AMERICAN  INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY

                A RESEARCH ORGANIZATION DEVOTED TO PROBLEMS OF
                     PLANT ADAPTATION AND INTRODUCTION
                             WASHINGTON,

             AICE* SURVEY OF USSR AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
                              Volume XXI
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS IN RELATION TO METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS;
PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THE ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL OF POLLUTANTS
    AND THE FEASIBILITY OF THEIR STUDY BY MEANS OF SATELLITES
                                Edited By


                              M. Y.Ni
                    The material prey
                          USSR lit;
                       conducted by the Air
                     AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLO
                        fVIRONM


                    •AMERICAN 1NST1TI
                              809DALEDRr
                       SILVER SPRING. MARYLAND 20910

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                PUBLICATIONS  of the  AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY
Ref.
No.
 1
•9


10


II


12

13

14



15



16
 17
 18



 19


 20


 21

 22

 23

 24
       UKRAINE-Ecological Crop Geography of the Ukraine and the
         Ukrainian  Agro-Climatic  Analogues in  North  America


       POLAND-Agricul rural  Climatology of Poland and Its  Agro-
         Climatic Analogues in North America

       CZECHOSLOVAKIA-Agricultural Climatology of Czechoilc-
         valcia and  Its Agro-Climatic Analogues  in North  America
       YUGOSLAVIA-Agricultural Climatologyof Yugoslavia and Its
         Agro-Climatic Analogues in  North America

       GREECE—Ecological Crop Geography of Greece and Its Agro-
         Climatic Analogues in North America

       ALBANIA-Ecological  Plant Geography of Albania, Irs Agri-
         cultural Crops and Some North American Climatic Analogues
CHINA—Ecological Crop Geography of China and Its Agro-
   Climatic Analogues in North America

GERMANY—Ecological  Crop  Geography of Germany and Its
   Agro-Climatic Analogues in North America

JAPAN (I (-Agricultural  Climatologyof Japan and Its Agro-
   Climatic Analogues in North America

FINLAND-Ecological Crop Geography of Finland and Its Agro-
   Climatic Analogues in North America

SWEDEN—Agricultural Climatology of  Sweden and Its Agro-
   Climatic Analogues in North America

NOR WAY-Ecological Crop Geography of Norway and Its Agro-
   Climatic Apologues in North America
SIBERIA-Agricultural Climatology of Siberia, Its Natural Belts,
   and Agro-Climatic Analogues in North America
JAPAN (2)-Ecologlcal Crop Geography and Field Practices of
   Japan,  Japan's  Natural  Vegetation,  and Agro-Climatic
   Analogues in North America

RYUKYU  ISLANDS-Ecologicol  Crop Geography and  Field
   Practices of the Ryukyu Islands,  Natural Vegetation of the
   Ryukyus, and Agro-Climatic Analogues in  the Northern
   Hemisphere

PHENOLOGY AND THERMAL ENVIRONMENT AS A MEANS
   OF A  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WHEAT
   VARIETIES AND FOR PREDICTING MATURITY DATES  OF
   WHEAT
   (Based  on  Data of Czechoslovakia and of  Some  Thermally
   Analogous Areas  of  Czechoslovakia in the  United States
   Pacific Northwest)

WHEAT-CLIMATE RELATIONSHIPS AND  THE  USE  OF PHE-
   NOLOGY IN ASCERTAINING THE THERMAL AND PHO-
   TOTHERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF WHEAT
   (Based on Data of North America and Some Thermally Anal-
   ogous Areas of North America in the Soviet Union and in
   Finland)
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LOWER AND UPPER LIMITS OF
   TEMPERATURE IN MEASURING THE VARIABILITY OF DAY-
   DEGREE SUMMATIONS OF WHEAT,  BARLEY,  AND RYE

BARLEY-CLIMATE RELATIONSHIPS AND  THE USE OF PHE-
   NOLOGY IN ASCERTAINING THE THERMAL^AND PHO-
   TOTHERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF BARLEY
RYE-CLIMATE RELATIONSHIPS  AND THE USE  OF PHENOL-
   OGY IN ASCERTAINING THE THERMAL AND PHOTO-
   THERMAL REQUIREMENTS OF  RYE
AGRICULTURAL ECOLOGY IN SUBTROPICAL REGIONS

MOROCCO, ALGERIA, TUNISIA-Physical  Environment and
   Agriculture	
LIBYA and EGYPT-Physical Environment and Agriculture. . .

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA-Physical  Environment and Agri-
   culrure, With Special Reference ID Winter-Rainfall Regions

AUSTRALIA-Physicol Environment and Agriculture, With Spe-
   cial Reference to Winter-Rainfall Regions	
                                                             26    S. E. CALIFORNIA and S. W. ARIZONA-Physicol Environment
                                                                      and Agriculture of the Desert Regions	

                                                             27     THAILAND-Physical Environment and Agriculture

                                                             28     BURMA-Physical Environment and Agriculture

                                                             28A    BURMA—Diseases and  Pests of Economic Plants

                                                             28B    BURMA-Climate,  Soils and Rice Culture (Supplementary In-
                                                                      formation and a Bibliography to Report 28)
29A    VIETNAM,  CAMBODIA,  LAOS-rhysical  Environment and
         Agriculture	
29B    VIETNAM, CAMBODIA, LAOS-Diseasei and Pestsof Economic
         Plants	
29C    VIETNAM, CAMBODIA, LAOS-Climarological Data (Supple-
         ment to Report 29A)


30A    CENTRAL and SOUTH CHINA,  HONG  KONG,  1AIWAN-
         Physical  Environment and Agriculture	      $20.00'
308    CENTRAL and SOUTH CHINA,  HONG  KONG,  TAIWAN-
         Major Plant Pests and Diseases	
31     SOUTH CHINA-lts Agro-Climatic Analogues in Southeast Asia

32     SACRAMENTO-SAN  JOAQUIN DELTA OF  CALIFORNIA-
         Physical  Environment and Agriculture	

33     GLOBAL AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES FOR THE RICE RE-
         GIONS OF THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATE
34     AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY  AND  GLOBAL  AGROCLIMATIC
         ANALOGUES OF  THE CITRUS REGIONS OF  THE CON-
         TINENTAL UNITED STATES

35     GLOBAL AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES FOR THE SOUTH-
         EASTERN ATLANTIC  REGION  OF THE  CONTINENTAL
         UNITED  STATES
36     GLOBAL AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES FOR THE  INTER-
         MOUNTAIN  REGION OF THE CONTINENTAL  UNITED
         STATES
37     GLOBAL AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES FOR THE NORTHERN
         GREAT PLAINS REGION OF THE CONTINENTAL UNITED
         STATES
38     GLOBAL AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES FOR THE  MAYA-
         GUEZ DISTRICT OF PUERTO RICO
39     RICE CULTURE and RICE-CLIMATE RELATIONSHIPS With Spe-
         cial  Reference  to  the  United States Rice Areas and Their
         Latitudinal and Thermal Analogues in Other Countries
40     E. WASHINGTON, IDAHO,  and UTAH—Physical  Environment
         and Agriculture

41     WASHINGTON, IDAHO, and  UTAH-The  Use of Phenology
         in  Ascertaining the Temperature Requirements of Wheat
         Grown in Washington, Idaho,  and Utah  and  in Some  of
         Their  Agro-Climatically  Analogous  Areas  in  the  Eastern
         Hemisphere

42     NORTHERN  GREAT  PLAINS REGION-Preliminary  Study  of
         Phonological  Temperature  Requirements of a Few Varietios
         of Wheat Grown in the Northern Great Plains Region and in
         Some  Agro-Climatically  Analogous  Areas  in  the  Eastern
         Hemisphere

43     SOUTHEASTERN ATLANTIC  REGlON-Phenologicol  Temper-
         ature  Requirements of Some Winter Wheat Varieties Grown
         in the Southeastern Atlantic Region of the United States and
         in Several of  Its Latitudinally Analogous Areas of the Eastern
         and  Southern Hemispheres of Seasonally  Similar Thermal
         Conditions

44     ATMOSPHERIC  AND METEOROLOGICAL  ASPECTS OF AIR
         POLLUTION-A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature

45     EFFECTS AND SYMPTOMS OF AIR POLLUTES ON  VEGETA-
         TION; RESISTANCE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY OF  DIFFERENT
         PLANT SPECIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS, IN RELATION TO
         PLANT UTILIZATION FOR SHELTER  BELTS AND AS BIO-
         LOGICAL  INDICATORS-A Survey of USSR Air  Pollution
         Literature
                                                                                   (Continued on inside of back cover)

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                                                               AICE-AIR-73-21
                AICE* SURVEY OF USSR AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
                                   Volume XXI
  ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS IN RELATION TO METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS;
A PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THE ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL OF POLLUTANTS
       AND THE FEASIBILITY OF THEIR STUDY BY MEANS OF SATELLITES
                                     Edited By

                                  M.Y.Nuttonson
                        The material presented here is part of a survey of
                             USSR literature on air pollution
                           conducted by the Air Pollution Section
                        AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY
                     This survey is being conducted under GRANT R 800878
                               (Formerly R01 AP 00786)
                             OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
                                     of the
                       U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                        *AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CROP ECOLOGY
                                  809 DALE DRIVE
                           SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND 20910

                                      1973

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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                       Page

PREFACE 	     V

POSSIBILITY OF STUDYING ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS BY
     MEANS OF SATELLITES
          K. Ya. Kondrat'yev 	     1

POLLUTION OF THE GROUND LAYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE DURING
     TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS
          A. I. Burnazyan, Editor 	     9

     Introduction 	    10
                                                9
     Pollution of the Atmospheric Air of Industrial Centers
        with Flue Gases 	    12

        Brief Description of the Chemical Properties and Toxicity
        of Substances Discharged During the Combustion of Fuel
        into the Atmosphere 	    18

        Clinical Picture of Acute Cases of Poisoning with
        Sulfur Compounds in Man 	    22

        Cases of Large-Scale Poisoning of the Population as
        a Result of Air Pollution 	    26

        Mechanism of Impurity Dispersal in the Atmosphere as
        a Function of Meteorological Conditions	    34

        Case of a Smog that Resulted in a Large-Scale Mild
        Poisoning of the Population 	    49

        Ways of Preventing the Noxious Effects of Pollution
        with Sulfur Dioxide of Atmospheric Air	    59
                                \
     Literature Cited 	    63

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METEOROLOGICAL AND AEROSYNOPTIC
     CONDITIONS OF SMOKE POLLUTION IN NOVOSIBIRSK
          L. I. Vvedenskaya, T. G. Volodkevich,
          I. P. Leontovich, and I. A. Shevchuk 	    66

SOME DATA ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS
     OF CENTRAL ASIA
          B. G. Andreyev and R. F. Lavrinenko 	    73
                                    iii

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                                                                      Page

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CLOUD WATER IN URBAN INDUSTRIAL
     DISTRICTS UNDER VARIOUS WEATHER CONDITIONS
          0. P. Petrenchuk and V.  M.  Drozdova	    81

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION OF THE
     CITY OF PERM1  AND CONTROL OF  ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
          G. A. Maksimovich 	    90

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CALCULATING THE ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL OF
     NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES (DUST AND  SULFUR DIOXIDE) PRESENT
     IN INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS - SN369-67
          State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the
          USSR for Construction Affairs 	    96

     1.  General Aspects 	    97

     2.  Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal of
         Emissions for a Single Source 	    99

     3.  Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal of
         Emissions for a Group of  Sources	   108

     4.  Consideration of the Background Concentration of
         Noxious Substances 	   113

     5.  Recommendations for Protection of the Air Reservoir
         During Operation of Industrial Enterprises and Boiler
         Houses	   114

     6.  Determination of Boundaries of the Sanitary-Protective
         Zone 	   116

     7.  Tabulation of Results of  Calculation of Dispersal of
         Noxious Substances in the Atmosphere 	   117

     Appendix 1 	   119

     Appendix 2 	   119
                                       iv

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                                  PREFACE


     The Russian papers translated in this volume relate to several aspects
of atmospheric pollution which have been studied in the Soviet Union.
Contamination of the natural environment constitutes a major problem in all
industrial regions of the USSR.  The country's industry and transport are
continually bringing about massive qualitative changes in the habitat of
man and vegetation through an ever-increasing pollution of air, soil, and
streams.  Pollution and the need to control it have become a matter of great
concern among Soviet conservationists and scientists and they, like their
colleagues in the West, have been warning their government of the colossal
and sometimes irreparable damage that is being done to the environment and
urging that serious and effective steps be taken to avert it.

     In the Soviet Union, like in the West, pollution now poses for the
leaders of the country some fundamental choices between the economics of
production, on one hand, and the progressively worsening living conditions,
on the other.  There appears to be, at present, a greater appreciation and
a better understanding of the immense problems of air and water pollution
on the part of the urban and rural administrative agencies.  As a result of
a mounting demand for the maintenance of a high quality physical environ-
ment, protective measures against the pollution threat are gradually taking
shape in the USSR and much relevant air pollution research data are being
developed in the various industrial regions of that country.

     Studies of atmospheric diffusion and air pollution constitute a rapidly
developing area of meteorological sciences in the USSR.  Determination and
analysis of the complex set of meteorological factors causing the processes
of atmospheric diffusion are being extensively developed there in conjunction
with theoretical and experimental studies of the pattern of propagation and
distribution of contaminants in the atmosphere.

     Most of the material brought together in this volume deals with some
atmospheric and weather conditions as factors in the dispersal of air
pollutants in a number of the industrial regions of the USSR, regions that
are geographically far apart from each other and subject to different natural
and man-made environmental conditions.
                                 I
     The first paper in this volume deals with a report concerning the
feasibility of utilizing satellites for the study of atmospheric pollution.
This material presents a review of investigations endeavoring to determine
gas pollution components in the atmosphere from data on special measurements
of outgoing heat radiation.

     One report in this volume deals with the pollution of the ground layer
of the atmosphere.  This investigation was conducted on the basis of data

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on an occurrence of large-scale mild poisoning of people with sulphur di-
oxide and with products of its oxidation in a given area of the USSR, as a
result of unfavorable meteorological conditions, i.e., under conditions of
temperature inversion and consequent accumulation;of pollutants in the
ground layer of the atmosphere.  The report of this investigation discusses
patterns of dispersal of impurities in the atmosphere as a function of me-
teorological conditions and gives various formulas for calculating the
height of smokestacks, and the dispersal and range of propagation of pollu-
tants.  The volume presents an account of investigations of natural aero-
sols, with the analysis of their samples collected both under surface con-
ditions and in an airplane during horizontal flights of 300 and 1000 meters
above a  given area.  Other material in this volume deals with the compo-
sition of atmospheric water, including precipitation and cloud water, with
a comparison of the chemical composition of the frontal clouds in different
regions of the Soviet Union, with the mineralization of precipitation, and
with the difference between the chemical composition of atmospheric precipi-
tation and that of the cloud water.

     Another report included in this volume presents a procedure for calcu-
lating the atmospheric dispersal of noxious substances (dust and sulfur
dioxide) discharged into the atmosphere by industrial facilities and boiler
houses.  It examines cases of isolated and of collective sources of dis-
charge of noxious substances, and emphasizes the necessity of taking into
account the background pollution of the air reservoir of residential areas
in the determination of boundaries of the sanitary-protective zone.  It also
makes recommendations for implementing basic steps to protect the air res-
ervoir from pollution during the operation of industrial facilities and
boiler houses.

     It is hoped that the papers selected for presentation in this volume
will be conducive to a better appreciation of some of the air pollution in-
vestigations conducted in the USSR.  As the editor of this volume I wish to
thank my co-workers in the Air Pollution Section of the Institute for their
valuable assistance.
                                                            M. Y. Nuttonson

February 1973
                                       VI

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                POSSIBILITY OF STUDYING ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS

                            BY MEANS OF SATELLITES
                              K. Ya.  Kondrat'yev
                    Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences

From Glavnoe Upravlenie Gidrometeorologicheskoy Sluzhby  Pri  Sovete Menestrov
SSSR.  "Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya",  No. 9.  Moskovskoe Otdelenie Gidro-
meteoizdata.  Moskva, p. 3-9,  (September 1970).
           The article offers a survey of studies dealing with the possibility of determining
       the content of polluting gaseous components (sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc.),
       based  on data of spectral measurements of outgoing heat radiation.  The available data
       indicate the fundamental possibility of solving this problem. The necessity of a com-
       prehensive approach to the solution of this problem is discussed and its close relation-
       ship to the problem of thermal sounding of the atmosphere from satellites is noted.
                                                   *

     Despite the serious steps taken toward reducing  industrial pollutants
in the atmosphere, the problem of pollutants that  sometimes  reach dangerous
proportions  (particularly near industrial centers)  is becoming increasingly
serious.   It has been found,  for example, that in  many  towns the meteorologi-
cal regime is already substantially dependent on  air  pollution [1, 7].  The
aftereffects of pollution may  be even more serious  in character.  This applies
particularly to a number of western European countries.

     As  an illustration of the validity of this  conclusion,  Fig. 1 shows
data on  the  increase in the number of automobile  engines and the growth in
the consumption of electric power and mineral  oils  as compared with the
population increase in the German Federal Republic [7],   It  is evident that
a linear population growth is  accompanied by an exponential  increase of the
factors  determining the atmospheric pollution.

     The rapid development of  all types of transportation (primarily auto-
motive and air) as well as a vigorous industrial  growth  raise the level of
atmospheric  pollution not only in the immediate vicinity of  major industrial
centers,  but also over much larger areas.  The pollutants produced by high-
flying jet airplanes and those arising from launchings  of satellites extend
to high  layers of the atmosphere 16].   All of this  renders the problem of
pollutants truly global in scale and makes it necessary  to look for possible
applications of satellite methods to the study of  atmospheric pollutants.

     As  far  as the study of the dust pollution of  the atmosphere at various
heights  is concerned, spectrophotometric observations of the twilight aureole
of the earth from manned orbital stations may be  of major importance in this
case  [4].  However, we shall confine our attention  only  to the discussion of
the problem  of gaseous components of atmospheric pollutants.

     Atmospheric pollutants involve the presence in the  atmosphere of both
primary  polluting components and secondary products arising  from various
                                      - 1 -

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 chemical and photochemical reactions.  Among the  chief components of
 pollution are compounds of sulfur (mainly S0_) , nitrogen (NO, N0« and
 NH^) ,  carbon (CO, 002), halogens, hydrocarbon  compounds, aldehydes and
 particles (solid aerosols).   The most typical  components of industrial
 pollutants are CO, S02, N02  and 03.   Table 1 gives  comparative data charac-
 terizing the approximate  concentrations of polluting  components in a pure
 and a  polluted atmosphere  [7].   In all cases except the  one involving aerosol
 pollution, the values of  the  volume  concentration are  expressed in ten
 thousand parts of one percent (ppm) .
               M. 0. E.P.
               M t  M kwhr   M
                75
                50
 300
-200
                   . 100
                   L   o
.  20
                                             Population
                                                M
                             1850
                    1900
                          <950  <975   2000 r
                  Fig. 1.  Growth in the consumption of electric power and mineral
                  oils in the German Federal Republic in comparison with the popu-
                                     lation increase.
                  1 - size of population; 2 - number of automobile engines;
                  3 - consumption of electric power; 4 - consumption of mineral oils.

     It is  evident that the carbon monoxide concentration exceeds  the total
concentration of all the other components (with the exception  of carbon
dioxide).   In second place  (in importance as a polluting component)  should be
placed sulfur dioxide and hydrocarbon compounds.  Major industrial centers
are characterized by the presence  of  a "coupola" of pollutants  over them,
the height  of which may reach 1000 m  and usually exceeds 500 m [7].

     One  can visualize the various fundamental possibilities of  observation
and determination of the concentration of polluting components  of  the atmos-
phere from  satellites.  One possible  method, for example, is absorption
spectroscopy, in which the spectrum of the absorption of solar radiation by
                                     - 2 -

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the atmosphere during sunrises  and sunsets  is  recorded  relative  to  the
satellite, when the sun's  rays  traverse  the thickness of  the  atmosphere
[2].  Obviously, however,  this  method  is not applicable to the  lower layers
of the atmosphere, where the  attenuation of radiation is  too  great,  and
thus the signal measured is practically  equal  to zero.  However, the study
of the lower  layers of  the atmosphere  is precisely of the greatest  interest.
                                                         Table 1

              Concentration of Polluting Components in a Pure and a Polluted Atmosphere.
Polluting Component






Pure Atmosphere
lO-'-lO-3
<1
3IO--330
JO-3— 10--

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     As was  conclusively  demonstrated by the development of satellite
meteorology, most promising for the solution of problems involved in the
study of the composition  and structure of the atmosphere is the  use of
data on spectral measurements of outgoing heat radiation [3].  It can be
readily ascertained  that  this conclusion also applies to the solution of
the problem  of determining  the content of atmospheric pollutants.   This
will be shown by using some results of recent studies [8].

     Ludwig, Bartle  and Griggs [8]  carried out numerical experiments to
evaluate the influence on the outgoing radiation of the presence  of a layer
of polluting component  (near the earth's surface) 300 m thick for the follow-
ing models of stratification of the atmosphere:  standard atmosphere ARDC-
1959 and arctic winter and  tropical atmospheres.   Table 2 shows the results
of calculations for  the 4.6 ym band of carbon monoxide at CO concentrations
corresponding to conditions of negligible (1 ppm), moderate (10 ppm)  and
very heavy pollution  (100 ppm).   The relative emissivity of the earth's
surface was  taken as  0.95.   The calculations were carried out for different

                                                Table 2
               Change in the Intensity of Outgoing Radiation AIoo Hear the
               Wavelength of 4.6ym Upon the Appearance of a Polluting Layer
                               of Carbon Monoxide.
Atmosphere

T, =288 K 	
Ta =287 K 	
Standard
7", =298 K . . . . .
fa =287 K 	
r, =278 K 	
Ta =287 K 	
Tropical i .
Ts =305 K 	
Ta =304 K . . . .
Arctic Winter
T, =247 K 	
/•« =251 K 	
Carbon
Monoxide
Concentration
ppm
1
10
100
1
10
100
1
10
100
1
10
100
1
10
100 •
^/ao. %
0,05.
0.2&
0,80-
1,8>
6.5&
16.61
-2.65.
-9,2O
-22,9&
0.02
0.06
.0.32
-1,7+
-6.4D
-I6.9S
                                      -  4  -

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values of the temperature of the earth's surface T  (in order to allow for
the influence of the daily temperature variation) and for the average
temperature of the pollutant layer T .
                                    3.

     Naturally, the "sensitivity" of the outgoing radiation to the concen-
tration of the polluting component depends decisively on the temperature
contrast Ts~Ta.  At low temperature contrasts, the values of AI^ do not
exceed the range of measurement errors (the existing instrumental capabili-
ties permit one to achieve a measurement accuracy of not more than 0.5-1%
[5]).  However, on the whole, the example of the calculation pertaining to
one of the principal polluting components gives encouraging results,

     The authors of reference [8] also studied the influence of the nature
of the vertical profile of the pollutant concentration  (for a constant total
content of the pollutant) on the magnitude of outgoing  radiation.  Detailed
calculations of this kind were made for ammonia (wavelength, 10.8 ym) .  These
calculations revealed an essential dependence of the outgoing radiation on
the type of vertical distribution of the polluting component.

     Figure 2 shows the calculations made by the authors cited in [8] for
the spectral distribution of the values of AIOT (X) as a function of the wave-
length for eight components of pollution separately, and also the total effect
of all these components (it is of course understood that the total effect is
not additive) for standard atmosphere conditions.  The  spectral resolution
capacity was 0.1 ym.  The values of maximum gas concentrations n    indicated
on the figure correspond to approximately one-tenth of  the concentration typi-
cal of the level of the earth's surface in the case of  moderate and heavy
pollution.  It is evident that the overall curve shows  most distinctly the
peaks corresponding to carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.

     The data of Fig. 2 clearly revealed the existence  of a complex problem
of overlapping of the emission bands of the individual  gases.  The situation
obviously becomes even more complicated if one takes into account the influ-
ence of a series of bands that have not been considered, particularly those
belonging to water vapor and carbon dioxide.  It follows that the first
requirement for a successful solution to the problem of determination of the
content of a polluting component from measurements of outgoing radiation
consists in separating a spectral .interval where the absorption spectra of
this and other components do not overlap.  Obviously, such a requirement can
best be met by selecting sufficiently narrow spectral intervals.

     Since the outgoing radiation is chiefly determined by the vertical
distributions of the temperature and radiating component (in the absence of
band overlap) , it follows that the first step in the solution to the problem
of determining the vertical profile of the concentration of the polluting
component should be the determination of the change of  temperature with height.
Since at the present time the objective of thermal sounding of the atmosphere
                                   - 5 -

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 CO
20


10


 0


20


<0


 0


10
                          Total  Radiation
 S0
        -  n(S02)max=0,02ppm
                           A


                         J  \  ,
                                     /Vv
 N02 n F  .
pm
?
     to
    JO
               fliax
  \  n(P/.M)M- 0,005 Ppm      A

  1   1  \  1     1     1     1   / \  / 1 1
         A_;    •/••.

          n(HH,)M-0,05ppn,
 0
0
                                               A
                                           /\
       F   A
       1   ,A
           n(C5H6) = 0,005 ppm
                      A  n(N02)m= 0,02 ppm       1
                i   .  tr \  i	['max .	i	i	.   i
                                                  J
.1
                                                   J
          34     5    6    7    8    9 •   10    11    12   X,


      Pig. 2. Change of the outgoing radiation  Ala, (A) for different pollutine
      components as a function of wavelength (PAN   peroxyacetyl nitrate).
                               - 6 -

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 from satellites  may be considered practically accomplished (cf.  [3]),  this
 does not present any particular difficulties.  Moreover,  the  mathematical
 methods  worked out  for solving the problem of thermal sounding  can  also be
 applied  to the interpretation of data on measurements of  outgoing radiation
 for the  purpose  of  determining the content of the  polluting components.

      In  this connection,  a great importance is assumed by the considerable
 dependence of the solution on the correctness of the nucleus  of  the integral
 equation of the  problem,  i.e. , on how reliable is  the determination of the
 derivative of the transmission function, a dependence observed  in solving
 reverse  problems of satellite meteorology.  The existing  data on the trans-
 mission  functions of the  above polluting components of the atmosphere cannot
 be  regarded as more than  tentative.  There is no question, therefore, that
 the insufficient spectrescopic study of these components  constitutes a
 serious  obstacle to the development of satellite methods  of determining
 their content in the atmosphere.  Although work has now begun on a  compre-
 hensive  approach to the solution of reverse problems, in  which  the  measure-
 ment data on the outgoing radiation are used for an independent  determina-
 tion of  the derivatives of the transmission function, this work cannot as
 yet be considered close to practical applications.

      Research conducted thus far of the problem of determination of the
 vertical humidity profile has shown that one of the serious obstacles is
 due in this case to "bad" weighting functions, which determine  the  vertical
 distribution of  the relative contribution of the individual layers  of the
 atmosphere to the outgoing radiation (cf. [3]).  Apparently,  this difficulty
 should also characterize  the solution of the problem of content  of  polluting
 components.

      Finally, let us note that all the results of calculations  discussed
 above pertain to clear sky conditions.  This signifies that the use of
 measurement data pertaining to actual conditions will give rise to  the same
 problems concerning the consideration of the influence of the cloud cover
 as  in the familiar case of thermal sounding of the atmosphere.   The situation
 is  even  considerably more complex, since of greatest interest is the determin-
' ation of the concentration of polluting components near the earth's surface.

      As  in the case of the problem, of thermal sounding, one can attempt to
 solve the problem of influence of the cloud cover by using the  microwave
 region of the spectrum.  However, the considerable overlap of numerous lines
 of  individual components  of the atmosphere makes the use  of the  microwave
 region very difficult.

      In  conclusion, it may be stated that the use of data on  spectral measure-
 ments of outgoing heat radiation in the infrared region of the  spectrum is
 more promising from the standpoint of development of the  satellite  method of
 determining the  polluting components of the atmosphere.  The  existing data
                                    -  7 -

-------
show  that  despite  many difficulties,  suitable efforts  aimed at the develop-
ment  of a  method  of this  type should  yield  fruitful results.
                                      LITERATURE  CITED
            1. Eep.iHHu At. E. O pacnpocT-paHMiHii aiiMoc(J>epHbi.x npiiMecefi B yc.ioBiiax ropoaa.—
                   MeTeopo.ionia n ruapoJioraifl, iX's 3. 1970.
            '2. KompatbeB  K. %.,  He.nopeH? B. C, IloxpoBCKiiffi  A. T. O  SOSMO/KHOCTII
                   cneKTpa.ibHLix lOMepeHHH coaepwaniis  Boaanoro  napa  B ctparoccpeps  11 Meso-
                   cipepe. — IhsecTiifl AH CCCP,  ccp.  «. — H3sccT.ua AH CCCP, cep. «ii3HKa   atMoc^epbi  u oKeana», .\« 4.
                   1970.
            -5. KoHjupaTbcs  K. 3.   PaanauHCHHaH  annaoarypa   MeTeopo.ionifecKiix  cn\TH»KO3
                   C1IIA.—:McTeopo.iorna H nupo.ionia, 3^ 12, 1969.
            6. Barringer  A. R.,  N e w b u r y B. C.   and  Ai o f f a t A.  J. Surveillance of air
                   pollution  from  airborne and space platforms.— Proc. of the  Fifth Symposium
                   on Remote  Sensing  of Environment.  The  Univ. of Michigan, September, 196S.
            7. G e o r g i i  H. W. The effects  of   air pollution  on urban  climates. — Bulletin of
                   the World Health  Organization, v. 40, 1969.
            8. L u d w i g C. B., B a r 11 e  R.  and  G r i g g s  M. Study of  air pollutant detection
                   by  remote   sensors.   Convair   Division  of  General  Dynamics. — Report
                   GDC—DBE. San Diego, California, December, 1968.
                                              -  8 -

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         POLLUTION OF THE GROUND LAYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE

                  DURING TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS

            (Zagryazneniya Prizemnogo Sloya Atmosfery
                 Pri Temperaturnykh Inversiyakh)
  A. I. Burnazyan, B. A. Bogdanov, L. F. Glebova, V. M. Kozlov,
                                             •
V. V. Malakhova, G. I. Solomina, E. N. Teverovskiy, G. V. Chernega
                     A. I. Burnazyan, Editor
                     Izdatel'stvo "Meditsina"
                           Moskva, 1969
                              - 9 -

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                                Introduction

     Among the measures formulated by the Directives of the Twenty-Third
Congress of the CPSU are recommendations concerning the need for improving
the sanitary conditions of populated areas for a more vigorous struggle
with the pollution of water and air reservoirs in towns, cities, and
workers' settlements, and for nature conservation, particularly in suburban
zones of industrial cities.

     At the Fifteenth All-Union Congress of Hygienists and Public Health
Physicians, held in Kiev in May 1967, it was noted that today there are
still cases of pollution of water reservoirs, soil, and atmosphere by
toxic substances discharged by industrial enterprises.

     At this congress, the minister of public health of the USSR, B. V. Petrov-
skiy, emphasized the implementation of ameliorative measures aimed at pre-
venting and eliminating the pollution of water reservoirs, soil, and atmos-
pheric air, and the pollution of industrial centers with noxious discharges
and household waste.  These measures assume a particular importance at the
present stage of rapid development of all branches of industry and intro-
duction of chemical processes into the national economy.

     We know that in one day, a man consumes about 1 kg of food, 2.5 1 of
water and 12 kg of air.  Hence, air is the chief product being consumed,
and it, therefore, should be the purest.  Pure, uncontaminated air is extremely
important in preserving and sustaining human health.  Thus the problem of pre-
venting air pollution assumes a great importance.  The problem of sanitary
protection of the atmosphere of towns, cities, and workers' settlements has
become particularly acute.

     The chief sources of air pollution are industrial enterprises, thermal
electric power plants, industrial boiler houses, and also internal combustion
engines.

     As the industry develops and towns grow in size, the demand for various
types of fuel rises sharply, causing an increase in air pollution from the
discharge of products of combustion of solid and liquid fuel (gas, smoke,
soot).

     The air of developed industrial centers with a high industrial concen-
tration is constantly being contaminated by discharges of various industrial
wastes.  The control of these discharges is being given considerable atten-
tion, but the increase in the discharges is approximately proportional to
the industrial growth.

     At the present time it is becoming increasingly clear that the pollution
of atmospheric air may pose a threat not only to man's health, but also to
                                    -  10  -

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his life.  This pollution becomes particularly  dangerous  under  certain
specific meteorological conditions.  Interest in  these problems has increased
since the well-known disaster in the Maas Valley  in Belgium  (1930).

     The presence of such disasters and  the  recent sharp  rise in  the mortal-
ity rate because of air pollution under  unfavorable meteorological  conditions
in London (1948, 1952, 1956, 1962), Donora  (Pennsylvania,  U.S.A., 1948),
Posa Rica (Mexico, 1950), New York  (1953, 1962, 1963), and other  places
demonstrate that air pollution  in the  towns,  cities,  and  industrial centers
of capitalist  countries has  reached such proportions  that it has  adversely
affected the living conditions  of the  population.

     The cause of these disasters was  smog,* a  toxic  fog  formed as  a result
of pollution of atmospheric  air with noxious  gases under  unfavorable
meteorologi cal condi tions.

     A toxic fog may form when  poisonous substance's are present in  air  in
relatively low concentrations during quiet windless weather  and a temper-
ature inversion, i.e., under meteorological  conditions not conducive to
dispersal and  causing the accumulation of atmospheric pollutants  in the
ground layers  of the atmosphere and a  sharp  increase  in the  concentrations
of poisonous substances in  the  zone of human breathing.

     In  the present brochure, using an actual case of large-scale poisoning
of the population with sulfur oxides as  an  example, the authors intend  to
direct the attention of the  scientific medical  community  and representatives
of those branches of industry which are  responsible for atmospheric pollu-
tion to  the necessity of  intensifying  the efforts toward  achieving  air
purity in urban and industrial  centers.
    * Editor's note:  The term smog was formed from the words smoke and fog.
                                     - 11 -

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                      POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR

                   OF INDUSTRIAL CENTERS WITH FLUE GASES
     Despite the measures taken toward purifying noxious industrial
emissions, the rapid development of industry has caused the air of indus-
trial centers to contain different amounts of various chemicals in the form
of gases, vapors, and aerosols.  Particularly complex is the background of
atmospheric pollution in areas where petrochemical and chemical enterprises
are located, i.e., where the quantitative and qualitative composition of
the emissions requires a thorough study.  Among the industrial atmospheric
pollutants in modern cities, the major ones continue to be sulfur oxides,
whose absolute amounts are large as a result of their discharge with flue
gases of thermal electric power plants and with the waste gases of industrial
enterprises (petroleum refineries, petrochemical, sulfuric acid plants,
etc.).  This is due to the combustion of low-grade, high-ash types of solid
fuel with a high sulfur content, and the combustion of high-sulfur mazuts.
The combustion of solid fuel contaminates the air with ash, unburned fuel
particles, and soot and sulfur oxides, chiefly sulfur dioxide.  At the same
time, the magnitude of pollution of air with flue gases depends on the quan-
tity, quality, and mode of combustion of the fuel, the efficiency of the
existing gas purification equipment, and the height of the smokestacks [1].
Solid fuel is burned by two basic methods, the pulverization and layer
methods.  Thermal electric power plants usually have pulverized-fuel furnaces,
whereas heating boilers of low capacity are equipped with layer furnaces.

