ill
O
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAMS
PATTERNS OF PESTICIDE USE AND REDUCTION IN USE
AS RELATED TO SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
-------
PESTICIDES STUDY SERIES - 10
PATTERNS OF PESTICIDE USE AND REDUCTION IN USE AS RELATED
TO SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
This study is the result of an interagency agreement made by
OWP as part of the Pesticides Study (Section 5(1) (2) P.L.
91-224) with the Economic Research Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture.
The USDA project members:
Theodore R. Eichers, Member, Farm Pesticides Group
Robert P. Jenkins, Member, Farm Pesticides Group
Paul A. Andrilenas, Member, Farm Pesticides Group
Helen T. Blake, Member, Farm Pesticides Group
Austin S. Fox, Leader, Farm Pesticides Group
For EPA:
Charles D. Reese, Project Officer
Carlton J. Kempter, Project Member
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Water Programs
Water Quality and Non-Point Source Control Division
Non-Point Source Control Branch
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.80
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EPA Review Notice
This report/has been reviewed by the Office of Wator-
Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
Environmental Protection Agency, or does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many persons made valuable contributions to this work. Although
it is not possible to mention all of them, we wish to acknowledge
the great helpfulness of State Public Health Officials who supplied
information on health uses of pesticides. Among individuals, we
are especially indebted to Dr. William H. Wymer, Subcommittee on
Pesticides of the President's Cabinet Committee on the Environment,
for assistance in bringing together information on expected use of
pesticides by Federal Agencies; to Mr. D. Lee Fowler, Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service, for examining the data
related to manufacturer's production and sales; and to Dr. Ronald
L. Mighell, Economic Research Service, for thoroughly reviewing the
manuscript.
The EPA project officer wishes to express
thanks to Mrs. Babette Baltes, Mrs. Nyla Linthicuiti
and Mrs. Lydia Greene for outstanding service as
secretaries in the preparation of this report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I. PRODUCTION AND USE OP PESTICIDES
Page
PRODUCTION OP PESTICIDES 1
Fungicides 1
Herbicides, Defoliants, Desiccants, and
Growth Regulators 4
Insecticides 6
PRESENT USE 9
Distribution of Pesticides Among Users 9
Exports 9
Domestic Disappearance 12
NEED FOR CONTROLS 17
LIST OP REFERENCES 18
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Chapter II. USE PATTERNS AND APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES
SUMMARY 19
Agricultural Use • 19
Urban-Suburban Use 21
Industrial Use 22
Health Uses 23
Other Uses 25
Method, Formulation, and Season of Application... 26
PURPOSE OF PESTICIDE USE 28
Insect Control 30
Agricultural Use 30
Urban-Suburban Use 31
Industrial Use 33
Public Health Use 36
Other Uses 40
Disease Control 41
Agricultural Use 41
Urban-Suburban Use 42
Industrial Use 43
Other Uses 44
Weed Control 44
Agricultural Use 45
Urban-Suburban Use 46
Industrial Use 47
Public Health Use 43
Other Uses 49
Other Pest Control 50
Agricultural Use 51
Urban-Suburban Use 53
Public Health Use \\ ^
Other Uses
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Page
KINDS AND QUANTITIES OF PESTICIDES USED 54
National Use of Pesticides 55
Agricultural Use 55
Farm Products on Which Pesticides are Used 59
Types of Pesticides Used on Crops 61
Pesticide Use on Livestock 65
Urban-Suburban Use 66
Industrial Use 68
Public Health Use 72
Other Uses 73
Use by Federal Government Agencies 73
Use by Other Government Agencies 76
Regional Use of Pesticides 77
Pesticide Use by States 80
Agricultural Use *0
Urban-Suburban Use. 83
Industrial Use 84
METHOD, FORMULATION, AND SEASON OF APPLICATION 84
Agricultural Use 85
Application of Pesticides 85
Pesticides Formulations 86
Aerial Application of Pesticides 89
Seasonality of Pesticide Use 90
Urban-Suburban Use 92
Industrial Use 93
Public Health Use 95
Other Uses 95
LIST OF REFERENCES 97
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Chapter III. ANALYSIS OP THE MEANS AVAILABLE FOR REDUCING
PESTICIDE USE
Page
INTRODUCTION . 101
INTEGRATED CONTROL 101
BIOLOGICAL AND GENETIC CONTROL 103
CULTURAL AND MANAGERIAL CONTROL 105
PEST RESISTANT CROPS 107
RESTRICTING PESTICIDE USE 108
POTENTIAL FOR MINIMIZING USE OF PERSISTENT PESTICIDES 112
RESEARCH NEEDS 116
LIST OF REFERENCES 119
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LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Chapter I. PRODUCTION AND USE OF PESTICIDES
Table No.
1 Production, exports, and domestic use
of pesticide, by type of pesticide, United
States, 1950, 1955, and 1960-70 2
2 Fungicide production, United States, 1950,
1955, 1960, and 1965-70 3
3 Production of herbicides, United States,
1950, 1955, 1960, and 1965«?0 5
4 Production of insecticides, United States,
1950, 1955, 1960, and 1965-70 7
5 Percentage of domestic use of pesticides
by principal kinds of use, United States
average, 1968-70 10
6 Exports of pesticides, United States, 1950,
1955, 1960, and 1965-70 11
7 Domestic disappearance of selected pesticides
United States, 1950, 1955, 1960, and 1965-
69 13
8 Imports of rotenone and rotenone containing
materials by whole root and powdered material,
United States, 1980-70 15
9 Imports of pyrethrum flowers and extract,
United States, 1960-70 16
Chapter II. USE BATTERNS AND APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES
Table No. Page No.
1 Gomroon forest insects that can be
controlled with insecticides.... 35
2 Selected human diseases transmitted by
Arthropods in North, Central, and South
America 37
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Table No. Page No.
3 Farmer's expenditures for pesticides
in the United States, 1960-70 56
4 Pesticide use by farmers, United
States, 1966 and estimated 1969 57
5 Use of selected pesticides and
percentage used by farmers, United
States, 1966 58
6 Farm use of pesticides for different
purposes, United States, 1966 59
7 Leading crops in terms of quantities
of all pesticides used, United States,
1966 60
8 Leading crops in terms of expenditures
for pesticides, United States, 1966... 61
9 Quantities of pesticides used on crops
by type of pesticide, United States,
1966 62
10 Expenditures for pesticides used on
crops by type of pesticide, United
States, 1966 62
11 Insecticides used on selected kinds
of livestock, United States, 1966 65
12 Leading insecticides used on livestock,
United States, 1966 66
13 Shipments of household insecticides and
repellents, United States, 1958-67 67
14 Estimated extent and cost of chemical
weed control on lawns and turf, United
States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968 68
15 Estimated cost and extent of chemical
weed control, selected uses, United
States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968 71
16 Farm pesticide use, by farm production
region, United States, 1966
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Table No.
Page No.
17
18
19
Application of farm pesticides, by
persons making the application and
type of equipment used, United States,
1958 and 1964 86
Percentage of acres treated with her-
bicides and insecticides, by method of
application, 5 Lake States, 1969 and
1970 89
Acreage treated with weed control
chemicals, by time of application,
United States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and
1968 91
Chapter III.
Table No.
ANALYSIS OF THE MEANS AVAILABLE FOR
REDUCING PESTICIDE USE
Page No.
Costs of substituting organophos-
phate and carbonate insecticides for
organochlorines in cotton, corn,
peanut, and tobacco production, United
States, 1966 110
Effects of restricting the use of
phenoxy herbicides in farm production,
United States, 1969 Ill
Economic effects of restricting 2, 4,
5-*, if other phenoxy herbicides and
all Ofcher registered herbicides could have
been used. United States, 1969 112
Economic effects of restricting 2, 4,
5-1, if no phenoxy herbicides could
have been used, but all fcfcher registered
herbicides could have been used. United States,
1969 114
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APPENDIX TABLES
Table No. Page No.
1 Farm Use of Insecticides by Crops,U.S. 1964 & 1966 122
2 Leading Insecticides Used on Crops in the U.S., 1966 123
3 Farm Use of Herbicides, by Crops, U.S., 1964 & 1966 124
4 Leading Herbicides Used on Crops by Farmers in the
U.S., 1966 125
5 Farm Use of Fungicides, by Crops, U.S., 1964 & 1966 126
6 Leading Fungicides Used on Crops by Farmers in the
U.S., 1966 127
7 Farm Use of Miscellaneous Pesticides on Crops, U.S.
1964 & 1966 128
8 Leading Miscellaneous Pesticides Used on Crops by
Farmers in the United States, 1966 129
9 Leading Pesticides Used on Selected Crops, U.S. 1970 130
10 Leading Insecticides Used on Selected Classes of
Livestock, United States, 1970 131
11 Use of Principal Kinds of Wood Preservatives, U.S.,
1965-69 132
12 Use of Mercury in Pesticide Manufacture, U.S. 1946-69 133
13 Producers' Shipments of Copper Sulfate by End Uses
United States, 1960-69 ' 134
14 Pesticides Currently Employed in Mosquito Control 135
15 Organophosphorus Insecticides for Use in Fly Control 137
16 Quantity and Cost of Pesticides Used in Forest Insect
Control Programs, by kinds, United States, Fiscal
Years 1967-70 13g
17 Extent and Cost of Herbicides Used to Treat Forest
Plantings, by Region, United States, 1965 & 1968 140
18 Quantities of Pesticides Used and Acres Treated for
Specified Purposes with Selected Herbicides by
Government Agencies, United States, 1969
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Table No. Page No.
19 Acreage of Land Treated and Cost Per Acre for Brush
and Weed Control Under Agricultural Conservation
Program (ACP), United States, 1960-69 142
20 Acreage of Range!and and Pastureland Treated for
Control of Brush Under Agriculture Conservation
Program, by States, 1966-69 143
21 Major Federal Agencies Requesting the Use of
Pesticides in Pest Control Programs and Acres
to be Treated, January-August 1971 144
22 Important Pesticides Requested for Use and Acres
to be Treated by Federal Agencies, January-
August 1971 145
23 Acreage Treated Annually with selected Herbicides
for Agricultural and Nonagricultural Uses, U.S. 146
24 Selected Major Insecticides Used on Crops by
Farmers, by Regions, United States, 1966 147
25 Selected Major Herbicides Used on Crops by
Farmers, by Regions, United States, 1966 149
26 Selected major Fungicides Used on Crops by Farmers
by Regions, United States, 1966 150
27 Cash Expenditures for Farm Pesticides, by States,
1955 and 1970 151
28 Estimated Agreage of Crops Harvested and Treated
with Herbicides and Insecticides 5 Lake States,
1969 & 1970 152
29 Estimated Acreage of Crops Treated with Pesticides
by Type of Control 5 Lake States, 1969 & 70 153
30 Acreage of Corn Treated with Insecticides, 5 Lake
States, 1970
31 Acreage of Small Grains treated with Insecticides,
5 Lake States, 1970 155
32 Acreage of Hay Treated with Insecticides, 5 Lake
States, 1970 156
33 Acreage of Corn Treated with Herbicides, 5 Lake
States, 1970 157
34 Acreage of Soybeans Treated with Herbicides, 5
Lake States, 1970 158
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Table No. Page No.
35 Acreage of Small Grains Treated with Herbicides,
5 Lake States, 1970 159
36 Acreage of Crops Treated for Insect and Weed Control
In Selected States, 1964 and 1969 160
37 Quantities of Selected Kinds of Pesticides by Users,
Utah, 1969 and 1970 161
38 Quantities of Insecticides Used for Residential
Insect Control, California, 1970 162
39 Quantities of Herbicides Used for Residential
Weed Control, California, 1970 163
40 Quantities of Insecticides Used for Structural
Pest Control, California, 1970 164
41 Percentage of All Pesticide Sales Reported in
California that Were Used by Government Agencies
in 1970 165
42 Extent of Custom Application of Chemical Weed Control
Materials, United States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968 166
43 Percentage of Expenditures for Pesticides, by Form of
Application and by Crop, United States, 1964 & 1966 167
44 Extent of Preemergence and Postemergence Chemical Weed
Control in the United States, 1968 168
45 Extent of Preemergence or Postemergence Chemica: Weed Control
in the United States, 1968 169
46 Seasonal Distribution of use, all Pesticides, by Major
Uses, California, 1970
47 Seasonal Distribution of Pesticide Use, by Types,
California, 1970 '
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PREFACE
Numerous forces affect societyfs goals and the means
for achieving them. Some forces may complement each other,
while others are either independent or conflicting. It is
difficult to isolate and describe the interrelationships
between social, economic and technological forces that are
reflected in our system. Different groups committed to
different values react differently (positively or negatively
or simply indifferent) to a specific situation. Economic
circumstances have a dominant influence on society's goals
and objectives. In a poor society nothing is as important
as poverty and nothing is as imperative as its mitigation.
Economic drives are also influential on social attitudes and
goals as one moves from poverty to affluency. As society's
material needs are satisfied, people become increasingly
concerned with the environment. The priorities of an
affluent society take on a new dimension, that of securing
pleasant and safe surroundings. This evolutionary process
introduces new problems in attempting to attain harmony
among the multiple objectives of society.
Factors that influence pesticide use, related pesticide
pollution, with the resulting need for control, depend upon
the goals or objectives of society. The demand for the use
of natural and man-made resources, including pesticides, is
derived from the products and services, including
-------
environmental features, desired by society. The "mix" or
balance that is achieved between the consumption of material
goods and enjoyment of environmental features is conditioned
by the qoals and objectives of society. Thus, the demand
for pesticides is derived from the need to control pests for
the achievement of low cost, high quality food and fiber,
while simultaneously obtaining a high quality, healthful
natural environment from which society derives esthetic,
cultural, physiological and psychological pleasures.
Unfortunately, conflicts over goals and objectives have
focused on the means of achieving an individual goal without
fully recognizing the interrelationships among goals or the
third-party "spill-over" effects resulting from an action
taken to achieve a particular objective. This has resulted
in a resource policy perspective that is focused on
alternative means to an objective and excludes
considerations of the conflicts and/or complementarities
among goals.
Knowledge concerning the nature of the demands for the
products and healthful conditions which pesticides make
possible is inadequate. Since conflicts have arisen over
pesticide use, it may be assumed that there are areas of
conflict with respect to the demand for final products and
services desired by society, The full range of these
conflicts has not been explored. The demand is qualitative
as well as quantitive and consequently trade-offs between
ii
-------
material goods and environmental features are qualitative as
well as quantitive. In addition, a policy framework should
consider not only the aggregate of these demands but also
the distribution. Our sense of equity and equal opportunity
requires that resource policy decisions include
consideration of who will be affected by the decision as
well as the physical effects of the decision. Thus, the
package of socio-economic information that is needed to
determine a pesticide control policy include (1) an
understanding of society's relative preference between low
cost food and fiber, and environmental features and
conditions; (2) information on the consequences of
alternative pest control actions in terms of the quantity
and cost of food and fiber production; (3) information on
the environmental consequences of alternative pest control
actions; and (4) information on the incidence of the effects
of alternative pest control actions, i.e., costs to
producers, consumers and taxpayers, and benefits to
environmental user groups, and maintenance of ecological
balance for species preservation, including human survival.
Far more is known about the supply of products and the
factor relationships including pesticides and alternate
inputs. For example, studies reported elsewhere in this
report deal with the effects on output of restricting or
banning certain pesticides and the consequent effect on
production costs. Other studies have focused on the
substitution of factors, for example, additional cropland
iii
-------
for insecticides, Here again much remains to be done.
Little is known about the relationships between labor, non-
land capital, and pesticides. While some research has been
done on production costs, little has been done to determine
how these costs would ultimately be distributed throughout
the economy.
Until more information is developed on the areas
outlined above, it is difficult to develop a comprehensive
strategy for controlling pesticide pollution,
IV
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Chapter I
PRODUCTION AND USE OF PESTICIDES
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PRODUCTION AND USE OF PESTICIDES
Production of Pesticides
Total production of all pesticides rose in the 1960's and reached
nearly 1.2 billion pounds in 1968, but dropped slightly to 1.0 billion
pounds in 1970. I/ This was still about 50 percent higher than in I960.
Most of the rise was in herbicide production, which nearly tripled
•..
from 196l to 19TO (table 1). Insecticide production moved upward, with
some fluctuations, from 368 million pounds in I960 to nearly 600 million
pounds in 1968 and 1969. However, 1970 production was down to about
500 million pounds. Fungicide production fluctuated between 139
million pounds and 197 million pounds during the 1955 to 1970 period
and amounted to 169 million pounds in 1970.
Fungicides
Since 1965, production of some organic fungicides has been rising
while that of inorganics has been falling (table 2). Major organic
'fungicides include captan, ferbam, zineb, maneb, pentachlorophenol,
organic mercuries, karathane, and dodine. Major inorganics include
sulfur and copper sulfate, but production of sulfur is not distinguish-
able between use for pesticides and for other purposes from available
data.- Copper sulfate production for agricultural purposes dropped from
I/ Chemical pesticides are customarily classified into three major
groups—fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides. As the names imply,
these are chemicals used mainly to kill or inhibit harmful fungi, weeds,
and insects. For convenience, several other groups of chemicals used in
smaller quantities, are often reported in the statistics for the three
main groups. For example, fumigants, nematocides, and rodenticides are
included in insecticides. Some chemicals not used to control weeds are
included in the herbicide classification. These are growth regulators,
defoliants, and desiccants.
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Table 1.—Production, exports, and domestic use of pesticides, by type of pesticide, United States, 1950, 1955,
and 1960-70
Year
1955
f
iggpi
1963
1961*
1066
1067
1968
1 Q7O— — — —
Fungicides I/ j Herbicides 2/ |
Produc-;
tion ; a
• 95
187
197
168
153
139
11*6
151
179
178
191
• 182
169
. 'Domestic' Produc-' _ . 'Domestic :
xports: use I*/ : tion : ExPor*8' U3e y -
* — * • • » ^J .
I/
82
50
37
30
36
1*2
23
28
23
23
2U
26
I/ 73
105 5/
1U7 110
131 123
123 135
103 151*
10U 196
128 220
151 272
155 31*8
168 1*03
158 372
1U3 353
19
22
23
29
36
31
37
5»*
59
66
Vlillion i
91
101
112
125
160
189
235
299
313
287
Insecticides 3/
1 All pesticides
Produc-' ,, . 'Domestic* Produc-
, . : Exports : i, / : ...
tion , % use V ^ tion
261*
5/
36"8.
391
1*76
1*89
1*63
502
562
501*
582
581
501 1 ^T-
115
193
252
286
2 1*7
253
213
2l*5
268
318
263
21*2
I/ Excludes sulfur.
2/ Includes growth regulators , defoliants and desiccants , but not petroleum.
3/ Includes soil and space fumigants and rodenticides but not petroleum.
TT/ Production less exports. No adjustments have been made for inventory changes
5j Not available.
ll*9
5/
119
139
190
2 1*2
210
289
317
236
26U
318
259
or
•• i
1*32
506
675
682
761*
782
805
873
1,013
1,030
1,176
1,135
1,023
imports .
Exports
178
291
318
311
339
312
331
267
310
3l*0
395
33U
|Domesti
use U/
25U
215
357
371
1*25
1*70
606
703
690
781
789
689
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv, (l, 2, 3)
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Table 2.—Fungicide production, United States, 1950, 1955, I960, and 1965-70
Fungicide
Inorganics I/
Copper sulfate 2/
Organics
T\Tn"V- i»rt
Pentachlorophenol —
2 ,U ,5-Trichlorophenol
Zin<;b 7/ — -
Copper naphthenate — ~—
Other organica- — —
All organics —
All fungicides I/
1950
3/87.9
1| /
H/
1| /
3.U
1.1
2.9
y
5/
7.U
95.3
> 1955
36.3
|/
i/
6/31. U
3,8
1.0
2.U
I/
112.3
150.9
187.2
*
: I960
*
33.3
2.5
3.0
39-3
10.0
0.9
1.9
0.9
10U.9
163. U
196.7
: 1965
U7.3
2.U
2.5
Uo.o
U.O
5.1
3.3
1.6
UU.8
103.7
151.0
: 1966
-Million pou
1»1.5
l.U
2.1
U3.3
17-9
U.7
3.2
1.0
63.8
137. U
178.9
: 1967
*
3U.O
2.3
l.U
UU.2
25.3
3.1
3.5
0.9
63.2
1U3.9
177.9
: 1968
37.2
1.9
5/2.0
U8.6
28.1
3.1
1.7
l.U
66.8
153.6
190.8
: 1969
*
*
U2.1
3/1.5
1.9
U6.0
5/
3/2.5
1.5
0.9
85.7
lUo.o
182.1
: 1970
28.8
5_/
5/
U7.2
5/
1.7
1.1
89.7
139.7
168.5
I/ Data on inorganic fungicides available for copper sulfate only. Other inorganic fungicides
fixed coppers and inorganic mercury compounds are not included.
2j Data for copper sulfate represents only production designated as shipments to agriculture.
sulfate production was 91 million pounds in 1970.
3/ Estimated.
5/ Not available.
5/ Included in other organics.
6/ 1956 data.
Includes ziram.
such as sulfur,
Total copper
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (l, 2, 3)
-------
88 million pounds in 1950 to about 29 million in 1970. Pentachlorophenol
production rose from 31 to U9 million pounds between 1955 -and 1968 and
then fell off slightly.
Herbicides, Defoliants, Desiccants, and Growth Regulators
Total herbicide production was 353 million pounds in 1970, down
. *
from U03 million pounds in 1968 (table 3). These totals include data
for plant hormones, defoliants and desiccants. The high mark in 1968
reflects the influence of large military purchases.
The major nonproprietary herbicides are 2,^-D, 2,U,5-T and sodium
chlorate. Other important herbicides have been developed in recent
X
years. Many of these are proprietary products and separate data are
not published for them. Among the newer products are atrazine, Sutan,
propazine, propachlor, paraquat, simazine, DCPA, dicamba, trifluralin,
Amiben, Linuron, and propanil. Oil is sometimes used as a herbicide,
often in combination with other materials. Ho estimate of the oil used
for this purpose is available. Arsenic compounds such as MSMA and DSMA
are also widely used for weed control in cotton.
The first of the Ingportant phenoxy herbicides, 2,U-D came into
use in the United States after World War II» By 1950, about 26 million
pounds were being produced annually. Further upward impetus was pro-
vided by military use in Vietnam beginning in 1963. By 1968 production
was 91* million pounds annually. Military use was largely discontinued
by 1969 and production of 2,^-D was down to kk million pounds in 1970.
Also a phenoxy herbicide, 2,^,5-T was similarly affected by the
Vietnam situation., From less than( k million pounds in 1955, production
moved upward to 1»2.5 million pounds in 1968, and then dropped to about'
12 million pounds in 1970-
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Table 3.—Production of herbicides, United States 1950, 1955, I960, and 1965-70 I/ •
Herbicide
2,U-D (acids, esters, and
OO.11 3 )_-!-.. ••- _____________
2,U,5-T (acids, esters,
rtnr} -inl-ha }-._..____-....._____
Sodium chlorate ______
Other herbicides
All herbicides I/
1950
•
: 1955
t
•
•
: I960
*
•
•
: 1965
•
*
*
»
; 1966
•
: 1967
•
•
: 196ft
•
*
*
: 1969
•
: 1970
*
25.8
1.9
2/UU.2
0.8
72.7
20.5
• 3.8
_i/93.9
5/
I/
3U.O
7.9
'i»/35.0
33.2
110.1
63.U 72.5 83.8
13.5 18.1 27.2
1_/32.0 i/30.0 _/30.0
111.1
220.0
11*9. U
212.0
207.3
3U8.3
9>t. 1
1*2.5
i/30.0
236.2
1*02.8
57.0
11.6
lj/30.0
273.2
371.8
2./U3.5
12.3
Ji/30.0
266.8
6/352.6
I/ Includes some materials used as defoliants, desiccants, or growth regulators.
2j Acid basis.
3/ Includes material used for nonherbicidal purposes.
F/ Agricultural use estimated by pesticide specialists in Agr. Stabil. and Consery. Serv. Total production
Of sodium chlorate in I960 was 183.2 million pounds.
5_/ Not available.
6/ Includes only 2,I*-D acid so production is under reported by several million.
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. Sftrv. (l, 2, 3)
-------
Sodium chlorate, an inorganic weed killer, vas more widely "used in
the 1950's and early 1960's, tut its production for herbicidal purposes
stabilized at about 30 million pounds in recent years. Barring
limitations on use of other herbicides for cotton, sodium chlorate
production for herbicidal purposes is not expected to increase signifi-
cantly.
