FINAL
United States ECAO-CIN-P230
Environmental Protection Anrii
Agency *M» ' '.
&EPA Research and
Development
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS PROFILE
FOR AHTKRACEME
Prepared for
OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE AND
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Prepared by
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati. OH 45268
DRAFT: 00 NOT CITE OR QUOTE
NOTICE
.,..* Uw«.uiM7ii«. is d preliminary draft. It has not been formally released
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Aqency and should not at this stage be
construed to represent Agency policy. It Is being circulated for comments
an Its technical accuracy and policy Implications.
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DISCLAIMER
This report Is an external draft for review purposes only and does not
constitute Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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PREFACE
Health and Environmental Effects Profiles (HEEPs) are prepared for the
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response by the Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment. The HEEPs are Intended to support listings of
hazardous constituents of a wide range of waste streams under Section 3001
of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), as well as to provide
health-related limits for emergency actions under Section 101 of the Compre-
hensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA).
Both published literature and Information obtained from Agency program
office files are evaluated as they pertain to potential human health,
aquatic life and environmental effects of hazardous waste constituents. The
literature searched and the dates of the searches are Included In the
section titled 'Appendix: Literature Searched." The literature search
material 1s current through November, 1985.
Quantitative estimates are presented provided sufficient data are
available. For systemic toxicants, these Include Reference doses (RfOs) for
chronic exposures. An RfO Is defined as the amount of a chemical to which
humans can be exposed on a dally basis over an extended period of time
(usually a lifetime) without suffering a deleterious effect. In the case of
suspected carcinogens, RfOs are not estimated 1n this document series.
Instead, a carcinogenic potency factor of q-|* Is provided. These potency
estimates are derived for both oral and Inhalation exposures where possible.
In addition, unit risk estimates for air and drinking water are presented
based on inhalation and oral data, respectively.
Reportable quantities (RQs) based on both chronic toxlclty and cardno-
genlclty are derived. The RQ 1s used to determine the quantity of a hazard-
ous substance for which notification 1s required In the event of a release
as specified under CERCLA. These two RQs (chronic toxldty and carcinogen-
1c1ty) represent two of six scores developed (the remaining four reflect
1gn1tab1l1ty, reactivity, aquatic toxldty and acute mammalian toxlclty).
The first draft of this document was prepared by Syracuse Research
Corporation under EPA Contract No. 68-03-3228. The document was subse-
quently revised after reviews by staff within the Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment: Carcinogen Assessment Group, Reproductive Effects
Assessment Group, Exposure Assessment Group, and the Environmental Criteria
and Assessment Office In Cincinnati.
The HEEPs will become part of the EPA RCRA and CERCLA dockets.
111
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Anthracene Is a colorless solid at ambient temperatures. It 1s soluble
In a variety of organic solvents Including ethanol, methanol, benzene,
toluene and-carbon dlsulflde (Hlndholz, 1983), but It Is almost Insoluble In
water (Pearlman et al., 1984). The solubility of anthracene 1n water
decreases slightly with the Increase In salt content, but decreases greatly
with the lowering of water temperature (WhHehouse, 1984). This compound Is
susceptible to oxidation by ozone, peroxides and other oxldants (MAS, 1972).
The commercial production of anthracene 1n the United States Is believed to
have stopped since 1982 (IARC. 1983), although Us U.S. production was >2-20
million pounds In 1977 (U.S. EPA, 1977). In 1983. 30.458 pounds of anthra-
cene was Imported Into the United States (USITC. 1984). Anthracene Is
produced commercially from anthracene oil, a coal tar fraction boiling In
the range of 270-360°C (IARC, 1983; Hawley. 1981). It 1s used primarily 1n
the production of dye. Also, small amounts of anthracene are used as a
component of smoke screens, as scintillation counter crystals, and 1n
organic semiconductor research (IARC, 1983; Hawley, 1981).
The fate and transport of anthracene 1n aquatic media has received much
more attention than 1n any other media, because a raultlcompartment modeling
program conducted by Nackay et al. (1985) estimated that >95X of environ-
mental anthracene will reside In the aquatic compartment. The fate and
transport of anthracene In surface waters will depend on the nature of the
water. In most waters, the loss of anthracene Is mainly due to photolysis
and blodegradatlon (Hackay et al.. 1985); however. In a very shallow, fast-
flowing clear water, volatilization and photolysis will play dominant roles
In determining the fate of anthracene (Southworth, 1979). In deep, slow
1v
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flowing and muddy waters, m1crob1al degradation and adsorption may account
for the major losses of anthracene from water (Southworth, 1979). There-
fore, the half-life of anthracene 1n natural surface waters will depend on
the nature of the water bodies. In very shallow, fast-flowing and clear
water, its..half-life may be -1 hour (Southworth. 1979; Herbes et al.. 1980).
On the other hand, the half-life may be as high as 29 days 1n a deep
eutrophlc pond (Zepp, 1980).
In air, anthracene 1s expected to be present both 1n the vapor and the
partlcle-sorbed state. Over 78% of atmospheric anthracene may be present In
the vapor state (Thrane and Nlkalsen. 1981). Both chemical processes
Including CL and OH radical and photochemical reaction will degrade
w
atmospheric anthracene (Nlessner et al., 1985; Atkinson, 1985; Korfmacher et
al.. 1980; Behymer and H1tes, 1985). The degradation of vapor phase atmo-
spheric anthracene 1s expected to be faster than partlcle-sorbed anthracene
(Santodonato et al.. 1981). The atmospheric half-life of anthracene may
vary from hours to days (Atkinson, 1985; Korfmacher et al.. 1980; Behymer
and Kites, 1985; Lunde and BJoerseth, 1977). The long range transport of
anthracene observed by Lunde and Bjoerseth (1977) Indicates that partlcle-
sorbed anthracene may have a half-life of the order of days.
The fate and transport of anthracene In soils Is not well studied. Both
blodegradatlon and abiotic processes will degrade anthracene In soils
(Bossert et al., 1984). The half-life of anthracene In soil may be -1 month
(Bossert et al., 1984). Anthracene may not leach from most soils because of
Us high K value; however, 1t may leach through soils that have attained
the breakthrough capacity for anthracene sorptlon (Plet and Morra, 1979).
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Anthracene Is ubiquitous In the aquatic environment. Anthracene at a
concentration range of <13-105 ng/l was reported In the effluent from a
sewage treatment plant In Norway (Kveseth et al., 1982). It was also
reported In the concentration range of <0.03-0.84 yg/l 1n the effluent
from coal oven plants (Walters and Luthy, 1984; Grlest, 1980). It has been
reported to be present In several surface waters (Hltes, 1979; Dewalle and
Chlan, 1978; Staples et al., 1985). A maximum concentration of 12.1
vg/l was reported 1n the water from Tennessee RWer 1n Calvert CHy, KY
(Goodley and Gordon, 1976). In general, anthracene occurs In ambient waters
at a frequency of 4% and at a median concentration of <10 pg/l (Staples
et al.. 1985). Anthracene has been reported to be present in groundwater
from a few contaminated sites. Bedlent et al. (1984) reported the detection
of up to 168.6 yg/l of anthracene In groundwater from a creosote waste
site In Conroe, IX. The detection of anthracene In drinking waters through-
out the world have been reported (Williams et al., 1982; Kveseth et al.,
1982; Shlnohara et al., 1981; Plet and Morra, 1979). The highest concentra-
tion of combined anthracene/phenanthrene at 1269 ng/l was reported In
drinking water In Sault Ste. Marie (Williams et al.. 1982). Finished waters
from 13 different locations throughout the United States, however, failed to
show the presence of any anthracene (Sorrel 1 et al.. 1980).
The concentrations of anthracene 1n ambient air In some cities 1n the
United States and around the world have been reported. The mean concentra-
tion of anthracene 1n the air of Los Angeles during 1981-82 was reported to
be O.S4 ng/m* (Grosjean, 1983), whereas Us mean concentration In Osaka,
Japan, during the same period was reported to be 0.32 ng/ra» (Hatsumoto and
Kashlmoto, 1985). It has been demonstrated by Grosjean (1983) that the
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atmospheric anthracene concentrations show both seasonal and diurnal varia-
tions, with the anthracene concentration higher 1n winter and during the
night. Although suitable data were not available on anthracene for compari-
son. Grosjean (1983) estimated that the levels of other polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons In Los Angeles air did not change significantly during the last
decade. Based on the assumptions that the mean level of anthracene In U.S.
air Is 0.54 ng/m* (same as concentration In Los Angeles) and that an adult
Individual Inhales 20 m* air/day, the average dally Intake of anthracene
from Inhalation Is 11 ng.
Anthracene has been reported to be present In smoked foods, liquid
smoke, charcoal-broiled steaks and edible aquatic organisms collected from
certain contaminated waters (Fazio and Howard, 1983; Galloway et al.. 1983).
For example, the concentrations of anthracene 1n charcoal-broiled steaks and
barbecued Mbs were reported to be 4.5 and 7.1 ugAg, respectively (Fazio
and Howard, 1983). The U.S. National Mussel watch program collected mussels
from >100 sites on the East. West and Gulf coasts (Galloway et al.. 1983).
The concentration of anthracene In these mussel composites was 7.9-32
ug/kg (Galloway et al., 1983). Until data on the level of this compound
In food composites used by an Individual 1n the United States are available.
It Is not possible to estimate the human Intake of anthracene through
consumption of foods 1n the United States.
There Is relatively little Information concerning the toxlclty of
anthracene to aquatic organisms. Acutely toxic concentrations range from
1.9 wg/l for Oaohnla pulex (Allred and Glesy, 1985; Orls et al., 1984)
to 3030 vg/1 for Daphnla magna (Bobra et al.. 1983). Some of this
variability may be explained by the fact that anthracene toxlclty Is
affected by lighting conditions, with toxlclty Increased under natural
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sunlight and ultraviolet radiation rather than fluorescent lights (Allred
and Glesy, 1985; Bowling et al., 1983; Kagan et al., 1985). Reported toxic
concentrations for aquatic plants were also highly variable. Hutchlnson et
al. (1980) reported that photosynthesis was Inhibited 1n Chlamydomonas
anqulosa at 239 yg/l, while G1dd1ngs (1979) found that Selenastrum
caprlcornutum was unaffected by a 100% saturated solution. Reported BCF
values ranged from 47-132 for Chlronomus rlparlus (Gerould et al.. 1983) to
16,800 for Pontoporlla hoyl (Landrum, 1982). These species also represent
the extremes In the ability to metabolize and eliminate anthracene.
Limited Information 1s available regarding the pharmacoklnetlc profile
of anthracene. Gastrointestinal absorption may be poor, as 53-84% of
anthracene administered by diet or stomach tube was eliminated In the feces
by rats 1n 2-3 days (Chang, 1943); however, urinary and biliary excretion
were not measured. Radioactivity from single Intratracheal Instillations of
1*C-anthracene was cleared from the lungs 1n a blphaslc manner with
half-times of 0.1 hours (99.7% of dose) and 25.6 hours (0.3% of dose) (Bond
et al., 1985). The distribution of anthracene to tissues does not appear to
have been Investigated. Metabolites resulting from epoxldatlon at the
1.2-bond or oxidation at the 9- and 10-posHlons have been Identified In in
vivo and .In vitro studies with rats (S1ms. 1964; Akhtar et al., 1979).
Trans-1,2-d1hydroxy-l,2-d1hydroanthracene and sulfate and glucuronlde conju-
gates consistent with the formation of anthracene-1,2-ox1de appear to be the
major products. Orally administered anthracene appears to be eliminated by
rats primarily (53-84%) 1n the feces (Chang, 1943). Metabolites of orally
administered anthracene have been detected 1n the urine of rats (S1ms, 1964).
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Administration of diets that supplied a total dose of 4.5 g/rat of
anthracene over 78 weeks produced tumors 1n 2/28 rats (a liver sarcoma and a
uterine adenocardnoma) that were observed for life (Schmahl, 1955). A
control group was not used and the tumors were not ascribed to treatment. A
single Intrapulmonary Injection of 0.5 mg anthracene In beeswax-trlcaprylln
mixture did not Induce local neoplastlc responses 1n rats after 4-55 weeks
of observation (Stanton et al.. 1972).
Twice or thrice weekly skin applications of anthracene for life did not
produce local tumors In mice (Bachmann et al., 1937; Uynder and Hoffmann,
1959; Hlescher, 1942), but contradictory results were obtained when
anthracene was applied to mouse skin with concurrent or directly subsequent
ultraviolet Irradiation (Heller", 1950; Forbes et al.. 1976). Mouse skin
Initiation-promotion assays using croton oil (Salaman and Roe, 1956) or TPA
(ScMbner, 1973) as the promoter did not Indicate a tumor Initiating effect
of anthracene. Weekly subcutaneous Injections of anthracene 1n rats for 6
weeks to life (PolHa. 1941; Schmahl. 1955; Boyland and Burrows. 1935).
weekly 1ntraper1toneal Injections In rats for 33 weeks (Schmahl. 1955) or
brain or eye Implants In rabbits for 4.5 years (Russell, 1947) did not
produce local tumors, but these findings should be regarded as Inconclusive
because of Inadequacies In experimental design. Taken together, the avail-
able human and animal data for cardnogenlcHy are Inadequate, EPA Group 0,
to make an assessment of human carcinogenic activity.
