U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does
not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Agency.
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BICYCLE TRANSPORTATION
Nina Dougherty and William Lawrence
Office of Planning and Evaluation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
December 1974
For silo br tin Suptrtnundtnl at Documonu, U.S. Qornmmont Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20103 - Price M centi
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several persons outside of EPA made important contributions by recom-
mending sources to this report and assisted in the review of preliminary
drafts. Marie Birnbaum, of the Department of Transportation, Office of
the Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment, Safety, and
Consumer Affairs (TES), and Cary Shaw, of the Washington Area Bicycle
Association, aided the research effort. In addition, John Cummins, of the
Federal Highway Administration's Office of Chief Counsel, Steve Charnovitz,
of TES, Vince Darago, of the Urban Bikeway Design Competition, and Mike
Everett, Associate Professor, Mississippi University, were instrumental in re-
viewing and commenting on the draft report. Their cooperation and assistance
have been greatly appreciated.
ii
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CONTENTS
Page
I. Summary ; 1
II. Introduction 4
III. Bicycle Use in America 5
A. Marketing Data 5
B. Ownership '. . . . 6
C. Utilization Patterns 6
IV. The Cycling Environment 8
A. Benefits and Incentives 8
B. Benefits to Society and the Individual 13
C. Deterrents 14
V. Federal Activities 24
A. Existing Federal Programs and Policies 24
B. Legislative Initiatives 31
VI. State and Local Activities 33
A. General Survey 33
B. Some State and Local Efforts 33
VII. Foreign Experience 36
A. Europe 36
B. Japan 39
C. People's Republic of China 39
VIII. Study Conclusions 41
IX. General Recommendations 43
Bibliography 45
Appendixes 48
111
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I. SUMMARY
This report is a brief study of bicycle use as a practical transportation alterna-
tive in the United States and foreign countries today. It was conducted by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Planning and Evaluation.
Drafts were submitted to other Federal agencies, OMB, and active bicyclists for
comment. The major findings are summarized below and the conclusions and
recommendations are at the end of the report.
America is experiencing an unprecedented boom in bicycle sales and uses. In
1972, bicycles outsold automobiles by 2 million (13 million versus 11 million).
Children and youths own the greatest number of bicycles. However, the
greatest increase in bike use is presently occurring in the 17-40 age group. In
1972, about half the bicycles were sold to adults, a substantial increase over the
12 percent sold to adults in 1969.
The potential cyclist is confronted with significant advantages and deterrents
to use of the bicycle.
Much of the general public does not fully appreciate the advantages the bicy-
cle offers. The health and recreational benefits are substantial—cycling being
often referred to as "perfect exercise." The bicycle offers mobility and,
literally, door-to-door service at speeds comparable to auto travel in urban areas.
At the same time, the bicycle is a relatively inexpensive form of transportation.
The major deterrents to cycling are high accident rates, bicycle theft, exposure
to automotive air pollutants, insufficient support facilities (i.e., lack of bikeways,
secure parking facilities, showers at places of work), and bad weather conditions.
The National Safety Council estimated that 1,100 cyclists were killed in 1973.
One million bicycle injuries requiring professional and medical treatment occur
each year. Furthermore, the accident rate is growing at about 15 percent per year.
Most of these accidents involve collisions with automobiles, and in two-thirds of
these cases the cyclist violated a law or safety rule. The vast majority of bicycle
accidents involve children, though the proportion of accidents involving adults is
climbing.
One of the better solutions to the bicycle safety problem is to separate the
bicycle from motor vehicle travel as much as possible. This can be done by the
construction of bikeways.
The term "bikeway" is a generic term encompassing the full range of cycling-
related facilities-from fully separated facilities to those which are designated by
signing only. Within the classification of bikeways, there are three distinct
classes of facilities:
Class I: Exclusive bikeways are those in which a separate right-of-way is
designated for the exclusive or semiexclusive use of bicycles. This bikeway
1
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provides the greatest degree of separation between bicycles and other types of
traffic.
Class II: Shared bikeways, or bike lanes, are those in which the right-of-
way is shared with other forms of transportation and the cyclist is protected
from conflicts either through pavement signing or physical barriers. This bike
route is the most common type of bikeway used in American communities.
Class III: Bike routes are those in which the right-of-way is shared by the
cyclist and other vehicles and are designated by signing only. This bikeway is
the least desirable of the three from the standpoint of safety. However, a
class III bikeway provides safer conditions for the cyclist than no bikeway at
all.
Bicycle theft is a major problem, having increased 30 percent in 1971 alone.
Last year an estimated half million bicycles were stolen. Thieves are encouraged
by the fact that stolen bicycles are hard to identify and have resale values of $40
to $300.
Because cyclists usually must use road and highway rights-of-way, they are
exposed to excessive levels of automobile generated pollutants, primarily carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, lead, and asbestos particulates. In addition, the cyclist
takes in larger quantities of these pollutants due to his elevated respiration rate.
Medical evidence indicates that such exposure might increase the likelihood of
respiratory diseases.
The above problems could be greatly reduced through better support facilities,
both segregated bikeways and secure parking arrangements. In addition, such
facilities would further promote bicycle use by improving the convenience of this
mode of transportation. Indeed a major development would be to integrate the
bicycle mode with mass transit through parking facilities designed to provide a
"feeder" function.
A preliminary analysis by EPA suggests that increased use of bicycles in
urban commuting could reduce auto vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) by 2 to 3
percent, and perhaps even more hi those cities for which EPA has proposed very
strict transportation controls. Furthermore, because of the low average speeds
by the auto involved in the short trips and the potential high cost of driving,
further research might show a much higher percentage of VMT reduction, result-
ing in increased amounts of gasoline savings and auto emissions reductions. Other
environmental benefits include reduction of noise and congestion.
The Federal Government is beginning to recognize bicycles as a viable form of
transportation. In the past, Government has generally viewed the bicycle as a
recreational vehicle rather than from a broader environmental and societal per-
spective. Since 1971, the Department of Transportation (DOT) has been the
leader in promoting the bicycle. DOT has allowed States to fund bikeways
along federally funded roads with money from the highway trust funds. The
new Federal-Aid to Highway Act of 1973 authorizes $120 million of trust fund
monies to be used for bikeway construction over the next 3 years.
Other significant Federal agency activities are also underway. The Bureau of
Outdoor Recreation and National Park Service are presently building limited
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bikeway networks for recreation on Federal lands, and the Consumer Products
Safety Commission has formulated a bicycle-design safety regulation. EPA has
encouraged the use of bicycles as part of the Transportation Control Strategies
to be employed in urban areas with high levels of automotive pollutants. And,
finally, CEQ called together an ad hoc interagency committee to discuss the
formulation of Federal policy on bicycles.
State involvement to date has been mixed, although interest in bicycle use is
definitely increasing. Twenty-seven States are presently conducting research on
the cost and benefits of bike facilities. Thirteen States have passed legislation
promoting bicycle safety and facilities construction, while an additional 11 have
such legislation pending.
Local activities have been restricted to a handful of localities; however, there
is a trend toward building more bikeways. Davis, California, a university town,
boasts that 40 percent of all downtown trips are traveled by bicycles, during the
summer months when many students are out of town,
Europe is currently experiencing a resurgence in bicycle use after a marked
decline during the postwar years. Environmental concerns, urban congestion,
and high fuel costs are contributing to the new bicycle boom. Transportation
planners in Europe see the rising interest in cycling as a harbinger of what is in
store for them in the next few years. European countries-particularly Sweden,
Denmark, Germany, and Holland—are actively promoting bicycle transportation
by establishing separate rights-of-way, bicycle traffic lights, and pedestrian malls.
Cyclists in Japan and China also enjoy nice facilities for bicycle transportation.
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II. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this report is to determine the potential role of the bicycle for
transportation in the United States. This role has special significance given the
energy shortage and current problems of air pollution. Energy shortages and
more expensive fuel prices may induce citizens to reduce their travel or shift to
modes with lower energy requirements. Thus, the bicycle may well fulfill these
needs.
It is necessary to determine the effects and feasibility of the use of bicycle
transportation by more people. This report investigates the feasibility of using
bicycles as an alternative mode of transportation. To determine the potential for
bicycle use, the report examines current trends of bicycle use in the United
States, the conditions facing the American cyclist, the benefits and deterrents to
bicycling, Federal, State, and local considerations affecting bicycle use, and the
foreign bicycle experience.
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III. BICYCLE USE IN AMERICA
This section discusses three topics: information on current and past bicycle
sales, by use and types; ownership of bicycles, and the use patterns, including
types of users.
A. Marketing Data
In the 6 years from 1965 to 1971, the number of bicycles in use increased 61
percent from 32.9 to 53.1 million (see app. I). Bicycle users increased from
35.2 million in 1960 to 75.3 million in 1970, and per capita ratio of bicycles in-
creased from 0.13 to 0.25 during the same period.
Since 1970 the boom ' has been even more pronounced. The Bicycle Insti-
tute of America estimates that 1972 saw 85 million users, or one bicycle rider
for every two persons between the ages of 7 and 69. For the first time since the
advent of the automobile, more new bicycles were sold than automobiles in
1972,13.7 million versus 11 million. Sales more than doubled in 2 years; an in-
crease of 65 percent occurred in 1972 alone over sales the previous year. In 1973,
15.3 million bicycles were sold.
The unprecedented boom has left manufacturers incapable of meeting the
demand. For example, in 1971, the Schwinn Bicycle Company sold its entire
1971 production of 1.2 million units by May of that year.2 Demand for vital
component parts for domestic and foreign bicycles still exceeds supply today,
despite dramatic plant expansion of both domestic and foreign plants this year.
Imported bicycles now account for over 50 percent of the market as com-
pared to 40 percent over the last decade. Japan has the greatest amount of
bicycle imports with about 29 percent of the total, followed by the United
Kingdom and Austria.3
Total industry dollar volume for 1972 was estimated at $700 million, includ-
ing bikes, parts and accessories.4 About 85 percent of bicycle production has
been geared to lightweight multispeed bicycles, priced at $60-$400, which rep-
1 Much of the boom, at least according to the Bibycle Institute of America, has occurred
as a result of bicycle industry efforts to promote bicycling popularity including product
publicity, safety education, and community and public relations.
7 Atlantic Monthly, November 1971.
3 Bicycle Institute of America, Inc., "Some Facts About the Current Bike Explosion."
August, 1972, p. 3. United Kingdom is 21 percent and Austria 14 percent of all foreign
sales.
"Ibid., pp 1-2.
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resents a dramatic change from the mid-1950's when 85 percent of production
went to single-speed children's bicycles.
Projections indicate that by 1975 there will be 100 million cyclists in America
and bicycling will continue to be one of America's fastest growing outdoor activ-
ities.5 Bicycle sales may level off or even decrease slightly as the market becomes
saturated with the more recent bike models, but use will continue to escalate.
B. Ownership
It has been a common understanding that bicycles are primarily for children.
In the past, children were the dominant bicycle users. Recently, the bicycle has
become an attractive mode of transit for the adult as well. Fifty percent of all
bicycles sold in 1970-74 went to adults, whereas in 1969 only 12 percent were
sold for adult use.6
One index of ownership is bicycles per capita. Although statistics of per
capita bicycle ownership by age are not available for the entire Nation, a study
completed for Ann Arbor, Michigan (a very large academic community partial
to bicycle use), on bike way development revealed the following:7
1. Bicycle use prior to school age is usually restricted by parents to areas very
near the child's home. For this reason, ridership prior to age 6 is minimal.
2. Ownership rises sharply between ages 6 and 15. Ownership reaches its peak
among 15-year-olds (0.7 bikes per capita).
3. Between the ages of 15 and 17 there is a pronounced decline in per capita
bicycle ownership. This corresponds to a rapid rise in car ownership.
4. Bicycle ownership then levels off and remains fairly stable until about age
40.
5. There is a gradual decline in bicycle ownership in the 40 to 60 age group.
Ownership becomes insignificant at approximately age 60.
6. The age span between 18 and 45 is where the greatest increase in bicycle
use and ownership can be expected.
Other characteristics of race and sex are important determinants of who rides
bicycles. Most surveys found bicycling a middle- to upper-class, predominantly
white activity. Males of all age groups participate more than females, although
the percentage of female cyclists is increasing.
C. Utilization Patterns
Bicycle users have been classified into the following four categories:
1. The transportation-deprived-children and the poor, who cannot afford
other means of transportation.
5 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, "Bicycle Speech Material" (Winter 1973).
* Department of Transportation, National Highway Safety Advisory Committee,
"Bicycling as a Highway Safety Problem, Summary of Preliminary Findings, and
Recommendations," unpublished memorandum, June 6, 1974.
'Haldon L. Smith, "Ann Arbor Bicycle Path Study" (Ann Arbor, Michigan) July 1972.
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2. Recreational users-the pedalers who come out in fair weather for recrea-
tion on neighborhood streets and parks on evenings and weekends. Recreational
use probably account* for well over half the total" miles of bicyere riding.
3. Bieyete buffs-a. smalt but vocal group comprising the hardcore cyclists.
They sponsor bicycle racmg and long-distance tours, and generally lobby for
cycling as a viable component of transportation networks.
4. Utility users-an increasingly large group of bicycle commuters, shoppers,
and school or university travelers who make up a large percentage of all bicycle
trips. The bicycle is also an effective mode for delivery (mail messenger services,
etc.).
Several other surveys have been conducted around the country on use pat-
terns. A recent study conducted in Lexington, Kentucky (a college town), sug-
gests that 34 percent of trip destinations are school, university, or work, while
15 percent are for shopping,8 Another survey of League of American Wheelmen
Members in California indicated that 40 percent of their trips were recreational,
while 23 percent were for shopping, 23 percent for work and 14 percent for
school.9 Further, a survey of members of bicycle elubs in the Washington metro-
politan area showed that 43 percent attempt to commute regularly.
Other results of the survey indicate that, in the D.C-area, the average male
respondent was 38 years old. The average female respondent was closer ta40
years old. This conflicts with the present presumption that the prime movers of
the bicycle mode are college students and adults in their twenties. The assump-
tion of younger participation may still prove true since the younger groups are
probably less inclined than their elders to join an association or answer a survey.1 °
In short, age breakdown for bicycle use is inadequate and in part conflicting, and
further study and analysis are needed. However, it is obvious that the bicycle is
being used more today than before and there is a great demaad for bicycles. The
environment in which the cyclist must ride will be discussed in the following
section.
* City Planning Commission, "Evaluation of Bicycling Facilities, Needs and Use" (Lex-
ington, Kentucky, 1972).
9 Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Biktway Planning Criteria and
Guidelines (University of Los Angeles, April 1972).
1 "Bernard W. Poirier, "Preliminary Analysis of Bicyclist Survey in Metropolitan Wash-
ington, D.C., and in California and Illinois" (June, 1973).
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IV. THE CYCLING ENVIRONMENT
The decision to bike or not to bike is based on the advantages and disad-
vantages of bicycle use. This section examines these two facets of an extremely
complex question of factors relating to bicycle use. The benefits and advantages
are identified as reduction of air pollution, energy consumption and benefits to
society and individuals. There are basically no ill effects or disadvantages to bicy-
cle riding but there are deterrents and disincentives, which are identified as (1) the
prospect of physical harm; (2) the unhealthy exposure to auto and other pollu-
tants; (3) the probability of bike theft, (4) lack of segregated bikeways, insuffi-
cient intermodal access, and (5) other detrimental factors.
A. Benefits and Incentives
Before examining the potential reduction of air pollution and energy use, the
bicycle's potential use as a transportation mode must be examined. Specifically,
40 percent of all urban work trips made by automobile are 4 miles or less. These
short trips could easily be made by a bicycle at 13 mph in less than 20 minutes.
At present, however, it is not possible to convert all these short trips to bicycles.
As shown in a study of 500 motorists, conducted by the Philadelphia Coalition for
EPA in June 1973, it was found that 38 percent of the bike owners said they would
commute by bicycle if safe bikeways and secure parking were available. Of the non-
bike-owners, 17 percent said they would buy a bike for commuting if there were
bikeways and bike parking. According to the 1970 census, 44 percent of those
who work in center city Philadelphia live within 6 miles of city hall. The EPA
study revealed that with modest provisions for bicycle lanes and bike parking an
estimated 5 percent to 10 percent of all those who commute to center city by
auto could be diverted to bicycle commuting.1
This conservative estimate only includes those who live within the 6-mile
radius. If some of those who live more than 6 miles away also converted to
bicycle commuting, then the percentage would go up. The percentage would also
increase if mass transit users were able to park their bicycles at bus stops and mass
1 Ralph Hiisch, "Bicycle Commuting into Central Philadelphia" (Philadelphia Coalition
and Drexel University, June 1973).