Insecticides
This category also includes materials used as space and soil fumigants
and as rodenticides. Total insecticide production increased from 26U
million pounds in 1950 to 582 million pounds in 1968, but dropped to
just over 500 million pounds in 1970 (table U).
Most of the insecticides fit under three main groups: inorganics,
or gano chlorine s, and organophosphates, with some also classified as
carbonates or other organies. Araen-ates are the -Largest class oT inor-
ganics. For many yesrs lead and calcium arsenate were widely used as
insecticides, but their popularity decreased with the advent of the
organochlorines. Production of lead arsenate in 1970 totaled only
9 million pounds as compared with more than 39 million pounds in 1950.
Organochlorines became popular after World War II and although
still widely used have become less effective for many purposes. Many
insects ere -becoming resistant to them. Among the major organochlorines
are DDT, aldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, BHC, lindane, toxaphene, dieldrin,
endrin, methoxychlor, TDE, and Strobane.
-------
Table I*.—Production of insecticides, United States, 1950, 1955, I960,'and 1965-70 I/
Insecticide
Aldrin-toxaphene group 2/-_
Methyl parathion —
Parathion
Lead arsenate —
Methyl bromide-
1950
3/
78.2
$!
I/
39.1*
2.2
99.2'
26U. 3
: 1955
77.0
129.7
2/
5.2
3.7
§/
: 1960
90.7
161*. 2
11.8
7.U
10.1
6.6
12,7
367.8
: 1965
118.8
ll*0.8
29.1
16.6
7.1
1*.2
170.8
501.7
: 1966
*
•Million pov
130.5
lUl.3
35.9
19.1*
7.3
2.9
16.3
208.6
562.2
: 1967
120.2
103.U
33.3
11.1*
6.0
2.0
19.7
207.8
503.8
: 1968
*
116.0
139.1*
38.2
U/20.0
9.0
3.1*
20.5
235.1
581.6
; 1969
*
107.3
123.1
50.6
!/
9.1
l.U
20.0
269.6
581.1
t
: 1970
88.6
59.3
1*1.1*
15.3
9.0
1.5
21.0
261*. 5
500.6
I/ May include some space and soil fumigants and rodenticides.
2_/ Includes aldrin, toxaphene, dieldrin, endrin, strobane, heptachlor, and chlordane.
3/ Included in other insecticides.
5/ Estimated by pesticide specialists of Agr. Stabil. and Cons.iServ.
'5/ Not available.
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. 8erv. (l, 2, 3)
-------
Production of DDT, a major organochlorine, vas begun during World
War II as a mosquito control agent in the fight against malaria. After
the war, it came into wide use domestically. Production reached 78
million pounds in 1950 and continued to rise rapidly until the early
I960's. Production of DDT had dropped to 123 million pounds by 1969 and
to 60 million pounds in 1970 (table 1»). .
The aldrin-toxaphene group includes aldrin, toxaphene, dieldrin,
endrin, strobane, heptachlor and chlordane. In 1955, 77 million pounds
of these materials were produced. Production reached a high of 131
million in 1966, but by 1969 had receded to 89 million pounds.
Many organophosphate insecticides are now on the market. Among
the most widely used are the methyl and ethyl forms of parathion,
malathion, disulfoton, bidrin, diazinon, trichlorfon, azinphosmethyl,
ethion, phosphamidon, and phorate. Many of these were developed as
proprietary products, which means that production data for them are not
published.
Methyl par^thic-n production is rasing as it replaces some
part of the organochlorines on cotton and other crops. Production in
I960 was 12 million pounds. Beginning about 1965, production increased
rapidly to more than 50 million pounds in 1969 but fell back to Ul million
in 1970. Ethyl parathion, a closely related material, has not been
produced in such large quantities although 1970 production amounted to
15 million pounds, after an estimated high of 20 million pounds in 1968.
-------
Unfortunately, separate data are not available for nematocides.
They are included, in organic fuinigants and other insecticides in table
U.
Present Use
Distribution df Pesticides Among Users
Nearly three-fourths of the pesticides manufactured in the United
States are used domestically and slightly more than a fourth is exported.
About a fifth of all fungicides and herbicides and slightly more than
half of the insecticides produced in the United States are exported.
Estimates indicate that of the total domestic use farmers account for
about 55 percent, urban-sub urban users for 15 percent, industrial users
20 percent, and other users (primarily Federal, State, and local
governments) 10 percent (table 5).
Exports
Insecticides made up more than two-thirds of the pesticide exports
in 1970. Herbicides cotrtrib-uted about a fifth, and fungicides less than
a terfth of total pesticide exports (table 6).
DDT leads all other, insecticides in quantity exported. Exports
of DDT reached 109 million pounds in 1968, but fell to TO million in
1970. Only one of 13 former manufacturers of DDT still remains in
production.. Worldwide concern over the environment and increasing insect
resistance may further reduce . exports.
Organic fumigants primarily nematocides, seem to have experienced
a growing demand for export during the latter half of the 1960's.
Quantities' exported rose from about 10 million pounds in 1965 to about
3k million pounds in 1970.
-------
Table 5.—Percentage of domestic use of
pesticides by principal kinds
of use, United States average,
1968-70 I/
Use
All
pesticides
Farm
Urban-suburban
Industry
Federal, State, and
local government—
Total-
' Percent
55
15
20
10
100
if Estimated by Econ. Res. Serv. based
on published reports and discussions vith
pesticide specialists in Government and
industry.
-------
Table 6.—Exports of pesticides, United States, 1950, 1955, I960, and 1965-70
Pesticides
Fungicides I/
CoTmpT «?iil •Pn'hia 9 /________
("VHiF»T" 1 /....___ _~~
vwiu-r jy
All fSinffifi flps 1 /______
Herbicides'
2,1»-D (acid basis)
2 h S-T fanifl hn
-------
Domestic Disappearance
Data on domestic use are available for only a few major pesticides.
Military purchases used abroad as well as use in the United States are
included in domestic use. Since imports of most pesticides, except
pyrethrum and rotenone, are negligible, an estimate of domestic use
of all pesticides can be obtained by subtracting exports from production.
This does not allow for changes in stocks. Data on domestic use in
table 1 are based on this procedure. However, data in table 7 do include
inventory adjustments. Changes in domestic disappearance rates must be
studied carefully before concluding that real changes are actually
occurring. First the "mix" of pesticides may change over time. Appli-
cation rates .for the currently popular organophosphates are usually
lower than for organochlorines. The organochlorines in turn were used
at lower rates than inorganic insecticides. Thus effective pest pro-
tection may be increasing at the same time that the domestic dis-
appearance rate is decreasing.. Also more spe-cific pesticides are
replacing general pur-pose ones. This may modify the quantities of
pesticides used.
Fungicide production has fluctuated considerably but has not
increased in total since 1955 (table l). Organic fungicide use dropped
between I960 and 196"5 but has been increasing since then. The use of
most inorganic' fungicides is either constant or decreasing.
12
-------
Table 7.—Domestic disappearance of selected pesticides, United States, 1950, 1955, 1960N, and 1965-69 I/
Pesticide
Copper sulfate 2/
2,U-D (acid basis)
2li ^_in foMrl >>flt!-i
• Z
89.7
•an o
JU . J
2.1
7-7
I/ Domestic disappearance is the beginning of year inventory + production + imports - exports - end of year
inventory. Includes military shipments abroad. Most computations are on a crop year basis, e.g. I960 = Oct. 1, 1959
Sept. 30, I960.
£/ All copper sulfates including industrial use. Use as pesticides is substantially less than above
indicated data, see table 2.
3/ Includes aldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, dieldrin, endrin, strobane, heptachlor, and chlordane.
V/ Not available.
Source: A«v Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (1, 2, 3)
13
-------
Domestic use of herbicides (production less exports) is increasing
rapidly (table l). The types of herbicides used are -also changing. The
inorganic types like sodium chlorate and sodium arsenite have largely
given way to the selective organic types such-as the phenoxy group,
triazines, and cany others. For some uses, the phenoxy group is in turn
giving way to newer herbicides more specifically adapted to treating a
certain crop and pest.
Domestic disappearance of 2,lt-D and 2,U,5-T showed upward trends
in the last half of the decade of the sixties, mainly because military
use in Vietnam, which is classified with domestic use, was large (table 7).
However, military use had dropped substantially after 1968.
There has been a large shift from the inorganic insecticides and
later from the organochlorines to organophosphate and carbamate
insecticides. Both calcium arsenate and.lead arsenate, the major
inorganics, are used much less than in the 1950's, although quantities
•nay have .stabilized in the late- 1960's (tabl« 7). Use of DDT, a major
or gano chlorine, dropped more then 50 percent in the 1960's. In 19^9, 30
S
million pounds were still used, down from a high of 70 million in I960.
Use of the aldrin-toxaphene group, which contains many of the most
important organochlorines, has remained relatively stable.
Rotenone supplies, all imported, totaled 1.7 million pounds in 1970
(table 8). lyrethrum is another imported material. It is used in
many household pesticide formulations because of its low toxicity to
humans. It is also much used in dairy barns. Nearly a million pounds
'of flowers and extracts were imported in 1970 (table 9).
14
-------
Table 8.—Iinports of rotenone and rotenone containing
materials by vhole root and powdered
material, United States, 1960-70
Year
10^0— - __— _
1 Qfil — _ —
1Q
T fi
X«D
In
• 7
r> 0
In
•u
In
.u
3.0
1.8
1 f.
1 9
OQ
•y
•t
| Powdered
] material
•
1-e
• P
2 A
. V
1 ft
x. o
i n
o 6
07
» I
1.0
1.0
i n
1 T
o 8
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (l)
15
-------
Table 9.—Imports of pyrethrum flowers and extract,
United States, 1960-70
Year
IQ^O- '
TQfil
TQ<9_
IQfCo „
lQ7
• 1
n <
U .D
0.7
0»7
• 7
n <
U .D
Source: Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. SerV."(l)
16
-------
Need for Controls
Many thousands of lives have been lost to malaria, yellow fever,
plague, and other diseases now controlled by pesticides. Many allergy
victims have suffered from allergenic weeds. In addition many hours
of toilsome labor has been saved, utility services have been provided
at less cost, and the environment has been protected from fire, flood,
and pests and its beauty and access maintained by the wise use of
pesticides.
A comprehensive discussion of the basic purposes for pest control
is presented in Chapter 5 of this report. The probable effects if
pesticides were not available is illustrated by examples in the section
entitled "Reduction in festicide Use".
Annual losses from agricultural pests in the United States during
the 1950's were estimated to-exceed $1^ billion (U). Perhaps a third
of all potential food and fiber produced in the world is lost to pests.
3!his is equivalent to the food needs of a billion people. In addition
to adverse effects oh agricultural production, pests endanger human and
anj.fcal health. Pesticides could prevent part of these damages. Probably
SrCsae crops could not be produced at all and other crops would become
*
much more expensive if pesticides were unavailable.
17
-------
List of References
(l) Fowler, D. Lee; Mahan, John N.; and Shepard, Harold H.
19T1 and earlier years. The Pesticide Review. Annual issues
for reporting years 1965 through 1969. U.S. Dept. Agr. ,
Agr. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv., Feb.
(2) Shepard, Harold H. and Mahan, John N. (with Charlotte A. Graham
prior to -1963-61))
1965 and earlier years. The Pesticide Situation. Annual issues
for reporting years 1960-6l through 196U-65- U.S. Dept.
Agr., Agr. .Stabil. and Conserv. Serv., Sept.
(3) Shepard, Harold H.;. Mahan, John N.; and Graham, Charlotte A.
(with Shepard alone prior to 1958-59)
I960 and earlier years. The Pesticide Situation. Annual issues
for reporting years 1953-51* through 1959-60. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Commod. Stabil. Serv., Apr.
(I) U.S. Department of Agriculture
1965. Losses in Agriculture. .Agr. Res. Serv., Agr. Handbook 291,
Aug.
18
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Chapter II
USE PATTERNS AND APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES
-------
STJMMAKY
Pesticides are important in the current technology for
controlling pests that affect agriculture, public health,
and other aspects of modern life. Before the development of
chemical pesticides many pests could not be effectively
controlled. Among these pests are insects, weeds, fungi,
nematodes, and rodents.
Agricultural Use
Pesticides used in agriculture help reduce food and
fiber production costs and may help Icwer prices that
consumers pay for farm products.
Insects cause economic damage in agriculture by
interfering with growth) and reducing the quality and
quantity of farm output. Some also transmit diseases and
annoy livestock.
Fungi have a long history as serious agricultural
pests. Fungus problems occur most frequently in agriculture
on fruits and vegetables, but other crops are also affected.
19
-------
For example, lamping oft of seedlings, Fusarium, and
Verticillium wilts and rusts, can be serious problems in
smell grains, and in 1970 blight contributed to a 10 percent
reduction in corn yields.
Herbicides are used by farmers to control weeds. They
often offer the only practical means of checking weeds in
fence rows, ditch banks, some rangeland areas, and certain
solid-planted crops. For row crops, herbicides may provide
a low cost substitute for mechanical cultivation,
Rodents damage growing crops, livestock, stored crops,
and buildings. other chemicals, classified as agricultural
pesticides, include defoliants and desiccants used as
harvest aids (particularly in cotton production) and growth
regulators used for tobacco sucker control, fruit siting
and thinning, and other purposes,
Farmers usf slightly more than half of all pesticides
in thr United States. Their expenditures for pesticides
rose from 3?87 million in 1960 to nearly $900 million in
1970. Quantity estimates indicate that farmers used 410
million pounds of pesticides in 1969. of this quantity, ?00
million pounds was insecticides (including miticides,
fumigants, rodenticides and repellents), 175 million pounds
was herbicides (including d^foljants, d^siccants, and plant
growth regulators), and 3^ million pounds was fungicides.
20
-------
Detailed data show that crops accounted for 93 percent
of the pesticides used by farmers in 1966. Livestock and
other uses each made up about half of the remaining 7
percent. Cotton and corn accounted for nearly half of all
pesticides used by farmers on crops in 1966. Cotton was the
leading crop for insecticide use, accounting for 47 percent
of the total use on crops. Leading insecticides applied to
crops in 1966 were toxaphene, DDT, and aldrin. About Ul
percent of the herbicid? total was used on corn in 1966. No
other crop approached this percentage, Pasture and
range-land and soybeans each accounted for 9 percent of the
herbicides.
Nearly 60 percent of the livestock insecticides were
used on beef cattle or their premises. Toxaphene and
methoxychlor were the leading livestock insecticides and
accounted for nearly half of all those used on livestock.
Urban-Suburban Use
Homeowners and other urban and suburban residents use
pesticides in houses, commercial buildings, parks,
reservoirs, and other areas. Termites are a major urban-
suburban insect problem. However, many ether insects can be
serious pests in and around the home. They may attack
people, buildings, furniture, pets, lawns, and clothes.
21
-------
Herbicides are used in residential areas t.c assure
attractive lawns fr^e of unsiqhtly weeds and unwelcome
species of grass.
In 1970, about $300 million, at retail prices, was
spent for lawn and garden pest control chemicals, In 1968,
a total of nearly U million acres of lawn and turf was
treated for weed control at a cost of more than $110
million.
Industrial Use
Industrial firms us<= pesticides to protect their
workers, products, facilities, and grounds from pest damage.
They use insecticides to prevent damaqe to structures from
termites and carpenter ants, to prevent contamination of
food products with foreign matter, and to protect stored
products, They use fungicides in paint to prevent mildew,
slimicides in manufacturing processes to prevent slime
formation, and algicides to prevent growth of algae in water
supplies. They also use preservatives to protect wood
products, and a variety of other fungicides. Industrial
firms use herbicides to control weeds and brush. Large
amounts are used in maintaining rights-of-way.
22
-------
In 1970, industrial firms spent an estimated $300
million on pesticide chemicals. This was up from about $110
million in 1965.
Important fungicides used in industry include copper
sulfate, mercury products, and such wood preservatives as
pentachlorophencl. Appreciable amounts of persistent
pesticides are used to control pests in structures.
In 1969, utility companies treated about 6 trillion
acres of weed and brush control with 2,4-D or ?,4,5-T.
Health Uses
Some of the major communicable diseases of the world
are transmitted by insects and other pest vectors.
Important vector-borne diseases include malaria, yellow
fever, encephalitis, and typhus. Malaria cases in India
were reported at 75 million a year in 1952 with nearly 5
million deaths prior to the use of insecticides. After 10
years of spraying with insecticides, the number of cases
dropped to 5 million a year and the number of deaths to
100,000.
Vector-borne diseases are not generally considered a
23
-------
serious problem in the United States, although some were
reported in many States in the last 3 years. The most
prevalent vector-borne disease in the United States is Rocky
Mountain fever, which cannot be effectively controlled with
insecticides.
Some vertebrate animals can also become public health
pests when they transmit disease. Rats are the most serious
vertebrate pests.
Control of disease vectors account for a significant
share of the pesticides used in some of the developing
nations. However, pesticide use for human health control in
the United States is small.
In 1971, Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE) covered a
large part of Texas and adjoining areas. The major
insecticides used in vector spray programs in the United
States in recent years is malathion. In large operations,
it is usually applied in ultra low volume (ULV) formulations
and at rates of only a few ounces per acre. Other
insecticides frequently used for disease control of insects
that are vectors include Abate, Fenthiori, and naled.
Chemicals used to control vertebrate pests include
anticoagulants, zinc phosphide, sodium fluoracetate,
strychnine, and thallium sulfate.
24
-------
Other Uses
Pesticides are also applied by other users, Government
agencies at the Federal, State and local levels are
important amcnq these ether users. Federal agencies planned
to treat 21 million acres with pesticides in the first 8
months of 1971. A large part of this was accounted for by
the VEE and the fire ant control programs.
In 1970 about 310,000 pounds of insecticides and
fumigants were used by the Forest service for insect
control. Important pesticides were ethylene dibromide,
malathion, BHC and lindane.. Trees are sub-ject to many kinds
of fungous disease but few are serious enough to require
direct control.
Many insects are nuisances as well as health or
agricultural problems. Mosquito control districts, for
example, spent $75 tc $100 million annually in recent years
to control mosquitoes, primarily because of their nuisance
characteristics.
Weeds are nuisance, safety and esthetic problems. They
can become serious in aquatic, recreational, forest, and
transportation rights-of-way areas.
25
-------
Method^ Formulatign^and,,Season o£_Application
Pesticides can he applied either as liquids or dry
materials. Liquids are qenerally preferred because they are
less bulky to handle and apply than dusts. They also adhere
to surfaces better than dry materials and spray application
equipment is more often available. Granules ar<=> gaininq in
popularity because they are more convenient to handle.
Liquid sprays accounted for three-fourths of the pesticides used
by farmers in 1966 and for 95 percent or more of the farmer's pesticide
expenditures for wheat, rice, other small grains, sugar beets, alfalfa
and other hay, pasture and rangeland, citrus, apples, and other decid-
uous fruit.
Pesticides are applied with qround or air equipment.
In 1964, about 80 percent of the farm pesticides were
applied with qround and 20 percent with air equipment. This
was almost the same distribution as in 1958. In 1971, there
were about 2,200 aqricultural pesticide aviation operations
with about 6,100 aircraft.
seasonally, pesticide applications may be spread over a
large part of the year especially in the warm areas of the
country. However, the major share is applied durinq the
summer months. Farm herbicides are beinq put on earlier in
26
-------
the season as a larger proportion is being applied as a
preemerqence treatment. Preemergance weed treatment of farm
crops increased from 7 percent in 1959 to U3 percent in
1968.
27
-------
PURPOSE OF PESTICIDE USE
Pesticides have become a integral part of modern
living. They are used by farmers, homeowners, industry, and
Governments to control pests of all kinds, Until the
introduction of chemical pesticides many pests could not be
controlled satisfactorily. Pesticides reduce food and fiber
production costs, protect yields and quality, help control
certain vector-borne pathogens, and they may lower the
prices that consumers pay for food products.l
Commercial pesticides comprise some 1,000 basic
chemicals applied variously to crops, farm products,
processed and stored goods, soil, water, service structures,
and homes, They minimize and control the harm done by
pests. Pesticides are categorized according to the kind of
pest, controlled, as fungicides, herbicides, insecticides,
nematocides, and rodenticides. In the United States,
estimates of the number of species of main kinds of pests
are as follows(16):
I/ A vector is a living organism, such as an insect, which
transmits a pathogen from one host to another.
28
-------
fungi (plus viruses
and bacteria) 8,500 species
weeds 2,200 species
nematodes 500 species
arthropods2 (plus
small animals) 10,050 species
rodents and birds 210 species
However, a relatively small number of the species
listed account for 80 percent of all pesticides used.
The technology of modern pesticides is an important
component of the continuing agricultural revolution that has
so greatly increased the capability of the United States
farmer in the last century. The use of pesticides and
related chemicals is bound up with modern agricultural
technology: in seed and soil treatments and soil
fumigations, in pre- and post-emergence weed control, in
chemical crop control, in defoliation, in routine treatment
of farm plants and animals with miticides, insecticides, and
fungicides, and in post-harvest pest control and
preservation.
In our present complex system of specialized and
mechanized agriculture, the use of pesticides may often mean
the margin between profit and loss. In developing countries
where food supplies are highly variable, pesticides may mean
the difference between survival and starvation,
2/ Arthropods include insects, mites, spiders, ticks, scorpions,
tarantulas, and other organisms in the Hexapoda, Arachnida, and
Crustacea classes.
29
-------
The annual loss caused by pests of crops, forests,
livestock, and farm products in the United States has been
estimated to be over $14 billion with an additional loss of
more than $2 billion during storage and marketing (16).
Insect Control
Historically, insects have been a major pest problem.
They have been responsible for major disease outbreaks and
freguently have been the cause of famine. Plagues of locusts
and other insects have sometimes destroyed entire crops.
Insecticide chemicals have been used for two primary
purposes-to insure adequate food supplies, and to control
the insect carriers of such diseases as malaria.
Insecticides used to control disease vectors have saved
millions of lives.
Agricultural U*e
Farmers use insecticides to control insects that cause
damage to agricultural products. Insects may bite, chew,
sting, or suck plants and animals, retarding growth and
30
-------
reducing quantity and quality of output. Often they
defoliate plants or damage roots and stems thus causing the
plant to be less productive. Some insect pests damage the
food or fiber producing portion of the plant, Others carry
damaging diseases from one plant to another.
Insecticides are used on livestock to maintain
productivity and quality. They provide sanitary lots and
barns and help improve milk and meat production by reducing
blood sucking and annoyance from flies, ticks and other
arthropods.
Urban-Suburban Use
Insecticides are often used in urban-suburban areas.
They control insect pests in houses, commercial buildings,
parks, reservoirs, and other places where people work, live,
or play. Many trees along city streets are treated with
insecticides. Occupants of homes use insecticides to
control insects on ornamental plants, flowers, gardens and
in the home itself. Many of the lawns which occupy more
than 5 million acres are treated with insecticides. School
yards, industrial grounds, military reservations,
cemeteries, parks, and golf courses account for another 10
million acres of turf (30). Much of this also receives
31
-------
insecticide treatment. Other suburban users of insecticides
include swimming clubs and garden centers,
A major urban-suburban use of insecticides is to
control structure pests such as termites. Many new
structures are now treated with organochlorine insecticides
to stop termites and a number of companies offer long-term
termite protection that is based on persistent
organochlorine insecticides.
Insecticides are also used to control many kinds of
household insects. Termites, carpenter ants, powder-post
beetles, and other borers attack wooden parts of buildings
and the wood in furniture. Clothes moths, carpet beetles,
and crickets damage clothing, rugs, and upholstery. Various
kinds of weevils, beetles, moths, mites, flies, roaches,
ants and other small chewing arthropods infest foods-
Flies, mosquitoes, fleas, lice, mites, and roaches may carry
diseases.
Scorpions, wasps, and some kinds of ants may inflict
painful and often dangerous stings. Bed bugs, lice, fleas,
mites, mosquitoes, punkies, sand flies, ticks, and black
spiders may bite or suck blood from people or household
pets. Some pests may cause no particular damage but are a
32
-------
nuisance—house spiders, millipedes, centipedes, drain
flies, and some kinds of ants, Some arthropods such as bed
bugs, silverfish, clothes moths, brown dog ticks, some kinds
of roaches, and ants spend their entire lives in homes or
other buildings (11),
Industrial Use
Insecticides are used in industry to protect facilities
against pests that damage structures or make working
unpleasant or dangerous. These pests include termites,
bees, ants, spiders, and other similar pests- Insecticides
prevent contamination of food products with foreign matter.
They are also used to safeguard raw materials and
manufactured products. For instance, cereal manufacturers
use insecticide-fumigants to protect stored grains.
Manufacturers of products made from wood may use
insecticides to protect the wood against insect damage.
