JT. £2.^  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
       /  OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAMS
 THE MOVEMENT AND IMPACT OF PESTICIDES USED IN FOREST MANAGEMENT
      ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT IN THE NORTHEAST

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               PESTICIDE STUDY SERIES -  7
               THE MOVEMENT  AND IMPACT OF
         PESTICIDES USED  IN FOREST MANAGEMENT
               ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
                     AND ECOSYSTEM
 This study  is the result  of Contract No.  68-01-0125
 awarded by  the OWP, as part of the Pesticides Study
(Section 5  (£)(2)  P.L. 91-224)  to Cornell  Aeronautica
                    Laboratory,  Inc.
          The  EPA Project  Officers were:

          Charles D. Reese,  Agronomist
          David L. Becker, Chemical Engineer
           ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                Office of Water Programs
             Applied Technology Division
                  Rural Wastes  Branch
                       TS-00-72-07
                       June  1972
          For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
           Washington, D.C. 20402. Price: $3.45, domestic postpaid; $3.00, GPO Bookstore

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                EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Water
Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency and
approved for publication.  Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, or
does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

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                        PREFACE







     The first volume of this report summarizes the findings,



conclusions, and recommendations of a research study conducted



during the period of 19 July 1971 to 15 January 1972.  This



study was conducted for the Environmental Protection Agency



(EPA) by the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. (CAL) under



contract No. 68-01-0125.





     Volume II, the Appendix to the final report, contains



definitive, complete and detailed treatises of the topics



summarized in this volume.  Each treatise represents the



findings of the individuals that have contributed to this study,

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                                 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS



          This Laboratory wishes to acknowledge the great x,?illingness and

cooperation extended to us by individuals of the following agencies and insti-

tutions

          New Jersey Department of Agriculture

          New York State Departments of:

               Agriculture and Markets
               Environmental Conservation
               Health

          State University of New York:

               College of Agriculture at Cornell University
               College at Buffalo
               College of Forestry at Syracuse University

          United States Forest Service

          Particular appreciation is expressed to personnel of the Bureau of

Forest Insect and Disease Control of the New  York State Department of Environmental

Conservation for excellent cooperation in providing all types of useful data and

information.

          Significant contribution and authorship to this report have been pro-

vided by J.L. Brezner, E.A. Gasiecki, R.M. Klingaman, R.L. Lapp, R.P. Leonard,

T.R. Magorian, A. Muka, R.E. Reinnagel, C.W. Rogers, R.A. Sweeney, R.L. Talley

and J.T. Wozer.  Drs. Brezner, Muka and Sweeney are from the State University

College of Forestry, College of Agriculture, and Great Lakes Laboratory at

Buffalo, respectively.  All others are members of the CAL Staff.
                                      iii              EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  0

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                                TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
                                      Title
          INTRODUCTION
     I.
    II.
   III.
    IV.
     V.
    VI.
INVENTORY OF USES
A.  Historical
B.  Inventory of Uses, 1945 to the Present
C.  Treatment Efficacy

APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
A.  Inventory
B.  Application Rate
C.  Equipment
D.  Procedures

ROUTE OF PESTICIDES INTO THE WATER ENVIRONMENT
A.'  Introduction of the Pesticide to the Forest
B.  Leaching, Overland Runoff and Sediment Transport
C.  Intentional Dumping, Accidental Spills and Container
    Disposal

IMPACT OF PESTICIDES INCLUDING METABOLITES ON THE
AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
A.  DDT and the Aquatic Environment
B.  Sevin and the Aquatic Environment
C.  Synergism in the Aquatic Ecosystem
D.  Impact on Humans

LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE SALE AND
USE OF PESTICIDES
ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL CONTROL
A.  Native Pest Infestations
B.  Non-Native Pest Infestations:
    Gypsy Moth Control
    1.  New Jersey Program
    2.  Another Alternative
                                             Integrated
   VII.    CONCLUSIONS

  VIII.    RECOMMENDATIONS
 2
 2
 4
 5

 9
 9
10
12
12

14
14
17

19
                                                                           21
                                                                           22
                                                                           27
                                                                           32
                                                                           33
35

38
38

39
39
42

44

46
                                      IV
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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                               TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section                               Title                              Page

  A-l     INVENTORY'OF USES                                              1-1
          A-l.l  Introduction                                            1-1
          A-l.2  Historical Development of Pesticide Use                 1-2
          A-l.3  Historical Summary of Pesticide Use                     1-14
          A-l,A  Pesticide Inventory - 1945 to the Present               1-16
                 A-l.4.1  Pesticide Treatment Efficacy                   1-21
          A-l.5  References                                              1-26

  A-2     APPLICATION TECHNIQUES                                         2-1
          A-2.1  Introduction                                            2-2
          A-2.2  The Distribution Process                                2-4
          A-2.3  Pesticide Application Techniques Used in
                 New York State                                          2-28
          A-2.4  References                                              2-38

  A-3     ROUTES OF PESTICIDES INTO THE WATER ENVIRONMENT                3-1
          A-3.1  Introduction                                            3-1
          A-3.2  Atmospheric Routes and Rates of Pesticide Travel        3-3
                 A-3.2.1  Evaporation of the Liquid Carrier              3-5
                 A-3.2.2  Overdosage Within Treated Area                 3-11
                 A-3.2.3  Off-Target Drift                               3-11
                 A-3.2.4  Atmospheric Contamination by Complete
                          Evaporation                                    3-14
                 A-3.2.5  Washoff of Pesticide by Rain                   3-16
                 A-3.2.6  Summary Statement Concerning
                          Atmospheric Pathways                           3-16
          A-3.3  Relevant Descriptions of New York Forest Regions        3-19
                 A-3.3.1  Topography and Soils of Forest Regions         3-19
                 A-3.3.2  Forest Types of New York                       3-28
          A-3.4  Resistence of Pesticides in Forest Soils                3-30
          A-3.5  Transport Processes in Forests                          3-35
                 A-3.5.1  Leaching                                       3-35
                 A-3.5.2  Runoff                                         3-37
                 A-3.5.3  Sediment Transport                             3-42
          A-3.6  Intentional Dumping, Accidental Spills and
                 Container Disposal                                      3-48
          A-3.7  References                                              3-51

  A-4     IMPACT OF PESTICIDES, INCLUDING METABOLITES, ON THE
          AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT AND FOREST ECOSYSTEM                       4-1
          A-4.1  Introduction                                            4-1
          A-4.2  DDT and the Aquatic Environment                         4-3
          A-4.3  Fate of Pesticides in the Forest Ecosystem              4-30
                                     V                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
Section                               Title

                 A-4.3.1  Non-biological Degradation                     4-30
                 A-4.3.2  Biological Degradation                         4-31
                 A-4.3.3  Bioconcentration and Toxicity of
                          DDT and Sevin in the Forest Environment        4-36
          A-4.4  Antagonism and Synergism                                4-41
              '   A-4.4.1  DDT                                            4-41
                 A-4.4.2  Sevin                                          4-46
          A-4.5  Impact on Humans                                        4-47
                 A-4.5.1  DDT                                            4-48
                 A-4.5.2  Sevin                                          4-58
          A-4.6  References                                              4-67

  A-5     LAWS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE USE AND SALE OF
          PESTICIDES IN NEW YORK STATE                                   5-1
          A-5.1  Current New York State Laws                             5-1
          A-5.2  Considerations in the Formation of Laws,
                 Rules and Regulations Pertaining to the Research,
                 Development, Handling and Use of Pesticides              5-10

  A-6     ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL CONTROL                               6-1
          A-6.1  Native Pest Infestations                                6-5
          A-6.2  Non-native Pests                                        6-8
                 A-6.2.1  Gypsy Moth - Porthetria Dispar                 6-9
          A-6.3  Alternative Control Methods                             6-12
                 A-6.3.1  Silvicultural Techniques                       6-12
                 A-6.3.2  Genetic Controls                               6-13
                 A-6.3.3  Behavioral Controls                            6-14
                 A-6.3.4  Direct Controls                                6-17
                 A-6.3.5  Biological Controls                            6-18
          A-6.4  Control Alternatives                                    6-31
                 A-6.4.1  New York                                       6-31
                 A-6.4.2  New Jersey                                     6-31
                 A-6.4.3  Other Alternatives                             6-36
                          (1)  Destruction of Eggs                       6-37
                          (2)  Destruction of Caterpillars               6-48
                 A-6.4.4  Control Personnel Used                         6-54
          A-6.5  Summary                                                 6-57
          A-6.6  References                                              6-59
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)
                                    VI

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                             LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure                                Title
 1.1      Early Application Methods of Forest Pesticides in
          New York State                                                 1-13
 1.2      Gypsy Moth Control Program in New York State, 1945-1971        1-22
 1.3      Treated and Defoliated Acreage on Part of Long Island,
          New York                                                       1-24
 2.1      Performance Correlation of Flat Fan Nozzles Mounted on
          Moving Aircraft by Yeo's Method                                2-14
 2.2      Performance Correlation of Flat Fan Nozzles Mounted on
          Moving Aircraft by Modified Ford and Furmidge Method           2-16
 2.3      Typical Droplet Mass Size Distributions Expected for
          D6-46 Hollow Cone Nozzle Spraying Water                        2-20
 2.4      Effect of Mass Median Diameter on Percent of Drops
          Penetrating the Foliage Canopies                               2-24
 2.5      Typical Particle Mass-size Distribution of Sevin SOS           2-34
 2.6      Spray Cutoff Near Water                                        2-37
 3.1      Natural Pesticide Routes in Closed-Canopy Forest               3-2
 3.2      Pesticide Droplet Evaporation and Drift Characteristics,
          Airborne Application                                           3-7
 3.-3      Extent of Present Forest                                       3-20
 3.4      Land Form Categories                                           3-21
 3.5      Excessive Slope                                                3-22
 3.6      Land Form Regions                                              3-24
 3.7      Characteristic Podzol Soil in Adirondacks                      3-26
 3.8      Breakdown of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
          in Soil                                                        3-33
 3.9      Typical Forest Stream Bank Cross Section                       3-43
 4.1      Disappearance of Carbaryl from Oak Leaves Aerially Sprayed
          at the Rate of 1 Ib/acre (Plot 12)                             4-17
 4.2      Disappearance of Carbaryl from Oak Leaves Aerially Sprayed
          at the Rate of 1 Ib/acre (Plot 13)                             4-17
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure                                Title                              .p.age
 4.3      Shackham Brook Study Area                                      4-23
 4.4      Insects Collected as a Percent of Population,
          Maximum, in the Test and Control Branch of Shackham
          Brook in 1966, 1967 and 1968.  Range Markings Represent
          95 Percent Confidence Intervals                                4-24A
 4.5      Concentration of Sevin in Parts Per million Versus
          Percent Mortality to Determine LC,-n of Odonata at
          18 and 24 Hours                                                4-27
 4.6      Routes of DDT Metabolism                                       4-33
 4.7      Possible Metabolic and Catabolic Products Arising
          from Degradation of Sevin                                      4-35
 6.1      Life Cycle of Gypsy Moth                                       6-9
 6.2      Parasite Exorista Segregatta Ovipositing on Gypsy
          Moth Larvae                                                    6-34
 6.3      Gypsy Moth Life Cycle and Weekly Employment for
          Gypsy Moth Control in Massachusetts                            6-55
                                     Viii               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                                LIST OF TABLES
                                      Title
          Compositional Features of the Total Quantity of
          Forest Pesticides Used in New York State, 1945 to
          1971 Inclusive                                                 1-18
2.1       Spray-Droplet Distribution on a 22-ft Douglas Fir Tree         2-26
2. II      Post-hatch Treatment, 1963 Airplane Spray Tests
          With Sevin and Stickers Against Gypsy Moth in
          New York                                                       2-30
2. Ill     Post-Hatch   Treatment, 1965 Airplane Spray Tests
          With Sevin and Stickers Against Gypsy Moth in New York         2-31
3.1       Estimates of Increased Accumulated Volume Percentage
          Due to Atomization by Air Stream as Compared to
          Still Air                                                      3-9
3. II      Correlation of Insecticide Soil Resistance with
          Water Solubility                                               3-32
4.1       Residue in Fish and Crayfish Before and After the
          Application of 0.5 Ib Technical DDT /Acre                       4-6
4. II      Gypsy Moth Egg Mass Counts, Cape Cod                           4-16
4. Ill     Apparent Sevin or Metabolites in the Tissues of
          Marine and Estuarine Organisms Collected Both Prior
          To and After the 1965 Cape Cod Gypsy Moth Spraying
          Program                                                        4-19
4. IV      Apparent Sevin or Metabolites in the Tissue of
          Freshwater Fish Collected Both Prior To and After
          the 1965 Cape Cod Gypsy Moth Spraying Program                  4-20
4.V       Lawrence Pond, Sandwich, Carbaryl (Sevin) in Water
          and Topsoil Prior to and Following Application
          for Gypsy Moth Control                                         4-21
4. VI      Residues of Pesticides in Soil Invertebrates and
          Their Environment                                              4-38
4. VII     Effect of Anticonvulsant Drugs on Body DDT Burden              4-43
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                            LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)


Table                                 Title                              La-Se
6.1       Forest Tent Caterpillar Defoliation and Conconsitant
          Pesticide Treatment                                            """-'
6.II      Known and Recorded Parasites, Hymenopterous Parasites
          of the Gypsy Moth                                              6-21
6.Ill     The Present Status of the Introduced Parasites (1911)          6-23
6. IV      Foreign Enemies of Porthetria Dispar and Nygmia
          Phaeorrhoea Liberated in North America                         6-26
6.V       Gypsy Moth Parasite Releases, State of New Jersey              6-33
6.VI      Gypsy Moth Control by Destruction of Egg Cluster               6-43
6.VII     Summary of Early Gypsy Moth Control in Massachusetts           6-56
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                                  INTRODUCTION


          New York State covers an area of about 30.7 million acres.  Of this
total, about 14.5 million acres are forested.
          This report summarizes the findings, conclusions and recommendations
relative to the use of pesticides in the forested regions of New York State,  and
the resultant impact on the aquatic environment.
          This report is organized on a chronological basis.  The scope of this
study starts with an historical sketch on the use-development of pesticides in
New York State forest management and concludes with indications as to the potential
role of pesticides in the future.  The fate of pesticides and their impact on the
aquatic environment is chronologically summarized by consecutive presentation of
what is applied, how is it applied, how it moves from the forest to the aquatic
environment and finally, the manifestations of the pesticide within the aquatic
environment.
          Accordingly, this report is presented in the following principal
sections:
          I.   Inventory of Uses
          II.  Application Techniques
          III. Route of Pesticides into the Water Environment
          IV.  Impact of Pesticides Including Metabolites on the Aquatic Environment
                                                                                 x
          V.   Applicable Laws and Regulation Governing Pesticide Use
          VI.  Alternatives Used and Degree of Control
          Section VII presents broad interim conclusions and Section VIII presents
preliminary recommendations based on this effort.
          Since the topics covered in these sections are not mutually exclusive,
some overlap necessarily exists between sections in this presentation.
                                     -1-                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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                                       I.



                                INVENTORY OF USES
          This section presents a summary of the information obtained relative




to both the historical development of forest pesticide use within New York State




and description and analysis of current pesticide use, including the quantities




and types of chemicals used, the pests toward which they were directed,  and




comments on the efficacy of these treatments.









                                 A.  Historical





          Serious outbreaks of destructive native forest pests were not  new




phenomena in New York State forests even at the turn of this century.  For




example, areas of both eastern New York and the Adirondacks were ravaged in the




late 1800's by the forest tent caterpillar and the spruce bark beetle.  As long




as pests remained in forested regions little overt control was exercised by man.




Rather, reliance was placed in natural control processes such as unfavorable




climate, pest starvation, parasites and predators.




          Early chemical control, at the start of this century, was directed




toward the protection of ornamental shade trees and a few selected stands of




forests that received high-use, such as resort areas.  Principal chemical control




materials were arsenical compounds which were used as foliar protectants.  For




sucking insects, cbntact insecticides as whale oil soap solution and kerosene




emulsions were employed.










                                      _2-                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  1)

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          In 1869 a non-native pest, the Gypsy Moth (Porthetn'.a dispar L.) was




introduced from Europe into this country in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.




This pest attacks a variety of trees and shrubs, although members of the oak




family are preferred.  Early control of a non-native pest as the Gypsy Moth is




generally not effective by natural processes due to decreased availability and




efficacy of indigenous enemies.




          In 1912, the Gypsy Moth was first found in New York State.  The initial




infestation, located in eastern New York State, was treated, as were several




other small outbreaks.  In 1923, a barrier zone was established within the




State to preclude the westward spread of this non-native pest.   Isolated infesta-




tions within this zone were also treated, using chemical control materials and




techniques developed for shade tree protection.




          The principal pesticide used against the gypsy moth in New York State




was lead arsenate.  This stomach poison had been specifically developed in 1892




for gypsy moth control, and was subsequently used in both barrier and local




infestation roles.




          During the late 1930's and early 1940's, an unfortunate alliance served




to aggravate the gypsy moth problem of New York.  This alliance included a




combination of weather conditions (1938 Hurricane) and pest outbreaks in adjacent




states which led to violation of the barrier zone; the depletion of inspection




and control personnel, due to curtailment of relief (WPA and CCC) labor, and the




(1,,*-xrea]c of World War II.  Up to the termination of World War II, somewhat less




than 400,000 pounds of lead arsenate had been applied to selected acreage that




was either infested with or threatened by the gypsy moth.
                                     _3_                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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                   B.   Inventory of Uses, 1945 to the Present


          At the conclusion of World War II a new pesticide, DDT, was experimentally


applied to 335 acres infested with Gypsy Moth in the counties of Albany,  Fulton


and Saratoga.  The results  were noted  as "spectacular" and "amazing".  The tempo

of DDT treatment to Gypsy Moth quickened so that by 1949 about 135,000 acres of


central and northern portions of the barrier zone were treated.

          In the period from 1945 to 1971, about 3.5 million pounds of pesticide


were used to control insect and disease pests in the forested lands of New York


State.  Table 1 presents compositional features of this total.

                                   Table 1

                    COMPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF THE TOTAL
                    QUANTITY OF FOREST PESTICIDES USED IN
                     NEW YORK STATE 1945-1971, INCLUSIVE
PESTICIDE TYPE
DDT (g)
CARBARYL (SEVIN)
OTHERS
TOTAL
QUANTITY
POUNDS
2,411,540
1,084,527
8,000
3,504,067
TONS
1,206
542
4
1,752
PERCENT OF
TOTAL
68.8
30.9
.3
100.0
          Of this total, 98.6% (3.46 million pounds) of all forest pesticides


were used to combat gypsy moth.  This could lead  to a  logical, but erroneous,

conclusion that this pest is the only significant pest problem in New York.


Other pests as Forest Tent Caterpillar and the Saddled Prominent have defoliated


millions of acres during the same period.   However, against such native pests,


chemicals are used only to protect high-use acreage with principal reliance

being placed on natural control processes.
 'union Carbide Corporation Trademark for carbaryl  (1-Naphthyl-N-
  Methylcarbamate).

                                     _4_                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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                             C.  Treatment Efficacy





          Figure 1 presents both the yearly allocation of pesticide, by type used




in gypsy moth control, and the annual defoliation by this pest as measured by




aerial survey.




          There are several distinguishing features of this graphical presentation.




The vast quantities of DDT used up until the late 1950's reflects the philosophy




of control by eradication.  Since that time, the concept of control and




management has prevailed.  Also, it should be noted that carbaryl (Sevin)  was




first introduced in 1959 in response to concern relative to DDT milk residue and




also due to effects of DDT in trout water areas.  Since 1966,  no DDT has been




used to control the Gypsy Moth or any other forest pest in New York State.




          Exclusive use of the bio-degradable Sevin, and the general upsurge of




Gypsy Moth, has led to speculation that this pesticide may not be effective. Casual




observation of Figure 1, where the great increase in acres defoliated is visually




"correlated" with the use of Sevin, suggests an aura of reasonableness to this




concern.  Detailed examination of hard data, however, demonstrates that such an




assertion is not only oversimplifying but is, in large measure, incorrect.




          Much of the defoliated acreage has been defoliated because it has not




been treated.  New York State treatment policy provides guidelines that (1) the




infected acreage should be at least 50 acres in size (2) should exhibit at least




500 egg-masses per acre at the plot center, and (3) signed landowner consent must




be obtained.  These policy factors, coupled with manpower limitations and the




abandonment of an eradication philosophy, are significant causative elements in




the upward trend of woodland defoliation by Gypsy Moth.
                                      -5-                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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                                                         TREATED ACREAGE -- GYPSY MOTH

                                                                NEW YORK STATE
       ACRES TREATED EACH YEAR WITH DDT AMD/OR Sf.VIN
2BOO



2700
o
o
o
I-

<
UJ
UJ
oc
   400
   300
   200
   100
                            I
                      YEAR OF TREATMENT
Y t A 1 {
I'M',
1946
I'll/
I9i)8
191'J
190U
19M
VJ02
1353
1904
190!)
1956
1057
1908
1909
1900
1961
1962
1963
1964
1960
1906
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
TOTALS
AC HIS tlUT
330
26.131
O4.'<14
73.320
134.370
14C.200
121.648
149.700
122.652
87.742
194.376
440.202
2.774,417
2.040
894
11.282
00.112
146.008
144,608
31.500
13.486






4.747.675
AC1KS StVIN














76.336
8.282
160
300
59.037
32.865
99.969
218.123
41 458
100.454
57.652
120.664
250.700
1.066.050
TOTAI
3.V.
2t, / I'l
64 'I''.
7 1 C'U
134 .1711
146.2(10
121.643
149.700
122.602
87.742
194,376
446 202
2.774.417
2.040
77.230
19.564
55.272
146.30?
203.090
64,365
113.400
218,123
41.456
100 404
57.602
120664
250 '50
5.813.725
                                                  GYPSY MOTH DEFOLIATION IN NEW YORK STATE
                ACRES DEFOLIATED EACH YEAR
o
o
o
   400
J5  300

Q
UJ
H
_l

O
cfl
UJ

t£
   200
   150
   100
    50
       DATA

        NOT      NOT

      OBTAINED  NOTED
                           NONE
                                •.
                   YEAR OF DEFOLIATION
YEAR
1910
1946
1947
1948
19.19
1900
1901
1952
1953
1904
1900
1906
1907
1908
1909
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1960
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
19/1
1(11 AL
ACHES
DATA NOT OBTAINED




i '
675
NOT NOTED

y
10.559
6.649
858
0
1.605
16.490
31.330
61.342
22.600
97.237
148.366
34.655
46.160
47.525
121 t.10
416,2/0
4/9 ISO
1.543.U86
  Figure 1    GYPSY MOTH CONTROL PROGRAM IN NEW YORK STATE,  1945-1971


                                         -6-                      EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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          Figure 2 qualitatively illustrates some of these points.  This area




of Long Island was aerially treated with a water-borne formulation of Sevin at




a rate of 1 pound (active) per acre.  Most acreage defoliated was not treated.




Most of the treated acreage was not defoliated.  However, it should be noted




that some defoliation (not severe) did occur within the treated blocks that




were adjacent to untreated woodland.  This was due to reinfection due to airborne




larvae dispersal from adjacent untrc ted regions.  Experience in the past with DDT




indicates that in similar circumstances, the chemical persistence of the pesticide




would have controlled this reinfection, whereas the greatly decreased chemical




persistence of carbaryl does not permit extended protection against the re-




infection threat.
                                     -7-                 EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. I)

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              SPRAY AREA
             (1150 ACRES)
                                                       DENOTES 1971 DEFOLIATION
                      COURTESY: NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Figure 2   TREATED AND DEFOLIATED ACREAGE ON PART OF LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK

                                      _8_            EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.1)

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                                       II.
                             APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
                                  A.  Inventory

          In New York State pesticides for gypsy moth control are applied by
spraying selected forested areas, which through annual egg-mass count surveys
(conducted during the fall or winter by personnel of the state Bureau of Forest
Insect and Disease Control) are known to have high levels of gypsy moth in-
festations.  Only about one-fourth of the forested areas in New York are under
state jurisdiction, and it is state policy to obtain written consent from
landowners before spraying privately owned property.  Most of the spraying is
done by state owned or state-contracted aircraft, both to achieve timeliness of
pesticide application and to permit treatment of large areas, often having limited
overland accessibility.  Of the total 5.8 million acres which have been treated
since 1945 about 99% has been treated by airborne application, using both fixed
wing and helicopter aircraft and component boom and nozzle technique.  The
remaining one percent has been treated using ground based equipment - vehicle-
mounted or man-portable mist blowers.  Ground-based spraying is carried out
chiefly in suburban and recreational areas, where a greater degree of spatial
control of pesticide application must be exercised.
          The gypsy moth is currently attacked via droplets of pesticide spray
impacted and retained on leaf surfaces.  During the caterpillar or larval stage
of its life cycle, which occurs in May and June, the gypsy moth is a voracious
leaf-eater, and the pesticide acts as an intestinal poison, following leaf
ingestion.
                                     ~9~                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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                              B.   Application Rate





          The pesticide used in all the early aerial  spray work was DDT dissolved




in oil.  It was initially applied at a rate of 1  pound  in 1 gallon per acre and




later reduced to half this concentration.   In 1959 carbaryl (Sevin), a less




persistent pesticide, was found to be highly toxic to gypsy moth and its use




soon became extensive; it completely replaced DDT by  1966.   The first tests and




early work with carbaryl used a formulation of 1  pound  active  carbaryl (1.2 Ib.




of 85% Sevin) plus 4 ounces of sticker in  1 gallon of No.  2 fuel oil.   Adequate




gypsy moth control was obtained where this formulation  was  applied in aerial




sprays of 175 microns volume median diameter at a rate  of  1 pound carbaryl  per




acre.  Half this rate did not give sufficient control.   Similar oil-based




formulations including Sevin-4-Flowable have and  are  still  used to some extent




outside New York State.  Because of objectionable slick formation with the  oil-




based formulas, water-based spray was tested.  It was determined that  water-based




sprays gave adequate control when applied  by air  at rates  of 0.5 and 1 pound




active carbaryl per acre.  Curiously, in New York State essentially the same




formulation is now used, consisting of 1.25 pounds Sevin SOS and 4.0 ounces of




Pinolene 1182 sticker in sufficient water  to make 1 gallon, and it is  applied at




a rate of 1 pound active carbaryl per acre - twice the  rate shown to be required.




Simple mental calculations thus reveal that at an application  rate of 0.5 pound




carbaryl per acre, twice the total area could be  treated with  the same total




amount of pesticide, or alternately, the same area with half the total amount.




For mist blower operations the application rate is about 10 to 15 pounds active




carbaryl per acre.
                                     -10-                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  T)

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          In all the known work on gypsy moth toxicity, there is a notable lack




of diet-based dose-response data.  The effectiveness of carbaryl sprays and amounts




required per acre have essentially been established in the field for particular




modes of spray operation and pest attack.  The shortcomings of this approach be-




come apparent when one attempts to examine alternate spray operations and




attack modes.  In addition, dose-response data for topical application of




carbaryl and several other pesticides against gypsy moth larvae have only




recently been determined.  The contact effectiveness of carbaryl was implicit,




however, in the work of Connola in which carbaryl was applied on infested areas




prior to egg hatch.  Unfortunately, topical application and contact effectiveness




are not necessarily equivalent.  For example, it has been observed that for the




first instar of Pieris larvae on cotton the median lethal dose due solely to




pickup is particle size dependent.  A similar effect has been observed in the case




of bark beatles.  Whether such an effect exists for gypsy moth in its first instar




stage is not known, but if so, it would offer an alternate approach to the current




use of deposited droplets on foliage.  By utilizing a combination of diet and




contact response the timing of spray application could become much less critical.




In a trial conducted in early May 1962 in New York State, Sevin was applied at a




rate of 0.5 pound per acre with sticker, before foliation and before hatching of




the Gypsy Moth larvae.  Good control was achieved, presumably through pickup of




Sevin by the emerging larvae in their travel to the emerging foliage.
                                      -11-                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.. I)

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                                  C.   Equipment


          The aircraft and dispensing equipment used in New York State are

conventional.   The Stearman biplane and some of the more recent fixed wing

agricultural aircraft types have been employed for small plot spray work.  The

bulk of the spray operations, however, are now carried out using the Grumman TBM

and helicopters.  Typical nozzle and boom arrangements for low volume spraying

are used.  Spraying specifications call for use of Spraying Systems Company

diaphragm type quick acting on/off valves together with D8-45 hollow cone nozzle

discs and cores.  Various other nozzle types have been used including the flat

fan tips 8002E-8004E and the hollow cone combinations  D6-46,D7-56,  D8-56 and

D10-25.  Available information indicates that water-formulated spray drops pro-

duced at the aircraft using these nozzle types have volume mean diameters (VMD)

in the range of 200 to 500 microns.  Spray uniformity  is checked prior to the spray

season using an array of horizontal ground impaction cards covering the full width
                                                I
of the spray swath.  Flow rate is calibrated simultaneously.   Spray droplet

diameters are estimated by state personnel to be in the range of 150 to 200 microns

VMD upon impaction on forest foliage.  Aircraft operating conditions are typically

80 to 100 mph at 75 feet above the foliar level.



                                  D.   Procedures


          The doctrine and definitive procedures for forest spraying operations

are set forth in the Gypsy Moth Control Manual distributed by the New York State

Department of Environmental Conservation.  This manual is closely followed in all

aerial and ground spraying operations conducted by the state, and appears to give

quite adequate coverage of operational matters.  In particular, strict rules are

enforced relating to the following:
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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     1.   No spraying is to

be done over water or open

land or residential areas

(see Figure 3).

     2.   The minimum

acerage to be  sprayed by

air is a 50 acre plot.

     3.   Forest areas  to

be sprayed only include

those  where ground surveys

indicate a total egg-mass

count  of 500 or more per a

acre.  Records are kept of

all spraying operations.

     4.   Notification  is

given  to local residents

regarding spray operations

and what to expect.

     5.   Proper meteoro-

logical conditions must be met  or  spraying operations are  terminated.  In

order  to meet  near-zero-wind, high relative humidity, and  temperature con-

ditions to minimize drift, most spraying  is done  in early  morning or late

evening.
        COURTESY:  NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF
                 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Figure 3   SPRAY CUTOFF NEAR WATER
  -13-
                      EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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                                      III.



                 ROUTE OF PESTICIDES INTO THE WATER ENVIRONMENT
          The  routes or pathways by which pesticides used in forest management




 can  reach the  aquatic environment include overland drainage, soil erosion and




 sedimentation,  atmospheric transport, intentional dumping, accidental spills




 and  disposal of "empty" pesticide containers.  These general pathways have been




 considered  according to the character of the control of prevailing processes.  The




 first  three are controlled by natural processes; the latter three are overtly




 controlled  by  man.




          Pathways by which pesticides applied to forests may reach aquatic




 environments by natural processes are shown schematically in Figure 4.  Estimates




 of the magnitude of movement of the two principal pesticides used in large scale




 aerial spraying of New York forests (i.e., DDT and carbaryl) are shown.   These




 estimates are  based on a dosage of one pound insecticide per acre as it is




 released from  the aircraft, which is the normal application mode in New York




 State.  There  have been few studies on the fate and movement of pesticides in




 forested areas  of New York.  Consequently, inferences have been made from studies




 on the forested areas of the United States and Canada and from nonfores ted areas




 where  applicable.









                 A.  Introduction of the Pesticide to the Forpst





          Aircraft are used to apply almost all of the pesticides used in New




York State  forests.  Generally, the aircraft fly 50 feet to 100 feet above the







                                     -14-                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  i

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                     AERIAL APPLICATION
                         OF PESTICIDE
                                               SMALL
                                            EVAPORATION
                                                LOSS
  SMALL UNDER
  NEW YORK
  REGULATIONS
 APPROX.
   50%
FIELD TESTS
IMPACTION
ON
FOREST FLOOR


                                           LITTER
                                           SURFACE
                                         ADSORPTION
                                 <5 PPB
                                 AT N.Y.
                                 RATE FOR
                                 3% BOGS
                                 & SWAMPS
    LARGE
    CAPACITY
                                        <0.1 PPM
                                          CARBARYL
                                        <1 PPB DDT
           <0.01% OF
           SOIL/YEAR
                                         STREAM FLOW
                             t^^f-~3f£#KsL*j%3
                     LAKES AND RIVERS
                                               0.1 PPM CARBARYL
-------
forest canopy at speeds of 80 inph to 100 mph.   The formulated insecticide is




distributed from the aircraft from boom and nozzle systems operating at a pumping




pressure of about 60 psi.   Particle size at the aircraft varies between, typically,




200 to 500 microns VMD, although the particle  size distribution is unknown.




Carbaryl is presently used in this State as a  water formulation whereas DDT  was




applied as an oil-formulated material.




          The aerial spraying operation and the atmospheric conditions under




which this operation is conducted are basically characterized as a diffusing




system which operates to decrease the atmospheric concentration of the pesticide.




Under standard operating procedures, a helicopter system releases a 30 foot  wide




spray swath which spreads to a 250 foot swath  at canopy level.   Operationally,




the aircraft paths are spaced so that overlap  at the canopy is  minimized.




Outside of inadvertent and accidental overlap, there is no reason to believe




that the pesticide dosage at the canopy will exceed the nominal application  rate.




          Potentially, wind in and above the forest canopy can  cause the pesti-




cide spray to drift off-target.  In a given light wind small spray droplets




have much greater tendency to drift than large ones.  There are two ways that




small droplets can be produced when spraying the carbaryl-water mixture:  first




by the nozzle and airstream atomization of spray initially produced at the




aircraft and second, by evaporation of the volatile carrier liquid before the




droplets reach the forest canopy.  Results from basic atomization studies  indicate




that for the nozzle types and aircraft flight  speeds used, the  mass-fraction of




spray droplets with sizes sufficiently small to permit significant drift under




typical operating conditions is completely negligible.  Evaporative size reduction,




on the other hand, is not necessarily negligible and the potential for pesticide




drift exists.




                                     ~16~                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. ])

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          While in principle off-target drift can exist, in practice, drift is




minimized by rigorous adherence to a policy of,sprayIng only under a selected




set of operational and meteorological conditions.  Spraying operations are




carried out in the early morning hours, starting at sunrise, when prevailing




atmospheric conditions minimize evaporation.  Winds must be less than 8 mph.




Ambient temperatures must not be over 70°F, to avoid significant convectional




air currents.  Material is released only from very low altitude to enhance con-




trollability over the impact zone.  To insure that existing conditions actually




result in suitable deposition on target, without drift, a single spray swath is




made and observed before beginning operations.  Follow-up observations are




continued while spraying is underway.  Any significant off-target drift is




visually detectable and spray operations at the time of occurrence are adjusted




accordingly to minimize this effect - including terminating operations if




necessary.









              B.  Leaching, Overland Runoff and Sediment Transport





          Once the pesticide has reached the forest floor, either at the




time of application or due to subsequent wash-off from the foliage, the relative




importance of the transport processes are as follows.




          In New York forested areas, the thickness of organic litter and humus




layers generally ranges from 2 to 4 inches.  The forest floor is a living organic




filter, capable of absorbing surprisingly large amounts of a variety of contaminants,




including pesticides.  Available evidence indicates that very little of the




applied pesticides would ever pass through these organic forest layers.  As a




result, the possibility of ground water contamination by leaching of pesticides




from the organic litter is extremely remote.




                                     -17-              RQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  T)

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          Overland water runoff is unusual under a mature, canopy forest.  The




runoff which appears in surface stream channels several hours after each heavy




rain consists almost entirely of interflow, the excess rainwater which seeps into




streams from saturated soil.




          Review of the literature reveals no studies on the DDT content of




overland water runoff from forested watersheds.  This is probably due to the rarity




of overland runoff from forested watersheds.   As an extreme example,  calculations




show that for an area with as much as 3% of land area covered with standing water




approximately 1 foot deep, direct spraying with carbaryl at 1 pound per acre will




add 5 ppb to the runoff water.  Even on non-forested watersheds  containing the




same soil type as commonly found in the Catskill forest region of New York (Muskingum




or Dekalb silt loam), accumulated runoff water was normally found to  contain less




than 0.1% of applied chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides 12 or more months after




application.   The chances of carbaryl entering streams before overland water




flow are far less than for DDT because of rapid degradation before and during




transport.




          Slopewash or particulate erosion of soil by overland flow under




temperate forests such as exist in New York State is negligible.   The suspended




sediment of forest floods originates in the caving and slumping  of undercut stream




banks as well as roads and other slope disturbances.  Thus, although  studies have




shown that sediment transport of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides is much more




likely than is significant leaching into overland runoff, both are usually of




little import in forested areas.  However, the sudden movement of pesticide-laden




sediments from an eroding clear cut or burned over forest could  conceivably introduce




large amounts of persistent and accumulated insecticides such as DDT  to drainage








                                     -18-                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

-------
networks, since once the tree cover is removed by lumbering or fire, rainwash




erosion of litter and topsoil is rapid.  Again, the danger from the nonpersistent




carbaryl would be far less.  Although mountains such as the Catskills are eroding




much more rapidly than sandy flats like Long Island, and although both areas




have been extensively treated, sediments which reach streams from either area




unde..- forest cover are not likely to contain significant amounts of pesticide




residues.




          The evidence indicates that there is little threat of serious




contamination to streams and lakes in forested regions from pesticide transport




by leaching, overland water runoff or sediment losses, when the chemical is




applied by aircraft at 1 pound per acre and under an operational policy that land




adjacent to water is not treated.  However, this potential risk may increase if




the pesticide is applied to selective acreage by a truck-mounted mist-blower.




In this case the pesticide application rate is higher due to,the practice of




treating both leaf surfaces "to-drip," the output particle size smaller, and area




may be treated more than once to protect against reinfection from adjacent areas.




Drainage ditches are likely to exist along roadsides and recreational parklands




in which pest control may be desired.  Such ditches lead runoff directly into




permanent streams.  Therefore, it is not difficult to surmise that relatively high




pesticide concentrations in these ditches potentially could be flushed into streams




or lakes before the pesticide has been degraded.









        C.  Intentional Dumping, Accidental Spills and Container Disposal





          Overt introduction by man of pesticides into the aquatic environ-




ment is distinctly possible, although intentional pesticide dumping is illegal in








                                      -19-               VQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

-------
New York State.  Cursory examination of records does not indicate any problem in




either dumping or accidental spills.  It should be emphasized that most forested




land is under the direct control and supervision of career foresters, who strictly




adhere to operational regulations.  If this were not the case,  the occurrence




of this type of action could be much greater.




          In keeping with centralization of control, pesticide  containers are




maintained at the mixing station and disposed of in designated  and proper sanitary




landfill areas.  In aerial applications, should the pilot require the rapid




discharge of pesticides, he is procedurally obligated to do so  away from open




water.  Therefore, the relative importance of these factors is  low due to the




centralized procedures and policies of those State trained personnel conducting




the forest pesticide operation.
                                      -20-                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. I)

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                                       IV.


      IMPACT OF PESTICIDES INCLUDING METABOLITES ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
          By virtue of the array of biological species habitating the aquatic


environment, and the broad range of effects of pesticides on those species, the


comments provided in the paragraphs below are necessarily quite diverse.


          There are several mechanisms through which DDT and Sevin could  adversely

                                                                /
impact aquatic life.  Perhaps the most obvious is that of direct kill, such as


the death of all the fish in a pond due to DDT.  This ultimately depends  on


not only the rate of application and the impacted species, but also the


DDT formulation.  For example, most investigators have found DDT emulsions


to be more toxic to non-target organisms than DDT applied in oil or as a


suspension.  More subtle disruptions result when only some of the organisms


in a lake or stream are destroyed by a pesticide.  If the biota that was  killed


was the food for other animals, the latter also may die.  Since this process


could occur at a slow rate, or be manifest in an obscure fashion, it could go


unnoticed for some time.


          If the predators and/or competitors of one or more species are


eliminated or significantly reduced, the "balance of nature" may be upset.  For


example, if a sizable quantity of the zooplankton in a pond are poisoned  by Sevin


the phytoplankton, whose numbers are controlled ordinarily by the zooplankton,


may increase substantially.  Following such an algal population explosion or


"bloom," the algae may poison themselves in their own metabolites.  When  the


dead algae decay, the oxygen in the water may decrease and cause the death of


other aerobic forms.



                                     ~21~                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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          Even more difficult to trace and evaluate is the movement of pesticides,




such as DDT, through the aquatic food-web.  Unfortunately, very little information




is known regarding the trophic relationships of aquatic organisms.  It has been




observed that these "who eats who" interactions may change significantly with




seasons.  Within a season, feeding habits may be affected by inumerable chemical,




physical and biological factors.  Other complicating factors are up-take and




metabolism, each of which are influenced by a myriad of known and unknown




conditions.  For example, DDT may be passed within a food-web in the form of




DDT, DDE, DDD and/or several other metabolites.  These chemicals vary considerably




in their ability to induce toxicity and other metabolic disruptions.




          Still another point that cannot be overlooked is the fact that despite




its widespread use since 1942, the biological liaison (location and bio-chemical




mechanism of action) of DDT is not understood.




          Keeping the above problems in mind, a review of the impact of DDT and




Sevin on aquatic environments nevertheless is of value in the formulation of




regulations regarding the employment of these insecticides in forest management.









                       A.  DDT and the Aquatic Environment





          DDT has a low volatility and is not normally decomposed by sunlight or




other naturally occurring chemical and physical mechanisms.




          As a result, it is one of the most persistent agricultural chemicals




in the environment.   Though extremely low in solubility in water (less  than 1




ppb), DDT is readily adsorbed onto organic matter.   Hence, this pesticide tends




to remain concentrated in the upper level of forest soils, with the potential




that it can be carried,  at any time, to streams and lakes via soil erosion.








                                     ~22~                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. i

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Detritus is believed to be a significant source of introduction of DDT into aquatic




food-webs.  In fact, the adsorption of DDT on suspended organic matter was sited as




a means of controlling black-fly larvae.




          Hence, the quantity and quality of suspended material in aquatic habi-




tats that may be contaminated by DDT should be considered prior to the application




of this pesticide.




          Another relevant property of DDT is the fact that it accumulates in




lipid  tissues.  It has been  demonstrated that DDT and its metabolites were




persistent in some fish up to two years following a single exposure to this




insecticide.  In this manner, it may be concentrated and passed-on through the




food-web in ever increasing concentrations (bio-magnification).




          There have been few attempts to trace the movement of DDT in natural




aquatic habitats.  In 1967 the level of DDT in stream ecosystems before and after




the application of DDT to 104,000 acres of Pennsylvania forest (oak-maple) to




control fall cankerworm was investigated.  A quantity of 0.5 Ibs. technical grade




DDT per acre formulated in a mixture of naphtha and fuel oil was applied from a




plane  traveling at 165 mph, 100 feet above the treetops.  While after a month the




DDT content of stream sediment increased by a few parts per billion, residues in




brook  trout were 20 to 100 times higher.  White suckers also exhibited substantial




increases in insecticide content.  Concentrations in crayfish also increased but




to a lesser extent.  Between 30 and 122 days following application of the insecti-




cide,  residues decreased to near pre-application levels.




          Algae and other water plants can concentrate DDT and thereby pass this




insecticide up the aquatic food-web.  For example, several varieties of freshwater




algae  concentrated DDT between 99 and 964-fold following a 7 day exposure to








                                     _23_                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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water initially containing 1.0 ppm DDT.   Bacteria and fungi can accumulate 40 to




100 percent of the DDT from the media in which they are cultured.  Similar




observations have been made with marine  species.   Non-living algae and other plants




also will concentrate DDT.




          There have been innumerable studies regarding the impact of DDT on stream




insects.  While the above studies differ considerably with respect to rates,




method, formula and time of application  of the insecticide, some general con-




clusions can be drawn.  DDT produced marked reductions in the quality and quantity




of stream insects.  In streams, some species were destroyed more than others.




However, in other areas the reverse may  have been true.  If no DDT was applied,




normally present taxa repopulated the stream in two to three years.  This




is believed due to the fact that insect  eggs, which frequently have a thick "shell,"




are less adversely affected by DDT than  are larvae or the adults.   Very slight




return of the "natural" stream fauna was observed where spraying took place on




an annual basis.  Recovery of individual species  was proportional to "normal"




reproductive capacities.  Contaminated and drifting insects represent a significant




potential source of DDT uptake by fish,  many of which feed on those paralyzed




invertebrates.  Insects sprayed with oil-formulated DDT were more susceptible




than those insects that had come into contact with DDT in suspension.  Likewise,




some insect mortality, particularly downstream, was related to their eating of




attached plants that had accumulated DDT.




          Numerous instances of fish kills following the application of DDT




to control insects have been reported.  There have been many more cases where




more than one pesticide was applied to an area prior to a fish kill.  In such




an instance, it is virtually impossible  to determine if DDT was the most signi-




ficant factor which induced death of the fish.




                                     -24-               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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          Temperature appears to be an important factor which influences DDT



toxicity.  For example, DDT toxicity to rainbow trout and bluegills increased



below 13°C and above 18.5° to 23°C.



          Turbidity may also influence the toxicity of DDT.  Organic particles



in suspension may remove DDT from water.  However, the DDT may re-enter an



aquatic  food-web if the organic matter is eaten by bottom organisms.  Hence,



suspended material could decrease acute toxicity and simultaneously increase



chronic  toxicity of this insecticide.



          Generally speaking, within a given species, younger and smaller specimens



are more susceptible to DDT poisoning than are older and larger fish.  This may be



related  to the fact that the latter have more lipid  tissue in which the DDT can



be dispersed.



          The negative impact of DDT on fish eggs and fly eggs can be significant.



After a  fish initially hatches, it is almost entirely dependent on the yolk



sac for  its initial source of food.  As the contents of the yolk sac are



consumed, the DDT in the remaining lipid  in the sac becomes more concentrated.



During the last stage of yolk sac absorption, mortality among the fry of numerous



species  has been observed.  The eggs may be a vehicle through which DDT is



passed to offspring.  This may result in significant decline in the population



of some  species, such as trout.  In fact, this was believed to be the prime



factor in the destruction of the lake trout fishery in Lake George, New York.
                                     1


          One recent, and perhaps biologically significant finding, was the



discovery of DDT-resistant fish and frogs.  These organisms can accumulate



sufficient DDT to pose a threat to higher organism, including man, if consumed.
                                     -25-             EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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          The literature on the degradation of  DDT  is  vast.   Several excellent




reviews are available to delineate pathways and products.   In general,  the




pathways seem to be species-specific precluding the assumptions  of general




biological degradation.   Very little work has been  done  on other than labo-




ratory reared animals, plants and bacteria. With species-dependent reactions




it is difficult to apply findings from domestic and laboratory cultures to the




environment.  This can be illustrated by pointing out  that one of the principal




metabolites in man is DDE, whereas in monkeys this  metabolite has not yet been




demonstrated.  Biological degradation of DDT yields five principal products.




These include DDA, ODD,  DDE, Diochlorobenzophenone  and kelthane.   Ring  cleavage




has been demonstrated by a variety of microorganisms inhabiting  the soil.  In




DDT-resistant insects the principal product appears to be  a DDE  resulting from




an enzyme which has received a great deal of attention,  DDT dehydrochlorinase.




Although selected insects have demonstrated DDA and kelthane,  these have not  been




reported with great frequency or for many species.




          Many of these degradation products do possess  insecticidal activity,




as for example, DDD and kelthane.  Others, while showing little  acute toxicity,




have been implicated in vertebrate steriod metabolic upset.   DDE has been




implicated in calcium upset for several species of  birds and has been identified




as the agent responsible for the "thin eggshell syndrome".   It is interesting to




note that even this effect is not uniform among avian  populations.   Whereas




some birds do show reduced eggshell thickness in the presence of DDE, other birds




show an increase in shell thickness with the same compound.   These factors




demonstrate once again that generalizations and attempts at deriving information




from other species is a dangerous exercise.







                                     _26-                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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          Because of the long term persistence of DDT or its breakdown products




in forest soils (amounting to greater than 10 years), long term effects on soil




dwelling organisms and food chains must be considered.  Studies have shown that




DDT does accumulate in skiders, earthworms and other forest soil organisms to




the expent or greater than residual soil concentrations.  It has further been




shown that robins and other birds feeding on forest soil organisms accumulate




DDT residues to even greater concentrations than present in soil organisms.









                      B.  Sevin and the Aquatic Environment





          The impact of this pesticide was not investigated in the field to  any




degree until 1959, and there is considerably less information regarding its




effects on non-target organisms in comparison with the voluminous literature




concerning DDT.  In comparison with DDT, Sevin readily dissolves in water (40mg/l




at 20°C).  It is reported that Sevin, at concentrations above 0.1 ppm, is




toxic to most algae.  However, it has been further noted that there is only  a




16.8% decrease in carbon fixation by a natural population of phytoplankton following




a four (4) hour exposure to 1.0 ppm of DDT.




          While reports prior to 1959 indicated that  Sevin was highly toxic to




bees, there was no information available on its effects on aquatic insects,  until




Burdick and co-workers demonstrated a detrimental impact on stream insects.   They




applied an unspecified quantity of Sevin (95T) in fuel oil to a 75,000 acre




area near Oneonta, New York.  The study area included two streams.  The spraying




did not result in any direct toxic impact on fish, which will be discussed later,




but did reduce the stream insects by 50.7 to 97.2 percent.  Mayflies, stoneflies,




and caddisflies particularly were killed.  He states:  "Sevin should not be  used




where spray can fall on flowing streams....".




                                     -27-                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. I)

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          This study, however, was the result of direct application to the




experimental stream, and used a hydrocarbon carrier.




          Coutant made similar observations of insect kill in Pennsylvania




streams "in spite of precautions against direct spraying of open water,  washing




spray equipment in the stream, and other 'misuses'  often blamed for kills.




          It must be clear, however, that it is standard procedure for New York




State operations for spray aircraft to shut down when crossing or adjacent to




aquatic sites.  In two comprehensive studies dealing with impact on the  aquatic




biome, spray operation was routine, i.e., standard  State procedures v?ere followed




for insecticide application.  No pesticide was applied directly to any water.




In each study, Sevin was aerially applied at one pound per acre as a water




suspension.  One study at the College of Forestry at Syracuse University,




completed in 1969, was of three years duration.  One year was devoted to prespray




evaluation of chemical levels and stream invertebrate populations, followed by




similar evaluation in two post-spray years, including analysis of a control




stream.  As can be seen from graphic presentations,  (Figure 5), no population




changes due to spray operations can be detected; the control and prespray




population fluctuations within limits defined by environmental conditions




(summer drought in 1966, etc.).  In addition, no changes in species composition




were noted.  The conclusions from this study were that carbaryl is of an




innocuous nature to the aquatic habitat, so long as  standard State operational




procedures were used.




          A study of similar scope in Massachusetts, completed in 1966,  followed




routine spray operations of the previous year.  Tompkins, in that report,




indicated that:   "Drift collections on the water surfaces of a pond whose








                                     -28-                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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               YEAR 1  (1936):  PRESPRAY
                                                       YEAR 2 (1967):  POSTSPRAY
                                                                                                  YEAR 3 (1968): POSTSPRAY
I
o
I J
 I
l-o
    I
    N3 o so
                       TIME [MONTHS)
                                                  80
                                                                             = TEST

                                                                             < CONTROL
                                                                TIME (MONTHS)
                                                                                                          TIME (MONTHS)
             Figure 5
                                       COURTESY:   D.R. FELLEY, UNPUBLISHED PH.D. THESIS, THE EFFECT OF SEVIM
                                                  (1-NAPHTHYL N-METHYL CARBAMATE) AS A WATERSHED
                                                  POLLUTANT, 1970, STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FORESTRY
                                                  AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, NEW YORK.
INSECTS COLLECTED AS A PERCENT OF POPULATION, MAXIMUM, IN THE TEST AND CONTROL
BRANCH OF SHACKAM  BROOK IN  1966, 1367 AND 1968.  RANGE MARKINGS REPRESENT
95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE INTERVALS.

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entire periphery was sprayed indicated that such drift, under conditions




prevailing at the time of application, were negligible."




          Reduction of the insect crop could have a negative effect on the




fish which feed upon these invertebrates.   However, no information has been




generated to support this premise.  Likewise, no data were found regarding




recovery of the insect population with time.




          Sevin has been found to be extremely toxic to crayfish,  crabs and




shrimps, and Daphnia, a waterflea.




          Concerning fish, it is reported  that 28 ppm technical Sevin in oil




resulted in a 48 hour LD   for goldfish.   A 50 percent wettable powder formulation




had an LD   of 14 ppm.  Values from other  laboratory studies ranged from 1.75 to




13.0 ppm.  Sevin has been found to be less toxic to fingerling brown trout in




soft, acidic water rather than in hard, alkaline water, this was attributed to




an interaction between Sevin and the components of water rather than a physio-




logical reaction of the fish to a water condition.




          Further, Sevin toxicity to fish  increases with increasing temperature.




However, its rate of decay to 1-naphthol via hydrolysis also increases with




temperature and sunlight.  While Sevin is  more toxic to crustaceans than to fish




and mollusks, the reverse is true for its  metabolite.




          The metabolite picture of Sevin  has also been examined intensively.




At least eleven metabolites have been identified and many other hypothesized




from a variety of organisms.  Many mammals demonstrate hydrolytic reactions with




naphthol as a principal product.  The original insecticide or its  metabolic




products may then be conjugated to form glucuronides or sulfates for subsequent




kidney excretions.  Unpublished work at the College of Forestry has demonstrated




Sevin may also be used as a carbon source  by many sludge bacterial.




                                     -30-                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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          In general, major routes of metabolic degradation of Sevin include




decarbamylation, ring hydroxylation, and cleavage of the C-O-N bonds.  This




pesticide may be degraded by plants almost as rapidly as by animals with a host




of additional products.




          While the metabolism of Sevin has been extensively studied with respect




to terrestrial plants and animals, no literature was found regarding the break-




down of this insecticide by aquatic forms.  However, it has been observed that




Sevin persists longer in soil water than in lake water.




          In the Massachusetts study, residues of the pesticide Sevin in fresh




water and estuarine organisms were negligible, with residues literally non-




existent one month post spray.  No further tests were run.  Population




estimates demonstrated that "...Sevin has no immediate effect on the fish and




shellfish populations therein.", and further, "no fish mortality could possibly




occur under normal operation conditions,...".  Another contributor to this




study, Boschetti, examined the effect of spraying operations on a small isolated




pond.  Insignificant residues of Sevin were found.  No effect was noted on the




pond algae and the author concluded that proper delivery of Sevin poses no




hazard to the environment.




          In summary, while DDT and its metabolites tend to accumulate in lipid




tissues, Sevin and its more polar soluble metabolic products tend to be more




rapidly excreted.  Therefore, bioconcentration of carbaryl through food chains




probably does not occur.



          In view of the evidence showing bioconcenti'ation of the persistent




DDT residues through forest soil to birds and other feeders, it appears that




continued use could result in serious long term ecological consequences.








                                    -31-                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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Carbaryl can cause ecological disturbances, but nonpersistent and rapid de-




toxification in biological systems would probably not produce long term




ecological disturbances in forest environments if used judiciously.









                     C.  Synergism in the Aquatic Ecosystem





          The action of a combination of materials upon a system is termed




synergistic if the resultant effect is greater than that expected from the




individual effects.  One compound may synergize another, therefore, while either




compound by itself may represent little or no threat to the system.




          Syngergism in the aquatic biosphere may arise from any one of four




types of material combinations.  The first of these is the effect of a pesticide




and a naturally occurring material.  It has been shown that DDT in solution




with sodium humate is approximately twenty times as bioactive as an equivalent




solution of DDT alone.  The second case is synergism by some relatively




innocuous pollutant.  For example, certain fish show an increased susceptibility




to DDT when detergents are present in the water.  This phenomenon is similar




to the uptake of nutrients by cells when surfactants are present.




          The third case is that of the increased effectiveness of a pesticide,




carbaryl for instance, in the presence of another chemical (e.g. derivatives of




propynyl naphthyl ethers, aliphatic thiocyanates) added for the sake of its




synergistic action.  Since the last case is knov/n for terrestial insects, it




is presumed that a similar mechanism could be operative for aquatic insects.  The




fourth combination type involves the bioaccumulation of persistent pesticides




as a function of the. presence or absence of a congener.  For example, it has




been shown that DDT accumulation in rainbow trout is enhanced by the presence








                                     -32-                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  i)

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of dieldrin, while DDT markedly decreases the rate of accumulation of dieldrin.




Similarly, DDT elimination was decreased by the presence of dieldrin, but dieldrin




elimination was not enhanced by the presence of DDT.




          Synergistic effects in the aquatic ecosystem have not been established




as a serious threat.  However, this potential problem should not be dismissed.




Consideration should be given to synergism prior to application of any insecticide.









                              D.  Impact on Humans





          The impact on humans of DDT and carbaryl is a topic covered in varying




depth depending on the nature of the exposure, the effect of the exposure,  and




the control achieved in countering the exposure.




          The literature concerned with the impact of DDT on humans has been




broader than that of the impact of carbaryl, probably due to the fact that




DDT has been used for a much greater period of time.  Investigators have surveyed




human populations working with DDT in manufacturing and application, people not




occupationally exposed to DDT, and persons on specially restrictive diets.   By




and large much of the data has verified that fact that DDT has a large




potential for accumulation in biological systems, particularly in fatty tissue.




Additionally, high chronic occupational exposure has been linked to various




disorders of the detoxifying body systems, due to overloads and other stresses




introduced as a function of detoxification and elimination of the pesticide.




Certain antagonistic effects have also been found, the best example of which is




the lack of DDT accumulation in persons, even those with high occupational




exposure, who are taking anticonvulsant drugs.











                                     -33-              EO-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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          The effect of carbaryl on the human body is much less than that of




DDT except when carbaryl is taken as massive oral doses (as in suicide).   In




this case, the cholinesterase inhibiting action of the agent is overwhelming.




For low level exposure, however, the material is rapidly degraded by the  human




body.  Therefore, no long-term effects of carbaryl exposure are anticipated,




contrary to the situation with DDT.   The most important current threat con-




cerning carbaryl is its possible teratogenecity (tendency to produce birth




defects) which has been demonstrated in certain test  animals.




          While the application to humans of results  from experiments with




laboratory animals suggest that carbaryl could be injurious to man,  it is




noted that humans employed in the manufacture of this insecticide, who were




exposed to concentrations that far exceed levels that would be encountered




in spraying areas, did not exhibit any adverse symptoms.
                                     -34-                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.

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                                       V.




          LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE SALE AND USE OF PESTICIDES
          The laws and regulations of the State of New York and of the Federal




Government, which relate to the sale and use of pesticides have been reviewed




as to specific content and the apparent underlying philosophy of the law as




enacted and practiced.  The applicable laws and regulations on this subject




cover a wide spectrum and exhibit very complex interrelationships, such that




specific comments on a specific regulation would generally require legal




opinion and argument.  We feel that such argument is not appropriate here in




view of the broader philosophical questions involved.




          In an overview of the total body of law considered in this study, it




appears that primary control is sought through placing restrictions on product




availability, and through record keeping, with only limited attention given to




the competence and the knowledge of the user.




          Serious consideration should be given to expanding the laws and




regulations of the State of New York and of the Federal Government to include




the licensing of applicators.  Through the examination and licensing of the




applicator, and the control of the availability of pesticides classed for




restricted use, the use of dangerous pesticides would be in the hands of




responsible and qualified personnel who would be expected to operate in a




professional manner to insure the maximum benefits with the minimum of hazard.




          It is undoubtedly unrealistic to assume that good and meaningful,




timely pesticide control can be achieved withort the full qualification of the




personnel engap/'d in the application of hazardous pesticide due to the extremely




                                     -35-                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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large number of combinations of use situation,  the constantly changing


pesticide market, and the unmanageable task of  governmental monitoring or


surveillance of the activities of the applicators.

          In matters where the public safety or the public good is involved,


state or federal licensing, is a time honored control mechanism.   In an over


simplification of the question of state or federal licensing, it  may be


generalized that the state issues licenses on a more or less personal services


basis, whereas federally granted licenses tend  to relate to services or functions


in the public domain.  The ICC licenses radio station operators,  the FAA licenses


aircraft pilots; whereas the states license medical doctors and engineers.   It


would appear that the applicators of hazardous  pesticides should  be federally


licensed for the following reasons:


          (1)  The effects of pesticides do not stop at state lines, hence,

interstate control is necessary.


          (2)  The pest does not inhabit on the basis of state lines, hence

interstate uniformity in control systems is highly desirable.


          (3)  Examination and licensing on a national basis can  lead to a higher

and more uniform level of professionalism.