     In the pulverization method of fuel combustion, the carry-over of fly
ash with the flue gases accounts for approximately 80-90% of the ash content
of the fuel, with 74.5-90% of the dust particles having a particle size of
less than 10 p.  These fractions are the most offensive in the biological
sense.

     In addition, fly ash contains 4-24% of free silicon dioxide (Si02)
[1, 2].

     In the pulverization method of combustion, the sulfur contained in the
solid fuel (pyrite and organic sulfur) burns up almost completely, forming
chiefly sulfurous anhydride.

     In the layer combustion of fuel, depending on the design of the furnace,
the discharge of fly ash with the flue gases amounts to 20-30% of its con-
tent in the fuel.  In contrast to the pulverization method of combustion, in
the layer method part of the sulfur contained in the fuel remains unburned,
and settles out in the slag in the form of cinder.  It is commonly assumed
that about 75% of the sulfur burns up in this case, so that the amount of
sulfur dioxide reaching the atmosphere in the layer method of combustion will
                                    - 12 -

-------
be 25% less for each  ton of burned  fuel  than  in  the  case  of the  pulveriza-
tion method.
     Of all the types of solid  fuel,  the  largest amount of sulfur and ash
is present in Moscow  coals  (sulfur content  2.5-6.0%,  ash 35-50%), Kizel
coal (ash content  30.0%, sulfur 7.0%),  Lisichansk coal (ash content around
20%, sulfur 4%).   Among shales, the Volga ones  are high in sulfur (4.0-4.5%),
and their ash content is 30.0-65.0%.

     Highly unfavorable from a  sanitary standpoint is the combustion of
coal preparation waste, mainly  of the industrial product, in which the
sulfur content may reach 11%, and that of ash,  40-50%.

     Thus, depending  on the amount and quality  of the solid fuel burned,
thermal electric power plants and boiler  houses can discharge considerable
amounts of sulfur  dioxide  and fly ash into  the  atmosphere (Table 1) [3].

     As is evident from the data of Table 1, the absolute discharges of
ash and sulfur dioxide with the flue  gases  of electric power plants may
amount to many tens and hundreds of tons  per day.

     In connection with the development of  the  petroleum refining industry,
the combustion of  mazut at thermal electric power plants and in industrial
boiler houses is becoming  increasingly important in the USSR as well as
abroad.
                                                         Table 1.
                   Discharge of Sulfur Dioxide with Flue Gases of Electric
                            Power Plants Operating on Solid Fuel.
Arbitrary
Designa-
tion of
Therma}.
Electric
Power Flare







Consumption
of -Fuel.
(t/hr)

580
500
460
280
260
180
252
Content
(B «)
Sulfur

0,85
2,5
2,6
2,74
0.44
2,«3
2,4
Ash

45
25
24
28.7
15
25
23
discharge of
Sulfur Diox-
ide
(In t/day).

240 '
600
568,8
374,4
55,1
240
290.4
Discharge of
Ash Taking, the
Ash Trapping
into Account
(in t/day)

1296
672
196,8
160,8
80,6
127.2
504
      Mazuts,  used as fuel for boiler houses, are primarily sulfur and high-
 sulfur mazuts containing 3-4.5% sulfur or more.  Particularly unsuitable
 from a sanitary point of view are high-sulfur mazuts obtained from the
 refining of high-sulfur crudes.
                                     - 13 -

-------
     Sulfur in mazuts  is present mainly  in  the  form of organic  compounds,
free hydrogen sulfide, and elemental  sulfur.  During  the  combustion of mazut
in the furnaces of boilers and electric  power plants, almost  all  of the
sulfur is discharged into the atmosphere in the form  of sulfur  dioxide
with the flue gases.   The magnitude of absolute discharges  of sulfur dioxide
into the atmosphere as a function of  the sulfur content in  the  mazut being
burned can be evaluated from the calculated data of Table 2.

                                                        Table 2.
                 Absolute Discharge of Sulfur Dioxide vdth  the Flue Gases of
                      Electric  Power Plants Burning Mazut (in t/days).
Power of
Plant (ir
Thousand;
of kW)
600
900
1200
2400
4800
Sulfur -Content of Mazut (in #)

l

1.5

2

3

3.5

4.5
Absolute Discharge (in t/days).

—
104
208
416
78
117
156
312
624
104
156
208
416
832
156
234
312
624
1248
• 182
273
362
728
1456
226
351
466
936
1872
     As a result  of  the  development  of thermal power engineering and con-
struction of high-output thermal  electric  power plants,  i.  e.,  2400-4800 MKW
and above,  the absolute  discharges of sulfur dioxide during the combustion
of mazut as well  as  coal are  very considerable.

     On the basis of the above it may be concluded that  sulfur compounds
and ash are of great sanitary importance as factors in air pollution.

     An important part is also played by the discharges  of gases from
numerous furnaces, boiler houses  and transport vehicles  burning mazut and
low-grade fuels.   Of interest in  this regard are examples of absolute dis-
charges of  sulfur dioxide during  the combustion of solid fuel in the com-
bustion chambers  of  boiler houses, house furnaces, and electric power plants
in certain  foreign cities.

     In England,  190 million  tons of coal  was burned in  1948, so that the
discharges  of sulfur dioxide  amounted to 4.7 million tons [46].  In New
York, as a  result of the combustion  of 30  million tons of coal, around 1.5
million tons of sulfur dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere every
year.  In France, the thermal electric power plants of "Electricite de
France"  (EDF) discharged into the atmosphere 114,000 tons of sulfur dioxide
and 82,400,000 tons  of ash in 1960.   According to the data of the Paris
Hygiene Laboratory,  around 178,000  tons of sulfur dioxide is discharged into
the atmosphere of the city every year, 52% being due to  the flue gases of
house  furnaces.   This led the French Minister of public  health, B. Sheno
[ Chennault ], to  state at the  opening of the First National Congress on the
                                     -  14 -

-------
Control of Atmospheric Pollution,  in November 1960,  that air pollution,  whose
victims are the  inhabitants  of  large cities  and  industrial  centers,  is  cur-
rently becoming  a major calamity and steps must  be  taken to combat the  grow-
ing pollution  [4],

     At the present  time,  a  considerable  body of data has been provided by
sanitary-hygienic studies  of pollution of urban  air with sulfur dioxide.

     In the neighborhood of  a high-capacity  electric power  plant discharg-
ing 280-360 tons of  sulfur dioxide per day,  the  maximum concentrations  of
this gas on the  leeward side were  0.3-4.9 mg/m3  at  a distance of 200-500 m;
0.7-5.5 mg/m3  at a distance  of  500-1000 m; 0.22-2.8 mg/m3 at a distance of
1000-2000 m [5].

     In the vicinity of an isolated boiler house which discharged about 7
tons of sulfur dioxide per day,  the maximum  sulfur  .dioxide  concentrations
were 1.4-11.97 mg/m3 at a  distance of 200 m, 0.16-1.0 mg/m3 at a distance
of 300 m, 0.10-0.6 mg/m3 at  a distance of 600 m, and 0.14-0.2 mg/m3 at  a
distance of 1000 m from the  source of the discharge [5].

     The importance  of absolute  discharges of sulfur dioxide in the pollu-
tion of atmospheric  air is shown in Table 3  [3].

                                                      Table 3.
             Maximum Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations in Atmospheric Air Around
                          Electric Power Plants.
a>>gu g
2.rlr-( 0
•** 90-
-P CO g 4-
JTSJ'II

.
B
C
D
E
F
G
i
Absolute
iischarges
(Maximum Concentrations of Sulfur Dioxide
Height ol
Smoke-
(in t/hrJ stacks
1 (in m)

10
25
23,7
15,6
. 2,3
10
12,1
(in Bg/m') in Atmospheric Air at a Dis-
tance of fin km).

0,5

i
120
45
120
120
105
150
120
0,24
19,1
1,3
0,6
0,3
0,48
0.73

2.0


0.23
13.3
1,9
1,1
0,4
0,6
0,51

0,3
3,8

3.0


0.28
—
1,3 ; 1,5
1,1
0,3
0.7
1.06
1.1
0,2
0,72
0,30

4,0


—
—
0,9
0.3
—
—
. ma

5,0


0,17
—
0,9
0,3
—
0,6
~
     As is evident  from Table  3,  in the  study of the degree of atmospheric
pollution around  thermal electric power  plants,  high concentrations  of sul-
furous anhydride  were observed in the  air at a distance of up to 3 km for an
absolute discharge  of 15.6  t/hr and above through high stacks (120 m).  An
extremely high air  pollution was  observed around an electric power plant dis-
charing 25 t/hr of  sulfurous anhydride through low stacks  (45 m).

     Table 4 shows  the  magnitude  of maximum concentrations of fly ash in the
atmospheric air around  the  electric power plants.
                                      - 15 -

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     Sanitary studies  [5,  6,  7,  8]  established that the meteorological
conditions have  a major  influence  on the  degree of atmospheric pollution
with sulfur dioxide.   Factors  causing an  increase in sulfur dioxide con-
centrations in the  air of  cities are a low barometric pressure, low wind
velocities, a low temperature, a high relative humidity, and fog.

     In addition to sulfurous  anhydride,  the  flue gases of electric power
plants and boiler houses always contain sulfuric anhydride, which  amounts
to 1-3% of the total concentration  of sulfur  oxides in these gases [5].

     Table 5 presents  data on  the  content  of  sulfurous and sulfuric anhy-
drides in the waste gases  of enterprises  and  in the atmospheric air of
certain cities [9].

                                                  Table 4
                    Maximum Concentrations of Fly Ash (in ng/nr) in the
                      Atmospheric Air Around Electric Povier Plants
Jh *
'io EH "
« owa
A
B
C
D
E
F
Q)^-\
a> eat*
-P & j3
'o'o**
s:a.s
54
28
8,2
6,7
3,4
5.3
JIL
S <» s
•HOC
a> S-H
SB OTs^
120
45
120
120
105
150
Maximum Concentrations of Dust (in mg/nr)
at a Distance of (in km)
0.5
6,6
51,0
1,1
1,0
1,1
0,28
1,0
4,5
24,9
2.7
2,1
0,9
0,4
1.5
2.2
3.9
0,4
2.0
8,4
9,9
1,8
3,0
0,8
'
3.0
6.1
2,6
0.9
1,4
1^5
4.0
0,5
0.5
5,0 •
4,4
0,3
o7l7
     Since sulfuric anhydride amounts  to  about  1-3%  of  the total concentra-
tion of sulfur oxides in the flue  gases of boiler houses  and electric power
plants, one can calculate  the approximate discharge  of  sulfuric anhydride
into the atmosphere as a result of combustion of different types of fuel.

     The approximate discharge of  sulfuric anhydride with flue  gases during
the combustion of different types  of solid fuel can  be  seen from Table 6 [5].

     It may be expected that the combustion  of  500 t/hr of Moscow and Kizel
coal will result in the discharge  into the atmosphere of  about  12.4 and
24.48 t/day of sulfuric anhydride  respectively, which approaches the absolute
discharges of sulfuric acid plants.  In a large city with a population of
several million people, consuming  60,000  tons of coal per day,  the discharge
of sulfur dioxide may amount to 50-180 tons, which adds even more urgency
to the problem of pollution of the air reservoir of  industrial  cities with
sulfur oxides.
                                     - 16 -

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                                                     Table 5
               Content ol Sulfurous and Sulfuric Anhydrides (SO  and SO,) in
                Atmospheric Air and in Waste Gases (the Smoke was Analyzed in
                               the Smokestack).
Item Studied
1 Berlin
London
Glasgow
Cleveland
Small English town 	
Smoke from locomotive 	
Factory smoke (average) ...
Wood smoke 	
Coal smoke (near combustion chamber

Industrial Plants
Smoke from smelting of copper .or£ .
Smoke of roasting furnaces . . .
Smoke of ultramarine plants . . .
Smoke of sulfuric acid plants . . .
S0? Concentration
(Vol. *)
0,000053
0,00039—0,014
0,00042—0,015
0,002
0 000013
0 03
0,112
0
> 0,046—0,08
0 063
0 037—0,04
»
1,7
8,5
0,025
0,5—3,5
0,13-0,45
SO 3 Concen-
tration (g/m3)
0,0019
0,075
0 00047
0 12
4,0
o
1,7—3,0
2 25
1 33_1 43
60,75
27 8 J
0 9
17,9—125,0
4,6—16,1
     Experimental studies  [10] established that sulfuric  anhydride  is
practically not observed in  clear weather.  In cloudy weather,  the  sulfuric
acid aerosol concentration in average daily samples was 6.8%, during variable
cloudiness  5.1%, and in clear weather, only about 3.2%.   In  foggy weather,
the content of sulfuric anhydride as  the product of oxidation of sulfur dioxide
may amount  to about 15.7% of the  concentration of sulfur  dioxide.   It was  noted
that the percentage of sulfur dioxide which changed into  sulfuric acid  aerosol
was greater the longer and heavier  the fog.  Thus, in one of the single samples,
the concentration of sulfuric acid  aerosol was 32% of the concentration of
sulfur dioxide.
                 Table 6

  Discharge of Sulfuric Anhydride
     with Furnace Gases for
     Different Types of Fuel
Name of Coal


Kuznetsk ....
Donetsk.' ....
Moscow
Kizel . . .


Q
4>H a
**^tf\
O £j £3 C
fi o**»>» E
o+» SC
14,6
63,2
208,0
232,0
454,0

HI*
10 c Q)
•rl'H
-------
  Brief Description of the Chemical Properties and Toxicity of Substances
     Discharged During the Combustion of Fuel into the Atmosphere

     The main chemical substances discharged into the atmosphere with the
flue gases during the combustion of fuel are sulfur oxides (sulfurous and
sulfuric anhydrides), fly ash, and carbon monoxide.  The flue gases of
boiler houses may also contain other chemical compounds forming during the
combustion of solid and liquid fuels, in particular, nitrogen oxides, boron
oxides, etc.

     The part played by these compounds in the pollution of the atmosphere
during the combustion of fuel has not been completely determined.

     Sulfurous anhydride (S0_, molecular weight 64.06) is a colorless gas
with a pungent odor that decreases at low temperatures.  When dissolved in
water, it forms sulfurous acid.  It has reducing properties.
     The clinical picture of acute poisoning of experimental animals exposed
    aw concentrations of SO,
respiratory tract and eyes.'
to low concentrations of S02 consists in the irritation of the mucosa of the
     At higher concentrations, the symptoms observed are cyanosis of the
visible mucous membranes, marked dyspnea, and sometimes convulsions and
death.  Autopsy of the dead animals shows mucous-purulent or fibrinous
coatings in the respiratory tract, hyperemia and edema of the lungs, and
hemorrhages in the latter.

     When animals are exposed to a mixture of sulfurous anhydride and carbon
monoxide or to particles of a thick, highly dispersed fog, the toxicity of
sulfur dioxide increases sharply.

     Until recently, it was commonly believed that on reaching the mucosa
of the upper respiratory tract, sulfur dioxide forms sulfurous acid (H^SOO ,
which oxidizes to sulfuric acid (H«SO,), and the latter causes serious
injury to the upper respiratory tract.  This does not assume the penetra-
tion of sulfur dioxide directly into the blood, and thus its general resorp-
tive effect has been denied.

     However, an extensive experimental material accumulated in. the last
few years has shaken these assumptions.  It was established that the blood
takes up sulfur dioxide very quickly and readily [11-16].  Sulfur dioxide
was shown to be present in the blood as early as 20 minutes after being
inhaled and some time after breathing has ceased.  In the organism, this
gas is not uniformly distributed.  Its largest amounts are observed in the
lungs, bone marrow and liver  [17].  When sulfur dioxide is inhaled every
day, after 3-4 days the products of its transformation accumulate in the
body.
                                    - 18 -

-------
     Thus, during inhalation of sulfur dioxide labeled with a sulfur
isotope (S35), the gas was found in all the viscera, particularly in the
lungs, but also in the urine and stool three weeks after poisoning [15].

     Various points of view exist on the mechanism of the general toxic
action of SC^.  Some researchers [12, 15] regard nervous mechanisms to
be the leading ones in the development of intoxication, on the basis of
the fact that even slight concentrations of this gas cause a number of
disturbances in the nervous reflex activity of experimental animals.  Other
authors [18] attribute a special importance to the sharp depression of
immunobiological protective mechanisms.

     In the view of still others [14], the leading role in the pathogenesis
of poisoning is that of disturbance of enzymatic oxidation processes, break-
down of thiamine, and oxygen starvation of tissues.
                                                  •
     The toxic concentrations of sulfur dioxide are different for different
experimental animals.  Thus, in white mice, death occurred after the inhala-
tion of this gas for 10 minutes in a concentration of 3.5 mg/1, and in
white rats, in a concentration pf 2.6 mg/1.  In guinea pigs, the inhalation
of sulfur dioxide in a concentration of 2-2.6 mg/1 for 30 min to 1 hour did
not result in death.

     For man, the threshold of perception of the sulfur dioxide odor is
0.006-0.003 mg/1.  During exposure, irritation of the eyes is caused
immediately by a concentration of 0.05 mg/1, irritation in the throat by
concentrations of 0.02-0.03 tng/1, and cough by a concentration of 0.05 mg/1
A concentration of 0.12 mg/1 can be tolerated for 3 min, and 0.3 mg/1, for
only 1 minute.

     Recent studies have established slightly lower values of the perception
threshold of sulfur dioxide odor for man  [18].  According to these data, a
definite odor of sulfur dioxide is perceived by all people in concentrations
of 0.005-0.007 mg/1.  Most persons, however, perceive the odor of this gas
in concentrations of 0.0026-0.003 mg/1, and the most sensitive ones, even in
a concentration as low as 0.0016 mg/1.  At low temperatures, a decrease of
the olfactory sensitivity is observed.

     The maximum permissible concentration of sulfur dioxide for the air of
industrial buildings is 10 mg/m3; for atmospheric air, the highest single
concentration is 0.5 mg/m3, and the mean daily concentration, 0.05 mg/m3.

     Sulfuric acid fog (HJSO^, molecular weight 98.08) consists of extremely
fine particles (a few microns in size) of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere.
As a rule, sulfuric acid aerosol is present in air-simultaneously with sul-
furous anhydride, which, depending on the humidity of the air, partially
forms sulfuric acid aerosol [5, 10].
                                   -  19 -

-------
     The degree of injury to the lungs depends not so much on the aerosol
concentration as on the duration of its action and also on the particle
size of the aerosol:  the latter determines the level of greatest injury
(bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli).  For example, guinea pigs inhaling H^SO^
aerosol with a particle size of 2.5 y in high concentrations developed a
bronchial spasm and breathing disturbances.  Particles 7 y in size caused
only slight changes in breathing, even when the aerosol was inhaled in a
concentration of 0.03 mg/1 for 1 hour [18].

     Sulfuric acid aerosol, like sulfurous anhydride, has also a general
toxic effect on the organism [19].  The studies were carried out on rats
subjected to the inhalational action of sulfuric acid aerosol labeled with
a sulfur isotope (S35).  it was noted that in a single inhalational exposure,
the sulfuric acid aerosol rapidly enters the blood.  The conversion products
of sulfuric acid are carried into all the organs and tissues, remaining
there for a long time (up to 10 days).  Their distribution in the organs
and tissues is not uniform.  In the first few hours after the exposure, the
conversion products of sulfuric acid become localized mainly in the lungs,
blood, liver, and large intestine, and are excreted from the organism
through the kidneys and intestine.

     The experiment also showed that the combined action of sulfuric acid
aerosol and sulfur dioxide on the animals increases the toxic effect of
the dioxide, i.e., a marked synergism is observed [20, 21].  The experi-
ment demonstrated that the combined action of sulfuric acid aerosol and
sulfur dioxide sharply aggravates an already existing pulmonary insuffi-
ciency (experimental silicosis in the animals) and may cause a fatal result
at relatively low concentrations, i.e., three times lower than the ICcg for
healthy animals.

     These studies confirmed the cases of large scale poisoning with toxic
fogs described in the literature, when persons with a chronic insufficiency
of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems were the ones that suffered
the most.

     Fatal concentrations of sulfuric acid aerosol for white mice are
0.94 mg/1 in a 4-hour exposure and 0.27 mg/1 in a 24-hour exposure.  White
rats die after 7 hours at a concentration of 0.7 mg/1.  For guinea pigs,
the fatal concentration for an 8-hour exposure ranges from 0.05 to 0.18 mg/1,
depending on the age of the animals [20].

     For man, the threshold of odor perception and irritant effect of sul-
furic acid aerosol is in the range 0.0006-0.00085 mg/1 [22].  Reflex changes
of breathing in healthy people were noted at concentrations of 0.00035-
0.005 mg/1  [20].  The threshold of the reflex effect on the inhalation of
sulfuric acid aerosol was established at the level 0.0004 mg/1 [22].
                                    - 20 -

-------
     The maximum permissible concentration of sulfuric acid aerosol for
atmospheric air is 0.3 mg/m3 for the highest single concentration and
0.1 mg/m3 for the average daily concentration.

     Fly ash consists of a dust found in the atmosphere around electric
power plants; 55 to 77% of this dust is made up of extremely fine solid
particles, up to 5 U in size.  Chemical analysis of the dust established
the presence of silicon dioxide both in the bound form and in the free state
as alpha-quartz [2].

     The content of free silicon dioxide in the fly ash around heat and
electric power plants burning solid fuel of the type of Moscow coal may
reach 20-30%, which is hazardous for the health of children residing in
those areas for a long time  [2, 26].

     It is known that the dust particles of flue gases do not in themselves
pose the danger of acute poisoning in man, but, as already indicated, the
combined influence of sulfurous anhydride dust and sulfuric acid aerosol
enhances the toxic effect of sulfur compounds.  Moreover, the direct noxious
effect of fly ash on the health of the population may be manifested in
street traumata of the eyes  caused by ash particles.  In large industrial
cities, these traumata constitute 30-60% of all the urgent cases of treat-
ment of eye disturbances [24, 25].

     Carbon monoxide (CO, molecular weight 28.01) is a colorless gas.  It is
present in the flue gases of boiler houses and electric power plants; calcu-
lations show that the combustion of 1 ton of fuel forms up to 20 kg of carbon
monoxide [5].

     Despite the relatively large quantities of emitted carbon monoxide,
boiler houses and electric power plants do not play a major role in the
total pollution of atmospheric air with carbon monoxide.

     Emissions of carbon monoxide from blast-furnace and coking plants,
automobile engines, etc., are vastly more important in the pollution of
atmospheric air with carbon monoxide.

     No cases of large-scale poisoning with carbon monoxide in the open
air have been described in the literature.

     The maximum permissible concentration of carbon monoxide in the air
of industrial buildings is 30 mg/m3, the average daily concentration in
atmospheric air is 1 mg/m3, and the highest single concentration is 6 mg/mj.

     Nitrogen oxides (NO, N02> N^, ^0^).  A mixture of different nitrogen
oxides is discharged into the atmosphere during the operation of internal
combustion engines, during the combustion of various nitrogen-containing
                                    -  21 -

-------
organic compounds  (celluloid, motion picture film, etc.)» and with emis-
sions of vapors of nitric acid in the industrial production of the latter.
Nitrogen oxides may also be present in the flue gases of boiler furnaces.
No cases of poisoning of the population or individuals by nitrogen oxides
contained in  the flue gases of boiler houses are known in the literature.

                Clinical Picture of Acute Cases of Poisoning
                        with Sulfur Compounds in Man

     As follows from the preceding section, sulfurous anhydride plays the
principal role in the possible toxic action of fuel combustion products.
The noxious effect of sulfur dioxide (SO.,) on the organism was known as
long ago as the Middle Ages, when this gas was used during the siege of
cities.  Much later, reports appeared in the literature on the great fre-
quency of eye inflammations, hoarseness and complaints of cough among
workers employed in the processing of sulfur and bleaching of fabrics [27].

     In the domestic literature, the largest number of descriptions of
cases involving acute poisoning pertain to the 1920's-30's.  All the inves-
tigators who have described cases of large-scale poisoning as well as indi-
vidual cases of acute intoxications with sulfur dioxide note that even very
low concentrations of sulfur dioxide have an irritant effect on the mucous
membranes of the upper respiratory tract [10, 28, 29, 30, 31].

     Higher concentrations of sulfur dioxide cause lacrimation, acute con-
junctivitis, inflammation of the upper respiratory tract and bronchi, and
impairment of speech and swallowing, this being accompanied by an acceler-
ated pulse and a decrease in breathing capacity [32].

     The action of high concentrations causes dyspnea, cyanosis and an
impairment of consciousness [10]; a rapid development of bronchitis, bron-
chopneumonia, and pulmonary edema is possible [33, 34]; the appearance of
bronchiectasis has been described.

     Most authors hold the view that acute fatal cases of poisoning with
sulfur dioxide occur relatively seldom, since the irritating odor of sulfur
dioxide signals the danger of poisoning very early.  The inhalation of air
containing 1.5 mg of S0_ per liter makes it impossible to breathe in fully
because of the marked irritation of the respiratory tract and spasm of the
glottis [35, 36].
                  a

     Death may also occur as a result of an acute disturbance of the blood
circulation in the lungs or as a result of shock [9].  Cases are also
possible in which death takes place a few hours after poisoning as a result
of pulmonary edema  [10].
                                    - 22 -

-------
     The domestic literature describes lethal results of poisoning with
sulfurous anhydride [40, 41].  In a case [37] with a lethal result,  autopsy
on the 7th day showed the presence of heavy "croupous" pneumonia [38].

     In large-scale poisoning with sulfur dioxide at a sulfite cellulose
factory, two of the 18 victims died, and 8 people lost their working
capacity because of the development of pulmonary emphysema and chronic
bronchitis [38].  Autopsy of the dead showed marked inflammatory changes
of the respiratory tract, pulmonary edema, and hyperemia of the spleen,
liver, and kidneys.

     Many reports have been published on the local effect of sulfurous
anhydride on the skin and mucous membranes of the eyes.   A case was ob-
served in which, after a 2-minute exposure to an atmosphere containing 26
mg/1 of S02, a worker showed an extreme irritation of the skin [9] .   As  a
result of the action of sulfurous anhydride on the face and eyes, blisters
appeared on the skin, edema on the eyelids, and purulent conjunctivitis  and
necrosis of the cornea [occured].  From the above descriptions by various
authors it is evident that the clinical picture of acute poisoning with
sulfur dioxide with a clearly defined irritant effect consists in a pre-
dominant injury of the respiratory organs and primarily of the upper
respiratory tract.

     Objective symptoms of acute sulfur dioxide poisoning of slight degree
are characterized by an acute catarrhal laryngotracheitis and acute catarrhal
conjunctivitis.  In addition, one can objectively observe hyperemia and  edema
of the mucosa of the larynx, trachea, and vocal chords, and diffuse hyperemia
of the conjunctiva and frequently edema.  The symptoms of general intoxica-
tion associated with this degree of poisoning are slight and are observed
in a small number of patients.  As a rule, these changes can be readily
treated and do not leave any complications.

     A poisoning of moderate degree is marked by pronounced changes of the
mucous membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory tract.  Acute conjuncti-
vitis is accompanied by blepharospasm and photophobia.  In some patients,
point opacities of the cornea may remain after the elimination of acute
conjunctivitis.

     Symptoms of laryngotracheitis frequently combine with acute bronchitis,
which is associated with attacks of choking cough.  In this degree of
injury, the inflammatory process frequently extends to the small bronchi
and bronchioles, as indicated by heavy dyspnea, orthopnea, acrocyanosis,
subfebrile temperature, and the presence of moist crepitant rales in the
lower areas of the lungs along with dry rales in the lungs.  Diffuse toxic
bronchitis is frequently accompanied by pulmonary emphysema and asthmatoid
states.

     Symptoms of general intoxication are found more frequently and are
expressed more clearly in the form of neurocirculatory disturbances and
                                     - 23 -

-------
changes in the functions of the liver and kidneys.  The illness lasts
1 to 1 1/2 months, and the symptoms of general weakness, headache, and
increased fatigability may linger on longer.

     In the case of a high degree of poisoning with sulfur dioxide, the
clinical picture is dominated by purulent tracheobronchitis accompanied
by an acute diffuse emphysema of the lungs and bronchial asthma.  The
course of the illness is complicated by serious toxicoinfectious pneumonia,
which in the majority of cases takes on a chronic course followed by
development of pneumosclerosis and bronchiectasis.  This degree of injury
involves degenerative changes in the heart muscle and changes in the
functions of the liver and kidneys.

     Among the characteristic symptoms of acute intoxication with sulfur
dioxide, one observes a high frequency (in the case of poisoning of moderate
and high degree) of asthmoid states associated with eosinophilia in the
blood and early acute distension of the alveoli (basal emphysema, and in
serious, cases diffuse pulmonary emphysema).

     Among changes in the blood, the more frequent ones were eosinophilia
(in 48.1% of the subjects), relative neutropenia (in 74%), monocytosis
(in 58.1% of the subjects) and a staff cell shift (in 37% of the subjects).

     Manifestations of the generally toxic effect of sulfur dioxide include
degenerative changes in the heart muscle and vascular wall, functional
disturbances of the liver in the form of bilirubinemia, urobilinuria,
changes in the protein and carbohydrate functions, and nephropathy, mani^
fested in albuminuria and michrohematuria.  These symptoms are usually
observed only in cases of acute poisoning of moderate and, especially, of
high degree with this gas.

     Considerable attention should be given to problems of differential
diagnostics of acute cases of poisoning with sulfur dioxide versus poisoning
by nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide (Table 7).

     It is evident from Table 7 that sulfur dioxide causes serious damage
to the air-conducting tract, acute emphysema, and a protracted course of
toxicoinfectious pneumonias.  The action of nitrogen oxide causes a frequent
development of pulmonary edema with a fairly indistinct injury of the upper
respiratory tract.  Toxic pneumonias caused by nitrogen oxides have a more
favorable course than [those caused by] poisoning with sulfur dioxide,  the
action of carbon monoxide is characterized by a predominant injury to the
central nervous and cardiovascular systems in the absence of changes in the
upper respiratory tract.

     The problem of the influence of sulfur dioxide on the human organism is
indissolubly tied to the influence of sulfuric acid aerosol on the health of
                                    - 24 -

-------
                                   Table 7
Frequency of Symptoms in Gas Poisoning
   (According to N. p. Sterekhova)
.Symptoms and
Nosological Forms

Frequency of Synptoas Associate^ with
the Prevalence of the Following Gas
in thp Compnfiihirm nf Rvnlnsnve CAQPR
Sulfur
Dioxide
t


1
>_
ff
>> • t
o
1
H
•H
fr
0
K

Cough
Dyspnea
Pain in chest

Laryngotracheitis

Bronchitis
Acute lung
emphysema
Pneumonia
Asthmatoid state
Pulmonary edema
a
rH
3
S§
II
T
60
o



§
4»
w
>>
O]
« 4
3
£
£
Heart palpitation
Pains in the region
of heart
Hypotonia
Degenerative changes
in heart muscle
Ischemic foci in the
_ myocardium*
' General weakness

Impairment - of
consciousness
Amnesic disturbances
Neurocirculatory
dystonia
Organic damage to tn
central nervous
system
Psychic disturbances
INephropathy
Hepatopathy
Conjunctivitis
Eosinophilia
(Carboxyhemoglob-
Jinemia
Increase of blood
viscosity
In all cases
Often
Very often
Connected wit
breathing,
constantly
In all
cases
Same
Often

t
X
Very seldom
Often
Occasion all;
Often
»
Isolated
cases
Relatively
often
Very seldom
None
Frequently
Nitrogen
Oxides

Often
None
Slight
1 intensity
often

Very
seldom
Frequently
None

Less often
None
Often
Frequently
None
Often
Seldom
None

Often

Very seldom
None
Frequently
i None None

*
ii
Frequently
Very often
Salme ,
Often
None

In serious
cases


H
None
Often
None •
Very seldom
None

Very often

Carbon
Monoxide

Very seldom
None
>

»




-


Very often
Often
Very often
Often
Frequently

•In all cases

Very often
Often
Very often
Often


Frequently
. None
•Often
None
•i
In all cases

None

                 -  25  -

-------
workers, since the irritating effect of sulfur dioxide on the upper res-
piratory tract is due to its conversion into sulfurous and then sulfuric
acid.

     All the descriptions of acute cases of poisoning with sulfuric acid
[42, 43, 44] pertain to the combined action of sulfuric acid and sulfurous
anhydride.  When inhaled by man, sulfuric acid aerosol causes irritation
of the upper respiratory tract, particularly of the nasal mucosa: mucus,
sneezing, cough, difficult breathing, burning of the eyes, and reddening
of the conjunctiva take place.  At higher concentrations, bloody sputum,
vomiting (sometimes with blood) and later, grave inflammatory affections
of the bronchi and lungs may appear [42, 43].  The x-ray picture of a fine-
focus pneumonic process, which gradually developed in a man (in the course
of 3 weeks) after he inhaled sulfuric acid vapors as a result of a storage
tank leak, has been described [43].

     A case of chronic affection of the lungs following an acute poisoning
with sulfuric acid fog has been described.  A man 40 years of age was exposed
to sulfuric acid aerosol for 8 minutes at a plant, and this resulted in the
development of pulmonary edema followed by inflammation of the lungs [42].

     After 13 months, the patient died of aggravated pulmonary emphysema.

     From the above studies it is evident that experiments and clinical
practice have now accumulated sufficient facts indicating that sulfur dioxide
and sulfuric aerosol, which have a marked local irritant effect on the mucous
membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory tract, can enter the bloodstream
[45] and cause changes in the parenchymatous organs, this being particularly
pronounced in acute intoxications of moderate and of high degrees.

              Cases of Large-Scale Poisoning of the Population
                        as a Result of Air Pollution

     Air pollution in major industrial cities is a problem attracting
increasing attention in the scientific community.  Studies published recently
and dealing with this problem emphasize the serious harm done to public
health and to the surrounding nature by emissions from industrial plants.

