-------
Table B-l. MT. STORM POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT DATA
Equipment data
Existing units
Planned unit
Boilers
Year installed
Manufacturer
Fuel used
Firing method
Rated pressure, psig
Rated steam temperature,°F
Rated steam capacity, Ib/hr
Flyash collectors and stacks
Collector type
Year installed
Manufacturer
Design efficiency, %
o
Collecting surface area, ft
Gas flow, acfm
Gas temperature, °F
Stack height, ft
Stack size (ID), at exit, ft
Unit 1-1965; Unit 2-1966
Combustion engineering
Pulverized coal
Corner-fired
2,620
1,000
3,785,000
ESP
Unit 1-1965; Unit 2-1966
Koppers
96
184,320
1,820,000
285
350
21
ESP
1973
Koppers
99
392,000
2,230,000
285
1-94
-------
Table B-2. MONTHLY POWER
FOR
GENERATION FROM
MT. STORM POWER
COAL AND COAL CONSUMPTION
PLANT
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
n
12
Total
1967
Electricity
generated,
103 kw-hr
509,686
289,057
347,534
295,669
320,425
375,297
624,925
612,350
589,655
388,956
381,149
598,437
5,333,140
Coal
burned,
tons
218,326
120,214
147,161
120,466
135,413
151,476
266,382
254,787
232,823
154,839
150,262
246,261
2,198,410
1968
Electricity
generated,
103 kw-hr
715,470
574,470
702,532
579,649
575,751
601 ,041
530,597
571 ,685
510,856
201 ,798
309,767
457,511
6,331,177
Coal
burned,
tons
302,026
236,640
290,625
246,427
235,536
244,497
213,606
234,876
214,746
83,695
131,200
182,505
2,617,379
1969
Electricity
generated,
103 kw-hr
DIa
DI
680,555
692,413
732,995
641,810
471 ,750
253,871
337,079
352,662
467,475
720,682
Coal
burned,
tons
246,359
243,262
276,092
279,324
301,130
263,240
190,401
100,584
137,580
139,097
188,945
290,519
2,656,533
DI Data incomplete.
Table B-3. MT. STORM POWER PLANT
COAL INFORMATION FOR 1970
Month'
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Coal sulfur
content, %
2.25
2.30
2.38
2.49
2.60
2.67
2.65
2.71
2.71
2.56
2.49
2.19
Coal consumed/
month, tons
260,755
179,929
129,773
174,075
211,797
263,428
258,150
241 ,968
216,118
204,604
171,719
210,895
1-95
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APPENDIX C.
SPECIAL METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES
POTOMAC RIVER VALLEY AIRFLOW STUDY
In mountain valleys, local wind patterns may dominate the flow. This phenom-
enon has been investigated by Davidson* and others. Briefly, when the general
airflow is light and the skies nearly clear, an up-slope flow tends to develop
after sunrise on the sunny slopes as the heated air rises. Later in the forenoon,
the flow matures as an up-valley breeze, reaching its maximum strength in the after-
noon. In the evening, surface temperatures fall and a down-valley flow develops
and persists through the night.
If this flow pattern occurs and persists for several hours in the valley at
Luke, Maryland, it can potentially carry Westvaco Plant emissions up-valley to
Steyer No. 2 Farm, a distance of 20 miles by river. In order to measure the inci-
dence of this flow, two wind systems were operated on the valley floor at Potomac
Manor, West Virginia, during the 1970 study period. Sites, indicated in Figure
1-18, were selected in two segments of the valley nearly perpendicular to each other.
It was assumed that when a persistent up-valley wind was recorded at both sites,
the wind was up-valley between Westvaco and Steyer No. 2 Farm.
Site No. 20 on Mr. L. E. Murphy's farm utilized a 45-foot mast in order to
reach above treetops along the adjacent Potomac River. It supported the wind sen-
sors at 1,640 feet above MSL in a section of the valley where a wind from 105 degrees
was considered an up-valley wind. This site is 2-1/2 miles directly east-northeast
from Steyer No. 2 Farm and is surrounded by hills reaching more than 2,400 feet above
MSL.
Site No. 22 utilized a 32-foot mast and was adjacent to the Western Maryland
Railroad on Mr. H. Stewart's property. Wind sensors were at 1,635 feet above MSL
where the up-valley wind would flow from the northeast. The site is up-river and
around a bend from site No. 20.
Up-valley winds between June 9 and September 29 were determined by comparing
2,671 pairs of hourly average directions from the two valley stations. In those
*Davidson, Ben. Valley Wind Phenomena and Air Pollution Problems. APCA Journal
11(8):364-368, 1961.
1-97
-------
cases where uninterrupted up-valley flow continued for at least 5 hours, pollutants
from Luke could have traveled at least as far as Steyer No. 2 Farm. Ten cases
identified as sustained up-valley flow were studied in relation to S02 levels and
winds at the Steyer Farm station. In nine of these up-valley cases, Steyer Farm
station indicated an easterly wind. In five cases, S02 1-hour values between 0.01
and 0.05 ppm were recorded, while in four cases no detectable S02 was recorded. The
data show that up-valley flow is not a significant factor in the transport of pollu-
tants over distances of more than 20 miles in this valley.
AERIAL AND GROUND (MOBILE) S02 SAMPLING
A helicopter equipped to measure temperature, altitude, and S02 was flown, as
weather permitted, during the period November 18 to 23, 1969, to observe the S02
distribution throughout the study region. A vehicle equipped to detect S02 (mobile
sampling system) was also employed. At the Mt. Storm Post Office, from November 6
to December 12, 1969, winds were recorded by sensors approximately 2,870 feet above
MSL on a 30-foot mast. During the helicopter operation, upper winds were measured
from a pilot balloon (pibal) station at the Post Office.
The weather was generally favorable for the rapid dispersion of contaminants:
wind speeds were above average, the stability of the atmosphere at ridge level and
above was neutral (although strong inversions occasionally were found in the
valleys), and frequent rain or snow showers occurred. Significant findings were:
1. Sulfur dioxide was detected crossing the North Branch of the Potomac River
from West Virginia into Maryland between Steyer Farm and the confluence of
the Stony and Potomac Rivers, about 7 miles downwind from the Mt. Storm
Power Plant. Above the river, but at the elevation of some of the tree
farms, the S02 concentration averaged 0.10 ppm for the period between T426
and 1621 EST, November 18, 1969. The average of the peak concentrations
for the nine traverses through the plume was 0.23 ppm.
2. Sulfur dioxide was detected entering Garrett County from the west-northwest
along the West Virginia - Maryland border at the point where the Potomac
Edison Company transmission line crosses the border. It was also detected
crossing into Sarrett County at the intersection of the Pennsylvania Mary-
land - West Virginia state boundaries. At 500 feet above the surface, S02
concentrations averaged 0.05 ppm, with the maximum being 0.10 ppm. The Mt.
Storm 500-foot pibal wind was 280° at 8 mph at the time (1030 to 1142 E$T,
November 21, 1969), so that the source of the contamination had to.1 be '
other than the Albright or Mt. Storm power plants.
3. The mobile S02 sampling system measured a plume crossing U.S. Highway 50,
5.3 miles downwind on a bearing of 165 degrees to the Mt. Storm Power Plant
1-98
-------
Table C-l. WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED AT THREE LOCATIONS AND CORRESPONDING S02
CONCENTRATION RECORDED AT STONY RIVER FARM AIR MONITORING SITE,
SEPTEMBER 12, 1970
Hour,
EST
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
VEPCO plant
Direction,
compass
SSE
SSE
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
SSE
SSE
SE
SE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
SSE
S
S
S
SSW
SSW
SW
Speed,
mph
7
8
10
11
10
8
9
10
9
10
8
10
9
n
12
10
9
10
8
9
9
10
7
7
Steyer No. 2 Farm
Direction,
degrees
090
090
070
060
070
070
060
080
090
no
140
130
130
130
150
150
160
150
180
200
250
250
280
280
Speed,
mph
1
1
3
3
3
3
5
5
4
6
8
10
1
1
3
3
3
3
5
5
4
6
8
10
Pittsburgh Airporta
Direction,
degrees
Calm
080
090
160
180
190
210
140
Speed ,
mph
0
5
6
12
13
9
6
6
Stony River Farm
S02 concentration,
ppm
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.13
0.22
0.36
0.24
0.05
0.09
0.19
0.24
0.20
0.28
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
a6reater Pittsburgh Airport weather summary gives wind data at 3-hour intervals.
on November 19, 1969, between 0900 and 1200 EST. During this period, the
average winds recorded at the Mt. Storm Post Office were from 163 degrees
at 12 mph. The plume, arbitrarily defined as more than 0.01 ppm contin-
uously to the maximum and decreasing to 0.01 ppm of S02 again, averaged
0.7 mile in width. Its midpoint shifted 1.3 miles along the highway in
an' erratic manner during the 3-hour period. A maximum of 0.28 ppm was
recorded.