          The social and economic importance of pest control and  the absolute

magnitude and characteristics of the problem are highly variable  from state to


state and from time to time.  Approaches or techniques adopted by one state can


I^CM! to direct conflict with approaches adopted by a neighboring  state.  Pest


control can be best studied and implemented on  the basis of geographical areas


determined by the pest itself, rather than by state boundaries.  Such pest


management procedures as quarantines, buffer zones, criteria for treatment and


                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. I)
                                     -36-

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materials to be used may be applied in a much more effective manner when specific:




problems are treated on an area of involvement basis and in consideration of the




national import.




          Since a very large percentage of the pesticides in use today are applied




by units of government, laws and licensing should be equally applicable to




government and non-government uses.  This has not always been the case in laws




and licenses.  It bears special attention in this instance, and points to the




advisability of federal laws and licenses.
                                      37                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. I)

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                                      VI.
                       ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL CONTROL
          The availability and use of non-chemical alternatives  are  different

for native and non-native pest infestations.   The most important difference  is

the ease with which biological control can be invoked.
                         A.  Native Pest Infestations

          In spite  of  the fact that there is extensive  use  of  pesticides,

evidence demonstrates  that New York State relies on natural processes  to combat

and control native  forest pest infestations.  Pesticides  are used minimally and

generally only in high-use areas.  Table 2 presents, as an  example of  this

reliance on natural control mechanisms, a tabulation of acreage defoliated by

the Forest Tent Caterpillar along with concomitant chemical treatment  for that

pest.


                                  Table 2
                FOREST TEST CATERPILLAR DEFOLIATION AND
                    CONCOMITANT PESTICIDE TREATMENT
YEAR
1952
1953
1954
1955-59
1960
ACRES DEFOLIATED
TOTAL
3,500,000
7,489.049
15,321,047
NOT MENTIONED
24,425
HEAVY
500,000
919.834
2,007,447

5,000
ACRES TREATED
WITH PESTICIDE
1,000
1,800
3,200
SOME IN 1955 ONLY
0
                                    -38-
}-5025-D-2  (vol.  I)

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          The demise of this infestation resulted from a combination of factors




as adverse climate, starvation and the action of predators, parasites and pest




disease.  The important point is that chemicals were not extensively used but




were, rather, integrated to protect high-use acreage.  Similar integrated




chemical control was used again in 1967 through 1969 to control the Saddled




Prominant, a native, northern hardwood defoliator.









        B.  Non-native Pest Infestations;  Integrated Gypsy Moth Control





          In the 1890*8, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts conducted a vigorous




campaign of integrated techniques to "eradicate" the Gypsy Moth.  When the pest




intruded into other states, New York and Pennsylvania, for example, similar




efforts were pursued.  These included the use of pesticides, the use of sex lures,




the introduction of parasites and predators and the use of manpower to scrape and




kill egg masses, band trees, prune trees, and destroy protected egg-laying habitat.




While these measures proved to be useful, little effort has been made in New York




State since 1945 to resort to these practices.  While several attempts have been




made to use a bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, and other pathogens and parasites,




there is no evidence of a concerted effort to use these agents.




          New York State is not alone and, while there is interest in the




potentiality of biological control agents in all infected states, New Jersey is




the only state that has manifested a commitment.









                             1.  New Jersey Program





          By 1963 the intrusion of Gypsy Moth in northern New Jersey was




so great that: the philosophy of eradication was abandoned in favor of integrated





                                     _39_               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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control.  Since New Jersey had long been active in the collection and




rearing of parasites to control introduced agricultural pests, it was a logical




step to adopt biological control measures as an important element of this program.




Accordingly in 1963, six (6) parasites of gypsy moth that were already




established in New England were collected and released in New Jersey.  In




addition, three (3) others were reared in New Jersey and field released.




          The main objective of the New Jersey program is to establish




populations of various insect parasitoids throughout the distribution of the




gypsy moth in that State.  It is anticipated that these efforts,  part of an




integrated approach to managing this pest, will assist in maintaining gypsy moth




populations at a level where their impact on the forest and urban ecosystems can




be tolerated, both economically and ecologically.




          Biological controls are utilized in the remote forested




areas and chemical control (Sevin: 1 pound/acre) in the high-use  urban areas.




Decision to spray is voluntary and is vested solely in the municipalities,  although




the State does use funding mechanisms to exercise professional control.




          The biological program is divided into two parts:  insect rearing




and field evaluation.  The insect rearing facilities and techniques used




are well organized, staffed and maintained.  The rearing and releasing techniques




developed by New Jersey should serve as excellent models for the  establishment




of similar facilities in other states.




          The most critical part of the program, however, is the  field




evaluation undertaken to determine the success or failure of the  biological control




effort.   It is too early at this time to critically review this part of the




project, although it is evident that the main interest is in determining whether








                                     -40-                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. I)

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or not populations of various parasitoids had become "established" at the various




release sites.  Establishment is considered successful if a particular species




is recovered from field collections three years after releasing an individual




parasitoid.




          However, mere "establishment" of populations of various parasitoids




in the gypsy moth life system is not sufficient evidence for determining the




success or failure of the program.  Unfortunately, basic research is lacking




on both the individual parasitoids that are being used, and the sampling




techniques employed for field evaluations.  This is unfortunate and is a mani-




festion of contraints of time and additional scientific manpower.  The importance




or potential of a particular parasitoid can only be determined, in most cases, by




a detailed examination of the biology, behavior, ecological adaptability, and




responses  (functional and numerical) of individual species to changes in host




density.




          It has been intimated that biological control efforts in New




Jersey have successfully reduced the duration of heavy defoliation from 3 to 2




years in some areas.  Also, field observations to date suggest that certain




parasitoid applications are playing a significant role in stabilizing gypsy moth




populations at tolerable levels, although, as noted above, sufficient information




is not available at this time.




          However, it must be noted that biological controls require time to become




established.  The results are not instantaneous as with chemical sprays and losses




must be both expected and accepted.  The following table shows mortality sustained




in a 17,855 acre forest on the Newark watershed subjected to heavy defoliation for




3 yenrs before the gypsy moth infestation collapsed from disease and parasitism.










                                     ~41~                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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                                    Table 3
YEAR
1968
1969
1970
1971
CUMULATIVE
% OAK
MORTALITY
6.5
14.3
38.0
57.7
TOTAL # DEAD OAKS
IN AFFECTED FOREST
116,693
257,112
686,881
1,033,269
                           2.   Another Alternative







          In the example cited above, the loss of over 1,000,000 oak trees may be




too high a price to pay for non-chemical control.  The value of the woodlands in




one state is not necessarily the same in another state.  This is, in fact, the




reason for different treatment philosophies within the northeastern states.




          Examination and study of historical and technical literature,  coupled




with discussions with several individuals, have revealed that modern integrated




control procedures basically ignore the use of manpower as  a central ingredient.




          In the past personnel have, with minimal training, served as effective




gypsy moth control agents.  Efforts have included scraping  and creosoting of




egg masses, trapping and disposal of larvae, banding of trees, and the




destruction of protected egg-laying habitat.  These measures have, in the




past, been effective in minimizing the ravages of this pest.




          In the past, hundreds of personnel have been involved in this




work.  Year around efforts are possible in not only overt control but also in




the inspection and evaluation of woodlands for evidence of  the pest.  There is no




reason why this technique should not or could not be resurrected and relied upon




in integrated control efforts.  It is evident that total reliance on chemicals
                                     -42-
                                                               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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is not necessary, that biological control will have minimal short-run impact  on




epidemic populations and that, perhaps, the intelligent use of relatively  large




numbers df people will not only serve to bridge the gap, but could also  provide




a healthful and useful employment opportunity.
                                     -43-                       EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.

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                                      VII.




                                   CONCLUSIONS
          This section presents preliminary conclusions based upon the results




of this study to date.  It is emphasized that these conclusions have been drawn




from a case study of the use of pesticides in forest management in New York State.




Within New York State almost all of the forest pesticide currently used is




carbaryl  (Sevin), and it is used almost exclusively to control the ravages of




the non-native pest, Gypsy Moth (Porthetria dispar L.).  Pesticide application




operations are either conducted by career foresters of the New York State




Environmental Conservation Department or under their direct supervision.




Natural processes are relied upon to control native pest infestations.




          Since the policy and operations with regard to the use of pesticides




vary within the several northeastern states, the conclusions presented herein




are not necessarily applicable to regions outside New York State.




          The case study, itself, is further restrictive in the sense that it




addresses only past and current experience.  In turn, the impact of pesticides




on the aquatic enviornment and ecosystem applies principally to the present




state of affairs.  Responsible prediction of the future impact of  pesticides




requires considerations far more extensive than mere extrapolation of current




trends.  A few such considerations have been explored and their implications




are cast in the form of recommendations in the following section.   The con-




clusions which follow should not provide a harbor for comfort; rather  they




should be viewed as elements in a larger and longer-range assessment.
                                    "44~                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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          We conclude:
          1.   The application of carbaryl  (Sevin) as a water suspension from
aircraft at a rate of one pound per acre to control pests as the Gypsy Moth,
and in consort with current equipment and techniques, policy, regulations and
management does not have significant adverse impact on the aquatic environment.
          2.   Changes in treatment practice, pesticide formulation, dispersal
equipment, policy, regulations and management should not be undertaken without
a sound basis, because changes, themselves, can alter many of the interrelations
between pesticides and the environment and  can easily have a negative rather
than positive impact not only on forest pest control but also the aquatic
environment and forest ecosystem.
          3.   The current application rate of carbaryl formulated in water is
excessive for Gypsy Moth control, based on reported post-spray observation of
egg-mass reduction within treated average.
          4.   DDT should not be (and is not in New York State) used in the
forest due to bioconcentration effects.
          5.   The short-term hazard to humans of carbaryl and DDT in dosages
and conditions associated with forest pest  control operations appears minimal,
although not unequivocal.
          6.   The long-term effects of carbaryl and DDT on humans are unknown.
          7.   The laws governing the use of forest pesticides are insufficient
to prevent environmental damage.
          8.   The long-term efficacy of biological control of the (non-native)
Gypsy Moth is presently unknown, although short-term evidence indicates that
these techniques show promise.
          9.   It is technically feasible to employ manpower as a control agent
in integrated Gypsy Moth control programs.
                                     -45-                     EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  I)

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                                      VIII,




                                 RECOMMENDATIONS
          Based on the results of this study,  the following preliminary




recommendations are presented:




          1.   The aerial application rate of  water-formulated Sevin should be




reduced from 1 pound per acre to 0.5 pound/acre for Gypsy Moth control and




possibly further, pending outcome of 2 below.




          2.   Field tests should be conducted to determine the minimum appli-




cation rate of Sevin, formulated in either wa^er or oil,  necessary to achieve




adequate control of the Gypsy Moth and other important forest pests.




          3.   The economic feasibility of large-scale use of manpower as a




part of integrated Gypsy Moth control should be evaluated and, if appropriate,




the EPA should fund a field demonstration program.




          4.   Federal laws should be developed which control the application




of pesticides through national examination and licensing  of applicators; which




together with control of the availability of pesticides classed for restricted




use, would insure that employment of dangerous pesticides be limited to




responsible and qualified personnel.




          5.   The possible adverse impact on  the aquatic environment and




ecosystem due to long-term effects of large scale forest  pest infestations




(extensive defoliation, tree mortality and subsequent erosion) should be




determined.
                                                              -5025-D-2 (Vol.  i)

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          6.   Additional research should be conducted on the fundamental




aspects of chemical control of forest pests, with emphasis on an integrated




approach considering biological aspects and behavior of the pests, environ-




mental influences and hazards, pesticides and formulations, application




techniques and attack modes, and the type and amount of control deemed




necessary.




          7.   Additional research should be conducted to quantify the long-term




impact of pesticides on  the aquatic environment and ecosystem.




          8.   Additional research should be conducted on the fundamental




aspects of biological control necessary to determine the efficacy of these




forest pest management techniques.
                                      _4?_                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  I)

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                                    A-l


                            INVENTORY OF USES
                           A-l.l  Introduction

          This section presents information relative to both historical pesti-

cide uses within New York State, and descriptions and analysis of current pesti-

cide us.', including the quantities and types of chemicals used, the pests toward

which they were directed, and comments on the efficiency of these treatments.

          Before discussing these factors, an overview of New York forests is

presented.  This information has been largely abstracted from the Atlas of

Fores try in New York " .

          Hew York State encompasses an area of about 30.7 million acres, of

which about 14.5 million acres are forested.  There are three principal forested

regions.  The Adirondack - North Country Regions contains about 5.4 million acres

of predominantly spruce, fir and northern hardxroods; the Catskill-Hudson Region

is comprised of 2.6 million acres predominated by oak and mixed northern hard-

woods; and the western New York Region contains 4 million acres of oak and mixed

northern hardwoods.  The remaining 2.7 million acres is scattered in central

portions of the State.

          About 17% of the forested land in New York is categorically noncommer-

cial.  Most of this land is part of the State Forest Preserve which, by mandate

of the New York State Constitution, must remain "forever wild".

          The remaining 83% has commercial potential.  Of this total 6% is owned

by the State; 8% is owned by forest industries, 24% is in farm woodlot operation;

and 45% is under "other" private ownership.  In short, nearly half of the forested

lands in New York are not owned by farmers or forest industry but, rather, by

                                    1-1
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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rural nonfarmers and/or city dwellers (absentee ownership).  The land parcels



under private ownership tend to be small;  about 55% of the private forests are



in parcels of less than 100 acres.  However, many of these parcels merge to



form large forested land blocks.



          Further, it is emphasized that commercial exploitation (timber and



maple sugar) is not the only important use value.ascribed to forested land.



These other values include recreation (camping, hunting, fishing); soil



stabilization; and watershed development and maintenance.  These several values



engender the concept of multiple use, a concept which prevails in current forest



management practices.  Under this practice, New York forests are selectively



treated with pesticides to protect those high-use (tangible) and/or high-value



(perhaps subjective) areas threatened by pest infestation.







              A-1.2  Historical Development of Pesticide Use



          The following statement by Ephraim Porter Felt, New York State



Entomologist, appears on pages 253-254 in his monumental two-volume work


                                                      1 9
entitled, "Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees".



               "It must not be forgotten that most of the species listed as



          important enemies of shade trees, also feed, as previously pointed



          out, on  forest trees, and that sometimes these earlier noticed



          forms may be exceedingly destructive in the forest land.   Our fal 1



          webworm, Hyphantria textor Harr., for example, is occasionally very



          abundant on forest trees and causes a considerable amount of injury.



          The spiny elm caterpillar, Euvanessa antiopa Linn., lives by



          preference on willows and poplars, occasionally defoliating exten-



          sive areas, and the depredations of the forest tent caterpillar




                                     1-2



                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.

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Malacosoma disstria Hubn.,  are  too well  known  to  require more than




mention in this  connection.




     "Conditions  are  such  in  this country  that we must  rely very




largely on natural agents  of  one kind  or another  to prevent serious




injury to forest trees.   This will ordinarily be  accomplished




through the  activities  of  various predaceous and  parasitic forms,




which rarely attract  attention  because of  their abundance.  Fungous




diseases and unfavorable  climatic conditions also play  an important




part in checking insect ravages.  Some of  our native species,  in




spite of these  checks,  are occasionally  very injurious  over large




areas.  One  of  the most striking cases is  that of the forest  tent




caterpillar, a  species  which  feeds very  largely on hard maples, and




at  irregular and rather widely  separated intervals becomes so




enormously abundant  as  to defoliate  extensive  areas year after year,




spreading  therefrom  to  our shade trees.




     "The  dangerous  nature of introduced species  has been generally




recognized and  it is  well known that a considerable percentage of




the more serious enemies  of general  agricultural  crops  have come




to  us from abroad.   It  is  fortunate  that comparatively  few destructive




forest pests have been  brought  into  the  country.  The two most impor-




tant at the  present  time  are  the gipsy moth, Porthetria dispar Linn,




and the brown tail moth,  Euproctis chrysorrhoea Linn.   Inability  to




fly on the part of  the  first  named makes it a  local species,




dangerous only  because  of  its voracious  appetite  and the large number




of  food plants  subject  to attack.  The latter  species flies readilv




and within recent years has shown a  marked tendency in  America to




spread into  woodlands,  particularly  white  oaks, large areas of which




                                               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          have been defoliated.  It is nearly as destructive to hard maples

          and as a consequence both species are serious menaces to our wood-

          lands.  It is obviously impractical to advise extensive spraying

          of forests with poison, the general collection or destruction of

          egg masses in woodlands or similar measures, because of the enormous

          expense involved.  It is most sincerely to be hoped that either the

          native parasites or introduced forms, some of which have already

          been imported, will prove adequate checks on both of these dangerous

          species and obviate the necessity of employing more expensive methods

          for checking these pests.  Experience with the larch sawfly,

          Lygaeonematus erichsonii Hartg., is not encouraging, since this

          species has for a number of years defoliated larches over wide areas

          in the Adirondacks and is still a serious pest."

          The importance of Felt's statement cannot be overemphasized.  Its

importance is vested in the combination of what was said and when it was said.

          For example, while more overt attention was directed toward shade

tree and agricultural diseases in 1905, Felt pointed out that the pests of shade

trees can spread into the forested lands and vice versa.  He cites the ravages

of the forest tent caterpillar in spreading from the forest to the shade tree.

          Secondly, Felt cites a reliance on biological control in the manage-

ment of forest pest populations.  While Felt implies that these techniques are

successful, they do not always work as in the case of the larch sawfly.

          Finally, both the introduction and danger of non-native pests as the

gipsy (gypsy) moth are clearly discussed.  Felt indicates that biological control

measures were being evaluated including introduction of foreign predators.  Also

the impracticality of both wholesale forest spraying with chemical control

                                    1-4
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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materials and  the mechanical collection of egg masses  to check the development

and spread of  such  pests  was asserted.

          Thus  far,  two erroneous  impressions  could be drawn from the discussion.

The first is that little  attention had  been directed to forest pest problems in

New York State.  This  is  not true  for,  while the literature prior to 1900 did

not abound  in  forest entomology, Felt listed the following publications of rele-

vance  to New York.

          1857  Fitch, Asa.   Insects Infesting Evergreen Forest Trees.

                 Ins.  N. Y.  4th Rep't, p. 5-67.

          1858  	  Insects Infesting  Deciduous Forest Trees.   Ins.

                 N.  Y.  5th Rep't, p. 1-74.

          1881  Packard,  A.  S.  Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees.

                 U.  S.  Ent.  Com.  Bui. 7, p. 1-275.

          1890  	  Insects Injurious  to Forest and Shade Trees.  U.  S.

                 Ent.  Com. 5th Rep't, p. 1-945.

          1893  Hopkins,  A.  D.  Catalogue of West Virginia Scolytidae and

                 their Enemies.  W. Va.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta. Bui. 31, p. 121-68.

          1893  	  Catalogue of West  Virginia Forest and Shade Tree

                 Insects.   W. Va. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 32, p. 171-251.

          1895  Packard,  A.  S.  First Memoir on the Bombycine Moths.  Nat.

                 Acad.  Sci.  7:291.

          1896  Marlatt,  C.  L.  Revision of the Nematinae of North America.

                 U.  S.  Dep't  Agric. Div. Ent. Tech.  ser. 3, p. 1-135.

          1898  Felt,  E.  P.   Insects Injurious to Maple Trees.  Forest, Fish

                 and Game  Com. 4th  Rep't, p. 367-95.
                                      1-5
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          1899  	  Insects Injurious to Elm Trees.  Forest, Fish and



                Game Com. 5th Rep't, p.  351-79.



          1901  Beutenmuller, William.   Monograph of the Sesiidae of American



                North of Mexico.   Am. Mus.  Nat.  Hist. Mem.  6, p. 217-352.



          1901  Hopkins, A. D.  Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the Northeast.



                U. S. Dep't Agric. Div.  Ent. Bui. 28, n. s., p. 1-48.



          1903  Felt, E. P.  Insects Affecting Forest Trees.  Forest, Fish



                and Game Com. 7th Rep't, p. 479-534.



          Concern in forest pest control was certainly more than of passing



interest as Felt notes serious injury to the Adirondack spruce forests in the



years 1874 to 1876.



          In addition to the loss of forest trees,  of great concern was the



damage of ornamental shade trees.  For example,  the elm leaf beetle destroyed


                                                               1 o

several thousand trees in the cities of  Albany and  Troy in  1898   .  The



importance of shade trees was well recognized.  Again,  a direct quotation of


    1. 2
Felt    on page 5 states:



               "The welfare of the human race is closely connected with that



          of our trees, and any work looking to  their better protection makes



          for the advancement of mankind.  The value of our street and park



          trees is much greater than the cost of their production, and a city



          or village blessed with such has  treasure which should be jealously



          guarded, since these magnificent  growths  have an  important influence



          in modifying climatic conditions, besides adding  materially to the



          beauty of the surroundings.  This is not  only true in cities and



          villages but also in the country  at large, particularly in such



          resorts as the Adirondacks, where thousands go for recreation and




                                     1-6

                                                        EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          health.  The trees in such places not only afford most agreeable




          shelter from wind and sun, but the evaporation from the immense




          leaf areas modifies the temperature and the exhalations from the




          coniferous needles undoubtedly aid very much healing diseased lung




          tissues.




                The protection of shade trees is a serious problem, largely




          due to the introduction into this country of certain very destruc-




          tive species, such as the gipsy moth, the elm leaf beetle, the elm




          bark louse, the leopard moth and the San Jose scale, all exceedingly




          injurious and all, except the gipsy moth, well established in New




          York State.  It is only a question of time before the latter crosses




          our borders.  The above are a few of the important exotic species




          which aid such destructive native forms as the white marked tussock




          moth, the bagworm, the fall webworm, the scurfy and oyster scales




          and the cottony maple scale in their nefarious work."




          Recognition of the great differences in both growing habit and intrin-




sic value between ornamental shade trees in cities and parks as compared to




those in forested lands led to the use and development of remedial measures




for the "more highly prized" trees of roadsides, parks and lawns.  Felt, in




discussing these recommendations, was specific in stating that, at that time,




remedial measures involving pesticides were not directed at forestry application.




          Biting insects were treated with a class of arsenical poisons:  lead




arsenate, paris green, and london purple.  The role of these poisons was to




protect the foliar surface by the poison deposits.  Thus, when the insect




ate the leaf, sufficient poison was ingested to cause death.










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          The sucking insects, that extract fluids from the leaf through a




slender beak, were not affected by the surface protective treatment of the




arsenical.  Contact insecticides were used in this case.  Formulations in this




category included kerosense emulsion, whale oil soap solution, and lime-sulfur




washes.  In addition, fumigation techniques were used on relatively small trees




during the period of dormancy.  Hydrogen cyanide was the agent of choice for




fumigation.




          The costs attributable to spray programs for ornamental shade trees




varied considerably, depending on the price of labor.




          In Albany, New York, the average cost of a spray program was 220 per




tree in 1900.  However, Felt implied that this cost could be reduced if the pro-




gram was not conducted under civil service regulations.  These regulations




required that men had to work only 8 hours per day and further, that both a



tnotorman and driver were required.




          The spray apparatus of note in the early 1900's was a horse-drawn




spring wagon which contained a 100-gallon tank of pesticide.  This mixture




was pumped through hose lines, each line being handled by a man on a ladder.




A Gould force pump was powered by a Daimler gasoline motor.   Felt noted that




this motor was advantageous because it was essentially "noiseless in operation



and is scarcely noticed by passing horses".




          The premonition by Felt in the early 1900's relative to the intrusion




of the gypsy moth into New York came true when the insect was discovered near


                                                     1 "}
Wampus Pond in the eastern part of the State in 1912.




          In 1921, a Barrier Zone was proposed along the lands east of the




Hudson Riv^r that border the New England States.  This zone, located east of
                                     1-8                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.

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Hudson River, extended  from Long  Island  to  the  Canadian Border.  It was about




250 miles long and  about  30 miles wide.   By 1924, more than  100 men were work-




ing under the auspices  of New York  State to keep  the  gypsy moth from entering




her forests.  While the results were  encouraging, the state  inspectors dis-




covered  12  colonies comprised of  896  egg masses of gypsy moth scattered in




eastern  New York  counties and Long  Island.   In  addition to inspection, remedial




measures were instituted  to control the  scattered colonies.  In 1929, it was




noted  that  this included  the application of creosote  on egg masses and spray




application of lead arsenate on larvae.   In 1929  the  following statement was




reported in the annual  report of  the  New York State Conservation Department to




the Legislature:




               "When any  program  is so planned  that a test of several years




          demonstrate it  a practical  and successful one, changes therein




          would,  to say the least,  be unwise.   That,  briefly, is the situa-




          tion in the gypsy moth  control project."




          Principal effort continued  to  be  centered around surveys and inspec-




tion for this introduced  pest.  In  1930, for example, 109,347 acres were




examined.   While  this pest was still  basically  excluded from New York State, a




few colonies were found on Long Island.   These  were treated with an aqueous




formulation of lead arsenate.  It is  interesting  to note that elements of the




state  inspection  were costly because  in  regions with many nurseries, like Long




Island  the inspectors  had to search  for evidence of  this pest "on their hands




and knees".



          In 1931,  pockets of the gypsy  moth were treated within the barrier




zone.  Wherever an  infection pocket was  located,  an area of  600 feet around the




pocket was  treated  with lead arsenate.   This chemical was specifically developed






                                      1-9                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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in 1892 to control the gypsy moth ' .  This control chemical, the efficacy  of

which had been evaluated in Massachusetts in the mid 1890*s, was applied  as

0.8 weight percent water suspension.  Seventeen tons of lead arsenate were

applied in this manner * .

          A similar formulation of lead arsenate had been evaluated in Massachu-

setts in 1893 and 1894 "  and found to be quite effective, although its use and

effectiveness was qualified accordingly on pages 473-474 as follows:

               "A careful study of the comparative effect of equal weights

          of the three substances used in the preceding experiments shows

          that there is practically no choice between Paris green and Paris

          green and lime, so far as the destruction of the caterpillars is

          concerned.  The largest amount of these poisons which can be used

          without injuring the foliage is about 1 Ib.  to 150 gal. of water,

          and at this, or even a much larger rate, the percentage of cater-

          pillars destroyed is not satisfactory.  Since arsenate of lead in

          almost any strength is not injurious to foliage, a much larger

          amount can be used than.of any of the more soluble arsenical com-

          pounds; thus the superiprity of this poison as an insecticide is  at

          once evident.  While arsenate of lead may be considered the best

          insecticide for destroying the gypsy moth in the caterpillar stage,

          even this poison is of small value in exterminating this.insect

          since many of the caterpillars survive after feeding upon leaves

          sprayed with large proportions of this poison.

               "The experiments previously recorded show that a considerable

          amount of time is required for the poison used to affect the cater-

          pillars. Those in the earlier molts were killed in a short time,

                                    1-10
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.

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          but in the later molts a much smaller per cent was destroyed,




          many of the caterpillars transforming and producing imagoes.




               "In considering these experiments, it should be remembered




          that the insects were in confinement, and obliged to eat the




          poisoned leaves, while in field work they may sometimes find leaves




          that have not been sprayed, or that have received but little of the




          poison, and, therefore, the results in some cases might be somewhat




          different from those obtained in these experiments.




               "The remarkable ability of the gypsy moth to resist the action




          of arsenical poisons is shown in the case of other poisons.  Mr.




          Moulton covered a piece of lettuce leaf with strychnine, and fed it




          to a caterpillar.  In about an hour the caterpillar appeared to be




          dead, but soon revived and fed again for a short time upon the




          poisoned leaf, when it rolled over on its back and for several hours




          remained apparently dead, but afterwards revived again and appeared




          as well as ever."




          Non-chemical control techniques were also being used to control the




gypsy moth.  In the 1932 annual report, the New York State Conservation Depart-




ment noted that oil burning was "very effective" against this pest in the Milan,




New York area during 1931.  Mr. W. E. Masterson, who has since retired from State




service, was contacted relative to this notation.  According to Mr. Masterson,




a large weed burner that used kerosene as a fuel was used to burn or cook egg




masses that were laid on or within stone walls ' .




          While control of the gypsy moth received much attention, other  forest




pest pi-"!--Jems were not neglected.  In the same year, 1931, various poison sprays




and dusts were evaluated against both the European Pine Shoot Moth and The Scotch






                                     I--11               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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Pine Weevil.  None gave much encouragement, although 12 to 16 ounces of  a  50-



75% solution paradichlorabenzene was effective against the Scotch Pine Weevil



when spread around the soil of each tree.



          In 1932, unemployment relief funds were used to support efforts  in



the inspection of about 300,000 acres of lands for gypsy moth.  A few local



infestations were found and, as before, the foliage was treated with lead



arsenate in circular area  (600 feet diameter) around the outbreak.  About  12



tons of lead arsenate in a fish oil carrier were used in this manner over  554



acres.  Figure 1.1 shows the early methods of applying forest pesticides in



New York.  Again, the apparent success of the gypsy moth control program is



manifest in the following statement " .



               "[The Gypsy Moth is] one of the few serious forest pest



          enemies that can be controlled and its spread prevented."



          Although a severe outbreak of gypsy moth was discovered in the Bronx



in 1934, few colonies of this pest were found during a vast inspection program



throughout eastern New York State.  This program was conducted from 1934 to



1936, and encompassed survey and inspection of about 1.5 million acres.



Personnel from the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) carried out this work



until the 11 camps were abandoned in late 1936.  In 1937, 82 tons of lead



arsenate were used to treat local infestations.  Again in 1939,  37 tons of



lead arsenate were used against the gypsy moth on 3,089 acres.  It is interest-



ing to note that in 1938, 1.75 million "microplectron" were introduced to  control



the European spruce sawfly, although the efficacy was not noted.



          After 1939, the gypsy moth was discovered to have violated the Barrier


    1 3
Zone ' .  The reason for this intrusion has not been identified, although  it



has been surmised that the violent winds of the 1938 hurricane spread the  pest





                                     1-12

                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          COURTESY:  NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Figure 1.1  EARLY APPLICATION METHODS OF FOREST PESTICIDES IN NEW YORK STATE
                                   1-13
                                                     EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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beyond the zone.  Additionally, wind-borne larvae could have been blown beyond

                                                                           c.
the Barrier Zone from the Connecticut Valley, where a major infestation had


built up during the years of 1937 - 1939.

          Coupled with the spread of gypsy moth, the additional factors of cur-


tailed relief labor, and the involvement of the United States in World War II


undoubtedly lead to the spread of this pest.

          Even so, control was attempted during the 1940s.  Lead arsenate in fish


oil was applied to limited acreage during 1940, 1942, 1943 and 1944.  For example,

in 1940, about 29 tons were used to treat 1200 acres and 17 tons on 1105 1/4

acres in 1942. In 1943, cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride) was used to treat

gypsy moth on about 750 acres in the greater Albany area.  While it was noted

that this chemical was not satisfactory, an additional 5 tons was used the

succeeding year on 360 acres in scattered portions of eastern New York.
                A-1.3  Historical Summary of Pesticide Use


          The preceding discussion, while no means exhaustive, provides

sufficient detail to develop a credible historical perspective on the use develop-

ment of pesticides in the control of forest insect pests and diseases in New York

State.


          Serious forest pest outbreaks were not a new phenomenon in the forests

of New York even at the turn of the century.  Citation has been made of the


ravages of the forest tent caterpillar and the spruce back beetle.  While in


forested regions, control of these ravages was exercised through a reliance on


natural control mechanisms; unfavorable climate, pest starvation, parasites and

predators.


                                     1-14
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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          Early chemical control was directed toward the protection of ornamen-

tal shade trees and selected stands of forested regions in high-use areas such

as resorts.  Principal chemical control materials were the arsenical compounds

which were used as foliar protectants against biting and chewing insects.  How-

ever with the sucking insects contact insecticides were used.  Two such materials

are predominant:  whale oil soap solution and kerosense emulsions.

          The gypsy moth was first located in New York in 1912.  This and several

other small infestations were located and treated.  In 1923, a barrier zone was

established to preclude the westward spread of this introduced pest.  This zone

proved to be effective, and, although areas within this zone were infected with

the gypsy moth, the chemical control methods and materials used for shade trees

in the cities were used to hold the pest in check.  The methods were principally

hydraulic spray apparatus dispensing foliar protectants - principally lead

arsenate.  This chemical, although shown to be somewhat effective against gypsy

moth outbreaks in Massachusetts some 40 years earlier, did not enjoy unqualified

endorsement by the economic entomologists of even that time.  In Massachusetts

and New York, the use of manpower to kill egg masses and collect larvae strongly

complemented the use of broadcast pesticides.

          During the late 1930's and the early 1940's an unfortunate alliance

served to aggrevate the pest control problems of New York State.  This alliance

was

           (1)  reliance on one type of pesticidal treatment with a chemical

               control material that was not an unqualified success,

           (2)  a combination of weather conditions and pest outbreaks within

               regions bordering the State which led to the violation of the

               barrier zone by a non-native pest, the gypsy moth,

                                     1-15
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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           (3)  a depletion of inspection personnel due to curtailment
               of relief labor, and
           (4)  the outbreak of World War II.
                 A-1.4.  Pesticide Inventory - 1945 to the Present
          At the conclusion of World War II in 1945, trapping surveys were
conducted on about 3,000,000 acres of forested land.  In addition to this,
DDT as an oil solution, was applied for the first time to 335 acres in the
counties of Albany, Fulton and Saratoga.  This experimental effort was
undoubtedly prompted by the successful use of DDT in the Southern Pacific
campaigns.  This newly available control chemical was evaluated against both
gypsy moth and the Spruce Budworm.  The results were "spectacular".
Applied by aircraft, the cost was noted as $2.00/acre for the DDT treatment
as compared to $15-$20/acre with ground blowers dispensing lead arsenate
formulations.
          The next year "amazing results" were obtained with DDT dispensed
both by aircraft and turbine blowers over an area of about 27,000 acres.  While
most of this treatment was directed at the gypsy moth, efficacy against the
larch case bearer and the white pine weevil was also evaluated.
          The tempo of DDT treatment quickened so that in 1949, 3 years
after the experimental evaluation of DDT on some 300 acres, about 135,000
acres of the central and northern portions of the barrier zone were treated.
It is also noteworthy that the amount of DDT applied to an acre was reduced,
by experimentation, from 1 Ib in 1945 to 0.5 Ib in 1949.  This dosage con-
tinued to be used until the end of 1965, at which time the use of DDT was
halted.

                                      1-16              EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          Having presented a brief narrative on the transition to the use
of DDT, it is interesting to view the total amount of pesticides used in
forest pest control in New York from 1945 until the present.  These data
were extracted for compilation and analysis from the annual reports of the
New York State Conservation Department to the New York State Legislature.
          In the period from 1945 until 1971, about 3,504,067 Ib of insecti-
cide have been used to control insect and disease pests in the forested lands
of New York.  Table I.I presents compositional feature of this total.
          The precision cannoted in Table I.I reflects the detail to which
the inventory records were examined.  While this compilation was carefully
developed, it is not reasonable to ascribe concomitant accuracy.  For example,
estimates were used in the development of the quantity of pesticides other
than DDT and Sevin for, in many instances, at least one element of information
required for accurate compilation, e.g., solution concentration, was not
available.  In such cases, judgements based on prior years where all data
were noted, was applied.
          The following pesticides are included in the "Other" category:
               endrin                     cygon
               heptachlor                 lead arsenate
               lindane                    trichlorfon
               malathion                  dylox
          Dylox and cygon were experimentally evaluated for gypsy moth control
whereas the other control chemicals were applied to selected acreage to control
a variety of pests including white pine weevil, birch leaf miner, sawflys,
biting flies and mosquitos.
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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              Table I.I
 COMPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF THE TOTAL
QUANTITY OF FOREST PESTICIDES USED IN
 NEW YORK STATE 1945-1971, INCLUSIVE
PESTICIDE TYPE
DDT
CARBARYL (SEVIN)
OTHERS
TOTAL
QUANTITY
POUNDS
2,411,540
1,084, 527
8,000
3,504,067
TONS
1,206
542
4
1,752
PERCENT OF
TOTAL
68.8
30.9
.3
100.0
                1-18
                                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. TV)

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          Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that, of the total weight of


pesticide used in the forested land of New York State in the inclusive years


between 1945 and 1971,


          (a)  over 99 % of all pesticides used in forest pest control was


               either DDT or Sevin, and


          (b)  the DDT use-budget was about double that for Sevin.


          The pesticide inventory information thus far discussed is presented in


tabular form later in this section.


          Of the total amount of DDT used in this period in forest management


operations, about 99 % has been employed in gypsy moth control programs.   Of


equal significance, about 98 % of all Sevin used has been directed against the


same introduced pest.


          Put into perspective in yet another way, of the approximate total of


3.5 million Ib of all types of pesticide used in forest operations in New York


from 1945 to 1971, about 3.46 million Ib have been used against a single pest,


the gypsy moth.

          Based upon the preponderant use of DDT and Sevin to control the gypsy


moth and coupled with minimal quantities of all types of chemical control agents


against other forest pests in New York, it could be concluded that the gypsy


moth is the only significant pest to intrude forested lands.


          Such a conclusion, while logical, is simply not true.  This can be


demonstrated by consideration of forest acreage defoliated.  Over the past 20-year


period (1951-1971), 30,481,132 acres  of forested land have been defoliated.


This figure includes all acreage where measurable defoliation has occurred, and is


not meant to imply that all leaves are stripped from the trees on any given acre.


The interesting fact is that, of this total acreage figure, only 1,543,086 acres


                                      1-19
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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were defoliated by the gypsy moth.  While this figure represents a relatively

small percentage (5.06 %) of the total, it would have undoubtedly been a much

greater percentage without chemical treatment.  A great deal of the acreage

defoliated was caused by the Forest Tent Caterpillar and Saddler Prominent.

Chemicals were not used to control these native pests.  Rather, reliance was

placed on natural control mechanisms.  This is more fully discussed in Section

A-6.

          Is emphasized that defoliation is a manifestation of but one class

of  forest pest.  Other classes such as borers, fungal diseases, and the like

are also important.  However, defoliation is not only an important type of

damage but it is also amenable to aerial surveys and thus, these types of data

are readily and reliably obtained.

          In summary, it is demonstrable that significant quantities of

pesticides have been used in the control and management of forest pests in

New York.  Two principal types of chemicals have been used:  DDT, a persistent

chlorinated hydrocarbon, and Sevin, a less persistent carbamate.

          Importantly, chemicals are not relied upon to control all forest

pest problems.  Rather, reliance is placed upon natural control of native pests.

Chemical treatment is restricted to situations where (1) a pest threatens a high-

use area and/or (2) the pest is not adequately controlled by predators, para-

sites, and disease.  Such is the case in New York with gypsy moth, an introduced

r>"f*-
L    '

          As a result, the overwhelming use of pesticides is directed against

this specific pest.  The next paragraph deals with the efficacy of the pesticide

treatment in gypsy moth control programs conducted within New York.


                                      1-20
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                     A-l.4.1  Pesticide Treatment Efficacy




          Figure 1.2 presents both the yearly allocation of pesticide, by




type used in gypsy moth control, and the annual defoliation by this pest as




measured by aerial survey.  These data can also be used to provide the informa-




tion on the quantity of pesticides used as previously presented in Table I.I,




when used in conjunction with application rate.  Basically, DDT was applied at a




rate of 1 Ib/acre until 1949, and at a rate of 0.5 Ib/acre from 1949 until 1965




inclusive.  Sevin has been applied at a rate of 1 Ib/acre.




          Referring to Figure 1.2, several distinguishing features are apparent




in this graphical pre<  atation.  The vast quantities of DDT used until the late




1950's reflects the philosophy of control by eradication.  Since that time, the




concept of control and management has prevailed.  Also, it should be noted that




Sevin was first introduced in 1959 in response to concern relative to DDT milk




residue and also due to effects of DDT in trout-water areas.   Since 1966, no DDT




has been used to control the gypsy moth or any other forest pest in New York.




          Exclusive use of the bio-degradable Sevin, and the general upsurge of




gypsy moth, has led to speculation that this pesticide may not be effective.




Casual observation of Figure 1.2 where the great increase in acres defoliated is




visually "correlated" with the use of Sevin, suggests an aura of reasonableness




to this concern.  Detailed examination of hard data, however, demonstrates that




such an assertion is not only oversimplifying but is, in large measure, incorrect.




          The first concern in exploring the question of treatment efficacy is




that of the pesticide itself:  Does Sevin, applied at a rate of 1 Ib/acre provide




effective initial treatment?  The data demonstrate that Sevin is effective.  This




is discussed in greater detail in Section A-2.







                                      1~21               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                                                      TREATED ACREAGE - GYPSY MOTH

                                                             NEW YORK STATE
       ACRES TREATED EACH YEAR WITH DDT AND/OR SEVIN
  2800


  2700


   500
o
   400
Q
01

<
ill
cc
I-
w
u
o:
u
300



200
   100
                    YEAR OF TREATMENT
YEAR
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
19S1
1952
1953
19S4
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
TOTALS
ACHES - DDT
335
26.739
64.944
73,320
134.370
146.200
121 048
149.750
122.652
87.742
194,376
446.202
2.774.417
2.040
894
11.282
55.112
146.008
144.658
31.500
13.486






4.747.675
ACRES SCVIN














76.336
8.282
160
300
59,037
32.865
99.969
218.123
41.458
100.454
57,652
120.664
250.750
1.066.050
TOTAI
335
20.73S
64.94«
73.320
134370
146 200
121.648
149.750
122.652
87.742
194.37G
446.202
2.774,417
2.040
77.230
19.564
55.272
146.308
203,695
64.365
113.455
218.123
41.458
100,454
57652
120.664
250.750
5.813.725
                                                GYPSY MOTH DEFOLIATION IN NEW YORK STATE
               ACRES DEFOLIATED EACH YEAR
   500  -
                  YEAR OF DEFOLIATION
YEAR
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949

1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1900
1961
1962
1903
1904
1965
1901,
1907
1968
1909
1970
1971
TOTAl
ACRES
DATA NOT OBTAINED




i i

675
NOT NOTED

y
10.559
6.649
858
0
1.605
16.490
31.335
61.342
22.600
97.237
148.3G6
34.655
46.160
47.525
121. G10
416,270
4 79. 1 50
1.54.1, DUO
   Figure 1.2   GYPSY MOTH CONTROL PROGRAM IN NEW YORK STATE. 1945-1971


                                       1-22                     EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  TI)

-------
          The upsurge in defoliation noted in Figure 1.2 is because much of this



acreage has been defoliated because it has not been treated.  New York State



treatment policy provides guidelines that (1) the infected acreage should be at



least 50 acres in size, (2) should exhibit at least 500 egg-masses per acre at



the plot center, and (3) signed landowner consent must be obtained.  These



policy factors, coupled with manpower limitations and the abandonment of an



eradication philosophy, are significant causative elements in the upward trend



of woodland defoliation by gypsy moth.



          Several examples illustrate these points.  In the season just past



(1971), about 480,000 acres in New York were defoliated by the gypsy moth.   Of



this total, 150,400 acres were defoliated in Putnam County.  One of the principal



reasons was that the seriousness of the infestation was not fully known since


                                                   1 8
there was insufficient manpower to survey the area.



          Coupled to the insufficiency of manpower, there existed a problem in



timely legislative action in terms of the New York State budget.  As a result,



the landowner consent forms were mailed later than normal to those individuals



who owned infested and treatable woodlands.  Many were not returned in time for



the final, carefully developed spray treatment program by the Department of



Environmental Conservation.  The lack of the returned landowner consent form was



interpreted, as a matter of policy, as being a lack of consent.  In other years,



it has been interpreted as a lack of interest and hence, tacit acceptance of



pest control treatment.


          Finally, Figure 1.3 schematically delimits differences between



treated and untreated acreage, as well as serving to illustrate an effect associa-



ted with less persistent pesticides.  This area of Long Island was aerially  treated




                                      1-23


                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                                                     DENOTES 1971 DEFOLIATION
                       COURTESY: NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION





Figure 1.3   TREATED AND DEFOLIATED ACREAGE ON PART OF LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK
                                      1-24
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
with a water-borne formulation of Sevin at a rate of 1 lb(active)/acre.  Most




acreage defoliated was not treated.  Most of the treated acreage was not de-




foliated.  However, it should be noted that some defoliation (not severe) did




occur within the treated blocks that were adjacent to untreated woodland.  This




was due to reinfection due to airborne larvae dispersal from adjacent untreated




regions.  Experience in the past with DDT indicates that in similar circumstances,




the chemical persistence of the pesticide would have controlled this reinfection,




wherfcas the greatly decreased chemical persistence of Sevin does not permit




extended protection against the reinfection threat.
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                                A-1.5   References

1.1       Stout,  N.J.,  1958,  Atlas  of  Forestry  in  New York,  State  University
            College of  Forestry  At  Syracuse University.

1.2       Felt,  E.H.,  1905, New  York State  Museum  Memoir  8:   Insects  Affecting
            Park and Woodland Trees, Vol. I, New York State  Education Dept.,
            Albany, N.Y.

1.3       1968,  Gypsy  Moth Control  Manual,  New  York  State Conservation Dept.,
            Bureau of  Forest  Pest Control,  Albany, N.Y.

1.4       White-Stevens,  Robert  (ed.),  1971, Pesticides in the  Environment,
            Chapter 1,  pp 67, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y.

1.5       Annual Report of the New  York State Conservation Department to
            The New York State Legislature,  1911-1971 (inclusive), Albany, N.Y.

1.6       Forbush, E.H.,  Fernald, C.H.,  1896, The  Gypsy Moth, Wright  and
            Potter Printing Co., Boston, Mass.

1.7       New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, letter to
            Mr.  R.M. Klingaman (at  Cornell  Aero. Lab) from Mr.  E.S. Terrell,
            Super. Forest Insect and Disease Control,/s/  J.  H.  Risley,  Associate
            Forester,  Sept.  17,  1971.

1.8       Personal Communication:   E.G.  Terrell, Superintendant, Forest Insect
            and Disease Control, N.Y.  Department of  Environmental Conservation
            to R.M. Klingaman, CAL.
                                      !_26               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                                      A-2




                            APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
          To alert the reader to the scope and content of this section, several




points are prefatorily emphasized.  The discussions and analyses presented in this




section respond to two stated program goals, namely,:




          (1)  a discussion of the techniques of forest pesticide application




               and,




          (2)  examination of these techniques to learn how they tend to




               maximize or minimize pollution problems.




          Since 1945, about 99 % of all forest pesticide treatment in New York has




been accomplished by aerial application.  This technique is successful and presents




a minimum of problems due to rigorous adherence of adequate operational guidelines




that have been carefully evolved over the years.




          Technically, however, the "heart" of aerial application is the atomi-




zation process for which scientific information is somewhat diffuse and widely




scattered in the literature.  This section presents a compilation and analysis of




these data which, hopefully, will be used as foundation material in evaluating




future procedural changes in forest pesticide treatment.




          While this information is highly technical, it has been related to other




aspects of forest pesticide use, e.g., pesticide deposition effects on foliar




surfaces.




          The main point is that there may be increasing scientific and emotional




pressure to make changes in a single element of the atomization equipment without




appreciating the impact of that change on the environment.  We believe that the




following discussion on atomization will serve to further that understanding.





                                      2-1                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                              A-2.1  Introduction


          The application of pesticides by spraying is the predominant method


currently used in forestry and agriculture for directly controlling the size of


pest populations.  Much of this spraying is done with aircraft, both to achieve


timeliness of application and to permit treatment of large areas, often having


limited overland accessibility.  Ground-based spraying accounts for the remainder.


          The very introduction of pesticides into the environment implies


environmental contamination; the important ecological questions, therefore, are


concerned with "how much", "how important is it", "what are the alternatives",


and "how can it be minimized to a tolerable level".   It is now recognized that


through the use of chemicals, agriculture and forestry have been brought into a


highly productive but unstable state.   Chemical pest control has been used


extensively in maintaining this unstable state.  The avoidance of further en-


vironmental contamination is not a matter of simply prohibiting the further use of


pesticides; the consequences of such an action must also be taken into consideration.


          Ultimately, the advantage of pesticide spraying must be weighed against


the disadvantages of its cessation, as well as its hazard to the ecosystem.  With


this in mind, the pesticide spraying operations as currently conducted in New York


for gypsy moth control are reviewed.  Inasmuch as these operations tend to stress


a special case, the discussion in this section also includes some relevant infor-


mation from other areas.  In the weighing process, the most important aspects of


application techniques center on understanding the characteristics of sprays which


are responsible for spray effectiveness and ascertaining the degree of effectiveness


and environmental contamination which has been and might be realized.  This point


of view has generally been appreciated for some time, but some of the charac-


teristics required to quantify spray efficacy and hazards are difficult to measure,

                                      2-2
                                                            EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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particularly in the field.  As a result, empirical approaches, often with incomplete

parameter determination, have dominated the investigative efforts to such an extent

that many of the features which are necessary for determining what is responsible

for what, aside from what might be done, frequently remain unknown.  Further, the

molding of common features in to a consistent and unified scheme is often not pursued

under this approach.  The situation as it relates to insect control is adroitly noted

                                    2 1
in the following statement by Himel. '

               "In spite of a vast array of experimental difficulties,
               the spray application of insecticides has been an un-
               qualified Success in the control of insect populations.
               This success is amply documented in the scientific and
               ancillary literature, but should not be allowed to obscure
               the stark fact that very little is known, unequivocally,
               concerning the mechanism and mode of transport of spray
               droplets to the target.  Furthermore, in the present era,
               success is not enough.  Increasingly complex problems of
               insect control in a co-existing ecosystem have to be
               faced.  Ecological problems are building up and cannot
               be ignored.  It is probable that ecological factors may
               become the overriding consideration in the future allowable
               use of insecticides.  There exists a critical need for more
               fundamental knowledge of the mechanisms of the insecticide
               spray process, and a critical need for a direct analytical
               methodology by which these mechanisms can be determined."

          Something can be said for the empirical approach,  however, because it

produces results of direct utility and permits investigations to be carried  out in

cases where mechanistic characterization is not presently known to be tractable.

Essentially this approach has been followed in New York; the present spraying

techniques and procedures used in the case of gypsy moth have been developed

operationally.  As such, they appear to be capable of achieving success  in gypsy

moth control without gross environmental contamination, yet appear to be weak in

providing understanding which can be utilized in defending current practices or

in deriving improved alternate spraying procedures.



                                      2-3                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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                        A-2.2  The Distribution Process




          The application of pesticides via spraying techniques involves the




following four key processes.




          1.   Atomization.




          2.   Droplet transport from disseminator to target.            :




          3.   Droplet deposition or impaction on the target or other surfaces.




          4.   Mode of pesticide action against the pest to be controlled.




In relation to these processes other factors are involved,  including the pest,  its




origin and habits, the nature of the environment in which it is found,  the  pesti-




cide used, the physical properties of the spray liquid,  meteorological conditions,




and the type, relative location and motion of the system carrying the atomizer(s).




          The atomization process is fundamental to both pesticide spraying




operations and research, as it is the means by which sprays are generated.   In  a




more tangible sense, the aspects of principal importance are concerned with the




characteristics of sprays that can be produced with given devices or techniques,




the nature of control which can be exercised in spray production, and prospects'of




generating or tailoring sprays to conform to a prescribed set of characteristics.




          Droplet sizes and emission rates are essentially the only features of




a spray that can be controlled during spray generation with any given atomizer  of




known design.  The extent of the control is, at best, not very great.  In attempts




to gain such control, a wide variety of atomizers have been designed, and many




are now commercially available.




          The practical realization of what can be achieved in the atomization




process has been far in advance of theory.  The fundamental aspects of atomization




are inherently complex because of the many dimensional variables needed to charac-




terize an atomizer, the wide range in properties of liquids or suspensions which





                                      2-4                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. u)

-------
can be used, the wide variation in dynamics of liquid flow involved, and the



dependence of ejected liquid instability on liquid interactions with the



surrounding medium.  These complexities have thwarted essentially all known



attempts to describe the detailed performance of any atomizer solely in terms



of basic physical parameters.  Correspondingly, the literature concerned with



atomization is very extensive; it has been comprehensively surveyed by


        2.2                   23
DeJuhasz '  and Lapple, et. al ' .  The main progress in atomization charac-



terization has come via a less detailed and sophisticated but more practical



semi-empirical approach using dimensional analysis.  This scheme has benefited,



on the one hand, from guidance obtained through basic studies, and on the other



hand, from performance characteristics experimentally determined for atomizers



of specific designs.  This approach has permitted the correlation of several



parameters which are important in atomizer performance over a rather wide range



of operating conditions.  Such unification is significant in simplifying the



engineering aspects of atomizer performance for spray operators and research



workers alike, and should facilitate the conduct of more detailed mechanistic



investigations of the process of spray transport, deposition, and mode of action.



          The disintegration of a bulk liquid into droplets can be brought about



in several ways which frequently can be distinquished according to the manner



of supplying energy to the liquid to effect breakup.  Atomizers of greatest



interest in pesticide spraying include those which utilize energy arising from



rotary motion, pressure, and the interaction of liquid with high-speed air.  Other



Known types employ thermal, explosive shock, acoustic and electrical energy.  It



is not unusual to find-atomizers which employ a combination of energy sources.



In rotary devices, such as the spinning disk or cup atomizers, energy is obtained



kj-netically from centrifugal action as the liquid is spun off the periphery of a




                                     2-5                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
rotor.  In hydraulic nozzles, including the plain orifice, and 'fan and  cone  spray



types,  the energy  available at the moment of breakup is obtained from pressure



built up  in  the  liquid and released in dynamic expulsion.  Two-fluid nozzles



utilize,  in  addition to pressure expulsion of liquid, high-speed air to achieve



further liquid disruption.  Additional effects of high-speed air on atomization



occur for each of  these types when the atomizers are mounted on a moving aircraft



or  in a blower duct.



          Rotary atomizers are the only known mechanical devices for generating



nearly  monodisperse droplets in sufficient quantities to be practical for use



in  the  field spraying of pesticides.  Their use is presently limited to ultra-



low-volume (ULV) spraying, where application rates of only a few fluid ounces



per acre  are employed.  The corresponding low liquid flow rates are the key to



rotary  atomizer  utility in this case, since the requirement of a very low liquid


                                          • 2 4
feed rate per rotor that Walton and Prewett    found for the production of



droplets  in  a narrow size spectrum can be satisfied, yet by using multiple



rotors  in parallel, practical emission rates can be achieved.  An additional



operational  advantage for rotary atomizers is the facility to change droplet



size with rotor  speed, without the requirement to change liquid feed rate at



the same  time.



          Walton and Prewett advanced the following expression to relate the



various parameters governing droplet size in rotary atomization:
where D is a median drop diameter, J is the surface tension of the liquid, p is



the liquid density, V, is the peripheral speed of the spinning disk, d is  the






                                      2-6                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. H)

-------
disk diameter and C is a constant.  Other detailed investigations of rotary



                                                                      2 5
atomization have been conducted, including those of Friedman, et. al., "   and


             1  2.6
Fraser, et. al.




          For many years there was concern over the unwanted production of small




satellite droplets, in addition to the main droplet output of rotary atomizers.



Customarily, the number of satellite drops increased with increasing feed rate.



Further, at high liquid feed rates the main droplets, themselves, were smaller



than predicted by the drop size expression by Walton and Prewett; often up to



90 % of the total liquid atomized was found in abnormally small droplets.   Bals



reported that both these effects can be accounted for in terms of liquid  surface



tension and the nature of the issuing point on the rotor periphery from which the



liquid is released.



          During the normal build up of liquid to form the primary drop,  the



liquid is attracted by its surface tension to the blunt edge of the rotor.  When



sufficient buildup has occurred, a filament is formed on which the main drop




hangs prior to its release.  Subsequently, this filament shatters into small



droplets of uncontrolled size, forming the satellite droplets.  With high feed



rates, the liquid is ejected directly from the rotor as filaments and the nature



of liquid build up at the rotor edge is different.  These filaments subsequently


                                                     2829
break up in a manner similar to that of a single jet    ' '  .  The drops  so formed



are smaller than predicted by the formula because the dependence of jet breakup



on surface tension is different from that at the rotor edge.



          Bals has shown that by using a rotor with fine teeth at the edge, the



liquid buildup phenomenon encountered in normal rotary atomization is substantially



reduced.  The net effect is to produce considerably smaller droplets at the same








                                    .  2-7                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
 flow  rate, without  the  presence  of  satellite drops.  The degree  of monodispersity



 of  drops  so  formed  is slightly poorer  than  that obtained for normal  rotary



 atomization.


               2  10
          Yeo   '    studied  the drop size distributions from rotary atomizers



 spraying  from  aircraft  and  obtained the following relation for the volume median



 droplet diameter:
where  V is  now the  resultant velocity of the escaping droplet relative to sta-



tionary air,  and  B  is  a  constant.  Presumably this relation accounts for secondary



atomization due to  the shattering effect of the passing airstream through the


                           2. 11
relative velocity V.   Sayer  '   notes that viscosity of the liquid to be atomized



can  be an important parameter affecting rotary atomizer performance, especially



if significant changes in viscosity result from variation in spray liquid temper-



ature.   More  commonly, viscosity influences the drop size results indirectly by



virtue of changes in rotor loading.  This can be overcome using variable flow



control in  the system  to maintain constant rotor loading regardless of viscosity



changes.  Specific  performance data for particular rotary device types has been


                            2.11                    2 12 2 13
given,  for  example, by Sayer '   and Mount, et. al. ,    *



          In  spite  of  the complexity of rotary atomizers, as compared to other



"mechanical  atomizers,  they exhibit considerable potential for droplet size



control in  ULV spraying  operations.  Further investigation of the output of



these  nozzles  in  high  velocity airstreams — particularly when suspensions are



disseminated  — appears  desirable.



          Hydraulic nozzles have been the most widely used types in pesticide



spraying  largely  because of their simplicity and low cost.  The plain orifice




                                      2-8                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  H)

-------
 types have not been viewed with  much  favor  in the  past,  because  small  orifices,



 which are highly  subject  to  plugging,  must  be used to  obtain reasonably  small

                                                 O  1 /
 output droplets.   Recent  work noted by Johnstone '   indicates that  for  herbicide



 application,  the  plain  orifice type nozzle  has the advantage of  producing  a



 narrower range of droplet sizes  than  nozzles  of the fan  or  cone  spray  types.   This



 is  reported  tc hold for both viscous  Newtonian and pseudoplastic non-Newtonian



 liquids.  Unfortunately this effect is known  to occur  only  for sprays  with large



 volume median drop sizes  of  the  order of  1,000 microns.  Hence,  the  result may



 not be of widespread  utility.
., ;


          Both fan and  cone  spray  nozzles have been used and studied rather



 extensively  for  a period  of  several years.  The atomization process  in these two



 types is closely  related, since  at low pressures the nozzle transforms the liquid



 into an unstable  sheet, either flat or conical in  form,  which subsequently



 disintegrates into droplets  of various sizes.

                 o I c         9 1 A
          Dorman  "    and  Yeo "   have both  made a  dimensional analysis of  fan



 nozzle performance, and by using experimental data have  obtained a complete



 solution of  the  equations, yielding a similar relation between the Sauter  mean



 diameter  (D  ) of  the  spray and the physical properties of the spray  liquid.  For
           s


 typical size distributions produced by these  nozzles,  D  is related  to the
                                                       S


 volume median diameter  (D )  by a constant.  Thus both  expressions can  alternately



 be  written for D   instead of D .   Dorman  examined  the  static case, whereas
                v             s


 Yeo examined results  for  nozzles fitted to  aircraft.   Yeo's relation,  therefore,



 which includes the effect of airflow  past the nozzle is  more general.  It  is:
                                       2-9                    EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

-------
where Q is the liquid volume flow rate, V  is the liquid ejection velocity at
                                         Hi

                                                         2.17
the orifice (which has been found by Dombrowski, et. al., "   to be essentially



constant over the extent of the liquid fan), V is the resultant liquid velocity



relative to stationary air, and X is an experimentally determined function.  The



above relation was established for oil formulations over the viscosity range



3 - 12 cp and the surface tension range of 27-37 dynes/cm.


                          2 18
          Fraser, et. al., '   on the basis of combined theoretical-experimental



treatment that considers the breakup of a spray sheet to be due to wave formation,



arrived at a similar functional dependence of D  on the other parameters.



          The practical utility of Yeo's expression in applications requiring



more than a rough estimate of the spray volume median droplet diameter rests



squarely on the accuracy and generality of the "X function.   The particular form



of the X  function determined by Yeo was based mainly on the droplet sizes



obtained from ground deposits of aircraft spray produced with small ceramic



flat fan nozzles with rectangular orifices.  Aircraft altitude was about 30 feet



for all tests.  To our knowledge no serious attempts have been made to check



Yeo's form of X with other nozzle types, liquid properties,  or droplet sizes



representative of the total nozzle output.



