PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF THE
SOURCES, CONTROL AND POPULATION
EXPOSURE TO AIRBORNE POLYCYCLIC
ORGANIC FLATTER (PCM) AS INDICATED
BY 3ENZO(A)PYRENE (BaP)
FINAL REPORT
SuDKiitted to:
Pollutant Strategies Branch
Office cf Air Quality Planning and Standards
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Submitted by:
Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc.
1111 North 19th Street, 6th Floor
Arlington, Virginia 22209
November 1C, 1978
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DISCLAIMER NOTICE
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection
Agency by Energy and Environmental Analysis.. Inc., Arlington/
Virginia, in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-2836, Task
Nos. 3 and 5 (POM). The contents of this report are reproduced
herein as received from the contractor. The opinions,
findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection
Agency.
i-L
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Preparation of this report by Energy and Environmental
Analysis, Inc./ was carried out under the overall direction of
Mr. Robert D. Coleman. The principal author of the report
was Mr. Paul C. Siebert, with assistance from Ms. Carol A. Craig,
and Mrs. Elizabeth Burns Coffey. V7e also acknowledge helpful
suggestions and direction from Mr. Justice Manning of the
Environmental Protection Agency.
The conclusions presented in the study are, of course,
solely the responsibility of Energy and Environmental Analysis,
Inc.
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SECTION V:
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
DISCUSSION OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART
AND RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS 137
A. Discussion of Sampling and Analysis
Techniques 137
B. Current Studies and Research Recom-
mendations 140
BIBLIOGRAPHY
146
APPENDIX A: COAL CONSUMPTION BY STEAM-ELECTRIC
PLANTS IN 1975 160
APPENDIX B: LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY OF
PETROLEUM CATALYTIC CRACKING
FACILITIES ,
APPENDIX C: LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS
IN 1973
APPENDIX D: LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF SINTERING
FACILITIES
163
176
185
APPENDIX E: LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF CARBON
BLACK PLANT, 1977 188
APPENDIX F: LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF
MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS 190
APPENDIX G:
APPENDIX H:
APPENDIX I:
EXAMPLE OF BaP EXPOSURE CALCULATION
FOR UTAH ................. 193
ESTIMATES OF POPULATION EXPOSURES TO
BaP IN THE UNITED STATES
LIST OF NAMES, LOCATIONS, AND PHONE
NUMBERS OF PERSONAL CONTACTS ....... 198
v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION 3
SECTION II: METHODOLOGY 10
A. Emission Factors 10
B. Emission Estimates 12
C. Control Technology 14
D. Population Exposure 15
SECTION III: THE SOURCES OF POM 20
A. General 20
B. Coal-Fired Power Plants 42
C. Intermediate-Size Boilers 47
D. Residential Furnaces 51
3. Other Solid Fuels Burning Sources 55
F. Future Energy Sources 57
G. Petroleum Catalytic Cracking 50
H. Coke Production 54
I. Asphalt Production 72
J. Iron and Steel Sintering 73
K. Carbon Black Production . • 30
L. Aluminum Reduction 82
M. Municipal Incinerators 35
N. Commercial Incir.era-cors 37
0. Bagasse Boilers 90
P. Open Burning 92
Q. Mobile Sources 103
SECTION IV: ESTIMATES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO POM . .117
A. Discussion of Alternative Estimation
Techniques 117
B. Analysis and Results of the Ambient
Concentration Technique 124
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
E-l Estimates of Total BaP Emissions from
Major Sources 4
III-l Estimate of POM Emission Factors 22
III-2 Estimates of Total BaP Emissions by Source
Type 36
III-3 Estimates of 1985 Total BaP Emissions by
Source Type 39
III-4 Source—Control Technique Combinations (for
Coke Ovens) 68
III-5 Sales of Petroleum Asphalt for Consumption
in the United States 75
III-6 Estimated Number of Intermediate-Size
Incinerators in the United States 89
III-7 Area Burned by Wildfires in the United
States in 1976 101
III-8 Cars in Operation with Emission Controls 106
III-9 Sales of Distillate and Residual Fuel Oil
by Use in the United States 110
111-10 Total Auto Fuel Consumption and Average
Annual Growth Rates 112
IV-1 Sensitivity of National BaP Exposure
Estimates 129
IV-2 Procedure for BaP Population Exposure
Calculations in Each State 130
VI
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Table of Selected Metric Unit Prefixes
M — mega = one million =10
k - kilo = one thousand = 10
one = 10°
n - milli = one thousandth = 10
U - micro = one millionth = 10
_ Q
n nano = one billionth =10
p - pico = one trillionth = 10 ~
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In order to assist the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in its Congressional mandate to "review all available
relevant information and determine whether or not emissions
of...polycyclic organic matter into the ambient air will cause,
or contribute to, air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated
to endanger public health," ' this study has investigated the
emissions and population exposures of polycyclic organic matter
(POM). Other review studies are assessing the environmental
and health effects and risk of POM. (The risk of a pollutant
indicates the likelihood that a hazard is associated with an
exposure to the pollutant.) Studies to improve the data base
concerning the emissions of POM, their control, and ambient
concentrations of POM are also being considered or conducted.
Incomplete combustion, which may occur naturally, inadver-
tently, or intentionally, is the major mechanism of POM forma-
tion and emission. POM's, however, are also present in vegetation,
fossil fuels and other natural oils, such as some oils in
asbestos. In addition, various molds and other plants have
been shown to contribute to the natural synthesis of POM's. As
POM's are generated primarily by incomplete combustion, their
emission is dependent on the type and condition of the specific
process and control equipment used and the feed characteristics
and operating conditions.
A literature survey was conducted to compile and update
emission factors and estimates and other information about the
various known and potential sources of POM. Only a few studies
were found that significantly added to the emission factor data
397
reported by Hangebrauck, et al. in 1968. ' These additional
-------
studies were generally concerned with only one particular
source or source type. Also, different sampling and analysis
methods, equipment, and procedures were used to measure different
substances in the various studies. Therefore, the representative-
ness and comparability of the very limited available emission
factor data is dubious. However, estimates of emission factors
were developed.
It should be noted that a critical review of the available
data would allow little, if any, of the data to be used to gen-
erate even order of magnitude quantitative estimates of POM
emissions for many known sources. Little or no data is avail-
able on potential sources of POM, including future energy
sources, aluminum reduction, charbroiling of foods, industrial
Internal combustion engines, lubricating oil incineration,
agricultural burning, aircraft, gasoline-powered lawn mowers,
motorboats, and misting and aerosol formation from lubricants.
Emission factors cannot be developed for these sources at this
time. The credibility of the reported estimates for known
sources is questionable because of the variability of the re-
ported data over as much as several orders of magnitude for a
source type (e.g., uncontrolled asphalt air blowing or open
burning of grass clippings, leaves, and branches), the limited
availability of data, the questionable representativeness and
comparability of the available data, and the uncertainty with
regard to emission from other sources. Therefore, the major
finding of this study is that the current data base on POM's is
insufficient for the development of quantitative estimates. By
noting the insufficiencies, the needs for future research can
be clarified.
For each of the various known sources, the most recent
availabie production or consumption data of the type en which
-------
the emission factors were based were used with the emission
factors developed to calculate the estimates of total annual
national emissions of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). BaP was used
instead of total POM because it is a known animal carcinogen
which has been the focus of emissions, air quality, and
health research concerning POM. Minimum, maximum, and
intermediate estimates of recent emissions and the intermediate
estimate of 1985 emissions of BaP from major sources are
given in Table E-l. Major sources are considered to be
those with national annual emissions of one metric ton per
year or greater. The minimum and maximum estimates are
taken directly from the literature or calculated from the
emission factors reported in the literature. The intermedi-
ate estimate was developed by EEA as a reasonable estimate
from the limited and questionable data. Generally, geometric
means were used to calculate an intermediate value of the
emission factors from a single source testing series. The
geometric mean or population weighting was usually then used
to calculate the intermediate emission factor estimates for
a source type or category. The intermediate estimate of BaP
emissions for a source category was calculated using this
emission factor. The estimates may assume air pollution
control equipment or efficiencies.
Several observations can be made about the emission
estimates reported in Table E-l. Burning coal refuse banks
and forest fires, which are primarily natural or unintentional
sources, cannot be accurately quantified due to their uncertain
extent and the great variability in fuels and burning condi-
tions. The significant estimates of total emissions from
these sources that are given in the cable were taken from
the literature. The occurrence and characteristics of
burning coal refuse banks and forest fires cannot be predicted.
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TAUI.Ii E-l
HSTIMAVKS or TOTM. uai> i*iiuiJM»ny HKJM HA.IUU
linritliKj ('oni litifuuu Banka
Coku I'roiliictlou
Hua iiluikti«i i ^'i fti|»lucua
Koiuul tlluu
cual-rtrvtl KeulUuiitlal rurnaceu
llntilMsr Tliu Hoar
JMltimiobl tuu (ijauolliie)
C'onuuuKt:11>i liiclnerutora
oll-Klrutl Couuuuicial/Inatltutloiial ttolleiu.
of "Currunf UgP_ totuul»iiii_(rU|/yy}
Intermediate Eutlmato
of 1985 Oat*
tjntnuloii3 (Mij/yr)
Vcac
1972
197S
1975
1972
1973
1977
1976
197S
}972
1973
Minimum
2UO
O.tfjU
S2
9.5
o.ni
0
1.6
O.'JU
Mil xl mum
31,
300
110
izy
740
11
3.0
4.7
lulurniedlulu
c/
iiiikiiown
110
73
d/
unknown
26
unknown
5.6
2.7
»-l
2.0
unknown
21
77
unknown
14
unknown
S.6
0.21
a. l
1.3
I./
Hit Joe (tuurt:uu ale uonuldureil to Ixi Llioae for which tliu likl eiHictltdt e extlmate of uunoiit or jnojucted culnulont)
lu tjiuutci tliaii I H>|/yaac. c'or I lie oilgln anil iJuvo lo(uouul of tliuue eiil iiiiotou , Inclutlln^ uoutiol auauoi|it lona ,
nuu Tabluu Ill-l, III-2, anil 111-3.
Ijnluu loit eul JiuaLuu aca curioctuil In mmjayrains (H<|) |iur yuut. A mctjuijtAiu lu ei|ulvalonL to onu million grama or
ono uuilrlc tint.
liuuuuuu coal refuse bank a cuit Ijitllo u|«Mitaiieouuly ami muy tlaie >i|>, uaiolilur, or »jo out naturally, no rellulile
uut.linatuu eon IHI wade of the numliui: of burnlni| l>auku. lite Mi no Cututy imtl Una I III nilmlnlutratlon currently Id
oi.uiliu:llmj du inventory of coal njiuiiu banka. lluwuvcr, tliO ntimbur and ulze of btiinluij bank a anil observations
on tliu uurtiiuu Hint la biirnluij, .-jnuh an will be available, will ijl.vu an Indication, but not a niuauure, of tliu
<|iiiiullly of btiinlnij coal.
'tin! vailiiUluu in tlm burning |.ioi:uau anil fuul Ly|>ca lit ill f furtuit jul , and Beauonul
i:unilltloim [or |>ruucrlbud or wlltlflruu lu UKLriiiuoly yteat. Tbe curieiit uuj «iid ijtiuut I tatlve knowloUij
of tlutuu varlatlonii doeo not allow an littermedlal.u uutim.tte tu bu iua>lu.
•fix: tjniintlly uf uioluuionu trou rubbur tire viorc hau nut bo'n u|>oi I lima 1 to |>O|>ul at I <>n wau baeed on
l>atllctilatu tiiiluuton and uuiuu analytical work. Uuiiuj tbat f&c.-toif, l«Jllb l)al> t-iulsulonu Moulii bu {>rojecte
-------
It is likely, however, that emissions will remain within the
same range or decrease with increased application of improved
control and prevention measures. Residential sources, such as
fireplaces and coal-fired furnaces, are estimated to emit
significant quantities of BaP. These quantities are expected
to remain constant or increase slightly in the future. As
fuel comsumption changes, BaP emissions from oil-fired commer-
cial/institutional boilers are expected to probably decrease.
The emissions from coke production and gasoline consumption in
automobiles are expected to decrease as improved control
techniques become more widespread. The emissions from the
other major sources (rubber tire wear, motorcycles, and commer-
cial incinerators) are expected to remain nearly constant.
Emissions from coal-fired power plants are expected to be in
the neighborhood of one metric ton per year, however, they
were not classified as a major source because the preferred
projection of fuel consumption leads to an estimate of less
than one metric ton of BaP per year. Although they are not
projected to exceed one metric ton per year by 1985, -BaP
emissions from diesel automobiles are expected to increase
drastically as diesel fuel consumption in automobiles rises,
unless emissions are significantly reduced or controlled.
Population exposure to BaP was estimated from ambient air
quality data from a very limited number of monitoring sites
(several hundred). "Significant" ambient concentrations of
BaP were arbitrarily defined as 0.4 nanograms per cubic meter.
A concentration of 0.1 ng BaP/m was considered as a possible
"significant" concentration; however, many cities have had
higher ambient concentrations and a larger number of sources
potentially could have been estimated to produce "significant"
concentrations. The 0.4 ng BaP/m concentration was chosen
in consultation with EPA because few non-industrial cities
had higher ambient concentrations. The emissions from individual
-------
point and area sources of POM, other than coke ovens, were
very conservatively estimated (using assumptions and tech-
niques that would generate a high estimate of concentration)
to produce ambient air concentrations that were, at most,
marginally "significant" (^0.4 ng/m ). Therefore, in is
unlikely that any individual source, other than coke ovens,
will generate "significant" ambient concentrations of 3aP.
Since localized consumption or production data were not avail-
able for most of the major sources of POM, the emission factors
developed in this study could not be used to estimate emissions
from individual sources in a locality. Therefore, dispersion
modelling of emissions estimates in order to estimate local
ambient concentrations and, thus, estimate population exposures
could not be accomplished. The results of a recent study ^
were used to calculate population exposures in areas with coke
ovens. For areas without coke ovens, ambient air monitoring
results for BaP were used in conjunction with U.S. Census data
to estimate population exposures. If available, actual or
extrapolated monitoring results for the specific area were
used. However, national averages of 3aP monitoring results
for different types of areas (large urban, small urban, and
rural) had to be used for most areas. The calculated copula-
tion weighted national average 3aP exposures are 2.7 ng/m for
the 14,474,467 people counted as exposed co concentrations
directly attributable to coke ovens and 0.87 ng/m3 for che
1970 total U.S. population of 203,211,296.
The quality of these estimates of population exposure
should be noted. Because they are cased on. data from a rela-
tively small -umber of monitoring sites wnich have been opera-
ted at various tunes, ar.d because the nature of POM production
probably Leads to significant spatial variations in ambient
concentrations, the calculated values of population exposure
-------
are very rough estimates. These estimates, however, were the
only ones feasible within the time available and the nationally
aggregated results are probably adequate indicators of the
national average exposures to BaP. A significant improvement
in these population exposure estimates will require improved
emissions, production and localized consumption data or greatly
increased ambient air monitoring data. Quite a few studies
are in progress which will improve the data base on POM's.
This improvement, however, may not be enough to allow the use
of better estimation techniques.
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The Clean Air Act Amendments of August 7, 1977 require
that within one year the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
"shall review all available relevant information and determine
whether or not emissions of...polycyclic organic matter into
the ambient air will cause, or contribute to, air pollution
which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health." '
This study, which is part of the response to that request, has
concentrated on the emissions and population exposure of POM
based on the literature. Other studies are exploring the
formation and transformation of POM, its control and health
effects.
In the most comprehensive study of POM's to date, the
National Academy of Science's (NAS) Particulate Polycyclic
Organic Matter, ' the term POM was first used. The POM classi-
fication encompasses all organic matter with two or more ring
structures (cycles — which may have substituted groups attached
to one or more rings) and includes polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAH), aza arenes, imino arenes, carbonyl arenes,
dicarbonyl arenes, hydroxy carbonyl arenes, oxa arenes, and
thia arenes, polychloro compounds, and pesticides." ' Only
some compounds of the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and
their neutral nitrogen analogues, the aza arenes (or polycyclic
azaheterocyclic compounds), have been shown to be carcinogenic
to animals. Health effects research has focused on the poly-
nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA or PNAH — many of which
especially those commonly measured, are also PAH) and particularly
on benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), one of the most carcinogenic of the
PNAH that were isolated by early researchers. The sources, and
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the health and other effects of POM, were rather extensively
reviewed in the 1972 NAS study. ' This study has been updated
in two SPA studies: (1) Preferred Standards Path Report for
Polycyclic Organic Matter, October 1974, ' and (2) Scientific
and Technical Assessment Report on Particulats Polycyclic
Organic Matter (PPOM), March 1975.—' The environmental and
health effects are currently being updated in another study.
The risk associated with POM exposure is also being investigated.
(The risk of a pollutant assesses the probability that a hazard
is associated with exposure to the pollutant.)
The scope of this study has been limited to updates of the
estimates of emission factors, total emissions and population
exposures to POM. The emission factors and emission estimates
are based primarily on the 1968 Public Health Service report
39/
Sources of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere. ' More
recent and extensive information was used when available; however,
this was an infrequent occurrence.. Also, it was found that area
source "production" data, such as fuel consumption were generally
not available for areas smaller than states. Production data
for individual point sources were readily available for many,
but not all, source types. This type of data is necessary to
estimate localized emissions, and thus ambient concentrations,
from the emission fac-cors. Since this information was not
sufficiently available, population exposure had to be estimated
from ambient concentrations of 3aP at a relatively small number
of sites. The remaining sections of this report discuss Tihe
methodology used in the study; the quantitatively known sources
of POM and their emissions, control, location, and capacity; the
estimates of population exposure; POM sampling and analysis
techniques; current studies related to POM emissions; and recom-
mendations for future work that would improve the quality of the
estimates of emissions and population exposures presented in
zhis resort.
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SECTION II
METHODOLOGY
A. Emission Factors
POM can be generated by natural synthesis (e.g., by various
molds), by the processing of fossil fuels or other materials
containing POM-bearing oils (e.g., petroleum or asbestos), or
by naturally, inadvertently, or intentionally occurring combus-
tion (e.g., forest wild fires, burning coal refuse banks, or
firing coal in a power plant) which does not completely burn
hydrocarbons and oxygen to fom carbon dioxide and water.
Since most POM's are generated by incomplete combustion, the
emission factors developed for this study were based upon some
form of emissions sampling. Most of the emission factors for
stationary sources were developed from data reported by Hangebrauck,
von Lehmden, and Meeker in their rather early (1968), but
39 /
relatively comprehensive, study. ' A literature search was
conducted by EPA in order to update this information. However,
the results of very few additional studies involving sampling
of stationary sources for POM's have been published. The
additional data that were available were largely in EPA-sponsored
reports studying a particular POM source. Mobile source emission
factors were chiefly derived from data in two studies: that of
Gross ' for gasoline engines, and that of Spindt ' for diesel
engines. Therefore, the development of updated emission factors
in this study largely involved a compilation of the available
data and the estimation of emission factors in the desired
units of measure for the various sources.
10
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Emission factors were developed as minimum, maximum, and
intermediate estimates for each source (combination of size
range, process, control equipment, etc.), and source type (ca-
tegory of sources). The minimum and maximum estimates for each
source were the end points of the range of emission factors
reported in, or developed from, the data reported in the various
studies. For some sources, these estimates differed by an order
of magnitude. The intermediate estimate was developed by EEA as
a reasonable estimate from the limited and questionable data.
