«"*M (25)
The value of the highest concentration is expressed by the formula:
c - °'116(1 +n>*
-------
The so-called single concentration for 20-30 minutes is standardized
by sanitary rules. It has been established experimentally that as the
assortment of samples increases, the concentration decreases, this being
explained by wind direction fluctuations, the probability of the increase
of which increases with time. The coefficient of horizontal diffusion
apparently increases with time and can be written as:
Afc = -Lje«pJ=J-irf^ is the mean square variance of the angle of rotation of the wind.
Substituting k for ko in equation (25), after finding the maximum we
obtain the following formulas:
_ 0,216Ml-|-»)3Qo
max~
Calculation showed that the single concentration is approximately one-
half the "instantaneous" concentration.
Of great importance also was the derivation of sufficiently accurate
formulas for calculating the thermal ascent of a plume discharged from
plant stacks:
where WQ is the gas exit velocity from the stack; RQ is the radius of the
stack mouth; u is the wind velocity at the height of the stack mouth; g is
the acceleration due to gravity; AT is the difference between the temper-
ature of the escaping gases and the air temperature at the height of the
stack mouth.
In addition, the influence of heavy suspended aerosol particles on
the distribution of the concentration was studied. It was shown that the
settling particles produce greater concentrations on the ground near the
stack and in the zone of the maximum than the weightless impurity does.
On the contrary, far from the stack, the concentration may become lower
than that produced by the weightless impurity.
In selecting the necessary height of the smokestack, all the working
parameters should be chosen so that the single concentration (for 20-30
minutes) of the noxious impurity does not exceed the maximum permissible
concentrations for any meteorological conditions.
- 46 -
-------
Hence, the diffusion coefficients should be taken for the highest
values of c^jj. In addition, it is necessary to select correctly the
calculated wind velocity. According to all the diffusion formulas, the
concentration increases in inverse proportion to the wind velocity, i.e.,
the lower the latter, the higher the concentration. Moreover, the thermal
and velocity ascent of the smoke plume is greater the lower the wind
velocity, and therefore as the latter decreases, the effective stack height
increases and the concentration diminishes.
It follows that at a certain "dangerous" wind velocity the highest
concentration of the impurity near the ground is produced:
0.656,90
2'3 (32)
, 17+3.7
For stacks with a height of over 30 m, with overheating of the gases
above 10°:
=
"^
//*
(33)
where V = r> R0W0 is the volume of gases discharged from the stack in
m-Vsec, and m is a coefficient allowing for the velocity of the gas dis-
charges from the stacks:
at WQ = 10 m/sec, m = 1;
at WQ = 20 m/sec, m = 0.9;
at W > 20 m/sec, m = 0.8.
The coefficient A, dependent on the diffusion rate, is essentially
related to the climatic conditions. Therefore, on the basis of a detailed
analysis, three values of A were taken:
A, = 0.12 for the middle belt of the European territory of the USSR;
A2 = 0.16 for the north, northwest, the Urals and the Ukraine;
A, » 0.2 for Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Central Siberia.
The dangerous wind velocity at the height of the wind vane (10 m), ud,
at which the largest values of the maximum concentration are reached, is:
(34)
X
Calculations showed that the ratio _c depends only on
Figure 9 illustrates this dependence.
- 47 -
-------
In 1963, the State Committee on Coordination of Scientific Research
Studies ratified for the first time in the USSR a "temporary method for
calculating the smokestacks of thermal electric power plants", the working
formulas of which are given above [64].
Under certain meteorological conditions - weak winds and a deep inver-
sion layer above the stack ("cap") - a so-called smoking or dangerous plume
may be formed.
The concentrations of impurities in such a plume cannot be calculated
from the usual diffusion formulas. A calculation of a "smoking" plume was
made in one of the studies [65].
Let us consider a case in which the plume of impurity in the presence
of an inversion above the stack mouth is uniformly mixed with air in the
ground layer as a result of convection that started near the ground. In
this case:
c =
2-n
(35)
Assuming that in an inversion C = 0.5 and n = 0.5, we find that for
a "smoking" plume:
c- 8
-------
the stack without any appreciable dispersal and the descent of this impurity
toward the ground with the formation of very high concentrations are possible.
Observations carried out in the U.S.A. on a 100-meter smokestack showed that
under such conditions, the concentration was an average of 20 times greater
than the calculated highest single concentration.
M. Ye. Berlyand [66] studied dangerous conditions of pollution of the
atmosphere with industrial emissions. He discussed the influence of an inver-
sion layer above the stack ("cap") on the thermal ascent of a plume emitted
from a stack and showed that under these conditions, as a result of a decrease
in the thermal ascent of the plume, the maximum concentration may be doubled.
However, under certain conditions (strong inversion above the stack,
slightly heated impurity), the ascent of the jet may be limited independently
of the wind velocity, and therefore at low wind velocities the concentrations
near the ground may increase 5-10-fold.
These estimates give an approximately 10-fold concentration increase
over the normal value. Obviously, the accumulation and "tumbling down" of
the impurity cloud toward the ground may also produce considerably greater
concentrations, i.e., 20 or more times as great as the calculated ones.
This problem has not been sufficiently studied thus far. The probability
of such conditions is low, but cases of dangerous smoke pollution are found
in almost all countries.
Case of a Smog that Resulted in
a Large-Scale Mild Poisoning of the Population
This section will describe a case of large-scale poisoning of the popu-
lation of an industrial town as a result of pollution of atmospheric air in
the presence of a temperature inversion.
On the day when the poisoning occurred, the morning was still, foggy
and cold. The air temperature was -21°C. The fog blanketed the ground.
The trees were covered with a thick layer of blue hoarfrost. On that day,
from 10:30 A.M. to 12 noon, people working in the open air at various loca-
tions or those who had walked along the town's streets began to arrive in
the clinics of the town and health departments of plants to seek medical
help, with complaints of an acute irritation of the upper respiratory tract,
tickling in the throat, dry cough, and chest pains.
In the course of the next few hours, the town's medical institutions
recorded and examined hundreds of people from the town's territory who
suffered from the above-indicated subjective disturbances during that period.
In addition to these symptoms, some of the patients complained of an increased
salivation and dyspnea. In addition to the above-indicated symptoms, a small
- 49 -
-------
number of people had numbness of the tongue and lips, and vomiting, which
occurred most frequently at the height of violent coughing spells. By the
end of the day, the number of persons who came for help had reached a
considerable figure, which led to the assumption of a possible large-scale
poisoning of the population caused by pollution of the open air.
Since it was not possible to establish the cause of the large-scale
poisoning immediately, the decision was made to hospitalize at once all
persons who showed symptoms of poisoning, including those who had suffered
even the slightest changes in the way they felt during these hours. To
achieve a full hospitalization of the victims, in addition to the inpatient
medical institutions, use was made of the dispensaries of industrial plants,
from which the patients resting there were quickly discharged.
In a most thorough survey of the victims, 13% of those questioned
told of the appearance of some odor during this time interval, but the
description of the odor was quite varied ("indefinite", "slight", "odor of
burning", "odor of smoke", "odor of petroleum", "insecticide odor", etc.).
The first subjective sensations of the patients were arranged in the
following order according to frequency (Table 11).
Table 11
Frequency (in Percent) of First Complaints
of Persons Seeking Help
Complaints
Tiering in the. throat, sneezing .
Burning sensation under breastbone
Dyspnea
Dry cough . .
Chest pains ....
Increased salivation
Nausea, vomiting
Perception of some odor
Frequency
in
90,0
79,0
76,0
71,2
63,0
36,9
30,4
13.0
In a mass medical examination of the victims 3-6 hours after the poison-
ing, most of them complained of tickling and unpleasant sensations in the
nose and throat, burning under the breastbone, dry cough, general weakness,
dizziness, headache*, and nausea.
In an objective study, the majority of the victims at that time showed
paleness, slight cyanosis of the lips, isolated, less often multiple dry
rales in the lungs, and lability of heart action.
Frequent symptoms were a muffling of the cardiac tones and a tendency
toward vascular hypertension (arterial pressure 130/90-150/90 mm Hg).
- 50 -
-------
Physical examination did not show any changes in the digestive organs or
urogenital system.
Neurologically, those most seriously affected showed moderate neuro-
circulatory disturbances manifested in headache, dizziness, and lability
of vasomotor reactions.
The clinical picture of massive inhalational poisoning of the popula-
tion was thus expressed predominantly in an acute irritation of the upper
respiratory tract in the form of an acute catarrhal rhino-pharyngo-
laryngotracheitis.
A day later, the subjective state of the majority of the victims
improved: the tickling in the throat and burning under the breastbone
decreased, and the coughing stopped. However, symptoms of general weakness
and dull headache were mentioned by many.
Some of the victims with the most pronounced symptoms of irritation
of the upper respiratory tract were examined by an otolaryngologist.
It was noted that in the majority of the persons studied, a day after
the exposure there remained a pronounced hyperemia of the nasal mucosa,
soft palate, uvula, palatine arches, tonsils, larynx and trachea, and rear
wall of the pharynx. The secretion of mucus was insignificant, and in some
of the patients the mucous membranes were dry. In one-half of the victims
the nose was stuffy, and the mucous membranes swelled with a bluish-whitish
hue. There was a transparent mucus in the nasal passages. Thus, one day
after the exposure, the symptoms of acute catarrhal rhino-pharyngo-laryn-
gotracheitis remained. In isolated cases, symptoms of a mild acute bronchitis
were observed.
The general condition of the subjects was completely satisfactory.
There was not a single case of aggravation of the condition or reinforcement
of the intoxication symptoms. Approximately one-half of the victims felt
better already next day, and in the remaining ones the symptoms of general
intoxication were very mild.
i
Two days after the exposure, an inpatient examination showed the condi-
tion of all the subjects to be fully satisfactory; 44.4% of those hospitalized
did not voice any complaints, whereas among the remaining ones, the most
frequent complaints were headache and dizziness (31.8%), chest pains (13.0%),
and dry cough (8.6%). Hyperemia of the mucous tnembranees of the respiratory
tract was moderately expressed and was noted in 32.7% of the subjects.
Hyperemia of the conjunctiva was noted in only 1% of the patients (Table 12).
A roentgenoscopic examination of all the patients failed to show even a
single case of any symptoms of acute lung pathology. By that time, the
- 51 -
-------
danger of pulmonary edema developing had already passed, so that of the
total number of hospitalized persons it was possible to discharge 8%, in
whom by that time both subjective and objective symptoms of injury had
completely disappeared. Three days after the exposure, 66.7% of those
present in the hospital did not voice any complaints.
Table 12
Frequency of Symptoms of Poisoning (in Percent)
2-3 Days After Exposure
Symptoms of Poisoning
Subjective State
Tickling in the throat
Burning behind the sternum
Dyspnea
Dry cough
Chest pains
Increased salivation
Nausea
General weakness
Headache and dizziness
Pains in the region of the heart
No complaints
Objective Symptoms
Hyperemia of mucous membranes
Hyperemia of conjunctiva
On Second
Day
6,9
1,0
1,2
8.6
13,0
2,0
6,8
31,8
5,0
44,4
32,7
1,0
On Third
Day
2,3
—
—
6,5
4,1
1,0
3.2
19,0
1,5
66.7
11.2
—
The subjective condition of the remaining patients improved considerably:
the most frequent complaint was headache (19%), but it was not strong, not
significant, and did not have any appreciable effect on the way the patients
felt (Table 12).
By that time, the symptoms of irritation of the mucous membranes of the
upper respiratory tract in the form of a light hyperemia of these membranes
was observed in only 11.2% of the number of patients present in the hospital.
Physical examination of the lungs did not show any pathology: the
scattered dry rales noted in the lungs of a few patients disappeared com-
pletely three days after the exposure.
No changes whatever were found in the cardiovascular system and gastro-
intestinal tract that could have been attributed to the toxic effect.
Changes in pulse rate and arterial pressure and an increase in the size of
the liver and soreness in the right subcostal region were noted in only a '
few persons who had suffered for years from chronic illnesses.
No deviations were observed in the peripheral blood either. Thus,
eosinophilia was found in only 3.5% of the subjects. Changes in the number
-52_-
-------
of leucocytes and in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate were observed only
in persons with chronic tonsillitis, sinusitis, chronic hepatocholecystitis,
adnexitis, etc.
Analysis of the blood for methemoglobin was negative in all cases.
For this reason, three days after the exposure, another 70.2% of the
patients were discharged in a state of complete clinical cure, and after
four days, another 11.2% were discharged.
Thus, five days after the exposure, 89.4% of those affected had com-
pletely recovered and only 10.6% of the hospitalized persons were kept for
further observation and treatment in the hospital because they had chronic
general diseases: 3% of the patients with hypertensive disease and symptoms
of general atherosclerosis showed a certain decline in the way they felt
(increase of headache) and were kept in the hospital for treatment.
In 3% of the subjects, an aggravation of their earlier gastrointestinal
disturbances (gastritis, hepatocholecystitis) was observed; they complained
of increased pains in the epigastric region and in the right subcostal
region, and an increased nausea after the intoxication.
In 2.3% of the subjects in the hospital, a typical picture of acute
infectious (seasonal) cold of the upper respiratory tract was observed, and
one subject showed an aggravation of chronic bronchitis. In 1.3% of the
subjects, the vegetative-vascular disturbances which they had had earlier
became somewhat intensified.
All the individuals who sought medical help were given oxygen, alkaline
inhalations, and symptomatic medicines to reduce the cough and eliminate
the headache.
In persons who did not turn to a physician immediately after the
exposure, the symptoms of irritation of the upper respiratory tract sub-
sided without treatment during the first 1-2 days.
A commission was formed to investigate the causes of the large-scale
poisoning of people.
In order to establish the causes of the poisoning, a thorough technical
and engineering study was made on the industrial plants located in the area
involved. The study was carried out by checking the technological processes,
inspecting the work areas, verifying the technical and technological docu-
ments, and interrogating the operators directly. During the inspection of
the industrial plants, particular attention was given to the presence of
emergency situations and to the disruption of technological processes on the
day of the incident.
- 53 -
-------
The inspection showed that the plants lo,cated in the region of the
accident had been operating under normal technological conditions and had
not changed the nature or rate of their production.
There were no cases of emergency situations or disruption of techno-
logical conditions in the handling of chemical substances. An inspection
of the stocking management of chemicals in the plants and a check of the
operations involved in receiving and delivery showed that the transportation,
receiving, storage, delivery, utilization and inventory of corrosive and
poisonous chemicals were carried out in accordance with regulation require-
ments.
In order to explain the possible effect of chemicals transported by
railroad, a check was made on the railroad tank cars and trains (convoys)
moving along the railroad track passing near the town. In view of the
absence of cases of poisoning among persons working in the immediate
vicinity of the railroad and at neighboring stations, the commission came
to the conclusion that railroad transport could not have been the cause of
the poisoning.
In addition to the inspection of industrial facilities, the boiler
enterprises of the town were also examined. The examination established
that because of a sharp drop of air temperature and a shortage of gas fuel
on the day of the occurrence, three boiler houses of industrial plants
separated by a distance of 800-1000 m from one another operated at full
capacity and used high-sulfur mazut as the fuel. The daily consumption of
mazut was 204 tons, with an average sulfur content of 3.6%. The emission
of sulfur dioxide by all the boiler houses was as high as 600 kg/hour
(14,400 kg/day). The flue gases were discharged through stacks 30-40 m high.
Simultaneously with the technical and engineering inspection of the
plants, laboratory studies were made on the environment (atmospheric air,
snow, clothing of the victims, etc.) in order to identify the chemical agent
that caused the large-scale poisoning.
Laboratory studies of objects in the external environment involved all
the ingredients which could have produced dangerous concentrations in atmos-
pheric air. Samples of atmospheric air were collected in places where the
people were exposed on the day of the occurrence and in the next 2-3 days.
Analyses of atmospheric air for the chemicals used in the technological
processes on the day of the occurrence showed the absence of concentration
in excess of the maximum permissible values.
Of interest were the analyses of fresh snow. Results of analysis of
snow collected at a depth of 4 cm showed an increased content of sulfur
oxides (sulfates + sulfites), whose amount considerably exceeded (by a
- 54 r
-------
factor of 10 or more) the content of other substances (nitrates, nitrites,
chlorides, etc.). In addition, the content of sulfur compounds in snow
samples collected in the area of exposure was approximately 6-7 times as
high as the content of sulfur compounds in snow samples collected in the
control area.
A second analysis of 52 snow samples collected at two levels (at a
depth of up to 15 cm and from 15 cm to the ground) showed that in 7-8 days,
the pollution of snow with sulfates because of precipitation exceeded (by
a factor of 3-4) the pollution of snow that fell in other weeks of the
winter season (Table 13).
According to the data of the Hydrometeorological Center of the USSR,
the meteorological situation in this region was characterized by anticy-
clonal, fair, cool weather with weak winds and the formation of fog and
heavy hoarfrost. An intense cooling of the ground layer of air during the
night led to the formation of a thick temperature inversion layer near the
ground with a height of the barrier layer of up to 50 m, which promoted
the pressing and concentration of the stream of flue gases.
According to the data of weather stations located nearby, a weak
western and northwestern wind was observed during the night, then after
9 P.M., the wind began to turn in the southwestern and southern direction.
Table 13 lists data on the direction and velocity of the wind from 0 to
15 hours, [i.e., 12 midnight to 3 P.M.].
Table 13
Velocity and Direction of the Wind
Time
(in Hours)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5-00
6.00
7 00
8 00
9 00
10 00
MOO
12.00
13 00
14 00
15 00
Wind Direction
Western (250')
Western (270')<
Western (2713)
Western (260°)
Western (250')
Western (270=)
Western (270')
Northwestern (290a)
Northwestern (290°)
Northwestern (290')
C...4.V.T. «/1QO°^
SoutherrOSO"1) . . . ....
<5rnri-hArrf 180M
Wind Velocity
(in m/sec)
2
1
1
2
2
2
a
2
2.
2
1
3
1
2
-."55 -
-------
At one of the weather stations located nearby, radiosondes were used
to measure the temperature distribution in the lower layers of air
(Table 14).
Table 14
Temperature Distribution in °C with Height
(From Radiosonde Data)
Height (in m)
Ground
• 300
400
800
1000
1500
time of Measurements (in Hours)
9.00
-21,5
—20,0
—14,0
__
—13,0
—15,0
15.00
—18,0
—
—18,0
—13.0
—
—18,0
The lowest position of the inversion layer was observed at 9 A.M.
The temperature drop in the 0-400 m layer was 7.5°C.
More detailed data on the temperature distribution according to
height were obtained on a meteorological mast at a distance of about 100 km
from the area where the smoke pollution occurred.
These data are shown in Fig. 10. As is evident from the latter, at
9:30-10 A.M., at a height of about 40 m, an inversion layer was formed
with a temperature drop of 6-7° C. , which formed a "cap" above the low
smokestacks of the local boiler houses, which, burned sulfur mazut with an
average sulfur content of 3.6%.
As was noted above, all three boiler houses, separated by distances
of about 800-1000 m, burned 204 tons of mazut.
Let us first calculate the emission of sulfur oxides by boiler house
No. 1:
95 X 10* X 3.6
" 4° S/S6C
24 X 3600 X 100
Qso2 = 40 X 2 = 80g/sec
We shall calculate the highest single concentration from the formula
for a stack height of 40 ra and a wind velocity of 2 m/sec:
235 X 80
2 X 2 X 40>
- 56 -
-------
I
l_n
/W7
90
80
70
60
SO
30
20
10
T
_
±
i i i i i i i i i r| i It i i iiii.i.t j i j^
T
\
T'CH 22 JO 18 IS '14 21 K 20 IS' IB II 21 22 20 IB IB tt 21 22 20 0 IB It 22 20 IS IS >4 22 10 18 IB 20 18 IS '4
7.30 8.30 9.30 10.30 11.30 12.30 13.30
Pig. 10. Distribution of temperature according to height.
-------
Calculations of the emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere
made it possible to determine the highest concentrations which can be
produced at a distance of 10-20 H or 400-800 m from the boiler house
stacks.
The highest concentration of sulfur dioxide discharged with the
flue gases by the most powerful boiler house is shown by the calculations
to be 3 mg/m3, which is 6 times as high as the maximum permissible concen-
tration for atmospheric air of populated areas.
For the remaining two boiler houses, the highest concentrations could
be respectively 3-4.5 times as high as the maximum permissible concentra-
tion.
Consequently, in the combustion of sulfur mazut, all the indicated
three boiler houses produced a considerable excess over the maximum ojer-
missible concentration, since they had low stacks.
