APTD-1511
NATIONAL INVENTORY
OF SOURCES
AND EMISSIONS:
VANADIUM - 1968
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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APTD-1511
NATIONAL INVENTORY
OF
SOURCES AND EMISSIONS:
VANADIUM - 1968
by
W. E. Davis § Associates
9726 Sagamore Road
Leawood, Kansas
Contract No. CPA-70-128
EPA Project Officer: C. V. Spangler
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
June 1971
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The APTD (Air Pollution Technical Data) series of reports is issued by
the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and
Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, to report technical
data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies of APTD reports
are available free of charge to Federal employees, current contractors
and grantees, and non-profit organizations - as supplies permit - from
the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711 or may be obtained,
for a nominal cost, from the National Technical Information Service,
5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
in fulfillment of Contract No. CPA-70-128. The contents of this report
are reproduced herein as received from the contractor. The opinions,
findings and conclusions expressed are those of the author and not
necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency. The report
contains some information such as estimates of emission factors and
emission inventories which by no means are representative of a high
degree of accuracy. References to this report should acknowledge the
fact that these values are estimates only.
Publication No. APTD-1511
11
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PREFACE
This report was prepared by W. E. Davis & Associates pursu-
ant to Contract No. CPA 70-128 with the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Office of Air Programs.
This inventory of atmospheric emissions has been prepared to
provide reliable information regarding the nature, magnitude,
and extent of the emissions of vanadium in the United States for
the year 1968.
Background information concerning the basic characteristics
of the vanadium industry has been assembled and included. Pro-
cess descriptions are given, but they are brief, and are limited
to the areas that are closely related to existing or potential at-
mospheric losses of the pollutant.
Due to the limitation of time and funds allotted for the study, the
plan was to personally contact about thirty percent of the com-
panies in each major emission source group to obtain the re-
quired information. It was known that published data concerning
emissions of the pollutant was virtually nonexistent, and contacts
with industry ascertained that atmospheric emissions were not a
matter of record.
ill
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The vanadium emissions and emission factors presented are
based on the summation of information obtained from produc-
tion and reprocessing companies that handle about twenty-five
percent of the vanadium consumed in the United States. Vana-
dium emissions and emission factors are considered to be
reasonably accurate.
IV
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This was an industry oriented study and the authors express
their appreciation to the many companies and individuals in
the vanadium industry for their contributions.
We wish to express our gratitude for the assistance of the
various societies and associations, and to many branches of
the Federal and State Governments.
Our expr.ess thanks to Mr. C. V. Spang]er, Project Officer,
Office of Air Programs, for his helpful guidance.
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CONTENTS
SUMMARY
Emissions by Source ,«...,. 2
Emissions by States 3
Emission Factors . . . , , . . 4
SOURCES OF VANADIUM 5
MATERIAL FLOW
Material Flow Chart . 7
Mining and Processing , . . . „ , 8
Imports and Exports *...,....,., 9
Vanadium Stocks „ ~ . , . 10
Reprocessing , ^ . „ . 11
Carbon Steel. „„.......„.. 11
Alloy Steel , „ . , 12
Cast Iron 13
Nonferrous Alloys 14
Chemicals and Ceramics ........ 16
Miscellaneous 18
EMISSIONS
Mining and Processing 21
Metallurgical Processing 23
Reprocessing ., , . . . 29
Steel , „ . . 30
Cast Iron .............. 36
Nonferrous Alloys .......... 37
Chemicals and Ceramics , , 37
Miscellaneous 39
Consumptive Uses . . . . 41
Coal 41
Oil 44
VI i
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APPENDIX A
Companies Dealing in Vanadium and
Vanadium Products . . 50
TABLES
Table I
Average Minor Element Contents of
Coals from Various Regions of the
United States - ppm „ „ . . , 43
Table II
Vanadium Content of Domestic Crude Oils . . 45
Table III
Vanadium Content of Venezuelan Crude
Oils. .,.,,.. „ . . 46
Table I-V
Vanadium Content of Middle East Crude
Oils. 48
viii
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SUMMARY
The production and use of vanadium in the United States has
been traced and charted for the year 1968. The consumption
was 5,495 tons, exports 741 tons, and imports 652 tons. About
80 percent (4, 350 tons) was used in the production of steel.
Emissions to the atmosphere during the year totaled 19,231
tons. Emissions due to the combustion of fuel oil and coal
were 17, 000 tons and 1, 750 tons, respectively. Emissions
resulting from the production of ferrovanadium were 144 tons
and those from the production of steel were 236 tons.
Emission estimates for coal and fuel oil combustion are con-
sidered to be reasonably accurate. They are based on the
average vanadium content of many coal and oil samples.
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EMISSIONS BY SOURCE
1968
Source Category
Mining and Processing
Source Group
Short Tons
8]
Metallurgical
Processing
144
Reprocessing
244
Steel
Blast Furnace 63
Open-Hearth Furnace 166
Basic Oxygen Furnace 7
Electric Arc Furnace N
Cast Iron 1
Nonferrous Alloys 3
Chemicals and Ceramics
Catalysts 2
Glass and Ceramics N
Miscellaneous 2
Consumptive Uses
Coal
Oil
TOTAL
], 750
17,000
18,750
19,219
N - Negligible (less than 1 ton)
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EMISSIONS BY STATES
1968
State Short Tons
New York 3, 460
California 1, 880
Massachusetts 1, 740
New Jersey 1, 730
Pennsylvania 1,400
Georgia and Florida 1,290
Illinois 760
Connecticut 720
Delaware and Maryland 470
Indiana 430
Virginia 420
Ohio 360
All Other States 4, 090
Undistributed 469
TOTAL 19,219
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EMISSION FACTORS
Mining and Processing
25 Ib/ton of vanadium processed
Metallurgical Processing
61 Ib/ton of vanadium processed
Reprocessing
Steel
Blast Furnace
Open-Hearth Furnace
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Cast Iron
Nonferrous Alloys
Chemicals and Ceramics
Catalysts
1. 4 lb/1, 000 tons of pig iron produced
5. 1 lb/1, 000 tons of steel produced
0. 3 lb/1, 000 tons of steel produced
0. 22 Ib/ton of charge
12 Ib/ton of vanadium processed
20 Ib/ton of vanadium processed
Consumptive Uses
Coal
Oil
6. 9 lb/1, 000 tons of coal fired
51 lb/ 1, 000 bbls of oil fired
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SOURCES OF VANADIUM
Vanadium is a grayish malleable, ductile element found com-
bined in many minerals. It melts at 1,900 C and has an atomic
weight of 50. 942. It is used especially to form alloys.
Vanadium occurs in more than 65 vanadium-bearing minerals
and is widely distributed over the world with significant deposits
in Peru, South Africa, Russia, and the United States.