     The world medical community has been made particularly aware of this
problem in connection with the publication in the press of cases of disas-
trous atmospheric pollution and acute poisoning of the population in some
foreign countries, involving unfavorable meteorological conditions.  These
cases are described in detail in the book of K. Barker, F. Kembi et al.,
"Pollution of Atmospheric Air", published by the World Health Organization
[46], and in the book of L. Battan, "Polluted Sky" [50],
                                    - 26 -

-------
     A case of large-scale poisoning of the population was observed in
the valley of the Maas River (Belgium), when from December 1 to 5, 1930,
as a result of anticyclones, all of Belgium was blanketed by a fog that
was particularly thick in the river valleys, and in the Maas river valley,
in addition to the fog, a temperature inversion took place.

     The temperature inversion and fog caused a considerable accumulation
of atmospheric pollutants up to toxic concentrations, produced by the
emissions of industrial enterprises located in the valley, including ferrous
metallurgical plants, coke-oven batteries and blast furnaces, steel foundries
and zinc-smelting plants, electric power plants, a sulfuric acid producing
plant, and an artificial fertilizer plant.  On the third day, large-scale
affections of the respiratory tract appeared in the inhabitants of this
region.  According to inaccurate data, the number of those affected was
several thousand, and the number of persons who died during that period was
about 10 times as high as the average mortality ra'te for this region.  Among
the dead were predominantly elderly persons with chronic heart and lung
diseases.

     The illness appeared in all the inhabitants, regardless of age, and
was manifested by the following symptoms:  lacrimation, irritation of the
throat, hoarseness, cough, faster breathing, a sensation of tightness in
the chest, nausea, and sometimes vomiting.  A dry cough and faster breathing
predominated in this case.  After the fog dissipated, no new cases of illness
were observed.

     Studies aimed at elucidating the specific cause of large-scale illness
of the population, begun immediately after the fog disappeared, showed that
aside from the weather change, nothing unusual had occurred in the condi-
tions characteristic of this area, i.e., not a single industrial enterprise
had changed the type or intensity of its production.

     A thorough study of the composition of the industrial emissions into
the atmosphere enabled the commission to conclude that the cause of the
large-scale illness was the simultaneous presence in the air of sulfurous
anhydride and sulfuric acid aerosol.  Calculation showed the sulfur dioxide
content during that period reached, 100 mg/m3 [47].  It was also postulated
that the nitrogen oxides contained in the air and the presence of highly
dispersed solid particles of metal oxides acting as catalysts could have
promoted the conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfuric anhydride.  The
weather conditions had been studied for a number of years previously, and
as a result it was found that similar combinations of meteorological con-
ditions had also been observed earlier in the Maas  River valley, but for
a shorter period of time.  Thus, under similar weather conditions in 1911,
it was noted that the disease rate among the population increased, but with-
out fatal results.
                                     - 27 -

-------
     Large-scale  poisoning of the population due to atmospheric pollution
was observed  in  the  town of Donora (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) at the end of
October 1948, when prolonged stagnating conditions of atmospheric air
lasting four  days and because of a deep temperature inversion and anti-
cyclonal weather  accompanied by fog and calm led to an unusually heavy
accumulation  of  atmospheric pollutants in the ground layer.  During these
four days, large-scale illnesses of the respiratory organs appeared among
the inhabitants of the town.   The number of people affected was around
6,000 (43% of the population); those most often affected were 40-55 years
old.

     The most frequent symptom was cough.  There were painful sensations
in the pharynx, tightness  in  the chest, headache, burning in the eyes,
orthopnea, lacrimation,  vomiting, nausea, and profuse nasal discharges
(Table 8) [46].

     The mildest  symptoms  were considered to be:  irritation, in the eyes,
lacrimation, nasal discharges, painful swallowing, dry cough, nausea with-
out vomiting, headache,  general weakness and pains in the muscles.

     Moderate symptoms  included cough with sputum, sensation of heaviness
or constriction in the  chest,  dyspnea, vomiting, and diarrhea.  The only
grave symptom was  considered  to be orthopnea (sensation of suffocation).

     During that  same brief period, 17 fatal cases were recorded as against
two cases usually observed.
                                               Table 8
                      Symptoms Caused by Pollution of Atmospheric Air
                      According to Frequency of Occurrence (in Decreas-
                      ing Order) Among All the Population Age Groups
Symptom

Dry 	
With Sputum
Painful sensations in pharynx . .
Constriction in che^t. 	
Headache 	
Dyspnea vithout orthopnea,
.Lacrimation 	
Vomiting
Nausea without vomiting. ....
Nasal discharges .... ....
Fever 	
Orthopnea. 	

Weakness 	 . .



Percent
33.1
20,2
12,9.
23,1
21,5
17,0
8.4
8,0
7,4
7,1
6,6
1:1
1.9
1.8
i.o
0,1
                                    - 28 -

-------
     Autopsy of the people who died during this disaster showed symptoms
of acute irritation of the lungs in the form of dilation of the capil-
laries, hemorrhages, edema, purulent bronchitis and purulent bronchiolitis.

     In order to identify the causes, a special survey was made on the
population, engineering and technical studies were carried out to determine
the quantitative and qualitative composition of the chemicals in the atmos-
phere during the fog and during operation of the plants at full capacity,
and the necessary studies were carried out during the operation of local
factories and plants at full capacity under the conditions of a brief temp-
erature inversion.  The local weather conditions and all the archive
materials on weather during the preceding periods were investigated.  It
was found that similar atmospheric conditions had been observed in the town
of Donora in April 1945, when a sudden increase of mortality was recorded
there.  On the basis of repetitions of such weathe;r conditions in 1948, it
was postulated that a possible relationship existed in 1945 between the
high mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases and the environmental
conditions.

     On the basis of an analysis of the results of medical, engineering-
technical and meteorological studies, it was shown that the cause of mass
poisoning of the population was sulfur dioxide combined with products of
its oxidation and nonspecific dust particles.

     In London, large-scale poisonings of the population during a disastrous
pollution of the atmosphere have been observed repeatedly.  Five such dis-
asters were described most completely:  in 1948, from 26 November to 1 Decem-
ber; in 1952, from 5 to 8 December; in 1956 from 3 to 6 November; 1957, from
2 to 5 December; in 1962, from 3 to 7 December.  In November 1948, the num-
ber of fatal cases in London exceeded the average level by 300 cases; the
pollution of atmospheric air during the inversion in January 1956 was accom-
panied by an excess of 1000 cases above the average mortality level.

     The most detailed study was made of a disaster that occurred in Decem-
ber 1952 [46, 50].  On these days, many areas of the British Isles, the
valley of the Thames River and particularly London were blanketed by a fog
caused by anticyclonic weather conditions and a temperature inversion.
Various kinds of injury to the respiratory tract in large numbers of inhabi-
tants appeared approximately 12 hours after the formation of a thick fog
that led to the accumulation of pollutants in the air.  An unusually large
number of fatal cases involving about 4000 people were recorded.  The illness
usually began abruptly, mostly on the 3rd-4th day of foggy weather.

     The illnesses were characterized by cough, nasal discharges, painful
sensations in the throat and sudden vomiting spells.

     In addition, dy$pnea, cyanosis, a moderate temperature rise and rales
in the lungs were observed in gravely ill persons.  In medical institutions,
                                     - 29 -

-------
there was  a sharp  increase in cases of persons reporting with an  acute
affection  of the respiratory tract.  People reporting heart disease  also
increased.

     Comparison of the disease and mortality rates during the period of the
fog with the concentrations of atmospheric pollutants (soot and sulfurous
anhydride)  showed  that the concentrations of soot and sulfurous anhydride
during  that period were respectively 5 and 6 times as high as the level
usually observed in London.  The concentrations of sulfurous anhydride
amounted to an average of 7-3.5 mg/m3 during that period.

     It was postulated that the increase in the number of fatal cases and
illnesses  of the respiratory organs during the period of the December fog
in 1952 was due to the action of products of incomplete fuel combustion
contained  in the fog.

     Emissions of  house furnaces with an inadequate mode of fuel  combustion
in open fireplaces substantially promoted the pollution of the atmosphere
with sulfur oxides and soot.

     Cases  of substantial atmospheric pollution had been repeatedly  observed
in London  even before  the disaster of 1952.  Thus, an increase in mortality
rate was noted during  periods of thick fog in December 1873, January 1880,
February 1882, December 1892 [46].

     In recent years,  five occurrences of increased mortality have been
described  among the population of New York as a result of a high level of
air pollution because  of unfavorable meteorological conditions (weak wind
and temperature inversion).  These cases were recorded in New York in 1962
from 26 January to 6 December*; in 1963, from 30 December to 15 January,
from 29 January to 13  February and from 12 April to 25 April; in  1964, from
27 February to 10  March.  At the same time, it was noted that an  increase
in mortality immediately follows the development of heavy air pollution.
An increase in mortality was noted among inhabitants of all age groups  [48].

     The American  journal "Time" published a special article entitled "The
Poisoned Air of America" [49] which attracted the public's attention.  This
article cites cases of disastrous air pollution in New York in 1953,  when
in the  course of a 10-day temperature inversion 200 people died; in  1963,
during  a thick fog (smog), over 400 people died, and 80 other fatal  cases
were recorded in 1967.  The chief cause of the iri-creased mortality in New
York as well as Donora and London were sulfur oxides (sulfur dioxide and
trioxide).
    * Editor's note:  This series of dates should probably be given as from 6 December, 1961 to
 26 January, 1962; from 30 December, 19&2 to 5 January, 1963; from 29 January to 13 February and from
 12 to 25 April, 1963; and in 1964 from 27 February to 10 March.
                                      - 30 -

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     A sharp rise in the concentration of sulfurous anhydride, from 2 to
4 mg/m-*. is known to have occurred in the Ruhr region during a temperature
inversion  [51].  The appearance of cough, headache, and, among asthmatics,
of dyspnea was observed among the population.  A decline in health was
noted among nurslings and persons over 45 years of age, and also among
those suffering from cardiovascular and lung diseases.

     We have dwelt on a description of the principal, common cases of
large-scale illness and mortality among the population that took place in
certain foreign countries under special weather conditions (anticyclone,
temperature inversion, fog) responsible for the formation of a toxic fog
with dangerous concentrations of atmospheric pollutants in the ground layer.

     Cases of disastrous atmospheric pollution in industrial centers have
been observed during periods of windless weather and  temperature inversion;
the meteorological conditions not only hindered the dispersal of atmospheric
pollutants, but also promoted their maximum concentration in the ground
layer.  The inversions lasted from 3 to 10 days.

     The illnesses of the population were characterized by injuries to the
respiratory organs and irritation of the muccous membrances of the eyes,
nose, pharynx, and respiratory tract.  The most sensitive group among the
population were nurslings, persons over 40-55 years of age, and those
suffering from cardiovascular and lung diseases.

     A characteristic feature of all the cases described was an improvement
in the health of the victims and a sharp reduction of the disease rate and
fatal cases among the population after the fog had dispersed.

     The cases described permit one to conclude that  in industrial centers
and towns with a highly developed industry, under unfavorable meteorologi-
cal conditions, a heavy surface pollution of atmospheric air with noxious
chemicals may occur that is capable of causing an increased disease rate
and mortality among the population.

     The chief cause of the massive incidence of illness and increased
mortality rate among the population in these cities were sulfur oxides.

     In discussing the disastrous pollution of atmospheric air in cities,
one must not neglect to mention the state of the atmosphere in Los Angeles.

     According to the data of medical observations [46], during a smog in
Los Angeles there were also observed large numbers of complaints of irrita-
tion of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and pharynx.  A frequently
recurring smog worries the city's inhabitants.
                                     -  31 -

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      The Los Angeles smog has a different character and forms in hot,
 sunny weather.   It is based on photochemical reactions between nitrogen
 oxides and hydrocarbons (olefins)  escaping into the air during the combus-
 tion  of fuel, especially petroleum products.  The maximum concentration
 of sulfur dioxide  during a smog amounts to around 1 mg/m^,  but according
 to researchers,  sulfur dioxide is  not  an essential ingredient of the air
 pollutants in Los  Angeles.

      However, since  June 1955, a system of "smoke alerts" has been used in
 California in view of the frequently recurring smogs;  the purpose of this
 system is  to "prevent an excessive accumulation of atmospheric pollutants
 in order to avoid  a disaster caused by 'toxic  concentrations'."  These
 alerts  are sounded depending on the content of sulfur  dioxide, nitrogen
 oxides,  ozone and  carbon monoxide  in atmospheric air (Table 9) [52].


                                                     Table 9
                       Gas Concentrations for the "Smoke Alert" System


Substance



Nitrogen oxides, . .
Ozone. . 	
Sulfurous anhydride. . . .
Carbon monoxide- • • •
. Maximum Permissible Concentrations
Warning

CO
III
5 id
3
0.5
3
100

mg/m3

12,3
1 0
8,4
123,0
Alerting

in
!*.§
S ti
5
I
5
200

ng/m

20,5
2 0
14
246
Dangerous


-------
     A case in point deserving close attention is the disaster that
occurred in 1950 in Posa-Rica (Mexico), when as a result of the escape
of a large amount of hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere during an
accident at the gas-producing plant in that town, an acute poisoning of
320 persons was observed, 22 of whom died.  The serious situation thus
produced was aggravated by a temperature inversion, associated with a
slight movement of air.  Ten to twenty minutes after the accident, the
hydrogen sulfide reached the residential areas of the town and caused
serious poisoning.  The damage was repaired 20-25 minutes after it took
place [46].

     This case shows that a large-scale poisoning of the population, even
with fatal results, may take place during a very short period of time.

     In November 1961, a;case was described involving a subacute poisoning
of schoolchildren with hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide while they were
in the school, which was located in the settlement of the Lacq gas plant
(France) [53].  During the gas pollution of atmospheric air with sulfur-
containing emissions of the gas plant, the schoolchildren studied while
wearing gas masks.

     In many countries, cases have been known involving acute poisoning of
sensitive people living in the vicinity of synthetic viscose fiber and
cellulose plants and petroleum distillation plants.  These poisonings were
manifested in nausea and mild stomach disturbances and appeared under
meteorological conditions that were the most unfavorable for the given area.
A description was given of a case involving the explosion at night of a tank
containing 15 tons of liquid chlorine, which took place in 1952 in one of
the towns of West Germany and caused a large-scale poisoning of the neighbor-
ing population with chlorine (over 200 people were affected) [54].

     Also known are cases of subacute poisoning of the population residing
near chemical complexes and nonferrous metallurgical plants by emissions
of sulfuric acid fog into the atmosphere during starting and adjusting
operations in connection with the introduction of new sulfuric acid plants
and during the adjustment of the sulfur-removal equipment at a sintering
plant, in combination with unfavorable meteorological conditions.  In these
intoxications, the population showed symptoms of marked irritation of the
mucous membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory tract (heavy choking
cough, chest pain).

     Dangerous chlorine concentrations in atmospheric air may also be pro-
duced by chlorine-processing enterprises during technological accidents and
failures.

     In addition to their noxious influence on human health, industrial
emissions into the atmosphere cause considerable damage to the national
                                    -  33 -

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economy.  This  is expressed  in  enormous  losses of chemical products
valuable  to  the  national economy.  The waste gases have a fatal effect
on  forests,  orchards,  and  sown  crops, and  sometimes cause illness and
death among  farm animals.  According  to  the data of the Botany Laboratory
at  Nancy, in I960,  the damage to orchards  and forests caused by industrial
emissions into  the  atmosphere,  was determined to be 400 million francs  in
Belgium,  3430 million  francs in England, and over 2000 million francs in
France.   The total  material  loss due  to  atmospheric pollution in the U.S.A.
in  1950-1951 46 was  around $1.5 billion, and a considerable part of this
loss was  due to  crop damage.

     It is evident  from the above that as  a result of industrial emissions,
air pollution in modern cities may cause the appearance of high concentra-
tions of toxic substances in the atmosphere.  This is particularly possible
under unfavorable atmospheric conditions (temperature inversion, calm, low
temperature,  fog, etc.)> which promote the accumulation of pollutants in
the ground layer of the atmosphere, causing massive illness and an increased
mortality among  the population.

             Mechanism of Impurity Dispersal in the Atmosphere
                 as a Function of Meteorological Conditions

     In the preceding sections we discussed the sanitary aspects of the
problem of atmospheric pollution with industrial emissions.   In the present
section we shall dwell on the physical aspect of this problem.

     As we know, any impurity introduced into the atmosphere is dispersed
comparatively quickly by turbulent air currents.   However, this dispersal
proceeds at  different rates under different weather conditions.

     The dispersal  of  an impurity depends  on two main factors:  the wind
velocity and the vertical distribution of  the air temperature.  The greater
the wind velocity,  the more rapid the dispersal of the impurity.   When the
wind velocity doubles, the impurity becomes diluted in twice as large a
volume of air.

     The vertical distribution of the air  temperature depends on the degree
of heating of the earth's surface and of the layer of air adjacent to it.
The more the earth's surface is heated, the more rapid the vertical mixing
of air.  During  the day, under  a clear sky, the earth's surface is heated
by the sun and in turn heats up the adjacent air.  At night, however, under
a clear sky, the earth cools because it gives up heat (by radiation), and
the air near the earth also cools.  Heated air rises because of a decrease
in density,  and  conversely, cooled dense air descends toward the earth's
surface.

     The vertical temperature distribution is also characterized by the
fact that as  the density of dry air decreases with increasing height, this
                                   -  34 -

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air expands adiabatically, and as a result of the expansion cools by
approximately 1° for every 100 ra of height.

     In the presence of a superadiabatic temperature gradient, when the
temperature drops faster  than 1° per 100 m as the height increases, as
is often the case when the earth's surface is heated by the sun, the heated
air masses rise to a great height, whereas the cool air currents descend
downward relatively quickly.  Such weather conditions are termed convective
and are characterized by  an intensive mixing of air.  A constancy of the
temperature of an air layer with the height is called isothermy.

     If the temperature does not decrease with the height, but rises, the
mixing of air is minimal.  Such conditions constitute an inversion.  The
latter takes place near a cooled earth's surface, usually at night during
clear weather.                                    .

     The effect of the temperature gradient on the mixing of a plume is
shown in Figs. 1-3.

     In convection, a smoke plume .descends towards the earth's surface near
the smokestack at distances starting at 2-3 stack heights, and for a short
time produces substantial concentrations near the earth ("wavy" plume).
In isothermy, the plume gradually expands and at a distance of 10-20 stack
heights reaches the earth ("conical" plume).  In an inversion, the plume
moves in a fine thread that remains almost undiluted in the vertical direc-
tion, sometimes oscillates like a fan in the horizontal plane, and reaches
the ground only at very large distances, i.e., 100-200 and more stack
heights ("threadlike" or  "fan-shaped" plume).

     The movements of a smoke plume shown in Figs. 1-3 are characteristic
of a stable wind and typical only of basic types of a smoke plume in the
atmosphere.

     Other types of smoke plumes also exist in the atmosphere during
inversions.

     Thus, if an inversion layer is located below the mouth, and air mixing
takes place above the stack, the plume becomes rapidly dispersed upward
("elevated" plume, Fig. 4).  If the inversion layer is located above the
stack, and air mixing takes place below, a "smoking" plume is formed (Fig. 5),

     The "smoking" plume usually arises during the transition from nocturnal
inversion to diurnal convection, when the earth's surface begins to heat up,
and the smoke plume under the inversion canopy mixes with the ground air
without being dispersed upward.

     There is still another special form of smoking plume, the so-called
"dangerous" plume, which usually arises only during anticyclonal weather
                                   - 35 -

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and  is characterized by  very weak winds, calms, and descending air currents.
It is  in such cases, particularly during the  autumn-winter period, that  the
formation  of a stable layer of  a deep  inversion above the  stack,  the so-
called "roof", becomes possible (Fig.  6).
                                    H, m
                                      xamarc
                    21222321. T'C
                                     2i n232t re
                                               Weak -wind
                                     ZlK'2321 T'C
                   21221321.25 T'C
                 Fig. 1. Convection,
                          "Tray/* plume
                 Fig.- 3. ' Inversion
                   a - "threadlike" plume;
                   b - "fan-shaped" plume;
                   a, b - lateral view
                 Fig. 5. Inversion, "smoking"
                          plume
Fig. 2. Isothermy, "conical"
         plume
Fig. 4. Inversion, "elevated"
         plume
Fig. 6. Inversion, "dangerous"
         plume.
                                         - 36 -

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     Depending on the nature  of  atmospheric circulation,  the plume is
dispersed in different ways.

     The appearance of cyclones  in  the  atmosphere is  characterized by a
vortex rotating counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and accompanied
by a pressure drop, and  also  with slow  and lasting ascending movements of
air, resulting in a general rise of the ground masses into the upper layers
of the atmosphere with the formation of cloudiness and precipitation.
Cyclones are usually accompanied by strong winds.  The atmosphere-polluting
impurities present in cyclones are  rapidly dispersed  over a large volume of
air, and in addition, rainfall washes part of the impurities out of the
atmosphere.

     In anticyclones, which are  accompanied by a pressure drop, the air
flow rotates clockwise in the northern  hemisphere and slowly descends toward
the earth.  As the air sinks, its density increases,  while the temperature
rises.  The effect is increased  by  the  condensation of moisture and libera-
tion of the heat of condensation.   All  this may lead  to the creation of a
stable, lasting "cap" above the  stack.  When there are no vertical movements
of the air and no wind,  no dispersal of the impurities takes place either.
Emission from a smokestack under these  conditions may lead to the creation
of high, dangerous concentrations near  the ground.

     We shall examine the methods of calculation of impurity dispersal in
the atmosphere.

     Atmospheric air is  constantly  in a state of turbulent movement.  The
latter consists of a certain  average flow (average wind)  on which fluctua-
tions* of the velocity and directions of  the flow (wind gustiness) are
superimposed.  The rate  of these fluctuations depends substantially on the
degree of warming of the air  near the surface of the  ground.  During the
day, when the surface is strongly heated, the turbulence  is maximum, and
at night, when the ground cools, it is  minimum.  The  turbulence also depends
substantially on the roughness of the ground surface.

     As a result of turbulence,  th^ layers of air are continually being
mixed, so that any impurity present in  the air is rapidly dispersed.  This
mixing of air layers may be assumed similar to the process of gas diffusion
and, by using appropriate methods for obtaining different solutions of dif-
fusion equations, one can carry  out calculations of the distribution of
concentrations at all points  of  space for an impurity coining from different
sources:  an instantaneous point source or three-dimensional source (a cloud
of smoke), a continuous  point source (smoke plume from a  stack), a continuous
linear or surface source (plumes coining from many stacks), etc.
    * Editor's note:  Throughout this section the authors use the term "pulsation" instead of fluctuation.
                                    - 37 -

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     In contrast to molecular diffusion, where the diffusion coefficients
are constant, in a turbulent flow they are characterized by a complex
dependence on the coordinates, the space or time scale of the diffusion,
the meteorological parameters, the state of the surface of the ground, and
other factors.

     The coefficient of turbulent diffusion in the atmosphere may vary from
0.2 to 10^2 cm2/sec.  It should be noted that the atmosphere contains eddies
of different sizes, from minimum ones determined by the viscosity of air,
in which the turbulence energy is converted into heat, to maximum ones,
determined by the geometry of the flow, the underlying surface, the thermal
stability, etc.   The largest eddies, are, for example, cyclones and other
air phenomena occupying large portions of the atmosphere.  The larger the
initial size of the smoke cloud or the longer the time of existence of such
a cloud, the higher the probability of its capture by large eddies and of
its dispersal.  In addition, some constant scale and hence constant diffu-
sion coefficients can be assumed for each specific problem, and the diffusion
laws can be used with a constant coefficient for calculations of the dispersal
of an impurity in the atmosphere.

     At the present time, two theories, called the ''statistical" theory
and the "diffusional" theory, are used for calculations of turbulent diffu-
sion of impurities in the atmosphere.

     Adherents of the first theory have tried to take into account the
dependence of the diffusion coefficients on the scale of propagation of
the impurity, and adherents of the second theory consider the diffusion
over practically acceptable distances to be independent of this scale.

     In the "statistical" diffusion theory it is assumed that the probability
of transport of particles from one point of space to another is determined
by a "probability density" function satisfying the condition:
j'
                                                                        (1)
     Assuming that the "probability density" function tp is described by the
Gauss distribution formula, we write the latter for a homogeneous medium:
                                                                        (2)
                                   n

where a is the dispersion parameter.
     The dispersion parameter is related to the mean s-quare deviation of
the particles y2 as follows :

                                 y* = ~W                               (3)
                                     _  OQ  _
                                     **"  .JO

-------
     It follows that in  a homogeneous  (isotropic) medium, the concentra-
tion of particles at any point 'of space from  an instantaneous point source
will be:
                                                                        (4)
where Q  is the initial number  of particles.
     The mean square  of  the dispersion is  the basic  characteristic of the
dispersal of particles and of  the  rate of  their  diffusion.

     Taylor  [55] showed  that in  the presence of  homogeneous  turbulence,
the degree of dispersal  of particles  depends on  the  distribution of wind
velocity fluctuations according  to the formula:
                                                                        (5)

                                                    """•  O
where R(s) is  the Lagrangian  correlation scale  and  (u )z  are  the mean square
fluctuations of the wind velocity  in  the direction  of the x axis.

     The value R is determined  from the ratio of  the  mean square wind
fluctuations at times  t and
     From dimensionality  considerations, 0.  F.  Setton  [56]  assumed the
following expression  for  R:
                                    fl =
where v is  the kinematic viscosity  of  air and n  is  a number varying from
0  to 1.                                            .         '

     The value n is  determined  from the wind  velocity  distribution at two
                                  " -/M2-"                          (8)
heights:
In strong  convection  n  is  close  to  zero, in isothermy n = 0.25, and in a
deep  inversion n = 0,5.

      Substituting  (7) and  (8) into (5)  and  (4)  and integrating with respect
to time, Setton obtained a  formula permitting the calculation of the
                                    - 39 -

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concentration  for  a  continuous  point  source:
where x is the wind distance;  u is  the average wind velocity, and s  and
s  are the virtual diffusion  coefficients.
 Z

     The coefficient 2  allows  for  the  reflection of the plume from the
surface of the ground.

     The values
                                       4v"     fV)2"!2-"
                                            _
                                "   (1—n)(2—n)u"  K*
                                      4v"     f (w')1 I2-"
                              Si =
                                  (1—n)(2—n)u"


where vf and w are the wind  fluctuations  along axes y and z.

     It was found that at  a  height  above  25 m, s  = sz = s.

     The maximum concentration near the ground from a continuous source
located at height H  (cmax) and the  distance at which it is reached (x   )
are determined from  the formulas

                                    .   _  2Q0
                                              eff
                                            "iff
                                            ir                           (12)

     Using the experimental  data,  one can take  s  = s  = 0.05 and n ,5 0.
Then the Setton  formulas  for estimated calculations or the concentration
during the emission  of noxious  substances from the stacks assume the form:
                                        =20//eff                         (14)

     It should be  recalled that the quantity He^, entering into this formula
is the effective height of the source,  i.e., a sum composed of the geometric
height of  the stack  and the height of ascent of the smoke plume due to the
velocity factor and  the thermal factor.
                                     - 40 -

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                   to
                                                  f X, m
                    Fig. 7. Distribution of relative concentration
                          values for stacks 30 in high.
     The Setton formulas have been checked by a number of authors and
although in general  these  formulas correctly express the qualitative
character of dispersal  of  impurities  in the atmosphere, they fail to take
into account or incorrectly  describe  some very important aspects of the
process of diffusion of impurities in the ground layer of the atmosphere;
for example, they incorrectly  consider the dependence of the vertical dif-
fusion coefficient on the  height above the surface of the ground, yield too
low a value of the horizontal  diffusion coefficient, etc.

     On close inspection,  the  Setton  formulas showed a substantial divergence
with the experiment, and  they  are now regarded as extrapolation formulas
applicable only to the  conditions of  Setton's experiments.

     The Setton formulas had been applied in this country to calculations
of diffusion of impurities by  Ye. N.  Teverovskiy [57] and P. I. Andreyev
[58].  The latter gave  practical recommendations for the application of
Setton formulas to the  calculation)of smokestacks, and these recommendations
have been applied for a number of years.

     The calculation of the  stacks was carried out chiefly by using formula
(13), provided that  the highest concentration was equal to the maximum per-
missible concentration  established by sanitary authorities.

     Figures 7 and 8 show  the  distribution of relative concentration values
for  a unit discharge (1 g/sec)  and unit wind (1 m/sec) , calculated from
Setton formulas for  stacks 30  and 100 m high [59].
                                     - 41 -

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                       10
5 X. m
                     Fig. 8.  Distribution of relative concentration
                           values above stacks 100 m high.
     Both the  Setton formulas and the curves of Figs. 7 and 8 pertain  to
determinations  of  the "instantaneous" concentration in 2-3 minutes.  For  a
longer sampling time, the  measured concentrations turn out to be substan-
tially below the calculated ones.

     A different solution  of the problem of impurity dispersal was obtained
by D. L. Laykhtman in 1940-1945 [60], who took diffusion coefficients
independent of  the averaging time for certain distances (up to 10 km)  and
gave a relatively  rigorous description of the increase of the wind velocity
and coefficient of vertical diffusion with the height.  This solution  is  in
accord with the diffusion  theory.

     In this case, the height distribution of the wind velocity is expressed
by the following formula,  which is borne out experimentally:
                                   «2
                                        _e
                                        2 ~
                                        Jt
                                        zl
                      (15)
     The vertical  and horizontal diffusion coefficients assume the form:

                                          2 \«-e
                                                                          (16)
                                  k.=
where z  is  the  average  roughness of the area; e and e  are parameters
dependent on the temperature gradient.
                      (17)
                                     - 42 -

-------
ux  and k are the wind velocity and  coefficient of vertical  diffusion at
height 2;L (usually  z^ = 1 m); ko is  a  constant.


      The parameters entering into formulas  (15) and (17) were  obtained
trom the experimental data.

      a)  k0 = 0.65


      b)  E = -O.ZAt; At = t1<4 - t13>4


(At  is the temperature difference at heights  of 1.4 and 13.4 m) ;

      c=0 - isothermy  (At = 0);
      £<0 - convection (At>0);
      e>0 - inversion  (At<0);


      c)  the dependence of K.  on e for -0.5
-------
     For calculations of the  concentration near the ground at the axis
of the plume, the following formulas may be  used:
                                                                       (20)
                                  3
                              a = --
                                  2    1+e+i
                    B =
                                         l+e          l-f-g— e,
     r is the symbol of the gamma function.

     The maximum concentration near the  ground  (cmax)  and the  distance from
the stack to the point on the ground where the  concentration is  maximum
     ) are calculated from the formulas
                                                                       (21)

                                                                       (2.2 )
                                            a

     The Laykhtman formula describes the diffusion  of  the  impurity  at  a
distance of up to 10 km under different meteorological conditions much more
accurately than the Setton formulas.

     Attempts to perfect these formulas  [61]  and allow for the  dependence
of the diffusion coefficients on the space  and  time scales have not given
any substantial results thus far, despite considerable mathematical compli-
cations of the theory.

     R. Pasquille [62] proposed a method of calculating the distribution of
an impurity that is' particularly convenient for single discharges from
stacks (for example, in an accident).  For  a continuous discharge,  his formula
has the following form:
                                   „_ 6.168Q,
                                   C~  iua.%                           (23)

where  c is the concentration at the axis of the cloud; Q  is the discharge
per unit time; U is the wind velocity; 0 is the aperture angle  of the  jet,
and h  is the height of the cloud.
                                    -  44  -

-------
     The author devoted special  attention  to  the  determination  of  the  depen-
dence of 0 and h on the meteorological  conditions.  When  these  values  are
appropriately selected, the  concentration  can be  evaluated with practically
any acceptable accuracy.

     However, even formula  (23), which  permits  the  evaluation of the  con-
centration, at a distance of  up  to  100 km,  does  not  allow  for the dependence
on the averaging time.

     In recent years,  at the Main  Geophysical Observatory under the super-
vision of M. Ye. Berlyand,  theoretical  and experimental studies were  con-
ducted on the distribution  of  the  concentration of  impurities discharged
from plant stacks  [63].

     The problem of impurity diffusion  was examined with  the same  assumptions
as those of D. L. Laykhtman, but in  this  case a computer  was used  to  make
an exhaustive study of the  solution  obtained  [63].

     The highest concentration  near  the ground  was

                                ,   = _*•                              (24)
     Here a  and b  are  coefficients  obtained in a numerical solution of the
problem.  If U^ is  the wind  velocity at a height of 1 m,  then for a stack
with H  ..,. =  100 m,  the quantities  a _  f ft,   and b = 1.8.
      GI L                            '*>••' I /  —-—
                                        V  *o«i
     The distribution  of  the ground concentration of a weightless impurity
for k2 = k-^z and u = u-^  zn is  expressed by the formula:
                     Css	Qo        ,r*.«"*M                (25)
The value of  the highest  concentration is  expressed by the formula:

                         c   -  °'116(1 +n>*
-------
     The so-called single concentration for 20-30 minutes is standardized
by sanitary rules.  It has been established experimentally that as the
assortment of samples increases, the concentration decreases, this being
explained by wind direction fluctuations, the probability of the increase
of which increases with time.  The coefficient of horizontal diffusion
apparently increases with time and can be written as:

                             Afc = -Lje«pJ=J-irf^ is the mean square variance of the angle of rotation of the wind.

     Substituting k  for ko in equation (25), after finding the maximum we
obtain the following formulas:

                                _ 0,216Ml-|-»)3Qo
                              max~
     Calculation showed that the single concentration is approximately one-
half the "instantaneous" concentration.

     Of great importance also was the derivation of sufficiently accurate
formulas for calculating the thermal ascent of a plume discharged from
plant stacks:
where WQ is the gas exit velocity from the stack; RQ is the radius of the
stack mouth; u is the wind velocity at the height of the stack mouth; g is
the acceleration due to gravity; AT is the difference between the temper-
ature of the escaping gases and the air temperature at the height of the
stack mouth.

     In addition, the influence of heavy suspended aerosol particles on
the distribution of the concentration was studied.  It was shown that the
settling particles produce greater concentrations on the ground near the
stack and in the zone of the maximum than the weightless impurity does.
On the contrary, far from the stack, the concentration may become lower
than that produced by the weightless impurity.

     In selecting the necessary height of the smokestack, all the working
parameters should be chosen so that the single concentration (for 20-30
minutes) of the noxious impurity does not exceed the maximum permissible
concentrations for any meteorological conditions.
                                     -  46 -

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     Hence, the diffusion coefficients should be taken  for  the highest
values of c^jj.  In addition, it is necessary to select  correctly  the
calculated wind velocity.  According  to  all  the diffusion formulas, the
concentration increases in inverse proportion to the wind velocity, i.e.,
the lower the latter,  the higher the  concentration.  Moreover, the thermal
and velocity ascent of the smoke plume is  greater  the lower the wind
velocity, and therefore as the latter decreases, the effective stack height
increases and the concentration diminishes.