Anthracene has been tested In numerous mutagen1c1ty and other short-term
assays with primarily negative results (IARC, 1983; Langenbach et al.. 1983;
Lubet et al.. 1983; Ved Brat et al., 1983; Hamber et al., 1984; Qulllardet
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et al., 1985). These Include ONA damage, mutation, cytogenlcHy and trans-
formation assays with bacteria, yeast 'and mammalian cells J_n vitro and Jji
vivo. Exogenous metabolic activation systems were used In most of the j_n
vitro assays.
Pertinent data regarding chronic or subchronlc toxic effects, terato-
genlclty or other reproductive effects of anthracene could not be located In
the available literature as dted In the Appendix.
Data were Insufficient to derive an RfO, q * RQ or F factor, and
thus, a hazard ranking 1s precluded.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. STRUCTURE AND CAS NUMBER 1
1.2. PHYSICAL AND CHEHICAL PROPERTIES 1
1.3. PRODUCTION DATA 2
1.4. USE DATA 3
1.5. SUMMARY 3
2. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND TRANSPORT PROCESSES 5
2.1. WATER 5
2.1.1. Photodegradatlon 5
2.1.2. Chemical Reactions 6
2.1.3. 81odeqradat1on 6
2.1.4. Volatilization 9
2.1.5. Adsorption 10
2.1.6. Bloconcentratlon 10
2.1.7. Overall Removal Processes 12
2.2. AIR 15
2.3. SOIL 17
2.4. SUMMARY 19
3. EXPOSURE 21
3.1. WATER 21
3.2. AIR 23
3.3. FOOD 25
3.4. SUMMARY 27
4. PHARMACOKINETCS 31
4.1. ABSORPTION 31
4.2. DISTRIBUTION 31
4.3. METABOLISM 31
4.4. EXCRETION 32
4.5. SUMMARY 32
5. EFFECTS 34
5.1. CARCINOGENICITY 34
5.2. WTAGENICITY 38
5.3. TERATOGENICITY 39
5.4. OTHER REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS 39
5.5. CHRONIC AND SUBCHRONIC TOXICITY 39
5.6. OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION 40
5.7. SUMMARY 41
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Page
6. AQUATIC TOXICITY 43
6.1. ACUTE 43
6.2. CHRONIC 45
6.3. PLANTS 45
6.4. RESIDUES ; 45
6.5. SUMMARY 47
7. EXISTING GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS 48
7.1. HUMAN 48
7.2. AQUATIC 49
8. RISK ASSESSMENT 50
9. REPORTABLE QUANTITIES 52
S.I. REPORTABLE QUANTITY (RQ) RANKING BASED ON CHRONIC
TOXICITY 52
9.2. WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE AND POTENCY FACTOR (F=1/ED10)
FOR CARCINOGENICITY 52
10. REFERENCES. 55
APPENDIX: LITERATURE SEARCHED 81
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Title Page
2-1 Removal of Anthracene by Volatilization from Hater
Bodies at 25aC 11
2-2 BCFs for Anthracene In Different Aquatic Organisms 13
2-3 Contributions of Major Processes In Removal of Anthracene
from Water at 25°C During Midsummer 14
3-1 Ratios of Anthracene to Benzo(e)pyrene, Benzo(a)pyrene to
Benzo(e)pyrene and the Concentrations of Benzo(a)pyrene
from Various Sources of Emm1ss1on 24
3-2 Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations of Anthracene In
Various Locations 26
3-3 Anthracene Levels 1n Different Foods 28
5-1 Dermal. Injection amd Implantation Carc1nogen1c1ty
Assays of Anthracene 35
6-1 Acute Tox1c1ty of Anthracene to Aquatic Animals 44
6-2 Bloconcentratlon Data for Anthracene In Aquatic Organisms . . 46
9-1 Anthracene: Minimum Effective Dose (MED) and Reportable
Quantity (RQ) 53
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADI Acceptable dally Intake
BCF B1oconcentrat1on factor
CAS Chemical Abstract Service
ONSO Dimethyl sulpoxlde
DNA Deoxyrlbonuclelc add
ECso Concentration effective to 50% of recipients
GC Gas chromatography
HGPRT Hypoxanthlne-guanlne phosphorlbosyl transferase
Koc Soil sorptlon coefficient standardized
with respect to organic carbon
Kow Octanol/water partition coefficient
LD5Q Dose lethal to 50% of recipients
MED Minimum effective dose
PAH Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
ppb Parts per billion
ppra Parts per million
RQ Reportable quantity
TLV Threshold limit value
TPA Terephthallc add
TWA Time-weighted average
x1v
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. STRUCTURE AND CAS NUMBER
The chemical commonly known as anthracene 1s also known by the synonyms
paranaphthalene, green oil and tetra olive NZG (U.S. EPA, 1986a). The
structure, empirical formula, molecular weight and CAS Registry number for
this chemical are as follows:
Empirical formula: C..H..
Nolecular weight: 178.22
CAS Registry number: 120-12-7
1.2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Anthracene Is a colorless crystalline compound at ambient temperatures.
It Is almost Insoluble In water but 1s soluble 1n a variety of organic
solvents Including ethanol, methanol, benzene, toluene and carbon dlsulflde
(Ulndholz. 1983). Some of the relevant physical properties of anthracene
are listed below.
Melting point:
Boiling point:
Density at 27/4*C:
Water solubility:
216'C
340-C
1.25
Distilled water at 25'C: 0.041-0.080 mg/t
0.066 mg/t (average)
at 2S.3*C: 0.044 mg/t
at 4.6*C: 0.010 mg/l
Distilled water with
36.SX salinity at 25.3'C: 0.032 mg/t
Santodonato et al.,
1981
Santodonato et al.,
1981
Ulndholz, 1983
Pearlman et al.. 1984
Pear loan et al.. 1984
UhUehouse. 1984
UhUehouse, 1984
UhUehouse, 1984
0867p
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11/17/86
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Log Kow: 4.45-4.63 Ruepert et al., 1985;
Readman et al., 1982;
Ogata et al., 1984;
Yalkowsky and Valvanl,
1979
Vapor pressure: 7.65xlO~» mm Hg at 20°C Grayson and Fosbraey,
1982
5.65x10"* to 8.48x10"* Sears and Hoplce, 1949;
mm Hg at 25°C McEachern and Sandoval,
1973; Etzweller et al.,
1984
Henry's Law constant: 3.64x10"' atmos»m»/mol Webster et al., 1985
It can be concluded from these data that the solubility of anthracene In
water decreases slightly with the Increase of salt content, but the solu-
bility 1s greatly dependent on the temperature of the water. Chemically,
polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons are reasonably reactive. They can undergo
substitution and addition reactions. In addition, these compounds are
susceptible to oxidation by ozone, peroxides and other oxldants (NAS, 1972).
1.3. PRODUCTION DATA
According to the nonconfldentlal portion of the TSCA production file
(U.S. EPA, 1977), Koppers Co., Inc., reported production of a total of 2-20
million pounds of anthracene at two sites In 1977, and DuPont Co. produced
<1000 pounds of the chemical during the same year. Allied Chemical also
reported production of anthracene In 1977 but did not report the production
volume. The commercial production of anthracene 1n the United States Is
believed to have stopped since 1982 (IARC, 1983). In 1983, the amount of
anthracene Imported to the United States was 30.458 pounds (USITC. 1984).
Anthracene 1s commercially produced from anthracene oil, a coal-tar
fraction boiling 1n the range of 270-360'C. Crude anthracene 1s obtained
from anthracene oil either by crystallization or by distillation of the oil.
0867p -2- 02/11/87
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The crude product Is purified by washing with appropriate solvents followed
by sublimation. Pure crystals of anthracene are obtained by zone refining
of solid anthracene. Commercial anthracene Is -90-95% pure by weight. The
major Impurities In commercial anthracene are: carbazole (3% max), pyMdlne
(0.2% max)r- Iron (0.03% max), phenanthrene and chrysene (IARC, 1983; Hawley,
1981).
1.4. USE DATA
Anthracene Is used primarily as an Intermediate In dye production; 1t 1s
no longer used In the United States for the commercial production of anthra-
qulnone for dye usage. Anthracene 1s also used as a component of smoke
screens, as scintillation counter crystals, and In organic semiconductor
research (IARC, 1983; Hawley, 1981).
1.5. SUMMARY
Anthracene Is a colorless solid at ambient temperatures. It Is soluble
In a variety of organic solvents Including ethanol, methanol, benzene,
toluene and carbon dlsulflde (Wlndholz, 1983), but 1t Is almost Insoluble In
water (Pearlman et al., 1984). The solubility of anthracene In water
decreases slightly with the Increase In salt content, but decreases greatly
with the lowering of water temperature (HhHehouse. 1984). This compound 1s
susceptible to oxidation by ozone, peroxides and other oxldants (NAS, 1972).
The commercial production of anthracene In the United States Is believed to
have stopped since 1982 (IARC, 1983), although Us U.S. production was >2-20
million pounds 1n 1977 (U.S. EPA, 1977). In 1983, 30.458 pounds of anthra-
cene was Imported Into the United States (USITC. 1984). Anthracene 1s
produced commercially from anthracene oil, a coal tar fraction boiling In
the range of 270-360'C (IARC, 1983; Hawley, 1981). It 1s used primarily In
0867p -3- 02/11/87
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the production of dye. Also, small amounts of anthracene are used as a
component of smoke screens, as scintillation counter crystals, and In
organic semiconductor research (IARC, 1983; Hawley, 1981).
0867p -4- 11/17/86
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2. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND TRANSPORT PROCESSES
2.1. HATER
2.1.1. Photodegradatlon. The photolysis of anthracene In water was
studied by Zepp and Schlot2hauer (1979). It was observed by these authors
that photoreactlons are more efficient In water than In hydrocarbon
solvents. Besides the Intensity of solar radiation, which depends on the
season of the year, the time of day and the latitude of the site, the photo-
reaction rate also depends on the depth and turbidity of the water bodies.
In turbid waters, the photodegradatlon rate 1s slower because of light
attenuation, which 1s due to scattering, and the partitioning of anthracene
between water and sediment. The portion of anthracene that may be present
1n the sediment as a result of adsorption will not photodegrade because of
the Inability of light to reach the bottom. Zepp and Schlotzhauer (1979)
computed the near-surface half-life for direct photochemical transformation
of anthracene at 40°N latitude by mid-day, midsummer sun to be -1 hour.
Because of the attenuation of solar radiation, the average half-life In the
top 35 m of water from the middle of the Gulf of Mexico was computed to be 6
hours. Since the coastal water near Tampa, FL, was more turbid, the com-
puted average half-life was >1 day (Zepp and Schlotzhauer, 1979). Besides
direct photoreactlon, the Indirect photooxldatlon of anthracene mediated by
singlet oxygen was also studied by Zepp and Schlotzhauer (1979). The half-
life for this photosensitized oxidation of anthracene was computed to be 200
hours. Therefore, photosensitized oxidation 1n natural waters was concluded
to be too slow to compete with direct photolysis.
The photolysis of anthracene 1n distilled water was also reported by
Southworth (1979). Exposure of anthracene solution (-10 ppb) to midsummer
mid-day sunlight at 35°N latitude rapidly degraded anthracene with a
0867p -5- 02/11/87
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half-life of 35 minutes. Under average winter and summer solar conditions
at the same latitude, this corresponds to photolytlc half-lives of 4.8 hours
and 1.6 hours, respectively. In most natural waters, the absorption of
light by dissolved and suspended matter and the depth of water would act to
reduce photolysis rates considerably. Thus, the photolytlc half-lives of
anthracene In natural waters with decadlc light absorption coefficients of
0.020 and 0.100, which Is due to an Increase 1n turbidity, were estimated to
Increase by factors of 4 and 19, respectively, compared with distilled water
photolysis (Southworth, 1979).
2.1.2. Chemical Reactions. The rate constant for the reaction of anthra-
cene with singlet oxygen {*& ) 1n benzene at 25'C was reported to be
0.15x10* M"1 sec"1 (Stevens et al., 1974). Assuming the rate constant
In aquatic media to be similar and the concentration of singlet oxygen 1n
natural water to be 10~la N (Mill et al., 1982), the half-life .for this
reaction can be estimated to be >50 days. Therefore, this reaction 1s not
likely to be environmentally significant. The reaction of anthracene with
ozone, which may be environmentally significant 1f ozonatlon 1s used as a
method of disinfecting drinking water, was studied by Kuo and Barnes (1985).
The reaction between anthracene and ozone In aqueous solution was found to
be extremely fast and the estimated half-life was less than a few milli-
seconds; however, the products of the ozonatlon were not reported by the
authors.
2.1.3. B1odt$radat1on. The blodegradabHUy of anthracene has been
studied wltlt pure cultures of microorganisms, mixed microorganisms and
natural water. Several pure cultures of microorganisms Including Flavo-
bacterlum sp., Pseudomonas aeruqlnosa. Pseudomonas putlda. Nocardla sp.
(Fuhs, 1961; McKenna, 1977), Beljerlnckla sp. (Gibson, 1977), Vibrio sp.,
0867p -6- 02/11/87
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Bacillus sp., Candida sp., Arthrobacter sp. (Bhosle and Mavlnkurve. 1980)
and Aleallgenes faecalls (Klyohara et al., 1982) were shown to blodegrade
anthracene. Although these pure culture studies are far removed from the
natural conditions for blodegradatlon, they are useful In establishing
blodegradatlon pathways of chemicals. The proposed pathway for bacterial
catabollsra of anthracene Is as follows (Cernlglla, 1981; Ribbons and Eaton,
1982; McKenna and Kalllo, 1965; Subramanlan et al., 1978; Van der Linden and
Thljsse, 1965):
anthracene -» l.2-d1hydroxyanthracene -» 2-hydroxy-3-naphthaldehyde -»
2-hydroxy-3-naphtho1c acid -» 2.3-d1hydroxynaphthalene -» salicylic acid
The blodegradabHlty of anthracene with mixed microorganisms was studied
by several authors. Thorn and Agg (1975) reported that anthracene Is
biodegradable 1n sewage treatment plants provided suitable acclimatization
can be achieved. UUh settled domestic wastewater as m1crob1al Inoculum and
a static-culture flask-screening procedure, 43% of anthracene was found to
be biodegradable In 7 days at an Initial concentration of 5 ppm. After 7
days of acclimatization, the same solution showed 70% degradation In 7 days.
