United States Industrial Environmental Research EPA-600/7-79-239
Environmental Protection Laboratory November 1979
Agency Research Triangle Park WC 27711
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
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(
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-79-239
November 1979
Assessment of Methods for Control
of Fugitive Emissions from Paved Roads
by
Edward T. Brookman and Deborah K. Martin
TRC - The Research Corporation of New England
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
Contract No. 68-02-3115
Task No. 8
Program Element No. EHE624A
EPA Project Officer: Dennis C. Drehmel
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by TRC -
THE RESEARCH CORPORATION of New England, Wethersfield, Connecticut, in
fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-3115, Task #8. The contents of this report
are reproduced herein as received from the contractor. The opinions, findings,
and conclusions expressed are those of the author and not necessarily those of
the Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names is
not to be considered as an endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
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ABSTRACT
In a number of metropolitan areas of the country, failure to attain
national primary air quality standards for total suspended particulates (TSP)
has fostered a detailed reexamination of the nature of the urban TSP problem.
Reentrained dust from paved streets and other traffic-related emissions are
now recognized as major sources of TSP in urban areas. While numerous reports
and studies have examined this subject, some significant aspects of urban road
dust have not been studied in enough detail, if at all. Examples of this are
the effects of gutters and pavement composition and shape. This report
discusses those areas of the urban road dust problem that are felt to require
further attention and outlines the priorities with which the data should be
obtained. The approaches to be taken to obtain the desired information are
also defined.
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CONTENTS
Disclaimer ii
Abstract iii
Figures v
Tables vi
1. Introduction 1
2. Subjects Relating to Urban Road Dust 3
Methods of Deposition 3
Variables Affecting Road Dust Loadings 6
Physical and Chemical Nature of Road Dust 7
Road Dust Impact 7
Removal/Control Methods for Urban Road Dust 8
3. Subjects Covered in the Literature *. . . 13
Comprehensive Examinations of Road Dust 13
Regional Non-Attainment Analyses 14
Area Source Inventories 16
Field and Lab Tests of Road Dust Components 16
Control Measure Analyses 17
Analysis Techniques 18
Water Pollution Aspects 19
Miscellaneous 19
Additional Report Summaries 19
4. Subjects Not Covered in the Literature 20
5. Discussion and Recommendations 21
Evaluation of Informational Gaps in Research 21
Variables Affecting Surface Loadings 24
Control of Sources 26
Removal Methods 27
Suggested Priorities 29
Research Approach 29
Procedure for Determining Street Loadings ..... 30
Daily Street Cleaning and After Winter
Storm Cleanup 30
Control for Mud and Dirt Carryout Sites 33
Improvement of Street Cleaning Equipment 33
Sand and Salt Reduction 33
Curbing Effects 34
Method to Link Street Loading to Resuspension Rate . 34
6. References 35
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Methods of Deposition 5
2 Methods of Removal 9
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Subjects Relating to Urban Road Dust 10
2 Deposition Processes 22
3 Distribution of Surface Material Across a Typical Street ... 25
4 Urban Road Dust Removal Processes 28
5 Research Priorities 31
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Failure to attain the national primary air quality standards for total
suspended particulates (TSP) in a number of metropolitan areas of the country
has fostered a detailed reexamination of the nature of the urban TSP problem.
While TSP control strategy development has routinely included an analysis of
the contributions of traditional point and area sources superimposed on a
constant background level, adequate consideration has not been given to the
contributions of nontraditional dust sources. Reentrained dust from paved
streets and other traffic-related emissions have now been recognized as major
sources of suspended particulates in urban areas and potential leading causes
of TSP concentrations in excess of the ambient air quality standards. To
attain these standards, a thorough knowledge of the contribution of urban road
dust to ambient TSP levels is required.
While the subject of urban road dust and its numerous offshoots has been
discussed and studied in literally hundreds of reports, there are still many
questions left unanswered. Has every area that relates to urban road dust been
studied thoroughly? What areas require further study? What areas have not
been studied at all? Do these areas contribute to the problem significantly
enough to warrant study? If so, with what priority and by what means should
the desired information be obtained?
To answer the above questions, the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory (IERL) retained TRC - THE RESEARCH CORPORATION of New England to
conduct a search and review of the existing literature relating to all aspects
of urban road dust to point out areas or topics requiring further research or
study. This report presents the results of this review.
Section 2 presents a general discussion of the subjects that relate to
urban road dust. The generic areas of deposition, removal, measurement, etc.
are covered and specific topics under these areas are discussed. In-depth
consideration of chemical and physical properties of urban road dust is not
given in this report since such information is adequately covered in other
reports. The aim of this study is to point out research needs.
Section 3 discusses the contents of the reports reviewed for this study
with emphasis on the thoroughness of coverage of each subject matter area
relating to urban road dust. Section 4 discusses the subject matter areas that
have not been given adequate coverage in the literature, including both generic
and specific topics.
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Section 5 presents the recommendations of this study. The gaps in the
available information in relation to the benefits derived from their study are
evaluated. Priorities for studying control measures are assigned as functions
of the relative impact of the road dust. Finally, the approaches to be taken
to obtain the desired information are defined.
Section 6 lists the references reviewed in this project. These were
obtained from computerized literature searches, government and TRC files, and
an EPA library visit. A brief summary of each report is presented in a
separate Appendix which is available through either TRC or IERL. Not every one
of the vast number of reports dealing with an aspect of urban road dust could
be examined during the course of this project; however, it is felt that the
major ones have been reviewed in all of the subject areas that have been
investigated.
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SECTION 2
SUBJECTS RELATING TO URBAN ROAD DUST
The intent of this section is to provide the reader with a general
overview of the major factors that relate to urban road dust. By examining the
generic areas (e.g., methods of deposition) and then the specific topics (e.g.,
vehicles) associated with road dust, the reader will better understand the
following sections of this report that discuss the information covered in the
literature and the areas requiring further research. It is not the intent of
this report to provide a comprehensive review of the physical and chemical
nature of urban road dust as this has adequately been done before.1'3 The aim
of this report is to point out what areas need to be further researched, and
how to approach such research, in order to better understand and reduce the
impact of urban road dust on the environment.
In dealing with the subject of urban road dust, there are five major areas
that need to be addressed. They are:
o The means by which the material comprising urban road dust is
deposited on the road surface.
The variables that affect the surface loadings once the material is
deposited on the road.
The physical and chemical nature of the deposited material.
The impact of the material on its surroundings.
e The methods of removal or control of the material.
These areas are discussed in the following subsections and then
summarized in Table 1 which is presented at the end of Section 2.
METHODS OF DEPOSITION
The origins of the material comprising urban road dust are quite varied.