Vanadium is found in the minerals patronite, bravoite, sulva-
nite, davidite, and roscoelite. It also occurs as a secondary
element in such uranium-bearing sandstones as carnotite,
uravanite, tyuyamunite, and hewettite; in ferrophosphorus
derived from domestic phosphate rock; and in titaniferous
magnetite ores.
Ores containing vanadium are found in the following states:
Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, CaJifornia, Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North
Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Utah, and
Wyoming.
The concentration of vanadium in ores varies-widely; from
less than one percent to as high as 25 percent. In roscoelite,
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vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) accounts for 20 percent of the total
ore but in most of the vanadium-bearing titanium ores, the
VoO,- content is from 0. 1 to 0. 3 percent and is removed as an
impurity. The phosphate rocks of Idaho and Montana contain
from 0. 11 to 0.45 percent V2°5'
Vanadium is also found in coal and oil. Vanadium compounds
are major constituents in some crude oils.
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SOURCES
6. 149
V2O5 RECOVERED
(Contained Vanadium)
652
IMPORTS
741
EXPORTS
381
STOCKS
184
UNACCOUNTED
VANADIUM
MATERIAL FLOW CHART - 1968
(Short Tons)
5.495
USES
1.092
CARBON STEEL
3.259
ALLOY STEEL
57
CAST IRON
459
NONFERROUS ALLOYS
168
CHEMICALS & CERAMICS
460
CONSUMER
MISCELLANEOUS
Figure 1
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M ATE RIAL FLOW
MINING AND PROCESSING
During 1968 the recoverable vanadium contained in uranium
and vanadium ores and concentrates received at mills, plus
vanadium recovered from ferrophosphorus derived from do-
mestic phosphate rock, was 6,483 short tons. Vanadium pent-
oxide, the most common mill product, amounted to 6, 149 short
tons (contained vanadium) /.
Four mills were in operation recovering vanadium from uranium-
vanadium ores in Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. Two plants
in Idaho and Utah extracted it from ferrophosphorus and a new
recovery facility at Wilson Springs, Arkansas processed vana-
diferous clays /.
MINE PRODUCTION OF RECOVERABLE VANADIUM V
. .. Contained V
Location
Short Tons
Colorado 3, 492
Utah 563
Arizona and Other States' 2., 428
TOTAL 6,483
*Includes Arkansas, Idaho, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon,
South Dakota, and Wyoming.
1- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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IMPORTS AND EXPORTS
During 1968 vanadium imports totaled 652 short tons consisting
of ferrovanadium, vanadium ore and concentrate, principally
ferrovanadium. Of the 621 short tons (V content) of imported
ferrovanadium, approximately 47 percent came from West Ger-
many, 45 percent from Austria, and the remaining 8 percent
from Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Sweden. The 31 short
tons (V content) of vanadium ore and concentrate were imported
from Canada and the Netherlands Antilles _/.
Exports were 278 short tons (V content) of ferrovanadium and
other vanadium alloying materials, and 463 short tons (V con-
tent) of vanadium ores, concentrates, oxides, and vanadates.
The total exports were 741 short tons /.
1- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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VANADIUM STOCKS
Consumer stocks at the end of 1967 amounted to 1, 193 short
tons of contained vanadium. Producers' stocks as fused oxide,
precipitated oxide, vanadiferous slag, metavanadate, metal,
alloys, and chemicals totaled 2,231 short tons (V content). The
total amount of vanadium stocks was 3,424 short tons /.
At the end of 1968 consumer stocks were 977 short tons and
producers1 stocks were 2,828 short tons, totaling 3,805 short
tons /. Therefore, vanadium stocks increased 381 short tons
over the previous y.ear.
]•- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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REPROCESSING
The apparent consumption of vanadium in the United States dur-
ing 1968 has been reported at 5,495 short tons. Of this amount
4, 350 short tons, or about 80 percent, were used in making vari-
ous steels /.
CARBON STEEL
Ordinary carbon steels depend mainly on their carbon content
for their properties and they represent the largest proportion
of steel produced. In carbon steels in the United States there
are specified minimums and maximums for certain elements,
but there is no minimum specified for vanadium. Vanadium is
chemically active, easily forming oxides, nitrides, and car-
bides at elevated temperatures. For this reason vanadium is
used in sma]] quantities in the steelmaking process to obtain
uniform grain size, and to assist in the removal of oxygen and
nitrogen from the melt.
In the United States during 1968 the consumption of vanadium
in carbon steel was 1, 092 short tons contained vanadium _/.
This represents about 20 percent of the total va.nadium con-
sumed during the year.
1- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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ALLOY STEEL
Vanadium is added during the production of some alloy steels in
order to control grain size and improve various properties. It
will increase the strength at elevated temperatures and the alloy
will also be harder, tougher, and more wear resistant. Gener-
ally the vanadium content ranges from 0. 1 to 0. 5 percent but, in
some instances, as much as 4. or 5 percent is added.
During 1968 almost half of the vanadium produced in the United
States was used in a group of alloys known as high-strength, low-
alloy steels. Its purpose is to increase the yield point from the
usual 35, 000 psi to about 60, 000 psi, thus making the steel more
desirable for many construction applications such as bridges,
towers, and buildings. It is also employed in the manufacture
of line pipe for high-pressure gas transmission pipe lines. The
nominal vanadium content in high-strength, low-alloy steels is
0. 1 percent.
High-speed and tool steels are another important group and
about 11 percent of the domestic vanadium supply was used for
this purpose. Alloys in machine tools for metal removing op-
erations such as cutting, reaming, drilling, and hobbing con-
tain from 1 to 4 percent vanadium. Cold work steels for wrenches,
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puncheS; arbors, shock-resistant pneumatic tooling, accurate
gages, and thread rolling dies typically contain 0.2 to 0. 3 per-
cent, although one type containing 4. 5 percent vanadium is avail-
able. Other tool steel alloys are about the same; usually they
contain only a small amount of vanadium.
Stainless steel has a great number of commercial and industrial
applications due to its corrosion resistance and pleasing appear-
ance. One alloy, type 422 containing 0. 3 percent vanadium, can
be hardened and tempered to provide a very stable material.
This stainless steel contains 12 percent chromium and is used
in steam power turbines for blades, rotors, and fasteners; also
in jet engine compressor parts. It is less expensive than nickel
high-temperature alloys and has some other advantages; how-
ever, the operating temperature capability is lower.
In the United States during 1968 the consumption of vanadium in
alloy steel was 3, 259 short tons (V content); a little less than
60 percent of the total domestic supply /.
CAST IRON
Vanadium, one of the common alloying elements in cast iron,
1- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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is generally used in amounts between 0. 08 and 0. 2 percent in
combina.tion with other alloying elements such as chromium,
molybdenum, and nickel.