The corresponding degradation was only 26 and 30% at an Initial anthracene
concentration of 10 ppa (Tabak et al., 1981). Lutln et al. (1965) used
activated sludge from three municipal treatment plants as ralcroblal Inoculum
and the Warburg method as a means for estimating the rate of b1oox1dat1on.
Anthracene was reported to be appreciably resistant to blodegradatlon with
activated sludg* from two municipal plants, and degradable with the third
activated sludg*. Freltag et al. (1985) reported only 0.3% CO. formation
(relative to applied dose) on Incubation of anthracene for 5 days with
activated sludge.
0867p -7- 11/17/86
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The blodegradabllHy of anthracene with natural sediments (Gardner et
al., 1979; Bauer and Capone, 1985; Schwall and Herbes, 1979; Herbes, 1981;
Herbes and Schwall, 1978; Lee and Ryan, 1983) and natural estuarlne waters
(Loe and Ryan, 1983; Lee, 1977) has been studied by several authors.
Several conclusions can be reached from these studies. The blodegradatlon
of anthracene 1n aquatic media Is controlled by the temperature, oxygen
content and accl1mat1zat1on/nonacc11mat1zat1on of the microorganisms.
Higher blodegradatlon rates were observed at 30°C than at 20 and 10°C (Bauer
and Capone, 1985). The blodegradatlon process was found to be aerobic and
higher oxygen concentration up to a certain optimum value tended to Increase
the oxidation rates (Bauer and Capone, 1985). Similarly, the blodegradatlon
rates were reported to be faster with acclimatized microorganisms (Bauer and
Capone, 1985; Herbes and Schwall, 1978; Lee and Ryan, 1983; Lee, 1977). The
Incubation of anthracene with Intertldal sediment slurries for a reasonable
period of time (-1 month) not only produces the mineralization product CO.
but also produces Intermediate metabolites. A large portion of the Initial
material or Us Intermediate metabolites (which could not be Identified
because 14C counting of the combustion products of residue was used as the
method of quantification) remained cellular bound (Bauer and Capone. 1985;
Schwall and Herbes, 1979). For example, Incubation of anthracene with
petroleum-contaminated sediments for 5 days at 12*C produced '42% of
extractable unaltered anthracene, 4% of CO- and 4% of polar metabolites;
•30% remained cellular bound (Schwall and Herbes, 1979). The residual 20%
of the original anthracene remained unaccounted for. The half-lives of
anthracene In waters and sediments are generally expressed as the complete
mineralization half-life and the half-life for the disappearance of Initial
0867p -3- 02/11/87
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anthracene. Although the former method correctly predicts the mineraliza-
tion half-life. It does not reflect the loss of anthracene that Is due to
formation of Intermediate metabolites. Therefore, It always overestimates
the half-life for blodegradatlon of anthracene. The latter method, on the
other hand, may underestimate the blodegradatlon half-life because of the
Inability of the quantification method to determine the amount of starting
material 1n the cellular bound part and to obtain a complete material
balance for the starting material. The mineralization half-life of anthra-
cene has been reported to be 57-210 days In unaccllmatlzed sediments and 5-7
days 1n oil treated sediments (Lee and Ryan. 1983). The mineralization
half-life of anthracene was also reported to be -200 days In oil-treated
water and -20-fold higher 1n uncontamlnated water (Lee, 1977). The overall
blotransformatlon (both CO. and Intermediate metabolite formation)
half-life of anthracene In petroleum-contaminated sediment was reported to
be -12 days (Herbes and Schwall, 1978). In pristine sediments, the overall
blotransformatlon half-life was -10-fold higher (Herbes and Schwall, 1978).
The overall blotransformatlon half-life of anthracene In sediments contami-
nated with a coal-coking wastewater was -2 days. The anthracene transforma-
tion rate was -20 times lower In the water (Herbes, 1981).
2.1.4. Volatilization. The rates of volatilization of anthracene from
bodies of water were studied by several Investigators. Besides the water
temperatures, the rates of volatilization are dependent on the depth of the
water, the current of the flowing water, the wind velocity above the water
and the nature and amount of suspended solids present 1n the water
(Southworth, 1979). Decreases 1n water depths. Increases In current and
wind velocity and decreases In absorption onto suspended particles 1n water
are expected to Increase the volatilization rates. None of the available
0867p -9- 02/11/87
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estimation methods for the determination of evaporative half-life of anthra-
cene In water bodies, however, Incorporates the effect of sorptlon on
volatilization. The estimated evaporative rate constants, half-lives and
percent loss that 1s due to evaporation from different water bodies as
estimated from gas and liquid phase exchange constants and Henry's Law
constant are shown In Table 2-1.
2.1.5. Adsorption. The adsorption of a compound to suspended participate
matter and sediments can be predicted from Us K value, which 1s -26,000
for anthracene (Karlckhoff et a!., 1979). This Is Indicative of the possi-
bility of strong adsorption of anthracene onto suspended particles and
sediments 1n water. Several Investigators have estimated, however, that the
removal rate of anthracene from water that 1s due to adsorption Is small
compared with other removal processes. Depending on the nature of the water
body, the percent of anthracene removal from water may vary from negligible
to 18%. The percent removal by adsorption was estimated to be maximum 1n
deep, slow moving, muddy water bodies (Southworth, 1979). Depending on the
characteristics of water bodies, Herbes et al. (1980) also estimated that
between 2.8 and 19% of anthracene removal will take place by adsorption.
The EXAMS computer modeling of a 2 m deep eutrophlc pond and 3 m deep river
with an Input K value of 26,000 estimated that -3.3 and 0.4X, respec-
tively, of anthracene will be removed by sedimentation (Zepp, 1980).
2.1.6. Bloconcentratlon. The bloconcentratlons .of chemicals In aquatic
organisms are dependent on the overall uptake and elimination kinetics.
Unless an equilibrium Is attained between these two opposing processes, the
bloconcentratlon factors are expected to vary. With the possible exception
of the results of Freltag et al. (1982), BCFs for anthracene In different
0867p -10- 02/11/87
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TABLE 2-1
Removal of Anthracene by Volatilization from Water Bodies at 25°C*
Water Velocity Wind Velocity
(ra/sec) (in/sec)
0.1 4
0.1 0.1
1.0 4.0
0.5 1.0
1 4
Depth
5 m
5 m
1 m
1 ra
25 cm
% Loss of Total
Half-Life Due to
Volatilization
14 days
29 days
16.5 hours
62 hours
4 hours
2-3
3
21
7.7
35
'Source: Southuorth. 1979; Heroes et al.. 1980
0867p
-11-
11/17/86
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aquatic organisms given In Table 2-2 were obtained under apparent equilib-
rium conditions. Additional data regarding BCFs are presented In Chapter 6.
McCarthy (1983) pointed out that the uptake of PAHs Including anthracene Is
greatly reduced with sorbed chemical compared with Us uptake from the
dissolved state. Therefore, natural waters containing anthracene In the
suspended organic matter 1n the sorbed state are likely to show BCFs that
differ from those obtained 1n laboratory experiments with partlculate-free
water. In the case of anthracene, the differences may not be pronounced
because the removal rate of anthracene from water that 1s due to adsorption
1s small compared with other removal processes (see Section 2.1.5.). It can
be concluded from Table 2-2 that anthracene moderately bloconcentrates In
aquatic organisms.
2.1.7. Overall Removal Processes. While the rate of uptake by fish Is
faster than the rate of uptake by partlculates, a high concentration of
suspended particles In water may offset this rate difference. Thus, under
conditions of high concentration of suspended particles, BCF values may be
lower. The removal of anthracene from aquatic media will depend on the
nature of the aquatic media. The predicted contributions of major processes
In the removal of anthracene from different aquatic media are given 1n Table
2-3, which indicates that, In most water bodies, photolysis and mlcroblal
degradation will play Important roles 1n the loss of anthracene. There Is a
large difference, however. In the predicted half-life of anthracene between
the Southworth (1979) Investigation and the Zepp (1980) Investigation. The
former's values are probably underestimated because they were derived with-
out full consideration of effects of sorptlon on volatilization, photolysis
and mlcroblal degradation. The values derived by Zepp (1980), using similar
Input parameters but using EXAMS computer model, may not be accurate. In a
0867p -12- 04/23/87
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TABLE 2-2
BCFs for Anthracene In Different Aquatic OrganUrns
Species
BCF
Reference
Alga (Oedoqonluro cardlacum)
Snail (Physa sp.)
Fish (Gambusla afflnls)
Golden orfe (Leuclscus Idus melanotus)
Goldfish (Carasslus auratus)
Zooplanker (Daphnla pule*)
670
2714
1029
910
162
917
Lu et al.t 1978
Lu et al.. 1978
Lu et al., 1978
Freltag et al.,
1982
Ogata et al., 1984
Southworth et al.,
1978
0867p
-13-
11/17/86
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lABLi 2-3
Contributions of Major Processes In Removal of Anthracene fron Mater at 25*C During Hid*
o
cy
.^ Water Characteristics
Deep, slow and
soaewhal turbid
Deep, slow and Middy
Deep, slow and clear
Shallow, fast and clear
1
Very shallow, fast
and clear
2 • deep.
eu trophic pond
3 • deep, river
Shallow, rapidly
flowing clear strea*
Process
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
•Icroblal degradation
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
•Icroblal degradation
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
•Icrobtal degradation
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
•Icroblal degradation
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
•Icrobtal degradation
volatilization
water borne export
photolysis
•Icroblal degradation
volatilization
waterborne export
photolysis
•Icrobtal degradation
volatilization
adsorption
photolysis
X Contribution
3
0
5
91
3
18
0
79
2
1
22
74
21
4
44
31
35
6
47
12
2.4
2.9
89
6.1
4.7
38
56
0.5
7.5
20.4
71.4
Overall Half-life Reference
(hours)
10.5 Southworth. 1979
21.6 Southworth. 1979
8.5 Southworth. 1979
3.5 Southworth. 1979
1.4 Southworth, 1979
696 Zepp. 1980
62 Zepp. 1960
1 Heroes et al.. I960
•Icroblal degradation
0.7
00
-------
eutrop.hlc pond where algae growth will prevent light penetration into the
Interior of water, -90% photodegradatlon of anthracene appears to be an
overestimate.
2.2. AIR
The fate and transport of anthracene In the atmospheric media has
received much less attention than In aquatic media, because a multlcompart-
ment (six) modeling program conducted by Mackay et al. (1985) estimated that
>95X of environmental anthracene will reside In water and <1.4 1n atmo-
spheric media.
The reactivity of atmospheric anthracene will be largely dependent on
the state 1n which 1t exists In the atmosphere. The reactivity of vapor
phase anthracene Is expected to be different from Us reactivity In the
adsorbed state (Santodonato et al.. 1981). Considering the vapor pressure
of anthracene (see Section 1.2.), the compound Is expected to exist both In
the vapor and the partlcle-sorbed phase In the atmosphere (Elsenrelch et
al., 1981). The experimental results of Thrane and Hlkalsen (1981) Indicate
that from 78-98% of anthracene collected from the atmosphere exists 1n the
vapor phase. The reactivity of anthracene with atmospheric oxldants Includ-
ing OH radical. (L and NO. has not been studied comprehensively. The
heterogeneous reaction of gas phase 0- and NO- with anthracene coated on
sodium chloride was studied by Nlessner et al. (1985), who reported that the
heterogeneous reaction of anthracene was negligible with NO- but reaction
with 03 was significant. Both anthrone and anthraqulnone were reported to
be the products of this reaction. Although this experiment points out the
possibility of 0. reaction with anthracene 1n the atmosphere, 1n the
absence of rate data H cannot be used for predicting quantitatively the
fate of anthracene In the ambient air that Is due to this reaction. The
0867p -15- 04/23/87
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rate constant for the reaction of gaseous anthracene with hydroxyl radicals
at 52°C Is reported to be 112xlO~la cra3/molecule-sec (Atkinson, 1985).
If the concentration of OH radical 1n the atmosphere Is assumed to be 10*
radicals/cm* (U.S. EPA, 1980a), the half-life of this reaction at 52°C Is
~2 hours. In the troposphere where the average temperature Is <52°C and
part of the anthracene will exist In the partlcle-sorbed phase, the half-
life may be longer than the value estimated at 52°C.