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transit stations, or if they were able to carry their bicycle with them. The study
also indicated that there would be a greater number of auto commuters convert-
ing to bicycling if there were more stringent restrictions placed on the auto.
Similarly impressive Figures for the Washington metropolitan area have been
crudely estimated. The Washington Area Bicyclist Association, the Council of
Governments, and the D.C. City Council are all in agreement that, if personal
safety and bicycle security problems were resolved, bicycle commuting would
become acceptable to an estimated 44,000 people. Of this number, 8,000 could
be expected to use their bicycles in the central business district (CBD).2
The construction of the Metro could allow mixed-mode transportation, so
that an additional 66,000 persons would ride bicycles on segments of the trip to
and from work. Of this number, 12,000 would use bicycles in the CBD.3
Further study and research are needed in this area to determine the accurate
number of work trips that could be converted to bicycle transportation.
1. Energy Savings and Auto Emissions Reduction
This section will be divided into two parts-the first on the efficiency of the
vehicle and, the second, the fuel savings and consequent auto emission reduc-
tions plausibly achieved by bicycle use.
a. Vehicle Efficiency. A bicyclist moving at 10 miles per hour uses only 97
Btu's per passenger-mile, and a pedestrian uses 500 Btu's per passenger-mile
walking at 2.5 mph. The bicycle is efficient, both structurally and mechanically.
A man's energy consumption with the aid of the bicycle as opposed to that con-
sumed in walking a given distance is reduced to about 1/5. Therefore, apart from
increasing his speed by a factor of three or four, the cyclist improves his effi-
ciency rating to number 1 among moving creatures and machines, as demon-
strated in figure I.4 When the bicycle is compared to other modes in the amount
of consumption of energy per passenger-mile, the results shown in figure 2 are
produced. (The figures used for bus, rail, auto, and aircraft are for intercity
energy consumption.) Human transport (bicycling and walking) are 10-40 times
as efficient as motorized transports.5 The bicyclist traveling at 10 mph is reach-
ing the equivalent of 1,000 passenger-miles per gallon of petroleum fuel.6
In terms of another index, the Vehicle Transport Efficiency, which represents
the efficiency of the entire vehicle in carrying itself through its operating medium,
Washington Area Bicyclist Association, "Forecasts of Bicycle Usage" (Spring 1973),
p.l.
3 Ibid.
*S. S. Wilson, "Bicycle Technology," Scientific American (March 1973) p. 82.
'Eric Hirst, Total Energy Demand for Automobiles (Society of Automobile Engineers,
International Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Mich., Jan 8-12,1973, Inc: 1973).
"* John E. Hirten, DOT, letter: 'Transportation and Energy Conservation," (October 30,
1973).
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the bicycle lies about in the middle between the least efficient mode, the "auto
with driver" and the most efficient mode, the "supertanker," as shown in tabte
I.7
111
I — I
to O
el
u.
-------
DC
LU
o
uu
K
tu
Q.
m
(S
K
IU
11]
8000 -
6000 -
4000
ENERGY USE OF VARIOUS FORMS QF
INTER-CITY TRANSPORTATION
AIRCRAFT
AUTO
TRAIN
BUS
oc
UJ
(5
UJ
IT
IU
a.
£
z
8000
6000
4000
2000
ENERGY USE OF VARIOUS FORMS OF
URBAN TRANSPORTATION
Source: E^c Must, "Toral Ere»9v OemarnJ 'o» A^to
Sociew ol Auiomobile Engineers. Inc . 0 II. 1973.
AUTO
MASS
TRANSIT
WALKING
BICYCLING
Figure 2. Various modes of transportation energy use.
11
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TABLE 1 .—Vehicle and payload transport efficiency
Supertanker
100-car train
Slow freighter
Passenger liner
Bicycle
Large aircraft
Mach 3 aircraft
City bus 3/5 full
Auto with driver
Gross
weight.
tons
200,000
8,000
10.000
86,000
.10
375
250
13
2
Average
speed,
mph
20
50
10
35
10
600
2,000
0
0
Installed
power.
hp
40,000
5,000
2,000
140,000
.1
70,000
335,000
225
150
Vehicle
transport
efficiency
IVTE)
533
426
266
93
53
17
8
6
2.8
Payload/
gross
weight
ratio
0.90
,65
.76
.26
.88
.25
.10
.20
.05
Payload
transport
efficiency
(PTE)
480
277
202
24
47
4.3
.8
1.2
.14
levels. The objective here is to estimate fuel savings and auto emission reductions
from bicycle use. Little research has been completed in this area, although the
statistics for auto travel provide the jumping-off point. As documented in the
1963 Home to Work Travel Survey of the Bureau of the Census, 28 percent of all
urban work trips are under 3 miles, and 54 percent are under 5 miles. However,
according to the DOT Personal Transportation Survey of 1971, all trips under 5
miles represented only 11.1 percent of all vehicle-miles traveled.
The normal acceptable range for bicycle commuting has been assumed to be 4
miles per one-way trip. Theoretically and idealistically, if all urban trips shorter
than 4 miles were converted to bicycle trips, roughly 8 percent of vehicle-miles
traveled (VMT) would be curtailed resulting in 1,9 percent savings of the total
energy consumption and 7.6 percent saving in energy consumed by transportation.9
Let us assume that one-fourth to one-third of all urban auto work-trips of
this distance could be converted to bicycles, then 2-2.5 percent VMT reductions
could be achieved easily. This means a savings of 0.4 percent of the total energy
consumption in the United States a total of approximately 2& billion gallons of
petroleum saved. Short trips other than commuting work trips would be affected,
and, assuming strict deterrents are applied to auto use, VMT reduction may con-
ceivably reach 8 percent or possibly approach 20 percent. With the increasing
cost of gasoline and shortage of energy in general, the EPA Transportation Con-
trol Plans for 36 metropolitan areas, and better intermodal integration, these
assumptions seem plausible, although more research is needed in this area to
determine accurate VMT reductions.
VMT reduction is the first calculation in estimating fuel savings as well as
auto emission reduction. Although data are presently unavailable, cold starts,
engine idling, and low average speeds may cause gasoline consumption and thus
emission levels to exceed associated VMT.1 ° Another factor is that most pollu-
tion caused by auto emissions exists in the urban areas where most short bicycle
trips will be taken, thus bicycles will have a greater impact on air pollution
9Hirst, Eric. "Energy Use for Bicycling," for AEC, Feb. 1974.
1 ° See EPA, Compilation of Air Pollution Factors, Feb. 1972.
12
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reduction. Emission reductions could range between 2 and 10 percent, depend-
ing on bicycle use. Even a 1-percent reduction significantly contributes to
meeting the legal requirements of metropolitan air quality control agencies for
ambient air quality standards compliance. For instance, if a metropolitan area
must reduce emission by 14 percent, the 1-percent emission reduction resulting
from a switch to bicycles represents 7 percent of the required improvement.
This demonstrates the bicycle's potential as a viable transportation control
measure.
B. Benefits to Society and the Individual
Other less quantitative benefits occurring from bicycle use are reduction of
congestion, noise and benefits to the individual.
Traffic congestion during rush hour is a common fact. If bicycle trips were
substituted for motor vehicle trips, there would be very little congestion, since
bicycles do not require much space.
Less space is needed for parking a bicycle also. Sixteen to 20 bfkes can be
parked in the space of an average American sedan. Other savings would be mani-
fested in reduced need for on-street parking, additional highway lanes, and so
forth. The cluttered urban environment would certainly become less congested.11
Noise pollution is disturbing to human activity, is annoying, and is physio-
logically and psychologically damaging. A major source of noise pollution in
many urban areas today is traffic noise from roadways. Silence accruing from
bike use provides a societal benefit as well as general personal benefit. Two
senators recently returned from Mainland China to report that one of the most
appealing facts of Chinese urban life was the absence of traffic noise. Only a
swish of hundreds of bicycles can be heared at intersections. People enjoy bikes
partly because they provide auditory correspondence between the cyclist and
his or her immediate environment.
Another positive inducement to bike use is vehicle versatility. A bicycle
can move in and out of traffic and can travel on sidewalks provided for pedestrians
and cyclists, in unpaved alleys or in alleys where larger vehicles are excluded.
It provides a freedom of mobility, not so much in long distance travel (as with
the automobile), but in expansive exploration of the out-of-the-way places. The
bicycle is one of the few vehicles providing door-to-door services which add to its
convenience. And, on recreational trips particularly, conversion from the two-
wheel to the biped mode is as easy as getting off the bike—no problem with
finding space for parking.
The advantages of cycling are a bonus to the individual's health and welfare.
Exercise and health: In industrial countries cardiovascular diseases are the
major killers for males under 65, and lack of regular vigorous exercise has been
implicated by many investigators,12
11 Mary Ness, Structural Engineer, interviewed, July 21,1973.
1 'National Heart Institute, prepared by the Heart Information Center, National Heart
Institute, National Institute of Health, Arteriosclerosis, A Report by the National Heart and
Lung Institute. Task Force on Arteriosclerosis (Washington, D.C.; U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, June 1971), p. 108.
13
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Medical literature contains numerous reports on the physical and psychologi-
cal benefits of bicycle training. These reports indicate that cycling offers a
pleasurable way to—
— control body weight
- enhance the cardiovascular status
— develop a slower heart rate
— lower blood pressure
— increase strength and endurance
— improve the adequacy of the blood supply to the muscles of the extremi-
ties and the heart itself13
Recreation opportunities for cycling are great. Many cycling groups congre-
gate with 10-12 members on the weekends to take long trips into the country
for the day or for the whole weekend. Bicycling is a sport which the individual
can enjoy by himself or herself and with a group as well.
As a transportation vehicle, the bicycle is less expensive than other modes of
travel. The difference in cost of bflceway construction compared to highway con-
struction is great. A bicycle path constructed over raw land (where a rough
grading is required) costs approximately one-tenth as much as a secondary road.
The cosrrof constructing a bikevvay on the street or sidewalk average $1,000
a block and $ 10,000 a mile for a 8 foot width. Separated bikeways average
$20,000 a mile, but it costs over $ 1 million dollars to build 1 mile of highway
in-a city. The cost of a new car is usually over $2,000, whereas the most ex-
pensive bicycle costs about $400. Bicycles sell for as little as $50. Even a good
quality used car is expensive, and the maintenance and upkeep of a car are also
very high compared to a bike. Bicycle repairs and maintenance average 0.2 cent
to 2 cents per mile. Automobile drivers have to pay for maintenance of the car
as well as for inspection, licenses, registration, driver's license, tickets, tolls, etc.
Once a person has a bicycle, the only expenses are a possible voluntary registra-
tion fee from $2 to $5, fixing of an occasional flat tire, $2, and any extra
equipment for the bike such as saddle bags, light, racks, etc., which are all
under $10. Bicycle transportation is even cheaper than mass transportation by
metro or bus. For example, urban bus fares for short distances range from 30
cents to 60 cents. The bicycle provides inexpensive transportation for non-
drivers (poverty groups, children, and the aged). It gives them flexibility and
speed in congested areas.
C. Deterrents
Many people are deterred from cycling for transportation because most of
the current roads do not have special lanes for bicyclists and the cyclist is forced
13H. K. Hellerstein, "Health Aspects of Bicycling" (Bicycles, U.S.A., Conference,
Cambridge, Mass., May 1973), p. 1.
14
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to compete with motor vehicles for a piece of the road. The lack of parking
security for bicycles against theft is also a major deterrent. There are many
others which will be discussed in the following section.
1. Personal Safety
Statistics show that the cyclist rides in a dangerous environment. The number
of accidents, injuries, and deaths associated with bicycle riding has increased
dramatically. While most bicycle accidents are caused by motor vehicle colli-
sions, other accidents occur because of road obstructions, bicycle malfunctioning,
inexperienced handling, traffic law violations, and lack of uniform traffic laws.
The National Safety Council estimated that 40,000 people were injured and
1,100 people were killed in bicycle accidents in 1913.14 "Bicycle accidents are
about 2 percent of the total fatal and 3.5 percent of the total reportable accident
problems.1 s The problem is growing at an increasing rate of 14 percent to 15
percent per year.16 Bicycle deaths are increasing at a faster rate than deaths
caused by the automobile or any other mode. Between 1961 and 1971, bicycle
deaths increased 70 percent nationally, while motor vehicle deaths increased 44
percent.17 (See app. II.)
The cyclist, especially the commuter, is forced to ride on the road because of
lack of bike paths. Most (71 percent) of the fatal bicycle accidents involve
passenger cars.18 A recent study conducted in San Diego found that 76 percent
of bicycle-auto collisions occurred at intersections and another 11 percent re-
sulted from the opening of car doors.19 In addition, accidents occur because of
road grading, pavement cracks and potholes, loose dirt and gravel, wet streets,
and curbs and other fixed objects.20
The vast majority of bicycle accidents involve children, though the propor-
tion of accidents involving adults is climbing. Many accidents occur because of
the cyclist's inexperience and carelessness. The high percentage of accidents
that occur before driver education age strongly supports the need for earlier
bicycle education. Since the young bicyclist is a potential automobile driver,
childhood vehicle safety education promoted by private and public entities
would be helpful. The Bicycle Institute of America urges early education in
both traffic regulations and proper riding techniques.21
14National Safety Council, Accident Facts, 1973.
15 Department of California Highway Patrol, Operational Analysis Section, A General
Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Study (October 1971) p. 3.
16 Ibid., p. 1.
1 'National Safety Council, p. 47.
1 * Department of California Highway Patrol, p. 5.
1 * Clifford L. Graves, "Summary of Remarks" (Talk presented at the conference, Bicy-
cles, U.S.A., Cambridge, Mass.; May 7 and 8,1973).
10 James L. Konski, "Survival of a Rand on Neur" (talk presented at the Bicycles, U.S.A.,
Conference, May 7 and 8,1973).
11 Bicycle Institute of America, Bike Safety, Vol. 3 (September 1972).
15
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One out of four bicycles involved in accidents are mechanically defective,2 2
The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) published a set of standards
for bicycles to improve this record. Another problem associated with bicycle use
is that cyclists buy wrong sized bicycles which they are then unable to control.
Cyclists are not visible enough for many motor vehicle drivers, especially at
night. Cyclists fail to use reflectors and lights and police officers fail to enforce
the law. The CPSC standards require reflectors on all bicycles. Educational
programs in schools and driver education classes would help cyclists to realize
the importance of being seen.
It has been estimated that two out of three accidents occurred because the
cyclist violated a law or safety rule.2 3 Education programs and better law en-
forcement, especially at yield and stop signs, would make cyclists more aware of
the hazards and necessity of obeying the law.
Finally, cyclists are forced to learn many traffic laws because they vary from
State to State. For example, bicycles are not vehicles under the Uniform Vehicle
Code and the law of 38 States as of January 1,1972. Though a bicycle is a vehi-
cle in 12 States, these laws make it clear that a bicycle is a vehicle only for pur-
poses of rules of the road.2 4
These problems could be greatly ameliorated if decisionmakers established
protected lanes and paths for bicycles away from traffic, eliminated obstructions
in the roads, designed a safe bicycle, improved the design of intersections, estab-
lished educational programs about safe bicycle riding, and enforced uniform
traffic laws.
2. Bicycle Security
One of the most difficult problems a bicyclist faces is the lack of bicycle
security. Based on reports submitted from 1,723 cities in the United States,
the American Automobile Association estimates that over half a million bikes
are stolen annually.2 5 Bicycle theft accounted for 17 percent of all larcenies in
the United States last year, and bicycle theft increased at least three times as
fast as larcenies in general.26 The FBI recently issued a report showing that
bicycle theft increased by 57 percent from 1960 to 1971 and grew at the
unprecedented rate of 30 percent in 1971. The cost of bicycle thefts for the 80
million owners must be phenomenal, for in California alone police sources valued
stolen bicycles in 1971 at $22,300,000.27
* * American Automobile Association, Special Survey on Bicycle Safety (Washington, D.C.,
Revised November 1972).
23 A. Trent Germane, et al. The Emerging Need of Bicycle Transportation (Georgia Insti-
tute of Technology; January 1973).
24Edward F. Kearney, "Bicyclists And Traffic Laws" (speech given at the National
Bicycle Symposium, Cambridge, Mass., May 7 and 8).
2 s American Automobile Association, op. cit.
26 Raymond N. Seakan, "Bicycle Theft: Counter Measures" (speech given at National
Bicycle Symposium, May 7 and 8,1973).
2'Washington Area Bicycle Association, "Ride-on," Vol. II No. 2 (June-July 1973).
16
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Based on the above statistics, it is obvious that bicycles are not safe from theft
if they are not locked to something stationary. Even when they are locked up,
bicycles can be stolen. Most cyclists go to great lengths to secure their bikes
from theft with a lock and chain to a permanent post or bike rack. However,
bike thieves can steal locked bicycles by cutting the chain or breaking the lock
with wire cutters, wrenches, crowbars, hacksaws or boltcutters. Boltcutters are
the most popular tool among bike thieves because of their strength and speed.