1-99
-------
4. During mid-morning of November 20, a "looping" plume was observed to inter-
mittently touch ground on the lee shore of Lake Storm. While the vehicle
was parked 1.7 miles from the stacks, a 1/2-hour average concentration of
0.65 ppm S02 was recorded that included abrupt increases to as much as
1.75 ppm when the plume impinged momentarily on the vehicle.
5. At about 1600 EST on November 22, a 5-minute average of 0.20 ppm S02, with
a maximum of 0.23 ppm, was recorded at a point 6.3 miles northeast of the
Mt. Storm Power Plant. In the late afternoon, the facing slopes of the
mountain became shaded. The olume, which was discernible overhead, was
rather abruptly drawn down into the lee of the mountain range, where it
assumed a more northerly direction and traveled parallel to the crest for
several miles as a discrete grey streak.
6. Even with strong winds above the Allegheny Front, inversions can exist in
the sheltered valleys. Such inversions trap and confine effluents from
sources within the valleys to the lower few hundred feet. On November 23,
1969, such a situation was observed from the helicopter. The Potomac
River Valley between Cumberland, Maryland, and Piedmont, West Virginia, was
surveyed, with a side excursion being made up New Creek from Keyser to the
junction of U.S. 50 with W. Va. 93. The flight was conducted at 200 feet
above ground with periodic vertical ascents flown to establish the top of
the valley inversion. Indicated S0£ at the 200-foot flight level averaged
0.18 ppm S02 and the maximum recorded was 0.38 ppm.
The inversion was characterized by reduced visibility and lower tempera-
tures beneath, while improved visibility, higher temperatures, and pro-
nounced change in wind speed and direction were encountered above. The
inversion confined the effluents to the lower 700 feet at Cumberland, to
the lower 500 feet in the narrows below Piedmont, and below 200 feet at
the junction of Routes 50 and 93.
REVIEW OF S02 CONCENTRATION AND WIND PATTERN OCCURRING
ON SEPTEMBER 12, 1970
On September 12, 1970, between 0700 and 1600 EST, the hourly S02 values
recorded at the Stony River Farm air monitoring station averaged 0.22 ppm and
reached the study period high of 0.36 ppm with the 0900 reading. A review of the
recorder chart (Figure 1-19) shows that the instrument "pegged" continuously at full
scale (over 0.48 ppm) for 15 minutes. The chart is characterized by abrupt large
changes in the level of S02 recorded, which indicates sampling of air with non-
uniform pollutant concentrations in which parcels of nearly clean air alternated with
1-100
-------
parcels containing over 0.40 ppm S02. Also during this 9-hour period, NOx levels at
Stony River Farm averaged over 0.02 ppm and reached 0.04 ppm for 2 hours. At the
other two monitoring sites, no S02 was detected during the entire period. The south-
southeast daytime wind apparently carried the plume west of these samplers. During
the early morning and evening south-wind periods (Table C-l), however, shallow night-
time inversions are believed to have prevented the plume aloft from dispersing down-
ward to the ground-level sampling positions.
A surface-based inversion, 1,000 feet deep, existed over Pittsburgh at 0700 EST
with east winds below and south-southeast winds above. A second inversion was also
present at 4,800 feet MSL, further restricting vertical mixing. Surface winds
recorded at the Greater Pittsburgh Airport (shown in Table C-l) indicate that the
surface inversion dissipated by 1000 EST.
A comparison of hourly winds strongly indicates that a surface inversion sepa-
rated Steyer wind-flow from the higher-level Mt. Storm flow with the Stony Farm
being near the top of the lower flow so that only traces of S02 were mixed down to
the sampler until after 0600 EST when the inversion began a rapid breakup.
After 0800, VEPCO's south wind is seen to shift toward southeast while Steyer's
east wind shifts into the south to merge as a daytime south-southeast wind* carrying
S02 effluent from VEPCO toward Stony.
In summary, on September 12, 1970, plumes from the Mt. Storm Power Plant were
trapped in a limited-mixing-depth condition for over 9 hours. Much of this time
the Stony site was beneath the plume and was subjected to sulfur dioxide levels as
great as 0.36 ppm (hourly average). It appears that at the plume center-line the
hourly value was greater than 0.48 ppm. During this episode, the plume apparently
passed to the west of monitoring stations at the other two farms so that no sulfur
dioxide was recorded by either of them. Prior to 0700 EST and after 1600 EST, the
sampler at the Stony River Farm is thought to have been screened from the plume by
a shallow surface inversion, the top of which was below the wind sensor at the Mt.
Storm plant.
*The 1100 and 1200 VEPCO winds show a temporary shift of 2 compass points toward
the east. .The shift correlates in a striking manner with a temporary drop in S02
recorded at Stony.
1-101
-------
APPENDIX D.
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
1-103
-------
Table D-l. COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF WIND DIRECTIONS
AT INDICATED STATIONS, JUNE THROUGH SEPTEMBER 1970
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
Wind direction at Steyer
No. 2 Farm Station,3
% frequency
June
1
0
2
2
6
2
3
1
2
2
7
23
35
6
5
3
July
1
0
1
1
7
1
2
1
2
3
12
16
34
10
6
3
Aug.
3
1
5
3
6
3
6
2
2
1
3
9
35
10
8
3
Sept.
3
0
1
2
7
2
2
1
2
2
5
14
35
13
9
2
Season
2
0
2
2
7
2
4
1
2
2
6
15
35
10
7
3
Wind direction at Mt. Storm
Power Plant Station,''
% frequency
June
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
3
5
7
7
13
20
21
11
4
July
1
1
1
0
0
1
6
3
4
6
7
12
19
24
1.0
5
Aug.
1
1
1
1
3
2
8
5
5
7
4
7
16
20
15
4
Sept.
0
1
0
1
0
1
3
5
8
7
10
17
23
11
12
1
Season
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
5
7
7
12
20
19
12
4
Operated by APCO on southeast facing slope of Steyer No. 2 Farm on 30-foot
tower. Elevation is approximately 2,700 feet above MSL.
Operated by VEPCO on hill west of plant on 88-foot tower. Elevation is approxi-
mately 3,500 feet above MSL.
1-104
-------
PART TWO
LUKE, MARYLAND -
KEYSER, WEST VIRGINIA,
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
ABATEMENT ACTIVITY AREA
-------
I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A technical investigation of air quality in the Luke, Maryland Keyser, West
Virginia, area was conducted as part of the Mt. Storm, West Virginia Gorman,
Maryland, and Keyser, West Virginia - Luke, Maryland, Air Pollution Abatement Activ-.
ity. The area was included at the request of the Governor of West Virginia.
The area of study centered around the North Branch of the Potomac River, ex-
tending from Bloomington, Maryland, to Keyser, West Virginia, and including the towns
of Luke, Westernport, Piedmont, and McCoole.
Pollutant concentrations approached or exceeded levels generally found in
industrialized areas, partly because the area's topography and meteorology exert a
strong influence on the buildup of pollutants. Particulate matter and sulfur
dioxide were the major pollutants, and the maximum levels in the region were found
in Luke, Maryland, and Piedmont, West Virginia. Complaints of odors have also
been received from residents of Maryland and West Virginia, and as far as Somerset
County, Pennsylvania.
A pulp and paper mill operated by the Westvaco Corporation is the primary source
of air pollutants. Although the plant is now implementing an air pollution control
program, compliance with Maryland regulations will not be achieved until 1975 or
1976. When all the improvements now planned are completed, both the particulate
and sulfur oxides emissions should be substantially lower. Odorous emissions (re-
duced sulfur compounds) should also be lower, although company plans for reduction
of these emissions are still incomplete. The 1975 completion date appears unneces-
sarily extended, however. The control program could be completed sooner by reducing
the delay involved in developing the proprietary Westvaco activated-carbon process
(for flue-gas desulfurization) as a control alternative.
A number of other small sources contribute to the overall pollution. These
include a coal-washing plant, a charcoal plant, and a gob pile (refuse dump), all
of which are located in Beryl, West Virginia. Residents of both states have re-
gistered some complaints concerning emissions from these sources.
Data for relating air pollutant levels to effects on health, vegetation, and
materials in this area are limited. Studies done in other areas with similar air
quality, however, indicate possible correlations between pollutant concentrations
2-1
-------
and respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis. In this area vegetation
damage is plainly visible on the ridge above and south of Piedmont, and evidence of
high metal-corrosion rates has been detected.
The conclusions drawn from this study are given below:
1. Interstate transport of air pollutants originating from sources in both
Maryland and West Virginia occurs.