Based on Us fate 1n aquatic media, photodegradatlon 1s expected to be a
significant process 1n the atmosphere as well. The photoreactlon of
partlcle-sorbed anthracene was shown to be substrate-dependent (Behymer and
H1tes, 1985). For example, when anthracene was adsorbed onto silica gel,
alumina, fly ash and carbon black and Irradiated with light from a medium
pressure mercury arc 1n a rotary photoreactor, the corresponding half-lives
were 2.9, 0.5, 48 and 310 hours. Thus. 1t appears that both fly ash and
carbon black stabilize anthracene 1n the atmosphere and may facilitate their
transport from combustion sources. Similar conclusions were reached by
Korfmacher et al. (1980), who reported that anthracene adsorbed on fly ash
was resistant to photodecoraposHlon. Photoreactlon of anthracene that has
been dispersed Into atmospheric partlculate matter was also reported by Fox
and Olive (1979). These authors concluded that photodegradatlon In the
atmosphere 1s a more Important fate process than ozonatlon. When anthracene
adsorbed onto atmospheric partlculate matter was exposed to bright sunshine
for 4 days, -10% of the compound disappeared. The authors concluded that
besides oxidation products (anthrone, anthraqulnone), photolysis may also
produce polymeric condensed products. Therefore, the following conclusions
can be reached regarding the photoreactlon of anthracene 1n the atmosphere:
1) the majority of anthracene that will be present 1n the atmosphere 1n the
0867p -16- 04/23/87
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unadsorbed gas phase will photodegrade by atmospheric sunlight with a
half-life of a few hours, as 1n the case of solution phase anthracene (see
Section 2.1.1. and Korfmacher et al., 1980); 2) the relatively small
fraction of atmospheric anthracene that will exist In the partlcle-sorbed
state will be more resistant to photodegradatlon and may degrade by sunlight
. with a half-life of days.
Atmospheric anthracene can also be removed by physical processes. The
removal of atmospheric anthracene In the Great Lakes ecosystem was reported
by Elsenrelch et al. (1981). Both dry deposition of the vapor and particle-
bound anthracene and wet precipitation through rain and snow occurred;
however, dry deposition was found to be more Important than wet deposition.
Llgockl et al. (1985a) concluded that particle scavenging was less Important
than gas scavenging of atmospheric anthracene. The half-lives for these
physical removal mechanisms were not provided by either study; however, the
removal of atmospheric anthracene through these physical mechanisms appear
to be less significant than Us removal through blotlc processes. Finally,
Lunde and Bjoerseth (1977) reported that the concentration of anthracene
that originated from trajectories from Western Europe contained -4 times
more anthracene than samples with trajectories from northern Norway or
stationary air from southern Norway. This result suggests that at least a
part of atmospheric anthracene Is stable enough 1n the atmosphere to travel
long distances. Perhaps the part of anthracene 1n the atmosphere that
existed 1n the partlcle-sorbed phase, remained nonreactlve towards abiotic
processesr and was not removed by physical processes underwent this long
distance transport 1n the atmosphere.
0867p -17- 04/23/87
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2.3. SOIL
The fate of anthracene In soils Is studied even less than Us fate In
the atmosphere. Its fate In soil can be predicted, however, from the knowl-
edge of Us fate In aquatic media. The three processes that are Important
1n the loss of anthracene from aquatic media are photolysis, blodegradatlon
and volatilization. Because of light attenuation and scattering, photolysis
cannot be an Important process for the loss of anthracene beyond the
surflclal layer of soils. It has been shown by Bossert et al. (1984) that
oily sludge containing anthracene and other polynuclear aromatic compounds
when Incorporated 1n a sandy loam soil underwent loss of anthracene. Since
multiple applications of sludge to soil were made at a certain Interval with
an Intervening nonappHcatlon period, 1t 1s difficult from the data
presented to estimate the degradation half-life of anthracene 1n the soil.
On the basis of the decay of the.chemical after Us first application, the
half-life 1s -32 days. The authors concluded that blodegradatlon and
abiotic processes accounted for observed decreases In the concentration.
The undefined abiotic processes were responsible for <50% of the loss of
anthracene from the soil. Some of the loss was speculated to be due to
volatilization.
The possibility of leaching of anthracene from soil to groundwater will
depend on soil type. The K value for anthracene Is -26,000 (KaHckhoff
et al., 1979). This Indicates that anthracene will be adsorbed strongly to
soil and the compound may degrade before K reaches groundwater. Filtration
of polluted surface water containing anthracene through sandy soil at a
residence tine of -100 days did not completely eliminate anthracene 1n the
filtered water (P1et and Morra, 1979). The passage of anthracene through
the soil was explained as a breakthrough of the chemical because of the
saturation of active sorptlon sites.
0867p -18- 04/23/87
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2.4. SUMMARY
The fate and transport of anthracene 1n aquatic media has received much
more attention than In any other media, because a mu HI compartment modeling
program conducted by Hackay et al. (1985) estimated that >95% of environ-
mental anthracene will reside 1n the aquatic compartment. The fate and
transport of anthracene 1n surface waters will depend on the nature of the
water. In most waters, the loss of anthracene Is mainly due to photolysis
and blodegradatlon (Hackay et al., 1985); however. In a very shallow, fast-
flowing clear water, volatilization and photolysis will pla-y dominant roles
In determining the fate of anthracene (Southworth, 1979). In deep, slow
flowing and muddy waters, mlcroblal degradation and adsorption may account
for the major losses of anthracene from water {Southworth, 1979).
Therefore, the half-life of anthracene 1n natural surface waters will depend
on the nature of the water bodies. In very shallow, fast-flowing and clear
water, Us half-life may be -1 hour (Southworth. 1979; Herbes et al., 1980).
On the other hand, the half-life may be as high as 29 days In a deep
eutrophlc pond (Zepp, 1980). Anthracene will moderately bVpconcentrate In
aquatic organisms.
In air, anthracene Is expected to be present both 1n the vapor and the
partlcle-sorbed state. Over 78% of atmospheric anthracene may be present In
the vapor state (Thrane and Mlkalsen. 1981). Both chemical processes
Including 0. and OH radical and photochemical reaction will degrade
atmospheric anthracene (Nlessner et al., 1985; Atkinson, 1985; Korfmacher et
al., 1980; Bthyaer and HHes, 1985). The degradation of vapor phase atmo-
spheric anthracene 1s expected to be faster than partlcle-sorbed anthracene
(Santodonato et al., 1981). The atmospheric half-life of anthracene may
0867p -19- 04/23/87
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vary from hours to days (Atkinson, 1985; Korfmacher et al., 1980; Behymer
and Hltes, 1985; Lunde and BJeorseth, 1977). The long range transport of
anthracene observed by Lunde and Bjoerseth (1977) Indicates that partlcle-
sorbed anthracene may have a half-life of the order of days.
The fate and transport of anthracene In soils Is not well studied. Both
blodegradatlon and abiotic processes will degrade anthracene 1n soils
(Bossert et al., 1984). The half-life of anthracene 1n soil may be -1 month
(Bossert et al., 1984). Anthracene may not leach from most soils because of
Us!high K value; however. It may leach through soils that have attained
the breakthrough capacity for anthracene sorptlon (P1et and Horra, 1979).
0867p -20- 02/11/87
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3. EXPOSURE
3.1. WATER
Anthracene Is ubiquitous In the aquatic environment. It has been
detected 1n Industrial effluents, 1n run-off waters, In surface water and
sediments. In groundwater, and 1n drinking water. The Industrial effluents
that are most likely to contain polynuclear aromatic compounds Including
anthracene are wastewaters from the synfuel Industry, shale oil plants,
petroleum processing plants, other Industries using coal derived products,
wastewater treatment plants and aluminum reduction plants (Bjoerseth et al.,
1978; Gammage, 1983; Kveseth et al.. 1982); however, anthracene has been
reported 1n effluents from only a few Industries. Anthracene at a concen-
tration range of <13-105 ng/i was reported In the effluent From a sewage
treatment plant In Norway (Kveseth et al.. 1982). Other Investigators have
reported anthracene at a concentration range of <0.03-0.84 yg/i In the
effluent from coke oven plants (Walters and Luthy. 1984; Grlest, 1980). The
detection of anthracene was also reported In urban run-off waters. Cole et
al. (1984) monitored run-off waters from 15 U.S. cities and detected an 8%
frequency of anthracene and a concentration range of 1-10 ug/l. Anthra-
cene was detected at trace levels 1n the water of a small segment of the
Delaware River, north of Philadelphia (Kites, 1979). Dewalle and Chlan
(1978) analyzed water from the Delaware River and Us major tributaries and
detected anthracene at a concentration of >1 i»g/i with a frequency of
3X. Samples of water taken from the Tennessee River In Calvert City, KY,
were reported to contain anthracene at a concentration of 12.1 vg/l
(Goodley and Gordon, 1976). Since 1980, U.S. EPA collected 776 ambient
water samples for the analysis of anthracene (Staples et al., 1985).
0867p -21- 04/23/87
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Anthracene was detected In 4% of the samples and at a median concentration
of <10 vg/l. Anthracene was also reported In surface wastes in England
(Fielding et al.. 1981) and In Germany (Malle. 1984). A number of Investi-
gators reported the detection of anthracene In surface water sediments. A
few authors used the sediment analysis to establish the source of these
compounds 1n the environment and the mode of this transport In aquatic
environment (Windsor and HUes, 1979; Eadle et al., 1982; Tan and HeU,
1981; Sporstol et al., 1983; Boehm and Farrlngton, 1984). Unseparated
anthracene/phenanthrene at a concentration as high as 6.4 mg/kg was reported
In a sediment sample from an estuary between England and Hales (John et al.,
1979).
Anthracene has been reported 1n groundwater from a few contaminated
sites. For example. Rostad et al. (1985) reported the quantitative detec-
tion of anthracene In groundwater from a coal tar waste aquifer In St. Louis
Park, HN. Bed lent et al. (1984) reported the detection of up to 168.6
tig/I of anthracene In groundwater from a creosote waste site In
Conroe, TX.
The detection of anthracene In Canadian drinking water derived from
Great Lakes was reported by Williams et al. (1982). The combined concentra-
tion of anthracene/phenanthrene (unseparable) in these waters ranged between
0.6 and 1269 ng/l. The highest concentration was obtained In a water from
Sault Ste. Marie collected during the summer. Anthracene has also been
reported to be present 1n Nordic drinking water at a concentration range of
0.04-9.7 ng/t (Kveseth et al., 1982). In Japanese drinking water,
Shlnohara et al. (1981) reported the detection of 1.7 vg/l of combined
anthracene and phenanthrene. P1et and Horra (1973) reported the detection
of a maximum of 30 yg/l of anthracene 1n bank-filtered tapwater In the
0867p -22- 02/11/87
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Netherlands. Finished waters from 13 different locations throughout the
United States were analyzed for anthracene (Sorrell et al., 1980). Anthra-
cene was not detected In any of these drinking water samples.
3.2. AIR
The sources of PAHs Including anthracene In the atmosphere have been
reported extensively (Santodonato et al., 1981; Oalsey et al., 1986;
Gammage, 1983). Some of the conventional sources are vehicular emissions,
coal burning, oil burning, wood combustion, coke plants, aluminum plants.
Iron and steel works, foundries, ferro-alloy plants and municipal Inciner-
ators. Some of the more common modern sources of PAHs Including anthracene
are synfuel plants and oil shale plants. The ratios of anthracene and
benzo(a)pyrene to benzo(e)pyrene and the concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene In
partlculate from various sources are given 1n Table 3-1.
The concentration of anthracene In municipal fly ash was reported to
vary between 4 and 380 vg/kg (EIceman et al., 1981). The workroom
atmospheric concentration of anthracene 1n an aluminum reduction plant has
been reported to be as high as 33.1 yg/m* (Bjoerseth et al., 1978).
Personnel monitoring of an anode plant showed that the concentration of
partlculate anthracene varied from none detected for pitch dust sweepers to
1.9 yg/ra* for pitch bin workers (BJoerseth et al.. 1978). The concen-
trations of atmospheric combined anthracene and phenanthrene Inside a
solvent refined coal pilot plant facility was reported to vary between 1.8
and 43.2 wfl/B* (Ganmage. 1983). Personal air samples taken In the coal
preparation area of the solvent refined coal pilot plant showed combined
anthracene/phenanthrene concentrations of none detected to 15.7 ug/m'
(Gammage, 1983). The simulated Incineration of poly(v1ny1 chloride) at
850°C was qualitatively shown to produce anthracene (Hawley-Fedder et al..
0867p -23- 04/23/87
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00
o»
TABLE 3-1
Ratios of Anthracene to Benzo(e)pyrene. Benzo(a)pyrene to Benzo(e)pyrene
and the Concentrations of Benzo(a)pyrene from Various Sources of Emission*
1
ro
.»
1
Ratios and
Concentration
Anthracene to
benzo(e)pyrene ratio
Benzo(a)pyrene to
Tunnel
2.2
1.2
Residential
Coal-Burning
0.4-7.5
0.6-2.0
Residential
Oil-Burning
0.6
0.9
Coke Oven
0.2-6.9
1.0-2.3
Auto
Exhaust
6.9-17
0.3-1.4
Wood
Combust Ion
1.1-20
0.5-3.0
Benzo(a)pyrene
concentrations In
parttculate matter
from various sources.
ppra (mg/kg)
66-500
10-600
NR
1400-5BOO
NR
3-870,900
'Source: Datsey et al., 1986
NR = Not reported
CD
-------
1984). The concentrations of PAHs 1n the air of three different types of
wood-heated saunas were reported by Hasanen et al. (1984). The anthracene
concentrations 1n sauna air varied from 0.3-25.2 pg/m3.