          Before pursuing this question further, it is significant to note the


                                2.19-2.22
recent work of Ford and Furmidge          dealing with effects of viscosity on



droplet sizes produced by flat fan nozzles.  They found that the volume median



droplet diameters produced were a function of the flow parameters given in Yeo's



expression and, in addition, depended on the region of the  liquid fan from which



the droplets originated.  There are basically two regions of concern; the thin



liquid sheet which forms the central part of the liquid fan and the edges of  the



fan,  which because of liquid surface tension tend to become curved cylindrical




                                     2-10                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.

-------
ligaments.   The droplet sizes originating from the sheet and the ligaments are



different;  typically those arising from the ligaments are larger.  In turn, the



volume median droplet diameter of the spray output, as well as the complete size



distribution, depends on how the total liquid output is divided between the two



regions.  Ford and Furmidge characterize this division, and hence the flow



properties of liquid through a fan nozzle, in terms of four ranges of Reynolds



number.  These four ranges correspond to fully turbulent flow, transition flow,



laminar flow with sheet formation, and laminar flow with only ligaments present.



Two expressions are then required for expressing median droplet sizes for static



or slowly moving nozzles.  For sheet breakup:
                                  ——•	 / = constant,

                         11 PI ¥3 v   '      '



and for ligament breakup:
                            D
                           	  \	  /  = constant

                            A   \   r\



where    A =(	—]   is the diameter of the ligaments.

             \TTVj



Further, Q  is the volume flow rate of liquid into the sheet, r  is the length
          s


of the sheet from the nozzle to the point of breakup, J is the actual spray fan



angle, h  is the liquid viscosity, and Q  is the volume rate of flow into the



ligaments.  In the case of rapidly moving nozzles one might expect the constant



on the right hand side of each expression to be replaced by functions X —-y- ,



similar to that used by Yeo, to account for airstream interactions.  The form of



these functions are unknown.

                      (T 3'p V 2\^3
                      	L £  j  represents a sheet instability term which is



directly related to Reynolds number, and hence viscosity.  The requirement  to





                                     2-11                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
know both this factor and the relative proportion of liquid which enters the



central sheet and ligaments presents practical difficulties.  These quantities



for various nozzles or series of nozzles commonly used are not known to have been



measured in the laboratory.  Further, the nozzle design, manufacturing imperfec-



tions and operating pressure can in principle have a significant effect on the



spray characteristics.


                                           2 23
          The opinion expressed by Thompson '    that "the number of variables in



jet-type spray nozzles seems to indicate that this nozzle is poorly suited to



applying insecticides at LV (low-volume) and ULV rates" is not without some



foundation:  yet there are mediating aspects.   For Reynolds numbers above a



certain value (Re greater than 500 in the cases examined by Ford and Furmidge)  the



instability factor appears to be nearly constant and Yeo's expression allegedly



applies.  This case is of primary interest for low viscosity liquids and high



liquid ejection velocities.  Secondly, the working tolerances and degree of



quality control exercised by reputable nozzle manufacturers are quite good.



Manufacturing imperfections are kept to a minimum.  Operator-induced imperfections



resulting from cleaning a nozzle orifice with a sharp instrument are likely to



be more of a problem; such procedures are simply not tolerable.  Thirdly, it is



seldom, in practical pesticide spraying operations, that a single nozzle is



employed.  Routinely, a bank of 10 or more nozzles are used in aircraft spraying



and imperfections will tend to influence the breadth of the size distribution



rather than an average spray parameter such as the volume median diameter.  If a



single nozzle is used it may be necessary to calibrate it separately.  Nozzle



wear, unfortunately, is" a factor which cannot be completely overcome.  Its effects



can be minimized by employing nozzles with orifices made from very durable



materials such as tungsten carbide — but the cost is rather high.  Another





                                     2-12                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

-------
alternate is planned replacement after  a  given  amount  of nozzle  operating  time.


There appears to be little one can do to  salvage  a worn out nozzle.


          Reverting to the consideration  of Yeo'sX  function,  it now becomes


more apparent why it generality is of interest.   A preliminary comparison  of

                                                               0 0 /
Yeo's function  (converted .to D ) with data of Isler  and Carlton     and Mount,

        2 25
et. al., '   for Spraying Systems Co.   Tee Jet  fan nozzles with  elliptical


orifices in the 80° series is shown in  Figure 2.1.   It is immediately apparent


that something is different.


          In the case of Isler and Carlton's data, the ranges  of variation of


parameters is nearly the same as Yeo's  except for slightly higher airspeeds and


aircraft altitudes of 50 - 100 ft instead of 30 ft.  There are some differences


in droplet sizing techniques, but both  involved sizing from spray deposits on the


ground, and this would not be expected  to significantly alter  the results.  The


most likely sources for the variation are differences in nozzle  types or spray


altitude.  Since the general nature of  the functional dependence of the factor


involving size with V_/V is the same, the difference is tentatively attributed to
                     £i

spray altitude.  Spray release altitude can alter the sizes of droplets deposited


on the ground through the cumulative effects of both spray drift and evaporation.


          In the case of Mount's data,  the difference is almost  certainly due


to the way the spray droplets were sized, and the difference in viscosity of the

                           /
spray liquid.   Mount and his co-workers collected droplets of 95 % technical


malathion by impaction directly in the spray output of a nozzle mounted at


various angles in a blower airstream.  This simulated scheme gave results which


compared well with the corresponding ones obtained from aircraft dispersal.


          As it stands, therefore, it appears that Yeo'sX function is of direct


utility only when the original conditions for which it was derived are closely



                                     2-13                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
I.U
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
/Q <
-------
duplicated.  In addition, it seems that the prospect of obtaining such a function




with greater generality depends on basing it on the total size spectrum from




a nozzle or series of nozzles, rather than on the spray which deposits on the




ground after experiencing a variable amount of evaporation and drift.  Such a




treatment should also incorporate considerations of viscosity affects, probably




along lines similar to those employed by Ford and Furmidge.




          A preliminary indication of the. type of conformity that can be achieved




solely by using the Ford and Furmidge type of expression for sheet breakup is shown



in Figure 2.2.  The ordinate parameter group in Figure 2.2 includes the nozzle




discharge coefficient C .  These results were obtained by "back solving" for the




instability factor using the measured (or extrapolated) volume mean diameter at




V /V = 1 and normalizing the "X function to unity at this point.  Available data
 LJ



are not sufficient to allow the complete dependence of the instability factor with




Reynolds number to be estabished this way.  However, for each nozzle type examined,




the results — combined with available drop size data for water — appear to




qualitatively follow the type of variation found by Ford and Furmidge.




          It will be noted that the preceding discussion is limited almost solely




to the volume median droplet size rather than the complete size distribution.




Data on complete size distributions for various fan nozzles types are relatively


               2 ?ft                 2 27                    2 25
scarce.  Hedden '  , Tate and Jansen '   and Mount, et. al., '   give some re-




presentative data.  In addition, the Spraying Systems Co. and the Delevan Manu-




facturing Co., for example, have generated some of these data for certain types




of fan (and cone) nozzles under static conditions using water.  To date there are




no known investigations which have been successful in relating the complete size




distribution to operational parameters of fan nozzles, even under static conditions,








                                      2-15                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
                 1.0

                 0.8
                 0.2
                 0.1
                             O  T8010    ISLER & CARLTON *
                             •D  T8004    ISLER & CARLTON *
                             A  T80015   MOUNT, et. al. **
                  0.1
0.2      0.3   0.4   0.5 0.6    0.8  1.0
        vE/v
        «REF. 2.24
       *»REF. 2.25

Figure 2.2    PERFORMANCE CORRELATION OF FLAT FAN NOZZLES MOUNTED
            ON MOVING AIRCRAFT BY MODIFIED FORD AND FURMIDGE METHOD
                                  2-16
                                                      EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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Such a result would be of some significance in atomization theory, but its



practical utility is not clear at the moment because typically, fan nozzles



produce a rather broad-size spectrum and the current trend (or desire) in pesticide



spraying is toward the use of sprays in a narrow size range.   The answer to the



question of which is better does not lie within the realm of the atomization



process; it must come from other sources.



          Hollow cone spray nozzle performance has also been examined by various


                         2 28         2 29 2 30                    2 31
workers, including Knight '   Radcliff    ' '  , Nelson and Stevens '  , and Ford


            2.22
and Furmidge    .  Several practical aspects of atomizer design and performance


                      2 32                     2 33                     2 34
are discussed by Joyce "  , Giffen and Muraszew '  , and Fraser, et. al.    .   In



principle, the atomization of a conical sheet of liquid produced by a cone nozzle



is somewhat easier to treat than the flat sheet because edge ligaments do not exist.



The production of the sheet itself, however, appears to be related in more complex



way to the atomizer details (e.g., see Nelson and Stevens, and Radcliff).


                           2.22
          Ford and Furmidge     found the variation spray droplet size with



viscosity to be similar to that noted previously for fan nozzles.  The results



can be considered in terms of three ranges of Reynolds number which correspond



to turbulent flow in the conical liquid sheet, transition flow in the sheet, and



laminar flow.  As the Reynolds numbers become small, which corresponds to vis-



cosity becoming large, the angle of the cone becomes smaller and the droplet



sizes increase.  When the viscosity becomes quite large a conical sheet is no



longer formed, and the droplets become quite large.



          The expression obtained by Ford and Furmidge relating the various



parameters to volume median droplet D  size for a static or slowly moving cone




nozzle is:







                                     2-17                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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where  Q is  the total volume  emission  rate of  liquid, V_  is  the velocity with which
                                                       Ji


the  liquid  is  ejected from the  nozzle, ^ is the length of the sheet from  the



orifice to  the point of  breakup, ex. is  the cone angle  of the sheet, and other



quantities  are the  same  as in the  fan nozzle  case.



          For  a nozzle moving at a relatively high speed in air, or spraying



into a high speed air stream, it is expected  that the  constant on the right hand



side of the above expression should be  replaced by a function X  (   f )  similar
                          9  1 (\
 to that introduced  by Yeo '   .   For  cone nozzles the form of the "X function



 is unknown.



           Practical application  of the preceding droplet size expressions requires



 information  on  the  sheet  dimensions A and c*, or alternately "back solution"



 for the initiability term from measured volume median diameters.  Sufficient data



 are not known to  be available to permit this to be carried out at present.



           Also, the published information does not seem to be sufficient to



 characterize the  X   function for cone nozzles, but preliminary examination of


                                               2 24
 this matter  using the data  of Isler  and Carlton '   and the expressions of Ford


             2 22
 and Furmidge '    suggest  that the nature of  this X function may be somewhat



-different  from  that indicated for fan nozzles.



           For cone  nozzles  the available data on droplet sizes are rather meager.



 In addition  to manufacturers data noted earlier, some information  is available


                                                                       2 35
 from the actual and simulated field  tests conducted by Coutts and Yates  '   ,


                ? of;                   2 25
 Butler,  et.  al.,  '    and  Mount,  et.  al., '   .  Typical droplet size distributions



 expected using a  D6-46 hollow cone nozzle spraying water into still air and into





                                      2-18                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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moving air are shown in Figure 2.3.  In this figure,£ is the angle which the



nozzle makes with the thrust line of a fixed wing aircraft.  For 6=0° the nozzle



axis is directed into the airstream; for 6 = 90° it is directed vertically



downward.




          Hollow cone nozzles have been used rather widely in aerial spraying



operations, in part because of the convenience in using various combinations of



disks and cores to achieve desired application rates and, hopefully, the correct


                                              2 11
droplet size suited to the application.  Sayer '   has compared the spread of



droplet sizes obtained on ground deposits from sprays of fan, hollow cone and



spinning disk atomizers and finds the spread generally to decrease in the same



sequence as this order of nozzle type.



          The last type atomizer which has been considered for pesticide spraying



is the two-fluid system.  Each of the preceding types have been viewed in the two-



fluid sense also because of their interaction with high speed air when mounted on



aircraft or in a blower duct.  Mounting any one of the previously noted hydraulic



nozzles in a blower duct essentially constitutes what is involved in configuring



a mist blower, although other design considerations are usually involved as well.



The high speed air employed in mist blowers can often be channelled for greater



interaction with the ejected liquid than is customarily obtained in the aircraft



case, so smaller droplet sizes can be achieved.  One additional control aspect of



spray ejected from mist blowers not readily obtained in aerial spraying, is the



ability to direct the spray (a small amount of spray directively is realized, of



course, when spraying from slowly moving helicopters near the ground).



          The classical form of two-fluid nozzle system, known as a pneumatic



atomizer,  in which air and liquid are closely coupled for maximum interaction has






                                     2-19                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

-------
 1000

  800


  600

  500
O
CC
O
  400
  300
cc
01
  200
  100

   80


   60
                          i    i        i
                          	*	!—	r--
                                           -i	.--.	4	.____J	i__	_	___J	___„
                          STILL AIR 40 PSIG (EST)
                          STILL AIR 60 PSIG (SPRAYING SYS. CO. DATA)
                          100 MPH 40 PSIG (9 = 180°)
                          100 MPH 40 PSIG (6 = 135°)
                          100 MPH 40 PSIG (6 = 90°)
                          100 MPH 40 PSIG (6 = 0°)
          COUTTS AND
          YATES*
    0.1 0.2  0.5   1

      »REF. 2.35
      Figure 2.3
              10     20   30  40   50  60
               CUMULATIVE MASS PERCENT
70   80
90
95
98
TYPICAL DROPLET MASS-SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS EXPECTED FOR
D6-46 HOLLOW CONE NOZZLE SPRAYING WATER
                                       2-20
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

-------
orily received exploratory attention in pesticide spraying to the present time.



This type system has the potential for producing spray droplets down to a



ftew microns in diameter when properly driven, and may be of interest if future



investigations should indicate that very small droplets are required.


                                                        0 ^7
          Until the very, recent work of Kim and Marshall    , the quantitative



expressions developed to characterize pneumatic nozzle output were far from



satisfactory.  These investigators appear to have accomplished a "first" in



atomization investigations by successfully describing the atomizing characteristics



— including both the median diameters as well as the complete mass size distri-



bution — for a class of convergent - type nozzles in terms of operating conditions



and relatively simple dimensions of the atomizer.  Their results are not quoted



here, but reference to their original paper should be made if this area becomes



of interest in pesticide spraying.



          A final remark in connection with the atomization process seems in



order.  Considerable effort ovet the past few years has been expended in attempts



to use spray adjuvantsj duch as spray thickness, invert emulsions, etc. to give



the liquids to be atomized a non-Newtonian character.  Typically pseudoplastic



behavior is sought in which viscosity decreases with increasing shear.   The



immediate goal of these efforts is to achieve larger droplets than are obtainable



with Newtonian liquids of the same surface tension when sprayed through the same



tiozzle.  The alleged benefit of this approach, through the elimination of small



droplets, is to acquire droplet size control, and in the case of aerial spraying



to reduce drift.  Indications are that while small droplet production is reduced,


                                         2 38
small droplets are not eliminated.  Bouse     further notes that "narrower swaths,



less uniform distribution patterns and fewer droplets per unit area for a given







                                     2-21                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
application rate are undesirable consequences of the use of large drops.  Higher




rates of application are sometimes required to compensate for the reduction in




droplet numbers in order to obtain adequate spray coverage on the foliage".




          There is little question that drift, coverage, and droplet sizes




produced are interrelated, but there is no clear cut evidence to indicate that




going to larger droplet sizes to reduce drift will at the same time either




increase pesticide efficacy or reduce environmental contamination in the area




where the spraying is done.  The critical feature involved is one of efficiency




of the pesticide itself; the physical form - once reasonable coverage is




achieved - is important primarily to the extent that it effects pesticide




efficacy.  The optimum droplet size for pesticide spray droplets, therefore,




is the size that gives maximum pest control with minimum amount of pesticide and




minimum environmental contamination.




          The determination of such an optimum size - if indeed one exists for




each pest or certain classes of pests - is not an atomization problem, but does




involve the process of droplet interaction with the target or pest as well as




the mode of pesticide action.  Answers to the question of what is an optimum




droplet size have stimulated much controversy.  Such answers are not easily




obtained, but the techniques employed for this type investigation received a



                                                                           2 39
significant boost through the introduction of the FP tracer method by Himel '




          The controversy centers around the utility of small droplets in roughly




the 5 to 100 micron size range.  If it should be resolved that such small droplets




are highly effective in pest control, which is indicated for certain pests in the




work reported by MacCuaig '  , Himel and Moore '  ' '   , Himel '  , and Mount     ,




then conventional spraying techniques and equipment would be completely mismatched

                                                                                *


in terms of producing droplet sizes of interest.  Most of the sprays produced with




                                     2-22                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. H)

-------
current equipment emphasizes the large droplet spectrum.  It may well be that



the bulk of the spray so produced do little but contaminate the environment.



Obviously, if this should prove to be the case, then conventional aircraft



spraying likely could not cope with the drift problem and the introduction of



new delivery techniques - perhaps still using aircraft as the delivery system -



would need to be developed.



          The question of what droplet sizes of pesticide give the greatest pest



mortality, and the way the pest should be attacked to achieve such results are



probably the most needed information in this area.  Application techniques should



then be considered accordingly.



          The process of transporting spray droplets from an atomizer to the



target is largely a problem involving meteorology, especially for aerial spraying,



but one which has not yet been solved to most workers satisfaction.   It is a very



complex problem in general because of the difficulties in characterizing the



atmospheric microstructure in the vicinity of small plants, brush and trees.



Droplet transport as it applies to aerial spraying operations in New York is



discussed in a later section of this report.



          The terminal nature of this transport process, in which droplets



interact with or penetrate trees and forest foliage has been considered, for


                        n  2.45  „ .    .  .2.46,2.47  T ,     2.48  _       ,
example, by Davis, et. al.,    , Maksymiuk         , Johnson    , Frear and



Asquith    , Bouse     and Himel   .   Some of the fundamental aspects of droplet


                                                 2.50
impaction on foliage have been summarized by David



          Bouse examined the penetration of large droplet aerial sprays of water



through the canopy of 40-ft tall oaks and an underlying layer of 15-ft tall



yaupon foliage.   The effect of mass (or volume) median diameter on penetration



is shown in Figure 2.4.   The spray application rate in this work was typically



                                     2-23                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
    60
    50
  2 40
  Q
  < 30
  DC
  LLJ
    20
    10
OAK CANOPY
                  1000          2000           3000

                    MASS MEDIAN DIAMETER, MICRONS
                                   4000
Figure 2.4    EFFECT OF MASS MEDIAN DIAMETER ON PERCENT OF DROPS
           PENETRATING THE FOLIAGE CANOPIES (FROM BOUSE 2.38)
                              2-24
                                                EQ-5025-E|-2 (Vol.  II)

-------
about 4 gallons per acre, which when coupled with the large droplet sizes



employed suggests that increasing penetration with droplet size may be due



primarily to liquid run-off from upper foliage.  This appears relevant, because



impaction and retention of droplets with sizes in the range of about 150 to 500



microns (smaller than the sizes used by Bouse) may be limited primarily to the


                                                  2 1
outer layers foliage layers, as indicated by Himel * .  For deciduous tree



species, droplets larger than about 150 microns would also be expected to deposit



on ground level foliage in the open, or directly on the ground.  This part of



the spray would be expected to contribute mainly to environmental contamination.



          Aerial spray droplet impaction data taken from foliage samples on a


                                                                       9.43
coniferous type tree using the FP tracer method has been given by Himel"    and



is noted in Table 2.1.  No droplets smaller than 39 microns were included in



the count, but Himel notes that a very large number of droplets in the 21 to 30



micron size range was present on all collected specimens of foliage and bark.



The spray employed had a D    of 350 microns and an D  of 144 microns.
     v  J   *  J          max                        v
                                     2-25                   EQ-2052-D-2  (Vol. II)

-------
TABLE 2.1  SPRAY-DROPLET DISTRIBUTION ON A 22-FT DOUGLAS FIR TREE
Sample
location

Crown apex

Lateral branches at 15-ft height
Terminal
Center
Base
Lateral branches at 10-ft height
Terminal
Center
Base
Lateral branches at ground level
Terminal
Center
Base
Part
Sam-
pled
needles
bark

needles
needles
needles

needles
needles
needles

needles
needles
needles
D
max

155
115

150
107
92

120
95
105

102
97
94
D
avg
97
64

97
76
67

93
64
73

64
64
64
No.
droplets
counted

431


56
57
33

41
28
35

40
45
85
                              2-26
EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          Again droplets larger than about 150 microns will be significant in

environmental contamination.

          It appears that the foliage in a forest acts as a size selection mechan-

ism for pesticide spray droplets that are applied from above the canopy.  Evidently

there has been some degree of protection afforded the forest pests from aerial

pesticide sprays applied in the past, because complete pest eradication has

never been achieved.  Just how significant this protection is, is not. known,  but

it undoubtedly varies somewhat with forest type and pest species.  The prospects

for altering this screening effect are not good as long as sprays must penetrate

the canopy from above.  If spray were released in or below the canopy the effect

may largely disappear.  Droplet fallout on the ground would be enhanced, however,

unless small droplet sizes were employed.  If droplet impaction on the foliage

is important in the mode of pesticide action against the pest it is possible

that electrostatic charging of the spray could be beneficial.  The use of

charged sprays has been explored in agriculture and,  while the results are not

always consistent, charging does not degrade impaction on foliage and usually

                                                                            2.51 2.52
enhances it.  Investigations in this area include the work of Bowan, et. al.     '

Law and Bowen '  , Roth and Porterfield, '   Sasser '   and Splinter.

          What is required for efficient attack of a particular pest is quite

important in view of the preceding mechanistic factors which influence the

ability of sprays to penetrate the environment where the pest exists.  In rather

&e..c.ral terms Johnstone  '   has outlined certain modes of pesticide action

in the following statement.

          "The liquid toxicant may, for instance, act directly by penetration
          into and thereby poisoning or disrupting the metabolism of the
          organism, i.e. direct contact action.  This is the normal mode
          for much herbicidal activity, some fungicides and a few insecticides.
          Alternatively, the toxicant may act indirectly through residual
          activity.  For example, in the case of many insecticides, the action


                                     2-27                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
          may either be by pick-up of the toxic deposit as the pest concerned
          traverses a contaminated surface, or by stomach action following
          consumption of contaminated foliage.  The toxicant may also act in
          less obvious ways; for example, by fumigant effects from materials
          with relatively high vapour pressures."

          At this point it is useful to restrict further discussion specifically

to the gypsy moth, a pest of principal concern in northeastern forests,  and to

pesticide spraying conducted in New York for its control.
         A-2.3  Pesticide Application Techniques Used in New York State

          In New York, pesticides for gypsy moth control are applied by spraying

selected forested areas, which through annual egg-mass count surveys (conducted

during the fall or winter by personnel of the state Bureau of Forest Insect  and

Disease Control) are known to have high levels of gypsy moth infestations.   Only

about 25 % the forested areas in New York are under state jurisdiction and it  is

state policy to obtain written consent from landowners before spraying privately

owned property.  Most of the spraying is done by state-owned or state-contracted

aircraft.  Of the total 5.8 million acres which have been treated since 1945,

about 99 % has been treated by airborne application using both fixed-wing and

helicopter aircraft and component boom and nozzle technique.  The remaining  1  %

has been treated using ground-based equipment — vehicle-mounted or man-portable

mist blowers.  Ground-based spraying is carried out chiefly in suburban and

recreational areas, where a greater degree of spatial control of pesticide

application must be exercised.

          The gypsy moth is currently attacked via droplets of pesticide spray

impacted and retained on leaf surfaces.  During the caterpillar or larval stage

of its life cycle, which occurs in May and June, the gypsy moth is a voracious

leaf-eater, and the pesticide acts as an intestinal poison, following leaf

ingestion.                             2'28                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  H)

-------
          The pesticide used in all the early aerial spray work was DDT dissolved


in oil.   It was initially applied at a rate of 1 Ib in 1 gal/acre and later reduced


to half  this concentration.  In 1959 Sevin, a less persistent pesticide, was found


to be highly toxic to gypsy moth '  ~ '   and its use soon became extensive; it


completely replaced DDT by 1966.  The first aerial spraying lasts and early work


with Sevin used a formulation of 1 Ib active Sevin (1.2 Ib of 85 % Sevin) plus 4


4 oz of  sticker in 1 gal of no. 2 fuel oil.  Adequate gypsy moth control was obtained


where this formulation was applied in aerial sprays of 175 microns volume median


diameter at a rate of 1 Ib/acre.  Half of this rate did not give sufficient con-


trol.  Similar oil-based formulations including Sevin-4-Flowable have been and

                                              9 f\C\ 7 61
are still used to some extent outside New York    '


          Because of the objectionable slick formation with the oil-based formulas,


water-based spray was tested.  It was determined that water-based sprays gave

                                                                  *y (**) O fi *3
adequate control when applied by air at rates of 0.5 and 1 Ib/acre    '


Results  of these tests are given in Tables 2.II and 2.III.


          Curiously, in New York essentially the same formulation is now used,


consisting of 1.25 Ib Sevin SOS and 4.0 oz of Pinolene 1882 sticker in sufficient


water to make 1 gal, and it is applied at a rate of 1 Ib/acre twice the rate shown


to be required.  Simple mental calculations thus reveal that at an application


rate of  0.5 Ib/acre, twice the total area could be treated with the same total


amount of pesticide, or alternately, the same area with half the total amount.


For mist blower operations the application rate is about 10 to 15 Ib/acre.


          How low the application rate of active carbaryl can be and still achieve



gypsy moth control is apparently not well known.  Connola '   has stressed the


importance of conducting tests at rates of 0.25 Ib/acre (and smaller rates if



warranted) for this purpose.


                                     2-29                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
                                                         Table 2.II

           POST-HATCH TREATMENT, 1963 AIRPLANE SPRAY TESTS WITH SEVIN AND STICKERS AGAINST GYPSY MOTH IN NEW YORK
Plot
No.
4
5
6
7
8
9
Acres
100
55
80
705
190
365
Date
Sprayed
5/31
5/31
5/31
5/31
5/28
5/31
Amount Sevin
Per Acre
1/2 Ib. + 3 ozs.
"Lovo" 192
1/2 Ib. + 3 ozs.
Fish oil
1/2 Ib. + 3 ozs.
"Ortho" sticker
1 Ib. + 1 oz.
Tung oil
4/5 Ib. + 1 oz.
1 Ib. no sticker
Spray Deposit
satisfactory
satisfactory
satisfactory
satisfactory
unsatisfactory
satisfactory
Estimated Egg
Masses Per Acre
Pre-spray
2128
2088
5384
2904
984
2118
Post-Spray
0
0
24
0
Unsatisfj
18
. Counted Egg
Masses Per Acre
Post-Spray
0
0
6
0
ictory Test
61
txi
I

Ln

O
O


NJ
Possibility of protected unhatched old egg masses.
<
o

-------
                                                        TABLE 2.Ill
          POST-HATCH TREATMENT, 1965 AIRPLANE SPRAY TESTS WITH SEVIN AND STICKERS AGAINST GYPSY MOTH IN NEW YORK
Plot
no.

1
2
3
4
5
Acres

160
1150
110
150
150
Date
Treated

6/7
6/11-6/12
6/12
6/7
6/12
Additives to
formulations of 1/2 Ib.
carbaryl in 1 gal. spray3 >°

4 oz. Pinolene no. 1882
4 oz. Pinolene no. 1909
4 oz. Ucar Latex no. 40
No sticker
7 oz. Ucar Latex no. 680
Post spray
rainfall on
plot to
6/25 (in.)

1.07
0.62
1.14
1.34
1.90
Avg. estimated no. of
egg masses/1/10 acre
Pre-Spray

184.6
245.8
336.8
553.6
773.6
Post-Spray

0.0
0.0
0.8
4.8
0.0
fc_J  S*
,0   Spray dosage was  1 gal of spray/acre.

o  b,
    All  formulations were active Sevin in 1 gal. of aqueous spray.
o

to
<
O

-------
           In all known work on gypsy  moth  toxicity,  there  is  a  notable  lack of

 diet-based dose-response  data.   The effectiveness of Sevin sprays  and amounts

 required per acre have essentially been  established  in  the field for particular

 modes  of spray operation  and pest attack.  The shortcomings of  this approach

 become apparent when one  attempts to  examine alternate  spray  operations and attack

 modes.   In addition, dose-response data  for topical  application of Sevin and

 several other pesticides  against gypsy moth larvae have only  recently been
           f\ fc
 determined '   .   The contact effectiveness of Sevin  was implicit, however,  in
                    f\ fr\
 the work of Connola '   im which Sevin was applied on infested areas prior  to  egg

 hatch.   Unfortunately, topical application and contact  effectiveness are not

 necessarily equivalent.   For example, it has been observed that for the first

 instar of Pieris larvae on cotton the median lethal  dose due  solely to pickup  is

 particle-size dependent '   .   A similar  effect has been observed by Lyon "   in

 the case of bark beetles.   Whether such  an effect exists for  the gypsy moth in its

 first  instar is not known,  but  if so, it would offer an alternate approach  to  the

 current use of deposited  droplets on  foliage.  By utilizing a combination of diet

 and contact response,  the timing of spray application could become much less

 critical.   In a trial  conducted in early May, 1962,  in New York Sevin was applied

 at  a rate of 0.5 Ib/acre  with sticker, before foliation and before hatching of the

 gypsy  moth larvae.   Good  control was achieved; presumably  through pickup of Sevin

'by  the emerging larvae in their travel to the emerging  foliage.

           The aircraft and aerial dispensing equipment  used in New York are

 conventional.   The Stearman biplane and  some of the  more recent fixed-wing

 agricultural aircraft  types have been employed for small plot spray work.   The

 bulk of the spray operations,  however, are now carried  out using the Grumman TBM

 and helicopters.   Typical nozzle and boom arrangements  for low volume spraying

                                    2-32                    EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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are used.   Spraying specifications call for use of Spraying Systems Company dia-
phragm type quick-acting on/off valves together with D8-45 hollow cone nozzle
discs and  cores.   Various other nozzle types have been used including the flat
fan tips 8002E-80Q4E and the hollow cone combinations D6-46, D7-56, D8-56 and
D10-25.  Available information indicates that water-formulated spray drops pro-
duced at the aircraft using these nozzle types have volume mean diamef —^ in the
range of 200 to 500 microns.  The mass size distribution of carbaryl typically
used in the water formulation is shown in Figure 2.5.  Spray uniformity  is
checked prior to the spray season using an array of horizontal ground impaction
cards covering the full width of the spray swath.  Flow rate is calibrated
simultaneously.  Spray droplet diameters are established by state personnel to
be in the  range of 150 to 200 microns volume mean diameter upon impaction on forest
foliage.  Aircraft operating conditions are typically 80 to 100 mph at 75 ft above
the foliar level.
          Mist blowers employed in gypsy moth control are usually contracted
machines which are also employed at other times for other pests.  Typically these
machines employ either an axial-flow or squirrel cage fan to produce an  air
stream with exit speed of 110-160 mph.  For specificity, the characteristics
of one rather widely used machine, the John Bean Rotomist 100 (Manufactured by
John Bean  Div. FMC Corporation, Jamesboro, Ark.) is shown below.
          Air discharge rate                 28,000 ft /min
          Air speed at exit orifice             100 mph
          Engine 172 cu in                       67 hp
          Fan Size                               29 in dia
          Frequently there is some difficulty in obtaining even spray coverage
on trees with any of these machines, but especially if blowers of inadequate

                                     2-33                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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                 10     20   30  40  50   60   70   80
                       CUMULATIVE MASS - PERCENT
   90   95
98
Figure 2.5    TYPICAL PARTICLE MASS-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SEVIN 808
                                2-34
EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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             9 f\~l
size are used '   .   The usual problem is that 2-5 times as much .material may be


deposited on lower branches as in the tops of the trees.  The proper combination


of air blast and droplet sizes ejected are important in obtaining good coverage.


For the noted system, typically about 80 % of the spray output (water) consists


of droplets in the 50 - 100 micron size range.  Tests made at the Cornell University


indicated that about 70 % of the spray, applied at a rate of 60 gal/acre was


accounted for on above-ground tree surfaces.  This figure dropped to 75 % when


the application rate was increased to AOO gal/acre.


          Hydraulic sprayers have been used in the past in New York but currently


their use is very minimal.  Typically these units were carried on large trucks


together with a spray tank containing 300 - 600 gal.  The pump units were con-


nected to hand-operated spray guns by up to 200 ft of high-pressure hose.  In


practice, the spray gun operator walked around the tree outside the drip line


shooting short bursts of spray into the foliage and over the tree to cover both


the top and bottom of the leaves, branches and tree trunks.  Spray pressures of

         2
650 Ib/in  were used and 30 - 40 gal of finished spray/acre were required to obtain


coverage to the point of runoff.


          The doctrine and definitive procedures for forest spraying operations


are set forth in the Gypsy Moth Control Manual distributed by the New York State


Department of environmental conservation.  This manual is currently being re-


vised to include current standard practices.  The manual is closely followed in


all aerial and ground spraying operations conducted by the State, and this pro-


cedure appears to give adequate coverage of operational matters.  Inasmuch as this


control manual is detailed and extensive in its coverage of topics, ranging from


public relations to technical calibration topics, and from detailed job descriptions





                                      2-35                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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to individual forms which are submitted for each operation, no attempt is made




here to reproduce it in its entirety or in sections.




          The adherence to regulations during spray operations is facilitated




in that such operations are under the direct control and supervision of career




foresters.  Except for Spate-contracted pilots, who also come under the same




supervision, the spray operations are also staffed by career personnel.  In




particular, strict rules are enforced relating to the following:




          1.   No spraying is to be done over water or open land or




               residential areas (see Figure 2.6).




          2.   The minimum acreage to be sprayed by air is a 50-acre




               plot.




          3.   Forest areas to be sprayed only include those where ground




               surveys indicate a total egg-mass count of 500 or more




               per acre.  Records are kept of all spraying operations.




          A.   Notification is given to local residents regarding spray




               operations and what to expect.




          5.   Proper meteorological conditions must be met or spraying




               operations are terminated.  In order to meet near-zero-wind,




               high relative humidity, and temperature conditions to




               minimize drift, most spraying is done in early morning or




               late evening.
                                     2-36                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol  II)

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                     COURTESY: NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF
                              ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Figure 2.6    SPRAY CUTOFF NEAR WATER
                 2-37
                                     EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                               A-2.4  REFERENCES
2.1       Himel, C.M., 1969, New Concepts in Insecticides for Silviculture
            and Old Concepts Revisited, Proc. 4th Int. Agric. Aviat.
            Congr. (Kingston 1969): 275-281.

2.2       DeJuhasz, K.J., 1959, Spray Literature Abstracts, Vol. I,
            Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1964, Spray Literature Abstracts,
            Vol. II, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1967, Spray Literature
            Abstracts, Vol. Ill, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1969, Spray
            Literature Abstracts, Vol. IV, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs.

2.3       Lapple, C.E., J.P. Henry and D.E. Blake, 1967, Atomization - A
            Survey and Critique of the Literature, Stanford Res. Inst.
            Tech. Rept. No. 6.

2.4       Walton, W.H. and W.C. Prewett, 1949, The Production of Spray
            and Mists of Uniform Drop Size by Means of Spinning Disc
            Type Sprayers, Proc. Phys. Soc. B62(6) No. 354B, pp 341.

2.5       Friedman, S.J., F.A. Gluckert and W.R. Marshall, Jr., 1952,
            Centrifugal Disk Atomization, Chem. Engr. Progr. 48(4), 181.

2.6       Fraser, R.P., N. Dombrowski, and J.H. Routley, 1963, Performance
            Characteristics of Rotary Cup Blast Atomizers, J. Int.
            Fuel 36(271), pp 316.

2.7       Bals, E.J., 1969, Design of Rotary Atomizers, Proc. 4th Int.
            Agric. Aviat. Congr. (Kingston, 1969), pp 156.

2.8       Rayleigh, Lord, 1878, On the Instability of Jets, Proc. London
            Math Soc. 10, pp 4.

2.9       Tyler, E., 1933, Instability of Liquid Jets, Phil. Mag. 16,
            pp 504.

2.10      Yeo, D., 1961, Assessments of Rotary Atomizers Fitted to Cessna
            Aircraft, Agric. Avia.  3, pp 131.

2.11      Sayer, H.J., 1969, Ultra-low Volume Spraying Systems Comparison
            and Assessment, Agric.  Avia. 11(3), pp 78.

2.12      Mount, G.A., C.S. Lofgren, K.F. Baldwin and N.W. Pierce, 1970,
            Droplet Size and Mosquito Kill with Ultra-low Volume Aerial
            Sprays Dispersed from a Rotary-Disc Nozzle, Mosquito News
            30(3), pp 331.
                                    2-38                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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2.13       Mount,  G.A.,  N.W. Pierce, C.S. Lofgren and J. Salraela, 1971,
            Droplet Size and Kill of Adult Mosquitos with Ultra-low
            Volume Aerial Sprays Dispersed from a Rotary-Cylinder Atomizer,
            Mosquito News 31(3), pp 326.

2.14       Johnstone, D.R., 1969, Formulations and Atomization, Proc. 4th
            Int.  Agric. Aviat. Congr. (Kingston 1969), pp 225.

2.15       Dorman, R.G., 1952, The Atomization of Liquid in a Flat Spray,
            Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 3, pp 189.

2.16       Yeo,  D., 1959, Droplet Size Distributions from Flat Spray
            Nozzles Fitted to Aircraft, J. Agric. Engr. Res. 4, pp 93.

2.17       Dombrowski, N., D. Hasson and D.E. Ward, 1960, Some Aspects of
            Liquid Flow Through Fan Spray Nozzles, Chem. Engr. Sci. 12,
            pp 35.

2.18       Fraser, R.P., P. Eisenklam, N. Dombrowski, and D. Hasson, 1962,
            Drop Formation from Rapidly Moving Liquid Sheets, A.I.Ch.E.
            Journ. 8(5), pp 672.

2.19       Ford, R.E. and C.G.L. Furmidge, 1966, Studies at Phase Interfaces II.
            The Stabilization of Water-in-Oil Emulsions Using Oil-soluable
            Emulsifiers.

2.20      Ford, R.E. and C.G.L. Furmidge, 1967, The Formation of Drops
            from Viscous Newtonian Liquids Sprayed Through Fan-jet
            Nozzles, Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 18, pp 335.

2.21       Ford, R.E. and C.G.L. Furmidge, 1967, The Formation of Drops
            from Viscous Water-in-oil Emulsions Sprayed Through Fan-jet
            Nozzles, Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 18, pp 491.

2.22       Ford, R.E. and C.G.L. Furmidge, 1969, The Formation of Spray
            Drops from Viscous Fluids, in Pesticide Formulations Research,
            Adv. in Chem. Ser. 86, pp 155.

2.23      Thompson, G.A., 1970, Jet-Type Spray Nozzle Characteristics,
            Mosquito News 30(3), pp 477.

2.24       Isler, D.A. and J.B. Carlton, 1965, Effect of Mechanical Factors
            on Atomization of Oil-base Aerial Sprays, Trans. ASAE 8,
            pp 590.

2.25       Mount, G.A., C.S. Lofgren, N.W. Pierce and K.F. Baldwin, 1970,
            Effect of Various Factors on Droplet Size of Simulated Ultra-
            low Volume Aerial Spray of Technical Malathion, Mosquito
            News 30(1), pp 48.
                                    2-39                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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2.26      Hedden, O.K., 1960, Spray-drop Sizes and Size Distribution in
            Pesticide Spray, Trans. ASAE 4, pp 158.

2.27      Tate, R.W. and L.F. Jansen, 1966, Droplet Size Data for
            Agricultural Spray Nozzles.  Trans. ASAE 9, pp 303.

2.28      Knight, B.E. 1955, Communication on the Performance of a
            Swirl Type Atomizer, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engr. 169, pp 104.

2.29      Radcliff, A., 1954, The Performance of a Type of Swirl
            Atomizer, Inst. of Mech. Engr.

2.30      Radcliff, A., 1955, The Performance of a Type of Swirl
            Atomizer, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engr. 169, pp 93.

2.31      Nelson, P.A. and W.F. Stevens, 1961, Size Distribution of Droplet
            from Centrifugal Spray Nozzles.

2.32      Joyce, J.R., 1949, The Atomization of Liquid Fuels for
            Combustion, J. Inst. Fuel 22, pp 150.

2.33      Giffen, E. and A. Muraszew, 1953, The Atomization of Liquid
            Fuels, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.

2.34      Fraser, R.P., E.-P. Eisenklam, and N. Dombrowski, 1957,
            Liquid Atomization in Chemical Engineering:  Part 3
            Pressure Nozzles, Brit. Chem. Engr. 2(10), pp 536.

2.35      Coutts, H.H. and W.E. Yates, 1968, Analysis of Spray Droplet
            Distributions from Agricultural Aircraft, Trans. ASAE 11, pp 25.

2.36      Butler, B.J., N.B. Akessoi. and W.E. Yates, 1969, Use of Spray
            Adjuvants to Reduce Drift, Trans. ASAE 12, pp 182.

2.37      Kim, K.Y. and W.R. Marshall, Jr., 1971, Drop-size Distributions
            from Pneumatic Atomizers, A.I.Ch.E. Journ. 17(3), pp 575.

2.38      Bouse, L.F., 1969, Aerial-spray Penetration Through Foliage
            Canopies, Trans. ASAE 12(1), pp 86.

2.39      Himel, C.M., 1969, The Fluorescent Particle Spray Droplet
            Tracer Method, J. Econ. Ent. 62(4), pp 912.

2.40      MacCuaig, R.D., 1958, Spray-collecting Area "of Locusts and Their
            Susceptibility to Insecticides, Nature 182, pp 478.

2.41      Himel, C.M. and A.D.  Moore, 1967, Spruce Budworm Mortality
            as a Function of Aerial Spray Droplet Size, Science 156,
            pp 1250.
                                    2-40                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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2.42      Himel, C.M. and A.D. Moore, 1969, Spray Droplet Size in the
            Control of Spruce Budworm, Boll Weevil, Bollworm and
            Cabbage Looper,  J. Econ. Ent. 62(4), pp 916.

2.43      Himel, C.M., 1969, The Optimum Size for Insecticide Spray
            Deposits, J. Econ. Ent. 62(4), pp 919.

2.44      Mount, G.A., 1970, Optimum Droplet Size for Adult Mosquito
            Control with Space Sprays or Aerosols of Insecticides,
            Mosquito News 30(1), pp 70.

2.45      Davis, J.M., W.E. Waters, D.A. Isler, R. Martineau and
            J.W. Marsh, 1956, Experimental Airplane Spraying for Spruce
            Budworm Control, J. Econ. Ent. 49(3), pp 338.

2.46      Maksymiuk, B., 1963, Spray Deposit on Oil Sensitive Cards
            and Spruce Budworm Mortality, J. Econ. Ent. 56(4), pp 465.

2.47      Maksymiuk, B., 1963, Screening Effect of the Nearest Tree
            on Aerial Spray Deposits Recovered at Ground Level,
            J. Econ. Ent. 61(2), pp 143.

2.48      Johnson, N.E., Helicopter Application of Guthion for the
            Control of Douglas-fir Cone Midge, J. Econ. Ent. 56(5),
            pp 600.

2.49      Frear, D.E.H. and D. Asquith, 1963, Spray Deposits on Apple
            Trees Following Applications by Three Types of Sprayers,
            J. Econ. Ent. 56(3), pp 399.

2.50      David, W.A.L., 1959, The Accumulation and Adhesion of Insecticides
            on Leaf Surfaces, Outlook Agric. 2, pp 127.

2.51      Bowen, H.D., P. Hebblethwaite and W.M. Carlton, 1952, Application
            of Electrostatic Charging to the Depoistion of Insecticides
            and Fungicides on Plant Surfaces, Agric. Engr. 33, pp 347.

2.52      Bowen, H.D., W.E. Splinter and W.M. Carleton, 1964, Theoretical
            Implications of Electric Fields on Deposition of Charged
            Particles, Trans. ASAE 7, pp 75.

2.53      Law, S.E. and H.D. Bowen, 1966, Charging Liquid Spray by
            Electrostatic Induction, Trans. ASAE 9, pp 501.

2.54      Roth, L.O. and J.G. Porterfield, 1966, Liquid Atomization for
            Drift Control, Trans.  ASAE 10, pp 201.

2.55      Sasser, P.E., W.E. Splinter and H.D. Bowen, 1967, Effect of
            Relative Humidity on the Electrostatic Charging Process.,
            Trans. ASAE 10, pp 201.
                                    2-41                 EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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2.56      Splinter, W.E., 1968, Electrostatic Charging of Agricultural
            Sprays, Trans. ASAE 11, pp 491.

2.57      Connola, D.P. and R.C. Sweet, 1961, Aerial Spray Tests Against
            Gypsy Moth, Porthetria dispar, in New York, J. Econ. Ent.
            54(2), pp 315.

2.58      Keller, J.C., E.G. Paszek, A.R. Hastings and V.A. Johnson, 1962,
            Insecticide Tests Against Gypsy Moth Larvae, J. Econ.
            Ent. 55(1), pp 102.

2.59      Keller, J.C., V.A. Johnson, R.D. Chisholm E.G. Paszek and
            S.O. Hill, 1962, Aerial Spray Tests with Several Insecticides
            Against Gypsy Moth Larvae, J. Econ. Ent. 55, pp 708.

2.60      Doane, C.C. and P.W. Schaefer, 1971, Aerial Application of
            Insecticides for Control of the Gypsy Moth, Bull. 724,
            The Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta., New Haven, Conn.

2.61      Secrest, J.P., W.H. McLane, and J.A. Henderson, 1971, Field
            Trials of Insecticides, USDA-Otis AFB Gypsy Moth Methods Div.
            Lab. Memo.

2.62      Connola, D.P., 1964, Further Airplane Spray Tests with Sevin
            for the Control of Gypsy Moth, Sta. to Sta. Res. News
            9(2), pp 6.

2.63      Connola, D.P., J.J. Homiak and R.C. Sweet, 1966, Further
            Airplane Spray Tests with Carbaryl Against Gypsy Moth in
            New York, J. Econ. Ent. 59(5), pp 1225.

2.64      Connola, D.P., 1971, Private Communication.

2.65      Tomlin, A.D. and A.J. Forgash, 1971, Toxicity of Insecticides
            to Gypsy Moth Larvae, Porthetria dispar (L), accepted for
            publication in J. Econ. Ent.

2.66      Lyon, R.L., 1967, Formulation and Structure of Residual Insecticides
            for Bark Beetle Control, in:  Pesticide Formulations Research,
            Adv. in Chem. Ser. 86, pp 192.

2.67      Braun, J.L. Jr., 1964, Factors Affecting use of Airblast
            Sprayer, Trans. ASAE 7, pp 200.
                                    2-42                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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                                     A-3




               ROUTES OF PESTICIDES INTO THE WATER ENVIRONMENT
                            A-3.1  Introduction




         The routes or pathways by which pesticides used in forest management




can reach the aquatic environment include overland drainage, soil erosion and




sedimentation, atmospheric transport, intentional dumping, accidental spills and




disposal of "empty" pesticide containers.  These general pathways have been consid-




ered according to the character of the control of prevailing processes.  The first




three are controlled by natural processes; the latter three are overtly controlled




by man.




         Pathways by which pesticides applied to forests may reach aquatic




environments by natural processes are shown schematically in Figure 3.1.  Estimates




of the magnitude of movement of the two principal pesticides that have been, or




currently are in large-scale aerial sprsying of New York forests (i.e., DDT and




Sevin) are shown.  DDT is no longer used in New York.  These estimates are based




on a dosage of 1 Ib/acre as it is released from the aircraft which is, at present,




the normal application rate in New York.  There have been few studies on the fate




and movement of pesticides in forested areas of New York.  Consequently, inferences




have been made from studies on forested areas of the United States and Canada




from nonfcrested areas where applicable.




         Biological transport, the spread of pesticide from the treated forest




by animals including birds and insects, is readily shown to be minute compared




with atmospheric or aquatic transport mechanisms.







                                      3-1               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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                      AERIAL APPLICATION
                          OF PESTICIDE
                                                SMALL
                                              EVAPORATION
                                                 LOSS
   SMALL UNDER
   NEW YORK
   REGULATIONS
IMPACTION
ON
FOREST FLOOR


                                             LITTER
                                            SURFACE
                                           ADSORPTION
                                  < 5 PPB
                                  AT N.Y.
                                  RATE FOR
                                  3% BOGS
                                  & SWAMPS
         LARGE
         CAPACITY
<<0.1 PPM
  CARBARYL
   PPB DDT
                                          STREAM FLOW
                                                          <0.01% OF
                                                          SOIL/YEAR
                                                 0.1 PPM CARBARYLFISH TOXICITY
Figure 3.1   NATURAL PESTICIDE ROUTES IN CLOSED CANOPY  FOREST
                                   3-2
               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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         Overt  introduction of pesticides by man into the aquatic environment




is distinctly possible, although intentional pesticide dumping is illegal in




New York.  Further, it is emphasized that the large-scale use of pesticides in




forest pest control operations is under the direct control and supervision of




career foresters who strictly adhere to operational regulations.  If this were




not the case, the direct importance of this type of environmental insult could be




significant.  Fortunately, it is not.









           A-3.2  Atmospheric Routes and Rates of Pesticide Travel




         This portion of the study is concerned with behavior of the pesticide-




bearing spray from its dissemination at the aircraft to its arrival at the forest




canopy or the surface.  Spray behavior along this pathway depends on many




variables including underlying terrain, wind, air temperature and humidity,




atmospheric turbulence, and aircraft operational procedure.  These variables




range over wide intervals and a study of the entire problem was not the goal of




this project.  Rather, the problem was limited to practical proportions by con-




sideration of only the current operational procedure of the New York State




Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) with respect to control of




gypsy moth by Sevin.  Spraying of DDT was not considered as it is no longer




used in New York.




         In the present investigation, the information on spray formulation,




types of nozzles, aircraft operations and weather constraints was obtained




from the NYSDEC.  Next, extreme conditions contained within the limits of the




operational procedures were chosen to maximize the effect of a particular




atmospheric process on routes and rates of pesticide travel.  Under this scheme,




if a process proved to have a negligible effect under these most severe conditions,





                                      3-3               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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it was considered obviously negligible under less severe conditions.  Where a




process was non-negligible, potential contaminating effects were estimated and the




pertinent data presented.




         Operational procedures in New York have been outlined elsewhere in




this report, but they are repeated here  as a background for the present discussion.




         (1)  Over reliatvely flat terrain, the aircraft flies at right angles




              to the prevailing wind direction.  In mountainous terrain, the




              aircraft flies parallel to height contours.




         (2)  Spraying swaths are spaced approximately 250 ft apart and are




              flown 75 ft above canopy top.




         (3)  Flights are carried out primarily in early morning hours,




              with some late evening flights.




         (4)  Operations are not carried out when the wind speed at




              flight altitude exceeds 8 mph.




         (5)  Operations are not carried out when the relative humidity is




              low.  In practice, these criteria are specified in terms of




              temperature; operations do not proceed when the temperature




              exceeds 70°F.




         Over relatively flat terrain, the aircraft tracks are flown parallel




and spaced so that continuous coverage will result at the canopy top.  The




NYSDEC performed tests in which their helicopter was flown over a test area under




appropriate atmospheric conditions.  From a 75-ft altitude, the swath width at




the ground, as determined from deposition of spray on ground-based samplers, was




250 ft.
                                      3-4               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                 A-3.2.1  Evaporation of the Liquid Carrier




         Evaporation of spray drops affects the rates and routes of travel of




pesticide to the aquatic environment by reducing the terminal fall velocity of




the pesticide between the aircraft and the canopy.  Therefore, evaporation causes



the residence time of the pesticide in the atmosphere and the effects of wind



drift and turbulence to increase.  Upon complete evaporation of a given droplet,



the pesticide residue is so small that it may be suspended and contaminate



the atmosphere.




         To investigate the effects of evaporation quantitatively, computations



were made to determine the change in drop diameter during the 75-ft vertical fall


                                              3 1
between the aircraft and canopy.  The equation '  used for droplet evaporation



was



                        dr _  G  re

                        dt "  r  CI  " 1;
                                   s


where r   = droplet radius in cm



      t   = time in seconds



      e   = vapor pressure of water



      e   = saturation vapor pressure of water
       s

                    —6   2    -1
      G   = 0.9 x 10   cm  sec



Even though this is an equation for mass change only, it is derived from



simultaneous solution of the mass transfer and heat transfer equations governing



droplet growth.  The effect of heat transfer is contained in the G factor.



         This equation was solved in stepwise fashion for each of two constant



values of e/e  which correspond to 40 and 80 % relative humidity.  The 80 %
             S


value is likely to be the minimum encountered during the early morning operation,




and the 40 % value was assumed as the minimum during any operation.  To obtain






                                      3-5               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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numerical values of evaporation, -p was computed for each initial value of r and


then used to reduce the radius for a 10-second interval.  Simultaneously, the drop


was allowed to fall for 10 seconds with the fall velocity corresponding to the


initial radius.  The radius and fall velocity were then reduced and the


computation repeated until the drop either evaporated or fell the 75 ft to the


canopy.  This computation does not take account of turbulence whose effect would


be to keep the drops aloft longer and thus increase their evaporation.   In practice,


natural atmospheric turbulence is very small under the restricted operating conditions,


but wake turbulence may be significant.  Wake turbulence is not well enough under-


stood to permit meaningful estimates to be made of the increased residence time


of a particle in the atmosphere.


          The results of these calculations are shown in Figure 3.2.  The diameter


below which all drops evaporate completely is 120um for 80 % and 150un for


40 %.  The residual pesticide is likely to remain airborne as atmospheric pollution.


Because of the quadratic form of the curves, virtually all droplets larger than


these critical sizes retain diameters exceeding 20um through the 75-ft fall and


truly reach the canopy.  The small differential in mass due to pesticide in drop-


lets with final diameters smaller than 20urn which may or may not fall to the canopy


is well within the accuracy of the calculation considering the precision with which


the operation can be flown and variation in initial drop-size distributions.  It


is reasonable, therefore, to use these results to estimate the minimum fraction of


pesticide that actually reaches the canopy level.


          The drop-size distribution of the spray generated by the nozzle system


at the aircraft is not, in general, known.  The drop-size distributions generated

                                                                 :             O O
by the nozzles are known for laboratory conditions of spraying into still air.





                                      3-6                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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5
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2 o -
v/*
/ /s>
/ / \f
/ / "
/A
/ /
i / / i i i i i
O n 100 ?nn -win Ann snn «o
        O
        i
        m
        ui
        a
        a.
        u.
        O
        O
100

 90

 80

 70

 60

 50

 40

 30

 20

 10

 0
                               INITIAL DROP DIAMETER
                  DROP EVAPORATION DURING FIRST 75 FT OF FALL
                  RELEASE HEIGHT = 75 Ft
                  WIND SPEED     = 8 MPH
                  NOZZLE - TYPE D6-46
                  NO EVAPORATION
                           I
I
I
I
I
                   100    200    300    400    500    600    700

                   DOWNWIND DISTANCE FROM RELEASE POINT IN FEET
                                                      800
TOTAL AMOUNT OF PESTICIDE REACHING THE CANOPY OVER A GIVEN DOWNWIND LINE SEGMENT

  Figure 3.2  PESTICIDE DROPLET EVAPORATION AND DRIFT CHARACTERISTICS,
            AIRBORNE APPLICATION
                                    3-7
                                                       EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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These distributions are presented in the form of accumulated volume percentage




vs drop diameter, i.e., the percentage of spray volume in drops of diameter



smaller than a given value.  Effects of atomization on the distribution when water


                                                                          3.3

is sprayed into moving air have been studied only for one specific nozzle.



These results were extended to other nozzles and estimates made of the percentage



of spray in drops which completely evaporate before reaching the canopy.  This



information was then used to estimate the fraction of released pesticide that



reaches the canopy level and presumably is trapped on vegetation or the surface.


                                 3 3
          In the Coutts and Yates    atomization experiment, spray from a



Spraying Systems Corporation D6-46 nozzle was injected at various angles into air



flowing at 100 mph.  One of the configurations was with the nozzle directed at



right angles to the air flow (<(> = 90°), which is the typical orientation of the



nozzles in field spraying operations.  The Coutts and Yates data of concern were



those for 150pm and 120ym, the drop diameters below which the computations showed



complete evaporation occurring for relative humidity of 40 and 80 % respectively.



For still air conditions in the laboratory, the accumulated volume percentage at ISOiim



or less was 0.75 %, vfhile for the atomization experiment using moving air it was



10 %, a 10-fold increase.  Using this factor, the accumulated volume percentage at



150um diameter for similar conditions of atomization was estimated for other



nozzles used in field operations.  A similar analysis was conducted for the 120um



drop diameter, and results from both analyses are listed in Table 3.1.  For 40 %



relative humidity (RH) the maximum percentage is 12 % but can go as low as 1 %,



while at the higher 30 % RH, the general level of percentages is around 5 %.



          The Coutts and Yates experiment on atomization was based on an airspeed



of 100 mph and nozzle pressure of 40 psi.  Operationally, these factors are 80 mph



and CO psi, respectively.  The changes of both these factors from experiment to






                                       3-8                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol..II)

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                          Table 3.1
ESTIMATES OF INCREASED ACCUMULATED VOLUME PERCENTAGE DUE TO
     ATOMIZATION BY AIR STREAM AS COMPARED TO STILL AIR

NOZZLE
D6-46
D8-56
D7-56
D10-25
800 2E
800 3E
8004E
STILL AIR
ACCUMULATED VOLUME PERCENTAGE AT
150 urn OR LESS
0.75
0.1
0.1
1
0.3
0.5
1
120 urn OR LESS
0.1
< 0.1
<0.1
0.3
<0.1
0.1
0.2
MOVING AIR, V = 100 mph; 0 = 90°
ACCUMULATED VOLUME PERCENTAGE AT
150 urn OR LESS
10
1
1
12
3
5
10
120 urn OR LESS
4
< 1
4.1
<12
<1
4
8
                             3-9
EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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operations act to reduce the accumulated volume percentage at the diameters in




Table 3.1.  However, in view of the crudeness of the present analysis, it appears




that a reasonable estimate of maximum volume loss from evaporation during field




operations is around 10 %.  Thus, for the Sevin SOS slurry with a density of




essentially one, it may be concluded that at least 90 % of the pesticide in the




spray reaches the canopy under the New York spray operation.




          At this point it is imperative that the preceding discussion is




brought into both philosophical and technical focus.  In the preceding discussion,




an analysis was presented which examined the importance of particle size




distribution of the pesticide formulation as it is released from the aircraft.




While this analysis is by no means exhaustive, iu does demonstrate the criticality




for in-depth knowledge of both thf BpLay equipment and the conditions under which




this equipment is operated.  Unfortunately, there is insufficient knowledge available




to thoroughly elucidate these interactions.




          Rather than dismiss the problem altogether, it was decided to invoke a




philosophy of the "extreme condition."  Therefore, laboratory data were coupled




with theoretical computations to explore a "worst case".  Realistic, but extreme,




atmospheric conditions were used to calculate the fate of small spray droplets.




We concluded then that under an extreme or a worst case condition, a reasonable




estimate of the maximum spray volume lost is about 10 %.  This is not an




insignificant quantity, if it were to occur.  However, under the procedural opera-




tir.g conditions which are used, where there is both high RH and weak natural




turbulence, the maximum volume loss will be much less.
                                       3-10               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                    A-3.2.2  Overdosage Within Treated Area




          Turbulence acts to spread the plume from its width at the aircraft




to the swath observed at the ground.  The complete spreading process is complex




and depends on, among other processes, downwash, wing tip vortex motion, and




atmospheric diffusion.  Because of the complexity of the spreading process, it




cannot be treated completely from a theoretical standpoint.  Empirically, New York




field tests show that the plume spreads to 250 ft at the ground from a 75-ft




release altitude.  However, there is no information about variability of swath




width with wind speed or the variation of the drop-size distribution and




pesticide concentration across the plume at the ground.  Such information is




required if the question of overdosage at the canopy top is to be examined.  For




example, under calm conditions the pesticide concentration is probably peaked




at the center of the swath, while with a wind this distribution would be skewed




downwind.  A definitive and quantitative treatment of this problem must await either




sophisticated computer modeling or more extensive field observations.  However, for




purposes of examining contamination of aquatic environment, it seems likely that




any concentration peaks above the application rate will be smoothed out by




subsequent processes acting between the canopy top and entry of the pesticide




into water bodies.