     It follows that at a certain "dangerous" wind velocity the highest
concentration of the impurity near the ground is produced:

                        	0.656,90	
                                                         2'3                (32)
                                          , 17+3.7
     For stacks with a height of over 30 m, with overheating of the gases
above 10°:
                                    =
                                 "^
                                       //*
                                                                          (33)
where V = r> R0W0   is  the volume  of  gases  discharged  from the stack in
m-Vsec, and m is a coefficient  allowing  for  the  velocity  of  the  gas dis-
charges from the stacks:

     at WQ = 10 m/sec,    m =  1;

     at WQ = 20 m/sec,    m =  0.9;
     at W > 20 m/sec,     m =  0.8.

     The coefficient A, dependent on the diffusion  rate,  is  essentially
related to the  climatic conditions.   Therefore,  on  the basis of  a  detailed
analysis, three values of A were  taken:

     A, = 0.12  for the middle  belt of the  European  territory of  the USSR;
     A2 = 0.16  for the north,  northwest, the Urals  and the Ukraine;
     A, » 0.2 for Kazakhstan,  Central Asia,  and  Central Siberia.

     The dangerous wind velocity  at  the height of the wind vane  (10 m), ud,
at which the largest values of the maximum concentration  are reached, is:

                                                                          (34)

                                                                 X
     Calculations showed  that  the  ratio  _c    depends  only on

Figure 9 illustrates  this dependence.
                                     - 47 -

-------
      In 1963, the State Committee  on  Coordination  of  Scientific Research
Studies ratified for the first  time in the  USSR a "temporary  method for
calculating the smokestacks of  thermal electric power  plants",  the  working
formulas of which are given above  [64].

      Under certain meteorological  conditions  - weak winds  and  a deep  inver-
sion layer above the stack ("cap")  - a so-called smoking  or dangerous  plume
may be formed.

      The concentrations of impurities in such a plume cannot be calculated
from the usual diffusion formulas.  A  calculation of a "smoking" plume was
made in one of the studies [65].

      Let us consider a case in which  the plume of  impurity in  the  presence
of an inversion above the stack mouth  is uniformly  mixed  with air in the
ground layer as a result of convection that started near  the  ground.   In
this case:
                              c =
                                           2-n
                                      (35)
      Assuming that in an inversion C  = 0.5  and n = 0.5, we  find that for
a "smoking" plume:
c-  8
-------
the stack without any appreciable dispersal and the descent of this impurity
toward the ground with the formation of very high concentrations are possible.
Observations carried out in the U.S.A. on a 100-meter smokestack showed that
under such conditions, the concentration was an average of 20 times greater
than the calculated highest single concentration.

      M. Ye. Berlyand [66] studied dangerous conditions of pollution of the
atmosphere with industrial emissions.  He discussed the influence of an inver-
sion layer above the stack ("cap") on the thermal ascent of a plume emitted
from a stack and showed that under these conditions, as a result of a decrease
in the thermal ascent of the plume, the maximum concentration may be doubled.

      However, under certain conditions (strong inversion above the stack,
slightly heated impurity), the ascent of the jet may be limited independently
of the wind velocity, and therefore at low wind velocities the concentrations
near the ground may increase 5-10-fold.

     These estimates give an approximately 10-fold concentration increase
over the normal value. Obviously, the accumulation and "tumbling down" of
the impurity cloud toward the ground may also produce considerably greater
concentrations, i.e., 20 or more times as great as the calculated ones.

      This problem has not been sufficiently studied thus far.  The probability
of such conditions is low, but cases of dangerous smoke pollution are found
in almost all countries.

                       Case of a Smog that Resulted in
                a Large-Scale Mild Poisoning of the Population

      This section will describe a case of large-scale poisoning of the popu-
lation of an industrial town as a result of pollution of atmospheric air in
the presence of a temperature inversion.

      On the day when the poisoning occurred, the morning was still, foggy
and cold.  The air temperature was -21°C.  The fog blanketed the ground.
The trees were covered with a thick layer of blue hoarfrost.   On that day,
from 10:30 A.M. to 12 noon, people working in the open air at various loca-
tions or those who had walked along the town's streets began to arrive in
the clinics of the town and health departments of plants to seek medical
help, with complaints of an acute irritation of the upper respiratory tract,
tickling in the throat, dry cough, and chest pains.

      In the course of the next few hours, the town's medical institutions
recorded and examined hundreds of people from the town's territory who
suffered from the above-indicated subjective disturbances during that period.
In addition to these symptoms, some of the patients complained of an increased
salivation and dyspnea.  In addition to the above-indicated symptoms, a small
                                     - 49  -

-------
number of people  had numbness of the tongue  and  lips,  and vomiting, which
occurred most  frequently at the height of violent  coughing spells.  By the
end of the  day, the number of persons who came for help  had reached a
considerable figure, which led to the assumption of  a  possible large-scale
poisoning of the  population caused by pollution  of the open air.

     Since  it  was not possible to establish  the  cause  of the large-scale
poisoning immediately, the decision was made to  hospitalize at once all
persons who showed symptoms of poisoning, including  those who had suffered
even the slightest changes in the way they felt  during these hours.  To
achieve a full hospitalization of the victims, in  addition to the inpatient
medical institutions, use was made of the dispensaries of industrial plants,
from which  the patients resting there were quickly discharged.

     In a most thorough survey of the victims, 13% of  those questioned
told of the appearance of some odor during this  time interval, but the
description of the odor was quite varied ("indefinite",  "slight", "odor of
burning", "odor of smoke", "odor of petroleum",  "insecticide odor", etc.).

     The first subjective sensations of the patients were arranged in the
following order according to frequency (Table 11).

                                                Table 11
                        Frequency (in Percent) of First Complaints
                              of Persons Seeking Help
                               Complaints
Tiering in the. throat, sneezing .
Burning sensation under breastbone
Dyspnea 	
Dry cough	 . .
Chest pains .... 	
Increased salivation 	
Nausea, vomiting 	
Perception of some odor  	
                                                 Frequency
                                                   in
                                                   90,0
                                                   79,0
                                                   76,0
                                                   71,2
                                                   63,0
                                                   36,9
                                                   30,4
                                                   13.0
     In a mass medical examination of the victims  3-6 hours  after the poison-
ing, most of  them complained of tickling and unpleasant sensations in the
nose and throat,  burning under the breastbone, dry cough,  general weakness,
dizziness, headache*,  and nausea.

     In an objective  study, the majority of the victims at that time showed
paleness, slight  cyanosis of the lips, isolated, less often  multiple dry
rales in the  lungs,  and lability of heart action.

     Frequent symptoms were a muffling of the cardiac tones  and a tendency
toward vascular hypertension (arterial pressure 130/90-150/90 mm Hg).
                                     - 50 -

-------
Physical examination did not show any changes in the digestive organs or
urogenital system.

     Neurologically, those most seriously affected showed moderate neuro-
circulatory disturbances manifested in headache, dizziness, and lability
of vasomotor reactions.

     The clinical picture of massive inhalational poisoning of the popula-
tion was thus expressed predominantly in an acute irritation of the upper
respiratory tract in the form of an acute catarrhal rhino-pharyngo-
laryngotracheitis.

     A day later, the subjective state of the majority of the victims
improved:  the tickling in the throat and burning under the breastbone
decreased, and the  coughing stopped.  However, symptoms of general weakness
and dull headache were mentioned by many.

     Some of the victims with the most pronounced symptoms of irritation
of the upper respiratory tract were examined by an otolaryngologist.

     It was noted that in the majority of the persons studied, a day after
the exposure there  remained a pronounced hyperemia of the nasal mucosa,
soft palate, uvula, palatine arches, tonsils, larynx and trachea, and rear
wall of the pharynx.  The secretion of mucus was insignificant, and in some
of the patients the mucous membranes were dry.  In one-half of the victims
the nose was stuffy, and the mucous membranes swelled with a bluish-whitish
hue.  There was a transparent mucus in the nasal passages.  Thus, one day
after the exposure, the symptoms of acute catarrhal rhino-pharyngo-laryn-
gotracheitis remained.  In isolated cases, symptoms of a mild acute bronchitis
were observed.

     The general  condition of the subjects was completely satisfactory.
There was not a single case of aggravation of the condition or reinforcement
of the intoxication symptoms.  Approximately one-half of the victims felt
better already next day, and in the remaining ones the symptoms of general
intoxication were very mild.
                                  i
     Two days after the exposure, an inpatient examination showed the condi-
tion of all the subjects to be fully satisfactory; 44.4% of those hospitalized
did not voice any complaints, whereas among the remaining ones, the most
frequent complaints were headache and dizziness (31.8%), chest pains (13.0%),
and dry cough (8.6%).  Hyperemia of the mucous tnembranees of the respiratory
tract was moderately expressed and was noted in 32.7% of the subjects.
Hyperemia of the  conjunctiva was noted in only 1% of the patients (Table 12).

    A roentgenoscopic examination of all the patients failed to show even a
single case of any symptoms of acute lung pathology.  By that time, the
                                     - 51 -

-------
 danger of  pulmonary edema developing had already passed, so that of the
 total  number of hospitalized persons it was possible to discharge 8%, in
 whom by that time both  subjective and objective symptoms of injury had
 completely disappeared.   Three days  after the exposure, 66.7% of those
 present in the  hospital did not voice any complaints.

                                                 Table 12

                     Frequency of Symptoms of Poisoning (in Percent)
                             2-3 Days After Exposure
Symptoms of Poisoning
Subjective State
Tickling in the throat
Burning behind the sternum
Dyspnea
Dry cough
Chest pains
Increased salivation
Nausea
General weakness
Headache and dizziness
Pains in the region of the heart
No complaints
Objective Symptoms
Hyperemia of mucous membranes
Hyperemia of conjunctiva
On Second
Day

6,9
1,0
1,2
8.6
13,0
	
2,0
6,8
31,8
5,0
44,4

32,7
1,0
On Third
Day

2,3
—
—
6,5
4,1
	
1,0
3.2
19,0
1,5
66.7

11.2
—
     The subjective condition of  the remaining patients  improved considerably:
the most frequent complaint was headache  (19%), but  it was not  strong,  not
significant, and did not have any  appreciable effect on  the way the  patients
felt (Table 12).

     By that time, the symptoms of irritation of  the mucous membranes of the
upper respiratory tract in the form of  a  light hyperemia of these membranes
was observed in only 11.2% of the  number  of patients present  in the  hospital.

     Physical examination of the  lungs  did not show  any  pathology:   the
scattered dry rales noted in the  lungs  of a few patients  disappeared com-
pletely three days after the exposure.

     No changes whatever were found in  the cardiovascular system and gastro-
intestinal tract that could have been attributed  to  the  toxic effect.
Changes in pulse rate and arterial pressure and an increase in  the size of
the liver and soreness in the right subcostal region were noted in only a '
few persons who had suffered for years  from chronic  illnesses.

     No deviations were observed in the peripheral blood either.  Thus,
eosinophilia was found in only 3.5% of  the subjects.  Changes in the number
                                     -52_-

-------
of leucocytes and in the erythrocyte sedimentation rate were observed only
in persons with chronic tonsillitis, sinusitis, chronic hepatocholecystitis,
adnexitis, etc.

     Analysis of the blood for methemoglobin was negative in all cases.
For this reason, three days after the exposure, another 70.2% of the
patients were discharged in a state of complete clinical cure, and after
four days, another 11.2% were discharged.

     Thus, five days after the exposure, 89.4% of those affected had com-
pletely recovered and only 10.6% of the hospitalized persons were kept for
further observation and treatment in the hospital because they had chronic
general diseases:  3% of the patients with hypertensive disease and symptoms
of general atherosclerosis showed a certain decline in the way they felt
(increase of headache) and were kept in the hospital for treatment.

     In 3% of the subjects, an aggravation of their earlier gastrointestinal
disturbances (gastritis, hepatocholecystitis) was observed; they complained
of increased pains in the epigastric region and in the right subcostal
region, and an increased nausea after the intoxication.

     In 2.3% of the subjects in the hospital, a typical picture of acute
infectious (seasonal) cold of the upper respiratory tract was observed,  and
one subject showed an aggravation of chronic bronchitis.  In 1.3% of the
subjects, the vegetative-vascular disturbances which they had had earlier
became somewhat intensified.

     All the individuals who sought medical help were given oxygen, alkaline
inhalations, and symptomatic medicines to reduce the cough and eliminate
the headache.

     In persons who did not turn to a physician immediately after the
exposure, the symptoms of irritation of the upper respiratory tract sub-
sided without treatment during the first 1-2 days.

     A commission was formed to investigate the causes of the large-scale
poisoning of people.

     In order to establish the causes of the poisoning, a thorough technical
and engineering study was made on the industrial plants located in the area
involved.  The study was carried out by checking the technological processes,
inspecting the work areas, verifying the technical and technological docu-
ments, and interrogating the operators directly.  During the inspection  of
the industrial plants, particular attention was given to the presence of
emergency situations and to the disruption of technological processes on the
day of the incident.
                                   - 53 -

-------
     The inspection showed that the plants lo,cated in the region of the
accident had been operating under normal technological conditions and had
not changed the nature or rate of their production.

     There were no cases of emergency situations or disruption of techno-
logical conditions in the handling of chemical substances.  An inspection
of the stocking management of chemicals in the plants and a check of the
operations involved in receiving and delivery showed that the transportation,
receiving, storage, delivery, utilization and inventory of corrosive and
poisonous chemicals were carried out in accordance with regulation require-
ments.

     In order to explain the possible effect of chemicals transported by
railroad, a check was made on the railroad tank cars and trains (convoys)
moving along the railroad track passing near the town.  In view of the
absence of cases of poisoning among persons working in the immediate
vicinity of the railroad and at neighboring stations, the commission came
to the conclusion that railroad transport could not have been the cause of
the poisoning.

     In addition to the inspection of industrial facilities, the boiler
enterprises of the town were also examined.  The examination established
that because of a sharp drop of air temperature and a shortage of gas fuel
on the day of the occurrence, three boiler houses of industrial plants
separated by a distance of 800-1000 m from one another operated at full
capacity and used high-sulfur mazut as the fuel.  The daily consumption of
mazut was 204 tons, with an average sulfur content of 3.6%.  The emission
of sulfur dioxide by all the boiler houses was as high as 600 kg/hour
(14,400 kg/day).  The flue gases were discharged through stacks 30-40 m high.

     Simultaneously with the technical and engineering inspection of the
plants, laboratory studies were made on the environment (atmospheric air,
snow, clothing of the victims, etc.) in order to identify the chemical agent
that caused the large-scale poisoning.

     Laboratory studies of objects in the external environment involved all
the ingredients which could have produced dangerous concentrations in atmos-
pheric air.  Samples of atmospheric air were collected in places where the
people were exposed on the day of the occurrence and in the next 2-3 days.

     Analyses of atmospheric air for the chemicals used in the technological
processes on the day of the occurrence showed the absence of concentration
in excess of the maximum permissible values.

     Of interest were the analyses of fresh snow.  Results of analysis of
snow collected at a depth of 4 cm showed an increased content of sulfur
oxides (sulfates + sulfites), whose amount considerably exceeded (by a
                                   - 54 r

-------
 factor  of  10  or more)  the content  of other substances  (nitrates,  nitrites,
 chlorides,  etc.).   In  addition,  the content of sulfur  compounds in snow
 samples  collected  in the  area of exposure was  approximately  6-7 times  as
 high  as  the content of sulfur compounds  in snow samples  collected in the
 control  area.

      A second analysis of 52  snow  samples collected at two levels (at  a
 depth of up to 15  cm and  from 15 cm to the ground)  showed that in 7-8  days,
 the pollution of snow  with sulfates because of precipitation exceeded  (by
 a  factor of 3-4) the pollution of  snow that fell in other weeks of the
 winter season (Table 13).

      According to  the  data of the  Hydrometeorological  Center of the USSR,
 the meteorological situation  in  this region was characterized by  anticy-
 clonal, fair,  cool weather with  weak winds and the  formation of fog and
 heavy hoarfrost.   An intense  cooling of  the ground  layer of  air during the
 night led  to  the formation of a  thick temperature inversion  layer near the
 ground with a height of the barrier layer of up to  50  m,  which promoted
 the pressing  and concentration of  the stream of flue gases.

      According to  the  data of weather stations located nearby, a  weak
western and northwestern wind was  observed during the  night,  then after
 9 P.M., the wind began to  turn in  the southwestern  and southern direction.
 Table 13 lists  data on the direction and velocity of the  wind from 0 to
 15 hours,  [i.e., 12  midnight  to  3  P.M.].
                                              Table 13

                         Velocity and Direction of the Wind
Time
(in Hours)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5-00
6.00
7 00
8 00
9 00
10 00
MOO
12.00
13 00
14 00
15 00

Wind Direction
Western (250') 	
Western (270')< 	
Western (2713) 	
Western (260°) 	
Western (250') 	
Western (270=) 	
Western (270') 	
Northwestern (290a) 	
Northwestern (290°)
Northwestern (290') 	

C...4.V.T. «/1QO°^ 	
SoutherrOSO"1) . . . ....

<5rnri-hArrf 180M 	

Wind Velocity
(in m/sec)
2
1
1
2
2
2
a
2
2.
2
1
3
1
	
2

                                    -."55 -

-------
      At one of the weather stations located nearby,  radiosondes were used
 to  measure the temperature distribution in the  lower layers  of air
 (Table  14).
                                              Table 14
                      Temperature Distribution in °C with Height
                             (From Radiosonde Data)

Height (in m)

Ground
• 300
400
800
1000
1500
time of Measurements (in Hours)

9.00
-21,5
—20,0
—14,0
__
—13,0
—15,0

15.00
—18,0
—
—18,0
—13.0
—
—18,0
     The  lowest  position of the inversion layer was observed  at  9  A.M.
The temperature  drop  in the 0-400 m layer was 7.5°C.

     More  detailed  data on the temperature distribution according  to
height were obtained  on a meteorological mast at a distance of about 100  km
from the  area where the smoke pollution occurred.

     These data  are shown in Fig. 10.   As is evident from the latter,  at
9:30-10 A.M., at a  height of about 40  m, an inversion layer was  formed
with a temperature  drop of 6-7° C. , which formed a "cap" above the  low
smokestacks of the  local boiler houses, which, burned sulfur mazut  with an
average sulfur content  of 3.6%.

     As was noted above, all three boiler houses, separated by distances
of about  800-1000 m,  burned 204 tons of mazut.

     Let us first calculate the emission of sulfur oxides by boiler  house
No. 1:
                                 95 X 10* X 3.6
                                             " 4° S/S6C
                                 24 X 3600 X 100

                               Qso2 = 40 X 2 = 80g/sec


     We shall  calculate  the highest single concentration from the formula
for a stack height  of  40 ra and a wind velocity of 2 m/sec:
                                    235 X 80
                                   2 X 2 X 40>
                                     - 56 -

-------
 I
l_n
                       /W7
                        90
                        80
                        70
                        60
                        SO
30
20
10
T



                                             _
                                         ±
                             i i  i i  i i i  i i r| i  It  i i iiii.i.t  j i j^
                                                                                                    T
                                                                                                                                            \
                         T'CH 22 JO 18 IS '14 21 K 20 IS' IB  II 21 22 20 IB  IB  tt   21  22 20 0 IB It    22  20  IS IS >4     22 10 18 IB     20 18  IS  '4
                                 7.30               8.30             9.30               10.30              11.30              12.30            13.30
                                                           Pig. 10.  Distribution of temperature according to height.

-------
     Calculations of the emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere
made it possible to determine the highest concentrations which can be
produced at a distance of 10-20 H or 400-800 m from the boiler house
stacks.

     The highest concentration of sulfur dioxide discharged with the
flue gases by the most powerful boiler house is shown by the calculations
to be 3 mg/m3, which is 6 times as high as the maximum permissible concen-
tration for atmospheric air of populated areas.

     For the remaining two boiler houses, the highest concentrations could
be respectively 3-4.5 times as high as the maximum permissible concentra-
tion.

     Consequently, in the combustion of sulfur mazut, all the indicated
three boiler houses produced a considerable excess over the maximum ojer-
missible concentration, since they had low stacks.

     In the case of a "dangerous" smoking plume, the concentrations of
sulfur dioxide in the ground layer could have been substantially greater,
as is evident from the calculation made by using the formula.

     From formula (36), assuming a height of the barrier inversion layer
H = 40 m and a distance of 500 m from the stack, we obtain for boiler
house No. 1

                               8 X 80 X 1000    „„  , 3
                      Csmoke =
     Considering the possibility of a combination of the smoke plumes
from all three boiler houses, the highest sulfur dioxide concentration
could have reached 100 mg/m^, which is 2-3 times the sulfur dioxide con-
centration for which an acute injury of the upper respiratory tract is
observed.

     The largest concentration could have been produced in low areas ,
where the flue gas ascended in the presence of the prevailing weak wind,
which was close to a calm.  A sulfur dioxide concentration equal to
100 mg/m3 is approximately 20 times the ordinary concentration produced
under average meteorological conditions and 200 times the maximum permis
sible value.

     It was noted that injury to people in different parts of the area
agreed in time with the change in the direction of the wind from west to
south.  This is evident from Fig. 11.
                                     - 58 -

-------
                         Fig. 11.  Smoke pollution of the town.
     As is evident from Fig.  11,  from 9  to 10 A.M., almost the entire town
became polluted with smoke, except its northern part, and from 10 to 11 A.M.
the wind turned northward  and only the northern part of the town was covered
with smoke.  After 11 A.M., the smoke pollution in the town practically
ceased.  Exposure of people in different areas of the town corresponded
exactly to this turning of the wind.

     A close analysis of the  results of engineering and technical inspection
of the plants and a study  of  the  clinical picture of injury to people,
data on the weather situation and the results of laboratory analyses of
items in the external environment led to the conclusion that the cause of
the large-scale poisoning  of  people was  the pollution of the ground layer
of atmospheric air by high concentrations of sulfur dioxide combined with
products of its oxidation  as  a result of the discharge of flue gases of the
boiler houses through low  stacks  (30-40 m).  The stable, deep inversion
that produced a barrier layer above the stacks of the boiler houses caused
a sharp increase in sulfur dioxide concentrations in atmospheric air which
turned out to be dangerous for the health of the inhabitants.

         Ways of Preventing the Noxious Effects of Pollution with
                     Sulfur Dioxide of Atmospheric Air

     The data cited above, pertaining to cases of large-scale poisoning of
the population, show that  the struggle with atmospheric pollution by indus-
trial discharges associated with  the combustion of high sulfur fuels (partic-
ularly in industrial centers  and  densely populated areas) should be waged
with the utmost determination.
                                     - 59 -

-------
     As we have indicated above,  the most significant  source  of pollution
of urban air reservoirs in modern industrial  centers are  the  products  of
incomplete combustion of fuel and sulfur oxides  discharged  in large  quanti-
ties with flue gases from public, residential, and  industrial boiler rooms
and thermal electric power plants.

     The most radical measure in  eliminating  emissions of sulfur oxides  and
ash is the use of natural gas as  the fuel in  boiler houses  and thermal
electric power plants.

     In the construction of new towns, an effective measure consists in
supplying the residential areas and industrial plants with  electricity and
heat from sources separated from  the town by  a distance such  that the  pollu-
tion of air with flue gases and ash is excluded.  In planning residential
sections and industrial plants it is necessary to consider  the prevailing
winds and to provide for a sufficient gap between the sources of smoke
emissions and residential areas.

     One of the measures limiting the discharge  of  sulfur into the atmos-
phere is the use of low-sulfur types of fuel.

     In some countries of western Europe (France),  special  regulations have
been introduced that establish a  limitation on the  sulfur content of fuel.
Thus, the law of 20 April 1932 limited the sulfur content of  fuel used for
combustion in urban boiler rooms  to 2%.  Later,  the upper limit of the
sulfur content of mazut was established at no more  than 0.8 - 1% (law  of
12 April 1960) [67]*.

     It should be noted that the elimination  of  sulfur from fuel prior to
its use is a major problem of great economic  importance.  According  to
many experts in this field, the removal of sulfur from fuel before its use
appears to be clearly advantageous.  The most important results in this
direction have been obtained in the case of removal of sulfur from combus-
tible gases (natural, coke oven, water, petroleum,  and other  gases).   The
removal of sulfur from liquid fuel has been resolved only partially, and
this important problem requires further research and the  development of  the
most economical methods.

     Methods of hydrogenation of petroleum permitting  the production of
mazut containing less than 0.5% sulfur have not  yet been  developed for
practical applications.  The removal of sulfur from solid fuel is an even
more complex problem.

     One of the steps taken toward reducing the  pollution of  atmospheric
air with sulfur oxides during the combustion  of  high-sulfur fuel is  the
    * Editor's note:  The date of publication of the reference cited is inconsistent with the date of the
mentioned law.
                                    - 60 -

-------
purification of the flue gases of electric power plants.  This requirement
applies primarily to high-capacity thermal electric power plants located
at considerable distances from cities.

     At the present time, a number of methods have been recommended by the
NIIOGAZ and Giprogazochistka Institutes for the removal of sulfur oxides
from flue gases at high-capacity thermal electric power plants, but these
methods have not progressed beyond the confines of experimental industrial
installations.  Moreover, the construction of sulfur-removing installations
and the operating cost require very substantial means.

     However, the construction of high-capacity State Regional Electric
Power Plants has propelled the problem of purification of flue gases to a
place of high priority, and it may be assumed that sulfur-removing instal-
lations will be built in the, near future.

     In addition to the above-enumerated methods of preventing atmospheric
pollution with flue gases, in order to achieve the maximum dispersal of
noxious impurities, the construction of high stacks has become widespread
in the last few years.  The choice of the necessary height of the smoke-
stacks is made by calculation in accordance with the "Sanitary Standards of
Planning of Industrial Enterprises" (SN-245-63), the "Temporary Method for
Calculating the Atmospheric Dispersal of Discharges (Ash and Sulfur Gases)
From Smokestacks of Electric Power Plants", ratified by resolution No. 83
of the State Committee on Coordination of Scientific Research of the USSR
on 25 July 1963, and also by the "Recommendations for Calculating the Dis-
persal of Noxious Substances in the Atmosphere" [64] and [69].

     In solving the problem of the necessary stack height, it should be
recalled that high stacks are most effective only under favorable meteoro-
logical conditions.  Because of the great dilution of gases upon their dis-
charge through high stacks, the concentration of noxious impurities in the
ground layer of atmospheric air is reduced, but the pollution zone expands
considerably.
                                 i
     However, the construction of high stacks does not fully solve the
problem of sanitary protection of atmospheric air from pollution by noxious
industrial emissions.

     In the case of unfavorable meteorological conditions (deep temperature
inversion in combination with a low temperature and calm), which are most
frequently observed in the autumn and winter, the discharge of unpurified
gases will promote a considerable pollution of the atmosphere near the
ground, thus posing a direct threat to the health of the population.

     Of considerable assistance in the organization and adoption of appro-
priate preventive measures may be the meteorological service.  The prediction
                                   - 61 -

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of meteorological conditions under which the formation of dangerous con-
centrations of atmospheric pollutants is possible should be used to limit
certain technological operations connected with the possibility of emis-
sions of large amounts of toxic substances during that period.

     The organization of a network of meteorological stations and of a
service forecasting dangerous concentrations of atmospheric pollutants is
necessary in areas where industry is heavily concentrated.

     One of the major prophylactic steps is a regular checking of the con-
tent in the atmosphere of noxious chemicals discharged in the course of
technological processes by industrial plants.  The data obtained should be
brought to the attention of the management of the plants for the purpose
of adopting timely measures and preventing dangerous atmospheric pollutants
by modifying certain features of the technological processes.

     In the elimination or reduction of emissions of noxious substances
into the surrounding atmosphere, a major role is played by the improvement
of the technological process and by a reliable sealing of certain units,
assemblies, and communications of the industrial enterprise in question.

     Among ameliorative measures, of major importance is the establishment
of a rigorous preventive and ongoing sanitary and technical supervision of
aoo the existing and possible sources of air pollution and the implementa-
tion of all the sanitary and technical measures designed to reduce and
eliminate urban air pollution.
                                     - 62 -

-------
                       LITERATURE  CITED
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    .leiiHbrx Bbi6pocoB D aTMOc4>epy. Flea peA. npo. T. E. Bo.iAbipcna.
    MCAI-HS. M., B. 1, 54—56.
2. F o Ji b A 6 e p r M. C. PHP. n can., Ii'57, 4. 9—14.
3. FypHHOBB.  n., fl H wines a H.  8. Fur. n can., 1960, 12, 3—10.
4. Faaeta «France Soir» or 28 nonupn 1960 r.
5. P R 3 a H o B  B.  A. CamiTapiian  oxpaiia atMocebepiioro BOSAVXB. Mea-
    FH3. M., 1954.
6.  Fo;ibA6epr M. C. CamrrapHan  oxpaiia  aTMoctbepnoro BOSAy.xa.
    MeArra. M.,  1948.
7. FycbKoaa B. II. B  KII.: Bonpocw rurHenw aTMoa|>epHoro eoajyxa.
    IloA peA. npo(p. E. U. AiupeeBoft-ra.iaHimofi u npot}). A.  H. lllaJiiopH . H UepiiHK O. Bpeji'.bie raaw. Flep. c HBM.  M., 1938.
10.  ByuityeBa K. A.  B c6.: ripcae.ibno  aonycTHMue  KOHueHtpamut
    aiMoccjiepHbix aarpasneHim. Mcania. M..  1957, B. Ill, 23—43.
11.  FaAacKima H. ZL 6un. nayi.  CBCCHH, nocssim. SO-.ietiiio iiaymi. AeatenbuocTii HHCTH-
    ryra rHntenbi rpyaa n npoi|>3a6o.ieBaHnfi.  JI., 1957, 382—387.
14.  CHAOpeHKOB H.  B.  BCCTH. 4Ka.ioBCKoro oC.iacTHoro  oTae.icmi>r
    Bcecoioan. XHMHH. o6-Ba MM.  Jl. H. MeHae.ieeBa, 1957, 65—67.
15.  B w CT p o B a T. A. Tpyaw I MOJIMH. 1957, 85—89.
16.  C T e p e x o B a H.  n. B co.: Bonpocu rHnieHW xpyaa H npocjjeccno-
    na^bHofi naTO.iornH B uaeTHofi v.eTa.i.iypniii. CsepaJioBCK, 1959. B. 4.
  .   187—197.
17.  B a 1 c u m  O. J.. D y b i c k i J.. M e n e 11 y G.  K. Arch. Ind. Health.
     1960, 21, 5, 564—569.
 18  PaccKaaosa T. B.  C6.  ?p. OaeccKoro  MM. im-Ta. Oaecca. 196t.
     B. 15, 137-139.
 19.  BaciiJibeea  0.  F.  Fur. tpyaa H npo<}). saoo.ieBaiiHH,  1957. 3.
     39—44.
20. A m d u r M., S i 1 v e r m a n L. a. D r i n ke r P. A. M. A. Arch,  in-
     dust. hyg. a. occup.  med., 1952. v. 6. p. 305.
21. Byuiryeaa K. A. B c6.: FIpeae.ibHO .lonycTHMwc   KOHueHtpamnr
     3TMOC(j)epHbix 3arpH3HeHiifl. Mejnia. M.. 1961, B. V, 126—141.
                               - '63 -

-------
 22. B y ui T y e B a  K.  A.  B c6.: Buo.iorii'iecKoe aeiicTBiie 11 riinieiiii'iec-
    KOC aiia'iemic  atMoccpcpiibix aarpnaiieiutii.-  lisa.  sMeaimmia*. M.,
    d966. 142—172.
 23. B y m T y e B a  K.  A.  B c6.: npcae.ibiio aonycriiMbie KOHueiiTpamiH
    atMoccpepHbix  aarpajiieiiifi'i. Haa.  «Meaiminta».  M:,  1961, B.  V,
    118-125.
 24. F o R bfl 6 e p r M. C.  Fur. 11 can.,  1955, 1, 41.
 :25. H o p ii ui A. A. Fur. 11 can., 1955,  10, 40.
26. UN 6 y .rc be K n ii  E. A., CanoKiuiKOB /I.  Fl.  KJIHII. Mea.,  1933,
    9_10, 458—465.
 27. CBBTJI a BCK iifi B. B. K Bonpocy o (padpiiKaitmi Bpeanwx cepno-
    (j>oc(popHbix cnii'ieK. XapbKOB, 1885!
 28. FI p a B fl H H H. C. PVKOBOJCTBO npOMbllll.ieKIIOfl TOKCHKO.IOrHH. Mea-
    FH3. M.. 1930, B. 1.
 29. MeuaTynbHH  A.  A. Fur., 6eaonacHOCTb  M nato-ionm   rpyaa,
    JVs 4—5.  Meania.  M., 1931, 119-128.
 -30. B a 6 a a H u P. A. SarpasHemie  ropojCKoro sosayxa. Haa. AMH
    CCCP. M., 1948.
 31. B a 6 a H H u. FHF.  H can., 1949, 12, 3—11.
 32. A m d u r M. O.. M e I i v i n W. W.,  Drinker P. Lancet,  1953, 2,
    p. 755—759.
 33. Moeschlin  S.  B KH.:  Klinik  und Therapie der   Vergiftungen.
    Stuttgart, 1955, 140—146, 175—201.
 34. Gordon  K-  C.  New  York State Journal  of med.,  1943. 43, 11,
    1954.
 35. O g a t a M. Arch.  f. Hyg.. 1884, 2. 223—245!
 36. K iss ka 11 R. Ztschr. f. Hyg. u. Infections.-Kr., 1904, 48, 269—279.
 37. P  a d d ly F. J. ind. hyg., 1924, 6,  i. 28-29.
 38. Rostoscki  O., CrecelciusD. Arch. klin. Med.,  1930,  168,
    107—122.
 39. M e T B e p H K o B B. C. )K. nir. rpyaa, 1927, 6, 36—44.
 40. Jl e B H u K H fi A. A. >K. rnr. tpyaa, 1928. 3. 96—97.
 41. 3  e Ji e H e u K H ft M. H. Fur. H can.. 1947, 11, 45—46.
 42. G o 1 d m a n A., H i 11 W.  T. Arch. ind. hyg.,  1955,  v. 8,  3, 206.
 43. M H x H e D 11 M C. H. CO. pa6or no rurneHe TpyAa, npo. 3a6o^eB3HH5i, 1966, 1035—1037.
 45. E Ji 4> H M o B a E. K. Fur. H can., 1960, 3, 18.
 46. B-apKep K., K3M6n ., KSTKOTT E.  flw. H ap. 3arpH3HCHiie
    atMoc(j)epHoro Bosayxa. Haa. BOS. ZUopeu HauHil.  JKenena, 1962.
 47. UHT. no  Jlaaapesy H. B. CnpaBomniK «Bpeaiibie  BemecTBa B  npo-
    MuuiaeHHocTH*. FocxiiMHaaaT. M.. 1954, T.  II,  97—100.
 48. M c C a r r o 11  J..  B r a d 1 e y W.  Amer. J. Publ. Hlth., 1966, 11, 56.
    '1933—1942.
 49. JKypna.i «3a pyoe/KOM», 1967, 20. 22—24.
 '50. JlyHC  Zl*.   EaTTaH.  SerpRaneimoe  ne6o. Flop, c  aHr.n.  M..
    1968.
.51. W i e t h a u-p H. Ibe Arbeitsmod.,  1966. 16. 11/328—330.
 52. HsMepoa H. ., Hcaor nfi'ien KO M. K. Fur. n  can., 1903,
    12, 87-95".  "                              '  '  ''
 53. H u m a n i t e. Honopb 1951.
 '54. Quevauv i tier A. Revue du I'Association'pour la Prcventio'n dc
    la Pollution Atmcspheriquc. Paris, 1959, 2. 55—73.
 •55. Taylor  C. G. Phil. Frans Roy. Soc., 1915,  A.  215, 1.
                               -  64 -

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56.  CSTTOII 0. .  MiiKpoMeTcopo.ioritn.  riupOMCTeoiiBAaT, 1958,
57.  Te B c p OB CK lift E. H. B  c6.: HoDbie IIACH  o  oC.iacTit
    aap03o;in. lisa.. AH CCCP, 1949.
58.  AHAPCCB FI. H.  PacceiiBamie B aoaayxe raaoe,  Bbi6pacuBaeMbix
    npOMUiu.nciiiibi.Mii npeanpHHTHHMii. Haa. no crpoirreibCTBy H  apxu-
    reKtype,  1952.
59.  3 ft-3 e H 6 a A M. PafliioaxTHBiiocrb Biieumefi   cpeAU.
    1968.
60.  JlafixTMan fl. Jl.  OiuiiKa npine.Mitoro  CJIOH aTMoc(pepu.
    MeTeoH3aaT, 1961.
61.  BonpocM Typ6y^enTHoft  aH4>(py3ini  B  npnaeMiioM c.ide arMOC(pepu.
    Floa pea. fl. Jl.  JlafixtMaiia.  JleiiiuirpaACKHfi  rHApoMeTeopo.iorwie-
    CKHH HHCTHTyt, 1963.
 62. Pasquille F. The meteorological  magasine,  1961, v. 90,  1063.
63.  B e p Ji H H A M. E.,  F e H n x o B H M E.  Jl. H O n y K y ji P. H. TPVAU
    MaDHoft  reoepe BPCAHLIX  Bemecrs
     (nbMH  H cepHHCToro rasa), coaepwautHXCfl  B  Bbi6pocax npoMwui-
    JICHHHX npeanpHSiTHfi. CH  369—67 us. o
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   SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METEOROLOGICAL AND AEROSYNOPTIC CONDITIONS


                       OF SMOKE POLLUTION IN NOVOSIBIRSK



 L.  I.  Vvedenskaya,  T.  G. Volodkevich, I. P.  Leontovich,  and I. A.  Shevchuk


From Glavnoe Upravlenie Gidrometeorologicheskoy Sluzhby Pri Sovete  Ministrov
SSSR.   Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Aeroklimatologii (Novosibirskiy
Filial).   Trudy,  Vypusk 48, "Voprosy Gidrometeorologii Sibiri".  Moskva,
p. 177-182, (1967).'