The concentrations of anthracene In ambient air In some cities In the
United States and around the world have been reported by several Investi-
gators. Table 3-2 shows the ambient atmospheric concentrations of anthra-
cene In various locations. It 1s evident from Table 3-2 that the atmo-
spheric concentrations of anthracene (even after consideration of phenan-
threne contribution) measured for Osaka, Japan, In 1977-1978 are substan-
tially higher than the other reported values. Since the authors used a
small packed (6 ft.) GC column and flame 1on1zat1on detecter for quantifica-
tion of compounds, It Is likely that complete separation of some compounds
was not achieved by this analytical technique. Grosjean (1983) demonstrated
that the atmospheric anthracene concentrations showed both seasonal and
diurnal variations, with anthracene concentrations higher In winter and
during the night. Although suitable data were not available on anthracene
for comparison, Grosjean (1983) estimated that the levels of other PAHs In
Los Angeles air did not significantly change during the last decade. If one
assumes that the mean level of anthracene Is similar to Los Angeles air
(mean of 0.54 ng/m») and that an adult Individual Inhales 20 m» air/day.
the average dally Intake of anthracene from Inhalation Is 11 ng.
3.3. FOOD
The levels of anthracene In different foods have been studied much less
extensively than the levels of some other PAHs, such as benzo(a)pyrene. The
lack of evidence for carclnogenlcHy of the compound (IARC, 1983) and
analytical difficulty In quantifying anthracene may have contributed to the
lack of data pertaining to Its level 1n foods. Anthracene has been reported
0867p -25- 02/11/87
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TABLE 3-2
Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations of Anthracene 1n Various Locations
Location
Year
Sampled
Anthracene
Concentration
(ng/mj)
Reference
Columbia, SC
Savannah River
Plant, SC
Gainesville, FL
Jacksonville, FL
Portland, OR
Los Angeles. CA
Budapest. Hungary
Singapore
Osaka, Japan
Osaka, Japan
1981-1982 0.3->4.2
1982-1983 0.09->0.2
NRa
1984
1981-1982
1971-1972
1.0
6.0
2.8
0-4.82 (0.54)b
4.4-618 (61.5)b
1983 <0.1
1981-1982 0.17-0.57 (0.32)°
1977-1978 52.1-294.5C
Keller and Bldleman.
1984
Keller and Bldleman,
1984
Kerkhoff et al., 1985
Kerkhoff et al., 1985
L1gock1 et al., 19855
Grosjean. 1983
Kertesz-Sarlnger and
HorUn, 1975
Ang et al.. 1986
Matsumoto and
Kashlmoto. 1985
Yamasakl et al.. 1982
aThe year of sampling was not reported by the authors, but appears to be
1982.
bThese are the wan concentrations.
cThe reported concentrations were for the combined concentrations of
anthracene and phenanthrene.
0867p
-26-
11/17/86
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to be present \r\ smoked foods, liquid smoke, charcoal-broiled steaks (Fazio
and Howard, 1983) and In edible aquatic organisms collected from certain
contaminated waters. The levels of anthracene In different foods are given
In Table 3-3.
It Is evident from Table 3-3 that data regarding the levels of anthra-
cene In a few foods have been reported, but no data on the level of this
compound In food composites used by an Individual In the United States are
available. Until such data are available. It Is not possible to estimate
the human Intake of anthracene through consumption of foods.
3.4. SUMMARY
Anthracene Is ubiquitous In the aquatic environment. Anthracene at a
concentration range of <13-105 ng/i was reported In the effluent from a
sewage treatment plant 1n Norway (Kveseth et al., 1982). It was also
reported 1n the concentration range of <0.03-0.84 wg/l In the effluent
from coal oven plants (Halters and Luthy, 1984; Grlest, 1980). It has been
reported to be present 1n several surface waters (HHes, 1979; Dewalle and
Chlan, 1978; Staples et al., 1985). A maximum concentration of 12.1
tfg/l was reported In the water from Tennessee River 1n Calvert City, KY
(Goodley and Gordon. 1976). In general, anthracene occurs In ambient waters
at a frequency of 4% and at a median concentration of <10 vg/i (Staples
et al.. 1985). Anthracene has been reported to be present In groundwater
front a few contaminated sites. Bed lent et al. (1984) reported the detection
of up to 166.6 v
-------
TABLE 3-3
Anthracene Levels In Different Foods
Food
Anthracene
Concentration
' Reference
Electric broiled
Japanese horse mackerel
Gas broiled Japanese
horse mackerel
Charcoal-broiled steaks
Barbecued ribs
Mussel composite (U.S.)
(M. edulls and M. callfornlanus)
Nigerian-preserved
freshwater fish
Mussel 1 (Greece)
(H. galloprovlnclalls)
Fish (U.S.)
Clam (Australia)
(Trldacma
0.2-1.9
2.0-2.3
4.5
7.1
7.9-32*
0.20-30.1
8-9
<20-100*
<3.2
Fazio and Howard,
1983
Fazio and Howard,
1983
Fazio and Howard,
1983
Fazio and Howard,
1983
Galloway et al.,
1983
Afolabl et al..
1983
loslfldou et al.,
1982
Devault, 1985
Smith et al.. 1984
•These are values for combined anthracene/phenanthrene concentrations.
0867p
-28-
11/17/86
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drinking water In Sault Ste. Marie (Williams et al., 1982). Finished waters
from 13 different locations throughout the United States, however, failed to
show the presence of any anthracene (Sorrel 1 et al., 1980).
The concentrations of anthracene In ambient air In some cities In the
United States and around the world have been reported. The mean concentra-
tion of anthracene In the air of Los Angeles during 1981-1982 was reported
to be 0.54 ng/m* (Grosjean, 1983), whereas Its mean concentration In
Osaka, Japan, during the same period was reported to be 0.32 ng/m3
(Matsumoto and Kashlmoto. 1985). It has been demonstrated by Grosjean
(1983) that the atmospheric anthracene concentrations show both seasonal and
diurnal variations, with the anthracene concentration higher In winter and
during the night. Although suitable data were not available on anthracene
for comparison, Grosjean (1983) estimated that the levels of other PAHs In
Los Angeles air did not change significantly during the last decade. Based
on the assumptions that the mean level of anthracene 1n U.S. air Is 0.54
ng/m* (same as concentration In Los Angeles) and that an adult Individual
^
Inhales 20 m* air/day, the average dally Intake of anthracene from Inhala-
tion 1s 11 ng.
Anthracene has been reported to be present In smoked foods, liquid
smoke, charcoal-broiled steaks and edible aquatic organisms collected from
certain contaminated waters (Fazio and Howard, 1983; Galloway et al., 1983).
For example, the concentrations of anthracene In charcoal-broiled steaks and
barbecued ribs were reported to be 4.5 and 7.1 yg/kg. respectively (Fazio
and Howard, 1983). The U.S. National Mussel watch program collected mussels
from >100 sites on the East, West and Gulf coasts (Galloway et al., 1983).
0867p -29- 02/11/87
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The concentration of anthracene In these mussel composites was 7.9-32
vg/kg (Galloway et al., 1983). Until data on the level of this compound
In food composites used by an Individual in the United States are available,
It Is not possible to estimate the human Intake of anthracene through
consumption of foods In the United States.
0867p -30- 02/11/87
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4. PHARHACOKINETICS
4.1. ABSORPTION
Excretion data suggest that gastrointestinal absorption of anthracene
may be relatively low. As detailed 1n Section 4.4., 53-84% of anthracene
Ingested from diets containing 0.2-1.0%, and 64-74% of anthracene adminis-
tered by stomach tube at 200 ing/rat were eliminated 1n the feces by rats In
2-3 days (Chang, 1943); urine was not analyzed and biliary excretion was not
measured. The amount of anthracene In the feces was determined gravimetric-
ally. No Information was available for low-dose 1ngest1on of anthracene.
[9-14C]Anthracene (1 ntnol suspended In 10% OMSO In 0.9% saline) was
administered to 24 female F344/CM rats 1n a single Intratracheal Instilla-
tion (Bond et a!., 1985). Groups of 3 rats were sacrificed after 1, 3, 6,
12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours for determination of amount of 14C remaining
1n the lungs. Clearance of 14C from the lungs was Diphasic, with 99.7 and
0.3% of the administered radioactivity cleared with half-times of 0.1 and
25.6 hours, respectively. PAHs, In general, are highly llpld soluble and
are absorbed readily from the gastrointestinal tract and lungs (U.S. EPA,
19805).
4.2. DISTRIBUTION
Pertinent data regarding the distribution of anthracene could not be
located In the available literature as cited 1n the Appendix.
4.3. METABOLISM
Metabolites resulting from monooxygenase attack at the 1,2-bond of
anthracene have been Identified In the urine of rats and rabbits treated
with anthracene 1n diet (Sims, 1964; Boyland and Burrows, 1935; Boyland and
Levl. 1935) and 1n ht vitro studies that Incubated anthracene with rat liver
mlcrosomes (Akhtar et al., 1979). The 1,2-d1hydrod1ol of anthracene appears
0867p -31- 04/23/87
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to be the major metabolite (Akhtar et al., 1979). Products resulting from
oxidation at the 9- and 10-posltlons of anthracene were also Identified In
rat urine In the in vivo study (Sims, 1964), but not j_n vitro (Akhtar et
al., 1979), suggesting possible nonhepatlc origin; these metabolites Include
3,lO-d1hydrod1ol and 2,9,10-trlhydroxyanthracene. The metabolites are
excreted at least In part as glucuronlde or sulfate conjugates (S1ms, 1964).
4.4. EXCRETION
Groups of four male white rats were fed diets that contained 0.2, 1.0 or
1.0% anthracene In two 1-hour feedings during the same day. (Chang, 1943);
total Intake was 270, 605 and 830 mg anthracene, respectively. Feces
collected during the 2 days Following administration contained S3, 82 and
84% of the Ingested anthracene, respectively. Anthracene In aqueous starch
suspension was administered to two male white rats by stomach tube at a dose
of 200 mg (Chang. 1943). Feces collected during the 3 days after dosing
contained 64 and 74% of the anthracene administered; the amount of anthra-
cene 1n the feces In the above experiments, however, was determined gravl-
metrlcally and the urine was not analyzed.
Guinea pigs Injected Intravenously with a colloidal suspension of
anthracene showed uncharacterlzed fluorescent materials In the bile and
urine within 1 hour (Peacock, 1936). A secondary review of this study (U.S.
EPA, 1981) Indicated that additional Information regarding this study was
not available.
4.5. SUNKABY
Limited Information 1s available regarding the pharmacoklnetlc profile
of anthracene. Gastrointestinal absorption may be poor, as 53-84% of
anthracene administered by diet or stomach tube was eliminated In the feces
by rats In 2-3 days (Chang, 1943); however, urinary and biliary excretion
0857p -32- 04/23/87
-------
were not measured. Radioactivity from single Intratracheal Instillations of
14C-anthracene was cleared from the lungs In a blphaslc manner with
half-times of 0.1 hours (99.7% of dose) and 25.6 hours (0.3% of dose) (Bond
et al., 198S). The distribution of anthracene to tissues does not appear to
have been Investigated. Metabolites resulting from epoxldatlon at the
1,2-bond or oxidation at the 9- and 10-posHlons have been Identified In hj_
vivo and .In vitro studies with rats (S1ms, 1964; Akhtar et al.. 1979).
Trans-1,2-dlhydroxy-l,2-d1hydroanthracene and sulfate and glucuronlde conju-
gates consistent with the formation of anthracene-1,2-oxlde appear to be the
major products. Orally administered anthracene appears to be eliminated by
rats primarily (53-84%) In the feces (Chang, 1943). Metabolites of orally
administered anthracene have been detected In the urine of rats (Sims, 1964).
0867p -33- 04/23/87
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5. EFFECTS
5.1. CARCINOGENICITY
A group of 28 fourteen-week-old 801 or BOIII rats of unspecified sex
were given diets that Initially contained 5 mg, and later (not further
specified) 15 mg of "highly purified" anthracene In oil on 6 days/week for
78 weeks (Schmahl, 1955). The total dose was 4.5 g/rat and the animals were
observed for life. Mean survival time was 700 days. Tumors developed In
2/28 rats and consisted of a liver sarcoma after 18 months and a uterine
adenocardnoma after 25 months. A control group was not used In this study
and the tumors were not ascribed to treatment.
Single direct Injections of heat-liquified beeswax-trlcaprylln (1:1)
mixture containing 0.5 mg anthracene Into the lungs of 3- to 6-month-old
female Osborne-Mendel rats did not Induce keratlnlzlng squamous metaplasia
or epldermold carcinomas at the pellet site after 4-16 weeks (8 rats). 17-29
weeks (1 rat) or 43-55 weeks (28 rats) (Stanton et a!., 1972). Nonspecific
granulomatous reactions occurred In all of these animals. Treatment of
several groups of rats with 5-200 yg 3-methylcholanthrene under the same
experimental conditions produced pulmonary epldermold carcinomas within the
first year.
Anthracene has also been tested for cardnogenldty by skin application
with and without ultraviolet radiation In nice. In skin Initiation-promotion
assays with «1c», by subcutaneous and Intraperltoneal Injection In rats, and
by Implantation Into the brain or eyes In rabbits (Table 5-1). The results
of the skte*app11cat1on studies with anthracene do not provide evidence of
cardnogenldty, but contradictory results were obtained when anthracene was
applied to skin together with exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Initiating
activity was not Indicated In the mouse skin Initiation-promotion assays.
0867p -34- 02/11/87
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TABU 5-1
Dermal. Injection and Implantation Carclnogentclly Assays of Anthracene
o
CD
ioute
Species/ No.-/Sex
Purity
Treatment
Duration
Effects/Cements
Reference
Skin
Skin
Skin
Skin
Skin
en
1 Skin
Skin
Skin
mouse/NR 100/NJ
•ouse/NR 41/ltt
mouse/NR SO/MR
mouse/Swiss S/f
•ouse/NR
•ouse/NR
•ouse/NR
ouse/NR
44/NR
44/NR
100/NR
NR/NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
^ Skin
-u
^
_j
^j
v.