                           A-3.2.3  Off-target Drift




          In the previous section, the effect of atmospheric motions on the




pesticide concentration within the target area was noted.  Perhaps a more impor-




tant effect on atmospheric motion is the movement of pesticide away from the down-




wind edge of the target block.  Our conversations with the NYSDEC personnel




indicate an acute awareness on their part of the drift problem and a strict




                                      3-11               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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adherence to the operational guidelines provided for eliminating off-target




drift.  In view of the care taken in these operations and the calculations




presented here, it appears that for pesticide spraying performed statewide over




a number of years, contamination of water bodies by off-target drift is negligible.




          Consider, again, an extreme case in which a pesticide is applied




directly to a body of water 10-ft deep, at the nominal application rate of




1 Ib/acre.  The pesticide concentration in this instance would be 36 ppb.  Thus,




even  for the case of direct application of the pesticide, its resultant concentra-




tion  in the water is small.  This case is extreme in that it assumes the released




pesticide directly enters the water at the application rate.  A more realistic




picture would be that some portion of the spray released over the target area




drifts onto a non-target water body.




          By considering the drift problem in terms of the spray released along




the most downwind track in a block, a more quantitative treatment is possible




than with the overdosage problem discussed previously.  Because of the variation




of fall velocity with drop size, a spray released into a uniforir. horizontal wind




field reaches the canopy at various downwind distances.  This information, combined




with  the distribution of pesticide spray mass with drop diameter, can provide




estimates of the off-target drift.  In turn, these estimates can be used to specify




the flight track offset needed in order to ensure minimizing off-target drift.




          The particle travel distances computed represent the worst case,




whir1- occurs with a wind speed of 8 mph, the upper limit for which operations




are carried out.  Using these distances, the drop distributions generated in the




field by a D6-46 nozzle and assuming no evaporation of drops, a computation was




made of the total amount of pesticide reaching the canopy over a given distance








                                      3-12               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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.measured downwind from the release point  (Figure 3.2).  For example, 25 % reaches




the canopy within 160 ft of release while 50 % falls within 200 ft.  At a distance




of 800 ft, 98 % has fallen out.  From such a chart, a proper location of aircraft




tracks upwind of water bodies can be determined in order to minimize the amount




of direct contamination by pesticide drift.




          The curve in Figure 3.2 was arbitrarily ended at 800 ft, the downwind




distance at which a lOOum diameter droplet reaches the surface at an 8-mph




uniform wind.   (If evaporation is considered, droplets of initial diameter equal




to approximately 130 and 170um will reach the canopy 800 ft downwind in




atmospheres 80  and 40 % RH, respectively.  The percentage of pesticide that




does not reach  the surface within 800 ft of the release point increases to 5 and 14 %,




respectively.)  In Table 3.1, it is shown that under the same respective conditions,




4 and 10 % of the released material is  contained in drops which can evaporate




completely and  consequently remain airborne.  Considering evaporation, therefore,




approximately 3 and 4 % of the released pesticide reaches the surface at distances




exceeding 800 ft in atmospheres of 80 and 40 % EH.




          Even  without further dispersion, it is apparent that the pesticide




contamination of a 1-ft deep pond will  be of the order of 1 ppb whenever the




downwind leg of the spray pattern is more than 800 ft away.




          In the field, the initial spraying swath is laid down within the




center of a target area in order to estimate the existing drift.  Then, based




on the drift of the trial swath, the outermost downwind track is flown at a




distance upwind from the target area boundary such that off-target drift is




minimized.  Subsequent tracks are then  located successively upwind.  In summary,




with strict adherence to the operational guidelines provided for elimination




of off target drift, contamination of non-target areas, while possible, appears





to be small.                          3_13               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II) -

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           A-3.2.4  Atmospheric Contamination by Complete Evaporation


          As a starting point for consideration of atmospheric contamination,


the maximum volume loss by evaporation of 10 % is used.   From prior discussion,


this calculated value is an extreme case and, although this value appears at


first glance, to be potentially alarming, it again is pointed out above that 10 %


represents a maximum value possible and not the lower average value which is likely


to occur.  This latter value though not presently determinable, is undoubtedly less


than 10 %, and, from this fact alone, actual contamination is less than that


computed.  More importantly, even though 10 % represents a significant threat, the


actual threat is reduced considerably when considered in connection with the vast


dispersive characteristics of the atmosphere.


          In order to assess atmospheric contamination from the previously-


derived amounts of pesticide injected into the atmosphere, an estimate must be


obtained of the dispersion capability of the atmosphere.  The approach taken was


that of computing contamination for an extreme condition of minimum dispersion.


If the pesticide concentrations are low under this condition, the contamination


levels will be even lower under conditions of higher dispersion.


          The following computations are based on the 10 % by volume complete


evaporation computed above and the assumption that the slurry (pesticide and


water) is homogeneous.  Under these assumptions and a concentration of 1 Ib of


pesticide per gallon of water, 46 grams of pesticide enter the air for each acre


""•"""ad.   For a 1-cm thick layer of air covering an acre, 46 gm provide a


concentration of 1150 ppm.


          To account for the dispersive properties of the atmosphere, the

                                                     O /
material must be distributed in the vertical.  Turner "   provides data from


Slade "   which indicates for very stable atmospheric conditions a plume spread



                                       3~U               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II).

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of 15 m in the vertical after 4 km travel of a quasi-instantaneous source.  The

source is composed of gas or particles with diameters less than 20 urn.  For


Sevin SOS, only about 6 % of the dry material has diameters greater than 20 urn3*6.

Furthermore, computations based on a homogeneous slurry and an initial diameter

of 150 urn for the completely evaporating drop, show that the residual pesticide

particles must be less than 4 urn in diameter.  Thus, this dispersion parameter

is applicable to the problem.


          Under conditions of even less dispersion where the plume depth is

10 m, for example, after a plume travel of less than 4 km, the pesticide

concentration would be reduced from 1150 to 1.15 ppm.  The facts are, however,

that wake turbulence will cause the initial plume to increase to several meters

thickness immediately.  Small drops evaporate after only a very short fall while

large drops do not evaporate until just above the canopy; initial thickness of

the particulate plume from the evaporated drops is therefore of the order of

25 m.  Even for the very stable situation, this concentration will decrease as

the dispersion operates over a longer time period.  Finally, after an early-

morning operation, the stability will decrease as time elapses, leading to

increased dispersion and reduction of the concentration.  For initial conditions

of smaller stability, the dispersion will lead to smaller values of concentration.

          The pesticide residue from evaporated drops is not permanently suspended

in the atmosphere.  Current thinking indicates a mean residence time of 2-3 days,

with the material returning to the earth's surface at a location determined by


synoptic scale atmospneric motions and precipitation patterns.

          In the context of this discussion, the value of 1.15 ppm represents


the absolute maximum concentration that can occur in the atmosphere.  Pesticide

contamination of the atmosphere by New York forest spray operations is certainly


negligible.
                                      3-15               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                     A-3.2.5  Washoff of Pesticide by Rain



          An important interaction between atmospheric processes and pesticide



behavior after it reaches the canopy is washoff of pesticide by rain.  The



potential for washoff and the rate at which it operates depend on the frequency



of occurrence of rainfall intensities.  The only data of this type which are


                                                     3 7
available for New York are those published by Dethier * ,  wherein the probability



of weekly precipitation in amounts of 0.2, 1.0 and 2.0" is given.  In order to



examine the rate of washoff of pesticide that is initially impacted on the



canopy, one needs the probability that specific precipitation amounts will



occur after 1, 2, . . ., 10 days during the treatment period.  These statistics



do not currently exist, and it is recommended that they be prepared, at least for



selected rainfall recording stations located in the New York treatment areas.



In view of the chemical decay rate of pesticide currently  in use in New York



(i.e., Sevin), the data would probably be more meaningful  for determining



effectiveness of the spray than for determining the rate of transport to the



aquatic environment.







          A-3.2.6  Summary Statement Concerning Atmospheric Pathways



          The aerial spraying operation and the atmospheric conditions under



which this operation is conducted are basically characterized as a diffusing



system which operates to decrease the atmospheric concentration of the pesticide.



"--•-•r standard operating procedures, for example, a helicopter system releases



a 30-ft wide spray swath which spreads to a 250-ft swath at canopy level.  Opera-



tionally, the aircraft paths are spaced so that overlap at the canopy is



minimized.  Outside of inadvertent and accidental overlap, there is no reason



to believe that the pesticide dosage at the canopy will exceed the nominal



application rate.

                                     3-16                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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          Potentially, wind in and above the forest canopy can cause the pesti-




cide spray to drift off target.  In a given light wind, small spray droplets




have much greater tendency to drift than large ones.  There are two ways that




small droplets can be produced when spraying the Sevin-water mixture:  first




by the nozzle and airstream atoraization of spray initially produced at the




aircraft and, second, by evaporation of the volatile carrier liquid before the




droplets reach the forest canopy.  Results from basic atomization studies indicate




that for the nozzle types and aircraft flight speeds used, the mass-fraction of




spray droplets with sizes sufficiently small to permit significant drift under




typical operating conditions is completely negligible.  Evaporative size reduction,




on the other hand, is not necessarily negligible and the potential for pesticide




drift exists.




          While in principle off-target drift can exist, in practice, drift is




minimized by rigorous adherence to a policy of spraying only under a selected




set of operational and meteorological conditions.  Spraying operations are




carried out in the early morning hours, starting at sunrise, when prevailing




atmospheric conditions minimize evaporation.  Winds must be less than 8 mph.




Ambient temperatures must not be over 70°F, to avoid significant convectional




air currents.  Material is released only from very low altitude to enhance con-




trollability over the impact zone.  To ensure that existing conditions actually




result in suitable deposition on target, without drift, a single spray swath is




made and observed before beginning operations.  Follow-up observations are




continued while spraying is underway.  Any significant off-target drift is




visually detectable and spray operations at the time of occurrence are adjusted




accordingly to minimize this effect, including terminating operations if




necessary.





                                     3-17                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          The discussion which follows describes and analyzes the pathways by




which pesticides, once on the forest floor, can move from the original point




of application.
                                     3_18                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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           A-3.3  Relevant Descriptions of New York Forest Regions




          The sections which follow present analyses and discussions of the




pathways  by which pesticides are transported within the forest once they reach




the forest floor.  In considering these movement and interactions, factors such




as topography, soil type and forest type are relevant.  This section provides,




therefore, a descriptive overview of these factors for New York forest regions.









                A-3.3.1  Topography and Soils of Forest Regions




          The principal forested lands of New York are shown in Figure 3.3.




The occurrence of forested lands in the State is related to topographic, geologic,




edaphic and climatic factors.  In general, either virgin forest land was too




steep or rocky for cultivation, infertile, or subject to harsh climate or a




combination thereof.  Figure 3.4, depicting land form categories of the State,




when compared to Figure 3.3, shows that the heavily forested Adirondack and




Catskill regions coincide with mountainous land form regions of the State.




Figure 3.5 shows that areas of the State containing slopes greater than 10 %




coincide quite well with the forested lands of the State.  The forest regions to




be discussed appropos  to soil and topographic characteristics are numbered in




Figure 3.3 and will be discussed in that order.




          All of the forests and their soils in the area of this study have




developed since the melting of the last continental glacier.  The center ridge




of Long Island marks the southern-most end moraine during the ice age, the first




to be abandoned by melting, some 15,000 years ago.  The edge of the Ice then




retreated in approximately a few centuries up the Hudson to the Mohawk Valley,




leaving a large ice cap in the Adirondacks and smaller glaciers in the Catskills











                                     3-19                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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PI
-O
O
r-o
L/l

O
o
                        EXTENT OF 'RESENT FOREST

                                    Figure 3.3
                                                         -T-Ti:7• ^f^Y::
Forest land—farms scattered or absent.
  Less than 1/3 farmland; wood lots over
  50 acres,  forest tracts over 1, 000 acres.
Alternating forest and farmland or urban.
  Farmland and forest roughly equal.
Farmland—wood lots scattered.  Less than
  1/3 wood lots and forest tracts; wood
  lots less than 20 acres, forest tracts
  less than 250 acres.
                                   SOURCE:  GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE, JOHN H. THOMPSON, EDITOR,
                                             SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY PRESS (WRITTEN PERMISSION  FOR
                                             ILLUSTRATION REPRODUCTION PENDING.)

-------
LAND FORM CATEGORIES
             nLiii-l Plain*--Slopes mainly   ["""	~1 Hound,-d Mouniaiiu.--a*-cp
             I. w. ih.in 2 pi-r <-'-MI no local         *lO|)Cs usually rjnm-i^ !»•-
             , .•],,'( liMlurP*..           6*	"^ t*»-i-n 18 and 37 pi r t n,i hit
             SOURCE:  GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE, JOHN H. THOMPSON,  EIDTOR,
                        SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY PRESS (WRITTEN PERMISSION FOR
                        ILLUSTRATION  REPORDUCTION  PENDING.)

-------
EXCESSIVE SLOPH





   Figure 3.5
                                      k^m&K^^m'n
                                    , jfSf^^fij^^sg&r
                                     Ye.*^4'e\~?'<';!& fa ,t :*j|.fl A<&- vjff>/
                                   '
                                      ^Ms-Msfia,??'.;.;
                                     «.

                          rflMlpqp^^s
                          fS%^3$^^*M^'^. ;'.»^f '  ^
     SOURCE: GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE, JOHN H. THOMPSON, EIDTOR,

            SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY PRESS (WRITTEN PERMISSION FOR

            ILLUSTRATION REPRODUCTION PENDING.)

-------
until 5,000 years ago.  The diversity of the lowland oak forest in the Hudson


Valley developed during this period.  In the shorter subsequent 5 millenia, the


birch-beech-maple forest of the upland has developed, although its diversity is


still increasing rapidly under such evolutionary pressures as the gypsy moth.


          Region I -Catskills


          In a Land Form Region map of New York given in Figure 3.6, it is


seen that the forested Catskill region contains three distinct subregions:


the Catskill Mountains (F-l) containing steep slopes usually ranging between


18-37 %; the Delaware Hills (F-2) with moderate slopes ranging between 9-18 %;


and the Helderberg Hills (F-3) having a similar s}.ope range.


          Soils in the Catskills regions were developed from glaciated red shales


and sandstones.  Examination of the Soil Association map of Nex? York prepared

        O Q
by Cline *  shows that the principal Soil Series in the region are shallow


(15-30" depth) Oquaga and Lackawanna soils on the mountainous terrain and deeper


Lackawanna and Wellsboro soils on the high hills bordering the Catskill Mountains


(i.e., Delaware Hills and Helderberg Hills).  Many of the soils, especially on


steeper slopes, contain large amounts of stones and gravels.  Bedrock exposure


is common on steep slopes.


          Textures of A and B horizons range from silt loam to loams and thus


contain about 8 to 25 % clay.  (Insecticide adsorption will be primarily on


clay minerals and organic matter.  Content of these constituents, therefore,


must be stressed.)  Hydrogen ion activity of surface sgils will be pH 4.5 to


5.5.  Subsoil pH's will range from 5.0 to 6.0.


          Region 2 - Adirondacks


          Figure 3.6 shows that subregions of the Adirondacks include the


Adirondack Mountain Peaks (A-l), Adirondack Low Mountains (A-2) and Western



                                      3_23               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.

-------
LAND FORM REGIONS

      Figure 3.6
            SOURCE:  GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK, JOHN H. THOMPSON, EDITOR,
                    SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY PRESS (WRITTEN PERMISSION FOR
                    ILLUSTRATION REPRODUCTION PENDING.)

-------
Adirondack Hills (A-3).  Soils in the Adirondacks have developed on glacial



till from coarse textured granitic rocks.  Consequently, soils of the Adirondacks



are coarser textured than those of the Catskills.  Substantial portions of the



landscape, especially on the mountain peaks, contain little or no soil cover.



          Soils of the Adirondacks are classical examples of Podzols.  The



northern 66 % of the region contains predominantly Herman and Beckett soils,



whereas the southern 33% contains predominantly Gloucester and Essex soils.



The ground surface in forested areas of the Adirondacks as diagrammed in



Figure 3.7 is covered with a 2-4" layer of leaf litter and humus.  Cline and


        3.9
Lathwell "  reported the average organic matter content of representative



Adirondack soils to a 3" depth as 53 %.  This 3" layer, as will be shown in a



later section, can adsorb all or most of applied insecticides which penetrate



through or are washed off overlying forest canopies.



          Below the surface layers of representative Adirondack podozol (A



horizons) soils, there are gray layers about 2-4" thick (A  horizons) which



are leached of clay, organic matter, and iron minerals.  These constituents



are deposited in the upper part of B horizons giving reddish yellow iron-rich



subsoils.



          Region 3 - Tughill



          This region is dominated by very stony soils of the Worth Series.



They developed in glacial till from sandstone.  Typical profiles and textures



of upland soils in this region are similar to those of the Adirondacks as



presented in Figure 3.7 Reactions of organic humus (AQ horizons and A2 horizons)



in both the Adirondacks and the Tughill Plateau range from about pH 3.5 to 4.5.



B horizons are slightly less acid and range from about pH 4.0 to 5.0.









                                      3-25               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II).

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             SOIL
            DEPTH
           (INCHES)
24
                       36
                            LEAF LITTER,
                              HUMUS
                           GRAY, LEACHED
       REDDISH
       YELLOW
     CLAY, IRON
    AND ORGANIC
    ACCUMULATION
       IN UPPER
        PART
      GRANITIC
       PARENT
      MATERIAL
                             GRANITIC
                             BEDROCK
  SOIL
HORIZONS
Figure 3.7 CHARACTERISTIC PODZOL SOIL IN ADIROIMDACKS*

            *PODZOLS IN CATSKILLS ARE SIMILAR EXCEPT FOR
             SHALE AND SANDSTONE PARENT MATERIALS
                              3-26
                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          Region 4 - Allegheny Hills




          Topography of the Allegheny Hills is characterized by moderate




slopes 'generally ranging between 9 and 18 %.  The .-.--ils in this region have




developed in till from sandstones and shales.  The principal upland soilr




Lordstown, Oquaga, and Lackawanna series.




          Oquaga and Lackawanna soils occur in the Catskills region and were




described previously.  Lordstown soils in forested areas will have thin layers




of leaf litter and humus over loam to silt loam A and B horizons.  Clay content




comprise 20 to 35 % of soil profiles and bedrock generally occurs at depths of




20-30".




          Region 5 - Bear Mountain




          Over 75 % of this region is occupied by rock outcrops or very




shallow soils on steep slopes.  Forest vegetation occupies local pockets of




deep soil.  It would seem that any pesticide spraying in this region could




result in appreciable runoff to tributaries of the Hudson River because of




steep, rocky slopes.  Unfortunately there are no known studies of pesticides




in runoff water from such terrain.




          Region 6 - Berkshires




          This region contains some shallow or very shallow soils on steep to




hilly terrain.  These soils are medium textured (8-25 % clay) and stony.




Appreciable portions of this forested area contain soils developed from lime-




stone rather than granite, shale or sandstone which are parent materials of




soils discussed previously.  These soils contain appreciable quantities of




play with surface soils containing 10 to 25 % clay and subsoils containing




10 to 35 % clay.  Reaction of these high lime soils will be considerably




higher than soils discussed previously with pH's of 6.0 to 6.5 in A horizons




and 6.5 to 7.0 in B horizons.




                                       3-27               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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          Region 7 - Long Island



          In contrast to other forested regions of the state, forested areas



of Long Island contain principally level plains with slopes mainly less than 2 %.



Since much of the soil on Long Island has developed on loose, coarse textured



(sands and gravels) glacial outwash,  they are extremely permeable and droughty.



          Two principal soils of the  forested areas are the loamy sand to sand



Adams Series and gravelly sandy Colton Series.  Both of these soils are strong



Podzols and contain about 5 to 15 % clay.



          Other extensive soils on forested areas of Long Island are Plymouth,



Haven and Bridgehampton Series.  Plymouth and Haven soils contain somewhat more



clay (approximately 10 to 25 % clay)  while Bridgehampton soils consist of fine



sandy loams deposited over gravels.  Many soils on Long Island are extremely



permeable to ground percolation but studies on similar soils indicate little



danger of groundwater contamination by normal usage of pesticides in forested areas.







                       A-3.3.2  Forest Types of New York



          The State displays the entire range of forests found in the North-


                      3 9A
eastern United States. '     Although  there are local variations in stands due



to selective cutting as well as location of the soil caterra, the potential zonal


                                            3 10
or climax vegetation as described by  Kuchler '   is related to regional climate.



          Long Island (Region 7 of Figure 3.3), as part of the Atlantic Coastal



Plain,  has a variety of southern oak-pine woodland on the sandy, seaward side.



Pitch pine,  scarlet and black oak are dominant on the dry, sandy flats frequently



devastated by hurricans and fires. These oaks have been seriously attacked by



gypsy moths.







                                       3-28               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          The lower Hudson, Susquehanna, Allegheny and Finger Lakes Valleys were




originally covered with Appalachian oak-chestnut forest.  Only in Region 5 do




extensive stands of this valley forest remain.  White oak is the indicator tree for




the Appalachian forest.  Where this tree occurs, other southern hardwoods,




including red oaks and formerly chestnut, now regrowing from sprouts, are also




found.  Red maple and an undergrowth of mountain laurel, blueberry and wintergreen,




give the forest floor a shrubby appearance.  Gypsy moth attack is widespread along




the Hudson.  Northern white pine grow on sandy valley flats and some hemlock occur




in deep, shady valleys.




          Isolated stands of elm-ash swamp are found on Bear Mountain (Region 5).




The undrained shallow depressions on this pre-Cambrian ridge are covered with




white ash and formerly American elm, now killed by Dutch elm disease.  In this and




the following forest types, gypsy moth defoliation is not so severe.




          North of the Appalachian forest type and at higher elevations is found




the characteristic northern hardwood or birch-beech-maple-hemlock forest.   This




forest originally covered the remaining lowlands of the state and the foothills




of the Catskills, Berkshires and Adirondacks.  It is now found extensively in




Region 4.  Sunny, dry south-facing slopes are mostly beech.  Maple is most




abundant except where cut over, where yellow birch persists.  Steep, shady north-




facing slopes and poorly-drained spots are solidly hemlock in old stands.   Bass-




wood, hop-hornbeam and ash are found on richer, more calcareous soils.  The under-




growth is restricted to ferns and low herbs.  Litter is,, normally thick.




          Relatively pure stands of sugar maple and beech were found on the




glacial lake beds of Lakes Erie, Ontario, Champlain and the St. Lawrence River.




Some horsechestnut, hickory, ash, black walnut, yellowpoplar (tulip), black









                                       3-29               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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cherry, red oak, basswood and rock elm were found in these lowland forests, now



primarily restricted to farm woodlots.



          Above the pure hardwood forest is found a broad zone of yellow birch



mixed with red spruce as well as beech, maple -M-i hemlock (Regions 1,2,3, and 6).



The yellow birch are often very large and of low timber value.  At the highest



elevations in the Adirondacks and Catskills (Regions 1 and 2), above the range



of hardwoods, is found the spruce-fir forest or taiga.  These  dense conifer stands



vary from low matted krummholz at timberline to medium-tall mountain forests of



balsam fir and red spruce with mountain ash and poplars or aspen.







              A-3.4  Persistence of Pesticides in Forest Soils



          One of the most important properties of a pesticide  determining its



degree of threat to terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems is the length of time which



it will persist in components of the environment to which it is applied or trans-



ported.  It can reasonably be assumed that the longer a pesticide or a toxic



metabolite thereof persists in a component of the environment  the greater the



threat to life forms within that component.  This section presents data on the



persistence in soils of the two principal insecticides (i.e.,  DDT and Sevin)



which have been used in New York forest spray programs.  Biological consequences



of persistence are discussed in Section A-4.



          DDT



          Although there have been numerous studies on the persistence of DDT



in agricultural soils, relatively few studies have been conducted on-DDT persistence



in forest soils.  None of these studies were in forested areas of New York.


                  3 11         3 12
          Woodwell '   and Yule '   measured DDT residues in forest soils of



New Brunswick.  At one site, containing second growth spruce-fir forest and a loam




                                      3~30               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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soil, a total of 4 Ib of DDT per acre had been applied over a 6-year period from



1952-1958.  In 1967, 9 years after final application, residual DDT levels of



0.84 Ib/acre were measured, or 20 % of the total aircraft application.  At a



second site which received a total DDT application of 4.4 Ib/acre, 16 % of the



total application was present in 1967-68.  It is claimed3    that the former site



may have received higher applications than originally thought.  Since adequate



data on release conditions were not recorded, there is no way of knowing what



percent of the applied DDT actually reached the ground.



          In a Mississippi study conducted on sandy loam plots containing



scattered small trees and shrubs, a known quantity of DDT was distributed on


                3 13
top of the soil.      After 20 years, between 34 and 50 % of the applied DDT



was recovered.



          There have been a large number of studies of the persistence of

                                                                    n *| /

chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in agricultural soils.  Edwards



extensively reviewed and analyzed all available studies on DDT persistence in



soils up to 1966.  Data from 29 studies on DDT persistence in field soils showed



that the time required for 95 % disappearance of DDT from soil ranged from 4



to 30 years with average persistence of 10 years.  It was further calculated



that, on the average, 80 % of applied DDT persists for more than 1 year; 50 %



persists for more than 3 years; after 3 years, the amount persisting ranges from



26 to 70 %, depending on soil type, pH, organic matter and other parameters.



Persistence is greatest in the more acid and highly organic soils.  The data



also showed that persistence correlates with solubility of the chlorinated hydro-



carbon pesticide, as shown in Table 3.II.
                                       3-31              EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                                  Table 3. II



                  CORRELATION OF INSECTICIDE SOIL PERSISTENCE

                             WITH WATER SOLUBILITY

Most Persistent


1



Least Persistent
Pesticide
DDT
Dieldrin
Aldrin

Lindane
Solubility in Water (ppm)
0.0002
0.10
0.05

10.0
          Regression analysis of all available data up to 1966 showing the



breakdown of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides  in soils was performed by


        3 14
Edwards. '    The results of this analysis are shown in Figure 3.6.



          It is likely that the persistence of DDT in forest  soils is  sub-



stantially longer than the decay curve shown in Figure 3.8.   This is because of



the demonstrated greater persistence of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons


                                      O 1 / "2 1O

in acid soils high in organic content. '     '    Edwards'  data for regression



analysis included many soils having higher pH's and far less  organic matter  than



normally found in forest surface soils.  The Mississippi study referenced earlier



in which up to 50 % of applied DDT was present in  a forest soil after  20 years,



lends support to this belief.  Dimond, et. al., found no apparent decline



in DDT residues in forest soils 9 years after DDT  application of 1 Ib/acre,  and



suggested that persistence follows more closely than 35-year  half-life determined


                                                               3 19
as the upper limit of DDT retention in some agricultural soils.     The 35  year-



half-life is probably reasonable to use under the  conditions  of the  present  study,



          Sevin




          In contrast to DDT, Sevin is relatively, non-persistent in soil with



the reported half-life of 8 days. '    Sevin is easily hydrolyzed  '    and thus
                                      3-32
EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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o
2

Z

5

IU
cc
IU
o
V)



IU
o
oc
s
                                                       DDT
           DIELDRIN
                        HEPTACHLOR
                        I    I     I
I
                                                      LINDANE



                                                     _|	I
                                         8
        10   11   12
             01234567

                                    TIME (YEARS)

                       (REGRESSION BASED ON ALL AVAILABLE DATA)


                                COURTESY:   C.A. EDWARDS, "INSECTICIDE RESIDUES
                                            IN SOILS," RESIDUE REVIEWS. V. 13, 1966.


Figure 3.8   BREAKDOWN OF CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES  IN SOIL
                            3-33
                                               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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will be detoxified before it can be moved any appreciable distance by percolating




waters in forest soils.




          The persistence of Sevin has been studied in field studies conducted




on the Shackam Brook Watershed, located j.n Tompkins County,  New York.  The surface




soils on this watershed are silt loams and loams  derived from shaly glacial till,




and are representative of soils which predominate in forested terrain of South




Central and Southwest New York State (i.e., Appalachian Upland, exclusive of




Delaware Hills and Catskill Mountains).  This mixed hardwood-conifer watershed was




aerially sprayed with Sevin at a rate of 1 Ib/acre.




          Soil samples were collected over a 2-year period following application.




At a detection limit of 0.1 ppm, no Sevin was detected in any of the samples taken




to depths up to 6".  No other studies of Sevin in forest soils are known.




          It is apparent from available data that DDT or its toxic metabolites




will be available for movement through the forest to the aquatic environment




for decades after application; Sevin on the other hand can be subject to transport




through the forests for only a few weeks.
                                      3-34                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                     A-3.5  Transport  Processes  in  Forests



          The possible mechanisms by which  pesticides  could  be  transported  from



soil to the aquatic sector of  the forest  environment include leaching, runoff



and sediment transport.  These mechanisms are discussed  in the  following sections







                               A-3.5.1  Leaching



          In New York forested areas,  the thickness of organic  litter and humus



layers will generally range from 2-4".  This layer acts  as an organic filter and



has a large capacity for adsorbing and retaining applied pesticides, thereby



preventing downward percolation through mineral  soil horizons.  Careful review



of the extensive literature revealed no studies  on DDT or Sevin content of



leachates from New York forest soils.


                       3.11         3  12
          Both Woodwell     and Yule '   found DDT residues only in the top few



inches of forest soil.  Smith  also found very limited movement of DDT through



the soil, with no detection of DDT or  its analogues greater than 12" below the



soil surface after 20 years, with an instrument  sensitivity of 0.01 ppm


   3 13
DDT '   .  Thus, although DDT does persist for a  long period of time in forest



soil,  its movement through soil profiles is extremely limited.


                          3 23
          Riekerk, et.al., '   found DDT concentrations of forest floor,  A..



horizons and A« horizons to be an order of magnitude apart with the lowest DDT



concentrations of soil materials a thousand times more concentrated than



percolating leachates.  This indicates the large retention action of forest



soils,  especially the organic  litter and humus.



          The extent of pesticide leaching from New York soils may be estimated



from the limited studies in other forested areas and other laboratory and field







                                       3-35                  EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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studies.  Field studies of DDT leaching from a fir plantation near Seattle,


                                                      3 23
Washington, were conducted by Reikerk, Cole and Gessel '   .  Soils on the study


site w^.re permeable sandy loams, underlain by gravels   Organic humus layers



overlying mineral soil horizons were less than 1".  The Washington study site


thus represented types of' soils found on Long Island and parts of the Adirondacks,



except for generally deeper organic layers in New York soils, and less permeable



subsoil in the Adirondacks.


          DDT was applied at rates of 0.5 and 5.0 kg/hectare (approximately


0.4 and 4.4 Ib/acre).  Leachate was collected beneath the organic surface layers


and to 15-cm depths.  During a 1.5-year period covering two wet seasons, only a


small fraction (less than 2%) of applied DDT was observed to move by leaching


greater than to the 2-cm depth.  Less than 1 % of applied DDT was collected in


leachate water at the 15-cm depth.


          Although Sevin was not included in the Washington study, another


carbatnate insecticide, Zectran, was.  Analyses of leachates in plots treated


with Zectran indicated that less than 1 % passed through the surface soil.  The


soils in the Washington study were ones which represent the most extreme vulner-


ability to pesticide leaching because of thin organic horizons, coarse texture,



high rainfall and high permeability.  It is, therefore, very doubtful if pesticide


leaching in any forested area of New York would exceed that observed in the


Washington study.



          Extensive studies on agricultural soils genera-lly not having a highly

                                                            *5 O / O 1 £.  O 1 /
organic surface layer also show minor leaching of pesticides '       ' •3*1\


           3. 24
Lichenstein '   has conducted numerous studies on agricultural soils and concluded
                                        3~36                    EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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that it is unlikely  that water  in deeper soil layers  can be contaminated  with



insecticidal residues  from upper agricultural layers.



          We may  conclude  from  these  studies  that  the  organic  litter  mat  is



sufficient in all New  York forests to prevent measurable leaching  of  any



applied insoluble pesticide.







                                 A-3.5.2   Runoff



          A short, light rain falling into  a  forest evaporates from the leaf,



bark and litter surfaces and consequently does not contribute  to the  transport



of pesticide.  Heavier, longer  rains,  however, pick up most of the pesticide



present on leaves, bark and litter surfaces by solution  and localized scouring,



and can therefore set  the  pesticide in motion.



          Overland water runoff is exceptional under a mature  canopy


      3.20  3.27
forest    '     .  The runoff which appears in surface stream  channel • several



hours after each  heavy rain consists  almost entirely of  interflow, the excess



rainwater which seeps  into stream banks  from  saturated soil.   The available



data show that there is essentially no pesticide in runoff from treated forests.



          Northeastern forest soils soak up rainfall at  almost any rate.  The



soil is fully capable  of adsorbing all precipitation.  The measured infiltration


                                              3 28
capacity in these forests  is 50"/hour or more '  .  Runoff, therefore, occurs


                                                               3 27
by percolation through the soil.   Betson and  his TVA colleagues     have shown



that forest runoff orginates in only  small  portions of the watershed  area near



the stream channel.  Water infiltrating  the upland soil  adds to the groundwater



or piezeometric head causing surface  seepage  from the soil at  the foot of the



slope.   This observation has been confirmed for complex  glacial landforms in


                           3.29
Vermont by Dunne  and Black

                                       3_37                     EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          Water appears on the surface in hollows and flows slowly along well-



established but rarely used drainageways or swales.  Frost creep tends to level



these swales so that in New York, even swales will show only 10 to 30 ft of



overland flow.



          Seepage from forest soils into ephemeral stream channels can be



predicted from the Laplace equation which applies to groundwater flow in layered



media:



                                   V2 Z = o



where Z is the piezometric head or elevation of the free groundwater surface.



          For example, planar solution of the Laplace equation shows that a



small hillslope, while saturated to the surface during a prolonged rainstorm,



will drain toward a surface stream at a rate proportional to its gradient.  The



resulting maximum runoff rate to be expected from New York forests varies from



l"/hour on steep Dekalb soils found in the Catskills (measured at Coshocton,



Ohio) to 0.5"/hour (measured at Emery Park, Erie County, September, 1967).



Basic runoff data have been published by the U.S. Forest Service and Agricultural


                3.30  3.31
Research Service    '        All show that overland flow is negligible for a



wide variety of forests and terrain.



          The rain falling directly into the channel, overhung with branches,



runs off immediately.  Pesticides originally residing on such locations are



immediately transported to permanent water bodies.  However, this small area



runoff cannot contribute significant amounts of pesticide to drainage systems.



As an extreme example, calculations show that for an area with as much as 3 %

                        *

of land area covered with standing water approximately 1-ft deep (found



primarily in the Bear Mountain range, Region 5), direct spraying with Sevin at






                                       3-38                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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1 Ib/acre will add 5 ppb to the runoff water.   Even on nonforested watersheds


containing the same soil type as commonly  found in the Catskill forest region


of New York (Muskingum or Dekalb silt loam) accumulated runoff water was


normally found to contain less than 0.1 %  applied chlorinated hydrocarbon


pesticides 12 or more months after applications.


          In hardwood forests, the wet, matted,  broad leaves lie on the surface


like shingles on a roof.  Such litter is impermeable in spots even where the


underlying soil is unsaturated.  Where the surface is permeable, water will


fall into the soil as infiltration.  The net effect is that overall surface


flow is minor and usually limited in length to  less than 30 ft.


          The rainwater, with its suspended and dissolved pesticide load, soaks


into the litter and from there, infiltrates into the mineral soil.  As the


water percolates into the litter and soil, it is adsorbed in the thin liquid


film which clings to each particle.  A large part of the pesticide is trans-


ferred by diffusion to the adsorptive particle.  As infiltration continues,


each film thickens to the drip point so that the water is slowly falling


through the soil.  As discussed in A-3.5.1, the highly organic litter and


humus layers, as well as clay minerals, effectively retain pesticides against


the gravitational and drag forces of percolating water.


          The soil water is absorbed by tree root hairs and returned to the


atmosphere by transpiration from the leaves.  The infiltration capacity for a


given water temperature and vicinity is a  function of soil capillarity and the

                                                       3.32
distribution of soil voids by size in each soil horizon '  .  The high water


capacity of forest soils is due to the large root mass of the trees.  The


roots, which normally extend into bedrock, grow and move so as to open





                                      3-39                    EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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continuous voids for infiltration.  These voids are largest near the trunk of


each tree where the stemflow is absorbed.  These effects, designed by arboreal


evolution to hoard water for transpiration, also minimize overland flow-  The


actual infiltration rate, up to capacity, is dependent on the antecedent

moisture present in the soil.  If the water depth is sufficient, gravity will


cause the water to move laterally over the surface as overland flow.  Surface


rocks, logs and deadwood imbibe any local overland flow, damming and diverting


it into the soil.

          Literature review uncovered no studies on the DDT content of overland


runoff from forested watersheds.  This is due perhaps to the rarity of sustained


overland runoff from forested watersheds.  Review of literature shows few


studies on pesticide levels in runoff, even from agricultural watersheds.


Studies were conducted on the content of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, dieldrin


and methoxychlor, from cultivated plots located at the Appalachian Experimental

                          o O£  o o o
Watershed, Coshocton, Ohio    '        They are discussed here only to set some


tentative estimates on the magnitude of the problem.  Field and laboratory


studies are, of course, needed to obtain more accurate assessment of DDT in


forest runoff.


          Both of the aforementioned studies were conducted on Muskingum silt


loam soils.  This soil type occurs over a large portion of the Catskill


Mountains and Delaware Hills of New York.  The total amount of applied


methoxychlor recovered in runoff for a period of 14 months after application
                                        O 'Jfl
amounted to only 0.004 % of that applied '   .  Over 25 % of the loss was


associated with one storm which occurred when the topsoil was frozen.
                                      3-40                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          The second study  at  the Appalachian Watershed3'33 involved water runoff



of dieldrin from silt  loam  soils on  13-14  %  slopes.  Data were collected on two



different watersheds for  two different  years (1966,1968).  In 26 months after



the 1966 application,  0.007 %  of applied dieldrin had been lost in solution to



runoff water.  In  12 months after the 1968 application  (5 Ibs/acre) 0.07 % of



applied dieldrin was collected in runoff water.  It was pointed out that the 1968



treatment was performed on  soils which  had been prepared so as to maximize runoff.



It was further found in the above studies  that largest losses in runoff occurred



when soil was bare or  had only thin  cover.



          It can be reasonably concluded that in forest environments, chlorinated



hydrocarbon residues,  including DDT, in runoff waters would be far less than those



observed above, as long as  forest cover remained intact.



          In a study previously alluded to,  runoff of Sevin from a forested


                                     3.22
watershed in New York  was monitored.  '     At a detection limit of 0.01 ppm,



~no Sevin was detected  in  drainage waters from a watershed treated at 1 Ib/acre.



Samples were analyzed  for a period of 2 years after application.  The chances of



Sevin entering streams with overland water flow are even far less than for DDT



because of rapid degradation before  and after transport.



          The most serious  contamination hazards involving runoff of applied



insecticides from  forest  soils may be associated with truck-mounted mist-blower



application to selective  acreages.   In  this  case, the pesticide application rate



is higher due to the practice  of treating  both leaf surfaces "to-drip."  The



output particle size is smaller, and area  may be treated more than once to protect



against reinfection from  adjacent areas.   Drainage ditches are likely to exist



along roadsides and recreational parklands in which pest control may be desired.







                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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Such ditches lead runoff directly into permanent  streams.   Therefore,  it  is  not



difficult to surmise that relatively high pesticide concentrations  in  these



ditches could potentially be flushed into streams or lakes  before even the least-



persistent pesticide has been degraded.






                          A-3.5.3  Sediment Transport



          Slopewash or particulate erosion of soil by overland  flow under


                                                                3. 27
mature temperate forests such as occur in New York is negligible.  '     The



suspended sediment of forest floods originate in  the caving and slumping  of


                                                                    3.32
undercut stream banks as well as roads and other  slope disturbances.  '    Thus,



although studies have shown that sediment transport of chlorinated  hydrocarbon

                                                       O  Q  O O O
pesticides is much more effective than overland runoff,    '     we  will show in



the following paragraphs that it is usually of little import in intact forested



areas.  Serious problems may occur in regions where the natural forest conditions



have been altered by man.



          The basic situation at a point on a forested hillslope is illustrated



in Figure 3.9.  It must be recalled that, in the  discussion of  leaching,  we



concluded that the pesticide remains in the top 10 cm of  soil and/or virtually



Its entire lifetime in the soil.



          The erosion of hills and valleys by precipitation-induced processes



include:



          (1)  weathering of rock to debris by infiltrating precipitation



               and creep of wet debris and bedrock,



          (2)  wash entrainment or lift of loose  debris by surface runoff



               of excess precipitation and,



          (3)  landslides or slope failure.



                                       3-42               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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             LITTER &
             SOIL CONTAINING
             PESTICIDE
JOINTS
                           SMALL BARE AREAS
                                                     FORESTED
                                                     HILLSIDE
                                                   MEAN HILLSLOPE
  Figure 3.9  TYPICAL FOREST STREAM BANK CROSS SECTION
                                3-43
EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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The erosional processes of importance are, therefore, limited to those which

cause transport of the uppermost layer of soil.   While vegetation promotes the

disintegration of rocks and chemical weathering, it retards the transport of the

weathered material.  Where vegetation is profuse there is always an excess of

material awaiting transportation and the limit to the rate of erosion comes to

be merely the limit to the rate of transportation.  Under closed-canopy forest,

it is the thick layer of litter and dead wood that prevents overland rainwash

erosion of soil.  Saturation of this thick root  mat leads to creep.  Creep

processes, however, are relatively minor in temperate forests due to the anchorage
                                            O *3 /
of tree roots in bedrock.  Leopold, et.  al., '   in a summary article shows for

example, that the mean surface creep rate in temperate forest is of the order

of 0.6 mm/year.  Obviously, therefore, creep is  unimportant in releasing pesticide-

laden sediment to the aquatic environment.

          Surface wash erosion of soil requires  a relatively high velocity of

overland flow.  It was shown in the previous section that under temperate forest

cover surface flow rates are extremely slow and  total overland transport is

limited to distances of the order of 30  ft.  Erosion due to overland flow is,

therefore, negligible in a standing temperate forest.

          Catastrophic landslides are occasionally produced by torrential rains,

associated with very severe weather such as hurricanes,  in mountains of the eastern
                                                                            o oc
United States.  In a study performed in  Northern Virginia, Hack and Goodlett

found that a maximum of 1 % of the land  area in  high mountain forest was removed

by slides during the "100 year" storm of 1949.  A very simple calculation based

on these data shows that such land slides cannot produce serious pesticide con-

tamination in regions treated with Sevin.  If the entire area had been recently

treated with 1 Ib/acre and the slides produced by 4" of rain (lower than the actual


                                      3-44               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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case),  the concentration of pesticide in the rain water alone would be



approximately 1 ppm.   For Sevin, which does not persist from year-to-year and



for which toxicity levels exceed this value significantly, such landslides are



not important.   For DDT on the other hand, a single application could produce



pesticide concentrations that are toxic to many species.



          In smaller rainstorms, very minor landslides and stream bank caving



produce silt in the stream water.  The percentage of the total land area



affected is, of course, extremely small and the contamination problem is



reduced by many orders of magnitude or more.  Data from the U.S.  Department  of


           3 35A
Agriculture *    show that the total erosion rate into stream channels in



mountainous regions of New York averages approximately 0.01 acre-ft/sq mi/year.



If this mass of material was eroded entirely from the top 10 cm of surface



which contains virtually all pesticide, the total pesticide load introduced  into



streams by bank erosion would be 12g/year/sq mi of mountainous area.   Considering



average annual rainfall in the same region, it is obvious that introduction  of



pesticide into water by stream bank erosion is completely negligible.



          The preceding discussion pertains only to intact forest areas.  The



problem of erosion is substantially more serious in the forest when cover is



disturbed.  When a steep mountain forest is clearcut, disasterous soil erosion



usually follows.  It is not the act of clearcutting alone but the roads, log



skidding, slash burning and subsequent land-use practices which lead to



catastrophic soil erosion.  Sediment is produced from road and other soil



disturbances including bank erosion by permanent stream channels.
                                       3_A5              EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          The sudden movement of pesticide-laden sediments from an eroding


clear-cut or burned-over forest introduce catastrophic amounts of persistent


accumulated insecticides such as DDT to local drainage networks.  The magnitude


                                                                             3.33
of the problem may be estimated from the Coshocton study previously discussed "  ,


Dieldrin residues found in sediments eroded from a bare or sparsely vegetated


watershed contained 2.2 % of the applied dosage (5 Ib/acre).   This represented



about 30 times as much insecticide as found in runoff water from an adjacent



watershed for the same 12-month period.


          The possible release of DDT or other persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon



insecticides in sediment losses from denuded forest watershed is of concern.


Because of the short term persistence of Sevin in soil, the chances of forest


denudation and resultant sediment runoff occuring coincident  with Sevin presence


in soils are very small.


          Concentration of persistent pesticides that could occur in runoff


if a forest area were clear-cut or burned-out can be estimated.  The accumulation


of DDT residues in organic forest soil horizons typically reaches 0.5 Ib/acre


or 40 ppm in 3" of humus, where spraying continues for many years, although

                                             *3 1 /
values as high as 2.2 Ib/acre have been found '  .  The sediment concentration,


although known only approximately, is typically of the order  of 10-15 % for


serious erosional events on disturbed terrains.  Using the nominal concentration



of pesticide in the surface soil of 40 ppm, the concentration of pesticide C


In the stream discharge is as high as:



               C = '5 % x 40 ppm = 6 ppm, in the runoff.
                                     3-46                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II).

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          For drainage basins exceeding 100 acres, depending on soil  type,
sediment will be deposited in the stream bed for removal at a later time, and
thus cause continued pesticide contamination.  Even with very small cut-over
watersheds, however, toxic local DDT concentrations can be produced in waters
adjacent to the cut-over area.  The toxic organic sediment settling in water
bodies from such erosion provides a long-lived source of DDT contamination due
to the low solubility characteristic of persistent pesticides.  The DDT con-
centration in sediment will be essentially the same as in the soil removal
since DDT is essentially insoluble in water.  From the lake sediment, the
pesticide is further concentrated in the aquatic food chain.
          In summary, the available evidence indicates that there is little
threat of serious contamination to streams and lakes in forested regions from
pesticide transport by leaching, overland runoff or sediment losses, when the
chemical is, applied by aircraft at 1 Ib/acre and forest denudation does not
occur.  If forest cover is removed from DDT-treated acreages, serious stream
and lake contamination can occur as a result of pesticide-laden sediment
runoff.  Even though DDT is no longer used in New York, this threat still
exists because of the long-term persistence of the chemical.  Therefore, it
is essential to prevent the denudation of forest acreage that has been treated
with DDT in past years.  This threat is negligible, however, on that acreage
that has been treated only with Sevin due to the rapid degradability of this
chemical.
           Saturation spraying of  selected acreages  of  forested  lands  with
 truck-mounted mist  blowers  could  result  in serious  runoff  of  pesticides  along
 roadside drainage ditches.
                                      3-47               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II).

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     A-3.6  Intentional Dumping, Accidential Spills and Container Disposal


          Overt introduction by man of pesticides into the aquatic environment

is distinctly possible, although intentional pesticide dumping is illegal in


New York.  Cursory examination of records does not indicate any problem in

either dumping or accidential spills in forest pest control operations.  It

is emphasized that most forested land is under the direct control and super-


vision of career foresters, who strictly adhere to operational regulations.

If this were not the case, the occurrence of this type of actions could be


much greater.  Control by foresters is exercised not only during treatment

operations conducted by State personnel using State equipment,  but also when

the State contracts to commercial applicators for forest treatment.

          For example, during the 1971 spray season,  almost 70  % of  the

approximate 250,000 acres treated for gypsy  moth were conducted by aerial

applicator firms under State contracts.   In  addition to following operational

procedures discussed in Section A-2, these firms must be registered  as  required

by Article II of The Agriculture and Markets Law, and are subject to Rules and
                                 o o£
Regulations set forth in Part 154 *  .  Those subsections dealing with  disposal

of unused pesticides and pesticide containers are quoted herein.


          "154.5  Disposal of Pesticide Containers and Unused Pesticides

               (a)  No pesticide containers  shall be disposed of in any


                    place other than at a refuse disposal site, a sanitary


                    land fill, or in an incinerator,  all of which shall have


                    been approved for the purpose.  Reusable containers may be


                    disposed of for uses not prohibited in 154.6 below, providing

                    such containers are treated as outlined.





                                      3-48                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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(b)   Containers of pe.--ici es shall be treated in the following




     manner before dis^.-.1:




     (•1)  Disposal of r-Joa-combustible Containers




            (1)  Rinse at  east twice with water or the




                 pesticide carrier being used.  Return




                 rinses to the spray tank.




           (ii)  Transport the cleaned containers to the




                 approved disposal site - see Section 154.5-a.




          (iii)  Returnable containers shall be rinsed as in




                 b-l-i above, tightly closed to prevent




                 leakage, the exterior cleaned, and the




                 containers returned to the supplier.




     (2)  Combustible Containers of Pesticides shall be




          disposed of as follows;




            (i)  At the same sites as approved for noncombustible




                 containers - see Section 154.5-a.




           (ii)  Small quantities of combustible containers may




                 be burned with permission under the applicable




                 provisions of the Public Health Laws and the




                 rules and regulations existing thereunder, except




                 containers of volatile hormone type herbicides.




(c)   Surplus or unused pesticides shall be disposed of by burial




     with at least 18 inches of compacted cover in such a manner




     and at such a location within the disposal area that ground




     or surface water is not contaminated.











                      3-49                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          154.6     Re-use of Pesticide Containers




               (a)  No pesticide containers shall be sold or used for the




                    storage of human or animal food or water, nor shall such




                    containers be used for the storage of cooking utensils,




                    dishes or clothing.




               (b)  No pesticide containers shall be sold or used for any




                    other purpose unless such purpose has been approved by




                    the Commissioner and the containers have been properly




                    cleaned."




          In keeping with centralization of control during forest pest control




operations, pesticide containers are maintained at the mixing station and




disposed of in designated and proper sanitary landfill areas.  Further, in




aerial applications, should the pilot require the rapid discharge of pesticides,




he is procedurally obligated to do so away from open water.   Therefore, the




relative importance of these factors is low due to the centralized procedures




and policies of those State trained personnel conducting the forest pesticide




operation.
                                     3-50                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                               A-5.7  References


3.1       Fletcher,  N.H.,  1966, The Physics of Rainclouds, Cambridge
            University Press.

3.2       1971,  Spraying Systems Co., Personal Communication.

3.3       Coutts, H.H. and Yates, W.E., 1968, Analysis of Spray Droplet
            Distributions  from Agricultural Aircraft, Trans. Amer. Soc.
            Agri. Eng. 11(1), 25.

3.4       Turner, D.B., 1969, Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates,
            National Air Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati,
            Ohio, 41.

3.5       Slade, D.H., 1965, Dispersion Estimates from Pollutant Release
          of a Few Seconds to Eight Hours in Duration, Unpublished Weather
          Bureau Report, August.

3.6       1971,  Union Carbide Corporation, Personal Communication.

3.7       Dethier, B.E., 1966, Precipitation in New York State, Cornell
            University Agricultural Experiment Station, New York State
            College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y., Bulletin 1009.

3.8       Cline, Marlin, G.,  1955, Soils and Soil Associations of New York,
            Cornell Extension Bulletin 930, Cornell University.

3.9       Cline, Marlin, G. and Lathwell, Douglas J., 1962, Physical and
            Chemical Properties of Soils of Northern New York, Cornell
            University.

3.9a      Bray,  W.L., 1915, Development of Vegetation of New York State,
            College of Forestry Tech. Pub. 3.

3.10      Kuchler, A.W., 1964, Potential Natural Vegetation of the
            Coterminuous United State, American Geographical Society.

3.11      Woodwell, George M., 1961, The Persistence of DDT in a Forest
            Soil, Forest Science, V. 7, No. 3.

3.12      Yule,  W.N., 1970, DDT Residues in Forest Soil, Bulletin of
            Environmental  Contamination and Toxicology, V. 5, No. 2.

3.13      Smith, Virgil K., 1968, Long-Term Movement of DDT Applied to
            Soil for Termite Control, Pesticides Monitoring Journal,
            V.  2, No. 1.

3.14      Edwards, C.A., 1966, Insecticide Residue in Soils, in;
          Residue Reviews, V. 13, New York, Springer-Verlag.


                                     3-51                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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3.15      Dimond,  John B.  et.  al.,  1970,  DDT Residues  in Robins  and
            Earthworms Associated with  Contaminated Forest  Soils in:
            the Canadian Entomologist,  V.  102,  No.  9.

3.16      Lichenstein, E.P.,  and Schultz,  K.R., 1959,  Persistence of  Some
            Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides  as Influenced by Soil
            Types, Rate of Application  and Temperature,  J.  Economic
            Entomology, V.  52.

3.17      Harris,  C.R., 1966,  Influence of Soil Type on  the Activity  of
            Insecticides in Soils,  J. Econ.  Entomology,  V.  59, No.  5.

3.18      Bowman,  M.C. and Schecter, M.S., 1965,  Behavior of Chlorinated
            Insecticides in a Broad Spectrum of Soil Types, J. Agricultural
            and Food Chemistry,  V.  13,  No. 4.

3.19      Nash, R.G. and Woolson, E.A., 1967, Persistence of Chlorinated
            Hydrocarbon Insecticides in Soils,  Science,  V.  157,  pp 924-927.

3.20      Norris,  Logan A.  and Moore, Duane G., 1971,  The Entry  and Fate
            of Forest Chemicals  in  Streams in:  Forest Land Use  and Streams
            Environment, Corvallis, Oregon.

3.21      Fleck, Elmer, E., 1966, Chemistry of  Insecticides in:   Pesticides
            and Their Effects  on Soils  and Water, Madison,  Wisconsin,
            Soil Science Society of America.

3.22      Fetley,  Donald R.,  1970,  The  Effect of  Sevin (1-napthyl N.
            metylcarbonate) As a Watershed Pollutant,  Thesis Submitted
            to College of Forestry, Syracuse University.

3.23      Riekelk, H., Cole,  D.W.,  and  Gessel,  S.P., 1970,  The Behavior of
            Two Pesticides in a  Forest  Soil, Final  Report to the U.S.
            Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
            Station, Portland, Oregon.

3.24      Lichenstein, E.P.,  1970,  Fate and Movement of  Insecticides  in and
            From Soils, in: ' Pesticides in the  Soil.  Ecology, Degradation
            and Movement,  International Symposium held at Michigan State
            University.

3.25      Biggar,  J.W., 1970,  Pesticide Movement  in Soil Water,  in:
            Pesticides in the Soil: Ecology, Degradation and Movement,
            International  Symposium held at Michigan State  University.

3.26      Edwards, William M.  and Glass, Bobby  L.,  1971, Methoxychlor and
            2,4,5-T and Lysimeter Percolation and Runoff Water,  Bulletin
          of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, V. 6, No. 1.


                                    3-52                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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*.27       Betson,  J., 1964, What is Watershed Runoff? J. Geophysical Res.,
            V.  69, pp 1541-1552.
                      t

3.28       Hewett,  J.F. and Helvey, J.D., 1970, Effects of Forest Clear-
            Felling on the Storm Hydrograph, Water Resources Research,
            V.  6,  pp 768-782.

3.29       Dunne, T. and Black, R.D., 1970, Partial Area Contributions to
            Storm Runoff in a Small New England Watershed, Water Resources
            Research, V. 6, pp 1296-1311.

3.30       Hobbs, H.W., 1963, Hydrologic Data for Experimental Agricultural
            Watersheds in the U.S., 1956-59, Agricultural Research Service,
            Misc.  Publication 945.

3.31       ibid, 1960-61, Misc. Publication 994, 1965.

3.32       Eagleson, P.S., 1970, Dynamic Hydology, McGraw-Hill.

3.33       Caro, Joseph and Taylor, Alan, 1971, Pathways of Loss of Dieldrin
            from Soils Under Field Conditions, J. Agricultural and Food
            Chemistry, V. 19, No. 2.

3.34       Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluvial
            Process in Geonurhology, pp 352, San Francisco.

3.35       Hack, J.T. and Goodlett, J.C., 1958, Topography of a Mountain
            Area in Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey Professional
            Paper 383.

3.35a     Cochran, A.L., 1965, Proc. Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation
            Conf.  1963, Agricultural Research Service, Misc. Publication,
            970.

3.36       1970, The Agriculture and Markets Law Relating to Custom
            Application of Pesticides, Article 11-A, Circular 913 State
            of New York Department of Agriculture and Markets, Albany,
            New York.
                                     3.53                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol

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                                     A-4.




             IMPACT OF PESTICIDES, INCLUDING METABOLITES,  ON THE




                   AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT AND FOREST ECOSYSTEM
                              A-4.1  Introduction




          The impact of pesticides, including metabolites,  on the aquatic




environment and the forest ecosystem is discussed in this section beginning with




an examination of how pesticides affect the aquatic environment.   Next,  the fate




of pesticides in the forest ecosystem is studied with consideration given to




non-biological and biological degradation and to the bioconcentration and toxicity




of pesticides in the forest environment.  This is followed by a discussion of




the antagonistic and synergistic effects of DDT and Sevin.   The impact of




pesticides on humans is studied in the next and final paragraphs  of this section.




          There are several mechanisms through which DDT and Sevin insecticides




could have an adverse impact on aquatic life; the most obvious is that of direct




kill, such as the death of all the fish in a pond due to DDT.  This varies not




only with the rate of application and the impacted species but also with the DDT




formulation.  For example, most investigators have found DDT emulsions to be more
               ^


                                                                                  A. 1
toxic to non-target organisms than when DDT was applied in oil or as a suspension.




More subtle disruptions result when only a segment of the organisms in a lake or




stream are destroyed by a pesticide.  If the biota that was killed was the food for




other animals, the latter also may die.  Since this process probably would occur




slowly,  it may go unnoticed.




          If the predators and/or competitors of one or more species are




eliminated or significantly reduced, the "balance of nature" may be upset.  For



                                      4-1

                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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example, if a sizable quantity of the zooplankton in a pond are poisoned by

Sevin, the phytoplankton (whose numbers are controlled ordinarily by the

zooplankton) may increase substantially.   Following such an algal population

explosion or "bloom," the algae may poison themselves in their own metabolites.

When the dead algae decay, the oxygen in the water may decrease and cause the

death of other aerobic forms.
          Even more difficult to trace and evaluate is the movement of

pesticides, such as DDT, through the aquatic food web.  Unfortunately, very

little is known regarding the trophic relationships of aquatic organisms.  It

has been observed that these who-eats-who interactions may change significantly

with the seasons.  Within a season, feeding habits may be affected by innumerable

chemical, physical and biological factors.  Another complicating factor is uptake

and metabolism, each of which are influenced by a myriad of known and unknown

conditions.  For example, DDT may be passed within a food web in the form of DDT,

DDE, ODD and/or several other metabolites.  These chemicals vary considerably in

their ability to induce toxicity and other metabolic disruptions.

          Still another point that cannot be overlooked is the fact that despite

its widespread use since 1942, the biological liaison (location and biochemical

mechanism of action) of DDT is not understood.

          Keeping these problems in mind, a review of the impact of DDT and

Sevin on aquatic environments nevertheless is of value in the formulation of

            regarding the employment of these insecticides in forest management.
                                     4-2
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                    A-4.2  DDT and the Aquatic Environment



          The impact of DDT on total aquatic ecosystems has been reviewed by



several authors '    '    whose works provide a general overview.



          DDT has  a low volatility and is not normally decomposed by sunlight



or other naturally occurring chemical and physical factors.*    The degradation



rate in soil and water, in the absence of organisms, generally does not exceed


        4.3
5%/year. '   As a result, it is one of the most persistent agricultural chemicals



in the environment.  Though it is extremely low in solubility in water (less than



1 ppb),'   DDT is readily adsorbed onto organic matter. '     Hence, this insecticide



tends to remain concentrated in the upper level of forest soils, with which it can


                                                 4 22
be carried to streams and lakes via soil erosion. '    Detritus is believed to be



a significant source of introduction of DDT into aquatic food webs.  The adsorption



of DDT on suspended organic matter was sited as a means of controlling black-fly


                          4.23
(Simulium articum) larvae. *    Hence, the quantity and quality of suspended



material in aquatic habitats that may be contaminated by DDT should be considered



prior to the application of this pesticide.