In the case of a "dangerous" smoking plume, the concentrations of
sulfur dioxide in the ground layer could have been substantially greater,
as is evident from the calculation made by using the formula.
From formula (36), assuming a height of the barrier inversion layer
H = 40 m and a distance of 500 m from the stack, we obtain for boiler
house No. 1
8 X 80 X 1000 „„ , 3
Csmoke =
Considering the possibility of a combination of the smoke plumes
from all three boiler houses, the highest sulfur dioxide concentration
could have reached 100 mg/m^, which is 2-3 times the sulfur dioxide con-
centration for which an acute injury of the upper respiratory tract is
observed.
The largest concentration could have been produced in low areas ,
where the flue gas ascended in the presence of the prevailing weak wind,
which was close to a calm. A sulfur dioxide concentration equal to
100 mg/m3 is approximately 20 times the ordinary concentration produced
under average meteorological conditions and 200 times the maximum permis
sible value.
It was noted that injury to people in different parts of the area
agreed in time with the change in the direction of the wind from west to
south. This is evident from Fig. 11.
- 58 -
-------
Fig. 11. Smoke pollution of the town.
As is evident from Fig. 11, from 9 to 10 A.M., almost the entire town
became polluted with smoke, except its northern part, and from 10 to 11 A.M.
the wind turned northward and only the northern part of the town was covered
with smoke. After 11 A.M., the smoke pollution in the town practically
ceased. Exposure of people in different areas of the town corresponded
exactly to this turning of the wind.
A close analysis of the results of engineering and technical inspection
of the plants and a study of the clinical picture of injury to people,
data on the weather situation and the results of laboratory analyses of
items in the external environment led to the conclusion that the cause of
the large-scale poisoning of people was the pollution of the ground layer
of atmospheric air by high concentrations of sulfur dioxide combined with
products of its oxidation as a result of the discharge of flue gases of the
boiler houses through low stacks (30-40 m). The stable, deep inversion
that produced a barrier layer above the stacks of the boiler houses caused
a sharp increase in sulfur dioxide concentrations in atmospheric air which
turned out to be dangerous for the health of the inhabitants.
Ways of Preventing the Noxious Effects of Pollution with
Sulfur Dioxide of Atmospheric Air
The data cited above, pertaining to cases of large-scale poisoning of
the population, show that the struggle with atmospheric pollution by indus-
trial discharges associated with the combustion of high sulfur fuels (partic-
ularly in industrial centers and densely populated areas) should be waged
with the utmost determination.
- 59 -
-------
As we have indicated above, the most significant source of pollution
of urban air reservoirs in modern industrial centers are the products of
incomplete combustion of fuel and sulfur oxides discharged in large quanti-
ties with flue gases from public, residential, and industrial boiler rooms
and thermal electric power plants.
The most radical measure in eliminating emissions of sulfur oxides and
ash is the use of natural gas as the fuel in boiler houses and thermal
electric power plants.
In the construction of new towns, an effective measure consists in
supplying the residential areas and industrial plants with electricity and
heat from sources separated from the town by a distance such that the pollu-
tion of air with flue gases and ash is excluded. In planning residential
sections and industrial plants it is necessary to consider the prevailing
winds and to provide for a sufficient gap between the sources of smoke
emissions and residential areas.
One of the measures limiting the discharge of sulfur into the atmos-
phere is the use of low-sulfur types of fuel.
In some countries of western Europe (France), special regulations have
been introduced that establish a limitation on the sulfur content of fuel.
Thus, the law of 20 April 1932 limited the sulfur content of fuel used for
combustion in urban boiler rooms to 2%. Later, the upper limit of the
sulfur content of mazut was established at no more than 0.8 - 1% (law of
12 April 1960) [67]*.
It should be noted that the elimination of sulfur from fuel prior to
its use is a major problem of great economic importance. According to
many experts in this field, the removal of sulfur from fuel before its use
appears to be clearly advantageous. The most important results in this
direction have been obtained in the case of removal of sulfur from combus-
tible gases (natural, coke oven, water, petroleum, and other gases). The
removal of sulfur from liquid fuel has been resolved only partially, and
this important problem requires further research and the development of the
most economical methods.
Methods of hydrogenation of petroleum permitting the production of
mazut containing less than 0.5% sulfur have not yet been developed for
practical applications. The removal of sulfur from solid fuel is an even
more complex problem.
One of the steps taken toward reducing the pollution of atmospheric
air with sulfur oxides during the combustion of high-sulfur fuel is the
* Editor's note: The date of publication of the reference cited is inconsistent with the date of the
mentioned law.
- 60 -
-------
purification of the flue gases of electric power plants. This requirement
applies primarily to high-capacity thermal electric power plants located
at considerable distances from cities.
At the present time, a number of methods have been recommended by the
NIIOGAZ and Giprogazochistka Institutes for the removal of sulfur oxides
from flue gases at high-capacity thermal electric power plants, but these
methods have not progressed beyond the confines of experimental industrial
installations. Moreover, the construction of sulfur-removing installations
and the operating cost require very substantial means.
However, the construction of high-capacity State Regional Electric
Power Plants has propelled the problem of purification of flue gases to a
place of high priority, and it may be assumed that sulfur-removing instal-
lations will be built in the, near future.
In addition to the above-enumerated methods of preventing atmospheric
pollution with flue gases, in order to achieve the maximum dispersal of
noxious impurities, the construction of high stacks has become widespread
in the last few years. The choice of the necessary height of the smoke-
stacks is made by calculation in accordance with the "Sanitary Standards of
Planning of Industrial Enterprises" (SN-245-63), the "Temporary Method for
Calculating the Atmospheric Dispersal of Discharges (Ash and Sulfur Gases)
From Smokestacks of Electric Power Plants", ratified by resolution No. 83
of the State Committee on Coordination of Scientific Research of the USSR
on 25 July 1963, and also by the "Recommendations for Calculating the Dis-
persal of Noxious Substances in the Atmosphere" [64] and [69].
In solving the problem of the necessary stack height, it should be
recalled that high stacks are most effective only under favorable meteoro-
logical conditions. Because of the great dilution of gases upon their dis-
charge through high stacks, the concentration of noxious impurities in the
ground layer of atmospheric air is reduced, but the pollution zone expands
considerably.
i
However, the construction of high stacks does not fully solve the
problem of sanitary protection of atmospheric air from pollution by noxious
industrial emissions.
In the case of unfavorable meteorological conditions (deep temperature
inversion in combination with a low temperature and calm), which are most
frequently observed in the autumn and winter, the discharge of unpurified
gases will promote a considerable pollution of the atmosphere near the
ground, thus posing a direct threat to the health of the population.
Of considerable assistance in the organization and adoption of appro-
priate preventive measures may be the meteorological service. The prediction
- 61 -
-------
of meteorological conditions under which the formation of dangerous con-
centrations of atmospheric pollutants is possible should be used to limit
certain technological operations connected with the possibility of emis-
sions of large amounts of toxic substances during that period.
The organization of a network of meteorological stations and of a
service forecasting dangerous concentrations of atmospheric pollutants is
necessary in areas where industry is heavily concentrated.
One of the major prophylactic steps is a regular checking of the con-
tent in the atmosphere of noxious chemicals discharged in the course of
technological processes by industrial plants. The data obtained should be
brought to the attention of the management of the plants for the purpose
of adopting timely measures and preventing dangerous atmospheric pollutants
by modifying certain features of the technological processes.
In the elimination or reduction of emissions of noxious substances
into the surrounding atmosphere, a major role is played by the improvement
of the technological process and by a reliable sealing of certain units,
assemblies, and communications of the industrial enterprise in question.
Among ameliorative measures, of major importance is the establishment
of a rigorous preventive and ongoing sanitary and technical supervision of
aoo the existing and possible sources of air pollution and the implementa-
tion of all the sanitary and technical measures designed to reduce and
eliminate urban air pollution.
- 62 -
-------
LITERATURE CITED
1. AepraqeB II. 3>. it F y p it u o B B. n. B KH.: 0«niCTKa npOMUin-
.leiiHbrx Bbi6pocoB D aTMOc4>epy. Flea peA. npo. T. E. Bo.iAbipcna.
MCAI-HS. M., B. 1, 54—56.
2. F o Ji b A 6 e p r M. C. PHP. n can., Ii'57, 4. 9—14.
3. FypHHOBB. n., fl H wines a H. 8. Fur. n can., 1960, 12, 3—10.
4. Faaeta «France Soir» or 28 nonupn 1960 r.
5. P R 3 a H o B B. A. CamiTapiian oxpaiia atMocebepiioro BOSAVXB. Mea-
FH3. M., 1954.
6. Fo;ibA6epr M. C. CamrrapHan oxpaiia aTMoctbepnoro BOSAy.xa.
MeArra. M., 1948.
7. FycbKoaa B. II. B KII.: Bonpocw rurHenw aTMoa|>epHoro eoajyxa.
IloA peA. npo(p. E. U. AiupeeBoft-ra.iaHimofi u npot}). A. H. lllaJiiopH . H UepiiHK O. Bpeji'.bie raaw. Flep. c HBM. M., 1938.
10. ByuityeBa K. A. B c6.: ripcae.ibno aonycTHMue KOHueHtpamut
aiMoccjiepHbix aarpasneHim. Mcania. M.. 1957, B. Ill, 23—43.
11. FaAacKima H. ZL 6un. nayi. CBCCHH, nocssim. SO-.ietiiio iiaymi. AeatenbuocTii HHCTH-
ryra rHntenbi rpyaa n npoi|>3a6o.ieBaHnfi. JI., 1957, 382—387.
14. CHAOpeHKOB H. B. BCCTH. 4Ka.ioBCKoro oC.iacTHoro oTae.icmi>r
Bcecoioan. XHMHH. o6-Ba MM. Jl. H. MeHae.ieeBa, 1957, 65—67.
15. B w CT p o B a T. A. Tpyaw I MOJIMH. 1957, 85—89.
16. C T e p e x o B a H. n. B co.: Bonpocu rHnieHW xpyaa H npocjjeccno-
na^bHofi naTO.iornH B uaeTHofi v.eTa.i.iypniii. CsepaJioBCK, 1959. B. 4.
. 187—197.
17. B a 1 c u m O. J.. D y b i c k i J.. M e n e 11 y G. K. Arch. Ind. Health.
1960, 21, 5, 564—569.
18 PaccKaaosa T. B. C6. ?p. OaeccKoro MM. im-Ta. Oaecca. 196t.
B. 15, 137-139.
19. BaciiJibeea 0. F. Fur. tpyaa H npo<}). saoo.ieBaiiHH, 1957. 3.
39—44.
20. A m d u r M., S i 1 v e r m a n L. a. D r i n ke r P. A. M. A. Arch, in-
dust. hyg. a. occup. med., 1952. v. 6. p. 305.
21. Byuiryeaa K. A. B c6.: FIpeae.ibHO .lonycTHMwc KOHueHtpamnr
3TMOC(j)epHbix 3arpH3HeHiifl. Mejnia. M.. 1961, B. V, 126—141.
- '63 -
-------
22. B y ui T y e B a K. A. B c6.: Buo.iorii'iecKoe aeiicTBiie 11 riinieiiii'iec-
KOC aiia'iemic atMoccpcpiibix aarpnaiieiutii.- lisa. sMeaimmia*. M.,
d966. 142—172.
23. B y m T y e B a K. A. B c6.: npcae.ibiio aonycriiMbie KOHueiiTpamiH
atMoccpepHbix aarpajiieiiifi'i. Haa. «Meaiminta». M:, 1961, B. V,
118-125.
24. F o R bfl 6 e p r M. C. Fur. 11 can., 1955, 1, 41.
:25. H o p ii ui A. A. Fur. 11 can., 1955, 10, 40.
26. UN 6 y .rc be K n ii E. A., CanoKiuiKOB /I. Fl. KJIHII. Mea., 1933,
9_10, 458—465.
27. CBBTJI a BCK iifi B. B. K Bonpocy o (padpiiKaitmi Bpeanwx cepno-
(j>oc(popHbix cnii'ieK. XapbKOB, 1885!
28. FI p a B fl H H H. C. PVKOBOJCTBO npOMbllll.ieKIIOfl TOKCHKO.IOrHH. Mea-
FH3. M.. 1930, B. 1.
29. MeuaTynbHH A. A. Fur., 6eaonacHOCTb M nato-ionm rpyaa,
JVs 4—5. Meania. M., 1931, 119-128.
-30. B a 6 a a H u P. A. SarpasHemie ropojCKoro sosayxa. Haa. AMH
CCCP. M., 1948.
31. B a 6 a H H u. FHF. H can., 1949, 12, 3—11.
32. A m d u r M. O.. M e I i v i n W. W., Drinker P. Lancet, 1953, 2,
p. 755—759.
33. Moeschlin S. B KH.: Klinik und Therapie der Vergiftungen.
Stuttgart, 1955, 140—146, 175—201.
34. Gordon K- C. New York State Journal of med., 1943. 43, 11,
1954.
35. O g a t a M. Arch. f. Hyg.. 1884, 2. 223—245!
36. K iss ka 11 R. Ztschr. f. Hyg. u. Infections.-Kr., 1904, 48, 269—279.
37. P a d d ly F. J. ind. hyg., 1924, 6, i. 28-29.
38. Rostoscki O., CrecelciusD. Arch. klin. Med., 1930, 168,
107—122.
39. M e T B e p H K o B B. C. )K. nir. rpyaa, 1927, 6, 36—44.
40. Jl e B H u K H fi A. A. >K. rnr. tpyaa, 1928. 3. 96—97.
41. 3 e Ji e H e u K H ft M. H. Fur. H can.. 1947, 11, 45—46.
42. G o 1 d m a n A., H i 11 W. T. Arch. ind. hyg., 1955, v. 8, 3, 206.
43. M H x H e D 11 M C. H. CO. pa6or no rurneHe TpyAa, npo. 3a6o^eB3HH5i, 1966, 1035—1037.
45. E Ji 4> H M o B a E. K. Fur. H can., 1960, 3, 18.
46. B-apKep K., K3M6n ., KSTKOTT E. flw. H ap. 3arpH3HCHiie
atMoc(j)epHoro Bosayxa. Haa. BOS. ZUopeu HauHil. JKenena, 1962.
47. UHT. no Jlaaapesy H. B. CnpaBomniK «Bpeaiibie BemecTBa B npo-
MuuiaeHHocTH*. FocxiiMHaaaT. M.. 1954, T. II, 97—100.
48. M c C a r r o 11 J.. B r a d 1 e y W. Amer. J. Publ. Hlth., 1966, 11, 56.
'1933—1942.
49. JKypna.i «3a pyoe/KOM», 1967, 20. 22—24.
'50. JlyHC Zl*. EaTTaH. SerpRaneimoe ne6o. Flop, c aHr.n. M..
1968.
.51. W i e t h a u-p H. Ibe Arbeitsmod., 1966. 16. 11/328—330.
52. HsMepoa H. ., Hcaor nfi'ien KO M. K. Fur. n can., 1903,
12, 87-95". " ' ' ''
53. H u m a n i t e. Honopb 1951.
'54. Quevauv i tier A. Revue du I'Association'pour la Prcventio'n dc
la Pollution Atmcspheriquc. Paris, 1959, 2. 55—73.
•55. Taylor C. G. Phil. Frans Roy. Soc., 1915, A. 215, 1.
- 64 -
-------
56. CSTTOII 0. . MiiKpoMeTcopo.ioritn. riupOMCTeoiiBAaT, 1958,
57. Te B c p OB CK lift E. H. B c6.: HoDbie IIACH o oC.iacTit
aap03o;in. lisa.. AH CCCP, 1949.
58. AHAPCCB FI. H. PacceiiBamie B aoaayxe raaoe, Bbi6pacuBaeMbix
npOMUiu.nciiiibi.Mii npeanpHHTHHMii. Haa. no crpoirreibCTBy H apxu-
reKtype, 1952.
59. 3 ft-3 e H 6 a A M. PafliioaxTHBiiocrb Biieumefi cpeAU.
1968.
60. JlafixTMan fl. Jl. OiuiiKa npine.Mitoro CJIOH aTMoc(pepu.
MeTeoH3aaT, 1961.
61. BonpocM Typ6y^enTHoft aH4>(py3ini B npnaeMiioM c.ide arMOC(pepu.
Floa pea. fl. Jl. JlafixtMaiia. JleiiiuirpaACKHfi rHApoMeTeopo.iorwie-
CKHH HHCTHTyt, 1963.
62. Pasquille F. The meteorological magasine, 1961, v. 90, 1063.
63. B e p Ji H H A M. E., F e H n x o B H M E. Jl. H O n y K y ji P. H. TPVAU
MaDHoft reoepe BPCAHLIX Bemecrs
(nbMH H cepHHCToro rasa), coaepwautHXCfl B Bbi6pocax npoMwui-
JICHHHX npeanpHSiTHfi. CH 369—67 us. o
-------
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METEOROLOGICAL AND AEROSYNOPTIC CONDITIONS
OF SMOKE POLLUTION IN NOVOSIBIRSK
L. I. Vvedenskaya, T. G. Volodkevich, I. P. Leontovich, and I. A. Shevchuk
From Glavnoe Upravlenie Gidrometeorologicheskoy Sluzhby Pri Sovete Ministrov
SSSR. Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Aeroklimatologii (Novosibirskiy
Filial). Trudy, Vypusk 48, "Voprosy Gidrometeorologii Sibiri". Moskva,
p. 177-182, (1967).'
The paper examines the results of observations of city smoke at three meteorological
stations in Novosibirsk during the period 1956-1965. Analysis of the meteorological
conditions on days with smoke pollution is made, and the relationships between the onset
of long periods of general smoke pollution and the stratification of the atmosphere are
established.
Observations of the concentration of noxious industrial discharges
performed by the public health service in the cities and towns of Siberia
have been few and mostly irregular. For this reason, in order to determine
the dependence of the degree of pollution of atmospheric air on the meteor-
ological conditions in Novosibirsk, an attempt was made to find indirect
characteristics of pollution, using ordinary meteorological observations
during climatological periods.
In Novosibirsk, there are three meteorological stations with a suf-
ficiently long period of regular observations. Data of meteorological
observations from 1950 through 1965 have established that the phenomenon
of "city smoke" may serve as an indicator of the propagation of industrial
discharges in individual districts of Novosibirsk.
Table 1
Average Frequency of Periods of Different Seasonal Durations in Cases for 1956-19&5.
Duration of
Periods
Seasons
§«•
a
A
<0
1=1
X3 10
" &
« o
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Total 71
1,6
2,4
1,6
2,5
1,0
4,0
1,1
3,0
2,8
4,7
0,3
3/1
5,0
2.6
0,2
3,9
Average Number of Days of Smoke Per Year
. . I 1 12 I 4i' I !
5,1
3,2
16
2,8
1,6
0,6
3,4
0,9
0,9
15 I 24
- 66--
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Table 2
Frequency of Wind Directions and Velocities During Smoke Pollution of
Different Districts of Novosibirsk as an Average for 10 Years
Districts
Zayel'tsovskiy District
Dzerzhinskiy District
(Northeastern) • • •
Kirovskiy District
(Bugry, Ogurtsovo) • • •
Directions
N, NE
7
7
26
E, SE
18
10
25
S, SW
71
73
30
W, NE
4
10
19
Velocity
Calm
13
8
31
1-3
36
45
54
4-7
38
39
14
8-11
11
7
1 -
>I2
2
1
0
Average frequency of wind directions and velocities for ten years according
to Ogurtsovo station.
%
16
14
50
19
13
46
32
6
3
The ten-year series from 1956 to 1965 was found to have regular
observations of "city smoke". On the basis of these data, periods were
separated in which the "city smoke" was simultaneously observed at two
or three stations. Results of the treatment of the data and of their
analysis are shown in the tables below.
Distribution of Wind Velocities in Heights
Scale
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Year
•*
Total Number
of Cases
%
Total Number
of Cases
%
Total Number
' of Cases
.•
%
Total Number
of Cases
%
Number of
Cases
200
0—2 3-5 6-8 9-10 >10>I5
13 53 28 510
124
26 47 24 2 1 0
93
17 83-0 000
\
6
30 38 32 000
37
20 50 26 3 1 0
63 129 68 820
500
0—2 3-5 6-8 9—10
12 49 31 6
170
19 46 23 5
110
33 50 0 17
/
6
22 43 25 8
49
16 47 27 6
55 157 89 22
>tO >15
.2- 0
7 1
0 0
2 0
4 0,3
12 1
- 67 -
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It is well known that the most dangerous cases of smoke pollution
are those in which high concentrations of noxious discharges act on the
body for a long time.