The intermediate estimate emission factor for each specific
source (i.e., a size range of a process type) was generally
assumed to be the geometric mean of the individual sampling test
results. The geometric mean was felt to be most appropriate for
data with a large variation, as was often the case, because the
geometric mean is generally the best estimate of what the result
of any one occurrence would be. Estimates for the same general
process type or for larger size ranges (e.g., all capacities of
fluid catalytic cracking—FCC) and for source types (e.g.,
petroleum catalytic cracking) were developed from those for -he
specific sources (e.g-. , capacity ranges of FCC) by capacity
weighting or by taking the geometric means. If several different
processes were included in a category, and information was
available on the numbers of each of the individual sources, a
weighted average was calculated by weighting the logarithms of
the individual source estimates by the number, dividing by tne
total number, and taking the anti-logarithm. If such informa-
tion was not available/ the geometric mean of the individual
source estimates was used as the estimate for the more general
sources.
It should be noted chat these estimates of emission factors
are cf limited value for the following reasons. Emission factors
are usually developed from limited data for a few combinations
of equipment, operation and maintenance. Therefore, emission
-------
factors in general are of questionable value for estimating the
emissions from any particular combination of process, control
equipment, feed, product, condition of equipment, and operating
conditions. In the case of POM, the situation is even more
extreme because, even for duplicate runs of the same source
testing series, the reported values may vary over several
orders of magnitude (e.g., uncontrolled asphalt air blowing or
open burning of grass clippings, leaves, and branches). In
addition, the following conditions may be significant. First,
only a limited number of tests with few, if any, duplicates
were run at a small number of facilities. Thus, these results
may not be representative of the emissions from that particular
source, let alone those of the particular equipment type or
more general source type. Second, since POM's are generated by
incomplete combustion, their generation is largely dependent
upon the operation and maintenance of a particular piece of
equipment. Third, as briefly outlined in Section V, there is
not any standard method for sampling and analysis of ,POM.
Therefore, a variety of procedures have been used in different
studies. The results of these procedures may vary by as much
as two orders of magnitude for simultaneous sampling of a stack
using two different sampling trains (EPA Method 5 and a Tenax
44/
adsorbent train). Thus, a critical review of the available
data would not allow the generation of order of magnitude
quantitative estimates of POM emissions for many known sources.
However, the data are probably adequate for the ranking of
sources by qualitative estimates of emissions.
B. Emission Estimates
In spite of the noted limitations, estimates of annual 3aP
emissions in both the "current" year and in 1985 were made for
12
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the various source types. BaP was chosen as a surrogate of
total POM because BaP emissions data were available for more
sources and because the POM data that were available measured
the quantities of different numbers and identities of POM species.
Also, ambient air quality data generally use BaP as a surrogate.
The estimates of annual 3aP emissions were calculated by multiply-
ing the estimated emission factors by a reported, estimated, or
projected annual production or consumption figure. The minimum,
maximum and intermediate estimate BaP emission factors, when
available, were all used to generate a range of values and an
intermediate estimate of annual emissions. In some cases, e.g.,
burning coal refuse banks and forest fires, only a very rough
estimate of maximum annual emissions could be made.
Production or consumption data are generally available only
for rather general process or use categories. Emission esti-
mates were, therefore, made only for the more general source
types. Production or consumption figures were collected from
trade, industrial, professional, or government sources. "Cur-
rent" emissions were estimated by using measured or estimated
"production" figures for 1977, or the most recent year for which
data were readily available. The 1985 emissions were estimated
by using available projections of 1985 "production" or by pro-
jecting from a base year using a reported or estimated rate of
change. It should be noted char these estimates of 1985 pro-
ducticn or consumption, even chough based upon current or ex-
pected trends, may be very poor estimates of reality, as may be
any predictions of future occurrences. Even though this is the
case for che 1985 estimates and, to a lesser degree, for the
"currant" estimates, the estimates of BaP emissions presented in
this study are based on the nost current data available.
Therefore, che relative rankings of BaP emitters presented
should give a state-of-the-art indication of che importance of
the various source types as contributors to total BaP emissions.
13
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C. Control Technology
For the various known and potential sources of POM, the
control technology that would be expected or has been shown to
be effective in reducing POM emissions was studied. The effec-
tiveness, feasibility, and application of the available control
techniques were examined for the various source types. Since
POM can be emitted either as a vapor or as particles, the most
effective control techniques depend on the character of the
emissions. Since significant amounts of POM are most often
generated by incomplete combustion, temperatures are high enough
to vaporize most, if not all, of the POM's generated. Most of
the sampling techniques used measure a total of both particulate
and vaporous POM, since some of the vapors are captured in water
or an adsorbent. Therefore, it is generally not possible to
determine the relative amounts of the POM's existing as vapors
and as particles at any given stack condition. Natusch and
Tomkins 3' have shown by a theoretical analysis that most POM's
will exist as vapors at common stack temperatures (>150 C), at
least for a typical coal-fired power plant. When the gases exit
the stack, the rapid decrease in temperature would then cause
most of the POM to adsorb onto particles. As adsorption is
dependent on the surface area to volume ratio of the particle,
the POM's will preferentially condense onto the smaller particles.
If the POM's exist as vapors in the exhaust stream, then control
techniques such as afterburners, catalytic adsorption, or con-
densation (e.g., by the temperature reduction and capture in a
wet scrubber) would be more effective. In the event of a stack
with lower temperatures, higher particulate loadings, or finer
particles, more of the POM would be present in the particulate
form. Fine particle control equipment such as fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators, or high pressure drop scrubbers
would then be more effective in removing POM.
14
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The control techniques which would be expected to be
effective for each source type were considered to assess their
feasibility, and readily available data were collected on the
effectiveness and application of the various techniques. The
characteristics of the gas stream, the characteristics of POM
and other pollutants in the stream, and cost considerations
were considered in determining whether a control technique
could be feasible. Emissions data and other material were
reviewed in order to ascertain the practical effectiveness of
the technique. Also, the industrial and air pollution control
literature was surveyed to assess the degree and application of
control that has been accomplished.
D. Population Exposure
Very rough estimates of population exposure were made
based on the limited ambient 3aP sampling data available because
the available "production" information was not adequate to
estimate ambient concentrations from localized emissions.
Although actual production or capacity data, were available for
most utility and industrial plants, fuel consumption and data
on the magnitude of other area emissions were generally not
available for localities. The sources were screened using
available data to ascertain if they were likely to individually
generate "significant" ambient concentrations of 3aP. "Signifi-
cant" ambient concentrations of 3aP were arbitrarily defined as
0.4 ng/m . A concentration of 0.1 ng 3aP/m was considered;
however, many "Cities have"ambient concentrations greater than
this level and a large number of sources potentially could have
been estimated to produce "significant" concentrations. The
0.4 ng 3aP/ni concentration was chosen in consultation with I?A
because few non-industrial cities had hicher ambient concentrations
-------
Individual point sources of the various source types other
than coke ovens were found to produce ambient concentrations
that, at most, were only slightly higher than the arbitrary
measure of "significant" ambient concentrations, 0.4 ng BaP/m .
This is based on the intermediate or maximum emission factors
that were developed, average and maximum plant sizes, and
typical but conservative (i.e., designed to generate high
estimates of ambient concentration) stack characteristics.
That is, only extremely large plants with very conservative
stack conditions were estimated to generate "significant"
concentrations (>_0.4 ng/m ) of BaP. The assumed relationship
between the emission and stack characteristics and the ambient
concentration was that of the EPA dispersion model, PTMAX. As
PTMAX estimates hourly averages rather than annual averages
and annual averages are generally a factor of ten or more lower,
this is a rather conservative assumption. Therefore, individual
point sources other than coke ovens were eliminated as potential
producers of ambient BaP (annual average) concentrations greater
than 0.4 ng/m .
Each area source of BaP was also shown to produce less
than "significant" concentrations of BaP. The major area
sources of BaP are the various diffuse consumptive fuel uses,
e.g., heating oil, gasoline, and intermediate boilers. Since
fuel consumption data broken down by use or locality are not
generally available, the ambient concentrations produced by the
area sources in specific or worst case localities could not be
estimated directly from the emission factors. Therefore, for
screening purposes, the Air Quality Control Region (AQCR)
Emissions Report from a National Emissions Data System (NEDS)
computer run by EPA on September 7, 1977 was used to estimate
the worst-case ambient concentrations from individual area
sources. The greatest amount of annual particulate emissions
16
-------
from the various area sources in the AQCR's listed in the
emissions report were selected. It was then assumed chat the
BaP emissions were proportional to the particulate emissions,
i.e., chat they would largely be adsorbed onco particles after
leaving the stack. The assumed ratio of proportionality was
that of the estimated BaP emission factor to the AP-42 particulate
emission factor. ' The ambient concentrations of BaP generated
fay each source type were then estimated using the Hanna-Gifford
urban area source model. ' ' The area assumed for the
emissions in each AQCR was the total of the urbanized areas for
the metropolitan areas in the AQCR given in a recem: Department
of Transportation report. 'A very conservative wind speed
of 2.0 m/s was used. The results showed that only che worst
case AQCR's were even marginally significant with regard to
ambient concentrations of BaP produced from each individual
area source, assuming the maximum estimate emission factor.
Considering the best estimate emission factors or ocher cities,
the individual area sources are quite unlikely to produce
ambient BaP concentrations greater than 0.4 ng/ra . The NZDS
data on some major BaP emitters, e.g., residential coal use,
seems to be quite high and thus outdated, as consumption has
decreased significantly over recent years. Thus, dais NEDS-
based screening technique is even more conservative. Therefore,
it was presumed that no area sources produce individually
significant concentrarions of 3aP (^0.4 ng/m ) .
Since more reliable daca on local fuel consumption were
not found, the measured ambient BaP concentrations were used to
estimate population exposures. If more accurate local fuel
consumption data had been available, it might: have been possible
co estimate ambient concentrations in various localities con-
sidering the emission ccntribucions of the different pome and
17
-------
area sources. As these data were not available, population ex-
posures were estimated using the limited ambient BaP sampling
results that are available and the results of a recent study on
118 /
population exposure to coke oven emissions. '
The general procedure followed was to use the estimated
coke oven-derived and background concentrations and number of
people exposed developed by Suta ' for cities with coke
ovens. For cities without coke ovens in which ambient BaP
measurements had been taken, recently measured or extrapolated
"1975" annual average BaP concentrations were used. An attempt
was made to determine a relationship, or significant differences,
between the concentrations measured in cities of differing
population density or population. However, no such trends were
found.
The ambient BaP (annual average) concentrations in non-
coke oven areas where no BaP monitoring had been conducted were
estimated by using three national averages. These national
averages were calculated using the ambient measurements for
non-coke oven areas reported by Suta118/ and additional NASN
data.110' 111; 152/. in order to calculate the three averages,
the areas were grouped as cities greater than 25,000 population,
towns and cities of 10,000 to 50,000 population which were not
in an Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA), and rural
counties and parks.
The population exposure to BaP for each state was then
estimated using the 1970 census figures for the urban population
in a state and within an SMSA the urban population in the state
and outside all SMSA's, and the rural population of a state.
18
-------
These populations were counted as exposed to ambient concentrations
118/
developed from the coke oven study, ' recently measured or
projected "1975" measured ambient concentrations, or the average
non-coke oven ambient concentrations in that hierarchical
order. The procedure and assumptions are explained in more
detail in Section IV.
The quality of these estimates of population exposure
should be noted. Because they are based on data from a relatively
small number of monitoring sites which have been operated at
various times using different equipment, and because the na-ure
of POM production probably leads to significant spatial variations
in ambient concentrations, the calculated values of copulation
exposure are very rough estimates. These estimates, however,
were the only ones feasible within the tine available for the
study and probably are the only type of estimate currently
feasible.
19
-------
SECTION III
THE SOURCES OF POM
A. General
In this section, the sources of POM are discussed with
regard to their individual source and emission characteristics.
For each source type, the process, POM emission sources, air
pollution control equipment, and the locations and capacities
of individual sources are briefly discussed. The emission
sources mentioned are those which have been shown, or are
likely, to emit POM from the process under consideration. The
discussion on air pollution control equipment considers the
equipment generally used to control emissions from the process,
the likely character of POM emissions, and, if available, sone
measures of the effectiveness of control techniques in controlling
POM emissions from the process and measures of the degree of
application of the various control devices. If available, the
locations and capacities of stationary sources were listed in
various appendices.
The development of the emission factors for the various
sources for which emission tests were available is then out-
lined. If data were available/ minimum, maximum, and intermedi-
ate estimates of emission factors for benzene soluble organics
(BSO), those POM's which had been analyzed, and Ba? were
developed. Generally, the intermediate emission factors were
calculated by taking the geometric mean of the individual test
results. In the text, only BaP emission factors are usually
noted as they are available for more sources and are more
directly comparable.
20
-------
A complete listing of all the emission factors for 3SO/
POM, and 3aP for the individual sources that were developed in
this study are given in Table III-l. By multiplying the 3aP
emission factors times the most recent national production or
consumption figure available in the literature for the source
type, estimates were made of "current" annual 3aP emissions.
The ranges of the estimates and the best estimates of annual
3aP emissions for the various source types are given in Table
III-2. The future capacity and POM emission control of the
source type was then projected to 1935. The estimated production
or consumption capacities for 1985 were taken from published
reports or government estimates, projected using reported
trends, or extrapolated using an assumed trend. The estimates
of annual 3aP emissions in 1985 are presented in Table III-3.
As is the case with all projections to the future, these
estimates are, at best, an indicator of the relative contributions
of the various source types to 3aP and thus, presumably, to
total POM emissions. These estimates are especially uncertain
because they are based on very limited actual emissions data.
The remaining sections of Section III discuss the indivi-
dual source types of POM. For some of the source types dis-
cussed, e.g., coke ovens, future energy sources, and aluminum
reducrion, little quantitative emissions data are available.
In such cases, emission factors are often estimated from a POM
concentration per mass .of particles or per volume of gas.
Further work is recommended in assessing the emissions from
these sources.
Several other sources are ;
-------
TAUI.K IU-1
ESTIMATES Or COM LM IKS ION
I'KOOibli
COAl.-flKKIJ POWLIi IMANTS
• rulvurlzud I'odl
(OciLLcaUy-f 1 tud, dry-
botLoio)
» I'lilvui-izcd Coal
(vei Liually-f 11 ed,
diy-Ljailom)
A Pulverised dial
(|-|iinl.-Wdl 1 tli-utt,
dl y-lniLLom)
• Pulvurlzud Coal
(lumjKiil Idlly-f lied,
dry-lici Loin)
0 Pulverized Lool
(l>lHK>bt:d- , lloWIIWcinl-
Incllaud buiiHiruj
wel -lx»l Lorn)
• Ciusliud dial
wuL-UjI torn)
• Crushed Codl
(^l>iu| luf
|Hi|iultil Ion '
(tli y-ainl wfjl -lx)l lorn)
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
coirrnoi. uso POM uap uso HOM"' uap
None 26iMj/kg 0.0|«|/ky 0.57/n/kg 07auj/kg 110|ig/kg 1 !/V9
MulLipla
Cyolouu
b LSP 31»iy/kg B.4/i/ tmiincil IIEt'KIl
USO POM UdP OF TUSTS tHCKS
17,20
19,65
72,94
110.111
41uig/kg 23/4g/kg 1.9i/y/kg 4 39
40mg/kg 12pg/kg l.O^g/kg 4 J9
13iiig/kg 9.7/jg/kg 0.51/Aj/ky 2 39
17nigAg 27/M/kg 3.7/n b>j| I
|MMJII I ,lL Itlll '/
ConLinllud
Conlrollud
1.2pij/kg 23ou|/k
-------
TAIII.I: 11i-l
LUT1MATI !i ll| I'tlN UUbblOll
••inn u:.:.
comiuu.
MINIMUM
MAKIMI1M
ubo
'
Udi>
uso
fOH
'
Baf
UbO
TOM
UdP
OK TLbTS tNCLS
CHAI. MKUI IIIUJVI'IIIAI.
I'll I UB i l*fcil Con I
Iwuliii -liibti.
iliy-liul Luw«
200.000 Ib i.lin/In .1
l-'liuln «|iiilu t*luki!t
(Will til -I llb«3 (
12'J.OUO Ib ulm/lii)
b"i erului iilukuL
IwuLtJI Illbu.
Wllll I ullk |!*l|l>l .
/O. WO Ib ulm/lii t
• llnilui I
II 11 u lubu.
'I.'2 x III6 III 11)
• Iliitli-i reutl Ulukui
(fliu lulxi.
1 U H I06 IILll)
• Iliului I uutl liltikui
IL. iiuiuik
• All lynuu-wulijlil oil
fin Ixillci
COAI.-I- llil.li in
Cyuloiia
Nonu
Mulll|>lu
Cyclunii
H'Miu
HUIIU
HUIIU
I lun :.ui.l li>ndl Uillui.
• Ilinlill fuuil llloklil (liul -
nil IIIIIKIL.U, '-'JO. OKI)
III ll/lll )
9 llciiiil -:il itknl Iliikl-ull
tiilliui >l, - 'JO. Ollll 1)1 u/
In >
• Iliului luuil t.ltiki:iu --
-------
TABU: m-i
or I-QH tfu:imon
CUAI.-rlWhl) IU.S1IIKHT1M. HIUNACKS
X
COm'KOl, BSO tOH DdP
USD
HIM
'
UaP
1ISO
KM
lldP
TOTAI,
W TtSTS CNCI.S
lloL-diir tuiriaues --
(jeoinelr li. uvutatja None
Mi Lyjies, —
tjcuuiut i j u miiiiii Nilnu
160m(|/k9 a.
67mq/k.j l.
u'niui tiin.iu _
PnHESTIC SOIHICLS
• l)»iiiC£.Llc sLovcu
tiiulb k falovu Lyjiuu) Niine
• Resident Idl fir
(viiitoiis woods.
If
Lin HIii'j) • Nonu
37ui.j/ky
2.binc|/ki|
40ui9/kij 1.7niy/k«j 1 2
Qt
Ul l.-K I HLI> J M'l'hKMUJ J ft'l'i:
LulX!
(walui
ille:C;|JluC'i;^M
j. 23- JO x II)6
Illn/lir)
• UlW-|>l L'SIIIIIU, dll-
niii liullorj
4. J x H) III ii/liir)
Mono
Moiie
52iiKj/l
<5JOn,j/l I30iix|/l 'Jll||i;/l
BJiig/1 2J|l
500mf|/l 670n«j/l
o 1 1- 1' nmn M:H \ IILNTIAI.
I'l Cb'.IUU-ill Dllll tint
(t ilbt - tlOII ilji:-
LIcinaI boilfii
250,0110 hLii/lu )
Pi l!ll£.lll B-dl HUH I ^l-ll
llioL-iili till lull ti;
141). 1)1)11 Hlii/lu )
V>i|»i izc-il (li.)L-
dlf I'm iiiic«.i
OO.UIMI Dln/lii )
Ml lyj>f:s -- „,
l|<.'ijllicjl I li- mi:,III
None
Nouu
HOIKJ
500|ly/l
J.IOucj/1 S.6|Kj/l
-------
<.< INT HOI.
111-1
tSTIMATt.5 Or POM I.MIb!»ION tAC'IVIKS
UbO
MIHIHUM
ItIM
HAX I HI IN
IISG
IHM
lldP
nso
I'UM
Ual*
TOTAL
NUMULIt «!• l'i:ll-
OK -ILS'l.'i I.I4CIJS
I'lumlk Iminuib Ulie-
lll!llUl»J| ').i X III
Ul ii/lu )
1'ivuilx Illinium (Si:utcli-
|>lt ul liuul lii'Jl
4 I M III Illu/lu )
KCbllil IIMAI.