Manufacturers of carpeting treat it with persistent
organochlorine to provide long-term protection against
carpet beetles and other insects that damage animal fibers.
Among the commercial uses are control of forest
insects. Two major forest pests on which much effort has
been spent are the gypsy moth and the spruce budworm.
33
-------
Insecticides are also used to kill the insect vector of the
dutch elm disease.
Forest insects and diseases are responsible for losses
in this country each year that far exceed the losses from
forest fires. Annual forest mortality due to insects and
diseases is estimated at about 2.<4 billion cubic feet. In
addition, it is estimated that insects and diseases cause an
equal volume of growth loss.
Forest losses would be about a billion cubic feet
higher if no pest control activities were carried on. Of
this saving it is estimated that about two-thirds is due to
chemical insecticides and fungicides (32).
While thousands of species of insects live in the
forest, only a few cause enough damage to call for control
efforts. Seven classes of insects attack trees: bark
beetles., wood borers, leaf eaters, sucking insects, tip
feeders, gall makers, and seed feeders. Direct insect
control with chemicals is used when other methods fail (22).
Table 1 lists some of the common forest insects and the
principal species of trees affected,
The increasing need for establishing and growing timber
will necessitate use of more insecticides and fungicides to
protect against insects and disease damage. The trend
34
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Table 1.--Common forest insects that can be controlled with
insecticides
Name of insect
Gypsy moth
Sawflies
Spruce budworm
White pine weevi1
Tent caterpillar
Scales and Aphids (also
Spittle bugs)
Hemlock looper
Tussock moth
White grubs
Pales weevil
Principal tree species
affected
Oaks, birch, aspe:i
Eastern and Southern pines and
tamarack
True firs, Douglas fir
Eastern White pine, Norway spruce
Broadleaved trees (especially Northern
hardwoods and aspen)
All trees
Western hemlock
True firs, Douglas fir
Conifer seedlings
Pine seedlings .and saplings
Source: Essentials of Forestry Practice (22)
toward concentrated production of a limited number of
species provides conditions conducive to pest development
(32).
35
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Public Health Use
Insects transmit some of the major communicable
diseases of the world including malaria, yellow fever,
dengue, plague, and various types of encephalitis (19),
World Health Organization (WHO) authorities report that
insects cause half of all human deaths, sicknesses, diseases
and deformities. There are probably 10,000 kinds of mites,
ticks, and insects that infect man directly or indirectly
with disease (17). Table 2 lists some human diseases
transmitted by insects and other arthropods3 in the
Americas, and the insect vectors (carriers) responsible for
transmitting these diseases.
Insecticides have been a major factor in bringing these
diseases under control in many countries of the world. When
DDT was first introduced into India to fight malaria there
were over 75 million cases a year with nearly 5 million
deaths. Within 10 years of intensive spraying the total
incidence of malaria vas down to less than 5 million cases a
year and deaths had dropped to less than 100,000 a year
(3U). In the Soviet Union, malaria cases dropped from 35
million in 1946 to 13,000 in 1956, largely as a result of
insect spraying.
3/ The most important classes of arthropods are insectsr arachnids,
and crustaceans.
36
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Table 2.Selected human diseases transmitted by Arthropods in North,
Central, and South America
Disease
Vector
Chagas disease 3_/
Cholera I/
Colorado tick fever
Conjunctivitis
Dengue !_/
Dysentery, Amebic
Dysentery, Bacillary
Encephalitis St. Louis, Western,
Eastern, and Venezuelan
Leishmaniasis 3/
Malaria
Onchoceriasis 3/
Plague
Filariasis !_/
Relapsing fever
Rickettsialpox
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Tulareraia
Typhoid fever 2j
Typhus, Epidemic !_/
Typhus, Murine
Yellow fever 3/
Kissing bugs, Triatoma and related
species
Housefly
Hard ticks
Eye gnat
Mosquitoes
Houseily
Housefly
Mosquitoes
Sandflies
Mosquitoes
Black flies
Oriental rat flea and other fleas
Mosquitoes
Soft tick
House mouse mite
Hard ticks
Deerfly and Hard ticks
Housefly
Human body louse
Oriental rat flea
Mosquitoes
I/ Not known in U.S. at present.
2j Also spread oy other more important carriers.
3_/ Not in U.S. "out prevalent in Central and South America.
Source: Center for Disease Control (20)
Although malaria eradication has been achieved in many
parts of the world it was estimated in 1966 that a billion
people lived in countries where malaria was still a problem
and that 65,000 tons of insecticides, mainly DDT, would be
applied in houses during the year (17) .
37
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A survey of State Public Health officials throughout
the United States, to which U2 States replied, indicated
that sliqhtly more than half the States had some vector-
borne diseases in 1969, 1970, or 1971.* Many of these can
be controlled with insecticides. The diseases most
frequently mentioned were Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
which cannot be effectively controlled with insecticides,
and various types of encephalitis. Tularemia and plaque
were also mentioned. A number of malaria cases were
reported but these were brouqht in from other countries,
larqely by veterans returninq from Vietnam.
The Center for Disease Control of the U.S. Public
Health Service reported that malaria cases in the United
States in 1969 climbed to more than 2,000, larqely because
of infections in GI's returninq from Vietnam. The potential
for reintroduction of malaria into the United States has
increased because of reduction in the use of DDT and related
persistent insecticides for mosquito abatement. This has
resulted in a siqnificant climb in anopheline mosquito
numbers alonq the Gulf and the Atlantic coast as far north
as New Jersey (3U).
In areas where personal hyqiene and sanitary facilities
are inadequate, typhus can be controlled by dustinq people
with insecticides to kill the disease carryinq lice. Plaque
4/ Unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res. Serv.
38
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can be reduced by better sanitation and by judicious use of
rodenticides and insecticides to reduce rat and flea
populations in suspected areas.
The housefly is one of the all-time great germ carriers. Dysen-
tery, diarrhea, and other digestive troubles are often due to con-
tamination of food by houseflies (17). Kou?efl:es are believed to
have a part in the spread of pathogens causing cholera, yaws, trachoma,
typhoid fever and other serious human diseases.
Bees, wasps, hornets, and black widow spiders can be a serious
health hazard. The venom from bees and spiders cause painful
reactions and may even be fatal. Bed bugs, cockroaches, beetles,
and other insects may contribute to human discomfort or illness.
In 1900, public health workers used arsenicals, sulfur,
petroleum oils and pyrethrum. Later such materials as hydrocyanic
gas, lead and fluorine compounds and rotenone were also used (20).
World War II brought the chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT
in Switzerland and BHC in England and France. After the War,
chlordane, toxaphene, dieldrin, and aldrin became available.
The organophosphate insecticides were introduced and used in
vector control in the late 1940's. These included highly toxic
TEPP and parathion. Later less toxic broad spectrum organophos-
phate insecticides such as. malathion, diazinon, and ronnel were
tested and used by public health workers.(20).
-------
A very small share of the insecticides used in the United States
are for vector control. This can be attributed to several factors.
Most of the Nation is in the temperate zone where insect-borne diseases
are less likely to develop and many of the serious vector-borne
diseases have been brought under control through vaccination or other
means. However, in some tropical nations disease control constitutes
the nr:..jor use of insect: cic.es.
Other uses
Amonq other users of insecticides are Government
agencies, Federal, State, and local. They use pesticides
for plant, animal, and human disease control. Larqe
quantities are used for forests and parklands and for
special pest problems that cannot be dealt with effectively
through private efforts.
Many insects are plain nuisances as well as health or
agricultural problems. Mosquito control districts
throughout the nation control mosquitoes primarily because
of their nuisance characteristics. Many of these districts
are organized around a local Government unit such as a
county or city. In 1970, an estimated $75 to $100 million
was spent for mosquito control.5 This included the cost of
permanent water control structures as well as the expense
for insecticide application and materials,
40
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Disease Control
Many disease organisms are serious pests in
agricultural and industrial production. All are discussed
with fungi in pest control literature even though they are
biologically classified as fungi, molds, bacteria, viruses,
or other disease organisms. Fungus diseases can be very
destructive particularly in vegetable and fruit production.
Fungi also cause considerable damage to wood products.
Agricultural Use
Historically, fungi have been serious agricultural
pests. The Irish famine is blamed on a blight which
destroyed the potato crop, the mainstay of the Irish diet.
As indicated above, fungicides used in agriculture
include chemicals that control not only fungi but also
bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viral organisms. Fungi damage
plant leaves, fruits and other parts, and reduce plant vigor
and guality of output. Fungicides are used most frequently
on fruits and vegetables, usually to control diseases
exhibiting rust, scab, spot, or blight symptons. Among the
41
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more serious fungous problems affecting fruit are scab,
cedar rust, quince rust, bacterial spot, fire blight, bitter
rot, brown rot, black rot, peach yellows, cherry leaf spot,
sooty blotch, powdery mildew, blue mold, red stele, and
anthracnose. Other very serious fungous problems include
"damping-off" of seedlings, fusarium and verticillium wilts,
and rusts of small grains. Bordeaux mixture was developed
in response to the serious losses suffered by French grape
growers because of downy mildew. Corn blight in combination
with drought reduced the United States 1970 corn crop
approximately 10 percent, driving prices to recent record
highs. Without fungicides, commercial tomato production
might not be possible because of damage from early and late
blight.
Urban-Suburban Use
Fungicides are freguently used in urban-suburban areas
for controlling diseases of lawn grasses, fruit and
ornamental trees, and shrubs. Fruit trees grown in backyard
gardens are treated with fungicides to control the same
diseases that cause crop losses in commercial orchards.
Some ornamental trees, flowers, and shrubs also reguire
fungicide treatment.
42
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Industrial Use
Fungicides are widely used in industrial applications.
Fungicides made of mercury are put in paint to prevent
mildew and to provide antifouling properties for marine
purposes. They are also used in pulp and paper
manufacturing.
Copper sulfate is used in industrial plants as a
slimicide to prevent slime formation during manufacturing
processes. It is also used as an algicide in impounded
municipal water supplies. One city reportedly uses H
million pounds annually in its water (21).
Wood preservation accounts for large quantities of
fungicides. Fungi cause deterioration of telephone and
electric poles, fence posts, railroad ties/ wooden bridges,
and dock pilings. These are now treated with fungicides
that prevent such deterioration. Many wooden buildings are
treated with chemicals to prevent attacks by destructive
woodrotting fungi. Wood preservativesare also sometimes
included in some paint-like products such as redwood deck
stain. An estimated 600 million cubic feet of wood are treated annually
in the United States. Assuming that preservatives make wood last 50
years on the average, as compared with perhaps 10 years if untreated,
it can be said that wood preservatives conserve 480 million cubic feet
of wood a year (9).
43
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Other Uses
Trees are subject to many kinds of diseases, but
relatively few are serious enough to require direct control.
Some of the more destructive tree diseases are white pine
blister rust, chestnut blight, oak wilt, Dutch elm disease,
brown spot needle blight on long leaf pine seedlings, little
leaf disease on shortleaf pine, the heart rots, and dwarf
mistletoe on western conifers (22).
Although diseases of forest plants are very
destructive, fungicides are rarely used. However, some are
used for seed treatment. Dutch elm disease is important,
but control efforts center on the insect vector, Large
guantities of fungicides are used to prevent algal growth in
reservoirs, ponds and other aquatic areas.
Weed Control
Weeds present problems. They compete with crops for
nutrients and moisture, they interfere with the flow of
water and clog channels in irrigation and navigation canals,
44
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they form safety hazards along highways and railways, they
provide harborage for insect vectors of disease, and they
cause allergic reactions. Frequently, weeds can be
effectively controlled by mowing or other mechanical means.
However, herbicides can save many hours of tedious labor and
often provide better weed control at lower costs. In
addition, herbicides permit certain crop production
practices not otherwise possible. For example, the "no-
till11 concept of corn production, which depends on the use
of herbicides to control weeds formerly destroyed by
cultivation, has increased yields as much as 12 to 15
percent in some instances (16).
Agricultural Use
Herbicides are used by farmers to control weeds. They
are used selectively to destroy unwanted species and
nonselectively to retard growth of all vegetation in an
area. For instance, farmers used broad spectrum herbicides
to control vegetation in fence rows, irrigation ditches,
along creek banks and roadways. In contrast, they use
selective herbicides to kill undesirable species of weeds in
such crops as corn, wheat, hay, and pasture, The selective
herbicides may control pests classified as grasses or
45
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broadleaf weeds, annuals or perennials, before or after
emergence from the soil, and before or after the crop is
planted-
Herbicides are often less expensive substitutes for
cultivation. They avoid much toilsome labor and enable the
production process to be more completely mechanized. Some
weeds and brush can be economically controlled only by use
of herbicides. For example, weeds in broadcast crops such
as small grains cannot be removed by cultivation. In
pasture and ranqeland, brush cannot always be mowed.
Urban-Suburban Use
Herbicides are used in residential areas to insure
attractive lawns free of unsightly weeds and unwelcome
species of grass,, Among the major lawn pests are crabgrass,
dandelion, chickweed, plantain, knotweed, nutsedge,
cjuackgrass, tall fescue, nimblewill, Bermudagrass,
bentgrass, and velvetgrass. Sometimes even clovers are
unwanted in a lawn and are kept down by herbicides (30).
Herbicides are used on other turf areas to control many
of the same weeds that are troublesome in lawns.
Maintaining high quality turf is based on the use of
selective herbicides.
46
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Industrial Use
Industry uses herbicides for the same general reasons
as the homeowner—to protect property against weeds and
brush. Railroads use herbicides on their rights-of-way to
replace or supplement removal of weeds by burning and manual
or mechanical methods. Utility companies maintain their
riqhts-of-way with herbicides. Grounds surrounding offices
and factories are made attractive with the aid of selective
herbicides. Many roadsides have been beautified by planting
shrubbery. Often these areas cannot be mowed, but weeds may
be controlled with herbicides, While use of herbicides in
forest pest control is somewhat more frequent than for
insecticides and fungicides still only a small portion of
the forest is treated with herbicides in any given year
(32) . Much of this is used to control undesirable plant
species and weeds in new plantings. The herbicides have
also helped to prevent fire by reducing growth of
combustible plant materials on firebreaks and along forest
roads (8).
Herbicides make important contributions to safety. The
application of herbicides along rail lines to control weeds
helps assure safety of railway travel. The control of brush
along utility lines, railroads, and highways is essential to
good visibility, ease of inspection, and protection of
47
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wires. This operation requires a tremendous amount of labor
if done by hand.
Public Health Use
Poison ivy, poison oak, ragweed, and some other weeds
produce toxins and allergenic pollens. In the United
States, poison ivy and poison oak cause nearly 2 million
cases of skin poisoning and other skin irritations annually,
for an estimated loss of 333,000 working days (8). In
addition, these weeds cause 3.7 million days of restricted
activity among those people who are susceptible to the
toxins. Modern herbicides can keep these allergenic
producing plants under control.
Herbicides also play an important role in bringing
disease transmitting pests under control. For example, a
pilot program was planned in Africa to eradicate the tsetse
fly—the vector of sleeping sickness. Recent findings
indicate that, the best possibilities may lie in integrated
control programs involving the use of herbicides to reduce
growth of the brush essential to the fly's survival;
insecticides to minimize the fly population, and then the
release of sterile male flies to interrupt the reproductive
cycle (8).
48
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Other Uses
Government agencies are responsible for controlling
general weed and brush problems particularly in public
areas, such as forests, aguatic sites of various kinds,
institutional surroundings, and recreational areas.
Weed and brush control in noncropland and public forest
and aguatic areas is very important, Aguatic areas offer
particularly favorable conditions for weed and brush growth.
Waterweeds clog irrigation and drainage canals, interfere
with navigation, and reduce the numbers and production of
fish and other wildlife. Improved water flow has been
obtained by the use of certain chemicals on vegetation that
causes flooding. This also conserves and promotes better
management of water resources (8). Aguatic weeds pose
unigue control problems since often the roots, trunk, and
even leaves of. the plant may be protected from the herbicide
by water.
Recreational areas have been improved by checking
unwanted vegetation. Managed preserves for wildlife and
fishing areas have been improved by use of vegetation-
control chemicals to produce more favorable sites (8).
Herbicides are used along highways to keep them safe
49
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and attractive. Mowing is the chief means of highway weed
control, but herbicides reach areas that are inaccessible to
mechanical mowers—around guardrails, abutments, bridges,
signs, and trees or shrubbery.
Other Pest Controls
A mixed lot of other pests lend themselves to control
with pesticide chemicals, The most common ones in this
category are rodents, particularly rats. These animals can
be carriers of such dread diseases as plague and may cause
serious damage to stored crops, In parts of the Orient, it
is estimated that rats destroy a significant share of all
rice and other cereal crops produced (17), Certain animals
such as skunks, foxes, and wolves transmit rabies. Birds
can be pests on the basis of three criteria—economic,
health, and nuisance.
Plant parasitic nematodes occur in all soils. When
land is brought under intensive cultivation, nematodes often
become a serious problem.
50
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Agricultural Use
Rodenticides are used to control rodents which not only
damage growing crops, but also livestock, stored crops and
buildings. Such rodents include rats, mice, rabbits, and
chipmunks. Miticides prevent damage to plant foliage from
mites. Nematocides and soil sterilants are used against
nematodes and other soil pests that attack roots, tubers,
stems, and fruits. Soil fumigation of California citrus
orchards with d ichlorobromopropene to control nematodes has
increased the yield of lemons by 22 percent and of oranges
by 33 percent (16). A 37 percent increase in grapefruit
yields was also observed in Arizona.
Nematocides are used on crops producing high returns
per acre, such as tobacco, vegetables and fruits. In North
Carolina, tobacco losses due to nematodes in 1955 were
estimated at $24 million or 6 percent of the value of the
crop. The 1965 data compiled by the Cotton Disease Council
set the average cotton losses due to nematodes in all cotton
growing States at 1,7 percent. Sugar beet losses in
California in 1951 were estimated at about 10 percent (50).
A number of the chemicals classed as pesticides are
51
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used by farmers not only on pests but to requlate plant
growth and to aid in crop harvesting.
Defoliants and desiccants are used as harvesting aids,
mainly on cotton, to facilitate mechanical harvesting and
reduce trash residues. Growth regulators were first used to
control suckers on tobacco, and are now used to control
fruit set, prevent preharvest fruit drop, encourage higher
yields of some crops and produce longer flower stems.
Growth regulators are widely used by producers of
horticultural specialities.
Urban-Subugban Use
The problems associated with rats, mice and other
vertebrate animals often increase in concentrated living
areas. Some communities have organized rodent and bird
control programs because of the disease threat they pose and
because of their nuisance characteristics.
Across the country several thousand persons are bitten
annually by rats, usually helpless infants and defenseless
adults. Such attacks can be terrifying and can have long
lasting emotional effects. In addition, rats cause damage
to urban structures and destroy large amounts of food by
consuming or contaminating it.
52
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Rodenticides and bird repellants are used extensively
in urban and suburban areas to keep these pest populations
under control,
Nematocides are used on turf areas, on golf courses,
swimming club grounds, and garden centers, Lawns, home
gardens, and other small plots can usually be treated at a
relatively small cost (50).
Public Health Use
Some vertebrate animals become public health pests when
they transmit disease or otherwise threaten man. Of all
diseases transmitted to man by animals, rabies is one of the
most frightening. The movement from urban into rural areas
has placed more people in close association with animals
susceptible to rabies. These animals include skunks, foxes,
coyotes, and bats. Rats and mice have been health problems
throughout history. Rats have been responsible for many
serious plague epidemics.
Certain field rodents, such as ground sguirrels,
constitute an important reservoir of plague in the Western
United States. The occurrence of plague epizootics markedly
increases the chance of transmission to man. In such cases
control is indicated. Five specific chemicals commonly used
53
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for this prupose are: anticoagulants, zinc phosphide,
sodium fluoroacetate, strychnine, and thallium sulfate (17)
Other Uses
Pesticide chemicals are important in the management of
wildlife. For example, fish hatcheries employ some 95
different chemicals, about 50 of which are registered
pesticides (32). Chemical products are used to control
trash fish in reservoirs, ponds, irrigation canals, rivers
and other aquatic areas. They are also used to control such
pests as the sea lamprey in the Great Lakes (8).
Rodenticides are used in newly seeded forest acres.
Tree debarking chemicals are used extensively on timber to
be harvested for paper manufacturing.
KINDS AND QUANTITIES OF PESTICIDES USED
Effective chemical control of pests is of relatively
recent origin. Early chemical pesticides, which came into
widespread use about 1900, included arsenicals, sulfur,
petroleum oils, and pyrethrunu DDT was the first of the
54
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modern array of synthetic organic pesticides. Its
insecticidal properties were discovered in 1939 and it
attained wide use durinq World War II, Since then, a large
number of synthetic organic pesticides have nearly replaced
the inorganic materials.
More than 1,000 basic chemicals are formulated into
about 50,000 registered commercial pesticide products (6).
What follows discusses major kinds of pesticides, their
principal uses, and their major areas of use.
National Use ofPgsticides
Pesticides are used throughout the United States,
Total annual use in the United States in recent years is
estimated at between 750 and 800 million pounds. Farmers
are the major consumers of pesticides in the Unites States
and account for slightly more than half of the domestic use.
Other important users are homeowners, industry, and
Governments,
Agricultural Use
Expenditures by farmers for pesticides have been rising rapidly in
recent years from $287 million in 1960 to nearly $900 million in 1970,
55
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an increase of about 210 percent (Table 3). Much of this increase is
due to rapid adoption of herbicides.
Table 3. Farmers' expenditures for pesticides in the
United States, 1960-70
Year
1960-
1961-
1962-
1964---
1965---
1967---
1968---
1969---
1970---
Expenditures
Million dollars
287
436
1/489
" 528
2/561
786
899
If Farmers' Pesticide Expenditures for Crops, Livestock,
and" Other Selected Uses in 1964, U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res.
Serv., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 145, Oct. 1968.
2/ Farmers' Pesticide Expenditures in 1966, U.S. Dcpt. Agr.,
Econ. Res. S-rv., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 192, Sept. 1970.
Source: (28)
Estimates indicate that farmers used 410 million pounds of
pesticides in 1969 (Table U). This total consisted of 200 million
pounds of insecticides (including rodenticides, miticides, and
fumiqants), 175 million pounds of herbicides (including defoliants,
desiccants, and growth regulators), and 35 million pounds of fungicides.
Insecticides and fungicides were estimated to have increased only
slightly from 1966 levels, but herbicide use in 1969 was apparently
40 percent greater than in 1966. These estimates do not include
56
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TabJr 4. --Pesticide use by farmers, United States,
1966 and estimated 1969
Type of pesticide
T n ^ f* c 1" i t * i rl ^ f {-\ /
HP Th i o i rl ^> Q 7 / _ ..
Tnt a 1
Acres treated
1966
I/
1969
I/
Million acres
45
107
5
i 0/125
50
120
5
10/140
'Percentage
' increase
' 1966-69
Percent
11
12
i/
12
Active ingredients I/
1966 : 1969
4_/ : 5_/
Million jiounds
195 200
125 175
33 35
353 410
• Percentage
increase
: 1966-69
Percent
3
40
6
16
\J All pesticides other than sulfur and petroleum.
2/ Extent of Farm Pesticide Use on Crops in 1966, U.S. Bept. Agr., Econ. Res. Serv.,
Agr. Econ. Rpt. 147, Oct. 1968.
_3/ Estimated that acres treated for weed control increased from 1966 follows:
Corn, 15 percent; soybeans, 35 percent; wheat, 7 percent; sorghum, 17 percent; and
cotton, 15 percent. Estimated that com acres treated for insect control increase
18 percent from 1966.
4_/ Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers in 1966, U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res.
Serv., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 179, Apr. 1970.
S/ Assured that farm use was the same proportion of manufacturer's sales of
synthetic organic pesr.ic.idcs as in 1966.
£/ Includes insecticides, soil and space fumigants, miticides, rodenticides,
and repellents.
7/ Includes herbicides, defoliants, dessirants, and plant growth regulators.
~&/ Includes all pest-, cides used for controlling diseases.
9/ The percentage increase in acres was estimated to be about the same as the
ingredients, 6 percent. Because of rounding the change was not apparent in the
acres treated.
10/ The land area treated is less than the sum of that treated with
specific types of pesticides because several types were used on the same
acrea.
Source: (U.S. House of Representatives (32)
sulfur or petroleum which are also used in large quantities as
pesticides.
57
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In 1966, the latest year for which detailed farm pesticide
quantity data are available, farmers used 353 million poxmds of
pesticide, 51 percent of all used in the United States (Table 5) .
This included 27 percent of the fungicides, 55 percent of the
herbicides and 57 percent of the insecticides used in the Nation
!
that year.