The number of long periods (not less than 24 hours), during which
the smoke pollution in Novosibirsk was observed continuously and simul-
taneously at two or three stations for ten years was 166, of which 42 cor-
respond to cases where the smoke pollution was observed continuously for
more than three days consecutively.
The total duration of smoke pollution amounted to 613 days for the
ten-year period, i.e., of the ten years, the city lived under conditions
of visible smoke pollution for almost two years.
Lasting smoke pollution was observed with particular frequency in
winter and spring. In summer, the smoke pollution periods were brief
and their frequency relatively low (Table 1).
Table 2 gives the frequency of the wind directions and velocities at
each meteorological station during the period when "city smoke" was observed.
For comparison, the last column of the table gives the mean frequency of the
wind directions and velocities during the period studied. At all three
stations, "city smoke" was chiefly observed at a wind velocity not above
7 m/sec. The number of smoke pollution cases in which the wind velocities
at the vane level exceeded 12 m/sec was small.
Table 3
Under Smoke Pollution Conditions, Height (H)
1000
0—2 3—5 6—8 9—10 >10 >15
12 36 35 12 5 0
170
16 46 21 10 7 2
111-
33 50 0 0 17 0
6
24 30 38 620
50
16 39 30 10 5 0,6
53 130 101 34 19. 2
1500
0—3 3—5 6—8 9—10 >10 >16
8 39 30 15 8 1
170 ;
8. 45 27 12 8 0
110
50 33 0 0 17 0
6
20 29 37 12 2 0
51
10 40 29 13 8 0,6
35 134 98 45 25 2
'i
2000
0-2 3—5 6—8 9—10 >IO >I5
5 31 35 13 16 0 :
172
5 39 30 11 15 4
110
. .1
0 83' .0 0 17 0 ,
6 -
' 8 37 35 12 80
49
5 35 33 12 15 1,2
18 120 110 40 49 4
- 68 -
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The mean frequency of southern and southwestern winds in Novosibirsk
for 10 years if 50%. In two districts of the city, in 72% of the total
number of smoke pollution cases, there was a wind of southern and south-
western direction. In all periods of the year at levels of 200, 500, 1000,
1500 and 2000 m, a wind velocity from 3 to 8 m/sec is most frequently
observed (Table 3) .
In 87% of smoke pollution cases, winds not in excess of 10 m/sec were
observed up to a height of 2 km, and in only 2% of the cases at one of the
enumerated levels was a wind of more than 15 m/sec observed. (Table 4).
Table k
Distribution of Wind Velocities up to 2 km
on Days when "City Smoke" was Observed.
Gradation
Number
of Cases (Total 9WJ)
%
0-S
97
28
0—10
300
87
•»,,
46
13 .
,..
7
2 .,
Analysis of the stratification of the ground layer on days with smoke
pollution established that in 54% of the cases a ground inversion or iso-
therm was observed, in 23% of the cases - a raised isotherm or inversion,
in 8.6% - the gradients at the surface were higher than the dry-adiabatic
gradients (Table 5).
Frequency of Stratifications Based on Aerological Data
Normal Temp-
erature Drop
with Height,
Y<0.8e/100 m
14,1
Ground Inver-
sion followed
by Normal
Temperature
Drop
. 30.0
Ground Inversion
followed by Iso-
thermy and normal
Temperature Drop
13,1
Ground Isothernw
followed by inver-
sion, and normal
Course or Iso-
thermy and Normal
Course
1.6
Elevated
Inversion
8.1
Frequency of Synoptic Situations
Cyclone
0,6
Trough
3,2
Low Gradient
Field of Low
Pressure
6.9
Anticyclone
3,3
Crest
24,7
Low Gradient
Field of High
Pressure
27,2
-------
Analysis of synoptic processes on days with smoke pollution gave the
following results: of 2419 cases, 52% were under conditions of a stable
crest or low-gradient field of elevated pressure, 16% under conditions of
slowly moving troughs, associated with relatively indistinct frontal part-
ings; in 7% of the cases, the smoke pollution of the city was observed in
a low-gradient field of decreased pressure, and in 14 cases (0.6%) smoke
pollution was observed under conditions of a quasi-stationary cyclone
(Table 6).
On the basis of the available factual material for the two-year
period of observations of concentrations of dust and nitrogen oxides in
the town of Kemerovo, the relationship of these ingredients with consider-
able precipitation (more than 3 mm per day) and the wind in the layer up
to 500 m above ground level was analyzed (Table 7). These data showed
that in the presence of slight winds (V < 5 m/sec) in the layer up to 500 m,
on days with considerable precipitation, cases (10-17%) were observed where
the dust concentration exceeded the maximum permissible value; in cases
where the wind velocity exceeded 5 m/sec, the dust concentration was below
MFC.
Observations of nitrogen oxides showed that on days with precipitation,
54% of the samples taken gave a concentration in excess of the maximum
permissible value.
Table 5
in the 0-1 kn. Layer for the Period 1956-1965
(Inversion
Followed by
EleTOted jAbrup-..
Isothermy Changes of
Ithe Course Oj
*rI1oianpIra4*iii?A
7,7
6.9
Isothermy
Followed by
Normal Temper-
ature Drop
2,3
Normal Drop
followed by
Abrupt Changes
in' the Coarse
of Temperature
7,6
Normal Temper-
ature-Drop with
Height,
Y<0.8»/100 m
8,6
Total
2032
cases
I
Table 6
for the Period 1956-1965
Hyperbolic
Point
2,9
Trough of
Warn Front
8,8-
Trough of
Cold Front
6.4
Trough of
Secondary Front
or
Occlusion Front .
16,0
Total
2419
cases
- 70--
-------
Table 7
Characteristics of the Relationship of the Concentrations of Dust and Nitrogen Oxides
to Precipitation and Wind Velocity in the Layer from 0 to 500 m for Kemerovo (1962-1963)
Dust ......
Nitrogen Oxides- •
Precipi-
tation
(mm)
>3
>3
Wind Velocity
<5 m/sec
U)
LI O)
rH <£ W
a o.a
Surf
10.
8
fc
8®
ui S>
ace Wir
10
62
5—1 o m/sec
. S
rH 0> 0]
3
>3
6
5
17
40
62
14
13
7
54
Note. During the period studied, there were no days with precipitation on which
the wind velocity exceeded 10 m/sec.
Conclusion.
1. Observations of city smoke may serve as an indirect character-
ization of the spreading of industrial contaminants of the atmosphere in
cities.
Analysis of a ten-year series of observations of "city smoke" at
three stations of Novosibirsk confirmed the conclusions reached earlier
from two-year observations of discharges in Kemerovo, namely: the form-
ation of a lasting period of general smoke pollution of the atmosphere
for the conditions of Siberia is most probable in a stable low-gradient
field in the presence of slight winds not only near the ground but also
in a thick layer of the troposphere (1.5-2.0 km) and in the presence of
stable ground inversions.
2. The adopted representation of the purification of the atmosphere
during periods of lasting precipitation is relative.
As was shown by our investigations, nitrogen oxides are not washed
out of the air by precipitation.
3. The distribution of residential and industrial buildings in the
city of Novosibirsk was planned without considering the climatic character-
istics, causing the pollution of a considerable portion of the residential
districts.
- 71 -
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LITERATURE CITED
1 Fpaqcaa B. FL, JloJKK-iiiia B. IT 06 yCTofi'innocTH iianpao;icuiiR serpa n npn-
3CMHOM (vice aTMocipcpu. Tpyfli-i TTO, nun. 158, 1964.
2. C o Ji o ivrn T n u a H. II. BJIHSIIMIC pwii>cbin. i!58, 1964.
3. B o p o n n o B FT. A. HcKOTOpi.ic saaa'iH aspo/iormiecKHx iia6^iOAeiiHi{ npH
pacnpocrpaiicHHH AWMOBWX crpyii. TpyAti- FFO. uun. 158, 1964.
4. P a-cro p r yc u a P. FI. XapaKTcpucniKH MCicopoflorHMCCKOro pc/KHMa H Typ6y^ciiT-
noco ofiMcnn D >npH.icMiioM cnoc Doaayxo -no -AamiuM rpaAHCiiruux lunO^ioaciiHii. Tpy-
flw FFO, sun. 172, 1965.
5. Con b K 11 n JI. P .CnnonTimecKHc yc/ionim 4>opMHpOBaHHH HHDCPCHH B HHWHCM 500-
McrpODOM cfloe. Tpyjiu FFO, awn. 172, 1965.
6. Bcp^niiA M. E., remixoBHM E Jl., ACM bn nosHq B. K. HcKOTOpue aKryaJib-
n we Bonpocu HccflCAOBaiiaa arMOctpepHofi AHfptpysHH. TpyAU FFO, sun. 172, :19G5.
7. E Ji H c c e B B. C. K sonpocy o ropH30HTajibuoM paccesHHH npUMecH B aiMOccpepe.
TpyAbi rrO, awn. 172, 1965.
- 72 -
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SOME DATA ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS OF CENTRAL ASIA
B. G. Andreyev and R. F. Lavrinenko
From Metorologiya i Gidrologiya. No. 4, p. 63-69, (Aprel1 1968).
The paper presents some results of a determination of the chemical composition of
aerosols under surface conditions and in the free atmosphere. The study was made for
the first time in the fall of 1966 in Central Asia.
Central Asia is one of the regions of the Soviet Union with a heavily
polluted atmosphere. Vast spaces occupied by sandy deserts and loesses,
dryness of climate, and frequent recurrence of strong winds causing dust
storms, all contribute to conditions that cause considerable amounts of
various impurities to enter the atmosphere.
The study of natural aerosols is important not only from the stand-
point of solution of purely meteorological problems, such as the physics
of clouds and precipitation, but is also directly related to practical
inquiries. The corrosive action of the atmosphere, dependent on the
presence and composition of aerosols, is taken into consideration, for
example, in the construction of electric power lines. The operation of
compressor stations of gas pipelines, etc. depends to a large extent on
the dust content of the atmosphere. Finally, the study of aerosols is
related to public health problems. However, natural aerosols are being
studied very inadequately. In particular, next to nothing is known about
the composition of the atmospheric aerosols of Central Asia.
The results presented below were obtained from an analysis of samples
collected under surface conditions and in an airplane during horizontal
flights at heights of 300 and 1000 m above a considerable area of Central
Asia. The aerosols were caught by means of membrane filters and filters
prepared from FPP-15 fabric. In addition, a two-chamber trap with a water
filter constructed by P. F. Svistov was employed. The chemical composition
of soluble substances in the aerosols was determined by using a method of
analysis of precipitation samples adopted at the Main Geophysical Observa-
tory [2].
Since the underlying surface is a principal factor in the dust content
of the atmosphere, it was expedient to take samples of soils most common
in Central Asia. Average results from aqueous extracts on the surface
layers of these soils are listed in Table 1.
According to the data of Table 1, the largest suppliers of chemically
active substances to the atmosphere may become soils developed on loesses
(gray desert soil) and solonchak*(saline) soils, in which the soluble part
amounts to 10% or more of the total mass. Let us note that in the gray
•Editor's note: Saline soils without structure.
- 73 -
-------
soils the higher content of soluble salts may be due to artificial factors,
since these soils are used for cultivation.
Sandy soils, while playing a considerable part in the total dust
pollution of the atmosphere, do not determine its chemical makeup, since
they consist of insoluble compounds of silica to the extent of 25% and
more, whereas the fraction of soluble substances amounts to less than 1%.
Generally, in all the soils of Central Asia, the SiC>2 content is extremely
high and ranges from 50 to 99%.
Table 1
Average Ionic Composition of Soils in $ of Air-Dry Sample.
Soil
Sandy
Gray desert
Soldnchak
scr,
O.OIS
0,2Sf>
5,620
cr
o,oo;>
0.200
1 ,%9
NO-
0.000
0.000
0.003
nccx;
0.230
7,25.r)
0.057
Ka+
0,005
0,323
2,110
&
0.013
0,03d
0,020
Mg**
0.021
0,090
0,555
Ca+*
0,031
0.455
0,480
Nil*
0,008
1.IS5
0,008
S
n
00,
M
0.33
9,82
10.82
o
hDflJ
M Pi
0
1.2
7,2
10.9
From the standpoint of the predominant soluble component, sandy soils
and gray soil belong to the carbonate soil class, and solonchak soils - to
the chloride-sulfate class. The latter soils contain a large amount of
sodium in addition to sulfates and chlorides.
According to the existing standards of medical control of atmospheric
air pollution, a single maximum permissible concentration of nontoxic dust
amounts to 0.50 mg/m^ for an average daily value of 0.15 mg/m^. Measure-
ments that we made on the outskirts of the city of Tashkent (Table 2),
which may be assumed to characterize, more or less, the natural background
pollution of the atmosphere of Central Asia, show that the total concen-
tration of impurities in air considerably exceeds the maximum permissible
concentration.
Table 2
Total Concentration (H, yg/m3) and Ionic Composition (jig/m3) of Aerosols
of the Ground Layer of Air.
av.
max.
min.
N
0,80
1 ,34
0,40
SO;
1C.3
44,2
0,0
cr
G.S
18.2
0.0
FOS
5,7
18.4
0,0
1-ICOJ
102,1
104,4
25,1
Nf
6,0
10,5)
K+
4,0
7.4
3,1. 2,5
Ca^
IS. 3
31,4
3,(i
MR**
8,3
14,3
3.9
NI-IJ
6,5
30,0
9,0
Soluble
Part
pg/m5
174,0
—
°/9
21,1
27,6
i)II
G,ir>.
0.35
11,2 5.915
-------
Of 30 series of measurements made in September-October 1966 at dif-
ferent times of the day, the average mass concentration of aerosols in
the surface layer of air was 0.80 mg/m3 between variation limits of
0.46 to 1.34 mg/m3. This low variability indicates the constancy of high
aerosol concentrations in the atmosphere.
As follows from the data of Table 2, the aerosols of the ground layer
of air contain a relatively large amount (21%) of soluble substances. An
increase in the fraction of soluble matter in atmospheric dust as compared
with the soil obviously results from the ascent into the atmosphere of
lighter particles having a higher percentage of the soluble fraction than
the heavy particles that remain on the surface of the soil and consist
mainly of silica. The increase of the soluble part in the particles with
an increase of their dispersion is indicated, for example, by analyses of
suspended alluviums of rivers [3]. Very fine particles resulting from
industrial production and suspended in air may also have a certain effect.
In the ionic composition, the predominant component is unquestionably
the bicarbonate ion HCOo", which accounts for 78% of the anions and 12.8%
of the total concentration. Despite the wide limits of variation of the
concentration, HCO^" is the only anion observed in all the samples.
0.5
o
Fig. 1. Relationship between the total concentration of
aerosols in the ground layer of air, the ions tiCOf (l),
and Mg++ + Ca""- (2).
In second place among the anions is the sulfata ion S04~ , whose average
content is 16.3 ug/m3, which amounts to 2% of the total aerosol concentration.
The content of chlorine and nitrates is considerably lower, their average
- 75 -
-------
of aerosols at the heights of 300 and 1000 m. According to the data cited,
it is equal to 0.66 and 0.49 mg/m3 respectively. Actually, the mass con-
centration of aerosols at these heights will be slightly lower, since the
fraction of soluble substances in the fine particles increases.
As can be seen from Table 3, the decrease of coarse particles with
the height occurs much more rapidly than in the case of fine particles.
At the 1000 m height as compared with the 300 m level, the change in the
concentration of coarse particles amounts to 30%, and that of fine particles,
to only 9%. At the same time, the contribution of fine particles to the
total aerosol mass increases slightly, from approximately 20 to 24%.
At the 300 m height, as at ground level, HCO," ions predominate, but
the sulfate ions make a contribution commensurate with that of HCO-~ to the
soluble portion of aerosols. At the 1000 m height, the content of SO^is
already higher than that of bicarbonate ions. The ratio SO^/Cl~ at the
heights and near the ground remains approximately the same and equal to two.
It is usually assumed that chlorides in the atmosphere are of marine
origin, and sulfate of continental origin. Furthermore, an inverse propor-
tion is observed between their contents. Fig. 2 showed the relationship
between the sulfate and chloride concentrations obtained on the basis of our
measurements in the free atmosphere. It is noteworthy that here, with the
exception of two samples taken directly above the Caspian and Aral Seas, a
linear dependence exists between the chlorides and sulfates in aerosols,
indicating a single source of their origin.
As already noted, it is obvious that the main suppliers of these
salts to the atmosphere are solonchak soils or soils having different degrees
of salinization and salinity and occurring throughout Central Asia.
10
30 40 S0t= ng/m3
Fig. 2. Relationship between concentrations of
chloride and sulfate ions in aerosols of the free
atmosphere.
-------
concentration being 6.8 and 5.7
respectively.
Among the cations, the predominant one is Ca4"4", with a concentration
of 18.3 yg/m3, this being more than twice the content of Kg4"1", which is in
second place. The concentration of cations is less variable than that of
anions, and with the exception of NH^+, all of them were observed in all
the samples.
The constant presence of certain ions in the samples makes it possible
to follow their relationship to the total aerosol concentration. The
presence of a direct relationship between the total aerosol concentration
and the HC03~, Ca^ and Mg44" ions, illustrated in Fig. 1, indicates that
in addition to their substantial contribution to the total concentration,
these ions should be present in certain definite ratios. As was shown by
analysis, these ratios are the same as in Ca(HCO^).2 and Mg(HC03)2. Appar-
ently, the carbonate particles of calcium and magnesium, present in high
concentrations in aqueous solution in the ground layer of air, convert
into completely soluble bicarbonate compounds. This situation may be of
essential importance for the chemistry of precipitation.
Average data on the chemical composition of aerosols in the free
atmosphere are shown in Table 3. The double chamber trap made it possible
to separate the trapped aerosol particles into two fractions (coarse and
fine) with a/~0.5 y limit.
Table 3
Average Ionic Composition of Aerosols of the Free Atmosphere (pg/m').
Height)
in
300
1000
•articles
coarse
fine
total
coarse
fine
total
SO^
2o.G
8,0
33,6
2U.G
fJ,l
29,7
cr
12,6
6,1
18,7
10,1
5.-1
15.5
NO;
V
0.1
0.0
0,1
0,0
0,1
0,1
IICOJ
43,6
0,9
4-1.5
24,5
0,4
1 24,9
Na*
2,0
1.5
3,5
1,6
1.3
2.9
K*
1,4
1.0
2,4
1,3
1,0
2.3
Mg++
5,6
3.-1
Ca-"
14.9
2.2
9,0 17,1
4,8 12.0
a.o
7.S
1,3
13,3
NH+
^ 1
v,t
3.r
i>. i
3.3
9 q
6/2
Total
ions
111,2
26,8
138,0
78.2
24.5
102,7
pH
5,70
5.27
~~
5.56
b,li
From the data of Table 3 it follows that the content of soluble sub-
stances in aerosols and hence the total pollution of the atmospheric
layer studied is rather high. Whereas near the ground the total ions in
aerosols amount to 17* yg/m3 or approximately 21% of the total concentra-
tion, at heights of 300 and 1000 m they amount to 138 and 103 Ug/m3
respectively. This slow decrease may be explained by the fact that all
the measurements in the free atmosphere were made during the daytime,
when the vertical displacements of air in Central Asia are highly developed.
Assuming the percentage ratio between the soluble and insoluble parts
to be constant with the height, we shall evaluate the total concentration
- 77 -
-------
The content of nitrates in the atmosphere of Central Asia is slight.
We observed practically detectable values (1.4 and 0.6 yg/m^) in only
two samples out of 42. Apparently, the NO^" in aerosols of the ground
layer of air is of industrial origin, since in soils (Table 1) and also
in the waters of the Caspian and Aral Seas [1], nitrogen oxides are either
present in negligible amounts or totally absent.
Among cations in aerosols of the free atmosphere, Ca"*"*" also predomin-
ates. On the average, in the atmospheric aerosols of Central Asia in the
layer studied (up to 1000 m) , the cations may be arranged as follows:
+
Na
The changes taking place in the cationic composition of coarse and
fine aerosols are very interesting (Table 4).
Table 4
Ratio of Cations in Coarse and Fine Aerosols.
Height,
m
300
KXO
•§?*
Coarse
Particles
2.06
2.50
Pine
Particles
0.65
0.-I3
Na+
Coarse
Particles
7.45
7.50
Fine
Particles
1.-J6
1,00
3r
Coarse
Particles
10.64
9,23
Fine
Particles
2.20
1.30
The data of Table 4 suggest that as the height and dispersion of
the particles increase, so does their relative content of Mg++, Na+ and KT*",
whereas on the contrary, the Ca"1"*" content decreases. In addition, the con-
tent of Kg** even surpasses that of Ca"*""1", and makes the most substantial
contribution to the cationic composition of fine aerosols, no account being
taken of NH,+, whose nature is different.