I'|.I2IU| H l»lll IIUI H
Illiilllllll-bliul I
iml I in i imi.ium
Ul n/lll I
I'l t.uii x Imi iit'i u
(Illll -.ill IlllllilCUl
.tlll.OIMI Illu/lu )
1'H.ulln Illll liui II
(wall b|iai e liudlut|
2'i.iMMI Illii/ln)
liiii uei!i
(2IUO.OIM) Kill/Ill )-
ijt.iuu.il i it; HIU.III
1'icniiH Inn nui u
U/^,lllill Illii/lii ) -
ijuiwiut i li. luutin
HUIIU
Ilitnu
lluilu
HIIIIU
42iiwj/u>
IGil»j/«l
l.J».j/u.
J'J
Jit
J'J
I'LI'IIOI Lljll CATAI VI1 1C
KM
lllTl
•
•
•
^•Klllli- -CATAI V
•Ull HATUHI^"'
Kin lit i.nlulyl
( im.kln.j
(±i l.llllll l.|ii,.l
t lillil i dliilyl
U 4l>.l.(ir> I,,.,.,!
1- liil.l i .il.ilyl
vr
1 liul lull l.J>j/u I.JIIMJ/HI 27|i)/in 4.3>|/ii|J 2 . UmiJ/w ' 2UU|iij/w'> 2 4iJ/M
1.; tiiiiiu
1 ' «-«) l.Jy/u3 1 . -ini.j/m1 ^/i,*/,,,1 U.J/,1 ^.0.,/m' 2 -Mvi/m1 4.O-J/-
It. CO Wuutu
< I
-------
TAHIJi II I-1 (CONTINIIKU)
USTIMATLS Of I'OM EMlbSlON FACTOKS
rWJIJtbS
M1IUMIIM MAXIMUM INTIiKMLUlATE*' TMAI.
(XIMTKOL USO I'OM2' Udl> BSO I'OM UdH BUD I'OM ^ UdP Of TIStJTS liNCUS
ITTHOLLIIM CATALYTIC C14ACK1NC, --
CATALYST UI&CNLUATfON (Cont IniMtl)
• fluid catalytic
Clinking
( * 46. tiOO li|ihil)
• Tliuruiofot catalytic
Clocking (air 1 i tL 1
19,600 - at, HOO b|>ail)
craikliuj (l>uckuL
lift, 10,000 -
1 1,21)0 li|>b>l)
• Tliiiiimfor catalytic
ri arkimj-fU 1 i y|ieti (
• Iliiuilr 1 1 low Cata-
lytic cicicklnij
(14,40O-J7,20O I,|>HI|)
• lloiuli i f low caln-
lyLlt. ducking
(34, 400- M. 200 l.pwl)
CO Has to
llo.it 33 •> 3 ll/
boilei 1.49/in 29C|Kj/m NDil' 6.Ofj/m 2.2UKJ/W1 140iig/iii3 3.5y/in3 910|ig/iu3 SCoy/iu 3 39
Nona
(llegunufiitor
Outlet) 77<|/mJ 3.5ij/in3 350uK|/ni3 230q/m3 S.ltj/m 7SOmfj/m3 llfVj/ni3 4.5ij/m 4701.MJ/III1 J 32,39,112
Nontj
OulluL) 1. 69/01 3 2.UnK|/ni3 ND 2.4q/inJ J.0n)9/«n3 190||i]/o3 1.94/m1 2.9imj/m3 /0|jj/iii3 2 39
Hone
Kuijunurator
Out lot) 23g/n3 240mg/m3 26iiig/iii3 5 jy
Noau
IKu<|t.>iierdLor
Out lot) 57g/m3 G.fuj/ui3 1.3g/m3 OUy/m3 9.lu/iB3l3/l .iy/a? lOy/m* 7.1g/in3 1.4g/m3 2 32.39.U2
CO Witdte
limit
Holler 3.1«g/m3 13>' 570incj/ui3 2.7incj/in3 2BO|iy/ni3 1 32.39,02
All tyi>ea--wuiijlii(!i| None
for crdckliici (Itcijunutator
jiijiiuliitloa'''' Out luL)
All ly|ii:s--wcli;lilcJ CO w
-------
TAUIJi
I-.MISS1UII »AI.T»l<:i
MINIMUM
l-lu m,':,!! CIlN'ilftl. DSO KIM ' Ual' IISO
• Suliiialoib--ulilnyle
(!>:> lli/4UII fl2)
• tiilllll ell 01 ±» Lull
(21 Ui/4110 fl2)
• Sialiii aloi ii~~c»liliiy lu
Jbb II>/4IIII ttV)
• batiiialoiu — bliliiylu
(ib lu/4111) tl2)
• £ial in aloi U-" ullllltjlu
(b5 lb/4110 tl2)
• b.lLllluKll II — lull
(tl U./4UO ri2)
• butilialililj — lull
(.>/ II»/4UO II2)
• Jul III .ll.JI b--10l I
(ti iii/mii ti2)
• ±iatui ulufu-- yuiitji d 1
l-ioilm-la
• All Illiiwliuj (lllijll
uuilllioj I'Olul ati|i|iall)
• All Uliiwlnij (tiltjli
• All II 1 uw 1 n<|
• All III owl iiij-'ijutmiul 1 1 1:
IIUIAII
• lluL llo.ul Mix
• ll»l llo.iil nix
Otllui Iniltlati lal I'llH-u^aiib ^ ''
• Iron i
( i»al 1 n«j
• Cailioii lllui.k 1'iinliii.l Ion
Nona 1 Mwj/My2l/' 200 (ly/Mij
Mono b infj/H>j2l/ Kl)22/
llliAIT
Atteibunior
Control lud
llbAf
AtLetburnar
Control led
Controlled
lloiia 4.0 PIU/MIJ 160 IKJ/MIJ
Piouasu (loalur
t'tiinucu ^.4 imj/M-J O10 |«y/MOH llal*
tt DKJ/M<)''I4(IO IIIJ/HIJ 3 ny/Mij2'/ 400 |KJ/My
tt ntj/Mij31^ BKJ/M.J 6.4 PKJ/My 300 |nj/Mij
3 ny/M'j*"^ 2OO |Ij2
2 U9/M>J ' 100 M'J/My
1 my/My2'/ 500 |iy/My
50 my/My 2'/ 4O luy/M.j'*
8 •uy/Hy2l'/ 4 my/My
4 uy/My21/ 1 my/My
4.1 y/My <13 my/My 2I/ 2 ky/My 60 my/My21-7 J -wj/My2
9.3 iny/Mi/^7bO |iy/li>j 4.7 uy/Mij 2 ' -I/ bOO |iy/My2
21 ktj/My 4.8 y/My <5.U iwj/My
50 my/My26/ 1 my/My
2O y/My 9.5 my/My 6 'JO |iy/My
II y/My 4.1 my/My
-------
TAULK III-1 (CONTINUliU)
ESTIMATLS OF PON UM1SSION FACTOKS
I'lKAJLt.S
CONTROL
MINIMUM
INTtRMHUl
BSO
I'OH
'
Bdl*
DSO
POM
BaP
BSO
1>OM UdP
KEKER-
OF TESTS KNCES
K)
00
ItlCINLUATOHS •*"'
• Municipal (mullIple
cliciiuliui i l>al cli]
ulokur tjidlub)
bljrr/l>
• Municipal (mullIplu
cliamliuri com Iniiousi
lidvolnnj tjicite)
Mimic (fill (rockincji
ru<-l|jiuc:riliii>ji of
travel niij cjrulti)
SbOT/O
Muulcl|Ml
huriil nij) JO(cr/U
of
SLdl.k LtiSLS
Municipal (mulLlplu
5OT/I)
Hiiulclpiil —
ijuomul r ic mud 1 1
I.OIIIIIIi.l.Clill (tillKjIu
iluiiiihui ) :> JT/I>
L'lUIUIIUI Llrtl (lllUlllplo
ullnliibcl Wllll
auxi I idiy yiis
Inn lift In |»i inifiiy)
JI'/O
(.•tiiiunuii.lnl--
menu
Noiiti
None
Nona
None
Nona
Water
Sclubber
water
Towei
& LSP
Controlled
None
NOIIU
Nona
6.8ing/kq
40uig/kg
170mj/kfj
1611.9 Ao 110|ig/kq 1.5n(|/k(|
13iau/k9
I3niu/kg
26mu/kg 2.1mcj/kJ
1 25
2 23,39
1 39
2 31)
-------
M
TAbl.b 111-1 lUJNTlNUEIJ)
i t)C I11H IXISSIOH FACTOItii
fiu* I.MI < tiNTHiti.
I/ TOTAL
MirilHUM HAXIHIIH IMTIiKMtlUITIK ' HUtlULIl IICfLII
2/ 2/ MUIIIILH IILtLH
IliiO r<»l ' Uaf lli>U I'OM ' Uiil- USO fOrt ' Ual' Of VUSTSi Etu:K!i
OM-N IIIIKHIMli "'/
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Muill i:i|»al luflibil
Aillimiiilil lu 1 ll UU
AM| IMIM.>|»| lu llu«lluu
AllltlllXllll lu <~<>IU|MIIIUIll II
AlllUIM>|kl lu l.ulll|tflliulll II--
'jiitiiuul i It. avukcktju
wllll ut.smui.jil luU1'/
til ilhU 1. 1 l|l|»llll|£l ,
ludVuii, bi tllii'lu:ti
I. nut buiiiimi (lull Oak
Lent liiliiilnij (i>ii>|ut
mujilu luitvuu)
l.i:ut buinliiij (uyuauutu
1 UUVUb )
l.uut hiiiiiliiij —
l|IIIIMtillll. IllUdll lit
lusitU ^IM 3 1 y|ifclU
I.Ullt Illllllllllj
S-b-j/k-j 5UO,,WV M,.^,M/ 1.4.JA-J 4.7^W5/ i40|W/k,, V. 4.J/kV6'l.4,,HJA.J IVO.^k.j ^ ll.M.IW
240u.j/k€p4/ b'jwijAij14' » 3'J.10'>
»10my/k<»14/' Hnu|/k./4/' 1 M.lo'J
l9Uiiuj/ktj 20unj/kij 26Umj/kij 24nnj/kJlt>^ 1 J^.JU
160uiy/kq 24uu,Ai| J 32.)9,IUU
S.^/ku 2.^^,^300,^, 1.7Wi.*W* 35«,,,A^V.-/yA036^.«^A, m,H^. • ».».••«
II.«M,-V.7|,^W -lU.^Xk,*-/ 410,,y/k,W 22»,/k,W 2JU(IJA^/ . «•
U,^A,^ m>^ ,8.7.K,Ay^ V.o.H/k,"/ I^/k,'"/ 3,o,«/kU^ 6 «
IJ.4ui.j/k«j U'2'/0|iyAurt«J I ik*J | ovul t» I I )
* tin f:il I UL:I
4 I/
4 I/
4'yulunu
1.4tjAij
NU
U50||-j/kt|40/ Nil
Jl). J-»i'
4bO(1y/k.j
4U/
4I/
2l|i>j/k
-------
TAW. 12 113-1 (CONTINUED)
IJSTIMATKS OF I'(JM EMISSION FACTOIIS
PKOC.'liSS
MOU1LK SOUKCKS
• Automobiles (1966;
leaded gasoline)
• Automobiles (196Bj
leaded g.isnl Ine)
• Automobiles (1970)
leaded gasoline)
• Automobiles (I960)
leaded gasoline)
• Automobiles (196f>j
unleaded gasoline)
• Automobiles (1966;
unleaded gasoline)
> • Automobiles (1970{
unleaded gaoollne)
• Automobiles (1970)
unleaded tjasolino)
• Automobiles —
weirjhtud by 1976
auto (Hjoulatioii"'/
• Automobiles (1976)
diesel)
• Trucku (diesel)
• Motorcycles (2
stroke engines)
• Itubber tire wear
MINIMUM
CONTROL USO POM Dal' DSO
None 35)19/1
ling Ine
Modification
Modification 2.1|ig/l
ItAM
The final
lleactojr
\
None 2Q|nj/l
Engine
Modification 2.3|ig/l
Engine
Modification 3.2ug/l
Monel/PTX-5
Catalyst
None 19 |tg/l4?/
None 2.2mg/l49/2.3ng/l
-O51/
MAXIMUM INTliKMUIJlATli ' TOTAL
2, _ . NUMUKH lUiFlilt-
POM ' DaP DSO POM ' UaP OF TESTS EUCF.S
17,25,27,
30,3'J,49,,
62,63,72,
92,93,110
88|ig/l 44,,g/l45/ 3 38
9.5|K,/145/ 1 38
7.4(ig/l 7.4(ig/l4S/ 4 38
0.42ng/l45/ 1 30
12U|Kj/l 43|iJ/l 14 38
4UU9/1 V.6|KJ/1 11 38
19pg/l 3.7|ig/l ^ 9 JB
1S|J9/1 9|lg/l 2,25,63
e9,,g/l47/ l-lg/l48/ 38,,g/l47/ 49'93
4.0my/l4a/100,,Vl 3.0n.g/l50/ 3.7pg/lSO/ 2 ;17, 72,92
110
2.9mg/l 17
14O9/1O 17,27,62,
110
-------
FOOTNOTES TO SSTI.MATSS OP ?OM EMISSION FACTORS
Intermediate estimates ara geometric aeans, axcepe as noted other-vise.
?OM values reported ara she suas of tae qTiantitJ.es af sen ?OM species (pyrena. aenzo(a)pyrane,
benzo(e)pyrene, perylene, benzo(ghi) perylane, ancnaachrene. caronena, anthracene, pnenaachrene,
fiuoranchena) present in eaa particuiata from the franc and back halves of »P* >iachod rive129''
as detected ay separation by column chromatograpny and analysis by ultraviolet visible ipeccro-
photometry, except aa noted ochetvija.
' Heigaced for boiler population by ton* of coal burned la boiler type from ?PC data for 1972 reported
in Reference 34. Assumed dry opposed-firing had emission characteristics of dry vertical-firing,
wet opposed-firing representative of all wet (6230; 16,700: and 12,300 x 103 metric sons (6370;
13,420; and 13,520 x 10 tons) of =aal burned by apposad, franc, and tangential firing, respectively),
«et cyclone representative af all cyclones, and spreader scokar representative af all stokers.
Breakdown af coal burned in thousands af aatric tana (thousands of tons) is 39,500 (109,340) tangential;
55,700 (51,450) front; and 32,300 (35,330) opposed firing, for a total of 133,000 (207,140) pulverized
coal, dry-oottorn; 35,200 (33,310) pulverized coal, -wet-bottom; 35,500 (39,090) cyclonei and 3200
(3500) stoker.
4/ weignced far boiler population by aeac content of bituminous coal consumed ay boiler type from f?C
data far 1973 reported in Reference 94. Asauned pulverized wet and cyclones lad emission characteristics
af weighted average af industrial boilers; pulverized coal dry-ootcoo test representative of all pul-
verized coal, dry-bottom; spreader scoker wita raiajaction test representative af all spreader stokers;
:naa.i grace stoker seat representative of averieed scokers; and geometric average of two underfeed
stoker teaca representative af all underfeed scatters. Breakdown ay billions o£ kilograms (10* 3cu) con-
sumed is 26 (650) pulverized dry, S.3 (130) pulverized wet, 2 (40) cyclaae, 1 (30) overfeed scokers, 13
(450) spreader stokers, and 0.3 (10) underfeed stokers. The 1973 average aituainous coal neat content
of a.22 x 10s cal/\g (22.4 x 10S 3tu/ton) was assuaed.
3aP isolated by pyrolysis af scyrene-eoneainiAg tar and separacian ay tAin-layer cnromatagrapny uauig
procedure af C.M. Badger and R.G. 3uckry, and aeaaured ay ultraviolet speccrametry and gas a.iramaeagrapny.
Zncanwdiace aatimata is a geometric average assuming faur aon-deteetaala levels to ae 0.1 ag 3a?/'
-------
3aP value calculated assuming an actual emission factor equal to 73 percent of the reported maximum value.
9/
Emission factors in terns of mass of pollutant emitted per volume of gas burned were calculated from emission
factors in mass of pollutant emitted per heat input given in Reference 39. The ratio of heat input to weight
of fuel burned used was thac given by che operating conditions of each test. Assumed a natural gas composition
of 94.2 percent methane, 3.6 percent ethane, and 2.2 percent nitrogen, (94.2 percent methane and 3.6 percent
ethane given in Reference 39) for a molecular weight of 16.8 g/g-mole, and a perfect gas at standard conditions
(0°C, 1 aea) for a molecular volume of 22.4 1/g-mole.
' Emission factors reported AS mass per cubic meter of fresh feed plus recycle charged. Unit capacity ranges
are given in barrels per stream day (bpsd) of fresh feed plus recycle charged (0.159 m /bbl).
' No 3aP detected in one test. A value of 1.0 ug/bbl was assumed in calculating the geometric mean for a best
estimate.
' No BaP detected in one test. A value of 31 ug/s (5.0 ug/bbl) was assume.! in calculating the geometric mean
for a best estimate.
' POM value reported for a further analysis measuring a"total of 23 POM species (acridine, benzo(fIquinoline,
phenanthndine, benz (a)acridine, benz(c)acridine, benzo (Imn)phenanthridine, indenoU,2,3-i}) isoquinoline,
HH-indeno(l,2-b)quinoline, dibenz(a,h)acndine, dibenz (a,]) acridine, anthracene, phenanthrene, benz (a) -
anthracene, chrysene, fluoroanthene, pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(c)pyrene, perylene, benzo(ghi)perylene,
anthanthrene, coronene) for selected tests as in Reference 39. Data from analysis in Reference 82 as
reported in Reference 32. Values reported for ten POM'S (see footnote 2) were used in calculating best
estimates. Ten (23) POM values are 3.S (4.0) g/m3 for TCC air lift. 6.5(7.3) or 7.8(9.1), g/m3 for
HCC uncontrolled, and 2.7 (3.1) mg/m for HCC controlled
/ Weighted for cracking population by the full capacity in barrels per stream day of the total catalytic cracking
capacity of the U.S. in 1977 from Reference 71. The breakdown in cubic meters (barrels) of fresh feed plus
recycle per stream day is 816,000 (3,133,425; 94.2 percent) for fluid, 46,600 (292,900; 5.4 percent) for
chermofor, and 3420 (21,300; 0.4 percent) for Houdriflow.
Coke production emission factors given per megagram of coal charged were taken directly from Reference 130. The
ratio of coal charged to coke produced is generally aoout 1.45. For comparison, overall (charging and caking)
emission factors were calculated froo ratios of BSD and 3aP to total particulate reported in References 32, 48,
110, and 114 and a particulate emission factor for charging and coking of 1.1 kg/Mg (0.75 '
-------
* Preliminary sampling results of quenching from Severance 91 reported total polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons using a 3C/KS computer analysis. The SSA calculated intermediate estimate is 13 ag/p.g (range
lO.s-15.9 aq/Mg). Mo 3aJ was detected.
POM values are the sums of all tae ainiaua values and all the aaxiaua values reported by SPA1J0' as ranges
5or different POM's. Ten aeasures of 1] POM's (anthracene - phenanthrene. aethyl anthracenes, fluoranthene,
pyrene. aethyl pyrene - fluoranthene. aenzolc)phenanthrene, cnrysene * bens (a)anthracene, aethyl chrysenes.
dinathyl oenz(a) antnracene, and aenzo( a) pyrene) were reported.