            The paper examines the results of observations of city smoke at three meteorological
        stations in Novosibirsk during the period 1956-1965.  Analysis of the meteorological
        conditions on days with smoke pollution is made, and the relationships between the onset
        of long periods of general smoke pollution and the stratification of the atmosphere are
        established.


      Observations  of the concentration of noxious industrial discharges
performed by the public health service in the cities and  towns of Siberia
have  been few and  mostly irregular.   For this reason, in  order to determine
the  dependence of  the degree of  pollution of  atmospheric  air on the meteor-
ological  conditions  in  Novosibirsk,  an attempt was made to find indirect
characteristics of pollution, using ordinary  meteorological observations
during  climatological periods.


      In Novosibirsk, there are three meteorological stations with a suf-
ficiently long period of regular observations.  Data of meteorological
observations from 1950  through 1965  have established that the phenomenon
of "city  smoke" may  serve as an  indicator of  the propagation of industrial
discharges in individual districts of Novosibirsk.
                                                                Table 1

        Average Frequency of Periods of Different Seasonal Durations in Cases for 1956-19&5.
                   Duration of
                      Periods
          Seasons
               §«•
                                                            a
                                                            A
                                          <0
                                          1=1
                         X3 10

                         " &
                         « o
       Winter
       Spring
       Summer
       Autumn
       Total 71
               1,6
               2,4
               1,6
               2,5
1,0
4,0
1,1
3,0
2,8
4,7
0,3
3/1
5,0
2.6
0,2
3,9
Average Number of Days of Smoke Per Year
 . .	I  1    12  I 4i'  I !
5,1
3,2
               16
2,8
1,6

0,6
3,4
0,9

0,9
               15  I 24
                                      - 66--

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                                                              Table 2
             Frequency of Wind Directions and Velocities During Smoke Pollution of
                Different Districts of Novosibirsk as an Average for 10 Years

Districts

Zayel'tsovskiy District
Dzerzhinskiy District
(Northeastern) • • •
Kirovskiy District
(Bugry, Ogurtsovo) • • •
Directions

N, NE
7
7
26

E, SE
18
10
25

S, SW
71
73
30

W, NE
4
10
19
Velocity

Calm
13
8
31

1-3
36
45
54

4-7
38
39
14

8-11
11
7
1 -

>I2
2
1
0
           Average frequency of wind directions and velocities for ten years according
             to Ogurtsovo station.
%
16
14
50
19
13
46
32
6
3
      The ten-year series from 1956  to 1965 was found  to have  regular
observations  of "city smoke".   On the basis  of these  data, periods were
separated in  which  the "city smoke" was simultaneously observed at two
or  three stations.   Results  of the  treatment of the data and  of their
analysis are  shown  in the  tables below.
                                           Distribution of Wind Velocities in Heights

Scale
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn

Year
•*
Total Number
of Cases
%
Total Number
of Cases
%
Total Number
' of Cases
.•
%
Total Number
of Cases
%
Number of
Cases
200
0—2 3-5 6-8 9-10 >10>I5
13 53 28 510
124
26 47 24 2 1 0
93
17 83-0 000
\
6
30 38 32 000
37
20 50 26 3 1 0
63 129 68 820
500
0—2 3-5 6-8 9—10
12 49 31 6
170
19 46 23 5
110
33 50 0 17
/
6
22 43 25 8
49
16 47 27 6
55 157 89 22
>tO >15
.2- 0
7 1
0 0
2 0
4 0,3
12 1
                                        - 67  -

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     It is well known that the most dangerous  cases  of smoke pollution
are those in which high concentrations of noxious  discharges act  on  the
body for a long time.

     The number of long periods  (not less than 24  hours), during  which
the smoke pollution in Novosibirsk was observed continuously and  simul-
taneously at two or three stations for ten years was 166, of which 42 cor-
respond to cases where the smoke pollution was observed  continuously for
more than three days consecutively.

     The total duration of smoke pollution amounted  to 613 days for  the
ten-year period, i.e., of the ten years, the city  lived  under  conditions
of visible smoke pollution for almost two years.

     Lasting smoke pollution was observed with particular frequency  in
winter and spring.  In summer, the smoke pollution periods were brief
and their frequency relatively low (Table 1).

     Table 2 gives the frequency of the wind directions  and velocities at
each meteorological station during the period when "city smoke" was  observed.
For comparison, the last column of the table gives the mean frequency of the
wind directions and velocities during the period studied.  At  all three
stations, "city smoke" was chiefly observed at a wind velocity not above
7 m/sec.  The number of smoke pollution cases in which the wind velocities
at the vane level exceeded 12 m/sec was small.
                                                       Table 3
        Under Smoke Pollution Conditions, Height (H)
1000
0—2 3—5 6—8 9—10 >10 >15
12 36 35 12 5 0
170
16 46 21 10 7 2
111-
33 50 0 0 17 0
6
24 30 38 620
50
16 39 30 10 5 0,6
53 130 101 34 19. 2
1500
0—3 3—5 6—8 9—10 >10 >16
8 39 30 15 8 1
170 ;
8. 45 27 12 8 0
110
50 33 0 0 17 0
6
20 29 37 12 2 0
51
10 40 29 13 8 0,6
35 134 98 45 25 2
'i
2000
0-2 3—5 6—8 9—10 >IO >I5
5 31 35 13 16 0 :
172
5 39 30 11 15 4
110
. .1
0 83' .0 0 17 0 ,
6 -
' 8 37 35 12 80
49
5 35 33 12 15 1,2
18 120 110 40 49 4
                                    - 68 -

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     The mean frequency of southern and southwestern winds  in Novosibirsk
for 10 years  if 50%.  In two districts  of the city, in 72%  of the total
number of smoke pollution cases,  there  was a wind of southern and south-
western  direction.  In all periods  of  the year at levels of 200,  500,  1000,
1500 and 2000 m, a wind velocity  from 3 to 8 m/sec is most  frequently
observed (Table 3) .

     In  87% of smoke pollution  cases, winds not in excess of 10 m/sec  were
observed up to a height of 2 km,  and in only 2% of the cases at one of the
enumerated levels was a wind of more than 15 m/sec observed. (Table 4).
                                                       Table k
                         Distribution of Wind Velocities up to 2 km
                           on Days when "City Smoke" was Observed.
Gradation
Number

of Cases (Total 9WJ)
%
0-S
97
28
0—10
300
87
•»,,
46
13 .
,..
7
2 .,
     Analysis of the stratification of the ground layer on  days  with smoke
pollution established that in 54%  of the cases a ground inversion or iso-
therm was observed, in 23% of the  cases - a raised isotherm or inversion,
in 8.6%  - the gradients at the  surface were higher than the dry-adiabatic
gradients (Table 5).
                                Frequency of Stratifications Based on Aerological Data
Normal Temp-
erature Drop
with Height,
Y<0.8e/100 m
14,1
Ground Inver-
sion followed
by Normal
Temperature
Drop
. 30.0
Ground Inversion
followed by Iso-
thermy and normal
Temperature Drop
13,1
Ground Isothernw
followed by inver-
sion, and normal
Course or Iso-
thermy and Normal
Course
1.6
Elevated
Inversion
8.1

                                               Frequency of Synoptic Situations
Cyclone
0,6
Trough
3,2
Low Gradient
Field of Low
Pressure
6.9
Anticyclone
3,3
Crest
24,7
Low Gradient
Field of High
Pressure
27,2


-------
     Analysis of synoptic processes on days with  smoke  pollution gave the
following results:  of 2419 cases, 52% were under conditions  of a stable
crest or low-gradient field of elevated pressure,  16% under conditions of
slowly moving troughs, associated with relatively indistinct  frontal part-
ings; in 7% of the cases, the smoke pollution of  the city was observed in
a low-gradient field of decreased pressure, and in 14 cases (0.6%) smoke
pollution was observed under conditions of a quasi-stationary cyclone
(Table 6).

     On the basis of the available factual material for the two-year
period of observations of concentrations of dust  and nitrogen oxides in
the town of Kemerovo, the relationship of these ingredients with consider-
able precipitation (more than 3 mm per day) and the wind in the layer up
to 500 m above ground level was analyzed (Table 7).  These  data showed
that in the presence of slight winds  (V < 5 m/sec)  in the layer up to 500 m,
on days with considerable precipitation, cases  (10-17%)  were  observed where
the dust concentration exceeded the maximum permissible value;  in cases
where the wind velocity exceeded 5 m/sec, the dust concentration was below
MFC.

     Observations of nitrogen oxides  showed that  on days with precipitation,
54% of the samples taken gave a concentration in  excess of  the maximum
permissible value.
                                                          Table 5
       in the 0-1 kn. Layer for the Period 1956-1965
(Inversion
Followed by
EleTOted jAbrup-..
Isothermy Changes of
Ithe Course Oj
*rI1oianpIra4*iii?A
7,7
6.9
Isothermy
Followed by
Normal Temper-
ature Drop
2,3
Normal Drop
followed by
Abrupt Changes
in' the Coarse
of Temperature
7,6
Normal Temper-
ature-Drop with
Height,
Y<0.8»/100 m
8,6
Total
2032
cases
                                                          I
                                                          Table 6
       for the Period 1956-1965

Hyperbolic
Point
2,9
Trough of
Warn Front
8,8-
Trough of
Cold Front
6.4
Trough of
Secondary Front
or
Occlusion Front .
16,0
Total
2419
cases
                                    -  70--

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                                                         Table 7

      Characteristics of the Relationship of the Concentrations of Dust and Nitrogen Oxides
     to Precipitation and Wind Velocity in the Layer from 0 to 500 m for Kemerovo (1962-1963)

Dust ......
Nitrogen Oxides- •
Precipi-
tation
(mm)
>3
>3
Wind Velocity
<5 m/sec
U)
LI O)
rH <£ W
a o.a
Surf
10.
8
fc
8®
ui S>
ace Wir
10
62
5—1 o m/sec
. S
rH 0> 0]
3
>3
6
5
17
40
62
14
13
 7
54
      Note.  During the period studied, there were no days with precipitation on which
      the wind velocity exceeded 10 m/sec.
                                   Conclusion.
     1.   Observations of  city smoke may serve  as  an indirect character-
ization  of the spreading  of industrial contaminants of the atmosphere  in
cities.

     Analysis of a ten-year series of observations  of "city smoke" at
three stations of Novosibirsk confirmed the conclusions reached earlier
from two-year observations  of discharges in Kemerovo, namely:  the form-
ation of a lasting period of general smoke pollution of the atmosphere
for the  conditions of Siberia is  most probable in a stable low-gradient
field in the presence of  slight winds not only near the ground but also
in a thick layer of the troposphere (1.5-2.0 km)  and in the presence of
stable ground inversions.

     2.   The adopted representation of the purification of the atmosphere
during periods of lasting precipitation is relative.

     As  was  shown by our  investigations, nitrogen oxides are not washed
out of the air by precipitation.

     3.   The distribution of residential and industrial buildings in the
city of  Novosibirsk was planned without considering the climatic character-
istics,  causing the pollution of  a considerable portion of the residential
districts.
                                    -  71 -

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                            LITERATURE CITED
1  Fpaqcaa  B.  FL, JloJKK-iiiia  B.  IT 06  yCTofi'innocTH  iianpao;icuiiR serpa n  npn-
    3CMHOM (vice aTMocipcpu. Tpyfli-i TTO, nun. 158, 1964.
2.  C o Ji o ivrn T n u  a  H.  II.  BJIHSIIMIC pwii>cbin. i!58, 1964.
3.  B o p o n n o B FT. A. HcKOTOpi.ic saaa'iH aspo/iormiecKHx iia6^iOAeiiHi{ npH
    pacnpocrpaiicHHH AWMOBWX crpyii. TpyAti- FFO. uun. 158,  1964.
4.  P a-cro p r yc u a  P. FI.  XapaKTcpucniKH MCicopoflorHMCCKOro pc/KHMa H  Typ6y^ciiT-
    noco  ofiMcnn D >npH.icMiioM cnoc Doaayxo -no -AamiuM rpaAHCiiruux lunO^ioaciiHii.  Tpy-
    flw FFO, sun. 172, 1965.
5.  Con b K 11 n  JI.  P .CnnonTimecKHc yc/ionim  4>opMHpOBaHHH HHDCPCHH B HHWHCM  500-
    McrpODOM cfloe. Tpyjiu  FFO, awn. 172, 1965.
6.  Bcp^niiA M. E., remixoBHM E Jl., ACM bn nosHq B. K. HcKOTOpue  aKryaJib-
    n we Bonpocu  HccflCAOBaiiaa  arMOctpepHofi  AHfptpysHH. TpyAU FFO, sun. 172,  :19G5.
7.  E Ji H c c e B  B.  C. K sonpocy o  ropH30HTajibuoM paccesHHH npUMecH B  aiMOccpepe.
    TpyAbi rrO, awn. 172, 1965.
                                    - 72  -

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                   SOME  DATA ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

                  OF ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS OF CENTRAL ASIA


                    B. G.  Andreyev and R. F. Lavrinenko

From Metorologiya i Gidrologiya.  No.  4, p. 63-69, (Aprel1 1968).

           The paper presents some results of a determination of the chemical composition of
        aerosols under surface  conditions and in the free atmosphere. The study was made for
        the first time in the fall of 1966 in Central Asia.

     Central  Asia is  one of  the regions of the Soviet Union with a heavily
polluted  atmosphere.   Vast spaces occupied by sandy deserts and loesses,
dryness of climate, and  frequent recurrence of strong winds causing dust
storms, all contribute to conditions that cause considerable  amounts  of
various impurities  to  enter  the atmosphere.

     The  study  of natural aerosols is  important not only from the  stand-
point of  solution of purely  meteorological problems, such as  the physics
of clouds  and precipitation, but is also directly related to  practical
inquiries.  The corrosive action of the atmosphere, dependent on the
presence  and  composition of  aerosols,  is taken into consideration,  for
example,  in the construction of electric power lines.  The operation  of
compressor stations of gas pipelines,  etc. depends to a large extent  on
the dust  content  of the  atmosphere.  Finally, the study of aerosols is
related to public health problems.  However, natural aerosols  are being
studied very  inadequately.  In particular, next to nothing is known  about
the composition of  the atmospheric aerosols of Central Asia.

     The  results  presented below were  obtained from an analysis of  samples
collected  under surface  conditions and in an airplane during  horizontal
flights at heights  of  300 and 1000 m above a considerable area of  Central
Asia.  The aerosols were caught by means of membrane filters  and filters
prepared  from FPP-15  fabric.  In addition, a two-chamber trap  with  a water
filter constructed by  P. F.  Svistov was employed.  The chemical composition
of soluble substances  in the aerosols  was determined by using a method of
analysis  of precipitation samples adopted at the Main Geophysical Observa-
tory [2].

     Since the  underlying surface is a principal factor in the dust content
of the atmosphere, it  was  expedient to take samples of soils most common
in Central Asia.  Average  results from aqueous extracts on the surface
layers of  these soils  are  listed in Table 1.

     According  to the  data of Table 1, the largest suppliers  of chemically
active substances to the atmosphere may become soils developed on loesses
(gray desert  soil)  and solonchak*(saline) soils,  in which the soluble part
amounts to 10%  or more of  the total mass.  Let us note that in the gray
 •Editor's note:  Saline soils without structure.

                                    - 73 -

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soils  the higher content of soluble salts may be  due  to artificial factors,
since  these  soils are used for cultivation.

     Sandy soils, while playing a considerable part in  the  total dust
pollution of the atmosphere, do not determine its chemical  makeup, since
they consist of  insoluble compounds of silica to  the  extent of 25% and
more, whereas the fraction of soluble substances  amounts  to less than 1%.
Generally, in all the soils of Central Asia, the  SiC>2 content  is extremely
high and ranges  from 50 to 99%.
                                                           Table 1
                 Average Ionic Composition of Soils in $ of Air-Dry Sample.
Soil


Sandy
Gray desert
Soldnchak
scr,


O.OIS
0,2Sf>
5,620
cr


o,oo;>
0.200
1 ,%9
NO-


0.000
0.000
0.003
nccx;


0.230
7,25.r)
0.057
Ka+


0,005
0,323
2,110
&


0.013
0,03d
0,020
Mg**


0.021
0,090
0,555
Ca+*


0,031
0.455
0,480
Nil*


0,008
1.IS5
0,008
S
n
00,
M
0.33
9,82
10.82
o
hDflJ
M Pi
0
1.2
7,2
10.9
     From  the standpoint of the predominant soluble  component,  sandy soils
and gray soil belong to the carbonate soil class, and solonchak soils - to
the chloride-sulfate class.   The latter soils contain a  large  amount of
sodium in  addition  to sulfates and chlorides.

     According  to the existing standards of medical  control  of  atmospheric
air pollution,  a single maximum permissible concentration  of nontoxic dust
amounts to 0.50 mg/m^ for an average daily value of  0.15 mg/m^.   Measure-
ments that we made  on the outskirts of the city of Tashkent  (Table 2),
which may  be assumed to characterize, more or less,  the natural background
pollution  of the atmosphere of Central Asia, show that the total concen-
tration of impurities in air considerably exceeds the maximum permissible
concentration.
                                                         Table 2
             Total Concentration (H, yg/m3) and Ionic Composition (jig/m3) of Aerosols
                             of the Ground Layer of Air.



av.
max.
min.

N

0,80
1 ,34
0,40

SO;

1C.3
44,2
0,0

cr

G.S
18.2
0.0

FOS

5,7
18.4
0,0

1-ICOJ

102,1
104,4
25,1

Nf

6,0
10,5)

K+

4,0
7.4
3,1. 2,5

Ca^

IS. 3
31,4
3,(i

MR**

8,3
14,3
3.9

NI-IJ

6,5
30,0
9,0
Soluble
Part
pg/m5
174,0
	
—
°/9
21,1
27,6

i)II

G,ir>.
0.35
11,2 5.915

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     Of 30 series  of measurements  made in September-October 1966 at dif-
ferent times  of  the day,  the  average mass concentration of aerosols in
the surface layer  of air  was  0.80  mg/m3 between variation limits of
0.46 to 1.34  mg/m3.  This low variability indicates the constancy of high
aerosol concentrations  in the atmosphere.

     As follows  from the  data of Table 2, the aerosols of the ground layer
of air contain  a relatively large  amount (21%) of soluble substances.  An
increase in the  fraction  of soluble matter in atmospheric dust as compared
with the soil obviously results from the ascent into the atmosphere of
lighter particles  having  a higher  percentage of the soluble fraction than
the heavy particles that  remain on the surface of the soil and consist
mainly of silica.  The  increase of the soluble part in the particles with
an increase of  their dispersion is indicated, for example, by analyses of
suspended alluviums of  rivers [3].  Very fine particles resulting from
industrial production and suspended in air may also have a certain effect.

     In the ionic  composition, the predominant component is unquestionably
the bicarbonate  ion HCOo", which accounts for 78% of the anions and 12.8%
of the total  concentration.  Despite the wide limits of variation of the
concentration, HCO^" is the only anion observed in all the samples.
                           0.5
                                            o
                  Fig. 1. Relationship between the total concentration of
                  aerosols in the ground layer of air, the ions tiCOf (l),
                  and Mg++ + Ca""- (2).


      In second place  among the anions is the sulfata ion S04~ , whose average
 content is  16.3 ug/m3, which amounts to 2% of the total aerosol concentration.
 The  content of chlorine and nitrates is considerably lower, their average
                                    - 75 -

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of aerosols at  the heights  of 300 and 1000 m.   According to the data cited,
it is equal to  0.66  and  0.49  mg/m3 respectively.   Actually, the mass con-
centration of aerosols at these heights  will be slightly lower, since the
fraction of soluble  substances in the fine particles increases.

       As can be seen from  Table  3,  the  decrease  of coarse particles with
the height occurs much more rapidly  than in the case of fine particles.
At the 1000 m height as  compared  with the 300  m level, the change in the
concentration of coarse  particles amounts to 30%, and that of fine particles,
to only 9%.  At the  same time, the contribution of fine particles to the
total aerosol mass increases  slightly, from approximately 20 to 24%.

       At the 300 m height, as at ground level, HCO," ions predominate, but
the sulfate ions make a  contribution commensurate with that of HCO-~ to the
soluble portion of aerosols.  At  the 1000 m height, the content of SO^is
already higher  than  that of bicarbonate  ions.   The ratio SO^/Cl~ at the
heights and near the ground remains  approximately the same and equal to two.

       It is usually assumed  that chlorides in the atmosphere are of marine
origin, and sulfate  of continental origin.   Furthermore, an inverse propor-
tion is observed between their contents.   Fig.  2  showed the relationship
between the sulfate  and  chloride  concentrations obtained on the basis of our
measurements in the  free atmosphere.   It  is noteworthy that here, with the
exception of two samples taken directly  above  the Caspian and Aral Seas, a
linear dependence exists between  the chlorides  and sulfates in aerosols,
indicating a single source  of their  origin.

       As already noted, it is obvious that the main suppliers of these
salts to the atmosphere  are solonchak soils or soils having different degrees
of salinization and salinity  and  occurring throughout Central Asia.
                            10
30    40 S0t= ng/m3
                     Fig. 2. Relationship between concentrations of
                     chloride and sulfate ions in aerosols of the free
                                  atmosphere.

-------
concentration being 6.8 and 5.7
                                        respectively.
     Among  the  cations,  the  predominant  one is  Ca4"4", with a concentration
of 18.3  yg/m3,  this being more  than twice  the  content of Kg4"1", which is in
second place.   The  concentration of cations is  less  variable than that of
anions,  and with  the  exception  of NH^+,  all of  them were observed in all
the samples.

     The constant presence of certain ions in  the samples makes it possible
to follow their relationship to the total  aerosol concentration.   The
presence of a direct  relationship between  the  total aerosol concentration
and the  HC03~,  Ca^ and  Mg44" ions, illustrated  in Fig. 1, indicates that
in addition to  their  substantial contribution  to the total concentration,
these ions  should be  present in certain  definite ratios.  As was shown by
analysis, these ratios are the  same as in  Ca(HCO^).2 and Mg(HC03)2.  Appar-
ently, the  carbonate  particles  of calcium  and magnesium, present in high
concentrations  in aqueous solution in the  ground layer of air, convert
into completely soluble  bicarbonate compounds.   This situation may be of
essential importance  for the chemistry of  precipitation.

     Average data on  the chemical composition  of aerosols in the free
atmosphere  are  shown  in  Table 3.  The double chamber trap made it possible
to separate the trapped  aerosol particles  into two fractions (coarse and
fine) with  a/~0.5 y limit.
                                                        Table 3

             Average Ionic Composition of Aerosols of the Free Atmosphere (pg/m').
Height)
in

300


1000
•articles
coarse
fine
total
coarse
fine
total
SO^
2o.G
8,0
33,6
2U.G
fJ,l
29,7
cr
12,6
6,1
18,7
10,1
5.-1
15.5
NO;
V
0.1
0.0
0,1
0,0
0,1
0,1
IICOJ
43,6
0,9
4-1.5
24,5
0,4
1 24,9
Na*
2,0
1.5
3,5
1,6
1.3
2.9
K*
1,4
1.0
2,4
1,3
1,0
2.3
Mg++
5,6
3.-1
Ca-"
14.9
2.2
9,0 17,1
4,8 12.0
a.o
7.S
1,3
13,3
NH+
^ 1
v,t
3.r
i>. i
3.3
9 q
6/2
Total
ions
111,2
26,8
138,0
78.2
24.5
102,7
pH
5,70
5.27
~~
5.56
b,li
     From the  data of  Table  3 it  follows  that  the content of soluble sub-
stances in aerosols and hence the total pollution of the atmospheric
layer studied  is  rather high.   Whereas  near the ground the total ions in
aerosols  amount to 17* yg/m3 or approximately  21% of the total concentra-
tion, at  heights  of 300 and  1000  m they amount to 138 and 103 Ug/m3
respectively.  This slow  decrease may be  explained by the fact that all
the measurements  in the free atmosphere were made during the daytime,
when the  vertical displacements of air  in Central Asia are highly developed.

     Assuming  the percentage ratio between the soluble and insoluble parts
to be constant with the height, we shall  evaluate the total concentration
                                   - 77 -

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      The  content of nitrates  in the atmosphere of Central Asia is slight.
We  observed  practically  detectable  values  (1.4 and 0.6 yg/m^) in only
two samples  out  of 42.   Apparently, the NO^" in aerosols of the ground
layer of  air is  of industrial origin,  since in soils (Table 1) and also
in  the waters of the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas  [1], nitrogen oxides are either
present in negligible amounts or  totally absent.

      Among cations in aerosols of the  free  atmosphere, Ca"*"*" also predomin-
ates.  On the average, in  the atmospheric aerosols of Central Asia in the
layer studied (up to  1000  m) ,  the cations may be arranged as follows:
                                              +
                                            Na
     The changes taking place in  the  cationic  composition of coarse and
fine aerosols are very interesting  (Table  4).
                                                        Table 4
                     Ratio of Cations in Coarse and Fine Aerosols.
Height,
m

300
KXO
•§?*
Coarse
Particles
2.06
2.50
Pine
Particles
0.65
0.-I3
Na+
Coarse
Particles
7.45
7.50
Fine
Particles
1.-J6
1,00
3r
Coarse
Particles
10.64
9,23
Fine
Particles
2.20
1.30
     The data of Table 4 suggest that as  the height  and dispersion of
the particles increase, so does their relative  content  of Mg++,  Na+ and KT*",
whereas on the contrary, the Ca"1"*"  content  decreases.  In addition, the con-
tent of Kg** even surpasses that of Ca"*""1",  and makes  the most  substantial
contribution to the cationic composition  of fine  aerosols, no account being
taken of NH,+, whose nature is different.

     It is to be noted that the behavior  of HCO,~ displays certain charac-
teristics analogous to those of Ca"*"*".  This indicates that the carbonate
particles of calcium are primarily coarse  and that their concentration
decreases relatively rapidly with  the height.

     The character of the variations in the ionic composition of aerosols
may be followed most conveniently  by using schemes obtained on the basis
of stoichiometric calculations, using the  accuracy of the chemical analysis
of the samples.  These schemes show that  the most probable simple molecular
compounds in the solutions of aerosols in the ground layer of air are
Ca(HC03)2, Mg(HC03)2, MgCl2, NaCl, (NH4)2S04, and KN03-  In the  free atmos-
phere, the coarse particles consist of the compounds Ca(HC03)2,  CaS04,
MgS04, (NH4)2S04, MgCl2 and NaCl,  and the  fine  particles, of  the compounds
                                    - 78 T

-------
NaCl, MgCl2, CaS04, and

     It follows that the  character of the  compounds present in  aerosols
undergoes considerable changes with the height:  at the height,  carbonates
of magnesium and nitrates  are absent, whereas  calcium and magnesium sul-
fates appear.  Fine particles are characterized by the absence  of bicar-
bonate compounds.  Consequently, whereas coarse particles chiefly have an
alkaline reaction, fine particles have an  acid character.  This  is also
indicated by a decrease of the pH in fine  aerosols.

     In Central Asia, there are frequent dust  storms in which enormous
amounts of dust are raised from the surface  of the ground into  the atmos-
phere.  It is therefore of interest to consider the results of  a chemical
analysis of aerosols collected during a flight at a height of 300 m during
a dust storm in the region of the town of  Nukus on 9 October 1966  (Table 5) .
The last line of this Table shows by what  factor the impurity concentration
(C) was increased at the_  height of 300 m during the dust storm  as  compared
with the average data  (C)  shown in Table 3.

     Table 5 shows that during the dust storm, the aerosol concentration
in the atmosphere at the  height of 300 m increased by a factor  of  almost
15 as compared with the average data, owing  primarily to calcium and mag-
nesium carbonates.  Generally speaking, this may be indicative  of  the given
location without being characteristic, for example, of a region with saline
soils.
                                                          Table 5
                Chemical Composition of Aerosols During Dust Storm

C
cfc
so=
85.1
2,5
cr
25,5
1.4
HCOJ
1-187,9
33,4
Na+
14.2
4.1
K+
8.5
3.5
Mg++
126.2
H.O
Ca+H-
266.7
15,6
Total
ions
2014.1
14.6
     An evaluation of  the  total  content  of  aerosols  from their soluble
portion has shown  that during this  dust  storm at  the 300 m height,  there
were approximately 10  mg of  impurities per  m3 of  air.  This  value is  in
good agreement with the concentration measured directly, equal to 10.92
mg/m3.

     In summary, the following comment may  be made.   Under the influence
of specific physical-geographic  and climatic  conditions, the content  of
impurities in  the  atmosphere of  Central  Asia  surpasses the maximum  per-
missible  concentrations established by public health standards,  and does
so tens of times more  during dust storms.   During the warm period of  the
year, dust pollution involves a  considerable  thickness of the  atmosphere.
Hence, Central Asia may be regarded as a kind of  focus in which  the dust
is generated and then  transported to other  regions by air currents.
                                    - 79--

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      Since they contain  a considerable  fraction of soluble substances
(over 20%), aerosols on  the one hand may influence the  chemistry  of
precipitation, and on  the other hand generally increase the aggressive
properties of the atmosphere, particularly its corrosiveness, because
of the presence of chlorides, whose constant source  are solonchak soils
and the  Caspian and Aral Seas.

      This  high percentage of soluble substances makes it possible to
regard Central Asian aerosols as active condensation nuclei, although
primarily  potential ones, since, because of the insufficiency of  saturation,
the condensation level in Central Asia  is high (in the  summertime, usually
above  2  km).
                                LITERATURE  CITED
         1. AJICKHH O. A. XIIMIISI OKcaiia. rimpoMCTeonsAaT, 1966.
         2. Apo3AODa B. M.,  ricrpeHHyK 0. n., Ce.icaiiCBa E. C, CBHCTOB  FI. .
               XlIMII'it'CKHJi  COCT3B aTMOCCpCpIIUX OC3,T.KOU Ha EupOncflCKOii TCppHTOplfll CCCP.
               rHApoMCTCOHaaar, JI., 1964.
         3. Cojioubcoa H. <&. Co.ienofr n Cuoreniibifi CTOK p. Cwp-/[apbH. — Tpyxti jaCopaTopHH
               03cpoDcaennn, T. VIII. HSK-BO AH CCCP. M.— /I ., 19S9.
                                     - 80 -

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       CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CLOUD WATER IN URBAN INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS

                       UNDER VARIOUS WEATHER CONDITIONS


                    0. P. Petrenchuk and V. M. Drozdova

From Trudy, Glavnaya Geofiz.  Observat. im. A. I. Voeykova, No. 238,
p. 201-209, (1969).

     Various pollutants reaching the atmosphere as a result of human activ-
ity spread to  great distances.  Investigations [3, 4, 5] show that the in-
fluence of a major city can be detected at distances up to 100-150 km in
the direction  of  the wind.  Pollutants also reach great heights in the
vertical direction, affecting the physical and chemical processes in the
atmosphere.

     A considerable amount of impurities can concentrate in clouds, par-
ticularly when the stratification of the atmosphere is stable, and be
carried together  from some areas to others.