2. Industrial emissions create severe, localized air pollution in the river
valley with very high hydrogen sulfide and particulate levels occurring.
Sulfation-plate measurements indicate sulfur dioxide levels in excess of
the recently proposed national air quality standards.'
3. The Westvaco pulp and paper mill at Luke, Maryland, is the dominant source
of air contaminants. The present Westvaco compliance plan is inadequate
because the sulfur oxides control program is unnecessarily long and the
total reduced sulfur control program is incomplete.
2-2
-------
II. INTRODUCTION
The attention of air pollution officials has been drawn to the upper Potomac
River region because of severe air pollution problems in the river valley. At Luke,
Maryland, beside the North Branch of the Potomac River, the Westvaco Corporation
operates a pulp and paper mill that is the major manufacturing concern of the region,
producing approximately 800 tons of pulp daily. This mill is also the dominant
contributor to the air pollution that occurs in the region. The balance of the air
pollution comes from a number of small industrial sources, including a charcoal
plant and a coal-screening operation, both located in Beryl, West Virginia.
The populated area of the region extends from Bloomington, Maryland, to
Keyser, West Virginia, along the Potomac River. Westernport is the largest town
in the Maryland portion of the area, whereas Keyser contains the majority of the
population in the West Virginia portion of the area. Luke and McCoole on the Mary-
land side of the river, and Piedmont on the West Virginia side, are the other com-
munities in the region defined. The Luke-Keyser valley is remote from other centers
of population; its inhabitants are relatively few and are dependent on the continued
economic viability of the pulp mill.
HISTORY OF ABATEMENT ACTIVITY
This study, part of the Mt. Storm, West Virginia - Gorman, Maryland, and Keyser,
West Virginia - Luke, Maryland, Air Pollution Abatement Activity, was a cooperative
effort of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the States of Maryland and
West Virginia. Governor Arch A. Moore of West Virginia, in a letter dated February
24, 1970, requested that the Piedmont-Keyser area of West Virginia be included
in the abatement action.
DESCRIPTION OF AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM
Basic to the Kraft pulp-producing process is the use of large quantities of
fossil fuel and water. The Westvaco mill at Luke uses coal obtained from nearby
mines as fuel, and the combustion products formed include both particulate emissions,
in the form of flyash, and sulfur oxides.
In the Kraft process for the digestion of wood, both the inorganic chemicals
used and the organic compounds derived from the wood pass through a series of re-
actions in which odorous gases are produced, which are often vented to the atmos-
phere. A key economic element in the Kraft process is the recovery and reprocessing
2-3
-------
of the spent chemical in the cooking liquors. The furnaces used in the recovery of
the chemicals are an additional source of airborne particulate matter, of sulfur
oxides, and especially of odors. The odors are detectable in concentrations so low
that they can be smelled even at great distances from the mill.
The pollution burden placed on the atmosphere from particulate and sulfur
oxides emissions is, however, more significant from a health standpoint than the
odors, even though the effects of the former are not as obvious. Even the copious
steam emissions from the pulp mill can be objectionable because they form a per-
sistent fog during cold or humid weather (Figure 2-1).
Figure 2-1. Aerial view looking west over Westernport; denuded ridge to left bears brunt of
emissions. Plume rising to left center locates the Luke mill.
In this report, the air pollution in the Luke - Keyser area is discussed in
terms of the quantitative air quality and the air contaminant emission data, which
are summarized. Because it is the dominant emission source, Westvaco is discussed
in detail.
2-4
-------
III. AREA DESCRIPTION
From Bloomington, Maryland, the North Branch of the Potomac River assumes a
southeasterly course as it cuts through the Allegheny Front range to Keyser, West
Virginia, where it takes a northeasterly course. The region of the Potomac Valley
from Bloomington to Keyser is the subject of this report. A map of the region is
shown in Figure 2-2. On the Maryland side of the river, the towns of Bloomington,
Luke, and Westernport are spaced a river-mile apart at successive major bends.
The Savage River and George's Creek flow into the Potomac from the northeast at
Luke and Westernport, respectively. From Piedmont, West Virginia, Westernport is
north across the river; Luke is northwest. Because of the winding, narrow charac-
ter of the Potomac River Valley, all three towns are surrounded, within 1 mile, by
elevations more than 1,500 feet above river level. At Piedmont, the river is 900
feet above mean sea level (MSL), and the adjacent mountains reach more than 2,500
feet above MSL. Although the towns extend from the river bank up the sides of the
hills, their centers are about 200 feet above the river.
From Westernport, the river flows 5 miles through a narrow valley to a broader
area, where McCoole is situated on the Maryland side and Keyser, the largest town
in the area, on the West Virginia side. The downstream end of the valley is 20
miles southwest of Cumberland, Maryland.
Joining the Potomac at Westernport is George's Creek, which has been described
as the single most unfortunate stream in the Potomac Basin because of the massive
doses of mine acid that leach into it from the devastated mining region in the
valley beside it.2 The George's Creek and Savage River valleys are important be-
cause they provide alternate troughs for the air currents that carry pollutants
from the main valley of the Potomac.
The mountainous terrain and the brevity of the growing season limit agricul-
tural activity in the region. The vegetation of the area includes hardwood and
pines that grow on the mountain slopes overlooking the river valleys.
The total population of the region is about 12,000, more than one-half of
which live in Keyser. Table 2-1 summarizes the known population levels by county.
During the past 10 years, Piedmont, Westernport, and Luke have experienced a
/
decline in population, in contrast to the national trend. This decline has been par-
ticularly severe at Piedmont, which has lost 23 percent of its total 1960 population.
2-5
-------
Figure 2-2. Topography of Luke-Keyser area.
-------
Table 2-1. POPULATION OF LUKE-KEYSER REGION
County
Garrett County, Maryland
Bloomington'3
Allegany County, Maryland
Luke
Westernport
McCooleb
Mineral County, West Virginia
Keyser
Piedmont
Beryl b
19603
20,420
84,169
587
3,559
22,354
6,192
2,307
1970a
21 ,475
84,044
424
3,106
23,109
6,586
1,763
Preliminary data.4
Not tabulated in census.
The climate is temperate, Westernport temperatures ranging from an average of
74° F in July to an average of 34° F in January. Located on the lee side of the
Allegheny Mountains, the Luke-Keyser region enjoys warmer temperatures and less pre-
cipitation than the western slopes of the mountains (Table 2-2).
Table 2-2. PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE IN WESTERNPORT, 19685
Indicator
Mean
Total annual precipitation, inches
Number of days with 0.10 inch or more rain
Daily maximum temperature, °F
Daily minimum temperature, °F
38.86
81
65.7
42.0
Airflow in the region is not affected by the prevailing weather patterns as much
as by topography. Deep within the valleys and close to the sloping side-walls, the
airflow is usually determined by local, constantly changing factors. A down-slope
wind tends to develop slowly into a down-valley wind in the evening; the latter per-
sists through the night and dissipates rapidly after sunrise, except under heavy
cloud cover or exceptionally strong and turbulent wind conditions. Daytime winds are
less consistent, but tend to blow toward the nearest heated slope. During the 1970
growing season, up-valley winds were recorded only 7 percent of the time, whereas
down-valley winds occurred 57 percent of the time. Variable, cross-valley winds and
calm accounted for the remaining 36 percent of the time. These measurements were ob-
tained in the Potomac River airflow study reported in Part One, Appendix C.
2-7
-------
Average wind speeds are low, and calm periods, which tend to increase pol-
lutant concentrations, are frequent. In general, when air temperature decreases
with increasing height, the air is unstable and vertical mixing occurs. When the
ground is relatively cool and temperature increases with height, the air is stable,
little vertical mixing occurs, and, in meteorological terminology, an inversion is
said to exist. In the Luke-Keyser region, inversion conditions exist 30 percent of
the time at exposed locations, with significantly greater frequency in valley areas.
In addition, high-pressure weather patterns moving from west to east across
the country occasionally settle over the eastern states, particularly during
autumn, and remain stable for days. The result is an atmospheric stagnation
period with light winds and a resulting accumulation of pollutants. In the Luke-
Keyser region, stagnation periods lasting 4 days or longer may be expected at
least once a year.
2-8
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IV. WESTVACO PULP AND PAPER MILL
PLANT OPERATIONS
In the following sections, the power boilers and the pulp-making processes are
considered separately. The odors characteristic of Kraft pulp mills come primarily
from the chemical recovery system included in the pulp-making section. Most of the
sulfur oxides originate in the power boilers from the burning of sulfur-containing
fuels. Smaller quantities come from the recovery furnaces. Both the power boilers
and the pulp-making processes are responsible for the particulate emissions.
Pulp-Making Processes
The necessity for producing a highly uniform product, pulp, from a highly vari-
able raw material, such as trees, requires a complex and well-controlled process.