Vanadium increases the tensile strength and hardness of cast
iron and in combina.tion with chromium and molybdenum im-
proves heat-treatment hardenability, wear resistance, and
higher temperature properties. When used with molybdenum,
finer and more uniform graphite flakes result. Vanadium co-
operates with chromium, molybdenum, and nickel to decrease
the tota] amount of ingredients needed for a good cast iron alloy.
In 1968 the cast iron industry in the United States used 57 short
tons of contained vanadium, or approximately one percent of
the total consumption /.
NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Vanadium is a good stabilizer in titanium and improves hot and
cold workability. Thus the titanium alloys can be strengthened
by heat t peatmen!. Molybdenum, tantalum, and columbium are
also used wit,h titanium, but vanadium has been the most popular
due to the following advantages: (1) a lower melting temperature
1- Minerals Yearbook: Bureau of Mines: 1968.
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resuJting in fewer segregation problems: (2) stronger stabiliz-
ing power: (3) lower density; and, (4) cost. Titanium alloys
are used in a variety of industries: aerospace, jet engine pro-
duction, airframes, desalination, and chemical process equip-
ment.
High percentages of aluminum and vanadium occur in certain
commercially prepared alloys. The vanadium content is either
2. 5, 5, 40, or 85 percent with the remainder in aluminum and
fractional percentages of silicon, iron, and oxygen. These al-
loys are used for control of thermal expansion, grain size,
electrical resistivity and improvement of high-temperature
strengths.
Alloys based on vanadium are now being used in the nuclear
industry as fuel cladding for experimental liquid-metal cooled,
fast-breeder reactors. These alloys may replace austenitic
stainless steels in this application due to vanadium's nuclear
characteristics. It has a higher creep strength and may have
a greater resistance to neutron damage than stainless steels.
Vanadium can also be alloyed with columbium and tantalum for
use in coatings to withstand high temperatures and for brazing.
These alloys a.re still generally experimental.
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In. the United States during 1968, 459 short tons of contained
vanadium were used in nonferrous alloys; approximately 8 per-
cent of the total vanadium consumption /.
CHEMICALS AND CERAMICS
Vanadium in the form of inorganic compounds is important as a
catalyst in chemical manufacture. The largest use is in the pro-
duction of sulfuric acid. Vanadium catalysts have a higher effi-
ciency, better immunity to poisoning by arsenic and chlorine,
longer life, greater physical ruggedness, and good availability.
Vanadium catalysts are also used in the synthesis of phthalic
anhydride from napthalene or ortho-xylene. Phthalic anhydride
is the basic raw material used in alkyd, cellulose, and vinyl
resins. Alkyd resins are used in manufacturing surface coatings
a.nd paints. Cellulose and vinyl resins are used in a wide variety
of products. Maleic anhydride, also produced by using a vana-
dium ca.talyst. is important in the manufacture of resins and
plastics. Adipic acid, a basic ra.w material in nylon production,
employs an ammonium metavanadate catalyst.
A recent, development is the use of vanadium pentox:ide and
1- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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aluminum trioxide in afterburners for oxidizing hydrocarbons
in automobile exhaust gases. Some vanadium catalysts are
also used to accomplish the cracking of petroleum.
Minute quantities of vanadium pentoxide in glass manufacture
give hues ranging from almost colorless through various shades
of green, yellow, tan, amber, and gray. A few of the vanadates
used in coloring glass are cobalt vanadate, manganese vanadate,
copper vanadate, and nickel yanadate. Vanadium has been one
of the least used elements listed among the fundamental glass
coloring agents.
Compounds of vanadium are used in the ceramic industry for
glazes and enamels. Vanadium oxide mixed with vanadium
salts and zirconia produce a yellow color while other mixtures
can result in a blue or red color. Va.nadium pentoxide fritted
in the proper composition with tin produces a yellow tin-
vanadium stain which has largely replaced the uranium yellows.
During 1968 in the United States 168 short tons of contained
vanadium, or 3 percent of the total consumption, were used
in chemical and ceramic manufacture.
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MISCELLANEOUS
Permanent magnetic alloys of iron-cobalt materials with 10 to
15 percent vanadium have been developed. These materials are
used in computers where small components need very high field
strengths. Some iron-cobalt alloys have excellent magnetic
properties but poor electrical resistivity and poor workability.
By using 2 percent vanadium in these alloys, they can be used
in receiver diaphragms and specialized small power transform-
ers for radar and radio.
Hardfacing is a process of covering a specific area or a whole
surface with some composition to accomplish more wear resist-
ance. The process is used where machinery is subjected to
abrasive wear, inexpensive tough materials are needed, and
lubrication is impossible. Such areas of work include oil well
drilling, earth moving, and ore mining.
Hardfacing alloys vary greatly in composition. Vanadium is
used in a number of grades with an iron base and is usually
present in amounts from 0. 5 to 2. 5 percent.
Some welding wires have vanadium as a part of their composi-
tion. One such wire contains vanadium, nicke], manganese,
and molybdenum and is used to weld certain alloy steels.
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Another wire containing chromiurrij molybdenum, and vanadium
is used to weld heat-treated, medium-carbon, low-alloy steels.
Vanadium in welding wire does not add special properties in the
weldment but is added only to match base metal composition.
Some vanadium is used in one of a number of cobalt-chromium
alloys that have been developed for tooling applications. These
alloys cannot be hot-worked practically so they are used as cast-
ings. The alloy used generally contains 38 to 40 percent cobalt,
25 to 32 percent chromium, 10 to 20 percent tungsten, and 2 to
2. 5 percent carbon. The alloy containing vanadium uses 3 per-
cent of this element.
Vanadium compounds in paint and varnish promote rapid drying
and produce a tough, uniform, smooth film. A group of driers,
based on soluble vanadium salts, are fairly strong surface-
drying catalysts and are used to a small extent, more particu-
larly in printing inks. Ammonium metavanadate is often used.
Vanadium chloride has been used in photographic processes
for toning silver bromide prints to impart a green color.
Compounds of vanadium have been used as antiseptics; inhibi-
tors of germ and organism growth; to treat abscesses, infected
wounds, sores, and ulcers; destroyers of fermentation
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microbes; to treat anemia; boost appetite and improve nutri-
tion. A University of Kansas Medical School research team ad-
vances the theory that vanadium salts tend to reduce deposits and
discourage production of cholesterol.
Small amounts of vanadium pentoxide are used in textile print-
ing to give black dyes greater intensity and fastness.
Miscellaneous use of vanadium in the United States during 1968
amounted to 460 short tons contained vanadium. This is about
8 percent of the total consumption.