Table 5.--ij.se
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Farm Products on Which Pesticides are Used—
Of the 353 million pounds of agricultural pesticides used
by farmers in 1966, about 93 percent was used on growing crops
(Table 6). Of the remainder, 'about half was used for treating
livestock.
Table G-—Farm use of pesticides for different purposes,
United States, 1966
Iteir,
Crops
Livestock—
Other uses-
All uses-
Active \ Percentage of all
ingredients I/ \ ingredients
Million
pounds
328
12
13
Percent-
100
!_/ Does not include sulfur and petroleum.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
Cotton and corn accounted for 26 percent and 22 percent
respectively—nearly half of all crop pesticides used (Table 7).
All other crops were far behind these two. The next highest use
on crops was apples which accounted for 6 percent of all pesticides
used in 1966.
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Table 7.— -Leading crops in terms of qiumtitic'r, of ail pesticides
used, United States, 1966
Crop
Cotton
Corn
Apples
Tobacco
Peanuts
Vegetables
Soybeans
V?beat
Citrus
(All others)-—
Total
Active
ingredients
Percentage: of
total-
Million
86
Y'^
'19
17
16
16
1)4
9
8
69
328
Percent
26
22
6
5
5
5
It
3
3
21
100
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
The ranking of crops in terms of dollars spent on them for
pesticides differed condiderably from the ranking of quantity used
on then. Corn was
the leading crop with cotton, soybeems, vegetables, and apples following
in that order (Table 8) - Corn and soybeans rank hicjher on the expenditure
scale because of the large quantities of herbicides used on these
crops. On the average, herbicides cost more per pound than insecticides
or fungicides.
GO
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Table 7.—Leading crops in terms of quantities of all pesticides
used, United States, 1966
Crop
Cotton
Corn
Apples
Tobacco
Peanuts
Vegetables—
Soybeans
Wheat
Citrus
(All others)-
Total
Active
ingredients
Percentage of
total
Million
pounds
19
17
16
16
Ik
9
8
69
328
Percent
26
22
6
5
5
5
k
3
3
21
100
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
Types of Pesticides Used on Cropjs—Besides being the major
users of fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides, farmers
also use other pesticides such as nematocides, fumigants, miticides,
defoliants and desiccants, growth regulators, and rodenticides. Less
than a dozen products accounted for more than half of all pesticides
used by farmers in 1966. In terms of quantities of material,
insecticides formed the leading crop pesticide group in 1966 with
138 million pounds, or 42 percent of all pesticides (Table 9). But
herbicide use increased rapidly from 76 million pounds in 1964 to
112 million pounds in 1966 and by 1966 the amount spent for
herbicides for crop use exceeded that spent for insecticides, viz.,
$243 million as compared with $195 million (Table 10).
61
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Table 9.—Quantities of pesticides used on crops by type of pesticide,
United States, L966
Tvpe of
pesticide
Active
ingredients
Million
138
112
30
30
18
328
' Percentage of
total
Percent^
9
9
6
100
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
Table _LQ •—Expend.' tores for pesticides used on crops by type of pesticide,
United States, 1966
Type of
pe ;;!icide
Defoliants and de sice ants
Soil fum. itr ant s— • — -.——.-
Expenditures
MilJ ion
dollars
21*3
195
33
12
f,
5
12
506
Percentage of
total
Percent
1(8
39
7
2
1
1
2
100
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (2)
62
-------
Cotton and corn were the leading crops for insecticide use in
1966. Cotton accounted for 65 million pounds or U7 percent of all
crop insecticides. The relative importance of cotton was even greater
in 196U when it accounted for about 55 percent of all crop insecticides.
The more important insecticide products used on farm crops in 1966
were: toxaphene, 31 trillion pounds; DDT, 26 million pounds; aldrin,
15 million pounds; and carbaryl, 12 million pounds. These U products
accounted for about 60 percent of all insecticides used by farmers in
1966. In terms of land area treated, the leading insecticides was
aldrin which was used on 13.8 million acres. This compares with only
5.U million acres for toxaphene. (see appendix tables 1 and 2)
A 1970 survey of agricultural specialists indicated that leading
insecticides used on cotton that year were methyl parathion and
toxaphene; on corn the leading products in 1970 were Bux-, aldrin,
and phorate; for apples, guthion and parathion. DDT was not
listed among the leading insecticides used on any major crop in 1970, The
1970 use differed from 1966, when DDT was the second place cotton
insecticide and Bux and phorate were not yet listed as corn
insecticides.
A total of some 46 million pounds or 41 percent of all herbicides was user
on corn in 1966. No other crop approached this
quantity. During 1966 pasture and rangeland and soybeans each accounted for 9
percent of the herbicides.
63
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The two leading herbicides used on farm crops in 1966 were
2,1-D (10 million pounds) and atrazine (24 million pounds). These
two accounted for about 55 percent of herbicide materials used by
farmers. In 1966, specialists estimated that herbicide rankings for
individual crops in 1970 were generally similar to 1966, although levels
of use were higher.
Fungicides are used chiefly on fruits, vegetables, an on certain
field crops, such as peanuts. In 1966, apples accounted for
8.5 million pounds of fungicides, 28 percent of all those used by
farmers. The leading fungicides in 1966 were zineb, captan, and
maneb.
Miscellaneous pesticides include such long established ones as
rodenticides and fumigants, and some newer ones. Plant hormones,
for example, are currently used for tobacco sucker control and for
fruit setting and thinning purposes. Defoliants
and desiccants are major items used as harvest aids particularly in cotton
production.
In 1966, cotton took a major share of the miscellaneous pesticides
accounting for 1*» million pounds, or 30 percent, of all the
miscellaneous pesticides used on crops by farmers in the United
States,
Leading pesticide products in the miscellaneous category
included the fumigants—D-D mixture (li», 0 million pounds) and
64
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sulfur dioxide (8.3 million pounds); the defoliants DEP and Polex
(4.2 million pounds), and the growth regulator maleic hydrazide
(3.1 million pounds). ln terins of land area treated, the leading
products were DEF and Polex.
Pesticide Use on Livestock--Farmers spent about
$30 million for about 12.5 million pounds of livestock pesticides in 1966.
Pesticides used on livestock were mostly insecticides—10.8 million
pounds (Table 11). Beef cattle accounted for the major share of the
6.2 million pounds or 57 percent of all livestock insecticides and
Table 11.—Insecticides used on selected kinds of livestock, United States,
1966
Kind of
livestock
Active
ingredients
Million pounds
& ?
-------
Table 12.—Leading insecticides used on livestock, United States, 1966
Insecticide
•y
Active
ingredients
Million pounds
•3 7
->• 1
1 5
q
1
h 0
10 8
: Percentage of
: total
Percent
3h
lU
8
7
07
100
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
Urban-Suburban Use
Pesticides are usually used in households in small
containers and often in aerosol cans. Most of the 100
million pressurized aerosol containers of insect spray
produced in 1969 were probably used by homeowners (9).
Sales of household insecticides and repellents rose from $86
million at manufacturers prices in 1958 to $130 million in
1967 (Table 13). Estimates for 1968 indicate $150 million.
66
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Pesticide preparations for household, lawn and garden
pest control had a total retail value of $200 million in
1965. This increased to $298 million by 1970 and is
expected to reach $
-------
Table 1)4.----Estimated extent and cost of chemical
weed control on lawns and turf, United
States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968
Year
Acres
treated
Million
acres
0.1
1.1
Cost of
herbicide
and
applications
Million
dollars
1.5
5.^
6.8
.7
Source: (30) and unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr. ,
Agr. Res. Serv., Econ. Res. Serv. , and
Fed. Exten. Serv.
Industrial Use
The value of pesticides used by industrial firms,
institutions, and governments rose from about $110 million
in 1965 to an estimated $300 million in 1970, Spending for
pesticides by these units is expected to exceed $400 million
by 1975.7
Pesticides control pests in and around plant and
warehouse sites, and also enter manufacturing process as
inputs, Copper sulfate is an important industrial fungicide
and is widely used as a slimicide and algicide, More than
50 million pounds were used for industrial purposes in 1969.
7/ 3bid.
68
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In 1969 about 721,000 pounds of mercury were used
in paint to provide protection against mildew. Another
19,000 pounds went into marine paint to provide antifouling
protection and 42,000 pounds into paper and pulp
manufacturing (9).
An estimated total of 600 million cubic feet of wood
are treated annually for disease control in the United
States. The major pesticides used by industrial firms to
treat lumber and fencing materials for rot prevention are
creosote and pentachlorophenol (9).
Pest control in structures is an important and growing
business. The pest control or exterminating industry treats
insects and animal pests that may be destructive to real
estate and other property, stored food, or detrimental to
health, comfort, and well being. Major pests include
termites, rats, mice and cockroaches, fleas, ticks, wasps,
pantry pests, birds—and such animals as skunks and bats
(32). A substantial number of firms provide services to
control such pests. Some data about these firms are shown
below (26).
69
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Item 1963 1967
Number of pest control and
exterminating firms 3,255 3,495
Gross receipts of these firms $219,214,000 $296,580,000
Payroll per year 94,428,000 130,673,000
Number of paid employees 20,329 24,014
Most of these firms use organochlorine insecticides to
provide low cost, long lasting termite protection.
Chlordane is a principal insecticide for
termite control. Its persistence permits continuous
protection with infrequent treatment. No estimates are
available of the amounts of chlordane employed for treating
structures, but it is believed that quantities used for nonfarm
purposes, including structures, substantially exceed agricultural
use which was 526,000 pounds in 1966.
Railroads, electrical utilities, telephone, gas transmission
companies, and other utiliites are large users of herbicides for
maintaining brush-free rights-of-way. It is estimated that, in
1969, utility companies treated about 6 million acres with either
2,4-D or 2,4,5-T. They also used substantial quantities of other
herbicides, both inorganic and organic.
Industry spokesman estimate that private use of herbicides
on forests is about four times as great as Government
use (32). Estimated herbicide costs for treated
70
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forest plantings were about $6.2 million in 1968 (Table 15).
Table 15.—Estimated cost and extent of chemical weed control, selected uses.
United States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968
Type or area
Forest plantings —
Acres treated
1959 ; 1962
— — Mi* 111 nn
2.0 3.6
0
. -J
2.0 3-9
; 1965
3.3
.1
.1
3.5
: 1968
1.6
.5
.2
2.3
Cost of herbicide and
° applications
1 1959 ! 1962
19.7 83.7
2.8
19.7 86.5
: 1965
68.5
1.5
1.9
71-9
; 1968
26.8
6.2
k.h
37. U
Source: (30) and unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. , Econ. Res. Serv. ,
and Fed. Exten. Serv.
A survey by Dr. Norman Johnson of the Weyerhaeuser
Company reported that of 28 million acres managed by U3
industrial owners in the south, only 186,000 acres were
treated with herbicides in 1969. This is only 0.7 percent
of the acreage surveyed (32).
Estimates for 1968 show that over 450,000 acres of
forest plantings (including commercial plantings) were
treated with pesticides at a cost of over $6 million. This
cost included the materials and their application.
71
-------
fublj.c Health .use
Health officials have relied on a variety of techniques
for controlinq disease vectors. Chemical disease vector
controls are largely of recent origin. However, only a
small share of the pesticides used in the United States are
devoted to disease control.
In 1971, a large area of Texas and parts of Louisiana and Mexico
were sprayed with malathion to check the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitic
(VEE) epidemic (about 8.4 million acres as indicated by requests received
from January 1 through August by the Federal Working Group on Pest Management,
Subcommittee on Pesticides, President's Cabinet Committee on the Environment).
This disease occurs in horses and people but the horses are much more
susceptible. At a rate of 3 ounces per acre the area treated for this
epidemic required about 1.5 million pounds.
A survey of U2 public health offices in the United
States showed that many States do have vector disease
programs and use pesticides for disease vector control.8
Slightly less than half of the States reported the use of
pesticides for specific disease control efforts, but nearly
all States had spray programs to control mosquitoes for
nuisance as well as health reasons. Quantity data for these
programs are not available, but the insecticide most
frequently used in the mosquito or other vector spray
program was malathion. Abate, Fenthion, and naled were also
8/ Unpublished data U.fi. Dept. Ags., Econ. Res. Serv.
72
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frequently mentioned. A few states, reporting en
quantitites, indicated that rates were generally only a few
ounces per acre, much of it applied in ultra low volume
(OLV) formulations. Both air and ground equipment were used
in applying the mosquito or other vector control materials.
About 2 percent of the insecticides sold in California
in 1970 were used for vector control («). other estimates
indicate that $75 to $100 million is spent annually in the
United States on organized mosquito control programs.
Special large-scale applications for control of major
vector-borne diseases in the United States are used when
threats develop.
Other Uses
Government agencies at the Federal, State, and local
level are also important pesticide users. They use
pesticides in and around their facilities and on public
lands for all kinds of purposes. In addition they have
major responsibility for controlling disease vectors and
frequently for other area-wide pest problems.
Use by. !§3§.ral Government Agencies9—Most Federal
9/ Unpublished data^Presidents Cabinet Committee on the Environment,
73
-------
agencies request review of specific pesticide use projects
from the President's cabinet committee on the Environment—
working Group on pesticides.
In the first 8 months of 1971, the Committee received
over 3,000 individual pesticide use requests frcm more than
a dozen different Federal gencies. These requests were for
the use of pesticides on over 2', million acres of land.
This is equivalent to about a sixth of the acreage treated
by farmers in 1966. However, the average rate cf pesticide
use by farmers is probably much higher than that by
government agencies. For example, the malathion used by
USDA in the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE) Program was
applied in ULV formulations at the rate of about. 3 ounces
per acre.
The 1971 acreage of land treated with pesticides under
Federal programs was unusually high because of the VEE
epidemic. This program covered 8. U million of the 21
million acres of land treated in all government programs.
The fire ant program in 9 Southern States accounted for 6
million acres.
The major Federal agencies submitting pesticide use
projects for review were the Department of Agriculture,
Interior, and Defense, The Department of Agriculture
requests involved 16,7 million acres or about 80 percent of
the total Federal use. It was responsible for carrying out
74
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both the VEE and the fire ant programs.
Also included under USDA were the gypsy moth and other
pest control programs of the Forest Service. The Department
of Interior was second with 2.7 million acres and the
Department of Defense third with 1.2 million acres.
The leading chemical involved, malathion, was
sprayed in ULV form on nearly all of the acreage in the VEE
program, A small amount of naled was also used. Malathion
was also used extensively for other Federal insect control
programs. Mirex for the fire ant program was the second
ranking material in terms of acres involved. Its use was
requested on 6.0 million acres. More than 600,000 Federal
acres were treated with 2,4-D for weeds ranging from
marijuana plants in the Midwest to sage brush in the Rocky
Mountains.
Other insecticides requested for use on substantial
acreages included carbaryl—over 500,000 acres and naled—
over 300,000, Zectran is another that is gaining favor as
an insecticide with the Forest Service.
In fiscal year 1969, the Forest Service sprayed 268,068
acres for the control of noxious weeds or woody vegetation.
This included about 83,000 acres treated with 2,4,5-T either
alone or in a mixture with 2,U-D. There currently are no
75
-------
effective alternatives to 2,4,5-T to control certain species
of undesirable woody vegetation, such as mesquite-
In Forest Service sponsored programs, the
insecticide-fumigant, ethylene dibromide, is the most common
pesticide used. In 1970, about 310,000 pounds of
insecticides and fumigants were used for forest insect
control. By far the largest item was ethylene dibromide,
235,000 pounds, Fenitrothion and carbaryl followed with
51,000 pounds and 1U,000 pounds respectively. In the first
quarter of 1971, the Forest Service requested the use of
insecticide products on more than 700,000 acres of forest
land. Of this, 375,000 acres was intended for gypsy moth
control with carbaryl. Malathion is also frequently used.
Use of DDT has been terminated, but Zectran is being tested
as a replacement for budworm control.
Use by Other Government Agencies--The major herbicide
chemical used by highway departments are 2,U-D and 2,4,5-T,
However, the use of 2,4,5-T has been reduced considerably.
Other chemicals sometimes used in highway rights-of-way
weed control include simazine and dalapon. Growth
retardants on highway weeds are not much used because they
are expensive and not very effective.
76
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Regional Use of Pesticides
Cropping patterns and climatic conditions greatly
affect the need for pesticides. The warm moist areas of the
South are very favorable to pest growth. Pesticides are
used in all regions, but most heavily in the Central,
Southern, and Pacific regions.
The Corn Belt used more pesticides on farms in 1966
than any other farm production region in the United States.
It accounted for 68 million of the 353 million pounds of
pesticides used by farmers, or nearly 20 percent of the
total. The Southeast region came next with 59 million
pounds (table 16). The Mountain region used only 16 million
pounds or less than 5 percent of the United States farm
total.
Herbicides were used most extensively in the Corn Belt,
35 million pounds or 32 percent of all those used on farms
in the United States. The Northern Plains and Corn Belt
regions used the largest share of 2,U-D. Atrazine was also
most used in the Corn Belt with 10.0 million pounds or U2.5
percent of the United States total. The Delta States were
leading users of trifluralin.
10/ The United States is divided into 10 production regions in the
following discussion. The States included in each region are(Shown
in the map on figure 1.
77
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Table j_g.—Farm pesticide use, by farm production region. United States, 1966 I/
Regi on
Pn-rn "RfO t
CO
Ttol+Q _ ________ — —
Fungicides
6.8
3.U
5-1*
.8
3.3
5.2
.6
1.8
.k
2.8
30.5
: Herbicides
6.2
11.6
35.*
lit. 9
5.2
5.0
6.1
7.5
6.3
1U.1
112. It
Crops
: Insecticides
7-0
U.5
21.5
U.5
10.8
35. U
21.8
16.0
7.0
9-1
137-6
: Other :
pounds active
0.7
.6
.7
.1
11.1
11.2
1.6
2.2
.8
18.7
1+7-7
:
Crops
t ot al
20.7
20.2
63.1
20.3
30. It
56.7
30.1
27-5
lit. 3
U it. 8
328.1
Livestock '
1.1*
.9
3.3
1.5
.7
1.1
• 7
1.3
1.1
.5
12.5
Other
0.9
_2
1.3
1.3
6.2
1.6
.2
.2
• 5
.2
12.6
: Total all
: uses
22.9
21.3
67-7
23.1
37-1+
' 59-it
31.0
29.0
15-9
^5.5
353.2
I/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (6)
-------
It. S. DEPARTMENT OF ACRICULTUli E
NEC. ERS 1399-62 (B> ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE
Figure /
Farmers in the Southeast region were the major users of
insecticides. About 35 million pounds or 26 percent of all
farm insecticides used in the United States were applied in
this region. The southeast region was the primary target
for both toxaphene and DDT, accounting for 4U and 42
percent, respectively, of total United States use of these
two chemicals. The Delta States region ranked second in the
use of both toxaphene and DDT,
Nearly all of the aldrin, 88 percent, was applied in
the Corn Belt. The southern Plains and Pacific regions were
important for parathion, while the South generally used most
of the methyl parathion.
79
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Fungicide use was concentrated in the Northeast, Corn
Belt, and Southeast regions. Zineb was used primarily in
the Corn Belt; captan in the Northeast, Appalachian and the
Lake States regions. Copper fungicides were used most
heavily in the Southeast.
Pesticide Use by States
Until recent years, little information was available on
pesticide use by States. But growing concern over the use
of these products in the last few years caused several
States to begin gathering some detailed information,
particularly for agricultural uses.
Agricultural Use
Farm pesticide expenditures are estimated annually for
States by the United States Department of Agriculture.
Preliminary estimates of combined State data places farmers
pesticide purchases for 1970 at nearly $900 million. These
data are based on benchmarks and are updated annually on the
basis of information from pesticide manufacturers and other
sources.
80
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California was the leading State in the 1970 use of
pesticides with an expenditure of $115 million, about 13
percent of the national total. Other important States, but
considerably behind California were: Florida with $58
million, Texas with $56 million, and Illinois and Iowa each
with $UO million. States that spent less than $2 million on
pesticides in 1970 were Vermont, Rhode Island and Nevada.
The distribution of pesticide purchases by farmers has
shifted since 1955. But California was first, Florida was
second and Texas was third in both 1955 and 1970.
California had a slightly smaller share of the total in 1970
than in 1955. In 1955 North Carolina and Mississippi ranked
fourth and fifth. In 1970 Iowa and Illinois ranked fourth
and fifth and they were 21st and 24th in 1955. The
proportion of the Nation's expenditures for pesticides has
decreased in the South and East and increased in the
Midwest. This shift is largely due to a decrease in cotton
acreage in the Southeast and a large increase in the use of
weed and insect control chemicals on field crops in the
Midwest.
Information for the 5 Lake States (Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) indicates that farmers
there treated 36 million acres in 1970, Nearly all of the
treated acres were corn and soybeans, 21 million acres and
10 million acres, respectively. Small grains accounted for
81
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4 million acres and other crops for about 1 million acres.
In terms of area covered including multiple applications,
pesticides were used on 50 million acres in 1970. Of this,
/
38 million acres were treated for weeds, 11 million acres
for insects and 1 million for diseases.
Important herbicides used on corn in the 5 Lake States
in 1970 were atrazine (17,3 million acres), 2,4-D (4.5
million acres), propachlor (4,0 million acres), and atrazine
with oil (2.5 million acres). Leading herbicides used on
soybeans were amiben (4.6 million acres), trifluralin (1.6
million acres), and arachlor (1.1 million acres). For small
grain the leading herbicides were 2, 4-D (1.9 million acres)
and MCPA (1.5 million acres).
Insecticides most used in 1970 on corn were aldrin (4.7
million acres), phorate (1.5 million acres), Bux-Ten (1.4
million acres) and heptachlor (1.00 million acres). Only
small amounts of insecticides were used on small grains and
hay in the 5 Lake States, These included carbaryl and
ma lathion. Diazinon and methoxychlor were used on hay.
Census of Agriculture data for 1969 were available for
only 13 States, mostly in the Central and Northeast sections
of the country when this report was being prepared. In
increased markedly from 1964 to 1969. The use of insecticides
increased from 3.0 million acres in 1964 to 16.4 million in 1969,
82
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the use of herbicides from 38.6 million acres to 49-7
million (25),
Biqqest gains for insecticides were in Illinois and
Iowa. These two States rose from 0.2 million acres treated
with insecticides in 1964 to 8.6 million acres in 1969.
Insecticide use actually declined from 1964 to 1969 in
Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
Herbicide use increased the most in Illinois, from 5.5
million acres in 1964 to 9.3 million in 1969. Pennsylvania
showed a slight drop in weed treated acreage from 1964 to
1969.
Urban-Suburban Use
About 2 million acres of lawns and about 1.7 million
acres of other turf areas received herbicide treatment in
1968 at an average cost of about $30 per acre.* * Over 75
percent of the herbicides used on other turf areas were
applied on golf courses, race tracks, stadiums and the like.
The State of California has compiled pesticide data for
residential use in 1970 based on sales permits or licenses.
The data are not complete because certain pesticides used on
an infrequent basis and in small quantities require no
ll/ Unpublished data U.S. Dppt. Agr., Agr. Res. Sery., Econ. Res,
Serv., and Fed. Exten. Serv. and (30).
83
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permit or licensed applicator. Nevertheless, they show that at least
2.2 million pounds of herbicides were used and 411,000 pounds of
insecticides.
Industrial Use
The data collected in 1970 by the State of California
indicate chlordane was the most frequently used
pesticide for pest control in structures, accounting for
550,000 pounds or 56 percent of all such pesticide use.
Methyl bromide was second with about a third as much as
chlordane. Almost 1 million pounds of pesticides were used
for control of pests in structures in California during
1970.
METHOD, FORMULATION, AND SEASON OF APPLICATION
Pesticides come in many different formulations, both dry
and liquid, and are applied with a number of kinds of ground
and air application devices. Timing depends on the use, but
an appreciable share of pesticides is applied during the
summer months.
84
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Agricultural Use
Application of Pesticides
Agricultural pesticides are most commonly applied with
either ground or aerial equipment. Ground equipment is
usually used when farmers apply their own pesticides and
when application is made in the early growth stages. Air
equipment is more likely to be used for broadcast crops, for
row crops in the later stages of growth, and for fields and
areas that are difficult to cover with ground equipment.
Some indication of the type of equipment used can be
gained by determining how much pesticides farmers apply
themselves and how much is custom applied. Nearly all
farmers use ground equipment when applying the material
themselves. However, much of the custom-applied materials
is put on with air equipment,
A 1964 study indicates that about a fourth of the
farmers' pesticides were applied by custom operators (15).
Custom treatment of crops ranged from 5 percent for apples
and summer fallow to 80 percent- for grains other than wheat.