The Kraft process as employed at Luke results in a relatively strong fiber. It
requires cooking wood chips in large pressure cookers, called digesters, until the
cellulose fibers, the pulp, are completely separated from the lignins, which are the
nonfibrous constituents of wood. To accomplish this separation, it is necessary to
react lye (sodium hydroxide) and sodium sulfide with the lignins. After it is
separated, the pulp is removed from the cooking liquor and washed.
A key economic feature of the Kraft process is the recovery of the chemicals
used in the digesters. This involves concentration of the spent cooking liquor by
evaporating the water and then burning the concentrated black liquor in a recovery
furnace to separate the sodium-based inorganic materials from the reacted lignins.
The inorganic smelt from the recovery furnace consists of sodium sulfide and sodium
carbonate. The smelt is dissolved in water and then reacted with time to convert
the carbonate to sodium hydroxide. The resulting sodium sulfide-sodium hydroxide
solution is then recycled to the digester where it is reused as cooking liquor. The
calcium carbonate also produced in this last reaction is calcined to lime in the
lime kiln.
This chain of digestion, evaporation, and recovery has associated with it a
large variety of chemical compounds, some of which have strong odors. The principal
malodorous gases emitted are sulfur compounds, listed in Table 2-3. Collectively,
these odorous sulfur emissions are usually referred to as total reduced sulfur (TRS)
compounds. The formation of most of them can be reduced significantly by the appli-
cation of currently available technology.
2-9
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Table 2-3. PRINCIPAL MALODOROUS GASES FROM KRAFT PROCESS6
Gas
Hydrogen sulfide
Methyl mercaptan
Dimethyl sulfide
Dimethyl di sulfide
Formula
H2S
CH3SH
CH3SCH3
CH3SSCH3
Odor threshold, ppm
0.1
0.01
0.05
0.50
Digesters - The Luke mill has nine digesters, three for softwood and six for hard-
wood. Depending on the cooking time, these usually produce 800 tons of air-dried
pulp per day - 300 tons from softwood and 500 from hardwood. A batch of chips in
white liquor will usually reach the 350° F cooking temperature in about 1-1/2 hours.
The digester is held at this temperature for 1 to 3 hours at a pressure of about
100 pounds per square inch (psi).
To maintain the temperature and pressure while gases are being generated, the
digester requires constant venting through relief valves. Two small cyclones are
used in the vent lines to remove entrained particulate matter and condensable gases.
Mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide, however, are emitted in variable quantities, de-
pending on the type of wood, the sulfide concentration in the liquor, the cooking
temperature, and the length of the cook.
When cooking is complete, the pulp and black liquor are violently discharged
from the digester into a blow tank. At Luke, 56 to 63 digester blows are made each
day. The TRS emissions from both the blow and the digester relief vent are major
contributors to the mill's odor problem. Because their volume is small, however,
the off-gases could be vented to the lime kiln or the recovery furnace for inciner-
ation. Incineration in the lime kiln is preferred because the S0£ from combustion
would be considerably less because it is reduced by the alkaline scrubbing medium
used in the kiln scrubber.
Knotter and Brown Stock Washers - From the blow tank, the pulp and black liquor are
pumped through the knotter to screen out the undigested material and into the brown
stock washer, where the pulp is separated from the black liquor. Significant quanti-
ties of TRS compounds can be emitted from the hood vents on the washer, particularly
if untreated condensates are being used in it. A variety of techniques are avail-
able for controlling odorous emissions from these processes, such as venting the
gases to the recovery furnace for incineration.
Multiple-Effect Evaporators - Multiple-effect evaporators are used to reduce the
water content of the black liquor as it comes from the brown stock washers. The
liquor is passed through several heated vacuum stages, in which the heat source for
2-10
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one stage is the evaporant from the succeeding stage. Vacuum is maintained by
barometric condensers. This process results in efficient utilization of the thermal
energy and reduces the water content from 87 to about 50 percent by weight. Luke
has two lines of multiple-effect evaporators.
The evaporated vapors are condensed and passed to a hot well. The quantity of
water required for condensation is about 1,000 gallons per minute. Condensed black
liquor is rich in malodorous sulfur compounds, and the odors may persist if the
liquor is discharged into the river untreated. A relatively high degree of odor
control can be achieved by steam stripping the condensate from the digester and the
multiple-effects evaporators to remove volatile compounds. The off-gases from the
condensate stripper must also be treated, by incineration, to prevent odorous emis-
sions. The same is true for the condensate; it must be treated prior to discharge,
or recycled within the plant. Odorous TRS compounds are also present in the non-
condensable gases from the evaporator. The small amount of effluent gas produced
by the evaporator could be shunted and effectively eliminated by incineration.
Direct-Contact Evaporator. Recovery Furnaces - The direct-contact evaporator and
the multiple-effect evaporators are the primary sources of the steam emissions. At
Luke, the black liquor is concentrated to 50 percent solids in the multiple-effects
evaporators and is then sent to the strong-black-liquor-oxidation system that was
installed recently. Here, its sodium sulfide content is oxidized to sodium thio-
sulfate by contacting the liquor with air. Complete oxidation is required, however,
in order to decrease TRS emissions effectively. In many cases, complete oxidation
is difficult to achieve and the black-liquor-oxidation tower can itself become an
additional source of TRS emissions. Effective oxidation prevents excessive hydrogen
sulfide emission when the liquor is brought into contact with the recovery-furnace
exhaust in the direct-contact evaporator.
In the recovery furnace, the organic material dissolved from the wood (about
half the original dry weight) is burned, the residual sodium hydroxide is converted
to sodium carbonate, and any oxidized sulfur compounds are reduced to sodium sulfide.
Inorganic salts accumulate in the bottom of the furnace as a molten smelt. The
steam produced here, from the combustion of the liqnin, is piped throughout the mill
for use in other stages.
Hot flue gases from the recovery furnace also contain steam, along with gaseous
sulfur compounds, solid particulate matter, and carbon dioxide. These pass through
an electrostatic precipitator before being discharged to the atmosphere.
Luke has two recovery furnaces, each equipped with an electrostatic precipita-
tor (Figure 2-3). The recovery furnaces together emit an estimated 250 to 300 tons
2-11
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Figure 2-3. View of Luke mill showing electrostatic precipitators to left of stack.
Q
of sulfur dioxide per year and 2,300 tons of particulate matter per year. The re-
covery furnaces operate with excess oxygen and thus minimize the emissions of odor-
causing sulfur compounds by oxidation.
Smelt Tanks - The inorganic smelt, consisting of sodium carbonate and sodium
sulfide, is discharged into smelt tanks, where it is dissolved in water to
produce what is called "green liquor." When it is taken from the recovery
furnace, the smelt, at a temperature of approximately 1,500°F, produces steam
along with alkali fumes when mixed with water. At the time of this study, one smelt
tank at Luke was being equipped with a demister designed to minimize direct discharge
of these fumes. The other tank was directly vented to the atmosphere. A second
demister or a scrubbing device on that tank could produce a significant
reduction in alkaline particulate emissions.
Lime Kiln - Green liquor is changed into white liquor, ready for reuse in the
digesters, by converting its sodium carbonate to sodium hydroxide. This is
accomplished by caustisizing it with lime (calcium oxide). In solution, calcium
2-12
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oxide becomes calcium hydroxide and reacts with the liquor to give sodium
hydroxide and calcium carbonate. The calcium carbonate is collected and
returned to the lime kiln, located across the river in Piedmont, West
Virginia. There it is heated to about 1,500°F, at which it decomposes to
give carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
The Luke lime kiln is equipped with a wet scrubber for eliminating the partic-
ulate matter entrained in the flue gas. The scrubber is reported to be 99.5
Q
percent efficient, releasing approximately 18 pounds of emissions per hour
(80 tons per year). Significant quantities of TRS compounds can be emitted
from the lime kiln, however, as a result of incomplete washing of the calcium
carbonate mud, or the use of untreated evaporator or digester condensate in
the scrubber, or as a result of not maintaining proper kiln temperature. All
of these are controllable, and careful kiln and scrubber operation and proper
washing can eliminate most of the odor from the lime kiln.
Power Boilers
Fuel usage at the Luke mill corresponds to that of a steam electric-
power-generation plant with a capacity in excess of 100 megawatts. In the
past, the four power boilers have been operated without even the simplest
type of air pollution control equipment, although mechanical collectors have
been available at a minimal cost for well over 50 years. Such collectors
would have reduced particulate emissions 50 to 75 percent. Westvaco has now
equipped boiler No. 25 with collectors and a moderately efficient electro-
static precipitator. Boilers No. 22, No. 23, and No. 24 remain uncontrolled,
however.
The four original boilers and the new boiler installed recently are
described below:
No. 22. An auxiliary, pulverized-coal-fired boiler presently used
for standby service; it has no emission controls.