          Another relevant property of DDT is the fact that is accumulates in


                    4 24
lipid tissues.  Cope '   demonstrated that DDT and its metabolites were persistent



in some fish for up to 2 years following a single exposure to this insecticide.



In this manner it may be concentrated and passed on through the food web in ever


                                             4.18
increasing concentrations (biomagnification). *    (Movement of DDT through aquatic



fcM webs will be discussed in a later section.)



          There have been few attempts to trace the movement of DDT in natural



aquatic habitats.   The cost of such studies, as well as the availability of an



uncontaminated and monitorable area, probably have been the major factors in



detering such investigations.  One of the earliest experiments to ascertain the




                                      4-3
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                                                                                4.1
impact of DDT on an ecosystem was done in 1945 by Dr.  Cottam and his associates. '



Using an airplane, they sprayed a 117-acre tract of Patuxent River bottomland in



Maryland with 2 Ib/acre of DDT in oil.  Examinations for kill were conducted up



to 300 days following application.  (No attempt was made to investigate the



possible cumulative effects of DDT since this problem was generally not recognized



at the time.)  Within 12 hours, dead shiners and bluegill were observed.  Represen-



tatives of these species also had been placed in boxes in the Patuxent River above



and below the sprayed areas.  Less than a third of the bluegills survived while



the other fish were unaffected.  However, in later experiments nearly all species



exhibited 75 % or greater mortality when tested in an area in which 1 Ib/acre



of DDT was applied to a. pond.  Hence, factors other than taxonomy appear to be



more important with respect to the impact of DDT on fish.  (This observation will



be discussed at length in a later section.)



          From the Patuxent study, as well as others conducted in Fort Knox



(Kentucky), Island Beach (New Jersey), Clifton (Pennsylvania) and Black Sturgeon


                             4 1
Lake (Ontario, Canada) Cottam    concluded that mortality among non-target



organisms increased when applications exceeded 1 Ib/acre, particularly when oil



formulations were employed.  Invertebrates and cold-blooded vertebrates were more



subject to mortality than were birds and mammals.  The variations in the applica-



tion procedure, insecticide formulation, season and area sprayed plus a number of



other factors makes it exceedingly difficult to deduce further conclusions from



this series of investigations.



          One experiment having much better controls was carried out by the Ohio


                                  4 10 4 25
Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit    '  '   during which 3.9 millicuries of



chlorine-36 ring-labeled DDT was applied at a rate of 0.2 Ibs technical DDT per



acre to a 4-acre marsh in Northern Ohio.  Initially (4 hours after application)



                                      4-4
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  IT)

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concentrations of the insecticide were detected in the emergent and floating


vegetation (i.e., Potamogeton pectinatus, Lemna minor, Utricularia vulgaris).


Traces were also found in crayfish (Orconectes immunis), tadpoles (Rana pipiens)


and carp (Cyprinus carpio).  It was believed that these amounts were the result


of direct spray.  The first instance of bioaccumulation was noted in Cladophora,


an attached alga, 3 days after application.  This plant had a DDT content of


96 ppm which was 3,125 times higher than the background.  A northern water snake


(Matrix sipedon) had 36 ppm after 13 months; carp (Cyprinus carpio) also had their


higher concentration of 19 ppm after 13 months.  Generally speaking, plants and


invertebrates accumulated their highest residues within the first week, while


vertebrates took considerably longer.

                        / o a
          Cole, et. al., '   investigated the levels of DDT in stream eco-


systems before and after the application of DDT to 104,000 acres of Pennsylvania


forest (oak maple) to control fall cankerworm (Alsophilia pometaria).   A formula


of 0.5 Ibs technical DDT in naphtha and fuel oil per acre was applied using an


airplane traveling at 165 mph at 100 ft above the treetops.  Although the DDT


content of stream sediment increased by a few parts per billion after 1 month,


the residues in brook trout (Salvelinu% fortinalis) were 20-100 times  higher.


White suckers (Catostomus commersoni) also exhibited substantial increases in


insecticide content.  Concentrations in crayfish also increased but to a lesser


extent.  Changes in concentrations of DDT and its metabolites with time are given


in Table 4.1.  (Site 1 was 1 mile above the splash dam sampling location.)


Between 30 and 122 days after application, the insecticide residue decreased to


near pre-application levels.

          In a Long Island marsh that was sprayed annually with DDT for more


than 20 years to control mosquitos, Woodwell '   discovered more than 32 Ib/acre



                                     4"5                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                        Table 4.1
 RESIDUE IN FISH AND CRAYFISH BEFORE AND AFTER THE
      APPLICATION OF 0.5 LB TECHNICAL DDT/ACRE

               (VALUES IN PARTS PER MILLION)

CITP

LYMAN RUN SITE 1
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS
SPLASH DAM
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS

SITE
LYMAN RUN SITE 1
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS
SPLASH DAM
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS
CITE
Ol 1 t
LYMAN RUN SITE 1
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS
SPLASH DAM
PRE-TREATMENT
TREATMENT +30 DAYS
TREATMENT +122 DAYS
TREATMENT +380 DAYS
BROOK TROUT

DDE

0.34
4.8
0.29
0.33

0.42
1.5
0.31
0.36
TDE

NR
6.1
0.16
0.10

0.10
6.1
0.11
0.10
o,p'-DDT

NR
NR
0.12
NR

NR
NR
0.04
NR
p,p'-DDT

0.54
9.5
0.20
0.23

0.37
10.6
0.07
0.09
WHITE SUCKERS
DDE

2.4
4.7
0.27
0.18

0.72
5.0
0.83
0.25
TDE

NR
5.7
0.13
0.24

NR
7.8
0.54
0.32
o,p'-DDT

NR
NR
NR
NR

NR
NR
0.04
NR
p,p'-DDT

1.8
NR
NR
NR

0.9
NR
NR
NR
CRAYFISH
DDE

NR
0.89
0.09
0.02

1.1
1.4
0.02
0.06
TDE

NR
0.71
0.09
NR

NR
1.6
0.01
NR
o,p'-DDT

NR
NR
NR
NR

NR
NR
NR
NR
p,p'-DDT

0.47
0.88
0.10
0.06

1.9
1.1
0.01
0.07
NR = BELOW LIMIT OF DETECTABILITY (0.002 ppm)
DATA FROM COLE et. al., 4.26
                         4-6
                                             EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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in the sediment just below the mud-water  interface.   The water  contained O.OD005




ppm.  Plankton had 0.4 ppm DDT; bay  shrimp,  0.16;  snails  (Nassarius  sp.),  0.26;



eels (Anguilla rostrata), 0.28; minnows  (Cyprinodan  sp.) .  0.94;  and  flounders




(Paralichthys sp.), 1.28.  Shore-birds, which  fed  on the  fish,  had up  to 75.5


   4.18,4.19
ppm.




          Fredeen and Duffy  '  examined the  St.  Lawrence River  Ecosystem after



36,831 Ib of technical DDT were added  in  six doses of approximately  6,000  Ib



each in the spring and summer of 1966  through  1967.   The insecticide was added



directly to the river in slugs of 0.17 to 0.38 ppm emulsified DDT for  16-39



minutes to control undesirable insects in the  "Expo" exposition  site.  Fish were



collected downstream of  the  treatment  area from  3-70 days  after  the  insecticide



was discharged in 1967.  The highest average concentrations of 0.74  ppm  were



detected in carp (Cyprinus carpio) and catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus); in  bottom-



feeding species, snails  (Campeloma)  and clams  (Pisidium),  the average was  approxi-



mately half as much.



          Attempting to  avoid the problem of uncontrollable variables, Metcalf,



Sangha and Kapoor  '   constructed a  model ecosystem  with a 7-element food  web.



They added Carbon 14-labeled DDT to  approximate  an application  rate  in nature of



1 Ib/acre.  The insecticide  accumulated in mosquito  larvae, snails and fish as



DDE, ODD and DDT.  A biomagnification  of  10,000-100,000 was observed after 30




days.


                             4 4
          Eberhardt, et. al., '  attempted to  mathematically -model the kinetics




of DDT in a freshwater habitat, although  additional  model  verification is




necessary.



          Macek and Korn^'28 demonstrated in the laboratory that brook trout




_(S_;:il_ve.linu,s fontinalis)  accumulated  approximately  10 times more  of available DDT




                                       4-7

                                                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  IT)

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from food than directly from water.  This reinforces the work of Woodwell, et.  al.,




regarding biomagnification.



          Some uptake of DDT across the gills by fish directly from the water



does occur.'    A noteworthy point is the fact that  uptake is stimulated by



increasing salinity.  Hence, the detrimental effect  of DDT on fish  could be



greater if the pesticide were applied to brackish rather than to fresh water.



          Stickel     provides further information on the impact of DDT on




total ecosystems.



          There have been more DDT studies with individual species  or groups



of organisms, particularly fish, than have been done with entire ecosystems.  The



following discussion of the effects of DDT on specific organisms and taxonomic



groups begins with the lower trophic levels.



          The impact of DDT and its metabolites on algae was  reviewed by



Christie '   and Sweeney, '   as well as included in a literature survey by


              4 33
Ware and Roan. *    Christie observed that DDT in concentrations up to 100.0  ppm



was neither toxic to, nor significantly degraded by, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, a


                                                                 4  34        4  35
common green alga.  Similar observations have been made by others.'    Ukeles



reported that concentrations exceeding 60.0 ppm were necessary to inhibit the



growth of five species of marine phytoplankton over  a 10-day  period.  The con-



centrations necessary to kill most algae exceed the  DDT concentrations found in



nature by more than 10,000-fold.'  ' '    However, low concentrations of DDT can



adversely affect phytoplankton.  For instance, an exposure for 4 hours to 1.0 ppm



DDT resulted in a 77 % decrease in carbon fixation,  a technique for evaluating



photosynthesis-respiration ratios. '    Wurster *   reported  reductions in carbon



fixation by four species of marine algae of up to 45 and 75 % following a 24-hour




exposure to 1.0 and 100.0 ppb DDT, respectively.  Using natural phytoplankton




                                      4-8
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
populations from Lake Ontario, Glooschenko^'39 measured up to a 29.1 % decrease
in Carbon-14 uptake following an exposure to 1.0 ppb DDT.  Further reductions
were noted at 10.0, 100.0 and 1000.0 ppb.
          Perhaps of greater importance is the fact that algae and other water
plants can concentrate DDT and thereby pass this insecticide up the aquatic food
web.  For example, several varieties of freshwater algae concentrated DDT between
99- and 964-fold following a 7-day exposure to water initially containing 1.0
    4.40
ppm.  '    Bacteria and fungi can accumulate 40-100 % of the DDT from the media in
                        4.41
which they are cultured.  '    Similar observations have been made with marine
        4.33
species.  "    Non-living  algae and other plant;; also will concentrate DDT.
          The mechanism of DDT accumulation by living cells, which may occur
                                                            4.32
by adsorption and/or active uptake, is not fully understood.  '    There is
evidence  to support both  postulations.
          Zooplankton and benthic animals also can concentrate DDT.  Pontoporeia
affinis,  a bottom-dwelling amphipod (crustacean) which is an  important component
in many freshwater food webs, was found to amass 50 times the concentration of
                                                              4.42
DDT,  DDE  and ODD that was found in surrounding lake sediments.
          Most of the studies regarding the interactions of DDT and mollusks have
been  done with marine species, such as the easter oyster (Crassostrea virginica)
                                          4 43
and common mussel (Brachidontes recurvus). "    These filter  feeders are among
the most  "efficient" of the aquatic forms at removing and concentrating DDT.
A~,-,ie from increasing the likelihood of the insecticide being passed on within
the food web, a concentration of 7 to 10 ppb DDT in water will inhibit sh-.-ll
deposition by 50 %.  While freshwater mussels are less common and  correspondingly
of lower importance as a  food than their saltwater counterparts, freshwater species
most likely are as adversly affected by this insecticide.
                                      4-9
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
          There have been innumerable studies regarding the impact of DDT on



stream insects.4'44"4'51  While the studies differed considerably with respect



to rates, method, formula and time of application of the insecticide, some general



conclusions can be drawn.  DDT produced marked reductions in the quality and



quantity of stream insects.  In streams, some species  were destroyed more than



others.  However, in other areas the reverse may have  been true.   If no DDT was



applied, normally present taxa repopulated the stream  in 2-3 years probably



because the insect eggs, which frequently have a thick shell, are less adversly


                                              4 52
affected by DDT than are larvae or the adults. '    A  very slight return of the



natural stream fauna was observed where spraying took  place on an annual basis.



Recovery of individual species was proportional to normal reproductive capacities,



i.e., mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and midges (Chironomidae) recovered more quickly;



stoneflies (Plecoptera) and caddisflies (Trichoptera)  more slowly.  Contaminated



and drifting insects represent a significant potential source of DDT uptake by



fish, many of which feed on those paralyzed invertebrates.  Insects sprayed



with DDT-oil were more toxic than those insects that had come into contact with


                  4 53
DDT in suspension. '    Likewise, some insect mortality, particularly downstream,



was related to their eating of attached plants that had accumulated DDT.



          More literature concerning DDT and fish has  been published than on any



other form of aquatic life.  This topic was included in a comprehensive literature



review by Johnson. '    Henderson, et. al., '   and Reinert,     among others,



published compilations regarding the accumulation of DDT and its metabolites in



fish.



          It is virtually impossible to compare laboratory studies concerning



the determination of lethal dosage, or concentration due to the vast differences



in environments (water temperature, pH, etc.), age and the physiological condition



                                      4-10

                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
of fish, etc.  However, generally speaking, the "sport" fish species are more
                                 4 54
sensitive than the trash-species. '    The 72-hour LD  s ranged from 0.1 ppm for
goldfish (Carassius auratus) to 0.001 ppm for brown trout (Salmo trutta).
The toxicity of DDE to fish appears to be 10-fold less than DDT.  In othe^- words,
it takes 10 times the concentration of DDE to kill the same fish under the same
environmental conditions than is necessary with DDT. '
                4 57
          Holden "   determined that in a 1-ft deep stream, the ratio of the
recommended quantity of DDT to control blackflies (Simulium sp.) to the amount
which destroyed half the trout (Salvelinus sp.) in 24 hours was 1:17.  The short-
comings of the utilization of such acute toxicity data was discussed at length
by Rudd and Genelly.
          Numerous instances of fish kills follov/ing the application of DDT to
                                   4.59-4.61
control insects have been reported. *    '    There have been many more cases
                                                                          4.62
where more than one pesticide was applied to an area prior to a fish kill.
In such an instance, it is very difficult to determine if DDT was the most
significant factor which induced death of the fish.
          Temperature apparently is an important factor which influences DDT
               / /- r\
toxicity.  Cope '   reported that with respect to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
and bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus), DDT toxicity increased below 13°C and above
                               4 64
18.5 - 23°C.  Bridges, et. al., '   observed similar results.
          Turbidity may influence the toxicity of DDT.  Organic particles in
                                     4 65
suspension may remove DDT from water. '    However, the DDT may reenter an
aquatic food web if the organic matter was eaten by bottom organisms.  Hence,
suspended material could decrease the acute toxicity and increase the chronic
toxicity of this insecticide.
                                     4-11
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

-------
          Johnson4'66 reported a decrease in the toxicity  of DDT with increasing



alkalinity.  However, since the waters he was observing also were turbid,  his



conclusion may be invalid.



          Within a given species, the younger and smaller  generally  are more



susceptable to DDT poisoning than the older and larger fish.  *     This  may be



related to the fact that the latter have more lipid tissue in which  the DDT



can be dispersed.



          The negative impact of DDT on fish eggs and fly  eggs  can be significant.



After a fish initially hatches, it is almost entirely dependent on the  yolk sac



for its initial source of food.  As the contents of the yolk sac are consumed,



the DDT in the remaining lipids in the sac becomes more concentrated.  During



the last stage of yolk sac absorption, mortality among the fry  of numerous



species have been observed. "    The eggs may be a vehicle through which DDT is



passed on to the offspring.  This may result in a significant decline in the


                                         4.69 4.70
population of some species such as trout.    '      In fact,  this was believed



to be the prime factor in the destruction of the lake trout fishery  in  Lake



George, New York.  This factor led to the subsequent extensive  use of non-persistent



Sevin.



          Environmental stress decreases the resistance of fish to DDT.



Examples of tue above can be starvation, low dissolved oxygen and water



temperatures and physiological changes associated with spawning. '  ' "



These conditions may have occurred during many of the static toxicity tests


                                                                             /  "71
that have been reported which could invalidate the results from such studies.



          Numerous aquatic organisms can metabolize DDT. "  ' *  »^«JJ  Yeasts


                             4 75
declorinate DDT to ODD (TDE). "    Some algae can convert  DDT to DDE; however,



the process is fairly slow — 9 % in 3 weeks.


                                     4-12

                                                            EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
          Some anaerobic aquatic bacteria, such as Klebsiella pneumonia and



Aerobacter aerogenes degrade DDT to TDE.  Reduced Fe (II) cytochrome oxidase



appeared to be the enzyme responsible for this chemical change.4'76  Intestinal



microflora play a major role in the degradation of DDT in fish.  These bacteria



can metabolize DDT to DDE and DDD.4'77'4'78



          A limited amount of research has been conducted on DDT metabolism



by fish.  Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, degrade DDT to DDE and         "
In vitro investigation with carp blood and DDT showed some conversion to DDE,


                      L 77
DDD and possibly DDMU.



          While much literature has been generated regarding the breakdown of



DDT by terrestrial insects, virtually nothing could be found concerning aquatic



anthropods.  However, since the metabolic pathways of the latter do not differ



appreciably from the land forms, it can be assumed with reasonable confidence that



aquatic insects also metabolize DDT and related chemicals.  For further informatio


                                                                            4.74
on this subject, the reader is directed to compilations by Dr. Calvin Menzie


   . c       4.82
and Spencer.



          One recent, and perhaps biologically significant finding, was the


                                          4 83 4 84
discovery of DDT-resistant fish and frogs. '  ' '    These organisms can



accumulate sufficient amounts of DDT to pose a threat to higher organism,



including man, if corns umed.



          A determination of the effects of any agent on the forest ecosystem,



requires a comparative investigation.  Regrettably, there has been no pre-applica-



tion study of our northeastern forests, delineating the "normal" parameters of



the woodlands, either physical or biological.  Most studies have been of short



duration, determining only the effectiveness of the control and the persistence


 .  .    .   .  , 4.85-4.87
of the chemical.


                                      4-13
                                                            EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          In order to assess  the degree of impact  of chemical  sprays on the

aquatic biome within the forest, it  is  essential that prespray studies  be made

of the biological, chemical and physical parameters.  Animal species, their

composition and numbers, aquatic plant  varieties,  chemical  levels  of the area

under study, and the physical attributes of the  lentic or lotic environment

must be evaluated.  These studies should be undertaken several years prior to

spray, so that population dynamics and  normal  variations  due to climatic condi-

tions are included.  Then, and only  then, can  an impact statement  be drawn

following pesticide application, since  a comparative framework has been

established.

          Following World War II, DDT was routinely  used  in forest pest

management in New York and this was  continued  for  almost  20 years, until

reports of aquatic destruction and food web magnification forced a halt to the

application of this material (N.Y. State Sect. S.  A. F.,  1964).  The carbamate

Sevin has been used exclusively ever since although  trials  of  other pesticides

and biological agents were made in recent years.

          No systematic pre- and post-spray long term studies  were undertaken

with DDT.  Reports of extensive fish kill and  stream invertebrate  destruction

were reported many times for New Brunswick, Maine, Montana, New York and

Ontario, following DDT sprays for control of gypsy moth and spruce bud  worm.

DDT sprays demonstrate persistence for  many years  following application as found

by a national pesticide monitoring program throughout the country  presenting

data on levels of DDT in fish, aquatic  insects and water.

          Qnly a few long-term studies  comparing the post-spray effects of Sevin

to the pre-spray environment  have been  conducted.  Following the rapid  change

from DDT to Sevin, several investigators attempted to define the effects of the

                                     4-14
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. TT)

-------
latter compound on aquatic ecosystems so that at least some review of
environmental impact may be made.  Following a spray operation for the
hemlock looper in Washington State, utilizing Sevin at 1.6 Ib/acre and covering
43,204 acres, a total of five streams were examined, after spraying.  No adverse
effects were noted except for a slight reduction in stoneflies in one of the
        4 92
streams. '     In 1959, Burdick (unpublished report) indicated that Sevin had
no effect on aquatic insects in North Carolina.  In 1960, however, he did note
a rather dramatic reduction (50.7 - 97.2 %) in stream insects in New York,
                                                   4 93
following direct application to the stream surface. '     Mayflies (Ephemeroptera),
stoneflies (Plecoptera) and caddisflies (Trichoptera)  particularly were killed.
Following a spray application with Sevin in Pennsylvania, Coutant did note a
                                                                            ^
high incidence of aquatic insect drift, although mortality per se was not
         4.94
examined.
          In 1965 the state of Massachusetts embarked on a comprehensive environ-
mental impact study of aqueous Sevin formulation used in a gypsy moth control
program on Cape Cod.  A total of 22,400 acres were sprayed at the rate of 1 lb/
1 gal/acre.  Careful attention was paid to the mechanics of the spraying operation
and spray cards corroborated the deposition.  An evaluation of the effectiveness
demonstrated fair to moderate larval control.  However, the reduction in egg
                                             4 87
mass counts in the fall of 1965 was excellent "   (see Table 4.II).
          Aerial leaf residues of Sevin disappeared rapidly.  In one plot by
day number four post spray, residues were all but gone (Figure 4.1) and in the
                                              4 95
second plot, by the tenth day, little remained '   (Figure 4.2).  Little
recoverable material was obtained from the leaf duff and in some cases post
                                                        4 96
spray analysis yielded lower quantities than the checks.      These results are
in agreement with findings at the State University College of Forestry at

Syracuse University.
                                     4~15                 EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

-------
               Table 4.EL
GYPSY MOTH EGG MASS COUNTS, CAPE COD
MASSES/ACRE
1964
100
380
150

1,000

0
1,400
500
o

1,000

500

10,000+

5,000

1,000
1,000

5,000

3,000

10,000+

250

10,000+

1965
0
0
o

0

0
0
0
o

0

0

230

0

0
0

0

0

0

0

0

PERCENT
REDUCTION
100
100
100

100

100
100
100
100

100

100

98

100

100
100

100

100

100

100

100

MASSES/ACRE
1964
10,000+
10,000+
300

10,000+

1.000
30
5,000
10,000+

10,000+

100
130

5,000
6.000

150
130

10,000+

10,000+

10,000 +

200


1965
0
0
0

0

0
0
0
0

0

0
0

0
0

10
0

0

0

0

0


PERCENT
REDUCTION
100
100
100

100

100
100
100
100

100

100
100

100
100

93
100

100

100

100
,
100


MASSES/ ACRE
1964
100
100
10,000+

10,000+

10,000+
5,000
• 0,000+
500
1,000
1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

10,000+
10,000+

120
60

10,000+

70

5,000

500
1965
0
0
0

0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0

0

0

400
750

0
10

10

0

0

10
PERCENT
REDUCTION
100
100
100

100

100
100
100
100
100
100

100

100

100

96
92

100
83

99

100

100

98
                 4-1.6
                                    EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. TI)

-------
            200
            150
           Q.
           iioo
          oo
          cc
             50
     	 REPLICATE A

     	REPLICATE B

        * PRECIPITATION IN INCHES OVER
          24-hr PERIOD ON DAY INDICATED
             DAY
              OF
          APPLICATION
      4           6
    DAYS AFTER SPRAYING
10
 Figure 4.1  DISAPPEARANCE OF CARBARYL FROM OAK LEAVES AERIALLY SPRAYED AT THE
           RATE OF 1 LB/ACRE (PLOT 12)
      150
    II
    |J
    DC
    <
    °-  100

    TRACE
       50
	 REPLICATE A
	REPLICATE B
  * PRECIPITATION IN INCHES OVER
    24-hr PERIOD ON DAY INDICATED
       DAY
        OF
    APPLICATION
 468
    DAYS AFTER SPRAYING
                                                                    10
Figure 4.2  DISAPPEARANCE OF CARBARYL FROM OAK LEAVES AERIALLY SPRAYED AT THE
          RATE OF 1 LB/ACRE (PLOT 13)
                                         4-17
                                                             EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
          The Cape Cod area represents both a marine and a fresh water aquatic
habitat thus affording a unique opportunity to examine the impact of Sevin on
both types of aqueous habitats. '     The investigator analyzed a number of
estuarine forms (Table 4.Ill)  at up to 1 month post  spray and found accumulation
nil.  Fresh-water vertebrates  (Table 4.IV)  demonstrated similar results.   The
author felt that Sevin had no  effect on the organisms he tested, and further
stated of this pesticide:  "No fish mortalities could possibly occur under
normal operating conditions...."  Within the spray area lies  a small landlocked
pond of approximately 138 acres supporting  a diverse warm-water fishery.   Forested
areas adjacent to the pond were sprayed by  helicopter with the pilot taking
standard precautions for shutdown.  Table 4.V demonstrated the very low residue
                                                4 98
up to 4 months post spray in the water and  soil.  *    In addition,  algae popula-
tions showed no adverse reaction to the applications, thus justifying the author's
contention that, "...the application of Sevin by  helicopter for gypsy moth
control at the rate of 1 Ib/acre,  when conducted  under the proper conditions and
in accordance with established spraying techniques,  will not  result in hazardous
contamination in water and soil."  Thus, at least two authors emphasize the
importance of standard application procedures to  assess the impact  of the
pesticide in the environment.
          Sevin, as with most  biologically  toxic  and active reagents does have
an LD   for all life systems.   However, the extension of data on acute toxicity
to low level chronic intake, when such levels exist, is scientifically unsound.
Thus, in 1966, a 3-year study  at the State  University College of Forestry at
Syracuse University was undertaken to evaluate the impact of Sevin on the
                  4.99
aquatic ecosystem.      The following operating parameters were established
prior to operations.
                                     4-18
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

-------
                                           Table 4.111
                 APPARENT SEVIN OR METABOLITES IN THE TISSUES OF MARINE AND
                      ESTUARINE ORGANISMS COLLECTED BOTH PRIOR TO AND
                     AFTER THE 1965 CAPE COD GYPSY MOTH SPRAYING PROGRAM
LOCATION
SHOESTRING BAY




PRINCE COVE





CHILDS RIVEK





WEST FALMOUTH H8R.




MASHPEE RIVER




COONAMESSETT RIVER





PAMET RIVER





SPECIES
MUMMICHOG
ALEWIFE
WINTER FLOUNDER
SOFT SHELL CLAM
OUAHOG
WINTER FLOUNDER
MUMMICHOG
STICKLEBACK
SOFT SHELL CLAM
OUAHOG
AMERICAN OYSTER
SOFT-SHELL CLAM
BAY SCALLOP (SEEDI
OUAHOG
WINTER FLOUNDER
MUMMICHOG
STICKLEBACK
SOFT SHELL CLAM
AMERICAN OYSTER
QUAHOG
WINTER FLOUNDER
MUMMICHOG
SOFT SHELL CLAM
QUAHOG
WINTER FLOUNDER
MUMMICHOG
ALEWIFE
SOFT SHELL CLAM
QUAHOG
WINTER FLOUNDER
ALEWIFE
MUMMICHOG
SILVERS1DE
QUAHOG
SOFT SHELL CLAM
BLUE MUSSEL
MUMMICHOG
SAND LANCE
STICKLEBACK
PRESPHAY
DATE
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/G5
5/5/05
5/G/G5
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/S/65
5/5/65
5/G/G5
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/0/65
5/4/65
5/4/65

5/4/65
5/4/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/6/65
S/B/65
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/6/65
5/3/65
5/3/65
5/3/65
5/4/65
!,/4/65
&/4/G5
NO.
4
1 (pi
7
1
1
1 (p)
3
50
1
1
2
^
6
2
2
2
27
2
4

1 (p)
3
3
2
G
6
1 Ip)
1
3
1 (pi
1 (pi
4
50
1
1
3
4
6
15
WGT. Igmsl
272
30.2
25.2
32.2
280
25.8
28.5
268
32.8
37.6
26.8
33 2
24.5
25.0
276
25.4
25.9
24.7
37.0

35.1
25.6
28.7
34.6
293
254
256
28.0
26.5
35.1
27.9
2'JB
26.2
27 1
26.1
30.0
289
284
29.0
ppm-
0.15
0.11
0.13
0.13
0.17
0.22
0.20
0.19
0.13
0.07
0.09
0 10
0.13
0.13
0.18
0.13
0.19
0.17
0.14

0.12
0.13
0.09
0.09
0.11
0.06
0.16
0 12
0.12
0.16
009
0.14
0.16
0.09
012
0.17
0.11
0.12
0 2.1
POSTSPRAY
DATE
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65

6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/3/65
6/7/65
5/28/65
5/28/65
5/28/G5
5/28/65
5/28/65
6/1/65
6/1/65
6/1/65
6/1/65
6/1/65
6/2/65
6/2/65

6/2/65
6/2/65
6/2/65
6/4/65
6/4/65
6/4/65
6/4/65
G/4/65
6/4/65
NO.
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
62
1
1
3

5
3
2
4
20
2
3
^
1
3
3
1
1
2
1 IP)
2
2

1 (p)
4
35
2
2
2
3
3
22
WGT. (gmsl
33.0
35.6
6.6
301
37.1
25.5
35.8
25.8
26.8
373
250

27.9
31.1
28.7
30.0
25.3
334
31.6
11 "^
O l.D
25.2
30.0
340
32.1
6.8
33.0
25.4
31.2
48.7
	
41.9
300
27 2
29.7
291
21 9
27.4
28.4
26.2
ppm1
0.19
0.18
0.38
0.05
004
006
0.19
O.OS
0 10
004
0.10

0.09
0.08
0.06
0.11
0.20
0 10
0.05
0 08
0.13
0.17
O.OS
0.24
0.74
0.10
0.20
0.13
0.13

0.16
0.11
021
0.08
0.08
0.23
0.34
0.15
0 19
ppm: PARTS PER Mil LION
REPORT OF THE SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM CONDUCTED IN CONNECTION WITH
AN APPLICATION Oh CARBARYL ISEVINI FOR THE CONTROL OF GYPSY MOTH
ON CAPf COD. MASSACHUSETTS. PUBLICATION OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF
MASSACHUSETTS, PUBLICATION NO. 547, 19G6.
                                             4-19
                                                                     EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  TI)

-------
  .o

  K3
  O
I
t_n
O
O
I
to
                                                 Table 4.1V

                      APPARENT SEVIN OR METABOLITES IN THE TISSUE OF FRESHWATER FISH

                                COLLECTED BOTH PRIOR TO AND AFTER THE 1965

                                 CAPE COD GYPSY MOTH SPRAYING PROGRAM
LOCATION
PAMET RIVER
PAMET RIVER
PAMET RIVER
LAWRENCE POND
MASHPEE-WAKEBY
MASHPEE RIVER
LAWRENCE POND
SPECIES
SUN FISH
SUNFISH
BROOK TROUT
YELLOW PERCH
WHITE SUCKER
AMERICAN EEL
YELLOW PERCH
PRESPRAY
DATE
5/3/65
5/3/65
5/3/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
5/5/65
NO.
3
3
1
10
5
6
5
WGT. (gms)
31.7
25.0
41.2
33.0
31.0
32.2
37.0
ppm*
0.10
0.13
0.08
0.11
0.09
0.06
0.15
POSTSPRAY
DATE
6/4/65
6/7/65
	
6/7/65
6/4/65
5/30/65
6/10/65
NO.
2
2
	
2
1
2
1
WGT. (gms)
35.3
34.5
	
40.0
43.9
34.4
39.5
ppm*
0.10
0.10
	
0.13
0.11
0.14
0.12
             *ppm; PARTS PER MILLION
O

-------
                                                 Table 4.Y


                     LAWRENCE POND, SANDWICH, CARBARYL (SEVIN) IN WATER AND TOPSOIL

                       PRIOR TO AND FOLLOWING APPLICATION FOR GYPSY MOTH CONTROL
.o
 I
o
to
WATER
DATE
1965
6/1
6/5»
6/9
6/24
10/7
LOCATION
SOUTH END
WEST SIDE
NORTH END
SOUTH END
SOUTH END
WEST SIDE
NORTH END
SOUTH END
WEST SIDE
NORTH END
SOUTH END
WORTH SIDE
NORTH END
SEVIN (ppm)
SURFACE
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.0007
0.0000
0.0004
DEPTH**
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.002
0.003
0.002
	
	







TOPSOIL
DATE
1965
6/1

6/9

10/7
LOCATION
AT SHORE
100' FROM SHORE
200' FROM SHORE

AT SHORE
100' FROM SHORE
200' FROM SHORE

AT SHORE
100' FROM SHORE
200' FROM SHORE
SEVIN
(ppm)
0.008
0.022
0.000

0.018
0.080
0.300

0.034
0.035
0.035
 *DATE OF APPLICATION


••SAMPLING DEPTHS VARIED FROM 10-25 FT.
N3

-------
          1.    The effectiveness of the spray for gypsy moth  control

               would not be evaluated.
          2.    A year of prespray examinations of the chemistry  and

               population levels of the aquatic insects would be made.

          3.    The State would be instructed to spray the  test site

               as if this area were a typical spray  site.

          4.    The pesticide concentration and stickers used  would

               be those currently accepted by State  pesticide officials

               for use in gypsy moth control programs,

          5.    The aquatic habitat would be followed for 2 years

               post spray.

          The area selected for study is part of the Shackam  Brook  watershed,

near Fabius,  New York.  It is state-owned land covered largely by second-growth

hardwoods.  The area is, for the most part, densely  forested,  with  a solid  canopy.

It is an ideal spray site in that it (Figure 4.3)  is east  of  and separated  from

the control site by a rather high north-south ridge.  The  topography is  reasonably

steep; streams course their way in both areas and converge south of the  test  site.

Of the 1,997 acres in the test area, 365 acres were  sprayed.   A  state-owned

Bell 204-E turbojet helicopter dispensed 1 Ib of Sevin, aqueous  plus 4 ounces

of Pinolene 1882, per acre.  Standard shutoff procedures were followed when the
aircraft approached the aquatic site.

          Prespray water samples (1966) consisted of 15 liters monthly for

analysis.  In 1967, daily samples were  taken in June, July and August; weekly in

September and biweekly for the balance  of the year.   A monthly schedule  was
reinstituted  in 1968.

                                     4-22
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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30'W
                                                  l:x:::::::1 BEAVER POND
                                                       TEST AREA
                                                   ©  GAUGING STATION
                                                  [    | CONTROL AREA
                                                       SPRAY AREA
                                     TO ROUTE 80 (TULLY)
                                                                        COUNTY
                                                                          LINE
             TO ROUTE 91 (TRUXTON)
             Figure 4.3 SHACKHAM BROOK STUDY AREA
                                   4-23
                                                       EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  TI)

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          Aquatic insect populations were sampled weekly  for 2 years,  post

spray, and when possible, weekly prespray.  Insects  were  identified and popula-

tions estimated.  The results were not surprising, based  on findings of several

other studies.  At no time did Sevin or Naphthol  show residues over 0.1 ppm

(the detection limits).   The effect on aquatic insect population for the full

2 year post spray were also negative, (Figure 4.4).   Further,  no species composition

changes occurred for any of the aquatic insects under study.

          An observation comparable to the Massachusetts  study was  made, viz,

soil and duff samples taken from under the canopy were routinely negative.

          Several of the stream Odonata (dragonflies)  were  recovered and

analyzed for Sevin but all were below the limits  of  detectability.   An LC

determination set the level of Sevin at 2.0 ppm (Figure 4.5).

          Thus, as a result of this study:

          1.   Laboratory analysis of water, soil and insect  samples

               taken from the Shackam Brook near  Tully, New York after

               application of Sevin at 1 Ib/acre  showed no  residues

               of Sevin or 1-naphthol above the 0.1-ppm level at any

               time during the 3-year study period (June  1966 -

               November 1968).

          2.   Analysis  of aquatic insect larval  and naiad  population

               levels over the 3-year period showed  no fluctuations

               that could be associated with the  spraying of Sevin

               and subsequent runoff.

          3.   Fluctuations in population levels  of  the aquatic insect

               larvae and naiads were most probably  a function of climatic

               conditions, primarily water levels as influenced by rainfall.
                                       4-24
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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           YEAR 1 (1966):  PRESPRAY
                                                   YEAR 2 (1967): POSTSPRAY
                                                                                             YEAR 3 (1968):  POSTSPRAY
                                                                       wm TEST


                                                                       • CONTROL
• TEST

• CONTROL
                   TlMf (MONTHS'
                                                            TIME (MONTHS)
                                                                                                     TIME (MONTHS'
Ln
o
N5
^n

O
                                                            COURTESY:  D.R. FELLEY, UNPUBLISHED PH.D. THESIS. THE EFFECT OF SEVIN
                                                                       (1-NAPHTHYL N-METHYL CARBAMATE) AS A WATERSHED
                                                                       POLLUTANT. 1970. STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FORESTRY
                                                                       AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, NEW YORK.
         Figure 4.4    INSECTS COLLECTED AS A PERCENT OF POPULATION, MAXIMUM, IN THE TEST AND CONTROL
                      BRANCH OF SHACKAM BROOK IN 1966, 1967 AND 1968.  RANGE MARKINGS REPRESENT
                      95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE INTERVALS.

-------
    X
    <
    Q.
    O
    Q_
    LL
    O
    t-
    2
    LLJ
    O
    DC
    111
    Q.
         0-
        120-
        110
        100
         90-,
80
         70
60-
50- -
        40-
         30- -   -1-
        20
         10-
              M
                          J         A

                         TIME (MONTHS)
          TOTAL INSECTS COLLECTED, AS PERCENT OF THE POPULATION
          MAXIMUM, IN THE TEST BRANCH OF SHACKHAM BROOK FOR
          1966, 1967 AND 1968.  RANGE MARKINGS INDICATE 95 PERCENT
          CONFIDENCE INTERVAL.
Figure 4.4  (Continued)
                                    4-25
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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      120
      110--
      100- -
       90- -
    x
    <
    H
    O
    CL
    o
    o.
    LL
    O
    I-
    CJ
    cc
    LU
    Q.
80
                                                        .-  = 1966

                                                        •  = 1967

                                                        A  = 1968
10
        0--
                                                                O
                                 TIME (MONTHS)
     TOTAL INSECTS COLLECTED, AS PERCENT OF THE POPULATION MAXIMUM
     IN THE TEST BRANCH OF SHACKHAM BROOK FOR 1966, 1967 AND 1968.
     RANGE MARKINGS INDICATE 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE INTERVAL.
Figure 4.4  (Continued)
                                    A-26
                                                       EQ-5025-U-2 (Vol. II)

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                            CONCENTRATION (PPM)


Figure 4.5  CONCENTRATION OF SEVIN IN PARTS PER MILLION VERSUS PERCENT
         MORTALITY TO DETERMINE LC50 OF ODONATA AT 18 AND 24 HOURS
                                 4-27
                                                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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          4.   Sevin had no polluting effect upon the test watershed



               and deleterious effects were not found in aquatic insects.



          Relative to other aquatic environments, Sevin, having a solubility



rate in water of 40 mg/1 at 20°C, readily dissolves in water as compared to DDT.



          However, Christie4'100 and Palmer and Maloney '     have reported



Sevin, at concentrations above 0.1 ppm, to be toxic to most algae.  However,



only a 16.8 % decrease in carbon fixation by a natural population of phyto-



plankton following a 4-hour exposure to 1.0 ppm of the insecticide was noted



by Butler.4'102



          Muncy and Oliver '     found that Sevin was extremely toxic to crayfish,


                                  4 104
crabs and shrimp.  Parker, et. al. "    made similar observations with respect



to Daphnia, a waterflea.



          Concerning fish, Haynes, et. al. *    reported that 28 ppm technical



Sevin in oil resulted in a 48-hour LD ^ for goldfish (Carassius auratus).



They stated that 50 % wetable powder had an LD   of 14 ppm.  Values from other


-IT,,-     - j-        j f    i -7S «.  n r,     4.106,4.107  „  ,            , 4.108
laboratory studies ranged from 1.75 to 13.0 ppm.             Henderson, et. al.



observed a 96-hour TL  for fat-head minnows (Pimephales promelas)  of 6.7 to 7.0


                                                                            4 109
ppm and 12 to 13 ppm in hard and soft water, respectively.  Burdick, et. al.,'



while working with fingerling brown trout (Salmo trutta),  found Sevin to be less



toxic in soft, acidic water rather than in hard, alkaline water.  They attributed



this to an interaction between Sevin and the components of water rather than to



physiological reaction of the fish to a water condition.  The biochemical pathway



of Sevin toxicity in fish is  the same as that in insects.   "



          Sevin toxicity to fish increases with increasing temperature.



However, its rate of decay to 1-naphtol via hydrolysis also increases with




                                      4-28



                                                            EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                         4.111
temperature and sunlight. *      While Sevin is more toxic to crustaceans than



to fish and mollusks, the reverse is true for its metabolite. '



          While the metabolism of Sevin has been extensively studied with



respect to terrestrial plants and animals, '    no literature was found



regarding the breakdown of this insecticide by aquatic forms.  However, it



has been observed that Sevin persists longer in soil water than in lake


      4.113
water.
                                     4-29

                                                         EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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               A-4.3  Fate of Pesticides in the Forest Ecosystem
          Many non-biological and biological factors cause degradation of DDT
and Sevin thus inducing disappearance of the parent compound and increasing the
concentration of metabolites.  This section describes some of these pathways
that operate in the forest ecosystem.  In addition, effects due to differences
in the chemical persistence of DDT and Sevin are briefly discussed in terms of
bioconcentration or toxicity to forest organisms.


                      A-4.3.1  Non-biological Degradation
          Light, particularly untraviolet, was the major cause of Sevin
                                                             4 114
degradation to naphthol and  methylisocyanate (CH.,N = C = 0) . '     Further,
several unidentified products were formed when Sevin was irradiated at 254 mm
           4 115
as a solid. *     As early as 1949, Chrisholm reported that DDT lost activity
against the housefly following sunlight irradiation.
          Water will degrade many pesticides when in alkaline condition.   DDT
                     4 114        4 117
loses HC1 to form DDE '    or ODD, '     of which the latter may be implicated
in fish kills.  Sevin readily hydrolyzed in water (at a pH of 8 or more)  to a
number of products, one of which was  1-naphthol.
          Degradation of DDT may be accelerated in the presence of metallic
catalysts in the soil or water.  Fleck and Haller described a dehydrohalogenation
due to iron catalysis in soLl. '     *     Crosby '    reported the same findings
                                                                             / T *?*?
with a definite end product of ODD.  Fe and Al accelerated DDT decomposition. '
Heat may also degrade these pesticides, with Sevin forming naphthol and methyl
isocyanate and dehydrohalogenation of DDT, although both picolinic acid and
                                                      4 123
salicylol aminoguanidine may inhibit  heat composition. '     Other organic

                                     4-30
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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reagents may do the same, and include active groups, viz, carboxyl,  thiol,  amino,



phenolic and aliphatic hydroxyls.



          Although these pesticides will degrade, it is accepted that DDT and



its metabolites, DDD and DDE, represent the most persistent compounds of those



used in insect control.  In Ohio river water, for example, 100 % of  the parent



DDT remained unchanged after 8 weeks, whereas Sevin showed only 5 %  residual



after 1 week and nothing by 2 weeks.


                   4 125
          Alexander *    presents the following summary of pesticide



degradation.



          1.   No degradation occurs (recalcitrant chemicals).



          2,   Degradation is too slow to prevent environmental



               contamination.



          3.   Degradation is complete, but products are harmful.



The following conditions must be met for a pesticide to be biodegradable.



          1.   An organism must exist or evolve which can



               metabolize the chemical.



          2.   The chemical must be metabolizible.



          3.   The chemical must reach the organism.



          4.   The chemical must induce enzymes, since few



               of these metabolic enzymes are constitutive.



          5.   The environment must be favorable for reactions.






                        A-4.3.2  Biological Degradation



          By their very nature, living forms will tend to biotransform if



enzymes for these pathways are present.  This is simply a means for survival,



particularly if the compound is toxic.  Several of the metabolic pathways for


                                      4-31
                                                        EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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biotrausformation of both Sevin and DDT have been elucidated for laboratory


animals and plants but little is known of these pathways in the wild.  Thus


acute poisoning by the pesticide may result in the field yet the effects of low


level doses of the parent compound or its metabolites have not been resolved.


          Although the results of pesticide metabolism may be clearly


demonstrated in certain animals and plants, it is dangerous practice to extend


these findings to include other organisms.  DDE, for example, is a common DDT


metabolite in man yet monkeys show no trace of this material.  Further, the


effects of these chemicals may vary.  The thin eggshell syndrome of DDE and falcons


has been verified yet domestic hens show a greater shell thickness with the same


material.


          Five products of DDT metabolism represent the major pathways of


degradation; DDA, Kelthane, ODD, DDE and dichlorobenzophenone *    (see


Figure 4.6).  Two of these products, DDD and Kelthane, are recognized pesticides


in their own right.  The most widely recognized pathway involves a dehydro-


chlorination of DDT to yield DDE and has been described in many mammals, fish


and insects.  In insects, a high titer of the enzyme dehydrochlorinease will


confer immunity to the pesticide, and in the classic case of the development


of the resistant housefly strains, the genome for this enzyme was selected


for by environmental saturation of DDT.


          At this juncture, it would be well to point out that developing


pesticide resistant strains is much more likely if lower concentrations of


pesticides are used.  Although environmental contamination may be reduced, for


example, by utilizing only one quarter to one third of a pound per acre of DDT,


and arriving at only an 80 % control figure, the chances of developing a strain


with a potential to detoxify these pesticides is much greater than if one uses a

                                      4-32
                                                            EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  IT)

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                      DICHLOROBEIMZOPHENONE
                                      Cl
                             CHCI2
                              ODD
Figure 4.6  ROUTES OF DDT METABOLISM
                4-33
                                     EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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concentration high enough to obtain a 95-99 % kill.   The evaluation of
alternatives (environmental contamination versus resistant strains) is, at
best, a subjective choice and offers a real paradox.
          One interesting study by Randall '     on the spruce budworm,
suggested that this insect was developing resistance to DDT in New Brunswick
forests.  A recent publication by Carolin and Coulter '    in northwest
Canadian forests discounted the former author's findings and further stated
that parasites of the budworm were not affected by DDT sprays.
          The principal agents for the degradation of DDT in the forest
ecosystem, however, are not the macroscopic life forms but rather the microbes
                                             4 129
and in particular those in the soil.  Kaufman '    indicated that for halogenated
acids, the rate of decomposition decreased with increasing numbers of chloride
atoms.  Although individual reports of pathways may vary, the overall pattern
of degradation follows the patterns as outlined above, with the exception that
microbes may utilize ring materials as carbon sources.
          The literature on Sevin degradation is not as complete as that of
DDT.  A number of products may result from Sevin metabolism (Figure 4.7), and
many others remain unidentified.  The principal metabolite resulting from
hydrolytic cleavage is 1-naphthol and in most mammals studied, this product
is rapidly conjugated with glucuronides and sulfates for excretion.
              4.134
Baron, et. al. *    confirmed one of the metabolites in cow urine and milk as
5,6-dihydro-5,6-dihydroxynaphthol.
          Insects, in addition to naphthol, will give rise to a variety of
hydroxy and dihydroxy derivatives.
          Sludge bacteria utilize Sevin as a carbon and nitrogen source (Baum,
unpublished report) while other soil microbes may hydrolyze phenyl  carbamates.
                                      4-34
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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             OH
                                     OSO3H
                        O-Glu
           H  OH
            OH
OCNCH2OH
                                                             COOH
                                                             COOH
                                          OH
                                     OX = OCNMe     Me = METHYL
                                     Glu = GLUCURONIC ACID CONJUGATE
Figure 4.7  POSSIBLE METABOLIC AND CATABOLIC PRODUCTS ARISING FROM
          DEGRADATION OF SEVIN
                                A-35
                                                    EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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                                                                      4.137
Even green plants may metabolize Sevln into water soluble derivatives.
The picture is a confusing one at present, yet all agree that the parent
molecule is rapidly degraded into a variety of metabolites by many different
                            / 1 O £
enzymatic pathways.  O'Brien '    refers to cockroach production of a "...galaxy
of metabolites."
          A-4.3.3  Bioconcentration and Toxicity of DDT and Sevin
                          in the Forest Environment
          Leaching, overland water runoff and sediment runoff of applied
pesticides from forested areas are normally negligible mechanisms for the
endangerment of aquatic life.  A different set of problems is encountered when
the interaction of pesticides with in situ forest soil environments is considered.
Because of the long-term persistence of DDT in forest soils, long-term effects
on soil-dwelling organisms and food chains must be considered.
          Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, including DDT, have been
found to be relatively nontoxic to earthworms but do accumulate in fatty tissue.  '
                4 139
Dimond, et. al.,      presented data on residual DDT and metabolite concentration
in samples of earthworms collected from contaminated forest soils.  He concluded
that although there were too few samples to show a clear pattern of persistence,
residues in worms appeared to reflect residues in soils with all samples from
treated areas being higher in DDT content than those from untreated soils and
with the highest residues in worms coming from soils that were treated
                         4.140
two or three times.  Yule      found that surface-dwelling insects in forest
soils contained more DDT than the average (6 in) content of topsoil habitat but
                                  4 141
less than in litter only.  Edwards '     summarized available data on chlorinated

                                     4-36
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. IT)

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hydrocarbon accumulation in soil organisms and calculated concentration factors.



His data concerning DDT are reproduced in Table 4.VI.



          Biomagnification of residues in birds resulting from DDT application



in forested areas has been reported.  Following DDT treatment of 0.75 Ib/acre



for white fir sawfly control, Herth and Flickinger      found that residues



in robins were at or below pretreatment level in  3 months after treatment



whereas juncos and chickadees had accumulated residues of 231 and 638 % of early



post-treatment levels.  Dimond, et. al., '    found that levels of DDT in robin



populations from forested areas treated at 1 Ib/acre appeared to reflect levels



of soil contamination and were probably as persistent.  His data showed no



decline in residues in robins up to 9 years after treatment even though lower



levels should be expected.  Assuming that robins receive much of their DDT



burden from feeding on earthworms, he found that magnification of DDT residues



in robins amounts to one order of magnitude over earthworms.  Herth and



Flickinger's data thus conflict with Dimond's.  The consistency of DDT



persistence shown by Dimond's data for every year up to 9 years after applica-



tion reinforces the belief that DDT does, in fact, persist in robins for long



periods of time.



          There have been studies which strongly implicate the observed mortality



of birds to high accumulations of DDT in body tissue.  These studies involved



the ground spraying of Dutch Elms and therefore probably resulted in very high


                             4 143 4 144                  4 139
dosages over localized areas. '   ' '     Dimond, et. al.,      found that DDT



and metabolite residues in robins collected from DDT-treated forested areas



were well below lethal dosages.  He further states that higher levels of DDT



may be present in other types of forest birds (i.e., fish feeders and predators)



and that it is difficult to dismiss the possibility that certain birds are



                                     4-37

                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  TI)

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                    Table 4-YI
RESIDUES OF PESTICIDES IN SOIL INVERTEBRATES
           AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
LOCATION
GREAT
BRITAIN
GREAT
BRITAIN
GREAT
BRITAIN
GREAT
BRITAIN
GREAT
BRITAIN
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
GREAT
BRITAIN
REFERENCE
STRINGER &
PICKARD
1963 (247)
DAVIS 1968
(55)
EDWARDS
(UNPUB-
LISHED)
WHEATLEY &
HARDMAN
1968 (283)
DAVIS &
HARRISON
1966 (57)
BARKER 1958
(10)
HUNT 1965
(136)
HUNT 1965
(136)
IN DUSTMAN
& STICKEL
1966 (71)
U.S.D.I.
1967 (266)
U.S.D.I.
1966 (265)
U.S.D.I.
1967 (266)
DOANE 1962
(65)
CRAMP &
CONDER
1965 (48)
NO.
OF
SITES
1
10
2
2
1
2
1
1

3
67
1
2
1
1
SOURCE OF
RESIDUE
SOIL (ORCHARD)
EARTHWORMS
(L. TERRESTRIS)
OTHER SP.
SOIL (ARABLE)
EARTHWORNS
SOIL (ORCHARD)
EARTHWORMS
SOIL (ARABLE)
EARTHWORMS
SOIL (ARABLE)
EARTHWORMS
L. TERRESTRIS
A. LONGA
A. CALIGINOSA
A. CHLOROTICA
A. ROSEA
O. CYANEUM
SOIL
BEETLES
SLUGS
SOIL
BEETLES
SLUGS
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
L. TERRESTRIA
L. RUBELLUS
0. LACTEUM
H. ZETEKI
H. CALIGINOSIS
TRAPEZOIDES
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
L. TERRESTRIS
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
SLUGS
SLUGS
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
SOIL*"
EARTHWORMS
SOIL
EARTHWORMS
SLUGS
DDT & RELATED COMPOUNDS
MAX.
26.6
13.7
14.0
0.8
0.05
17.2
40.0
-
-
0.8
2.3
17.2
5.2
40.1
-
-
_
3.0
25.0
—
—
	
_
0.69
1.20
2.55
MEAN
11.4
7.7
8.1
0.3
9.7
19.6
-
0.93
1.1
1.34
2.5
4.6
2.6
1.24
0.3
9.7
9.3
19.2
680.0
173.0
492.0
106.0
9.9
140.6
1.8
17.0
0.98
9.64
42.7
19.7
	
12.5
43.0
-
CON.
FACTOR f
0.67
0.71
0.06
2.10
1
1.18
1.43
2.68
4.86
2.78
1.33
2.81
0.31
2.33
2.06
73.10
18.6
52.8
11.3
-
14.2
9.44
9.8
	
-
3.44
1.73
3.70
               CONCENTRATION IN ANIMAL
 •mg/kg.
 CONCENTRATION FACTOR = CONCENTRATION IN SOIL
*'ppm CALCULATED FROM INITIAL DOSE RATE.
                       4-38
                                            EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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threatened for periods of many years by one or a few light applications of DDT



over large areas.




          In contrast to DDT, Sevin and other carbaraate insecticides are highly



toxic to earthworms and have resulted in appreciable decreases in earthworm



populations in agricultural soils4'145'4'146 and grasslands.4'147  Barrett4'148



conducted intensive studies on the effects of Sevin on a grassland ecosystem



but did not include earthworms.  He found that although Sevin applied at a rate



of 2 Ib/acre remained toxic for only a few days, the total biomass and numbers



of anthropods were reduced more than 95 %.  After 7 weeks, total biomass but not



total numbers returned to control level.



          Of perhaps greater concern with respect to the forest environment



was the highly significant decrease in litter decomposition which Barrett



attributed to be the result of a reduction in microanthropods and other


                     4.145
decomposers.  Edwards      also expressed concern for the effect of insecticides



on populations of soil-forming organisms in forest soils (i.e., earthworms,



enchytraeid worms, wood lice, millipedes, mites, springtails, termites, and



beatle and fly larvae).  Forest soils could conceivably become infertile without



recycling of nitrogen, phosphorus potassium and other mineral constituents



engendered by microbial and insect degradation of forest litter.  The loss of



organic and mineral soil mixing and aeration promoted by earthworms and other




soil organisms could further result in massive soil structure that is not




suitable for root penetration.



          The literature review uncovered no studies involving the possible




inhibiting effects of Sevin on soil-forming processes in in situ forest



soils.  However, analysis of the disposition of Sevin at the 1 Ib/acre dosage
                                     4-39

                                                           EQ-5U25-D-2 (Vol. II)

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normally applied in New York spraying programs indicates that the problem




may not be serious.  From field studies, it is estimated that only 50 % of




applied pesticide (i.e., Sevin) or 0.5 Ib/acre directly reaches the ground at




the time of application.  Later additions from leaf wash probably have negligible




toxicity because of the rapid degradation on leaf surfaces.   Previous studies




showing toxicity of Sevin to soil organisms were at much higher dosages (2 lb/




acre). '   ' "     It appears probable that the insecticide  reaching the forest




floor would migrate very slowly through the highly organic litter and be




appreciably decomposed before depths of maximum biological activity were even




reached.  Nevertheless, studies should be initiated to determine if soil-forming




processes in the forest soils of New York can be impaired by continued usage of




Sevin or other insecticides.  First, it is necessary to estimate how much of the




aerially applied pesticide reaches the forest floor at the time of application




and hoxc much is added by leaf wash-off up to a period of 1 week after application.




It is especially important to determine how long it takes for re-establishment




of normal soil biotic communities after application of Sevin.  This would provide




guidelines on how often the forest may be sprayed without cumulative or permanent




ecologic consequences to soil biota and related food chains.




          There are no studies indicating bioconcentration of Sevin or toxic




metabolites in forest biota.  It is doubtful if bioconcentration can occur because



 , _,      .,„.,,,    .    fc   ,    _    A.148-4.150
of the rapid Sevin breakdown in natural systems.
                                      4-40


                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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                        A-4.4  Antagonism and Synergism



          The action of one compound upon the effects of another in a single



system may be termed as being either antagonistic or synergistic.  These two



terms, long used in describing the effect of additives on pesticides used in



small quantities, will be discussed in this section to illustrate current



literature trends in the fic.ld of pesticide research.



          For the purposes of this brief review, the definitions of Williams '



will be used for antagonism and synergism.  Williams describes antagonism as the



combined effect of two agents that tends to lessen the gross effect of both the



agents, as in using an antidote to treat a poison case or by speeding up metabolic



rates so that the primary toxicant may be more quickly reduced to less toxic



metabolites.  Synergism, on the other hand, is the interaction of two compounds



to produce a potentiating effect greater than the sum of the separate effects



of either agent alone.  For example, parathion has a greater toxicity for



individuals who use the tranquilizer chlorpromazine.






                                 A-4.4.1  DDT



          The first topic to be considered herein involves the synergistic


                                                                        4 152
effects of DDT with other materials or physical states.  McLean, et.al.,



have shown that rats suffering from protein depletion suffer disproportionately



greater harm from DDT exposure than do rats fed with a normal diet.  This occurs



because protein depletion causes activity of the microsomal hydroxylating



enzyme systems and the cytochrome P-450 contents of the liver to fall to one-



third or less of the normal level in only 4 days.  Protein depletion may,



therefore, augment liver damage caused by aflatoxin because the toxin is not



metabolized to an inactive product any longer by the microsomal hydroxylating


                                     4-41

                                                         EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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enzyme system.  Induction of enzyme synthesis by DDT or phenobarbitol is also

inhibited.  Protein depletion may protect against liver damage or other effects

when the actual damaging agent is a product of an enzyme system suppressed by

protein lack  (e.g., carbon tetrachloride or glycerine).  This beneficial effect

is reversed by administration of DDT or phencbarbitol.   Protein depletion does

not alter the toxicity of cloroform given as a sing'e oral dose.  Enzyme

induction phenytoin was more potent than phenobarbitone in reducing DDE blood

levels.  In another case *   , a 42-year old pesticide  formulator was noted to

contain zero  or trace amounts of DDT and DDE residues in his serum.  He had been

employed for  over 16 years in a plant that formulated DDT prior to 1964.  The

last formulation involving DDT took place at the plant  in the spring of 1970.

Over the same period that the man had been observed, 1967-1971, his fellow workers

(29 individuals) with 10-25 years experience and consequent exposure had, at

their last measurement in July 1970, 24 ppb p,p'-DDT and only 0.5 ppb p,p'-DDE.

These figures are contrasted with the general population that had, in 1969,

4.4 ppb p,p'-DDT and 14.9 ppb p,p'-DDE.  The subject in this case had been taking

30 mg phenobarbitol t.i.d. and 100 mg diphenylhydantoin t.i.d. for over 25 years

to control post-traumatic epilepsy.  Table 4.VII lists  the effects of these

anticonvulsant drugs on body DDT burden in the larger sampling described by

n  •     *  i 4-154
Davies, et.al.