A series of weed control studies indicates that custom
85
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application of herbicides rose slightly from 1959 to 1968.
Custom weed treated acreage increased from 26.6 percent to
31.<4 percent of the total during this period.»* Of the
custom applied pesticide materials used by farmers in 1964,
30 percent was applied with ground equipment and 70 percent
with air equipment.
If ground equipment is used for nearly all farmer
applied material, than about 20 percent of all farm
pesticides in 196U was applied with air equipment and 80
percent with ground equipment. This compares with 22
percent applied with air equipment in 1958 (table 17).
Pesticide Formulations
Pesticides can be applied either as liquids or dry
materials. Liquid sprays are preferred because they are
less bulky and easier to handle and apply than dusts. They
Table 17.—Application of farm pesticides, by persons making
the application and by type, of equipment used.
United States, 1958 and
Year
1958 I/
196i* 2/
Percentage
Custom
operator
27
27
app] led by:
\ Farm
| operator
73
73
\ Percentage
\ Ground
' equipment
78
80
applied with :
' Air
| equipment
22
20
I/ Percentage of acres treated.
2/ Percentage of farmers' expenditures for pesticides
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (15), (23)
'12/ ibid.
-------
also adhere to plant and animal surfaces better than dry
materials, and spray application equipment is more
generally available than dustinq equipment. However,
granular pesticide materials are also widely used.
Pesticides to be applied as liquids are initially
formulated as water soluble emulsifiable concentrates or as
wettable powders. Many of the insecticides are formulated
as emulsifiable concentrates, while some of the important
herbicides are formulated as wettable powders. However, the
phenoxy herbicides are usually formulated as water soluble
emulsifiable concentrates. Emulsifiable concentrates are
made by mixing the technical pesticide materials with
solvents, emulsifiers, and wetting agents. They are most
often packaged in concentrations ranging from less than one
pound to 9 or 10 pounds of active material per gallon.
Some liquids are initially formulated as wettable
powders. These materials are made by mixing technical
pesticide materials with diluents. Emulsifiers, wetting
agents, and spreader-sticker compounds may be added. The
farmer, or other user, dilutes the concentrated formulations
to field strength with water, before using. Petroleum is
sometimes used as the diluent rather than water.
Among the materials applied by farmers in dry form are
dusts and granules. Dusts have become less attractive to
farmers in recent years because they are likely to be
87
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unpleasant to handle and are subject to drift. Granules
have gained in popularity because they are convenient to
handle. Some pesticides are mixed with dry fertilizer
before sale to the farmer. They are applied as part of the
fertilizer spreading operations.
In both 1964 and 1966, liquid formulations made up
about 75 percent of all pesticide expenditures by farmers
(2) - Liquids accounted for 95 percent or more of the treated
acreage of wheat, rice, other small grains, sugar beets,
alfalfa and other hay, pasture and rangeland, citrus, apples,
and other deciduous fruit. Dusts dropped from 14 percent
to 5 percent while granules rose from 9 percent to 17 percent.
The type of formulations used varied considerably by
crops. Sprays were the only formulation of any consequence
used on grains, citrus, summer fallow, pasture rangeland and
apples. However, only 53 percent of the peanuts, 57 percent
of the soybeans and 58 percent of the corn was treated with
spray materials in 1966. Granules were important in corn
and soybeans, with 38 percent and HQ percent of the total
formulations, respectively. Dusts were important only for
peanuts, where they accounted for 36 percent of the
pesticides used.
There was considerable variation among the 5 Lake
88
-------
States in the proportions of pesticides broadcast or applied in a band.
In general, herbicides were more likely to be broadcast while insecticides
were more likely to be banded. For example, in Illinois 56 percent of the
herbicides were broadcast and 68 percent of the insecticides were banded.
In Minnesota, 64 percent of the herbicides were broadcast and 82 percent
of the insecticides were banded. When broadcast, herbicides were
more likely to be surface applied than to be incorporated into the
soil. Insecticides seemed to be about equally divided between surface
application and incorporation into the soil (table 18).
Table I'j Percentage of acres treated with herbicides and insecticides, by
method of application. 5 Lake States, 1969 and 19TO 3_/
te and Year
Herbicides
Apn.'i -d by
Self
Custom
operator
Mi
B
Surface
applied
tiiod of Application
roadc.ist
Incorporated
in soil
Band
Insecticides
Applied by
.
Custom
&elt operator
Method of Application
Broadcast
Surface Incoiporated
applied j in soil
«,,:
Percent
Illinois 11 . . .
Indiana I/. . .
Michigan 2/. .
Minnesota. . .
Wisconsin . . .
Total . . .
1969
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
84
84
K9
86
68
90
81
S3
67
73
83
3-1
16
16
1 1
14
1 2
10
19
17
33
27
17
16
19
33
44
•1V
79
75
56
59
90
91
XX
XX
20
18
12
13
4
12
6
S
4
4
XX
XX
6)
44
4-1
40
17
13
33
36
6
5
XX
XX
95
95
95
93
79
SO
94
98
£9
9-1
94
94
5
5
S
7
21
20
6
2
11
6
6
6
11
10
22
21
bO
S6
12
8
29
20
XX
XX
21
21
33
2?
S
4
3
10
14
16
XX
XX
68
69
•45
52
ts
10
SO
R2
57
64
XX
. XX
I/Corn, soylxr-jr.s, oat. wheat, barley, rye and hay in all states, also iirv benns in Mi<:Iiir..i;i. fliuticeil in Minnesota, and tc.li.icco in Wisconsin. Percent
seres treated for applicator anJ percent of reports for method of application. 2/19n9 data tor hcrlucidi-s includes only corn a:id soybeans.
Source: Wise. Dept. of Agri. (35)
of
Aerial Application of Pesticides
There are about 2,200 agricultural pesticide aviation
operations with 6,100 aircraft in the United States.
Aircraft spread about 10.U million acres with seeds and
agricultural chemicals annually (about 80 percent of this is
for pest control). About 90 percent of the aircraft are
fixed-wing airolanes and 10 percent are helicopters (33) ,
89
-------
The aircraft are operated by about 1,300 commercial and
900 private firms. The private firms (mostly farmers)
qenerally own only one plane and fly much less than
commercial applicators. Farmers probably apply less than 5
percent of the aerially applied pesticides,
Seasonality of Pesticide Use
Some indication of the seasonality of weed treatment
can be obtained from the proportion of acres treated
preemerqence and postemergence with herbicides,
Preemergence treatments are applied early in the season
before the crop emerges. However, even postemergence
treatments are qenerally applied in the early stages of
growth when the crop has most difficulty competing with
weeds.
Studies by the USDA indicate that an increasing share
of the herbicide chemicals are being applied preemergence or
earlier in the season (30). The proportion of herbicide
treated acres in which preemergence treatments were used
increased from 7 percent in 1959 to 43 percent in 1968
(table 19). Major factors in this shift were corn and
soybeans. Corn treated preemergence increased from 11
percent of the treated corn acreage in 1959 to 51 percent in
1968. Cotton and soybeans contributed to the overall shift
to preemergence treatments by the large increase in the
acreage of these crops treated for weed control although the
90
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proportion treated preemergence remained relatively
constant. Cotton acreage treated increased from 1.5 million
acres in 1959 to 9.2 million acres in 1968 and soybean
acreage increased from 0.5 million acres in 1959 to 22.3
million acres in 1968,
Table 19.—Acreage treated with.weed control chemicals, by time
of application, United States, 1959, 1962, 1965, and 1968
Acres treated I/
Percentage of acres treated:
Preemergence
Postemergence
Million acres
71
Percent
30
1+3
Percent
78
70
\J Sum of acres treated preemergence and postemergence. The land area treated
is overstated because some acres received both preemergence and postemergence
treatments.
Source: (30) and unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. , Econ. Res.
Serv., and Fed. Exten. Serv.
Some important crops on which preemergence treatments
with herbicides accounted for more than half of the weed
treatments in 1968 included corn, cotton, soybeans, peanuts,
sugar beets, and fruits and vegetables. Important
postemergence crops were sorghum, wheat, rice, other small
grains, and pasture and rangeland.
91
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Urban-Suburban Use
Some herbicides used by homeowners are applied during
the dormant or near dormant season. But the phenoxy
herbicides, the primary herbicides used on lawns and turf,
work best when the plant is actively growing- Some
insecticides, including horticultural oils, are applied
during dormancy or early spring, but most insecticides are
used when the insects appear as adults during the growing
season. Fungicides are usually applied in the late spring,
summer or early autumn,
Golf courses and many other businesses having turf,
experience seasonal variation in demand for their
facilities. Golf courses are used more frequently in the
warm months, football fields in the fall, baseball diamonds
in the spring. Municipal parks are most used in the summer.
In California, the only State for which such data are
available, nearly 64 percent of pesticides applied by
residential users in 1970 was during the period from April
to September. For insecticides, 44 percent were used in the
summer months, 33 percent in the spring, 19 percent in the
fall and less than ft percent in the winter. Most herbicides
were used in spring or summer; 27 and 36 percent
92
-------
respectively. Less than 19 percent was used in each of the
other 2 quarters. Fungicide use by homeowners was
inconsequential during all quarters of the year.
Pesticides for homeowners usually contain a lower
percentage of active ingredients than those for industry or
agriculture. Most homeowners do not have sophisticated
application equipment. Pesticides for homeowners are often
formulated to be applied undiluted by hand or with simple
low pressure applicators. The hazard to people, neighboring
property, and susceptible nontarget organisms is minimized
by keeping concentrations low. Herbicides are increasingly
being sold as part of a lawn-care package which contains
needed plant nutrients as well as pesticides to control
undesirable species like crabgrass.
Aerosol packages are very popular for applying liquid
formulations of insecticides and fungicides. Combinations
of pesticides for multipurpose use are available to
homeowners. These usually include one or more insecticides
as well as at least one fungicide.
Pesticide materials for turf are often formulated in
granular form to be applied with fertilizer equipment.
93
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Industrial Use
Pesticides used in industry involve less seasonality
than most other kinds. Use of pesticides in manufacturing
processes continue throughout the year. Municipal water
supplies are treated for algae regularly. However,
pesticides used for controlling pests around industrial
facilities are subject to seasonal use similar to those for
residential users.
Some of the pesticides used by industry are packaged in
very large containers, often in highly concentrated form.
Technical grade materials are often used. Much of the
material is applied by plane or helicopter, often by
commercial applicators. Liquid formulations are probably
most common.
Many pesticides used in forests are applied by
aircraft. Others, particularly for selective tree removal,
are applied to individual trees, often through injection
into the trunk. This is usually done during the growing
season,
Aguatic pesticides are of two types, those applied to
the water, and those applied to banks, but not to the water.
The water-applied type is put directly into the water and
carried by it to the target. Such pesticides are usually
chosen on the basis of safety and effectiveness. For bank
control, care is often reguired to avoid water
contamination. Thus hand or ground power equipment is
94
-------
frequently used. Application is usually during the growing
season. However, care must be exercised to avoid
contamination of water used to irrigate susceptible crops or
of drinking water for livestock or people.
Use of custom application is probably higher for
industry than for other users.
Public Health Use
In the continental United States, late summer is the
most likely time for mosquito-borne arboviral diseases to
occur, and for major vector control programs to be
undertaken. Most (85 percent) of the vector control
pesticides used in California in 1970 were applied during
July through September. About 11 percent was applied in
April through June and a very little from October through
March.
Major vector control efforts such as those in the
recent Venezuelan Equine Epidemic Program are usually
conducted with air equipment.
95
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Other Uses
In California, pesticide use by various government
agencies was distributed rather uniformly throughout the
year. In parts of the country with greater summer-winter
weather variations, a much higher proportion would be
applied during the summer. Other nonfarm pesticides were
also purchased rather uniformly throughout the year in
California. In general, pesticide use would be expected to
be more uniformly distributed in California than in cooler
climate areas. However, structure pest control, a
significant factor in the nonfarm use of pesticides, may be
rather evenly distributed even in the cooler climates. It
would probably be influenced by the level of building
construction activity.
96
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LIST OF REFERENCES
>
(l) Benenson, Abrara S.
1970. Control of Communicable Diseases in Man. Amer. Public
Health Assoc., N.Y.
(2) Blake, Helen; Andrilenas, Paul; Jenkins, Robert; Eichers, Theodore;
and Fox, Austin.
1970. Farmers' Pesticide Expenditures in 1966. U.S.. Dept. Agr. ,
Agr. Econ. Rpt. .192, Sept.
(3) Burnett, Sir Frank MacFarlane,
1962. Natural History of Infectious Diseases. Cambridge Univ.
Press, Cambridge.
(k) California Department of Agriculture.
1971. Pesticide Use Report 1970. Feb.
(5) Chemical Week.
1971- Mosquitoes repel insecticides. Vol. 109, No. 5> p. 36,
Aug. U. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
(6) Davis, Velmar W.
1970. Farmers' Use of Pesticides and Pesticide Containers.
Natl. Conf. on Pesticide Disposal, Econ. Res. Serv.,
Wash., D. C. Jun. 30-Jul. 1.
(7) Eichers, Theodore; Andrilenas, Paul; Blake, Helen; Jenkins, Robert;
and Fox, Austin.
1970. Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers in 1966. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 179, Apr.
(8),' Ennis, W. B. , Jr.
1971. Benefits of Agricultural Chemicals. Annual Workers'
Conf, Agr. Expt. Sta., Texas A&M Univ., Jan. 11.
(9) Fowler, D. Lee, Mahan, John N. , and Shepard, Harold H.
'1971. The Pesticide Review 1970. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Stabil.
and Conserv. Serv. Feb.
(10) Fox, Austin; Eichers, Theodore; Andrilenas, Paul; Jenkins, Robert;
and Blake, Helen.
1968. Extent of Farm Pesticide Use on.Crops in 1966. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Agr. Econ. Rpt. lU7, Oct.
(ll) Henderson, H. L.
1952. Household Insects. Insects, The Yearbook of Agriculture
U.S. Dept. of Agr.
97
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(12) Howell, J. H.., King, E. L. , Jr., Smith*, A. J. , and Hanson, L. H.
196U. Synergism of 5, 2-Dichloro-U-Nitro Salicylanilide and
3-Trifluorinethyl U-Nitrophenol in Selective Lamprey
Larvicide, Great Lakes Fishery Commission Tech. Rpt. 8.
(13) Hull, T. G. , editor.
1963. Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Mau. Charles C. Thomas,
"Pub., Springfield, 111.
(lk) James, Maurice T. , and Harwood, Robert F.
1969. Hera's Medical Entomology. Macmillan, London.
(15) Jenkins, Robert; Eichers , Theodore; Andrilenas , Paul; and Fox, Austin.
1968. Farmers' Expenditures for Custom Pesticide Service in 196H.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Econ. Rpt. li»6, Oct.
(16) Metcalf, R. L.
1971. Putting Pesticides and Pollution in Perspective. Proc. of
23rd Illinois Custom Spray Operators' Training School,
Coop. Ext. Serv. , Univ. of 111. in cooperation with
111. Natural History Survey, Urbana, 111. , pp. 11-18,
Jan. 27-28.
(17) National Academy of Sciences.
1966. Scientific Aspects of Pest Control. Natl. Res. Council,
Publ.
(18) Pest Control.
1971- Public Health Pesticides. Pp. 13-^9, Mar. The Harvest
Publishing Co.
(19) Pratt, Harry D. , Littig, Kent S. , and Marshall, Clarence W.
1962. Insecticides for the Control of Insects of Public Health
Importance — Training Guide, Insect Control Series.
U.S. Dept. HEW, PHS, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta,
Ga.
(20) _
I960. Introduction to Arthropods of Publifc Health Importance.
U.S. Dept. HEW, PHS, Center for Disease Control,
Atlanta, Ga.
(21) Stanford Research Institute.
1968. Chemical Economics Handbook, pp, 5573.7^20 A-Z, 573-7^21
A-F, Nov.
98
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(22) Stoddard, Charles H.
1968. Essentials of Forestry Practice, Ronald Press Co.,
New York.
(23) Strickler, Paul E.
1962. Extent of Spraying and Dusting on Farms, 1958, with
.Comparisons. U.S. Det. Agr. , Stat. Bill. No. 311*, May.
(2k) Top, Franklin H., Sr.
1968. Communicable and Infectious Diseases. C. U. Mosby
Co., St. Louis, Mo.
(25) U.S. Bureau of the Census.
1967 and 1971. Census of Agriculture, 1961* and 1969. Statistics
for States and Counties.
(26)
1970.1967 Census of Business. Selected Area Service
Statistics, Part 1, Dec.
(27) U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1971. Better Lawns. Home and Garden Bui. 51, ARS-USDA, July.
(28)
1961-1971. Estimated Cash Expenditures for Production Supplies
and Equipment by Farm Operators, by States, 1960-1970.
Farmer Cooperative Serv.
(29)
(30;
1971. Lawn Weed Control with Herbicides. Home and Garden
Bui. 123, April.
1968. Extent and Cost of Weed Control with Herbicides and
an Evaluation of Important Weeds, 1965. Agr. Res.
Serv., Fed. Ext. Serv. and Econ. Res. Serv., ARS
3U-102, Aug.
(31)
1965.A Survey of Extent and Cost of Weed Control and Specific
Weed Problems. Agr. Res. Serv. and Fed. Ext. Serv. , ARS
3U-23-1, Aug.
(32) U.S. House of Representatives.
1971. Federal Pesticide Control Act of 1971. Hearings before
the Committee on Agriculture, House of Representatives,
Ninety-second Congress (First Session).
99
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(33) Washington Newsletter.
1971. 1971 Statistics of Agricultural Aircraft. Vol. 5, No. 3
p. 2, June 10. Natl. Agr. Aviation Assoc., Wash., D.C.
(31*) White-Stevens, Robert.
1970. The Economic and Environmental Impact of Pesticides,
52nd Annual Meeting of American Farm Bureau Federa-
tion, Houston, Tex., Dec. 7.
(35) Wisconsin Statistical Reporting Service.
1971. General Farm Use of Pesticides, 1970—Wisconsin and
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and Minnesota. Wise.
Dept. of Agr. , Apr.
(36)
1970. General Farm Use of Pesticides, 1969—Wisconsin and
Illionis, Indiana, Michigan, and Minnesota. Wise.
Dept. of Agr., Mar.
(37) World Health Organization.
1956. Toxic Hazards of Pesticides to Man. Tech. Rpt. Ser.
(50) Good, J. M.
1968. Assessment of Crop Losses Caused by Nematodes in the
United States, Food and Agriculture Organization,
FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, June.
100
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CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF THE MEANS AVAILABLE FOR
REDUCING PESTICIDE USE
-------
Introduction
Alternative pest control methods are available that can
reduce the quantity of chemical pesticides used. Integrated
control programs, biological and genetic controls, cultural
practices, careful management, and pest resistant crops all
have potential to reduce the quantity of pesticides used.
Integrated Control
Integrated control involves a combined use of the most
effective means of bringing maximum pressure on a
destructive pest. This may include a combination of
biological, genetic, chemical, or mechanical methods™
Integrated control techniques are available for several
kinds of pests, but may offer most hope for reducing
pesticides used on insects.
Programs for cotton insects, tobacco hornwcrms, green
peach aphids, and codling moths provide examples of
effective integrated insect control programs, Weeds in
cotton have been controlled by coordinating the use of weed-
free seed with herbicide treatment and flaming.
101
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The U.S. Department of Agriculture initiated a large-
scale pilot test in 1971 to determine the feasibility of
eradicating the boll weevil with present capabilities. The
pilot test involved a combination of insecticides
(reproductive-diapause treatments), cultural measures, sex
attractants, and release of sterile insects in an all-out
eradication effort.
An experimental integrated program involving light
traps and tobacco stalk destruction to prevent late-season
breeding of tobacco hornworms was conducted from 1962 to
1968. In the center of the 113 square mile test area abou-t
50 percent destruction of the hornworm was obtained the
first year and almost 80 percent the next 2 years.
Subsequently, few insecticide treatments have been needed
within the experimental area. In recent-years, the hornworm
populations have been low and the experiment has been
terminated (15 ).
Experimental results of an integrated program to
control the green peach aphid, a vector of the yellow virus
of sugar beets, resulted in an 83 percent reduction of virus
infected plants. Costs were reduced from $18.60 per acre
for partial control of aphids with conventional insecticides
to $1.60 per acre (21).
An integrated program for the control of the codling
102
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moth on apples takes advantage of reduced populations
resulting from past insecticidal treatments, and from
sanitation practices. Sterilized moths are then introduced.
The resulting infestation rate was about the same as for a
regular spray program on an adjacent orchard (2).
Biological and Genetic Control
Biological and genetic controls are sufficiently
promising to encourage continuing research. However, it is
difficult to mass produce biological agents and certain
species of sterile insects. This and the specificity of the
agents, usually to one species, indicates that dependence on
these methods for practical pest control will be some years
in the future (17).
Studies are underway to evaluate various pathogenic
agents as a possible means of insect control. The pathogens
under investigation appear to be highly specific in that
they infect only certain insect species and do not appear to
be transmissible to other organisms, including mammals.
However, more toxicological data must be obtained to provide
assurance of safety before such agents can be approved and
registered for use on food crops.
103
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Other potentially important new biological methods
under investigation include insect sex attractants, insect
hormones, and weed-eating insects. While these show
promise, it may be some time before they will be available
for general use. Limited commercial production of a new
viral insecticide, Viron-H, to be used in field testing
against the cotton bcllworm, has been started. The new
material, a polyhedrosis virus, will probably be priced
higher than DDT, but in the same range as other insecticide
and insecticide combinations, used to control cotton pests
(5). The virus will also control corn ear worms and tobacco
budworms.
Parasitic wasps used against alfalfa weevils saved
farmers more than 600,000 dollars in 1969 or about 5 dollars
per acre for insecticides, labor, and equipment otherwise
needed to control the weevils (U).
The most notable success in genetic control has been
with the screw-worm. The eradication of the screw-worm has
prevented losses to cattle raisers of as much as 20 million
dollars a year in the Southeast and 100 million dollars in
the Southwest (15).
One characteristic of biological control for crops is
that each method usually controls only one species of pest
while the crop may be infested with several species.
104
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However, biological control of selected pest species coupled
with chemical or cultural measures for other pests should
help reduce use of pesticides.
Cultural and Managerial controj.
Cultural methods have long been important in pest
control. These include destroying crop plants after harvest
to prevent further reproduction of insects, tilling the soil
to destroy insects and weeds, rotating crops to minimize
insect reproduction and to make crops more competitive with
weeds, and adjusting planting times to avoid high insect and
weed population densities during the growing season.
Pesticides use can be reduced by replacing routine
treatment schedules with treat-when-necessary schedules
based on managerial decisions. Number and age of insects,
spore counts, rainfall forecasts, and the like can be used
by managers to decide whether an application of pesticides
is necessary.
For example, peach growers in California could reduce
the quantity of fungicides necessary to control brown rot by
using such indicators as spore counts and forecasts of
rainfall within a 2<4 to HB hour period (3). In the
Mississippi Delta, average cotton insect control costs
105
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declined 24 to 44 percent when treatments were made only
when the number and age of insects reached a critical point
(6).
Application at a time when pests are most vulnerable is
another technique that can reduce the quantity of pesticides
used. In a diapause control program to eradicate boll
weevils, late generations of weevils are killed in the fall.
By preventing the weevils from going into diapause, over-
wintering populations of weevils are reduced by as much as
97 percent. Two or three insecticide applications in the
fall can replace six to eight early and mid-season
applications in the following spring and summer. In this
way it is possible to reduce insect control costs as much as
seven dollars per acre (22)-
Systemic pesticides have a high potential for reducing
the quantity of pesticides required to effectively control
pests. Systemic chemicals usually give better and longer-
lasting control with less material and fewer applications.
As an example. New York researchers were able to cut the
number of insecticide applications on potatoes from ten or
more down to five (19).
The development of systemics is likely to be slow and
the first costs will be relatively high. Development must
consider the ability of the systemic material to distinguish
between pests and nondestructive organisms. Attention must
106
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also be paid to the possibility of chemical residues in the
final product that might be hazardous to livestock or man.
New techniques of applying pesticides may reduce the
quantity of pesticides necessary to obtain effective
control. Foam generators, concentrate spraying, polymer
coatings, and synergistic combinations of pesticides are
some of the new methods being evaluated.
Experimental trials indicate that foam generators may
be an effective means of reducing quantities of pesticides
used. Foams generally cover and control the treated surface
more uniformly than other application methods.
Concentrate spraying, in some situations, obtains control results
equal to those obtained by using standard procedures of dilute sprays.