No. 23. An auxiliary, pulverized-coal-fired boiler also used for
standby service; it has no emission controls.
No. 24. A cyclone, coal-fired boiler; it has no fly-ash controls
and uses around 165,000 tons of coal per year.
No. 25. -A large, pulverized-coal-fired boiler equipped with mechanical
collectors and an electrostatic precipitator, which has recently
been upgraded to approximately 95 percent efficiency. This
boiler uses 200,000 tons of coal per year.
No. 26. A new oil-fired boiler, using No. 6 oil that contains 1 percent
sulfur; this was installed during February 1970 and this boiler
complies with Maryland regulations.
2-13
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Summary
Data from 19707 show total plant emissions of 6,414 tons of participate matter
per year, 21,467 tons of sulfur oxides per year, and 1,713 tons of reduced sulfur
compounds per year. In Table 2-4 these emission rates are listed for each
of the major processes in the mill. Boiler No. 24 is the primary source of
particulate matter. Boiler No. 25 complies with Maryland regulations for partic-
ulate emissions, but is the largest emitter of sulfur oxides. The recovery furnaces
and the digesters are the main sources of the odorous reduced-sulfur compounds.
Table 2-4. PLANT EMISSIONS, 1970'
(tons/yr)
Equipment
Boilers
No. 22
No. 23
No. 24
No. 25
No. 26
Recovery furnaces
No. 1
No. 2
Smelt tanks
Digesters
Multiple-effect
evaporators
Lime kiln
Plant total
Parti cul ate
matter
Standby
Standby
2,624
903
80
788
1,545
394
Neg
Neg
80
6,414
Sulfur oxides
Standby
Standby
7,966
11,953
1,272
188
88
Neg
Neg
Neg
NDb
21 ,467
Reduced
sulfur
Nega
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
280
700
36
652
45
ND
1,713
Negligible.
No data available.
CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPLIANCE SCHEDULE
Emissions from Westvaco's Luke mill consist mainly of particulate matter, sul-
fur oxides, and reduced sulfur compounds. Air contaminant emission rates are
Q
presently greater than allowed under Maryland Regulation 43P02. Accordingly,
Westvaco submitted a compliance plan (included in the Appendix), dated June 25, '
1970, that has been accepted by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental
Hygiene. In the sections below, the compliance plan is examined as it pertains to
each of the pollutant types. Emphasis is placed on the degree of control needed
and the time period required to achieve it.
2-14
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Table 2-5.
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
(tons/yr)
Equipment
Boilers
No. 22
No. 23
No. 24
No. 25
No. 26
Recovery furnaces
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
Smelt tanks
No. 1
No. 2
Lime kiln
Total
1969
1,199
359
2,624
903
NA
788
1,545
NA
197
197b
80
7,892
1973
Standby
Standby
2,624
903
80
Standby
Standby
288
197
86
80
4,258
1975-76
NAa
NA
245
692
80
NA
NA
288
197
86
80
1,668
NA - Not applicable.
Estimate.
Control of Particulate Emissions
Control of particulate emissions will be accomplished in essentially
two stages (Table 2-5). The first stage of particulate reduction will be
completed in 1972, but the second will not be finished until 1975 or 1976.
The second stage is an integral part of the sulfur oxides control program and
will be discussed in a later section.
One of the improvements included in the first step has already been
completed on schedule. This is the new 240,000 pounds-per-hour packaged-steam
boiler (No. 26), which has an emission rate of 0.055 pound of particulate matter
per million Btu input. This unit replaced boilers No. 22 and No. 23, which have
emission rates of 7.5 pounds per million Btu input each. Boilers No. 22 and No. 23
have been placed on emergency standby. The installation of No. 26 has resulted
in an overall particulate reduction of 1,500 tons per year.
A new black-liquor recovery furnace (No. 3) will be installed and in
operation by November 1972. It will replace furnaces No. 1 and No. 2, which
2-15
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will also be placed on emergency standby. The new furnace will be oversized
(1,000-ton-per-day capacity handling a 750- to 800-ton-per-day load) in order
to ensure efficient combustion. With the additional help of an electrostatic
precipitator with 99.5 percent efficiency, No. 3 is expected to reduce emissions to
2,000 tons per year.
The anticipated overall reduction in particulate emissions upon completion
of all the step-one improvements will be 3,500 tons per year, or almost 50
percent of the original total. The time involved in completing these changes
is considered reasonable.
Control Of Sulfur Oxides Emissions
Boilers No. 24 and No. 25 are, by far, the major sources of sulfur oxides
emissions (Table 2-6), but Westvaco has not yet chosen an approach for reducing
sulfur oxides emissions. The control alternatives listed in the compliance
plan include the use of the Westvaco activated-carbon process for flue-gas
desulfurization, the use of low-sulfur coal, and the use of low-sulfur oil. The
decision presently hinges on the results of developmental work being done on
the Westvaco activated-carbon process.
Table 2-6. SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
(tons/yr)
Equipment
Boilers
No. 22
No. 23
No. 24
No. 25
No. 26
Recovery furnaces
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
Lime kiln
Total
1969
456
456
7,966
11,953
NA
188
88
NA
NDb
21,107
1973
Standby
Standby
7,966
11,953
1,272
Standby
Standby
0
ND
21,191
1975-76
NAa
NA
940
1,399
1,272
NA
NA
0
ND
3,611
*NA - Not applicable.
DND - No data available.
2-16
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WESTVACO
PROCESS
INSTALL WESTVACO
PROCESS ON BOILER
NO. 24
LOW SULFUR
INSTALL WESTVACO
PROCESS ON BOILER
NO. 25
1971
1976
DATE OF COMPLETION
ro
I
Figure 2-4. Flow chart of sulfur dioxide control program at Westvaco Mill in Luke, Maryland.
-------
One important deficiency in the sulfur oxides control program as presented
in the company compliance schedule is that the entire control program will be
delayed 2 years while the company does developmental work on the Westvaco
process, which is a proprietary process. The delay appears unnecessary because
SOg control systems that could be applied are presently in the advanced pilot
stage or prototype stage of development. An S02 control system such as sodium
carbonate scrubbing should be particularly attractive since the soluble sulfur
compounds produced could be recycled to the recovery system. Since the company
does not plan to make the basic decision on what approach to take until April
1973, the sulfur oxides problem at the Luke plant will not even be considered
per se until then. In addition, up to 3-1/2 years more will be required for
installing the necessary equipment (Figure 2-4).
The delay built into the sulfur oxides'control program also affects the
particulate control program. After completion of the step-one improvements in
November 1972, boilers 24 and 25 will be, by far, the predominant particulate
sources. The nature of the controls necessary for these units cannot be
determined, however, until the sulfur oxides control approach is chosen. Controls
for these units will thus be delayed 2 years.
As the company schedule indicates, data from the first Westvaco Process pilot
plant study and results of the low-sulfur-coal availability study would be ready
by September 1971. The delay, indicated in Figure 2-4, could be avoided by
proceeding directly with one of these control alternatives.
In summary, the time schedule of the sulfur oxides control program appears
unnecessarily long. The 2-year period required to develop the proprietary
process will unnecessarily delay control efforts, especially since other control
techniques will undoubtedly be available before that time. Without sacrificing
the flexibility of its present plan, Westvaco should be capable of controlling
sulfur oxides emissions from boilers No. 24 and No. 25 by the end of 1973.
Control of Total Reduced-Sulfur Emissions
A significant reduction in total reduced-sulfur emissions should occur
after the new recovery furnace is installed in 1972 (Table 2-7). With the good
combustion conditions expected in this unit, most of the reduced-sulfur compounds
will be oxidized to the much less obnoxious form of sulfur dioxide (increasing
S02 emissions less than 2 percent). The recovery furnaces are presently
2-18
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Table 2-7. TOTAL REDUCED-SULFUR EMISSIONS
(tons/yr)
Equipment
Recovery furnaces
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
Digesters
1969
280
1973
1975-76
|
Standby
700 Standby
NA ND
i
652 652
Multiple-effect 45 45
NAa
NA
ND
652
45
evapur a ujr »
Smelt tank
Lime kiln
Total
18
NDb
1,695
18
ND
Die
18
ND
DI
aNA - Not applicable.
bND - No data.
CDI - Data incomplete.
responsible for about 60 percent of the reduced-sulfur emissions.
Much of the remaining 40 percent comes from the digesters and multiple-
effect evaporators. Westvaco has not yet made a firm commitment regarding the
method they will use to control these sources. Since the necessary control
technology is available and has been applied at many pulp mills, the company's
lack of a firm plan must be considered a major deficiency. Generally, these
digester and evaporator emissions are controlled by venting the gases to a
recovery furnace or lime kiln for incineration. According to the compliance
plan, a decision concerning the digesters and multiple-effect evaporators will
be made in July 1972, and the completion dates will be negotiated at that time.