     An important part in the purification of the atmosphere is played by
precipitation.  The latter traps impurities during both its fall and form-
ation.  Thus, by  using data on the chemical composition of precipitation
one can reliably  estimate the degree of pollution of the layers of the
atmosphere through which it passes.

     In order  to  study the formation of the chemical composition of pre-
cipitation, the A. I. Voyeykov Main Geophysical Observatory has for many
years conducted systematic research on the composition of atmospheric
waters, including precipitation and cloud water [1, 2, 8].  Preliminary
results have shown that the chemical composition of cloud water varies
with the area  of  sampling.  The mineralization of water taken from subin-
version clouds provides an indirect characterization of the air pollution
in the region  of  sampling [2, 8].  However, a closer analysis indicates
that the composition of cloud water substantially depends on the weather
conditions and the nature of the clouds.

     The article  considers the chemical composition of water taken from
clouds in the eastern regions of the European Territory of the USSR, mainly
in the vicinity of Kazan' and neighboring towns.   Work on the sampling of
cloud water was organized here in 1965 and is still being carried out.
Analysis of extensive material (about 200 samples) collected in the course
of a period of over 3 years (1965-1968) from various types of clouds under
various synoptic  conditions makes it possible to establish a number of
characteristics.

     Kazan' is a  major industrial city.  The atmosphere of not only the
city itself but also its surroundings is heavily polluted.  This has been
reflected in the  chemical composition of the water of subinversion clouds
                                   - 81 -

-------
formed  under anticyclonic  conditions in this region.

      Fig.  1 shows a series  of  typical examples at  the  temperature strati-
fication  of the atmosphere  in  Kazan1 and other towns in the east of  the
European  Territory of the  USSR, when the mineralization of cloud water
reached extremely high values,  of the order of 100-120 mg/1.  The cases
cited pertain to stratified  clouds of low vertical thickness (200-400 m)
existing  under anticyclonic  conditions.   The average chemical composition
of cloud water collected from  stratified subinversion  clouds during  the
three-year period is shown in  Table 1.   This table also lists data on the
chemical  composition of water  from clouds giving no precipitation and not
associated with temperature  inversions,  and for comparison, the average
chemical  composition (for  4  years)  of precipitation in the eastern regions
of the  European Territory of the  USSR.
                                                                    -S
         Fig. 1. Results of temperature sounding of the atmosphere during the collection of
                            cloud water samples in 196?.
         1-18 February, torn of Mamadysh:  a)£ion - 79-6 mgAi K = 185 x 10~6 ohm'1 cnT1,
         b)|<-= 86 x ICr-o ohm-ienr1; II - 16 March, Kazan', Zion = 88-7 "S/1' K=<;305 x,  -,
         10-& ohm-W-1; III - 15 March, Kazan', Zion = 95.4 mg/1, K= 276 x 10rb otafiem~i;
         IV - k Marcn, KazanMion  120.4 mg/1, <= 598 x 1 oHnT-'-ciir-1-.
                                                                        -3f
     As is evident from the table,  the chemical composition of cloud water
is greatly influenced by the meteorological conditions.  Water from clouds
forming in the  absence of inversions  is much less mineralized than in sub-
inversions clouds.  However, it also  retains a proportion  of the main ions
characteristic  of continental conditions.   The concentration of SO^ ions and
the ratio SO^/C1~ are fairly high,  attesting to the influence of industrial
sources on the  chemical composition of clouds forming  also in the absence
                                     -  82  -

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of inversions.

     The mineralization  of  water from nonprecipitating clouds is close in
magnitude  to the mineralization  of  precipitation in the region of the
Volga River.  However, since  the formation of the chemical composition of
the precipitation  occurs  not  only in the clouds, but also in the subcloud
layer during the fall  of  precipitation,  it is evident that data on the
chemical composition of  these clouds cannot be used to evaluate the con-
tribution  of the clouds.
                                                                Table 1

            Average Chemical Composition  of Cloud Water and Precipitation in Eastern Regions
                           of the European Territory of the USSR.
Type of
Sample
Sub-
inversion
cloud
Clouds pro-
ducing no
precipita-
tion and not
associated
with .
inversions
Precipi-
tation
Concentrations
S0=| cr|NO-3


45,3





12,3
9,2



3.4





1,8
2,1



1.3





0,6
1,3

HCO-


2.4





2,4
5.6

NH;


6.4





1.7
0,9

Na +


3.3





1.1
1,5

rag/1
K +


1,2





0,5
0.7

Mg++| Ca -M


2.7





1.2
1.5



7.4





2,3
2,0

PH fchmT*J ^ion
IcnF1!


4.71





5.68
6,00



206





46
45



73.4





23.9
24,8

Number
of
Saracles


41





59


     A considerable  amount of impurities accumulate in the subinversion
clouds.

     In  clouds  forming during periods of prolonged existence of an anti-
cyclonic situation,  the concentration of impurities is still higher.  Table 2
gives the results  of an analysis of cloud samples collected from the end of
February until  April 1967 around Kazan'  and in other cities located at
distances of  about 100-250 km from Kazan'.   During that period, the eastern
part of  the European Territory of the USSR was under a low-gradient high-
pressure area between two vast stationary centers:  the Azores' and Siberian
anticyclones.   Everywhere at the points  of collection, a high mineralization
of  cloud water  was observed which exceeded 120 mg/1 (samples No. 1, 5, 6)
and sometimes 300  mg/1 (sample No.  4).

     In  almost  all the samples, a high concentration of hydrogen ions
was observed, which  corresponds to rather low pH values (from 3.1 to 4.8,
with the exception of samples No. 16 and 17).  In all the samples, the pre-
dominant anion  is  SOT.   Its content is 74-97% of the total anion composition.
The chlorine  content ranges from 2.4 to  24%.   Of the cations, the most abun-
dant is  HN4+  (from 18 to 46%) in the majority of samples, and the content
of  the remaining cations is extremely varied.
                                    -83 -

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     As  follows  from Table  2,  the  pollutants  concentrate in the clouds
not only in  the  immediate vicinity of  Kazan'.   A high concentration of
pollutants is  also observed in cloud water collected in the vicinity of
towns  at distances of 100-200  km from  Kazan1,  such as Chistopol1,  Mamadysh,
Leninogorsk, etc.; the height  to which the impurities spread reaches over
3 km in some cases (sample  No.  17).  It is obvious,  therefore,  that under
conditions of  a.  distinct anticyclonic  situation and  a weak turbulent ex-
change, a high pollution level is  produced over a considerable  part of the
east of the European  Territory of  the  USSR and remains there for  a long
time.

     An entirely different  picture is  observed in the case of frontal clouds.
As in  the case of a study of the chemical  composition of cloud  water in
towns  of Western Siberia [2],  the water samples  from the frontal precipi-
tating clouds in the  region of Kazan'  contain  a small amount of impurities
(Table 3).   Its total mineralization amounts to only about 8 mg/1,  and for
regions of western Siberia, 6  mg/1.

     Table 3 gives analyses of samples  taken from stratified rain  clouds and
convective clouds of  types Ac, As, Ns,  Cb.  It is  obvious  that  the  mineraliz-
ation  of the samples  depends little on  the  type  of the clouds or their verti-
cal thickness.   No distinct dependence  on  the  height of the collection was
observed either.
                                   Chemical Composition of Heavily Polluted Samples
Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Region
Mamadysh . .
Vicinity of Mamadysh
Uamadysh . .
Vicinity of Chistopol' . .
Vicinity of Kazan'

Vicinity of Leninogorsk
Vicinity of Kazan' ....
Vicinity of Chistopol1
Vicinity of Kazan1

Shumerli 	

Kanash 	 , .
Mamadysh 	
Shumerli
Vicinity of Shumerli . .
Date
8 11
9
18
28
4 HI
6
6
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
21
61V
6
Cloud
Type
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Sc
Ac
Ac
(eight of
Sample
Jollect-
T r»n m
800
990
530
680
1770
1175
1040
1000
850
960
1230
1300
1170
1375
1090
2800
3180
Concentration
so,=
106,00
53,00
46,00
256,00
79,00
99,00
42,00
68,00
55,80
58,00
64,00
27,00
27,20
26,00
72,00
40,60
41,70
ci •
3,12
5,67
8,03
5,57
9,90
5,03
2,37
1,55
1,42
2,90
1,18
1,62
• (W**
4,03
2,78
6,19
2,91
2,80
NO,-
0,76
0,78
0,73
0,84
0,89
0.82
0,78
0.73
0,80
0,81
0,78
0,63
0,65
0.62
0,80
(),•! 1
0,5.1
                                    - 84 '-

-------
                  from/l<>uds  formed in a cold air mass moving from the north
                        ^ mticyclone 
1,60
0,98
1,88
1,85
1.20
1,10
1.45
4.20
6.00
9,80
K +
2,67
1,75
1,15
8,28
1.40
1,60
0,!)2
0.63
0,55
0.77
0.85
0,70
0,65
0.80
1.25
1,61
2,20
Me ++
3,48
3,26
1,78
10,80
U.7I
5.06
2,03
4,43
3,90
3,30
2,28
1,13
0,52
1.14
4,86
2.09
1,20
Ca++
1,95
2,60
5,00
55,00
6.30
9,90
4,30
5.87
1,03
7.60
7,00
3,70
4,30
4,10
8,63
11.50
10,50
p"
3.09
3,30
4.75
3,30
3.34
3,52
4,06
3,60
3,75
3,79
3.73
4,85
4,35
4.36
.3.38
6,04
6,10
KTX iO6
ohm~1cnr
671
338
183
821
398
284
172
276
254
307
-303
77
107
98
380
144
149
-ion
135,98
75,16
79,59
359,71
120,40
123,98
62,10
93,41
73,78
••84.56
88.74
41,58
44,10
41,79
103,13
78,16
80,92
                                   -  85 -

-------
             Chemical Composition of Cloud Water
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Region
Vicinity of Kuybyshev . .
50 km from Kuybyshev ....
Vicinity of Menzelinsk . >







Vicinity of Alatyr' ....
Vicinity of Ul'yanovsk . . .
Cheboksary . . .

Mamadysh

50 km south of Izhevsk . . .
80 km south of Izhevsk
Shumerli

Mamadysh . .

70 km east of Kazan1



Date
28 VI 1965

21 VII 1965
22 VII 1965


23 VII 1965


15 II 1966
16 11 1966
15 III 1966

15 IX 1967
15 IX 1967

13 IX 1967

24 IX 1967
16 IV 1968

Cloud
Type
Cb
Cb
Ac
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Cb
Ns
Ns
Ns
Ns
Ac
Ac
Ac
As
As
As
Cb
Cb
Height of
Collect-
ion, m
2750
3400
1850
2740
3'_>20
3470
3250
3500
2880
I5CO
2190
2700
3160
3020
2650
2990
4130
3600
2590
2900
1600
Concentration,
S0,=
3.80
3.90
1,70
1.75
1,60
2,15
1,60
5.70
5.30
4.90
4.90
3,90
3.90
1.50
2,70
2,50
3,10
3.10
2,80
2,00
2.30
3,10
Cl~
0.58
0.91
0.-16
0.50
0.39
1.00
1,20
0,80
1,20
1,68
0,34
0.1)7
0,87
1,28
0,92
1,29
0.6-1
MO.
0.22
0,00
0.20
0,67
0.07
O.Od
0,00
0,00
0,23
0,16
0,00
ft (U
v',us
0.0.1
0,00
0.00
0,00
nnr.
* \SfV\t
°.57 { 0,00
0.43
0,71
1,46
0.85
O.Oli
0,00
0.23
0.09
      Chemical Composition of Water From Clouds
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
. 9
10
11

Region



200 km west of Kazan' . .
Vicinity of Gor'kiy ....
*
Vicinity of Kazan* 	


Chistopol' 	

Mamadysh


Date
6 V 1965




20 V 1965
11 VIII 1965

12 IX 1967

14 IX 1967

Cloud
Type
Cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
As
Cb
As
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac

Height of
Collect-
ion, m
850
935
1180
1360
2130
4260
3760
4350
3050
3240
4140.

Concentration.
so,=
6.00
3,00
3.30
2.75
5,90
2,80
4,30
2,90
800
V/fVVF
2.70
2.75
4.03
ci-
0.69
1.44
1.07
0,69
0,63
082
\tf\jff
0.79
0,79
0,92
0,57
1.21
0,87
NO. ~
0,37
0.23
0.16
0.12
0.31
0.27
0.00
0,00
0,00
0.10
0,00
0.14
-  86  -

-------
From Frontal Clouds.
                                                                       Table 3
HE/1
IICO, "
2,26
2,81
1,39
0,61
2,46
1,58
1.34
0,00
0,27
0,61
0,00
—
0,60
2,74
0,00
2,62
1,71
4.58
1,46
1,53
2.01
1,52
Nil, +
0,18
0,26
0,48
0,48
0.30
0,20
0.00
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,47
0,68
0.44
0,70
0,36
0.53
0,98
1,50
0,56
0,25
0,39
0,54
Na +
0,32
0,41
0,10
0,29
0,18
0,21
0.35
0,20
0,47
0,36
0,23
0,36
0,41
0,50
0,30
0,62
0,19
0,29
0.19
0.12
0,50
0,31
K +
0,35
0,43
0,10
0,24
0,15
0.21
0.23
0,20
0.47
0,15
0.22
0.27
0,20
0,20
0,11
0,42
0,11
0.10
0.09
0,04
0,30
0,22
Mg++
0,98
0.56
0,5
-------
 This decrease was explained on the basis of the salt hypothesis, accord-
 ing to which each raindrop is formed from a corresponding giant salt
 nucleus,  and the number of coarse salt particles per unit volume of cloud
 air decreases with the height faster than the water content of the cloud.
 Obviously,  this  hypothesis is valid for the thermal convective clouds in
 the region  of Hawaii,  whose drops are formed by the condensation of water
 vapor on  giant condensation nuclei of marine salts, and for which a con-
 siderable inhomogeneity of microphysical characteristics is typical.

      As far as frontal clouds forming at middle latitudes under continental
 conditions  are concerned,  our data do not show any clear-cut dependence of
 the mineralization on  the  height.   This may be because there is little
 probability of the presence of coarse salt particles in the free atmosphere
 under continental conditions.   Furthermore, low velocities of ascending
 currents  are usually observed in  stratified and stratified-cumulus rain
 clouds, and this  promotes  more homogeneous microstructural characteristics
 and the precipitation  of finer droplets than in convective clouds.  In
 addition, in the  existing  method  of sampling of cloud water, the collection
 of  each sample consumes  a  certain time interval (10-20 minutes) during which
water from  various parts of the cloud may reach the sample.  As a result,
 the change  of mineralization with height may also be masked in convective
 clouds  (sample Nos. 1,  2 and 7, 8, 9,  Table 3), whose microphysical char-
 acteristics  are marked by  inhomogeneity.
                                                              Table 5
                 Chemical Composition of Water of Frontal Precipitating Clouds.
Region

Tfcg North of
European .USSR'
The, North west
of European. .
The Southwest
°Sslfopean
The Southeast
of European
USSR
Regions of
Western SiberiE
Average - ' • •
Concentration^ ing/liter
SO,

2,5

3,1
2,4

3,1

2.8
2.8
CJ

0.8

1,2
1.0

0,8

0,(j
0,8
SO.

0,2

0,3
0,2

0,1

0,3
0,2
HCO,
Nil,
I
0,6

0.2
0.9

1,5

0,6
0,7
0,5

0,6
0,8

0,5

0.4
o,r>
Na

0,2

0,5
0,3

0,3

0,3
0,3
K

0,3

0,3
0,2

0,2

0.2
0,2
Mg

0.3

0,2
0,2

0,4

0,3
0,3
Ca

0.8

0,2
0,3

0.7

0,3
0,4
1'"

5,4

5,0
5,5

5,7

5,1
5,3
cx 106
ohm-lcnT*

13,6

18,5
12,5

14.6

13,6
14,3
V.
non

6.2

6,6
6,3

7.6

5,8
6,2
Number
of
Samples

15

20
25

21

44
125
     Considering the decisive role played by the  chemical  composition  of
the water of frontal clouds in the formation of the  composition  of  atmos-
pheric precipitation, we have compared the chemical  composition  of  the
water of frontal clouds for different regions of  the Soviet Union.  We used
                                     - 88 -

-------
data which we obtained  from scientific flights in  the north of the
European  Territory of the USSR (vicinity of  Arkhangelsk, Nar'yan-Mar,
etc.), northwest  of the European Territory  (vicinity of Leningrad,
Cherepovets, Pskov, etc.), southwest  of the  European Territory (vicinity
of  Kiev,  Minsk,  Dnepropetrovsk), and  some other regions of  western Siberia
(vicinity of Krasnoyarsk, Turukhansk, Yeniseysk, etc.)  [2].  The  results
are listed in Table 5.


      An examination of  the data of Table 5 shows the very  low mineraliza-
tion of frontal  clouds.  It is almost identical in different regions and
amounts to an average of 6.2  mg/1.  This value changes  relatively little
with time as precipitation takes place (Fig.  2), and should obviously be
used in evaluating the  contribution of clouds to the formation of the
composition of precipitation.
                                                         Hours
                   Fig. 2. Change in the mineralization of water from frontal
                   clouds during precipitation.
                   1 - Simferopol1, 19 April 1965; 2 - Kiev, 22 November 19&7?
                   3 - Krasnoyarsk, 1 November 19t>5.
                                  LITERATURE CITED
            1. Apo3AOsa B. M. [11 Ap.]. XuMHiecKHH cocras aTMoupepiiux ocaAKOB iia Eopo-
        neflcKofl TeppuropHH CCCP. rHApoMereoiiSAaT, JI., 1964.
            2 FleTpeHiyK  O. II.- XHMimecKiifi cocraB o6Jia«iuoii UOAW D pafioue  Saiuuiiofi
        Ciifinpii. Tp. rrO, Bbin. 234, 1968.

            .1 C e -i e 3 H e B a E.  C.  O pacnpeawiemiH aaep KoiiAeHcauim nan vKpanHCKHM Me-
        teopo/iorii'iecKHM noJiiiroiiOM. Tp. ITO, nun. 154, 1964.
            4. C c .1 c 3 H c B a E.  C.  npocipaiiCTBeHHwe HSMCHCIIIIH KoimeiirpauHH HA«P KOUACII-
        inmiii no AaimuM ropuaoHTa-nuHbix IIO.ICTOB nan ETC. Tp. ITO. own. 141, 1963.
            5. K)nre X.  E. XIIMIIMCCKIIH cocias n  paAHoaKTiiunocTb aiMOc^epw.  HSA. «MHp*.

         "  6 Koni a b a  yasi B. M. and I so no  K. Electric Conductivity  of Rain  Water in
        the Cloud over the Island ol Hawaii. Tcllus, vol. XIX, No.  3, 1967.
            7 OddicB  C V.  The Chemical Composition of Precipitation at Cloud Levels.
        Quart.'Journ. Met. Soc., vol.88.  No. 378, 1962.
            8 P e t r e n c h u k 0. P.,  D r o z d o v a  V.  M. On the Chemical Composition of
        Cloud  Water.  Tellus, vol. XVIII,  No.  2. 1966.
                                          - 89  -

-------
   CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION OF THE CITY OF PERM'

                    AND CONTROL OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION


     G. A. Maksimovich, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences

From Akad.  Nauk SSSR. Ural. Filial. Komis. po Okhrane Prirody.  Okhrana
prirody na Urale. II. (Perm1, 1961), p. 45-50.

     It is usually assumed that atmospheric precipitation, i.e., rain and
snow, consist of water that is nearly chemically pure.  Actually, this is
not the case.  Only in regions distant from seas and populated areas is
the mineralization of atmospheric precipitation slight.  For example, in
the region of Bol'shiye Koty settlement on the western shore of Lake Baykal,
it amounts to only 7.0-9.5 mg/1 (K. K. Votintsev, 1954).  In the remaining
regions of the globe, the mineralization is usually higher; for the USSR,
it amounts to an average of 46.42 mg/1.  The highest mineralization within
the boundaries of the Soviet Union has been observed at the Aral Sea sta-
tion (Kazakh SSR), where it was found to be 561.5 mg/1, the average of two
samples (Ye. S. Burkser et al., 1952; N. Ye. Fedorova, 1954).

     The mineralization sources of atmospheric cloud water and of the
atmospheric precipitation issuing from them are quite varied.   First of all,
the atmosphere always contains very fine solid mineral substances in the
form of salts of marine and partly volcanic origin.  In addition, upon
hydration and dissociation, the carbonic acid dissolved in atmospheric water
yields hydrogen ions and the bicarbonate ion, while atmospheric electric dis-
charges result in the formation of oxides of atmospheric nitrogen.  However,
all these and other sources cause a mineralization of cloud water of only
3-7 mg/1.  Marine salts (in the absence of volcanic eruptions) are usually
of prime importance in this case.

     The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation differs from
that of cloud water.  In addition to the latter, it is determined by the
amount of dry soluble substances present in air, the amount and nature of
the precipitation, and also the conditions accompanying the precipitation.
After a long absence of rains or snowfall, the water collected as a result
of the first precipitation will be more mineralized than in subsequent pre-
cipitations, since, the first precipitation removes from the air the sub-
stances suspended therein.  For this reason, the troposphere near the earth
will have become cleaner during later precipitations.  The less precipita-
tion, the higher its mineralization.  The time of year, air temperature1,
previous weather and wind direction also are significant.  Finally, the*
amount of dry impurities in air, which are washed away or trapped by rain
water or snow, depends on the height of the clouds that produce the precipi-
tation (G. A. Maksimovich, 1949, 1950  1953, 1955).

     Without examining the cases of artificial atmospheric pollution by
mineral and organic compounds, the dissolved substances in rain or snow may
                                    - 90--

-------
be divided on the basis of origin into three groups:  a) substances in
cloud water, mainly of marine origin; b) natural substances lifted by
air currents from the earth's surface (marine salt, dust particles and
mineral salts of the soil, etc.), trapped and washed down as the atmos-
pheric waters pass through the ground troposphere; c) substances that
have reached the ground troposphere as a result of the general and tech-
nical activity of the population, trapped and washed down by atmospheric
precipitation.  Above major population centers with an extensive industry,
a particularly important role in the pollution of atmospheric waters is
played by substances of the third group (c), consisting of discharges from
smokestacks of various boiler houses and heating installations, automobile
exhaust, all sorts of discharges from industrial plants containing sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and chlorine, etc.

     The amount of dust settling in cities from the atmosphere is very
substantial.  The following amounts (in grams) have been found to settle
in Leningrad per month per m2 of area:  in industrial districts of the
city, 50; residential districts, 30; park zones, 50; health park districts,
2-5.  About 30% of the dust was owing chiefly to products of incomplete
fuel combustion (soot and tar), and about 15%, to water-soluble substances
(N. M. Tomson, 1955).

     No such complete data exist for Perm' for recent years.  Only V. A. Ry-
azanov (1941) determined in 1935 that the soot content of air over the north-
eastern part of the city amounted to an average of 0.152 mg/m3 per year, or
1.2 x 10~8 of the volume.  The mean monthly smoke content ranged from 0.102
to 0.17 mg/m^ in winter and from 0.082 to 0.117. mg/m^ in summer.  These are
fairly substantial quantities.  At the present time, because of the indus-
trial growth, the smoke content and pollution of the atmosphere above Perm1
has risen abruptly.  Considering that from the standpoint of this index
Perm1 is entirely comparable to Leningrad, one can tentatively calculate the
amount of dust settling from the atmosphere.  Talcing the average amount of
dust settling from the atmosphere per 1 m2 as 30 g, based on the data of
N. M. Tomson for Leningrad (1955), we find that for city area of 690 km2,
about 248,000 tons or almost 100,000 m3 of dust settles over Perm' per year.
Taking as the basis of the calculation the amount of dust settling on 1 m2
in the park zone of Leningrad, i.e. , 15 g/m2, we find about 50,000 m3 per
year.  Considering that the settled dust may again be raised by the wind
into the atmosphere and settle down once more, we shall take only 50% of
the latter value.  Even with this assumption, about 25,000 m3 of dust per
year settles on Perm1 from the atmosphere.

     The settling of such huge amounts of dust (including products of incom-
plete fuel combustion) takes place primarily with the aid of rain and snow.
Rain and particularly snow purify the city atmosphere mechanically by re-
moving the dust particles, but at the same time they contaminate the streets
and open areas of the city.

     The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation in Perm' has not
been studied before our work.  Our investigations began in 1945, but they
initially consisted of incomplete analyses (G. A. Maksimovich, 1960).
                                    - 91 -

-------
                                                                                                                        Table 1
                           Chemical Analyses of Water Obtained from the Melting of Snow Collected  in Perm'  in  1954
                                                          (Analyst V. A. Berlovich)
 I
VO
No.


  1

  2


  3

  4

  5

  6
  7

  8
  9

  10
Place Where. Snow Sample Was Taken
Botanical garden. Central part.
Old snow.
Same location, fresh snow three
days after snowfall.
Around the university campus.
Old snow, top "layer
University yard, around smoke-
stack. Fresh snow.
Roof of university.
Old snow.
Same location, fresh snow
Roof of university, north
side. Flow of melting snow.
Same location, west side
4 Ovrazhnaya Street (Yegoshikha).
Old snow.
Dzerzshlnskiy Street. Snow after
four-day snowfall.
Date
23 February
6 March
26 February
3 March
12 March
18 March
10 March
11 March
28 February
17 March
PH
6,6
7,4
6.8
7,0
6.2
7,0
6,6
6,6
6,9
7fl
1 Liter contains, in ng
HCO,
22,3
44,5
22,3
22,2
22.3
22.3
22.3
22,3
22.3
33,4
SO«
55,2
14,9
84,5
3,4
84,0
43.7
26,4
26,4
26,4
48,0
CI
15,3
15,3
23,2
15.3
23.0
23,2
15,3
15,3"
30,7
15,3
Ca
24,0
16,8
24.0
7,2
26,4
24.0
14,4
12,0
19,2
24.0
Mg
7,3
5,9
14,6
4,4
10,3
7,3
5.8
7.3
7.3
7,3
Na
2,4
3.5
; 8,4
3,4
8,0
2,8
3,4
.3.4.
5,1
4,9
NOa
0,07
0,15
0,15
0,02
0,07
0.1
0.15
0,15
0,06
0,1
NH4
4,5
3,75
3,75
0,18
4,5
7,0
3,0
3.5
4,5
6,0
Total .
Mineralization
131,1
104,7
180,8
56.1
178.7
130.4
90,7
90,4
115.5
139,0

-------
      In 1954, several more complete chemical analyses were carried out
on snow collected in the area of the university and on Yegoshikha River.
They showed  (Table 1) that the mineralization of the snow ranged from
56 to 150 mg/1, and that the content of sulfate ion in old snow reached
84.5 mg/1.

      The last chemical analyses of atmospheric precipitation were made in
1958.  Snow samples were taken in the Botanical Garden of the university
from the surface of the ground on 4 January (A) and 18 January (B) and
also from rain gauges of the meteorological station:  snow and rain on
3-4 March (C) and rain for April to 15 May (D).  In the vicinity of Perm1,
in the village of Fro la, the following samples we::e taken from the rain
gauge:  snow on 22 February-28 March (E), snow and rain on 28 March-10 April
(F), and rain from 7 through 20 May (G) and from 20 through 31 May (H).
Results of the analysis of the samples are given in'Table 2.

      Summation of the precipitation in the rain gauges for a considerable
time interval gave the highest mineralization, approaching 240-245 mg/1
(points E and F) .  Analyses of water from the rain gauge in the area of
Frola from 22 February through 31 May (points E-H) are particularly indica-
tive.  The mineralization of the precipitation for this period decreased
from 245.4 to 89.5 mg/1, the content of sulfate ion from 96 to 19.2, chlor-
ine from 17.8 to 5.3, calcium from 20 to 8, sodium from 34.4 to 4.8, iron
from 0.3 to 0.1 and ammonium ion from 4 to 1 mg/1.

      As the weather becomes warmer, and the combustion of coal, which
contains large amounts,of pyrite and ash, declines with the approach of
spring, the  content of sulfates (from pyrite) bicarbonate ion, calcium
and iron (from ash) decreases in the precipitation.  Apparently, chlorine
is also evolved by the combustion of coal, as is the ammonium ion.  The
presence of organic matter (soot) in the analyzed precipitation appears
to result from a change in the exodizability, which also declines toward
spring.

      The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation in the settle-
ment of Ust'-Kishert1, located far from industrial enterprises, is entirely
different.

      Here rain water collected on the school ground in the summer of 1955
was analyzed (by Ye. A. Ashikhmin).  Its total mineralization did not ex-
ceed 15 mg/1, and the following ions were determined:  bicarbonate (8 mg/1),
calcium (4 mg/1) and sulfate (3 mg/1).  More detailed analyses were per-
formed on samples collected in the same settlement from the roof of house
No. 44 on Naberezhnaya Street on 27 June 1958 after a thunderstorm and on
23-25 August 1959 in a glazed pan set out in the garden (Table 3).

      In the analysis of 27 June, the substantial amounts of nitrogen com-
pounds observed were probably the result of the washing by the precipita-
tion of the wooden roof on which soot and fine ash had settled during winter,
                                      - 93 -

-------
                                                           Table 2
               Characteristics of Chemical Composition of Atmospheric Precipitation of Perm'
              (points A-D) and its Environs - Village of Frola (points E-3) in January-May 1958
                                   (Analyst 1, V. Kirillovykh).
Indicators
Content, rag/1: HCOj
304
Cl
N03
N02
Ca
Mg
NH4
Na
Fe
Total mineralization, ng/1
pH
Oxidizability, ng of 02
Predominant component
A
36,6
16.4
7.1
0,5
0,03
6.8
6.4
1.0
5,5
—
80;1
6.9
—
HCO3
B
36,6
48,0
3,5
1.3
0.1
18.2.
7.2
1.2
3,4
1.0
119,6
7.2
—
HCO3
C
24,4
33.6
3.5
10,3
0.1
4.4
5.1
0.4
13,3
0,1
98,1
6.2
3.1
SO4
D
48,8
19,2
7,1
4.8
0.2
10,0
7.3
1.5
6.5
0,3
105,7
6.8
10.0
HCO,
E
61,0
96.0
17.8
2,1
0,07
20,0
9,7
4,0
34,4
0,3
245,4
7.2
16,0
- J
S04
F
61,0
96.0
14,2
3,4
0,6
20,0
12,2
3,0
29,7
0.2
240,3
6.9
13.6
SO<
G
61.0
57.6
7.1
1.4
0,05
16,0
9,7
2.0
16,5
0,1
171,4
6.9
5.6
HCOa
H
42,7
19,2
5.3
1.0
0.07
8.0
7,3
1.0
4,8
0,1
89,5
6.7
6.4
HCOj
vhen  firewood was used  for heating.   The second August  sample was taken  with
more  precautions.  However, even  then the mineralization of the precipita-
tion  for the rural area was still high, 51.6  mg/1.   If  the nitrate ion and
sodium, which were not  determined analytically, are  excluded from the calcu-
lation, and are  calculated by difference, the mineralization of the rain
water collected  on 23-25  August 1959 was approximately  20 mg/1.   This figure
is  closer to the actual value.
                                             Table 3
                          Characteristics of Chemical Composition of
                          Atmospheric Precipitation in Ust'-Krshert1
                            Villaga  (Analyst T. V. Kirillovykh).
Indicators
^
Content, mg/1:









HCOj
S04
Cl
NO3
NO,
Ca
Mg
NH4
Na"
Fe
Total mineralization
pH
Oxidi2f3i'Dility,mg

oa : -
27 June
1958 r.
36,6
—
1,4
41.3
0,1
4.2
6,1
6.0
, 5,3
HCT
101,0
6,6
12.3
23—25
August'
1969 r.
9,2
. 4,0
3,6
20.9
0,03
2,0
0,6 "
0,8
10.5
HCT
51,6
6,2-
4,3
                                         -  94 -

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                                  Some Conclusions

       The atmospheric precipitation in the  region of the  city of Perm'
is characterized by  a mineralization from 56  to  245 mg/1,  the highest
indices  pertaining to the winter period for snow.  The sulfur, bicarbon-
ate  and  calcium ions predominate in the precipitation.  The first ion is
owing to the combustion of carbon with a considerable pyrite content,
and  the  other two, to its high  ash content.   In  addition,  products of
incomplete fuel combustion are  observed in  Perm'.  They all have relatively
little influence on  the chemical composition  of  atmospheric precipitation,
but  form over the  city a smoke  screen that  remains suspended at different
heights  depending  on the state  of the weather, particularly the wind,
barometric pressure  and air humidity.  It must be borne in mind that this
smoke screen absorbs sunlight,  particularly ultraviolet rays, which are of
major biological importance for the health  of the population and the
growth of vegetation.

       According to preliminary  calculations,  each year 25-50 thousand m^  of
dust settle on the territory  of the city.   Its presence in the atmosphere
above the city accounts for the high mineralization of atmospheric precipi-
tation.   Dust combined with gases has an increased irritating effect on the
respiratory organs.

       Protection of  public health requires  a  persistent struggle with
smoke pollution and  a systematic control of atmospheric pollution.  Conver-
sion to  gas heating, introduction of a district  heating system, a smokeless
process  of fuel combustion, systematic sprinkling of streets, planting of
greenery, and other  measures  that have been started in Perm' and are being
carried  out on an  increasing  scale will insure  a reduction of the smoke
pollution of the city.
                                  LITERATURE CITED
             Eypxcep  E. C, O'eflopo'aa H. E. « 3aft£HC B. B. Aiwoc^epHbie ocajuut H
          HX pant, D MHrpauHH XHMHHCCKHX aneMCHToa nepea atMoc^epy. Tpyabi KueBcxofi reo$H3H-
          lecxofi o6ceptBaTOp«H, .sun. -1. K«CB, 1952.                     ,
             BOTHMUCB K. Ki XlIMHieCKHH COCT3B BOfl 3TMOCaiMHX. r«flpox«Miwe-
          CKHC Marepjiajiw, T. 18, AH CCCP, M., '1950.
             MaxcHMOBHM  F. A. O pojw aTMoa&epHbix ocawtoB B nepcHOce pacTsopemjux BC-
                            .  .
          mecTB, flAH CCCP, T. 92, W* 2, 1953.
             MaKCHMOBHI F. A. XHMHieCKMft COCT3B aTWOOpepHHX OCaflKOB. XHMHMCCK8H FCO-
          rj>ad>Jifl BOW CTUIH. FeorpaibrHa, M., 1935.                        •
             MakcHMOBHi T. A. XHMmeauifi oocras aTMOO*epHUx ocaaxoB ropoaa OepMH.
                  5-ro Bceypajiwxoro coBemaHHH  no Bonpocaw reorpaipHH H oxpaHw  np»pojiu,
                       B. A. O coflepwaBHH XOJIOTH -B soaayxe r. 'IlepMH. crxrReHa H
           19 ii 394)1
             TOM COM H. M. O aarpHSHeHHH » OHHCIXC Boaayxa^or mpoAyxroa «enoflHoro cropa-
          HHII TOiUHBa. *OpHpoaa», Ni o, 19S5.               ^'
             OeflOpoBa H. E. XHMWiecKHfl H n30TOHHMft cocraa aTMOc4)epHHX ocaAKoa
          puropHH COCP,, ABiopeipepaT xaHAHaaTCXofl flHccepranHH, Hoaosepxaccx, 1954.