It is to be noted that the behavior of HCO,~ displays certain charac-
teristics analogous to those of Ca"*"*". This indicates that the carbonate
particles of calcium are primarily coarse and that their concentration
decreases relatively rapidly with the height.
The character of the variations in the ionic composition of aerosols
may be followed most conveniently by using schemes obtained on the basis
of stoichiometric calculations, using the accuracy of the chemical analysis
of the samples. These schemes show that the most probable simple molecular
compounds in the solutions of aerosols in the ground layer of air are
Ca(HC03)2, Mg(HC03)2, MgCl2, NaCl, (NH4)2S04, and KN03- In the free atmos-
phere, the coarse particles consist of the compounds Ca(HC03)2, CaS04,
MgS04, (NH4)2S04, MgCl2 and NaCl, and the fine particles, of the compounds
- 78 T
-------
NaCl, MgCl2, CaS04, and
It follows that the character of the compounds present in aerosols
undergoes considerable changes with the height: at the height, carbonates
of magnesium and nitrates are absent, whereas calcium and magnesium sul-
fates appear. Fine particles are characterized by the absence of bicar-
bonate compounds. Consequently, whereas coarse particles chiefly have an
alkaline reaction, fine particles have an acid character. This is also
indicated by a decrease of the pH in fine aerosols.
In Central Asia, there are frequent dust storms in which enormous
amounts of dust are raised from the surface of the ground into the atmos-
phere. It is therefore of interest to consider the results of a chemical
analysis of aerosols collected during a flight at a height of 300 m during
a dust storm in the region of the town of Nukus on 9 October 1966 (Table 5) .
The last line of this Table shows by what factor the impurity concentration
(C) was increased at the_ height of 300 m during the dust storm as compared
with the average data (C) shown in Table 3.
Table 5 shows that during the dust storm, the aerosol concentration
in the atmosphere at the height of 300 m increased by a factor of almost
15 as compared with the average data, owing primarily to calcium and mag-
nesium carbonates. Generally speaking, this may be indicative of the given
location without being characteristic, for example, of a region with saline
soils.
Table 5
Chemical Composition of Aerosols During Dust Storm
C
cfc
so=
85.1
2,5
cr
25,5
1.4
HCOJ
1-187,9
33,4
Na+
14.2
4.1
K+
8.5
3.5
Mg++
126.2
H.O
Ca+H-
266.7
15,6
Total
ions
2014.1
14.6
An evaluation of the total content of aerosols from their soluble
portion has shown that during this dust storm at the 300 m height, there
were approximately 10 mg of impurities per m3 of air. This value is in
good agreement with the concentration measured directly, equal to 10.92
mg/m3.
In summary, the following comment may be made. Under the influence
of specific physical-geographic and climatic conditions, the content of
impurities in the atmosphere of Central Asia surpasses the maximum per-
missible concentrations established by public health standards, and does
so tens of times more during dust storms. During the warm period of the
year, dust pollution involves a considerable thickness of the atmosphere.
Hence, Central Asia may be regarded as a kind of focus in which the dust
is generated and then transported to other regions by air currents.
- 79--
-------
Since they contain a considerable fraction of soluble substances
(over 20%), aerosols on the one hand may influence the chemistry of
precipitation, and on the other hand generally increase the aggressive
properties of the atmosphere, particularly its corrosiveness, because
of the presence of chlorides, whose constant source are solonchak soils
and the Caspian and Aral Seas.
This high percentage of soluble substances makes it possible to
regard Central Asian aerosols as active condensation nuclei, although
primarily potential ones, since, because of the insufficiency of saturation,
the condensation level in Central Asia is high (in the summertime, usually
above 2 km).
LITERATURE CITED
1. AJICKHH O. A. XIIMIISI OKcaiia. rimpoMCTeonsAaT, 1966.
2. Apo3AODa B. M., ricrpeHHyK 0. n., Ce.icaiiCBa E. C, CBHCTOB FI. .
XlIMII'it'CKHJi COCT3B aTMOCCpCpIIUX OC3,T.KOU Ha EupOncflCKOii TCppHTOplfll CCCP.
rHApoMCTCOHaaar, JI., 1964.
3. Cojioubcoa H. <&. Co.ienofr n Cuoreniibifi CTOK p. Cwp-/[apbH. — Tpyxti jaCopaTopHH
03cpoDcaennn, T. VIII. HSK-BO AH CCCP. M.— /I ., 19S9.
- 80 -
-------
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CLOUD WATER IN URBAN INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS
UNDER VARIOUS WEATHER CONDITIONS
0. P. Petrenchuk and V. M. Drozdova
From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz. Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 238,
p. 201-209, (1969).
Various pollutants reaching the atmosphere as a result of human activ-
ity spread to great distances. Investigations [3, 4, 5] show that the in-
fluence of a major city can be detected at distances up to 100-150 km in
the direction of the wind. Pollutants also reach great heights in the
vertical direction, affecting the physical and chemical processes in the
atmosphere.
A considerable amount of impurities can concentrate in clouds, par-
ticularly when the stratification of the atmosphere is stable, and be
carried together from some areas to others.
An important part in the purification of the atmosphere is played by
precipitation. The latter traps impurities during both its fall and form-
ation. Thus, by using data on the chemical composition of precipitation
one can reliably estimate the degree of pollution of the layers of the
atmosphere through which it passes.
In order to study the formation of the chemical composition of pre-
cipitation, the A. I. Voyeykov Main Geophysical Observatory has for many
years conducted systematic research on the composition of atmospheric
waters, including precipitation and cloud water [1, 2, 8]. Preliminary
results have shown that the chemical composition of cloud water varies
with the area of sampling. The mineralization of water taken from subin-
version clouds provides an indirect characterization of the air pollution
in the region of sampling [2, 8]. However, a closer analysis indicates
that the composition of cloud water substantially depends on the weather
conditions and the nature of the clouds.
The article considers the chemical composition of water taken from
clouds in the eastern regions of the European Territory of the USSR, mainly
in the vicinity of Kazan' and neighboring towns. Work on the sampling of
cloud water was organized here in 1965 and is still being carried out.
Analysis of extensive material (about 200 samples) collected in the course
of a period of over 3 years (1965-1968) from various types of clouds under
various synoptic conditions makes it possible to establish a number of
characteristics.
Kazan' is a major industrial city. The atmosphere of not only the
city itself but also its surroundings is heavily polluted. This has been
reflected in the chemical composition of the water of subinversion clouds
- 81 -
-------
formed under anticyclonic conditions in this region.
Fig. 1 shows a series of typical examples at the temperature strati-
fication of the atmosphere in Kazan1 and other towns in the east of the
European Territory of the USSR, when the mineralization of cloud water
reached extremely high values, of the order of 100-120 mg/1. The cases
cited pertain to stratified clouds of low vertical thickness (200-400 m)
existing under anticyclonic conditions. The average chemical composition
of cloud water collected from stratified subinversion clouds during the
three-year period is shown in Table 1. This table also lists data on the
chemical composition of water from clouds giving no precipitation and not
associated with temperature inversions, and for comparison, the average
chemical composition (for 4 years) of precipitation in the eastern regions
of the European Territory of the USSR.
-S
Fig. 1. Results of temperature sounding of the atmosphere during the collection of
cloud water samples in 196?.
1-18 February, torn of Mamadysh: a)£ion - 79-6 mgAi K = 185 x 10~6 ohm'1 cnT1,
b)|<-= 86 x ICr-o ohm-ienr1; II - 16 March, Kazan', Zion = 88-7 "S/1' K=<;305 x, -,
10-& ohm-W-1; III - 15 March, Kazan', Zion = 95.4 mg/1, K= 276 x 10rb otafiem~i;
IV - k Marcn, KazanMion 120.4 mg/1, <= 598 x 1 oHnT-'-ciir-1-.
-3f
As is evident from the table, the chemical composition of cloud water
is greatly influenced by the meteorological conditions. Water from clouds
forming in the absence of inversions is much less mineralized than in sub-
inversions clouds. However, it also retains a proportion of the main ions
characteristic of continental conditions. The concentration of SO^ ions and
the ratio SO^/C1~ are fairly high, attesting to the influence of industrial
sources on the chemical composition of clouds forming also in the absence
- 82 -
-------
of inversions.
The mineralization of water from nonprecipitating clouds is close in
magnitude to the mineralization of precipitation in the region of the
Volga River. However, since the formation of the chemical composition of
the precipitation occurs not only in the clouds, but also in the subcloud
layer during the fall of precipitation, it is evident that data on the
chemical composition of these clouds cannot be used to evaluate the con-
tribution of the clouds.
Table 1
Average Chemical Composition of Cloud Water and Precipitation in Eastern Regions
of the European Territory of the USSR.
Type of
Sample
Sub-
inversion
cloud
Clouds pro-
ducing no
precipita-
tion and not
associated
with .
inversions
Precipi-
tation
Concentrations
S0=| cr|NO-3
45,3
12,3
9,2
3.4
1,8
2,1
1.3
0,6
1,3
HCO-
2.4
2,4
5.6
NH;
6.4
1.7
0,9
Na +
3.3
1.1
1,5
rag/1
K +
1,2
0,5
0.7
Mg++| Ca -M
2.7
1.2
1.5
7.4
2,3
2,0
PH fchmT*J ^ion
IcnF1!
4.71
5.68
6,00
206
46
45
73.4
23.9
24,8
Number
of
Saracles
41
59
A considerable amount of impurities accumulate in the subinversion
clouds.
In clouds forming during periods of prolonged existence of an anti-
cyclonic situation, the concentration of impurities is still higher. Table 2
gives the results of an analysis of cloud samples collected from the end of
February until April 1967 around Kazan' and in other cities located at
distances of about 100-250 km from Kazan'. During that period, the eastern
part of the European Territory of the USSR was under a low-gradient high-
pressure area between two vast stationary centers: the Azores' and Siberian
anticyclones. Everywhere at the points of collection, a high mineralization
of cloud water was observed which exceeded 120 mg/1 (samples No. 1, 5, 6)
and sometimes 300 mg/1 (sample No. 4).
In almost all the samples, a high concentration of hydrogen ions
was observed, which corresponds to rather low pH values (from 3.1 to 4.8,
with the exception of samples No. 16 and 17). In all the samples, the pre-
dominant anion is SOT. Its content is 74-97% of the total anion composition.
The chlorine content ranges from 2.4 to 24%. Of the cations, the most abun-
dant is HN4+ (from 18 to 46%) in the majority of samples, and the content
of the remaining cations is extremely varied.
-83 -
-------
As follows from Table 2, the pollutants concentrate in the clouds
not only in the immediate vicinity of Kazan'. A high concentration of
pollutants is also observed in cloud water collected in the vicinity of
towns at distances of 100-200 km from Kazan1, such as Chistopol1, Mamadysh,
Leninogorsk, etc.; the height to which the impurities spread reaches over
3 km in some cases (sample No. 17). It is obvious, therefore, that under
conditions of a. distinct anticyclonic situation and a weak turbulent ex-
change, a high pollution level is produced over a considerable part of the
east of the European Territory of the USSR and remains there for a long
time.
An entirely different picture is observed in the case of frontal clouds.
As in the case of a study of the chemical composition of cloud water in
towns of Western Siberia [2], the water samples from the frontal precipi-
tating clouds in the region of Kazan' contain a small amount of impurities
(Table 3). Its total mineralization amounts to only about 8 mg/1, and for
regions of western Siberia, 6 mg/1.
Table 3 gives analyses of samples taken from stratified rain clouds and
convective clouds of types Ac, As, Ns, Cb. It is obvious that the mineraliz-
ation of the samples depends little on the type of the clouds or their verti-
cal thickness. No distinct dependence on the height of the collection was
observed either.
Chemical Composition of Heavily Polluted Samples
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Region
Mamadysh . .
Vicinity of Mamadysh
Uamadysh . .
Vicinity of Chistopol' . .
Vicinity of Kazan'
Vicinity of Leninogorsk
Vicinity of Kazan' ....
Vicinity of Chistopol1
Vicinity of Kazan1
Shumerli
Kanash , .
Mamadysh
Shumerli
Vicinity of Shumerli . .
Date
8 11
9
18
28
4 HI
6
6
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
21
61V
6
Cloud
Type
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Ac
Ac
(eight of
Sample
Jollect-
T r»n m
800
990
530
680
1770
1175
1040
1000
850
960
1230
1300
1170
1375
1090
2800
3180
Concentration
so,=
106,00
53,00
46,00
256,00
79,00
99,00
42,00
68,00
55,80
58,00
64,00
27,00
27,20
26,00
72,00
40,60
41,70
ci •
3,12
5,67
8,03
5,57
9,90
5,03
2,37
1,55
1,42
2,90
1,18
1,62
• (W**
4,03
2,78
6,19
2,91
2,80
NO,-
0,76
0,78
0,73
0,84
0,89
0.82
0,78
0.73
0,80
0,81
0,78
0,63
0,65
0.62
0,80
(),•! 1
0,5.1
- 84 '-
-------
from/l<>uds formed in a cold air mass moving from the north
^ mticyclone
1,60
0,98
1,88
1,85
1.20
1,10
1.45
4.20
6.00
9,80
K +
2,67
1,75
1,15
8,28
1.40
1,60
0,!)2
0.63
0,55
0.77
0.85
0,70
0,65
0.80
1.25
1,61
2,20
Me ++
3,48
3,26
1,78
10,80
U.7I
5.06
2,03
4,43
3,90
3,30
2,28
1,13
0,52
1.14
4,86
2.09
1,20
Ca++
1,95
2,60
5,00
55,00
6.30
9,90
4,30
5.87
1,03
7.60
7,00
3,70
4,30
4,10
8,63
11.50
10,50
p"
3.09
3,30
4.75
3,30
3.34
3,52
4,06
3,60
3,75
3,79
3.73
4,85
4,35
4.36
.3.38
6,04
6,10
KTX iO6
ohm~1cnr
671
338
183
821
398
284
172
276
254
307
-303
77
107
98
380
144
149
-ion
135,98
75,16
79,59
359,71
120,40
123,98
62,10
93,41
73,78
••84.56
88.74
41,58
44,10
41,79
103,13
78,16
80,92
- 85 -
-------
Chemical Composition of Cloud Water
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Region
Vicinity of Kuybyshev . .
50 km from Kuybyshev ....
Vicinity of Menzelinsk . >
Vicinity of Alatyr' ....
Vicinity of Ul'yanovsk . . .
Cheboksary . . .
Mamadysh
50 km south of Izhevsk . . .
80 km south of Izhevsk
Shumerli
Mamadysh . .
70 km east of Kazan1
Date
28 VI 1965
21 VII 1965
22 VII 1965
23 VII 1965
15 II 1966
16 11 1966
15 III 1966
15 IX 1967
15 IX 1967
13 IX 1967
24 IX 1967
16 IV 1968
Cloud
Type
Cb
Cb
Ac
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Ns
Ns
Ns
Ns
Ac
Ac
Ac
As
As
As
Cb
Cb
Height of
Collect-
ion, m
2750
3400
1850
2740
3'_>20
3470
3250
3500
2880
I5CO
2190
2700
3160
3020
2650
2990
4130
3600
2590
2900
1600
Concentration,
S0,=
3.80
3.90
1,70
1.75
1,60
2,15
1,60
5.70
5.30
4.90
4.90
3,90
3.90
1.50
2,70
2,50
3,10
3.10
2,80
2,00
2.30
3,10
Cl~
0.58
0.91
0.-16
0.50
0.39
1.00
1,20
0,80
1,20
1,68
0,34
0.1)7
0,87
1,28
0,92
1,29
0.6-1
MO.
0.22
0,00
0.20
0,67
0.07
O.Od
0,00
0,00
0,23
0,16
0,00
ft (U
v',us
0.0.1
0,00
0.00
0,00
nnr.
* \SfV\t
°.57 { 0,00
0.43
0,71
1,46
0.85
O.Oli
0,00
0.23
0.09
Chemical Composition of Water From Clouds
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
. 9
10
11
Region
200 km west of Kazan' . .
Vicinity of Gor'kiy ....
*
Vicinity of Kazan*
Chistopol'
Mamadysh
Date
6 V 1965
20 V 1965
11 VIII 1965
12 IX 1967
14 IX 1967
Cloud
Type
Cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
As
Cb
As
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
Height of
Collect-
ion, m
850
935
1180
1360
2130
4260
3760
4350
3050
3240
4140.
Concentration.
so,=
6.00
3,00
3.30
2.75
5,90
2,80
4,30
2,90
800
V/fVVF
2.70
2.75
4.03
ci-
0.69
1.44
1.07
0,69
0,63
082
\tf\jff
0.79
0,79
0,92
0,57
1.21
0,87
NO. ~
0,37
0.23
0.16
0.12
0.31
0.27
0.00
0,00
0,00
0.10
0,00
0.14
- 86 -
-------
From Frontal Clouds.
Table 3
HE/1
IICO, "
2,26
2,81
1,39
0,61
2,46
1,58
1.34
0,00
0,27
0,61
0,00
—
0,60
2,74
0,00
2,62
1,71
4.58
1,46
1,53
2.01
1,52
Nil, +
0,18
0,26
0,48
0,48
0.30
0,20
0.00
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,47
0,68
0.44
0,70
0,36
0.53
0,98
1,50
0,56
0,25
0,39
0,54
Na +
0,32
0,41
0,10
0,29
0,18
0,21
0.35
0,20
0,47
0,36
0,23
0,36
0,41
0,50
0,30
0,62
0,19
0,29
0.19
0.12
0,50
0,31
K +
0,35
0,43
0,10
0,24
0,15
0.21
0.23
0,20
0.47
0,15
0.22
0.27
0,20
0,20
0,11
0,42
0,11
0.10
0.09
0,04
0,30
0,22
Mg++
0,98
0.56
0,5
-------
This decrease was explained on the basis of the salt hypothesis, accord-
ing to which each raindrop is formed from a corresponding giant salt
nucleus, and the number of coarse salt particles per unit volume of cloud
air decreases with the height faster than the water content of the cloud.
Obviously, this hypothesis is valid for the thermal convective clouds in
the region of Hawaii, whose drops are formed by the condensation of water
vapor on giant condensation nuclei of marine salts, and for which a con-
siderable inhomogeneity of microphysical characteristics is typical.
As far as frontal clouds forming at middle latitudes under continental
conditions are concerned, our data do not show any clear-cut dependence of
the mineralization on the height. This may be because there is little
probability of the presence of coarse salt particles in the free atmosphere
under continental conditions. Furthermore, low velocities of ascending
currents are usually observed in stratified and stratified-cumulus rain
clouds, and this promotes more homogeneous microstructural characteristics
and the precipitation of finer droplets than in convective clouds. In
addition, in the existing method of sampling of cloud water, the collection
of each sample consumes a certain time interval (10-20 minutes) during which
water from various parts of the cloud may reach the sample. As a result,
the change of mineralization with height may also be masked in convective
clouds (sample Nos. 1, 2 and 7, 8, 9, Table 3), whose microphysical char-
acteristics are marked by inhomogeneity.
Table 5
Chemical Composition of Water of Frontal Precipitating Clouds.
Region
Tfcg North of
European .USSR'
The, North west
of European. .
The Southwest
°Sslfopean
The Southeast
of European
USSR
Regions of
Western SiberiE
Average - ' • •
Concentration^ ing/liter
SO,
2,5
3,1
2,4
3,1
2.8
2.8
CJ
0.8
1,2
1.0
0,8
0,(j
0,8
SO.
0,2
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,3
0,2
HCO,
Nil,
I
0,6
0.2
0.9
1,5
0,6
0,7
0,5
0,6
0,8
0,5
0.4
o,r>
Na
0,2
0,5
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
K
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,2
0.2
0,2
Mg
0.3
0,2
0,2
0,4
0,3
0,3
Ca
0.8
0,2
0,3
0.7
0,3
0,4
1'"
5,4
5,0
5,5
5,7
5,1
5,3
cx 106
ohm-lcnT*
13,6
18,5
12,5
14.6
13,6
14,3
V.
non
6.2
6,6
6,3
7.6
5,8
6,2
Number
of
Samples
15
20
25
21
44
125
Considering the decisive role played by the chemical composition of
the water of frontal clouds in the formation of the composition of atmos-
pheric precipitation, we have compared the chemical composition of the
water of frontal clouds for different regions of the Soviet Union. We used
- 88 -
-------
data which we obtained from scientific flights in the north of the
European Territory of the USSR (vicinity of Arkhangelsk, Nar'yan-Mar,
etc.), northwest of the European Territory (vicinity of Leningrad,
Cherepovets, Pskov, etc.), southwest of the European Territory (vicinity
of Kiev, Minsk, Dnepropetrovsk), and some other regions of western Siberia
(vicinity of Krasnoyarsk, Turukhansk, Yeniseysk, etc.) [2]. The results
are listed in Table 5.