I ay
' POM value given is ene lua at all tae ainimua and all tile maximim values reported as ranges for 14 PON's (bens(a)-
phenanthrene, banz (e) pyrene, benzfluorantnrenes, benzol It) fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenz in cor scenes, dibenz
pyrene, dinethylbenz(a)anthracene, fluoranthrane, indenod, 2,3-cd) pyrene, napthalane, pyrene, and b«nso one tesc. A value of 48ug/Mg (44 ug/T) was aasuaod in calculating =h« geomeerie aean for
a oest estimate.
23/ 3aJ> value reported is for combined 3a* and 3eP. The extremely !ugh value for the roll product with afterburner
control was thought to have oeen caused by Interference in the analysis.
Ten PCM (see footnote 2) values af <13 ag/Mg reported. A value of 10 ag/Mg was assumed for she best •stuute
calculation.
' \t least ana value of 3aJ> reported is for a combined analysis result for 3aP and 3eP.
POM value is geometric aean af results of analysis for ten PCM's (sea footnote 2) from a baffle uid results of
analysis far seven POM's (see faotnote 21) from a process heater furnace.
* ' Industrial emission factors are given an a aasis of aass per aetric :on (Mg) of sinter feed for iran and steel
sintering and on i aasis of mass per aetric can (Mg) of chain link fence through :ne lacquer coacmg bath.
Emission factor for carrnn black production is calculated from a POM loading in ag/sn fr=m Reference 44 by
assuming an air flew af 3.31 sm^/kg (133,000 scf/T) of carbon alacx produced. '
* ' Muiiaua 3aP value of 500 ug/Mg w«s suspect as a weignt scale was reading approximately aouaia. Therefore, a
value of 1.2 ag/!tg was assumed in computing :he best estimate.
29/ POM values are far 'total* POM by the gas chromatregraphicnms speccrometric-eomputer analysis and quantification
tecnnique reported in Reference 44. The •uniaum value reported is for sampling with an S?A lathed 5 ::ain,
wnil* the i»«-mn.i« /alue is far sampling with a Tenax adsorbent cal'jam. ^n ineeraediata value at 310 itg/Mq
corresponas -s the results for sampling with the leejiod 5 train fallowed :y an adsoraent iaooler.
:.ieinerati=n, open aurr.mg, and agricultural and forest fire emission factors are -?iven on a oasis of aaas
of emissions per aass of refuse onarged or otner aaterial our^ed.
-------
' POM values are for 9 measures of 13 species (fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene + chrysene, benzo(blfluoranthene
+ benzo(k)fluoranthene * benzol])fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene * benzo(e)pyrene, perylene, benzo(ghi)perylene,
indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, coronene) using an EPA Method Five sampling train, dxcnloromethane extraction, and
gas chromatographic analysis.
POM value is geometric mean of results of different test procedures. One sample was analyzed for ten PON's as
per footnote 2, while the other was analyzed for 13 POM'3 as per footnote 32.
Emission factor calculated froa concentration of POM species in particulace in the smoke plume (on-site air
samples) from Reference 39 and the emission factors for particulates given in Reference 109. These particulate
emission factors are 3.0 kg/Mg for municipal refuse, 50 kg/Mg for automobile components, and S.S kg/Mg for
agricultural field burning, landscape refuse and pruning, and wood refuse.
"' POM emission factor reported is the sun of the minimum or maximum and of the ranges for each of the nine POM
species (benzo(a)pyrene, pyrene, benzo(e)pyrene, perylene, benzo(ghi)pezylena, anthanthrene, fluoraochene,
ehrysene, benz(a)anthracene) reported in Reference 32.
Emission factor reported is for stack results in a facility for research on open-burning fires.
37// Geometric average calculated assuming a typical nix of automobile components of 63 kg (ISO Ib) tires and 630
kg (1500 Ib) automobile body and averaging the results with the research facility test results for nixed components.
' POM values reported for sampling from leaf burning research facility using a filter and Tenax adsorber, and sam-
ples extracted using aethylene chloride for the filter and pentane for the adsorber, separated by liquid chroma-
tography and analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. POM values reported are totals for 13 measures
of 22 POM species (as in footnote 7).
' 3aP values reported are actually for combined 3aP and 3eP as detected in the sampling and analysis procedure outlined
above (footnote 38). Non-detectable (NO) 3aP value reported was assumed to be 40 ug/kg in calculating the inter-
mediate estimate of SaP emissions.
' POM value is for total of six POM's (7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, 3-methylcholanthrene,
dibenz(a,h)anthracene, and two unknown POM'S) sampled by EPA Method 5 with a ten foot glass condenser and a Tenax
adsorbent plug, extracted with benzene, and analyzed using a gas chromatograph and electron capture detector.
41/ Intermediate estimate of 3aP emissions assumed non-detectaole 3aP levels in each test to be equal to tne ainuium
detactable Level of 1.0 ag BaP in the POM detected in the test. The geometric mean of the detectable level
emission factors was taken as the intermediate estimate.
42/ 3SO emission factor per mass of fuel burned calculated from a range of 3SO concentration in particulate of 40-75
percent (mass) from Reference 81 and using the mass per mass of fuel particulate emission factor of 3.5 kg/Kg
from Reference 109. The best estimate was calculated by assuming 60 percent 3SO in the particulate.
' Forest fire emission factors per mass of fuel aurned are from reported average results for duplicate tests,
eacn involving ourning slash pine needle litter in a controlled environment burning room, sampling with a
modified *hi-vol* sampler (which was '«ept below 6S°C to minimize oreakuirougn or vaporous POM extracting wish
metnylene cnloride) , separating by liquid chromatography, and analyzing with gas cnromatograpny and aaas speccra-
metry. The results of these experiments with pine needles ranged over several orders of magnitude depending
on fuel characteristics and fire behavior; therefore, it nust be stressed that the emission factors presented
aay not oe representative of ourning pine needles in tne laboratory, let alone of forest fires in general.
34
-------
POM valuaa reported are total amounts detected of IS aeaaurae of 18 ?OM ipeciea (anthracene + pnenanchrene,
methyl anthracene, fluoranthene. pyrene, aethyl pyrane - iluoraauene, 3«nzo(c)phenanthrene, cnrysene r
banzo(a)anthracene, aethyl chryaene, aeazofluoraatheaea, beazo(a)pyrene. aenzo(e)pyrene. perylane, aethylbenzo-
pyrenes, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrena, benzo(gni) perylane) using the sampling and analysis procedure discussed aeove
(faotaote 43).
*" 3eac estimates at 3aP ani.aai.ona are All far she> same aeries of casts usiag me same fuels.
Auto population weighted by percentage at total aileage travel ad by eaca type of auto for 1977 using tne age dis-
tribution of the U.S. auto population far 1974 from Reference 63 and the average annual ailes driven for autoa by
age from Reference 120 In Reference 109. The distribution, by percentage of annual eravol, used was 32.3 percent
1970 catalyse with unleaded (1975-1977 nodal years), 48.2 percent 1970 engine nodlfleation (1970-1974), 9.! percent
1968 engine sodification (1968-1969), and 10.0 percent 1966 uncontrolled (pre-1368) all with Leaded gasoline.
Intaraediate. maiaua and "•"•"•"•' amissisn estiaatBS were calculated jsi-ng the carrBspondi.ng emission factor for
each nodal type or the intermediate eaiaaica factor if there was 10 auuaun or "iix'.Tnini emission 'actor.
4 3af emission factor in ag/kg fuel :a aefaraace 93 converted ta ag/1 fuel aasuauig a density of dieael ail
of 365 3/1 (7.33 Ib/gaJ.) (No. 2 ail).
48' 330 emission factor calculated from 3SO omission factors per ' Severance J2. .^suits of a iacer
study* ' tasting emissions in exhaust from a Mack 4-cylinder turbo-charged diseel in ag 3aP/Vg of fuel
23 for idle (no load, 60 rpo) , 8 for low speed cruise d Load, 1260 rpm) . aad IS for lagging (full load,
1800 rpm). These emissions ax* equivalent to approximately 3.2, 7, aad L4 tig 3aP/l fuel, respectively.
do polynuclear aromatic hydrocarsons detected la the preliminary analysis af particuiate aatter collected
from tires run at up to 33 apa with 430 «g (1000 la) loads around a paved ladeor track as reported is
Reference 52.
Estimated 3af emission factor of. 140 g (0.3 Lb) per day per aiiiion population fr=n Reference 27 sited in
References) 110 aad 17.
35
-------
TABLE III-]
ESTIMATES OF TOTAL B«J> EMISSIONS 31 SOURCS TYPB
Sourea
Coal-Fired Power Plants
Coal-Fired Industrial
Boilers
Coal-Fired Residential
Furnaces
Other Solid Fuel Burning
Sour co»
• Domestic Sums
• Residential
PlrepUcea
Oil- Fired Intermediate
Boilers
• Industrial Boilers
• Cocmereial/Insti-
utional Boilers
Oil-Fired Residential
Furnaces
Cos-Fired Internadiats
ooilirs
e Industrial Boilers
e Conoercial/Insti-
utional Boilers
Gas-Fired Residential
Furnaces
Petroleum Catalytic
Cracking
e Fluid Catalytic
Crackinq
• Tnaraotbr Catalytic
Crackinq
e KoudnCiow Catalytic
Cracking
Coke Production
Asphalt Production
• Saturators
• Air Bloving
e Hot Road Hix
OtAer Industrial Processes
• Iron 1 Steel Sintering
• Ciainlink Fence
Lacquer Coating
• Carbon Black Production
Incinerators
• Municipal
• Commercial
Open Burning
e Municipal Refuse
e Auto Components
e Grass Clippings,
leaves. Brancnes
e Leaf Burning
Agricultural 4 Forest Fins
• Baqaase Boilers
e Forest Fires
Burning Coal Refuse Banks
•nolle Sources
Automooile (gasoline)
Automobile fdiaeel)
Trucks (diesel)
Rubber Tire Wear
lotor cycles
Annual
Production or
Fuel Conjunction
3.66 x 10U kg
6.21 x 10 10 kq
7.39 x 109 kq
Unknown
4.11 s 1010 kg
4.43xlOl°l
6.29xl010l
6.17xlOl°l
1.3 x 10" »3
8.04 x 1010 a3
8.16 x 10* a3
4.66 x 104 a3
3.42 x 103 a3
5.12 x 10 10 kq
4.3S x 109 kq
4.35 x 10* kg
1.95 x 10 kq
3.70 x 1010 kg
Unknown .
1.1B x 10 kq
1.33 x 10l° kg
3.2 x 10» kq
Unknown
Unknown
Jnkncwn
Unknown
2.27 x 109
-------
TAS1S III -2
RENAMES
a/ anission factors weighted far aoiler population.
b/ ?uel consumption includes bach industrial (S.olxlO kg) and commercial/ Institutional (S.02X101 '
-------
n/ Minimum and maximum emission estimates for forest fires taken directly from Reference 111. The maximum
emission estimate was first reported in Reference 17. A recent study for EPA lists prescribed burn-
ing emissions of 4.S Mg/yr. For purposes of comparison with reported estimates, numbers of 1.3 and 45 Mq
were generated by assuming the burning of the total estimated fuel available for wildfires and prescribed
fires of 58 x 10 Mg with the overall emission factors developed from burning pine needles in laboratory-
simulated heading and backing fires, respectively. Due to the great variability and uncertainty in eae fuel
available and the burning process in difrarent geographical, seasonal, and weather conditions, no intermediate
estimate can be made at this time.
o/ Maximum estimate of 308 Mg/yr (340 T/yr) for 1968 taken directly from Reference 17. Minimum estimate of
281 Mg/yr (310 T/yr) is an update of that figure for 1972 taken directly from Reference 110. No quantitative
information is available on the quantity of coal burning, but an inventory of the volume of burning coal
refuse banks was made in 1968 and the results are reported in Reference 60. Because fires can ignite, smolder,
or burst into flames naturally and because the visible burning area nay be a poor indication of the amount
of coal burning, no intermediate estimate is given. A comparison estimate was calculated by assuming
the 1968 emissions reported in Reference 17 and that the emissions are uniformly emitted by the 292 banks
surveyed. Since 23 banks in Pennsylvania have been extinguished, an updated estimate is 283 Mg/yr (313 T/yr).
This estimate is presumably conservative because the burning banks emitting the most smoke and nearest to
populacion centers have the highest priority for extinguishment. Also, burning acrive coal refuse piles
are generally in some degree of compliance with state air pollution regulations.
p/ Fuel consumption is for total on highway use of diesel fuel.
q/ U.S. Census estimated resident population of the U.S. in October, 1977 from Reference 68.
c/ Assumed that all the 1976 gasoline consumption given in Reference 69 was used by passenger cars and motorcycles
with the same relative shares of gasoline consumption as their relative shares of total 197S motor vehicle fuel
consumption given in Reference 121. It was also assumed that all aotocycies have the emission characteristics
of two-stroke engines (a conservative assumption, as four-stroke-engines which comprise approximately 68
percent of the uotorcycle sales market have less incomplete combustion).
38
-------
TABUS :iI-3
3STOMXS3 OF 1983 TOTJU. O»* MISSIONS 3T SOOTS 7CTB
Source
Ca«l- fired Power Plxnca
C04d-eired ladiucriAl Boilan
Ca»l- fired aaidenelal ?urn«cee
Ocner Solid ?uel Suraiag Sources:
a Seaeacie Stoves
Oil-fired :nunedlaca 3oi.iarsi
a tnduscriAl Soxlsrs
311- tired Residential Sailer*
CM- fired lacenedlaee Soilani
a Industrial 3ollen
e CeoBMrcial/lMCiuieioiuU Soils rs
CeleV tf iaWd ?^< i. ^tjfl T i «Vl. l^lCTIeftCetfl
?etzoleia Cicalyue Craeungi
a Fluid Caudyuc Cracking
• ^ter9o£or C^CAlytic Cracking
a HBudri*low CACAlyc— c Cr&cidAg
Cake Produecion
•• Sacuraeen
a Air Uevuig
a .tee toed M* •
Outer *adiacM4j Pioeeeeeat
a Iron i 3wail SineariAg
a :araea 31adc ?rortiicr-on
I ^r!^
e Jtumcis&l ^•ruie
a Auca CaaDonenei
a Srue Clipping!. U.vee. Sraaeaei
. '-.»* luniag
Aqriculcurxl i fareee ?lreai
a fazeac ?ir«a
Surnug ia*l ^zu»e 3*nxa
looila iourcu:
Ann,-! ^««ion
3.8 « 1011 kg
1.1 « 10U k,
j.o x 10* xg
Unknown
1Q
4.S x 10 kg
4.2«10101
l.JxlO11 1
1.3 , «U ,'
7.0 , 1010 .'
2.0 * 10U •'
Unkaom
OnkaoMi
OnkBOMi
6.4 x 1010 eg
S.7 x 10* xg
1.7 x 103 kg
2 x 10i0 «g
3.7 x 1010 «g
OnknoMi
1.3 x 10} «g
1.3 x ifl10 xg
3.2 x 109 0
•0
•O
3. '3062 3.3062
10 UO
110
3.13 0.21 3.21
3.10 '..4 3.51
3.13 '.0 O.-l
0 13
1.6
Production Oaea
26.122
94.123
94.123
12.36
26.94
94.123
14 . 123
26.94
94.123
94.133
124
124
124
96
104.103
104.103
104. :os
1
•.OS
10
13
94.123
17. 19. .11. 113
17,. 10
53
S9
103
ill
3an«r
d. «
;
d.Jl
d.i
*•]
d.i
a
*
a
n
a
3
f
;
i
s
i
3
-
J
V
y
39
-------
TABLE III-3 REMARKS
Estimated 1985 fuel consumption calculated from the base year fuel consumption given in Table III-2
assuming "nominal" (no change in policy growth raeaa developed usino the PIES computer
model.26/
If other estmates of 1985 coal consumption by power planes are used, she intermediate omissions estimate
ranges from 0.82 Mg/yr (for the 1973 coal burned94' increasing at the PIES "nominal" rate26') to 1.1 Hg/yr
(for the "initiative* fuel use in Btu's estimate from PIES assuming the 1974 average heat content94').
If other estimates of 198S coal consumption are used, the intermediate emissions estimate ranges from
0.091 Hg/yr (for PIES 'nominal" estimates of industrial and residential/commercial coal consumption
in Btu's assuming 1975 fuel and usage breakdowns123' and 1973 heat contents94') to 0.35 Mg/yr (for the
base year consumption estimates in Table III-2 extrapolated at the PIES 'initiative' industrial growth
rate) for industrial and commercial/institutional coal use combined.
Estimate of 1985 residential/commercial fuel consumption in Btu's taken for the MOPPS study 'reference*
(historical states quo) case. Assumed same proportions of fuel types and uses as given for 1975 in
MOPPS ' Converted to reported measure assuming the annual weighted average heat content of the
particular fuel calculated from data for 1973 given in Reference 94 (residential coal: 6.6x10 cal/icg
(23.7xl06 Btu/ton), oil: 9.5xl06 cal/1 (143,200 Btu/gal) for commercial/institutional and 9.3xl06 cal/1
(140,000 Btu/gal) for residential, and natural gas: 9.1xl06 cal/m3 (1022 Btu/ft3)1.
If other estimates of 1985 residential coal consumption are used, the intermediate emissions estimate
ranges to 46 Mg/yr (for the PIES ' non-electric estimates of fuel use in Btu's assuming 1975 fuel and
usage breakdowns ' and 1973 heat contents '). Several estimates based on PIES or MOPPS ' produce
estimates of i26 Mg/yr.
Estimated 1985 residential fireplace wood consumption using the estimate for 1975 (given in Table III-2)
developed in Reference 36 and reported in Reference 32. Assumed that consucption would increase at one-
half the rate of population increase estimated in Reference 131 or 4.5 percent from 1975 to 1985.
If other estimates of 198S industrial oil consumption are used, the intermediate emissions estimate ranges
from as low as 0.043 Mg/yr (for the PIES ' 'nominal' fuel use in 3tu's assuming the 1973 average industrial
94/
neat content ).
If other estimates of 1985 commercial/institutional oil consumption are used, the intermediate emissions
estiaate ranges from 1.1 Mg/yr (for the "base* (NEP) case 1985 residential/commercial fuel consumption and
1975 fuel and usage breakdown from MOPPS123' assuming the 1973 heat content94') to 9.3 Mg/yr (for the 1973
commercial/institutional oil eonsuoption ' extrapolated at the ?IES "nominal' industrial oil use growth
rate 1 . It should be noted chat the commercial/institutional emission factor developed from the
results of only one test is ^10 times larger than any of the residential emission factors. If the
residential intermediate emission factor were used, the emissions estimate would by 0.092 Mg/yr.
If other estimates of 1985 residential oil consumption are used, the intermediate emissions estimate ranges
from as low as 0.14 Mg/yr (for the 1973 consumption94' extrapolated at the PIES 'nominal' residential/
commercial non-electric growth rates ').
If other estimates of 1985 industrial natural gas assumptions are used, the intermediate emissions estimate
ranges from 0.11 Mg/yr (for the base year consumption estimate in Table III-2 extrapolated at the PIES
"initiative" industrial growth rate ) to 0.17 Mg/yr (for tne PISS 'nominal" 1985 fuel use in Btu's assuming
9.1xl06 cal/m3 (1022 3ty/ft3)94/).