          The activity of synergistis in biological systems is dependent on their

mode of metabolism.  Fishbein, Falk, Fawlces and Jordan "    investigated the

action of piperonyl butoxide, Tropital and actachlorodipropyl ether.  This

brief discussion will focus on the activity and metabolism of methylenedioxybenzcne

derivatives, of which piperonyl butoxide and Tropital are examples.  Falk and

Kotin '"'  , likewise, treat this subject in a recent paper.  They attribute  the

                                     4-42
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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            Table 4-VTT

EFFECT OF ANTICONVULSANT DRUGS
      ON BODY DDT BURDEN

CONTROL
OUTPATIENT ON PHENOBARBITONE
OUTPATIENT ON PHENYTOIN
OUTPATIENT ON BOTH DRUGS
INPATIENT ON BOTH DRUGS
INPATIENT CONTROL
GENERAL POPULATION
DDE LEVEL (ppb)
IN BLOOD
9.1
3.5
1.9
1.7
0.8
4.5
—
IN FAT
—
—
—
—
0.09
2.08
5.5
DDT LEVEL (ppb)
IN FAT
—
—
—
—
0.17
2.70
8.4
              4-43
                                EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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synergistic action of these compounds with pesticides to the inhibition of
enzyme systems or the prevention of enzyme induction.  With chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as DDT, dehydrochlorination to the less active DDE may be
prevented.  On the other hand, with thiophosphonate compounds, activation is
prevented with DDT in protein-depleted rats makes them more sensitive to lethal
and hepatotoxic actions of chloroform.  Protein depletion may, therefore,
protect one organ at the expense of another.  For example, dimethylnitrosamine,
which requires demethylation in a microsomal enzyme system before it can exert
its toxic effects causes severe liver necrosis in normal rats.  In protein-
deficient rats, on the other hand, the severity of liver necrosis is greatly
reduced but all survivors die of kidney tumors because of the decrease in liver
clearance of dimethylnitrosamine which allows the toxin to contact the kidneys.
In general, if the site of relevant interaction between a toxin and a cell is
also the site altered by the diet, changes in the diet will probably alter the
toxic effect of the toxin.
          It has been shown that diet is important in maintaining metabolic
potential over toxins introduced either intentionally or accidentally into a
living organism.  Of equal importance is the interaction of pesticides with
naturally occurring materials found either at the site of pesticide application
or, and perhaps more importantly, found at the site of accumulation of the
pesticides folloxtfing runoff or other natural processes into waterways.  Wershaw,
     4.157
et.al *    have demonstrated that DDT is a 0.5 % solution of sodium humate
which is at least 20 times as bioactive as a DDT solution alone.  This tends to
indicate that other naturally occurring polyelectrolytes may act similarly with
members of the spectrum of organocblorine compounds that may be  found in the
environment.  Another interesting example of syncrgism is the interaction of
                                     4-44
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two commonly used pesticides:  DDT and dieldrin.  Macek, Rodgers, Stallig and



Korn "     have shown that in rainbow trout DDT accumulation is enhanced by the



presence of dieldrin, while DDT markedly decreased the rate of accumulation of



dieldrin.  Similarly, DDT elimination was decreased in the presence of dieldrin



but dieldrin elimination was not enhanced by the presence of DDT.


              4.159
          Cain *    stated that DDT and 2, 4-D synergise with respect to fish



toxicity.  The impact of DDT and parathion are more than additive *   .



          Dugan, Pfister and Sprague '    studied a New York watershed emptying



into Lake Ontario and assessed its burden of several organochlorine pesticides



and detergents.  Following the evaluation, they generated data concerning the



effect on goldfish of the susceptibility to three organochlorine pesticides as



a  function of exposure to alkylbenzenesulfonates.  They determined that chronic



exposure to 4 ppm alkylbenzene-sulfonates results in a much greater susceptibility



to three types of chlorinated hydrocarbons:  DDT, dieldrin and endrin.  This



finding is supported by the work of other investigators that found correlation



between nutrient uptake by cells and presence of surfactants.



          The antagonistic effect of certain anticonvulsant drugs on the



action of DDT has been shown for humans.  Davies, Edmundson, Carter and



Barquet      followed the p,p-DDT levels in 77 outpatients and 48 chronically



nonambulant mentally defective inpatients who had been taking anticonvulsant



drugs (phenobarbitone and/or phenytoin or diphenyl hydantoin) for more than



3 months for convulsive disorders.  The study was confined to white patients



greater than 6 years old.  The DDE levels (principal DDT metabolite) were



strikingly lower in patients on anticonvulsant drugs than in the general



population.  It was determined that this lead to a net antagonistic reaction



with these compounds.

                                      4-45


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                                A-4.4.2  Sevin


                     studied the effects of carbaryl and caffeine on albino rats.


The interaction in this case is antagonistic since the carbaryl treated rats


showed minor tremors, salivation and urination while caffeine treated animals,


in addition to being alert and displaying none of the above symptoms, predictably


increased their performance in activity wheel cages.


          In another study, 30 derivatives of propynyl naphthyl ethers were


synthesized and evaluated as synergists for carbaryl against houseflies.

               / T £. Q
Sacher, et.al., *    reported that the most active in the series was 1-naphthyl-


3-butynyl ether.  The synergistic ratio was 176.5.  They also found that the


ether was not harmful to white mice, probably owing to the fact that the ether


is channelled into two different metabolic pathways between the housefly and


laboratory mouse.  In another study involving houseflies, Bakry, Metcalf and


Fukuto *    investigated benzyl thiocyanates, benzyl isothiocyanates, phenyl


thiocyanates and alkyl thiocyanates for mode of action as insecticides and


carbaryl synergists.  They found that for aliphatic thiocyanates the synergistic


ratio with carbaryl increased fourfold from C, to C ?.


          Falk and Kotin *    in their article on pesticide synergists and their


metabolism, point out two important areas involving these interactions that need


attention and caution.  The first concerns the buildup and storage of synergistic


agents in the mammalian (human)  organism, and the second relates the danger of


some of these synergists when taken in combination with high doses of certain


drugs as medications.
                                     4-46

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                            A-4.5  Impact on Humans

          The evaluation of the human health threat presented by the use of

pesticides has been the subject of many reviews over the past few years.  The

exposure of the American public to pesticides has been either very high, as in

the case of pesticide workers  (those involved in manufacturing, formulating and

application) or very low (the  average non-occupationally exposed person).  The

former group represents a ready source of individuals for the study of the

effects of chronically high exposure to pesticides.

          The use of pesticides in this country has increased greatly since

the commercial introduction of DDT after World War II.  Despite this fact, the

death rate due to pesticides has remained stable since 1939 "   .  In 1961 the

mortality rate for pesticides  (including fumigants) was 0.65 per million

population although the ratio  of non-fatal to fatal poisoning cases was 100 to 1.

Since the death rate has remained stable over this period despite the higher use

and greater availability of pesticides, indications point to the fact of greater

safety being exercised with these materials.  Additionally, since approximately

one-half of the pesticide fatalities involve children, the current rate can be

potentially halved simply by childproofing pestide containers and embarking upon

a program of education wherein the safer use and handling of pesticides in and

around the home is stressed.

          The fate of the pesticide worker in any phase of the production,

formulation or application of  pesticides varies with the organization he is

associated with     .  For example, the pesticide worker in a modern manufacturing

plant, since the corporate structure represented therein demands high working

standards, is exposed to greater hazard driving to and from work than while at

work manufacturing pesticides.  Small formulating plants, on the other hand,

                                     4-47
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may employ people under working conditions that make pesticide exposure a daily




occurence.  Structurally pest control operators characteristically have no fear




of their "favorite" compounds and are not described as being careful.  This group




is sometimes heavily exposed but manages to stay on the job by avoiding




excessive exposure.









                                 A-4.5.1  DDT




          The literature abounds with reports containing data on the effect of




DDT on  the human body in various stages of life.  Westermann '    states that the




average American had, in 1969, 50 mg of DDT in his body.  Oral doses of 10 to




20 mg have induced toxic symptoms in man and this same dose is sufficient to




kill more than 1000 tons of flies.  Durham "    indicated that there has been




no significant increase in the storage of DDT by the general population of the




United States since this parameter was first measured in 1950.  Many writers and




scientific investigators around the world have been concentrating their efforts




on delineating the problem of the growing DDT residue potential in the human




sphere of influence.  Kadis, et.al. *    examined 217 tissue samples from autopsies




performed in Alberta, Canada in 1967 and 1968.  They found that the mean con-




centration of p,p'DDE, -ODD and -DDT in adipose was 4.34 ppm.  The levels in




other tissues were according to the following scale:  liver, kidney, gonad, brain.




No correlation was found between accumulated level and age of subject.  The




concentration of p,p'DDE and -DDD was higher in ovarian than in testicular




tissue, but the DDT concentration in male fat was higher than in female fat.




The difference in the presence of DDT metabolites in the male and female gonads




is probably due to the difference in cyclic change associated with the organs.








                                     4-48



                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  IT)

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          A survey of 1500 poisoning cases lead to the publishing of a paper
by V.I. Pol'chenko *   .  In it, the author describes the typical symptoms of
DDT poisoning:  ordinary widespread disorders of the gastro-intestinal,
respiratory, nervous and cardiovascular systems, as well as blood, liver and
skin diseases.  A literature survey Durham *    states that practically the
entire American population has some DDT residues in its tissues.  The 1969-
reported mean storage level was 3 ppra as DDT and approximately 8 ppm as DDT
equivalent for metabolites of DDT.  It further states that no significant
increase had taken place in the period 1950 to 1969.
                                                                   4. 28
          As fish accumulate DDT primarily through their food chain "  , so do
most other organisms.  Since man is at the top of the food pyramid, he has the
dubious benefit of receiving the highest intake concentrations because of the
concentrating action of all his predecessors in the food chain.  The significance
                                                                    4 172
of pesticide residues in the food of humans was stressed by Kraybill "    in
his article reporting the differences in pesticide levels in foods depending
on preparation source.  For the period 1962 to 1964, household meals contained
0.314 mg DDT and 0.173 rag DDE while restaurant ratals contained 0.038 mg DDT
and 0.44 mg DDE as reported by the Public Health Service.  This difference is
interesting in that the private shopper (housewife) purchases foodstuffs on
the basis of cosmetic value more than anything else.  The restauranteur on the
other hand pruchases for price and value.  Consequently, his purchases may not
be as pleasing to the eye as those of a private purchaser, but do represent a
lower level of pesticide content because of the mode of agriculture it represents.
          The question of human toxicity has been investigated in people exposed
to varying levels of DDT.  This section will deal with the effects of DDT on
                                                         4.173
various systems of the body.  O'Leary, Davies and Feldman      measured blood
                                     4-49
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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levels of p,p'DDT and -DDE in obstetric patients in Dade County,  Florida.  The



venous blood of 28 Caucasians and 73 Negroes was sampled following or during



spontaneous abortion.  In addition, samples from 45 Caucasians  and 107 Negroes



served as controls.  The results indicated that gestational exposure to DDT is



not a significant abortifacient stimulus.  No relation between  age or parity and



DDT levels was noted but DDT levels were significantly higher among Negroes.  In



another study, Rappolt, et.al., "    reports that 39 stillbirths  studied in



Kern County, California in 1964 and 1965 had associated with them high levels



of p.p'DDT and p,p-DDE, its metabolite.  The organochlorine compount concentrations



in tissues of 35 pregnant women, 33 non-pregnant women in the fertile portion of


                                                            4.175
their lives and 23 neonates were documented in another study "    .  During



pregnancy, the storage of p,p'-DDT, -ODD, o,p'-DDT and o,p'-DDD,  o,p'-DDE and



total o,p'-DDT is reduced in adipose.  The same effect was observed for dieldrin



and BHC isomers.  All the organochlorine insecticides found in  the adipose of



pregnant women was also found in maternal and fetal blood samples suggesting that



in pregnancy the metabolism of organochlorine insecticides is enhanced and these



agents can pass through the placental barrier.  The placental passage of pesticides


                                   4 173
was investigated by O'Leary, et.al.      by monitoring p,p'-DDT and -DDE levels



in human blood during pregnancy.  Fortyfive Caucasians and 107  Negroes in late



pregnancy were sampled.  Fortyseven paired samples of maternal  and cord blood



were analyzed as well as 70 paired samples from newborns (24 Caucasians and



46 Negroes).  The amnionic fluid of 42 women at or near term was  sampled, as well



as 12 paired samples of vernix caseosa from back and axilla of  newborns, and



12 placental samples.  The DDE concentration of 152 blood samples in pregnant



women ranged from 3 to 92 ppb (mean in Caucasians was 10.8 ppb; mean in Negroes



was 15.2 ppb).  The DDE concentration in the cord blood of 70 neonates was a



                                     4-50

                                                           EQ-5025 D-2 (Vol. II)

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mean of 4.8 ppb in Caucasians and 5.9 ppb  in Negroes.  These figures indicate


that the DDE concentration in Caucasians does not differ markedly from that in


Negroes.  However, the data on DDT  levels  among  the  two racial groups is markedly


different.  Caucasian maternal blood has a DDT level of 17 ppb, while that of


Negroes was 32 ppb; the cord blood  of Caucasians contained 5 ppb DDT, while that


of the Negroes contained 9 ppb and  the amnionic  fluid of Caucasians had a DDT


level of 6 ppb, while the Negroes level was higher at 14 ppb.  Despite the


implication that  the Negro retains  higher  levels of DDT, it is also apparent


that DDT does indeed permeate the placental barrier.  The effects of this on the


fetus are not completely understood and, in the  opinion of the authors of the


referenced article, should be thoroughly investigated.


          The personnel in the previous study probably didn't have a marked


occupational exposure to DDT in  the time during  which they were sampled since


they were pregnant.  Yet, their  tissues contained considerable quantities of


the pesticide.  A study undertaken  in the  Ukraine from 1964 to 1965 bears this


out.  Therefore,  the problem is  not one confined to  the United States.  The


author  of the Ukrainian study (Gracheva, 1969) concludes that the main source


of non-occupationally exposed persons to DDT. contamination must be through the


food chain.  So it is with neonates as well.  In some countries the primary


source  of food for newborn infants  is from human milk.  A study conducted on


residents of Kiev4'176 and its surroundings indicates that for the urban group,


a substantial proportion  (74.6 %) contained detectable amounts of DDT in their


milk.  Also examined were women  from an agricultural area with a high use rate


of DDT.  The group had an identical incidence of DDT in milk with the urban


group, but the mean DDT concentration was  higher (0.19 mg/1 vs 0.10 mg/1).


The investigator  also generated  more data  supporting the passage of DDT  through


                                      4-51
                                                             EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. IT)

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                                                                   4.177
the placental barrier.  A similar study conducted in Eastern Europe^      was


concerned with milk samples of both urban and rural dwelling women.  The


combined level of p,p'-DDT, -DDE and -ODD was 12.87 ppm.


          A number of reports have been published in recent years documenting


the state of various human organs after occupational and low-level exposure to


DDT.  This section will briefly describe a number of these.  Phillips, Ritcey,


Murray and Hoppner "    found no obvious correlation between the level of


organochlorine compound ingestion and the incidence of low Vitamin A stores in


the liver.


          Paramonchik *    reported on the functional state of the liver in


workers engaged in the manufacture of organochlorine compounds, among these was


DDT.  Liver function studies were performed on 360 workers with varying exposure


to DDT.  Most workers with DDT and hexachlorane for 11-15 years.  A few had


other slight contact with organochlorine compounds of hepatotropic action.


Of the 208 workers synthesizing DDT and preparing DDT dust and paste, functional


liver changes were found in 54 individuals.  Krasniuk, et.al., *    studied


100 workers in a DDT manufacturing facility.  The antitoxic function was


disordered in 58 out of 80 tested.  In addition, the urinary excretion was up


to 75 % below normal and the carbohydrate function was disordered in 69


workers.  Paramonchik and Platonova '   , in yet another study, discussed the


functional state of the liver and stomach in persons occupationally exposed to


the action of organochlorine compounds.  The 70 persons were occupationally


exposed to the action of organochlorine compounds..  The 70 persons examined


were employed in the production or use of organochlorine compounds, consisting


of both men and women in the age group 21 to 50 years, most with greater than


10 years experience and consequent exposure.  Thirty one members of the examined


                                     4-52

                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)

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group had symptoms of a mild  toxic  action.   In  20,  initial signs of  chronic




organochlorine intoxification appeared  (toxic diencephalitis, polyneuritis or




initial symptoms of toxic hepatitis).   The  remaining  19 had no signs of organo-




chlorine-induced disorders.   Changes in the gastrointestinal tract appeared as




chronic gastritis and peptic  ulcers.  Workers with  less than 10 years exposure




experienced intensification of the acidogenic and pepsin-secretory functions of




the stomach and insignificant  liver disorders.  Workers with greater than




10 years exposure had definite disorders of the liver functions,  as well as a




depression of the two stomach  functions found in workers with less than 10 years




exposure.




          The levels of DDE,  ODD, DDT, dieldrin, 0-BHC and heptachlor epoxide




were determined at autopsy in the fat and liver of  271 patients who previously




exhibited various pathological states of the liver, brain and other tissues.




Radomski, et.al., "    in reporting these findings, compared them with the




results of random autopsies and with a group designated "infectious diseases."




There was a striking lack or  correlation between pesticide concentration in




the fat and liver of all the  cases.  There was, however, a significant correla-




tion between pesticide levels  in the fat and brain.  In the presence of brain




tumors, no increase in pesticide level in the brain was noted over that found in




normal brain tissue.  But a higher level of DDE was found in the brain of those




afflicted with encephalomacia  and cerebral hemorrhage.  A highly significant




elevation of pesticide levels was found in all cases of carcinoma of various




tissues, particularly, the DDE concentrations in metastatic liver disease was




7 times higher than normal.  Significantly elevated levels of DDE and dieldrin




were found in portal cirrhosis, but not in fatty metamorphosis.  Levels of DDT,




DDE, DDD and dieldrin were consistently and significantly elevated in the fatty






                                     4~53                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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tissue of those cases that suffered hypertension.  Those home pesticide users
who used high levels of these products had 3-4 times the DDT and DUE level as
those who used minimal quantities.  This indicates that pesticides used in the
home have a tendency to accumulate in the dwellers, probably because the agents

find their way into the food consumed in the household in high levels.
          The functional state of the stomach has been described for workers
exposed to significantly high DDT levels in their ambient environment by
Platonova '   .  A significant frequency of complaints of a dyspeptic nature
were the following:  loss of appetite, heartburn and nausea, pains in the
epigastric  region and right hypochrondium and disordered stools.  More than
51 of the 102 workers surveyed and examined had disordered secretory and
acidogenic functions of the stomach (either intensified or depressed).  Gastric
enzymatic function was altered, usually as intensification.  An increase of the
number of organic diseases paralleled an increase in work experience with
organochlorine pesticides.  This discovery led to the hypothesis th. •': changes
in the functional state of the stomach are caused by disorders of neural reflex
regulation of gastric secretions.  Krasniuk and Platonova '    investigated 558
persons in contact with organochlorine poisons.  Of this number, 234 manufactured
DDT and preparations, 148 worked with DDT and hexachlorane and the balance
worked with hexachlorane alone.  A study of the stomach contents and X-ray

examinations established that functional gastric disorders or chronic gastritis
occurred in 2.2 % of the DDT owrkers, 17 % of the hexachlorane workers and 29 %
of the DDT-hexachlorane group.  In a control group of 216 persons, the frequency
of similar gastric pathology was 6.5 %.   In addition, the stomach disorder
frequency increased with the length of work exposure:  14 % had up to 5 years
experience;  18.9 % had from 6-10 years exposure and 31.8 % had more than
10 years exposure.                   4-54
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol II)

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          The renal system is a^so covered in some detail by investigators in




the field.  Loganovskii *    studied 106 workers with a history of prolonged




exposure to small amounts of DDT, hexachlorane and ether sulfonate.  While the




findings confirmed those of other body systems, the urinary findings were pre-




dominantly normal.  Renal disorders, it is thought, may be the result of




direct action of organochlorine compounds on kidneys or by way of their injurious




effect(s) on other organs or systems.  In another publication *   , Loganovskii




investigated the state of glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption in the




kidneys of persons exposed to organochlorine compounds over long periods.  The




exposure time was greater than 10 years.  Prolonged contact with small quantities




of DDT, hexachlorane and ether sulfonate leads to disordered glomerular filtration




and tubular reabsorption.  These effects are most clearly seen in workers exposed




for from 10-15 years and in those with chronic intoxification.  The exposure




for 3-5 years increased the rate of glomerular filtration, while exposures of




from 10-15 years caused this parameter to decrease.  Significantly, fewer




disturbances were noted in tubular reabsorption.  Krasniuk, et.al., "    noted




not only functional changes of the kidneys in accordance with the findings of




others but also characterized morphological alterations within the microstructure




of the kidney.  Morgan and Roan  *   , on the other hand, failed to find evidence




of chronic occupational differences in glomerular filtration and tubular




reabsorption between a group of  65 pesticide workers and 23 controls.  However,




the pesticide workers in this test were occupationally exposed to organophosphates




as well as organochlorine pesticides.




          Edmundson, Davis and Cranmer "    studied the effect of DDT aerosol




exposure on the blood and urine  levels of DDT and DDE and DDA.  First-day




blood samples showed no correlation between blood levels of DDT and DDE,  the






                                      4-55                 EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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amount sprayed and the spraying time.  There was, however, a slight correlation
                                                                                 t
between the excretion time of DDA and the amount sprayed and the spraying time.

A study was conducted to determine the epidemiological significance of serum DDT
                                                                4.190
level in three groups of men exposed to decreasing levels of DDT *    .  Blood

samples were taken bi-monthly in 1968.  No clear relationship was found between

the degree of occupational DDT exposure and the total serum DDT level.  All groups

exhibited a 6- fold increase in total serum DDT level in the period between

April and August.  They also exhibited a relative decrease in serum DDE level

for the same period.  The results indicate that local agricultural  and municipal

insecticide programs increase DDT exposure to all subjects, regardless of the
                     .1
degree of occupational exposure.  Also, DDT appeared in the sera soon after

absorption from the external environment.
                           4.191
          Edmundson, et.al. "   , published a study of the p,p'-DDT and -DDE

levels in personnel occupationally exposed to DDT.  DDT was detectable in 80 %

of the control group but was below the consistently measurable level (7 ppb).

In the occupationally exposed group, the mean of white workers was  less than

7 ppb except for white formulators (21 ppb) and aircraft sprayers (25 ppb).

The non-white members of the exposed group were noted to have:  40  ppb for

formulators, 10 ppb for floral sprayers and 32 ppb for agricultural sprayers.

There was no evidence of clinical toxicity during the 2-year observation

period.  It was noted that the DDT blood level depends on the recency of exposure

while the DDE blood level is a stable value.  Another study ^•1J1 measured the

serum lipoprotein value of persons long exposed to the action of organochlorine

compounds.  The exposure was via airborne DDT in various stages of  production.

In addition, the levels of hydrogen chloride, chlorobenzene, hexachlorane and

chlorinated derivatives of phenols were quantified.  Changes were detected in

                                     4-56
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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the ratio of alpha-to-beta-lipoprotein levels in botli directions.  A simul-



taneous  study demonstrated frequent hypoalbuminemia and hypergammaglobulinemia.



The measurement of serum lipoprotein level proved a valuable supplementary



index of liver function in relation to organochlorine compound exposure.



          Ballistocardiography was used to detect the presence of marked



diffuse changes in the myocardium and a disorder of its contractile function



in workers exposed to organochlorine compounds *   .  Ballistocardiography was



done on 58 individuals with electrocardiographic signs of extracardiac disorders



in cardiac function and on 52 workers with diffused changes of the myocardium of



a dystrophic type.



          The therapeutic utility of DDT and .its metabolites is being investi-


                                     4.193
gated by workers in the field.  Greim "    reported on the toxicity of DDT and



the therapeutic utility in a recent article.  The general features of DDT



metabolism are discussed, as well as the reaction of DDT which may render it



useful as a therapeutic aid by increasing the metabolic rate of the agent itself



and also of certain drugs.


                                                                            4 194
          In addition to the use of DDT as a therapeutic aid, Hayes, et.al.,



reported on the effects of long term, high oral doses on the human organism.  The



average doses administered were 555 times the average intake of all DDT-related



compounds by 19-year olds in the general population and 1250 times the intake



of DDT itself.  The investigators postulate that since no definite clinical or



laboratory evidence of injury by DDT was found, the degree of safety with the


                                                                         4 195
use of DDT is high for the general population.  In a prior study by Hayes *   ,



he reports on the feeding of volunteers with DDT dissolved in oil at doses of



0, 3.5,  and 35 mg. per man per day.  These men were 01 ordinary diets and the



test included, in addition to the ten subjects, four controls.  No clinical



effects  associated with the DDT dosage were detected.

                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)


                                      4-57

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          A statement, found in the report by Hayes, '     states:  "Some of




the diseases which are claimed to have increased because of DDT, in fact, have




shown no increase.  Some of the other diseases are increased largely because of




the changing distribution of age groups in the population of the United States.




Because of  improvements in the control of communicable diseases of children and




adults, a greater proportion of people live to be old enough to have cancer and




those forms of heart trouble which strike in middle or  old age".




          This statement sums up the feeling of pesticide proponents in this




country and probably around the world.  There is irrefutable evidence that the




use of pesticides has improved the lot of millions of people around the world;




the malaria campaigns during and after the World War II being the best example.




          Pennsylvania has been using pesticides for the control of the gypsy




mol:h menace much the same as have other states in the northeastern part of this




country.  A publication describing this program *    emphatically states that




DDT as used in the gypsy moth program presents no hazard to human health.  The




report cites further work by Wayland Hayes,  M.D. that involved a study of 40 men




occupationally exposed to high levels of DDT.  Despite  storing relatively large




amounts of DDT in their fat (average over 300 ppm), no  adverse effect on the




health of the men was noted.  In addition, in a program involving the ingestion




of DDT by human volunteers, no sensitization to the material was demonstrated




on the part of the volunteers.









                                A-4.5.2  Sevin




          The toxicity of Sevin of carbaryl (1-naphthyl-N-methyl carbamate) on




humans has not, to this date, been well documented due  to its relatively late




entrance ar. an economic poison.  Its primary mode of action, however, is as a







                                      4-58                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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cholinesterase inhibitor, and consequently, must be countered accordingly




(atropine treatment, for example).




           The mammalian toxicity of  Sevin was discussed and examined in a paper




by Carpenter, Weil, Palm, Woodside, Nair  III and Smyth4'197.  The study subjects




included rats, dogs, rabbits and guinea pigs.  The data generated indicates that




under ordinary circumstances accidental exposure to Sevin in conditions accompanying




forest site spraying would not prove  harmful to these animals since rats tolerate




200 ppm in their diet without significant deviation from control animals and that




dogs tolerate 400 ppm on the same basis.  This study included information on meta-




bolism, cholinesterase inhibition, alleviation of symptoms x«.th atropine sulfate




and their aggravation by pyridine-2-aldoxime methiodide, arid the absence of neuro-




muscular degenerative potential, carcinogenic activity, and sensitizing propensity.




The Sevin was administered as single  doses via oral, parenteral, percutaneous and




respiratory routes.  Some of the test series included long term administration of




the material via one or more of the above routes.  A comparison of effects between




Sevin and another cholinesterase inhibitor, parathion, indicates that although the



Sevin dose was higher than was the parathion dose (0.56 gm/kg body weight versus




0.0093 gm/kg body weight) the parathion produced a slower but more progressive




depression on plasma, erythrocyte and brain cholinesterase systems as compared




with the higher doses of Sevin.




           Farago      reported a case of fatal, suicidal Sevin poisoning.  The




man in question drank 0.5 liter of Sevin 80 solution and was hospitalized




immediately.  He was under aocoholic  intoxication at the time of ingestion.




Immediately upon hospitalization, gastric lavage was initiated and circulatory




stimulants administered.  The development of pulmonary edema and disordered




vision attested to his worsening condition.  Atropine was administered every






                                      4~59               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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30 minutes, but atropinization was not observed.  After administering 250 mg PAM,




the pulmonary edema progressed.  Death occurred 6 hours after ingestion.  An




autopsy and chemical analysis of the subject's blood, gastric lavage fluid,




stomach and contents, intestines and contents, liver, kidneys and urine revealed




a Sevin distribution of from 14.8 to 244.8 meg % in the stomach, intestines and




and gastric lavage fluid and 1.4 to 3.1 meg % in the blood, kidneys, liver and




urine.  The cholinesterase activity of the blood was strongly inhibited at 0.12




delta pH/hr.  Sevin absorption was so rapid that excretion had already begun,




as attested to by the Sevin found in the urine.  Since gastric lavage was begun




within 30 minutes and the quantity found in the stomach was less than that found




in the intestines (14.8 vs 17.6 meg %), it is postulated that the lethal dose




was absorbed within 1.5 hours of ingestion.  In addition, it is documunted that




from the course the poisoning took, PAM administration was an error, although




death was, in the estimation of the authors, not preventable.  In general, the




autopsy results confirmed, in the human system, facts known about Sevin in other




biological systems, viz, Sevin is rapidly degraded in the human system—1 metabolite




was found in the stomach contents, 3 in the intestine contents, 4 in the liver




and kidneys and 5 in the urine.  Sevin itself, as noted earlier, was still present




in all these tissues and fluids in lesser quantities.




           The massive self-administered dose of carbaryl described in the pre-




ceding paragraph is probably not representative of cholinesterase inhibition




poisoning because other effects due to the mass involved were presumably operative.



                                                                          4 199
The details of cholinesterase inhibition were discussed in a paper by Main '




The kinetics of this mechanism are detailed in a step-wise fashion for organ-




ophosphates and carbamates.  The first step in the process involves the formation




of a binding complex between the inhibitor and cholinerterase.  This step,





                                      4-60               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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together with the phosphorylatlon or carbamation reaction, determines the



inhibitory and consequently the toxic power of the compound.  The theoretical



and experimental contexts are defined within which valid estimates of the reversible



equilibrium constant may be made.  This constant measures the affinity or organo-



phosphate and carbamates in the liver appears to be an important factor in the



metabolism of carbamate insecticides in several animals, including man*'200.



Dealkylation is the mechanism by which some carbamates are degraded to less toxic



metabolites in the liver.  In the process of this action, however, phospholipid



snythesis and metabolism in the liver, as well as in the brain and heart, is



lowered in white rats *   .  This same action has been observed for DDT.   Over



a short term, DDT and Sevin are about equal in their power to depress phnspholipid



metabolism.  Long-term administration demonstrates DDT to be a stronger depressant



on phospholipid metabolism than is Sevin.



           The effect of carbamic acid derivatives on nucleic acid metabolism


                                                 4.202
in the rat liver and spleen is described by Anina *   .   In this study, rats



were sacrificed after receiving maximally tolerated doses of Sevin, carbine,



diptal or TMTD in either aqueous suspension or oil emulsion via stomach tube.



Enzyme activity and nucleic acid quantity were determined in the liver and



spleen.  Carbamates were noted to increase ribo- and deoxyribonuclease (RNA and



DNA) activity compared with controls.  A decrease in nucleic acids was noted in



the spleen.  All the carbamic acid derivatives increased the quantity of RNA



in the liver.  This effect was significantly higher with carbine and diptal as



compared with the other derivatives.   The effect of DNA varied with the identity



of the derivative.   Sevin and TMTD significantly increased the quantity of DNA



in the liver, while diptal exerted a slight depressing action.  While the nature







                                     4~61                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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of the increase in nuclease activity remains clouded, the data testifies to the




intensity of the process of nucleic acid breakdown by carbamates.




           Rats and mice were used as the subjects of a study of certain pesti-


                                                     /  O f\ *3

cides on the hypophysis and its gonadotropic function '   .   DDT and Sevin actions




were seen as an increase in the luteinizing function of the hypophysis in white




rats and in mice.  The effect was more pronounced with  DDT than it was with Sevin.




In addition, both DDT and Sevin increased the esterus cycle and the duration of




its phases in both rats and mice.


                           4 204
           Boyd and Krijnen *    studied the effect of  protein intake on the




oral toxicity of carbaryl in the rat.  They found that  the interval-to-death was




not related to the amount of casein in the diet but the timing was inversely




proportional to the dose of carbaryl.




           Many of the cited studies were performed on  laboratory animals rather




than being observations of carbaryl's effect on the human body because of the




lack of widespread domestic use of the product and because of the rather severe




restrictions with respect to licensing being placed on  today's product.  That is




to say, before a product can be marketed as an economic poison, it must be




screened using laboratory animals.




           Strother *     compared the metabolism of certain carbamates by human




and rat liver fractions and determined that the two pathways differ for Sevin in




that the human liver fraction appeared to produce 2 more metabolites than did




the rat liver fraction.  With this in mind, the results appearing in the liter-




ature concerning the toxicity and metabolism of Sevin in .laboratory animals




should be considered as approximate or "best estimates".




           There has been much recent publicity concerning the teratogenic




effectr- of Sevin in beagle dogs; certain groups have extended this information




                                      4_62                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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directly to human organism.  Smally, et.al.,4'206 published a report on the



teratogenic action of carbaryl in beagle dogs which has since become the guide-



line and sourcebook for arguments against large scale use of Sevin in the north-



east against the gypsy moth  (Porthetria dispar).  Smalley's original work did



demonstrate a teratogenic effect on beagle dogs caused by Sevin but the doses



reported were quite high (3.125 to 50 mg/kg body weight daily).  The extension



of these facts to the human  situation cannot be considered as completely foolproof



since humans in areas being  sprayed for gypsy moth infestation are not exposed to



doses nearing the levels used in the beagle dog study.



           Furthermore, the  metabolic pathways for Sevin in the man and dogs is



not exactly identical      '         The metabolites of Sevin found in the urine



of dogs receiving Sevin doses are not all the same as those found in human urine



specimens of subjects taking doses of Sevin.



           The report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and their


                                    4 209
Relationship to Environmental Health '   , which is also known as the Mrak Report



or the Mrak Commission Report, reviews the status of pesticide use and side effects



in the United States.  It states that certain of the major pesticide types have



associated with them typical symptomatic responses:



           organochlorine pesticides - general action is to increase

                excitability of the nervous system.  Some compounds

                damage the liver as well.



           organophosphate pesticides - cholinesterase inhibitors



           carbamates - cholinesterase inhibitors



The report further states that the present level of exposure to DDT and aldrin-



dieldrin type pesticides have not produced any observable adverse effects on



controlled studies of volunteers.  In organophosphates, there is no residue



risk—only the risk of acute toxicity.





                                      4-63                 EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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           In pesticide toxicity studies, a number of factors have been found



to be important in determining the response of the animal to the toxicant, viz,



species, age, sex, disease, nutrition, environmental temperature and light.



           Chapter 6 of the report      is entitled, Teratology of Pesticides.



This chapter calls for immediate restriction of Captan,  Carbaryl, the butyl,



isopropyl, and isocotyl esters of 2, 4-D Folpet, mercurials, PCNB and 2, 4, 5-T



as a result of the teratogenetic action of these in labo/.itory animals.  For



terato;'eneticity screening tests, several guidelines are proposed within this



chapter.  An important one involves the selection of the test animals.   Using



materials of known purity, stability, etc., it recommends that at least 2 species



be chosen on the basis of metabolic and pharmacokinetic  similarity to humans.


                         4 209
           Seven sections "    dealing with literature reviews of the teratogenic



effect of pesticides are presented, being highlighted by pesticide identity.



Section b. - Carbaryl, states:



                "b.  Carbaryl - This was tested at 66.7  and 200 ppm



           in the diet of pregnant mice (FAO/WHO, 1967).  In 2 litters



           at the 200 ppm level, a total of 7 instances  of skeletal



           malalignment, nonfusion, incomplete ossification, and 1 case



           of cleft palate and gross facial malformation were noted



           as opposed to no malformations in the lower level group and



           2 cases of cleft palate in controls.  Teratogenetic findings



           for carbaryl are also presented in the Bionetics study.  In



           a study in which beagle dogs were fed carbaryl during



           gestational periods at levels of 50, 25, 12.5 and 6.25



           and 3.125 mg/kg body weight daily, teratogenic effects were



           found at all but the lowest dose level (Smalley, 1968)."



                                      4-64

                                                         EQ-5025-D-2 (vol. II)

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           The Bionetics Research Laboratories of Litton Industries Study for




the National Cancer Institute report is included in Chapter 6     .  The study




tested various pesticides and related compounds for teratogenic effects.  The




paragraphs on carbaryl and 1-naphthol, a principal carbaryl metabolite state:




           "Other pesticides producing a statistically significant




           increase in the proportion of litters containing abnormal




           fetuses and in the increased incidence of abnormal fetuses




           within litters were:  Captan, Folpet, 2, 4-D isooctyl ester,




           2, 4-D butyl ester, 2, 4-D isopropyl ester, carbaryl (Sevin)




           and IPC.  These pesticides produced elevated inciand in one




           solvent only.  The results for carbaryl and for IPC were




           less consistent than for other compounds.  (The pesticides




           2, 4, 5-T, PCNB, Captan, Folpet, carbaryl, IPC and the butyl




           and isopropyl esters of 2, 4-D were statistically significant




           at the 0.01 level, for one or more tests.  This criterion is




           similar to that adopted by the Technical Panel on CarcinO-




           genesis, Chapter 5, to identify "positive" compounds.  The




           isooctyl ester of 2, 4-D was significant at the 0.05 level.)




           Compounds inducing only an increase in the proportion of




           abnormal fetuses within letters were:  a-naphtol, and 2,




           4-D methyl ester.  The statistical significance of these




           results was relatively weak; further study is required




           before any conclusions can be reached.  Similarly, 2, 4-D




           produced only an increase in the proportion of abnormal




           litters during 1965 in AKR mice.  Due to the teratogenic









                                      4-65               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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activity of certain of its esters, 2, 4-D should be

studied further.

Carbaryl plus piperonyl butoxide did not show an overall

increase in nonspecific anomalies, but resulted in sig-

nificantly more cystic kidneys for doses above 10 rag/kg

carbaryl plus 100 ul/kg piperonyl butoxide."
                           4-66
                                              EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                               A-4.6 References
4.1        Cottam, C., 1946, DDT and  its Effects on Fish and Wildlife,
             Journal of Economic Entomology, 39(1):  44-52.

4.2        Butler, P. A. and P. F.  Springer, 1963, Pesticides - a New Factor
             in Coastal Environments, Trans, of the Twenty-Eighth North American
             Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, 378-390.

4.3        Springer, P. F. and A, 0.  Haugen, 1953, Effects of Insecticides on
             Wildlife, unpublished  paper presented at Third Army Annual Insect
             and Rodent Control Training Conference, Memphis, Tennessee, 5 May 1953.

4.4        Eberhardt, L. L., R. L.  Meeks and T. J. Peterle, 1971, Food Chain
             Model for DDT Kinetics in a Freshwater Marsh, Nature, 230(5288):
             60-62.

4,5        Egler, F. E., 1964, Pesticides - in our Ecosystem, American
             Scientist, 52(1):  110-136.

4.6        Egler, F. E., 1964, Pesticides - in our Ecosystem, Communication II,
             Bioscience, November:  29-36.

4.7        Fox, G. W., 1970, Pesticides and Ecosystems, Nation Library of
             Medicine, U. S. Public Health Service, Literature Search 70-39,
             pp 24.

4.8        Fredeen, F. J. H. and J. R. Duffy, 1970, Insecticide Residues in
             Some Components of the St. Lawrence River Ecosystem Following
             Applications of ODD, Pesticide Monitoring Journal, 3(4):  219-226.

4.9        Headley, J. C. and E. Erickson, 1970, The Pesticide Problem - an
             Annotated Bibliography,  University of Missouri, College of
             Agriculture Research Bulletin Number 970, pp 55.
                                                                o£
4.10       Meeks, R. L. and T. J. Peterle, 1965, The Cycling of   Cl-labeled
             DDT in a Marsh Ecosystem, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Circular
             Number 226, pp 46.

4.11       Pressman, R. , 1963, Pesticides.  In:  McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf
           (ed.).  Water Quality Criteria (2nd ed.), California State Water
           Quality Control Board Publication 3-A, pp 355-404.

4.12       Rudd, R. L., 3964, Pesticides and the Living Landscape, University
             of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 320.

4.13       Shane, M. S., 1948, Effect of DDT Spray on Reservoir Biological
             Balance, Journal of the American Water Works Association,
             March, 333-336.
                                      4-67
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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4.14       U. S. Department of Interior, 1962, Effects of Pesticides on Fish
             and Wildlife in 1960, Fish and Wildlife Circular Number 143,
             pp 52.

4.15       U. S. Department of Interior, 1963, Pesticide - Wildlife Studies:
             A Review of Fish and Wildliie Service Investigations during 1961
             and 1962, Fish and Wildlife Circular Number 169, pp 109.

4.16       U. S. Department of Interior, 1964, Pesticide - Wildlife Studies, 1963,
             Fish and Wildlife Circular Number 199, pp 130.

4.17       U. S. Department of Interior, 1965, Effects of Pesticides on Fish and
             Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife Circular Number 226, pp 77.

4.18       Woodwell, G. M., 1967, Toxic Substances and Ecological Cycles,
             Scientific American, 216(3):  24-31.

4.19       Wurster, C. F., 1968, DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by  Marine
           Phytoplankton, Science, 159:  1474-1475.

4.20       Gunther, F. A., W. E. Westlake and P. S. Jaglan, 1968, Reported
             Solubilities of 738 Pesticide Chemicals in Water, Residue
             Reviews, 20:  1.

4.21       Marth, E. M., 1965, Residue and Some Effects of Chlorinated
             Hydrocarbon Insecticides in Biological Material, Residue
             Reviews, 9:  1-89.

4.22       Lichlenstein, E. P., 1958, Movement of Insecticides in Soils Under
             Leaching and Non-leaching Conditions, Journal of Economic
             Entomology, 55:  380-383.

4.23       Fredeen, F. J. H., A. P. Arnason and B. Berck, 1953, Adsorption of
             DDT on Suspended Solids in River Water and its Role in Black-fly
             Control, Nature, 171:  700-701.

4.24       Cope, 0. B., 1961, Effects of Spraying for Spruce Budworm in Fish in
             the Yellowstone River system, Transactions of the American Fisheries
             Society, 90(3):  239-251.

4.25       Meeks, R. L. , 1968, The Accumulation of   Cl Ring-labeled DDT  in  a
             Freshwater Marsh, Journal of Wildlife Management, 32(2):  376-398.

4.26       Cole, H., D. Barry, D. E. H. Frear and  A. Bradford,  1967, DDT  Levels
             in Fish, Streams, Stream Sediments and Soil Before and After DDT
             Aerial Spray Application for Fall Cankerworm in Northern Pennsylvania,
             Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2(3):  127-146.

4.27       Metcalf, R. L., G. K. Sangha and I. P. Kapoor, 1971, Model Ecosystem
             for the Evaluation of Pesticide Biodegradability and Ecological
             Magnification, Environmental Science and Technology, 5(8):  709-713.

                                      4-68
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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4.28       Macek, K. Q. and S. Korn, 1970, Significance of the Food^Chain in
             DDT Accumulation by Fish, Journal of the Fisheries Research Board
             of Canada, 27:  1496-1498.

4.29       Murphy, P. G., 1970, Effects of Salinity on Uptake of DDT, DDE and
             DDD by Fish, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology,
             5(5):  404-407.

4.30       Stickel, L. F., 1968, Ogranochlorine Pesticides in the Environment,
             U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Special Scientific
             Report Number 119, pp 32.

4.31       Christie, A. E., 1968, Insecticides and Algae:  Toxicity and
             Degradation, Ontario Water Resources Commission Research
             Publication Number 27, pp 26.

4.32       Sweeney, R. A., 1970, Algae as Indicators of Pesticides, Great Lakes
             Laboratory, Special Report Number 4, pp 10.

4.33       Ware, G. W. and C. C. Roan, 1970, Interactions of Pesticides with
             Aquatic Microorganisms and Plankton, Residue Reviews, 15-45.

4.34       Palmer, C. M. and T. E.  Maloney, 1955, Preliminary Screening for
             Algicides, Ohio Journal of Science, 55(1):  1-8.

4.35       Ukeles, R. , 1962, Growth of Pure Cultures of Marine Phytoplankton
             in the Presence of Toxicants, Applied Microbiology, 19(6):  532-537.

4.36       Lichtenberg, J. J., J. W. Eichelberger, R. C. Dressman and
             J. E. Longbottom, 1970, Pesticides in Surface Waters of the
             United States - a 5-year Summary, 1964-68, Pesticides Monitoring
             Journal, 4(2):  71-86.

4.37       Nicholson, H. P., 1969, Occurance and Significance of Pesticide
             Residue in Water, Journal of the Washington Academy of Science,
             59(4-5):  77-85.

4.38       Butler, P. A., 1963, Commercial Fishery Investigation, U. S. Fish
             and Wildlife Circular Number 167, pp 11-25.
                                                                           Q
4.39       Glooschenko, W. A., 1971, The Effect of DDT and Dieldrin upon 14
             Uptake by In Situ Phytoplankton in Lakes Erie and Ontario, paper
             presented at 14th Great Lakes Research Conference, Toronto,
             20 April 1971.

4.40       Gregory, W. W., J. K. Reed and L. E. Priester, 1969, Accumulation
             of Parathion and DDT by Some Algae and Protozoa, Journal of
             Protozoology, 16:  69.

4.41       Chacko, C. I. and J. L. Lockwood, 1967, Accumulation of DDT and
             Dieldrin by Microorganisms, Canadian Journal of Microbiology,
             13:  1123-1126.
                                      4~69               EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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4.42       Rickey, J. J., J. A. Keith and F. B. Coon, 1966, An Exploration
             of Pesticides in a Lake Michigan Ecosystem, Journal of Applied
             Ecology, 3  (Supplement):  141.

4.43       Butler, P. A., 1966, Fixation of DDT in Estuaries, Proceedings of
             the  Thirty-first North American Wildlife Conference, 184-189.

4.44       Dimond, J., 1967, Pesticides and Stream Insects, Maine Forest
             Service Bulletin Number 23, pp 21.

4.45       Graham, R. J. , 1960, Effects of Forest Insect Spraying on Trout and
             Aquatic Insects of Some Montana Streams, Transactions of Second
             Seminar on Biological Problems in Water Pollution, U. S. Department
             of Health, Education and Welfare, 62-65.

4.46       Hitchcock, S. W., 1965, Field and Laboratory Studies of DDT and
             Aqucii:ic Insects, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
             Number 668, pp 32.

4.47       Hoffman, C. H. and A. T. Drooz, 1953, Effects of a C-47 Airplane
             Application of DDT on Fish-food Organisms in Two Pennsylvania
             Watersheds, American Midland Naturalist, 50(1):  172-188.

4.48       Keenleyside, M. H. A., 1967, Effects of Forest Spraying with DDT
             in New Brunswick on Food of Young Atlantic Salmon, Journal of
             the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 24(4):  807-822.

4.49       Kerswill, C.  J., 1967, Studies on Effects of Forest Spraying with
             Insecticides, 1952-63, on Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates in
             New Brunswick Streams:  Introduction and Summary, Journal of
             Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 24(4):  701-708.

4.50       Sanders, H. 0. and 0. B. Cope, 1968, Relative Toxicities of Several
             Pesticides to Naiads of Three Species of Stoneflies, Limnology
             and Oceanography, 13(1):  112-117.

4.51       Schoenthal, N. D., 1963, Some Effects of DDT on Cold Water Fish and
             Fish-food Organisms, Proceedings of the Montana Academy of Sciences)
             23:  63-95.

4.52       Hoffman, C. H. and E. P. Merkel, 1948, Fluctuations in Insect
             populations Associated with Aerial Applications of DDT to Forests,
             Journal of Economic Entomology, 41:  464-475.

4.53       Hoffman, C. H. and E. W. Surber, 1949, Effects of Feeding DDT-sprayed
             Insects to Fresh-water Fish, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special
             Scientific Report:  Fisheries, Number 3, pp 9.

4.54       Johnson, D. W., 1968, Pesticides and Fishes - A Review of Selected
             Literature, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society,
             97(4):  398-424.

                                     4-70
                                                         EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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4.55       Henderson, C., W. L. Johnson and A. Inglis, 1969, Organochlorine
             Insecticide Residues  in Fish, Pesticide Monitoring Journal,
             3(3):  145-171.

4.56       Reinert, R. E. , 1970, Pesticide Concentrations in Great Lakes Fish,
             Pesticide Monitoring  Journal, 3(4):  233-240.

4.57       Holden, A. V., 1964, The Possible Effects on Fish of Chemicals used
             in Agriculture, Journal of the Proceeding of the Institute on
             Sewage Purification,  1964:   361-368.

4.58       Rudd, R. L. and R.  E. Genelly, 1956, Pesticides:  Their Use and
             Toxicity in Relation  to Wildlife, California Fish and Game
             Bulletin, 7:  1-309.

4.59       Burden, E. H. W. J., 1956, A Case of DDT Poisoning in Fish, Nature,
             540-546.

4.60       Elson, P. F., 1967, Effects of Wild Young Salmon of Spraying DDT
             Over New Brunswick Forests,  Journal of the Fisheries Research
             Board of Canada,  24(4):  731-767.

4.61       Kerswill, C. J. and H.  E. Edwards, 1967, Fish Losses after Forest
             Sprayings with Insecticides  in New Brunswick, 1952-62, as Shown
             by Caged Specimens and Other Observations, Journal of the Fisheries
             Research Board of Canada, 24(4):  709-729.

4.62       Nicholson, H. P., 1959, Insecticide Pollution of Water Resources,
             Journal of the American Water Works Association, 51:  981-986.

4.63       Cope, 0. B., 1965,  Agricultural Chemicals and Freshwater, In:
             Research in Pesticides, Academic Press,  New York,  115-128.

4.64       Bridges, W. R., B.  J. Kallman  and A. K. Andrews, 1963, Persistance
             of DDT and its Metabolites in a Farm Pond, Transactions of the
             American Fisheries Society,  92:  421-427.

4.65       Hoffman, C. H., 1959, Are the  Insecticides Required for Insect
             Control Hazardous to  Aquatic Life, Transactions of Second Seminar
             on Biological Problems in Water Pollution, Public Health Service
             Report Number W60-30, pp 51-61.

4.66       Johnson, H. E., 1963, DDT and  Trout, Montana Academy of Science,
             23:  96-110.

4.67       Buhler, D. R. and W. E. Shanks, 1970, Influence of Body Weight on
             Chronic Oral DDT  Toxicity in Coho Salmon, Journal of the Fisheries
             Research Board of Canada, 27(2):  347-357.

4.68       Johnson, H. E. and  C. Pecor, 1970, Coho Salmon Mortality and DDT in
             Lake Michigan, Transactions  of the Thirty-Fourth North American
             Wildlife and Natural  Resources Conference, 159-166.

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4.69      Burclick, G.E., E.J.  Harris, H.J.  Dean,  T.M.  Walker,  J.  Skea and
            D. Colby, 1964, Accumulation of DDT in Lake Trout  and the Effect on
            Reproduction, Transactions of the American Fisheries  Society, 93(2):
            127-136.

4.70      Hopkins, C.L., S.R.B. Solly and A.R. Ritchie, 1969,  DDT in Trout and its
            Possible Effect on Reproductive Potential, New Zealand Journal of
            Marine and Freshwater Research, 3(2):   220-229.

4.71      Lincer, J.L., J.M. Solon and J.H. Nair,  1970, DDT  and Tendrin Toxicity
            Under Static versus Dynamic Bioassay  Conditions, Transactions of the
            American Fisheries Society, 99(1):  13-19.

4.72      Macek, K.J., 1968, Growth and Resistance to  Stress in Brook Trout Fed
            Sublethal Levels of DDT, Journal of the Fisheries  Research Board
            of Canada, 25(11):  2443-2451.

4.73      Holden, A.V., 1962,  A Study of the Absorption of 14C-Labeled DDT
            from Water by Fish, Annals of Applied Biology, 50:  467-477.

4.74      Menzie, C.M., 1969,  Metabolism of Pesticides, U.S. Bureau of Sport
            Fisheries and Wildlife Special Scientific  Report,  Number 127, pp.
            487.

4.75      Kallman, B.J. and A.K. Andrews, 1963, Reductive Dechlorination of
            DDT to ODD by Yeast, Science, 141:  1050.

4.76      Wedemeyer, G-, 1966, Dechlorination of  DDT by Aerobacter Aerogenes,
            Science, 152:  647.

4.77      Johnson, B.T., 1968, Detoxification of  Halogenated Hydrocarbon Insec-
            ticides by Enteric Microorganisms, U.S. Bureau of  Sport Fisheries
            and Wildlife Research Publication  Number  64 , pp  132.

4.78      Wedemeyer, G., 1968, Role of Intestinal Microflora in the Degradation
            of DDT by Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri), Life Science, 7:  219-224.

4.79      Greer, G.L. and U. Paim, 1968, Degradation of DDT in Atlantic Salmon
            (Salmo salar), Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada,
            25:  2321-2326.

4.80      Cherrington, A.D., U. Paim and O.T. Page, 1969, In Vitro Degradation
            of DDT by Intestinal Contents of Atlantic  Salmon (Salmo salar),
            Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 26:  47-54.

4.81      Premdas, F.H. and J.M. Anderson,  1963,  Uptake and Detoxification of
            14c-labeled DDT in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo  salar, Journal of the
            Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 20(3):  827-837.

4.82      Spencer, D.A., 1967, Problems in Monitoring  DDT and  its Metabolites in
            the Environment, Pesticide Monitoring Journal, 1(2):   54-57.


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4.83      Boyd, C.E., S.B. Vinson and D.E. Ferguson, 1963, Possible DDT Resistance
            in Two Species of Frogs, Copia, 2:  426-429.

4.84      Ferguson, D.E., D.D. Culley, W.D. Cottom and R.P. Dodds,  1964,
            Resistance to Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides in Three Species
            of Freshwater Fish, BioScience, 4(11):  43-44.

4.85      Connola, D.P., 1960, Airplane Spray Tests for the Control of Gypsy
            Moth, Sta. to Sta. Res. News, 6(3):  1-4, Union Carbide Chem.  Co.,  N.Y.

4.86      Doane, C.C. and P.W. Schaefer, 1971, Aerial Application of Insecticides
            for Control of the Gypsy Moth, Bull. Conn. Agr. Expt.  Sta. No.  724,
            pp  23.

4.87      Hood, C.S., 1966, The 1965 Gypsy Moth Control Program on Cape Cod.
            The Effects of Sevin on the Gypsy Moth, Pesticide Board, Common-
            wealth of Mass. Pub. No. 547:  1-11.

4.88      Ide, P.P., 1956, Effect of Forest Spraying with DDT on Aquatic Insects
            of Salmon Streams, Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86:  208-219.

4.89      Gorham, J.R., 1961, Aquatic Insects and DDT Forest Spraying in Maine,
            Maine Forest Serv. Cons. Found. Bull. 19:  pp  49.

4.90      Graham, R.J. and D.O. Scott, 1959, Effects of an Aerial Application
            of DDT on Fish and Aquatic Insects, in Montana, Montana Fish and
            Game Dept. and the U.S. Forest Service, pp-35, Mimeo.

4.91      Flieger, B.W., 1970, Experiences with Large Scale Forest  Insect
            Control Programs, Sixth N.E. Aerial Applicators Conf.,  Ithaca,  N.Y.,
            79-86, Mimeo.

4.92      Hopkins, D.R., H. Benton, N.E. Johnson and A.T. Neale, 1966. Supplement
            to the Status Report — 1963 Willapa Looper Infestation Control
            Project - State of Washington, Department of Natural Resources,
            Olympia.

4.93      Decker, G.C., 1966, Significance of Pesticide Residues:   Practical
            Factors in Persistence, 111. Nat. Hist. Survey, Biol.  Notes No. 56,
            PP  8.

4.94      Coutant, C.C., 1964, Insecticide Sevin:  Effects of Aerial Spraying on
            Drift of Stream Insects, Science, 146:  420-421.

4.95      Wells, Lewis F. Jr., 1966, Disappearance of Carbaryl (Sevin) from
            Oak Foliage in Plots Aerially Sprayed for Control of Gypsy Moth on
            Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in 1965, Pesticide Board, Commonwealth of
            Mass. Pub. No. 547:  12-17.

4.96      Wells, L.F. Jr., C.W. Collier and R. Tardif, 1966, Analysis of Leaf
            Duff Samples for Sevin, Pesticide Board, Commonwealth of Mass.  Pub.
            No. 547:  18-24.
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4.97      Tompkins, William A., 1966, Sevin Residues in Marine and .Freshwater
            Aquatic Organisms, Pesticide Board, Commonwealth of Mass.  Pub.  No.
            547:  37-42.

4.98      Boschetti, Mario M., 1966, Sevin Residues in Water and Topsoil
            Following its use on a Watershed Area, Pesticide Board,  Common-
            wealth of Mass., Pub. No. 547:  52-62.

4.99      Felley, Donald R., 1970, The Effect of Sevin (1-naphthyl N-methyl-
            carbamate) as a Watershed Pollutant, Unpub. PhD thesis.   College
            of Forestry, Syracuse.

4,100     Christie, A.E., 1968, Insecticides and Algae:  Toxicity and Degradation,
            Ontario Water Resources Commission Publication Number 27,  pp 26.

4.101     Palmer, C.M. and I.E. Maloney, 1955, Preliminary Screening for
            Algicides, Ohio Journal of Science, 55:  1-8.

4.102     Butler, P.A., 1965, Commercial Fishery Investigations, U.S.  Fish
            and Wildlife Circular, Number 167, pp 11-25.

4.101,     Muncy, R.J. and A.D. Oliver, 1963, Toxicity of Ten Insecticides to the
            Red Crawfish, Promcambarus dark ^Giard), Transactions of the
            American Fisheries Society, 92:  423-431.

4.104     Parker, B..L., J.E. Dewey and C.A. Bache, 1970, Carbomate Bioassay
            Using Daphnia Magna, Journal of Economic Entomology, 63(3):   710-714.

4.105     Haynes, H.L., H.H. Moorsefield, S.J. Borash and J.W. Keays,  1958,
            Toxicity of Sevin to Goldfish, Journal of Economic Entomology,  51(4):
            540.

4.106     Johnson, D.W., 1968, Pesticides and Fishes - A Review of Selected
            Literature, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society,  97(4):
            398-424.

4.107     Pressman, R., 1963, Pesticides.  In:  McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolf (ed.),
            Water Quality Criteria (2nd ed.), California State Water Quality
            Control Board Publication Number 3-A, pp 355-404.

4.108     Henderson, C., Q.H. Pickering and C.M. Tarzwell, 1960, The Toxicity
            of Organic Phosphorus and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons to Fish,  Trans-
            actions of the Second Seminar in Biological Problems in  Water Pollution,
            U.S. Public Health Service, pp 78-88.

4.109     Burdick, G.E., H.F. Dean, E.F. Harris, J. Skea and D. Colby, 1965,
            Toxicity of Sevin (carbaryl) to Fingerling Brown Trout,  New York
            Fish and Game Journal, 12(2):  127-146.
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4.110     Abou-Donia, M.B. and D.B. Menzel, 1967, Fish Brain Chloinesterase:
            Its Inhibition by Carbomates and Automatic Assay, Comparative
            Biochemistry and Physiology, 21:  99-108.

4.111     Stewart, N.E., R.E. Milleran and W.P. Breese, 1967, Acute Toxicity
            of the Insecticide Sevin and its Hydrolytic Product 1-naphthol to
            Some Marine Organisms, Transactions of the American Fisheries
            Society, 96:  25-30.

4.112     Menzie, C.M., 1969, Metabolism of Pesticides, U.S. Bureau of Sport
            Fisheries and Wildlife Special Sciencific Report, Number 127, pp  487.

4.113     Lichtenstein, E.P., K.R. Schulz, R.F. Skrentney and Y.  Tsukano, 1966,
            Toxicity and Fate of Insecticide Residues in Water, Archives  of
            Environmental Health, 12:  199-212.

4.114     Crosby, Donald G., 1969, The Nonmetabolic Decomposition of Pesticides,
            in, Annals N.Y. Acad, Sci., 160(1):  82-96.

4.115     Crosby, Donald G., E. Leitis and W.L. Winterlin, 1965,  Photodecomposi-
            tion of Carbamate Insecticides, Jour. Agr. and Food Chem.  13(3):
            .204-207.

4.116     Chisholm. R.D., and L. Koblitsky, 1947, Effects of Light on DDT
            Residues, Agr. Chem. 2(9):  35-37.

4.117     Barthel, W.F., D.A. Parsons, L.L. McDowell and E.H. Grissinger, 1966,
            Surface Hydrology and Pesticides, in, Pesticides and Their Effects
            on Soils and Water, A.S.A. Special Pub. No. 8:  128-144.

4.118     Felley, Donald R. , 1970, The Effect of Sevin (1-naphthyl N-methyl-
            carbamate) as a Watershed Pollutant, Unpub. PhD thesis, College of
            Forestry, Syracuse.

4.119     Fleck, Elmer E. and H.L. Haller, 1944, Catalytic Removal of Hydrogen
            Chloride from Some Substituted Trichloroethanes, Jour. Amer.  Chem.
            Soc. 66:  2095.

4.120     Fleck, Elmer E. and H.L. Haller, 1945, Compatability of DDT with
            Insecticides, Fungicides and Fertilizers, Ind. Eng. Chem.  37:  403-405.