Bike thieves can easily resell stolen bicycles at lucrative profits, for three
reasons: (1) stolen bicycles are very hard to identify and claim; (2) multispeed
bicycles range in resale value between $40 and $300; and (3) there is a shortage
of new bikes at most bike shops.
Increased police enforcement must be undertaken to reduce theft and resale
of bicycles. Several new methods of security and identification are being imple-
mented. These include improved security devices, secure parking areas, bicycle
licensing, and police bicycle squads. There are two "theft-proof locks now on
the market which cost between $ 15 and $20. One is a U-shaped locking device
that foils the closed jaws boltcutters. The other is a high alloy steef chain hard-
ened throughout.28
Secure bicycle parking facilities are scarce and hard to find. As noted on the
NBC TV news on July 25, 1973, cyclists in Washington, D.C., are having prob-
lems with parking garages. Many garages refuse to let bicycles park and others
charge the bicycle the same price as a car. Even where bike racks are placed in
front of security guards, bike thefts occur. In fact, this has occurred at EPA.
Raymond Seakan, President of the Bike Security Systems, claims there are new
bike racks available which offer the bicycle more protection for both wheels
instead of only one in the old stlye racks. In some locations, attended parking
garages check bikes in and out by a ticket. EPA and DOT have both applied this
system. Conventional bike racks (unguarded) have been installed at most
Government buildings in the Washington, D.C., area.
Other proposals are to fix bike racks with chains (that cannot be cut by bolt
cutters) embedded in concrete at transit stations. The cyclist only has to provide
the lock. Enclosed lockers at metro stations is another feasible innovation.
Once a bicycle has been stolen, recovery is quite difficult. Bicycle identifica-
tion is extremely difficult because very few municipalities have mandatory
licensing or registration requirements. Jay Townly, of Schwinn Bicycle Company,
believes that local registration is needed because of the incidence of bicycles being
stolen in one jurisdiction and sold in another. Interjurisdictional arrangements
are needed; for example, California has a computer into which all local bicycle
registrations are transmitted.
Until 1972, there were no required State bicycle licensing and registration
programs.2 9 In a statewide registration program every bicycle would be regis-
2 * Raymond N. Seakan, "Bicycle Theft: Counter Measure" (paper presented at National
Bicycle Symposium, May 7-8,1973).
19 Jay Townley, "Bicycle Laws, Ordinances and Enforcement; Theft and Registration,
The Past and Future State and Local Registration Programs" (speech presented at Bicycle
Symposium, 1973).
17
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tered with proof of ownership and serial numbers stamped on the frame for
identification. Of course, the amount of success would depend on the number
of States participating and the cooperation between States to catch bicycle
thieves who cross State lines.
Other new program ideas for discouraging the resale of bikes is "Operation
Identification" using driver license numbers and a nationwide bike registration
system sponsored by the National Bicycle Dealers Association.3 °
Theft prevention also depends on law enforcement. Washington, D.C., has
begun an "officer friendly" program where police officers on bicycles try to
prevent crime and urge people to register bikes. Understandably, policemen have
found that it is difficult to chase a bike thief in a scout car.
Attempts to solve bicycle security problems have been irregular throughout
the United States. Although reasons for bicycle theft are being investigated,
many more active programs are needed to prevent the growing number of
bicycles stolen.
3. Exposure to Pollutants3 '
The cyclist is usually forced to ride directly in the highway right-of-way be-
cause of the unavailability of bike trails. Thus, he is exposed to a variety of air
pollutants, high concentrations of which have proven hazardous to health.
Further, the cyclist's increased respiration rate in this polluted environment
compounds the ill effects.
Studies show that the cyclist who travels along heavily congested roads is
exposed to air pollution higher than general ambient air in the area.3 2 For
example, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxide pollution levels along many
urban streets (at intersections) exceed present Federal standards of 35 ppm.
"During periods of stagnant air in cities, curb-side levels between 100 and 300
ppm have been measured. Although levels drop off, CO readings may be high a
block away from the road."3 3 Also, there is basis for speculating that a person
traveling along a busy road is exposed to particulate matter higher than the
general ambient air. These particulates include lead, asbestos from brake linings
and tire particles, and hydrocarbons emitted from motor vehicles. Other particu-
iate matter lying along the road is mixed into the air by the air turbulence caused
by the vehicles.
Convincing evidence points to deleterious effects of air pollution on general
populations including increased morbidity from respiratory diseases.3 4 While
3 ° Raymond N. Seakan, op. cit.
3' The information presented in this section is from literature surveyed by Mike Everett.
3 2 Arie J. Haagen-Smith, "Carbon Monoxide Levels in City Driving," Archives of En-
vironmental Health, XII (May 1966), 548-551.
3 3 Mike Everett, "Cycling in a Polluted and Congested Environment" (Workshop paper
from National Bicycle Symposium: May 1973), p. 2.
34 Ayres & Behler, "The Effects of Urban Air Pollution on Health," Clinical Pharmacol-
ogy and Therapeutics, 1970, and U.S. Department of HEW, Air Quality for Particulate
Matter (Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing Office, January 1969),
18
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exercising in these higher concentrations of air pollution, the cyclist inhales these
pollutants. Respiratory diseases, stomach cancer, and chronic emphysema occur
at a higher rate among persons living in highly polluted areas than among persons
who live in relatively clean areas.3 s This suggests that cyclists exposing them-
selves to high levels of air pollution may also suffer higher rates of diseases in the
long run. Exercise appears to accelerate CO bonding to hemoglobin because of
the relatively large volume of air and CO being passed through the lungs.36 The
health effects can be both acute and chronic. Bike paths and routes located away
from heavily trafficked routes and cyclist education programs covering the effects
of air pollution on health would help reduce this hazard.3 7
4. Lack of Bikeways, Support Facilities, and Intermodal Access
The bicycle is inexpensive, efficient, healthful, and nonpolluting, and it could
be a great transportation vehicle. At present, however, there are not enough
bikeways, support facilities, or intermodal access to exploit the bicycle's poten-
tial. The following discussion explains the drawbacks and provides suggestions
for improvement and expansion.
a. Lack of bikeways. With the increasing use of and interest in bicycles in
this country comes the need for pathways and routes where bicycles can be rid-
den with relative safety. With several exceptions, the majority of "bike routes"
in the United States today consist of little more than signs which guide bicyclists
along their routes and warn motorists of their presence.38 A nationwide inven-
tory by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation indicates that throughout the country
there are fewer than 3,000 miles of urban and suburban bikeways. There is, no
doubt, a need for more bikeways.3 9
The main reason there are so few bikeways is the lack of resources allocated
for bikeway construction. Bikeway construction is a low-priority item in State
and local jurisdictions. Only in the last few years have some State and local
jurisdictions allocated bond monies for bikeways as well as highway money.
Only since 1973 have there been funds available to States from DOT under the
Federal-Aid to Highway Act.
The "commuter" cyclist will advocate a route that is functional, while the
recreational cyclist will support one that is isolated and scenic. There is, how-
ever, a unifying bond between both cyclists—a plea for protection from the auto-
mobile. The ideal plan would be bike routes, separated as much as possible from
3 s Mike Everett, "Bike-Route Planning Strategies," (version of this paper published in
Parks and Recreation, National Parks Association, Spring 1973), p. 5.
3' James A. Vogel, et. al., ("Carbon Monoxide and Physical Work Capacity," Archives of
Environmental Health, March 1972) found that subjects exercising and breathing air with
225 ppm CO developed a caiboxyl-hemoglobin level of 20 percent which reduced oxygen
approximately 24 percent.
3 'Mike Everett, "Bike Route Planning Strategies."
3 * State of California, Bikeway Planning Criteria and Guidelines (April 1972), p. 10.
3 9 J. F, Rhinehart, "Bicycles and Parklands" (Panel remarks, presented at Bicycles,
U.S.A., Conference, May 7 and 8,1973), p. 7.
19
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automobile traffic, which would serve the needs of both commuters and recrea-
tionists40
Safety on bikeways is probably the most important issue at present. Locating
bikeways away from all automobile traffic is not always practical or possible,
especially for commuter trails. Therefore, adequate signing for both cyclists and
motorists is necessary, especially at auto crossings,4 * (The National Park Service
in the D.C. area now has bike-mounted police who patrol the trails and offer
assistance with breakdowns and accidents.)4 2
Although bikeway construction is not as costly as highway construction, avail-
able money is rarely used for bikeway construction. The cost of bikeway con-
struction ranges from 0 to an excess of $10 per linear foot. This construction
cost does not include the cost of land acquisition, which is often the most costly
factor.43 These land acquisition costs can be reduced by the effective use of
both abandoned and existing rights-of-way.44 Also, recognizing their responsi-
bility to make outdoor resources available to more people, private parties are
sometimes willing to make their rights-of-way available for trail use.45
The type of surface best suited to bikeways is still in question. Porous gravel
surfaces are ideal for water runoff, although the dust from these surfaces tends
to cause wear on the most sensitive parts of good bikes and is a slower surface
than asphalt. Porous gravel surfaces also require a great amount of maintenance
and repair. A bad storm will destroy the path and make it costly to repair. The
tow path in Washington, D.C., is a perfect example. Hurrican Agnes ripped up
the path and it was 1 year before repairs began. In Denver planners discovered
after careful study that a paved surface is much easier to maintain, is better for
bikes, and is less expensive in the long run.
Maintenance of the bikeway is another expense. The National Park Service
in the D.C. area is exploring the idea of maintaining bikeways through the use of
volunteer "overseers" who would take care of minor maintenance problems of
various sections of the trails.46 However, this is impractical over a long period
of time for many miles of paths because of the difficulties in acquiring volunteer
help.47
b. Lack of support facilities. One of the most demanding concerns is for safe
and adequate parking at access points along the trail or route. Increasing the
number of access points helps reduce this, as does providing for the opportunity
to bicycle to a particular section of the trail or route as opposed to driving to
it. Rentals, restrooms, drinking fountains, and showers are all important facili-
ties48 which can increase the vitality of any commuter route or trail.
40Rhinehart,p, 5.
41 Rhinehart, p. 5.
4 * Rhinehart, p. 9.
43Rhinehait,p. 10.
44 W. C. Wilkinson, III, "On Building Bike Trails," National Park Service, 1973, p. 7.
4 s Wilkinson, p. 7.
4'Wilkinson, p. 4.
4'Wilkinson, p. 7.
48Wilkinson, p. 6.
20
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Showers at places of work are much needed for the commuter bicyclist. Life-
styles have not changed sufficiently for supervisors and coworkers to accept a
windblown, sweaty employee. Once the bike commuter arrives at work, a
shower facility is needed close by for freshening up, and changing out of sweaty
bike-riding clothes into appropriate clothing for work.
Of course, only when National Parks, State and local parks, and State,
local and Federal governments feel that the bicycle is an important and viable
transportation or recreational vehicle will money be allocated to build the
needed support facilities mentioned.
c. Lack of intermodal integration. For trips of more than 5 miles, dual-mode
transportation may be necessary. In this "time scarce" society, bicycle commut-
ing more than 5 miles may take too long for the average person. Bicycle-
automobile systems, bicycle-bus systems, and bicycle-mass-transit systems49 are
possible solutions to the long-distance problem;however, they are not being
utilized to their fullest potential today.
The automobile and bicycle travel system does not appear to have restrictions
on its application or feasibility.5 ° The bicycle is a freer mixed mode commuting
component than are car pools and peripheral parking. For recreational purposes,
this system provides automobile mobility—a necessity for the weekend cyclists
since public transportation accommodating cyclists is extremely limited. One
problem which might arise is lack of inexpensive, safe, and conveniently located
parking facilities for both car and bicycle.51
The bicycle-bus system is the most obvious possibility for integrating bicycles
into dual-mode use in public transportation. It holds promise for average trip
speeds more competitive with automobiles and for a large increase in potential
ridership of a given bus line. To realize these improvements, bicycle-bus-route
planning must take into account the unique capabilities of such a system.52
Some problems with the bicycle-bus system include storage volume required,
access for loading and unloading, protection and restraints to avoid damage to
bikes or other baggage, and ease and speed of loading and unloading.5 3
Generally, bicycles are restricted from passenger cars on trains and mass
transit vehicles, with the possible exception of the folding bike. However, trains
with baggage cars accept bicycles in their baggage service. Thus, train com-
muters requiring bicycles at both ends of their trip may be accommodated by
trains with baggage cars or by having two bikes—one for the downtown station
and one for the home station.5 4 If downtown commuter stations rented bikes,
4 'Wesley Lum, "Bicycles in Mixed-Mode Travel" (Berkeley, Calif., University of Cali-
fornia: April, 1973), p. 1. (presented at National Bicycle Symposium, May 7-8,1973).
* ° Detroit could provide bicycle racks or optional equipment on motor vehicles.
5 ' Lum, p. 8.
5 * David M. Eggleston, "Toward a Dual-Mode Bicycle Transportation System" (National
Conference on Bicycles, U.S.A.: May 7 and 8,1973), Cambridge, Mass., p. 9.
5 3 Eggleston, p. 6.
s * Lum, p. 8.
21
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some bus trips, taxi trips or auto trips could be eliminated. Concern for safety
and secure parking appear to be major deterrents to the cyclists and liability and
expense deterrents to the railway.5 5
There are many possibilities for good intermodal integration of the bicycle and
other transportation vehicles which could be fully exploited-if better bike parking
conditions, feeder bike routes, and carrying space on vehicles were made available.
For the bicycle to be an accepted mode for an integrated transportation
system, proper facilities will have to be provided for the bike rider. These
facilities include safe bikeways, intermodal access and changing-shower facilities.
The proper facilities for bike riders today do not exist in most places and thus
bicycle commuting is not utilized as much as it could be.
5. Other Deterrents
The cyclist is faced with a few other possible difficulties which would deter many
people from cycling to work, including inclement weather conditions, inability
to carry additional packages, and time costs.
Inclement or very cold weather is a problem to the bicycle commuter. When
the streets are wet, the brakes on the bicycle do not work well and this creates a
safety problem. In very bad weather, the cyclist's exposure could precipitate
colds. The solution to this problem is for the commuter to take the bus on bad
weather days or wear protective rain gear when riding in bad weather. However,
in very cold weather, bicycle commuting is possible. The cyclist is exercising
and providing some body heat. With very warm gloves, a hat, thermal clothes,
and thermal shoes, cycling can be pleasant in the winter. Although commuter
cycling is possible in rain and cold weather, many people will not ride in those
conditions.
Another problem when riding a bike is that of carrying personal property.
Small amounts can be carried on a bike by (1) a knapsack on the cyclist's back,
(2) carriers attached to the bike, (i.e., racks, paniers, or saddle bags), (3) the
"bugger" attachment, which is similar to a shopping cart, has two wheels and
rolls along behind the bike.
The overall cost to the bicycle commuter in terms of time and lack of con-
venience must also be analyzed.
In spite of the increasing popularity of bicycling, merely establishing bike
routes will not necessarily insure a high rate of white-collar bicycle commuting
to central business districts. According to a recent study5 6 the present boom in
bicycling on and around campuses as opposed to the general lack of cycling by
postcollege adult commuters can be explained partially by the lack of economic
incentives as well as the lack of bike routes for the latter type of commuter.
On congested college campuses where commuting distances are short and student
parking severely curtailed, the bicycle has become the fastest, most convenient,
* s Lum, p. 6.
56 "Commuter Demand for Bicycle Transportation in the U.S.," Traffic Quarterly,
forthcoming.
22
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and for many the most enjoyable form of transportation. For white-collar com-
muters, on the other hand, distances are generally over 4 or 5 miles, parking is
still available in most business districts, and the necessity of changing into more
formal clothing at work often makes the bike less efficient than the car even
when exercise is considered an important byproduct of cycling.
If, however, the private automobile driver is forced to pay more of the social
costs the auto imposes in congested areas, such as air pollution and traffic con-
gestion, the price of driving will rise. Safe bicycle routes and other facilities
such as locker rooms and bike parking areas, when coupled with such restrictions
on cars, could stimulate considerable commuter cycling by white collar workers
living close in. Even long-distance commuters may be induced to bicycle to
work if mixed modal facilities such as park and cycle or mass transit and cycle
facilities are developed. The study concludes that bike-route planners need to
work bicycle facilities and trails into situations where economic efficiency con-
siderations will be reinforced and not merely assume that construction of a bike
route will call forth its own demand.
23
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V. FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
In the past, the Federal Government has not given much attention to bicycles.
However, because of the recent bicycle boom and the present need for new trans-
portation alternatives, the bicycle is receiving more recognition and considera-
tion in existing Federal programs, policies, and legislative initiatives.