                                       - 95 -

-------
                                                          Izdanie  Ofitsial'noe


        Gosudarstvennyy Komitet  Soveta Ministrov SSSR Po  Delam Stroitel'stva
                                  (Gosstroy  SSSR)
               INSTRUCTIONS  FOR CALCULATING THE ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSAL

  OF NOXIOUS  SUBSTANCES  (DUST AND SULFUR DIOXIDE) PRESENT IN INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS

                                     SN369-67
         (Ukazaniya po  Raschetu Rasseivaniya v Atmosfere Vrednykh Veschestv
[Pyli  i  Sernistogo  Gaza] Soderzhaschikhsya v Vybrosakh Promyshlennykh Predpriyatiy
                                    SN369-67)
           Approved by  the State Committee of the Council of Ministers
                        of the USSR for Construction Affairs
                                  on 5 June 1967
                        Gidrometeorologicheskoe Izdatel'stvo
                                 Leningrad,  1967
                                       - 96 *

-------
           State Committee of
           the Council of
           Ministers of the
           USSR for Construc-
           tion Affairs
           (Gosstroy SSSR)
  Construction Standards
Instructions for Calculating
the Atmospheric Dispersal of
Noxious Substances (Dust and
Sulfur Dioxide) Present in
Industrial Emissions

5
f
i
SW 369-6?
•
                              1.  General Aspects   .

      1.1.   The  present Instructions were prepared as an extension of the chapter
of SNIP  II  -  G. 7-62  entitled  "Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning.
Project  Standards" and "Sanitary Standards  for Planning Industrial Enterprises"
(SN245-63).

      1.2.   The  requirements of the present  Instructions extend to calculations
of atmospheric  dispersal of noxious substances (dust and sulfur dioxide) pre-
sent  in  the emissions of industrial enterprises (facilities) and boiler houses
enumerated  in Appendix 1.

      In  agreement with the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological Administration of the
Ministry of Health of the USSR, the present Instructions can be used in cal-
culations of  atmospheric dispersal of other noxious substances and for other
facilities.

      1.3.   The  procedure for calculating the dispersal of noxious substances
in the atmosphere is based on the determination of the concentrations of these
substances  in the ground layer of air.

      The degree of danger posed by pollution of the ground layer of air with
emissions of  noxious substances from industrial enterprises and boiler houses
is determined from the largest value of the ground concentration of the nox-
ious  substances cm which can be established at a  certain distance from the
emission source under unfavorable weather conditions (when the wind velocity
reaches  a dangerous value and a vigorous vertical turbulent exchange takes
place).
Submitted by the Main
Administration of the
Hydro-meteorological
Service of the Council
of Ministers of the
USSR
Approved by the State
Committee of the Council
of Ministers of the USSR
on Construction Affairs,
5 June, 1967
Date of
Introduction.
1 October 1967
                                      -  97  -

-------
                                                                                                                       n3 deg/sec
Fig, 1*  Nomogram for determining the auxiliary, quantity

-------
     The procedure  for calculating the dispersal of noxious impurities in the
atmosphere extends  to organized discharges (through smokestacks) of these sub-
stances past purification devices and without purification in cases where the
latter is permitted by the sanitary standards.  The procedure does not extend
to ground-level emission sources.

     1.4.  The values of cm  (in mg/m-*) for each noxious substance must not ex
ceed the highest one-time maximum permissible concentrations of these sub-
stances in the atmosphere (MFC) :
     Remarks :

      1. The MFC values should be adopted on the basis of standards approved
by the Main  Sanitary-Epidemiological Administration of the Health Ministry of
the USSR.

      2. The one-time MFC's usually refer to a twenty-minute time interval.
For this reason, the formulas and graphs given in the present Instructions for
determining  the concentrations of noxious substances also refer to a twenty-
minute time  interval.

      3- The one-time MFC's currently are the chief characteristic of the
danger of substances having no cumulative noxious effect.

      4« For sulfur dioxide and nontoxic dust, the one-time MFC's are taken
equal to 0.5 mg/nr*.


                2.  Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal of
                        Emissions for a Single Source

     2.1.  The value of the maximum ground concentration of a noxious sub-
stance cm (in mg/m3) emitted by a single emission source under unfavorable
weather conditions should be determined from the formula
                                      AMFm
                                                                      C2)
where A is a coefficient dependent on the thermal stratification of the at-
mosphere, which determines the conditions of vertical and horizontal dispersal
of noxious substances in air  (taken according to  § 2.2 of the present In-
structions) (in sec '3 deg '3);

     M is the amount of noxious substance discharged into the atmosphere (in
       g/sec);
     H is the height of the emission source (stack) above ground level (in m) ;
                                    - 99 -

-------
     V is the volume of the gas-air mixture discharged (in nr/sec).

     The volume of the gas-air mixture discharged into the atmosphere is re-
lated to the diameter of the aperture of the emission source (stack) D  (in m)
and to the average exit velocity WQ (in m/sec) of this mixture from the aper-
ture by the expression

                                 V   4-..  wu,                         (3)

     AT is the difference between the temperature of the gas-air mixture dis-
charged T  and the temperature of the surrounding atmospheric air Tg (in °C.);
         &

     F is a dimensionless coefficient allowing for the rate of deposition of
the noxious substances in the atmosphere;

     m is a dimensionless coefficient allowing for the conditions in which the
gas-air mixture leaves the mouth of the emission source.

     To simplify the determination of cm, formula (2) is transformed to the
following form:
                                  f*	   A An J*' tn f~f
                                  If TTY	• f\ J YJ / fit,\J .                          -
                                                                      (4)

     The value of G (in sec  3/m3 deg '3) is determined with the aid of the
nomogram given in Fig. 1 from values of VAT and H.  To this end, from the point
of the horizontal coordinate axis corresponding to a given value of VAT is
drawn a vertical to the intersection with one of the oblique lines correspond-
ing to the geometric height of the source H.  From the point of intersection,
a perpendicular is dropped onto the vertical coordinate axis, and the value
of G is taken from the latter.  As an example, Fig. 1 shows the determination
of G with a dashed line for H = 120 m and VAT = 10^ m3 deg/sec.  For such
parameters, G turns out to be equal to 3.25 x 10"^ sec1'3/!!!3 deg1/3.
     2.2.  The coefficient A is taken for unfavorable (unsafe) weather con-
ditidns, when a vigorous vertical turbulent exchange is taking place.  At
the same time, the ground concentration in air of noxious substances dis-
charged from a high source reaches its maximum value.

     The following values of the coefficient A should be taken in -the cal-
culations :
     (a) for Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Lower Volga region, Caucasus,
Siberia, and Far East, 200;
     (b) for the north and northwest of the European territory of the USSR,
Middle Volga Region, Urals, and Ukraine, 160;
     (c) for the central part of the European territory of the USSR, 120.
                                   - 100 -

-------
     Remarks :
      !• In other areas, the values of the coefficient A should be taken by
analogy with the climatic conditions of turbulent exchange in these areas
and those indicated in the present paragraphs.

      2. The applicability of the present Instructions is limited by a con-
dition according to which the parameter
determined on the basis of data on WQ, D, H and AT should satisfy the in-
equality f<6 (f in m/sec2 deg).  Accordingly, the Instructions do not extend
to the calculation of the atmospheric dispersal of emissions with tempera-
ture Tg of the gas-air mixture close to the temperature of the ambient air
Ta-

      3.  The values of the concentrations of the noxious substances, calcu-
lated on the basis of the present Instructions, pertain to steady conditions
of propagation of an impurity remaining in the atmosphere above flat or
slightly broken ground.  When enterprises are planned on broken ground,  one
should request special instructions for calculating the dispersal of noxious
substances in the atmosphere from the A. I, Voyeykov Main Geophysical Ob-
servatory of the Main Administration of the Hydro-meteorological Service,
Council of Ministers of the USSR, and from the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological
Administration of the Health Ministry of the USSR.  It is recommended that
large-scale discharges of noxious substances in areas of stagnation of air
should be avoided, and also in areas with frequent fogs or elevated tempera-
ture inversions.

     2.3.  In the presence of unfavorable local characteristics of the mete-
orological regime, according to the available scientific and industrial ex-
perience, the value of the ground concentrations of noxious substances should
be increased by 25%.

     2.4.  The values of M and V are determined in conformity with the standards
in force for the given enterprise, by M being meant the amount of noxious sub-
stance contained in the gas-air mixture past the purification equipment.   In
this case, in carrying out the calculation one should take into account the
maximum values of M and minimum values of V which can arise under certain
technological conditions of operation of the enterprises.

     Comments :

      1. When raw material and fuel with different sulfur and ash indices
are used, the largest values of these quantities should be employed in the
calculations.
                                    - 101 —

-------
       2 . In establishing the necessary degree of removal of noxious  substances
 from the emissions,  one  should take the actual values of the efficiencies  of
 the purification equipment  under ordinary operating conditions.

      2.5.  In determining the difference AT between the temperature  of  the
 discharged gas-air mixture  Tg and the  temperature of the ambient air Ta,
 the temperature of the ambient air taken is the average temperature  of  the
 warmest month at 1 P.M.,  indicated in  the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62  entitled
 "Construction Climatology and Geophysics.   Basic Principles of Planning"
 (Table 1, column 18).

      Comment.   For boiler houses  operating according to the thermal  graph,
 it is permitted in the calculations  to  take as  values of T  the average
 temperatures of the heating period according to the chapter of SNiP  II-A
 6-62 (Table 1,  column 23).

      2.6.   In determining the  concentrations of noxious substances,  the
 following values of the dimensionless coefficient F should be taken:
      (a)  for sulfur dioxide and other noxious substances for which the set-
 tling rate  is  practically equal to zero,  equal  to 1;
                                           4      S     6
                                                t m/sec  deg

                 Fig. 2.  Graph for determining the coefficient m, consid-
                 ering the conditions of discharge pf the gas-air mixture
                            from the source orifice.
     (b) for dust, if  the  operational purification coefficient is

                         not  less  than 90%, equal to 2;
                         less  than 90%,  equal to 2.5.

     2.7.  The value of  the  dimensionless  coefficient m allowing for the con-
ditions of discharge of  the  gas-air mixture  from the orifice of the emission
                                     -  102  -

-------
source (stack) should be determined from the value of the parameter /, = ---."° .-
(in m/sec  deg) with the aid of the graph of Fig. 2.

     2.8.  The maximum concentration of noxious substances near the surface of
the ground under unsafe weather conditions cm is reached on the plume axis of
the discharge (along the direction of the average wind for the period con-
sidered) at a distance ^ (in m) from the source, a distance determined in
units of height of the discharge source (stack) H, and is found approximately
from the formula
     Comment.  Concentrations of noxious substances differing from the maximum
concentration by not more than 30% are observed at distances in the range of
(10-40) H.  Care should be taken that the zones of maximum concentrations of
noxious substances do not coincide with densely populated quarters or with
areas where medical or children's institutions are located.

     2.9.  The unsafe wind velocity um (in m/sec) at the wind vane level
(usually, 10 m from ground level) at which the highest value of the ground
concentration of the noxious substances in air is reached, should be approx-
imately determined from the formula
                                           7T-                        (7)

     The explanation of the symbols entering  into the above formula is given
above.

     The value of u  can also be determined by using the nomogram given in
Fig. 3, from values of VAT and H.  For this purpose, from the point on the
horizontal coordinate axis corresponding to the given value VAT is drawn a
vertical to the intersection with this line of the family of oblique lines
corresponding to the geometric height of the  source H.  Then from the point
of intersection is dropped a perpendicular to the vertical axis on which the
value um is determined.

     Comment.  More precise calculations show that the calculated unsafe wind
velocity v^ is slightly higher than that calculated from formula (7) and
depends on the parameter given above, f.  When f <1, the unsafe velocity is
approximately 10% higher, and when 1 < f < 6, approximately 20% higher.

     2.10.  The maximum value of the concentration cmy (in mg/m3) of noxious
substances in the ground layer of air under unfavorable weather conditions and
at a wind velocity u different from um is approximately determined from the
formula
                                    - 103 -

-------
     The dimensionless quantity r is then found from Fig. 4 as a function of
the ratio u/um  (curve r).

     The distance from the source x^  (in m) at which for a wind velocity u
and under unfavorable weather conditions the ground concentration of noxious
substances reaches the maximum value cmy is determined from the formula

                                  Xmi=P-Xm.                            (9)

     The dimensionless quantity p is also found from Fig. 4 as a function of
the ratio u/um  (curve p).

     2.11.  The distribution of the concentrations of noxious substances in
the atmosphere along the axis of the discharge plume c (in mg/nr) at various
distances x (in m) from the source is calculated from the formula

                                                                     (10)

the dimensionless quantity s^ at the unsafe wind velocity being found  from
the ratio x/xm on the graph shown in Fig. 5.  For gaseous noxious substances,
s^ is taken from the solid curve.  For dust, s^ is also determined from the
solid curve at distances x < 2^.  For higher values of x, the dust concentra-
tions decrease faster, and the value of s^ in this case is taken from  the
dashed curve in the same figure.

     Comment.  The concentrations of noxious substances at various distances
along the direction of the wind are similarly determined in the case of other
wind velocity values under unfavorable weather conditions.  The value  of x y
is then determined first from Fig. 4 and formula (9).  Then, s-^ is found
by plotting x/x^ instead of x/x  along the horizontal axis of Fig. 5.  To
obtain the concentration c, cmy is multiplied by s^.

     2.12.  Values of the concentrations of noxious substances in the  atmo-
sphere (in mg/m ) at a distance y (in m) from the plume axis (measured along
the perpendicular to the direction of the average wind) are determined from
the formula
                                                                     (11)
where c is the concentration of the impurity on the axis of the discharge plume,
determined from formula (10).  The dimensionless quantity S£ is found from Fig.
6 as a function of the ratio y/x.

     2.13.  The minimum permissible height of emission of noxious substances
(stack height) H (in m) at which a value of cm equal to the MFC is ensured
is calculated from the formula
                                f~1 	« 1 /	
                                                                     (12)
IT  ~ /   AMFm
ti = I / 	;	.
    |/ MFC  A-J7AF
                                     - 104 -

-------
        «„, m/sao
o
Ln
       10'
5-10'       10
                                                                 Pig. 3.  Noraogram for determining the unsafe wind velocity um.

-------
    Fig.  4.  Graph for determining the auxiliary values r and
    p used for calculating the concentrations under unfavorable
    weather  conditions and at wind velocity u different from um»
0,5-,
  Pig. 5.  Graph for determining the auxiliary values sj_ used for
  calculating the ground concentrations on the axis of the dis-
  charge plume at various distances from the  source.
                            - 106  -

-------
above .
     The  symbols  of the quantities entering  into  the  formula are described
     Here  it  is assumed that m = 1 to a first approximation.   From the value
of H thus  obtained,  the coefficient m is determined  in the manner indicated
above  (see §  2.7 of the present Instructions).  The  value of m obtained is
substituted into formula (12), and a more accurate calculation of the stack
height H is carried out.

     Comments :

       1. If there exists a single source of discharge  of several different
noxious substances,  its height should be determined  from the highest value of
H obtained from formula (12) for each individual  noxious substance.  In
particular, if
                                                                       (13)
H is determined from the discharge of sulfur dioxide
                                                             and for
                                                                       (14)
H is determined from the discharge of dust M,.
      2.  The absence of impurities on the territory of industrial facilities
and  in  the  residential areas located in the  immediate vicinity to this
territory is promoted by the discharge of noxious  substances at a height H
that is not less than 2.5 times the height of buildings adjacent to it with-
in a radius of 4.5 H.
52
Ifl

w

0,6

v,'<

0,2

u


\
_ --





~™













o,


-<"








0<,



\







4*




\






18





\





o,






\




f2







N



o,








K


fS









^v

^









^>

2^










r-
0,





•




m
24










— ..
^










-__.

                                                               a-
                    Fig. 6.  Graph for determining the auxiliary value sg used
                    for calculating concentrations at points not located on the
                                axis of the discharge plume*
                                    -• 107 -

-------
      2.14.   The maximum permissible  discharge (MPD)  (in g/sec)  of noxious sub-
 stances into the atmosphere  for which a  pollution of the ground layer of air
 not in excess of MFC is achieved is  calculated from  the formula
                              MPD — "*•"  " '  ' "'                      ^^
                                         Al:m

     Here the concentration of impurities in the emissions past the purifica-
tion equipment must not exceed the value
or, considering formula (15),

                                _MPC1m  JTAT
                                  ~AFm  V V* '
                            ms
     2.15.  When noxious substances are discharged into the atmosphere as a
result of the combustion of fuel, the maximum permissible fuel consumption
(MPF) (in t/hr) is determined from the formula
                           MPF = 3,67/3    _,                 (18)
where d is the amount of gas-air mixture discharged per unit weight of fuel
(in m3/kg);
     di is the amount of noxious impurity discharged into the atmosphere per
unit weight of fuel (in g/kg).


                  3.  Procedure for Calculating the Dispersal
                     of Emissions for a Group of Sources

     3.1.  For a group of emission sources standing close to each other (the
distance between the extreme sources dpes not exceed 3-4 average source heights
above the surface of the ground), the sources may be practically assumed to be
located at a single point that is the center of the site on which they are
located.

     When the output of one of the emission sources is much larger than that
of the others, the sources may be assumed to be located at a single point co-
inciding with the location of the source.

     3.2.  If the discharge of noxious substances is uniformly distributed
among N sources located close to each other and having the same heights and
                                     - 108 -

-------
aperture diameters, the total value of the maximum concentration c  is deter-
mined from  the  formula                                            m
where M is the  total amount of the given noxious substance discharged from all
the sources  (in g/sec);

     V  is the total volume of the gas-air mixture discharged from all the
sources (in  m /sec).

     The remaining symbols are given in section 2.

     The volume of the gas-air mixture is related to the number of emission
sources, the diameter of  their aperture and the average exit velocity of the
gas-air mixture by the following relation:

                              V = --KD*-3)-N.                       (20)
     The unsafe velocity u^  (in m/sec) in this case is approximately deter-
mined from the formula
     In the presence of a group of identical emission sources clustered to-
gether, formula  (4) and the nomograms given in Figs. 1 and 3 can be used to
simplify the calculations of c  and um.  When these nomograms are used for N
identical emission sources, the only difference from the case of a single
source is that the point corresponding to VAT/m is marked on the horizontal
axis.  Otherwise the procedure of calculation for N closely clustered iden-
tical emission sources does not differ in any way from the procedure, de-
scribed in section 2, for calculating the dispersal of noxious substances for
a single emission source.

     3.3.  If a group consisting of N sources has different heights and dis-
charge parameters, then the maximum ground concentrations should first be
determined for each source for all the noxious substances, cm (c
Cm3;---; Cm^-D; cmN) and unsafe wind velocities u,,, (uml; u,^;
     If for some noxious substance the sum cm of all the sources turns out
to be lower than the MFC, further calculations of the dispersal of this nox-
ious substance in the atmosphere should not be carried out, since in this
case the concentrations of this substance will obviously nowhere exceed the
MFC.
                                   - 109 -

-------
      For each noxious  substance  for which  the  sum of all N  sources  exceeds  the
 MFC,  it is  necessary to  determine  the weighted mean  unsafe  wind velocity  um av
 (in m/sec)  for N sources from the  formula

                                       alrni:.Lll:-lH_!imNfmN             (22)
                                        c _4-   4- c
                                            h"- h'
     Further, for each noxious substance at wind velocity u = Ujnav' formulas
(8) and (9) and Fig. 4 can be used to calculate the values of cmu and xmu for
each source.

Remark.  If for any given noxious substance the sum cmu for all the sources
is less than the MFC, no further calculations should be carried out, since
the concentration of the noxious substance will not exceed the MFC anywhere.
In the remaining cases, it is necessary to establish that when u = ^mav, the
field of the total concentration c produced by all the sources will not reach
values in excess of the MFC  anywhere.

     3.4.   If among N  emission  sources  there are NI sources  to which small
values of Cj^ correspond for certain noxious substances, the calculations for
this substance can be simplified by slightly raising the estimate of the air
pollution caused by the enterprise.

     For this purpose,  it is first necessary to determine the sum of maximum
concentrations cfflu for all of the N^ sources and determine the difference be-
tween the MFC and the sum.  Then an estimate is made of the maximum total con
centration for the remaining N-N^ sources; this concentration should never
exceed the calculated difference between the MFC and the sum of c   anywhere.

     3.5.  If sources with different emission parameters are located close to
each other and,  according to § 3.1, can be reduced to a single point, the
calculation of the total concentration for each noxious substance is carried
out as follows.   For each source, a plot is made of the curves representing
the change of the concentration c with the distance x at wind velocity u = ^m
calculated from formula (22).  Then all the curves are plotted on a single
graph with a common origin of coordinates.  For the same distances x, the c
values from all the stacks are summed up, and the total values of c are found
as a function of the 'distance x.  The highest c value will be the maximum con
centration of the given noxious substance for all the discharges, and the dis
tance, measured from the origin, at which the maximum total concentration is
reached can be taken as x .
                         m

     Comment.  The procedure for calculating the total air pollution for the
case where a group of sources with different emission parameters can be re-
duced to a single point is treated in detail in Appendix 2 (Example 6).
                                     - 110 -

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     3.6.  In the case where a straight line can be drawn in any direction
through the main sources of emission of noxious substances plotted on a plan
(contour map), so that the distance from the individual sources to the given
straight line does not exceed 1.5-2 average heights of the emission sources,
they can be shifted to this line in the calculation.  Next, at wind velocity
u = umc> calculated from formula (22), cmu, x^ and curves of distribution
of c from x are calculated.  These curves for all the N sources are then
plotted on a graph with a common coordinate axis x.  The origin of each curve
coincides with the corresponding source successively plotted on axis x, the
scale being taken into account.

     The graph should be plotted for two variants.  In one it is assumed that
the wind is directed from the first to the N-th source, and in the other, in
the opposite direction.  Then, a graphical addition is made for the different
distances, values of the total concentration c are calculated, and the highest
ones are taken as the maximum concentration c .
                                             m

     Comments:

      1..  In particular, the indicated method should be used for calculations
in the presence of two sources (or two groups of neighboring sources) located
far from one another.

      2.  As an example, let us make the calculation for the case of two
sources discharging sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.  The height of the
first source H = 50 m, cm^ = 0.30 mg/m , u j_ = 3 m/sec; for the second source,
the height H = 120 m, c^ = 0.35 mg/m3, and u^ = 6 m/sec.  The distance be-
tween the sources is 6 km.

     The weighted-mean unsafe wind velocity u^y. should be calculated in
accordance with formula (22)


                           — A'^-^JLlP-i^l^.f 6 m/sec.
                           v   0,30-i 0,35

     From formulas (8) and (9) and Fig. 4 we find that when u = u     for the
first source c    = 0.26 mg/mj and xmu  = 900 m, and for the second source c
= 0.32 mg/m3, and x,,,^ = 3700 m.  The sum c^ from both sources is greater
than the MFC for sulfur dioxide  (0.5 mg/m3), and it is therefore necessary to
carry out a graphical addition of the axial concentrations (for y = 0).

     Figure 7 illustrates the graphical addition for two variants, when the
wind is directed from the first source to the second (a), and vice versa, from
the second source to the first (b).  The highest concentration is observed
when the wind is directed from the second source to the first.  Then cm is 0.5
mg/m3, and the value of xm, measured from the second source, is 7000m.
                                    - Ill -

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     3.7.   In  general, when all the emission sources cannot be reduced  to  a
single point or placed on a common straight line, the calculations should  be
carried out as follows.

     On a plan (contour  map) of the area representing the arrangement of the
atmospheric pollution sources,  a straight line is drawn so that the  sum c
from sources located  at  distances from this line of not more than (1.5-2)H is
the largest.   This  line  should  be taken as axis x.

     In some cases  it is sufficient to carry out a graphical summation  of  the
concentrations of noxious substances from emission sources along a given line,
assuming that  the wind is directed along the latter and the neighboring
sources are brought down to this line; in taking into account the influence
of the remaining sources,  formula (11) and Fig. 6 should be used.

     In the remaining cases,  from each source lines should be drawn  con-
necting it  to  the other  sources.  It is then successively assumed that  the
wind blows  along these lines, and the total concentrations are calculated  at
points where maximum  concentrations of noxious substances from sources  lo-
cated on these lines  are reached.
                              zooo  woo  eooo  sooo •&&
                        Fig. 7.  Example of calculation of the maxi-
                        mum ground concentration of sulfur dioxide
                        for two sources located on a single straight
                                     line.

     Comment.  If the volume of  the necessary calculations is large and a
greater accuracy of the calculations is required,  it is expedient to use
electronic computers.  At the  same  time, a calculation of the concentrations
for the coordinate grid of  the points should  also  be carried out.  In the
case where there is a predominant emission source  of a given noxious substance,

-------
the origin of coordinates is made to coincide with it.  If several sources
emit approximately the same (comparable) amount of impurity into the atmosphere,
the origin of coordinates is placed approximately at the center of their lo-
cation.  The concentrations of the impurity are then determined at the points
of the grid from each of the sources according to the above-indicated procedure,
taking into account the concentration change across the plume axis.  The
calculations should be made successively for the possible wind directions
along the eight points of compass.  For each wind direction, the summation of
the concentrations from all the sources is made at the points of the grid.

     From the values of the total concentration c obtained, the highest value
is chosen, which is taken to be cm, and the point to which this concentration
refers is plotted.


                     4.  Consideration of the Background
                      Concentration of Noxious Substances

     4.1.  In planning new industrial enterprises and boiler houses with dis-
charges of noxious substances in an area where the atmospheric air is polluted
with the same noxious substances from other industrial facilities and also
when expanding industrial enterprises and boiler houses, it is necessary to
consider the initial or background concentrations of the noxious substances
in atmospheric air c^ (in mg/nr).

     The sum of the maximum and background concentrations for each noxious
substance should not exceed the MFC.

     Comment.  It is necessary to consider the possibility of the joint pre-
sence of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid (H2SO^) aerosol in the air.  In
this case, the following condition should be fulfilled:
where MPCH2S04 = °-3 nig/m3 is the one-time MFC for sulfuric acid aerosol.

     4.2.  In the presence of background pollution of the atmosphere with
noxious substances, the MFC in formulas (12), (15), (17) and (18) should be
replaced by values of MPC-c^.

     4.3.  In the presence of background pollution, formulas (13) and (14)
are transformed to the following form:
when
                                         "'!!!_                      (24)
                                    - 113 -

-------
H is determined from the emission of sulfur dioxide MgQ2, and when

                                                                     (25)
H is determined from the emission of dust M
-------
the operation of industrial enterprises and boiler houses, the explanatory
notes and the construction for modernization plans for these facilities
should indicate the set of measures whose implementation during the period
of operation will ensure the conditions of atmospheric dispersal, established
by calculations, of the noxious substances present in the emissions of these
industrial enterprises and boiler houses.

     5.1.  In the operation of industrial enterprises and boiler houses it
is necessary that the emissions of noxious substances from the individual
sources into the atmosphere do not exceed the maximum permissible emissions
(MPE) .

     The concentrations of noxious substances in the gas-air mixture dis-
charged into the atmosphere should not exceed the cmg values determined
from the formulas given above (see § 2.14 and 4.2 of present Instructions).

     It is recommended that provisions be made for installing instruments
for recording the concentrations of noxious substances past the purifica-
tion equipment at large sources of emission of such substances.

     5.2.  Under particularly unfavorable weather conditions, especially
when an elevated temperature inversion several hundreds of meters thick with
average temperature gradients of 3-4°C. per 100 m in this layer is located
above the smokestacks, and the wind is directed from the emission sources to-
ward residential areas, a heavy and increasing pollution of air with noxious
substances being observed in the ground layer (with concentrations of the
noxious substances in excess of the maximum permissible ones), the rate of
discharge of such substances into the atmosphere should be reduced as much
as possible at industrial enterprises and other facilities according to the
requirement of the agencies of the Main Sanitary-Epidemiological Administra-
tion of the Health Ministry of the USSR.

     5.3.  Under unfavorable weather conditions at industrial plants and
other facilities, control of the maximum utilization of purification equip-
ment at the main sources of atmospheric pollution should be set up, reserve
fuel and raw material with the lowest sulfur and ash content should be used,
one-time emissions of noxious substances should be discontinued, and other
steps reducing the emissions of noxious substances into the atmosphere should
be taken.

     5.4.  For each industrial district, for major industrial enterprises
and boiler houses, plans should be worked out to reduce the emissions of
noxious substances into the atmosphere and to control them under unfavorable
weather conditions, based on a systematic collection of data on the dis-
charge parameters of noxious substances and also'a combined analysis of
meteorological data and data on atmospheric pollution.
                                    - 115 -

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       6.  Determination of Boundaries of the Sanitary-Protective Zone

     6.1.  In conformity with the "Sanitary Standards for Planning Industrial
Enterprises" (SN245-63), industrial enterprises (facilities) should be sepa-
rated from residential areas by sanitary-protective zones (gaps).

     The length of a sanitary-protective zone 1~ (in m) for different cate-
gories of enterprises and facilities is established in the case where there
is no marked predominance of winds of definite directions.

     6.2.  When the mean annual wind rose is substantially different from
circular, i.e., for a wind frequency p of certain directions (for an eight-
point wind rose) substantially greater than the average value of PQ (pn =
—g—2 = 12.5%). the length of the sanitary-protective zone should be cor-
rected by allowing for the characteristics of the wind regime of the area
where the facility is located.

     For these wind directions, the length of the gap 1 (in m) measured
from the industrial facility (source of atmospheric pollution) to the outer
boundary of the sanitary-protective zone is given by the formula

                                  1 = 10^-.                           <26>
                                     0 Po

     In directions for which ihe wind frequency P


     In directions for which the wind frequency p
-------
            7.  Tabulation of Results of Calculation of Dispersal of
                     Noxious Substances in the Atmosphere

     7.1.  In tabulating the results obtained by calculating the dispersal of
noxious substances in the atmosphere, the plans of industrial enterprises
(facilities) and boiler houses with considerable emissions of noxious sub-
stances into the atmosphere should be supplemented with a report including
the following data:

     (a)  A plan (contour map) of the construction site with a radius of not
less than 100 maximum stack heights from the facility being planned, con-
taining the main sources of noxious substances (taken from master plans)
both at the facility being planned, allowing for its possible modernization
and expansion, and at other existing or planned enterprises in this area.

     The contour map must also show populated areas, areas of planned resi-
dential construction, hospitals, sanatoriums, weather stations, and also
rivers, water reservoirs, forests, farm lands, etc.  Isolines of the same
heights are drawn every 20 m.

     (b)  Tables containing the following data for each air pollution source
(the sources should preferably be relabeled):
     amount M (in g/sec) of discharged impurities, their chemical composition
(as much information as possible is given on the particle size distribution
of the dust past the purification equipment);
     height H and diameter of the orifice of the emission source D (in M),
the volume V (in nr/sec) of the discharge gas-air mixture;
     efficiency of the purification equipment based on projected and opera-
tional data.

     (c)  For every existing and projected industrial enterprise (facility),
the character of the impurity is indicated in conformity with the "Sanitary
Standards  for Planning Industrial Enterprises" (SN245-63), and data on un-
organized discharges are given.

     (d)  A table of the mean annual frequency of winds for the eight principal
points of compass, average and average maximum temperatures of air at the
level of the instrument shelter for the warmest month on the basis of climatic
handbooks and of the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62  entitled  "Structural Climatol-
Igy and Geophysics.  Basic Principles of Planning."

     For the construction site of the enterprise (facility) it is also re-
commended that data be given for each month on the average frequency of various
gradations of wind velocity, calms, fogs, and ground and elevated (at heights
of 100-300 m) temperature inversions.  In the absence of necessary data in
the chapter of SNiP II-A.6-62 and in climatic handbooks, such data can be ob-
tained from offices of the hydrometeorological service.
                                    - 117 -

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     Weather stations are indicated from the data of which one can obtain the
characteristics of the climatic and weather regime of the area.  These weather
stations should be marked on the contour map or on a separate map.

     (e)  Information on a local sanitary-epidemiological station with back-
ground concentrations for all the ingredients of noxious impurities, on their
concentrations under the plume of the main enterprises (within a radius of
100 source heights), on the toxicity of the noxious substances discharged and
on the MFC's established for them.  The sanitary-epidemiological service also
confirms that all the chief sources of atmospheric pollution have been taken
into account in the calculations.

     (f)  Variants of calculation of the distribution of ground concentra-
tions of noxious substances for different choices of parameters characterizing
the output of the enterprise (facility), degree of purification of the emissions,
location, height and diameter of the emissions orifice,  exit velocity, over-
heating of the gas-air mixture, etc.

     Of these variants, the one that is most efficient and economically justi-
fied is selected.

     In working out steps to ensure the purity of atmospheric air, it is
necessary to consider the cost of construction of connecting lines, air intake
tubes,  ventilation equipment, organization of the sanitary-protective zone,
etc.

     (g)  Tables and graphs for calculating the distribution of the concen-
trations of noxious substances around an enterprise (facility) and sanitary-
protective zone, determined in accordance with data of the Instructions,
patterned after the examples given below (Appendix 2).

     7.2.  Examples of calculations of the dispersal of noxious substances
in atmospheric air and calculations of the sanitary-protective zone are
given in Appendix 2.
                                   - 118 -

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                                   APPENDIX 1


   LIST OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES AND FACILITIES COVERED BY THE INSTRUCTIONS


 1.  Sintering ferrous metallurgical plants

 2.  Plants producing roasted ferrous metal pellets

 3.  Sintering non-ferrous metallurgical plants

 4.  Converter shops

 5.  Blast furnace production

 6.  Open hearth shops

 7.  Electric steelmaking shops

 8.  Production of sulfuric acid by the contact process

 9.  Production of elemental sulfur

10.  Petroleum refining plant (combustion of mazut in units of catalytic  re-
     forming, thermal and catalytic cracking, hydrofining,  atmospheric  pipe
     stills and atmospheric-vacuum pipe stills, separation  and isomerizations
     of xylene, purification of oils)

11.  Boiler houses


                                   APPENDIX 2


              EXAMPLES OF CALCULATION OF THE DISPERSAL OF NOXIOUS
                          SUBSTANCES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
 Example 1.