If otner estimates of 1985 commercial/institutional natural gas consumption are used, the intermediate emissions
estimate ranges from 0.44 Mg/yr (for the "base" CIEP) case 1985 residential/commercial fuel consumption and
1975 fuel and usage breakdown from MOPPS 1, to 7.1 Mg/yr (for the base year commercial/institutional eon-
suoption in Table III-2 extrapolated at the PIES nominal industrial natural gas use growth rate '
-------
TABLE III-3 REMARKS (Continued)
It otaer estimates of 1985 residential natural gas consumption are used, me intermediate suasions estimate
ranges Iron as low as 0.30 Mg/yr (for the base year consumption eatiaata in Table III-2 extrapolated ae the
PISS 'nominal* residential/commercial ian-4leccric 1963 and leveled off through 1972. 1S/
s. Intentional 'open burning* of waste material is expected » ba negligible in 1985 dua to increasingly stringent
air pollution and other regulations.
t. aagassa used to fire Dollars is expected to remain nearly constant as the pineapple and sugar cane production
in Hawaii is near the naximum capacity and -use of the waste •aatariaJL is already used for fuel.
u. Emissions from forest fires cannot be predicted dua to their nature and variable characteristics. It Is
•xpacted that emissions would not change- drastically from current levels; however, increased and improved
prevention and control could reduce emissions.
'i. Emissions from auraing coal refuse banks cannot ae predicted or accurately estimated; however, they would not
ba expected to increase. This is so because increased preventive and control measures are practiced at
active coal refuse aanks while *ome of tae abandoned Burning aanxs are being extinguished.
*. Calculated using a projected 3aP omission factor for gasoline-powered autcanooiias of O.j jg/1. This emission
factor was calculated by issummg a catal oilaage traveled ay nodel /ear araaxdown far 1985 of 93.2 percent ay
1975-1985 (1970 catalyst with unleaded gasoline) , $.7 percent by 1970-1974 '1970 «ngue modification with leaded
^aaolina) and 1.1 percent by 1969 autrmmfaLles (1968 angina aodification wxth leaded gasoline). This distribution
was calcolated from the annual average miles driven by autas of aa age from Seference 120 in Safarsnca 109 and
the age distribution of the 1976 a. 3. auto population (the distribution with the aost old, i.e., less controlled
autoa) givan in iiaference $3.
x. Truck iiasel !uel conaucption in 1385 oxtrapolated iron the on-mgnway liasel usage for '.971 ia 1975 raported Ln
3afereaca 103. Assuming that current trends continue, i!us should sa a fair iparoxiaacion as currant diesel
consumption 1.1 automooilas .s .l
0.3. population in 1985 estimated is 232.9 Billion by the 3.5. Bureau if Canaus.*J ^
lotorcvcla fuel consumption projected to remain constant, aven though automooile casolme consumption is ?ro-
lectad ia decrease, aecauae aotorcycla fuel «''icieocy is already 'iigh and ailas traveled
-------
diesels, sugar cane refuse fires, and incineration of used
lubricating oils. For a lacquer coating operation in which
chain link fence was being put through the lacquer bath, a
single emission test gave the relatively high emission factor
of 470 mg BaP/Mg of fence. ' Ho process or production infor-
mation could be found for this industry. POM concentrations
in emissions from meat cooking ranging from 1.6 x 10 to 1.1
x 10~ g/m have been measured. ' A heavy duty diesel used
in underground raining has been found to emit between 0.1 and
10 ug BaP/m of exhaust. ' Burning tower experiments were
used to assess the emissions from sugar cane refuse fires.
The mass of BaP per mass of particulates measured was 73.1 +
61.1 ug/g for whole cane and 79.0 + 50.5 yg/g for leaf trash. '
Mass concentrations of BaP in used oils ranging from <1.0 to
30 ug/g have been reported. ' These sources are not discussed,
though it is recommended that further testing be conducted.
Several other processes are potentially significant emit-
ters of POM. These processes include oil- and gas-fired power
plants, industrial internal combustion and diesel engines,
agricultural burning, aircraft, gasoline-powered lawn mowers,
motorboats, and misting and aerosol formation from lubricants.
Only the known source types of POM for which sufficient infor-
mation was available are discussed in the following sections.
For each source type, the process, emission sources, emission
controls, location and capacity, emission estimates, and
future trends of the sources are briefly outlined.
B. Coal-Fired Power Plants
1. Process
Large coal-fired power plants burn crushed or pulverized
coal to generate steam for turbine-generated electric power.
42
-------
The fuel and a stream of air which has been preheated are di-
rected to a furnace or a series of burners where combustion
occurs. The burners may be fired vertically, horizontally, in
opposition, or tangentially; cyclone firing is another possi-
bility. Because the process is not carried out under perfect
conditions, incomplete combustion usually results and causes
pollutants to be emitted from the process. The heat from the
combustion chamber heats water which is contained in a series
of pipes or a boiler so that steam is generated. The steam is
then used to operate a turbine which, in turn, operates a
generator which produces electric power.
2. Emission Sources
Large coal-fired boilers generate POM due to incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons. Burner configuration, firing
method, and other unit specifications affect the quantity of
POM emissions. In addition, the maintenance and operating
conditions of the specific unit affect the completeness of
combustion and thus the amount of POM's generated.
3. Emission Controls
Due to air quality regulations, approximately 97 percent
of coal-fired power plants employ one of the following pollution
control systems: cyclones; scrubbers; electrostatic precipita-
tors; fabric filters; or a combination of these. These tech-
niques are not equally useful in control of POM emissions,
however, since POM preferentially condenses onto the smaller
oarticulate matter (because of its larger surface area to
volune ratio). Thus, those control techniques vhich efficiently
control fine particles will generally also control particulate
POM's. Therefore, cyclones, which are relatively inefficient
collectors of particles smaller than 10 urn, are ineffective
43
-------
except as a precleaner for the nore efficient devices—high
energy scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, or fabric
filters. High energy scrubbers, such as venturi scrubbers,
can be very effective in removing fine particles while lower
energy scrubbers with their longer residence times can be used
first to condense gaseous POM. Electrostatic precipitators
can also achieve high efficiency particulate removal. Although
dry precipitators cannot always handle sooty or tarry particles,
wet precipitators are generally effective. Fabric filters are
the most efficient collector of fine particles. The fabric
pores, however, may become blocked and uncleanable when filtering
tarry particles such as those generated by the combustion of
oil. Also, fabric filter applications are limited by the
temperature the fabric can withstand (the current limit is
290°C for glass fibers). The particulate POM collection
efficiency of any control device depends on the particle size
distribution(s) of the particulate POM and/or the particles
upon which the POM is adsorbed. It has been shown, both
theoretically and in practice, that most POM's exist as vapors
at the stack gas conditions of a typical coal-fired power
plant (^150°C).64/65/119/ Therefore, dust collectors which
usually are operated with gas temperatures higher than the
condensation points for most POM's (e.g., fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators, or cyclones) probably do not
collect much of the total POM present, as most species would
exist as vapors rather than collectable particles. However,
air pollution control systems, such as scrubbers, which*condense
the vapors and collect the particles formed should be much
more effective in controlling total emissions of POM.
4. Location and Capacity
Coal-fired power plants are located throughout the U.S.;
however, they are concentrated in areas near coal supplies.
44
-------
Appendix A shows the regional breakdown of coal consumption by
electric utilities. In 1975, 381 coal-fired plants of greater
than 25 MW(e) with a total generating capacity of approximately
210,000 MW(e) fired nearly 370 million metric tons of coal.
About 34 percent of the plants and fuel consumption and 32
percent of the generating capacity are located in the East
North Central Region (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and
Wisconsin). The West North Central, South Altantic, Middle
Atlantic, and East South Central Regions had 76, 61, 42, and
38 coal-fired plants, respectively.
5. Emission Estimates
39/ 94/
Studies by Hangebrauck, et al. ' and Suprenant, et al. '
were used to derive emission factors for the various types of
coal-fired power plants. Numerous other studies were con-
sulted.17'21/72'110/111/ Their- emissions estimates, however,
39/
were all derived from AP-33 by Hangebrauck, et al. ' The
minimum, maximum, and intermediate estimate emission factors
for the various types of boilers tests and the other processes
for which emission factors were estimated are given in Table
III.-l (?. 22) .
Data for coal-fired power plants were collected by Hange-
39/
brauck, et al. ' by direct sampling of stationary sources.
The samples were analyzed using benzene extraction, column
chromatography, and ultraviolet visible spectrophotometry.
The intermediate estimate 3aP emission factors ranged from
0.37 ug/kg of coal for a spreader stoker with travelling grata
firing crushed coal to 3.7 ug/kg for a tangentially-firsc dry-
bottom boiler firing pulverized coal. The boiler population
weighted average for all boiler types is 1.6 ug 3a?/kg of
coal. The weighted average emission factor was weighted for
boiler population by tons of coal burned in the boilar type as
94 /
given by Suprenant, et al. 'from Federal Power Commission
data for 1972.
45
-------
It was assumed that dry opposed-firing had the emission
characteristics of the dry vertical-firing tests, that wet-
bottom opposed-firing was representative of all wet-bottom
pulverized coal-firing (6230; 16,700; and 12,300 x 10 kilograms
(6870; 13,420; and 13,520 x 10 tons) of coal burned by opposed,
front, and tangential-firing, respectively), that the wet-
bottom cyclone tests were representative of all cyclone-firing
and that the spreader stoker tests were representative of all
stokers. The breakdown of coal burned in millions of kilograms
(thousands of tons) is 99,600 (109,840) tangential-firing;
55,700 (61,450) front-firing; and 32,500 (35,850) opposed-
firing, for a total of 188,000 (207,140) pulverized coal, dry-
bottom; 35,200 (38,810) pulverized coal, wet-bottom; 35,500 :
(39,090) cyclone; and 3,200 (3,500) stoker. Using the emission
factors calculated with these weights and a 1975 consumption
figure of 3.66 x 10 kg of coal developed from Steam Electric
122/
Plant Factors, 1976, ' the total estimated BaP emissions
from coal-fired power plants are less than one metric ton per
year. Using 1975 consumption figures from the same source and
assuming the intermediate -emission factors for industrial
boilers, which are presumably less efficient, the estimated
emissions for oil- and gas-fired power plants are also less
than one metric ton per year.
6. Future Trends
If plants currently under construction and scheduled to
be built by 1985 become operative, there will be more than 600
coal-fired power plants. The generating capacity of these
plants will be approximately 330,000'MW(e). Of the 250 new
coal-fired plants projected to come on stream by 1985, 61 are
in the West South Central Region, 48 are in the East North
Central Region, and 44 are in the Mountain Region. •• '••
Estimates of coal use in the future have been made by the
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA; now
46
-------
included in the Department of Energy—DOE) using the PIES
computer model. Estimates were derived based on the existence
of a National Energy Plan including coal use incentives (Initia-
tive Case) and non-existence of an Energy Plan (Nominal Case),
as follows:
Annual Percentage Increase (1975-1985)
Fuel Type 1985 Nominal 1985 Initiative
Coal 4.68 4.87
Oil 4.75 0.00
Gas ^ -6.33 -10.77
These percentage increases will lead to the following fuel use
by 1985: ,.
Annual Fuel Use (10 Btu) by Utilities
Fuel Type 1985 Nominal 1985 Initiative
Coal 6.9xl0llT
-------
steam may be used to drive a turbine and, thus, produce mechani-
cal energy or used directly in the industrial process. Inter-
mediate-size boilers are utilized for industrial, commercial, and
institutional processes.
The intermediate coal-fired boilers are fired by pulverized
coal, chain grates, spreader or underfeed stokers, or cyclones.
Oil and gas are both blown with combustion air into the combustion
chamber through orifices.
2. Emission Sources
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuel in a boiler generates
polycyclic organic matter. Incomplete burning results from ir-
regular heating, insufficient air-fuel mixtures, and the limited
transport of oxygen and heat to the material in large fuel par-
ticles.
POM emissions from gas- and oil-fired units generally tend
to be lower than from coal-fired units because of the smaller
fuel particle size and better mixing. However, the emissions
from the less efficient (usually smaller) types of oil- and gas-
fired units are higher than the emissions from those coal-fired
units which are run efficiently.
3. Emission Controls
Two particulate control methods are common for intermediate-
size boilers: multiple cyclones and electrostatic precipitators
(ESP's)(or a combination of the two). Cyclones are inefficient
in collection of very small particles and, thus, would generally
not be adequate for POM control. Wet ESP's are effective in
controlling fine particles. A combination of a low-energy wet
scrubber followed by a higher energy venturi scrubber would
reduce gaseous and particulate POM. Many intermediate-size
boilers currently have little or no control.
48
-------
Good design, good operating and maintenance practice,
and process modification (higher temperatures and excess air)
are additional POM emission control mechanisms. Some combustion
additives have also been shown to be effective in reducing
emissions of ?OM from boilers burning coal and oil. '
4, Location and Capacity
Intermediate-size boilers are dispersed throughout the
country. Their spatial distribution generally follows that
of population and industry. Industrial boilers are used to
produce process steam, heat, or electricity and thus are used
by most industries. Institutional/commercial boilers are
primarily used for heating in hospitals, schools, offices,
stores, and apartment buildings. The type of fuel used
varies geographically according to the price and assurance of
supply of the various fuel types.
5. Emission-Estimates
Emission factors for various intermediate-size boiler
types were developed from the limited stack sampling results
reported in AP-33, Sources of Polynuclear liydrocarbons in the
39/
Atmosphere ' by Hangebrauck, et al. The ranges of 3aP
emission factors were 0.77 to 310 ug/kg of coal, 0.53 to 32
ug/1 of oil, and from less than 0.56 -o 7.6 ug/n of gas.
The intermediate estimate 3a2 emission facrors were 0.93
ug/kg of coal for the national average boiler population and
1.1 ug/1 of oil for firing by steam atomizing burners. For
single cast results, the 3aP emission factors were 32 ug/1
for low-pressure air-atcmized oil and less chan 0.55 and 7.6
•jg/m for a process hear and a hospital heat premix gas
burner. These and o-cher emission factors are shown in Table
III-l (?. 23).
49
-------
A breakdown of the population of boiler types derived
from data in the 1976 EPA report, Preliminary Emissions Assess-
94/
ment of Conventional Stationary Combustion Systems ' was
used to derive an emission factor for all coal-fired intermediate
boilers. The various estimates were weighted for boiler
population by the trillions of Btus of bituminous coal
947
consumed by boiler type from FPC data for 1973. '' It was
assumed that pulverized coal wet-bottom and cyclone boilers
had the emission characteristics of the weighted average of
industrial boilers; that the pulverized coal dry bottom test
was representative of all pulverized coal, dry bottom firing;
that the spreader stoker with reinjection test was representa-
tive of all spreader stokers; that the chain grate stoker
test was representative of all overfeed stokers; and that the
geometric average of the two underfeed stoker tests was
representative of all underfeed stokers. The breakdown by
billions of kilograms (trillions of Btus) consumed is 26
(650) in pulverized dry bottom, 5.3 (130) in pulverized wet
bottom, 2 (40) in cyclone, 1 (30) in overfeed stoker, 18
(450) in spreader stoker, and 0.8 (20) in underfeed stoker
94/
coal-fired boilers. Using 1973 consumption data, ' the EEA
best estimates of BaP emissions from intermediate boilers are
less than one metric ton per year for all fuels and uses
except oil-fired commercial/institutional boilers, which are
estimated to generate 2.0 Mg/yr.
6. Future Trends
Estimates of future power consumption by fuel type were
made by ERDA (DOE) in October, 1977, using the PIES computer
model. ' The estimates for industrial fuel use are as
follows:
50
-------
Annual Increase 1975-1985 (%)
Fuel Type 1985 Nominal 1985 Initiative
Coal 5.07 L6.41
Oil 13.54 - 0.62
Gas 1.32 0.37
The "initiative" figure is based on the existence of a
National Energy Plan including federal energy conservation and
coal-use incentives. These estimates suggest large increases
in atmospheric POM unless adequate control of vaporous and
particulate POM is utilized. Assuming the "nominal" growth
rate from base year consumption figures '' given in Table
III-2 (?. 43), the best estimates of 3aP emissions increase
for all industrial fuels. The MOPPS ' projections of decreas-
ing commercial/institutional oil and gas consumption were
used. However, the only 1985 intermediare emissions estimate
that exceeded one metric ton per year is that of 1.3 Mg/yr for
oil-fired commercial/institutional boilers. Other oil consump-
tion projections lead to corar.ercial/ institutional emissions
es-iiaates of from 1.1 to 9.3 Mg/yr.
D. Residential Furnaces
1. Process
Coal-, oil-, and gas-fired furnaces are used to heat most
of the nation's homes. The fuel is combusted to heat circula-
ting water or air*. Small coal-fired furnaces may be of the
underfeed or hand-stoked variety. Oil-fired units atomize the
fuel by utilizing preasurization or vaporization. In gas
furnaces, gas and air are premised and fed to gas burners.
2. Emission Sources
Home furnaces are a ma^or source of poiycyclic organic
matter due to inefficient combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
51
-------
Hand-stoked coal furnaces emit very high quantities of POM in
exhaust gases and through leaks in the unit.
Gas furnaces generally emit the least POM per heat input
due to the good feeding characteristics and low particulate
content of the fuels.
3. Emission Controls
Control of emissions from home furnaces is not widely
practiced because of their additional maintenance requirements.
Efficient furnace design, good maintenance, and clean fuels
can reduce POM formation.
Local air pollution control agencies are attempting to
eliminate the use of hand-stoked coal furnaces—the major
source of POM from coal combustion.
4. Location and Capacity
The 1974 Housing Inventory reports the following distribu-
tion of home heating methods. '
Utility gas 39,471,000 units
Bottled, tank, or LP gas 4,143,000
Fuel oil, kerosine, etc. 16,835,000
Electricity 8,407,000
Coal or coke 741,000
Wood 658,000
Other fuel 90,000
No heating equipment 484,000
Fuel consumption figures were not available for this study.
5. Emission Estimates
Emission factors for residential furnaces were derived
39/
primarily from Hangebrauk, et al. ' Several additional sources
52
-------
were consulted for coal-fired furnace emissions data.17'20'72'110'111/
The 3aP emission factors for underfeed stokers range from 115
ug/kg to 2.6 rag/kg with an intermediate estimate of 300 ug/kg
of coal. For hand-stoked furnaces, the EEA best estimate was
42 nig/kg, while the range was 13 to 100 aig/kg of coal. For
oil-fired residential furnaces, the chree available test
results gave a 3aP emission factor of less than 1.9 ug/1 for
pressure-atomized oil furnaces and less than 3.3 ug/1 for a
vaporized oil furnace. The best estimate was 2.2 ug/1 of oil.
Gas-fired premix burners were calculated to have an emission
factor of 0.90 ug/m for the two tests of burners larger than
180,000 3tu/hr and 10 ug/m for the one test of a 25,000
Btu/hr space heater.
Total annual POM emissions were estimated using these
emission factors and fuel consumption taken directly or
" 94/
developed from Suprenant, et al. , ' as follows:
o Fuel consumption (for oil furnaces) in
kilograms was calculated from the fuel
consumption in Btu's given in Suprenant,
94/ fi
et al. ' A heat content of 9.72 x 10
cal/1 (146,000 3tu/gal) for residual
oil and heat content of 9.32 x 10 cal/1
(140,000 3tu/gal) for distillate oil
were assumed.
o Fuel consumption (for gas heaters) in
kilograms was calculated from the fuel
consumption in Btu's given in Sursra-
nant, ec al. "' assuming a heat con-am:
of 9.095 x iO6 cal/m3 (1,022 3tu/f-3) ,
53
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a natural gas composition of 94.2
percent methane, 3.6 percent ethane,
and 2.2 percent nitrogen (for a molecu-
lar weight of 16.8 g/g-mole), and a
perfect gas at standard conditions
(0°C, 1 atm) .
The EEA best estimates of annual BaP emissions from residential
furnaces were thus 26, 0.14, and 0.30 Mg for coal, oil, and gas,
respectively.
6. Future Trends
Natural gas shortages have greatly increased prices of gas
for heating homes. Natural gas usage in new homes will likely
be strictly reduced. A decrease in total gas consumption for
residential heating is expected as older homes replace gas
units.