An examination of the data of Table 5 shows the very low mineraliza-
tion of frontal clouds. It is almost identical in different regions and
amounts to an average of 6.2 mg/1. This value changes relatively little
with time as precipitation takes place (Fig. 2), and should obviously be
used in evaluating the contribution of clouds to the formation of the
composition of precipitation.
Hours
Fig. 2. Change in the mineralization of water from frontal
clouds during precipitation.
1 - Simferopol1, 19 April 1965; 2 - Kiev, 22 November 19&7?
3 - Krasnoyarsk, 1 November 19t>5.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Apo3AOsa B. M. [11 Ap.]. XuMHiecKHH cocras aTMoupepiiux ocaAKOB iia Eopo-
neflcKofl TeppuropHH CCCP. rHApoMereoiiSAaT, JI., 1964.
2 FleTpeHiyK O. II.- XHMimecKiifi cocraB o6Jia«iuoii UOAW D pafioue Saiuuiiofi
Ciifinpii. Tp. rrO, Bbin. 234, 1968.
.1 C e -i e 3 H e B a E. C. O pacnpeawiemiH aaep KoiiAeHcauim nan vKpanHCKHM Me-
teopo/iorii'iecKHM noJiiiroiiOM. Tp. ITO, nun. 154, 1964.
4. C c .1 c 3 H c B a E. C. npocipaiiCTBeHHwe HSMCHCIIIIH KoimeiirpauHH HA«P KOUACII-
inmiii no AaimuM ropuaoHTa-nuHbix IIO.ICTOB nan ETC. Tp. ITO. own. 141, 1963.
5. K)nre X. E. XIIMIIMCCKIIH cocias n paAHoaKTiiunocTb aiMOc^epw. HSA. «MHp*.
" 6 Koni a b a yasi B. M. and I so no K. Electric Conductivity of Rain Water in
the Cloud over the Island ol Hawaii. Tcllus, vol. XIX, No. 3, 1967.
7 OddicB C V. The Chemical Composition of Precipitation at Cloud Levels.
Quart.'Journ. Met. Soc., vol.88. No. 378, 1962.
8 P e t r e n c h u k 0. P., D r o z d o v a V. M. On the Chemical Composition of
Cloud Water. Tellus, vol. XVIII, No. 2. 1966.
- 89 -
-------
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION OF THE CITY OF PERM'
AND CONTROL OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
G. A. Maksimovich, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences
From Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ural. Filial. Komis. po Okhrane Prirody. Okhrana
prirody na Urale. II. (Perm1, 1961), p. 45-50.
It is usually assumed that atmospheric precipitation, i.e., rain and
snow, consist of water that is nearly chemically pure. Actually, this is
not the case. Only in regions distant from seas and populated areas is
the mineralization of atmospheric precipitation slight. For example, in
the region of Bol'shiye Koty settlement on the western shore of Lake Baykal,
it amounts to only 7.0-9.5 mg/1 (K. K. Votintsev, 1954). In the remaining
regions of the globe, the mineralization is usually higher; for the USSR,
it amounts to an average of 46.42 mg/1. The highest mineralization within
the boundaries of the Soviet Union has been observed at the Aral Sea sta-
tion (Kazakh SSR), where it was found to be 561.5 mg/1, the average of two
samples (Ye. S. Burkser et al., 1952; N. Ye. Fedorova, 1954).
The mineralization sources of atmospheric cloud water and of the
atmospheric precipitation issuing from them are quite varied. First of all,
the atmosphere always contains very fine solid mineral substances in the
form of salts of marine and partly volcanic origin. In addition, upon
hydration and dissociation, the carbonic acid dissolved in atmospheric water
yields hydrogen ions and the bicarbonate ion, while atmospheric electric dis-
charges result in the formation of oxides of atmospheric nitrogen. However,
all these and other sources cause a mineralization of cloud water of only
3-7 mg/1. Marine salts (in the absence of volcanic eruptions) are usually
of prime importance in this case.
The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation differs from
that of cloud water. In addition to the latter, it is determined by the
amount of dry soluble substances present in air, the amount and nature of
the precipitation, and also the conditions accompanying the precipitation.
After a long absence of rains or snowfall, the water collected as a result
of the first precipitation will be more mineralized than in subsequent pre-
cipitations, since, the first precipitation removes from the air the sub-
stances suspended therein. For this reason, the troposphere near the earth
will have become cleaner during later precipitations. The less precipita-
tion, the higher its mineralization. The time of year, air temperature1,
previous weather and wind direction also are significant. Finally, the*
amount of dry impurities in air, which are washed away or trapped by rain
water or snow, depends on the height of the clouds that produce the precipi-
tation (G. A. Maksimovich, 1949, 1950 1953, 1955).
Without examining the cases of artificial atmospheric pollution by
mineral and organic compounds, the dissolved substances in rain or snow may
- 90--
-------
be divided on the basis of origin into three groups: a) substances in
cloud water, mainly of marine origin; b) natural substances lifted by
air currents from the earth's surface (marine salt, dust particles and
mineral salts of the soil, etc.), trapped and washed down as the atmos-
pheric waters pass through the ground troposphere; c) substances that
have reached the ground troposphere as a result of the general and tech-
nical activity of the population, trapped and washed down by atmospheric
precipitation. Above major population centers with an extensive industry,
a particularly important role in the pollution of atmospheric waters is
played by substances of the third group (c), consisting of discharges from
smokestacks of various boiler houses and heating installations, automobile
exhaust, all sorts of discharges from industrial plants containing sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and chlorine, etc.
The amount of dust settling in cities from the atmosphere is very
substantial. The following amounts (in grams) have been found to settle
in Leningrad per month per m2 of area: in industrial districts of the
city, 50; residential districts, 30; park zones, 50; health park districts,
2-5. About 30% of the dust was owing chiefly to products of incomplete
fuel combustion (soot and tar), and about 15%, to water-soluble substances
(N. M. Tomson, 1955).
No such complete data exist for Perm' for recent years. Only V. A. Ry-
azanov (1941) determined in 1935 that the soot content of air over the north-
eastern part of the city amounted to an average of 0.152 mg/m3 per year, or
1.2 x 10~8 of the volume. The mean monthly smoke content ranged from 0.102
to 0.17 mg/m^ in winter and from 0.082 to 0.117. mg/m^ in summer. These are
fairly substantial quantities. At the present time, because of the indus-
trial growth, the smoke content and pollution of the atmosphere above Perm1
has risen abruptly. Considering that from the standpoint of this index
Perm1 is entirely comparable to Leningrad, one can tentatively calculate the
amount of dust settling from the atmosphere. Talcing the average amount of
dust settling from the atmosphere per 1 m2 as 30 g, based on the data of
N. M. Tomson for Leningrad (1955), we find that for city area of 690 km2,
about 248,000 tons or almost 100,000 m3 of dust settles over Perm' per year.
Taking as the basis of the calculation the amount of dust settling on 1 m2
in the park zone of Leningrad, i.e. , 15 g/m2, we find about 50,000 m3 per
year. Considering that the settled dust may again be raised by the wind
into the atmosphere and settle down once more, we shall take only 50% of
the latter value. Even with this assumption, about 25,000 m3 of dust per
year settles on Perm1 from the atmosphere.
The settling of such huge amounts of dust (including products of incom-
plete fuel combustion) takes place primarily with the aid of rain and snow.
Rain and particularly snow purify the city atmosphere mechanically by re-
moving the dust particles, but at the same time they contaminate the streets
and open areas of the city.
The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation in Perm' has not
been studied before our work. Our investigations began in 1945, but they
initially consisted of incomplete analyses (G. A. Maksimovich, 1960).
- 91 -
-------
Table 1
Chemical Analyses of Water Obtained from the Melting of Snow Collected in Perm' in 1954
(Analyst V. A. Berlovich)
I
VO
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Place Where. Snow Sample Was Taken
Botanical garden. Central part.
Old snow.
Same location, fresh snow three
days after snowfall.
Around the university campus.
Old snow, top "layer
University yard, around smoke-
stack. Fresh snow.
Roof of university.
Old snow.
Same location, fresh snow
Roof of university, north
side. Flow of melting snow.
Same location, west side
4 Ovrazhnaya Street (Yegoshikha).
Old snow.
Dzerzshlnskiy Street. Snow after
four-day snowfall.
Date
23 February
6 March
26 February
3 March
12 March
18 March
10 March
11 March
28 February
17 March
PH
6,6
7,4
6.8
7,0
6.2
7,0
6,6
6,6
6,9
7fl
1 Liter contains, in ng
HCO,
22,3
44,5
22,3
22,2
22.3
22.3
22.3
22,3
22.3
33,4
SO«
55,2
14,9
84,5
3,4
84,0
43.7
26,4
26,4
26,4
48,0
CI
15,3
15,3
23,2
15.3
23.0
23,2
15,3
15,3"
30,7
15,3
Ca
24,0
16,8
24.0
7,2
26,4
24.0
14,4
12,0
19,2
24.0
Mg
7,3
5,9
14,6
4,4
10,3
7,3
5.8
7.3
7.3
7,3
Na
2,4
3.5
; 8,4
3,4
8,0
2,8
3,4
.3.4.
5,1
4,9
NOa
0,07
0,15
0,15
0,02
0,07
0.1
0.15
0,15
0,06
0,1
NH4
4,5
3,75
3,75
0,18
4,5
7,0
3,0
3.5
4,5
6,0
Total .
Mineralization
131,1
104,7
180,8
56.1
178.7
130.4
90,7
90,4
115.5
139,0
-------
In 1954, several more complete chemical analyses were carried out
on snow collected in the area of the university and on Yegoshikha River.
They showed (Table 1) that the mineralization of the snow ranged from
56 to 150 mg/1, and that the content of sulfate ion in old snow reached
84.5 mg/1.
The last chemical analyses of atmospheric precipitation were made in
1958. Snow samples were taken in the Botanical Garden of the university
from the surface of the ground on 4 January (A) and 18 January (B) and
also from rain gauges of the meteorological station: snow and rain on
3-4 March (C) and rain for April to 15 May (D). In the vicinity of Perm1,
in the village of Fro la, the following samples we::e taken from the rain
gauge: snow on 22 February-28 March (E), snow and rain on 28 March-10 April
(F), and rain from 7 through 20 May (G) and from 20 through 31 May (H).
Results of the analysis of the samples are given in'Table 2.
Summation of the precipitation in the rain gauges for a considerable
time interval gave the highest mineralization, approaching 240-245 mg/1
(points E and F) . Analyses of water from the rain gauge in the area of
Frola from 22 February through 31 May (points E-H) are particularly indica-
tive. The mineralization of the precipitation for this period decreased
from 245.4 to 89.5 mg/1, the content of sulfate ion from 96 to 19.2, chlor-
ine from 17.8 to 5.3, calcium from 20 to 8, sodium from 34.4 to 4.8, iron
from 0.3 to 0.1 and ammonium ion from 4 to 1 mg/1.
As the weather becomes warmer, and the combustion of coal, which
contains large amounts,of pyrite and ash, declines with the approach of
spring, the content of sulfates (from pyrite) bicarbonate ion, calcium
and iron (from ash) decreases in the precipitation. Apparently, chlorine
is also evolved by the combustion of coal, as is the ammonium ion. The
presence of organic matter (soot) in the analyzed precipitation appears
to result from a change in the exodizability, which also declines toward
spring.
The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation in the settle-
ment of Ust'-Kishert1, located far from industrial enterprises, is entirely
different.
Here rain water collected on the school ground in the summer of 1955
was analyzed (by Ye. A. Ashikhmin). Its total mineralization did not ex-
ceed 15 mg/1, and the following ions were determined: bicarbonate (8 mg/1),
calcium (4 mg/1) and sulfate (3 mg/1). More detailed analyses were per-
formed on samples collected in the same settlement from the roof of house
No. 44 on Naberezhnaya Street on 27 June 1958 after a thunderstorm and on
23-25 August 1959 in a glazed pan set out in the garden (Table 3).
In the analysis of 27 June, the substantial amounts of nitrogen com-
pounds observed were probably the result of the washing by the precipita-
tion of the wooden roof on which soot and fine ash had settled during winter,
- 93 -
-------
Table 2
Characteristics of Chemical Composition of Atmospheric Precipitation of Perm'
(points A-D) and its Environs - Village of Frola (points E-3) in January-May 1958
(Analyst 1, V. Kirillovykh).
Indicators
Content, rag/1: HCOj
304
Cl
N03
N02
Ca
Mg
NH4
Na
Fe
Total mineralization, ng/1
pH
Oxidizability, ng of 02
Predominant component
A
36,6
16.4
7.1
0,5
0,03
6.8
6.4
1.0
5,5
—
80;1
6.9
—
HCO3
B
36,6
48,0
3,5
1.3
0.1
18.2.
7.2
1.2
3,4
1.0
119,6
7.2
—
HCO3
C
24,4
33.6
3.5
10,3
0.1
4.4
5.1
0.4
13,3
0,1
98,1
6.2
3.1
SO4
D
48,8
19,2
7,1
4.8
0.2
10,0
7.3
1.5
6.5
0,3
105,7
6.8
10.0
HCO,
E
61,0
96.0
17.8
2,1
0,07
20,0
9,7
4,0
34,4
0,3
245,4
7.2
16,0
- J
S04
F
61,0
96.0
14,2
3,4
0,6
20,0
12,2
3,0
29,7
0.2
240,3
6.9
13.6
SO<
G
61.0
57.6
7.1
1.4
0,05
16,0
9,7
2.0
16,5
0,1
171,4
6.9
5.6
HCOa
H
42,7
19,2
5.3
1.0
0.07
8.0
7,3
1.0
4,8
0,1
89,5
6.7
6.4
HCOj
vhen firewood was used for heating. The second August sample was taken with
more precautions. However, even then the mineralization of the precipita-
tion for the rural area was still high, 51.6 mg/1. If the nitrate ion and
sodium, which were not determined analytically, are excluded from the calcu-
lation, and are calculated by difference, the mineralization of the rain
water collected on 23-25 August 1959 was approximately 20 mg/1. This figure
is closer to the actual value.
Table 3
Characteristics of Chemical Composition of
Atmospheric Precipitation in Ust'-Krshert1
Villaga (Analyst T. V. Kirillovykh).
Indicators
^
Content, mg/1:
HCOj
S04
Cl
NO3
NO,
Ca
Mg
NH4
Na"
Fe
Total mineralization
pH
Oxidi2f3i'Dility,mg
oa : -
27 June
1958 r.
36,6
—
1,4
41.3
0,1
4.2
6,1
6.0
, 5,3
HCT
101,0
6,6
12.3
23—25
August'
1969 r.
9,2
. 4,0
3,6
20.9
0,03
2,0
0,6 "
0,8
10.5
HCT
51,6
6,2-
4,3
- 94 -
-------
Some Conclusions
The atmospheric precipitation in the region of the city of Perm'
is characterized by a mineralization from 56 to 245 mg/1, the highest
indices pertaining to the winter period for snow. The sulfur, bicarbon-
ate and calcium ions predominate in the precipitation. The first ion is
owing to the combustion of carbon with a considerable pyrite content,
and the other two, to its high ash content. In addition, products of
incomplete fuel combustion are observed in Perm'. They all have relatively
little influence on the chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation,
but form over the city a smoke screen that remains suspended at different
heights depending on the state of the weather, particularly the wind,
barometric pressure and air humidity. It must be borne in mind that this
smoke screen absorbs sunlight, particularly ultraviolet rays, which are of
major biological importance for the health of the population and the
growth of vegetation.
According to preliminary calculations, each year 25-50 thousand m^ of
dust settle on the territory of the city. Its presence in the atmosphere
above the city accounts for the high mineralization of atmospheric precipi-
tation. Dust combined with gases has an increased irritating effect on the
respiratory organs.
Protection of public health requires a persistent struggle with
smoke pollution and a systematic control of atmospheric pollution. Conver-
sion to gas heating, introduction of a district heating system, a smokeless
process of fuel combustion, systematic sprinkling of streets, planting of
greenery, and other measures that have been started in Perm' and are being
carried out on an increasing scale will insure a reduction of the smoke
pollution of the city.
LITERATURE CITED
Eypxcep E. C, O'eflopo'aa H. E. « 3aft£HC B. B. Aiwoc^epHbie ocajuut H
HX pant, D MHrpauHH XHMHHCCKHX aneMCHToa nepea atMoc^epy. Tpyabi KueBcxofi reo$H3H-
lecxofi o6ceptBaTOp«H, .sun. -1. K«CB, 1952. ,
BOTHMUCB K. Ki XlIMHieCKHH COCT3B BOfl 3TMOCaiMHX. r«flpox«Miwe-
CKHC Marepjiajiw, T. 18, AH CCCP, M., '1950.
MaxcHMOBHM F. A. O pojw aTMoa&epHbix ocawtoB B nepcHOce pacTsopemjux BC-
. .
mecTB, flAH CCCP, T. 92, W* 2, 1953.
MaKCHMOBHI F. A. XHMHieCKMft COCT3B aTWOOpepHHX OCaflKOB. XHMHMCCK8H FCO-
rj>ad>Jifl BOW CTUIH. FeorpaibrHa, M., 1935. •
MakcHMOBHi T. A. XHMmeauifi oocras aTMOO*epHUx ocaaxoB ropoaa OepMH.
5-ro Bceypajiwxoro coBemaHHH no Bonpocaw reorpaipHH H oxpaHw np»pojiu,
B. A. O coflepwaBHH XOJIOTH -B soaayxe r. 'IlepMH. crxrReHa H
19 ii 394)1
TOM COM H. M. O aarpHSHeHHH » OHHCIXC Boaayxa^or mpoAyxroa «enoflHoro cropa-
HHII TOiUHBa. *OpHpoaa», Ni o, 19S5. ^'
OeflOpoBa H. E. XHMWiecKHfl H n30TOHHMft cocraa aTMOc4)epHHX ocaAKoa
puropHH COCP,, ABiopeipepaT xaHAHaaTCXofl flHccepranHH, Hoaosepxaccx, 1954.
- 95 -
-------
Izdanie Ofitsial'noe
Gosudarstvennyy Komitet Soveta Ministrov SSSR Po Delam Stroitel'stva
(Gosstroy SSSR)
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CALCULATING THE ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL
OF NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES (DUST AND SULFUR DIOXIDE) PRESENT IN INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS
SN369-67
(Ukazaniya po Raschetu Rasseivaniya v Atmosfere Vrednykh Veschestv
[Pyli i Sernistogo Gaza] Soderzhaschikhsya v Vybrosakh Promyshlennykh Predpriyatiy
SN369-67)
Approved by the State Committee of the Council of Ministers
of the USSR for Construction Affairs
on 5 June 1967
Gidrometeorologicheskoe Izdatel'stvo
Leningrad, 1967
- 96 *
-------
State Committee of
the Council of
Ministers of the
USSR for Construc-
tion Affairs
(Gosstroy SSSR)
Construction Standards
Instructions for Calculating
the Atmospheric Dispersal of
Noxious Substances (Dust and
Sulfur Dioxide) Present in
Industrial Emissions
5
f
i
SW 369-6?
•
1. General Aspects .
1.1. The present Instructions were prepared as an extension of the chapter
of SNIP II - G. 7-62 entitled "Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning.
Project Standards" and "Sanitary Standards for Planning Industrial Enterprises"
(SN245-63).
1.2. The requirements of the present Instructions extend to calculations
of atmospheric dispersal of noxious substances (dust and sulfur dioxide) pre-
sent in the emissions of industrial enterprises (facilities) and boiler houses
enumerated in Appendix 1.
In agreement with the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological Administration of the
Ministry of Health of the USSR, the present Instructions can be used in cal-
culations of atmospheric dispersal of other noxious substances and for other
facilities.
1.3. The procedure for calculating the dispersal of noxious substances
in the atmosphere is based on the determination of the concentrations of these
substances in the ground layer of air.
The degree of danger posed by pollution of the ground layer of air with
emissions of noxious substances from industrial enterprises and boiler houses
is determined from the largest value of the ground concentration of the nox-
ious substances cm which can be established at a certain distance from the
emission source under unfavorable weather conditions (when the wind velocity
reaches a dangerous value and a vigorous vertical turbulent exchange takes
place).