Natural processes and the activities of humans both contribute to the surface
loadings. The primary methods of deposition have been identified as the
following:
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Motor vehicles
Sanding and salting
Pavement wear
Litter
Biological debris
Wind and water erosion from adjacent areas
9 Atmospheric pollution fallout.
These methods are depicted in Figure 1.
Motor vehicles contribute materials in a number of different ways. Tire
wear, settleable exhaust, wear of brake and clutch linings, corrosion and
abrasion of panels and undercoatings , mud and dirt carryout from unpaved areas
and construction sites, and truck cargo spills all deposit particulate matter.
Lubricants, coolants, hydraulic fluids, and oil leaks deposit organic mater-
ial. Of these deposits, mud and dirt carryout seems to be the most significant
in terms of mass deposition rate (kg/curb-km/day) .*
Sanding and salting deposit particulate material on the street on only a
few occasions per year. However, a good deal of this material remains on
streets for long periods of time due to street cleaning schedules and
inefficiencies .
Pavement wear and decomposition contribute various types of particles to
the street surface loading. These include asphalt, cement, aggregate, expan-
sion joint compounds, and fillers.
Litter is comprised of cans, bottles, broken glass, plastic, tobacco,
etc. Some of this material is reduced in size until it is no longer recogniz-
able as a specific object and contributes to the overall surface loading.
Biological debris includes leaves, grass clippings, sticks, insect parts,
and animal waste. Again, these debris can be reduced to small size by the
actions of vehicle traffic and merge with the overall particulate loading.
Soil adjacent to roadways can become part of the street surface loading
due to wind and water erosion. This is particularly true in more arid areas
and areas lacking curbs, sidewalks, roadside vegetation, or other inhibiting
agents .
Finally, atmospheric fallout of dust and particulate pollutants from
other areas contributes to road dust. This material can originate from remote
industrial and agricultural sources and be transported over long distances to
the road surface via air currents.
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1 MOTOR VEHICLES
Q THE UEAR
b EXHAUST
C SRAKE 4 CLUTCH LL'II.'IGS
d MUD A DIRT CARRYOUT
e TRUCK SPILLS
f CORROSION i ABRASION OF
PANELS 4 uncERCCATiriGS
9 LUBRICANTS, COOLANTS,
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS, OIL
2 SANDING & SALTING
3 PAVEMENT WEAR
4 LITTIS
5 BICLCGICAL 3ESRIS
6 WIND i '.JATE3 EROSION
FROM AOJACE'iT AREAS
7 ATM3SPHE3IC FALLOUT
Figure 1. Methods of Deposition
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VARIABLES AFFECTING ROAD DUST LOADINGS
Any variation in one of the deposition processes just described affects
the amount of material accumulating on the street. In addition, once the
material has been deposited on the street surface, other processes can affect
the surface loading. These include:
Meteorological conditions
Vehicle traffic
Roadway configuration
e Pavement composition
Meteorological conditions play a very significant role in the variability
of surface loadings. Rain will flush the streets and remove a significant
portion of the road dust. Snow will cover the dust and prevent it from
becoming resuspended. Ice and the freeze/thaw cycles contribute to pavement
wear. Fog and dew add moisture and inhibit resuspension, and wind speed,
mixing depth, and atmospheric stability can affect the quantity of dust that
becomes reentrained.
Vehicles are not only sources of road dust, they also affect the loadings
through several mechanisms. The speed, size, volume, and mix of vehicles
(e.g., trucks vs. cars) passing over the pavement affect turbulence and
resulting dust suppression. Speed variations (idling, stop and start, free
flowing) affect emission loadings. Engine conditions are important since a
cold engine exhausts more particulate matter than a warm one under the same
conditions. Even parked cars can adversely affect road dust to the extent that
they hinder street cleaning effectiveness.
Roadway configuration provides another set of variables that affect the
amount of road dust that accumulates on the streets. The physical layout of
the road (e.g., road slope, gutters and sewers, cobblestones, grooves in the
pavement), and conditions alongside the street surface, such as curbing size
and shape, vegetation, embankments, buildings and medians, are all important
factors. Elevated roads impose still another set of conditions (e.g., wind
exposure) that affect surface loadings.
Lastly, the pavement composition itself affects the surface loadings.
Different types of surfaces wear at different rates, and some are more easily
cleaned than others. The type of resurfacing material used, the frequency of
its application, and pothole patching practices all can affect dust formation
and deposition and cleanability.
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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF ROAD DUST
Another realm of study concerning urban road dust deals with the physical
and chemical nature of the particulate material. The physical aspect is
basically particle size and shape. The chemical aspect relates to material
composition.
Suspendability of road dust is of paramount importance since this is the
principal aspect that relates to human health. If none of the surface material
became suspended, there would be no contribution to the particulate air pollu-
tion problem. The quantity of material suspended by any of the mechanisms
discussed previously depends primarily on particle size. Particle size also
affects the amount that remains suspended to become part of the TSP background
and the amount that falls out of the atmosphere within a short distance from
the roadway.
The chemical nature of the road dust determines whether or not the
material is of a hazardous nature to its surroundings (e.g., toxic to humans,
harmful to vegetation and water supplies). It also helps establish the origins
of the dust and can point the direction towards effective controls.
A variety of measurement and examination techniques are used to determine
the physical and chemical nature of the material deposited on street surfaces.
Filter analyses can help to determine particle size distributions, shape, and
chemical characteristics as well as relative concentration. Hi-vols and dust-
fall buckets are used to measure ambient concentration levels and fallout
rates. Impactors are used to measure levels and size distributions. Tracer
and wind tunnel studies are used to help determine fallout rates, trajectories,
and emission factors.
ROAD DUST IMPACT
The primary impact of road dust is on the land, air, and water in the
immediate area of the roadway. Vegetation, soils, and animal biota are all
affected, with the salt and lead components of the dust causing particular
harm. These and other harmful pollutants can enter water resources via flush-
ing, leaching, and runoff; thus causing a water pollution problem. The impact
on air quality, the contribution to urban TSP levels, has prompted most of the
reports written on the subject of road dust. The major concern seems to be
ambient TSP concentrations rather than toxic effects. Not only are local urban
areas impacted, but the environment can be adversely affected at great dis-
tances due to long range atmospheric transport.
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REMDVAL/CONTROL METHODS FOR URBAN ROAD DUST
Removal and/or control of urban road dust can be separated into two
relatively distinct categories. The first involves the control or elimination
of the sources of urban road dust. The second involves the removal and control
of the dust after it has accumulated on the street surface.
The sources of urban road dust were discussed previously in Methods of
Deposition. The sources readily adaptable to control measures are construc-
tion sites, unpaved areas, and truck cargo spills. The amount of road dust
originating from these sources can be reduced by paving, chemical stabiliza-
tion, tire scrapers, wheel washes, and the wetting or covering of loaded
trucks. Most other sources are not really amenable to controls per se.