      Calculation of pollution of the atmosphere with sulfur  dioxide and dust  in
 the area of the sintering plant of a ferrous metallurgical enterprise.  Con-
 struction site, the Urals.
                                     - 119 -

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No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation 1 Units
Value
A, Calculation of the Amount of Sulfur Dioxide and Dust, Volume and
Exit Velocity of Gas-Air Mixture Discharged into the Atmosphere
1
2
3
4

5
6
7
8
9
10

11







12


13

14
15

16

Area of one sintering belt - F]_
Number of sintering belts - n
Type of charge - sulf ite ore
Fuel used for igniting the charge - coke
oven blast furnace gas
maximum sulfur content of the charge - Scn
Charge desulfuration coefficient- - r) ch
Hydrogen sulfide content of coke oven gas
- (H2S)o
Sulfur content of blast furnace gas - Sb
Amount of charge processed - QP
Amount of coke-oven gas consumed in igni-
ting 1 ton of charge - G*
***>
Consumption of blast furnace gas in igni-
ting 1 ton of charge - G*>b
Consumption of coke oven gas in igniting
the charge - G, .
l.C
/7 i -c x 1*1 x
i.c 24 24
Consumption of blast furnace gas in igni-
ting the charge - G£ ^
GLb xGP 40x1.1x10'
i.b 2-1 2-i
Concentration of dust in gases leaving^
the _ sintering machines Cbefore purifi-
cation), - g
Type of dust-removing unit - battery cy-
clones, no sulfur removal
Operational value of efficiency of dust
removing unit -T),j
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
from stack - Tg
Temperature of ambient air - Ta

m2




%

g/nm3
g/nm3
t/day
nm3/t
nm3/t


nm3/hr



nm3/hr


,
g/m

	
%

"C.
°c.

200
2



0.8
0.95
5
0.5
1.1 • 104
5
40


2300



18 900



3

	
90

150
30
j
- 120 -

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No.
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
fol]
',.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Number of slacks (on the basis of one stacA
for two sintering belts with an area of
200 m2) - N
Diameter of stack orifice -D
Volume of gas-air mixture discharged into
the atmosphere by one sintering belt
Total volume of gas-air mixture discharged
into the atmosphere - V
l.n 9000 • 2
60 60
Total dust emission - M^
^^('-i&H-300!1---^)
Emission of sulfur dioxide into the atmos-
phere due to the burning off of sulfur
in the charge - MgQ
ID? 5 chy. 7, ch
j;ch _./-;!> rbUj '
"•J>0, u 86400 100 n4.
- 0,^\/V'5oh °- 0232 x 1 llxlO'x OjBx 0-95
^So2 = 64 - molecular weight of sulfur
dioxide
ys = 32 - molecular weight of sulfur
Emission of sulfurous anhydride due to
the combustion of coke oven gas -
MS02
i/o Gi.c ,,., q.c 'lSOj .
/Jsy, -3Guif("2S) ^IjS-
= 0,00052<7i c(M2S)c^0.00052i(2300x 5
^H9S - molecular weight of hydrogen sul-
fide
Emission of sulfurous anhydride due to
the combustion of blast furnace gas -
«^02 ..y . 
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No.
25

26
27

1
2
3

4
5
6

Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Total emission of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere - %(>>
= 1950-|-6-)-5
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the velocity of deposition of the im-
purity in the atmosphere, for
sulfur dioxide - F
dust - F
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from the
stack - w0
4V 4 • 300
B. Calculation of Stack Height of Sir
Background concentration of sulfur dioxide
Background concentration of dust - C^a
Coefficient dependent on the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere - A
lx ltJGO>2x60
The stack height is therefore determined
from the emission of sulfur dioxide
Difference between the temperature of the
gas-air mixture discharged ind that of
the surrounding air — AT"
A7 =7 ' —T .==150-30
o »
First approximation for minimum stack
height (for m = 1) - H
„ _ 1 / AMso^fm y— AT" _
V UPC V V&T
/ , , 	
= I/ 160X 1'JSO* lx 1 */ \
V 05 V 300X 120
First approximation for the parameter f
o lO^xll^xG
T =^; 10* — - 	 = 	 	 = 	
J H-M' 138-x 120
Units

g/sec
—
m/sec
itering Plant
>
mg/m5
dig 1/3
g/sec

deg
m

m/sec2 deg
Value

I960
1
2
11
0
0
160
I960 120

120
138

0,32
- 122 -

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No.
7
8



9
10
11
12



13

14
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
First approximation for the coefficient
allowing for the conditions of exit of
the gas-air mixture from the stack - m
Preliminary value of the stack height - H
/-/ _ i / AMsofm ^y~x~ _
V UPC Y I/A?'
/IGOx 19GO xl xl a/~ 1
0,5 }' 300x120
Next largest size of the height of stand-
ard stacks - H
Parameter f
tr^D 10V 112x 6
•^ 10 /7*AT 1502X120
(K6, which makes it possible to use the
present Instructions)
Dimensionless coefficient allowing for
the conditions of exit of the gas-air
mixture from the stack - m
Maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
near the underlying surface - o^
2
AA'/gQ I'll! &/ ^;
m t-0* //2 |' y^y
100 xl%0 xl xl.05 y I
150^ Y 300x120
Maximum concentration of dust near the
underlying surface - cn d
•/lAld' /it -^ / V\
Cm'a 	 f-fi V V&.T '
lGOx60x2xl.0.r. -.V 1
~" '}§$ \ 300x120
Distance at which the maximum concentra-
tion of noxious emissions is reached
^ =, 20// - 20 x 150
Units
—


fa
m
m/sec^ de^
—


mg/m'


ng/rn
m
Value
1,05


136
150
0,27
1,05


0,44


0,03
3000
- 123

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   Example 2

   Calculation of pollution of the atmssphere with sulfur dioxide and
dust discharged by a converter shop.   Construction site  - Central Asia.
No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Units
Value
    Calculation of the amounts of sulfur dioxide and dust,  volume and
    exit velocity of gas-air mixture discharged into the  atmosphere.
1 Number of converters in the shop
2
3




4
5


6



7
8
9
10



11



Capacity of a single converter
Number of converters operating simultane-
ously, including
_ during the blowing of oxygen through
pig - HI
during preheating - ng
Duration of a single melting
Sulfur content of pig:
before blowing
after blowing
Amount of pig produced by one converter
(in 1 hr), G^
,„ 100 x 60

GI- 45
Duration of the period of preheating of the
converter with coke oven-blast furnace gas
Hydrogen sulfide content of coke oven gas -
Sulfur content of blast furnace gas - Sb
Amount of coke oven-blast furnace gas
burned in a single converter during pre-
heating, including
coke oven gas
blast furnace gas
Concentration of dust in gas-air mixture
during blowing (before purification) - g
During preheating, dust is not discharged
into the atmosphere
_
t
• -


-
-
min

$
%



t/hr
min
g/nm3
g/nm3

nm3
nm
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No.
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Units
Value
12 Type of dust-removing unit - turbulent
scrubber. No sulfur removal
13
Ik
15
16
17
18
19

20

21

22

23
Operating value of efficiency of dust
removing unit - ^
Temperature of gas-air mixture discharged
into the atmosphere - T_
Temperature of ambient air - Ta
Number of sources of emission of noxious
substances per converter - N^
Diameter of orifice of emission source of
noxious substances - D
Output of ventilation units operating
near the converter (during blowing and
preheating)
Volume of gas-air mixture discharged into
the atmosphere during blowing and pre-
heating by one converter - V^
100000 /SO \
1 ~ 3600 \ 273 ' j
Emission of dust into the atmosphere by
one converter during the blowing period -
Mf- g tl - -^j K, - 30 (l - -*L) 36
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged by one
converter during blowing - M|g
bl 100 10' (0,05 — 0,012) 64
""so, - 45 60 100 32
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged into
the atmosphere by one converter during
preheating and formed by the combustion
of coke oven-blast furnace gas - MgA
pr 1400x^x6-1 '4200x0,5x64 _
'"so, " " "21 x COx 31 21x 60x~32
= 10 + 3
Coefficient allowing for the influence of '
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere, for
sulfur dioxide - F
dust - F
*
"C
•c
•
m
nm'/hr

m'/see

g/sec

g/sec

g/sec
-
98
80
40
1
2
100,000

36

22

13

13
1
2
- 125 -

-------
Ho.
24


25




26




27


28


!
1


2

3






4



Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
aperture of emission source - wo
TOO _ ._-^__- _. _._^__ gj-jj-j-
Shortest distance between extreme convertors
out of three operating ones - xo
Therefore in calculations for //>50-j-70m
all the sources can be reduced to a single
point
The volume of gas-air mixture V^ discharged
into t-he atmosphere by s. converter is the
same. during the period of blowing and pre-
heating
Therefore in the calculations one should
assume
•-J-J---VT,
Total emission of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere by all the converters - Mg^
^SO. - ^o,", -I- M&n, -13-2 -j- 13 - 1
Total discharge of dust into the atmosphere
by all the converters - Md
Afc = ,«"», = 22«2
i. Calculation of the height of emission sou
Background concentration of sulfur dioxide
- cb.S02
Background concentration of dust - Cj, ^
Coefficient dependent on the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere - A
FMcr\ FM
»>W2 ^f 11
"re so, ~cb. so, " BPCd-fb,d
1 x 39 . 2x 4t
.0,5—0,2 ^- 0.5 — 0.3
Therefore the height of the emission source
is determined from the dust emission
Difference between the temperature of the
gas-air mixture and that of the ambient
air -til
A7- = 7-g-ra- 80-40
Units


m/seo

m







m /sec


g/sec


g/sec
rces of conve
mg/m5
5t
mg/m
sec2'5 v
x degl/5


mg/m







°C
Value


11

200







36


39


44
rter shop
0.2

0.3




130 < 440







40
- 126 -

-------
No.
5




6
7
8


9
10
i
i
>
11
i
12
i
I
i
!
!
	 i
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
First approximation for minimum height of
emission source (for m = 1)
//-I/ MWm ,3/~*T~_
K (ii;u
-------
No.
13


14
15
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
near underlying surface, caused by emis-
sions of the converter shop - ^.sOy
^
-------
No.  I Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
 10

 11
Sulfur content of raw material - SP

Residual sulfur content of raw material
 subjected to roasting (roasting involves
 the use of natural gas containing no
 sulfur) - SP
            o
Content of sulfurous anhydride in the
 gases following roasting of the raw
 material - Vir.
              (SP-
                                 22.4x10''
                        loo
         .-= 7n  SP -
                            ? x 106 (19 - 0,1) ,
       where ys is the molecular weight of sulfur

       Sulfur dioxide losses entering the stack
       (in percent of total volume of sulfurous
       anhydride formed by roasting the raw
       material):
          (a)   on contact units
          (b)   other process leaks
          (c)   total loss -7^'

       Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged into
       the atmosphere - MgQ

                     V   .    V-tn     10*
            j<    _     17     ' SOj    __
           *'so, — loo   so, TivT ~3W ~

          - 0,00795.7' VJo, = 0.00795 x5 r. H 100,
 where PSO   *s ^he inolecular
  sulfur dioxide

 Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
  from  stack - Te
               D
 Temperature of ambient air - Ia

 Amount of  gas-air mixture in furnace com-
  partment  Cper ton of product) passins
  through the process units and discharged
  into  the  stack - Vg
                                              Units
            Value
                                                                   19
                                                                  0.1
                                              nm /hr
            14,100
                                                              2
                                                              3
                                                              5
S/sec





 "C


 «C
                                                     iim
560




 60


 30




505
                                 - 129  -

-------
No.
12



13

Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Total amount of gas-air mixture discharged
into the stack - V
V =' 3600"^ 273" ~r )
505x100/60 .\
~ 3GOO ^"273 "h J
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Units Value



m3/sec ' 18
5
i
1 1
14 Number of stacks - N '. 51
15 Diameter of stack orifice - D m ! 2
16



Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from j
stack orifice - w. ~. '•
o <
) i •
4K _ 4 xis
m/sec | 6

i '- »
6. Calculation of stack height of sulfuric acid shop at sintering plant

_
1 | Background concentration of sulfur dioxide \ mg/m* \ 0.1
• "Tj.SOp ' §
2 I Coefficient dependent on the thermal ' sec2' 5 x j 160
: stratification of the atmosphere - A •. x degx/3 ,
3 i Difference in the temperatures of the gas- '• $
1 air mixture and air -Al J \
| AT = T -f = 60-30
i 6 i
4 • First approximation for minimum stack
°C i 30
j
5
height (for m = l) - H ;
;
i
,/ MW* _y N |
|/ ^IPC sOi'^b-SOj ' v "i/ t
|
t
j
-, /~lQQx 500x1 xl -,3/ T J \
" V "^(CL5~0~T) V 18x30 m f 166
• ,
5 First approximation for parameter f
•
^
1

w-5/.) 103x68x2 m/sec2x I O.O)
\ J -W' j.p.T =; ~i663"x30~' 1 x deg j
]
6 j First approximation for the coefficient '. |
•' allowing for the conditions of exit of the{ \
: gas-air mixture from the stack orifice - m| - i 1.1
- 130 -

-------
No.
7



8
9
1
1
10
Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Preliminary value of stack height - H
W =:•{/_ ^MsoS"1 -,3/~7T~

= -. / 160x 560x 1 x 1 ,1 Y — 1 	
V (0.5-0.1) V 18x30
Next largest size of standard stacks - H
Parameter - f
/--HP "3° 105x62x2
J tfl&T 1802x30
(f<6, which make it possible to use the
present Instructions)
Coefficient allowing for the conditions of
exit of gas-air mixture from the stack -
m
Units



m
in/sec x |
x deg ;
i
Value



180
0.07 ;
1 T
11  iMaximum concentration of sulfur dioxide
    1  near the underlying surface - cm ^
            cm. SO-.
12  !       %.S02 + °m.SC

    j Calculations show tl
    i  site, the sulfur di	
    I  will not exceed the MFC
1 1 ,3/— —
V 18 x 30

0.10 * 0.57
at the construction
Je concentrations

\ 'f
ng/m5 | 0.37
L
jt t
mg/m? I 0.47
I
j
5
aximum concentration) ^
cached, x j
!
0 x 180 ! m t 3600
: i
$
!,
J $
* t
1
'
j
*
>
i
!
1
i
'i
*



;
£
i
'



f
j
                                -  131 -

-------
   Example 4

   Calculation of the amount of sulfurous anhydride  and  volume  and exit
velocity of flue gases discharged into the atmosphere  during  combustion
of mazut in petroleum refinery installations.
No.
1
1

f
I
2
i 3

4
5
6


7
8
; 9

10



11




12

, i








13 !


14



NaroejDesignation, Formula and Calculation

Unit for catalytic reforming, thermal
cracking, hydrofining, atmospheric pipe-
still and atmospheric-vacuum pipestill,
etc.
Type of fuel - mazut
Colorific value of the fuel per working
mass - Q§
Sulfur content of fuel - Sp
Excess air at exit from smokestack - a
Temperature of flue gases at exit from
smokestack" - T
g
Number of stacks per installation - N^
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Amount of fuel burned (on the basis of
330 working days per year) - B
Volume of flue gases formed by the com-
bustion of 1 kg of fuel - V
6
I/ = Vji/j + V y -f *^ j-j o *{• (a — 1 ) * ==
8 = U62 -!- 1 1 .50 -r 1. 90 -!- 0.87
Total volume of flue gases at exit from
smokestack - V
y B • 1Q"i f T " \
V = "3600 ("27% + l ) =
15,35 x 12. GxlO"1 (2ft , ^\
3(iOO (273 ' ]/
Emission of sulfur dioxide from stack -



^
B x 103 x SP p.SOi
MSOt 3600x100 y.g
=-- 5.56 x B x SP = 5.55 x 12^0 X3,5
where y™ is the molecular weight of
sulfur dioxide andPg is the molecular
weight of sulfur
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Exit velocity of flue gases from stack
orifice - WQ
w =_4_K 	 4_xl03
sZ^A', 3.Mx5-'xl
Units
*
-




kcal/kg
%
_
°C



,
m

t/hr



nm^/kg



M3/sec
ui j sec







g/sec





—


m/sec

Value

-




9500
3.5
1.4
250


1
5

12.6



15.35
j

1

!





j
1

245
i

;

!
1
1 J
'

5 *
j
1
                                        132  -

-------
   Example 5

 _  Calculation of the amount of sulfurous anhydride,  volume  and  exit  velo-
city of flue gases discharged into the atmosphere bj  the  catalytic  cracking
installation of a petroleum refinery.   The sulfur dioxide is formed by the
combustion of mazut and burning off of the coke deposited on the catalyst.
No.
1
2
3

i
4
5

6

7

8'
9
10
.

11
12
i


13





i
14





Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation
Catalytic cracking installation
Type of fuel - high sulfur mazut
Calorific value of mazut per working mass
-QP
H
Sulfur content of mazut - SjJ
Excess air during the combustion of -mazut ir
furnaces -am
Amount of mazut burned (based on 330 work-
ing days per year) - Bm
Sulfur content of coke - SP
c
Excess air during burning of coke -Ctc
Amount of burned coke - Bc
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit from
stack - I
B
Number of stacks - N
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of 1 kg of mazut - V™
D
V •- V'uo -1- V°Nj + VH,0 -1- ( « - 1) V* -
& =f.62 + 11.6-1- 1.99 -1-0.82
Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of mazut - Vm
um ,/mr.mlOOO/ Tr , .\
v — &b 3600\273 "'" J =
— 16.0x1. 3 ~10°° (25° ---! l]
3bOO ^ /Jo j

Amount of sulfur dioxide formed by the
combustion of mazut - "gQ9
M*n " 5 .50 x B mx 5£ = 5.56 x 1.3 x 4
ovJi ™



Units

kcal/kg


%


'
t/hr
%

-
t/hr
°C


-



nm3/kg




m /sec




g/sec
•
i

Value
-
9500


4
1.4


1.3
5.5

1.02
11 |
250

i
i 1


{
| 16
3
i

I
1 11.2
&
I '
1
1
1
I 29
\
:
I :
                                    -  133 -

-------
i
j No.
i
I 15

;


1
i 16
1






: 17


; 18 !
•
i •

i 19 i

:'
j ;
i 20
•
i 1
| 21 i
i 22 j
; 23
•
1
i 24 ;
25 !
; i
.


Name, Designation, Formula and Calculation

Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of 1 kilogram of coke, V?
D
Vs I/ _l_ 1/0 i l/ i/O 1^17°--
K ~~ » PQ- ~T~ ' \_ t~ II O ~'~ V ^ ) ~~
- 1.63 + 7.17-1- 1.01 -j- (1.02 — 1)9.08

Volume of gas-air mixture formed by the
combustion of coke - Vc

V c = jc B oJOOp_ /_£_ + j\ _
3(500 ^273 )
lOxllx1000/'250 i \\
IV X 1 1 X -x' -^. -- -j- 1 1
OUUU \ £, t O j

Amount of sulfur dioxide formed by the
combustion of coke - U|0
•^so ~ 5,56x BCS£ = 5.5G xll x5.5
Total volume of gas-air mixture discharged
into the stack - V
V — V"1 -f V° - 11.2 4- 5S.5

Total amount of sulfur dioxide discharged
into the stack - He,.
i3U2
^so,==^s-!-A4lo,-29 + 336
Coefficient allowing for the influence of
the settling velocity of the impurity in
the atmosphere - F
Stack Height - H
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
stack orifice - w0
^==.^_«^x63.7__
Temperature of ambient air - T
Parameter f
tt'5/> iffix (1-1.3)2x2.5
/ = 1QT jj?yf~ =••- "loo^JiJijoTrg-y-'
(f<6, which makes.it possible to use the
present Instructions!)

Units
	 	 !




nm3/kg






3,
m /sec



g/sec


m/sec




t/sec
•H


m
m


m/sec
deg


m/sec deg


Value





. 10


i


i
i
1
i
i
;

336 !


69.7
!


i
365
1 :

i
100 ;
• 2.5


14.3
25
r. !
,
1 0.23 •
•
I j
- 134 -

-------
   Example 6
   Calculation of pollution of the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide from an
operating petroleum refinery.  Location - Central Asia.
 No.


  1

  2
Number
  Of
Sources
        Name,  Designation,  Formula
             and Calculation
  3  .
  4   j
  A. Calculation of ground concentrations of sulfur dioxide
        Background concentration of sulfur
         dioxide - Cjj.SO-
        Coefficient dependent on the thermal
         stratification of the atmosphere - A
        Coefficient allowing for the settling of
         the impurity - F
  6
  7
  8
  9
  10
    1
    2
    3
    4
   •5

   1-5
   1-5
   1-5
          1
          2
          4
          5
          1
          2
          k
          5
Temperature of ambient air - Ta
Type of installations:
Catalytic reforming installation
Thermal cracking installation
Hydrofining installation
Atmospheric vacuum pipe still
Installation for preducing_elemental
 sulfur from hydrogen sulfide gas
Number of stacks per installation
Stack height - H
Diameter of stack orifice - D
Temperature of gas-air mixture at exit
 from stack - T
               o
         Volume of gas-air mixture discharged
          from the stack - V

Units
r dioxide
ng/m3
sec*/3*
X deg1/5
-
•C
-
m
m
°C

m3/sec


i
i
i
Value)

0
200
1
40
1
100
2

400
450
250
500
500

50
100
30
80
35
r
                                     -135  -

-------
i
No.
11

j
i



12
|
i

i

I
1
!
'






13 i

,
i


i

•
j
14
1
|
i

t
i
.*


j
Number
of
Sources


1
2
3
4
5





J-
o
2
3

Jf.

5




1
2
3
4
5





.
1




Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
Amount of sulfur dioxide discharged int
the atmosphere - MSQ



.

Exit velocity of gas-air mixture from
stack orifice - WQ
»o'=— r£i~
i*U-i\ j
4X 50
w° sx 22x 1
4X 100
W° r.x 22x 1
4X30
4x80
WQ ;^ ~~~~~^55 — T~
4X 35
wo 5; x 22 x 1

Difference in the temperatures of the gas
air mixture and ambient air - A7
bT~TsTT*
AT" = 4wb — 40
AT" = 450 — 40
A31 = 250 — 40
AT" = 500 -40
AF — 500 — 40

>arameter f
„
f = 103-^--
JTi "^1
103xl62x2
/ — ~~io"02x "3f>0 ""
10'x 33- x 2
ibi)-x 4io
10:'X10? 2
1002X210
Units

g/sec







m/seo













deg
















Value


200
250
150
180
300


16
i
32
1
10 f
J
1
25 |
11







360
410-
210 :
460
460 .

i

I
l

0.14
0.50 !
*
0.10 1

- 136 -

-------
No.
14



1




15










16

i


t
j
i
i

!






i
i? i

i
j
i

Number
c °f
Sources
4




5





'
1

2

3


5





1
2

3

4

5



1-5





Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation

, 10^x252x2

J 1002 X4GO
1 fB 112 O
•^^"100^460
(For all sources f <6, which makes it
possible to use the present Instruc-
tions)

Coefficient allowing for the conditions
of exit of flue gases from stack ori-
fice - m








Maximum concentration of sulfur
dioxide - CQ.SO
. . , ... z, — - —
SCH "I/
V sov /./a Y VA7
_ 200x200 xl_fiii_-|X 	 L_
200X 250 xl xl ,y 1
fn> 2 100-1 K 100 x410
200x150x1x1.1 T3A 1
Cm3 1002 K 30x 210
200x ISOx 1 xl.Oo ,y I
a>4 1002 ¥ 80X 460
? 200 xSOO x 1 x 1 J -{y 1
Cra5 	 100- Y 35x460
%i + Cm" ~!>~ Cm3 + c m "i' Cm5 ~
=o»i7 -i O.'M -i- o.is -;- o.n -i- 0.25
Distance from stack where the maximum
concentration xm is observed at
the unsafe wind velocity
xm = 20H = 20 x 100


Units







•





—

<^_

^~
__
^^—




Hg/m5














m


Value


0«27


0.05







1.1

1.0

1.0 I
1.05
1.1 !

i

i
j
0.17
i
0.14

0.18 j

0.11
1
0.26 {

0.86 ••
i

'
2000 :
j

- 137 -

-------
Number
:' No. of
| Sources
j 18
i
;
1
I
, 2
i
3
i
*'
5
i
; i
19 i
i



i

'.
'. '•
* '
1 i
20
1
}
1
J
1
i ! i
t
{ 2
i ;
• ! 3
1 •
i :
1 4
i 5
[ ^
i
Name, Designation} Formula
and Calculation

Unsafe velocity u

u ~0 GrlXl/lA7
*0 ..y-irar
1 ' V 1 x 100
~0 6r l!X 100x4l°
/' ~ 0 35 ~tY 30 x21^~
m * F 1x100
A -C-.V" 80 460
/." , c-* 0 65 5/
m4 ° K i 100
«_ ~ 0 6r TiX" 35 4(^~
«m5 J jj/ j JQQ-
Weighted mean value of unsafe
wind velocity u^y for the
given set of sources
" lfml '!' %'? 2 -I" " 3- 3 +
-m _). w .4c"4m-|- H 5c 5


^Bl Til* w* TQ- Bl

3,7 xOJ7 + 4.8 x 0 .14 -}- 2.0 xO,18 +
+ 4.6X0.1H-3;5X0.26
0,b''J

Value of the ratio umav

u
m

''may 	 3 7
"mi ~~3 T
"me 3 7
"m2 4 8
J'ffiL... 3 7
"m3 2 15*
J'a.?. ._. .3_L
"mc • 3 7
V """3T

»
Units
— 	 —


m/sec

















ng/m5






_

_

-

-



Value




3.7

4,8
2.6
1
4,6
3.5
'
1
i
i
!
]
i
i

i
i

3.7
!
i
•
i

'

1.0

0.77 •

1.42

0.80
1.06
i

- 138 -

-------
No.
	
21








22








23




Number
of
Sources


1
2
3
4
5






1
2
3
*
5
1-5




Name, Designation, Formula
and Calculation
Maximum concentration of sulfur
dioxide c,,^ (for u = u^y)
^Ui = 1.0x0. 17
«„,,,,= 0.91x0. 14
<••„„,=* 0.80 xOJS
cm,t = 0.93x0- 11
cfflHi=:LOx0.2G
-0 .17 + O.'lS --!- 0/16 -r O.'lO -(- 0.26 =
=--0.52>MPC
Distance at which the maximum concen-
tration of sulfur dioxide x^ is ob-
served for u = UTOV
%l =P**
A* mBi = 1.0x2000
x-m,, = 1.22x2000
x — 0»87x 2000
^DB, — 1'1851 200°
•*•*,,=- 1-0x2000
The distance between extreme sources
does not exceed 300-400 m (3-4H), so
that they can be assumed to be locatec
at a single point. The graphical de-
termination of total concentration c
at different distances x is illustratt
in Pig. 8.
Units



•ne/,,3
•








ffl










Value



0.17
0.13
0.16
0.10
0.26






2000
2400
1700
2400
2000





- 139 -

-------
No  |NulD£er      Name, Designation, Formula
"   IscurceJ        and Calculation
Units
Value
               1OOU   ' 2OC3   3000    40GQ    6000 ccm
    Fig. 8.  Example of. calculation of maximum ground concentration of
    sulfur dioxide from five closely grouped installations of a
                        petroleum refinery.
2k
t
i


25

26
i

!
i
:


'
1-5




1-5

1 - 5 '








Maximum concentration from the set
or sources - cm
It is therefore necessary to in-
crease the stack height or set up
a sanitary-protective zone
Distance at which the maximum
concentration xm is observed
Distance up to which the total
concentration exceeds the MFC -
T


Sources located close to each
other, and therefore LQ *s the
same in all directions.


mg/m5




in


m






<
~,» ,
j

t

2100

1
5000 ;


1

'.
1 [
                                  - 140.-

-------
               B.   Calculation of Sanitary  Protective Zone
             Measured from an Operating Petroleum Refinery

^    1.  Minimum dimension of the sanitary-protective zone (according to
 Sanitary Norms for Planning Industrial Enterprises" I =1000 m.

     2.  Distance LQ up to which sulfur dioxide concentrations exceeding
the MFC are  observed, 5000 m (see Fig.  8).

     3.  The mean annual frequency of wind of different directions  (according
to the climatic handbook) p and length  of  sanitary-protective zone  1  are
given in the table:

P °/0
/km
In
£o--~ for P^>Po
Po
/-o for P
-------
46    THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OR  RESISTANCE TO GAS
      AND SMOKE OF  VARIOUS ARBOREAL SPECIES
      GROWN  UNDER  DIVERSE  ENVIRONMENTAL
      CONDITIONS IN A NUMBER OF INDUSTRIAL RE-
      GIONS OF THE SOVIET UNION-A Survey of USSR
      Air Pollution Literature

47    METEOROLOGICAL  AND  CHEMICAL ASPECTS
      OF  AIR POLLUTION;  PROPAGATION  AND DIS-
      PERSAL OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN A NUMBER OF
      AREAS IN THE SOVIET UNION-A Survey of USSR
      Air Pollution Literature

48    THE AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF CHINA
49    EFFECTS  OF  METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
      AND RELIEF  ON  AIR  POLLUTION. AIR CON-
      TAMINANTS   -  THEIR   CONCENTRATION.
      TRANSPORT, AND DISPERSAL-A Survey of USSR
      Air Pollution Literature


50.   AIR  POLLUTION  IN  RELATION  TO  CERTAIN
      ATMOSPHERIC   AND  ME TO RO LOGI C A L
      CONDITIONS  AND  SOME  OF  THE METHODS
      EMPLOYED  IN  THE SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
      OF  AIR  POLLUTANTS-A  Survey of  USSR Air
      Pollution Literature

51.   MEASUREMENTS   OF  DISPERSAL  AND
      CONCENTRATION.   IDENTIFICATION,   AND
      SANITARY  EVALUATION  OF   VARIOUS   AtR
      POLLUTANTS,  WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
      THE  ENVIRONS  OF ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
      AND   FERROUS  METALLURGICAL   PLANTS
      -A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature

 62    A COMPILATION OF  TECHNICAL REPORTS ON
       THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS  AND THE PUBLIC
       HEALTH    ASPECTS    OF    ATMOSPHERIC
       POLLUTANTS - A  Survey  Of USSR  Air Pollution
       Literature

 53    GAS RESISTANCE OF  PLANTS  WITH SPECIAL
       REFERENCE TO  PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY AND TO
       THE EFFECTS OF  MINERAL NUTRITION -  A
      Survey of USSR Air Polutlon Literature
 54    THE  TOXIC  COMPONENTS  OF  AUTOMOBILE
       EXHAUST GASES: THEIR COMPOSITION UNDER
       DIFFERENT  OPERATING  CONDITIONS.   AND
       METHODS OF REDUCING  THEIR  EMISSION - A
       Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
55    A  SECOND   COMPILATION  OF  TECHNICAL
      REPORTS  ON  THE BIOLOGICAL  EFFECTS AND
      THE     PUBLIC    HEALTH   ASPECTS    OF
      ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS - A Survey of USSR
      Air Pollution Literature
 56   TECHNICAL  PAPERS  FROM THE  LENINGRAD
      INTERNATIONAL    SYMPOSIUM    ON    THE
      METEOROLOGICAL  ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
      POLLUTION  (PART  I)  - A Survey of USSR Air
      Pollution Literature


 67   TECHNICAL  PAPERS  FROM THE  LENINGRAD
      INTERNATIONAL    SYMPOSIUM    ON    THE
      METEOROLOGICAL  ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
      POLLUTION  (PART  II)  - A Survey of USSR Air
      Pollution Literature
58    TECHNICAL  PAPERS  FROM  THE  LENINGRAD
      INTERNATIONAL    AYMPOSIUM    ON    THE
      METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
      POLLUTION  (PART III)  - A Survey of USSR Air
      Pollution Literature
 59    A   THI«D   COMPILATION   OF   TECHNICAL
       REPORTS ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND
       THE PUBLIC  HEALTH ASPECTS OF ATMOSPHER-
       IC POLLUTANTS - A Survey of USSR Air Pollution
       Literature
60    SOME  BASIC PROPERTIES OF  ASH  AND INDUS-
      TRIAL  DUST  IN RELATION TO THE PROBLEM
      OF  PURIFICATION OF STACK GASES  -  A Survey
      of USSR Air Pollution Literature
      (Volume XVI)

61    A FOURTH COMPILATION  OF  TECHNICAL  RE-
      PORTS  ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND THE
      PUBLIC  HEALTH  ASPECTS  OF ATMOSPHERIC
      POLLUTANTS    A Survey of USSR Air  Pollution
      Literature
      (Volume XVII)
 62    PURIFICATION OF GASES THROUGH HIGH TEM-
       PERATURE REMOVAL OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS
       — A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
       (Volume XVIII)
 63    ENVIRONMENTAL  POLLUTION  WITH  SPECIAL
       REFERENCE  TO  AIR  POLLUTANTS   AND TO
       SOME OF  THEIR  BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS  - A
       Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
       (Volume XIX)
                                                             64    CATALYTIC PURIFICATION OF EXHAUST GASES
                                                                   — A Survey of USSR Air Pollution Literature
                                                                   (Volume XX)
Reprints from various periodical*.

 A    INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CROP IMPROVEMENT
        THROUGH  THE  UTILIZATION OF  THE  CONCEPT  OF
        AGROCLIMATIC ANALOGUES
        (The  Uta of Phenology, Meteorology and Geographical
        Latitude  for the Purposes of Plant Introduction and the  Ex-
        change  of  Improved Plant  Varieties  Between Various
        Countries. )
 B    SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS OF  PHENOLOGICAL
        DATA AS A TOOL IN THE STUDY OF  PHOTOPERIODIC
        AND THERMAL  REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS PLANT
        MATERIAL
*C    AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY AND CROP ECOLOGY OF  THE
        UKRAINE AND  CLIMATIC  ANALOGUES  IN NORTH
        AMERICA
 D    AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY AND CROP ECOLOGY OF PALES-
        TINE AND  TRANSJORDAN AND  CLIMATIC  ANA-
        LOGUES IN THE UNITED STATES
 •    USSR-Some Physical and Agricultural  Characteristics of the
        Drought Area and Its Climatic Analogues in the United States


 :    THE ROLE OF BIOCLIMATOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE WITH
        SPECIAL REFERENCE TO  THE  USE OF THERMAL AND
        PHOTO-THERMAL REQUIREMENTS  OF PURE-LINE VARI-
        ETIES OF PLANTS AS A BIOLOGICAL INDICATOR IN
        ASCERTAINING   CLIMATIC   ANALOGUES  (HOMO-
        CLIMES)

 'Out of Print.
         Requests for studies should be addressed to th«
         American Institute of Crop Ecology, 809 Dole
         Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910.

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