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EMISSIONS
MINING AND PROCESSING
Prior to 1948, Colorado uranium-vanadium ores were mined
underground at a shallow depth on a highly selective basis. The
operation was usually on a small scale and there was little mech-
anization. However, since that time the emphasis has shifted to
uranium recovery and mining methods have changed. Vertical
shafts as deep as 600 feet are currently used to reach deposits
in the Colorado Plateau.
Many of the mines are small and mining methods vary. How-
ever, drilling and blasting are usually required to loosen the
ore before it is loaded on a conveyance for transport to the sur-
face. Next comes another loading operation as the ore is trans-
ferred to trucks for the journey to the mill.
Since there is a low vanadium content in surface-mined ores
from the Colorado Plateau, there has been little open-pit min-
ing. However, where surface mining is used the overburden is
loosened with explosives and then removed. Ore is then loaded
into trucks or train cars for the trip to the mill. This same
type of operation is employed in open-pit mines in New Mexico
and Arkansas.
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In the most widely used vanadium extraction processes, the
ores are put through dry grinding, mixed with lime and salt,
and roasted. The resulting product from the roaster, sodium
vanadate, is leached with water, acid, or a basic solution. The
vanadium is precipitated from this solution in a form known as
"red cake", a sodium polyvanadate. By redissolving the "red
cake" ammonium metavanadate is precipitated, which is then
fused to yield vanadium pentoxide. This technical-grade vana-
dium pentoxide contains a minimum of 86 percent vanadium
pentoxide and 6 to 10 percent sodium oxide.
While this study was in progress several of the larger companies
were contacted concerning mining and processing methods, as
well as vanadium emissions to the atmosphere. Records of
vanadium emissions were not available, but estimates obtained
indicated average atmospheric emissions are about 25 pounds
per ton of vanadium handled.
Vanadium emissions to the atmosphere during 1968 from sources
of mining and processing totaled 81 short tons. This estimate
includes emissions during the production of vanadium pentoxide.
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METALLURGICAL, PROCESSING
During 1968 nearly all of the vanadium produced in the United
States was recovered as vanadium pentoxide (V^O,-), which was
further processed into ferrovanadium for use principally by the
steel industry. The vanadium consumption was 5,495 tons, in-
cluding 4,712 tons in the form of ferrovanadium. The vanadium
used as an alloy in steel was 4-, 350 tons.
Ferrovanadium is produced by the reduction of vanadium ore,
slag, or a technical-grade oxide with carbon, ferrosilicon, or
aluminum. Carbon is a cheaper raw material for reducing vana-
dium, but there is a problem with carbon control in the finished
product. Electric reduction furnaces are used for smelting ores
to produce ferrovanadium. Furnace production is continuous
with charges placed in the furnace at the top and the molten prod-
uct tapped near the bottom.
Low carbon grades of ferrovanadium are produced by reducing
technical-grade vanadium pentoxide with ferrosilicon. Since
silicon is not a powerful reducer of vanadium oxides, a two-step
process is required. A charge of 90 percent grade ferrosilicon,
Lime, vanadium pentoxide, and some fluorspar is smelted in an
electric furnace lined with magnesite. This yields an iron alloy
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containing about 30 percent vanadium, but undesirable amounts
of silicon. In the second step the silicon is decreased by adding
more vanadium pentoxide and lime so that most of the silicon
goes into the slag phase. This slag contains some vanadium and
is returned to the first step for vanadium recovery.
The preparation of ferrovanadium using a silicon process is be-
ing used commercially to produce tonnage quantities. A reaction
between vanadium-bearing slags, silica, flux, and a carbonace-
ous reducer takes place in a submerged-arc electric furnace to
produce a vanadium silicide alloy. This alloy is refined with
vanadium oxide so that the alloy contains less than 20 percent
silicon. This is then reacted with a molten vanadiferous slag
in the presence of lime. This produces a ferrovanadium alloy
called Solvan of approximately 28 percent vanadium, 11 percent
other metals, and the remainder iron.
Aluminum is a more expensive reducing agent; however, the
product is relatively pure and the recovery of vanadium is high.
A charge of technical-grade vanadium oxide, aluminum, iron
scrap, and a flux is put into an electric arc furnace. Since this
is an exothermic reaction, no carbon is required in the charge.
The reaction between the vanadium pentoxide and aluminum is
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initiated by the arc. Ferrovanadium containing as much as 80
percent vanadium is produced in this manner.
Another process is the thermite reaction in which vanadium and
iron oxides are both reduced by aluminum granules in a magne-
site lined steel vessel or a copper crucible cooled by water.
The reaction is produced by a barium per oxide-aluminum igni-
tion charge.
In each of these methods the vanadium pentoxide is melted be-
fore it is used in alloying. During this melting process, there
is a vapor of the pentoxide produced that becomes an aerosol.
Then during the actual reduction process in the furnaces, the
vanadium pentoxide goes to tetroxide, trioxide, oxide, and fin-
ally vanadium metal.
In addition to its use in the production of ferrovanadium, vana-
dium pentoxide is reduced with calcium to. produce vanadium
metal of about 99. 5 percent purity. An exothermic reaction is
carried out in a sealed vessel and it is initiated either by pre-
heating the vessel or internal heating with a fuse wire embedded
in the charge. Iodine has been added to the calcium and vana-
dium pentoxide charge. Calcium iodide is produced by the re-
action and serves as both a flux and thermal booster. Two
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problems with this process are that metal yields amount to only
75 to 80 percent, and there is a high amount of calcium required.
Most of the vanadium metal of 99 percent purity used for alloy-
ing purposes is produced commercially by the alumino-thermic
process. In this process vanadium pentoxide in powder form is
reacted with high-purity aluminum in a "bomb", or sealed ves-
sel, to form a vanadium-aluminum alloy. The reaction is ini-
tiated by a vanadium fuse wire. A molten alloy of vanadium and
aluminum separates from a fused aluminum oxide slag and set-
tles to the bottom of the vessel. The vanadium alloy is then puri-
fied by crushing the brittle alloy and heating plus electron beam
melting, or two steps of direct electron beam melting of the
vanadium-aluminum alloy.
Vanadium can be even further purified by one of three methods:
iodide refining, electrolytic refining in a fused salt, or electro-
transport. In iodide refining an impure grade of vanadium metal
is reacted with iodine at 800 to 900 C to form vanadium diodide
in volatilized form which is thermally decomposed and deposited
on a hot filament. This process is carried out in an evacuated
and sealed tube. The electrolytic refining process involves the
cathodic deposition of vanadium from an electrolyte in solution.
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Electrotransport has been reported as producing the highest
purity vanadium, A high-density current is passed through a
rod of electrolytically refined metal, heating it to 1,700 to
1, 850 C. Atoms of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen migrate to
the negative end of the bar, resulting in a high degree of puri-
fication along the remainder of the bar.