Submitted by the Main
Administration of the
Hydro-meteorological
Service of the Council
of Ministers of the
USSR
Approved by the State
Committee of the Council
of Ministers of the USSR
on Construction Affairs,
5 June, 1967
Date of
Introduction.
1 October 1967
- 97 -
-------
n3 deg/sec
Fig, 1* Nomogram for determining the auxiliary, quantity
-------
The procedure for calculating the dispersal of noxious impurities in the
atmosphere extends to organized discharges (through smokestacks) of these sub-
stances past purification devices and without purification in cases where the
latter is permitted by the sanitary standards. The procedure does not extend
to ground-level emission sources.
1.4. The values of cm (in mg/m-*) for each noxious substance must not ex
ceed the highest one-time maximum permissible concentrations of these sub-
stances in the atmosphere (MFC) :
Remarks :
1. The MFC values should be adopted on the basis of standards approved
by the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological Administration of the Health Ministry of
the USSR.
2. The one-time MFC's usually refer to a twenty-minute time interval.
For this reason, the formulas and graphs given in the present Instructions for
determining the concentrations of noxious substances also refer to a twenty-
minute time interval.
3- The one-time MFC's currently are the chief characteristic of the
danger of substances having no cumulative noxious effect.
4« For sulfur dioxide and nontoxic dust, the one-time MFC's are taken
equal to 0.5 mg/nr*.
2. Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal of
Emissions for a Single Source
2.1. The value of the maximum ground concentration of a noxious sub-
stance cm (in mg/m3) emitted by a single emission source under unfavorable
weather conditions should be determined from the formula
AMFm
C2)
where A is a coefficient dependent on the thermal stratification of the at-
mosphere, which determines the conditions of vertical and horizontal dispersal
of noxious substances in air (taken according to § 2.2 of the present In-
structions) (in sec '3 deg '3);
M is the amount of noxious substance discharged into the atmosphere (in
g/sec);
H is the height of the emission source (stack) above ground level (in m) ;
- 99 -
-------
V is the volume of the gas-air mixture discharged (in nr/sec).
The volume of the gas-air mixture discharged into the atmosphere is re-
lated to the diameter of the aperture of the emission source (stack) D (in m)
and to the average exit velocity WQ (in m/sec) of this mixture from the aper-
ture by the expression
V 4-.. wu, (3)
AT is the difference between the temperature of the gas-air mixture dis-
charged T and the temperature of the surrounding atmospheric air Tg (in °C.);
&
F is a dimensionless coefficient allowing for the rate of deposition of
the noxious substances in the atmosphere;
m is a dimensionless coefficient allowing for the conditions in which the
gas-air mixture leaves the mouth of the emission source.
To simplify the determination of cm, formula (2) is transformed to the
following form:
f* A An J*' tn f~f
If TTY • f\ J YJ / fit,\J . -
(4)
The value of G (in sec 3/m3 deg '3) is determined with the aid of the
nomogram given in Fig. 1 from values of VAT and H. To this end, from the point
of the horizontal coordinate axis corresponding to a given value of VAT is
drawn a vertical to the intersection with one of the oblique lines correspond-
ing to the geometric height of the source H. From the point of intersection,
a perpendicular is dropped onto the vertical coordinate axis, and the value
of G is taken from the latter. As an example, Fig. 1 shows the determination
of G with a dashed line for H = 120 m and VAT = 10^ m3 deg/sec. For such
parameters, G turns out to be equal to 3.25 x 10"^ sec1'3/!!!3 deg1/3.
2.2. The coefficient A is taken for unfavorable (unsafe) weather con-
ditidns, when a vigorous vertical turbulent exchange is taking place. At
the same time, the ground concentration in air of noxious substances dis-
charged from a high source reaches its maximum value.
The following values of the coefficient A should be taken in -the cal-
culations :
(a) for Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Lower Volga region, Caucasus,
Siberia, and Far East, 200;
(b) for the north and northwest of the European territory of the USSR,
Middle Volga Region, Urals, and Ukraine, 160;
(c) for the central part of the European territory of the USSR, 120.
- 100 -
-------
Remarks :
!• In other areas, the values of the coefficient A should be taken by
analogy with the climatic conditions of turbulent exchange in these areas
and those indicated in the present paragraphs.
2. The applicability of the present Instructions is limited by a con-
dition according to which the parameter
determined on the basis of data on WQ, D, H and AT should satisfy the in-
equality f<6 (f in m/sec2 deg). Accordingly, the Instructions do not extend
to the calculation of the atmospheric dispersal of emissions with tempera-
ture Tg of the gas-air mixture close to the temperature of the ambient air
Ta-
3. The values of the concentrations of the noxious substances, calcu-
lated on the basis of the present Instructions, pertain to steady conditions
of propagation of an impurity remaining in the atmosphere above flat or
slightly broken ground. When enterprises are planned on broken ground, one
should request special instructions for calculating the dispersal of noxious
substances in the atmosphere from the A. I, Voyeykov Main Geophysical Ob-
servatory of the Main Administration of the Hydro-meteorological Service,
Council of Ministers of the USSR, and from the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological
Administration of the Health Ministry of the USSR. It is recommended that
large-scale discharges of noxious substances in areas of stagnation of air
should be avoided, and also in areas with frequent fogs or elevated tempera-
ture inversions.
2.3. In the presence of unfavorable local characteristics of the mete-
orological regime, according to the available scientific and industrial ex-
perience, the value of the ground concentrations of noxious substances should
be increased by 25%.
2.4. The values of M and V are determined in conformity with the standards
in force for the given enterprise, by M being meant the amount of noxious sub-
stance contained in the gas-air mixture past the purification equipment. In
this case, in carrying out the calculation one should take into account the
maximum values of M and minimum values of V which can arise under certain
technological conditions of operation of the enterprises.
Comments :
1. When raw material and fuel with different sulfur and ash indices
are used, the largest values of these quantities should be employed in the
calculations.
- 101 —
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2 . In establishing the necessary degree of removal of noxious substances
from the emissions, one should take the actual values of the efficiencies of
the purification equipment under ordinary operating conditions.
2.5. In determining the difference AT between the temperature of the
discharged gas-air mixture Tg and the temperature of the ambient air Ta,
the temperature of the ambient air taken is the average temperature of the
warmest month at 1 P.M., indicated in the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62 entitled
"Construction Climatology and Geophysics. Basic Principles of Planning"
(Table 1, column 18).
Comment. For boiler houses operating according to the thermal graph,
it is permitted in the calculations to take as values of T the average
temperatures of the heating period according to the chapter of SNiP II-A
6-62 (Table 1, column 23).
2.6. In determining the concentrations of noxious substances, the
following values of the dimensionless coefficient F should be taken:
(a) for sulfur dioxide and other noxious substances for which the set-
tling rate is practically equal to zero, equal to 1;
4 S 6
t m/sec deg
Fig. 2. Graph for determining the coefficient m, consid-
ering the conditions of discharge pf the gas-air mixture
from the source orifice.
(b) for dust, if the operational purification coefficient is
not less than 90%, equal to 2;
less than 90%, equal to 2.5.
2.7. The value of the dimensionless coefficient m allowing for the con-
ditions of discharge of the gas-air mixture from the orifice of the emission
- 102 -
-------
source (stack) should be determined from the value of the parameter /, = ---."° .-
(in m/sec deg) with the aid of the graph of Fig. 2.
2.8. The maximum concentration of noxious substances near the surface of
the ground under unsafe weather conditions cm is reached on the plume axis of
the discharge (along the direction of the average wind for the period con-
sidered) at a distance ^ (in m) from the source, a distance determined in
units of height of the discharge source (stack) H, and is found approximately
from the formula
Comment. Concentrations of noxious substances differing from the maximum
concentration by not more than 30% are observed at distances in the range of
(10-40) H. Care should be taken that the zones of maximum concentrations of
noxious substances do not coincide with densely populated quarters or with
areas where medical or children's institutions are located.
2.9. The unsafe wind velocity um (in m/sec) at the wind vane level
(usually, 10 m from ground level) at which the highest value of the ground
concentration of the noxious substances in air is reached, should be approx-
imately determined from the formula
7T- (7)
The explanation of the symbols entering into the above formula is given
above.
The value of u can also be determined by using the nomogram given in
Fig. 3, from values of VAT and H. For this purpose, from the point on the
horizontal coordinate axis corresponding to the given value VAT is drawn a
vertical to the intersection with this line of the family of oblique lines
corresponding to the geometric height of the source H. Then from the point
of intersection is dropped a perpendicular to the vertical axis on which the
value um is determined.
Comment. More precise calculations show that the calculated unsafe wind
velocity v^ is slightly higher than that calculated from formula (7) and
depends on the parameter given above, f. When f <1, the unsafe velocity is
approximately 10% higher, and when 1 < f < 6, approximately 20% higher.
2.10. The maximum value of the concentration cmy (in mg/m3) of noxious
substances in the ground layer of air under unfavorable weather conditions and
at a wind velocity u different from um is approximately determined from the
formula
- 103 -
-------
The dimensionless quantity r is then found from Fig. 4 as a function of
the ratio u/um (curve r).
The distance from the source x^ (in m) at which for a wind velocity u
and under unfavorable weather conditions the ground concentration of noxious
substances reaches the maximum value cmy is determined from the formula
Xmi=P-Xm. (9)
The dimensionless quantity p is also found from Fig. 4 as a function of
the ratio u/um (curve p).
2.11. The distribution of the concentrations of noxious substances in
the atmosphere along the axis of the discharge plume c (in mg/nr) at various
distances x (in m) from the source is calculated from the formula
(10)
the dimensionless quantity s^ at the unsafe wind velocity being found from
the ratio x/xm on the graph shown in Fig. 5. For gaseous noxious substances,
s^ is taken from the solid curve. For dust, s^ is also determined from the
solid curve at distances x < 2^. For higher values of x, the dust concentra-
tions decrease faster, and the value of s^ in this case is taken from the
dashed curve in the same figure.
Comment. The concentrations of noxious substances at various distances
along the direction of the wind are similarly determined in the case of other
wind velocity values under unfavorable weather conditions. The value of x y
is then determined first from Fig. 4 and formula (9). Then, s-^ is found
by plotting x/x^ instead of x/x along the horizontal axis of Fig. 5. To
obtain the concentration c, cmy is multiplied by s^.
2.12. Values of the concentrations of noxious substances in the atmo-
sphere (in mg/m ) at a distance y (in m) from the plume axis (measured along
the perpendicular to the direction of the average wind) are determined from
the formula
(11)
where c is the concentration of the impurity on the axis of the discharge plume,
determined from formula (10). The dimensionless quantity S£ is found from Fig.
6 as a function of the ratio y/x.
2.13. The minimum permissible height of emission of noxious substances
(stack height) H (in m) at which a value of cm equal to the MFC is ensured
is calculated from the formula
f~1 « 1 /
(12)
IT ~ / AMFm
ti = I / ; .
|/ MFC A-J7AF
- 104 -
-------
«„, m/sao
o
Ln
10'
5-10' 10
Pig. 3. Noraogram for determining the unsafe wind velocity um.
-------
Fig. 4. Graph for determining the auxiliary values r and
p used for calculating the concentrations under unfavorable
weather conditions and at wind velocity u different from um»
0,5-,
Pig. 5. Graph for determining the auxiliary values sj_ used for
calculating the ground concentrations on the axis of the dis-
charge plume at various distances from the source.
- 106 -
-------
above .
The symbols of the quantities entering into the formula are described
Here it is assumed that m = 1 to a first approximation. From the value
of H thus obtained, the coefficient m is determined in the manner indicated
above (see § 2.7 of the present Instructions). The value of m obtained is
substituted into formula (12), and a more accurate calculation of the stack
height H is carried out.
Comments :
1. If there exists a single source of discharge of several different
noxious substances, its height should be determined from the highest value of
H obtained from formula (12) for each individual noxious substance. In
particular, if
(13)
H is determined from the discharge of sulfur dioxide
and for
(14)
H is determined from the discharge of dust M,.
2. The absence of impurities on the territory of industrial facilities
and in the residential areas located in the immediate vicinity to this
territory is promoted by the discharge of noxious substances at a height H
that is not less than 2.5 times the height of buildings adjacent to it with-
in a radius of 4.5 H.
52
Ifl
w
0,6
v,'<
0,2
u
\
_ --
~™
o,
-<"
0<,
\
4*
\
18
\
o,
\
f2
N
o,
K
fS
^v
^
^>
2^
r-
0,
•
m
24
— ..
^
-__.
a-
Fig. 6. Graph for determining the auxiliary value sg used
for calculating concentrations at points not located on the
axis of the discharge plume*
-• 107 -
-------
2.14. The maximum permissible discharge (MPD) (in g/sec) of noxious sub-
stances into the atmosphere for which a pollution of the ground layer of air
not in excess of MFC is achieved is calculated from the formula
MPD — "*•" " ' ' "' ^^
Al:m
Here the concentration of impurities in the emissions past the purifica-
tion equipment must not exceed the value
or, considering formula (15),
_MPC1m JTAT
~AFm V V* '
ms
2.15. When noxious substances are discharged into the atmosphere as a
result of the combustion of fuel, the maximum permissible fuel consumption
(MPF) (in t/hr) is determined from the formula
MPF = 3,67/3 _, (18)
where d is the amount of gas-air mixture discharged per unit weight of fuel
(in m3/kg);
di is the amount of noxious impurity discharged into the atmosphere per
unit weight of fuel (in g/kg).
3. Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal
of Emissions for a Group of Sources
3.1. For a group of emission sources standing close to each other (the
distance between the extreme sources dpes not exceed 3-4 average source heights
above the surface of the ground), the sources may be practically assumed to be
located at a single point that is the center of the site on which they are
located.
When the output of one of the emission sources is much larger than that
of the others, the sources may be assumed to be located at a single point co-
inciding with the location of the source.
3.2. If the discharge of noxious substances is uniformly distributed
among N sources located close to each other and having the same heights and
- 108 -
-------
aperture diameters, the total value of the maximum concentration c is deter-
mined from the formula m
where M is the total amount of the given noxious substance discharged from all
the sources (in g/sec);
V is the total volume of the gas-air mixture discharged from all the
sources (in m /sec).
The remaining symbols are given in section 2.
The volume of the gas-air mixture is related to the number of emission
sources, the diameter of their aperture and the average exit velocity of the
gas-air mixture by the following relation:
V = --KD*-3)-N. (20)
The unsafe velocity u^ (in m/sec) in this case is approximately deter-
mined from the formula
In the presence of a group of identical emission sources clustered to-
gether, formula (4) and the nomograms given in Figs. 1 and 3 can be used to
simplify the calculations of c and um. When these nomograms are used for N
identical emission sources, the only difference from the case of a single
source is that the point corresponding to VAT/m is marked on the horizontal
axis. Otherwise the procedure of calculation for N closely clustered iden-
tical emission sources does not differ in any way from the procedure, de-
scribed in section 2, for calculating the dispersal of noxious substances for
a single emission source.
3.3. If a group consisting of N sources has different heights and dis-
charge parameters, then the maximum ground concentrations should first be
determined for each source for all the noxious substances, cm (c
Cm3;---; Cm^-D; cmN) and unsafe wind velocities u,,, (uml; u,^;
If for some noxious substance the sum cm of all the sources turns out
to be lower than the MFC, further calculations of the dispersal of this nox-
ious substance in the atmosphere should not be carried out, since in this
case the concentrations of this substance will obviously nowhere exceed the
MFC.
- 109 -
-------
For each noxious substance for which the sum of all N sources exceeds the
MFC, it is necessary to determine the weighted mean unsafe wind velocity um av
(in m/sec) for N sources from the formula
alrni:.Lll:-lH_!imNfmN (22)
c _4- 4- c
h"- h'
Further, for each noxious substance at wind velocity u = Ujnav' formulas
(8) and (9) and Fig. 4 can be used to calculate the values of cmu and xmu for
each source.
Remark. If for any given noxious substance the sum cmu for all the sources
is less than the MFC, no further calculations should be carried out, since
the concentration of the noxious substance will not exceed the MFC anywhere.
In the remaining cases, it is necessary to establish that when u = ^mav, the
field of the total concentration c produced by all the sources will not reach
values in excess of the MFC anywhere.
3.4. If among N emission sources there are NI sources to which small
values of Cj^ correspond for certain noxious substances, the calculations for
this substance can be simplified by slightly raising the estimate of the air
pollution caused by the enterprise.
For this purpose, it is first necessary to determine the sum of maximum
concentrations cfflu for all of the N^ sources and determine the difference be-
tween the MFC and the sum. Then an estimate is made of the maximum total con
centration for the remaining N-N^ sources; this concentration should never
exceed the calculated difference between the MFC and the sum of c anywhere.
3.5. If sources with different emission parameters are located close to
each other and, according to § 3.1, can be reduced to a single point, the
calculation of the total concentration for each noxious substance is carried
out as follows. For each source, a plot is made of the curves representing
the change of the concentration c with the distance x at wind velocity u = ^m
calculated from formula (22). Then all the curves are plotted on a single
graph with a common origin of coordinates. For the same distances x, the c
values from all the stacks are summed up, and the total values of c are found
as a function of the 'distance x. The highest c value will be the maximum con
centration of the given noxious substance for all the discharges, and the dis
tance, measured from the origin, at which the maximum total concentration is
reached can be taken as x .
m
Comment. The procedure for calculating the total air pollution for the
case where a group of sources with different emission parameters can be re-
duced to a single point is treated in detail in Appendix 2 (Example 6).
- 110 -
-------
3.6. In the case where a straight line can be drawn in any direction
through the main sources of emission of noxious substances plotted on a plan
(contour map), so that the distance from the individual sources to the given
straight line does not exceed 1.5-2 average heights of the emission sources,
they can be shifted to this line in the calculation. Next, at wind velocity
u = umc> calculated from formula (22), cmu, x^ and curves of distribution
of c from x are calculated. These curves for all the N sources are then
plotted on a graph with a common coordinate axis x. The origin of each curve
coincides with the corresponding source successively plotted on axis x, the
scale being taken into account.
The graph should be plotted for two variants. In one it is assumed that
the wind is directed from the first to the N-th source, and in the other, in
the opposite direction. Then, a graphical addition is made for the different
distances, values of the total concentration c are calculated, and the highest
ones are taken as the maximum concentration c .
m
Comments:
1.. In particular, the indicated method should be used for calculations
in the presence of two sources (or two groups of neighboring sources) located
far from one another.
2. As an example, let us make the calculation for the case of two
sources discharging sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. The height of the
first source H = 50 m, cm^ = 0.30 mg/m , u j_ = 3 m/sec; for the second source,
the height H = 120 m, c^ = 0.35 mg/m3, and u^ = 6 m/sec. The distance be-
tween the sources is 6 km.
The weighted-mean unsafe wind velocity u^y. should be calculated in
accordance with formula (22)
— A'^-^JLlP-i^l^.f 6 m/sec.
v 0,30-i 0,35
From formulas (8) and (9) and Fig. 4 we find that when u = u for the
first source c = 0.26 mg/mj and xmu = 900 m, and for the second source c
= 0.32 mg/m3, and x,,,^ = 3700 m. The sum c^ from both sources is greater
than the MFC for sulfur dioxide (0.5 mg/m3), and it is therefore necessary to
carry out a graphical addition of the axial concentrations (for y = 0).
Figure 7 illustrates the graphical addition for two variants, when the
wind is directed from the first source to the second (a), and vice versa, from
the second source to the first (b). The highest concentration is observed
when the wind is directed from the second source to the first. Then cm is 0.5
mg/m3, and the value of xm, measured from the second source, is 7000m.
- Ill -
-------
3.7. In general, when all the emission sources cannot be reduced to a
single point or placed on a common straight line, the calculations should be
carried out as follows.
On a plan (contour map) of the area representing the arrangement of the
atmospheric pollution sources, a straight line is drawn so that the sum c
from sources located at distances from this line of not more than (1.5-2)H is
the largest. This line should be taken as axis x.
In some cases it is sufficient to carry out a graphical summation of the
concentrations of noxious substances from emission sources along a given line,
assuming that the wind is directed along the latter and the neighboring
sources are brought down to this line; in taking into account the influence
of the remaining sources, formula (11) and Fig. 6 should be used.
In the remaining cases, from each source lines should be drawn con-
necting it to the other sources. It is then successively assumed that the
wind blows along these lines, and the total concentrations are calculated at
points where maximum concentrations of noxious substances from sources lo-
cated on these lines are reached.
zooo woo eooo sooo •&&
Fig. 7. Example of calculation of the maxi-
mum ground concentration of sulfur dioxide
for two sources located on a single straight
line.