Concentrate spraying allows the grower to obtain effective control
with up to 25 percent less spray material per acre. There is also
less run-off from plant surfaces, which reduces the quantity of
chemical used (1). However when volatile pesticides are used, a
reduction in the volume of spray may increase drift from the target
area and reduce effectiveness.
pest Resistant Crops
One means of controlling crop pests is to develop
107
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varieties that resist insects, diseases, or nematodes, but
this requires long years of tedious research. Once
developed, a pest-resistant crop involves little or no
expense to growers and no chemical residue or other adverse
side effects, outstanding examples are resistance to the
Hessian f|y on wheat, the spotted alfalfa aphid on alfalfa,
and stem rust on wheat. Another more recent success is the
development of a soybean resistant to soybean cyst nematode
(14 ) . Resistant varieties to most crop pests are not yet
available. (17)
Restricting PesticideUse
In general, alternatives to pesticides might be
preferable to legal limitations on their use. However,
legal restrictions may sometimes be required. For example,
tax or incentive programs could be developed to encourage
pesticide users to reduce the quantity of pesticides used.
Also pesticides could be prohibited for certain uses or
banned completely. Such restrictions would require
substantial adjustments in pest management programs.
Other legal restrictions may also help in reducing
pesticide use. For example, restrictions on the
introduction of foreign species of plants that might become
weeds in the U.S. and on interstate movement of weed seeds,
108
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roots, or other propagating materials might greatly reduce
the need for chemical weed control. Such restrictions
already exist for some destructive insects and disease-
inducing organisms.
Restricting farm use of a pesticide means that farmers
usually must substitute more expensive chemicals, change
their cultural practices, or accept a loss in yield. The
Economic Research Service estimates show that a selective
restriction of organochlorine insecticides on cotton, corn,
peanuts, and tobacco would have cost farmers 26.7 million
dollars or 2.23 dollars per acre treated in 1966 (Table 1)
(7). It is also estimated that to replace the phenoxy
herbicides used in farm production in 1969 farmers would
have had to use an additional 5.7 million acres of cropland
and 19_6 million hours of family labor. Production expenses
would have increased by 289.3 million dollars (Table 2)
(13)-
Another study assumes that if 2,tt,5-T were the only
phenoxy herbicide banned for domestic use the cost to farm
and nonfarm users in 1969 would have been 51.7 trillion
dollars (Table 3) (12). Other phenoxy herbicides could have
been used as substitutes on nearly 5.6 million acres of a
total of 7.9 million acres treated with 2,4,5-T_ On the
average, costs of additional cultural practices for farmers
and non-farmers would have been about $16 an acre on over 39
percent of the acres treated with 2,^,5-T-
109
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Table 1.—Costs of substituting organophosphate and carbaroate insecticides for
organorhlorines in cotton, corn, peanut, and tobacco production,
United States, 1966
Item
Unit
Cotton
Corn
Peanuts
Tobacco
Total
1966 practices _!/ Mil. dol,
Substitute practices:
Organochlorines--- -.-_ do.
Organ oph'osphates do.
Carbamates do.
Total do.
Additional costs:
Materials do.
Application do.
Total do.
Per acre treated with
organochlorines Dollars
Percentage of crop value Percent
34.8
4.0
46.1
50.1
10.6
4.8
15.4
3.12
1.2
24.3
16.2
13.9
1.6
31.7
7.3
7.3
1.23
.2
4.8
2.7
3.6
6.3
.9
.5
1.4
2.90
.5
4.2
1.2
5.6
6.8
1.0
1.6
2.6
4.22
.2
68.2
20.2
63.9
10.8
94.9
19.8
6.9
26.7
2.23
.3
\J Data from ERS Pesticide and General Farm Survey, 1966.
Source: Econ. Res. Sej-v. (7)
-------
Table 2 .--Effects of restricting the use of phenoxy herbicides in farm production, United States, 1969 J7
Crop
Corn
Wheat
Other small grain..
Pasture
Total
Acres on
which
phenoxys
used
1966
1,000
acres
23,136
14,577
9,692
3,558
145
3,590
5,178
2,589
62,465
Additional
inputs needed
I and 2/
1,000
acres
3,335
1,838
538
5,711
: Family
: labor
1,000
hours
5,003
2,757
142
3,648
4,736
3,292
19,578
Lower
phenoxy
and
application
costs
Additional costs
Substitute
herbicides
and
application
A'.Uitiona !.
cultural
practices V
T --iduction
on
additional
acres _3/
Not
arfciiVJ.c.'-'
C.USU;..
37.0
21.9
14.6
5.6
.4
5.4
10.4
7.2
102.5
122.5
15.3
10.9
14.5
163.2
21.2
12.1
9.1
2.4
1/6.4
43.3
43.1
137.6
45.0
23.1
1.6
21.3
91.0
106.7
50.5
28.5
11.3
7.6
15.9
• 32.9
35.9
289.3
\_l Estimates based on use shewn by the ERS Pesticide and General Farm Survey, 1966, and on substitute practices
avaTlable in 1969. Does not include Alaska and Hawaii. Does not include fence rows, ditches, building sites, other
noncropland, Government-sponsorec control programs, nor any nonfarm use.
2/ Calculated based on ARS e;timates of yield reductions.
2/ Includes costs for hired ]abor assuming the national average ratio of hired labor to total labor used for each
crop.
kj Additional costs for alteinative materials, for growing new acreages, and for lower payments less the lower
expenditures for phenoxy herbicii es.
_5/ Additional costs for cultt ral practices and loss in quality related to maintaining rice production minus returns
for rice above those for soybean: on the additional acres where rice was grown in place of soybeans. Includes $2.2
million for lower income from lots in quality.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (12)
-------
Table 3,—Economic effects of restricting 2,4,5-T, if other phenoxy herbicides and all other registered herbicides could have been used,
United States, 1969 I/
Estimated
acres
Use category ' treated
: with
1 2,4,5-T
Acres that
could be
treated
with
alternative
Acres
requiring
additional
cul tural
practices
Cost of
2,4,5-T
and
application
Cost of
, : Cost of
alternative ... . ,
. , , : additional
herbicides ,
. : cultural
and .
, . . : practices
application , v
Net increased
cost of using
alternatives
?./
K»
Farm use:
Nonfarm use:
Rights-of-way 8/9/ ,
2,441
671
339
: 3,451
: 296
,, : 1,200
: 2,175
430
: 81
: 306
: 4,488
: 7,939
-i_,uuu acres
488
654
225
1,367
281
1,200
1,958
387
73
291
4,190
5,557
1,953
660
114
2,727
15
60
217
43
8
15
358
3,085
4,0j2
1,764
2,204
8,020
3,287
2,850
33,772
3,738
608
2,219
46,474
54,494
1,781
1,130
2,115
5,026
3,765
3,720
36,028
4,411
760
3,026
51,710
56,736
32,44j
1,720
766
34,929
735
240
9,548
3,363
240
375
14,501
49,430
30 , ..
1 , -j • j
67/
31,935
1,213
1,110
11,804
4,036
392
1,382
19,737
51.672
\l Based on estimated USP In 1
-------
If no other phenoxys could have substituted for 2,U,5-
T, costs would have invreased to $172 million, about four
times the cost of usinq 2,4,5-T. The farmers' share of this
cost increase would have been
-------
Table 4.—- Econoitc effects of restricting 2,4,5-T, if no ' .. phenoxy herbicides could have been used
but ill other registered hei'biciiies could have been used, United States, 1969 I/ •
' Estimated
] acres
Use category j •.:raat<:'l
with
; 2, 4, 5-T
Acres that
could be
tres t pd
wi un
alternative
Acres
requiring
additional
cultural
practices
Cost of
2, 4, 5-T
and
application
Cost of
alternative
herbicides
and
application
Cost of
additional
cultural
practices
Net increased
cost of using
alternatives
_2/
Farm use:
Hay, pasture, and rangeland 3/ ,
Other crops 4/ '.
Other farm use 5/
Total farm use
Nonfarm use:
Federal Government 6/ ,
Rights-of-way 8/ ,
Private nonfarra forests 9/
Aquatic areas 10/ ,
Other uses ll/ ,
Total nonf arm use
Total all uses
: 2,441
: 671
: -J39
: 3,451
: 296
: 1,200
: 2,175
: 430
: 81
: 306
: 4,488
: 7,939
428
200
628
83
1,200
1,631
2,914
3,542
2,441
479
139
3,059
213
1,200
544
430
81
306
2,774
5,833
4,052
1,764
2,204
8,020
3,287
2,850
33,772
3,733
60S
2,219
46,474
54,494
1,801
4,585
6,386
3,901
2,310
84,812
91,023
97,409
40,551
3,301
1,866
45,718
10,863
4,800
23,936
33,630
2,430
7.650
83,309
129,027
36, •.•••)
3, *
4 , : W
44,084
11,477
4,260
74,976
29,892
1,822
5,431
127,858
171,942
_IJ Based on estimated use in 1'
2/ Cost of alternative herbici
_3_/ Cultural treatments include
thirds at $23,16 an acre, and now
4/ Weeds on some acres of most
chemical substitutes used include
sorghum, small grains, and noncro.
in spite of yield losses. In ric.
and offset loss in quality,
_5/ Picloram was applied on the
b_l Based on 1969 use by the De
adjuvant were substituted for 2,4
mechanical, and manual control av<
_7/ All acres' can be treated ui:
8/ Two pounds of picloram with
hand cutting at $44 an acre.
9/ All acres nad to be mowed, :
107 All acres needed to be mech .
ll/ All acres required mechanic.
54.
cs and application plus cost of additional cultural practices less cost of 2,4,5-T and application,
renovating a third of Che acres at $15.66 an acre; then bulldozing 72 percent of the remaining two-
rig the other 28 percent at $1.50 an acre.
crops treated with 2,4,5-T in 1964 could have been controlled with nonphenoxy herbicides. Important
dicanba, and atrazine and oil. Supplemental hand or mechanical control was also required on some com,
land. Additional acres of wheat, other small grains, and other crops were grcwn to maintain production
production additional fertilizer and a change in the crop rotation were required to maintain production
noncropland. Substitute practices also included seme moving and handweeding.
artments of Agriculture, Interior, and Defense; and TVA. Two pounds of picloram with a drift reducing
5-T on 75 percent of federally maintained rights-of-way (110,000). All other acres required cultural,
raging $51 per acre,
h 0.5 pound dicnmba but supplemental manual work costing $4 per acre was required on all acres.
a drift reducing adjuvant were substituted for 2,4,5-T on 75 percent of all acres. The remainder required
and cut, or undesirable species hand girdled at a cost of $78.21 per treated acre.
nically cleaned with a drag line at $30 per acre treated.
1 control by hand or with machines at $25 per acre.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (12)
-------
So far, the major factor in reducing the use of
persistent material has been the development of resistance
to chemicals on the part of the pests. Often, less
persistent pesticides are then substituted. For the near
future, this is likely to continue to provide a major
incentive for further reductions in use of persistent
pesticides.
The effect of substituting less persistent pesticides
for persistent ones was illustrated in two recent studies,
In one, the substitution of less persistent insecticides for
persistent organochlorine insecticides reduced the quantity
of organochlorine insecticides by 55 million pounds or 76
percent (7). In the other all of the 10 million pounds of
aldrip used on corn was replaced by less persistent
pesticides (18) -
Although less persistent pesticides can replace the
more persistent in certain instances, the impact on the
environment is frequently not known. We do know that
replacement with toxic orqanophosphate materials increases
the immediate hazard to people. Experience also indicates
that widespread use of many of the substitute compounds is
harmful to certain beneficial organism such as pollinating
insects, parasites, and predators.
115
-------
Research Needs
Reducing use of chemical pesticides depends heavily on
the development of satisfactory alternative control
techniques. Substantial research in recent years has
explored biological and genetic control, resistant
varieties, integrated methods, and cultural and managerial
device. Some outstanding successes have resulted. One
example is the control of the screw-worm by using sterile
males. However, alternative methods have thus far replaced
pesticides for only a few major pest problems, and chemicals
continue to be the primary method of controlling most pests.
The need to continue and expand such research is urgent if
alternatives are to replace a significant part of the
chemical pesticides now in use.
Primary focus should be on alternative methods for
pests of major economic importance. Most alternative
methods demand more information on the life history and
population dynamics of pests than does the successful use of
chemical pesticides (15).
More work on pesticide chemicals is also needed to
develop chemicals specific to the target pest and not to
other organisms, to develop formulations that use smaller
quantities of active ingredients, and to improve breakdown
116
-------
characteristics so that chemical residues are not left in
the environment. Further attention should also be directed
to the modifications in application equipment that would
increase the proportion of pesticide actually utilized.
Research on benefits and costs is necessary to appraise
the impact of reducing the use of persistent pesticides.
Existing data are less than adequate to measure the
consequences of restricting the use of a particular
pesticide, or of changing patterns and techniques of
pesticide application.
Experiments should be designed to measure yield
variations between plots with similar infestations under
different degrees of chemical, mechanical, and biological
treatment, There is also a need for experiments to measure
how different parts of an integrated program (chemical,
mechanical or biological) affect crop yields.
Economic research requires not only additional cost
data but estimates of price elasticity of demand and cross
elasticities. Research is especially necessary to estimate
appropriate demand elasticities associated with different
uses of the same product and with large fluctuations in
supply (10, 11).
These data are needed for several kinds of economic
research on pesticides. For example, such information is
117
-------
essential in appraising the direct costs of restricting
certain pesticides, in minimizing pollution hazards, in
evaluating the substitution of other inputs for pesticides,
and in analyzing the costs and benefits to society (20)-
118
-------
List of References
(l) Ball, Carre 7.1
1970. What You Should Know About Concentrate Spraying.
Farm Chemicals, Feb., p. Ii3.
(2) Butt, B. A,
1967. recent Progress in the Release of Sterile Codling Moth.
"voc. of Wash. State Hort. Vol. 63, p. 15.
(3) Carlson, 0. A.
1969. A Decision Theoretic Approach to Crop Disease
1-re diet ion and Control. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. of Calif., Davis.
(U) Chemical V.-.sk.
1970. Washington Newsletter. Wasps and Alfalfa Weevils.
Jun. 10, p. 28.
(5)
1971- Technology Newsletter. New Viral Insecticide. Feb.
10, p. 50.
(6) Cooke, Fred T., Jr.
1971- The Effect of Restricting DDT or Chlorinated Hydro-
carbons on Coi'iMercial Cotton Farms in the Mississippi
Delta. Proc. of a Symposium on Economic Research
on Pesticides for Policy Decisionmaking, Econ. Res.
Serv., Wash., B.C., Apr. 27-29, 1970, pp. 123-136, Apr.
(7) Davis, Velroar W., Fox, Austin S., Jenkins, Robert P., and
Andrilens.s, Paul A.
1970. Economic Consequences of Restricting the Use of
Drganochlorine Insecticides on Cotton, Corn,
Peanuts, and Tobacco. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Econ.
Rpt. 178, Mar.
(8) Farm Chemicals.
1969. Foam Generator Provides Drift-free Herbicide Control.
Nov., p. 8.
(9) Farm Journal.
1969- News. New Southern Alfalfa. May, p. 35-
(10) Fox, Austin S.
1971. Economic Impact of Restricting Herbicide Use, Am. Society
of Agronomy, Crop Science Soc. of Am. and Soil Science
Soc. of Am., New York, Aug. 15-20.
119
-------
(11)
1971- Economic Consequences of Restricting or Banning the Use
of Pesticides. Proc. of a'Symposium, on Economic Research
on Pesticides for Policy Decisionmaking, Econ. Res. Serv.,
Wash., B.C., Apr. 27-29, 1970. p. 3^8, Apr.
(12) , Jenkins, Robert P., Holstun, John T. , Jr., and
Klingman, Dayton L.
1971. Restricting the Use of 2,U,5-T: Costs to Domestic
Users. U.S. Kept. Agr., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 199. Mar.
(13) , Jenkins, Robert P., Andrilenas, Paul A., Holstun,
John T., Jr., and Klingman, Dayton L.
1970. Restricting the Use of Phenoxy Herbicides—Costs to
Farmers. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Econ. Rpt. 19^> Nov.
(lit) Good, J. M.
1968. Assessment of Crop Losses Caused by Hematodes in the
United States. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin, Vol. 16,
No. 3: 37-^0. Food and Agr. Org. of the UN, Rome, Italy,
Jun.
(15) Hoffmann, C. H.
1973. Restricting the Use of Insecticides—What are the Alterna-
tives? Proc. of a Symposium on Economic Research on
Pesticides for Policy Decisionmaking, Econ. Res. Serv.,
Wash., D.C., Apr. 27-29, 1970. pp. 21-30, Apr.
(16)
1970. Alternatives to Conventional Insecticides for Control of
Insect Pests. Agricultural Chemicals, Vol. 25, No. 10,
pp. 19, 21-23, 35.
(17) Irving, G. W., Jr.
1970. Agricultural Pest Control and the Environment. Science 168:
,L-T,t> -"_U-TL.. -i • -ntu» jrttj ..in * x woT oi.±v_ j-is^ * ci.ii uCiuc^i u C-i. i-'C-i.tiAj.CC;*
(l8) Jenkirib-, R. P. and Eichers, T. R.
Economic Effects of Eliminating Aldrin in Corn Production.
Unpublished manuscript.
(19) Successful Farming.
1970. What's New for Pest Control, Apr., p. ha.
(20) Sund;juis-.., W. B.
1973. Directions for Future Research on Pesticides. Proc. of a
Symposium on Economic Research on Pesticides for Policy
Decisionmaking, Econ. Res. Serv., Wash., D.C. Apr. 27-29,
1970. pp. 169-170, Apr.
120
-------
(21) Wallis, R. L.
1968. Suppression of Green Peach Aphids and Beet Western
Yellows in Sugarbeet Fields in the Northwest. Proc.
5th Ann. Symp. of Thermal Agriculture, Natl. Gas.
Proc. Assoc.
(22) Wilborn, E.
1969. Diapause Control—First Step in Weevil Eradication,
Progressive Farmer, Sept. p. ^8.
121
-------
APPENDIX TABLES
-------
Table 1.—Farm use of insecticides by crops, United States, I96k and 1966 I/
Crop
1961*
Active
ingredients
2/
' Percentage
; of all
' ingredients
used
1966
Active
ingredients
2/
• Percentage
: of all
' ingredients
used
Million
pounds Percent
Cotton ?8.0 5U
Corn 15-7 11
Vegetables 3/ 9-7 7
Other field crops h_/ 10.1 7
Apples 10.8 8
Fruits (not including
apples and citrus) 1+.5 3
Hay and pasture 5/ 2,5 2
Tobacco 5-5 U
Soybeans 5-0 3
Citrus 1.1* 1
Other 6J I/
All crops 143-2
100
Million
pounds
6U.9
23.6
11.1
8.7
8.5
6.6
l*.i
3.8
3.2
2.9
0.2
137.
Percent
1*7
17
6
6
5
3
3
2
2
7/
100
!_/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2/ Does not include petroleum.
3/ Includes potatoes as well as other vegetables.
U_/ Includes wheat, sorghum, rice, peanuts, and sugar beets, as well as other
grains and other field crops.
5/ Includes alfalfa, other hay and forage, and pasture and rangeland.
S/ Less than 50,000 pounds.
7/ Less than 0.5 percent.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
122
-------
Table 2.—Leading insecticides used on crops in the
United States, 1966 I/
Insecticide
Toxaphene— —
DDT- _
Active
ingredients 2/
Million pounds
30.9
26.3
1U.8
11.8
8.U
8.0
5.6
U.3
39-3
137-6
Acres
treated
Million acres
5.U
8.1
13.8
3.8
6.1
U.5
5-2
2.2
!_/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2j Does not include petroleum.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (?)
123
-------
Table 3-—Farm use of herbicides, by crops, United States, 196U and 1966 I/
Crop
n+ViP»T "Pi P> 1 r\ pTwnQ "3 /_ ..
Pasture and rangeland
Uhpflt — — — — — — — —
Pryft nn— — — — — —
Pi r»£».- — — — — — ___
Nursery and greenhouse
1961*
Active :
ingredients •
i/ :
Million
pounds
25-5
V19.0
U.7
U.2
9.2
It. 6
U.8
2.0
1.0
I/
i/
1.3
.«/
76. 3
Percentage
of all
ingredients
used
Percent
33
U/25
6
6
12
6
6
3
1
I/
i/
2
i/
100
1966
Active
ingredients :
2/ :
Million
pounds
146.0
10.8
10.5
10. U
8.2
6.5
5-7
lt.0
3.6
2.9
2.8
• 9
.1 .
112.it
Percentage
of all
ingredients
used
Percent
111
10
9
9
7
6
5
k
3
3
2
1
9./
100
I/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2] Does not include petroleum.
J3/ Includes tobacco, sugar beets, alfalfa, and other hay, as well as other
grains and other field crops.
_U/ Includes peanuts and rice in addition to the other field crops.
5_/ Includes potatoes as well as other vegetables.
6_/ Includes apples and citrus as well as other deciduous fruit and other
fruit and nut crops.
7_/ Included in other field crops.
J3/ Less than 50,000 pounds.
9_/ Less than 0,5 percent.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
124
-------
Table
Leading herbicides used on crops by farmers in the
United States, 1966 I/
Herbicide
product
0 }i_T) _ _ „
Tri f lurs-Lin—
CT)AA- - - - - -
Of hf=>r*Q — — —
Active
ingredients 2/
Million pounds
"30 ^
jy = ?
p-5 t:
«; p
S ' <-
k 9
•30 Q
1 12 k
: Acres
treated
Million acres
£,£, o
po .y
i s n
7 0
^. 7
2Q 2
.!/ Does nou, include Alaska and Hawaii.
2/ Does not include petroleum.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
125
-------
Table 5.—Farm use of fungicides, by crops, United States, 1961* and 1966 I/
Crop
O"t"VifiT' f*~i <=O r\ r*rirmc' "5 /___ _
Other fruits and nuts 5/ —
Other deciduous fruit 6_/ —
Pn*H~ nrt — — — — — — _______
196U
•
Active :
ingredients :
?J :
Million
pounds
7.8
5.6
t.5
U.9
3.7
l.U
2.6
I/
.2
30.7
Percentage
of all
ingredients
used
Percent
25
18
15
16
12
5
8
I/
1
100
1966
Active :
ingredients :
2/ :
Million
pounds
8.5
it. 5
l*.l
l».l
3.5
2.5
1.8
1.1
.U
30.5
Percentage
of all
ingredients
used
Percent
28
15
13
13
12
8
6
U
1
100
I/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2/ Does not include sulfur.
_3/ Includes corn, sorghum, wheat, rice, soybeans, tobacco, sugar beets, as
well as other grains, other field crops, and other hay and pasture.
h/ Includes other vegetables.
_5/ Includes other fruits and nuts.
6/ Includes other deciduous fruit.
"]_/ Data not available.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
126
-------
Table £.- Leading fungicides used on crops by farmers in the
United States, 1966 I/
Fungicide
product
Zineb— — — — — — — — — —
Copper (other than copper
ciil f* afp, ^ „__ _ _
Active
material 2J
Million pounds
6.8
6.6
U.5
It. it
8.2
Acres
: treated
Million acres
1.8
1.2
1.2
6
2.5
30.5
I/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2j Does not include sulfur.
Source: Econ. Ees. Serv. (7)
127
-------
Table 7.—Farm use of miscellaneous pesticides on crops, United States,
1961* and 1966 I/
Crop
1961*
Active
ingredients
* Percentage
; of all
] ingredients
used
1966
Active
ingredients
| Percentage
'' of all
ingredients
used
Million
pounds Percent
Cotton 12.lt 30
Tobacco 17.6 It3
Other fruits and nuts 2j— 1.0 2
Other field crops _3/ 1.7 U
1.5 1*
Apples 1.0 3
Vegetables k/ 5.9 lit
Corn .1 6J
Nursery and greenhouse J?/ 6/
All crops ltl.2
Million
pounds
lit.2
13.lt
8.7
7-6
1.1
1.1
-9
.6
.1
Percent
30
28
18
16
2
2
2
2
6/
100
1+7.7
100
\J Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
2j Includes other deciduous fruits and other fruits and nuts.
3/ Includes sorghum, wheat, rice, soybeans, sugar beets, peanuts, and
alfalfa, as well as other field crops, other grains, and other hay and pasture.
jt_/ Includes potatoes as well as other vegetables.
5/ Less than 50 ,000 pounds.