4.121     Fleck, Elmer E. and H.L. Haller, 1946, Stability of DDT and Related
            Compounds, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 68:  142-143.

4.122     Downs, W.C., E. Bordas, and L. Navarro, 1951, Duration of Action of
            Residual DDT Deposits on Adobe Surfaces, Science, 114:  259-262.

4.123     Gunther, F.A. and L.R. Tow, 1946, Inhibition of the Catalyzed Thermal
            Decomposition of DDT, Science, 104:  203-204.
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4.124     Eichelberger, James W.  and J.J.  Lichtenberg,  1971,  Persistence of
            Pesticides in River Water, Env.  Sci.  and Tech.  5(6):   541-544.

4.125     Alexander, H., 1966, Biodegradation of  Pesticides,  in,  Pesticides and
            their Effects on Soils and Water, A.S.A.  Special  Pub. No.  8:  78-84.

4.126     O'Brien, R.D., 1967, Insecticides, Action and Metabolism,  Academic
            Press, N.Y., pp 332.

4.127     Randall, A.P., 1965, Evidence of DDT Resistance in  Populations of
            Spruce Budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.)  from DDT-sprayed
            Areas of New Brunswick, Canadian Ent. 97:  1281-1293.

4.128     Carolin, V.M. and W.K.  Coulter,  1971, Trends  of Western Spruce Budworm,
            and Associated Insects in Pacific Northwest Forests Sprayed with DDT,
            Jour. Econ. Ent., 64:  291-297.

4.129     Kaufman, D.D., 1966, Structure of Pesticides  and  Decomposition by Soil
            Microorganisms, A.S.A. Special Pub. No. 8:   85-94.

4.130     Whitehurst, E.E., E.T.  Bishop, F.E. Critchfield,  G.G. Gyusco, E.W.
            Huddelston, H. Arnold and D.J. Lisk,  1963,  The  Metabolism  of Sevin
            in Dairy Cows, Jour.  Agr. and Food. Chem. 11:  167-169.

4.131     Knaak, J.B., M.J. Tallant, W.J.  Bartley and L.J.  Sullivan, 1965,  The
            Metabolism of Carbaryl in the Rat, Guinea Pig and Man, Jour. Agr.
            and Food Chem. 13:  537-543.

4.132     Carpenter, C.F., C.S. Weil, P.E. Palm,  M.W. Woodside, J.H. Nair III,
            and H.F. Smith, Jr.,  1961, Mammalian  Toxicity of  1-naphthyl N-
            methylcarbamate (Sevin Insecticide),  Jour.  Agr. Food  Chem.  9:  30-39.

4.133     Pekas, J.C. and G.D. Paulson, 1970, Intestinal Hydrolysis  and Conjuga-
            tion of a Pesticidal Carbamate in Vitro,  Science  (Washington) 170:
            3953:  77-78.

4.134     Dorough, H.W., N.C. Leeling and J.E. Casida,  1963,  Nonhydrolytic
            Pathway in Metabolism of N-methylcarbamate Insecticides, Science
            140:  170-171.

4.135     Dorough, H.W. and J.E.  Casida, 1964, Nature of Certain  Carbamate
            Metabolites of the Insecticide Sevin, Jour, Agr.  and  Food  Chem.
            12(4):  294-304.

4.136     Price, G.M. and R.J. Kuhr, 1969, The Metabolism of  the  Insecticide
            Carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methylcarbamate) by Fat Body of the Blowfly
            Larva Calliphora erythrocephala, Biochem. Jor.  112:  133-138.

4.137     Kuhi:, R.J. and J.E. Casida, 1967, Persistent Glycosides of Metabolites
            of Methycarbamate Insecticides Chemicals Formed by  Hydroxylation in
            Bean Plants, Jour. Agr. and Food Chem. 15:  814-124.


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4.138     Harris, C.R., 1970, Persistence and Behavior of Soil Inseticides,
            in Pesticides in the Soil:  Ecology, Degradation and Movement,
            International Symposium on Pesticides in the Soil, Michigan State
            University.

4.139     Dimond, John B. et al, 1970, DDT Residues in Robins and Earthworms
            Associated with Contaminated Forest Soils, Canadian Entomologist,
            V. 102, No. 9.

4.140     Yule, W.N., 1970 DDT Residues in Forest Soils, Bulletin of Environ-
            mental Contamination and Toxicology, V. 5, No. 2.

4.141     Edwards, C.A., 1970, Persistent Pesticides in the Environment,  in
            Critical Reviews for Environmental Control (Richard G. Bond and
            Conrad P. Straub, Ed) The Chemical Rubber Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

4.142     Heith, J.O. and E.L. Flickinger, 1965, Fate and Persistence of DDT
            in a Forest Environment, in Effects of Pesticides on Fish and
            Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 226.

4.143     Wurster, Charles F., Jr., Doris H. Wurster and Walter Strickland,
            1965, Bird Mortality After Spraying for Dutch Elm Disease with
            DDT, Science, V. 148.

4.144     The Effects of Pesticides on Fish and Wildlife, U.S. Department of
            the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 226, 1965.

4.145     Edwards, C.A., 1969, Soil Pollutants and Soil Animals, Scientific
            American, 88-99.

4.146     Hung, J.B., 1969, Mortality of the Earthworm Lumbricus Terrestris
            Following Soil Applications of Insecticides to a Tobacco Field,
            J. Economic Entomology, V. 62.

4.147     Thompson, A.R., 1971, Effects of Nine Insecticides on the Numbers
            and Biomass of Earthworms in Pasture, Bulletin of Environmental
            Science and Technology, V. 5, No. 6.

4.148     Barrett, Gary W., 1968, The Effects of an Acute Insecticide Strep
            on a Semi-enclosed Grassland Ecosystem, Ecology, V. 49, NO. 6.

4.149     Barin, Ronald L. and Raymond K. Socke, 1970, Utilization of Cell
            Culture Techniques in Carbaryl Metabolism Studies, Bulletin of
            Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, V. 5, No. 4.

4.150     Fleck, Elmer E., 1966, Chemistry of Insecticides, in Pesticides
            and Their Effects on Soils and Water, Madison, Wisconsin; Soil
            Science Society of America.

4 151     Williams, C.H., 1969, Drug - Pesticide Interactions, FDA Papers,
            3(7):  14-7.

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-4.152     McLean, A.E.M. and E.K. McLean, 1969,  Diet and Toxic.ity,
            Brit. Med. Bulletin, 25(3): 278-281.

4.153     Kwalik, D.S., 1971,  Anticonvulsant and DDT Residues,
            Journal of the American Medical Society, 215(1): 120-121.

4.154     Davies, J.E., W.F. Edmundson, C.H. Carter and A. Barquet, 1969,
            Effect of Anticonvulsant Drugs on Dicophane (DDT) Residues on
            Man,  Lancet, 2(7610): 7-9.

4.155     Fishbein, L., H.L. Falk, J. Fawkes and S. Jordan, 1968,
            Metabolism of Pesticide Synergists,  Ind. Med. Surg. 37(7): 524.
            (Abstract of paper presented at the Sixth Inter-American
            Conference of Toxicology and Occupational Medicine,
            Miami, Florida, August 26-29, 1968.)

4.156     Falk, H.L. and P. Kotin, 1969,  Pesticide Synergists and Their
            Metabolites,  Annals of the N.Y. Academy of Science,
            16(1): 299-313.

4.157     Wershaw, R.L., P.J. Burear and M.C. Goldberg, 1969,
            •Interaction of Pesticides with Natural Organic Materials,
            Environmental Science Technology, 3(3): 271-273.

4.158     Macek, K.J., C.R. Rodgers, D.L. Stalling and S.  Korn, 1970,
            The Uptake, Distribution and Elimination of Dietary 14-C-DDT
            and 14-C-Dieldrin in Rainbow Trout,  Transactions of the
            American Fisheries Society, 99(4): 689-695.

4.159     Cain, S.A., 1965,  Pesticides in the Environment, with Special
            Attention to Aquatic Biology Resources,  in: Report on
            U.S.-Japan Planning Meeting on Pesticide Research, Honolulu,
            Hawaii,  pp. 12-18.

4.160     Ferguson, D.E. and C.R. Bingham, 19664  Effects  of Insecticides
            on Susceptible and Resistant Mosquito-Fish,  Bulletin of
            Environmental Contamination and Toxicology,  1: 97-103.

4.161     Dugan, P.R., R.M. Pfister and M.L. Sprague, 1 53,  Evaluation
            of the Extent and Nature of Pesticide and Detergent Involvement
            in Surface Waters of a Selected Watershed,  New York State
            Report No. 10, Part 1.

4.162     Singh, J., 1968,  Effect of Caffeine and Pesticide Carbaryl
            (1-naphthyl-N-methyl-carbamate) on Female Albino Rats,
            Ind. Med. Surg.  37(7): 544.

4.163     Sa^her, R.M., R.C. Metcalf and T.R. Fukuto, 1968,
            Propynyl Naphthyl Ethers as Selective Carbamate Synergists,
            Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry,  16(5): 779-786.
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4.164     Bakry, N., R.L. Metcalf and T.K. Fukuto, 1968,
            Organothiocyanates as Insecticides and Carbamate Synergists,
            Journal of Economic Entomology,  61(5): 1303-1309.

4.165     Hayes, W.J., 1969,   Pesticides and Human Toxicity,  Vol.160,
            Arts 1-2, 40-54.

4.166     LaMotte,  L.C., 1969,  Pesticides and Human Health - A Query,
            Entomological Society of America Bulletin,  15: 373-376.

4.167     Westermann, E., 1969, Accumulation of Environmental Agents or
            Their Effects in  the Body,  Environ. Res.  2(5-6): 340-351.

4.168     Durham, W.F., 1971,  Significance of Pesticide Residues to Human
            Health,  J. Dairy Science,  54(5): 701-706.

4.169     Kadis, V.W., W.E. Beitkreitz and O.J. Johasson, 1970,
            Insecticide Levels in Human Tissues of Alberta Presidents,
            Canadian Journal  of Public Health,  61(5): 413-416.

4.170     Pol'chenko, V.I., 1968,  DDT as a Health Hazard,  Gigienai
            Sanit.  - Hyg. Sanit., (Translation),  33(3): 403-407.

4.171     Durham, W.F., 1969,  Body Burden of Pesticides in Man,
            Ann. N.Y. Academy of Science,  160(1): 183-195.

4.172     Kraybill, H.F., 1969,  Significance of Pesticide Residues in
            Foods in Relation to Total Environmental Stress,
            Can. Med. Assn. Journal,  100(4): 204-215.

4.173     O'Leary,  J.A., J.E. Davies and M. Feldman, 1970,
            Spontaneous Abortion and Human Pesticide Residues of DDT and DDE,
            American Journal  of Obstet. and Gynecol. 108(8): 1291-1292.

4.174     Rappolt,  R.T., D. Mengle, W. Hale, B. Hartman and B. Salmon,  1968,
            Kern County:  Annual Genetic Input; Blood Dyscrasias; p,p'-DDT
            and p,p'-DDE Residues in Human Fat, Placentas with Related
            Stillbirths and Abnormalities,  Ind. Med. Surg.  37(7): 513.
            (Abstract of paper presented at the Sixth Inter-American
            Conference on Toxicology and Occupational Medicine, Miami, Florida,
            August  26-29, 1968.)

4.175     Polishuk, Z.W., M.  Wassermann, D. Wassermann, S. Larzarovici, and
            L. Tomatis, 1970,  Effects of Pregnancy on Storage of Organo-
            chlorine Pesticides,  Arch. Environmental Health,  20(2): 215-217.

4.176     Komarova, L.I., 1970,  DDT Excretion with the Breast Milk and Its
            Effect  on the Body of the Mother and Child,  Pediatr. Akusherstvo
            Hinekol,  35(1):  19-20.
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4.177     Kontek, M., S. Kubacki, S. Paradowski and B. Wierzchowiecka, 1971,
            Badanie Zawartosci Pestycydow Chlororganicznych w Mleku Kobiecym
            (Study of the Level of Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Milk),
            Pediat. Pol,  46(2): 183-188.

4.178     Phillips, W.E.J., W.R. Ritcey, T.K. Murray and K. Hoppner, 1971,
            A Note on the Concentration of Organochlorine Pesticides in
            Human Liver in Relation to Vitamin A Status,  Bull. Environ.
            Contain. Toxicol.  6(1): 17-19.

4.179     Paramonchik, V.M., 1968,  The Functional State of the Liver in
            Workers Engaged in the Manufacture of Certain Organochlorine
            Poisonous Chemicals,  Sov. Med.  31(3): 62-65.

4.180     Krasniuk, E.P., N.G. Loganovskii, E.I. Makovskaia and M.B. Rapporport,
            1968,  Functional and Morphological Alterations in the Kidneys
            Following the Effect of DDT on the Organism,  Sov. Med.  6: 38.

4.181     Paramonchik, V.M. and V.I. Platonova, 1968,  The Functional State
            of the Liver and Stomach in Persons Exposed to the Action of
            Organochlorine Chemical Poisons,  Gigiena Truda i Zabolevaniya,
            12(3): 27-31.

4.182     Radomski, J.L., W.B. Dichman and E.E. Clizer, 1968,  Pesticide
            Concentrations in the Liver, Brain and Adipose Tissue Terminal
            Hospital Patients,  Food Cosmet. Toxicol.  6(2): 209-220.

4.183     Platonova, I., 1969,  Some Indices of the Functional State of the
            Stomach in Workers Under the Condition of Organochlorine
            Poisonous Chemical Manufacture,  Gigiena i Truda; Resp. Mezhved.
            Sb.  (Kiev),  No. 1, i.e. No. 5: 135-137.

4.184     Krasniuk, E.P. and V.I. Platonova, 1969,  Functional Disorders of
            the  Stomach Under the Prolonged Effect of Organochlorine Chemical
            Poisons,  Vrachebnoe Delo No. 9: 99-101.

4.185     Loganovskii, N.G., 1968,  The Functional State of the Kidneys in
            Workers Under the Prolonged Action of Organochlorine Chemical
            Poisons,  Vrachebnoe Delo No. 10: 82-86.

4.186     Loganovskii, N.G., 1969,  The State of Gulmerular Filtration and
            Tubular Reabsorption in the Kidneys in Persons Long Exposed to
            the  Action of Organochlorine Chemical Poisons,  Gigiena i Truda:
            Resp. Mazhved. Sb. (Kiev),  No. 1,  i.e. No. 5: 149-154.

4.187     Krasniuk, E.P., E.J. Makovskaia, M.B. Rappoport and V.M. Paramonchik,
            1968,  Changes in the Liver Under the Action of DDT:  Clinical
            Observations and Pathomorphological Studies,  Gigiena Truda i
            Prof. Zabolevaniya,  12(12): 20-22.
                                      4-80              EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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4.188     Morgan, D.P. am! C.C. Roan, 1969,  Renal Function in Persons
            Occupationally Exposed  to Pesticides,  Arch. Environ, Health,
            19(5): 633-636.

4.189     Edmundson, W.F., J.E. Davis and M. Cranmer, 1970,  DDT and DDE in
            Blood and DDA in Urine  of Men Exposed to  3 % DDT Aerosol,
            Public Health Report  (U.S.), 85(5): 457-463.

4.190     Perron, R.C. and B.F. Barrentine, 1970,  Human Serum DDT Concentra-
            tion Related to Environmental DDT Exposure,  Arch. Environmental
            Health,  20(3): 368-376.

4.191     Edmundson, W.F., J.E. Davis, B.A. Nachman and R.L. Roeth, 1969,
            p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE in Blood Samples of Occupationally
            Exposed Workers,  Public Health Report,   84(1): 53-58.

4.192     Krasniuk, E.P., 1969,   Ballistocardiographic Changes in Those
            Working with Organochlorine  Compounds,  Gigiena i Truda; Resp.
            Mezhved. Sb.  (Kiev),  No. 1,  i.e. No. 5: 203-207.

4.193     Greim, H., 1970,  Toxicity and Therapeutic  Utility of DDT and Its
            Metabolites,  Aerztl. Forsch. 24(7): 197-201.

4.194     Hayes, W.J., W.E. Dale  and C.J. Pirkle,  1971,  Evidence of Safety
            of Long-Term High, Oral Doses of DDT for  Man,  Arch. Environmental
            Health,  22(1): 119-235.

4.195     Hayes, W.J., 1960,  Pesticides in Relation  to Public Health,
            Annual Reviews of Entomology,  5: 379-404.

4.196     Nichols, J.O., 1961,  The Gypsy Moth in Pennsylvania — Its History
            and Eradication,  Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture Miscel-
            laneous Bulletin No.  4404,   pp. 1-82.

4.197     Carpenter, C.P.,  C.S.  Weil, P.E. Palm, M.W. Woodside, J.H. Nair III,
            and H.F. Smyth, 1961,   Mammalian Toxicity of 1-Naphthyl-N-
            Methylcarbamate (Sevin  Insecticide),  Agricultural and Food
            Chemistry,  9(1): 30-39.

4.198     Farago, A., 1969,  Suicidal, Fatal Sevin (1-Naphthyl-N-Methylcarbamate)
            Poisoning,  Archiv. Toxicol. 24(4): 309-315.

4.199     Main, A.B., 1969,  Kinetics of Cholinesterase Inhibition by
            Organophosphates and  Carbamate Insecticides,  Can. Med.-Assn.
            Journal,  100(4): 161-167.

4.200     Anon., 1968,  More Light  on Carbamates,  Food Cosmet. Toxicol.  6(3):
            395-396.
                                      4-81               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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4.201     Kuzminskaya, V.A., 1968,  Effects of DDT and Sevin on the Content
            and Metabolism of Phospholipids in Warm-Blooded Tissues,
            Farmak, Toksikol,  31(5):  609-612.

4.202     Anina, I.A., 1968,  The Effect of Carbamic Acid Derivative Pesticides
            on Nucleic Acid Metabolism in the Rat Liver and Spleen,
            Byul. Eksperimem. Biol. Med.,  66(10): 46-48.

4.203     Rybakova, M.N., 1968,  The Effect of Certain Pesticides on the
            Hypophysis and Its Gonadotropic Function,  Gigiena i Sanit.
            33(11): 27-31.

4.204     Boyd, E.M. and C.J. Krijnen, 1969,  The Influence of Protein Intake
            on the Acute Oral Toxic:' .y of Carbaryl,  Journal Clin Pharmacology,
            9(5): 292-297.

4.205     Strother, A., 1970,  Comparative Metabolism of Selected N-
            Methylcarbamates by Human and Rat Liver Fractions,  Biochem.
            Paramacol.  19(8): 2525-2529.

4.206     Smalley, H.E., J.M. Curtis and E.L. Earl, 1968,  Teratogenic Action
            of Carbaryl in Beagle Dogs,  Toxicol. Applied Pharmacol.  13(3):
            392-403.

4.207     Knaak, J.B. and L.J. Sullivan, 1967,  Metabolism of Carbaryl in the
            Dog,  J. Agr. and Food Chem. 15(6): 1125-1126.

4.208     Knaak, J.B., M.J. Tallant, S.J. Kozbelt, and L.J. Sullivan,  1968,
            The Metabolism of Carbaryl in Man, Monkey, Pig and Sheep,
            J. Agr. and Food Chem. 16(3): 465-470.

4.209     Mrak, E.M., 1969,  Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides
            and Their Relationship to Environmental Health,  U.S. Department
            of Health, Edurition and Welfare,  GPO-0-371-074, pp. 667.
                                      4-R?
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                                      A-5
              LAWS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE USE AND SALE OF
                         PESTICIDES IN NEW YORK STATE
          This section presents a description and distillation of the current
 laws of New York pertaining  to the use and sale of pesticides.  While these
 laws are necessary  to prevent environmental damage, they are not totally adequate.
 Specific inadequacies are  identified in the first part of this Section; the
 second part discusses a rationale for extending the scope of pesticide laws.


                      A-5.1  Current New York State Laws
          The primary law  in New York governing the use and sale of pesticides
 is found in the Environmental Conservation Law, which became effective
 1 July 1970.  This  law created a Department of Environmental Conservation and
 transferred the responsibility for the control, sale and use of pesticides
 from several agencies within the state government to the new department of
 Environmental Conservation.
          The Conservation Law, Public Health Law and the Agriculture and
 Market Law were amended to transfer the authority governing the use and sale  of
 pesticides to the new Environmental Conservation Department.
          Prior to  the enactment of the Environmental Conservation Law, all of
 the laws, rules, and regulations of the State of New York relative to the sale
 and use of pesticides were directed towards safety and control, with only
 implicit attention  given to water pollution problems other than those resulting
 from specific and identifiable sources.  The broader question of pesticide runoff
 to natural streams  resulting from large area treatment was, for example, not
explicitly addressed until the enactment of the Environmental Conservation Law.
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          This new law takes full cognizance of the entire problem of enviornmental




conservation and addresses solutions to the problems as well as regulations for




day-to-day control.




          The following is quoted from the Environmental Conservation Law to




illustrate the concern of the law for the total problem.




          Chapter 140, Laws of New York State,  1970, Article I, paragraph 14.




          "Paragraph 14.  Functions, powers and duties of department and commissioner




          It shall be the responsibility of the department,  in accordance




          with such existing provisions and limitations as may be elsewhere set




          forth in law, by and through the commissioner to carry out the en-




          vironmental policy of the state set forth in section ten of this article.




          In so doing, the commissioner shall have power to:




          1.   Coordinate and develop policies, planning and programs related




               to the environment of the state and regions thereof.




          2.   Promote and coordinate management of water, land, and air resources




               to assure their protection, enhancement, provision, allocation,  and




               balanced utilization consistent with the environmental policy of




               the state.




          3.   Provide for the propagation, protection, and management of fish




               and other aquatic life and wildlife and the preservation of en-




               dangered species.




          4.   Provide for the care, custody, and control of the forest preserve.




          5.   Provide for the protection and management of marine and coastal




               resources and of wetlands, estuaries and shorelines.




          6.   Foster and promote sound practices for the use of agricultural




               land, river valleys, open land, and other areas of unique value.







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7.   Encourage industrial, commercial, residential and community develop-




     ment which provides the best usage of land areas, maximizes envir-




     onmental benefits and minimizes the effects of less desirable




     environmental conditions.




8.   Assure the preservation and enhancement of natural beauty and man-




     made scenic qualities.




9.   Provide for prevention and abatement of all water, land and air




     pollution including but not limited to that related to particulates,




     gases, dust, vapors, noise, radiation, odor, nutrients and heated




     liquids.




10.  Promote control of pests and regulate the use, storage and disposal




     of pesticides and other chemicals which may be harmful to man,




     animals, plant life, or natural resources.




11.  Promote control of weeds and aquatic growth, develop methods of




     prevention and eradication, and regulate herbicides.




12.  Provide and recommend methods for disposal of solid wastes,  in-




     cluding domestic and industrial refuse,  junk cars, litter and




     debris consistent with sound health, scenic, environmental




     quality, and land use practices.




13.  Prevent pollution through the regulation of the storage,  handling




     and transport of solids, liquids and gases which may cause or




     contribute to pollution.




14.  Promote restoration and reclamation of degraded or despoiled areas




     and natural resources.




15.  Encourage recycling and reuse of products to conserve resources




     and reduce waste products.





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16.  Administer properties having unique natural beauty, wilderness




     character, or geological, ecological or historical significance




     dedicated by law to the state nature and historical preserve.




17.  Formulate guides for measuring presently unquantified environmental




     values and relationships so they may be given appropriate con-




     sideration along with social, economic, and technical considerations




     in decision-making.




18.  Encourage and undertake scientific investigation and research  on




     the ecological process, pollution prevention and abatement,  recycling




     and reuse of resources, and other areas essential to understanding




     and achievement of the environmental policy.




19.  Assess new and changing technology and development patterns  to




     identify long-range implications for the environment and encourage




     alternatives which minimize adverse impact.




20.  Monitor the environment to afford more effective and efficient




     control practices, to identify changes and conditions in ecological




     systems and to warn of emergency conditions.




21.  Encourage activities consistent with the purposes of this chapter




     by advising and assisting local governments, institutions,  industries,




     and individuals.




22.  Undertake an extensive public information and education program to




     inform and involve other public and private organizations and




     groups and the general public in the commitment to the principles




     and practices of environmental conservation and development  programs




     for the teaching by others of such principles and practices.
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          23.  Cooperate with the executive, legislative and planning authorities




               of the United States, neighboring states and their municipalities




               and the Dominion of Canada in furtherance of the policy of this




               state as set forth in section 10 of article two of this chapter.




          24.  Exercise and perform such other functions, powers and duties as




               shall have been or may be from time to time conveyed or imposed




               by law, including, but not limited to, all the functions, powers




               and duties assigned and transferred to the department, department




               of agriculture and markets, and office for local government in




               the executive department by a chapter or chapters of the laws




               of nineteen hundred seventy."




          While the new Environmental Conservation Law places the responsibility




for the sale and use of pesticides within the Department of Environmental Con-




servation, specific rules and regulations pertaining to pesticides are to be




found in the Agriculture and Markets Law, the Public Health Law and the




Conservation Law.




          Portions of these relevant laws and regulations are abstracted and




discussed below.




          Article 11 of the Agriculture and Markets Law




          All pesticides, except those Federally registered, must be registered




with the State.  The Commissioner of the Department of Environmental Conservation




may refuse to register a pesticide.  Pesticides are registered on a restricted or




non-restricted use basis.  The non-restricted use pesticides may be sold and




used without restriction providing such use is in accordance with the registration




and the label, whereas restricted use pesticides may be distributed and resold




only by holders of a Commercial Permit.  The primary purpose of the Commercial






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Permit appears to be to maintain control of the pesticide in the distribution




chain since there is no requirement for the holder of the permit to have any




knowledge in the field of pesticides.




          In addition, purchase permits are required for the purchase of all




restricted use pesticides.  The primary purpose of this permit appears to be to




limit the sale of restricted use pesticide to qualified persons and to control




the application or use of such pesticides.




          Article 11A of the Agriculture and Markets Law




          Article 11A provides for the regulation of custom applicators.  Custom




applicators must be registered by the Commissioner,  Department of Environmental




Conservation, for any application of pesticides for  others.   This rule applies to




both non-restricted and restricted use pesticides.




          The primary purpose of this regulation appears to be the registration




of all applicators so as to have records of usage, to control areas of application




and to set some standard of competence on the part of the applicator, although the




competence aspect of the regulation appears to be weak and not well defined.




          Part 154.4 of Rules and Regulations




          Part 154.4 of the Rules and Regulations (Ref. Circular #865, Department




of Environmental Conservation) is of particular interest to this study and is




quoted below.




          "154.4   Restriction on the Application of Pesticides by Commercial




                   Application.




                   (a)  Pesticide application to areas adjacent to crops,




                        pasturage, lands and waters  shall be such that




                        contamination does not occur."











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          Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of



          New York





          Under Part 155, "Rules and Regulations Relating to Restricted Pesticides,"




the restricted use pesticides are defined and listed.   In addition,  the conditions




under which these materials may be handled and used are delineated.




          Environmental Conservation Law




          Under Section 77 certain functions of the health department,  air pollution




control board, and pesticide control board are transferred to the Department  of




Environmental Conservation:




          "All of the functions and powers possessed by and all the  obligations




          and duties of the department of health, commissioner of health,  and




          the air pollution and pesticide control boards pertaining  to  or




          connected with sewage service in realty subdivisions; drainage of




          sewage service into waters; water pollution control; air pollution




          control; planning for collection, treatment and disposal of refuse;




          and recommendations for controlling the use,  transportation,  storage




          and disposal of pesticides, approval of marine toilet pollution  control




          devices and establishing effluent standards  therefore,  more particularly




          described in titles two and three of article eleven, article  eleven-A,




          eleven B, and twelve C, sections thirteen hundred-a, and thirteen




          hundred-B, title nine of article thirteen and article sixteen of the




          public health law and section thirty-three-c of the navigation law,




          including the administration of state aid for local expenditures therefor,




          are hereby transferred and assigned to, assumed by and devolved  upon




          the department of environmental conservation."
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          Another law of principal interest to this study is Article. 12,. "Water Pollutic

Control" of the Public Health Law.  While Title 1 of Article 12, "General Provisions

and Public Policy" address the question of pure water, it is primarily concerned

with discrete inputs of waste materials to water bodies.   It does not directly

address the question of runoff water into natural drainage systems which have

picked up pesticides or other potential pollutants which  were applied to an area

for control over the area.  However, the Department of Environmental Conservation

has taken a major step towards the effective control of pesticides or other

chemicals entering the waters of New York State with the  issuance of three orders

as follows:

          (1)  Order Establishing Regulations Governing the Use of Chemicals for

the Control of Elimination of Aquatic Vegetation published as Part 609 of the

Official Compilation of Codes, Rules, and Regulations of  the State of New York.

          (2)  Order Establishing Regulations Governing the Use of Chemicals

for the Control or Extermination of Undesirable Fish, published as Part 610 of the

Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations of the State of New York.

          (3)  Order Establishing Regulations Governing the Use of Chemicals

for the Control or Elimination of Aquatic Insects, published as Part 613, of

the Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regulations  of the State of New York.

          Each of these regulations requires permits for  the treatment of water

and limits the choice of chemicals to those listed in the regulations.

          However, the regulations do not require the holder of a permit to have any

special training or knowledge even though the permit holder is responsible for any

inaccuracies in the required registration data or any damage resulting from the

chemical treatment.
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                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          Therefore, while the laws and regulations of New York relative to

pesticides and their use evidence design toward responsible use within the en-

vironment, we believe that the laws do not require sufficient proof of either

user competence or equipment applicability.

          The discussion which follows presents some considerations relative to

the possible formulation of laws to amend this insufficiency.
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          A-5.2  Considerations in the Formulation of Laws, Rules and




             Regulations Pertaining to the Research, Development,




                        Handling and Use of Pesticides




          Society, in general, requires laws, rules and regulations for the people




of that society to live in harmony with each other.  Through law, the rights and




priviledges  of  the individual are protected, and,  of equal importance, the less




fortunate members of society are assisted by the more fortunate members of




society.




          The great majority of our laws, rules and regulations, hereafter




referred to simply as laws, are developed "after the fact".  Hence, they are designed




to deter, stop, or control a practice, which is considered to be in discord with




the common good.  Such laws are, therefore, addressed to a situation which has




advanced to a point where corrective action must be taken to protect the rights




and priviledges of the individual or to establish an equitable condition.  In one




sense then, laws may be looked upon as disabling a segment of the society from




engaging in practices which are abusive to another segment of society, rather than




as enabling society in general to improve its posture in a truly anticipatory




fashion.  Experience has shown us that our laws have considerable difficulty in




dealing with future conditions,  except in the most general of terms, since our




technology and the environment in which we use the technology are subject to




constant change.  It is difficult to generalize in this area, but it is probably




fair to state that most of our laws tend to relate to an existing situation and,




therefore, have great difficulty in providing adequate protection to new and




unforeseen situations.




          The broad field of pesticides is most interesting in this regard.  Laws




have been enacted to control the handling and use of pesticides only after






                                       5~10               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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considerable use of these materials has made clear that some level qf control

was needed.  The laws appear to have been enacted in reaction to a situation and

as a result, may not serve to deter the development of new and hazardous situations

related to the current use of pesticides.

          Laws can never be an effective substitute for competence, good judgment,

and a deep concern for the total impact of an act or procedure on the part of

personnel engaged in activities which are addressed by the laws.  This statement

points to the need for examining and licensing personnel who wish to engage in

activities which are proven to have the potential for infringement on the rights

and priviledges of others.  Licensing may be on the local, state and federal level

depending upon the nature and scope of influence of the activity.

          We can find many examples of laws and licenses at all levels of govern-

ment.  The laws, rules, regulations and licensing requirements of the Federal

Communications Commission (FCC) may serve to illustrate this point.

          Among the responsibilities of the FCC is the control of the use of the

electromagnetic spectrum so as to achieve the maximum benefit to society from the

finite bandwidth which is available.  Since electromagnetic radiation knows no

political boundaries, the FCC was structured on a national level and provided with

international agreements reached at worldwide conventions.  The practical uses of

the electromagnetic spectrum, the equipment and techniques involved, and the

actual extension of the spectrum itself into ever shorter wavelengths, has required

truly visionary rules and regulations so as to protect the rights of all concerned

but which at the same time, do not stifle technological development.

          The problems allied to the use of the electromagnetic spectrum parallel

the problems allied to the use of pesticides, namely,
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                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          (1)  Electromagnetic radiation and pesticides, once released,




               propogate or disperse in accordance with natural law.




          (2)  The use of pesticides and the electromagnetic spectrum are con-




               stantly on the increase.




          (3)  Research is constantly developing new pesticides just as research




               is evolving new equipment and techniques for use in the electro-




               magnetic spectrum




          It is axiomatic that laws can be no more effective than the effectiveness




of personnel involved.  Herein lies the great difference between the laws relating




to electromagnetic radiation and laws relating to pesticides.




          The FCC has its laws as do the control agencies for pesticides, but, the




FCC requires the purveyors of the art to be thoroughly examined and qualified as




to fundamentals.  These "user personnel" bear full and professional responsibility




to conduct all of their acts and operations within the intent of the law.  In




addition, equipment is licensed for use only after it has been qualifed and a




determination made that it functions within the law.  Normally, licensed equipment




must be under the direct supervision of a licensed operator.




          These views on pesticide applicator licensing may be tempered to the point




where the requirement for a license could be dropped if it could be demonstrated that




no harm will result through irresponsible pesticide use.  Again, let us look to the




FCC.  A nonlicensed operator may purchase and use a 100 milliwatt radio transmitter




operating in the Citizen Band (CB).  In this instance the band is very restricted,




the power very limited and the equipment is very carefully examined and qualified




for this use.  Over-the-counter-pesticides which would present no hazard to the




user, which are very specific and which would have a very limited area of




influence can be seen to closely parallel the CB situation.  The pesticide





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itself, as well as the packaging and dissemination mode must, of course,-be


thoroughly developed, tested, and qualified for this special case of use by a


nonlicensed operator.



          In summary, we believe that the laws and regulations governing the use


and sale of pesticides, while comprehensive, are not sufficient to prevent envir-


onmental damage.  This assertion is based on our belief that these laws and


regulations do not require sufficient proof of competence on the part of the


users of pesticides and do not require sufficient test, evaluation and licensing


of the pesticide, and the equipment used to apply the pesticides.


          It is emphasized that our discussion has not been designed to explicitly


propose the national examination and licensing of pesticide applicators at the


expense of other alternatives.  Rather, it has been advanced in the recognition


that the social and economic importance of pest control and the absolute magnitude


and characteristics of the problem are highly variable from state to state and


from time to time.  As a result, approaches or techniques adopted by one state


can lead to direct conflict with approaches adopted by a neighboring state.  Pest


control can be best studied and implemented on the basis of geographical areas


determined by the pest itself, rather than by state boundaries.  Such pest


management procedures as quarantines, buffer zones, criteria for treatment and


materials to be used may be applied in a much more effective manner when specific


problems are treated on an area of involvement basis, and in consideration of



the national import.


          Since a large percentage of the pesticides in use today are applied


by units of government, laws and licensing should be applicable to government as


well as nongovernment users.  This has not always been the case in laws and


licenses.  It bears special attention in this instance, and points to the



advisability of federal laws and licenses.
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)
                                       j""* X j

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                                      A-6.
                        ALTERNATIVES TO CHEMICAL CONTROL
          The objectives of this portion of the study were to identify and
analyze:
          (1)  feasible methods of forest pest control as an alternative to
               the use of chemical pesticides and,
          (2)  chemical pesticide uses considered to be essential and for which
               no suitable alternative is available.

          Before considering specific alternatives to chemical control of forest
pests, it is important to recognize that different criteria are used to "define"
control.   These criteria reflect not only differences in training (scientist
vs. layman) but also differences in expectations of profession-related gains and
most importantly, the differences in impact on individuals, states or agencies,
given a lack of pest control.
          DeBach "  defines control simply as the maintenance of a more or less
fluctuating population density within certain definable upper and lower limits
over a period of time by the action of abiotic and/or biotic environmental factors.
The upper and lower limits, or the density, will change appreciably only if the
actions of the regulatory factors are changed, or if certain ones are eliminated
or if new ones are added.  This control may be natural or introduced.
          Natural control (or other nonchemical alternatives) may or may not
regulate the population of a specific insect within a time frame consistent with
                                      6-1
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man's interest and chemical pesticide measures may be invoked to counter this


situation.

          Consider the case of forest insect defoliators.  Reliance on a parti-


cular type of control will be largely dictated by the amount of tree defoliation

that can be accepted.  This criterion considers not only the short-term loss


(lack of leaves) but also the time over which the concomitant loss has to be

accepted and, hopefully, the longer-term loss associated with tree mortality,


for example.

          In this illustrative case, a nominal set of three criteria are out-


lined.  These are that the criterion of control is:

          (1)  little or no defoliation,

          (2)  defoliation occurs and concomitant short-term (e.g., 3 years)


               loss is accepted and,

          (3)  defoliation occurs and concomitant long-term (e.g., more than 3


               years) loss is accepted.

Therefore, depending upon the criterion selected as being appropriate, both the

type of control and the degree to which the control is invoked will be dictated

by the impact that defoliation manifests.  Consider the following examples:

          (1)  Little or no defoliation implies not only that the "trees must

remain green" but also that larvae (caterpillars) will not be present.  In such

cases, rapid and relatively complete control is required and the use of chemicals


may be the only appropriate control agent.  Examples where such a control criterion

could be considered as appropriate are resort areas, public camp and picnic areas


and forested urban communities.  Since resort areas are dependent upon vacationers

for income, the lack of leaves on trees and/or presence of numbers of caterpillars


will have a serious impact on summer vacation business.  The same can be said  for


public campgrounds and picnic areas.  In addition, however, it may be highly'desirabl

                                      6-2
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to kill the larvae to preclude egg mass transport to uninfected regions by trailer

transport.


               Forest-urban communities with susceptible tree types present a

particular problem in that the manicured conditions of the groundcover along with

the presence of household pets effectively destroys the habitat of beneficial

predators and parsites.  Here, too, the high value placed on each tree and the

potential financial loss in removing and replacing lost trees demands rapid

protection.  Further, the nuisance associated with larvae such as the gypsy

moth (frass, staining of house paint, and known human dermal reactions) aggrevate

the citizens to exert political pressures on those in charge of pest control

operations.

          (2)  Defoliation and concomitant short-term loss is accepted implies that

either the pest will disappear or will, as a minimum, stabilize to an acceptable

level of damage.  Much of the northeastern forested lands are placed within this

category.  Whether or not forested acreage is considered in this category will,

however, vary from state to state as the dependence upon a forest economy varies.

               Natural control infers that there are a series of checks and

balances that regulate insect populations and explains why native insects only

periodically attain pest status.  Even when this occurs, however, the infestation

of a native insect can be expected to collapse in a relatively short time (3 years)

due to the effects of starvation, and the buildup of disease, natural parasites

aau ^redators.  Within such native pest infestations, certain recognized high-use

areas,  such as a sugar bush, will be treated with chemicals to prevent serious


economic loss.

               An introduced pest such as the gypsy moth presents a different


problem, since it arrives without its natural biotic control agents.  Although

                                     6-3
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there is considerable disagreement between authors on the subject of theory of


population control concerning the role that the various environmental factors

                                              f\ 9          ft "}
play in controlling insect populations (Milne, '   Thompson, "  and Andrewartha


& Birch, "  to name a few) it is generally accepted that the introduction and


establishment of the natural enemies (.parasites,  predators and pathogens) of an


introduced pest is a logical and beneficial control method.  However, the ease


with which these natural control agents can be introduced and established is much


more difficult than with native pest outbreaks, and may not be consistent with the


period over which losses attributable to defoliation can be tolerated.


          (3)  Defoliation and long-term loss is  accepted could include remote,


low value areas where the apparent value of the woodlands is not clear.   Two


basic factors must be borne in mind:  first,  such areas may serve as a source


of infestion to land-use areas included under the preceding control criteria;


secondly, the apparent low value of a particular  woodland plot today will not,


necessarily, have the same apparent low value at  some future date.  Increase in


woodland value could arise, for example,  by increased pressures for recreational


facilities and/or watershed development.


          The availability and use of nonchemical alternatives are different for


native and non-native pest infestations.   Of  singular importance is the ease with


which biological control can be invoked.   Accordingly, the following discussion


on pest-control alternatives is presented in  two  parts identified as native and


non-native (i.e., introduced pest as the gypsy moth) forest pest infestations.
                                      6-4

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                       A-6.1  Native Pest Infestations

          In spite of the fact that there has been and is extensive use of

pesticides, evidence demonstrates that New York relies on natural processes to

combat and control native forest pest infestations.

          In 1952, the Forest Tent Caterpillar defoliated about 3.5 million acres

of forested land.  Of this total, 500,000 defoliated acres were noted as

"complete" ' .  The following year about 7.5 million acres were defoliated.  In

1954, about 15.3 million acres were measureably defoliated.   No further defoliation

is mentioned for this pest until six years later, 1960.  Table 6.1 lists these

figures, presents numbers of acres either completely or heavily defoliated, and

the number of acres that were chemically treated in response to this infestation.

                                    Table 6.1
                    FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR DEFOLIATION AND
                        CONCOMITANT PESTICIDE TREATMENT
YEAR

1952
1953
1954
1955-59
1960
ACRES DEFOLIATED
TOTAL HEAVY

3,500,000 500,000
7,489,049 919,834
15,321,047 2,007,447
NOT MENTIONED
24,425 5,000
ACRES TREATED
WITH PESTICIDE

1,000
1,800
3,200
SOME IN 1955 ONLY
0
          The demise of  this  infestation of Forest Tent Caterpillar was a com-

bination of factors as climate,  starvation and  the presence and buildup of

predators, parasites and pest disease.  The important point is that chemicals

were not extensively used  and that  New York relied on biological control

mechanisms to halt the ravages of the pest.  This reliance on biological control

is more than mere forest pest control philosophy;  it is operational philosophy.

                                       6~5                   EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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           The following is quoted from "Saddled Prominent".




           "This pest often causes about three years  of heavy defoliation before




           such natural controls as insect parasites,  predators,  birds,  and




           rodents severely reduce their numbers.   Starvation and disease




           also bring an end to outbreaks.  However,  during outbreaks  in




           valuable stands such as sugar bushes,  high-value commercial




           woodlands, or high-use recreational areas,  artificial  control




           may be necessary to prevent serious injury to trees."




           In 1967, Saddled Prominent caused light-to-moderate defoliation of




39,000 acres of hardwoods; principally beech and sugar maple.   In their  annual




report, the Bureau of Forest Insect and Disease Control noted a "buildup coming".




The next year 763,955 acres were defoliated.   Of this  total,  89,195  acres were




classified as heavily defoliated.   By 1969,  953,575 acres were defoliated.   In




this same year, New York treated about 12,000 acres of high-use land.  In regard




to this modest treatment, Risley  "  wrote:




           "With any heavy infestiation of this magnitude a certain  amount




           of public pressure is expected.  After a thorough  analysis  of




           the situation the Conservation Department  decided  to treat  sugar




           bushes and State high-use areas.   These areas were chosen because




           the sugar bush industry stands to lose the most  from this infes-




           tation as well as State areas which received much  public-use.  All




           areas to be treated in this control program were examined in  the




           spring of 1969 to make sure that  they supported  a  pupal count of




           0.5 per square foot.   The sampling technique used  in these  ateas




           was also developed by the Applied Forestry Research Institute.  The




           Department used this best biological information available  in




           determing whether the areas required chemical control".



                                       6~6                   EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          In 1970, 3 years after the outbreak, the Saddled Prominent defoliated

88,850 acres, which is less than 10% of the previous year.  It was noted in the

annual report of the Conservation Department that 49,000 acres had been scheduled

for Sevin treatment, but that the treatment was cancelled due to population

collapse.


          In the 1971 Spray Report issued by the Bureau of Forest Insect and

Disease Control, New York Department of Environmental Conservation, the following

quote is provided relative to Saddled Prominent Control:

               "This year's spraying has been cancelled, because of natural

          biological controls.  Areas in District #12 and #1 are being watched

          for buildup and defoliation.  No spraying."

          It is also interesting to note that the 1971 Defoliation Report issued

for New York State showed that the Cherry Scallop Shell Moth defoliated 166,500

acres.  Of this total, all but 1,000 acres were 75 to 100 % defoliated, and no

chemical control treatments were used.
                                      6-7
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                           A-6.2  Non-native Pests
           It has been  pointed out in  earlier portions of this report that  the
 forest pest in New York  receiving virtually all of the chemical pesticide
 treatment  is the gypsy moth, Porthetria dispar.  Accordingly, the discussion which
 follows  reviews the various alternatives which have been used instead of chemical
 pesticides.  These alternatives include:
           (1)  silvicultural techniques,
           (2)  genetic controls,
           (3)  behavorial  controls,
           (4)  traps control,
           (5)  biological  controls, and
           (6)  direct  controls.
 An  overview of these control techniques is presented.  Following this overview, two
 elements are discussed in  somewhat greater detail.  The first of these is  a dis-
 cussion  of the current efforts being  undertaken by the New Jersey Department of
 Agriculture in the biological control program for gypsy moth in that state.  The
 second control element presented in detail, examines the historical use of man-
 power in the direct control of this introduced pest during the late 1800's up
 through  the start of World War II.  Presentation of this detail is warranted
 since, during that period, there was  less reliance on the use of chemical  pesti-
 cides.   This was partly  due to the lack of economic methods of pesticide appli-
.cation,  i.e., aerial application, that we have availed ourselves of since  1945.
           Since all of the discussion focuses on gypsy moth control, a capsule
 of  its history, life cycle and habits is initially presented to assist in  under-
 standing both the development and usefulness of the various control measures.

                                      6-8
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                   A-6.2.1  Gypsy Moth - Porthetria Dispar
          History
          The gypsy moth is a foreign insect that was accidentally released near
Boston, Massachusetts in 1869.  Without its natural effective enemies to contain
it, and finding an abundance of favored food trees, the moth has spread rapidly
and now inhabits most of New England, eastern New York and Pennsylvania, most
of New Jersey and threatens the vast oak forests of the entire eastern United States.
          The moth was first discovered in the eastern part of New York State in
1911 and, in spite of repeated attempts at eradication, it is now found throughout
the eastern half of the state.  As a matter of review, during this year this
pest defoliated about 480,000 acreas in New York.  Further, an additional 250,000
acres that were infested were chemically treated.
          Life Cycle
          The gypsy moth goes through one generation a year in the four stages
shown in Figure 6.1.
                                   FIGURE 6.1
                            LIFE CYCLE OF GYPSY MOTH
Egg
Larvae
Pupa
Adult


OCT. to MAR.


APRIL


MAY




JUNE




JULY



AUG.


SEPT.
          The period of emergence and the length of time spent in each of the stages
depends on the locality, weather, pest population density and amount of available
food.
                                      6-9
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a.   Egg Stage 	 The insect overwinters in the egg stage in flattened oval

clusters approximately 1" long by 0.5" wide and averaging about 400 eggs.  The


cluster is covered with yellowish hair from the abdomen of the female and is

deposited near or on the ground on rubble, stones, walls, bark, etc.  If deep,


moist, ground cover is not available, eggs are usually laid in protected spots

on the lower portion of tree trunks.


b.   Larval Stage 	 The eggs hatch with warm weather in the spring, usually

in late April or early May.  Hatching may continue over a period of several


weeks but peak hatching usually occurs within a week.   If weather is favorable,

newly hatched larvae forage; otherwise they stay around egg clusters until

conditions become favorable.  Larvae seek food through random searching and can

live about a week without feeding.

     Larvae up through the third instar feed by day and rest at night.  With the


fourth instar this pattern reverses and larvae feed at night and descend to cool

protected places for rest during the day.  (It is during this period that chemical

treatment is normally applied to the tree foliage.)

     The male larve normally go through five instars while the female

goes through an additional or 6th instar.

     During epidemic conditions, the feeding rhythm pattern of all instars


changes and larvae may feed continuously.


     Fully grown caterpillars are from 1.5 - 2" long,  with a brownish or gray


background color.  There are three light stripes along the back.  Each segment


except the first has a pair of tubercles; the first five pairs are blue; the last


six brick red.

c.   Pupal Stage 	 The gypsy moth pupa is a typical dark brown lepidopterous


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pupa that is never enclosed  in a cocoon.   It  is  attached  to objects with a few


silken threads, usually on or near  the  ground if cool, moist cover is available.


On '..':, dry, open sites larvae normally pupate in the tree.  Pupation lasts from


10 days to 2 weeks and occurs in late June and July.


d.   Adult Stage 	 Male moths have slender  brown bodies with brown wings


irregularly crossed  with dark lines.  Wingspread is about 1.5".  The female moth


has a heavy, stout body with white  wings crossed with dark lines.  The wingspread


is about 2.5".


     Emergence of adults is  at its  height  in  mid-July and continues to mid-August.


The male emerges a few days  before  the  female, is a strong flier, and normally


flies in a zig-zag pattern near the ground.   The female, because of her heavy


body, cannot fly and deposits her eggs  near where she emerged from the pupal


stage.


     Oviposition begins soon after  fertilization which occurs within a day or


two after emergence.  Soon after egg laying,  the female dies.  The male


also lives for a short time  (about  a week) and neither adult take any food.


          Dispersal


          Inasmuch as female moths  are  unable to fly, natural dispersal is


through wind dispersion of newly hatched larvae.   These are very small, light


and hairy and when disturbed spin down  on  silken threads and are easily dislodged.
b

Epidemic conditions  generate continuous disturbance and fosters this dispersal.


          There is also the  possibility of older larvae-or bark with eggs attached


being distributed by major storms.  Under  epidemic conditions with its attending


food shortage, older larvae  disperse by crawling but this movement is not great.


          The principal means of artificial dispersal is  transfer of egg masses


on such items as nursery stock, forest  products,  stones, junk etc.  Caterpillars


have also been known to hitch-hike  on cars, trucks, and/or campers passing through



infested areas.                       6_H              EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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                       A-6.3  Alternative Control Methods


          There are many methods of manipulating the forest environment and


insect behavior with the aim of controlling insect populations.  Although all


the methods listed below are possible, many are not considered practical due to


constraints of manpower, money, and technical development.  Some of the possibilities

                                                                          6 8
of forest manipulation for insect control have been discussed by S. Graham   ,


v  ^  u   6-9  D  A j      6«10   „ ^ t>  u 6-1
K. Graham     , R. Anderson      and DeBach
                      A-6.3.1  Silvicultural Techniques


          In a managed forest, it has been shown that it is possible to increase


the resistance of a forest to insect damage by regulating the composition, density,


vigor, age distribution, ground cover, and sanitation of that forest.  These


actions are directed at manipulation of three main environmental factors:  food,


microclimate and organisms antagonistic to the pests.


          It is self-evident that stand resistance could be increased, if


economically feasible, by reducing or removing the favored species and/or by


replacing susceptible species with insect-resistant ones.  Resistance will also


he increased by any measures that increase the vigor of susceptible trees since


this reduces chances of attack by secondary pests and ensures maximum recuperative


powers after an attack by defoliators.


          It is also feasible to manipulate the population of insects in a


forest by silvicultural practice that provides an environment that is either ad-


verse to a pest, insect or is beneficial to the enemies of that insect-.  For


examp.les a moiss s deep, ground cover encourages development of a complex of


mammal and insect predators that help control a potential pest that spends some


stage of its life cycle on or in the ground.


                                      6-12                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          Examples of silvicultural control of the gypsy moth are presented


in a paper by N. Turner   '   excerpts of which follow.


          "Control of Gypsy Moth by management of woodlands was proposed


by Clement & Munro (1917) and renamed silvicultural control by Behre, Cline,


and Baker (1936)."


          "They advocated the removal of susceptible species, especially


those of low commercial value and encouragement of growth of resistant species.


On dry sites, the proportion of oaks, gray birch, and aspen would be reduced


sharply and growth of hemlock and white pine encouraged.  On moist sites, the


percentage of favored species could be considerably higher without risking


heavy infestation".


          "A large commercial forest has been under such management for


many years.  During the course of two outbreaks of Gypsy moth in Norfolk, that


forest has remained relatively free from infestation.  Several large tracts


in state forests have had similar management.  One tract in an area of heavy


gypsy moth infestation escaped serious damage".

                  f 19
          Nickols     , in discussing gypsy moth work in Pennsylvania, notes


that while silvicultural control has held some promise in New England where


coniferous and mixed coniferous-hardwood forest types prevail, it would


not only be impossible but entirely impractical to attempt to change the


vast oak forest cover that predominates over most of the forested area south


OL We,. England.  He concludes that silvicultural control will never play more


than a very minor part in the control program.





                            A-6.3.2  Genetic Controls


          A promising alternative to the type of controls previously discussed


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                                            f\ 1 *3
is exemplified by work reported by Knipling  '    in using sterile-male technique



to eradicate screw worms.



          During the past few years the federal'"'government has been mass rearing


gypsy moths to evaluate this control technique.  While results on a laboratory



scale have been reported as promising, problems associated with rearing and



radiating millions of insects still have to be  resolved.   Then, too, radiated



males have shown a tendency to be less aggressive than normal males, reducing


their competitive efficiency in a natural habitat.   Work is continuing to solve



these problems in the hope of providing a "clean" technique to handle infestations



in highly populated areas.






                         A-6.3.3  Behavioral Controls



          In the past few years, the identification and synthesis of members of



the three major groups of hormones which"control insect development give rise to



the hope of developing a new generation of insecticides by disarranging an insect's


normal development, resulting in self-destruction.   While this holds exciting



possibilities for the future, nothing, at present,  has been done for control of



gypsy moth (Meltzer  '  , Schneiderman  *   ).



          In the field of pheromones, that is,  chemicals secreted by insects which



influence the behavior of other members of the  same species, synthesis of the



female gypsy moth sex attractant has played a major role in control programs



aimea at this pest.



          The use of gypsy moth sex attractant  provides a unique method of detecting



the presence of this pest in suspect areas.  Used with a standard gypsy moth



trap (a hollow cardboard cylinder with hole in  either end and lined with sticky


                                     6-14


                                                            EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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material to capture the attracted moth), this has provided a relatively cheap



and effective method of scouting to asdettain spread of this insect.



          To the present time, traps, as such, have not been widely used as a



direct control but have been the basis of surveys to locate new colonies and to



map the spread of infestion.  Using such traps baited with a synthetic female sex



attractant, the federal government annually monitors suspect areas over a large



part of the eastern United States.  Special attention is given to such areas as



camp or picnic grounds, and military installations because of the probabilities



that a visitor, arriving from the New England area, might bring gypsy moth eggs



or larvae attached to a house trailer.  There is strong evidence that such a



"house trailer vector" was responsible for the recent introduction of this pest


     .. .     6.16
into Alabama



          The earliest techniques used such a trap baited with a virgin female



gypsy moth.  This was soon replaced by the natural sex attractant obtained by



clipping the last two abdominal segments of virgin female moth, extracting



segments with benzene and processing the extract chemically to stabilize the



lure.  This procedure entailed field collection of large numbers of female pupae



and allowing the female moth to emerge before segments could be secured.  Not



only the expense involved but the difficulty of securing larvae during periods



of low gypsy moth population limited use of this sex attractant.



          In 1960  Jacobson and co-workers synthesized gypsy moth sex attractant



sfrM.;ol) and reported its homolog (gyplure) was also a highly active gypsy moth



sex Attractant.  When preparations Of these compounds by other workers were



reported as inactive, re-investigation showed these substances to be active



because of traces of another substance.  This has been identified and synthesized


              6.17
as disparlure     .                  6_15


                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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          Activity of the disparlure was confirmed in a controlled field tests



in 1970 in Massachusetts.  Male moths, reared in the laboratory, were released



periodically in the vicinity of eight traps; four were baited with lyU. g each



of the synthetic sex attractant and four with a potent extract of natural gypsy



moth sex attractant equivalent to ten abdominal tips, the amount used in survey



traps.  In the 10-day test, the synthetic attractant caught 110 moths, the


                             6 1 R
natural attractant caught 3.



          Synthesis of a gypsy moth sex attractant that "out-drew" the virgin



female moth made possible the investigation of two control techniques based upon



extensive use of the sex attractant.



          Since the male gypsy moth depends upon the sex attractant to locate



the rather immobile female, it should be possible, by permeating the atmosphere



with the synthetic sex attractant to mask the virgin female and/or confuse the



male moth so that fertilization does not take place.  Although several field



trials (including two trials in New York during 1971) have been conducted using



this technique but the results have been rather disappointing.  This method is



still being investigated and further tests are planned for 1972.



          Use of the gypsy moth sex attractant and for that matter any chemical



broadcast for control purposes will require that the material be registered for



gypsy moth control.  This will involve a delay of 2 to 5 years while the material



undergoes the necessary toxicity tests.



          A more recent use of traps is to distribute enough traps with sex



attractant to capture male moths in an area of light infestation.  It is estimated



that this would require from 2000 to 5000 traps per square mile  (at least as many



as there are female moths present).  This method was tested in Pennsylvania during



1971 with unsatisfactory results; further tests on this technique are planned




for 1972t                             6~16                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          Among several other possible methods of utilizing traps in a control
program are:

(a)  Traps baited with sex attractant plus a sticky coating or an insecticide
would be a direct control if disseminated in sufficient quantities to remove a
significant number of males.
(b)  Traps baited with sex attractant plus an infectious disease.  In this case
the male would not be captured but attracted, infected and released to spread
the disease.


                            A-6.3.4  Direct Controls
          This grouping includes  those direct physical-mechanical efforts aimed
at collecting and/or destroying some life stage of the insect.
(a)  Collection and Destruction	The first almost successful attempt to
eradicate the gypsy moth in Massachusetts in 1890's relied mainly on the detection
and destruction by creosoting of  the gypsy moth egg masses "  .  This was also
an effective major part of the federally funded CCC crew's attempt to combat the
gypsy moth in New York and New England in the 1930!s and early 1940's.
(b)  Barriers	Mechanical barriers are another type of direct technique that have
been successfully used as a part  of early gypsy moth control efforts.  Such barriers
are currently not used to any appreciable extent because the availability of in-
expensive chemical pesticides coupled with economic application techniques have
n,.  'e  he manpower requirements associated with barriers-unattractive.  This
apparent disadvantage is much less important in the protection of shade and
ornamental trees where the recognized value of the trees are high and the number
of trees per acre is low relative to the woodlands.
                                       6-17
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          Barriers are effective against an insect such as the gypsy moth


because of certain peculiarities in its life cycle, viz:


          (1)  Egg masses are normally deposited on rubble on or near the


               ground and the newly hatched larval must climb the tree to reach


               the foliage.


          (2)  Late-stage larvae feed normally at night and spend the day time


               resting in the moist, cool undergrowth.


          A barrier may be simply a band of burlap around the tree trunk


under which the larvae may seek shelter and be easily destroyed, or a band of


sticky material such as "Tree Tanglefoot" which they cannot cross during ascent


of the tree.


(c)  Traps	Traps as used in control programs against defoliating insects are


typically a small container baited with light, food or a sex attractant to lure


flying male adults.  The trap is normally lined with a sticky material to capture


the insect once it enters the container.





                         A-6.3.5  Biological Controls


          Biological control, defined here as the use of parasites, predators and


pathogens to regulate the population of another organism, dates from the early


18th century with the discovery of the nature of insect parasitism. ' ' "*^°


Its use as a valid tool in regulating insect populations is generally credited


to f;be spectacular success of the introduction of the vendalia beetle in


controlling the cottony-cushion scale that threatened the citrus groves of


California in 1889.

                ft ?1
          Balch  '    notes that the mechanism of this control method is based


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on the theory, elaborated chiefly by Nicholson,  that density-dependent factors



are the essential component of any  regulating mechanism.  Milne 6'2 holds that



their relationship is "imperfect" and while this  "imperfection" allows natural



enemies to play an important part in maintaining  low populations between outbreaks



they are unable to control rapid increases brought about by such environmental



factors as extremely favorable weather and/or extremely favorable forest types.



This is the reason that native insects occasionally escape control and reach



pest status.



          Excluding the direct control exerted by CCC crews during the 1930's



and early 1940's and the use of chemical insecticides since that time, the field



of biological control has been the  focus of control efforts against the gypsy moth



since the Federal Government, in cooperation with the State of Massachusetts,



undertook control measures in New England in 1906.  Even before this time,



however, economic entomologists concerned with the gypsy moth were advocating



the importation of predators and parasites of the gypsy moth although only minimal



action was taken since Massachusetts was committed to a policy of total


            6.19
eradication



          During the winter session of 1904-5, Congress appropriated $2500 to



fund importation of parasites of the gypsy moth.  This began a cooperative



biological control program between  the Federal Government and the New England



States that lasted until 1929.