Also, no mention has been made in the compliance schedule of eliminating the
emissions from the knotter and brown stock washer. Finally, the condensate from
the digester relief valves and the multiple-effects evaporator should not
be used or discharged untreated into sewers or waterways. Condensate treatment
must be considered and must become an integral part of any odor control program.
2-19
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V. OTHER EMISSION SOURCES
The region is so sparsely settled that the contributions of automotive, home-
heating, and other nonindustrial activities to the air pollution burden of the area
are small relative to the pulp mill emissions. Only two other significant indus-
trial emitters have been identified:
1. Cumberland Charcoal, Beryl, West Virginia. This small charcoal plant pro-
duces wood chips and charcoal briquettes. The plant includes a drier, a
carbonizer, a scrubber, and an afterburner. Located directly across the
river from Bloomington, the plant occasionally arouses complaints about
its visible emissions.
2. Masteller Coal Company, Beryl, West Virginia. This company is engaged in
coal preparation and cleaning and operates an air table to clean coal. The
plant has been working with the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Com-
mission to control its emissions. The plant uses a plant-made brattice-
cloth-covered settling chamber/filter of unknown efficiency for the final
control. There are normally no visible emissions. The West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission has estimated that the plant complies with
their Regulation V, and, on that basis, emits less than 11 pounds per
hour (12 tons per year) under normal operation.
Although coal is still used as a fuel, more than half of the residential and
commercial buildings in the area are heated with natural gas, a fuel which produces
low emissions. Little fuel oil is burned in the area.
2-21
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VI. AIR QUALITY
Before air quality data are discussed, it must be noted that measurements made
at a particular station are often not representative of the overall air quality. In
the Luke-Keyser region, this fact is especially applicable because of the strong in-
fluence local topography has on measurements at any single measurement station.
Frequently, significantly different results are obtained from stations less than
1 mile apart. The observations reported are thus indicative of the air quality, but
do not quantify it.
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE
Suspended particulate levels in the study area exceed those recommended by
EPA (Part I, Section V). This is particularly true in Luke, where the concen-
tration present, 140 pg/m3 (1968 annual average), was almost twice the level pro-
posed as a primary standard, 75 wg/m3. Luke levels also compare unfavorably with
the annual averages in New York City, 135 wg/m3, and in Washington, D. C.,
104 wg/m3.10
Concentrations show a moderate seasonal trend, with winter levels 10 to 15
percent greater than the corresponding summer levels. This variation is partic-
ularly severe in Luke. Whether the Luke trend is the result of an abnormality in
the data or of the effects of space-heating demands is not known. Possibly emissions
from the pulp mill boilers are greater during the winter months because of the
plant's space-heating requirements. The data are tabulated in Table 2-8.
Table 2-8. SUSPENDED PARTICULATESa
(ug/m3)
City
Westernport
Luke
Bloomington
Keyser
Winter
111
165
126
-
Spring
100
143
125
-
Summer
102
114
82
Fall
86
130
94
-
Annual
average
100
140
108
94b
Maryland data, 1968.5
bWest Virginia data, February 1968 to November 1970.
DUSTFALL
Dustfall levels in much of the study area are greater than the 15 tons per
square mile per month generally considered acceptable in residential areas. In
2-23
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1968, the highest values occurred at the Bloomington School station, where the annual
average was 30.9 tons per square mile per month, and the highest monthly average was
the December value of 59.5 tons per square mile per month. Dustfall levels at
Westernport, Maryland, were also high (Table 2-9).
Table 2-9. DUSTFALL, 1969"
(tons/mi2-mo)
City
Westernport
Piedmont
Bloomington
School
Keyser
Winter
24.3
15.9
32.4
11.8
Spring
25.3
14.8
33.1
13.1
Summer
14.2
11.8
19.6
9.0
Fall
19.6
13.4
38.1
12.8
Annual
average
21.0
14.0
30.9
11.7
Like suspended particulates, dustfall concentrations show a moderate seasonal
trend. The maxima usually occur during the colder months. The high values in the
fall and winter are probably the result of less favorable dispersion conditions and
heavy space-heating demands.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentrations, measured by means of silver-tarnishing
tests, indicated high H^S levels in the cities near the pulp mill, and within the
narrow Potomac River valley. More than 90 percent of the national samples taken
during 1968 had values below the samples from Piedmont and Keyser (Table 2-10).
Table 2-10. SILVER TARNISHING RATES, 19685
(percentage reflectance loss/mo)
City
Bloomington
Piedmont
Keyser
Winter
78
94
88
Spring
82
78
88
Summer
79
89
94
Fall
92
95
89
Annual
average
82
89
90
Hydrogen sulfide concentrations show no seasonal trend, further indicating that
the main source of hydrogen sulfide is the pulp mill. Although mill emissions vary
from day to day, they are relatively constant when averaged over a long period of
time.
2-24
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SULFUR DIOXIDE
Continuous Monitoring Equipment
One conductivity-type, continuous, sulfur dioxide monitor was operated in
Westernport by the State of Maryland. Most of the levels recorded were low. The
1968 annual average concentration of 28 ug/m3 (0.01 ppm) compares favorably with
the primary standard of 80 ug/m3 (annual arithmetic mean)1 recently proposed by
EPA. On at least one occasion, however, peak sulfur dioxide concentrations reached
1573 yg/rn (0.6 ppm) for 5 minutes. During the 5-day period in which this peak
occurred, December 12, 1967. to December 17, 1967, the 24-hour average concen-
trations approximated the proposed EPA primary standard of 365 vg/m3. The possi-
bility exists that considerably higher concentrations existed at other locations
in the Luke-Keyser area that are more prone to high pollutant levels because of
the source location and local topography.
Sulfation Plates
Since 1967 sulfation plates have been used as static indicators of sulfur
dioxide levels in the area. They has been maintained jointly by APCO and the two
state agencies.
The data indicate wide variations in sulfur dioxide concentrations within any
given area. As shown in Table 2-11, the 1968 fall averages at the two Piedmont
stations varied by a factor of three; the winter and summer averages at the three
Keyser stations varied by a factor of almost two. These variations illustrate the
effects of the topography and meteorology of the area.
Table 2-11. AVERAGE SULFATION RATES, 1968*
(mg $03/100 cm2-day)
City
Bloomington"
Bloomingtonc
Piedmont5
Piedmont^
Keyser0
Keyserd
Keyserd
Winter
1.0
1.1
1.9
1.3
1.5
1.2
0.8
Spring
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.5
Summer
0.3
0.3
0.4
1.4
0.7
1.3
0.7
Fall
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.5
1.0
0.8
0.8
Annual
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.1
0.7
Rounded off where necessary.
bNAPCA, National Effects Network data.5
Maryland Division of Air Quality data.5
dWest Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission data.1'
2-25
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In 1970, a more extensive network of sulfation plates was installed as part of
this technical investigation. Data from these monitors indicated that relatively
high sulfur dioxide concentrations can occur in some sections of the study area
(Table 2-12). Again, wide variations in data were found from one sampling station
to another. Particularly high sulfation rates occurred at the stations located
just opposite the pulp mill on the Piedmont ridge. The highest sulfation rate, 4.9
2
mg SQ. per 100 cm per day is roughly equivalent to an average sulfur dioxide con-
centration of 0.17 ppm for a period of 1 month^ (conversion factor used: ppm =
2
0.035 mg S03 per 100 cm per day.
Table 2-12. AVERAGE SULFATION RATES, 1970a
(mg SOs/100 cm2-day)
Station
Keyser0
Keyserc
Keyser No. 478
McCoole No. 426
Piedmont0
Piedmont No. 423
Piedmont No. 425
Piedmont No. 466
Piedmont No. 479
Beryl No. 467
Beryl No. 427
Luke No. 476
Westernport No. 424
Winter
1.2
0.9
Spri ng
1.5
0.6
"* j
1.4
-
-
-
-
-
1.2
-
-
-
-
-
Summer*3
1.1
0.7
0.5
1.4
1.6
4.0
1.2
0.7
2.4
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.8
Fall
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Annual
1.3
0.7
-
1.5
-
-
-
-
-
-
All data rounded off where necessary.
All summer dates given for APCO stations include September.
cData supplied by West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.''
Overall, the 1970 sulfation data indicate that sulfur oxides are transported
from Luke over the ridge at Piedmont and down the river valley toward Keyser. Along
this path, areas protected by intervening ridges and prevailing valley winds ex-
perience considerably lower pollutant levels (Figure 2-5).
2-26
-------
Figure 2-5. Spatial distribution of sulfur dioxide as indicated by sulfation plate data.