Reductions in the amount of sand and salt applied, the number of vehicles on
the roads, and the amount of litter deposited can reduce surface loadings. A
reduction in the use of sand and salt can be affected by improved plowing
techniques, utilization of a road surface texture or coating that minimizes ice
adhesion, or pavement heating. Washing the sand before application removes the
fines which can become resuspended and leaves the coarse particles which are
necessary to prevent skidding. Improvements in pavement wearability, auto-
mobile degradation, and gasoline additives could likewise reduce loadings; but
these steps cannot really be classified as specific control methods.
Once the material has accumulated on the streets, it is removed via a
number of mechanisms. These include:
e Reentrainment
Wind erosion
e Displacement
Rainfall runoff to a catch basin
e Street cleaning methods .
These are illustrated in Figure 2.
Two of these removal methods, rainfall and wind erosion, are natural
phenomena and are thus highly sporadic and nonreliable as control methods.
Reentrainment and displacement are related to vehicle speed, size, mix, and
volume. Street cleaning methods include sweeping, vacuuming, flushing, coat-
ing and resurfacing, and various combinations of these methods. These methods
vary in cost and effectiveness. Effectiveness is largely a function of fre-
quency and timing (e.g., sand and salt should be removed as soon as possible
during thaw periods).
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1 REENTRAINMENT
2 WIND EROSION
3 DISPLACEMENT
4 RAINFALL RUNOFF TO
CATCH BASIN
5 STREET CLEANING METHODS
Figure 2. Methods of Removal
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TABLE 1. SUBJECTS RELATING TO URBAN ROAD DUST
I. Methods of Deposition
A. Motor Vehicles
1. Tire wear
2. Exhaust
3. Brake and clutch linings
4. Mud and dirt carryout
5. Spills from truck cargoes
6. Corrosion and abrasion of panels and undercoatings
7. Lubricants, coolants, hydraulic fluids, oil
B. Sanding and Salting
C. Pavement Wear
D. Litter
E. Biological Debris
F. Wind and Water Erosion from Adjacent Areas
G. Atmospheric Fallout
II. Variables Affecting Road Dust Loadings
A. Meteorology
1. Icing
2. Precipitation
3. Fog and dew
4. Freeze/thaw cycle
5. Wind speed
6. Mixing depth
7. Atmospheric stability
B. Vehicles
1. Speed
2. Size
3. Mix
4. Volume
5. Speed variations
6. Parking practices
7. Engine temperature
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TABLE 1. (CONTINUED)
C. Pavement and Roadway Configuration
1. Grooves in pavement
2. Cobblestone
3. Gutters and sewers
4. Curbing size and shape
5. Crown and bank slopes
6. Medians
7. Embankments
8. Vegetation along road
9. Buildings along road
10. Elevated roads
D. Pavement Composition
1. Cleanability
2. Emission factors
3. Resurfacing material and frequency
4. Patching practices
III. Physical and Chemical Nature of Road Dust
A. Surface Loading
B. Resuspended Dust Background
C. Fallout Rate with Vertical and Horizontal Distance from
Roadway
D. Particle Size and Shape
E. Chemical Composition
F. Measurement and Analysis Techniques
1. Hi-vols
2. Impactors
3. Dustfall buckets
4. Filter analysis
5. Tracers
6. Wind tunnel studies
7. Modeling
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TABLE 1. (CONTINUED)
IV. Road Dust Impact
A. Water Pollution
1. Run-off
2. Leaching
3. Flushing
B. Impact on Vegetation, Soils, Terrestial and Aquatic Biota
C. Contribution to Urban TSP Levels
V. Removal/Control Methods for Urban Road Dust
A. Control of Sources
1. Carryout sites, unpaved areas, truck cargo spills
a. paving
b. chemical stabilization
c. tire scrapers
d. wheel washes
e. wetting or covering of loaded trucks
2. Snow and ice removal
a. plowing
b. road surface texture or coating to minimize
ice adhesion
c. road heating
d. washing sand
3. Traffic reduction
B. Removal Methods
1. Reentr aiiment
2. Wind erosion
3. Displacement
4. Rainfall runoff to catch basin
5. Street cleaning methods
a. sweeping
b. vacuuming
c. flushing
d. co at ing/res ur facing
e. combination of the above.
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SECTION 3
SUBJECTS COVERED IN THE LITERATURE
The reports that were studied and reviewed during this project are listed
in Section 6. A brief summary of each report is presented in a separate
Appendix which is available through either TRC or IERL. The reports have been
grouped according to subject matter as follows:
Comprehensive examinations of road dust
Regional non-attainment analyses
Area source inventories
Field and lab tests of road dust components
Control measures analyses
Analysis techniques
Water pollution aspects
Miscellaneous
Additional report summaries.
The reports included in these groupings are discussed in the following
subsections. The discussions center on the thoroughness of the coverage of
each area of subject matter.
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATIONS OF ROAD DUST
Three reports were reviewed that provide a good, in-depth analysis of the
subject of urban road dust.1"3 It is recommended that any reader who wishes to
obtain a more comprehensive knowledge of this subject examine these reports.
The study by Axetell and Zell1 is probably the most extensive review of
urban road dust published to date. The primary purpose of the study described
was to evaluate control measures for reducing emissions of reentrained dust.
Information for the review and evaluation was obtained by several different
methods including a literature review, collection of unpublished data from
traffic-related air pollution studies, compilation of control measure cost
data, a survey of public works officials, and design and implementation of five
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different field studies to evaluate the effectiveness of specific reentrained
dust control measures. The field studies examined broom sweeping, vacuum
sweeping, flushing, and control measures for a mud carryout construction site.
Several recommendations for further research are given.
The objective of the study described by Sartor and Boyd was to
investigate and define the water pollution impact of urban storm water dis-
charge and to develop alternate approaches suitable for reducing pollution
from this source. One of the focal points of the study was determining the
amounts and types of material which commonly collect on street surfaces.
Surface loadings were determined by collecting samples in ten land-use cate-
gories in twelve cities throughout the country. The samples were analyzed to
determine their physical, chemical, and biological properties. Field tests
were conducted to determine the effect of rainfall on surface loading. Another
section of the report examined the effectiveness of current public works prac-
tices for street cleaning methods and effectiveness.
The objectives of the investigation described by Shaheen3 were the
isolation, identification, and estimation of specific contributions of motor
vehicle traffic to materials deposited on urban roadways and thus to urban
stormwater runoff pollution. These objectives were accomplished via a litera-
ture review and a field test program. Samples of road dust were taken in
Washington, D.C. with the following data analyses performed: deposition
rates, seasonal variations, land use effects, curb height effects, composi-
tion, concentrations, and particle size.