6/ Less than 0.5 percent.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (7)
128
-------
Table 6.— Leading miscellaneous pesticides used on crops by farmers
in the United States, 1966 I/
Product
n'PP fln ft Pril f*"y ( r?*=> f r>1 T orH- Q ^ __
•Maleic hydrazide (growth
All miscellaneous pesticides
Active
material
Million pounds
ik.Q
8.3
14.2
3.1
18.1
: Acres
: treated
Million acres
0.2
.h
1-7
.6
5.1
1*7.7
!_/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Econ. F.es. Serv. (7)
129
-------
Table 9.—Leading pesticides used on selected crops, United States, 1970 I/
Corn
Citrus
Soybeans
Apjxl es
Cotton
Herbicides
2,k-:,
Alachlor
Atrazine
Propachlor
Sutan
Insecticides
BlDC*
Aldrin
Phorate
Diazinon
Carbofuran
Carbaryl
Fur, gic ides
Capt sn
Thiraai
Kaneb
Herbicides
Trifluralin
Aniben
2,1»-DB
Linuron
Alachlor
Kitralin
Insecticides
Toxaphene
Carbaryl
Methyl parathion
Malathion
Parathion
Fungicides
Capt an
Thiram
Maneb
Herbicides
Trifluralin
Diuron
Promet ryne
Fluometuron
Monuron
Insecticides
Methyl parathion
Toxaphene
Carb aryl
Azodrin
Guthion
Fungicides
Mercury
Chloroneb
Terracoat*
PCNB
leo.bac*
Tobacco
Herbicides
Paraquat
Diuron
Si?nazine
Herbicides
Simazine
Aminotriazole
Paraquat
Diuron
Dichlobenil
Herbicides
Pebulate
Diphenaraid
Insecticides
Kelthane
Ethior.
Az i r.-'r. os met ry 1
Tetradifon
Fungi ci fles
Copper
a hydroxide
ophenyl
phe.aate
Insecticides
Guthion
Parathion
Carbaiyl
Imidan*
Oxythioquinox (BSl)
Fungicides
Zineb
Metiram (BSl)
Folpet
Ziram
Insecticides
Endosulfan
Diazinon
Carbaryl
Parathion
Methocyl
Malathion
Disulfoton
Fungicides
Maneb'
Ferbam
folyram
Zineb
!_/ DCS;, not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Ees. Serv. Based
vn survey of State Fxperiment Station specialists in major
-.-.reducing States. Number of States reporting: cotton, 6;
corn, 8; soybeans, JCV-citrus, 5; apples, 6; and tobacco, 5.
-------
Table 10 .--Leading insecticides used on
selected classes of livestock,
United States, 1970 I/
Cattle
Coumaphos
Toxaphene
Ciodrin
Malathion
Lindane
Hogs
Lindane
Toxaphene
Malathion
Ronnel
Carbaryl
Coumaphos
Poultry
Malathion
Carbaryl
Coumaphos
Nicotine sulfate
IL/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr.
Econ. Bes. Serv. Based on survey
of State Experiment Station
specialists in major producing
States. Number of States reporting:
cattle, 12; hogs, 10; and poultry, 13-
131
-------
Table -U—Use of principal kinds of wood preservatives, United States, 1965-69
Kind of
preservative
Total
Pentachloro-
Tanalith*
(Wolman Salts*)
Chroraated zinc
chloride 2/3/
Acid copper
Chromated copper
m«.J-^T
'
1965 !
•
1,000
gallons
1 kli "5Q7
•*.'+'+, yy i
60.321
1^,969
219,68?
1,000
pounds
20,160 I/
3,727
2,125
1,685
2,018
1.8U3
70^ I/
-^ r,l"^
1966 •
1,000
gallons
1 c.o 077
j-xj >j i 1
72,61*9
18,679
2UU,705
1,000
pounds
26,058
1*,660
1,232
1,663
2,2UO
2,lf37
6801/
-%O *^F->/\
Jw • V i W
.
1967
:
Liquids
1,000
gallons
1 U7 SQli
J-^ 1 , X.7^
73,661
20,082
21*1,337
Solids
1,000
pounds
2lf,8l^
3,922
1,66k
1,U05
1,1*19
2,330
1,281 I/
*r o-,f- * t
'lU.^T J "W
!
1968
'
1,000
gallons
1?6 7QQ
73,588
20,1*69
230,856
1,000
pounds
26,389
2,683
1,526
1,139
1,288
3,215
l,55l* I/
"5 / • ( Vt
*
1969
1,000
gallons
128,226
68,071
19,6l8
215,915
1,000
pounds
25,5^2
3,067
1,38U
872
1,^72
U,668
1,050
^O ~>r- r-
"iU + \JJJ
* Registered, U. S. Patent Office. Trade names used because they are
widely known, and the products are complex mixtures.
I/ Revised..
2j Includes copperized.
Includes fire retardant use.
Includes Boliden Salts*.
I
Source: Agri. .(Jtaoil. and Conserv. Serv. (9)
132
-------
Tatle 13—Use of mercury in pesticide manufacture,
United States, 1946-69
V
Year
1946....
IS&T ....
1948....
1949....
1950....
1951....
1952....
1953....
1954....
1955
1956....
1957....
1958....
1959...
I960. ...
1961...
1962...
1963...
1964...
1965...
1966...
1967 ...
1968...
1969...
Pounds
238,184
426,892
535,648
354,692
342,304
588,012
447,336
527,136
581,476
562,324
754,680
481,612
476,520
243,352
22o . 024
19'i ,332
324,216
192,888
23t% 944
236,816
180,424
£co . v$eL
260,680
204,364
Pa
Antifouling
Pounds
75,544
57,760
95,696
143,108
238,108
190,000
89,528
49,780
38,912
55,024
38,836
43,168
56,924
75,468
103,360
69,540
9,424
19,152
4l,572
19,380
10,640
11,5^2
29,792
18,544
dnts
Mildew proofing
Pounds
!/
i/
!/
i/
i/
i/
!/
i/
i/
i/
i/
i/
i/
191,596
217,436
391,096
346,104
486,628
453,644
624,036
629,280
533,976
773,224
720,936
Paper and Pulp
Pounds
2/
2/
2/
I/
2/
2/
2/
2/
2/
i/
2/
2/
2/
331,360
264,556
235,144
197,600
215,156
163,248
47,044
46,512
33,896
31,692
42,408
Tr->4- QT
Pounds
313,728
484,652
631,344
497,800
580,412
778,012
536,664
576,916
620,388
617,348
793,516
524,780
533,444
841,776
811,376
890,112
877,344
913,824
897,408
927,276
866. As A
863,056
1,095,388
986,252
I/ Not available.
2/ Included with Agricultural.
Source: Agri. Etabil. and Conserv. Serv. (9)
133
-------
Table 13—Producers' shipments of copper sulfate by end uses,
United States, 1960-69
Year
I960 . . .
1961. . .
1962 . .
1963. . .
1961*. . .
1965. . .
1966 . . .
1967. . .
1968. . .
1969 . . .
! Total
: 1,000
- pounds
108, 5UU
.: 93,088
.: 80,661*
82 , 376
.: 87,368
.: 91,280
103,632
.: 81,288
.: 87,296
99,112
Agricultural
1,000
pounds
33 280
35,576
35.560
35,216
1*1 , 8l6
1*7.272
U1.50U
33,992
37.192
1+2,072
Industrial
1,000
pounds
1*0 02l+
1*0,01*8
1*0 768
1*1*. 256
1*3.1*1*0
1*0,381*
5l*,9]2
1*5.392
1*8, 10l*
52,1*16
Other,
mostly
export
1,000
pounds
35,21*0
17,1*61*
1*, 336
2,90U
2,112
3,62l*
7,216
1,90U
2,000
l*,62l*
Proportion
to
agri culture
Percent
30.7
38.2
1*1*. 1
1*2.8
1*7.9
51.8
1*0.0
1*1.8
1*2.6
1*2.1*
Source: Agri. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (9)
134
-------
Table ]..li -- Pesticides Currently Employed in Mosquito Control."
(Stale or KXOI regulations may impose certain restrictions on the use of these compounds-
prices.) lmllvlclual should consuU '""I ^ state authorities on the accept use
Type
Application Tox ant'
malathion
E
S
D
U
A BHC
DDT
s
p dieldrin
R
it- F-
ETT
U
S M
II
j-j Q dichlorvos
UA
A
A N
L T
G carbaryl
Off
S
O U P
UNA fenthinn'
TD C
*J \~*
Df*t
E
O A
OPS
R P P malathion
L R
I A
E Y
D
naled
Dosage
Mg./sq. ft.
100 or MQ
25 or 50
100 or 200
25 or 50
1 dispenser per
1000 cu. ft.
1 dispenser per
catch basin.
Lb./acre
0.2-1.0
0.01-0.1
0.075-0.2
0.02-0.1
Remarks
For use in United States as
an interior house treatment.
— Particularly persistent on
wood surfaces and remains
effective for 3 to 5 mon:hs.
FOR USE IN OVER
SEAS ZONES AS A STA\D-
AHD APPLICATION FOR
TREATING THE INTERIOR
OF HOMES IN MALARI-
OUS ARK AS. A suspension
formulation is mosl effec-
tive. Dosage and cycle of
— retreatment depend on the
vector, geographic area, and
transmission period. DDT
and dieldrin are effective
for 6 to 12 months, BHC for
3 months. When the vectors
are resistant to these or-
ganochlorine compounds,
malathion should be used.
Its efficacy is 2.5 to 3
months.
Formulated in resin. Sus-
pend . from . ceiling or roof
supports. Provides 21/?. to
3Vz months of satisfactory
— kills of adult mosquitoes.
Do not use where infants,
ill, or aged persons are con-
fined or in areas where food
is prepared or served.
— Suspend dispenser 12" below
catch basin cover.
Dosage based on estimat-
ed swath width of 300 ft.
Apply as mist or fog during
the dusk to dawn period.
Mists are usually dispersed
at rates of 1 to 25 gal per
rr;'.c at :; vehicle :,--^C. ..: Z
rnph. Fogs are applied at a
rate of 40 gal/hr. dispersed
— from a vehicle moving at this
speed; occasionally at much
higher rates and greater
speeds. Finished formula-
tions contain from 0.5 to
8 oz./gal. actual insecticide
in oil, or, in the case of the
nonthermal fog generator,
in a water emulsion. Dusts
also can be used. For ground
ULV application1*, technical
grade malathion is dispersed
at a rate of 1 to 1.5 fl. oz./
min. and a vehicle speed of
5 mph or at a rate of 2 to 3
fl. oz./min.-and 10 mph.
(Continued on next p.Tgc;
135
-------
Table Ut (continued)
Application
Typo
Toxicant^
Docaj!o
Remarks
Lb./ucre ' Apply by ground equipment
Abate 0.05-0.1 or airplane i rates up to
10 quails of f -mulation p?r
acre ckpendi ;g upon con-
centration employed. Ute
Dursban" 0.0125-0.05 oil or water emul';k-:v for-
EPN« . 0.075-0.1 mulation in r.retis witb-rnin-
imum vegetative covt-r.
fenthion'-"'' •- 0.02-0.1 Where vegetative cover is
heavy, use granular fonnii-
— latioris. DO NOT AK*JLY
malathion 0.2-0.5 PAHATHION IN UKBA.;-;
AREAS. For jut-hatch treat-
ment on an area bus:.-., use
m&thoxy- 0.05-0.2 methoxychlor (1 to 5 lb./
chlor A.). Oi'goHophosphonis com-
pounds such as Dursban
parathion' 0.1 and fcnthion provide yiro-
(elhyl longed effectivenes.-. in con-
or methyl) laminated water at dosages
5 to 10 times those li.sto.-a.
Apply paris green pellets
~ 0.75 _(5%) at rate of 15 Ib./A.
paris green with ground equipment or
airplane.
Apply to cover water sur-
face in catch basins or at
E • a rate of 15 to 20 gal. /A. in
2to20gal./A. — open water courre.s. V.'i.'h a
-fuel oil- spreading agent at a rale of
0.5%, the volume can be re-
duced to 2 to 3 gal./A.
• When insecticides arc to be applied to crop lands, pasture, rar.se land, or uncultivated
lands, consult agricultural authorities as to acceptable compounds and Epplicatlon
procedures.
' Other compounds, such as Thanitc. Letha:ie 304, propoxur and ronncl may have uses In
certain of Ihe categories rnentionca. Jf so, follov^ label directions.
c For use by trained niosquuo control personnel oniy.
* Adhere strictly to label specifications and dircc'icns for yse.
•Not to be applied to waters containing valuab!c fish, crabs, or shrimp.
'Label requires a 3-week interval between applications, cNec|.it for top, treatments.
L
A
R
V
I
C.
I
Source: Pest Control (18)
136
-------
Table J j .-Orncnophosphorus Insecticides for Use in Fly Control.'
(State rccuta+'aW rtvy Impose rcrtnin rfistrlctlons on the use of those toxicants in cinlrlcs
or at otluv afKC>*-iC utcs; therefore, the Individual should he certain that his usnfc
conforms vslM. lowJ rr^ti ictlons.)
Type
Application
Toxicant
Formulation
Remarks
R
E
S
I
D
U
A
For 50 gallons of
finished spray,
add water to:
IMazinon 2 gal. 25% EC
or 16# 25% WP
dimethoate 1 gal. 50% EC
Gardona 8# 50% WP or
6# 75% WP or
2gal.2#/gal.EC
malathion 2-4.5 gal."55%
EC or 32-64#
25% WP
naled
ronnel
fcnthion
1 gal. 50% EC
2 gal. 25% EC
or 16 # 25 % WP
0.7-1.3 gal.
93% EC
Maximum strength permit-
ted 1%. Labeled for use in
dairy barns, milk rooms, and
food-handling establish-
ments, but not poultry
houses.
- Maximum strength permit-
ted 1%. Can be used in
dairy barns (except milk
rooms), meat processing
plants, and poultry houses.
- Maximum strength permit-
ted 2%. Labeled for use in
dairy barns but not poul-
try houses.
— Maximum strength permit-
tod 5%. Labeled for use in
dairy barns, poultry houses,
meal pocking plants, pre-
mium grade material accept-
ed for use in milk rooms
and food-handling plants.
— Maximum strength permit-
ted 1%. For use in dairy
abrns (except .milk rooms),
in food-handling establish-
ments'", and in poultry
houses.
— Maximum strength permit-
ted 1%. For use in dairy
barns, milk rooms, food
processing plants, and poul-
try houses.
— Maximum strength permit-
ted 1.5%. Not to be used in
dairy batns, poultry houses,
AVOID CONTAMINATION OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL FOOD AND WATER
CONTAINERS. DO NOT TREAT MILK ROOMS OR FOOD PROCESSING
AREAS' WHILE IN OPERATION. REMOVE ANIMALS FROM STRUCTURE
DURING SPRAY OPERATION WHEN LABEL SO ADVISES.
I
M
P
R
E
G
N
A
T
E
D
C
O
R
D
Diazinon
and
parathion
To be prepared
by experienced
formulators only.
Install at rate of 30 linear
feet of cord per 100 square
feet of floor area. Accepted
for use in dairies and food
processing plants'1 but not
in poultry houses. Handle
and install cords per manu-
facturer's instructions.
(Continued on next page)
137
-------
Table
(cor- inued)
T. p*?
AritiUcntion
••B -- - •'
A
I
T
OA
A
TT p
u \,f
T E
D
O S
O P
P. R
A
Y"
I.
R
T
JL
I
T->
E
loxic.'int
Diazinon
. dichlorvos
malalhion
nalcd
ronnel
trichlorfon
Dia/inon4
fenfhion
dichlurvos
dirnelhoate"
malathion
nalod
Diczinon
dichlorvos
dimethoate
malathion
ronnel
Formulation
]# 25% \VP
plus 2 •!:,'; sugar;
2 fl. o/.. 25% 'EC
plus 3# ::ugar in
3 gal. of water.
3-6 fl.-oz. 10%
EC plus 3#
sugur in 3 gal.
water.
2# 257o WP
plus 23# sugar.
1.0 fl. o;;. 50%
EC phis 2.5#
sugar in 2.5 gal.
water.
2 pt. 25% EC
plus 3#.sugar in
3 gal. water.
1# 50% SPplus
4# sugar in 4
gal. water.
11 gal. 25% EC
in 34 c;a). \vater.
6 gul. 50% EC in
44 gal. water.
3 or 6 gai. 50%
EC in 50 gal.
water.
5 gal. 55%FCin
41 gal. wster
1.5 gal. 65% EC
in 00 gal. water.
111. 02. .25% EC
to i gal. of
water.
2 fl. oz. 10% EC
to 1 gal. of
water.
0.5 pt. 43% EC
to 2.5 p.al. of
water.-
5fl. o/,. 55% F,C
to 3 K«il. of
water.
1 pt. 25% EC to.
3 Eal. of water.'
Remarks
Apply 3-4 oz. (dry) or 1;3
gal. twet) per 11)00 sq. ft. in
areas of high fly concentra-
tion. Repeat 1 to 6 times
per week as requited. Avoid
application of bail to dirt^ar
litter. ;,
The use of permanent bait
stations will prolong the ef-
ficacy of each treatment.
These toxicants are avail-
able as commercial baits la-
beled for use in dairies and
in food processing plants".
None of these baits should
be employed inside homes
nor should Diazinon and
triehlorfon be used in poul-
try houses.
DO NOT CONTAMINATE
FEED OH WATERING
TTiOUGHS.
— Apply 15 gal. per mile.
— Apply 15 gal. per mile.
— A-pply 20 or 10 gal. per mile.
— Apply 20 gal. per mile.
— Apply 15-20 gal. per mile.
Apply 7-14 gal. per 1000 sq.
It. as a coarse spray. Rcpoat
as necessary, usually every
10 days or less. For chicken
droppings, use only where
birds are caged. Diazinon is
not labeled for use in poul-
try houses.
AVOID CONTAMINATION
Ol- i'J'^L) OK VV/Vij^rt, AiNjJ
DRIFT OF SPRAY ON
ANIMALS.
* Foi information on chemicals to be used against livestock and crop pests and for their
residue tolerances oi> crops, consult your State Agricultural Experiment Station ot Ex-
trpsion Service.
*» Jnriucics dairies, milk rooms, restaurants, canneries, food stores «md warehouses, and
sinnk i C'.'l.'tbllsK -I'.'nts.
* Based on swa ,h width ot 200 it.
*NoV swei'ical.'y labeled for outdoor space applications.
Source: Pest Control (l8)
138
-------
Table 1^—Quantity and cost of pesticides used in forest insect control programs, "by kinds, United
States, fiscal years 1967-70
vo
Name of pesticide
nrvr - - - -.. --.
1967
555,695
88,632
72,587
7,482
6,597
4,786
753
22
: 1968 :
n J
436,275 3
81
75
8,601
13,769
230
1,909
262
4,240
1969
: 1970
: 1967
: 1968
: 1969
: 1 970
n/-.l 1 1-r.o .
38,250
9,861
425
1,764
1,165
14,792
8
235,438
1,110
57
2,092
14,404
4
51,539
324,613
39,947
55,140
25,495
30,848
20,621
1,061
155
228,537
37
113
47,999
17,637
2,758
2,142
2,755
9,763
145,470
12,675
3,481
9,980
17,482
15,317
10
139,322
4,002
417
10,298
na
14,560
I/
I/
I/ Not available.
Source: Agri. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (9)
-------
Table IT.—Extent aru cost of herbicides used to treat forest plantings,
by region, United States, 1965 and 1968 I/
Regi on
Corn Belt and
Appalachian and
Mountain and Pacific _!/
1965
Acres j
treated j
1,000
acres
29
10
61
17
117
Cost 3/
1,000
dollars
436
48 .
878
129
1,491
' 1968
] Acres
treated
1,000
acres
49
43
356
15
463
y
Cost
1,000
dollars
645
305
5,063
157
6,170
I/ Includes Hawaii, but not Alaska.
2/ Preliminary.
3/ Includes herbicide and charges for application equipment and
Source: (30) and unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr. , Agr. Fes. Serv.,
Econ. Res. Serv., and Fed. Exten. Serv.
140
-------
Table 18.—Quantities of pesticides used and acres treated for specified purposes
with selected herbicides by Government agencies, United States, 19&9
Purpose and agency
Timber Improvement programs
Dept. of Agriculture
Range land Improvement program?)
Dept. of Agriculture
Dept« of Interior
Dept. of Defense
Rights«of-way Maintenance
Dept. of Agriculture
Dept. of Interior
Dept. of Dcfnese
TVA
Watershed Maintenance
Dept. of Interior
Dept. of Defense
TVA
Witchweed Control
Dept. of Agriculture
Total-
: 2,
: 1,000
: pounds
:
*
: 424
*
t
•
: 233
: 450
j 100
j
:
*
*
: 12
U-D ':
:
;
s
:
t
t
«
.
•
•
•
3
x
*
*
t
*
•
: 1.5:
: 300
» 934^
I
t
j
: 60
: 400
:
:
i
t
t
t
•
*
: 926 V:
:
:
j
: 176
: 21,56.5
:
•
*
:
*
*
*
•
*
•
t
i
1,000
acres
185
99
249
50
4
:
*
I
J
•
•
J
*
*
•
•
•
:
:
;
I
•
.
0.8:
100
:
99 j/:
78
200
40 1
176
1.141.
t
:
;
.
•
t
f
*
*
*
•
:
s
8
*
:
2.U.5-T
1,000 : 1,000
pounds : acres
\
221
86
26
—
5
1,5
200
761 ly
0.6
..
..
107
34
44
-•
2
: Picloram : Cacodylic Acid
:
J
j
!
t
X
:
*
i
:
:
i
t
•
*
4
1,000 :
pounds :
:,
:
t
•
»
I
1.7 :
— t
.. j
j
i
•
:
1,000 : 1,000 : 1,000
acres : pounds : acres
:, :
«
.- S 126 22
*
:
t
0.9 : ~ :
.. t — : —
.. j .. < ..
: j
t :
: t
.. « *. . ..
0.8: : — : — :
100
79
:
U
i
:
j
0.3,
~
..
.. j
:
540.1 : 288.
*
:
j
i
•
:
•
•
•
»
1:
•
t
10 j
72 y :
*
*
:
*
-• t
— :
.. j
t
j
j
:
*
U.7 t
:
t
10 : 30 : 1
17 l/j — : —
~* : t
: :
t :
.- • — :
... .. : .—
.. « .* :
t :
• •
: t
.. j — :
t t
10.9 : 156 t 23
* *
: :
I/ Represents total applied during period 1951-69 inclusive.
?/ Excludes usages by TVA.
Source: Unpublished data, For. Serv.
-------
Teble 19,—Acreage of land-treated and cost per acre for lirush and weed control under Agricultural Conservation,
Program (ACP), United States, 1960-69
Brush control on raige Weed control on crop Bindweed control Riparian vegetation
and pastureland ' and pastureland on cropland control
Tear : : :
Extent : ACP cott Extent : ACP cost Extent ACP cost Extent : ACP cost
:per acre I/ :per acre I/ per acre I/ :per acre 2/
Acres Dollaa s Acres Dollars Acres Dollars Acres Dollars
10 :
*
1965 : 1,820,609
*
*
*
1969 * 1,911,662
3.1V
3.0^
3.1!)
3.08
3.13
3.11
3.28
3.^5
3.70
3.37
204,689
^c/cjj _ *f- i JL
226, 5^
263,101*.
J /
I/
63H,470
701,895
3.02
3.59
U.16
3.62
I/
I/
2.77
2.29
6,1480
9,031
3,767
3,075
2,073
!/
I/
I/
3/
50.90
1*9.68
50.72
52.23
I/
I/
I/
!/
5.3
10.0
71.0
9.0
3_/
I/
-3/
i/'
15.85
16.00
12.27
13.11
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/ Represents about one-half of to;al cost.
2/ Represents about two-thirds of iotal cost,
^/ Not available.
Source: Agri. Stabil. .and Consery. Serv. (9)
-------
Table 20.—Acreage of rangeland and pastureland treated for control of brush
under Agricultural Conservation Program, by States, 1966-69 I/-
State
•
Arizona . . . •
Nebraska ;
Utah :
Washington '•
North Dakota. . . :
Other :
Total :
1966
Acres
1,162,537
1*0,806
98,836
76,760
72,11*3
67,730
1*7,783
1*2,930
. 1*9,930
30,006
1+6,519
11*, 365
38,876
9,l!tl*
5,836
I*, 569
5,971*
15,089
8,921
4uazz_
1,870,975
1967
Acres
1,161,305
99,1+81
116,638
123,561*
63,71+1*
66,961
58,1*71
61*, 506
66,981*
38,898
39,536
25,11+8
22,71*1+
16,370
10,279
7,371+
12,809.