Vanadium carbide is a product which may be used as a replace-
ment for ferrovanadium in steel making, and there are two
methods of manufacturing. In one method a powdered vanadium
metal, or hydride and carbon, is heated in a vacuum furnace as
high as 2, 000 C without an excessive loss of vanadium. When a
low carbon content product is needed, low temperatures must be
used or there will be an excessive loss of vanadium to oxygen.
Vanadium emissions to the atmosphere from electric furnaces
producing ferrovanadium have been determined to be 49 pounds
per ton of vanadium processed. The particle size generally
ranges from 0. 1 to 1 micron and the total particulate emission
is 240 pounds per ton of charge /. This data is based on un-
controlled emissions, stack samples, and chemical analysis of
the particulate matter.
1- Private communication with industrial source.
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In addition to furnace operations, other emissions occur during
materials handling. These emissions are estimated at 12
pounds per ton of vanadium.
In the United States during 1968 vanadium emissions to the at-
mosphere resulting from the production of ferrovanadium totaled
144 short tons.
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REPROCESSING
Vanadium is an important alloying element in steelmaking. It
is used in the form of ferrovanadium in relatively small quan-
tities and is usually added to the melt near the end of the refin-
ing period or after the steel is in the ladle.
From the standpoint of air pollution, the vanadium added to the
melt is not as important as the vanadium that is contained in the
raw materials, the steel scrap and the iron ore.
Certain types of iron ore contain vanadium from a trace to more
than one percent V^O In titaniferous magnetites, the content
ranges from about 0. 2 to more than one percent and probably
averages about 0. 5 percent. In nontitaniferous magnetites vana-
dium is reported in only a few of the deposits, and these contain
0. 1 to about 0. 3 percent V2O5 ^J.
In some instances vanadium has been recovered from iron ore.
During World War II this source was taken up actively in Ger-
many. The iron ore was melted in the blast furnace in the nor-
mal manner, 80 to 90 percent of the vanadium remaining with
1- Busch, P. M. ; "Vanadium - A Materials Survey"; U. S.
Bureau of Mines; Information Circular 8060; p. 27; 1961.
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the pig iron. On transferring to an acid-lined Bessemer con-
verter and blowing for 3 to 5 minutes, 80 percent of the vana-
dium was recovered in the slag as vanadium pentoxide /.
During this study information was obtained from several indus-
trial sources regarding the vanadium content of iron ore pro-
cessed in the United States. Actual data was not available and
estimates varied considerably; however, all agreed the average
would not be more than 0. 1 percent and likely not less than 0. 01
percent. In this report an average figure used is 0. 03 percent.
STEEL
The basic steps in the production of steel include the partial re-
moval of impurities when the iron ore is reduced to pig iron in
the blast furnace. Further purification takes place as pig iron
and scrap are converted to steel in an open-hearth, a basic oxy-
gen, or an electric furnace. Other associated operations include
ore crushing, materials handling, sintering, pelletizing and
scarfing.
Blast Furnace - The blast furnace is a large refractory lined
vessel into which iron ore, coke, and limestone are charged and
1- Dennis, W. M. ; Metallurgy of the Nonferrous Metals; Sir
Issac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.; London; 1961.
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reacted with large amounts of hot air to produce molten iron.
Slag and blast furnace gases are byproducts from this reaction.
As the gas leaves the top of the furnace it contains large quan-
tities of particulates averaging about 150 pounds per ton of pig
iron _/; however, it is subsequently cleaned and used as fuel.
The gas cleaning is usually accomplished in three stages and
the annual overall efficiency of cleaning is estimated at 97 per-
cent.
During 1968, 140 million tons of net ores and agglomerates
were consumed in producing 89 million tons of pig iron ^J. The
estimated vanadium content of the ore was 0.03 percent and the
vanadium leaving the blast furnace was about 5 percent of the a-
mount contained in the charge. Vanadium emissions to the atmos-
phere during the year were 1.4 pounds per thousand tons of pig
iron produced; a total of 63 tons.
Open-Hearth Furnace - Three types of furnaces are commonly
used in steelmaking: the open-hearth, the basic oxygen, and the
electric furnace. In all instances, regardless of the type of fur-
nace, the primary object of the operation is to reduce the
1- "Air Pollutant Emission Factors"; Environmental Protection
Agency; Preliminary Document; April 1971.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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impurities present in the charge to the limits specified for the
different melts. In the open-hearth furnace, steel is made from
a mixture of scrap (about 45 percent) and pig iron (about 55 per-
cent) in a shallow basin or hearth. Oil, coke-oven gas, natural
gas, tar, or producer gas provides the required heat.
The open-hearth process consists of several steps or stages:
Tap to start Ore and lime boil
Charging Working
Meltdown Tapping
Hot-metal addition Delay
The melting step begins when the first scrap has been charged
and continues as the solid material is added. After the charge
has melted, molten pig iron is delivered and poured into the fur-
nace. The next step is the ore and lime boil, which is a bubbling
action caused by the oxidized gases rising to the surface. The
purpose of the working period is to: (1) lower the phosphorus and
sulfur content; (2) eliminate carbon as rapidly as possible; and
(3) increase the heat for final deoxidation or for tapping. At the
end of the working period the temperature of the melt is approxi-
mately 3,000 F.
The overall operating cycle of the open-hearth furnace is about
ten hours and fumes or metal oxides are discharged continuously
at varying rates. In spite of the variations, average emission
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factors have been established for operation both with and without
oxygen lancing. With oxygen lancing, the factor for uncontrolled
emissions is 21 pounds of particulate per ton of steel; without
lancing, the factor is 8 pounds per ton. The degree of emission
control is estimated at 40 percent, and the average emission
factor (controlled) for all open-hearth furnace operations is 10.2
pounds of particulate per ton of steel produced /.
During 1968 the steel produced in open-hearth furnaces was 65
million short tons / and the vanadium content of the particulate
matter emitted was about 0.05 percent /. Vanadium emissions
to the atmosphere were 5. 1 pounds per thousand tons of steel
produced; a total of 166 tons.
Basic Oxygen Furnace - The basic oxygen furnace, in many re-
spects, is similar to the well known Bessemer converter. The
principal difference is in the means for supplying oxygen to the
molten metal. The converter is a refractory-lined, cylindrical
1- "Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices'1; Environmental
Protection Agency; Study in progress (unpublished); 1970.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
3- "Air Pollution Engineering Manual"; Public Health Service
Publication No. 999-AP-40; p. 243; 1967.
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-34-
vessel mounted on trunions. It can be rotated to a horizontal or
a vertical position as required during operation. When charged
and in the vertical position, a stream of oxygen is supplied from
overhead downward into the converter. The oxygen impinges on
the liquid metal surface causing violent agitation and intimate
mixing with the pig iron. The overall operating cycle is about
one hour.