A recent EPA study concluded that current economic and en-
vironmental factors associated with coal stoker furnaces are
unfavorable for increased coal usage in residential applica-
1
,9
35/ 1237
tions. ' Based on the MOPPS study, ' coal consumption and
BaP emissions are expected to decrease through 1985 to 3.6 x 10'
kg and 14 Mg/yr. Although "smokeless" coals are technically
feasible, they are currently neither available nor marketable. '
Heating with oil is projected to increase due to population
increases. Using MOPPS, a MOPPS-based estimate of 1985 residential
123/
consumption, 'the estimated emissions are likely to increase
to 0.26 Mg 3aP/yr.
Electric heating will likely increase by one or two per-
cent. Gas users are likely to replace their gas heaters with
electric or oil heating systems. However, using the MOPPS
reference (historical status quo) case results, it was estimated
54
-------
that the residential gas consumption would increase to about
2.0 x 10 m . Thus, the estimate of 3aP emissions in 1985 is
still less than one metric con.
E. Other Solid Fuel Burning Sources
1. Process
Coal and wood fueled domestic stoves and wood-burning
fireplaces are sometimes used as single units to produce heat.
Some varieties of wood stoves used for home hearing are nore
efficient due to tightly sealed chambers, carefully controlled
air intake, and exhaust systems.
2. Emission Sources
The incomplete combustion of wood and coaL is due to
slow, low-temperature burning with insufficient air at the
burning surface and the high moisture content of most home
fuel supplies. Products of such combustion normally contain
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and are released directly to
the atmosphere.
3. Emission Controls
Restrictions on fireplace and stove use are one possible,
but impractical, control method. Chimney filter systems are,
perhaps, more feasible. Fireplace and stove design specifica-
tions offer another means of controlling POM emissions from
these sources.
4. Location and Capacity
The 1974 Sousing Inventory reports that 36,000 housing
units in the united States used coal or coke and 206,000 used
-------
wood, as a cooking fuel. The 2,069,000 residential fireplaces,
heating stoves, and portable heaters are reported in the same
document.
Fuel consumption in stoves is unknown. Fireplace consump-
8 6 /
tion in 1975 was estimated at 17 million cords ' or 4.31 x
10 kg assuming a specific gravity of 0.7 g/cm . Other
32 94/
estimates of wood fuel usage based on Btu consumption estimates ' '
range from 1.22 to 7.08 x 10 kg of wood/ assuming a heat
content of 2.8 x 106 cal/kg (107 Btu/ton).
5. Emission Estimates
Emission factors for fireplaces were obtained from an EPA
89/
report by Snowden, et al. ' Fireplace emissions were sampled
using a Tenax adsorber following a glass fiber filter. Analysis
was by gas chromatography and mass spectrophotometry. For
various woods, the BaP emission factor for stable burning
ranged from less than 1.2 to 2.5 mg/kg of wood with an intermediate
estimate of 1.7 ing/kg.
Emissions from domestic stoves burning solid fuels were
reported by Seine ' in 1970. Stove emissions were analyzed
after isolating benzo(a)pyrene by pyrolysis of styrene-containing
tars. Separation was by thin-layer chromatography and analysis
by ultraviolet spectrometry and gas chromatography. BaP
emission factors for the various fuels, which were mostly
coal-derived, ranged over three orders of magnitude from 700
ug/kg to 379 mg/kg. The intermediate estimate is 5 mg BaP/kg
of fuel.
Total BaP emissions were estimated for fireplaces using
the estimate of 4.31 x 10 kg of wood consumed in 1975 and
the emission factors shown in Table III-l (P.24). The inter-
mediate estimate of total annual emissions of BaP from residential
fireplaces is 73 Mg/yr. No estimate of annual emissions could be
56
-------
made for domestic stoves burning solid fuels, as no consumption
data could be found.
6. Future Trends
A. recent issue of Newsweek indicates chat a growing number
of homes are heated, at least partially, by wood burning stoves. 3'
The quantity and character of POM emissions generated by the
newer designs of wood burning stoves are uncertain at present.
Most of the new designs presumably have fewer leaks so that com-
bustion may be improved and POM emission reduced; however, com-
bustion temperatures may be lower and underfire air greater so
that raora POM may be generated and more particles, possibly wich
adsorbed POM, emitted. The amount of POM emitted will vary with
the particular design and its operation, while emissions will
also vary with the cyclical nature of the process. POM emissions
would be expected to be high when colder fuel is added and
volatiles are distilled off, lower when the flames produce a hot
fire, higher when combustion is cooler during smoldering and
lower when carbon is the major component in the remaining fuel.
The use of wood in fireplaces was assumed to increase at
one-half the rate of increase in population or 4.5 percent from
1975 to 1985. Thus, the intermediate estimate of 1985 3aP
emissions is 77 Mg/yr. This estimate is very rough; however, no
projections are available for the number of single family homes,
or other measures which might be better indicators of wood con-
sumption in residential fireplaces, were readily available for
this study.
F. Future Zr.ercv Sources
1. Process
The sources of energy which may be significantly utilized
in the foreseeable future include solar, nuclaar, and fcsso.1.
-------
POM's are likely to be generated in some amount by any process
which involves the heating of hydrocarbons. Therefore, future
energy processes such as coal conversion, fluidized bed combus-
tion (FBC), and magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD), which use fossil
fuels will generate, if not emit, some POM. Coal gasification
and liquefaction are especially likely to emit POM's since the
processes used generally are based upon incomplete combustion.
This is so because the desired gaseous or liquid fuel product
contains large quantities of combustible matter including POM.
Utilization of solar or nuclear energy is unlikely to generate
POM emissions. POM's could be emitted/ however, during the pre-
paration of hydrocarbonaceous materials for energy utilization
equipment, e.g., photovoltaic cells, plastic solar panels, or
graphite control rods for nuclear reactors.
2. Emission Source
Most of the POM's are generated in the combustion or reac-
tion chamber when the hydrocarbons are heated or combusted.
They are probably not emitted directly from that chamber, how-
ever. POM's generally comprise a large fraction of coal gasi-
fication or liquefaction products. They may be emitted during
collection, treatment, transportation, or utilization of these
fuels. After the combustion of coal-derived fuels or the com-
bustion of coal or other fossil fuels in other advanced pro-
cesses such as FBC or MHD, many of the hydrocarbons which have
not been completely combusted will be emitted from the stack as
POM unless they are removed from the flue gas.
3. Emission Controls
As the processes, pollutant generation, and product or flue
gas stream characteristics of the various future energy sources
58
-------
are uncertain/ the effectiveness of current or future air pollu-
tion control equipment is also uncertain. High temperature and
pressure particulate control equipment is being studied. Since
most POM's are gaseous even at lower stack temperatures, f0^' '
it is unlikely that these devices would collect much POM. The
effectiveness of more conventional air pollution control equip-
ment for POM will depend on the actual gas stream chracteris-
tics, the type of control equipment, and the form and amount of
POM in the flue gas. Leakage of POM from liquid or gaseous
coal-derived fuels during their processing or transport may be
able to be reduced by improved valves and gasketing.
4. Location and Capacity
Those sources considered likely to emit POM during the gen-
eration and utilization of energy are currently in the bench,
pilot, or demonstration stages of research and development.
Commercial projects are only in the planning stages and none are
expected to be operational before 1985. The types, locations,
and capacities of future energy sources of POM will depend upon
the economics of the processes in various areas.
5. Emission Estimates
No estimates of emissions from future energy sources of POM
can be made at present. Some studies have included the measure-
ment: of POM's in the product, flue gas, or other waste streams
14 29 51/
from coal-derived energy processes. /x However, some of
these results are for the smaller and older processes used in
Great Britain, ' while others are for newer processes on only a
29/
bench or pilot scale ' or largely measure PCM i.i product
14/
streams. ' Other studies have merely noted that the procuct cr
waste streams contain large amounts of aromatics or sone types
of POM's. The few data that do reoort the cuantities of POM in
59
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the gas stream are generally on the basis of the volume of gas
and, thus, are not suitable for the development of emission
factors. Adequate data are not available for the development of
POM emission factors from specific processes, let alone for the
general categories such as coal gasification or liquefaction.
However, since no commercial units exist, current POM emissions
are presumed to be negligible.
6. Future Trends
The future emissions of POM from energy processes which are
not currently in commercial use cannot be estimated. Represen-
tative emission factors cannot be estimated at this time. Also,
the types, locations, and capacities of these POM sources are
subject to change, as they are only in the planning stages. It
is unlikely that any commercial plants of these energy processes
will be operational in 1985 so it is presumed that POM emissions
will be negligible.
G. Petroleum Catalytic Cracking
1. Process
The catalytic cracking process is used to upgrade heavy
petroleum fractions by breaking up long-chain hydrocarbons to
produce high octane gasoline and distillate fuels.
Several types of cracking units are used: fluid catalytic
crackers (FCC), thermofor catalytic crackers (TCC) with airlift
or bucket lift catalyst carriers, and Houdriflow catalytic
crackers (HCC). The basic process involves a silica-alumina
catalyst and gas-oil mixture. The mixture is cracked by being
heated to 480°C and then fractionated. The spent catalyst,
laden with coke, is regenerated by burning off the coke at
60
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about 540°C. The regenerator exhaust: gases are then exited
directly to the atmosphere or passed through a carbon monoxide
waste heat boiler.
39/
2. Emission Sources
The exhaust gases from catalyst regeneration kilns are high
in unbumed hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide from the burned
coke. Emissions of benzo(a)pyrene, pyrene, and other POM's tend
to be very high.
TCC bucket elevator and FCC units appear to emit signifi-
cantly smaller uncontrolled quantities of POM per quantity of
throughput than the HCC and TCC air-lift units based on rather
limited emissions tests.
3, Emission Controls
Carbon monoxide waste heat boilers can be used to effect
more complete combustion of catalyst regenerator kiln exhaust
gases. The boilers utilize auxiliary fuels or a catalyst and
have been found to be more than 99 percent efficient in removal
of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Plume burners are inef-
ficient POM controls for catalytic cracking units.
4. Location and Capacity
The locations and capacities of U.S. petroleun refineries
shown in Appendix B were obtained from the Worldwide Directory:
Refining and Gas Processing 1977-1978. Refining capacity is
centered in Texas, Louisiana, and California, but most states
have at least one refinery. In 1977, total CJ.3. catalytic
cracking capacity was reported to be 754,000 m (4,739,704
barrels) of fresh feed oer stream dav.
51
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5. Emission Estimates
Emission factors for POM emissions from catalytic cracking
operations were derived from data in the U.S. Public Health
Service report Sources of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmo-
39/
sphere ' and the results of additional POM analyses for the
same tests reported in the NAPCA draft report Control Techniques
32/
for Polycyclic Organic Matter Emissions ' from a study by
Sawicki, et al. in the International Journal of Air and Water
Pollution. ' These factors are shown in Table III-l (P. 25).
The range of individual test results for FCC, TCC, and HCC is
from 27 ug/m for FCC to 1.4 g/m for HCC for uncontrolled BaP
emissions and from below detectable for FCC to 280 ug/m for
HCC for controlled BaP emissions. The intermediate estimates
of uncontrolled BaP emission factors are 280 ug/m for FCC,
470 mg/m for TCC air-lift, 78 ug/n for TCC bucket elevator,
and 1.4 g/m for HCC. The best estimates of controlled BaP
emission factors are 38 ug/m for FCC and 280 ug/m for HCC.
The emission factors for the various cracking processes
were weighted for cracking population by the capacities given
in the Oil and Gas Journal's Worldwide Directory; Refining and Gas
71/ >
Processing 1977-78. ' The breakdown in cubic meters (barrels;
percent of total capacity) of fresh feed plus recycle per
stream day is 816,000 (5,133,425; 94.2 percent) for fluid
(FCC), 46,600 (292,900; 5.4 percent) for Thermofor (TCC), and
3,420 (21,500 0.4 percent) for Houdriflow (HCC) catalytic
cracking units. The BaP emission factor was 370 ug/m for
units without control and 39 ug/m for units with carbon
monoxide waste heat boilers.
Estimates of to-cal annual benzo(a)pyrene emissions for
petroleum catalyric cracking are shown in Table III-2 (P. 35).
All estimates of controlled or uncontrolled BaP emissions are
significantly less than one metric ton per year.
62
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6. Future Trends
The U.S. demand for petroleum continues to increase each
year. A 14 percent rise in crude oil input to domestic refineries
was reported from 1976 to 1977. ' ' Imports of refined products
are expected to continue to decrease because of government
policy, although crude imports may rise. U.S. refining operations
will likely increase as a result. There is no consensus on the
future of oil refining. Exxon U.S.A., for example, projects a
growth rate of five percent annually through 1980; Shell Oil Co.
expects only a four percent growth rate. '
Conversion of many fuel burners to coal will likely have
some impact on refining output. Gasoline demand, however,
continues to rise at over three percent annually. Reduction of
the lead content of gasoline to meet environmental goals will
continue to increase demand for catalytic cracking operations.
Catalytic cracking can serve to replace tetraethyl lead as an
octane enricher. The Oil and Gas Journal reports than cracking-
operations have shown large gains in recent years:
Capacity* % Gain % Recycle**
January 1974 734 (4,618.6) +2.4 13.7
January 1975 744 (4,677.4) +1.3 16.6
January 1976 754 (4,744.9) +1.4 16.4
January 1977 784 (4,929.8) +4.0 14.6
*
In 1,000 cubic meters oer stream dav (1,000 barrels per stream
day) .
**
As percent of gross (fresh feed plus recycle).
S3
-------
Potential POM emissions from catalytic cracking and
regeneration are expected to rise at over three percent per
year. The duration of this rise is unknown. The American
124/
Petroleum Institute stated that catalytic cracking
capacity in 1985 cannot be projected. If capacity increased
by an order of magnitude, which is extremely unlikely, even
uncontrolled emissions would still be less than one metric
ton of BaP per year.
H. Coke Production
1. Process
Coke production is an integral part of steel-making.
Coke provides heat and carbon for the smelting and reducing
of iron ore in blast furnaces.
Coke is manufactured from coal by the by-product method
in enclosed slot-type ovens. The method is termed by-
product because the by-products, such as coke oven gas and
benzene, are recovered. The processes involved in coke
production and use are the charging of coke ovens, coking,
pushing and quenching, combustion, and tar handling.
1297
2. Emission Sources '
Coke oven operations are major sources of POM emissions.
Although they are usually contained, exhaust gases have a
high POM content. Gas leakage during charging, pushing, or
coking is the primary source of particulate POM emissions
from coke production. EPA has grouped the emissions from
by-product coke ovens into seven categories based upon their
source in the coking processes. These sources and EPA's
129/
description of them ' are listed below:
64
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Charging—Periodically, coal is charged
into an empty oven. A charge usually
lasts about three to five minutes and
occurs every 10 to 20 minutes. The
emissions are fugitive and result from
volatilization of the coal as it enters
the red-hot oven. They usually emit
through the oven charging ports or some-
times out of the charge car hoppers.
Topside Leaks—Emissions from these
leaks occur primarily during the
early part, of the coking cycle, but
since the cycle is staggered through-
out the ovens in a battery, the emis-
sions are essentially continuous. The
emissions are fugitive and emit from
any of several hundred potential lo-
cations on top of a battery.
Door Leaks—Emissions fron these leaks
are similar to those from topside leaks.
They are fugitive and emit from doors
on both ends of each oven.
Pushing—At the end of the coking cycle,
the red-hot coke is pushed out the. end
of an oven into a railcar. A push lasts
about 30 to 60 seconds and occurs every
10 to 20 minutas. The emissions are
fugitive and are carried up in a strong
thermal updraft created by the hot coke.
65
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o Quenching—The hot coke is quenched with
water under a large open tower. A quench
lasts about two to five minutes and occurs
every 10 to 20 minutes. Even though the
emissions emanate from the top of a tower,
the tower cross section is so large and gas
velocities so low that it is similar to a
fugitive source.
o Battery Stacks—A battery stack is a tall
stack to provide natural draft for com-
bustion of gas that heats the battery.
Emissions get into the stack by leakage
through oven walls into the battery heat-
ing flues.
o By-Product Plant—The by-product plant is
a chemical plant where various by-products
are recovered from the material volatilized
from the coal. It is not known what the
major emission sources in the by-product
plant are, but it is suspected that most,
if not all, are fugitive.
3. Emission Controls
Slot-type coke ovens are normally equipped with a chemical
recovery system; so that polynuclear hydrocarbon emissions result
mainly from gas leakage. For new ovens, door and topside leakage
can be reduced by improved design and construction. Pipeline
t
charging, contained pushing, and a continuous, contained, and
controlled quench can be used. For existing ovens, maintenance
of ovens or capture and control of emissions can be used to
reduce emissions from leaks, pushing, and quenching. Larry car
66
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and coke oven modifications can be used to effect stage charging.
The following discussion of coke oven control techniques is taken
almost entirely from the same SPA memo which described the enis-
sion sources." '
There are four categories of control techniques applied to
coke ovens. They are: (1) containment of emissions in the
process; (2) capture techniques (hoods, etc.); (3) process
changes; and (4) control devices. These techniques are. discussed
in general here. Table III-4 shows which techniques are present-
ly considered by EPA as the better options for each source. Some
control techniques, particularly stage charging, are being re-
quired by OSEA and SPA primarily in order to control POM. Other
pollutants, especially the particles onto which POM may be ad-
sorbed, are incidentally controlled by the same techniques.
Containment techniques are chose that prevent the escape of
emissions fron the coke ovens. They are not 100 percent ef-
fective, and those emissions that escape are fugitive. Because
of the extreme difficulty of mass measurements of these fugitive
emissions, only visible emission measurements have been used to
characterize the performance of containment techniques. Conse-
quently, it is not passible to determine quantitative emission
reductions.
However, it can be argued that a -eduction in visible emis-
sions will reduce emissions of all pollutants, including POM.
The containment techniques are designed to prevent any matter,
including gases, from escaping the coke, oven. For example, a
principle of stage charging is to maintain a slight negative
pressure just inside the charging ports so that any flew is into
the oven. For oven leaks, the principle is to seal openings
through which emissions escape, thereby preventing the escape of
67
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TABLE III-4
SOURCE—CONTROL TECHNIQUE COMBINATIONS
129/
00
Source
Charging (wet coal)
Charging (dry coal)
Category
Containment
Containment
Charging (dry coal preheater) Control Device
Topside Leaks Containment
Door teaks
Pushing
Quenching
Containment and/
or Capture and
Control Devices
Capture and
Control Devices
Process Changes
Control Technique
Stage Charging—aspiration in the standpipes draws emissions
into the battery main which is ducted to the by-products plant.
Similar to stage charging, though emissions may be aspirated in-
to a separate main for recovery and recycle of coal fines.
Venturi scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators have been used.
Application of sealing compound to leaks.
Use and maintenance of doors designed to close tightly.
Individual hoods over each door. No clear picture of the types of
control devices that will be used has emerged, but scrubbers and
wet electrostatic precipitators are candidates.
An enclosure of the coke guide and hot coke car or a shed over the
coke side of the battery. A large variety of designs are in use
or planned. Control devices are venturi scrubbers or wet
electrostatic precipitators.
Baffles (or similar techniques) in the quench tower and clean water
for quenching or dry coke quenching. Dry coke quenching involves
several emission sources that will require hooding and control
devices.
Dattery Stacks
Containment
and/or Control
Devices
Patching of cracks in oven walls.
Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and a pilot baghouse have
been used.
By-product Plant
Probably Contain-
ment
Little is known of applicable control techniques, but preventing
leaks, enclosing tanks, etc. will probably be significant factors.