Comment. If the volume of the necessary calculations is large and a
greater accuracy of the calculations is required, it is expedient to use
electronic computers. At the same time, a calculation of the concentrations
for the coordinate grid of the points should also be carried out. In the
case where there is a predominant emission source of a given noxious substance,
-------
the origin of coordinates is made to coincide with it. If several sources
emit approximately the same (comparable) amount of impurity into the atmosphere,
the origin of coordinates is placed approximately at the center of their lo-
cation. The concentrations of the impurity are then determined at the points
of the grid from each of the sources according to the above-indicated procedure,
taking into account the concentration change across the plume axis. The
calculations should be made successively for the possible wind directions
along the eight points of compass. For each wind direction, the summation of
the concentrations from all the sources is made at the points of the grid.
From the values of the total concentration c obtained, the highest value
is chosen, which is taken to be cm, and the point to which this concentration
refers is plotted.
4. Consideration of the Background
Concentration of Noxious Substances
4.1. In planning new industrial enterprises and boiler houses with dis-
charges of noxious substances in an area where the atmospheric air is polluted
with the same noxious substances from other industrial facilities and also
when expanding industrial enterprises and boiler houses, it is necessary to
consider the initial or background concentrations of the noxious substances
in atmospheric air c^ (in mg/nr).
The sum of the maximum and background concentrations for each noxious
substance should not exceed the MFC.
Comment. It is necessary to consider the possibility of the joint pre-
sence of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid (H2SO^) aerosol in the air. In
this case, the following condition should be fulfilled:
where MPCH2S04 = °-3 nig/m3 is the one-time MFC for sulfuric acid aerosol.
4.2. In the presence of background pollution of the atmosphere with
noxious substances, the MFC in formulas (12), (15), (17) and (18) should be
replaced by values of MPC-c^.
4.3. In the presence of background pollution, formulas (13) and (14)
are transformed to the following form:
when
"'!!!_ (24)
- 113 -
-------
H is determined from the emission of sulfur dioxide MgQ2, and when
(25)
H is determined from the emission of dust M
-------
the operation of industrial enterprises and boiler houses, the explanatory
notes and the construction for modernization plans for these facilities
should indicate the set of measures whose implementation during the period
of operation will ensure the conditions of atmospheric dispersal, established
by calculations, of the noxious substances present in the emissions of these
industrial enterprises and boiler houses.
5.1. In the operation of industrial enterprises and boiler houses it
is necessary that the emissions of noxious substances from the individual
sources into the atmosphere do not exceed the maximum permissible emissions
(MPE) .
The concentrations of noxious substances in the gas-air mixture dis-
charged into the atmosphere should not exceed the cmg values determined
from the formulas given above (see § 2.14 and 4.2 of present Instructions).
It is recommended that provisions be made for installing instruments
for recording the concentrations of noxious substances past the purifica-
tion equipment at large sources of emission of such substances.
5.2. Under particularly unfavorable weather conditions, especially
when an elevated temperature inversion several hundreds of meters thick with
average temperature gradients of 3-4°C. per 100 m in this layer is located
above the smokestacks, and the wind is directed from the emission sources to-
ward residential areas, a heavy and increasing pollution of air with noxious
substances being observed in the ground layer (with concentrations of the
noxious substances in excess of the maximum permissible ones), the rate of
discharge of such substances into the atmosphere should be reduced as much
as possible at industrial enterprises and other facilities according to the
requirement of the agencies of the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological Administra-
tion of the Health Ministry of the USSR.
5.3. Under unfavorable weather conditions at industrial plants and
other facilities, control of the maximum utilization of purification equip-
ment at the main sources of atmospheric pollution should be set up, reserve
fuel and raw material with the lowest sulfur and ash content should be used,
one-time emissions of noxious substances should be discontinued, and other
steps reducing the emissions of noxious substances into the atmosphere should
be taken.
5.4. For each industrial district, for major industrial enterprises
and boiler houses, plans should be worked out to reduce the emissions of
noxious substances into the atmosphere and to control them under unfavorable
weather conditions, based on a systematic collection of data on the dis-
charge parameters of noxious substances and also'a combined analysis of
meteorological data and data on atmospheric pollution.
- 115 -
-------
6. Determination of Boundaries of the Sanitary-Protective Zone
6.1. In conformity with the "Sanitary Standards for Planning Industrial
Enterprises" (SN245-63), industrial enterprises (facilities) should be sepa-
rated from residential areas by sanitary-protective zones (gaps).
The length of a sanitary-protective zone 1~ (in m) for different cate-
gories of enterprises and facilities is established in the case where there
is no marked predominance of winds of definite directions.
6.2. When the mean annual wind rose is substantially different from
circular, i.e., for a wind frequency p of certain directions (for an eight-
point wind rose) substantially greater than the average value of PQ (pn =
—g—2 = 12.5%). the length of the sanitary-protective zone should be cor-
rected by allowing for the characteristics of the wind regime of the area
where the facility is located.
For these wind directions, the length of the gap 1 (in m) measured
from the industrial facility (source of atmospheric pollution) to the outer
boundary of the sanitary-protective zone is given by the formula
1 = 10^-. <26>
0 Po
In directions for which ihe wind frequency P
In directions for which the wind frequency p
-------
7. Tabulation of Results of Calculation of Dispersal of
Noxious Substances in the Atmosphere
7.1. In tabulating the results obtained by calculating the dispersal of
noxious substances in the atmosphere, the plans of industrial enterprises
(facilities) and boiler houses with considerable emissions of noxious sub-
stances into the atmosphere should be supplemented with a report including
the following data:
(a) A plan (contour map) of the construction site with a radius of not
less than 100 maximum stack heights from the facility being planned, con-
taining the main sources of noxious substances (taken from master plans)
both at the facility being planned, allowing for its possible modernization
and expansion, and at other existing or planned enterprises in this area.
The contour map must also show populated areas, areas of planned resi-
dential construction, hospitals, sanatoriums, weather stations, and also
rivers, water reservoirs, forests, farm lands, etc. Isolines of the same
heights are drawn every 20 m.
(b) Tables containing the following data for each air pollution source
(the sources should preferably be relabeled):
amount M (in g/sec) of discharged impurities, their chemical composition
(as much information as possible is given on the particle size distribution
of the dust past the purification equipment);
height H and diameter of the orifice of the emission source D (in M),
the volume V (in nr/sec) of the discharge gas-air mixture;
efficiency of the purification equipment based on projected and opera-
tional data.
(c) For every existing and projected industrial enterprise (facility),
the character of the impurity is indicated in conformity with the "Sanitary
Standards for Planning Industrial Enterprises" (SN245-63), and data on un-
organized discharges are given.
(d) A table of the mean annual frequency of winds for the eight principal
points of compass, average and average maximum temperatures of air at the
level of the instrument shelter for the warmest month on the basis of climatic
handbooks and of the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62 entitled "Structural Climatol-
Igy and Geophysics. Basic Principles of Planning."
For the construction site of the enterprise (facility) it is also re-
commended that data be given for each month on the average frequency of various
gradations of wind velocity, calms, fogs, and ground and elevated (at heights
of 100-300 m) temperature inversions. In the absence of necessary data in
the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62 and in climatic handbooks, such data can be ob-
tained from offices of the hydrometeorological service.
- 117 -
-------
Weather stations are indicated from the data of which one can obtain the
characteristics of the climatic and weather regime of the area. These weather
stations should be marked on the contour map or on a separate map.
(e) Information on a local sanitary-epidemiological station with back-
ground concentrations for all the ingredients of noxious impurities, on their
concentrations under the plume of the main enterprises (within a radius of
100 source heights), on the toxicity of the noxious substances discharged and
on the MFC's established for them. The sanitary-epidemiological service also
confirms that all the chief sources of atmospheric pollution have been taken
into account in the calculations.
(f) Variants of calculation of the distribution of ground concentra-
tions of noxious substances for different choices of parameters characterizing
the output of the enterprise (facility), degree of purification of the emissions,
location, height and diameter of the emissions orifice, exit velocity, over-
heating of the gas-air mixture, etc.
Of these variants, the one that is most efficient and economically justi-
fied is selected.
In working out steps to ensure the purity of atmospheric air, it is
necessary to consider the cost of construction of connecting lines, air intake
tubes, ventilation equipment, organization of the sanitary-protective zone,
etc.
(g) Tables and graphs for calculating the distribution of the concen-
trations of noxious substances around an enterprise (facility) and sanitary-
protective zone, determined in accordance with data of the Instructions,
patterned after the examples given below (Appendix 2).
7.2. Examples of calculations of the dispersal of noxious substances
in atmospheric air and calculations of the sanitary-protective zone are
given in Appendix 2.
- 118 -
-------
APPENDIX 1
LIST OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES AND FACILITIES COVERED BY THE INSTRUCTIONS
1. Sintering ferrous metallurgical plants
2. Plants producing roasted ferrous metal pellets
3. Sintering non-ferrous metallurgical plants
4. Converter shops
5. Blast furnace production
6. Open hearth shops
7. Electric steelmaking shops
8. Production of sulfuric acid by the contact process
9. Production of elemental sulfur
10. Petroleum refining plant (combustion of mazut in units of catalytic re-
forming, thermal and catalytic cracking, hydrofining, atmospheric pipe
stills and atmospheric-vacuum pipe stills, separation and isomerizations
of xylene, purification of oils)
11. Boiler houses
APPENDIX 2
EXAMPLES OF CALCULATION OF THE DISPERSAL OF NOXIOUS
SUBSTANCES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Example 1.
Calculation of pollution of the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide and dust in
the area of the sintering plant of a ferrous metallurgical enterprise. Con-
struction site, the Urals.
- 119 -
-------
No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation 1 Units
Value
A, Calculation of the Amount of Sulfur Dioxide and Dust, Volume and
Exit Velocity of Gas-Air Mixture Discharged into the Atmosphere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Area of one sintering belt - F]_
Number of sintering belts - n
Type of charge - sulf ite ore
Fuel used for igniting the charge - coke
oven blast furnace gas
maximum sulfur content of the charge - Scn
Charge desulfuration coefficient- - r) ch
Hydrogen sulfide content of coke oven gas
- (H2S)o
Sulfur content of blast furnace gas - Sb
Amount of charge processed - QP
Amount of coke-oven gas consumed in igni-
ting 1 ton of charge - G*
***>
Consumption of blast furnace gas in igni-
ting 1 ton of charge - G*>b
Consumption of coke oven gas in igniting
the charge - G, .
l.C
/7 i -c x 1*1 x
i.c 24 24
Consumption of blast furnace gas in igni-
ting the charge - G£ ^
GLb xGP 40x1.1x10'
i.b 2-1 2-i
Concentration of dust in gases leaving^
the _ sintering machines Cbefore purifi-
cation), - g
Type of dust-removing unit - battery cy-
clones, no sulfur removal
Operational value of efficiency of dust
removing unit -T),j
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
from stack - Tg
Temperature of ambient air - Ta
m2
%
g/nm3
g/nm3
t/day
nm3/t
nm3/t
nm3/hr
nm3/hr
,
g/m
%
"C.
°c.
200
2
0.8
0.95
5
0.5
1.1 • 104
5
40
2300
18 900
3
90
150
30
j
- 120 -
-------
No.
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
fol]
',.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Number of slacks (on the basis of one stacA
for two sintering belts with an area of
200 m2) - N
Diameter of stack orifice -D
Volume of gas-air mixture discharged into
the atmosphere by one sintering belt
Total volume of gas-air mixture discharged
into the atmosphere - V
l.n 9000 • 2
60 60
Total dust emission - M^
^^('-i&H-300!1---^)
Emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmos-
phere due to the burning off of sulfur
in the charge - MgQ
ID? 5 chy. 7, ch
j;ch _./-;!> rbUj '
"•J>0, u 86400 100 n4.
- 0,^\/V'5oh °- 0232 x 1 llxlO'x OjBx 0-95
^So2 = 64 - molecular weight of sulfur
dioxide
ys = 32 - molecular weight of sulfur
Emission of sulfurous anhydride due to
the combustion of coke oven gas -
MS02
i/o Gi.c ,,., q.c 'lSOj .
/Jsy, -3Guif("2S) ^IjS-
= 0,00052<7i c(M2S)c^0.00052i(2300x 5
^H9S - molecular weight of hydrogen sul-
fide
Emission of sulfurous anhydride due to
the combustion of blast furnace gas -
«^02 ..y .
-------
No.
25
26
27
1
2
3
4
5
6
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Total emission of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere - %(>>
= 1950-|-6-)-5
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the velocity of deposition of the im-
purity in the atmosphere, for
sulfur dioxide - F
dust - F
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from the
stack - w0
4V 4 • 300
B. Calculation of Stack Height of Sir
Background concentration of sulfur dioxide
Background concentration of dust - C^a
Coefficient dependent on the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere - A
lx ltJGO>2x60
The stack height is therefore determined
from the emission of sulfur dioxide
Difference between the temperature of the
gas-air mixture discharged ind that of
the surrounding air — AT"
A7 =7 ' —T .==150-30
o »
First approximation for minimum stack
height (for m = 1) - H
„ _ 1 / AMso^fm y— AT" _
V UPC V V&T
/ , ,
= I/ 160X 1'JSO* lx 1 */ \
V 05 V 300X 120
First approximation for the parameter f
o lO^xll^xG
T =^; 10* — - = =
J H-M' 138-x 120
Units
g/sec
—
m/sec
itering Plant
>
mg/m5
dig 1/3
g/sec
deg
m
m/sec2 deg
Value
I960
1
2
11
0
0
160
I960 120
120
138
0,32
- 122 -
-------
No.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
First approximation for the coefficient
allowing for the conditions of exit of
the gas-air mixture from the stack - m
Preliminary value of the stack height - H
/-/ _ i / AMsofm ^y~x~ _
V UPC Y I/A?'
/IGOx 19GO xl xl a/~ 1
0,5 }' 300x120
Next largest size of the height of stand-
ard stacks - H
Parameter f
tr^D 10V 112x 6
•^ 10 /7*AT 1502X120
(K6, which makes it possible to use the
present Instructions)
Dimensionless coefficient allowing for
the conditions of exit of the gas-air
mixture from the stack - m
Maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
near the underlying surface - o^
2
AA'/gQ I'll! &/ ^;
m t-0* //2 |' y^y
100 xl%0 xl xl.05 y I
150^ Y 300x120
Maximum concentration of dust near the
underlying surface - cn d
•/lAld' /it -^ / V\
Cm'a f-fi V V&.T '
lGOx60x2xl.0.r. -.V 1
~" '}§$ \ 300x120
Distance at which the maximum concentra-
tion of noxious emissions is reached
^ =, 20// - 20 x 150
Units
—
fa
m
m/sec^ de^
—
mg/m'
ng/rn
m
Value
1,05
136
150
0,27
1,05
0,44
0,03
3000
- 123
-------
Example 2
Calculation of pollution of the atmssphere with sulfur dioxide and
dust discharged by a converter shop. Construction site - Central Asia.
No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Units
Value
Calculation of the amounts of sulfur dioxide and dust, volume and
exit velocity of gas-air mixture discharged into the atmosphere.
1 Number of converters in the shop
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Capacity of a single converter
Number of converters operating simultane-
ously, including
_ during the blowing of oxygen through
pig - HI
during preheating - ng
Duration of a single melting
Sulfur content of pig:
before blowing
after blowing
Amount of pig produced by one converter
(in 1 hr), G^
,„ 100 x 60
GI- 45
Duration of the period of preheating of the
converter with coke oven-blast furnace gas
Hydrogen sulfide content of coke oven gas -
Sulfur content of blast furnace gas - Sb
Amount of coke oven-blast furnace gas
burned in a single converter during pre-
heating, including
coke oven gas
blast furnace gas
Concentration of dust in gas-air mixture
during blowing (before purification) - g
During preheating, dust is not discharged
into the atmosphere
_
t
• -
-
-
min
$
%
t/hr
min
g/nm3
g/nm3
nm3
nm
-------
No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Units
Value
12 Type of dust-removing unit - turbulent
scrubber. No sulfur removal
13
Ik
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Operating value of efficiency of dust
removing unit - ^
Temperature of gas-air mixture discharged
into the atmosphere - T_
Temperature of ambient air - Ta
Number of sources of emission of noxious
substances per converter - N^
Diameter of orifice of emission source of
noxious substances - D
Output of ventilation units operating
near the converter (during blowing and
preheating)
Volume of gas-air mixture discharged into
the atmosphere during blowing and pre-
heating by one converter - V^
100000 /SO \
1 ~ 3600 \ 273 ' j
Emission of dust into the atmosphere by
one converter during the blowing period -
Mf- g tl - -^j K, - 30 (l - -*L) 36
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged by one
converter during blowing - M|g
bl 100 10' (0,05 — 0,012) 64
""so, - 45 60 100 32
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged into
the atmosphere by one converter during
preheating and formed by the combustion
of coke oven-blast furnace gas - MgA
pr 1400x^x6-1 '4200x0,5x64 _
'"so, " " "21 x COx 31 21x 60x~32
= 10 + 3
Coefficient allowing for the influence of '
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere, for
sulfur dioxide - F
dust - F
*
"C
•c
•
m
nm'/hr
m'/see
g/sec
g/sec
g/sec
-
98
80
40
1
2
100,000
36
22
13
13
1
2
- 125 -
-------
Ho.
24
25
26
27
28
!
1
2
3
4
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
aperture of emission source - wo
TOO _ ._-^__- _. _._^__ gj-jj-j-
Shortest distance between extreme convertors
out of three operating ones - xo
Therefore in calculations for //>50-j-70m
all the sources can be reduced to a single
point
The volume of gas-air mixture V^ discharged
into t-he atmosphere by s. converter is the
same. during the period of blowing and pre-
heating
Therefore in the calculations one should
assume
•-J-J---VT,
Total emission of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere by all the converters - Mg^
^SO. - ^o,", -I- M&n, -13-2 -j- 13 - 1
Total discharge of dust into the atmosphere
by all the converters - Md
Afc = ,«"», = 22«2
i. Calculation of the height of emission sou
Background concentration of sulfur dioxide
- cb.S02
Background concentration of dust - Cj, ^
Coefficient dependent on the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere - A
FMcr\ FM
»>W2 ^f 11
"re so, ~cb. so, " BPCd-fb,d
1 x 39 . 2x 4t
.0,5—0,2 ^- 0.5 — 0.3
Therefore the height of the emission source
is determined from the dust emission
Difference between the temperature of the
gas-air mixture and that of the ambient
air -til
A7- = 7-g-ra- 80-40
Units
m/seo
m
m /sec
g/sec
g/sec
rces of conve
mg/m5
5t
mg/m
sec2'5 v
x degl/5
mg/m
°C
Value
11
200
36
39
44
rter shop
0.2
0.3
130 < 440
40
- 126 -
-------
No.
5
6
7
8
9
10
i
i
>
11
i
12
i
I
i
!
!
i
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
First approximation for minimum height of
emission source (for m = 1)
//-I/ MWm ,3/~*T~_
K (ii;u
-------
No.
13
14
15
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
near underlying surface, caused by emis-
sions of the converter shop - ^.sOy
^
-------
No. I Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
10
11
Sulfur content of raw material - SP
Residual sulfur content of raw material
subjected to roasting (roasting involves
the use of natural gas containing no
sulfur) - SP
o
Content of sulfurous anhydride in the
gases following roasting of the raw
material - Vir.
(SP-
22.4x10''
loo
.-= 7n SP -
? x 106 (19 - 0,1) ,
where ys is the molecular weight of sulfur
Sulfur dioxide losses entering the stack
(in percent of total volume of sulfurous
anhydride formed by roasting the raw
material):
(a) on contact units
(b) other process leaks
(c) total loss -7^'
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged into
the atmosphere - MgQ
V . V-tn 10*
j< _ 17 ' SOj __
*'so, — loo so, TivT ~3W ~
- 0,00795.7' VJo, = 0.00795 x5 r. H 100,
where PSO *s ^he inolecular
sulfur dioxide
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
from stack - Te
D
Temperature of ambient air - Ia
Amount of gas-air mixture in furnace com-
partment Cper ton of product) passins
through the process units and discharged
into the stack - Vg
Units
Value
19
0.1
nm /hr
14,100
2
3
5
S/sec
"C
«C
iim
560
60
30
505
- 129 -
-------
No.