The emission factor for the basic oxygen furnace has been esti-
mated at 46 pounds of particulate per ton of steel */ and the de-
gree of emission control at 97 percent.
During 1968 the steel produced in basic oxygen furnaces was 48
2
million short tons / and the estimated vanadium content of the
particulate emissions was 0. 02 percent. Vanadium emissions
to the atmosphere were 0.3 pound per thousand tons of steel pro-
duced; a total of 7 tons during the year.
Electric Furnace - Electric arc furnaces are well suited to
the production of alloy steels and are used extensively for that
purpose. They are refractory-lined, cylindrical vessels with
1- "Air Pollution Emission Factors"; Environmental Protection
Agency; Preliminary Document; April 1971.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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-35-
large carbon electrodes passing through the furnace roof.
Emissions generated during steelmaking consist of fume and
dust emitted from the furnace during charging and refining.
While charging the furnace, the top is open to receive the cold
metal and the exposure of the cold charge to the high tempera-
ture inside the furnace results in the generation of large quan-
tities of fume. In general, the rate of fume release increases
throughout the operation reaching a peak as the pour tempera-
ture is approached.
Particulate emissions from electric arc furnaces have been es-
timated at 11 pounds per ton of steel with oxygen lancing, and 7
pounds per ton without _/. The degree of control is estimated
at 78 percent, and the average emission factor (controlled) at
2. 5 pounds per ton of steel produced.
During 1968 the steel produced in electric arc furnaces was 16
million short tons /, and the estimated vanadium content of
the particulate emissions was 0.003 percent. Vanadium emis-
sions to the atmosphere during the year were negligible; less
1- "Air Pollution Emission Factors"; Environmental Protection
Agency; Preliminary Document; April 1971.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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than one ton.
CAST IRON
During this study spectrographic analyses of dust samples from
foundries have been examined; they all indicated vanadium and
many other elements are contained in the dust.
The cupola is the most used method for producing cast iron.
The rate of particulate emissions from gray iron cupolas has
been reported as 4 to 26 pounds per ton of process weight not
including emissions from handling, charging, or other non-
melting operations.
Based on the information obtained from industry the particulate
emission factor is estimated at 22 pounds per ton of process
weight, including melting and non-melting operations. The vana-
dium content of the particulate is about 0.001 percent / and the
degree of emission control approximately 25 percent.
During 1968 the pig iron and scrap used by iron foundries totaled
16, 788, 000 short tons * (. Vanadium emissions to the
1- Private communication with industrial source.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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atmosphere due to the production of cast iron were one ton.
NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Vanadium is employed as an alloying agent to control grain size,
thermal expansion, and electrical resistivity and to improve
high temperature strength. It is used mostly with aluminum and
titanium; production methods are generally the same as those
used with other alloys.
Based on information obtained from two industrial sources, vana-
dium emissions to the atmosphere are estimated at 12 pounds per
ton of vanadium processed. During 1968 the emissions were 3
tons.
CHEMICALS AND CERAMICS
Catalysts - Compounds of vanadium are important to the chem-
ical industry as catalysts for many industrial processes including
the synthesis of sulfuric acid, the oxidation of hydrocarbons, and
the polymerization of mono- and di-olefins. However, the quan-
tity used by the chemical and related industries is small compared
with metallurgical applications.
Catalyst manufacturers use either ammonium metavanadate or
vanadium pentoxide as a starting material. In one process
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vanadic acid is produced first, then caustic potash, dilute sul-
furic acid, and water are added; they are all mixed to damp
earth consistency. The mass is then dumped on a drying band
heated by exit gases from the calcining furnace. The band goes
into the furnace for about 25 minutes at 800 C. Upon exit, the
dried granules are cooled and sieved. Sieve residue is ground
and used again.
Manufacturers of catalysts contacted during this study stated
their atmospheric emissions are about 20 pounds of vanadium
per ton of vanadium processed. During 1968 vanadium emis-
sions to the atmosphere resulting from the manufacture of cata-
lysts totaled 2 tons.
Glass and Ceramics - The use of vanadium in glass and cer-
amics is limited and shows little promise of potential growth.
About 2 tons per year are consumed in the production of a yel-
low stain for coloring pottery and glass.
The main steps in glassmaking are: (1) compounding the mix-
tures or "charge"; (2) heating in a fire-clay pot to about 2, 800
F; (3) heat purification or cooking; (4) shaping the glass objects
by blowing, pressing, or casting; and, (5) gradual cooling in an
oven.
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In the manufacture of glazes the dry ingredients are usually mixed
in the presence of an excess of water although it may be desirable
to mix them dry. Glaze materials are measured dry before pour-
ing into a mixer. After thorough mixing, there is a grinding stage
generally with a ball mill.
Dry mixing is usually done with a frit batch. Measuring, pouring,
mixing, and grinding are carried on in a way very similar to wet
mixing. There is, however, one additional step; the dry mixture
goes through a crushing stage. This is to keep the batch from
clogging the ball mill.
Emissions due to making glass and ceramics were negligible.
MISCELLANEOUS
Permanent magnetic alloys consist of iron, cobalt, and about 15
percent vanadium. They are made in a manner similar to cast
iron and vanadium is added in the ladle before pouring into molds.
Welding rods and wires are usually made from steel produced in
an open-hearth furnace. Any vanadium used in these products
is added to the steel in the ladle. The steel billets are heated
and formed into rods in the rolling mill. These rods are then
drawn into wire.
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Compounds of certain metals soluble in paint oils are used as
driers. They may be prepared separately and added in the damp
paint mixing process, or they may be an incorporated part of the
paint oil through chemical reaction. Liquid paint drier is pre-
pared especially for addition to paint. Driers may be added to
varnishes during the cooking period or later. Varnish cooking
temperatures usually vary from 450 to 600 F.
A vanadium compound, vanadium chloride, is used for toning
silver bromide in the development of color film. This develop-
ment process involving vanadium occurs in solution. The vana-
dium chloride used is made first by heating vanadium pentoxide
with sulfur monochloride to produce vanadium trichloride. Dis-
proportionation of the trichloride at 800 C in a stream of nitrogen
produces vanadium chloride.
Information obtained during this study varies considerably re-
garding vanadium emissions from reprocessing operations. Es-
timates have ranged from less than 0.25 to 5 percent. Average
emissions are estimated at 10 pounds per ton of vanadium pro-
cessed.
During 1968 vanadium used in miscellaneous reprocessing opera-
tions totaled 460 tons, and atmospheric emissions were 2 tons.
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CONSUMPTIVE USES
The largest vanadium emissions to the atmosphere are those
that are due to the combustion of coal and oil. Those that oc-
cur during other consumptive uses are mostly of such a nature
that atmospheric emissions are negligible.
COAL
During the combustion of coal vanadium is discharged with the
ash; part with the bottom ash and part with the fly ash. On the
average about 65 percent of the total ash is fly ash.