CD
mouse/Skh: 24/mtxed
hatrless-1
NR
dose and number of appltca- NR
ttons not specified; 4OX solu-
tion In lanolin
dose and number of appllca- life (133
ttons not specified; unspect- days average)
fled solutions In water.
beniene or sesame oil
dose not specified; 0.3X solu- 732 days
tlon In beniene twice weekly
dose not specified; IOX solu- life
tlon In acetone 3 times/week (10-20 months)
on the back
dose not specified; 5* solu- life
tton In petroleum jelly-olive (II months)
oil 3 times/week on the ear
treatment as above but with life
ultraviolet radiation (>320 nm) (10 months)
for 40 or 60 minutes. 2 hours
after skin application
treatment as above but mice life
received ultraviolet radiation (10 months)
for 90 minutes
dose and number of appllca- NR
ttons not specified; 10X solu-
tion In petroleum Jelly-olive
oil followed by unspecified
exposure to ultraviolet
(320 405 nm) alone or with
visible light
0 or 4 Mg tn methanol once 36 weeks
dally, followed by ultraviolet
(>290 nm) for 2 hours. & days/
week
No skin tutors; 45 and 6 alee sur-
vlved >6 Months and >160-days.
respectively
No skin tumors; dlbeni(a.h]anthra-
cene was tumor tgentc In same study
No skin tumors; 34 and 16 alive at
6 months and 1 year, respectively
No skin tumors; benio(a]pyrene
Induced high Incidences of skin
paplllomas and carcinomas under
the same conditions
No skin tumors; 1/44 alive after
II months; primary report not
available
No skin tumors; 5/44 alive after
7 months
No skin tumors; 7/100 alive after
7 months
•High Incidence* of skin tumors.
Including many carclnonas. was
observed after 5-8 weeks; no lumors
tn controls treated with anthracene.
ultraviolet or ultraviolet with
visible light; primary report not
available; unusually short latency
and Inadequate hlstopathology
reporting noted by IARC (1993)
Incidence of skin tumors not sig-
nificantly Increased tn treated
group; survival was 20/24 and 19/24
In controls and treated groups
Kennaway.
1924a,b
Pollta. 1939
Bachiuann
et al.. 1937
Uynder and
Hoffmann. 1959
Hlescher. 1942
Hlescher. 1942
Mlesther,
Heller. 1950
iorbes el a)..
1976
-------
TABLE S-l (conl.)
g Route
Species/ No.'/Sex Purity
Treatment
Duration
Effects/Cooaenls
Reference
Sktn
MOuse/S
20/NR
NR
Skin
aouse/CD-1
30/f
o«
i
i.e.
rat/NR
10/NR
chromato-
graphlc-
ally
purified
MR
rat/Utstar 5/NR
i.e.
ral/BOJ
and BOH I
10/NR
rat/BOl or 10/NR
BOI1I
highly
purified
highly
purified
two applications (0.3 ml of
0.5X solution In acetone per
application) with a 30-*tnule
Interval 3 times /week for a
total of 20 applications (30
•g/anlaal total); 18 weekly
applications of croton oil In
acetone (0.3 n) consisting of
1/0. in. 2/O.OBSX and 15/0. 17X
croton oil. beginning 25 days
after the first anthracene
application; controls received
the same treatment with croton
oil only.
single application of 10
(I7B2 tig) In beniene followed
I week later by S >*ol IPA
twice weekly for 34 weeks;
controls received the same
treatment with TPA only
weekly Injections of 2 ml of
O.OSk suspension In water for
life (103 •g/anlaal •axkma
total dose)
S *g In sesame oil. once
weekly for 6 or J weeks
20 *g In unspecified oil once
weekly for 33 weeks
20 «g In unspecified oil once
weekly for 33 weeks
25 weeks
35 weeks
>18 Months
10 Months
life
life
(aean -2 years)
Incidence of skin tuaors not sig-
nificantly Increased In treated
groups; survival was 19/20 and
17/20 In the control and.treated
groups, respectively
Salaman and
Roe. 1956
Incidence of skin paptlloaas was
4/26 (14X) In treated and 1/30 (3X)
In controls
No subcutaneous sarcomas; survival
was 7/10 after 12 Months and 8/10
after 18 Months; dlbeni(a.h]-
anthracene was tuMorlgenlc under
the sane conditions
No tunors; examinations apparently
Included viscera; dtbeni(a.h]-
anthracene Induced subcutaneous
tumors In 2/5 slMllarly treated rats
Injection site tuaors (fibromas
with sarcoMalous areas) In 6/9
rats, mean latency. 26 months; no
controls, but rats treated simi-
larly with naphthalene In oil did
not develop local tuaors
Tuaor In one rat (spindle-cell
sarcoma In abdoalnal cavity); no
control group
Scrlbner. 13)3
Boyland and
Burrows. 1935
Pollla, 1941
Schmahl. I'm
Schmahl.
oo
-------
TABLE 5-1 (conl.)
S
Route
Cerebral
cortei
t*plant
Cerebellar
laplant
Optic
k ftp Ian t
Species/
rabbi t/NR
rabbU/NB
rabblt/HR
No.' /Sex
S/NR
2/NR
2/Ni
Purity
NR
NR
NR
Treatment
10 og (1 rabbit) or 20 «g
(4 rabbits) pellets
12 *g pellets
4 or 5 *g pellets
Duration
4.S years
4.5 years
4.5 years
Effects/foments
No tunors; survival was 4/5 after
4 years and 2/5 at 4.5 years
No tunors; survival was 2/2 at
4.3 years
No tunors; survival was 2/2 at
4.5 years
Reference
Russell.
Hussell.
Kussell.
m;
1947
194/
•Muofcers In treatment and control (\t used) group(t) unless specified otherwise.
NR - Not reported; s.c. • subcutaneous; I.p. • Intraperltoneal
-J
V.
CD
-------
The Injection and Implantation studies do not provide evidence of carctno-
genlcHy, but these results cannot be regarded as conclusive because of
Inadequacies In experimental design (e.g., small numbers of animals, limited
number of exposures, Inadequate controls).
Three cases of eplthelloma (hand, cheek and wrist) were reported In men
engaged 1n~ handling 40X crude anthracene In an alizarin factory (Kennaway,
1924a.b). Two of these workers had worked for 30 and 32 years with the
crude anthracene and had never worked with any other tar product. Workers
In the same factory who had contact with only purified anthracene did not
develop tumors or other skin lesions (acne, keratoses, telanglectases,
pigmentation) that affected those who had contact with the crude material.
The crude anthracene was not characterized and additional Information
regarding these observations was not reported.
5.2. MUTAGENICITY
Anthracene has been tested 1n numerous mutagenlclty and other short-tern
assays with negative results. IARC (1983) has reviewed many of these
studies, which Include such assays with prokaryotes as DMA damage/repair In
EscheMchla coll and Bacillus subtlHs. reverse mutation 1n Salmonella
typhlmuMum Including strains TA1535, TA1537, TA1538, TA98 and TA100;
various assays In fungi Including mltotlc recombination In Saccharomyces
cerevlslae: assays 1n mammalian cells jr» vitro, unscheduled ONA synthesis 1n
primary rat hepatocytes and HeLa cells, mutation 1n Chinese hamster V79 and
mouse lyapluw, LS178Y cells, sister chromatld exchange and/or chromosome
breaks 1n Chinese hamster 06 or rat liver epithelial cells, cell transforma-
tion 1n mouse 8ALB/3T3, gu1nea-p1g fetal or Syrian hamster embryo cells; and
mammalian cells In vivo, sister chromatld exchange and chromosome aberra-
tions 1n Chinese hamsters, mlcronuclel In mice. Anthracene also produced
0867p -38- 04/23/87
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negative responses In mutagenlclty and short-term assays that were reported
In the more recent literature, Including Induction of prophage (Inductest)
(Mamber et al., 1984) and sMA gene (SOS Chromotest) (Qulllardet et al.,
1985) In E.. coll, mutation at the HGPRT locus and sister chromatld exchanges
In rat liver epithelial cells .In vitro (Ved Brat et al.. 1983), mutation to
6-th1oguan1ne resistance 1n Chinese hamster V79 cells In vitro (Langenbach
et al., 1983), ONA single strand breaks 1n rat hepatocytes 1n vitro (S1na et
al., 1983) and neoplastlc transformation In C3H/10T1/2 Clone 8 cells (Lubet
et al., 1983). Exogenous metabolic activation systems were-used 1n most of
the aforementioned Jji vitro assays. Many of the assays were Included In
validation studies, where anthracene was presumed to be noncardnogenlc.
Although most of the available data Indicate unequivocal nonmutagen1c1ty
of anthracene, weak mutagenldty was recently demonstrated 1n the Ames assay
with a new tester strain (TA97) of S. typhlmuMum (Sakal et al., 1985).
Mutagenlc activity was expressed only In the presence of S-9 metabolic
activation preparation, and was not observed with strains TA98 or TA100 with
or without metabolic activation.
5.3. TERATOGEMICITY
Pertinent data regarding the teratogenldty of anthracene could not be
located In the available literature as cited 1n the Appendix.
5.4. OTHER REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS
Pertinent data regarding other reproductive effects of anthracene could
not be located In the available literature as dted 1n the Appendix.
5.5. CHMUC AND SUBCHRONIC TOXICITY
Pertinent data regarding toxic effects of chronic or subchronlc oral or
Inhalation exposure to anthracene could not be located In the available
0867p -39- 04/23/87
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literature as cHed In the Appendix. Information regarding nonneoplastic
effects was not reported In the only oral cardnogenlclty study of anthra-
cene (Schmahl, 1955) (see Section 5.1.).
Holland et al. (1980) administered uncharacterlzed oil shale containing
polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons, Including anthracene, to Syrian golden
hamsters by Inhalation of 50 mg resplrable shale dust/m* for 4 hours/day,
4 days/week. The authors reported Interim results Indicating that shale
dust caused little pulmonary epithelial or flbrotlc reaction, but that
retorted shales caused Inflammation accompanied by flbrosls. ' Because of the
uncharacterlzed nature of the test material. It Is not possible to quantify
these or future data from this study for use 1n risk assessment.
5.6. OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION
The abstract of a Russian study Indicated that single oral doses of 1.47
or 2.44 g/kg of commercial grade anthracene or 17 g/kg of pure anthracene
were not lethal to mice (Nagornyl, 1969). Toxic effects reportedly Included
fatlgablllty, adynamia, hlstologlcal hyperemla In the kidney, liver, heart
and lungs, "llpld dystrophy" In the liver and leukocytosls with neutrophllla.
Daily Intragastrlc administration of 100 mg/kg anthracene In olive oil
for 4 days produced a small (3-fold) Increase 1n mean liver cytosollc
aldehyde dehydrogenase activity 1n a group of five male Ulstar rats
(Torronen et al., 1981). Treatment-related effects on aldehyde dehydrogen-
ase activity In the liver nlcrosomes or postraltochondrlal fractions of small
Intestinal aucosa or effects on liver/body weight ratios were not observed.
Salanorw tt al. (1381) reported that the single-dose 1ntraper1toneal
ID., for nice Is >430 rag/kg. Gerarde (1960) found that 9/10 mice survived
dally IntraperUoneal Injections of 500 mg/kg anthracene for 7 days with
depressed weight gain.
0867p -40- 11/17/86
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Systemlcally administered anthracene (50 mg/mi corn oil by gavage)
with ultraviolet Irradiation of the skin for 1 hour, 2 hours after dosing,
produced keratHls of the exposed skin in mice (Dayhaw-Barker et al., 1985).
This effect reportedly was less pronounced 1n mice exposed only to ultra-
violet light alone and not evident In vehicle controls. Topically applied
anthracene Increases the sensitivity of human and hairless mouse skin to
ultraviolet light (IARC, 1983; U.S. EPA. 1981; Kaldbey and Nonaka, 1984).
5.7. SUMMARY
Administration of diets that supplied a total dose of 4.5 g/rat of
anthracene over 78 weeks produced tumors 1n 2/28 rats (a liver sarcoma and a
uterine adenocardnoma) that were observed for life (Schmahl, 1955). A
control group was not used and the tumors were not ascribed to treatment. A
single Intrapulmonary Injection of 0.5 mg anthracene 1n beeswax-trlcaprylIn
mixture did not Induce local neoplastlc responses In rats after 4-55 weeks
of observation (Stanton et al., 1972).
Twice or thrice weekly skin applications of anthracene for life did not
produce local tumors In mice (Bachmann et al.. 1937; Hynder and Hoffmann.
1959; Mlescher. 1942), but contradictory results were obtained when anthra-
cene was applied to mouse skin with concurrent or directly subsequent ultra-
violet Irradiation (Heller, 1950; Forbes et al., 1976). Mouse skin
Initiation-promotion assays using croton oil (Salaman and Roe, 1956) or TPA
(ScMbner, 1973) as the promoter did not Indicate a tumor Initiating effect
of anthracene. Weekly subcutaneous Injections of anthracene In rats for 6
weeks to Iff* (PolHa. 1941; Schmahl. 1955; Boyland and Burrows, 1935),
weekly IntraperHoneal Injections In rats for 33 weeks (Schmahl, 1955) or
brain or eye Implants In rabbits for 4.5 years (Russell, 1947) did not
produce local tumors, but these findings should be regarded as Inconclusive
because of Inadequacies 1n experimental design.