12
13
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Total amount of gas-air mixture discharged
into the stack - V
V =' 3600"^ 273" ~r )
505x100/60 .\
~ 3GOO ^"273 "h J
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Units Value
m3/sec ' 18
5
i
1 1
14 Number of stacks - N '. 51
15 Diameter of stack orifice - D m ! 2
16
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from j
stack orifice - w. ~. '•
o <
) i •
4K _ 4 xis
m/sec | 6
i '- »
6. Calculation of stack height of sulfuric acid shop at sintering plant
_
1 | Background concentration of sulfur dioxide \ mg/m* \ 0.1
• "Tj.SOp ' §
2 I Coefficient dependent on the thermal ' sec2' 5 x j 160
: stratification of the atmosphere - A •. x degx/3 ,
3 i Difference in the temperatures of the gas- '• $
1 air mixture and air -Al J \
| AT = T -f = 60-30
i 6 i
4 • First approximation for minimum stack
°C i 30
j
5
height (for m = l) - H ;
;
i
,/ MW* _y N |
|/ ^IPC sOi'^b-SOj ' v "i/ t
|
t
j
-, /~lQQx 500x1 xl -,3/ T J \
" V "^(CL5~0~T) V 18x30 m f 166
• ,
5 First approximation for parameter f
•
^
1
w-5/.) 103x68x2 m/sec2x I O.O)
\ J -W' j.p.T =; ~i663"x30~' 1 x deg j
]
6 j First approximation for the coefficient '. |
•' allowing for the conditions of exit of the{ \
: gas-air mixture from the stack orifice - m| - i 1.1
- 130 -
-------
No.
7
8
9
1
1
10
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Preliminary value of stack height - H
W =:•{/_ ^MsoS"1 -,3/~7T~
= -. / 160x 560x 1 x 1 ,1 Y — 1
V (0.5-0.1) V 18x30
Next largest size of standard stacks - H
Parameter - f
/--HP "3° 105x62x2
J tfl&T 1802x30
(f<6, which make it possible to use the
present Instructions)
Coefficient allowing for the conditions of
exit of gas-air mixture from the stack -
m
Units
m
in/sec x |
x deg ;
i
Value
180
0.07 ;
1 T
11 iMaximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
1 near the underlying surface - cm ^
cm. SO-.
12 ! %.S02 + °m.SC
j Calculations show tl
i site, the sulfur di
I will not exceed the MFC
1 1 ,3/— —
V 18 x 30
0.10 * 0.57
at the construction
Je concentrations
\ 'f
ng/m5 | 0.37
L
jt t
mg/m? I 0.47
I
j
5
aximum concentration) ^
cached, x j
!
0 x 180 ! m t 3600
: i
$
!,
J $
* t
1
'
j
*
>
i
!
1
i
'i
*
;
£
i
'
f
j
- 131 -
-------
Example 4
Calculation of the amount of sulfurous anhydride and volume and exit
velocity of flue gases discharged into the atmosphere during combustion
of mazut in petroleum refinery installations.
No.
1
1
f
I
2
i 3
4
5
6
7
8
; 9
10
11
12
, i
13 !
14
NaroejDesignation, Formula and Calculation
Unit for catalytic reforming, thermal
cracking, hydrofining, atmospheric pipe-
still and atmospheric-vacuum pipestill,
etc.
Type of fuel - mazut
Colorific value of the fuel per working
mass - Q§
Sulfur content of fuel - Sp
Excess air at exit from smokestack - a
Temperature of flue gases at exit from
smokestack" - T
g
Number of stacks per installation - N^
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Amount of fuel burned (on the basis of
330 working days per year) - B
Volume of flue gases formed by the com-
bustion of 1 kg of fuel - V
6
I/ = Vji/j + V y -f *^ j-j o *{• (a — 1 ) * ==
8 = U62 -!- 1 1 .50 -r 1. 90 -!- 0.87
Total volume of flue gases at exit from
smokestack - V
y B • 1Q"i f T " \
V = "3600 ("27% + l ) =
15,35 x 12. GxlO"1 (2ft , ^\
3(iOO (273 ' ]/
Emission of sulfur dioxide from stack -
^
B x 103 x SP p.SOi
MSOt 3600x100 y.g
=-- 5.56 x B x SP = 5.55 x 12^0 X3,5
where y™ is the molecular weight of
sulfur dioxide andPg is the molecular
weight of sulfur
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Exit velocity of flue gases from stack
orifice - WQ
w =_4_K 4_xl03
sZ^A', 3.Mx5-'xl
Units
*
-
kcal/kg
%
_
°C
,
m
t/hr
nm^/kg
M3/sec
ui j sec
g/sec
—
m/sec
Value
-
9500
3.5
1.4
250
1
5
12.6
15.35
j
1
!
j
1
245
i
;
!
1
1 J
'
5 *
j
1
132 -
-------
Example 5
_ Calculation of the amount of sulfurous anhydride, volume and exit velo-
city of flue gases discharged into the atmosphere bj the catalytic cracking
installation of a petroleum refinery. The sulfur dioxide is formed by the
combustion of mazut and burning off of the coke deposited on the catalyst.
No.
1
2
3
i
4
5
6
7
8'
9
10
.
11
12
i
13
i
14
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Catalytic cracking installation
Type of fuel - high sulfur mazut
Calorific value of mazut per working mass
-QP
H
Sulfur content of mazut - SjJ
Excess air during the combustion of -mazut ir
furnaces -am
Amount of mazut burned (based on 330 work-
ing days per year) - Bm
Sulfur content of coke - SP
c
Excess air during burning of coke -Ctc
Amount of burned coke - Bc
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit from
stack - I
B
Number of stacks - N
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of 1 kg of mazut - V™
D
V •- V'uo -1- V°Nj + VH,0 -1- ( « - 1) V* -
& =f.62 + 11.6-1- 1.99 -1-0.82
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of mazut - Vm
um ,/mr.mlOOO/ Tr , .\
v — &b 3600\273 "'" J =
— 16.0x1. 3 ~10°° (25° ---! l]
3bOO ^ /Jo j
Amount of sulfur dioxide formed by the
combustion of mazut - "gQ9
M*n " 5 .50 x B mx 5£ = 5.56 x 1.3 x 4
ovJi ™
Units
kcal/kg
%
'
t/hr
%
-
t/hr
°C
-
nm3/kg
m /sec
g/sec
•
i
Value
-
9500
4
1.4
1.3
5.5
1.02
11 |
250
i
i 1
{
| 16
3
i
I
1 11.2
&
I '
1
1
1
I 29
\
:
I :
- 133 -
-------
i
j No.
i
I 15
;
1
i 16
1
: 17
; 18 !
•
i •
i 19 i
:'
j ;
i 20
•
i 1
| 21 i
i 22 j
; 23
•
1
i 24 ;
25 !
; i
.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of 1 kilogram of coke, V?
D
Vs I/ _l_ 1/0 i l/ i/O 1^17°--
K ~~ » PQ- ~T~ ' \_ t~ II O ~'~ V ^ ) ~~
- 1.63 + 7.17-1- 1.01 -j- (1.02 — 1)9.08
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of coke - Vc
V c = jc B oJOOp_ /_£_ + j\ _
3(500 ^273 )
lOxllx1000/'250 i \\
IV X 1 1 X -x' -^. -- -j- 1 1
OUUU \ £, t O j
Amount of sulfur dioxide formed by the
combustion of coke - U|0
•^so ~ 5,56x BCS£ = 5.5G xll x5.5
Total volume of gas-air mixture discharged
into the stack - V
V — V"1 -f V° - 11.2 4- 5S.5
Total amount of sulfur dioxide discharged
into the stack - He,.
i3U2
^so,==^s-!-A4lo,-29 + 336
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Stack Height - H
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
stack orifice - w0
^==.^_«^x63.7__
Temperature of ambient air - T
Parameter f
tt'5/> iffix (1-1.3)2x2.5
/ = 1QT jj?yf~ =••- "loo^JiJijoTrg-y-'
(f<6, which makes.it possible to use the
present Instructions!)
Units
!
nm3/kg
3,
m /sec
g/sec
m/sec
t/sec
•H
m
m
m/sec
deg
m/sec deg
Value
. 10
i
i
i
1
i
i
;
336 !
69.7
!
i
365
1 :
i
100 ;
• 2.5
14.3
25
r. !
,
1 0.23 •
•
I j
- 134 -
-------
Example 6
Calculation of pollution of the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide from an
operating petroleum refinery. Location - Central Asia.
No.
1
2
Number
Of
Sources
Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
3 .
4 j
A. Calculation of ground concentrations of sulfur dioxide
Background concentration of sulfur
dioxide - Cjj.SO-
Coefficient dependent on the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere - A
Coefficient allowing for the settling of
the impurity - F
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
•5
1-5
1-5
1-5
1
2
4
5
1
2
k
5
Temperature of ambient air - Ta
Type of installations:
Catalytic reforming installation
Thermal cracking installation
Hydrofining installation
Atmospheric vacuum pipe still
Installation for preducing_elemental
sulfur from hydrogen sulfide gas
Number of stacks per installation
Stack height - H
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
from stack - T
o
Volume of gas-air mixture discharged
from the stack - V
Units
r dioxide
ng/m3
sec*/3*
X deg1/5
-
•C
-
m
m
°C
m3/sec
i
i
i
Value)
0
200
1
40
1
100
2
400
450
250
500
500
50
100
30
80
35
r
-135 -
-------
i
No.
11
j
i
12
|
i
i
I
1
!
'
13 i
,
i
i
•
j
14
1
|
i
t
i
.*
j
Number
of
Sources
1
2
3
4
5
J-
o
2
3
Jf.
5
1
2
3
4
5
.
1
Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged int
the atmosphere - MSQ
.
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
stack orifice - WQ
»o'=— r£i~
i*U-i\ j
4X 50
w° sx 22x 1
4X 100
W° r.x 22x 1
4X30
4x80
WQ ;^ ~~~~~^55 — T~
4X 35
wo 5; x 22 x 1
Difference in the temperatures of the gas
air mixture and ambient air - A7
bT~TsTT*
AT" = 4wb — 40
AT" = 450 — 40
A31 = 250 — 40
AT" = 500 -40
AF — 500 — 40
>arameter f
„
f = 103-^--
JTi "^1
103xl62x2
/ — ~~io"02x "3f>0 ""
10'x 33- x 2
ibi)-x 4io
10:'X10? 2
1002X210
Units
g/sec
m/seo
deg
Value
200
250
150
180
300
16
i
32
1
10 f
J
1
25 |
11
360
410-
210 :
460
460 .
i
I
l
0.14
0.50 !
*
0.10 1
- 136 -
-------
No.
14
1
15
16
i
t
j
i
i
!
i
i? i
i
j
i
Number
c °f
Sources
4
5
'
1
2
3
5
1
2
3
4
5
1-5
Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
, 10^x252x2
J 1002 X4GO
1 fB 112 O
•^^"100^460
(For all sources f <6, which makes it
possible to use the present Instruc-
tions)
Coefficient allowing for the conditions
of exit of flue gases from stack ori-
fice - m
Maximum concentration of sulfur
dioxide - CQ.SO
. . , ... z, — - —
SCH "I/
V sov /./a Y VA7
_ 200x200 xl_fiii_-|X L_
200X 250 xl xl ,y 1
fn> 2 100-1 K 100 x410
200x150x1x1.1 T3A 1
Cm3 1002 K 30x 210
200x ISOx 1 xl.Oo ,y I
a>4 1002 ¥ 80X 460
? 200 xSOO x 1 x 1 J -{y 1
Cra5 100- Y 35x460
%i + Cm" ~!>~ Cm3 + c m "i' Cm5 ~
=o»i7 -i O.'M -i- o.is -;- o.n -i- 0.25
Distance from stack where the maximum
concentration xm is observed at
the unsafe wind velocity
xm = 20H = 20 x 100
Units
•
—
<^_
^~
__
^^—
Hg/m5
m
Value
0«27
0.05
1.1
1.0
1.0 I
1.05
1.1 !
i
i
j
0.17
i
0.14
0.18 j
0.11
1
0.26 {
0.86 ••
i
'
2000 :
j
- 137 -
-------
Number
:' No. of
| Sources
j 18
i
;
1
I
, 2
i
3
i
*'
5
i
; i
19 i
i
i
'.
'. '•
* '
1 i
20
1
}
1
J
1
i ! i
t
{ 2
i ;
• ! 3
1 •
i :
1 4
i 5
[ ^
i
Name, Designation} Formula
and Calculation
Unsafe velocity u
u ~0 GrlXl/lA7
*0 ..y-irar
1 ' V 1 x 100
~0 6r l!X 100x4l°
/' ~ 0 35 ~tY 30 x21^~
m * F 1x100
A -C-.V" 80 460
/." , c-* 0 65 5/
m4 ° K i 100
«_ ~ 0 6r TiX" 35 4(^~
«m5 J jj/ j JQQ-
Weighted mean value of unsafe
wind velocity u^y for the
given set of sources
" lfml '!' %'? 2 -I" " 3- 3 +
-m _). w .4c"4m-|- H 5c 5
^Bl Til* w* TQ- Bl
3,7 xOJ7 + 4.8 x 0 .14 -}- 2.0 xO,18 +
+ 4.6X0.1H-3;5X0.26
0,b''J
Value of the ratio umav
u
m
''may 3 7
"mi ~~3 T
"me 3 7
"m2 4 8
J'ffiL... 3 7
"m3 2 15*
J'a.?. ._. .3_L
"mc • 3 7
V """3T
»
Units
— —
m/sec
ng/m5
_
_
-
-
Value
3.7
4,8
2.6
1
4,6
3.5
'
1
i
i
!
]
i
i
i
i
3.7
!
i
•
i
'
1.0
0.77 •
1.42
0.80
1.06
i
- 138 -
-------
No.
21
22
23
Number
of
Sources
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
*
5
1-5
Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
Maximum concentration of sulfur
dioxide c,,^ (for u = u^y)
^Ui = 1.0x0. 17
«„,,,,= 0.91x0. 14
<••„„,=* 0.80 xOJS
cm,t = 0.93x0- 11
cfflHi=:LOx0.2G
-0 .17 + O.'lS --!- 0/16 -r O.'lO -(- 0.26 =
=--0.52>MPC
Distance at which the maximum concen-
tration of sulfur dioxide x^ is ob-
served for u = UTOV
%l =P**
A* mBi = 1.0x2000
x-m,, = 1.22x2000
x — 0»87x 2000
^DB, — 1'1851 200°
•*•*,,=- 1-0x2000
The distance between extreme sources
does not exceed 300-400 m (3-4H), so
that they can be assumed to be locatec
at a single point. The graphical de-
termination of total concentration c
at different distances x is illustratt
in Pig. 8.
Units
•ne/,,3
•
ffl
Value
0.17
0.13
0.16
0.10
0.26
2000
2400
1700
2400
2000
- 139 -
-------
No |NulD£er Name, Designation, Formula
" IscurceJ and Calculation
Units
Value
1OOU ' 2OC3 3000 40GQ 6000 ccm
Fig. 8. Example of. calculation of maximum ground concentration of
sulfur dioxide from five closely grouped installations of a
petroleum refinery.
2k
t
i
25
26
i
!
i
:
'
1-5
1-5
1 - 5 '
Maximum concentration from the set
or sources - cm
It is therefore necessary to in-
crease the stack height or set up
a sanitary-protective zone
Distance at which the maximum
concentration xm is observed
Distance up to which the total
concentration exceeds the MFC -
T
Sources located close to each
other, and therefore LQ *s the
same in all directions.
mg/m5
in
m
<
~,» ,
j
t
2100
1
5000 ;
1
'.
1 [
- 140.-
-------
B. Calculation of Sanitary Protective Zone
Measured from an Operating Petroleum Refinery
^ 1. Minimum dimension of the sanitary-protective zone (according to
Sanitary Norms for Planning Industrial Enterprises" I =1000 m.
2. Distance LQ up to which sulfur dioxide concentrations exceeding
the MFC are observed, 5000 m (see Fig. 8).
3. The mean annual frequency of wind of different directions (according
to the climatic handbook) p and length of sanitary-protective zone 1 are
given in the table:
P °/0
/km
In
£o--~ for P^>Po
Po
/-o for P
-------
46 THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OR RESISTANCE TO GAS
AND SMOKE OF VARIOUS ARBOREAL SPECIES
GROWN UNDER DIVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS IN A NUMBER OF INDUSTRIAL RE-
GIONS OF THE SOVIET UNION-A Survey of USSR
Air Pollution Literature
47 METEOROLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL ASPECTS
OF AIR POLLUTION; PROPAGATION AND DIS-
PERSAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN A NUMBER OF
AREAS IN THE SOVIET UNION-A Survey of USSR
Air Pollution Literature
48 THE AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF CHINA
49 EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
AND RELIEF ON AIR POLLUTION. AIR CON-
TAMINANTS - THEIR CONCENTRATION.
TRANSPORT, AND DISPERSAL-A Survey of USSR
Air Pollution Literature
50. AIR POLLUTION IN RELATION TO CERTAIN
ATMOSPHERIC AND ME TO RO LOGI C A L
CONDITIONS AND SOME OF THE METHODS
EMPLOYED IN THE SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
OF AIR POLLUTANTS-A Survey of USSR Air
Pollution Literature
51. MEASUREMENTS OF DISPERSAL AND
CONCENTRATION. IDENTIFICATION, AND
SANITARY EVALUATION OF VARIOUS AtR
POLLUTANTS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THE ENVIRONS OF ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
AND FERROUS METALLURGICAL PLANTS
-A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
62 A COMPILATION OF TECHNICAL REPORTS ON
THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND THE PUBLIC
HEALTH ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTANTS - A Survey Of USSR Air Pollution
Literature
53 GAS RESISTANCE OF PLANTS WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY AND TO
THE EFFECTS OF MINERAL NUTRITION - A
Survey of USSR Air Polutlon Literature
54 THE TOXIC COMPONENTS OF AUTOMOBILE
EXHAUST GASES: THEIR COMPOSITION UNDER
DIFFERENT OPERATING CONDITIONS. AND
METHODS OF REDUCING THEIR EMISSION - A
Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
55 A SECOND COMPILATION OF TECHNICAL
REPORTS ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND
THE PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS - A Survey of USSR
Air Pollution Literature
56 TECHNICAL PAPERS FROM THE LENINGRAD
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE
METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION (PART I) - A Survey of USSR Air
Pollution Literature
67 TECHNICAL PAPERS FROM THE LENINGRAD
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE
METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION (PART II) - A Survey of USSR Air
Pollution Literature
58 TECHNICAL PAPERS FROM THE LENINGRAD
INTERNATIONAL AYMPOSIUM ON THE
METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION (PART III) - A Survey of USSR Air
Pollution Literature
59 A THI«D COMPILATION OF TECHNICAL
REPORTS ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND
THE PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHER-
IC POLLUTANTS - A Survey of USSR Air Pollution
Literature
60 SOME BASIC PROPERTIES OF ASH AND INDUS-
TRIAL DUST IN RELATION TO THE PROBLEM
OF PURIFICATION OF STACK GASES - A Survey
of USSR Air Pollution Literature
(Volume XVI)
61 A FOURTH COMPILATION OF TECHNICAL RE-
PORTS ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND THE
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTANTS A Survey of USSR Air Pollution
Literature
(Volume XVII)
62 PURIFICATION OF GASES THROUGH HIGH TEM-
PERATURE REMOVAL OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS
— A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
(Volume XVIII)
63 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO AIR POLLUTANTS AND TO
SOME OF THEIR BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS - A
Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
(Volume XIX)
64 CATALYTIC PURIFICATION OF EXHAUST GASES
— A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
(Volume XX)
Reprints from various periodical*.
A INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CROP IMPROVEMENT
THROUGH THE UTILIZATION OF THE CONCEPT OF
AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES
(The Uta of Phenology, Meteorology and Geographical
Latitude for the Purposes of Plant Introduction and the Ex-
change of Improved Plant Varieties Between Various
Countries. )
B SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS OF PHENOLOGICAL
DATA AS A TOOL IN THE STUDY OF PHOTOPERIODIC
AND THERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS PLANT
MATERIAL
*C AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY AND CROP ECOLOGY OF THE
UKRAINE AND CLIMATIC ANALOGUES IN NORTH
AMERICA
D AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY AND CROP ECOLOGY OF PALES-
TINE AND TRANSJORDAN AND CLIMATIC ANA-
LOGUES IN THE UNITED STATES
• USSR-Some Physical and Agricultural Characteristics of the
Drought Area and Its Climatic Analogues in the United States
: THE ROLE OF BIOCLIMATOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE USE OF THERMAL AND
PHOTO-THERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF PURE-LINE VARI-
ETIES OF PLANTS AS A BIOLOGICAL INDICATOR IN
ASCERTAINING CLIMATIC ANALOGUES (HOMO-
CLIMES)
'Out of Print.
Requests for studies should be addressed to th«
American Institute of Crop Ecology, 809 Dole
Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910.
-------