REGIONAL NON-ATTAINMENT ANALYSES
Several studies have been performed in which the ambient TSP concentra-
tions in a city or region were analyzed with the intent of pinpointing the
various contributing sources.1*"12 In many cases, only existing data were
analyzed and no new sampling was conducted; while in other studies, additional
data were obtained to better isolate the various factors.
An EPA report"* presents the results of a fourteen city study of ambient
TSP concentrations that were measured using hi-vols. Both chemical and physi-
cal analyses were performed on the hi-vol filters. The particulates were
categorized into minerals, combustion products, biological materials, and mis-
cellaneous. A large segment of the analysis centered on rubber: concentra-
tions, loadings, and particle size.
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Draftz and Blakeslee5 describe a field study in which hi-vol samples were
obtained and analyzed near selected streets in Philadelphia. The results
defined twenty-three particle types and their sizes and concentrations,
including tailpipe and tire emissions as well as quartz and calcite eroded from
the pavement.
The City of Philadelphia was also the subject of a report by Record and
Bradway. This study entailed two features. One involved field experiments to
measure the influence of specific sources through the deployment of hi-vols and
other sampling equipment. The second involved the use of diffusion modeling
techniques. A test was also conducted to measure the effectiveness of street
washing in reducing ambient particulate levels. Some of the results presented
include chemical analysis and particle size analysis at various distances from
streets.
A limited hi-vol sampling study was performed in the Duwamish Basin of
Washington.7 Filter analyses were conducted with the following transportation
elements identified: road dust, tire rubber, exhaust, soot, and fly ash. The
latter two elements become part of the surface loading through atmospheric
fallout.
A report by GCA8 describes a particulate study in Idaho in which sampling
was performed with hi-vols and impactors in order to identify emission sources.
The effect on ambient air quality of the application of water by street
sprinklers and the hosing down of construction areas was also tested. No
definite conclusions regarding urban road dust were offered, but some general
recommendations for dust suppression were suggested.
Harrison9 discusses an investigation of hi-vol data in Chicago. Some
general observations of ambient TSP levels were made, but no specific analysis
of road dust was performed.
Air quality modeling of particulates and SO2 was the subject of two PEDCo
reports.10'11 Both studies were essentially identical. They were performed by
the same company for the State of Florida, with only the area under analysis
changed. Previously published emission factors for vehicle exhaust and reen-
trained dust from paved roads were used in the model for area source contribu-
tions . Results were of a very general nature.
The use of a "diffusion wind atmospheric dispersion model" for partic-
ulates was the subject of a report by Shannon.12 This study, conducted in
Tulsa, concluded that the results for suspended particulates were not very
accurate and this was possibly due to the exclusion of resuspension from the
emission inventories.
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AREA SOURCE INVENTORIES
Two reports prepared by EPA fall into the category of road dust impact on
the surrounding air environment.13'11* Both studies used previously published
values for emission factors to calculate dust emissions from paved roads and
vehicle exhaust based on vehicle miles traveled. These road dust emissions
were then incorporated into area source inventories encompassing many fugitive
sources. Urban road dust was not directly addressed.
FIELD AND LAB TESTS OF ROAD DUST COMPONENTS
A large number of studies have been conducted which have the intent of
either determining the contribution to road dust from one or more types of
deposition processes or the impact on the environment from removal pro-
cesses. These include both field studies and laboratory tests. Many of
these deal with the physical and chemical nature of the road dust*.
Two reports describe field studies that examined several road dust
elements.15'1 The MRI report15 summarizes the development of emission factors
for fugitive dust entrainment from paved roads. Test results included particle
size distributions, concentrations, vertical distributions, horizontal distri-
butions as a function of wind speed, and surface loading intensities. Emission
factors were determined for specified particle size ranges and various land-
use categories. The study described by Cahill and Feeney16 determined the
physical and chemical nature of road dust near a concrete roadway with steady,
high speed traffic. Different roadway shapes were examined (cut, at-grade and
fill sections) with the major emphasis placed on lead levels in the surrounding
environment.
17 '
Sehmel described a study of particle resuspension by vehicles using a
tracer element placed on the road dust. Effects of vehicle and wind speed were
noted along with vehicle size.
A report by the Texas State Department of Health1 presents information on
the variation of TSP concentration with height above the ground. While no
specific data were presented as to road proximity, the results should be
applicable to vertical distributions of suspended roadway dust.
The subject of tire wear contributions to urban road dust has been
discussed in many reports. 19"21< The various aspects of tire wear studied
include tread depth measurements to determine wear as a function of season,
tire type, tire position, and car age; lab and field tests to determine the
size and chemical nature of tire wear products; field tests to determine the
effect of rubber compounding, tire construction, road surface nature, and
vehicle speed on tire wear; and the development of a testing method to identify
tire rubber in roadway dust.
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Shuler and Hegman25 and Dahir and Meyer26 describe field and lab
experiments, respectively, aimed at determining the abrasive nature of road
dust (pavement "polishing"). The physical properties of collected dust sam-
ples were examined through various microscopic methods.
9 7
Jacko and DuCharme present a fairly comprehensive analysis of brake and
clutch emissions with emphasis on asbestos. Total asbestos emissions and the
percent that drops out, is airborne, or is retained, are given for various
vehicle sizes.
The contribution of vehicle exhaust to road dust and the environment, with
particular emphasis on the lead component, is discussed in several re-
ports.28'33 The studies include: lab tests of the exhaust of various cars to
determine lead, carbon, and suspended particulate sizes and concentrations;
field tests of lead levels in the air, water, soils, plants, and animals of an
ecosystem; a comprehensive analysis of lead in the environment; EPA's analysis
of the health effects of lead; a discussion of an analytical method used to
determine the lead concentrations in street dust obtained from field samples;
and a comprehensive analysis of lead concentration near streets as a function
of vertical distance and total suspended particulates.
A report by Spring, Howell and Shirley ** presents the results of a
dustfall study conducted to determine the concentration of six constituents in
atmospheric fallout. Samples were taken at various distances and directions
from a highway.
An American Public Works Association report describes a field study
which analyzed litter composition in relation to land-use categories. Samples
were categorized as paper, glass, metal, plastics, rock and inorganic, organic
including food, vegetation, wood, cloth, and dust and dirt.
CONTROL MEASURE ANALYSES
Another large group of studies center around the control and/or reduction
of urban road dust.36""56 Various current control methods are examined as to
their costs and effectiveness and new methods are proposed and evaluated. Some
reports cover field tests while others merely summarize previously published
information.
Three reports discuss some general guidelines for controlling fugitive
emissions.36"38 Among the methods suggested for urban road dust are increased
sweeping and flushing of streets, restriction of parking and traffic to dust
free surfaces, paving or oiling of unpaved roads and lots to reduce carryout,
reduction of vehicle speed and volume on unpaved areas, addition of curbs and
sidewalks to unpaved road shoulders, and providing soil cover (vegetation,
aggregate materials, chemical stabilization) to adjacent areas.