A. Existing Federal Programs and Policies
While there is little legislative authority given to agencies by any bill, and
while there is no national policy for bicycles, many agencies have studied the
bicycle. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Trans-
portation (DOT), Department of Interior (DOI), the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC), Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), and others
have all been involved to some degree as summarized in table 4.
1. Environmental Protection Agency
EPA's activities have been limited but varied. Representatives were sent to
(a) an interagency working group on bicycles sponsored by CEQ; (b) a bicycle
symposium held in Washington in February 1973, sponsored by DOI; and (c)
the National Bicycle Symposium sponsored by DOT and DOI. Bicycles were also
briefly mentioned in EPA's 1972 Annual Report to Congress, Progress in Prevent-
ing Motor Vehicle Emissions. EPA has bicycle racks outside the lobby of the
Headquarters Building at Waterside Mall in Southwest Washington, D.C., and in
the garage. There is in operation a bicycle decal system for the security of em-
ployees' bicycles.
Section 201(f) of the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act is indirectly applica-
ble to bicycles and could benefit bicycle users (see App. III). Under this section
the Administrator is to encourage waste treatment management to combine the
open space with recreational considerations. Careful preplanning, and design
of sewer easements which parallel communities, rivers, streams, and water
bodies could provide access for bicycle trails.
Sections 104 and 110 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 allow EPA
to become involved in promoting use of bicycles. Section 104 of the Act gives
EPA the authority to develop low-emission alternatives to present internal com-
bustion engines. Section 110 requires States to submit plans for implementing
the national ambient air standards in each State air quality region where
transportation control measures are necessary to reduce the auto emissions.
Bicycle use is to some extent being encouraged in these plans. The Prove, Utah,
Spokane, Washington, National Capital Plans (D.C., Maryland, and Virginia),
Denver, Colorado, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Transportation
24
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Agency
EPA
HUD
K)
V)
GSA
TABLE 2.—Federal agency involvement in bicycle policy
Reason for concern Legislative authority
Agency programs
(active)
Environment (air
pollution and
energy saving)
Land use
Parking Facilities at
Government
buildings
DOT
Transportation
1970 Clean Air Act, 1972 Office of Air Pro-
Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act
grams (Transpor-
tation Control
Plans)
Open Space Land Pro-
grams (701) Compre-
hensive Planning
Assistance Fund
None
Limited
GSA policy on bicy-
cle parking in Fed-
eral buildings
Related activities Potential involvement
1972 Motor Vehicle Re- Policy statement studies,
port. Participation in funding installation
CEO. Interagency
meeting. Participation
in National Bicycle
conference, Transpor-
of showers for bike
commuters, public-
ity
tation Control Plans
1973 Federal Aid to
Highway Act, Urban
Mass Transit Act,
National Highway
Safety Act, Depart-
ment of Transporta-
tion Act
FHWA, MHTSA, TES, Cospoosored National
UMTA Bicycle Symposium,
1973, Study of Bike
Safety, allocation of
$120 million for
bikeways for 1974-
76
Bicycle parking facilities
at public buildings
Revision of GSA policy
of bicycle parking to
require that secure
bicycle parking and
shower facilities be
provided at Federal
Government build-
ings
Bicycle program office,
more funding for
bikeways
-------
TABLE 2,-continued
Agency
Reason for concern
Legislative authority
Agency programs
(active)
Related activities
Potential involvement
DO)
Recreation
1968 National Trails Act, BOR National Park
Land and Water Con- Service
servation Act
Cosponsored National
Bike Symposium
Funding bike trails, sup-
port facilities
Consumer Products
Safety Commis-
sion
Safety
Regulations of product
Bureau of Product
Safety
Regulating bicycle dergn Funding and enforce-
ment
CEQ
Environment
NEPA
None
D.C. government
D.C. Zoning
Commission
Recreation, transpor- None
tation, safety
Safety, transporta-
tion
National Capital Safety, transporta-
Planning Commis- tion
si on
None
None
None
None
None
CEQ Interagency Work
Group, 1972 annual
report (mention of
bicycles)
Studies on use of bikes,
bike safety, bike
security
None
None
Funding, studies, co-
ordination
Bike demonstration
city
Funding and rezoning
for bikeways
Bikeway planning
Smithsonian
Institution
Exhibition
None
Traveling btcycie
exhibition
-------
Control Plans include a close examination of measures to promote the use of
the bicycle. In the preamble to its notice of June 22, 1973, publishing the
approval/disapproval notices, EPA mentions bicycles as one means of reducing
the number of miles traveled in automobiles in urban areas: "Alternative
transportation capacity . . . exists in the possibility that many short trips now
made by car could be made by bicycle or on foot."
The Denver, Colorado, plan includes an integrated strategy for bicycle use,
the results of which are projected to reduce emissions by 1 percent by 1975.
The plan calls for a pilot bicycle route to be built as a first step to indicate how
a prospective system of 164 miles might work. Total implementation costs are
estimated at $800,000 to $900,000. A bicycle license fee of $5 for 2 years
would be levied to cover the costs.1
As a result of testimony by citizen groups at public hearings, the final plans
for the National Capital Area (D.C., Maryland, and Virginia) also require an
integrated strategy for bicycle use, resulting in a reduction of emissions by 1
percent by 1976. The plan requires establishment of 180 miles of exclusive
bicycle lanes by July 1, 1976. The plan also requires a pilot bicycle route from
Key Bridge along Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House to the Capitol to
Alabama Avenue, S.E.; a comprehensive demand and use study; and a system of
secure bicycle parking racks for any facility which now provides auto parking.
EPA announced on November 20, 1973, at the press conference for the
Transportation Control Plans for the National Capital that "bicycling can divert
a significant amount of auto traffic, especially for short trips of four miles or
less.... We believe that, if bicycle lanes can provide safety and security as well
as convenience to work or to subway stations, people will ride them. We also
feel that bicycle security—in parking and in riding—should be provided."
2. Department of Transportation
DOT has been the leader and the most active agency in promoting the bicycle
since early 1971, when Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe and Secre-
tary of Interior Rogers C. B. Morton made a joint decision to promote bicycling.
Secretary Volpe mentioned the bicycle alternative in many speeches in 1971,
particularly the inauguration speech for Transportation Week, May 16,1971, in
Washington, D.C.2 DOT has shown interest in almost every aspect of bicycle use,
although efforts to integrate bicycles with other modes of transportation have
been slow.
Four offices within DOT have developed complementary programs on bicycle
use. These are the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment, Safety, and Consumer
Affairs (TES), the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA),
and the Urban Mass Transit Administration (UMTA).
1 "Denver Transportation Plan," Denver, Proposal submitted to EPA, June 1, 1973.
'Department of Transportation and Department of Interior, Bicycling for Recreation
and Commuting, (Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 6.
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a. Federal Highway Administration. The Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), in addition to updating PPM 20-233 in the form of a transmittal (app.
IV), is participating in the preparation of a report to Congress due January 31,
1975, on bicycle safety. The Office of Highway Safety is currently drafting a
highway safety standard that will require each State to provide adequate and
safe facilities for bicyclists as an integral element of its community planning and
highway transportation system. The FHWA Office of Research is continuing its
interest in the nonmotorized transportation field. It will be examining the con-
cept of citizen acceptance of alternative modes of transportation, and the eco-
nomic tradeoffs between walking, bicycling, using mass transit, or driving a
private automobile. Lastly, the planning office is publishing a brochure that will
inform States and local communities of the ways and means of funding bikeway
planning.
b. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment,
Safety, and Consumer Affairs. TES has launched a number of activities related
to bicycle use, including the following: gaining information on bicycle programs
in 10 U.S. cities; issuing a memo setting forth the conditions under which trails
for bicyclists and bikers may be constructed with Federal money Completing a
contract with BART to demonstrate the integration of bicycles with mass
transit; funding with UMTA and NHTSA of a community planning manual on
bicycle facilities; and providing leadership in planning DOT's national bicycle
symposium in May 1973.
c. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). NHTSA is
involved with the emerging bicycle safety problem. It has primary responsibility
for the bicycle safety report due to Congress January 31,1975. Its Research
Institute is studying pedestrian and bicycle accidents including causes, types, and
prevention. And its Traffic Safety Program has proposed a revision of its High-
way Safety Program Standards, which include bicycle and pedestrian traffic.
d. Urban Mass Transit Administration (UMTA). UMTA has contracted with
Washington's Metro for a demonstration project on bicycle access and parking
facilities. Other contracts for bicycle use complementing mass transit systems
are also being considered.
3. Department of the Interior
The Department of the Interior has also been active in promoting bicycles
since early 1971. Emphasis in this agency is on recreational use of bikes. Two
offices explicitly provide for their use: the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation and
the National Park Service.
a. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR). The National Trails Act is the main
mandate for BOR involvement. Enacted in 1968, it has helped to establish
3Dept. of TianspoitationlFHWA., Federal Aid Highway Program'Manual, 18 (March 8,
1974.
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better conditions for cyclists; however, its full potential has not yet been realized.
More specifically, it (1) encourages States to consider establishing bicycle (and
other trails) on public lands in or near urban areas; (2) provides for adding urban
trails to the national system; (3) provides for interagency cooperation on bike
trail development on abandoned property; and (4) allows planning for bicycle
use on some sections of National Scenic Trails Systems.
The Bureau provides matching grants to States and local jurisdictions of
approximately $300 million per year for recreational facilities including bike-
ways. Despite this impressive amount, the California legislature has found that
State and local agencies do not always seek available Federal funds under this
Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF).
Other BOR activities include sponsoring bicycle symposiums, disseminating
information on utility transportation rights-of-way abandonment, and reviewing
environmental impact statements for inclusion of bike trails. *
b. The National Park Service. The National Park Service has also played an
active role by sponsoring bike-related activities and establishing new miles of
bike trails. Rock Creek Parkway and Mount Vernon trails in Washington are
two of their projects. In 1971, the Park Service classified 232 miles of trails
within its parks as being suitable for bikes. The Park Service declared 1973 the
"year of the Bike."
4. Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC)
CPSC's concern is for providing a safe vehicle for children to ride. A set of
standards was initiated because more than 1 million bicycle-related accidents
occur annually. The purpose of these standards is to provide children less than
16 years of age with a safe vehicle. The regulations are aimed at mass-produced
bikes to affect the standards of equipment and accessories on the bike as it
goes into the user's hands. Specifically, these standards impose minimum
strength requirements on brakes, steering systems, frames and other bicycle
components sold in the United States after January 1, 1975. Manufacturers will
be required to provide wide angle reflectors to increase visibility at night, chain
guards on nonfreewheeling pedal systems and fenders without sharp edges. In
addition a 4-mile road test and an instruction manual explaining how to assem-
ble the bicycle and maintain brakes and tires and other basic elements are
required.
5. Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)
CEQ mentioned bicycles in its Third Annual Report as a possible alternative
mode of transportation in national parks. In 1973 an ad hoc interagency working
group convened at CEQ's request for the purpose of formulating Federal policy
on bicycles. This working group discussed incorporation of bicycle planning
specifications in existing programs, funding of bikeways, action on bicycle theft,
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traffic safety, initiation of technical research and development, and the designa-
tion of Washington, D.C., as a "model bicycle city."
6. General Services Administration
The General Services Administration has the potential of having a very posi-
tive impact for the security of Government bicycle commuters' bikes because of
its governmentwide responsibility to maintain Federal facilities. This responsi-
bility lends itself best to work-space modifications, new construction and leasing
design standards, and other public building activities in providing facilities for
bicycle commuters at places of work.
Pursuant to memoranda circulated by the Federal Energy Office (FEO), the
General Services Administration has issued several temporary Federal property
management regulations—the last being issued May 22, 1974—to be followed
shortly by a permanent regulation. These regulations address Federal employee
parking and require, among other things, that agencies reserve areas within
parking facilities for the use of bicycles. This regulation requires that: Bicycles
be "given special consideration, and the number of parking spaces reserved for
bicycles and two wheeled vehicles shall be reevaluated every 6 months."
7. Housing and Urban Development
HUD has two grant programs under Community Development, Department of
Housing and Urban Development, which may be applied to bikeways and other
forms of recreation. Urban Renewal Project programs are designed to provide
assistance for rehabilitation of slum areas, authorize land acquisition and con-
struct improvements including streets, sidewalks, and recreational areas. Bike-
way systems could be developed under these provisions. Grants may range from
$800,000 to $40,000,000 with 2/4 or 3/4 funding coming from the Government.
HUD also encourages and aids communities in acquiring permanent open
space land for growing urban recreational demands under its Open Space Land
Programs. Roadways and landscaping may come under the egis of this program.
Applications are made to the State agency administering the program in the
usual manner. Although bikeways are not specifically mentioned in the program
description, there is nothing discouraging their development. These are 50-50
grants and have ranged from $4,900 to $2,500,000. This program, as of the
writing of this report, is inactive.
Funding for bikeway system planning may be sought through the HUD Com-
prehensive Planning Assistance Fund ("701"), especially if sought as part of a
city- or county wide comprehensive planning effort.
Local governments may choose to expend general revenue sharing funds on
the acquisition or development of bikeway rights-of-way.
8. Other Federal Programs
A survey of Federal Programs done for the California Legislature shows that
approximately 260 Federal programs administered by 92 separate Federal
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entities could, in theory, provide funding for bicycle trails. However, after
investigation, the California Legislature found that very few of these 260 pro-
grams translate into bike-related dollars and cents.
DOT also listed a number of Federal programs which could be used to plan or
develop urban, suburban, and intercity bike routes of various types-shared road-
ways and grade-separated pathways (see app. V).
B. Legislative Initiatives
Attempts in 1971 and 1972 to obtain funds for bikeways through legislation
were only mildly successful. The Bicycle Transportation Bill of 1971 and 1972
and the Federal-Aid to Highway Bill of 1972 failed to pass or even get out of
conference. Also, two other bills were introduced in Congress, one dealing with
abandoned rights-of-way and the other with installing bicycle racks. However,
neither of these bills passed.
The Federal-Aid to Highway Act of 1973 which supersedes the PPM repre-
sents one of the most significant commitments to bikeways anywhere in the
Federal Government. The main provisions are:
(1) $40 million may be obligated annually by the Federal Highway Admin-
istration (FHWA) for bikeway and walkway purposes during fiscal years
1974 through 1976. The money can be spent on planning, preliminary
engineering, inspection, construction, or reconstruction. No more than
$2 million can be obligated to any State in a single year. The percent-
age of Federal funding participation will be 70 percent.
(2) Addition of bikeway provisions to the United States Code, Section 231
of the Act requires that the Secretary include provisions for bicycle
safety in his uniform standards governing State highway safety pro-
grams.
(3) Section 231 requires that State highway safety programs include
driver education programs which provide for research and for greater
cyclist safety.
(4) Section 214 calls for a study of'bikeway safety. The research is to be
completed by January 31, 1975, and the study is now underway at
DOT and it is expected to meet the deadline. It is to include:
(a) Evaluation of State laws, ordinances, enforcement policies, and
capabilities of enforcement.
(b) Investigation of alcohol and bikeway safety.
(c) Evaluation of methods to improve State bicycle safety programs.
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(d) Assessment of present funding allocations for bicycle safety pro-
grams and future capabilities of government at all levels. (This
provision authorizes $5 million for the study, which is also to
subsidize a simultaneous pedestrian walkway study.)
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VL STATE AND LOCAL ACTIVITIES
A. General Survey
State governments appear to be concentrating their efforts in the areas of
research, development of planning and design criteria, and funding for local
systems. Twenty-seven States are conducting bicycle research; 13 States have
passed related legislation; and another 11 have such legislation Bending. Finally,
13 States have prepared planning and design criteria.1 State funding of bikeways
and other facilities has generally been quite limited. Notable exceptions are
Oregon, Michigan, Washington, and California, all of which have passed
legislation allocating a fixed percentage (usually 1 percent) of all gasoline
tax revenues for investment in bicycle facilities.
B, Some State and Local Efforts
Several State and local government efforts deserve special recognition. They
have taken a progressive attitude to bicycle use and provide examples for others
to emulate.
1. State Efforts
(a) California has been the leader with at least 37 cities and counties having
existing bicycling facilities and with 20 other systems being planned. Davis.
California, is one of the best examples of viable bicycle transportation
systems where 60 percent of all rush hour traffic is on bicycles.2
(b) Florida, the next most active state, has 20 existing systems and 5 in the
planning process.
(c) The Midwest States of Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin
have all taken large strides in the implementation of bicycle facilities. Collec-
tively, these States have at least 51 existing bicycling systems and 15 more in
the planning stage.3
(d) Oregon has enacted legislation (H.B. 1700) which has provided a model to
many States. The Act states:
1 A. Trent Germane, et. al., The Emerging Need of Bicycle Transportation (Georgia
Institute of Technology. January 1973).