-------
any matter. In conclusion, any containment technique that ef-
fects a substantial reduction in visible emissions (like those
listed in Table III-4) will effect a substantial reduction in POM
emissions, even though that reduction cannot be quantitied.
Capture techniques include hoods, enclosures of the emission
source, and sheds over the coke side of the battery. All of
these techniques entail a capture efficiency less than 100 per-
cent and use of a control device to collect the captured emis-
sions (the control devices will be discussed later). As with the
containment techniques, measurement of the fugitive emissions
that escape capture is very difficult. However, a few attempts
have been made for systems that capture pushing emissions. The
estimates obtained range from 50 to 90 percent capture. The
better capture systems would be expected to achieve a capture
efficiency near the top of this range. No similar attempts
have been made for capture systems on other sources. As with the
containment techniques, the argument that a substantial reduction
in visible emissions corresponds to a substantial reduction of
all pollutants is valid. There is no reason to believe that POM,
or any other pollutant, will escape capture more readily than
visible particles. However, capture of POM is of little value
unless a control device that efficiently collects it is used.
The gas temperatures for capture techniques can vary widely.
They are usually high enough that the POM will be largely gase-
ous. (The sources most likely to have temperatures below the
condensation or adsorption point for most POM's are leaks and
some pushing operations.)
Process changes as a control option apply only to quenching.
3oth wet and dry processes are alternatives to quench coke. Dry
quenching is expecred to achieve lower emissions. Data are not
available at this time to estimate the emission levels. Drv
69
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quenching will require capture systems and control devices for
several emission points. Again, no information is available to
estimate the performance of such systems or even the gas flow
rates, etc., required. Control of emissions from wet quench
towers will rely on such factors as baffle designs and the use of
clean water. Baffle design would not be expected to influence
gaseous emissions. The effect of water quality is uncertain as
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons were lower, but total cyclic
organics higher, with clean, rather than contaminated, quench
water.90'130/
4. Location and Capacity
A study, Human Population Exposures to Coke Oven Atmospher-
1 1 Q /
ic Emissions, ' was recently prepared for EPA by Benjamin E.
Suta of the Stanford Research Institute. Current data on lo-
cation and capacity of coke oven plants are available in this
forthcoming report. A typical coke oven battery has about 58
ovens (range from 20 to 80), produces about 1,400 tons of coke
1297
per day, and operates 24 hours per day and 365 days per year. '
5. Emissions Estimates
Updated POM emission factors for coke ovens were estimated
by both EEA and EPA. The emission factors developed by EPA in a
recent source assessment of hazardous organic emissions from coke
ovens ' are given in Table III-l (P.26). The EEA estimates,
which were developed for some coke oven sources, are noted in the
footnotes to Table III-l. For a particular source, both the EEA
and EPA estimates were developed from the same limited data base
and, therefore, only differed with the assumptions made or data
considered. Although all measurements of POM emissions from coke
ovens are questionable, EPA estimated that uncontrolled BaP
70
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emissions from coke ovens were at least equal to the estimated
emissions from door leaks, 1.5 g/Mg (0.003 Ib/ton) of coal
charged.
No emissions data are available for dry coal charging/
topside leaks, or by-product plants. The composition of
oven emissions from dry coal charging are probably similar
to those from wet coal charging. Data are not available on
the POM emissions from the coal preheater stack or by-
product plant. EPA suggested chat the emissions from topside
leaks may be significantly less than, and are no greater
than, the emissions from door leaks. '
Total annual coke production was estimated at 5.12 x
1010 kg in 1975.118/ It was assumed that 1.45 Mg Of coal is
required to produce 1.0 Mg of coke. Therefore, total annual
BaP emissions were estimated to be about 110 metric tons per
year.
6. Future Trends
Coke production has been projeered to continue its
recent increase at a rate of 4.2 percent annually. An
estimated 64 million metric tons could be produced by 1985
9 6/
considering expected, increases in capacity. An early
controlled Larry car design (the AISI/EPA design) rsducad
particulate emissions by 84 percent'' and leakage from some
doors can be reduced relatively easily and effectively.
Therefore, assuming a best estimate controlled emission
facror of 230 tag 3aP/Mg of coal charged, and 1.45 Mg of coal
per Mg of coke, the 1985 3aP emissions are projected to be
21 Me/year. The efficiency of coke oven emission controls
may vary from 50 to 90 percent. It was assumed that a POM
control efficiency of 35 percent will be achieved by 1985.
71
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I. Asphalt Production
1. Process
Within the asphalt industry, there are two major segments:
hot-mix asphalt plants and roofing manufacture. Hot-mix
asphalt is a heated mixture of crushed stone aggregate,
sand, and asphalt used primarily for paving roads. The
preparation process consists of mixing aggregate (at 120 to
180°C (250 to 350°F)) with raw asphalt (at 135 to 160°C (275
to 325 F)). Hot asphalt paving mixes are used to line dams,
reservoirs, and other impoundment structures, as well as to
surface roads and airfields.
Asphalt roofing products are prepared by impregnating
heavy paper felt with hot asphalt saturant and then coating
the felt with a harder grade of asphalt. Preparation of the
asphalt saturant consists of oxidizing the asphalt by bubbling
air through liquid asphalt (at 220 to 260°C (430 to 500°F)).
This dehydrogenation process is termed air-blowing and
reduces the volatile content of the asphalt and raises its
melting point. Asphalt-saturated felt may be used in rolls,
thus requiring no further preparation, or coated with bituminous
material, mica schist, or rock granules and cut into shingles.
2. Emission Sources '
Major sources of hydrocarbon emissions from hot-mix
plants include the rotary aggregate dryer/heater, fuel
burners, and the truck which transports the plant. The
dryer is used to remove moisture from sand and crushed
stone. Dryers are commonly fueled with No. 2 fuel oil, so
combustion-associated pollutants (e.g., SO and NO ) are
X X
generated.
The hot gases from the dryer contain particles and
moisture from the aggregate. These gases are generated in
72
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large quantities and the particles tend to adsorb hydrocarbons
from asphalt volatiles. Nearly all the POM emissions from hot-
mix plants tested have been attributed to combustion gases and
not to volatiles from the mixing chamber. '
Air-blowing stills and saturator units are the major sources
34/
of emissions from asphalt roofing manufacture. The air-
blowing operation involves heating asphalt to 220 to 260°C (430
to 500°?) using gas or oil burners. Air is then bubbled through
the hot asphalt for several hours.
Gaseous emissions from the air-blowing operation include
large quantities of alkyl polynuclear hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide. Aldehydes and hydrogen sulfide also are present.
The asphalt saturator consists of long troughs in which
rolls of felt are impregnated with hot asphalt by spraying, dip-
ping, or a combination of the two. The saturator operates at 200
to 230°C (400 to 450°?). Emissions of gaseous and particulate
organic compounds vary according to the thickness of the felt
used and the product type.
Emissions from the saturator consist of combustion-generated
pollutants from heating units, water vapor, condensed asphalt
(hydrocarbon) droplets, and gaseous organic vapors. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons are present in both gaseous and particulate
form.
3. Emission Controls34'50/
Exhaust gases from both the mixar and the rotary dryer of
hot-mix plants normally are passed through a cyclone and a water
spray tower. This combination is an efficient method of ?OM
removal for these small plants.
73
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Existing controls on asphalt air-blowing stills consist al-
most entirely of fume incineration in a process heater or after-
burner. Heat generated in such an afterburner can be used to
preheat asphalt for the blowing or saturation operations.
Another possible method of emission control is a steam spray-
baffle arrangement. This tends to be less efficient due to the
cohesive characteristics of the particulate emissions.
Control of emissions from saturation units is more difficult
due to the large volumes of exhaust gas. Normally, the entire
saturator is enclosed by a hood which vents gases to a control
device or directly to the atmosphere. The control methods
available for use are low-voltage electrostatic precipitator
(ESP), ESP plus flue gas scrubber combination, gas scrubber
alone, afterburner, and high energy air filter (HEAP).
Low-voltage ESP's collect about 90 percent of particulate
emissions. However, maintenance of ESP's is difficult because
of the cohesive tar-like characteristics of the particles. The
efficiency of low-energy scrubbers is too low for saturator use,
while the more efficient venturi scrubbers are prohibitively
expensive in most cases.
4. Location and Capacity
Hot-mix asphalt is produced by either a batch or a continu-
ous process. Most plants are small with an average production
rate of 91 to 182 metric tons per hour. In 1973, there were
4,500 asphalt hot-mix plants operating in the United States. '
Since paving asphalt must be delivered hot to the job site, many
plants are designed to be moved from site to site. Exact data
on locations and capacity of hot-mix plants were not available
for this study. Total U.S. sales of asphalt products for paving
use are shown in Table III-5.
74
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TABLE III-5
SALES OF PETROLEUM ASPHALT FOR CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES
(Metric Tons)104/
United S La tea, Total
Hy Principal Use:
Paving 1'roductu
Uoorimj Products
Other
1972
28,232,431
22,049,570
4,050,590
1,332,272
1973
31 ,146,402
24,530,775
5,150,392
1,465,235
1974
28,154,502
22,354,634
4,367,959
1,431,909
1975
24,943,106
19,580,713
4,357,357
997,116
1976
27,242,906
19,481,656
4,347,217
937,403
Ul
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Appendix C presents a listing of asphalt roofing manufac-
turing plants by state in 1973. This listing is comprised pri-
marily of plants with 20 or more employees. The total number of
plants listed is 202. Total asphalt sales for roofing products
manufacture for 1972-1976 is shown in Table III-5.
Information for Table III-5 was obtained from the Bureau of
EP1
34/
Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys. ' Appendix C is from the EPA
report Atmospheric Emissions From Asphalt Roofing Processes.
The information was obtained from: 1) The Asphalt Roofing Manu-
facturer's Association; 2) the Report on SIC 2952 (April 22,
1974) by the Economic Information Systems, Inc.; and 3) the U.S.
EPA National Emission Data Survey for 1972.
5. Emission Estimates
Emission estimates for particulate polycyclic organic
matter from asphalt roofing plants were obtained from the 1974
34/
EPA report Atmospheric Emissions From Roofing Processes. '
This report contains the results of analyses of particulate
samples obtained by EPA Stack Sampling Method 5. Chemical
analyses were performed with gas chromatographic detection.
Emissions were sampled at two saturating and two air-blowing
operations. Samples were collected before and after the exhaust
gases passed through the control device.
Estimates of POM emissions from asphalt hot-mix plants were
obtained from a study (AP-33) by the U.S. Public Health Service. '
In this study, only one plant was tested. Samples taken before
and after emission control devices were separated by benzene
extraction and column chromatography and the analysis made by
ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry.
76
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The emissions data were manipulated by SEA to give emission
factors for particulate POM mass emitted per metric ton of as-
phalt product. No data are available for gaseous polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon emissions.
Table III-l (P. 27} shows estimated emission factors for
the manufacture of various asphalt products. The uncontrolled
BaP intermediate estimate emission factors, based on/ at most,
34 39/
two tests each, ' ' are 400 ug/Mg for shingle saturators, 300
ug/ Mg for roll saturators, and 2 mg/Mg for air-blowing. The
SEA best estimates of controlled BaP emission factors for the
most effective means of control are less than 80 ug/Mg for
shingle saturators with an afterburner, 500 ug/Mg for roll
saturators with an HEAP, 500 ug/Mg for air-blowing with a process
heater furnace, and less than 60 ug/Mg for hot road mix with a
cyclone and a spray cower. Total benzo(a)pyrene emissions from
asphalt paving and roofing manufacture in 1976 were obtained
from these emission facrors and the asphalt sales figures shown
in Table III-5. Total BaP emission estimates for the asphalt
industry, as shown in Table III-2 (P.36), are much less than one
metric ton per year.
5. Future Trends
Sales of asphalt for u.S. consumption display an erratic
growth rate. Until 1972, the industry grew an average of three
percent annually. After 1973, asphalt sales dropped following
general construction trends. Recovery is not yet in evidence
for this segment of the building industry.
ZZA estimated an increase of three percent per year in as-
phalt roofing production. Because of a decrease in highway
construction, ' but cne continuing need for road repair, hot
road mix production was assumed to remain constant at approxi-
mately 20 million metric tons per year. Total BaP emissions for
77
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the industry are, therefore, expected to remain well below one
metric ton per year.
J. Iron and Steel Sintering
1. Process
Pulverized ore must be agglomerated to produce a suitable
feed for blast furnaces. Sintering is the most common agglomer-
ating method. To accomplish the sintering, a mixture of fine
ore and powders of carbon sources, such as anthracite and coke
breeze, are placed on a travelling grate. The grate moves over
a series of windboxes where the mixture is ignited with a burner,
As air is pulled down through the ore with fans, the ore mixture
burns, agglomerating the ore particles.
2. Emission Sources
Unfaurned hydrocarbons may be generated from the burning of
the coke and from the burning of oily scrap. Coke and scrap
particles with adsorbed polynuclear hydrocarbons can escape at
numerous points in the sintering process.
3. Emission Controls
The dust generated by sintering can be controlled with an
electrostatic precipitator, baghouse, or flue gas scrubber. In
1976, approximately 66 percent of sintering plants had no emis-
sion controls.
4. Location and Capacity
Sintering plants are usually operated in conjunction with
large blast furnaces in order to produce pig iron for steel-mak-
ing. Many sintering plants are located in Ohio, Pennsylvania,
and Indiana. In addition, large sintering plants are found in
78
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Weirton, West Virginia; Sparrows Point, Maryland; and Fairfield,
Alabama. The locations and capacities of sintering facilities
in the U.S. are listed in Appendix D.
5. Emission Estimates
The sintering process is a source of significant air
emissions. Uncontrolled particulate emissions are estimated
to be about 11 kilograms per metric ton of sinter produced. '
POM's are emitted adsorbed on these particles and in gaseous
fora. Much of the POM will be vapors at sintering temperatures,
bur current sampling techniques do not necessarily collect
mo-st of the vaporous POM.
SZA's best estimate emission factor of 17 rag 3aP/Mg with
a range of 600 ug/Mg to 1.1 g/Mg of sinter feed was based on
emissions test data from the Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources. ' Production from sinter strands
was determined from American Iron and Steel Institute figures
for 1977.~' The EZA best estimate of annual benzo(a)pyrene
emissions was 0.63 Mg/year (range 0.022 to 41 Mg/year).
5. Future Trends
Sinter strand production is expected to increase in the
future due to increased steel demand. Based on a historic
growth rate, sinter production should increase free 31 million
metric tons per year in 1975 to 36 million metric tons per
96/
year by 1985. ' Since 1977 production was reported as 37
million metric tons, ' it is presumed that ail the planned
sintering capacity is in operation and that production will
remain constant through 1935. Therefore, annual 3a? emissions
are expected to continue to be less than one metric ton per
year.
79
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K. Carbon Black Production
1. Process
Carbon black is manufactured from incomplete combustion of
natural gas. Plants utilize the furnace, channel, or thermal
process to manufacture it. Regardless of the method used, the
three basic steps in producing carbon black are:
• production of the carbon black from feed
stock;
• separation of the carbon black from the
gas stream; and
• final conversion of the carbon black
to a marketable product.
Carbon black is produced in both the channel and furnace
processes by burning the feed stock, while in the thermal process,
the feed stock is decomposed into carbon black and hydrogen.
2. Emission Sources
Emissions in carbon black manufacturing result from the
combustion of the natural gas in both the furnace and channel
processes and from the gaseous releases in the thermal process.
Additional emissions are possible from conveying, grinding,
screening, drying, and packaging operations at the plant.
3. Emission Controls
Wet scrubbers, cyclone separators, and baghouses are most
commonly used at the carbon black plants to control emissions.
80
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Baghouses are most efficient and appear to be replacing all
other methods of control because of increased product recovery.
4. Location and Capacity
The location and capacity of Q.S. carbon black plants were
identified in the 1977 Directory of Chemical Producers, U.S.A.
This information is listed in Appendix E. Total U.S. annual
production capacity, excluding one plant for which the capacity
9
was not available, was 1.34 x 10 l
-------
production of smaller cars (with smaller tires), and the
growing popularity of radials. ' On this basis, EEA estimates
carbon black production to be 1.5 million metric tons in 1985.
Therefore, BaP emissions are expected to remain significantly
below the one metric ton level through 1985.
L. Aluminum Reduction
1. Process
Aluminum metal is produced by electrolytically reducing
purified alumina (aluminum oxide). Thermal reduction with
coke, which is used in iron ore processing, cannot be employed
due to the high melting point of aluminum oxide.
In a process developed by Hall and Heroult in 1886, the
alumina is dissolved in a bath of molten flouride in a large
steel pot. Within the reduction plant, pots that are electrical-
ly connected in series and located in "pot rooms," constitute
a "pot line."
The passage of a direct current through the molten material
causes the heavier aluminum to sink through the aluminum oxide
to the bottom of the pot and to the cathode. At the anode,
oxygen is liberated and carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are
fomed. Carbon electrodes are used at both the anode and
cathode, although the aluminum metal in the cell is the true
cathode. The aluminum is tapped at certain intervals and cast
into pigs or taken to holding furnaces for further treatment.
2. Emission Sources
The sources of POM emissions from aluminum reduction
plants depend on the process used. The reduction processes
82
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currently used are classified by the type of anode pot used,
i.e., pre-baked, horizontal pin Soderberg, or vertical pin
Soderberg. Pre-baked anodes are made by curing the carbon in
soft pinch and coke at relatively high temperature (<1,100°C),
thus volatilizing and generating POM's. Since most of the
POM's are generated during the pre-baking of the anodes,
relatively little POM is generated during the reduction process
when the anodes, which contain a rod of metallic conductor,
are lowered into the pot as they are consumed.
Soderberg anodes are continuously lowered and baked by
conductive heat from the molten bath rather- than being pre-
molded and baked. A coke and coal tar pitch paste is packed
into a metal shell over the bath. As the baked anode at the
bottom of the shell is consumed, more paste is added at the
top of the shell. The description, horizontal or vertical
pin, refers to the positioning of the steel "pins" which are
imbedded in the Soderberg anode to conduct electrical current.
The type of pin design may affect the location of emission
sources around a pot. Since the carbon paste is not baked
before being placed in the pot, the PCM emissions from a
Soderberg pot room are much higher than from a pre-baked pot
room.
3. "mission Controls
Emissions from, aluminum reduction facilities are collected
and controlled by a variety of methods. Hoods may be utilized
to collect emissions from specific points in a pot room. The
ventilation system for the pot room is generally the only
means of collecting emissions. The types of air pollution
control equipment, which are used either singly or, nore
often, i_n combination, include settling chambers, cyclones,
wet and dry scrubbers, wet ar.d dry electrostatic precipitators,
baghouses, and incineration. The effectiveness of these
83
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devices for POM would depend upon their design and operating
parameters and the gas stream conditions which determine the
form of the POM.
4. Location and Capacity
Aluminum reduction plants are located throughout the
country, but few plants are located in the west. Many of the
plants are located near port facilities, primarily on the Gulf
of Mexico or the Great Lakes. Capacities range from productions
of about 50,000 to 1,250,000 netric tons per year, while most
plants have capacities in the area of 100,000 netric tons per
year.
5. Emission Estimates
Estimates of POM emissions from aluminum reduction plants
could not be made at this time. The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has conducted an environ-
847
mental survey of aluminum reduction plants. The results of
this study are not suitable for emission factor development as
they are reported as time-weighted averages of BSO concentrations
in the plant ambient air as collected by personal samplers.
EPA has conducted some stack sampling of aluminum smelting and
refining operations; however, samples have not been analyzed
for POM.