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The costs and effectiveness of street sweepers are discussed in five
reports.39"1*3 Horton39 uses information obtained from other literature to com-
pare the efficiencies of mechanical, regenerative, and vacuum sweepers.
Sartor, Boyd and Van Horn*10 describe a field study conducted to determine
street sweeper effectiveness. Various factors were defined which affect
street sweeping performance: land use, cleaning frequency, particle size,
loading uniformity, surface type and condition, and sweeper type and opera-
tion. In another report by Horton, "** a comparison of the effectiveness of a
mechanical sweeper and a regenerative air-type sweeper is made. This was done
via a field test using synthetic debris. Levis**2 discusses the broom sweeper
program in Manhattan, New York, with emphasis on parked car effects. The
purpose of the project described by Pitt"*3 was to determine the range in
capabilities of current street cleaning equipment. The study was conducted in
San Jose, California, and it examined specific concentrations of various
pollutants in different particle size ranges.
Sultan"*"* reports preliminary results of the testing of 46 commercially
available dust stabilization chemicals. While not directed specifically at
urban road dust, the results could easily be made applicable.
The subject of snow and ice control is covered in many reports. ~
Murray and Eigerman1* present the findings of a search for new technology for
pavement snow and ice control. Among the alternatives considered were chemical
deicers, pavement heating, new snow removal methods, and a hydrophobic sub-
stance to reduce water and ice adhesion. The development of such a hydrophobic
substance is the subject of a report by Ahlborn and Poehlmann."*6 As a result
of the program, two coating formulations were identified as showing promise
although there were drawbacks of short wear life and flammable vapors. Brant"*7
discusses sanding practices and possible methods of air pollution reduction
such as applying less sand, applying coarser sand, applying quartzitic or
granitic sand, and immediate street cleanup after winter storms. References
48-55 thoroughly discuss the subject of deicing salts. Specific topics include
the benefits and costs of using deicing salts and their effects on water
quality, fish, wildlife, vegetation, soils, trees, vehicles, highway struc-
tures, and pavements. Reference 56 presents the snow and ice control policy of
the State of Connecticut.
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Two of the reports studied present analysis techniques useful in
determining road dust impact on ambient TSP levels.57'58 The analyses utilize
area source inventories in conjunction with emission factors to determine
relative impact. Empirical linear regression equations are used.
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WATER POLLUTION ASPECTS
While many of the references may mention the water pollution aspect of
road dust, several reports deal exclusively with this subject.59'62 Refer-
ence 59 discusses several non-point sources of water pollution from urban-
suburban areas. Many of these sources relate to road dust. Wanielista
describes road dust effects, but the material was obtained from other refer-
ences. Sylvester and DeWalle 1 describe a field study on runoff and
particulate emissions from a highway bridge. Reference 62 contains several
papers dealing with water runoff from roadways.
MISCELLANEOUS
There are a number of reports that deal obliquely with some aspect of
urban road dust.63~68 While road dust is not directly discussed, the informa-
tion contained in these reports could be applicable to the subject.
References 63 and 64 deal with meteorology. Information is given on
diffusion and transport and on wind erosion forces as applied to soil loss.
These topics are useful in analyzing road dust impact on the air environment
and in determining erosion of soil onto street surfaces.
Sklarew, Turner and Zimmerman65 describe the modeling of carbon monoxide
emissions. Similar techniques could possibly be applied to particulate emis-
sions .
The air quality impacts of transit improvement, preferential lane, and
carpool/vanpool programs are described by Direnzu and Rubin.66'67 These deal
with vehicle volume which is directly related to road dust emissions. A report
by Cabagnaro is similar and describes planning and management studies for the
abatement of air pollution from automobiles.
ADDITIONAL REPORT SUMMARIES
The last reference is a bibliography prepared by PEDCo in 1976 for the
U.S. EPA containing numerous summaries of reports dealing with road dust.69
Many of these summaries are for the same reports reviewed by TRC. A few of them
cover reports that TRC did not obtain, but cover the same subject material and
thus do not add any new information.
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SECTION 4
SUBJECTS NOT COVERED IN THE LITERATURE
A comparison of the material presented in Section 3 with the listing of
subject areas presented in Table 1 reveals those subjects that have not been
given adequate coverage in the literature. These subjects are summarized in
this section. The relative importance of these informational gaps is discussed
in Section 5.
Of the five generic areas presented in Table 1, three have been reasonably
well discussed and studied in the literature. These are the methods of deposi-
tion, the physical and chemical nature of the road dust, and the impact of the
road dust. There are only a few specific topics that do not appear among the
references reviewed. Under methods of deposition, truck cargo spills and the
corrosion and abrasion of panels and undercoatings were not analyzed. No
information was found on the use of wind tunnels in modeling road dust emis-
sions. All other areas were addressed.
The variables affecting road dust loadings, one of the other two generic
categories presented in Section 2, were essentially ignored in the literature.
Mention is frequently made as to the quantitative aspects of these variables,
but very little actual data is available. In particular, information on the
effects of vehicle mix, volume, and speed was not found. Pavement and roadway
configuration and its effect on surface loadings and reentrainment is an area
almost completely ignored. Not only are hard data unavailable, but discussion
on the possibility of its importance is lacking as well. Pavement composition
is another topic only briefly mentioned in the literature.
Many of the subjects pertaining to removal/control methods, the fifth
generic category, were thoroughly discussed, but several topics were not
covered at all. Mention is made of control methods for carryout sites, unpaved
areas, and truck spills, but little hard data are available. The effectiveness
of washing sand to remove fines was not studied. Although removal methods are
fairly well covered, with some actual field data, the studies have been limited
to existing methods of control. Information on the development of new types of
street cleaners is lacking.
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SECTION 5
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The aim of this study is to define the informational gaps in urban road
dust research, evaluate these gaps as to their relative importance, and outline
the approaches to be taken to obtain information in those areas that would
potentially have the most beneficial impact on air quality. The informational
gaps were pointed out in Section 4. The evaluation of these gaps, their
relative priorities, and the approaches to obtain the desired information are
the subjects of this Section. The emphasis of this research is on the impact
of road dust on air quality (the contribution to urban TSP levels), rather than
the toxic nature of road dust, since this seems to be the more prevelant
concern of various cities, states, and Federal government agencies at this
time.
EVALUATION OF INFORMATIONAL GAPS IN RESEARCH
After reviewing the pertinent literature on the subject of urban road
dust, it is apparent that the basic analysis of the problem itself has been
thorough. The methods by which material is deposited on the streets and the
rates at which this deposition occurs have been reasonably well defined.