0867p 41- 02/11/87
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Although Sakal et al. (1985) recently obtained a weak mutagenlc response
with activation for anthracene using a new tester strain (TA97) of S. typhl-
muMum. this represents the only positive response. Anthracene has been
tested In numerous mutagenlclty and other short-term assays with negative
results (IARC. 1983; Langenbach et al., 1983; Lubet et al., 1983; Ved Brat
et al., 1983; Hamber et al., 1984; Qulllardet et al., 1985). These Include
ONA damage, mutation, cytogenUHy and transformation assays with bacteria,
yeast and mammalian cells In vitro and Ui vivo. Exogenous metabolic activa-
tion systems were used In most of the .1^ vitro assays.
Pertinent data regarding chronic or subchronlc toxic effects, terato-
genlclty or other reproductive effects of anthracene could not be located 1n
the available literature as cited 1n the Appendix.
0867p -42- 04/23/87
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6. AQUATIC TOXICITY
6.1. ACUTE
The available Information concerning acute toxldty of anthracene to
aquatic animals Is presented In Table 6-1. The most sensitive species
tested was Daphnla pulex. with a 15-mlnute EC,Q for Immobilization value
of 1.2 wg/l In natural sunlight (Allred and Glesy, 1985; OMs et al.,
1984).
The toxlclty of anthracene 1s greatly Influenced by lighting conditions.
Anthracene Is essentially nontoxlc within solubility limits under normal
laboratory fluorescent lighting (wavelengths >380 nm) (Allred and Glesy,
1985). Several studies, however, have shown that the toxlclty of anthracene
Is substantially Increased under natural lighting conditions (Allred and
Glesy, 1985; Bowling et al., 1983; Kagan et al., 1985; Or1s et al., 1984).
Allred and Glesy (1985) found that anthracene was not toxic to Daphnla pulex
at 30 jig/I under fluorescent lighting, but caused 100% Immobilization In
2 minutes under natural sunlight. The available Information Indicates that
this photo-enhanced toxlclty Is due to material associated with the
organisms themselves rather than anthracene In the water. Allred and Glesy
(1985) found that Oaphnla pulex that were exposed to anthracene, then
transferred to clean water and then exposed to sunlight still experienced
the toxic effects (1mnob1l1zat1on). Bowling et al. (1983) demonstrated the
sane phenomenon with bluegllls (Leponls macrochlrus). F1sh exposed to 12.7
vg/l In sunlight were killed; however, fish held In the shade downstream
from a sunlit area at this concentration did not die. When transferred to
clean water and sunlight, previously exposed fish died. Indicating again
that anthracene accumulated by the animals was the cause of the photo-
enhanced toxlclty. The Influence of lighting conditions on anthracene
toxldty may explain why some of the acute toxldty data are quite variable.
0867p -43- 11/17/86
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CD
cr
•vj
•a
TABtf 6-1
Acute loxlctly of Anthracene to Aquatic Antuls
Species
Concentration
((feet
Reference
FISH
fathead Minnow, PlMephales proMelas
Bluegtll. LepoMlt iHcrpchUus
360
11.9
12.7
24-hour
96-hour
Mortality
Kagan et a).. 19BS
Orls et al.. 1964
Bowling et al.. 1963
AMPHIBIANS
frog. Rana plptens
no
25
24-hour
5-hour
Kagan et al., 19US
Kagan et al.. 1904
INVfRTEBRATiS
Hater flea. Daphnla aagna
yater flea. Daphnla pule;
Hasqulto, Aerie* aegyptl
Mosquito. Culex tp.
Brine ihrlap. Afteala sallna
Hunel. HytHut edulU
20 24-hour ICSO
3030 46-hour lC$o
1.2 IS alnute EC^Q. lonobllliatIon. In natural sunlight
9.6 IOOX Imoblllzatton. 10 alnutes. In natural sunlight
ISO 24-hour LCjo
26.8 24-hour IC50
20 24-hour ICjo
50-200 decreased lysosomal stability, digestive gland
Kagan et al.. 19US
Bobra et al.. 1903
Allred and Glesey. I9B5;
Orts et al.. 1964
Allred and Glesy. 19BS
Kagan et a I.. I9BS
Orts et al.. 1964
Kagan et al.. 190S
Hoore and ferrar. 198&
PR010ZOA
dilate. Paraaeclua caudatua
1000
SOX lethal. 60 Minutes
Epstein et al.. 1963
CD
-------
For example, LC5Q values of 20 and 3030 \iq/i were reported for Daphnla
tnaqna (Bobra et al., 1983; Kagan et al.. 1985).
6.2. CHRONIC
Pertinent data regarding chronic toxlclty of anthracene to aquatic
organisms could not be located In the available literature as cited In the
Appendix.
6.3. PLANTS
There Is IHtle Information regarding the effects of anthracene on
aquatic plants. Hutchlnson et al. (1980) reported EC., values of 239 and
535 yg/l for Inhibition of photosynthesis 1n Chlamydotnonas angulosa and
Chlorella vulqarls. respectively. G1dd1ngs (1979) found that a 100%
saturated anthracene solution had no effect on photosynthesis In Selenastrum
caprlcornutum.
Anthracene toxlclty to aquatic plants also seems to be Influenced by
lighting conditions. Cody et al. (1984) stated that growth of Selenastrum
caprlcornutum was unaffected by 40 mg/l under gold fluorescent light, but
was Inhibited 30% at 8 mg/l under cool-white fluorescent light.
6.4. RESIDUES
Data from bloconcentratlon experiments with anthracene are presented In
Table 6-2. The largest BCF was 16,800 for the benthlc amphlpod, Pontoporcla
hoyl (Landrura, 1982). The ability to metabolize and eliminate anthracene
seems to vary considerably among different species. The fish that have been
tested (rainbow trout, dolly varden char and blueglll) do not appear to
metabolize anthracene rapidly (Under and Bergman, 1984; Spade et al.,
1983; Thomas and R1ce, 1982). Some Invertebrates such as oysters, Crasso-
strea vlrqlnlca (Lee et al., 1978), and the amphlpod, Pontoporlla hoyl.
(Landrum, 1982) also metabolize and eliminate anthracene slowly, but other
species such as the midge, Chlronomus vlparlus. metabolize and eliminate
0867p -45- 04/23/87
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TABU 6-2
Bloconcenlratlon Data tor Anthracene In Aquatic Organises
o
OB
Species
Concentration
BCF
Remarks
Reference
FISH
Rainbow trout. Saljff ff
Goldfish. Carasslm iuratm
Bluegtll. Lepoplt •acrochlrus
36 200 la hours
50 779 72 hours
MR 9000-9200 estimated steady-state BCf
MR 162 NC
0.7-16.6 675 estimated steady-state BCf based on
anthracene only
0.1-16.6 900 estimated steady-state BCF based on total
>«C accumulation
Under and Ber
-------
anthracene rapidly (Gerould et al., 1983). The presence or absence of
sediment In these studies may also Influence the calculated BCFs because
sediment can be a major source of anthracene uptake, especially for benthlc
organisms such as amphlpods (Eadle et al., 1983; Landrum and Scavla, 1983).
There are relatively little residue monitoring data for anthracene
compared with other polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons. Tsujl et al. (1985)
reported that clams (unspecified species) from Japanese waters contained
O.H-0.64 ng/g. Mallns et al. (1985) found that stomach contents of English
sole, Parophyrys vetulus. from Puget Sound, Washington, contained 13-460
ng/g. Maccubbln et al. (1985) reported that stomach contents of white
suckers, Catostomus commersonl. from eastern Lake Erie contained
1.97-2.17 ng/g.
6.5. SUMMARY
There Is relatively little Information concerning the toxldty of
anthracene to aquatic organisms. Acutely toxic concentrations range from
1.9 yg/l for Oaphnla pulex (Allred and G1esy, 1985; OMs et al.. 1984)
to 3030 vg/l for Daphnla maqna (Bobra et al., 1983). Some of this
variability may be explained by the fact that anthracene toxldty Is
affected by lighting conditions, with toxldty Increased under natural
sunlight and ultraviolet radiation rather than fluorescent lights (Allred
and Glesy, 1985; Bowling et al., 1983; Kagan et al., 1985). Reported toxic
concentrations for aquatic plants were also highly variable. Hutchlnson et
al. (1980) reported that photosynthesis was Inhibited 1n Chlamydomonas
angulosa at 239 jig/I, while Glddlngs (1979) found that Selenastrum
capMcornutua was unaffected by a 100% saturated solution. Reported BCF
values ranged from 47-132 for Chlronomus Mparlus (Gerould et al., 1983) to
16,800 for Pontoporlla hoy| (Landrum, 1982). These species also represent
the extremes In the ability to metabolize and eliminate anthracene.
0867p -47- 04/23/87
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7. EXISTING GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS
7.1. HUMAN
Exposure criteria and TLVs have been developed for polycyclk aromatic
hydrocarbons as a class, as well as for several Individual polycycllc
aromatic hydrocarbons. The OSHA has set an 8-hour TWA concentration limit
of 0.2 mg/ma for the benzene-soluble fraction of coal tar pitch volatlles
(anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, phenanthrene, acMdlne, chrysene, pyrene)
(OSHAt 1985). NIOSH (1977) recommended a concentration limit for coal tar,
coal tar pitch, creosote and mixtures of these substances of 0.1 mg/m3 of
the cyclohexane-extractable fraction of the sample, determined as a 10-hour
TWA. NIOSH (1977) concluded that these specific coal tar products, as well
as coke oven emissions, are carcinogenic and can Increase the risk of lung
and skin cancer In workers. NIOSH (1977) also recommended a celling limit
for exposure to asphalt fumes of 5 mg airborne partlculates/m" of air.
Environmental quality criteria, which specify concentration limits
Intended to protect humans against adverse health effects, have been recom-
mended for polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons In ambient water. The U.S. EPA
(1980b) has recommended a concentration limit of 28 ng/l for the sum of
all carcinogenic polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons In ambient water. This
value 1s based on a mathematical extrapolation of the results from studies
with mice treated orally with benzo[a]pyrene, and acknowledges the conserva-
tive assumption that all carcinogenic polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons are
equal 1n potency to benzo[a]pyrene. On the basis of the animal bloassay
data, dally consumption of water containing 28 ng/l of carcinogenic
polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons over an entire lifetime Is estimated to
keep the lifetime risk of cancer development below one chance In 100,000.
Anthracene was not among the PAH considered as carcinogenic by the U.S. EPA
(1980).
0867p -48- 04/23/87
-------
The EPA has not recommended an ambient water quality criterion for
noncardnogenlc polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons as a class. The U.S. EPA
(1980b) acknowledged that data suitable for quantitative risk assessment of
noncardnogenlc polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons are essentially nonexistent.
7.2. AQUATIC
Guidelines and standards for the protection of aquatic biota from the
effects of anthracene In particular could not be located 1n the available
literature as cited In the Appendix. U.S. EPA (1980b) reported, however.
that acute toxldty to saltwater aquatic life occurred at concentrations as
low as 300 wg/l of polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons In general, and
would occur at lower concentrations 1n species more sensitive than those
tested. U.S. EPA (1980b) concluded that the available data at that time
were Inadequate to recommend criteria or make generalizations about chronic
toxldty or acute toxldty to freshwater organisms.
0867p -49- 11/17/86
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8. RISK ASSESSMENT
Administration of diets that Initially contained 5 mg and later (not
otherwise specified) IS mg of anthracene on 6 days/week for 78 weeks {total
dose of 4.5 g/rat) produced tumors In 2/28 rats (a liver sarcoma and a
uterine adenocarclnoma) that were observed for life (Schmahl, 1955). A
control group was not used and the tumors were not ascribed to treatment. A
single Intrapulmonary Injection of 0.5 mg anthracene In beeswax-trlcaprylln
mixture did not Induce local neoplastlc responses 1n rats after 4-55 weeks
of observation (Stanton et al., 1972).
Twice or thrice weekly skin applications of anthracene for life did not
produce local tumors 1n mice (Bachmann et al.. 1937; Wynder and Hoffmann,
1959; Mlescher, 1942), but contradictory results were obtained when anthra-
cene was applied to mouse skin with concurrent or directly subsequent ultra-
violet Irradiation (Heller, 1950; Forbes et al., 1976) (see Table 5-1).
Mouse skin Initiation-promotion assays using croton oil (Salaman and Roe,
1956) or TPA (Scrlbner, 1973) as the promoter do not Indicate a tumor
Initiating effect of anthracene. Weekly subcutaneous Injections of anthra-
cene 1n rats for 6 weeks to life (Pollla, 1941; Schmahl, 1955; Boyland and
Burrows, 1935), weekly 1ntraper1toneal Injections In rats for 33 weeks
(Schmahl, 1955) or brain or eye Implants In rabbits for 4.5 years (Russell,
1947) did not produce local tumors, but these findings should be regarded as
Inconclusive because of Inadequacies 1n experimental design.
Anthracene has been tested In numerous mutagenlclty and other short-term
assays with primarily negative results (IARC, 1983; Langenbach et al., 1983;
Lubet et al.. 1983; Ved Brat et al., 1983; Mamber et al., 1984; Qulllardet
0867p -50- 04/23/87
-------
et al., 1985). These Include ONA damage, mutation, cytogenldty and trans-
formation assays with bacteria, yeast and mammalian cells J£ vitro and HI
vivo. Exogenous metabolic activation systems were used In most of the \t±
vitro assays.