          The first stage of this program, lasting until 1911, is reported by



Howard and Fiske 6'22.  Table 6.II  lists the known parasites of the gypsy



moth as well as those reared in this country.  Table 6.Ill shows the status of



the introduced parasites in 1911 when the program was halted due to European



hostilities.

                                      6-19

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          After World War I, work was resumed and continued until 1927.
        f O O
Burgess  '    summarizes the work on the whole program.  Table 6.IV lists all the

parasites and predators colonized, as listed by Burgess.

          In  discussing the results of this program, Burgess made the following

observations.

          (1)  From 1905 to 1916, the severity of forest defoliation showed

               no decrease in intensity.

          (2)  Foreign natural enemies were being introduced in substantial

               numbers with many species becoming established and increasing.

          (3)  From 1920 to 1924 the acreage defoliation gradually decreased until

               only a few completely defoliated areas could be found.

          (4)  The combined percentage of parasitism increased and reached a

               maximum in 1923 but decreased the following years.

          (5)  After 1929, the gypsy moth population increased rapidly in eastern

               Massachusetts and reached its former severity over most of the

               older infested area.

          (6)  The parasite population reached low ebb in 1925, made a slight

               increase in 1926 and a noticeable increase in 1927.
                                     6-20
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                                   TABLE 6.II

                          KNOWN AND RECORDED PARASITES
       HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES OF THE GYPSY MOTH (Porthetria dispar L.)
                                    BRACONIDAE
     Reared  at  laboratory

Apanteles  fulvipes  (Hal.)
Apanteles  solitarius  (Ratz.).
Meteorus versicolor (Wesm.).
Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesm.)
Meteorus japonicus  Ashm.3
          Recorded as parasites

Apanteles fulvipes (Hal.).1'2
Apanteles solitarious (Ratz.).^»
Microgaster calceata Hal.1*2
Apanteles tenebrosus (Wesm.).1
Microgaster tibialis Nees.1
(Microgaster) Apanteles fulvipes
     liparidis (Bouche).1»2
Apanteles glomeratus (L).1*^
Apanteles solitarius var.
     melanoscelus (Ratz.).1
Apanteles solitarius? ocneriae
     Svanov.
Meteorus scutellator (Nees).1
                                  ICHNEUMONIDAE
                                      PRIMARY
Pimpla  (Pimpla)  instigator (Fab.).
Pimpla  (Pimpla)  porthetriae Vier.3
Pimpla  (Pimpla)  examinator (Fab.)
Pimpla  (Pimpla)  pluto  Ashm.3
Pimpla  (Apechthis)  brassicariae (Poda).
Pimpla  (Piippla)  disparis  Vier.3
Theronia aLalantae  (Poda).
Limnerium  (Hyposoter)  disparis  Vier.
Limnerium  (Anilastus)  tricoloripes  Vier.
Ichneumon disparis  (Poda)
Pimpla (Pimpla) instigator (Fab.)1'2

Pimpla examinator (Fab.)1
Theronia atalantae (
Campoplex conicus Ratz.l
Casinaria tenuiventris (Grav.).1
Ichneumon disparis (Poda).l>2
Ichneumon pictus (Gmel.).l>2
Amblyteles varipes Rdw.2
Trogus flavitorius [sic.]
     lutorius (Fab.)?l»2
(Cryptus) Aritranis amoenus (Grav.)1
Cryptus cyanator Grav.1
Recorded by the senior author  in a  card  catalogue of  parasites  kept  in  the
 Pureau of Entomology.
^Recorded by Dalla Torre  in  Catalogus  Hymenopteroru.

 Japanese species.
   F                                  6~21                 EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol.  II)'

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                               TABLE 6.II (CONT)

                  PROBABLY SECONDARY BUT RECORDED AS PRIMARY
                                                                        1 2
                                             Mesochorus pectoralis Ratz. '
                                             Mesochorus gracilis Brischke1'^
                                             Mesochorus splendidulus Gray.1'
                                             Mesochorus confusus Holmgr.
                                             Mesochorus semirufus Holmgr.•*•
                                             (Hemiteles) Astomaspis fulvipes (Grav.)1'
                                                  =A. nanus (Grav.) according to
                                                   Pfankuch.
                                             Hemiteles bicolorius Grav.2
                                             Pezomachus hortensis Grav.
                                             Pezomachus fasciatus (Fab.)1=Pezomachus
                                                  melanocephalus (Schrk.).
                                   CHALCIDIDAE
Eupelmus bifasciatus Fonsc.
Monodontomerus aereus Walk.
Chalcis flavipes Panz.
Chalcis obscurata Walk.^
Schedius kuvanae
Pteromalus halidayanus Ratz.l
Pteromalus pini Hartig.1
Dibrachys boucheanus Ratz.1 (Secondary)
Eurytoma abrotani Panzer^ >2=appendigaster
     Swed. (Secondary)
Eupelmus bifasciatus Fonsc. »

Chalcis callipus Kby.-*
               FOREIGN TACHINID PARASITES ON PORTHETRIA DISPAR
Blepharipa scutellata R. D.
Carcelia gnava Meig.
Compsilura concinnata Meig.
Crossocosmia sericariae Corn.
Dexodes nigripes Fall.
Parasetigena segregate Rond.
Tachina larvarum L.
Tachina japonica Towns.
Tricholyga grandis Zett.
Zygobothria gilva Hartig
                                     6-22
Argyrophylax atropivora R. D.
Carcelia excisa Fall.
Compsilura concinnata Meig.
Echinomyia fera L.
Epicampocera crassiseta Rond.
Ernestia consobrina Meig.
Eudoromyia magnicornis Zett.
Exorista affinis Fall.
Historchaeta marmorata Fab.
Lydella pinivorae Ratz.
Meigenia bisignata Schin.
Parasetigena segregata Rond.
Phryxe erythrostoma Hartig.
Ptilotachina larvincola Ratz.
Ptilotachina monacha Ratz.
Tachina larvarum L.
Tachina nocturarum Rond.
Zenillia libatrix Panz.
Zygobothria gilva Hartiz.
Zygobothria bimaculata Hartig.

              EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                                   TABLE 6.Ill


            THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE INTRODUCED PARASITES  (1911)


                           PARASITES OF THE GYPSY MOTH


                                  EGG PARASITES


ANASTATUS BIFASGIATUS Fonsc.


     Received first in 1908.  Colonized unsuccessfully in 1908 and successfully


in 1909.  First recovered in immediate vicinity of colony in 1909.  Increased


notably in 1910, but indicated dispersion is only about 250 feet per year.  Arti-


ficial dispersion necessary.  Apparently well established.


SCHEDIUS KUVANAE How.


     Received first in 1907, dead, and in 1909, living.  Successfully colonized


in 1909.  Recovered in immediate vicinity of colony site in 1909.  Doubtfully


recovered in 1910.  Establishment very doubtful on account of climatic conditions.


                     HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES OF CATERPILLARS


APANTELES FULVIPES Hal.


     Received first in 1905, dead, and in 1908, living.  Colonized unsatisfactorily


in 1908 and under exceptionally favorable conditions in 1909-  Two generations


recovered in immediate vicinity of colony site in 1909.  Not recovered in 1910


except from recent colony.  Establishment doubtful on account of lack of proper


alternate hosts.


                               TACHINID PARASITES


COMPSTLURA CONCINNATA Meig.

     First received in 1906 and colonized same year.  Colony strengthened in


1907.  Recovered doubtfully in 1907 from immediate vicinity of a colony site.


Certainly recovered and found to be generally distributed over considerable terri-


tory in 1909.  Marked increase in 1910.  Apparently established.


                                      6-23
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.

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                               TABLE 6.Ill (CONT)



CARCELIA GNAVA Meig.


     Doubtfully colonized in 1906.  Satisfactorily colonized in 1909.  Not re-


covered from field.  Establishment hoped for.



ZYGOBOTHRIA GILVA Hartig.


     Doubtfully colonized in 1906.  Satisfactorily colonized in 1909.  Not re-


covered from field.  Establishment hoped for.



TACHINA LARVARUM L.


     First received in 1905 and colonized in 1906.  Much more satisfactorily in


1909.  Not recovered.  Establishment doubtful on account of hybridization with


similar American species.



TACHINA JAPONICA Towns.


     First received and poorly colonized in 1908.  A better colony put out in 1910


Recovery doubtful on the same account as above.



TRICHOLYGA GRANDIS Zett.


     Doubtfully received and colonized in 1906.  Satisfactorily colonized in 1909-


Recovered from immediate vicinity of colony site in 1909.  Not recovered in 1910,


but establishment hoped for.



PARASETIGENA SEGREGATA Rond.


     First received in 1907 and colonized in 1910.  Not recovered.  Establishment


hoped for and expected.



iLEPHARIPA SCUTELLATA R. D.


     First received in 1905.  Colonized under very unsatisfactory conditions in


1907.  Satisfactory colonization for first time in 1909.  Recovered  from immediate


vicinity of colony site in 1910.  Establishment confidently expected.

                                      6-24
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                              TABLE  6.Ill  (CONT)

CROSSOCOSMIA spp.

     First received in  1908  and  colonized  in  1910 under fairly satisfactory con-

ditions.  Not recovered.   Establishment  rather doubtful on account of unsatisfactory

colony.

                              PARASITES  OF THE PUPA

MONODONTOMERUS AEREUS Walk.

     First received in  1906.  Colonized  in 1906.  Recovered, generally distributed

over considerable area,  in winter of 1908-9.  Firmly established and dispersing at

a very rapid rate.

CHALCIS OBSCURATA Walk.

     First received in  1908.  Colonized  in 1908 and 1909, but not satisfactorily.

Establishment doubtful  on  account of small size of colony.

CHALCIS FLAVIPES Panz.

     First received in  1905.  Colonized  in 1908 and 1909 but in unsatisfactory

numbers.  Recovered from immediate vicinity of colony site in 1909.  Not re-

covered in 1910.  Establishment  doubtful on account of small colony.

                               PREDACEOUS  BEETLES

CAOSOMA SYCOPHANTA L.

     First received in  1906.  Colonized  same  year.  Recovered from immediate

vi ir.:ty of colony site in 1907.  Found  generally distributed over limited area

in 1909.  Firmly established and increasing and dispersing rapidly.
                                      6-25
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                                  TABLE 6.IV
       FOREIGN ENEMIES OF PORTHETRIA DISPAR AND NYGMIA PHAEORRHOEA LIBERATED
                                IN NORTH AMERICA
     Species
Anastatus disparis
  Ruschka
Apanteles lacteicolor
  Vier
Apanteles liparidis
  Bouche
Apanteles melanoscelus
  Ratz
Apanteles solitarius
  Ratz
Apanteles porthetriae
  Muesebeck
Brachymeria intermedia
  (Nees)
Brachymeria obscurata
  (Walk.) (?)
Carabus arvenis Fab
Carabus auratus L
Carabus glabratus Payk
Carabus violaceus L
Carabus nemoralis L
Carcelia laxifrons Vill
Carcelia separata Rond
Calosoma chinense Kirby
Calosoma inquisitor L
Calosoma reticulatum Fab
Calosoma sycophanta L
Compsilura concinnati
  Meig
Number
of indi-
viduals
of foreign
stock
liberated
138,680
55,000
76,702
23,476
222,546
12,065
20,798
394
108
478
63
136
9,742
317,061
140
259
b 83
2,711
25,134
Number subsequently liberated
By re- By repro-
produc- duction From New Total
tion from from es- England numbers
foreign tablished field col- of enemies
stock stock lections liberated
65,505,513 65,644,193
255,245 310,245
1 37,370 114,072
132,177 155,653
22,546
22,522 34,587
20,798
394
108
478
63
136
9,742
17,061
128 268
27 286
27 110
463,870 66,581
122,625 147,759
                                     6-26
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II).

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                               TABLE  6.. IV  (CONT)
  Soecies
                    Number
                    of indi-
                    viduals
                  of foreign
                    stock
                  liberated
Crossocosmia flavo-
  scutellata
  Schiner (?)
Crossocosmia
  sericariae Corn

Ephialtes
  (Ephialtes)
  examinator Fab

Ephialtes
  (Ephialtes)
  instigator Fab
Eudoromyia
  Magnicornis  Zett
Eupteromalus
  nidulans Foerst
Hyposoter disparis
  (Vier.)
Lydella nigripes
  Fall
Masicera sylvatica
 • Fall
Meteorus japonicus
  Ashrfi
Meteorus pulchri-
  cornis Wesm
Meteorus veriscolor
                        700
                        402
   --r ntotnerus
  aereus Walk

Pales ..;avida Meig
fc'hcro.-Krf; a^ilis R.D
Procvuci'es coriaceus
  Number subsequently liberated
 By re-   By repro-
produc-   duction        From New
tion from from es-        England
 foreign  tablished      field col-
  stock     stock         lections
  Total
 numbers
of enemies
 liberated
                                                                             700
                                                                             402
         kuvanae How  1,703
4,568
5530,000
12,543
10,692
23
5 395
4 118
3,113
15,541
582
18,445 2,278
75
i 703 625,675,884
4,568
530,000
12,543
10,692
23
400
122
7,887 11,000
15,541
582
20,723
75
25,677,587
                                      6-27
                                                           EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II).

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                                TABLE 6.IV (CONT)
   Species
  Number
  of indi-
  viduals
of foreign
  stock
liberated
                                Number subsequently liberated
           By  re-    By  repro-
          produc-    duction
          tion from  from es-
           foreign   tablished
            stock     stock
From New
 England
field col-
 lections
  Total
 numbers
of enemies
 liberated
Sturmia inconspicua
  Meig.

Sturmia nidicola
  Towns

Sturmia scutellata
  R.D

Tachina japonica
  Towns

Tachina larvarum L

Tachinids unclassi-
  fied

Tachinids unclassi-
  fied

Telenomus phalae-
  narum Nees

Trichogramma spp

Tricholyga segregata
  Rond
Xylodrepa quadripunc-
  tata Schr

Zenillia libatrix
  Panz
  8
 13,364


  3,500


 11,097


    471

 42,152


1 9,420


 10,499
    9,323

      100

      504
                      9
                      9
                         4,650
                        76,000
                15
                                         73,546
                   13,364

                    3,500

                   84,643

                      471
                   42,152

                    9,420

                   10,499

                    46,650
                    76,000

                     9,323

                       115
     TOTAL
  574,402
           673,530  25,808,061     66,028,686    93,084,679
 From a beginning of 288 individuals
2
 Some doubt as to this species
3
 Some of these Carcelia gnava Meigen
i
 Some of this number were obtained by reproduction work with foreign and established
 stock

 Number of foreign stock received not known,  but it was very many less than the
 number given
r
 Some reproduction from foreign stock but mostly from established stock

 Includes some of multibrooded tachinids liberated from 1906 to 1907

'Mostly Tachina larvarum in 1926

 Number of foreign stock received not known

                                      6-28
                                                            EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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          The foregoing program was  cited  in some detail to underline the fact that


biological control of the  gypsy moth is  not a new concept.  It has been used


rather extensively with varying degrees  of success.  It is not a panacea offering


an immediate and perfect solution  to the gypsy moth problem but, apparently, can


have beneficial effects.   The preceding  tables should also serve to illustrate not


only the magnitude of early  efforts,  but also the need for patience in this type of


time-consuming effort.

                6.24
          Dowden '   states  that it  is generally believed that the gypsy moth is


as well controlled by biotic factors in  North America as in Europe but that the


increased use of insecticides against the  pest makes a definite appraisal very


difficult.


          Biological control programs aimed at the gypsy moth received little


attention from 1930 through  the 1960's being replaced by work of the CCC crews and


then by aerial application of chemical insecticides.  Present day work in biologi-


cal control is exemplified by work being done by New Jersey and is discussed later.


          Although biological control also includes the use of predators, both


vertebrate and invertebrate, little  attention has been given until recently to


the role of vertebrate predators in  controlling gypsy moth populations.   While


vertebrate predators (both birds and mammals) can have only a minor effect in


regulating rapidly increasing host populations, they do have a significant effect

                                   .  .    6.8,6.9,6.1
in maintaining low population densities.

                                      f  9 S
          Bess, Spurr and  Littlefield '   noted that both the short-tailed


shrew and the deer mouse,  voracious  feeders on larvae of the gypsy moth, were


most abundant and important  in forest stands with moist, deep, forest floor.


Exposed, dry sites both restrict the presence of predators and inhibit the normal


descent of gypsy moth larvae to the  ground to expose them to predation.   Presently,


                                       6-29
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II).

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the United States Forest Service is conducting basic studies on the predation of

the gypsy moth by the deer mouse, as well as a fundamental elucidation of the pre-

dator life cycle.

          The third aspect of biological control, namely pathogens, has long

been observed as causing sudden, dramatic collapse of epidemics of the gypsy
            r o/:
moth.  Doane '   among others, has identified this gypsy moth "wilt" as caused

by a nuclear-polyhedrosis virus (NPNV) and streptococcus faecilis.  The epizoatic

of disease resulting in sudden collapse of host population appears to be dependent

upon high density of host larvae and the rapid spread of the pathogens enhanced

by behavior of larvae during the early instars.
                                     r 97
          Rollinson, Lewis and Waters "   report a successful attempt to create

an epizootic of NPHV with a water spray from truck-mounted mist blower.  Virus-

caused mortality occurred up to 34 days after application with peak kill at 19

days.

          The possibility of using a microbial insecticide to control leaf-feeding

lepidopterous pests became a reality in the late 1950's with the commercial pro-

duction of Bacillus thuringiensis.  In spite of successful use of this material

to control several agricultural pests, aerial application of this material against
                                        f OQ
gypsy moth larvae has been disappointing "  .  With improved formulations and

application techniques, this bacterium may show promise as an effective biotic

      , f    t           ,6.29,6.30.
control for the gypsy moth

          At this time, Bacillus thuringiensis is the only pathogen commercially

produced and registered for used against the gypsy moth.
                                      6-30

                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II),

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                           A-6.4  Control Alternatives


                                A-6.4.1  New York


          Since the gypsy moth first invaded New York, continuous attempts to

eradicate this pest have been conducted.  These included the use of pesticides,


sex lures, the introuduction of parasites and predators and direct physical


assault in destroying egg masses, banding of trees, purning infected trees and


the destruction of protected egg-laying habitat.  This phase of the campaign


against this pest is treated more fully in a later section discussing the work of

the CCC crews during the 1930's and early 1940's.


          While these early measures proved to be very useful, little effort has

been made in New York since 1945 to resort to these practices.  Although the


State has cooperated with the Federal Government in experimental releases of

some parasites and predators and sex attractants, there is no evidence of a

concerted effort to use these agents in an active, integrated control program.

          New York is not alone and while there is interest in the  potentiality


of biological control agents in this and in all threatened states, New Jersey is


the only state that has manifested a commitment.




                               A-6.4.2  New Jersey


          As long as DDT was being used, the gypsy moth in New Jersey was


effectively controlled and its range reduced.  However, in 1963, the substitution

of Sevin for DDT, plus increased infestations along the northern borders of the


state, resulted in an "explosion" of the gypsy moth throughout the state.


Intrusion of the moth was so great, in fact, that the state abandoned its policy

of eradication for one of control - an integrated control program employing both


chemical and biological means to regulate populations of the gypsy moth.
                                      6-31
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II).

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          Since New Jersey had long been active in the collection and rearing

of parasites to control introduced agricultural pests, it was a logical step to

adopt biological control measures as an important element of this program.

Accordingly, in 1963, work began with field collection of six of the nine

gypsy moth parasites that had become established in New England, with their

subsequent release in New Jersey.  In addition, the other three parasites

were reared in New Jersey and also field released.

          Since the remote forested areas of the northern part of the state

were so badly infested as to leave little hope of any economically acceptable

control, this area was selected as the focal point for establishment of

biological controls.  Threatened high-value, forest urban areas were given

immediate protection through use of chemical insecticides (Sevin at 1 Ib/acre).

          The main objective of the New Jersey program is to establish popu-

lations of various insect parasitoids throughout the distribution of the gypsy

moth in that state.  It is anticipated that these efforts, part of an integrated

approach to managing this pest, will assist in maintaining gypsy moth populations

at a level where their impact on the forest and urban ecosystems can be

tolerated, both economically and ecologically.

          Table No. 6.V listing all of the egg, larval, and pupal parasites

released under this program for each of the last 7 years, shows the variety

and numbers of parasites being handled.  In addition to these, during spring of

1968, mass-rearing of gypsy moth larvae was initiated for use in both parasite

rearing and in male sterilization programs.

          Figure 6.2 shows one of the exotic parasites being reared and released

under this program.  This particular larval parasite, Exorista segregatta, is

shown depositing its eggs on a later instar gypsy moth larva.

                                      6-32
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II).

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                                                              Table 6.V


                                                    GYPSY MOTH PARASITE RELEASES

                                                        STATE OF NEW JERSEY

PARASITE
Apanteles melanoscelus
Apanteles porthetria
Apanteles sp.
Brachymeria intermedia
Calosoma sycophanta
Compsilura concinnata
Ooencyrtus kuwanae
Hyposoter disparis
Parasetigena agilis
Exorista rossica
Exorista segregata
Exorista larvarum
Rogus sp.
Rogus indiscretus
Sturmia scutellata
Tricholyga segregata
TOTALS
YEAR OF RELEASE
1964-65




1,139

3,985,000







460

3,986,599
1965-66
137



338

5,235,000







2,359

5,237,834
1966-67



1,763

427
1,497,120







612

1,499,922
1967-68
400


53,315


3,028,500







1,620
1,826
3,085,697
1968-69



334,266
294

15,425,800

2,281
9,964
16,912





15,789,517
1969-70
17,497
145

393,060
247

18,664,500

12,505
35,616
45,877

1,127

14,184

19,184,758
1970-71
11,422

6,189
326,273


37,271,000
136
11,140
38,360
45,534
4,539
1,127
295


37,714,885

TOTALS
29,456
145
6,189
1,108,677
2,018
427
85,106,920
136
25,926
83,940
108,323
4,539

295
19,235
1,826
86,499,215
CO

CO

o
ro



"?
o

-------
?
                                   COURTSEY: NEW JERSEY DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
              Figure 6.2  PARASITE EXORISTA SEGREGATTA OVIPOSITING ON GYPSY MOTH LARVAE
M
M

-------
          The biological program  is  divided  into  two parts;  insect rearing and


field evaluation.  The insect  rearing  facilities  and techniques used are well


organized, staffed and maintained.   The  rearing and releasing techniques developed


by New Jersey should serve as  excellent  models for the establishment of similar


facilities in other states.


          The most critical part  of  the  program,  however, is the field evaluation


undertaken to determine the success  or failure of the biological control effort.


It is too early  at this time to critically review this part of the project, although


it is evident that the main interest is  in determining whether or not populations


of various parasitoids had become "established" at the various release sites.


Establishment is considered successful if a  particular species is recovered from


field collections after 3 years of releasing an individual parasitoid.


          However, mere "establishment"  of populations of various parasitoids  in


the  gypsy moth life system is  not sufficient evidence for determining the success


or failure of the program.  Unfortunately, basic  research is lacking on both


the  individual parasitoids that are  being used, and the sampling techniques


employed  for field evaluations.   This  is unfortunate and is a manifestation of


constraints of time and the need  for additional scientific manpower.  The importance


or potential of  a particular parasitoid  can  only  be determined, in most cases, by


a detailed examination of the  biology, behavior,  ecological adaptability, and


responses (functional and numerical) of  individual species to changes in host


density.

          It has been intimated that biological control efforts in New Jersey


have successfully reduced the  duration of heavy defoliation from 3 to 2 years


in some areas.   Also, field observations to  date  suggest that certain parasitoid


applications are playing a significant role  in stabilizing gypsy moth populations


                                      6-35
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

-------
at tolerable levels, although, as noted above, sufficient information is not
available at this time.
          However, it must be noted that biological control requires time to
become established.  The results are not instantaneous as with chemical sprays
and losses must be both expected and accepted.  The following table shows
mortality sustained in a 17,855-acre forest on the Newark watershed subjected
to heavy defoliation for 3 years before the gypsy moth infestation collapsed
from disease and parasitism.
                                       Percent Oak          Total No. Dead Oaks
          Year                          Mortality           in Affected Forest
          1968                             6.5                     116,693
          1969                            14.3                     257,112
          1970                            38.0                     686,881
          1971                            57.7                   1,033,269


                           A-6.4.3  Other Alternatives
          In the Newark example cited the loss of over 1,000,000 oak trees may be
considered too high a price to pay for nonchemical control.   The value of the
woodlands in one state is not necessarily the same in another state.  This is, in
fact, the reason for different treatment philosophies within the northeastern
states.
          Examination and study of historical and technical literature, coupled
with discussions with several individuals, have revealed that modern integrated
control procedures basically ignore the use of manpower as a central ingredient.
In the past personnel have, with minimal training, served as effective gypsy
moth control agents.  Efforts have included scraping and creosoting of egg
masses, trapping and disposal of larvae> banding of trees, and the destruction
                                      6-36
                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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of protected egg-laying habitat.  These measures have, in the past, been effective




in minimizing the  ravages  of  this pest.  Hundreds of personnel have been involved




in this work.  Year-round  efforts are possible in not only overt control but also




in the inspection  and  evaluation of woodlands for evidence of the pest.  There is




no reason why this  technique  should not or could not be resurrected and relied




upon in integrated  control efforts.




          Once areas of infestations have been discovered through trapping, scouting




surveys conducted  in these areas during the fall and winter will determine the




extent and intensity of the infestation.  Then effective control measures of the




gypsy moth can be  taken, including destruction of eggs and the destruction of




caterpillars.  Methods used to  destroy the pest are delineated in the following




paragraphs.  The methods discussed herein as to how the destruction may be




accomplished do not include chemical spraying and introduction of parasites.




          It should be noted  that evidence indicates that no matter how effective




each method is, no  one method can be depended upon for eradication of the gypsy




moth.  Nature often upsets an attempt to exterminate by a single method by a single




process at a particular season  of the year.  The extermination program must proceed




day after day throughout the  year in order to ensure success.









                              (1) Destruction of Eggs




          Most of  the  life cycle of the gypsy moth is spent in the egg stage from




J'-y  .r August until the following spring.  The eggs are generally deposited on




trees and are of a  conspicubus  buff color and thus, provide an excellent




opportunity for scouting and  locating gypsy moth colonies during the fall and




winter months when  trees are  devoid of leaves.  Each egg cluster deposited  upon




trees and other objects contains potentially 300 to 1400 caterpillars.  It  is





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apparent that destruction of the egg cluster eradicates the forthcoming hatch



of caterpillars, which would otherwise spread out and feed upon nearby foliage.



It appears to be more feasible to eliminate the insect when it is grouped and



stationary rather than after it has hatched and scattered in search of food.



          In the late 1880's, when the gypsy moth had become well established



in the woodlands surrounding Medford, Mass., the Commonwealth of Massachusetts



appropriated funds to control the pest.  In doing so, they consulted with



entomologists from European countries where the gypsy moth was the native pest.



The Europeans recommended egg-killing as the first and chief method of preventing



the spread and costly destruction of the pest.



          Control of the gypsy moth by destruction of eggs was initiated in



Massachusetts *   and later employed as a control measure in the States of New York


                6 12
and Pennsylvania '    A review of the literature indicates that egg-killing was



employed as a chief method of control during the time period up through about



1944 when DDT was first experimented with to determine its value in gypsy moth



control and eradication work.  It appears that  egg-destruction as a method of



control is presently employed only on egg clusters found on materials being



shipped from quarantine areas.  Because of the  ban on use of DDT as a control



measure of the gypsy moth, it is recommended that consideration of a renewed



major effort be expended in egg destruction as  a means of eradication of the pest.



          During the past, egg killing has been accomplished by various methods,



 namely:


          1.   Burning gypsy moth eggs.



          2.   Killing with chemicals.



          3.   Destroying by gases.



The methods are more fully described in the following discussion.



                                      6-38

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                         A. Burning of Gypsy Moth Eggs




          The most effective method of egg killing employed by Massachusetts




in the early years of their eradication program was to scrape the egg clusters




from the trees and burn them.  The eggs were scraped and cut away from the trees,




fences, buildings, etc., collected in cans and burned in large brush fires or




stoves.  When exposed to a steady intense heat, the eggs burst with a popping sound



like corn in a corn popper.




          Naptha burners (blow torch) were later employed against egg cluster




deposits as a more effective method than scraping and then burning egg clusters.




The flame reduced the egg clusters to ashes although occasionally some of the




clusters, exposed to intense heat, burst and scattered some of the eggs.   Use of




the burner against clusters deposited on young trees caused damage to the tree




whereas a mature tree with thicker bark was not seriously affected.  The burner




could be used effectively to destroy egg clusters deposited in cavities of trees




or rocks.




          Where large deposits of egg clusters were found in underbrush and




wasteland, it was not feasible to scrape every bush and schrub so experiments were




conducted to destroy the eggs by more expeditious means.  In one experiment, fire




was run through dead leaves and debris, but it was not found effective because the




heat was not intense enough.  The hairy covering of the egg clusters apparently




acted as an insulator thus rendering the eggs insensitive for a time'to sudden




intense heat.  It was found that it takes minutes of applied intense heat before




all the eggs are destroyed in a cluster.  Heat from a running brush fire, at the




most, may scorch the outside of a cluster, killing those eggs in the outer layer.









                                      6-39




                                                          EQ-5025-D-2 (Vol. II)

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          In another technique, crude petroleum was sprayed over the ground


and vegetation and then ignited.  The fire was violent enough to destroy most


of the eggs in the brush on the upper layer of leaves, but eggs under roots or rocks


were not affected.  Also, there was considerable inefficiency since the oil soaked


into the ground and the flame fed from this oil was not as intense as that sprayed


on the brush.


          As a result of the limited success in the experiments conducted in


undergrowth, investigations were made to devise a more efficient way of destroying


eggs in underbrush.  After numerous experiments, an apparatus known as the


"cyclone burner", was* devised.  It consisted of a 15-gallon tank, a Johnson


hand-pump, a length of hose and pipe at the end of which was attached a cyclone


nozzle.  Crude oil and later "parrafin gas" oil was used as a fuel.  Two men were


required to move and operate the apparatus; one to pump and one to direct the


nozzle.  A fine spray, generated by the pumped oil passing through the nozzle,


was ignited and produced an intense flame that "destroyed every living thing in


its path".  When an area was carefully covered, no eggs escaped destruction except


those hidden in ledges or holes in the ground.


          This burner was also used in the destruction of gypsy moth egg clusters


deposited in stone walls.  This was partially successful as those egg clusters


within reach of the flame were destroyed, whereas those clusters under the


lower stones of the wall were unharmed even though some of the stones were


cracked and broken by the heat.


          In the 1930's, New York successfully used a large weed burner fueled

                                                                           £ OO
with kerosene to destroy egg masses that were laid on or within stone walls
                                      6-40
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          Fire was used in hollow  trees wherein  the  eggs deposited by  the moth

were destroyed by burning out  the  decayed wood.   It  was found that if  judiously

done there was no injury to  the  tree.  In fact,  some of the old trees  seemed to
                                                  \
benefit by such burning since  the  trees exhibited better growth in the following

season.  To accomplish the burning,  oil was  poured into the top of the cavity

and a small opening was made at  the  bottom of  the cavity to provide a draft

for the burning oil.   Such work  was  done  in  the  winter when the sap was dormant.


                             B. Killing with  Chemicals

          Early in the eradication program in  Massachusetts it was found that it
was impossible to detach the egg masses by scraping without scattering and losing

some of the eggs.  As  a result,  it was deemed  that it would be more practical to

destroy the eggs without removal from the place  of deposit.  This led to an

extensive study of substances  which  might be advantageously used for this purpose.

The criteria  for selection were  that the  substance:

           (1)  be effective  wherever applied,
           (2)  leave a permanent stain or color  thus  enabling one to

               distinguish treated egg clusters  from untreated, and

           (3)  be low  in cost.
          A variety of liquid  and  gaseous materials were evaluated.  Three types

of mixtures that were  evaluated  in the field are described.

          Creosote
          Of  the many  substances investigated  it was  found that application of

creosote to the egg clusters provided the most effective and economical method.   The

creosote required no preparation nor complex application apparatus.  It could


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be readily drawn from a can and applied with a brush. .  The creosote rapidly pen-


etrated the egg clusters and killed all the eggs.  Creosote has a tendency


to thicken in cold weather.  During cold weather, a mixtrue consisting of 50 %


creosote, 20 % carbolic acid, 20 % spirits of turpentine and 10 % coal tar was


used.  The coal tar was added to color the egg clusters when treated because


creosote alone often faded after application thus making it difficult to distinghish


treated egg clusters from untreated ones.


          Where coal tar was not added to the mixture,  a white circle was painted


around an egg cluster treated with creosote.  For this  purpose, a pocket receptacle


containing a tube of creosote and a tube of white paint (each of which had a


stopper with a small paint brush) was issued as standard equipment to workers in


Massachusetts.


          Creosoting of eggs proved to be an effective  method of gypsy moth control


in New York as shown in Table 6.VI.  This table summarizes the eradication work in


New York State over the period from 1924 through 1942.   New York State Legislative


Documents (LD) during the years 1925-1943 were used to  develop this data compilation.


In this table, where numbers are separated by a slash,  those preceding the slash


refer to egg clusters.


          Careful examination of this table shows that  in 25 of the 32 towns where


colonies and egg clusters were found, creosote treatment of the egg clusters re-


sulted in an eradication or reduction of egg count in subsequent years.


          Acids


          Another effective method of destroying egg clusters that was used early


in the Massachusetts control effort was the application of a 50-50 mixture of


carbolic acid and turpentine.  When placed on an egg cluster it readily penetrated


and killed all the eggs.  To ensure destruction, a jet  of nitric acid was then

                                      6-42
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                                            Table 6.VI

                          GYPSY MOTH CONTROL BY DESTRUCTION OF EGG CLUSTER
        LOCATION
                                  NUMBER OF EGG CLUSTERS FOUND
    DISCOVERY YEAR
                        SUBSEQUENT YEAR(S)
      REMARKS
LD (1925)

  Greenport
  Patchogue
1000+(June '22)
1000+(June '22)
                        5  (1924)
                        15 (1924)
"... this year campaign has
further reduced, if not
completely eradicated, these
infestations."
LD (1927)

  Chesterfield and
    Morian, Essex Co.
Colonies (1925)
                        0  (1926)
"...gratifying to learn that
suppression campaign of 1925
had completely eradicated those
colonies."
LD (1928)

  New York -
    New England

  Essex Co.
  Long Island
328/15,583
(Jun'23-30 Jun'26)
(?)      (1926)
1926 and previous
years
                        25/4,055
                        (Jul'26-30 Jun'27)

                        (None) (1927)
                        (None)  (1927)
Scouting project in vicinity of
G.M. Colonies found previous.  Year
revealed no additional colonies or
signs of G.M. were found.

Same as above except in Brooklyn
LD (1929)

  Ulster Co.
  Long Island
1927
1927
                        1928
                        1928
Survey within 1 mile radius of G.M.
colony found in 1927 revealed a
colony within short distance of 1927
colony.

Small colony found in immediate
vicinity of 1927 colony.
 Notes:   1.   G.M.  denotes  gypsy moth
          2.   328/15,583  (example)  denotes  328 colonies and 15,583 clusters
          3.   L.D.  denotes  N.Y. Legislative Documents.

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                                          Table 6.VI (CONT)
        LOCATION
                                  NUMBER OF EGG CLUSTERS FOUND
    DISCOVERY YEAR
SUBSEQUENT YEAR(S)
           REMARKS
LD (1930)

  New York State
Up to 1928
1929
The effectiveness of control
practices has been well proven.
On only very rare occasions has
any indication of re-infestation
been found at the colonies where
such control measures have been
properly applied.
LD (1931)

  Southold -
    Suffolk Co.

  Douglas ton -
    Queens Co.
1929 or earlier
1929 or earlier
     (1930)
     (1930)
Taken from "Summary of Checking
Work in Vicinity of where G.M.
have heretofore been found".
LD (1933)
  Rye, Westchester
                        1/7  (1932)
                    1700 sq. miles of scouting
LD (1937)

  Long Island
42/2282    (1935)
24/237 (1936)
"The size of actually infested
area is considerably less than
at any time since the control
program was inaugurated."
LD (1938)
  Long Island
24/237    (1936)
14/94  (1937)

-------
                                      Table 6.VI  (CONT)
                                NUMBER OF EGG CLUSTERS FOUND
        LOCATION
    DISCOVERY YEAR
SUBSEQUENT YEAR(S)
           REMARKS
LD (1938)  (Cont)
  Shawangunk,
    Ulster Co.
Thousands (Jul'36)
      (1937
"Present  indications  are that an
outstanding record with  regard to
extermination was achieved.   At
least it  is positively known that
where thousands of G.M.  egg  masses
were in evidence last September not
a single  one was seen in the same
locality  this year".
LD (1939)

  New York State

  Putnam Co.
  Mamaroneck and New
    Rochelle,
    Westchester Co.

  Bronx
  Ulster Co.
102,968    (1937)
 73,000    (1937)
Small colonies
           (1937)

 12,527    (1935)
 28,000+   (Sept.'36)
16,015  (1938)

   308  (1938)



None    (1938)
   127  (1936)
    19  (1937)
     0  (1938)
    15  (1938)
"Despite handicap of rugged terrain,
it is believed extermination program
has been very effective".
LD (1940)

  Ulster Co.



  Bronx
  28,000
 12,527     (1935)
    20  (1939)
     0  (1939)
"...good progress has been made
in the Ulster Co. G.M. extermination
program".

2nd consecutive year - no evidence
of G.M. found

-------
                                           Table 6.VI (CONT)
        LOCATION
                                  NUMBER OF EGG CLUSTERS FOUND
    DISCOVERY YEAR
              SUBSEQUENT YEAR(S)
                                                                              REMARKS
LD (1940) (Cont)

  Newcastle
    Westchester Co.
  Putnam Valley


  Warren Co.
    (Trumbull Mt.)

  New York State
          (1938)
73,000+   (1936)
15,000+   (1937)
102,968   (1937)
               87

                1

              163
                                                       (1939)



                                                       (1939)

                                                       (1939)

                                                       (1939)
Outbreak found in New Castle
in 1938 was completely eradicated
in 1939.  This was revealed by
inspection.

Continuous extermination program
during the 3 years.
State Summary
LD (1941)
  Yonkers
    (Westchester Co.)
  Putnam Valley and
    Vicinity
  Trumbell Warren Co.
Shawangunk, Ulster Co.
Wawarsing, Ulster Co.
147
(1939)
                                                       (1940)
73,000+   (Oct.'36)


15,244    (Fall137)


Thousands (Jul.'36)

Thousands (Jul.'36)
              186    (1940)

               60    (1940)
                                                   13

                                                  290
                     (1940)

                     (1940)
"Careful and frequent inspection of
burlap and larvalefood used
extensively in Yonkers area during
larvae season failed to reveal any
sign of G.M.,..."

Infestations has been reduced to a
few (15) small but isolated colonies.

Note a reduction for the time period
but up from the previous year.

"...control operations have been quite
successful; complete extermination
expected at an early date."
LD (1942)

  Ticonderoga Essex Co.
          (1939)
                0    (1940)
                3    (1941)

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Table 6.VI (CONT)
LOCATION
LD (1942) (Cont)
Warren Co.
Putnam Co.
Shawangunk, Ulster Co.
Esopus (Ulster Co.
Long Island
LD (1943)
Ticonderoga (Essex Co.)
Rampo (Rockland Co.)
Esopus (Ulster Co.)
NUMBER OF EGG CLUSTERS FOUND
DISCOVERY YEAR

15,000+ (1937)
21/380 (1940)
13 (1940)
4582 (1940)


3 (1941)
Small colony
508 (1941)
SUBSEQUENT YEAR(S)

77 (1941)
11/215 (1941)
1 (1941)
508 (1941)
5 (1941)

0 (1942)
0 (1942)
5/34-N, (1942)
34-0
REMARKS

Note up from last year.
Seven colonies found this year.
Majority of colonies consisted
of a single egg cluster, which
might indicate reinfestation was
originated through wind dispersion
from heavily infested New
England areas - no evidence of G.M.
has been noted in full work.

Believe complete extermination has
been attained.
-not expected that extermination has
been achieved.
Work of current year believes extermi-
nation is about achieved. Fall scouting
of area revealed no evidence of G.M.
infestation.





-------
directed on the treated egg cluster.  The nitric acid alone will not penetrate egg




clusters, although it was sufficient to kill the eggs once they were devoid of the




hairy covering.  Although the acids were effective, they were expensive and presented




a hazard to the men using the method.  Clothes, ropes, tools and apparatus were




also affected by the acid fumes.  This method gave way to the creosote method




described previously.




          Gases




          Many experiments with various gases were conducted to obtain a practical




method which would destroy the gypsy moth eggs deposited in hollow trees, stone




walls and other inaccessible places.  The more effective gases were bromine or




chlorine.  However, because of the difficulty of providing a tightly sealed chamber




or compartment about the egg deposits, the use of the gases was found to be only




partially effective.









                         (2) Destruction of Caterpillars




          Gypsy moth eggs hatch in date April or early May following a period of




warm weather.  The male larvae undergoes five instars or growth stages while the




female matures through six instars.  The last instar of both occurs about mid-June.




          The larvae emerge from the eggs and usually remain near the egg cluster




for several hours.  If the weather is cold or stormy they will remain 2 or




3 days outside the cluster.  The larvae find food by random movement since




no evidence has been found that they can select a favored tree from an unfavored




one without examining the foliage first.  The newly hatched larvae can live about




a week without feeding and if cold, wet, weather is prolonged for this time period,




the initial mortality is very high.  The young larvae, about 0.062" long




when grouped about the egg cluster can be quickly destroyed by the flame of a





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naptha or propane burner  or  by  applying  creosote or kerosene.  Methods of destroying




the larvae, once after  they  leave  the  egg-cluster and ascend the tree in search



of food, are discussed  below.









                                 A.  Banding Trees




          Banding of trees was  employed  in Europe and in Massachusetts, New York




and Pennsylvania as  a means  of  combating the gypsy moth.  Some bands consisted




of a sticky material which prevented larvae from ascending trees in search of




food and from  descending  in  cases  where  larvae hatched in tree crevices above the




bands.  Also some banding was employed as a cover to which the larvae retired




during  the daytime.   The  specific  details of the various types of bands are




described below.




          Tarred Paper  Bands




          In 1891 and 1892 many of the large street trees in Maiden, Medford




and Somerville, Massachusetts were banded with strips of tarred paper.  To




accomplish the banding  about a  6"  wide ring of bark of the tree was




scraped or planed to a  reasonably  smooth surface at a height about 6' above




the ground.  A cotton waste  band was placed on the scraped ring and then wrapped




with a band of tarred paper.  The  paper  was then tightly tied with a cord.




Cotton waste was employed beneath  the  paper to prevent the first instars from




crawling under the band.  The tarred paper was covered with the following mixture:




                     3 parts   tree ink




                     1 part    pine tar




                     1 part    petroleum  (residuum oil)
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          Several applications of the mixture was required to saturate the




paper.  After the initial saturation of the bands, the mixture was applied at




least twice weekly during the larvae season on the trees that lined the dusty




streets.  Those trees in the fields required less frequent applications.




          Raupenleim Bands




          Raupenleim, which translated from German means "caterpillar glue",




was introduced in 1892 in Massachusetts on the recommendation of Mr.  B. Fernow,




Chief of the Division of Forestry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.




Raupenleim rings had been used very effectively in Europe for about 10 years




prior to being introduced in the United States.  It was used in the gypsy  moth




work as a replacement of the tarred paper bands because, when properly placed upor




the tree, it remained soft and viscous for several months.  When applied shortly




before the hatching clusters, it prevented the ascent of nearly all larvae.




          Many different devices were devised for applying the Raupenleim  to




the trees, namely the Eichhorn, Hochleim, Eck, Sertz and Hauenstein lime machines




Essentially these were extrusion-type devices in which the lime, as it extruded




from a wide nozzle, was applied to the tree trunk.  The lime was also applied by




spades or trowels.




          It was found that an effective lime band was one that was about




2.5" wide and varied in thickness from about 0.25" at the top to more than 0.5"




at the lower edge.  The oil, which oozed from the mixture when exposed to  direct




sunlight, would trickle down to the bottom edge and hang there forming an




impassable obstacle to the caterpillar.




          The insect lime had the disadvantage of being messy, e.g.,  oil




exuded from the mixture in hot sunlight; cattle and horses rubbing against the









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bands plastered  their  coats;  cats  having  come  in contact with the lime in climbing


trees tracked the  lime over carpets  in  the home.


          Dendrolene Bands


          Dendrolene was  invented  by Professor F. L. Nason as a result of


experimenting to obtain a domestic product similar to Raupenleim.  It, as well


as Raupenleim, was made of a  crude petroleum base.  Dendrolene was applied to


trees in the same  manner  as Raupenleim.   It appeared that Dendrolene remained soft


longer than its  counterpart,  which in some cases required two or three applications


because of hardening.   Both types  of  bands installed near dusty areas required


occasional renewal in  windy weather.  No  injury to trees was observed as a result


of banding with  Dendrolene or Raupeleim.


          Tree Tanglefoot

                          fi Q
          Tree Tanglefoot "   was developed around 1920 by the Gypsy Moth Labora-


tory of the U. S.  Department  of Agriculture, and proved to be a very effective


banding material against  larval ascent.   It was extensively used in gypsy moth


control in New York and Pennsylvania  during the 1930's.


          Other  Methods of Viscous Banding


          Viscous  banding of  trees other  than  the types just described was


employed in Europe.  Bands of pitch or  tar were frequently used in Russia,


but these soon became  dry and required  replacing.  In Crimea, a banding material


made of two parts  of boiled tar and one part rope oil, thoroughly heated together,


v as used a';out 1893.   Another Crimean banding mixture of 10 Ib of lard, 20 Ib


 f hemt>-seed oil and 80 Ib of coal tar was recommended for use in Massachusetts.


Evidently this mixture remained soft  a  long time since, after applying it directly


to the tree, it  required  renewal only, twice a year.





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          Dr. Richard Hess in "Der Forstscnutz" published in Leipzig in 1887




and 1890 recommended that orchard trees should be smeared with a mixture of lime,




black soap, potash and cow dung to prevent larvae from ascending to the foliage.




          Burlap Bands




          Burlap bands were used on trees as early as 1891 in Massachusetts




and also were used in the gypsy moth control in New York and Pennsylvania.   The




purpose of the bands was to assemble the larvae so that they could be readily




found and then destroyed.




          Observation of the gypsy moth revealed that before the larvae reached




half their growth, they daily leave the foliage which they fed upon during  the night




and cluster in sheltered places, such as cavities in the bark and underneath




limbs.  As the larvae grow larger, search for shelter during the day became more




apparent.  The caterpillars often leave the trees upon which they were feeding,




if the tree offers no shelter, in search of a hiding place such as stone walls,




rubbish heaps, etc.  It was also observed that they would cluster during the day




under a piece of cloth left in a tree.




          As a result of these observations an investigation was launched




to devise an inexpensive, durable shelter which could readily be examined and




serve as a trap.  It was found that inexpensive 8-oz burlap, was the best




material for the purpose.  The burlap, cut into 1-ft wide strips, was wrapped




around the trunk of the tree and held in place by twine.  The upper half




of burlap, above the twine, was folded over to provide a double thickness of




burlap around the tree.  If the trunk and/or branches offered no hiding places




for the larvae, they would climb down, morning after morning, crawl under the




burlap and remain there during the day.  The burlap bands were tended daily




at which time the assembled caterpillars were killed by crushing or cutting.






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          To ensure  that  each  band was  examined  every  day  the  following plan




was utilized.  When  the burlap was checked  the first time, the folds were




turned up, the next  day the  folds  were  left  down.  Thus, by this method any band




that was missed during a  particular day could be readily identified.  Whether the




folds of the bands were left up or down did  not  affect the number of caterpillars




trapped.




          The use of burlap  bands  is an effective method for collecting




the larvae so that they can  be killed easily.  In one experiment, a medium




sized apple tree upon which  caterpillars were feeding was burlap-banded and fenced




off.  The tight board fence  enclosed an area 18-ft square and 5-ft high.  A




Raupenleim band was  placed on  the  inside of  the  fence thereby confining all the




caterpillars within  the area.   Observations  were made daily over a 10-day period




on the location of the caterpillars.  Although the number of caterpillars varied




on the tree, the number found  each day  in the same place and position was found to




be quite constant.   The number found under, the burlap band varied between 52 % to




72 % whereas those found  on  the underside of branches constituted about 29 % of




those on the tree; the number  on leaves and  on the trunk constituted less than 3 %.




          Other Methods



          Experiments were conducted in 1895 to  determine the resistance of




caterpillars to water.  The  results showed that  the gypsy moth larvae are able




to live in water for 2 or 3  days.   Thus, water would not be an effective




means of killing collected larvae;  rather a  liquid such as a petroleum distillate




or turpentine should be used.   This experiment points out that the ability to live




'  water for this time period  enables it to  be transported long distances in




swiftly moving water and  thus  establish colonies distant from known infested





area.



                                      6-53                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                       A-6.4.4  Control Personnel Used




          An attempt was made to correlate manpower loading and the efficacy




of various control measures.  Records pertaining to forest pest control    '     in




New York during the 1930's did not categorize the manpower use with the control




method and efficacy although creosoting the egg masses apparently was effective




(see A-6.4.2).  In addition, during the mid-to-late 1930's, thousands of trees




were banded.  For example, in 1938 over 400,000 trees were so treated.  Throughout




this period, 100-200 men/month were utilized.  It should be remembered, however,




that many of these personnel were utilized in scouting operations.




          A more interesting account of manpower use has been presented by




Forbush and Fernold '  .  The manpower loading per month during 1890-1894 inclusive




are plotted in Figure 6.3; a schematic representation of the gypsy moth life cycle




is also presented.  This chart shows that the employment peaks occurred during




the larvae, pupa and adult stages of the life cycle of the gypsy moth.  A




summary of early gypsy moth control within the state for the above time period




is presented in Table 6.VII.  Use of this table in conjunction with Figure 6.3




gives some indication of manpower used for specific methods of gypsy moth control.




In 1891, the peak employment period occurred during the larval stage, where control




measures available at that time period were burlapping and spraying.  Since spray-




ing methods in 1891 utilized cumbersome equipment and required considerable man-




power and since a large number of trees (177,415) were sprayed as compared to




subsequent years, it may be concluded that a high percentage of the manpower was




utilized in spraying.  Further for 1891, the banding of 12,000 trees would have




occurred during April, before the emergence-of the larvae, and would have required




an average of about 120 men to accomplish this task.  The remainder of the year,








                                      6-54                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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Ul
o
to



f
<
O
             00 111
                   EGG
                                                                                      EGG
                                             LARVA
H
                Figure 6.3  GYPSY MOTH LIFE CYCLE AND WEEKLY EMPLOYMENT FOR GYPSY MOTH
                         CONTROL IN MASSACHUSETTS

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TABLE 6-.VII  SUMMARY OF EARLY GYPSY MOTH CONTROL IN MASSACHUSETTS

Trees (fruit, shade and forest):
Inspected
Found to be infested with caterpillars,
pupae, moths or eggs
Cleared of eggs
Cemented
Banded (insect lime or tree ink)
Burlapped
Sprayed
Trimmed
Scraped
Cut
Acres of brush land and woodland cut
and burned over
Buildings :
Inspected
Found to be infested
Cleared of eggs
Wooden fences :
Insected
Found to be infested
Cleared of eggs
Stone walls :
Inspected
Found to be infested
Cleared of eggs
Number of each form of the moth destroyed
by hand
Caterpillars
Pupae
Moths
Hatched or infertile egg clusters
Unhatched and probably fertile egg clusters
1891

3,591,982

213,828
212,432
19,296
12,000
68,720
177,415
-
-
-

120

87,536
3,647
3,574

53,219
6,808
6,570

-
-
•—


-
—
—
—
"
1892

2,109,852

108,428
99,989
12,172
21,251
110,108
7,372
-
-
395

115

22,102
1,557
1,427

24,936
2,365
2,159

2,213
672
354


935,656
80,021
9,338
40,954
99,790
1893

4,108,494

44,716
2,068
4,583
19,453
419,434
5,145
1,906
2,406
4,055

184

8,828
348
232

15,092
713
541

814
225
93


1,173,351
77,029
5,655
6,868
46,101
1894

6,828,229

48,752
2,176
7,844
-
624,673
14,857
8,618
6,068
10,296

336

27,430
508
55

35,276
798
99

1,620
423
44


1,153,560
92,225
18,084
18,036
94,706
                             6-56
                                                  EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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August through  December,  would have been devoted  to  inspection and destruction




of eggs.  Here, most  likely the fences,  stone walls  and trees would have been in-




spected and  cleared of  eggs after mid-September,  when the vegetation would be




clear of  foliage.   During this time period  the average manpower requirement was



about 55  men.




          This  rationale  can be applied  to  the years subsequent to 1891.




Further,  it  should  be realized that the  life cycle,  indicated on Figure 6.3, would




vary and  shift, one way or another due to weather and amounts of food available,




the time  and length of  stages.   A shift  in  the larvae stage from May and June to




July and  mid-August in  1894 is indicated by reference to Figure 6.3 and Table 6.VII




because employment  peaked to about 265 men  during this period and 624,673 trees




(the most of any of the 4 years)  were burlapped.




          A  word of caution in viewing Table 6.VII,  Forbush and Fernold note




that: the  vast number  of gypsy moth destroyed by wholesale methods as spraying,




fire and, presumably, banding,  are not included in the table.  Even so, the




destruction  of  the  pest is significant when it is remembered that each egg cluster




or mass contains about  400 eggs.








                                 A-6.5  Summary




          Many pest control alternatives can be used either in conjunction




with chemical pesticides  or as  a substitute for them.  However, there is no




obviously apparent, practical rationale1 by which chemical pesticides can be




totally abandoned.  The recipe  by which  chemical  pesticides and their alter-




natives are  invoked must  depend on a thorough assessment of the impact that lack




of pest control will manifest.   Such an  assessment should include not only the








                                     6-57                EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol. II)

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economic losses associated with reduced timber supply, recreational opportunity




and watershed development, but also the overt impact of pest depravation on the




environment itself.  Within this context, however, it is demonstrable that




useful alternatives to chemical pesticides do exist.




          Biological control shows promise although it is clearly not rapidly




invoked.  Further, these methods appear to have minimal short-term impact on




epidemic pest populations.




          There do appear to be other alternate methods that have worked in




the past and, while not as efficient as chemicals, will provide significant




impact on pest populations.  Foremost among these methods is the collection




and/or destruction of egg masses.  While these and other methods can be useful,




the requirement for relatively much manpower has apparently mitigated against




recent consideration in integrated pest control.  Therefore, it appears prudent




to examine current economic feasibility relative to the use of manpower as a




central ingredient in integrated gypsy moth control on the basis that technical




feasibility has been established and that manpower can potentially bridge the




gap between the short-term efficiency of broadcast chemical treatment and the




long time associated with the establishment of biotic control agents of acceptable




efficacy.
                                     6-58               EQ-5025-D-2  (Vol.  II)

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                              A-6.6  References

6.1      DeBach, Paul (Ed.), 1965, Biological Control of Insect Pests & Weeds,
           Reinhold Public Corp., N.Y.C.

6.2      Milne, A., 1957, The Natural Control of Insect Populations, The Canadian
           Entomol. Vol. LXXXIX, No. 5, pp. 193-213.

6.3      Thompson, W.R. , 1956, The Fundamental Theory of Natural & Biological
           Control, Ann. Rev. of Entomol. Vol. 1, pp 379-402..

6.4      Andrewartha, H.G. and Birch, L.C., 1960, Some Recent Contributions  to
           the Study of the Distribution and Abundance of Insects, Ann. Rev. of
           Entomol. Vol. 5, pp 219-241.

6.5      N.Y.S. Conservation Dept. Annual Report to Legislature - 1952-1960.

6.6      "Saddled Prominent" New York State Tree Pest Leaflet F-24.

6.7      Risley, J.H., The Saddled Prominent, The Conservationalist.  August-
           September 1969.

6.8      Graham, S.A.,  1939, Principles of Forest Entomology, McGraw-Hill Book
           Co., N.Y.C.

6.9      Graham, K., 1963, Concepts of Forest Entomology, Reinhold Publish
           Corp. N.Y.C.

6.10     Anderson, Roger F., 1966, Forest and Shade Tree Entomology, John Wiley
           &  Sons, Inc., New York.

6.11     Turner, N., 1969, The Gypsy Moth in Connecticut, Conn. Agric. Exp.  Sta.
           Circ. #231, August 1969.

6.12     Nickols, J.O., 1961, The Gypsy Moth in Penn. - its History and
           Eradication, Penn. Dept. of Agric., Misc. Bull. 4404.

6.13     Knipling, E.J., 1955, Possibilities of Insect Control or Eradication
           through the Use of Sexually Sterile Males, J. of Econ. Entomol.,
           Vol. 48, pp  459-62.

6.14     Meltzer, Y.L., 1971, Hormonal & Attractant Pesticide Technology, Noyes
           Data Corp. Parkridge, New Jersey.

6 15     Schneiderman, H., et al., 1969, Endocrinological & Genetic Strains in
           Insect Control, Symp. on Potentials in Crop Protection. N.Y.S. Exp.
           Sta. Cornell Univ.

6 16     McQueen, F., Personal Communication, Auburn Univ. Dept. Agric.
           29 Oct. 1971.


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6.17     Jacobson, M., Schwartz, M., Waters, R., 1970, Gypsy Moth Sex Attractantsr
           A Reinvestigation, Jour, of Econ. Entomol. Vol. 63, pp 943-5.

6.18     Bierl, B.A., Beroza, M., and Collier, C.W., 1970, Potent Sex Attractant
           of the Gypsy Moth, Its Isolation, Identification and Synthesis, Science -
           Volume 170, No. 3953, pp 87-89.

6.19     Forbush & Fernald, 1896, The Gipsy Moth, Porthetria dispar, Wright &
           Potter, Boston, Mass.

6.20     Turnbull, A.L., & Chant, D.A., 1961, The Practice and Theory of
           Biological Control of Insects in Canada, Canada Jour. Zool. Vol. 39,
           pp 697-753.

6.21     Balch, R.E., 1960, The Approach to Biological Control in Forest
           Entomology, Canadian Entomology V. 92, pp 297-310.

6.22     Howard, L.O., Fiske, W.F., 1961, The Importation into the United States
           of the Parasites of the G. M. and the Brown-tail Moth, U.S.D.A. Bureau
           of Entomol. Bulletin #91.

6.23     Burgess, A.F., 1929, Imported Insect Enemies of the Gypsy Moth and the
           Brown-tail Moth, U.S.D.A., Tech. Bull. #86.

6.24     Dowden, P.B., 1957, Biological Control of Forest Insects in the United
           States and Canada, Jour, of Forestry, Vol. 55, pp 723-726.

6.25     Bess, H.A., Spurr, S.H., Littlefield, E.W., 1947, Forest Site Conditions
           and the Gypsy Moth, Harvard Forest Bulletin 22, pp 56.

6,26     Doane, C.C., 1970, Primary Pathogens & their Role in the Development of
           a Epizootic in the G.M., J. of Invert Path., Vol. 15, pp 21-33.

6.27     Rollinson, W.D., Lewis, F.B., Waters, W.E., 1965, The Successful Use of
           a Nuclear-Polyhedrosis Virus Against the Gypsy Moth, J. of Invert. Path.,
           Vol. 7, pp 515-7.

6.28     Doane, C.C., & Hitchcock, S.W., 1964, Field Tests with an Aerial Applica-
           tion of Bacillus thuringiensis, Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. #665.

6.29     Doane, C.C., 1966, Field Tests with Newer Materials Against the Gypsy
           Moth, Jour, of Econ. Entomol., Vol. 59, pp 618-620.

6.30     Secrest, J.P., McLane, W.H., Henderson, J.A., 1971, Field Trials of
           Insecticides, Cape Cod, Mass., 1971, Chem. Test Section Gypsy Moth
           Method Dev. Lab., Otis AFB, Mass.

6.31     N.Y.S. Conservation Dept. - Annual Report to Legislature - 1924-1944.

6.32     Risley, J.H., Personal Communication to R. Klingaman, September 17, 1971.

6.33     Baker, W.L., 1941, Effect of Gypsy Moth Defoliation on Certain Forest
           Trees, J. of Forestry, Vol. 39, pp 1017-1022.

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  * U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 19730-502-143

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