With respect to fly ash, a study has been made regarding emis-
sions from coal fired power plants and the emissions of vana-
dium have been recorded. Six power boilers were tested, each
a different type, and each value reported was the average of at
least two tests. Two of the boilers were fired with Illinois coal;
two burned Pennsylvania coal; one used s'ome coal from Ohio and
some from West Virginia; one burned part Kentucky and part
West Virginia coal. The coal burned during the tests represented
only a small portion of the coal mined in the various regions of
the United States. Vanadium concentrations in the fly ash samples
taken after fly ash collection ranged from 0. 88 to 6. 6 grains per
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scf x 10" /. The average was 2. 91 grains per scf x 10.
Based on 508, 990, 000 tons of coal consumed in the United States
during 1968 /, 90 percent application of control, a vanadium
concentration of 2. 91 grains per scf x 10" , and 160 scf of flue
gas per pound of coal, the vanadium emissions due to the com-
bustion of coal are calculated at 3, 760 tons.
508,990,000 x 160 x 2. 91 x 10'4 x 2,000
—• ~ 3.760
7,000 x 2, 000 x 0.9
Many samples of coal have been analyzed and the vanadium con-
tent reported is shown in Table I. Based on a vanadium concen-
tration in coal averaging 22. 5 ppm, 90 percent application of con-
trol and 85 percent efficiency of control, the vanadium emissions
calculated in this manner totaled 1, 750 tons.
508,990,000 x 22. 5 x 10'6 x 0.65 [l - (0.85 x 0.90)] = 1,750
In this report the figure of 1, 750 tons is used as the vanadium
emissions to the atmosphere during 1968 due to the combustion
of coal.
1- Cuffe, Stanley T. and Gerstle, Richard W. ; "Emissions from
Coal Fired Power Plants"; Public Health Service Publication
No. 999-AP-35; 1967.
2- Minerals Yearbook; Bureau of Mines; 1968.
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TABLE I
AVERAGE MINOR ELEMENT CONTENTS OF COALS
FROM VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - PPM
Region
Northern Great Plains
Eastern Interior
Appalachian
Western and Southwestern
Average Vanadium Content
Ash Content
of Coal - %
13.42
6. 16
6. 11
NR*
in Coal
V Content
of Coal - ppm
16.0
35.0
21.0
18.0
22. 5
*Not reported
NOTE - The above table based on Geological Survey Bulletins
1117-C and 1117-D.
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OIL
In order to estimate vanadium emissions to the atmosphere due
to the combustion of fuel oil, it was necessary to determine the
vanadium content, as well as the quantity, of oil. received from
numerous foreign and domestic, sources. Analyses of more than
400 samples of crude and residual oils were obtained from the
major oil companies and the utilities along the east coast of the
United States.
The data show that nearly all crude oil contains some vanadium;
the concentrations ranging from nearly zero to more than 1,000
ppm. It also shows that residual oil contains a higher percentage
of vanadium than the crude. When oil is refined the vanadium
and other trace metals tend to concentrate in the heavy fractions;
the residual oil, the road oil, and the asphalt. According to the
information obtained from oil companies, the residual fuel oils
may be expected to contain 30 to 90 percent more vanadium than
the crude oils.
Unfortunately, most of the analyses available were of crude oil.
They show oil from California contains more vanadium than that
from Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas (Table II). Crude from
western Venezuela has a much higher concentration than crude
from the eastern part of the country (Table III) or that from
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TABLE II
VANADIUM CONTENT OF DOMESTIC CRUDE OILS
c Vanadium
Source
Content - ppm
Arkansas 9.3
California 50. 0
Colorado 0.44
Kansas 15. 1
Louisiana 0. 5
Montana 78.0
New Mexico 0. 1
Oklahoma 4. 0
Texas 2. 6
Utah 4.6
Wyoming 49. 7
NOTE - The above table is based on private communication
with industrial sources.
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TABLE III
VANADIUM CONTENT OF VENEZUELAN CRUDE OILS
Crude
Western Venezuela
Bachaquero Heavy
Bachaquero
Bachaquero Light
Barinas
Boscan
Cumarebo
Lagunillas Heavy
La Rosa Medium
Mara
Mototan #7
Taparito
Tia Juana Light
Tia Juana Medium
Tia Juana Heavy
Urdaneta
Eastern Venezuela
Cachipo
Guanipa
Jusepin
Oficina Light
Oficina Heavy
Pedernales
Pilon
Quiriquire
San Joaquin
Temblador
Tigre
Tucupita
Gravity
API
13.2
16.6
35.4
25.9
10.6
47. 8
17.6
23.9
29. 5
19.7
17.2
31.9
25.6
18.2
11.3
34. 3
32. 7
31.9
35.3
31. 5
21.7
9.7
16.5
45.9
20. 6
26.5
15.7
Vanadium
Content - ppm
390
370
49
165
1,400
0.7
300
230
220
390
450
100
200
300
430
14
110
26
57
62
230
510
95
0.6
56
160
84
NOTE - The above table is based on private communication
with industrial sources.
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other foreign sources (Table IV). Residual oil from South
America contains about 280 ppm vanadium; from the Middle
East about 50 ppm; and from the United States 30 ppm.
During 1968 the demand for residual fuel oil in the United States
was 668, 239, 000 barrels. Imports were 409, 928, 000 barrels,
and the remainder were principally from domestic production /.
Imports were about 92 percent from South America and the West
Indies; 8 percent from the Middle East, Canada, and other
countries ^/.
VANADIUM IN RESIDUAL OIL
CONSUMED IN THE UNITED STATES - 1968
United
Source
States
South America
Middle
East and Other
TOTAL
Quantity
Barrels
258,311,000
376,000,000
33, 928, 000
668,239,000
V Content
ppm
30
280
50
V Content
Tons
1,280
17,350
280
18,910
1- "Crude Petroleum, Petroleum Products, and Natural-Gas-
Liquids: 1968"; Petroleum Statement, Annual; Mineral
Industry Surveys; Bureau of Mines; Washington, D. C.
2- Based on import data from the Office of Air Programs;
Durham, N. C.
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TABLE IV
VANADIUM CONTENT OF MIDDLE EAST CRUDE OILS
Crude
Agha Jari (Iranian)
Ain Dar (Arabian)
Ain Zalah (Iraqi)
Bai Hassan (Iraqi)
Gach Saran (Iranian)
Jambur (Iraqi)
Kirkuk (Iraqi)
Kuwait
Qatar
Safaniya (Arabian)
Shedgum (Arabian)
Uthmaniyah (Arabian)
Wafra (Neutral Zone)
Zubair (Iraqi)
Gravity
API
33.9
33.9
32. 1
33.3
31.0
39.2
36.3
32.3
42.2
27. 1
34.3
30. 0
24. 1
36.4
Vanadium
Content - pprn
36
51
95
19
114
6
30
30
3
80
18
51
52
20
NOTE - The above table is based on private communication
with industrial sources.