Table 2 presents deposition rates for various processes. It is recognized that
these rates can vary considerably but it is felt that the relative magnitude of
the process rates, in relation to the others, is representative. The few
informational gaps in research on deposition, notably truck cargo spills and
undercoating abrasion, would seem of low priority since they contribute very
little to surface loading according to this table. The chemical and physical
nature of road dust has been well studied and documented. Results for the
various constituents such as lead, salt, and rubber, and for various size
ranges are available for a number of land-use categories and highway types.
Finally, the impact of the road dust on the surrounding environment is well
recognized. The effect of various road dust constituents on nearby land,
water, and vegetation and the contribution to ambient TSP levels is basically
understood and quantified.
On the other hand, the variables affecting road dust loadings and
removal/control methods have not been given adequate coverage in the litera-
ture. These areas are discussed in the following subsections.
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TABLE 2. DEPOSITION PROCESSES
Source
Constituents
Typical depo-
sition rate,
kg/curb-km/day
Range,
kg/curb-km/day
1. Mud and dirt
carryout
2. Litter
3. Biological
debris
4. Ice control
compounds
5. Dustfall
6. Pavement
wear and
decompo-
sition
Vehicle-
related
-Tire wear
-Brake and
engine com-
ponent wear
-Settleable
exhaust
Soil from con-
struction sites,
unpaved parking
areas, etc.
Cans, bottles,
broken glass,
cigarette butts,
plastic, other
debris
Leaves, grass
clippings,
sticks, animal
droppings, in-
sect parts, etc.
Sand, salt, cin-
ders, calcium
chloride
Atmospheric
fallout
Asphalt, cement,
aggregate, ex-
pansion joint
compounds and
fillers
Rubber
Metals, lubri-
cants, brake and
clutch linings
Combustion pro-
ducts, fuel
additives
28.2
Extreme
11.3
5.6
5.6
2.8
2.8
2.8
1.4
0.6
Extreme
Extreme
0-16.9
0.6-7.0
1.4-42.3
1.7-14.1
0.6-7.0
0.3-2.8
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TABLE 2. (CONTINUED)
8. Spills Sand, dirt, No data:
chemicals est<0.6
9. Erosion Soil 5.6 Extreme
(runoff and
blowing)
from adjacent
areas
Total 67.6
Source: Axetell and Zell1
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Variables Affecting Surface Loadings
Although the basic concepts of the mechanisms and rates of deposition of
materials on street surfaces and the chemical and physical makeup have been
well documented, the variables affecting the loadings, which could be of
considerable importance for future air quality improvement, have not received
much attention. As discussed previously, these variables are meteorology,
vehicles, pavement and roadway configuration, and pavement composition. The
suggested priorities for studying the parameters under these variables are as
follows:
1. Pavement and Roadway Configuration -
Several studies have touched on the possible effects of pavement and
roadway configuration, but studies specifically aimed at defining
these effects have not been made. Some of the results briefly
mentioned in these studies are: curbing reduces reentrained dust by
a factor of four, curbing height is significant, sidewalks and
vegetation reduce soil erosion, and roadways with surrounding
embankments have less impact on the immediate area than elevated
roadways.
Sartor and Boyd2 determined the distribution of surface material
across a typical street. Their results are presented in Table 3.
Since the majority of the surface loading material accumulates
within 0.15 meters of the curb, a redesigned curb and gutter could
potentially facilitate surface material collection and subsequent
removal by flushing and/or vacuuming.
Other aspects of pavement and roadway shape, such as the effects of
medians, guard rails versus barriers, shoulder stabilization,
grooves, and crown and bank slopes, should be studied since they show
a potential for reduced or redistributed surface loadings. The
impact of nearby buildings should also be examined.
Should any of those variables be found to have a significant effect
on surface loadings, their incorporation to existing roadways could
be relatively straightforward, as in the case of curbing size and
shape. New roadway construction could easily be modified accord-
ingly.
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TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE MATERIAL ACROSS A TYPICAL STREET.*
Normal weight
Street location, of material,
distance from curb % of total
0-0.15 m 78
0.15-0.30 m 10
0.30-1.02 m 9
1.02 m - 2.44 m 1
2.44 m to center line 2
Source: Sartor and Boyd2
*The numbers presented in this table represent the average results of
tests conducted on urban streets in several different cities.
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2. Pavement Composition -
One study found a large difference between surface loadings on
asphalt and those on concrete roadways.2 Whether this relates to
pavement erosion or cleaning or both is not known and should be
examined. Should one material prove to be more effective in reducing
air pollution, this information could easily be applied to resur-
facing and new roadway construction.
3. Vehicles -
Many of the effects of vehicles, such as volume, speed, and size, are
already well recognized. Other effects, such as mix and speed
variations, could be relatively easy to assess. Additional research
should be performed in these areas. Another possible research area
is the distribution of vehicles on a highway. As pointed out in
Table 3, most of the surface loading is near the curb. Reduced
reentrainment may occur if the use of lanes with curbs is somehow
restricted. Engine temperature, while perhaps important, would be
difficult to control and thus its study should be low priority.
4. Meteorology -
Rain, snow, fog and dew, wind speed, mixing depth, and atmospheric
stability can affect surface loadings and the amount of reentrain-
ment to varying degrees. Even though the magnitudes of these effects
may not be defined, such definition would seem of low priority since
humans have essentially no control over such phenomena.
Control of Sources
Perhaps of greater importance than the study of the variability of surface
loadings is the study of removal/control methods. Many of the concepts
discussed above will merely serve to prevent the already present road dust from
becoming reentrained. The material must still be effectively removed from the
street surface or, better still, prevented from being deposited in the first
place.
To evaluate the priorities for the prevention of material deposition,
Table 2 can again be utilized. According to the information presented in the
table, mud and dirt carryout accounts for about forty percent of the material
deposited on roadways. There are many suggested and tested methods for the
control of dust and dirt from construction sites and unpaved areas, such as
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wheel washes, oiling, paving, immediate cleanup of tracked-out material,
chemical stabilization, wetting or covering of loaded trucks, and tire
scrapers. These methods should be examined in further detail and other
potentially acceptable measures should be evaluated.
The contributions to road dust from litter and biological debris are also
significant. However, aside from public awareness programs and littering
fines, little can be done in this area to prevent deposition.
Erosion of material from adjacent areas is important, but further study of
this does not seem valuable. Control methods, such as sidewalks, vegetation
and chemical stabilization, are already known and all that is required is their
implementation.
Another deposition source of similar magnitude to erosion and biological
debris is the application of ice control compounds, mainly sand and salt. This
is an area where further research is needed. The effect of sand washing has
not really been evaluated and could be significant. Improved plowing methods,
the use of a hydrophobia substance, and other similar methods of reducing sand
and salt use have been studied, but further analysis is warranted.