'Doug Adler, Administrative Assistant for Congressman Koch, Interview, July 1973.
3Germano, op. cit.
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Footpaths and bicycle trails should be established wherever a highway, road or street is
being constructed, reconstructed or relocated. Funds received from the State Highway
Trust Fund may also be expended to maintain such footpaths and trails; to establish
footpaths and trails along other highways, roads and streets and in parks and recreation
areas The amount expended by the commission or by a city or county as required
or permitted by this section shalJ never in any one fiscal year be less than one percent of
the total amount of the funds received from the highway fund.4
(e) Arizona recently passed a bicycle study bill on a statewide basis from
which $50,000 was appropriated from the general fund for the highway depart-
ment to administer.5
2. Local Efforts
The city of Davis, California, is probably the best example in the United
States of the bicycle's being used as a major transportation mode, almost equal
to the auto. California's climate provides ideal conditions for bicycle riding and
the city-built bicycle path network makes it possible for the bicycle to be used
safely as a regular transportation vehicle.
Davis's population of 24,000 own 18,000 bicycles. No other city in the
United States has such a high proportion of bicycle ownership-and in Davis,
"owning" means "using."6 "On one heavily travelled street, traffic counts '
during the summer (with few university students in town) revealed that bicycles
represented 40 percent of all rush hour traffic; 90 percent of all riders were
adults."7
Davis, California, lends itself to bicycle riding because of its mild weather,
flat terrain, wide streets, a collegiate town's age breakdown, and a majority of
the population living within 2 miles of downtown and campus. Equally impor-
tant, Davis has adequate bike lanes and paths.
Over the past 8 years, Davis has had authority to promulgate bicycle regula-
tions. Before 1967, the City Public Works Department made plans to create bike
lanes over 5 feet wide on the shoulders of the streets. Then the passage of the
California Motor Vehicle Code in 1967 permitted the Davis City Council to build
bike lanes and regulate bike traffic. The plan called for 12 miles of bicycle
paths by 1974, including 5 miles of lanes completely separated from the road-
way.8
The high percentage of commuters that ride bicycles on the bikeways has pro-
vided the city with less rush hour traffic, almost no parking problems and the
separated bikeway system has reduced auto-bicycle accidents.9
The City of Chicago and its suburbs have some of the best bicycle paths re-
moved from motor vehicle routes in the country. Over 100 miles of pathways,
4 Ibid.
slbid.
* Robert Somner and Dale F. Lott, "Bikeways in Action: The Davis Experience" (The
Bicycle Institute of America, 1973).
'Ibid.
"Ibid.
'Ibid.
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all paved in some manner, wind through forest preserves, along the shore of Lake
Michigan, and across virgin prairies. The Chicago Park District Lakefront Bicycle
Path is an excellent commuter path for those living a short distance from the lake
shore either north or south. The most extensive of the bicycle paths is the
DuPage Prairie Path which extends over 20 miles through the western suburbs
of the city from Elmhurst to Elgin and Aurora. The Green Bay Trail provides
a quick way of traveling through Chicago's northern suburbs to the outskirts
of Evanston.
It is worth noting that as of October 1971 the City of Chicago had 26 bicycle
lots of various sizes, all in the central downtown area. Chicago is experimenting
with rush hour commuter bike lanes in the Loop on a limited basis.
Local initiatives in jurisdictions include:
- In April 1973, the City of Ann Arbor, Michigan, passed an $850,000
bond issue to provide an immediate 91-mile bike commuter system.
- Denver citizens voted approval of a $300,000 bond issue earmarked for
bikeways in the fall of 1972. Also, partially with BOR assistance, the
city created another bike system (along Cherry Creek).
— The D.C. Police Department recently instituted the Friendship Force
which now has 10 bicycle-mounted police on patrol.
This coverage of State and local government activity is incomplete due to
the constantly changing state of the art. All activities on the State, local,
and governmental levels have been for providing better conditions for cyclists
and thus eliminating the deterrents. For more information on the status of the
1973 State Bike way Legislation and the State activities in bike way development
across the country see appendix VI.
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vii. FOREIGN EXPERIENCE
A. Europe
Because of the expense of automobile ownership and use plus the prevalent
crowded conditions, extensive bicycle use has been an accepted fact in Europe
since the bicycle was first introduced. Today the bicycle is being used even
more extensively because of the energy crisis. Cars were banned from streets in
seven countries on Sundays during the 1973-74 winter. In some areas, such as
Copenhagen in Denmark, Upsala in Sweden, Rotterdam in the Netherlands, and
Stevenage in England, bicycles account for as much as 43 percent of all the
trips made by any form of transportation.1 In order to accommodate cyclists and
promote the increased use of bicycles, many areas have constructed special
facilities.
The prime cycling countries are France, England, and Holland, in that order.
France and England have a vast network of secondary roads with villages well
spaced so that no ride puts one very far away from important necessities such
as food and lodging. There are also detailed regional maps available for both
countries. Holland has a well:known network of bicycle paths as well as a good
secondary road network. Gary J. Hawkins, co-author of Bicycling Touring in
Europe, claims that Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, Ireland, Belgium, Germany,
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy are good cycling
countries. The marginal cycling countries are Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, and
Greece.2
In 1973, bicycles manufactured in France totaled 2,250,000; 1,800,000
were sold in France and the rest were exported to other countries (the United
States was the largest customer importing 346,752). The laws applying to bicy-
clists are the same as those applicable to motorists and there is no limit on the
age for bicyclists. Deterrents are present in France but some effort is being
made to overcome them. In 1974 an appeal was made to the mayors of all
cities and towns in France to update traffic laws to encourage bicycle use and,
as a result, Lyon, Troyes, and Grenoble are planning to review and improve their
present traffic laws. Some countries are planning to build special paths for bicy-
clists, but no definite plans have been presented.3 >,
1 A." Trent Germane, et. al. The Emerging Need of Bicycle Transportation {Georgia Insti-
tute of Technology: Jan. 1973).
2Gaiy J. Hawkins, "Finding Europe's Sideroads," Bicycling XIV, (July 1973). 26-28.
* American Embassy, Paris, Airgram to EPA (Feb. 1974).
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There are 12 million bicycles in the United Kingdom.4 It is permitted to
bring a bicycle on the train, lock it and pay half fare for the bicycle. In
Stevengage and Peterborough, bikeways are being provided as part of a new
town development. Twenty-three miles of bikeways have been constructed
with 90 underpasses designed to segregate cyclists from cars at intersections.
The bikeways are 12 feet in width for two-way traffic with light construction,
surfaced with bitumen or tar macadam and have minimal lighting and drainage.
Grassways separate the paths which run parallel to the road but there are
several crosstown cycleways not paralleling roads. About 11 percent of the
population in Stevenage use the bicycle for local trips to shops and places of
work. Approximately 8 percent of the primary school children (5-11 years
of age), and 17 percent of the secondary school children (11-16 years of age)
cycle to school regularly.5
The British Cycling Bureau in London claims there are two deterrents: the
weather and the danger of cycling in traffic. The Bureau states thatrweather is
more of an emotional than a real problem. Campaigns to persuade local authori-
ties to provide separate facilities for bicycles in urban and rural areas are being
conducted and meeting with some success.6
Holland has separate roadways for bicycles with underpasses and traffic signals.
Extensive parking facilities are available in shopping and business areas. In Decem-
ber 1971, Holland had 30,000 kilometers of bicycling roads—one-third of the
total road length for cycling.7
In Holland and Sweden, a commuter may check his bicycle at a train station
and rent another at his destination. Bicycles are available at 90 stations in Hol-
land and 705 in Sweden. All government buildings and most banks provide se-
cure bicycle parking under the building with an attendant to guard the bike.8
Holland also has special bicycle facilities on trains which enable the cyclists to
take their vehicles with them.9 Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland all have
comprehensive bicycle plans which will be implemented in the next few years.
In Holland many functional service roads are used as bikeways.
The Federal Republic of Germany has 15,000 kilometers of cycling roads.1 °
Many cities throughout the continent have extensive systems of bicycle lanes
'American Embassy, London, Akgram to EPA (Feb. 1974).
5 Department of the Environment letter to the U.S. Embassy in London (Jan. 11, 1974).
* British Cycling Bureau letter to U.S. Embassy in London (Dec. 31, 1973).
'"Bicycling for Leisure Fun Growing Rapidly in Japan," WLRA Bulletin, XVI, (Sept-
Oct. 1973).
8 Steve Hudak and Gary Shaw of WABA, Interview, July 1973, of their bicycle trip to
Europe, June, 1973.
'Robert Sornner and Dale F. Lott, "Bikeways in Action-The Davis Experience" (pre-
sented as a public service by the Bicycle Institute of America, 1973); and" Wesley Lum,
"Bicycles in Mixed-Mode Travel" (produced as part of a program of Research and Training
in Urban Transportation sponsored by Urban Mass Transportation of the Department of
Transportation, April 1973).
1 '"Bicycling for Leisure Fun Growing Rapidly in Japan," WLRA Bulletin, XVI, (Sept.-
Oct. 1973).
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separated from the highways and many metro stations have large protected
bicycle parking areas.
In Rome, there are an estimated 12 million bicycles with estimated sales over
1,000,000 a year since 1968.'! Although the same deterrents to use exist in
Rome as in the United States (accident and theft rates and lack of support facil-
ities), bicycles were the only mode of transportation allowed on the roads on
Sunday last winter, 1974. There was a ban on Sunday and holiday motor vehicle
traffic including motor bikes, scooters, and motorcycles for purposes of conserv-
ing energy.
In response to an EPA airgram sent to the Swedish Embassy requesting infor-
mation on bicycle transportation, the following facts were given:
(1) A poll taken in 1965 indicated that about 62 percent of the Swedes
aged 15 to 75 years possessed their own bicycles (3 million in 1965).
From 1966 to 1972, increasing numbers of bicycles were sold
(394,000 in 1973).
(2) The increasingly negative aspects of car traffic and growing public inter-
est in physical fitness have led to a renaissance of the bicycle in Sweden
since late 1960. The energy crisis will obviously lend added momentum
to the trend.
Sweden recently began to institute comprehensive arrangements for bicyclists,
and Copenhagen and Stockholm already have separate bicycle paths.12 Many
other cities, such as Oxelosund, are constructing auto-free malls in the center of
town with access for cyclists and pedestrians.13 Sweden's "modal-split" trans-
portation plan provides for separate lanes for every mode of transportation. In
Landskrona, for instance, the bicycle time is 6 minutes (30 percent) less to the
town limit than that by bus or auto.14
Bicycle accidents in Europe pose a problem basically because of the number
of cyclists. However, the accident rate is much lower where bikeways are pro-
vided, A French survey has found 45 percent fewer accidents on bikeways, and
in Copenhagen 60 percent fewer accidents are reported. The theft rate in
Europe is also rising rapidly because of the lack of adequate security devices.
Although Europe has not solved all the problems associated with bicycle use
in general, the combination of bicycles, public transportation, and autos has been
shown to be an effective transportation system. If safe facilities are available for
bicycles, people will tend to use them.
1' American Embassy, Rome, Airgram to EPA (Dec. 1973).
1 2 Steve Hudak and Gary Shaw (Washington Area Bicycle Association, Extensive Study
of European Bikeways, June-July 1973).
13 Nils Rosen, "Modal Split Should Be at Least Triple Split," (presented at Swedish
Embassy, Jane 1973).
14 Ibid.
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1 7
B. Japan
In Japan one out of every 3.5 Japanese owns a bicycle. The number of bicy-
cles owned in Japan is estimated at about 33 million. Annual sales of bicycles
have averaged 4.9 million in the past 5 years (1968-1972) including export sales.
Sixty-nine percent of all Japanese households possessed bicycles in 1971.1 s
As of December 1971, there were 1,420 kilometers of cycling roads in Japan.
In 1970, Japan passed legislation (the Law of Improvement of Bicycle Riding
Roads for the purpose of enhancing traffic safety and promoting the people's
mental and physical health) which resulted in speeding up the construction of
cycling roads. Seven long-distance cycling roads have been built in various parts
of the country by prefectual and municipal authorities. The Construction Minis-
try has now started work on the Pacific Cycling Road of 1,560 kilometers from
the Kanto area to the Chubu (Central Japan) region along the Pacific,Coast, end-
ing at Wakayana City in the Kansai area. Other major cycling roads are now
under study. Japan plans to construct a nationwide network of cycling roads
with a total length of 25,000 kilometers.16
In the first 2 years of a 5-year program (JFY 1971-1975) Japan appropriated
13 billion yen to build a network of bicycle paths. The program is expected to
result in a total of 2,900 kilometers of paths, with the participation of 62 cities.
Deterrents to bicycle use such as high accident rates and exposure to air pollution
from motor vehicles are present in Japan. Some local authorities have taken
measures to improve the safety of bicycling, such as establishing exclusive bicycle
lanes, permitting cyclists to use sidewalks, and designating certain streets for
nonmotorized traffic only.
C. People's Republic of China
To quote from an'Airgram of December 1973 to EPA from the U.S. Liaison
Office in Peking:
Bicycles are not merely "an alternative means of transportation" in the Peoples Repub-
lic of China; they are an essential conveyance for millions of people. Ownership of pri-
vate cars is non-existent in the PRC and only a very few people own motor-powered
cycles. Thus, to most Chinese, ownership of a bicycle connotes the same image of status
and convenience as car ownership does to average Americans. Moreover, bicycles, and
three-wheeled cycles, are an important form of goods transportation in the country.
In big cities such as Peking, Shanghai, and a few others, buses, taxis, and military
jeeps, as well as cars and small buses belonging to organizations are fairly numerous. In
those cities, cyclists are more likely to be in continuous close contact with four-wheeled
motor vehicles. In others cities, and in the countryside, motor vehicles, apart from buses,
are far fewer.
The risk of accidents is probably no more a disincentive to bicycle ownership in
China than it is a disincentive to car ownership in the United States. Public security
15 American Embassy, Tokyo, Airgram to EPA (Dec. 1973).
"Ibid.
"Ibid.
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measures in China are stringent, and bicycle theft is not a major problem. Almost every
bike-owner locks his vehicle when leaving it parked, and police officials seem to consider
it a bike-owner's responsibility to do so. This no doubt contributes to a low rate of bicy-
cle theft. Lack of space for parking bicycles or other support facilities is not a problem
in China, and certainly presents no disincentive to bicycle ownership. Repair facilities
are numerous, and fees minimal, so maintenance also presents no problem for would-be
Chinese bike-owners.
With the need to curb energy use and reduce air pollution, the bicycle could
be a practicable mode for short trips in the United States. The United States
could learn from the successful bicycle transportation systems in other countries.
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VIII. STUDY CONCLUSIONS
(1) Bicycle technology, current use, and public opinion survey results indicate
that the bicycle is a viable form of adult transportation for short urban shopping,
work, and recreation trips.
(2) The bicycle is best suited for short trips. Forty percent of all urban work
trips are 4 miles or less, a distance easily traveled by bicycle.
(3) The potential environmental dividend of bicycle transportation in terms
of the reduction of energy, air pollution, traffic congestion, and noise, as well as
the saving of space warrants further study toward promoting bicycle transport.
(4) As the cost of driving a car or using other modes of transportation in-
creases, the bicycle will continue to become a more desirable mode of travel be-
cause of its lower costs.
(5) Realization of a significant shift from autos to bicycles is highly dependent
on overcoming four problems:
(a) High bicycle accident rates
(b) High bicycle theft rate
(c) Exposure to automotive pollutants
(d) Lack of adequate financing for support facilities
(6) Cyclist safety is perhaps best improved through the construction of bike-
ways segregated from automobile traffic, the reduction of automobile travel,
better cyclist education, updating and enforcement of traffic laws.
(7) Bicycle theft is perhaps best combatted by better law enforcement methods
aimed at making the resale of stolen bicycles a difficult and risky business, by
secure parking facilities, and by more effective locking devices.
(8) Reducing the cyclist's exposure to excessive air pollution can only be
accomplished through segregated bikeways located a sufficient distance from
heavy automobile traffic or on the streets where automobiles are prohibited
from traveling.
(9) Financing the construction of adequate support facilities, primarily
segregated bikeways and secure parking at public buildings and at mass transit
stations will enhance the convenience of cycling and complement all other
efforts in removing major obstacles to bicycle usage.
(10) The construction of bikeways and better law enforcement are public goods
requiring governmental involvement.
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(11) Although the implementation of bicycle programs must occur primarily
at the State and local levels, the Federal Government can play a significant
advocacy role to promote such programs through Federal aid and publicity.
(12) EPA occupies a broad environmental position vis-a-vis bicycle use.