Pertinent data regarding chronic or subchronlc toxic effects, terato-
genldty or other reproductive effects of anthracene could not be located 1n
the available literature as cited In the Appendix.
The available Information provides no evidence that anthracene Is
carcinogenic, therefore anthracene Is a Group D chemical according to the
U.S. EPA weight of evidence system (see Section 9.2.). Calculation of an
RfO (formerly ADI) for anthracene 1s precluded by the lack of relevant
toxlclty data.
0867p -51- 04/23/87
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9. REPORTABLE QUANTITIES
9.1. REPORTABLE QUANTITY (RQ) RANKING BASED ON CHRONIC TOXICITY
Pertinent data regarding chronic or subchronlc toxic effects, terato-
genlclty or other reproductive effects of anthracene could not be located In
the available literature as cited 1n the Appendix.
Holland et al. (1980) administered uncharacterlzed oil shale containing
polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons. Including anthracene, to Syrian golden
hamsters by Inhalation of 50 mg resplrable shale dust/raa for 4 hours/day,
4 days/week. The authors reported Interim results Indicating that shale
dust caused little pulmonary epithelial or flbrotlc reaction, but that
retorted shales caused Inflammation accompanied by flbrosls. Because of the
uncharacterlzed nature of the test material In this study. It 1s not
possible to quantify those data for use In deriving an RQ (Table 9-1) to
reflect hazard associated with exposure to anthracene (U.S. EPA, 1984).
9.2. HEIGHT OF EVIDENCE ANO POTENCY FACTOR (F-I/EO^) FOR CARCIN06ENICITY
Administration of diets that Initially contained 5 mg and later (not
otherwise specified) 15 mg of anthracene on 6 days/week for 78 weeks (total
dose of 4.5 g/rat) produced tumors In 2/28 rats (a liver sarcoma and a
uterus adenocarclnoma) that were observed for life (Schmahl, 1955). A
control group was not used and the tumors were not ascribed to treatment. A
single Intrapulmonary Injection of 0.5 mg anthracene 1n beeswax-tMcaprylln
mixture did not Induce local neoplastlc responses In rats after 4-55 weeks
of observation (Stanton et al., 1972).
Twice or thrice weekly skin applications of anthracene for life did not
produce local tumors In mice (Bachmann et al., 1937; Uynder and Hoffmann,
1959; Hlescher, 1942), but contradictory results were obtained when anthra-
cene was applied to mouse skin with concurrent or directly subsequent ultra-
violet Irradiation (Heller, 1950; Forbes et al.. 1976). Mouse skin
0867p -52- 11/17/86
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TABLE 9-1
Anthracene
Minimum Effective Oose (MED) and Reportable Quantity (RQ)
Route:
Oose:
Effect:
Reference:
RVd:
RVe:
Composite Score:
RQ: Data are not sufficient for deriving an RQ
0867p -53- 11/17/86
-------
Initiation-promotion assays using croton oil (Salaman and Roe, 1956) or TPA
(ScMbner, 1973) as the promoter do not Indicate a tumor Initiating effect
of anthracene. Weekly subcutaneous Injections of anthracene In rats for 6
weeks to life • (Pollla. 1941; Schmahl. 1955; Boyland and Burrows, 1935).
weekly IntraperUoneal Injections In rats for 33 weeks (Schmahl, 1955) or
brain or eye Implants In rabbits for 4.5 years (Russell, 1947) did not
produce local tumors, but these findings should be regarded as Inconclusive
because of Inadequacies In experimental design.
Anthracene has been tested In numerous mutagenlclty and other short-term
assays with primarily negative results (IARC. 1983; Langenbach et al., 1983;
Lubet et al.. 1983; Ved Brat et al.. 1983; Mamber et al.. 1984; Qulllardet
et al., 1985). These Include DNA damage, mutation, cytogenldty and trans-
formation assays with bacteria, yeast and mammalian cells \r± vitro and hi
vivo. Exogenous metabolic activation systems were used In most of the Ui
vitro assays.
The available Information provides no evidence that anthracene Is
carcinogenic.
IARC (1983) reported that there was Insufficient evidence regarding the
carcinogenic risk to humans and experimental animals associated with oral or
Inhalation exposure to anthracene. According to U.S. EPA (1986b) guide-
lines, there Is no data for humans and Inadequate evidence for animals.
Applying the criteria for evaluation of the overall weight of evidence for
the carcinogenic potential for humans of the Carcinogen Assessment Group of
the U.S. EPfr (1986b), anthracene 1s most appropriately designated a Group
0 -Not Classified chemical. Direct hazard ranking of anthracene under
CERCLA Is therefore precluded.
0867p -54- 04/23/87
-------
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0867p -77- 02/11/87
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U.S. EPA. 1980b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria Document for Polynuclear
Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Prepared by the Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Cincinnati. OH for
the Office of Water Regulations and Standards. Washington, DC. EPA
440/5-80-069. NTIS PB81-117806.
U.S. EPA. 1981. Hazard Information Review. Anthracene. Prepared under
EPA Contract No. 68-01-5789 for TSCA Interagency Testing Committee by Envlro
Control, Inc., Rockvllle, MD. Working Draft, IR-227.
U.S. EPA. 1984. Reportable Quantity Document for Anthracene. Prepared by
the Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria
and Assessment Office, Cincinnati, OH for the Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response, Washington. DC.
U.S. EPA. 1986a. OHMTADS (011 and Hazardous Material Technical Assistance
Data System). On-Hne.
U.S. EPA. 1986b. Guidelines for Carcinogenic Risk Assessment. Federal
Register. 51(185): 33992-34003.
USITC (U.S. International Trade Commission). 1984. Imports of benzenold
chemicals ami products, 1983. USITC Publ. 1548, Washington, DC. p. 10.
Van Der Linden, A.C. and G.J.E. Thljsse. 1965. The mechanism of mlcroblal
oxidations of petroleum hydrocarbons. Advanc. Enzymol. 27: 469-546.
0867p -78- 02/11/87
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Ved Brat, S., C. long, S. Telang and G.H. Williams. 1983. Comparison of
sister chromatld exchange and mammalian cell mutagenesls at the hypoxanthlne
guanlne phosphorlbosyl transferase locus In adult rat liver epithelial
cells. Ann. ».Y. Acad. Sc1. 407: 474-475.
Walters, R.W. and R.G. Luthy. 1984. Liquid/suspended solid phase parti-
tioning of polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbon In coal coking waste waters.
Water Res. 18: 795-809.
Webster. G.R.B.. K.I. Frlesen, L.P. Sarna and D.C.G. Mu1r. 1985. Environ-
mental fate modeling of chlorodloxlns. Determination of physical constants.
Chemosphere. 14: 609-622.
WhHehouse, B.G. 1984. The effects of temperature and salinity on the
aqueous solubility of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Mar. Chera. 14:
319-332.
Williams, O.T., E.R. Nestmann, G.L. Lebel, P.M. Benolt, R. Otson and E.G.H.
Lee. 1982. Determination of mutagenlc potential and organic contaminants
of Great Lakes drinking water. Chemosphere. 11: 263-276.
W1ndhol2, N., Ed. 1983. The Merck Index, 10th ed. Merck and Co., Rahway,
NJ. p. 100V
Windsor, J.G., Jr. and R.A. HHes. 1979. Polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons
In Gulf of Maine sediments and Nova Scotia soils. Geochlm. Cosmochlm. Acta.
42: 27-33.
0867p -79- 11/17/86
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Hynder, E.L. and D. Hoffmann. 1959. A study of tobacco carclnogenesls.
VII. The role of higher polycycllc hydrocarbons. Cancer. 12: 1079-1086.
Yalkowsky. S.H. and S.C. Valvanl. 1979. Solubilities and partitioning.
2. Relationships between aqueous solubilities, partition coefficients and
molecular surface area of rigid aromatic hydrocarbons. J. Chem. Eng. Data.
24: 127-129.
Yamasakl, H., K. Kuwata and H. Miyamoto. 1982. Effects of ambient tempera-
ture on aspects of airborne polycycllc aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ. Sc1.
Technol. 16: 189-194.
Zepp, R.G. 1980. Assessing the photochemistry of organic pollutants In
aquatic environments. In: Dynamics Exposure and Hazard Assessment of Toxic
Chemicals, R. Haque, Ed. Ann Arbor Science, Publ., Ann Arbor, HI.
p. 69-110.
Zepp, R.G. and P.P. Schlotzhauer. 1979. Photoreactlvlty of selected
aromatic hydrocarbons In water. In: Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, O.U.
Jones and P. Leber, Ed. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann. Arbor, HI.
p. 141-158.
0867p -80- 11/17/86
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APPENDIX
LITERATURE SEARCHED
This, profile 1s based on data Identified by computerized literature
searches of the following:
GLOBAL
TSCATS
CASK online (U.S. EPA Chemical Activities Status Report)
CAS online STN International
TOXLINE
TOXBACK 76
TOXBACK 65
RTECS
OHM TADS
STORET
SRC Environmental Fate Data Bases
SANSS
AQUIRE
TSCAPP
NTIS
Federal Register
These searches were conducted In April, 1986. In addition, hand searches
were made of Chemical Abstracts (Collective Indices 6 and 7), and the
following secondary sources were reviewed:
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hyglenlsts).
1986. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological
Exposure Indices, 5th ed. Cincinnati, OH.
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hyglenlsts).
1985-1986. TLVs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances
and Physical Agents In the Workroom Environment with Intended
Changes for 1985-1986. Cincinnati. OH. 114 p.
Claytoiv 6.0. and F.E. Clayton, Ed. 1981. Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology, 3rd rev. ed.. Vol. 2A. John Wiley and
Sons, NY. 2878 p.
Clayton. G.O. and F.E. Clayton. Ed. 1981. Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology, 3rd rev. ed., Vol. 28. John Wiley and
Sons, NY. p. 2879-3816.
0867p -81- 11/17/86
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Clayton, G.D. and F.E. Clayton, Ed. 1982. Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology, 3rd rev. ed., Vol. 2C. John WHey and
Sons, MY. p. 3817-5112.
Grayson, M. and D. Eckroth, Ed. 1978-1983. K1rk-0thmer Encyclo-
pedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed. John Wiley and Sons, NY. 23
Volumes.
Hamilton, A. and H.L. Hardy. 1974. Industrial Toxicology. 3rd ed.
Publishing Sciences Group, Inc.. Littleton, MA. 575 p.
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). IARC Mono-
graphs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to
Humans. WHO, IARC, Lyons, France.
ITII (International Technical Information Institute). 1982. Toxic
and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual for Handling and
Disposal with Toxlclty and Hazard Data. ITII, Tokyo, Japan. 700 p.
Jaber, H.M., U.R. Habey, S.T. Liu, T.W. Chow and H.L. Johnson.
1984. Data aqulsltlon for environmental transport and fate screen-
Ing for compounds of Interest In the Office of Solid Waste. EPA
600/6-84-010. NTIS PB84-243906. SRI International. Menlo Park. CA.
NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1986. Toxicology Research and
Testing Program. Chemicals on Standard Protocol. Management
Status.
Ouellette. R.P. and J.A. King. 1977. Chemical Week Pesticide
Register. McGraw-Hill Book Co.. NY.
Sax, N.I. 1979. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 5th
ed. Van Nostrand Relnhold Co.. NY.
SRI (Stanford Research Institute). 1984. Directory of Chemical
Producers. Menlo Park, CA.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Status Report on Rebuttable Presumption Against
Registration (RPAR) or Special Review Process. Registration Stan-
dards and the Data Call 1n Programs. Office of Pesticide Programs,
Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1985. CSB Existing Chemical Assessment Tracking System.
Name and CAS Number Ordered Indexes. Office of Toxic Substances.
Washington, DC.
USITC (U.S. International Trade Commission). 1983. Synthetic
Organic Chemicals. U.S. Production and Sales, 1982, USITC Publ.
1422. Washington, DC.
Verschueren, K. 1983. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic
Chemicals. 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Relnhold Co.. NY.
0867p -82- 11/17/86
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Wlndholz. M.. Ed. 1983. The Merck Index, 10th ed. Merck and Co.,
Inc., Rahway. NJ.
Worthing, C.R. and S.B. Walker, Ed. 1983. The Pesticide Manual.
British Crop Protection Council. 695 p.
In addition, approximately 30 compendia of aquatic toxIcUy data were
reviewed, Including the following:
Battelle's Columbus Laboratories. 1971. Water Quality Criteria
Data Book. Volume 3. Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life.
Selected Data from the Literature through 1968. Prepared for the
U.S. EPA under Contract No. 68-01-0007. Washington, DC. -
Johnson. W.W. and M.T. Flnley. 1980. Handbook of Acute ToxIcUy
of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates. Summaries of
ToxIcUy Tests Conducted at Columbia National Fisheries Research
Laboratory. 1965-1978. U.S. Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Serv. Res. Publ. 137, Washington, DC.
NcKee. J.E. and H.W. Wolf. 1963. Water Quality Criteria. 2nd ed.
Prepared for the Resources Agency of California, State Water
Quality Control Board. Publ. No. 3-A.
Plmental, 0. 1971. Ecological Effects of Pesticides on Non-Target
Species. Prepared for the U.S. EPA, Washington. DC. PB-269605.
Schneider, B.A. 1979. Toxicology Handbook. Mammalian and Aquatic
Data. Book 1: Toxicology Data. Office of Pesticide Programs, U.S.
EPA, Washington. DC. EPA 540/9-79-003. NTIS PB 80-196876.
0867p -83- 11/17/86
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