The contributions to surface loadings from motor vehicles seem to be of
minor importance compared with some of the other deposition processes. Since
the contributions from vehicles have been fairly thoroughly studied, further
study would not seem productive at this time.
The other two processes of minor importance are dustfall and pavement
wear. Nothing much can be done to prevent dustfall and so no study is
necessary. Pavement wear should be studied to some extent, at least with
respect to asphalt versus concrete, but this should have a relatively low
priority.
Removal Methods
The third area in which further research is needed is road dust removal
methods. Once the material is on the street, it must be removed efficiently.
The removal processes, discussed previously, are reentrainment, wind erosion,
displacement, rainfall runoff, and street cleaning methods. Table 4 presents
some typical removal rates for these processes.
Two of these processes, reentrainment and displacement, are directly
related to vehicular movement. These have been fairly well studied already and
information obtained from the studies of the variables affecting surface
loadings will provide helpful knowledge in these areas. One additional study
area should be the reduction of vehicle-induced turbulence.
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TABLE 4. URBAN ROAD DUST REMOVAL PROCESSES
Process
Reentrainment
Displacement
Wind erosion
Rainfall runoff
Sweeping
Typical rate of removal
from street surfaces,
kg/curb-km/day
28.2
11.3
5.6
14.1
9.9
Assumptions incorporated
For 10,000 ACT; net removal
rate =4.5 g/VMT*
Estimated from dustfall rate
just beyond curb
Force of same magnitude as
reentrainment, but only
operative 20% of time
Removal efficiencies of 50%
for rain of 0.25-1.27 cm and
90% for rain of >1.27 cm
Average efficiency of removal
= 50%; weekly cleaning
*ADT: Average Daily Traffic, VMT: Vehicle Miles Traveled
Source: Axetell and Zell1
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Wind erosion and rainfall runoff are natural processes. These are well
understood and not easily controllable and further study is not warranted.
The final process, street cleaning, is one on which a great deal of work
has been performed. Dozens of studies have been conducted which evaluate
street cleaning programs and sweeper effectiveness. However, these studies
have almost exclusively centered on existing street cleaning methods and
practices and the results have primarily shown that such existing practices are
relatively ineffective. Research should first be carried out to see whether
the current methods can be made effective either through a revised cleaning
cycle (e.g., daily and/or immediately after sanding and salting) or through
improvements to existing equipment. Research should then center on developing
new street cleaning methods with much greater removal efficiencies.
An additional high priority item which would .fall into this category would
be the development of an effective street dust loading measurement procedure.
A method should also be developed that could link street loadings to the
resuspension rate.
SUGGESTED PRIORITIES
The research needs described above can be summarized by separating them
into high, medium, and low priority categories. The high priority items are
those that either have the potential of providing fairly immediate air quality
improvement or are necessary prior to the further research studies. The medium
priority items are those that are felt to have potential, but require time to
develop and implement. Some of these also depend on the results of the high
priority research. The low priority items are those that have not been fully
researched to date, but whose impact is assumed to be relatively minor.
Table 5 presents the priority categorization.
It is recommended that future areas of investigation regarding the
problem of urban road dust be conducted according to this prioritization. This
will help to produce the desired information in the most effective manner.
Suggested approaches for obtaining the information are presented in the next
subsection.
RESEARCH APPROACH
The approaches to the high priority research studies are outlined in the
following subsections. Development of approaches for the medium and low
priority items are not warranted at this time.
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TABLE 5. RESEARCH PRIORITIES
High Priority:
Determination of the effects of more frequent street cleaning and
cleanup immediately after application of sand and salt utilizing
existing technology
Analysis of control methods for mud and dirt carryout sites and truck
spills
e Improvement of existing street cleaning equipment
9 Development of a standard procedure for determining street loadings
o Development of a method to link street loading to resuspension rate
9 Study of ways to reduce the amount of sand and salt applied to street
surfaces including sand washing, plowing improvement, and development
of hydrophobic substances
a Study of curbing effects: size, shape and relationship with gutter
design, need to pave or stabilize shoulders
Medium Priority:
Development of new methods of street cleaning
Further study of the effects of vehicle speed, size, mix, speed
variations and volume
a Study of asphalt versus concrete surface loadings
o Study of crown and bank slope effects
Study of redesigned road surfaces such as grooves or grids
« Study of the effects of sidewalks and vegetation
Study of reducing vehicle-induced turbulence
Study of meteorological effects
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TABLE 5 (CONTINUED)
Low Priority:
« Determination of the effects of vehicle distribution on roadways
Study of median effects, guard rails versus barriers
Study of cut, at-grade, and fill section roadways
0 Study of building effects along roadways
e Study of vehicle engine temperature effects
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Procedure for Determining Street Loadings
Various measurement techniques exist to determine ambient TSP concentra-
tions, particle sizes, and chemical makeup. However, an effective street dust
loading measurement procedure is lacking. Therefore, the first step of any
research effort should be the development of such a measurement technique that
is accurate, representative of a significant length of street, repeatable, and
that can be performed by a technician-level personnel. With such a technique
available, the effectiveness of the various research studies can be better
determined and results can be compared. Perhaps the best initial approach to
this would be to examine the methods used by previous studies and compare their
benefits and shortcomings.
Daily Street Cleaning and After Winter Storm Cleanup
This type of study was also recommended by Axetell and Zell1 and their
approach is viable. They propose several design considerations which should be
incorporated in any such study:
At least one control site wi th a similar exposure should be located
near but outside the cleaning area.
Particulate samples should be taken daily and possibly for even
shorter intervals.
« Traffic counts should be taken for periods concurrent with the
particulate samples.
a Wind speed and direction measurements should be made in the study
area.
« Rainfall records should be kept, including the duration and quantity
of rainfall.
o Detailed records of the street cleaning operations should be
kepttime, weight of material removed, any problems with cleaning
equipment.
9 Seasonal changes in the amount and type of material on streets should
be accounted for in scheduling alternative cleaning methods.
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Various street cleaning methods should be tried; in particular, flushing and
vacuuming. The after storm cleanup should occur as soon as the snow and ice
melt for each storm during the seasonal period. Results can then be compared
to a control area nearby where cleanup is performed only in the spring.
Control for Mud and Dirt Carryout Sites
Again, this type of study was proposed by Axetell and Zell.1 Their
approach is a good one:
"Liaison and cooperative field work with construction industry trade
associations on reasonable methods to minimize mud carryout from
construction sites. There would be no need for ambient air sampling in
such a study; a good method for measuring the amount of material tracked
from the sites would provide a better measurement of effectiveness."
In addition, a research study should be conducted to determine if any new
methods of control for these types of sources are possible. One possibility is
the use of charged fog.
Improvement of Street Cleaning Equipment
Manufacturers of street cleaning equipment should be contacted to engage
their help in developing and testing mechanical or operational modifications
that would improve cleaning effectiveness. An engineering study could be
performed to advise on such modifications.