(13) EPA could contribute to the development of a national bicycle policy
in two ways: by encouraging bicycle programs through its rule making related
to transportation control plans, by explaining to other Federal agencies the
environmental benefits of bicycle use, and by developing environmental assess-
ment impact statement guidelines for bikeway facilities.
42
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IX. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The objective of this report is to report the state of the art in order to make
recommendations to the public. Based on the study findings and conclusions,
there is a need for the following actions:
1. Investigation of the feasibility of making Washington, D.C.,a model city
for bicycle transportation in time for the Nation's bicentennial
Washington has considerable potential for developing an integrated bike net-
work with its high-density residential areas close to major employment centers.
In conjunction with the national capital transportation controls plans, local
jurisdictions and other Federal agencies could try to make D.C, a model city for
bicycling.
Determination of the benefits would include defining the
— number of auto trips feasibly converted to bicycle trips before and after
Metro completion
- health and recreational benefits
— probable number of accidents eliminated
Determination of costs would include defining the
— assessments of all costs, including environmental impacts
- physical infrastructure costs of the network and facilities
— administrative costs
— police and enforcement costs
2. Actively promote interagency coordination in the development of a national
bicycle policy
Encouragement of bicycle use nationwide realizes different benefits to each of
the Federal agency programs involved. These various aspects should be comple-
mentary. Coordination could occur through an existing mechanism, such as the
CEQ ad hoc interagency committee on bicycles set up in 1973. Issues appro-
priate for interagency coordination at this time include:
— analyses of the costs and benefits of bikeway facilities, of the elasticities
underlying shifts from auto to bike trips and of methods for alleviating
personal safety and bicycle security problems
— sponsorship of a conference on bicycle use in the spring of 1975
- development of environmental impact guidelines for bikeways
43
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3. Launch a campaign to make the public aware of the benefits of cycling
The benefits accruing from bicycle use have been inadequately publicized to
the public at large. Accordingly a publicity program might include:
— preparing pamphlets, film, and TV commercials on the benefits of bicycle
use
— publicizing the Denver Bikeway Network or others
4. Make it more attractive for Federal employees to commute by bicycle
The best incentive for the feasibility of change is through example or demon-
stration. Some of the money from GSA allocated to facilities in Federal agencies
could be used for bicycle facilities. If money were available, Federal agencies
could install secure bike storage areas and showers for commuting cyclists.
5. Establish a Federal policy eliminating requirements for motor vehicle park-
ing space in Government-owned buildings and privately leased buildings, then use
the savings to construct secure bicycle parking facilities, showers, lockers, etc.,
in all Federal buildings
6. Encourage cycling where it can be an efficient mode and do additional
research and study in this rapidly developing field
7. Promote special bicycle lanes and safe bicycle parking
8. 'Do additional research and study in the following areas:
(a) The effect of the air quality on the health of the cyclist
(b) The environmental impact from increased bicycle transportation
(c) Estimate of VMT reduction from bicycle transportation
44
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adler, Doug, Administrative Assistant for Congressman Koch, (personal inter-
view, July 1973).
American Automobile Association, Special Survey on Bicycle Safety, Washing-
ton, D.C. (revised, Nov. 1972).
Atlantic Magazine (Nov. 1971).
Ayres and Behler, "The Effects of Urban Air Pollution on Health," Clinical
Pharamacology and Therapeutics, 1970; and U.S. Department of HEW, Air
Quality for Paniculate Matter, Washington, D.C. (Jan. 1969).
Bicycle Institute of America, Inc., Bike Safety, 3 (Sept. 1972).
Bicycle Institute of America, Inc. "Some Facts About the Current Bike Explo-
sion" (Aug. 1972).
"Bicycling for Leisure Fun Growing Rapidly in Japan," WLRA Bulletin; XXI,
4(Sept-Oct. 1973).
, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, "Bicycle Speech Material," (Winter 1973).
City Planning Commission, "Evaluation of Bicycling Facilities, Needs and Use,"
Lexington, Kentucky (1972).
"Compilation of Air Pollution Factors," EPA, Feb. 1972.
"Denver Transportation Plan" Denver, Proposal Submitted to EPA (June 1973).
Department of California Highway Patrol, Operational Analysis Section,^ Gen-
eral Bicycle Motor Vehicle Study (October 1971).
Department of Transportation and Department of Interior, Bicycling for Recrea-
tion and Commuting, U.S. Government Printing Office (1972).
Department of Transportation/FHWA, Federal Aid Highway Program
Manual, Transmittal 18 (Mar. 8, 1974).
Department of Transportation, National Highway Safety Advisory Committee,
"Bicycling as a Highway Safety Program, Summary of Preliminary Findings
and Recommendations," unpublished memorandum, June 6, 1974.
Dougherty, Nina, "The Bicycle vs. the Energy Crisis," Bicycling, Jan. 1974.
Eggleston, David, "Toward a Dual-Mode Bicycle Transportation System," Uni-
versity of San Diego, May 1973, presented at National Bicycle Symposium
(May 1973).
45
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Everett, Mike, "Bike-Route Planning Strategies," version of this paper published
in Parks and Recreation, National Parks Association, (Spring 1973).
Everett, Mike, "Cycling in Polluted and Congested Environment," Workshop
paper from National Bicycle Symposium (Spring 1973).
Everett, Mike, "Future Demand for Bicycle Transportation in the U.S.," Florida
State University, Tallahassee, Florida (Nov. 1973).
Germane, A. Trent, et. al., The Emerging Need of Bicycle Transportation,
Georgia Institute of Technology (Jan. 1973).
Graves, Clifford L., Summary of Remarks presented at Bicycle Symposium,
Boston (May 7 and 8, 1973).
Haagen-Smith, Arie J., "Carbon Monoxide Levels in City Driving," Archives of
Environmental Health, 12 (May 1966).
Hawkins, Gary J., "Finding Europe's Sideroads," Bicycling (July 1973).
Hellerstein, H. K., "Health Aspects of Bicycling," Bicycles, U.S.A. Conference
(May 1973).
Hirsch, Ralph, "Bicycle Commuting into Central Philadelphia," for EPA, Phila-
delphia Coalition and Drexel University (June 1973).
Hirst, Eric, Total Energy Demand for Automobiles, Society of Automobile
Engineers, Inc. (1973).
Hirst, Eric, "Energy Use for Bicycling," for AEC, Feb. 1974.
Hirten, John E. "Bicycle Technology " Scientific American (Mar. 1973).
Hudak, Steve, and Shaw, Gary, Washington Area Bicyclist Association, Extensive
Study of European Bikeways (June-July 1973).
Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Bike-way Planning Criteria
and Guidelines, University of Los Angeles (Apr. 1972).
Kearney, Edward F., Bicyclists and Traffic Laws, speech given at National Bicy-
cle Symposium (May 7 and 8,1973).
Konski, James L. "Survival of a Rand on Neur," talk presented at the Conference,
Bicycles, U.S.A., at Cambridge, Mass. (May 7 and 8, 1973).
Lott, Dale F., and Somner, Robert, "Bikeways in Action: The Davis Experience,"
presented as a public service to the Bicycle Institute of America (1973).
Lum, Wesley, "Bicycles in Mixed-Mode Travel," produced as part of a program
of Research and Training in Urban Transportation sponsored by Urban Mass
Transportation of the Department of Transportation (Apr. 1973). Also pre-
sented at the National Bicycle Symposium (May 7 and 8, 1973).
National Heart Institute, et. al., National Heart Institute, 1969, Arteriosclerosis,
a report by the National Heart and Lung Institute. Task Force on Arteriosclero-
sis, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office (June 1971).
46
-------
National Safety Council, Accident Facts (1973).
Ness, Mary (structural engineers), interview, July 21, 1973.
Peking, USLO, airgram to EPA, Dec. 1973.
Poirier, Bernard W., "Preliminary Analysis of Bicyclist Survey in Metropolitan
Washington, D,C. and in California and Illinois," (June 1973).
Rhinehart, J. F., "Bicycles and Parklands," panel remarks presented at Bicycles
U.S.A. Conference (May 7 and 8, 1973).
Rice, Richard A. "System Energy and Future Transportation," reprinted from
Technology Review, 74, (Jan. 1973) Alumni Association of MIT, Mass.
Rome, American Embassy, airgram to EPA, Dec. 1973.
Rosen, Nils, "Modal Split Should Be At Least Triple Split," presented'at Swedish
Embassy (June 1973).
Seakan, Raymond N., "Bicycle Theft: Counter Measures," speech given at
National Bicycle Symposium (May 7 and 8, 1973).
Smith, Haldon L., "Ann Arbor Bicycle Path Study," Ann Arbor, Mich. (July
1972).
Tokyo, American Embassy, airgram to EPA, Dec. 1973.
Townley, Jay. "Bicycle Laws, Ordinances and Enforcement; Theft and Registra-
tion, the Past and Future State and Local Registration Program." Speech
presented at Bicycle Symposium (1973).
Vogel, James A., et. al., "Carbon Monoxide and Physical Work Capacity,"
Archives of Environmental Health (Mar. 1972).
Washington Area Bicyclist Association, "Forecasts of Bicycle Usage" (Spring
1973).
Washington Area Bicyclist Association, "Ride-On," Vol. II, No. 2 (June-July,
1973).
Wilkinson, W. C., Ill "On Building Bike Trails," National Park Service (1972).
47
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Appendix I
ANNUAL SALES OF BICYCLES
Table I
Annual Sales in Millions; U.S. Manufacturers and Imports
Year
1960
1965
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
Domestic
Sales
2.6
4.6
6.0
5.1
5.0
6.6
3.5
Import
Sales
1.1
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.9
2.3
Totals
U.S. & Imp.
3.7
5.6
7.5
7.1
6.9
8.9
Bikes in
Use*
23.5
32.9
42.3
47.7
50.0
53.1
Est.
Users*
35.2
49.3
63.4
71.5
75.3
79.6
* Bikes in use estimate is based estimated bike "life" multiplied
by a unit sales factor. Rentals and other multiple use situa-
tions are calculated into the Estimated Users estimates.
Source: Bicycle Institute of America, Inc., "Some Facts About
the Current Bike Explosion, 1973.
48
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Table II
U. S. Bicycles_and Users Per Capita
1950 I960 1973
U.S. Population 150,000,000 180,000,000 203,000,000
Bicycles 23,500,000 50,000,000
Users 19,000,000 35,200,000 75,300,000
Bicycles Per Capita 0.13 0.25
Users Per Capita 0.15 0.26 0.37
Source: U.S. Census and Bicycle Institute of America
Table III
Bicycle and Automobile Sales
Bicycle Automobile
Sales Sales
Year (Millions) (Millions)
1968 7.5 8.8
1969 7.1 8.2
1970 6.9- 6.5
1971 8.9 8.6
1972 13.7 11.0
Source: Some Facts About the Current Bike Explosion,
Bicycle institute of America, 1973.
49
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50.000
40.000
£
DC
U
CO
20,000
10.000
1.000
900
700
600
500
400
I960 1961
1962 '.963
196S
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
o> 3
§ x>
<3 L,
g f.
M
M
n
a
n
5
o
H
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Appendix III
MULTIPLE USE OF WASTE TREATMENT FACILITIES
AND RIGHTS-OF-WAY
Multiple Use of Waste Treatment
Facilities and Rights-of-Way
US Environmental Protection Agency — Region I
J F Kennedy Federal Bldg Boston. Mass. 02203
Sewer line construction. Nashua River. Nashua. N H - A recreation access opportunity
Clean Water - Recreation - Open Space
Construction ot waste treatment facilit.es and sewers by cities, towns and
sewer districts oilers an opportunity to secure open space and recreational
access to our waters at the same time Lands and easements acquired for
interceptor sewers, collection systems, and waste treatment plants may also
be used for public recreation and ensure the public can enjoy tne multimillion
investment in clean water achieved
The 1972 Water Pollution Control Act directs attention to this opportunity
"The Administrator shall encourage waste treatment management which
combines 'open space' and recreational considerations with such
management" Section 201(1}
51
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What Are The Benefits7
Sewer easements often parallel our communities, rivers, streams, and at-
tractive water bodies, treatment plants often lie near water Careful pre-
planning, design, and acquisition of these easements and lands with
recreation uses clearly in mind will give many benefits:
Provide access for hiking, bicycling, horseback and cross-country ski
trails.
Afford access to water's edge for fishing, boat launching and swim-
ming
— Create parks and open spaces
Protect waterside banks and scenic setting for public enjoyment.
Link neighborhoods, playgrounds, schools, natural areas, and shop-
ping areas in trail and open space systems.
Maintain buffer strips to protect water quality.
Provide a joint utility corridor — for water mains, gas lines, power
lines.
Shape future community growth and open space patterns.
rmiMiiM
52
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How Can Communities Do This9
Tell your engineering consultant that you wish to build this principle into your
clean water construction program Advise him of the recreation opportunities
you have in mind. Your Park Commission, Conservation Commission and
others may have ideas.
When easements are taken for sewers, be sure they specify other desired
uses, such as hiking trails or canoe launching. In many cases easements for
sewers and related recreation can be acquired simultaneously without ad
ditional cost However, if substantial additional lands or costs are incurred.
these additional costs may be eligible tor Federal or State aid, under parks and
recreation programs
Schedule taking of all easements, zoning, design, and construction as part of
the proiect for efficiency and economy Bicycle trails, for example, may be built
while regradmg interceptor rrghts-of-way.
Lewiston, Maine, for example, is planning an urban bicycle and foot path along
a new sewer line beside the Androscoggm River, connecting three riverside
parksand linking the downtown district with outlying residential areas.
53
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Who Can Help?
Call upon local, regional, and state park, recreation, and planning agencies;
utility districts; and public utilities.
For park land and open space acquisition and development related to
treatment facilities, EPA encourages funding under the Land and Water
Conservation Fund administered by the U.S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
(BOR). BOR provides 50 percent Federal grants for acquisition and
development of recreation lands. Projects in accord with the State com-
prehensive outdoor recreation plan and meeting high priority public
recreation needs identified in the plan are eligible for funding, including
bicycle paths and hiking trails. Submit project proposals to the appropriate
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Regional Office through the State agency
contact for the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act.
Local conservation commissions and land trusts, such as The Nature Con-
servancy, may also be helpful.
State and Regional Contacts
Connecticut
Douglas M. Costle, Commissioner
Department of Environmental
Protection
Hartford, Connecticut 06115
203 566-2110
Maine
Lawrence Stuart, Commissioner
Division of Parks and Recreation
Augusta, Maine 04330
207 289-3821
Massachusetts
Arthur W. Brownell, Commissioner
Department of Natural Resources
Boston, Massachusetts 02114
617 727-3163
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Bart Hague
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Room 2203
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
617 223-5131
New Hampshire
George Gilman
Department of Resources &
Economic Development
Concord. New Hampshire 03301
603 271 2411
Rhode Island
Dennis J. Murphy, Jr., Director
Department of Natural Resources
Veterans Memorial Building
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
401 277-2771
Vermont
Forrest E. Orr, Director of Planning
Agency of Environmental Con-
servation
Montpelier, Vermont 05602
802 828-3357
U.S. Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation
Robert F. Gift
Federal Office Building
600 Arch Street
Philadelphia. Pennsylvania 19106
215 597-7387
54
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Appendix IV
FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY PROGRAM MANUAL
& U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
!• FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20SJO
FEDERAL-AID HIGHWAY PROGRAM MANUAL
TRANSMITTAL 18
March 8, 1974
HNG-22
MATERIAL TRANSMITTED
Subsection 1, Bikeways and Pedestrian Walkways in
Conjunction with Federal and Federal-aid Highways;
Section 1, General; Chapter 1, Engineering;
Volume 6, Engineering and Traffic Operations.
EXISTING ISSUANCES AFFECTED
Supersedes PPM 21-23 dated March 14, 1973.
COMMENTS
This issuance contains instructions for the immediate
implementation of 23 U.S.C. 217. This section of the
Act has been interpreted briefly as follows:
a. Bicycle facilities and walkways, as incidental
features of highway construction projects, may
continue to be approved without restrictions as
to the amount or sources of funds, provided the
bikeway or walkway is within the highway right-of-way
and is constructed concurrently with a Federal-aid
highway project.
b. Federal-aid funds, except Interstate, may be used
for the construction of bicycle and pedestrian
facilities independent of highway projects, for
facilities off the normal Federal-'aid highway
right-of-way, and for additional right-of-way for
construction of these facilities. The amount of
Federal-aid participation in these types of projects
is subject to the funding limitations set forth
in the Act, namely, not more than $40 million in
any fiscal year and not more than $2 million by
any State in any fiscal year.
c. The Division Engineer in each State should insure
that the State is aware of the availability of
55
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Federal-aid highway funds for the construction of
bicycle and pedestrian facilities and should
encourage the maximum utilization of these funds
for this purpose.