2-27
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VII. EFFECTS
The major air pollutants in the Luke-Keyser area are particulate matter, sulfur
oxides, and reduced-sulfur compounds. The effects of these will be discussed in
terms of: (1) visibility reduction, (2) material damage, (3) vegetation damage,
and (4) effects on man.
VISIBILITY REDUCTION
The effects of emissions on visibility are illustrated by a photograph of the
Luke-Westernport-Piedmont area (Figure 2-1). Atmospheric conditions at the time
of the photograph prevented proper dispersion of the pollutant and water vapor
emissions, concentrating them, instead, in one of the main residential areas in the
region. The clear conditions existing north of Westernport are in striking contrast
to the conditions in the rdver valley. The frequency of such occurrences may be
greater in the summer (the time of the photograph) because of the decreased number
of low-pressure storm systems traversing the area during this season.
MATERIAL DAMAGE
Effects of pollutants on materials have been observed by exposing selected
materials to the atmosphere. This sampling program has been carried out as part of
a national attempt to determine relative effect-levels. A si Tver-tarnishing test is
used to evaluate levels of hydrogen sulfide. When exposed to air containing hydro-
gen sulfide, the silver develops a visible silver sulfide tarnish that differs from
the normal silver oxide tarnish that forms with time when silver is exposed to air.
The tarnishing rate is then determined by the decrease in reflectance after exposure.
This test has proved reliable as a qualitative measurement of hydrogen sulfide lev-
els.
Steel corrosion-rate tests provide an indicator of damage caused by the sulfur
oxides. When sample steel plates are placed in an atmosphere containing sulfur
oxides and moisture, they corrode and lose weight in proportion to the degree of
corrosion.
Color changes in a specially prepared fabric dye reflect overall air quality
because the dye is sensitive to a variety of pollutants, and loses color when it
reacts with the contaminants.
Table 2-13 summarizes the material damage data in terms of national per-
centile rank. The numbers indicate the percentage of the 200 stations in APCO'S
2-29
-------
National Effects Network that had a smaller effect than the station for which the
number is given. (The data are for 1968.)
Table 2-13. EFFECTS COMPARISON, 1968
(national percentile rank)
Test
Steel corrosion rate
Fabric color change
Silver tarnishing
Bloomington
85
49
83
Piedmont
82
45
90
Keyser
72
39
100
As the data indicate, material degradation due to hydrogen sulfide and sulfur
oxides is markedly higher in the Luke-Keyser area than in other areas monitored by
the National Effects Network. The majority of the stations in that network are in
metropolitan areas.
VEGETATION DAMAGE
This study included no quantitative vegetation surveys. A field trip report
graphically describes the obvious vegetation damage that occurs in the immediate
vicinity of the Luke pulp mill as a result of its emissions: "The conifer damage
is most severe on the mountain directly east of the Kraft pulp mill and, in fact,
a swath devoid of trees delineates the path of the mill's toxic emissions over
the past years."
EFFECTS ON MAN
No studies have been made to determine physiological effects from air
pollution in the Luke-Keyser area. Studies conducted in other metropolitan areas
indicate, however, that air pollution of the magnitude found in the study area
contributes to chronic bronchitis and respiratory damage.
The psychological effects of an odor are highly subjective. Thus the nui-
sance value of an odor depends on the attitude of the person, his disposition,
and the time of day. The influence of odors on the health and comfort of man is
difficult to prove. They may cause, however, both mental and physiological
effects such as nausea, headache, loss of sleep, and loss of appetite.
12
Perhaps more important, offensive odors can ruin community and personal
pride, discourage capital improvements, and damage a community's reputation.
Economically, they can stifle growth and development of a community. In addition,
tourists tend to shun such areas.
2-30
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VIII. REFERENCES
1. National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards and Air Pollution
and Control. Federal Register, Part Two, 36 (21): 1502. January 30, 1971.
2. The Nation's River. U. S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C. 1968.
3. 1960 Census. U. S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C.
4. 1970 Census. U. S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D. C.
5. Alkire, H. L. Air Pollution in Allegany County, Maryland. Division of Air
Quality Control, State of Maryland. Annapolis, Maryland. July 1970.
6. Abatement Procedures Presently in Use or Feasible. In: E. R. Hendrickson,
ed., Proceedings of the International Conference on Atmospheric Emissions
from Sulfate Pulping. University of Florida, Deland, Florida. April 1966.
7. Private communication from George P. Ferreri and Felipe Lebron, Division of
Air Quality Control, State of Maryland, Annapolis, Maryland. To: U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollution Control Office, Durham, North
Carolina. March 3, 1971.
8. Private communication from Steve Smallwood, West Virginia Air Pollution Com-
mission, Charleston, West Virginia. To: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Air Pollution Control Office, Durham, North Carolina. February 22, 1971.
9. State of Maryland. Regulations Governing the Control of Air Pollution in
Area I, 43P02. January 28, 1969. Baltimore, Md. Maryland State Depart-
ment of Health. 10 p.
10. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter. U. S. DHEW, PHS, National Air
Pollution Control Administration. Publication No. AP-49. Washington, D. C.
March 1970.
11. Private communication from Philip C. Zinn, West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission, Charleston, West Virginia. To: U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Air Pollution Control Office, Durham, North Carolina. December 21, 1970
12. Gordon, C. C. Damage to Christmas Trees Near Oakland, Maryland - Mt. Storm,
West Virginia. Report to U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollution
Control Office, Durham, North Carolina. November 1969.
2-31
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APPENDIX.
WESTVACO COMPLIANCE PLAN
2-33
-------
(Westvaco Letterhead)
June 25, 1970
Mr. George Ferreri, Head
Compliance Section
Division of Air Quality Control
Maryland Department of Health
2305 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218
Dear Mr. Ferreri:
The Luke, Maryland, mill of Westvaco Corporation is pleased to sub-
mit herewith its Plan for Compliance with Maryland's Air Quality Regulations.
In addition to setting forth our plans to control other emission
sources, it also includes our program for Nos. 22 and 23 boilers which will
have zero emissions of participate matter and sulfur dioxide when they are
out of service. Further details of this portion of our plan are discussed in
my letter to you of January 16, 1970.
You also may wish to refer to the letter to you from 0. B. Burns,
our Water and Air Conservation Administrator, dated March 11, 1970, which ex-
presses our confidence in the black liquor recovery system, particularly with
regard to Total Reduced Sulfur (TRS), that we intend to have in operation by
August 1972.
This letter cites the excellent results being achieved in controlling
Total Reduced Sulfur (TRS) emissions at our Charleston, S. C., operation with
similar equipment. We believe that the new No. 3 recovery furnace at Luke will
yield results comparable to those at Charleston which we feel reflect the best
efforts in the industry.
The general contract for construction of No. 3 recovery furnace has
been awarded and site preparation is expected to begin by the last of this
month. This is an $8.5 million project and includes an electrostatic precipi-
tator as well as excess capacity built in solely for air pollution control.
Our new 240,000 pound-per-hour packaged steam boiler (No. 26) is
under construction and is scheduled to be in operation by October of this year.
This boiler will be fired with one per cent sulfur fuel oil and is being built
at a cost of about $1.5 million.
Our program also indicates our confidence in the Westvaco process for
the removal of sulfur dioxide from stack gases. We are extremely pleased with
the way this development has come along and we believe it will be a real bene-
fit to the improvement of air quality not only in Maryland but across the
country.
Very truly yours,
(signed)
Arthur L. Noble
Mill Manager
2-34
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PLAN FOR COMPLIANCE WITH MARYLAND AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS
By The
LUKE, MARYLAND, MILL OF WESTVACO CORPORATION
1. The Luke mill of Westvaco, Luke, Maryland, 21562 (hereinafter referred
to as the Company), hereby submits a Plan for Compliance to bring its
operations within the requirements of Regulations Governing the Control
of Air Pollution in Area 1, promulgated pursuant to Article 43,
Section 697 of the Annotated Code of Maryland.
2. Solely for the purposes and terms of this Plan for Compliance, the
Company hereby waives any obligations which the Maryland State Depart-
ment of Health (hereinafter referred to as the Department) may have to
forward a Notice of Violation which may be required under Article 43,
Section 698 (a) as it pertains to any violation of the regulations set
out in Paragraph (1) above, caused by the operation of the installations
referred to in Paragraph 4, below.
The Company further waives those provisions of Article 43, Section
698 (b) and (c), and agrees that this Plan for Compliance as it relates
to those installations referred to in Paragraph (4) may be enforced by
the Department to the same extent as if the acts to be performed under
the Plan by the Company were ordered by the Secretary of Health and
Mental Hygiene after a hearing held pursuant to Section 698 (b) and (c)
of Article 43.
3. The Company represents that in its usual and ordinary operations, it
is unable to achieve the emission standards set out in the regulations
referred to in Paragraph (1), above.