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In the past power boilers designed to burn fuel oil were not us-
ually equipped with air pollution control apparatus. It was only
the coal fired or the combination coal-oil units that included
mechanical collectors and/or electrostatic precipitators. When
these combination units burn oil, only a small part of the particu-
late matter becomes an atmospheric emission.
The records show that 669 million barrels of residual oil were
consumed in the United States during 1968. The electric utili-
ties used 28 percent of the total, or 185 million barrels, and
were the only users with any significant degree of air pollution
control. A survey was conducted and it was determined that
the electric utility percent of control when burning fuel oil was
about 32 percent.
Based on 10 percent overall control, the vanadium emissions
to the atmosphere during 1968 due to the combustion of fuel oil
totaled 17, 000 tons.
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APPENDIX A
COMPANIES DEALING IN VANADIUM
AND VANADIUM PRODUCTS
ALABAMA
LOCATION
S. Bornstein Metals, Inc.
Birmingham
CALIFORNIA
Centrifugal Products, Inc.
Electronic Space Products, Inc.
Fred H. Lenway and Company, Inc.
Reactor Experiments, Inc.
Research Inorganic Chemical Corp.
Rolla Sitkin Metals, Inc.
Long Beach
Los Angeles
San Francisco
San Carlos
Sun Valley
Los Angeles
COLORADO
Climax Uranium Company
Grand Junction
ILLINOIS
L. H. Hedger and Sons Metal Co.
Steel Sales Corporation
Collinsville
Chicago
INDIANA
Mefco, A Teledyne Company
Union Carbide Corporation
Elkhart
Kokomo
MARYLAND
Chicago Development Corporation
Max Zuckerman and Sons, Inc.
Riverdale
Owing Mills
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MASSACHUSETTS
Benton Corporation
Whittaker Corporation
Beverly
West Concord
MICHIGAN
Frankel Company, Inc.
Wolverine Metal Company
Detroit
Detroit
MISSOURI
Metal Goods Corporation
Whitehead Metals, Inc.
St. Louis
St. Louis
NEW JERSEY
J. T. Baker Chemical Company
Hyperrefiners, Inc.
M & R Refractory Metals, Inc.
E. L. Payer Company
Schiavone-Bonomo Corporation
Shieldalloy Corporation
Var-Lac-Oid Chemical Company
Phillipsburg
Clifton
Springfield
Wenoah
Jersey City
Newfield
Elizabeth
NEW YORK
Advanced Alloys, Inc.
Alloychem, Inc.
American Metal Climax, Inc.
American Nickel Alloy Manufacturing
Corporation
Anglo-American Metal & Ferro
Alloy Corporation
Associated Metals and Minerals Corp.
Atomergic Chemetals Company
Baird Chemical Industries, Inc.
Belmont Smelting &: Refining Works, Inc.
Paul Blum Company
Brandeis, Goldschmidt and Company
College Point
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
Carle Place, L.
New York City
Brooklyn
Buffalo
New York City
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City Chemical Corporation
Cometals, Inc.
Continental Ore Corporation
Diesel Chemical & Metal Company, Inc.
Duro-Dyne Corporation
Elgen Manufacturing Corporation
Henning Bros. & Smith, Inc.
Kolon Trading Company, Inc.
Materials Research Corporation
Mercer Alloys Corporation
Metal Trading, Inc.
Morgan Chemicals, Inc.
Niagara Falls Metals & Minerals, Inc.
Overseas Metal and Ore Corporation
Pancoast International Corporation
Philipp Brothers
Progressive Alloys Corporation
Samincorp
J. A. Samuel & Company, Inc.
Skandia Metals Corporation
Stalco International
Stevens Metallurgical Corporation
C. Tennant Sons and Company
Union Carbide Corporation
United Mineral and Chemical Corp.
Vanadium Corporation of America
Samuel J. Zuckerman, Inc.
New York City
New York City
New York City
Brooklyn
Farmingdale, L.
Long Island City
Brooklyn
New York City
Orangeburg
New York City
New York City
Buffalo
Buffalo
New York City
New York City
New York City
Brooklyn
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
Floral Park
OHIO
Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company
Metal Powder Products, Inc.
Cleveland
Logan
OREGON
Oregon Metallurgical Corporation
Albany
PENNSYLVANIA
Bram Metallurgical-Chemical Company Philadelphia
Chemalloy Company, Inc. Philadelphia
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Derby and Company, Inc. Pittsburgh
Foote Mineral Company Exton
Mercer Alloys Corporation Greenville
Reading Alloys, Inc. Robesonia
Semi-Elements, Inc. Saxonburg
Joseph Tyson and Company Cheltenham
Vitro Manufacturing Company Pittsburgh
TEXAS
Lloyd M. Parkans Company Houston
Robinson Orifice Fittings Company Houston
WASHINGTON
Stoker Engineering Company Tacoma
(American Metals Market, Jan. 13, 1970; Thomas Register,
Dec. 1968 Ed. )
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
APTD-1511
3. Recipient's Accession No.
Title and Subtitle
National Inventory of Sources and Emissions: Vanadium - 1968
5- Report Date
June 1971
6.
7. Auihor(s)
8- Performing Organization Rept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
W. E. Davis & Associates
9726 Sagamore Road
Leawood, Kansas
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
CPA 70-128
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Programs
Durham, North Carolina
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
An emission inventory has been prepared to determine the nature, magnitude, and extent
of the emissions of vanadium in the United States for the year 1968. The production
and use of vanadium in the U. S. has been traced and charted. The consumption was
5,495 tons, exports 741 tons, and imports 652 tons. About 80% was used in the produc-
tion of steel. Emissions to the atmosphere during the year totaled 19,231 tons.
Emissions due to the combustion of fuel oil and coal were 17,000 tons and 1,750 tons
respectively. Emissions resulting from the production of ferrovanadium were 144 tons
and those from the production of steel were 236 tons.
17. Key Words and Documem. Analysis. 17o. Descriptors
Air pollution Utilization
Vanadium Consumption
Emission
Inventories
Sources
Mining
International trade
Reprocessing
Metallurgical furnaces
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
Year 1968
United States
17c. COSATI Field/Group ] 35
18. Availability Statement
FORM NTIS-35 (REV. 3-72»
Unlimited
19. Security Class (This
Report)
20. Security Class (This
Papc
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
60
22. Price
USCOMM-DC 14Q52-P72
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FORM NTIS-33 (REV. 3-721 USCOMM-DC 14032-P72
S G. P. O. 1973 — 746-77O / 4IB1
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