REGULATORY MATERIAL
The regulatory material reflected in the attached
directive appears in italicized type and will be
published as regulations in the Federal Register.
FILING INSTRUCTIONS
The material transmitted by this issuance is to be
filed as indicated below:
a. Page Changes
Remove
Insert
b.
1 of Table of Contents
for Vol. 6, Chap. 1,
dated 12/17/73
i of Table of Contents
for Vol. 6, Chap. 1,
dated 3/8/74
PPM 21-23, dated 3/14/73 1 thrulQ , Vol. 6, Chap. 1,
(Vol. 6, Chap. 1, Sec. 1, Sec. 1, Subsec. 1, dated
Subsec. 1) 3/8/74
Transmittal Changes. After filing the attached
pages, this transmittal should be filed behind the
tab identified as "Transmittal Changes^in Book V.
Norbert T. Tiemann
Federal Highway Administrator
DISTRIBUTION
Basic
56
-------
Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974
VOL. 6, CHAP. 1
CHAPTER 1. ENGINEERING
SECTION 1. GENERAL
, BIKEWAYS AND PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS IN
i. CONJUNCTION WITH FEDERAL AND FEDERAL-AID
HIGHWAYS
SUBSECTION 2.
SUBSECTION 3.
SUBSECTION 4,
SUBSECTION 5.
SUBSECTION 6.
SUBSECTION 7,
HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENTS IN
THE VICINITY OF AIRPORTS
URBAN HIGHWAY PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
COORDINATION OF, AND
FEDERAL-AID PARTICIPATION
IN ROAD RELOCATIONS KADE
NECESSARY BY THE CONSTRUC-
TION OF WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
INTERSTATE SYSTEM STATUS
REPORT
JURISDICTION OF TOLL ROAD
AUTHORITIES TO MAKE MODI-
FICATIONS IN TOLL ROADS
DESIGNATED AS PART OF THE
INTERSTATE SYSTEM
1975 INTERSTATE COST
ESTIMATE
PPM 20-13
PPM 50-10
IM 21-13-67(1)
PPM 50-4.2
PPM 10-6
IM 10-1-73
IM 20-5-67
NOTICE 10-18-73
SECTION 2. PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING
SUBSECTION 1. PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING
SUBSECTION 2. ENGAGEMENT OF CONSULTANTS
FOR ENGINEERING SERVICES
PPM 21-3
IM 21-7-72
PPM 40-6
57
-------
Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual
Transmittal 18", March' 8 _ 1974 • VQL^ 6f CHAP.
CHAPTER 1. ENGINEERING (continued)
SUBSECTION 3. FEDERAL-AID MATCHING RATIO IM 20-3-68
SUBSECTION 4. CONTROL SURVEYS CM-12-12-57
SUBSECTION 5. AERIAL SURVEYING CM 3-16-59
CM 1-6-67
SECTION 3. CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
SUBSECTION 1. PRESERVATION OF ESSENTIAL
ENGINEERING DATA BY AVOIDING
DESTRUCTION OF PERMANENT
SURVEY MONUMENTS IM 20-1-60
SUBSECTION 2. RAILWAY-HIGHWAY INSURANCE
PROTECTION REQUIRED OF
CONTRACTORS PPM 20-12
58
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U. S; DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERM HfGHW^T AD«mi$TRATlO»
FEDERAL-AfD HIGHWAY PROGRAM MANtfAL
VOLUME
ENGINEERING AND TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 1 .
ENGINEERING
SECTION 1 .
GENERAL
SUBSEC. 1, BIKEWAYS AND PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS IN
CONJUNCTION WITH FEDERAL AND FEDERAL-AID
HIGHWAYS
Par.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
PURPOSE
PURPOSE
AUTHORITY
DEFINITION
BACKGROUND
POLICY
FEDERAL PARTICIPATION
PLANNING
APPLICABILITY OF EXISTING LAW, REGULATION AND
DIRECTIVES
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BIKEWAYS AND WALKWAYS
SHARED ROADWAYS
PROGRAMMING
The purpose of this subsection is to provide policies and
procedures relating to bicycle and pedestrian facilities
on Federal-aid system highways and Federal participation
in the cost of these facilities.
AUTHORITY
23 U.S.C. 217, 21S> 106
DEFINITIONS
a. "Bicycle" means a two-wheeled vehicle propelled solely
by human power,
b, "Bikevay" means a continuous uay designated for use
of bicycles and other vehicles propelled by human rower.
Regulatory material is italicized
59
-------
Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap. 1,
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
ti. "Bicycle trail" means a bikeway separated from the
through lanes for motor vehicles by spaee or barrier.
d. "shared roadway" means a roadway which may be shared
by motor vehicles and bicycles, or a portion of which
is reserved for use by bicycles and other nonmotorized
vehicles.
e. "Pedestrian walkway" or "walkway" means u continuous
way designated for pedestrians and separated from the
through lanes for motor vehicles by space or barrier.
f. "Highway construction project" means a project financed
in whole or in part with Federal-aid or Federal funds
for the construction, reconstruction or improvement of
a highway or a portion thereof, including bridges and
tunnels.
a. "Independent bikeway or walkway construction project"
means a highway construction project to provide bicycle
or pedestrian facilities, in contrast with a project
whose primary purpose is to serve motorized vehicles.
h. "Snowmobile" means a motorized vehicle solely designed
to operate on snow or ice.
4. BACKGROUND
a. There is a growing interest in bicycling and walking
for commuting, for recreation, and for other trip
purposes. Where this activity occurs on high speed
roadways, both safety and efficiency are impaired
because of the mixture of motorized and nonmotorized
modes of travel. Provision of bikeways or pedestrian
walkways will promote safety and will assist in retain-
ing the motor vehicle carrying capacity of the highway
while adding new bicycle capacity. The Congress has
recognized the importance of bicycle and pedestrian
travel and has included special provisions for these
modes in the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973. Section
124 of this Act amends Title 23, U.S. Code, by adding
section 217 thereto, the principal provisions of which
are:
60
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap 1
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
(1) Federal funds available for the construction of
preferential facilities to serve pedestrians and
persons on bicycles are those apportioned in
accordance with paragraphs (1), (2), (3), and (6)
of section 104(b), 23 U.S.C. and those authorized
for forest highways, forest development roads and
trails, public land development roads and trails,
park roads and trails, parkways, Indian reserva-
tion roads and public land highways.
(2) Not more than $40 million of funds appropriated in
any fiscal year for purposes described in the pre-
ceding paragraph may be obligated for bicycle
projects and pedestrian walkways.
(3) No State shall obligate more than $2 million of
Federal-aid funds for such projects in any fiscal
year.
(4) Such projects shall be located and designed pursuant
to an overall plan which will provide due considera-
tion for safety and contiguous routes.
(5) No motorized vehicles shall be permitted on such
trails or walkways except those for maintenance
purposes and, where snow conditions and State or
local regulations permit, snowmobiles.
b. Nothing in the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973 is con-
strued as having the intent of curtailing or precluding
the provision of bicycle or pedestrian facilities as
incidental items of construction in conjunction with
highway improvements for the primary purpose of serving
motor vehicular traffic. Accordingly, such bicvcle
or pedestrian facilities are not subject to the funding
limitations contained in section 124 of the Act. Such
funding limitations are held to be applicable to
independent bikeway or walkway construction projects.
5. POLICY
u. The provision of bicycle and pedestrian facilities on
Federal-aid highway projects is encouraged. The con-
struction of bicycle facilities and ualJc^a:.^ may be
61
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap. 1
Transmj.ttal 18,. March 8, 1974 Sec. I, Subset. 1
approved as either incidental features of highway con-
struction projects primarily for motor vehicular traffic
or as independent bikeway or walkway construction
projects where all of the following condition? are
satisfied:
(1) The facility will not impair the safety of the
motorist^ bicyclist or pedestrian.
(2) The facility will be accessible to users or
form a segment located and designed pursuant to
an overall plan.
(3) A public agency has formally agreed to:
(a) operate and maintain the facility.
(b) ban all motorized vehicles other than
maintenance vehicles andt when snow conditions
and State or local regulations permit,
snowmobi les*
(4) It is reasonably expected that the facility will
have sufficient use in relation to cost to justify
its construction and maintenance.
6. FEDERAL PARTICIPATION
UL, Bicycle and pedestrian facilities may be constructed
as incidental features of highway construction projects
where the bikeway or walkway is to be constructed con-
currently with the improvement for motor vehicular traf-
fic and the bikeway or walkway will be within the normal
right-of-way of the highway, including land acquired
under 23 U.S.C. 235 and 319 (Traffic Improvements and
Scenic Enhancement Programs). Projects constructed as
incidental features of larger highway construction proj-
ects may be financed with the same Types ?f Fedeval-sid
funds as the basic highway project, including Interstate
projects, and are not subject to th? funding limitations
for independent bikeway or walkway : rejects.
b. Independent bikeway or walkway construct'' on projects
may be financed with all tyres of Federal-aid funds
except Interstate, provided the total amount obligated
62
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap 1
Transraittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
for all such projects in any one State in any one fiscal
year does not exceed $2 million of Federal-aid funds or
a lesser amount apportioned by the Federal Highway
Administrator to avoid exceeding the annual $40 million
cost limitation on these projects for all States in a
fiscal year. Independent bikeway or walkway projects
may be constructed on completed sections of Federal-aid
highways. Projects may include the acquisition of land
outside the right-of-way, provided the facility Dill
accommodate traffic which would have normally used a
Federal-aid highway route, disregarding any legal pro-
hibitions on the use of the route by cyclists or
pedestrians.
c. The Federal share payable for bicycle or pedestrian
facilities on a Federal-aid system shall be ae provided
in 23 U.S.C. 120 for such systems, except that independent
bikeway or walkway construction projects on the Interstate
System shall be financed as projects on the primary
system or urban extensions thereof,
d. Federal participation in eligible bicycle and pedestrian
facilities may include:
(1) The costs of grading, drainage, paving, barriers,
landscaping, and structures necessary to accommodate
the number and type of users of the facility.
(2) The costs of supplementary facilities such as
shelters, parking facilities, bicycle storage
facilities and comfort stations.
(S) The costs .of traffic control devices including
signs, signals and pavement markings.
(4) The costs of fixed scarce lighting where its use
is appropriate.
(5) The costs of curb-cut ramps on new and existing
facilities, including those for the physically
handicapped.
(6) The costs of right-of-way (land acquisition and
relocation assistance) on independent bikeuay and
walkway construction projects.
\
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974
Vol. 6, Chap. 1
Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
(7) The costs of walks, barriers and additional widths
and lengths on bridges necessary for bikeways and
pedestrian walkways for route continuity.
Washington headquarters approval is required where
it is proposed to route a bikeway over a sizable
structure such as a major stream crossing or viaduct.
(8) The costs of bikeway and walkway grade separations
where:
(a) Vehicular speeds and crossing volumes consti-
tute a hazard of such magnitude as to justify
the cost of the structure and the bikeway or
walkway aannot be rerouted to another structure;
or
(b) The separation is necessary because the highway
has complet-e control of access.
7. PLANNING
Bikeways should be planned as parts of bicycle transporta-
tion systems. Where planning is conducted under 23 U.S.C.
2S4(a)1 consideration should be given to including bicycle
transportation. Funds provided by 23 U.S.C. 307(c) may be
used to plan bikeways. Consultation with organized groups
of bicyclists is certain to prove valuable in the planning
and design of bikeuay projects, and such counsel should be
actively sought.
8. APPLICABILITY OF EXI_STING_L_AW{ REGULATION AND DIRECTIVES
The provisions of 23 U.S.C. apply. Normal Federal-aid pro-
cedures established by existing directives are to be followed.
This shall include, but not be limited to, applicable sections
pertaining to the following: equal employment opportunity,
labor provisions, maintenance requirements and utility
adjustment. The A-9S Clearinghouse Requirement and the 3-C
Planning Requirement may be waived where a determination is
made that a bikeway or walkway will have no significant
effect on land use or public works activities.
9. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR. BIKEWAYS AND WALKWAYS
a. Bikeways and walkways should be designed and constructed
in a manner suitable to the site conditions and the
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap, 1
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
anticipated extent of usage. The Division Engineer may
determine the acceptability of proposed standards or
design criteria for trail and walkway construction. In
general, a bikeway should be designed with an alignment
and profile suitable for bicycle use, with a surface
that will be reasonably durable, that incorporates
drainage as necessary, and that is of a width appropriate
for the planned one-way or two-way use. Where the bikeway
or walkway crosses a street or highway at grade, the
location should be such as to insure•adequate sight
distance, and the design should include traffic control
devices for the motor vehicle, the bicycle and the
pedestrian, as necessary for safe operation.
b. Bicycle trails, as distinguished from bicycle lanes and
shared roadways, should be separated from the roadway
a safe distance. Where acceptable separation of the
trail from the roadway cannot be otherwise attained, a
barrier such as a hedge, fence or guardrail should be
erected. Where a bicycle trail along a highway crosses
a natural barrier or a transportation route for which
a grade separation is necessary, practical alternate
structure treatments should be considered. It may be in
order to align the trail so as to utilize a highway struc-
ture (widened as needed) and with a barrier separation
rather than provide a more expensive separate trail over-
pass or underpass structure.
10, SHARED ROADWAYS
a. Shared roadway arrangements that result in bicycles
operating within the same lanes as high speed traffic
should be avoided. In some cases, bicycle lanes outside
the through lanes, either on the shoulder or parking
lane where parking has been removed, can satisfactorily
accommodate bicycle traffic. Within cities, low-volume
thoroughfares may provide reasonably safe bicycle
operating conditions.
b. In sparsely developed areas where local ordinances permit
and pedestrian volumes are not high, utilization of
existing sidewalk systems with appropriate intersection
treatments may be suitable segments for bikeways.
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap. 1
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
11. PROGRAMMING
a. Approval Procedures
(1) Division Engineers may approve requests to obligate
funds made available under section 217 of Title 23,
U.S.C. (section 124 of the 1973 Act) for construc-
tion of independent bikeway or walkway projects to
the extent that the limits specified on the
obligation of such funds are not exceeded. The
Division Engineer's approval of PS§E and authori-
zation to advertise (stage 2, step 4) shall establish
the obligation of Federal funds with regard to a
particular project. For FY 1974, it will be his
responsibility to insure that the total amount of
Federal-aid funds obligated does-not exceed $2
million. This limitation does not apply to
projects by other Federal agencies for independent
bikeway and walkway projects to be constructed with
funds authorized for forest highway, forest
development roads and trails, public land develop-
ment roads and trails, park roads and trails,
» parkways, Indian reservation roads and public lands
highways. It will also be the Division Engineer's
responsibility to determine from the Washington
Office Program Analysis Division that the amount to
be obligated will not cause the total of Federal
and Federal-aid funds obligated for all such
projects in any fiscal year to exceed $40 million.
If the amount to be obligated will not cause either
limit to be exceeded, normal Federal-aid program
procedures will be followed in the execution of the
project.
(2) In order that there will be maximum utilization of
funds authorized to be obligated for independent
bikeway or walkway projects, stage 2 projects should
be only for those items of preliminary engineering,
right-of-way, or construction for which work is
scheduled to proceed promptly. If unforeseen
developments occur which indicate that a stage 2
project, after authorization, cannot be advanced
within a reasonable period and if no costs have
been incurred, it should be reverted to programmed
only status in order that funds available for
obligation may be used on other independent bikeway
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap. 1
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
projects. The Division Engineer should notify the
Washington office immediately that the obligation
authority for independent bikeway funding may be
reassigned.
(3) Obligation of FY 1974 fiscal year funds may
commence immediately on a first aome, first
served basis subject to the funding limitations
set forth in section 6b.
C4) For FY 197S and 1976, each State shall submit a
program covering all independent bikeway or walkway
construction projects not later than May 1, 1974,
in the case of FY 1975 funds, and May 1, 197S, in
the case of FY 1976 funds, identifying proposed
projects and the source or sources of funds from
which such projects are to be financed. Its
proposed obligations shall not exceed $2 million
in Federal-aid funds for each fiscal year. In the
event the aggregate sum of all Federal and Federal-
aid funds proposed to be obligated by all States
and Federal agencies exceeds $40 million for either
fiscal year 1975 or 1976, funds for obligation will
be allocated to the States by the Federal Highway
Administration in relation to the apportionment
received by the applicant States under 23 U.S.C.
104(b)(l), (2), (3), and (6). Each State will be
advised of any allocation not later than June 1,
1974, for FY 1975, and June 1, 197S, for FY 1976.