Sand and Salt Reduction
Some work has been done already in the area of plowing improvement and the
development of a hydrophobic substance.1*5' **6 Further development work can
carry on from the results of this research. The effect of washing sand to
remove fines can probably be determined through a cooperative field test program
with a local municipality. Two comparable test areas could then be used - one
using washed sand all winter and one using the usual material.
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Curbing Effects
Curbing effects can be studied in several ways. One method would be to
locate a section of roadway that incorporates sections with curbs and sections
without curbs passing through a single type of land-use category. Surface
loading measurements could then be compared. Another method would be to locate
a long stretch of curbed roadway and change the curbing height and shape along
different sections of it. A third research approach could utilize a wind
tunnel to analyze the effect on reentrainment of various curb/gutter
configurations .
Method to Link Street Loading to Resuspension Rate
Perhaps the best approach for the development of such a method would be to
continue the work of Axetell and Zell.1 They postulated that the street
loading reaches an equilibrium level, at which the deposition and continuous
removal processes are about the same, within a basicly short period of time -
three to five days after a rain or street cleaning. They developed an
emperical equation and tried to determine the values of the constants, but soon
dropped the effort due to the large number of secondary variables which affect
the deposition and removal rates. Further efforts can concentrate on
quantifying some of these secondary variables.
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SECTION 6
REFERENCES
1. Axetell, K. and J. Bell. Control of Reentrained Dust from Paved Streets.
Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number
EPA-907/9-77-07. August 1977.
2. Sartor, J.D. and G.B. Boyd. Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface
Containments. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Publication Number EPA-R2-72-081. November 1972.
3. Shaheen, D.G. Contributions of Urban Roadway Usage to Water Pollution.
Biospherics, Incorporated, Rockville, Maryland. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. Publication Number
PB245 854, March 1975.
4. National Assessment of the Urban Particulate Problem, Volumes I and II.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. Publication Number EPA450/3-76-024. July 1976.
5. Draftz, R.G. and H.W. Blakeslee. Identification of Ambient Suspended
Particles from Philadelphia. IIT Research Institute and Scott Research
Laboratories, Inc. (Presented at Annual Pacific Northwest Section of Air
Pollution Control Association. Seattle, Washington. November 28-30,
1973.) 10 p.
6. Record, F.A. and R.M. Bradway. Philadelphia Particulate Study. Prepared
for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Publication Number EPA-903-/9-78003. June 1978.
7. A Study of the Suspended Particulate Problem in the Duwamish Basin. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication Number EPA-68-02-1499. May 1975.
8. Idaho Particulate Matter Study. Draft Final Report. GCA/Technology
Division, Bedford, Massachusetts. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. October 1973.
9. Harrison, P.R. Particle Resuspension in Urban Atmospheres. Meteorology
Research Inc., Boulder, Colorado. (Presented at the National Conference
on Energy and the Environment. September 29 - October 1, 1975.) 17 p.
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10. Air Quality Modeling in Jacksonville, Florida. Volume I. PEDCo-Environ-
mental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Atlanta, Georgia. May 1976.
11. Air Quality Modeling in Hillsborough, Pinnellas, and Polk Counties,
Florida. Volume I. PEDCo-Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atlanta, Georgia.
July 1976.
12. Shannon, J.D. Application of the Diffusion Wind Atmospheric Dispersion
Model to the Tulsa Urban Area. (Presented at the Symposium on Atmospheric
Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Quality. Raleigh, North Carolina, October
19-22, 1976) pp. 382-388.
13. Characterization of Particulate Sources Influencing Monitoring Sites in
Region VIII Non-Attainment Areas. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Denver, Colorado. Publication Number EPA-908/1-76-007. June 1976.
14. Particulate Area Source Emission Inventory for Nashville-Davidson County,
Tennessee. PEDCo-Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio. Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atlanta, Georgia. February 1975.
15. Quantification of Dust Entrainment from Paved Roadways. Midwest Research
Institute, Kansas City, Missouri. Prepared by U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. March 1977.
16. Cahill, T.A. and P.J. Feeney. Contribution of Freeway Traffic to Airborne
Particulate Matter. California University, Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,
Davis, California. April 1974. 167 p.
17. Sehmel, G.A. Particle Resuspension from an Asphalt Road Caused by Car and
Truck Traffic. Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Labs,
Atmospheric Sciences Department, Richland, Washington. Atmospheric
Environment. March 1973. pp. 291-309.
18. Study of Suspended Particulate Measurements at Varying Heights above
Ground. Texas State Department of Health, Air Control Section, Ambient
Monitoring and Sampling Group. Unpublished. 13 p.
19. Subramani, J.P. Particulate Air Pollution from Automobile Tire Tread
Wear. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
Ohio. 1971.
20. Raybold, R.L. and R. Byerly, Jr. Investigation of Products of Tire Wear.
NBS Report No. 10834. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of
Standards. April 21, 1972.
21. Dannis, J.L. Rubber Dust from the Normal Wear of Tires. Rubber Chem.
Technol. 47:1011-1037, September 1974.
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22. Pierson, W.R. and W.W. Brachaczek. Airborne Particulate Debris from
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from Brake and Clutch Linings from Selected Mobile Sources. U.S.
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35. American Public Works Association. Water Pollution Aspects of Urban
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December 1976.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-79-239
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
A. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Assessment of Methods for Control of Fugitive
Emissions from Paved Roads
5. REPORT DATE
November 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Edward T. Brookman and Deborah K. Martin
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME ANO ADDRESS
TRC--The Research Corporation of New England
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethers field, Connecticut 06109
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE624A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-3115, Task 8
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD <
Task Final; 9/78 - 9/7$
:OVEREO
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
is.SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ffiRL-RTP project officer is Dennis C. Drehmel, Mail Drop 61,
919/541-2925.
16. ABSTRACT
The report gives results of an assessment of methods to control fugitive
emissions from paved roads. In many U.S. metropolitan areas, failure to attain
national primary air quality standards for total suspended particulates (TSP) has
fostered a detailed reexamination of the nature of the urban TSP problem. Reentrai-
ned dust from paved streets and other traffic-related emissions are now recognized
as major sources of TSP in urban areas. Although many studies have examined this
subject, some significant aspects of urban road dust have not been studied in enough
detail, if at all. Examples of this are the effects of gutters and pavement composition
and shape. This report discusses urban road dust problems that are felt to require
further attention and outlines the priorities with which the data should be obtained.
The approaches to be taken to obtain the desired information are also defined.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATi Field/Croup
Pollution
Pavements
Roads
Processing
Leakage
Dust
Aerosols
Drains
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Paved Roads
Fugitive Emissions
Parti culate
13B
13H
14 B
11G
07D
13M
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report!
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
47
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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