11*, 81*3
9,552
45J26
2,06^,333
1968
Acres
1,098,61*2
60,91+6
166,172
96,601
62,835
53,1*81*
52,325
50,397
1*8,576
1*6,183
25,967
20,673
19,585
18,755
8,188
6,91+1+
1+.515
16,263
8,397
8,612
31 ,834
i,yio,89i
1969
Acres
l,ll+1+J387
150,61*9
109,095
96,918
71,557
i+9,586
1*8,21*1*
1*1,777
29,931
27,615
22,696
18,370
15,139
11,781*
10,525
8,812
8,655
6,519
5,979
5,1+72
27,952
1,911,662
Percentage
of U.S. total
in 1969
Percent
59.86
7-88
5.71
5.07
3.71*
2.59
2.52
2.19
1.57
1.1+5
1.19
0.96
0.79
0.62
0.55
0.1*6
0.1*5
0.31+
0.31
0.29
1.1*6
100.00
I/ Practice B-3
Source: Agri. Stabil. and Conserv. Serv. (9)
143
-------
Table 21.—Major Federal agencies requesting the
use of pesticides in pest control programs
and acres to be treated, January-August 1971
Federal agency
Acres to be
treated
U.S. Department of
Agriculture
U.S. Department of
Interior
U.S. Department of
Defense
Atomic Energy Commission--
Other Federal agencies l/-
Total-
Million
acres
16.7
2.7
1.2
.6
.2
21.4
I/ Includes the District of Columbia, General
Services Administration, National Institutes of
Health, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
International boundary Commission, Tennessee Valley
Authority, Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administra-
tion, the Veterans Administration, and others.
Source: Unpublished data President's Cabinet
Committee on the Environment, Subcommittee
on Pesticides.
144
-------
Table 22.—Important pesticides requested for
•use and acres to be treated by Federal
agencies, January-August 1971
Pesticide
o A n _
MQlp,l
lorai — - — — -
Acres to be
treated
Million'
acres
9.5
6.0
.6
.5
.3
4.5
21.4
Source: Unpublished data, President's
Cabinet Committee on the
Environment, Subcommittee on
Pesticides.
145
-------
Table 23.--Acreage treated annually with selected herbicides
for agricultural and nonagricultural uses, United States
Type of use
Non agricultural
Turf - -- - - --
Government programs 3/
Qntrf- r\1- n 1 -
Tnt si -
2,4-D
56,893
1,200
3,000
1,142
5,342
62,235
• 2 4 5-T
• ^ >4>° *
Innn
,uuu
1,565
1,200
3,000
288
4,488
6,053
Picloram
acres — •
118
11
11
129
[Cacodylic
\ acid
101
23
23
124
_!/ Estimated use in 1966.
2J Estimated use in recent years.
3/ Estimated use in 1969.
Source: Unpublished data, For. Serv.
146
-------
Table 2It.—Selected major insecticides used on crops by farmers,
by regions, United States, 1966 I/
Insecticides
Active
ingredients
Percentage of
total
AH insecticides
Southeast
Delta States
Corn Belt
Southern Plains-
Other regions
All regions
Toxaphene
Southeast
Delta States
Southern Plains-
Applachian
Other regions
All regions
DDT
Southeast
Delta States
Southern Plains-
Appalachian
Other regions—
All regions—
Aldrin
Corn Belt
Lake States
Other regions—
All regions—
Million pounds
35.4
21.8
21.5
16.0
42.9
137.6
13.7
7.2
5.0
2.5
2.5
30.9
10.9
7.1
2.7
1.8
3.8
26.3
13.0
.7
1.1
14.8
Percent
25.7
15.9
15.6
11.6
31.2
100.0
44.3
23.3
16.2
8.1
8.1
100,0
41.5
27.0
10.3
6.8
14.4
100.0
87.9
4.7
7.4
100.0
147
-------
Table 21+.--• Selected major insecticides used on crops by farmers,
by regions, United States, 1966 I/—continued
Insecticides
Parathion
Methyl Parathion
Active
ingredients
Million pounds
9 9
1 ^
1 L
1 9
9 1
8A
0 1
9 9
i q
A Q
Q A
Percentage of
total
Percent
26 2
17 9
16 6
14 3
25 0
100 0
27 5
03 «
10 0
100 0
!_/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Econ. lies. Serv. (7)
148
-------
Table 25.— Selected major herbicides used on crops by farmers,
by regions, United States, 1966 I/
Herbicides
Active
ingredients
Percentage of
total
All herbicides
Corn Belt
Northern Plains-
Pacific
Lake States
Other regions
All regions
2,U-D
Northern Plains-
Corn Belt
Pacific
Mountain
Southern Plains-
Other regions—
All regions—
Atrazine
Corn Belt
Appalachian
Lake States
Northern Plains-
Northeast
Other regions—
All regions—
Trifluralin
Delta States
Corn Belt
Southeast
Southern Plains-
Other regions—
All regions—
Million pounds
35-5
Ik.9
Ik.I
11.6
36.3
112. k
10. k
9.8
6.2
k.2
3-6
5.3
39-5
10.0
2.5
M
2.3
2.3
1.7
23.5
1,6
i.o
.8
.6
1.2
5-2
Percent
31.6
13.3
12.5
10,
32.
.3
.3
100.0
26.3
2k.8
15.7
10.7
9.1
13. k
100.0
1(2.6
10.6
20.0
9.8
9.8
7-2
100.0
30.8
19.2
15.U
11.5
23.1
100.0
I/ Does not include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Econ. Hes. Serv. (7)
149
-------
Table 26.—Selected major fungicides used on crops "by fanners,
by regions, United States, 1966 I/
Fungicide
Active
ingredients
Percentage of
total
All fungicides
Northeast
Corn Belt
Southeast
Lake States
Appalachian
Pacific
Other regions—
All regions--?-
Zineb
Corn Bolt
Northern Plains-
Northeast
Southeast
Sputhern Plains-
Appalachian
Other regions—
All regions —
Cap tan
Northeast
Appalachian
T,l.% r*. r-^~.~
Other regions---
All regions---
Copper compounds
Southeast
Pacific
Southern Plain:;-
Appalachian
Other regions---
^ All region^---
Million
pounds
6.8
5.3
5.2
3.4
3.3
2.8
3.7
30.5
3.4
.6
.6
.5
.2
6.8
2.5
1.7
i ,5
.8
6.6
3.1
1.0
.7
.6
.8
6.2
V Does not. include Alaska and Hawaii.
Source: Econ. Fes. Serv. (7) -
Percent
22.3
17.4
17.1
11.1
10.8
9.2
12.1
100.0
50.0
11.8
10.3
8.8
8.8
7.4
2.9
100.0
37.9
25.8
2/t 2
12.1
100.0
50.0
16.1
11.3
9.7
12.9
100.0
-------
.Table 27.—Cash expenditures for farm pesticides, by States, 1955 and 1970 I/
State and Region
North Atlantic:
Main..1 —
New !!;-.••[!:,.lire
Vermont
Massetdr.'i-etts
Rhode Island
Coir.iecticul--
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
East North Central:
Ohio
Indiana
Illinoi s--
Mi chi^an
Wisconsin
West North Central:
Minnesota
Iowa-.
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska--- -
Kansas
South Atlantic:
Delc'Viii-e •
Mar/land
Virj-.-ni a
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgi a
Fl:-,-id3
South Central:
Kentucky--
Tennessee *•
Alabama -
Mississippi
Av'railsjx:
LoiiijJoiia •
Oklahoma
Texas
Western:
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
Colorado
New .Mexico
Arizona
Utah--
Nevada
Washington
Oregcn -
Call foriia
Uni tcJ States-
1955
1970 2/
-Thousand dollars-
3,203
412
688
916
152
8/3
9,179
2,960
6,206
4,368
2,113
2,671
6,557
2,246
2,413
2,906
1,858
1,771
1,832
1,544
1,332
502
1,308
3,988
1,160
11,092
5,749
8,434
11,508
2,721
1,533
3,216
9,451
f. or*'.
5^974
2,715
11,436
2,561
1,785
354
2,180
1,118
6,021
S19
158
5,658
4,810
36,145
204,700
9,001
2,064
1,966
4,717
546
3,051
24,364
8,195
17,129
22,264
23,512
40,156
39,290
15,022
24,350
40,263
19,151
8,195
8,583
19,420
15,175
2,485
4,819
16,377
3,810
34,898
17,656
21,096
57,626
15,948
12,194
15,285
26,495
28.754
18,162
10,840
56,421
7,412
9,559
3,823
13,313
7,506
11,524
3,366
1,458
22,329
14,325
114,741
898,636
""!_/ Does not include livestock sprays and disinfectants ,
United States they were $143 million in both 1955 and 1970.
2j ~-ri;limir.ary.
SOUTC-T-: Farmer Cooperative Serv. JL51
For the
-------
N)
Table 28.—Estim-.ted agreage of crops harvested and treated with herbicides and insecticides
5 I-ake States, 1969 and 1970 I/
5 Lake
States
Illinois—-
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota —
Wisconsin —
Total
Illinois—-
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota —
Wisconsin —
Total
Corn
Harvested
' Smal grains 2/
Treated
Harves .ed
Treated
Soybeans
Harvested ° Treated
; Hay
Harvested
Treated
Other
Harvested
I/
Treated
Total
Harvested
I/
Treated
1969
9,980
It ,901
1,662
l*,939
2,666
2l*,ll*8
10,379
5,195
1,778
5,285
2,71*6
25,383
8,1*33
It, 267
1,1*1*5
3,765
2,055
19,965
8,732
it, 1*61*
1,587
1*,216
2,390
21,1*39
2,0!6
1,221
1,1*9
1*,?35
1,7 )!*
11,135
l!o3
1,07
l/i 77
10J78
21
1*8
361*
2,991*
370
3,797
56
50
385
2,732
1*20
3,61*3
6,730
3,311
511*
3,068
171*
13,797
6,865
3,311
521*
3,129
153
13,982
It ,711
2,280
292
1,706
87
9,076
1* ,911*
2,350
330
1,936
77
9,607
I,2lt3
956
1,1*85
3,336
It ,022
ll,0l»2
1970
1,260
932
1,1*25
3,231
It, 016
10,861*
75
117
250
1*8
20
510
56
61
2l*2
20
22
1*01
671
7
678
597
1*07
9
1,013
1*93
3
1*96
1*90
280
3
773'
19 ,969
10,389
5,1*81
16,328
8,653
60,820
20,1^9
10,531
16^918
8,701
61,720
13,21(0
6,712
2,81*1*
8,513
2,535
33,81.1*
13,808
6,92;
3,031*
2,912
35,863
I/ Includes corn, soybeans, oats, wher t, barley, rye, and hay in each state. Also includes dry beans in Michigan, tobacco in Wisconsin, and
flax in Minnesota.
2/ Includes oats, wheat, barley and r;'e.
3/ Includes dry beans in Michigan, fl jc in Minnesota, and tobacco in Wisconsin.
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35), (36)
-------
Table 29-—Estimated acreage of crops treated with pesticides by type of control
5 Lake States, 1969 and 1970 I/
5 Lake
States
Minnesota
Wisconsin
rn-j.0i
Weeds
1969 ;
lU,870
6,538
2,520
9,155
2,1*39
35,522
•'
1970 ;
lU,72U
6,781
2,805
10,536
3,123
37,969
• insects
1969 !
] Diseases
1970 ;
7,U25 6,313
1,963 2,021*
637 690
1,521 1,181
821 779
12,367 10,987
1969
- -1 non
126
ho
59
59
36
320
• 1970
228
196
16
112
95
6>*7
; Other
; 1969 ; 1970
20 6
1* 2
3
3
30 8
;
: 1969
22,kkl
8,5^5
3,216
10,738
3,299
J+8,239
Total
! 1970
21,271
9,003
3,511
11,829
3,997
1*9,611
!_/ Includes corn, soybeans, oats, wh^at, barley, rye, and hay in each state. Also includes dry beans in Michigan,
tobacco in Wisconsin and flax in Minnesota. Acres treated more than once are counted for each treatment.
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35), (36)
-------
Table 30.—Acreage c,'" corn treated with insecticides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Insecticio.e
Ph nr-pi •(• P-
All ins6C"tici do s
Illinois
~
-------
Table 31. Acreag- of Small grains treated with insecticides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Insecticide
Illinois : Indiana
- 7
11 8
- 1 S
11 30
: Michigan : Minnesota : Wisconsin
1 liQ —
-LH^ —
29 — 1
10 19 7
188 19 8
5 Lake
States
156
51
256
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr- (35)
155
-------
Table 32-—Acreage of hay treated with insecticides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Insecticide
Diazinon and
Malathion and
Illinois : Indiana
— — —
10 12
_ q
— 5
35 35
^5 55
: Michigan : Minnesota : Wisconsin
1,000 acres
hk
57 -- 3
U8
71 1 1
220 1 **
; 5 Lake
\ States
66
63
53
1U3
325
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35)
156
-------
Table 33.— Acreage of corn treated with herbicides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Herbicide I/
Illinois : Indiana : Michigan : Minnesota : Wisconsin
7,256 3,766 1,182 3,075 1,985
2,067 5Ql+ 1,^32 31
^30 19k 311 1,113 k71
1,2^3 638 llU 38k k8
691 3Ul 85 885 77
PR1^ 1 kk 1 f\f>
2j 2j 2j 2j 2j
9,767 5,0-88 1,700 5,576 2,615
_: 5 Lake
; States
17,26U
2,079
595
2/
24,7^6
I/ Includes preemergence and postemergence treatment.
2] Small acreages were also treated vith other undesignated herbicides.
3/ Individual items ac.d to more than total because some acres received more than one
treatment.
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35)
157
-------
Table 3^.—Acreage of soybeans treated with herbicides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Herbicides I/
All herbicides
Illinois : Indiana : Michigan
.uuu
9 ^^^ 71 1 Ad
lilig pgo o-i
U ,675 1,276 276
: Minnesota : Wisconsin
1 199 22
3^9 12
oon 18
on 1Q
1,909 71
; 5 Lake
\ States
u 571*
1 60U
.1,088
661
280
8,207
I/ Includes preernergence and postemergence treatment.
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35)
158
-------
Table 35.—Acreage of small grains treated with herbicides, 5 Lake States, 1970
Herbicide I/
WPP A — -.
./oners
Illinois :
10
18
10
7
H5
Indiana : Michigan
jUUU
87
108
£o
oy
23 U
23 268
: Minnesota
acres
1,217
1,131
326
55
2,729
: Wisconsin
lUU
197
69
2
412
| 5 Lake
States
1,1*58
1,^5U
. klk
91
3,^77
!_/ Includes preemergence and postemergence treatment.
Source: Wise. Dept. Agr. (35)
159
-------
Table 36.--Acreage of crops treated for
insect and weed control in selected
states, 1964 and 1969
State I/
Oh T n-
Acreage treated for--
Insects
1964 3/]1969 A
i nnn
386 480
182 126
468 362
441 536
180 789
223 1,127
201 996
95 1,343
149 4,556
55 4,032
403 1,238
134 368
76 507
2,993 16,460
Weeds 2/
j 1964 ; 1969
773 765
99 160
771 734
1,786 1,841
1,738 1,997
5,386 6,555
2,392 2,737
3,021 4,364
5,502 9,278
4,998 7,766
1,829 3,367
6,902 6,881
3,448 3,249
38,645 49,694
If States for which 1969 information was
available, Sept. 1971.
2/ Acres of crops and brush or pasture treated
for weeds.
3/ Acres treated for insect and disease control,
4/ Acres treated for insect control only.
Source: Bureau of Census (25)
160
-------
Table 37.--Quantities of selected kinds of pesticides by users, Utah, 1969 and 1970
Year and pesticide
1969
Chlorinated hydro-
Organophosphates
Other insecticides--
Total insecticides
M"j C f*Ci 1 1 Qn^fMlC—... ••»_
Total for 1969—
1970
Chlorinated hydro-
i
c a i u on s
Organophosphates
Other insecticides--
Total insecticides
H o T*l"t "i r* i rl o C •» —
\t* f 11 r\ t^f^ C
Ml 5CC 1 lculGOU-3~* " — — — -
Total for 1970--
Agricultural:
XT
>^ i
139
9
179
,
JHD
, J
531
7 17
-------
Table 38---Quantities of insecticides
used for residential insect control,
California, 1970
Insecticide
Quantity
used
Chlordane
Malathion
Carbaryl
Lead arsenate (standard
and basic)
Methyl bromide
Carbon tetrachloride
Diazinon
Others
Total-
1,000
pounds
78
60
54
38
36
21
20
104
411
Source: Calif. Dept. Agr. (4)
162
-------
Table 39.--Quantities of herbicides used
for residential weed control,
California, 1970
Herbicides.
Quantity
used
Borax and boric acid-
Sodium chlorate
Ammonium sulfamate—
2,4-D
Bromacil
Simazine
Others
Total-
1,000
pounds
1,198
525
119
59
58
41
213
2,213
Source: Calif. Dept. Agr. (4)
163
-------
Table 40.--Quantities of insecticides used
for structural pest control,
California, 1970
Insecticide
Quantity
used
Chlordane
Methyl bromide-
Vikane
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Others
Total-
1,000
pounds
551
187
76
47
30
26
63
980
Source: Calif. Dept. Agr. (4)
164
-------
Table 4j.--Percentage of all pesticide sales reported in
California that were used by Government agencies
in 1970
Kind of use
Vector
State
Other
All
and local roads
Type of pesticide
Insecticides
2.2
I/
2.5
4.7
: Herbicides
— -Percent
.3
5.0
6.1
11.4
Fungicides
I/
I/
.7
.7
Total
pesticides
1.3
1.3
3.0
5.6
I/ Less than O.C5 percent.
Source: Calif. Dept. Agr. (4)
165
-------
Table l^—Extent of custom application of chemical weed
control materials, United States, 1959, 1962, 1965,
and 1968
Year
Percentage of treated acres
covered by custom application
Percent
26.6
28.5
3^.9
31. U
Source: (30) and unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr.
Res. Serv. , Econ. Res. Serv. , and Fed. Exten.
Serv.
166
-------
'J>able U3---Percentage of expenditures for pesticides, by form of application
and by crop, United States, 1961+ and 1966 I/
Crop
Wheat
Other grain 5/6/
Other field crops 5/6/
Alfalfa
Other hay and forage 5/6/
f
1964
Dust
; 1966
Form
of application
\ Granular
; 1964 ;
1966
Spray
1964 ;
1966
\ Other
; 1964 ;
11
1966
7
22
2
4
A/
i
12
15
A/
A/
29
2
4/
4
21
20
4
4
10
27
4/
i
14
2
9
3
2
1
J3/
3
8
36
2
1
2
5
4
8
1.1
3
4
14
6
5
34
1
2
A/
2
29
7
A/
A/
9
4
A/
I/
3
2
I/
4/
5
9
38 59
2 77
V 98
3 94
y
97
40 59
2 54
8 4/
3 _A/
16 61
. 1 75
1 A/
_3/ 95
24 75
24 75
3f 95
V 96
3/ 90
3 73
2 A/
3/ 34
17
75
58
88
97
94
99
100
57
79
53
95
83
96
98
95
70
67
99
96
96
67
80
100
76
A/
I/
24
A/
A/
i
19
A/
i
i
3
1
2
2
1
1
11
3
J3/
I/
1
1
2
1
I/
1
16
12
2
I/ Does not include Alaska or Hawaii. Excludes pesticides used for controlling
rod"ents and treating seeds, stored crops, storage buildings, and seedbeds and trans-
plants.
2/ Includes fertilizer-pesticide mixtures and other forms.
3/ Less than 0.5 percent.
f*j Data not available for 1964.
5/ In 1964, rice was included with other grains; peanuts and sugarbeets with other
field crops; and other hay and forage with pasture.
6/ Crops included in this category are listed in app. 2.
Source: Econ. Res. Serv. (2)
167
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Table 44.- Extent of preemergence and postemergence chemical weed
control in the United States, 1968
Crop or area
Pnvn-
V n> p, o t - - -
Other small
Other vegetables --
Fruits and nuts —
Hnv
Forest plantin^.s--
Non crop land --
Aquatic areas
Total or
Thousand acres
48,930
9,245
7,363
22,302
21,255
14,694
1,920
72
1,270
850
582
246
212
461
2,343
2,940
89
3,826
1,276
4,685
4,373
463
1,659
216
151,272
Percentage
Preemergence
Percent
51
58
43
75
4
11
2
33
72
77
40
32
73
70
73
76
67
32
25
8
14
8
8
43
of acres treated
Postemergence
Percent
49
42
57
25
96
89
98
67
28
23
60
68
27
30
27
24
33
68
75
92
100
86
92
92
57
Source: Unpublished data U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Econ.
Res. Serv. and Fed. Exten. Serv.
168
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Table 45.--Extent of preemergence or
postemergence chemical weed control
in the United States, 1968
State and region
New Hampshire
r\lSCOnbXIl- — — --
Lake States
unio —
inoicuid-- - — -—
i ninoib— - - — --
I ow a- — — — —
Missouri
INOTtn IjaKOUa —
OOULU LiaKOla — — -
Nebraska — ---
Northern Plains-
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
Kentucky
Tennessee ~
Appalachian
Pre-
emergence
Post-.
emergence
80
63
33
64
59
33
47
47
22
33
74
46
'• 32
39
44
41
44
59
68
54
59
58
4
9
41
24
18
31
47
48
39
69
47
20
37
67
36
41
67
53
53
78
67
26
54
68
61
56
59
56
41
32
46
41
42
96
91
59
76
82
69
53
52
61
31
53
--Continued
169
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Table 45.--Extent of preemergence or
postemergence chemical weed control
in the United States, 1968--Continued
State and region
Soul!': Carolina
Delta States
TVi v a Q — — — _____„,,_.
Southern Plains-
Tn«>i ^
\ <„. ,^ *- ,, ^ ,-,
*'* W L4.J 1 V- <^t J- J, 1 "" "" " ------
United States-
Pre- ;
emergence |
Post-
emergence
46
54
50
56
51
50
48
38
46
68
42
46
22
20
18
11
59
44
14
6
TO
6
30
37
35
60
25
43.
Source: Unpublished data U.S.
Agr. Res. Serv., Econ.
and Fed. Exten. Serv.
54
46
50
44
49
50
52
62
54
32
58
54
78
80
82
89
41
56
86
94
7S
94
70
63
65
40
75
57
Dept. Agr. ,
Res. Serv.
170
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Table 45.--Seasonal distribution of use, all pesticides, by
major uses, California, 1970
Use category
Farm uses:
Fruits § nuts (not
including citrus or
Deciduous fruit (not
Nonfarm uses:
Other government uses--
Quantity
used
I/
1,000 Ibs.
7,581
7,231
2,551
1,952
1,607
1,340
1,025
13,786
37,073
627
1,377
4,504
6,508
43,581
| Percentage
Jan.-
; Mar.
16.4
1.0
20.8
4.9
57.4
0.4
23.1
16.3
.8
21.0
18.2
15.6
16.3
\ Apr . -
] June
30.1
2.1
22.7
43.7
19.4
35.1
96.4
29.0
26.0
10.7
24.2
27.6
23.1
26.0
of total
; July-
.'. Sept.
29.3
54.4
30.9
11.3
11.1
61.1
3.6
29.6
33.1
82.6
25.2
33.6
34.3
33.1
Oct.-
Dec.
24.2
42.5
25.6
40.1
12.1
3.4
18.3
24.6
3.9
29.6
20.6
27.0
24.6
I/ Does not include petroleum, boron, calcium hydroxide, diatomaceous,
earth, dormant oils, hydrated lime, lime sulfur, mineral oil, sulfuric
acid, buiiijuer oils anu
-------
Table 47.- Seasonal distribution of pesticide use, by types,
California, 1970
Use r--it-jgory
Fungicides:
17 TV»IV.
Tn1* a 1 - - - - -
Herbicides :
Tnt a"!-— -
Insecticides :
C o -vm
Tr»1* a!-_ - - — -.-
j
All pesticides :
U •-> -vm
Tnt" nl-
Quantity
used
!/
1,000 Ibs.
7,116
129
7,245
6,403
2,897
9,300
15,211
1.731
16,942
28,730
4,75?
33,487
\ Percentage
[ Jan.-
\ Mar .
29.9
1.8
29.4
16.3
19.7
17.4
8.6
10.8
8.9
16.6
15-6
16.3
Apr . -
' June
29.2
19.5
29.0
22.7
26,5
23.8
29.3
16.8
27.9
26.7
23.1
26.0
of total
I July-
; Sept.
13.5
33.9
13.9
19.6
32.4
23.5
46.7
37.3
45.8
33.2
34.3
33.1
; oct.-
; Dec.
27.4
44.8
27.7
41.4
21.4
35.3
15.4
35.1
17.4
23.5
27.0
24.6
_!/ Does not include petroleum, boron, calcium hydroxide, diatomaceous
earth, dormant oils, hydrated lime, lime sulfur, mineral oil, sulfuric
acid, summer oils and zinc.
172
MJ.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1972 514-147/53 1-3
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