The Division Engineer will insure that the alloca-
tion for each fiscal year will not be exceeded.
b. Project Identification
(1) All independent bikeway and walkway construction
projects shall be identified by the prefix letters
BW followed by the Federal-aid primary, secondary,
urban or other project number (BWRF, BWRS, BWU, etc.)
for that section of highway route. The agreement
number in parentheses shall be the next available
consecutive number in the series for that project
number.
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Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual Vol. 6, Chap. 1
Transmittal 18, March 8, 1974 Sec. 1, Subsec. 1
(2) Type code Y052 shall be reported for all line
items on forms PR-37 submitted for independent
bikeway or walkway projects. Bicycle and walkway
facilities constructed as incidental parts of high-
way construction projects shall not be so identified.
(3) Costs for bicycle, pedestrian and equestrian facili-
ties constructed as incidental features of highway
projects should be shown on a separate line on
form PR-37 and identified by type code Y009 "pedes-
trian overpasses or underpasses," or YOS1 "paths
(including sidewalks)." Code Y009 should include
all structures not carrying motor vehicles whether
for bicycle or pedestrian use, or whether over a
highway, railroad or waterway. Costs of sidewalks
on structures, pavement markings, signs and signals
incidental to construction for motor vehicles should
not be separately reported under codes Y009 or
Y051.
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Appendix V
POTENTIAL FEDERAL PROGRAMS FOR BICYCLE
TRANSPORTATION
-Land and Water Conservation Fund (Interior Department)
-Federal-Aid Highway Programs (Department of Transportation)
-Title VII "Open Space Land Grants (Housing and
Urban Development)
-Urban Beautification and Improvement Grants (Housing
and Urban Development
•Urban Renewal (Housing and Urban Development)
-Recreation and Public Purposes Act (Bureau of
Land Management, Interior Department)
-Public Law 566: Small Watershed Act (U.S. Soil
Conservation Service Agriculture)
-"701" Planning Grant Program (Housing and Urban
Development)
-State and Community Highway Safety Program (Depart-
ment of Transportation)
-Public Works and Economic Development Programs
(Economic Development Administration, Commerce)
-Historic Preservation (Housing and Urban Development,
Interior)
-Older Americans Act (Administration on Aging,
Health, Education and Welfare)
-Public Facilities Land Advanced Grants (Housing
and Urban Development)
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Appendix VI
SUMMARY OF 1973 STATE BIKEWAY LEGISLATION
Summary of 1973 Bikeways Legislation
Will Cyclists in Your State Benefit?
The following is a state-by-stats compilation o! bikeway legislation as introduced so 1st this year. Most ol it
calls lor the construction ol new bicycling facilities: some with feasibility studies; with acquisition and devel-
opment of land: and a lot ol it with methods ol lunding. All ot it, when enacted, will benefit cyclists enor-
mously, providing them with paths, trails, parking, recreation, or commuter cycling facilities.
Whether or not these bills ever become law is largely up to you. They need your support. Write to the leg-
islators listed here who have introduced bikeway bills in your state. Volunteer your help. Ask them how you
can best support this legislation. Find out the dates of hearings, and plan to appear and testify. Pally the sup-
port of friends, neighbors, bike club members and family. II your stale is not represented here, write away for
a copy ol one of the bills that interests you, then convince a favorite legislator to introduce a similar one tor
cyclists in your state. Passage ol these bills will make cycling sater and more pleasant for all; their passage
is vital to the continued growth ot cycling ... and your help is needed. Do it now!
H.B. House Bill
J.R. Joint Resolution
3/7/73 Date Introduced
LEGEND:
S.B. Senate Bill A.B. Assembly Bill
C.R. Concurrent Resolution
John Jones (R-Dist #2) Name, party and district ol sponsors
ARIZONA
H.B. 2262, 2/13/73. Michael Goodwin (R-Dist. #27)
John Wettlaw (R-Dist. #2). Charles W. King
(R-Dist #14)
Provides thai the state highway director design
and construct a system ol bicycle pathways and
foot pathways adjacent to certain stale highways
in cooperation with the Federal aid highway pro-
gram.
H.R. 2162, 2/5/73, Helen Grace Carlson (O-Dist. #13)
John Wettaw (R-Dist. #2), Benjamin Hanley
(D-Drst.#2)
Provides that the state shall establish and main-
tain bicycle trails and footpaths provided they are
not contrary to public safety: bill also provides for
bike registration and devices to assure sale op-
eration.
H.C.R. 2016, 2/13/73, Michael Goodwin (R-Dist. #27)
Sandra D. O'Connor (R-Dist. #24)
Proposed amendment to Arizona constitution
designates specific uses of vehicles and other
tax receipts for many street and highway pur-
poses, including construction and maintenance
of bicycle pathways,
CONNECTICUT
S.J.R. 14,1/10/73. Peter L. Cashrnan (R-Dist. #20)
Resolution requires the Committee on Transpor-
tation to study the best means of using available
Federal funds for creating bicycle trails, and mak-
ing its recommendations to the 1974 session of
the General Assembly,
S. 974,1/22/73. Lawrence J. Denardis (R-Dis1. #34)
Proposes adoption of a State Bike Act by the Sen-
ate and House to encourage the use ol bicycles
by allocating a portion of the revenues from gas-
oline taxes to finance bikeways and bike paths.
S. 115,1/10/73, Peter L. Cashrflan (R-Disl. #20)
Provides for enactment of a law establishing bi-
cycle lanes on state highways together with ap-
propriate road signs to provide for the safety of
bicyclists and motorists.
S. 1155,1/22/73, Ruth O. Truex (R-Dist. #9)
Provides for the Department of Transportation to
study the feasibility of a program of bicycle use
and travel as an alternate means of transportation
(or commuters, giving consideration to creating
bike lanes aiong highways.
H.B. 7537, 1/23/73, John N. Demerell (R-Dist. #35)
William L. Churchill (R-Disl. #100)
Provides for creating a bike path on the unused
roadbed of the old New York, New Haven and
Hartford Railroad, with small picnic areas at se-
lected sites along the route made available to
bike riders.
H.B. 7695,1/23/73, Davkf O. Odegard (R.-Dist. #4)
Donald S. Genovesi (R-Dist. #12)
Francis J. Mahoney (D-Dist. #18)
Provides for the passage of a law requiring bicy-
cle paths along all new highways constructed by
the state in the future.
H.B. 6986,1/22/73, Virginia S. Connolly (R-Dist. #16)
Russell L. Post, Jr. (R-Disl. #62)
Provides that the Commissioner of Transportation
may pay one-half of the cost of construction of
bicycle paths on private property to encourage
their availability and use by the public.
H.B. 6549,1/18/73, Richard L. Mercier (D-Dist. #44)
Provides for the establishment and maintenance
of bike trails in the state forests at no expense to
the state, and with the approval of the Commis-
sioner of Environmental Protection.
Support Bikeways
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CONNECTICUT (Cont.)
H.B. 5267, 1/9/73, Morton J. Btumenthal (R-Dist. #50)
Provides for adoption of a master plan to encour-
age the promotion, development and mainte-
nance of existing and proposed bicycle trails,
horse trails and hiking trails for the maximum
benefit of the citizens of the state.
H.B. 5269, 1/9/73, Joseph S. Coalsworlh (0-DiSt. #32)
John A, Fabrizio (R-Dist, #140)
Provides for the Commissioner of Environmental
Protection to establish linear parks for bicycle
use throughout the state, thus creating areas for
the exclusive use of bike riders and better use of
natural resources.
FLORIDA
H.B. 1, 4/3/73, Murray H. Dubbin (D-Dist. #115)
Allocates a portion of the state's first gas tax be-
ginning in fiscal 1974-75 and annually thereafter
for the construction and maintenance of bicycle
trails and footpaths, and a uniform system of
signs and regulations.
H.B. 100, 4/3/73, Arthur H. Rude (R-Oist. #85)
Provides for establishing the Florida recreational
trails system - a stale-wide network of recreation
trails to be used for bicycling, hiking, horseback
riding and driving in motor vehicles where feas-
ible.
H.B. 103, 4/3/73, John J. Savage (R-Dist #57)
Provides for the establishment and maintenance
of bicycle trails throughout the state, and autho-
rizes the Dept. of Transportation to defray cost
from the state roads trust fund.
S. 246, 4/3/73, Ralph R. Poston. Sr. (D-Dist. #38)
Companion bill to H.B. #1 (see above) - allocates
a portion of state's first gas tax for the construc-
tion and maintenance of bicycle trails and foot-
paths, and a uniform system of signs and regula-
tions.
GEORGIA
H.B. 870, 2/22/73. W. W. Larsen, Jr.,(D-Dist. #102)
Authorizes and directs the Georgia Department
of Transportation to construct bicycle trails in the
slate, after the routes of such trails have been de-
termined by the Department of Natural Re-
sources.
HAWAII
H.B. 174,1/22/73, Tadao Beppu (D-Dist. #10)
Requires that bicyclists ride single file upon a
roadway, except on paths or parts of roadways
set aside for the exclusive use of bicycles where
riding not more than two abreast may be per-
mitted.
H.B. 237,1/22/73, John S. Carrol! (R-Dist. #2)
Proposes appropriation of funds from general rev-
enues to provide lor planning and constructing
bikeways and bike paths in the 12lh Representa-
tive District.
H.B, 251,1/22/73, John S.Carroll (R-Dist #2)
Amends existing statutes to provide that not less
than one percent of all taxes expended by the
Highway Fund be used for the design and con-
struction of bikeways in the county where col-
lected.
H.B. 464.1/26/73. ChariesT Ushijima fD-Dist. #13)
Amends existing statutes to provide thai a portion
of State Highway Fund be expended for the con-
struction of bikeways when feasible wherever a
highway, road or street is being biult or rebuilt.
H.B. 491, 1/26/73, Richard Garcia (D-Dist. #17)
Amends existing statutes to provide for the estab-
lishment and maintenance of bicycle trails and
footpaths from the State Highway Fund wherever
a highway, road or street is being built or rebuilt.
H.B. 515, 1/29/73, Jean S. King (D-Dist. #14)
Provides state funds for the construction of bike-
ways and bicycle facilities in the Watkiki, Oahu,
area to bring recreational pleasure to the people
and alleviate some of the traffic congestion.
H.B, 592, 2/1/73. Akira Sakima (D-Dist. #18)
Anson Chong (D-Dist. #13)
Establishes means for financing the design and
construction of bikeways by specifying that all
taxes collected as a result of increases in rates of
state taxes be applied to the needs of bikeways.
H.B. 749, Companion bill to H.B. 464 (see above)
S.R. 120, 3/2/73, Percy Minkitani (D-Dist. #6)
Resolution requests Department of Transporta-
tion to expend previously appropriated funds to
building a bikeway along the Ala Wai Canal to
provide greater riding safety and scenic and rec-
reational attractions.
ILLINOIS
S. 83,1/24/73, Sam M. Vadaiabene (O-Dist. #56)
Requires the Highway Department to expend one
percent of available motor fuel tax allotments for
the establishment, designation and maintenance
of bicycle paths and footpaths in conjunction with
highways, roads and streets.
INDIANA
H. 1757, 2/8/73. Floyd B. Coleman (R-Dist, #13)
Provides for the appropriation of one percent of
the State Motor Vehicle Highway Account for the
planning, development, construction and mainte-
nance of bicycle trails.
H. 1806, 2/9/73. Nelson D. Kennedy (D-Dist. #69)
Authorizes the State Highway Commission to es-
tablish bike paths and routes (or the purpose of
safely accommodating bicycles and their riders.
and provides for a study to determine the best lo-
cations and routes for such paths.
Support Bikeway Legislation
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MASSACHUSETTS
S, 26, 1 /3/73, John F. Aytmer (R)
Provides for the Commonwealth to reimburse
cities and towns in planning, designing and con-
structing bicycle paths and hiking trails from
funds previously appropriated.
S. 881, 1/3/73, William L. Saltonstall (R)
Provides additional regulations for the operation
of bicycles to assure greater safety for the bike
rider and consistent with the traffic regulations
governing motor vehicles.
S, 1331, 1/3/73. John F. Aylmer (R)
Provides for the construction of bicycle paths with
Chapter 90 funds; such paths may be established
wherever a road is being constructed, recon-
strutted or relocated.
S. 1374, 1/3/73. Thomas F. Brownell (D)
Arthur H. Tobin (D)
Provides for the establishment of bicycle trails
and footpaths wherever a highway, road or street
is being built, rebuilt or relocated out of the State
Highway Fund.
H.B. 1444, 1/3/73, Terrence P. McCarthy (I)
Proposes an amendment to the State Constitution
which provides revenues from the Highway Fund
for highway-related bicycle paths.
H.B. 1646, 1/3/73, Terrence P. McCarthy
Provides for an amendment to existing law rel-
ative to the state's accelerated highway program
for highway-related bicycle paths.
H.B. 3095, 1/3/73. John S. Ames (R)
Provides for setting up a joint board of three state
departments to develop a master plan and a
method of financing of a system of highway-re-
lated trails, including bicycle paths and hiking
trails.
H.B. 3912,1/3/73. Alan D. Sisitsky (D)
Robert J. McGinn
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NEW YORK
H.B. A-598, 1/3/73, G. Oliver Koppell {D-Dist. #84)
Amends highway law to provide lor the construc-
tion and maintenance of bicycle trails and foot-
paths wherever a highway, road or street is being
constructed, reconstructed or relocated with the
use oi state funds.
H.B. A-223, 1 /3/73, Clarence D. Lane (R-Dist. #102)
Requires the Commissioner of Parks and Recrea-
tion to promulgate a comprehensive plan for the
establishment of a state-wide trails system which
would include bikeways and footpaths, among
others.
H.B. A-224, 1/3/73, Clarence D. Lane {R-Dist. #102)
Establishes a Council on Trails and Bikeways
with broad powers for formulating a plan for es-
tablishing a statewide trails system, and promul-
gating regulations for its administration and use.
S.B. 1B37, 1/10/73. Bernard C. Smith (R-Dist. #2)
Senate Companion Bill to H.6. A-223 (see above)
requiring the Commisioner of Parks & Recreation
to promulgate a comprehensive plan for a state-
wide system which would include bikeways, foot-
paths, etc.
S.B. 1041, 1/10/73. Bernard C. Smith (R-Dist. #2)
Senate Company Bill to H.B. A-224 which estab-
lishes a Council on trails and Bikeways with broad
powers to formulate a plan for establishing a
slate-wide trails system and regulations for its
administration.
NORTH CAROLINA
H.B. 460, 2/23/73, Ernest B. Messer (O-OiSt. #44)
Liston B. Ramsey (D-Dist. #44). Wade Smith
(D-Dist. #15)
Creates a North Carolina Appalachian Trail Sys-
tem to provide for the designation, acquisition and
administration of recreation, scenic and connect-
ing or side trails and t rail rights-of-way.
OKLAHOMA
H.B. 1368, 2/26/73, Jack L. Lrndstrom (D-Dist. #64)
Creates the Oklahoma Trails System Act which
would establish a system of scenic and recreation
trails and campsites for bicyclists, hikers and
horseback riders, and authorizes necessary state
funds.
LOTS OF BIKEWAYS
There are more than 25,000 miles of marked bike
routes in America in nearly 300 towns and cities,
with more than 265 communities planning them
right now.
PENNSYLVANIA
H.B. 189, 1/29/73, George W. Gekas (R-Dist #103}
W. William Wilt (R-Dist. #180), Charles H. Dager
(R-Dist. #151)
Establishes a state-wide scenic and recreation
trails system lor the benefit of hikers, horseback
riders and bicyclists, and authorizes funds for
acquisition of connecting or side trails and trail
rights-of-way.
RHODE ISLAND
H.B. 5197,1/30/73. Jacob Harpootian (R-Dist. #86)
Provides for the creation of bicycle paths or road-
ways within state parks for the exclusive use of
bicyclists.
VIRGINIA '
H.J.R.224,1/22/73, J. Marshall Coleman (R-Dist. #15)
(Senator)
Arthur R. Giesen, Jr. (R-Dist. #43)
(Representative)
Directs the Dept. of Highways to conduct a study
on the feasibility of establishing a system of bicy-
cle trails throughout the Commonwealth, and to
consider using a portion of State highway funds
for this purpose.
H.B. 1805, 1/24/73, Vincent F. Callahan, Jr. (R-Dist.
#18), David A. Sutherland (R-Dist. #18)
Adopts policy of establishing bicycle trails and
footpaths wherever a highway, road or street is
constructed, reconstructed or relocated, and pro-
vides for funds to cover construction and main-
tenance costs.
WEST VIRGINIA
S.B. 18, 2/14/73, Pat R. Hamilton (D-Dist. #11)
Authorizes the establishment of bicycle trails
throughout the state, and the allotment of not less
than two percent of total funds in the State Road
Fund to accomplish this purpose.
Special Bikeway Legislative Summary
Write To Your Legislator: Support These Bills
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