4. The Company represents that it will conduct its operations in such a
manner that it will be in compliance with the regulations referred to
in Paragraph (1) above, by proceeding in accordance with the following
schedule:
A. A new 240,000 pound-per-hour packaged steam boiler (No. 26)
will' be installed and placed in operation by October 1970.
This boiler will be No. 6 oil-fired and will meet regulations
43P020202, 43P020301 (Figure 2), and 43P020402.
B. A new black liquor recovery boiler (No. 3) will be installed by
August 1972, and will be equipped with an electrostatic precipi-
tator control system. This new black liquor burning equipment
2-35
-------
is of such design to significantly reduce the amount of total
reduced sulfur (TRS) compounds compared to the two (No. 1 and
No. 2) existing recovery boilers. The new No. 3 recovery
boiler will meet regulations 43P020204B and 43P020303. This
stack will be monitored on a continuous basis with the objective
of complying with 43P020401.
The existing No. 22 and No. 23 boilers will be placed on emergency
standby in December 1970 after stable operation of No. 26 boiler
is achieved. The No. 22 and No. 23 boilers will be retired from
service in November 1972 after stable operation of No. 3 recovery
boiler is achieved.
The existing No. 1 and No. 2 recovery boilers will be placed on
emergency standby status in November 1972 after stable operation
of No. 3 recovery boiler is achieved.
Compliance with regulation 43P020403 (Gaseous Sulfur Compounds
from the Burning of Other Fuels) will be achieved under the
following schedule:
Parallel investigations of two (2) alternate solutions with the
provision that No. 24 and No. 25 boilers can be converted at
any time to burn No. 6 oil with a sulfur content of 1% or less
by weight in the case that Westvaco determines that neither of
the two alternate solutions under investigation proves feasible.
The two possible solutions are (1) the development and application
of the Westvaco Activated Carbon Process for the desulfurization of
flue gases; and (2) the utilization of local 1% (or less)
sulfur coal reserves and the determination of the washability of
other local coal reserves to obtain 1% (or less) sulfur content.
The investigation of these two areas will proceed as follows:
a. Westvaco Activated Carbon Process
Laboratory work will be completed by the Westvaco Research
Group by October 1970. Design, construction and operation
of 4-inch pilot unit to be completed by July 1971. Design,
construction and operation of 18-inch pilot unit to be com-
pleted by October 1972. Evaluation of pilot plant data will
be completed by April 1973.
1. If the Westvaco Process is feasible:
Immediate installation of an electrostatic precipltator
on No. 24 boiler to comply with regulations 43P020202
and 43P020301 (Figure 2). This precipitator would start
up by August 1974. Design, engineer, and construct the
2-36
-------
Westvaco Process to comply with regulation 43P020403.
This Process would start up on No. 24 boiler by October
1975 and on No. 25 boiler by October 1976.
Utilization of Local Coal Reserves
1. Continued detailed investigation through local coal
suppliers to determine:
a. The availability of low sulfur coal (1% or less)
which can be used as mined, and
b. The availability of higher sulfur coals that are
amenable to washing to an acceptable sulfur content.
This phase is to be completed by September 1971.
2. If low sulfur coal is economically available:
a. Rebuild the electrostatic precipitator on No. 25
boiler for use with low sulfur coal and compli-
ance with regulations 43P020202, 43P020301 (Figure 2)
and 43P020403. Begin work in April 1973 and complete
rebuild by June 1974.
b. Rebuild No. 24 boiler to burn low sulfur, high fusion
coal and install electrostatic precipitator for
compliance with regulations 43P020202, 43P020301
(Figure 2), and 43P020403. Complete rebuild and
precipitator by February 1975.
3. If low sulfur coal is not economically available but testing
indicates economic availability of higher sulfur content
coal which is amenable to washing to }% (or less) sulfur content:
a. Compare the economics of building and operating a Westvaco
owned coal washery with the economics of buying washed
coal from suppliers. This study will be concurrent with
part 1 above.
If neither the Westvaco Process nor the utilization of local
coal seams proves feasible, the Company will proceed with
conversion of No. 24 and No. 25 boilers to burn #6 oil with
a sulfur content of 1% or less by weight to comply with
regulations 43P020202 and 43P020301 (Figure 2). No. 24 boiler
will be converted to oil 18 months after decision. No. 25
boiler will be converted to oil 27 months after decision.
Part E of this Plan for Compliance shall be subject to annual
review by the Department on the anniversary date of its approval.
The program as described shall continue so long as it can be
demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Department that adequate
2-37
-------
progress toward achieving compliance with the air pollution
regulations in the manner set forth in this part of the Plan
for Compliance is being made.
F. The discharge of odorous gases as quantified by total reduced
sulfur compounds (TRS) will be substantially reduced by the
installation of No. 3 Recovery Boiler. Emissions from the digesters
and multiple effect evaporators are being studied. One promising
approach is a new flame incinerating device to be installed and
operated at another location. The Company is also researching
other more sophisticated control methods which are at this time
considered proprietary. On or before July 1972 the Company will
report to the Department the results of these studies and choose
a program for controlling these emissions. A completion date
for such program will be negotiated at that time.
The Company will comply with all other existing regulations governing
the control of air pollution in the State of Maryland and will not during
the term of this Plan for Compliance exceed the emission levels resulting
from its usual and ordinary operations.
The Company further represents that it will send detailed quarterly
progress reports to the Department commencing three months from the date
of approval of this Plan for Compliance.
(dated June 25, 1970) (signed)
Date Arthur L. Noble
Mill Manager
Recommendations
Approval of the foregoing Plan for Compliance is hereby recommended by the
Division of Air Quality Control, Environmental Health Services.
(dated July 9, 1970) (signed)
Date Jean J. Schueneman, Chief
Division of Air Quality Control
Environmental Health Services
Approval of the foregoing Plan for Compliance is hereby recommended by Environ-
mental Health Services.
(dated July 13, 1970) (signed)
Date Thomas D. McKewen, Director
Environmental Health Services
Dept. of Health and Mental Hygiene
2-38
-------
Approval of Plan for Compliance
Upon agreements and representations made by the Company and upon the recommen-
dations made by the above Departmental parties, the aforegoing Plan for Com-
pliance is hereby approved this 14 day of July , 1970.
(signed)
Neil Solomon, M.D., Ph.D.
Secretary of Health and Mental Hygiene
APPROVED AS TO FORM AND LEGAL SUFFICIENCY
THIS 29th DAY OF June 19 70
(signed)
SPECIAL ASSISTANT ATTORNEY GENERAL
2-39
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ro
FLOW CHART FOR THE PLAN FOR COMPLIANCE AT THE LUKE MILL OF WESTVACO CORPORATION
WESTVACO ACTIVATED CARBON
10-70
PROCESS
7-71
7-72 10-72
Complete Design, con- 1 Design, construe- pal
laboratory •- structlon, »-mon, and opera- — |of p
work by and opera- tlon of 18 Inch Iplar
research tlon of 4 pilot unit
Inch pilot
unU Review
COAL INVESTIGATIONS
Progress
9-71
Comparison of low-sulfur coal 1
utilization economics. Investl- "1
gatlons through local coal |
suppliers to determine the
availability of low-sulfur coal
and higher-sulfur coals amenable
to washing.
DIGESTER AND EVAPORATOR El
HORK IN PROGRESS
Start-up 10-7
No. 26 boiler «•)
EXISTING UNITS TO BE RETIR
ISSIONS
R
Review
Progress
7-72
.^fj
^^
eport on results of stu<
4-73
uatlon 1 Design, cons
11ot «J and economic
t data I Process on Ni
ruction, operation,
evaluation of Westvaco
. 24 boiler
8-74
Install ESP on No. 24 ,
boiler
DECISION: Mes
4-73
1
tvaco Process 1s most fe
5-74
Rebuild pred pita tor _l
on No. 5 boiler "
Rebuild No. 24 boiler for low-sulfur,
high- fusion coal and Install ESP on
No. 24 boiler
DECISION: Bu
1es
and decide on program for
control. Begin negotiations
f
)
No. 3 recovery bollei
or completion date.
Start-up 8-72
-1
ED
OR PLACED ON STANDBY STATUS | 11-7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l l 1 1
No. 22 and No. 23 boilers on *-\
emergency standby status
No. 1 and No. 2 recov
i i i l i l l 1 l I I
:ry boilers »-)
1 I 1 l l i 1 1 l l l
Retired from service
Placed on standby sta
•nlng low-sulfur coal Is
:us
III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I | ! 1 1 1 1 1
10-75
10-76
^ Design and construe- 1
tlon of Hes tvaco -J
Process on No. 25
bo1 er I
astble
2-75
-I
most feasible
l i i i i i i i i i i
*
i l i i i i i i i i
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
------- |