6. Future Trends
Since emission factors cannot be developed at present,
future emissions of POM from aluminum reduction canno-c be
estimated. Primary production capacity in the U.S. is projected
to increase slowly from 4.7 billion kilograms in 1976 ' to
4.8 billion kilograms by December 31, 1978. Production is
expected to approach capacity at that time as the 1976 produc-
tion was estimated as approximately 4.1 billion kilograms and
an annual growth rate in demand of approximately six percent
is estimated through 1935.105/
84
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Significant increases in aluminum demand in the transportation,
construction, and packaging and distribution sectors ars, in
part, responsible for this annual growth rate.
M. Municipal Incinerators
1. Process Description
In municipal incinerators, refuse is combusted on a moving
belt, in drum-type rolling combustion chambers, or on a rocking,
reciprocating, or travelling grate. Refuse is fad to the incin-
erator continuously or in batches. Normally, 150 to 200 percent
excess air is supplied in order to prevent erosion of refractory
materials in high temperatures. Thus, a large amount of com-
bustible exhaust gas is produced and may be burned in a secondary
chamber. Gaseous emissions are discharged through chimney
stacks. The resultant ash in the chambers, both the residue and
all material remaining unbumed, is landfilled.
2. Emission Sources
Emissions oi polycyclic organic matter result from incom-
plete combustion of organic refuse. Senzo(a)pyrene and benzo(e)
pyrene were detected, in the flue gases from every incinerator
39/
tested by the U.S. Public Health Service. Large municipal
units, operating at constant high temperatures with long gas
retention times, tend to emit less POM per mass of refuse burned
than smaller units. Emissions depend on the composition of
refuse burned and so tend to vary with time and location. Many
municipal incinerators burn unsorted industrial wastes. Such
wastes may include petroleum-based materials which generate large
quantities cf PGti's upon combustion.
35
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3. Emission Controls
A water-spray scrubber has been used to effectively control
39/
particulate POM emissions in flue gas. Baghouse filters and
electrostatic precipitators also are feasible control mechanisms.
In order to comply with air quality regulations, most municipal
incinerators (83 percent) use one of these forms of emission
control.
4. Location and Capacity
A survey conducted in December 1974 by the ASME Research
Committee on Industrial and Municipal Wastes revealed a total of
161 operating municipal incinerators. ' These plants had an
average capacity of 371 metric tons (409 tons) per day (range
11 - 1500 Mg/d) and had been used an average of slightly over 15
years. The listing of plants, locations, and their design
capacities as updated by EEA to omit plants no longer in service
is shown in Appendix F. There are 104 plants remaining in
service, excluding any new plants, with an average capacity of
385 metric tons (424 tons) per day (range: 44-1500 Mg/d).
Almost 80 percent of the plants lie in the middle and eastern
portions of the country.
5. Emission Estimates
POM emission estimates for various types of municipal
incinerators were obtained from the U.S. Public Health Service
39/
report, Sources of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere, '
a 1976 paper, ' and a report done in 1970 by Arthur D. Little,
95 /
Inc. ' Emission factors were derived by EEA for incinerators
of various sizes. These are shown in Table III-l (P. 28).
Uncontrolled BaP emission for the two tests of multiple chamber
39/
incinerators that were available ' were 13 ug/kg of refuse
charged for a 45 metric ton (50-ton) per day batch unit and 170
ng/kg for a 230 metric ton (250-ton) per day continuous unit.
Controlled BaP emission factors were developed from results of
86
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one test each for a 45 metric ton (50-ton) per day batch unit
397
with a water-spray scrubber ' and for a 30 metric ton day
continuous unit with water-spray tower and SSP. ' The emission
factors are 200 ng/kg and 32 ng/kg of refuse charged, respec-
tively. Current emissions of BaP from municipal incinerators
are estimated to be less than, one metric ton per year even if
all the incinerators open in 1974 were operating at full capacity
without air pollution control equipment.
6. Future Trends
It is expected that new municipal incinerators will con-
tinue to have larger capacities than in the past. Since many of
the older, smaller plants are being taken out of operation, no
change is expected in the total capacity. Increasingly stringent
air pollution regulations may require more efficient air pollution
control or shutdown of many plants. Therefore/ it is expected
that BaP emissions will continue to be less than one metric ton
per year.
N. Commercial Incinerators
1. Process
Commercial incinerators range in capacity from 20 to 2,000
kilograms (50 to 4,000 pounds) of refuse charged per hour with
an average capacity of 103 kg/hour (228 Ibs/hour). Incinerators
are widely used to reduce the volume of industrial, medical,
commercial, high-rise buildings, and school wastes. Eighty-
three percent of existing units are multiple-chamber devices and
92 percent: use auxiliary fuel. 3'
Intermediate-size fuel incinerators are characterized by
inefficient combustion and, thus, are potential emission sources
for POM's.
87
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2. Emission Sources
Approximately eight million metric tons of solid waste are
burned in commercial incinerators during a year. ' The amount of
POM emissions generated depends upon the type of wastes burned and
the efficiency of the incinerator. Waste with a high content of
moisture or petroleum-based material will tend to emit more aromatic
hydrocarbons. Efficiency of combustion depends on both size and
excess air supply. Those units which use auxiliary fuel tend to
emit less POM due to their ability to maintain a higher temperature.
3. Emission Controls
Of the 88 percent of commercial-size incinerators that have
pollution abatement equipment, 90 percent have afterburners, five
percent have scrubbers, five percent have both an afterburner and a
scrubber, and one unit was reported to have an electrostatic pre-
cipitator.16/
4. Location and Capacity
There were slightly more than 100,000 intermediate-size in-
cinerators in the U.S. in 1972 according to a study by EPA's Office
of Solid Waste Management Programs. ' The distribution of these
facilities by location and capacity as estimated from a sample of
5,320 units is shown in Table III-6. The average capacity for a
larger sample of 7,288 was determined to be 103 kg/hour (228 Ib/hour)
Each unit operates an average of three hours per day for 260 opera-
ting days/year.
5. Emission Estimates
Estimates of POM emission factors for intermediate-size incin-
erators were obtained from the U.S. Public Health Service report,
88
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TABLE I1I-6
ESTIMATED NUMBSS OF INTERMEDIATE -SIZE INCINERATORS
IN THE UNITED STATES (1972)
SPA Region
Estimated Number
of Quits
Average Unit Size
C
-------
39/
Sources of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons in the Atmoshpere. ' Effluent
samples were taken from a 4.8 metric ton per day (5.3 ton/day) unit
and a 2.7 metric ton per day (3.0 ton/day) unit equipped with an
auxiliary gas burner.
POM emission factors for the two uncontrolled incinerators
tested are given in Table III-l (P. 28). The uncontrolled BaP
emission factors for the single tests on the two units are 120 mg/kg
of refuse charged for the 4.8 iMg/d unit and 570 ug/kg of refuse
charged for the 2.7 Mg/d unit. Total annual BaP emissions from
commercial incinerators developed from these factors are given in
Table III-2 (P. 36)- EEA's best estimate of BaP emissions is 2.1
Mg/year, using the 1972 capacity data.
6. Future Trends
The installed capacity of intermediate-size incinerators
appeared to be leveling off in 1972. The size of units being
installed was still increasing. However, the number of units sold
per year reached a maxmium in 1969. Since construction has not
generally been increasing and the larger units should have more
complete combustion, it was assumed that both capacity and BaP
emissions would not change through 1985.
0. Bagasse Boilers
1. Process Description
Bagasse (the plant residue remaining after extraction of a
product) is used to fuel steam boilers at many sugar cane and
pineapple processing plants. Travelling grate spreader stoker
boilers are commonly used.
90
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The bulk of the burned material consists of dead and graen
leaves. Pineapple trash consists of the stumps and leaves that
remain after harvest.
2. Emission Sources
Due to the high moisture content of plant material and the
inefficient burning common to small boilers, large quantities of
POM can be emitted from bagasse boilers.
3. Emission Controls
Cyclones are used for flue gas emissions control at the
three boilers tested for EPA by MRI. The particulate collection
efficiency of the cyclones tested was measured as 85 to 90
4/
percent. "'
4. Location and Capacity
Almost, all bagasse boilers are located at sugar and pineapple
processing plants in Hawaii.
5. Emission Estimates
Emission estimates were derived from data in the EPA report,
Stationary Source Testing of Bagasse-Fired Boilers at the Hawaiian
-/
Commercial and Sugar Company. Fuel consumption was calculated
by assuming a heat content for bagasse of 2.2 million calories
per kilogram (4,000 Btu/lb) . Estimated emission factors for POM
are shown in Table III-l (P. 29). The 3aP emissions were below
detectable limits for the three stack samples taken. Mon-
detectable 3aP levels were assumed to be the minimum detectable
level of 1.0 ug in the ?0fl detected in each test. The geometric
average of the 3aP emission factors thus calculated fcr the
tests were then taken to prcduce an estimated 3aP emission
factor of 2.7 ug/kg. Bagasse boilers do not contribute substan-
tially to 3a? emission to the atmosphere as emissions are less
than 0.0061 Me/year.
91
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6. Future Trends
If fossil fuel prices rise as expected, use of the bagasse-
fired boiler will probably increase slightly. Production of
sugar in Hawaii declined somewhat in 1974 and 1975. However,
since 1950, production has remained between 770 thousand and one
million metric tons (845 and 1,145 thousand tons) per year (high
in 1950, low in 1960). ' Therefore, only slight increases, if
any, are expected in bagasse boiler usage. BaP emissions are
expected to remain on the order of kilograms per year.
P. Open Burning
1. Process
N.
Open burning refers simply to the combustion of organic
materials. In the U.S., the following are, or have been, inten-
tionally burned in the open: municipal refuse, auto scrap,
grass, leaves, agricultural waste, and forest areas. In addi-
tion, there are two other open burning sources, burning coal
refuse banks and forest fires. Both are generally unplanned and
uncontrolled. Coal refuse banks can ignite spontaneously, while
forest fires are caused in a number of ways. Potential aromatic
hydrocarbon emissions will be discussed separately for each
material type.
2. Municipal Refuse
a. Emission Sources
Municipal refuse was once commonly burned at municipal
dumps in order to reduce the volume of waste. Municipal wastes
contain varying quantities of organic materials and moisture
depending on origin. Combustion of refuse piles tends to be in-
complete due to high moisture content and because wastes are not
92
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evenly exposed to hear or oxygen. Organic materials in refuse
piles will emit polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons when ineffi-
ciently burned.
b. Emission Controls
Control of atmospheric emissions from a burning refuse pile
is not feasible. The only emission control possible is to ex-
tinguish the fires and replace open burning with some other
waste disposal method. Most state and local governments in the
U.S. have promulgated restrictions on open burning of refuse.
c. Location and Capacity
Open burning of municipal refuse is no longer common due to
air quality regulations. Open burning that does occur tends to
be the result of spontaneous combustion of refuse piles. No
figures of tonnage burned were available for this study.
d. Emission Estimates
39/
Hangebrauck, et al. ' cites a benzo(a)pyrene emission fac-
tor of about 340 ug/kg of municipal waste. The study utilized a
"burning table" test of burning- refuse samples and on-site
sampling at refuse dumps. Additional data from NAPCA and SPA
39 109/
reports ' ' were used to derive SZA's other emission factors,
as shown in Table III-l (?. 29). The intermediate estimate 3aP
emission factor for the open burning of municipal refuse was 170
ug/kg of refuse.
Emissions of polycyclic organic matter from open burning of
municipal refuse are high. Estimates of total annual POM emis-
sions from this source were not made in this report due to the
93
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lack of adequate data on tonnage burned. The latest national
survey of open burning was done in 1968. It is felt that this
survey does not adequately reflect the present situation, es-
pecially because of air quality legislation promulgated in the
1970's.
e. Future Trends
Open burning of municipal refuse is expected to continue to
decrease due to increasingly stringent air quality regulations.
3. Burning of Leaves and Grass Clippings
a. Emission Sources
Grass clippings and fallen leaves are burned throughout the
United States in curbside fires and in large controlled fires by
leaf collection agencies. High moisture content and unconsoli-
dated fuel piles lead to incomplete combustion of the organic
matter. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are emitted from such
fires, both adsorbed on particles and in gaseous form.
b. Emission Controls
Consolidation of piles, pre-combustion drying of grass and
leaves, and the maintenance of high combustion temperatures are
all feasible means of reducing POM emissions. Substitution of
enclosed burning with exhaust gas cleaning is the only efficient
"control" mechanism available for grass and leaf burning. Many
localities have implemented such controls by banning open burn-
ing of grass clippings and leaves and providing leaf collection
systems.
c. Location and Capacity
Information on grass clippings and leaf burning practices
was not available for this study.
94
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d. Emission Estimates
24 45/
Samples from a study by Darley ' ' for EPA provided the
emission factors for leaf burning shown in Table III-l (P. 29).
The study involved sampling from a leaf burning facility using a
filter and Tenax adsorber and extracting the samples using
methylene chloride for the filter and pentane for the adsorber.
These extracts were separated by liquid chromatography and
analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. POM
values reported are totals for 19 POM species.
BaP values reported are actually for combined benzo(a)pyrene
and benzo(e)pyrene, as detected in the sampling and analysis
procedure outlined above. A non-detectable (ND) 3aP value re-
ported was assumed to be 40 ug/kg of leaves burned in calculating
the intermediate estimates of BaP emissions (190 !ig/kg for a
composite of leaf types; 325 ug/kg for the geometric average of
results for the three types burned separately).
Emission, factor- estimates for open burning of grass clippings
were developed from BaP emissions or concentrations in particulate
32 39/
matter in several studies, ' ' which used "burning tables" and
on-site sampling of smoke, in some cases, in combination with
particulate emission factors from AP-42. '
Emission estimates could not be developed as .10 information
is available regarding che amounts of grass clippings or leaves
burned in the open. It is presumed that emissions are minimal
since open burning is generally no longer permitted.
e. Future Trands
Air quality goals will likely cause widespread prohibition
of open burning of leaves and grass clippings in che future.
95
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4. Automobile Scrap
a. Emission Sources
In order to meet the quality standards of the steel industry
for scrap bundles, organic materials must be removed from auto
bodies. This may be accomplished by open burning of whole auto
bodies, incineration of whole auto bodies, or shredding and
subsequent incineration of the shredded steel.
b. Emission Controls
Emissions from open burning of auto bodies cannot be
controlled except by prohibiting the activity. At this point,
however, most automobiles are incinerated to eliminate organic
materials. Incinerators can utilize wet gas scrubbers or other
conventional stack emission controls. The combustion efficiency
of rotary kiln incinerators for shredded steel is very high so
little POM is generated.
c. Location and Capacity
In most metropolitan areas, open burning is strictly
prohibited and, consequently, auto hulks often are taken outside
the restricted area for burning. Otherwise, enclosed burning in
incinerators or hand-stripping of combustibles is practiced.
Most open burning which now takes place is illegal; location and
53/
quantity of open burning of auto bodies are unknown. '
d. Emission Estimates
Technological advances are directly affecting the status of
the scrap processing industry. The demand for auto scrap by the
steel industry is rising with the increased use of electric arc
furnaces which use a greater proportion of scrap in the furnace
feed. At the same time, the supply of reusable scrap (or "hone"
scrap) generated at steel plants is decreasing due to the increas-
ing use of continuous casting. Thus, auto scrap processing
96
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will csnd to increase in the future. However, new scrap process-
ing techniques, primarily shredding and rotary kilns, have
practically eliminated open burning and incineration of scrapped
58/
auto bodies. The rising demand for steel scrap has made
shredding and subsequent incineration economically feasible.
Emission factors were developed for open burning of automo-
bile components. BaP emissions were estimated to be about 22
milligrams per kilogram of automobile components charged. How-
ever, since open burning of auto scrap is now rarely, if ever,
practiced, current BaP emissions fron this source would be ex-
pected to be negligible. No BaP emission factor data is avail-
able for incineration of shredded auto scrap in rotary kilns.
e. Future Trends
Demand for No. 2 steel scrap is expected to continue its
rising trend, with an added impetus from energy and resource
conservation incentives. This demand will improve the economics
of. centrally-located shredding-incineration operations. It is
projected that nearly no open burning or whole car body incin-
eration will be practiced after 1980.
5. Coal Refuse Piles
a. Emission Sources
Coal, refuse banks exist throughout the nation's coal-pro-
ducing regions. Spontaneous combustion of the coal wastes,
coal, shale, and calcite is a common occurence. Many large
refuse piles have smoldered internally for many years. Burning
coal is a major source of particulate polycyclic organic matter
and gaseous hydrocarbons even in a relatively efficiently opera-
ted furnace. Thus, it is especially so under such inefficient
burning conditions as the poor air supply and uneven heat distri-
bution of a burning coal refuse bank.
97
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b. Emission Controls
Extinguishing coal refuse fires is the only feasible
means of controlling POM emissions. The three methods of
extinguishing refuse pile fires are to: (1) dig out and cool
the affected material, (2) cover the pile to seal it against
54 /
air circulation, and (3) grout to solidify the affected material. '
It has proven to be very difficult and costly to extinguish
existing fires. Methods to extinguish fires and to prevent
new fires by proper pile construction and sealing have been
54/ •
outlined by Magnuson and Baker. ' Burning active refuse
piles are generally in some degree of compliance with air
pollution regulations, while preventive measures are practiced
at other active piles.11'12'73'74'79/
c. Location and Capacity
The Bureau of Mines (BOM) located 292 burning coal refuse
banks in 1968, extending over 3,200 acres. ' In Pennsylvania,
at least 24 of these fires have been extinguished and extinquish-
74/
ment of four other fires will soon be accomplished by BOM. "'
No western coal refuse fires have yet been extinguished.
Existing burning piles as listed in the BOM survey are not
given because the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)
is currently updating this information. Estimates of the
quantity of coal contained in these piles were not available
for this study.
d. Emission Estimates
No emission factors or data on total tonnage burned
annually were available for this report. Total annual emissions
estimates for BaP of 280 and 310 Mg are given in Table III-2
(P. 3g). These figures were taken directly from the Preferred
Standards Path Report for Polycyclic Organic Matter and
the 1972 NAS study. ' The estimates were evidently derived
98
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from the 1968 BOM survey. ' The assumptions and method are
unknown- ' The emissions may have changed significantly
since many banks have been extinguished and others have naturally
gone out, while others have caught fire spontaneously, and
still others, that were smoldering, have burst into flames.
If the current emissions are similar, burning coal refuse
banks are the largest single contributor of POM to the atmosphere.
Assuming that total emissions are proportional to the number
of banks burning, the estimated 1968 emissions of 310 Mg/year '
would have been reduced to 280 Mg/year considering only banks
known to be burning in 1963 and the number of banks extinguished
747
since then. .. '
e. Future Trends
The Bureau of Mines is attempting to extinguish many of
the burning coal refuse piles in Pennsylvania. The program
has not yet begun in the western coal regions and the eastern
operations have been progressing slowly. Emissions of POM
cannot be projected as banks may ignite, blaze, smolder, or
become extinguished naturally or by human action.
6. Forest Fires
a. Emission Sources
Forest fires, both wildfires and prescribed fires,
inefficiently burn massive quantities of organic material each
year. Combustion tends to be incomplete due to the high
moisture content and varying characteristics of the fuel.
Wildfires emit much greater quantities of particulate POM
than prescribed fires because they bum at greater intensities
and thus, ignite larger vegetation. Such large trees do not
99
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burn completely. Therefore, nore particles and more unburnt
hydrocarbons are emitted.
The amount of POM emitted depends upon the forest type,
the weather, and the season.
b. Emission Controls
Prescribed burning is practiced in most areas to prevent
wildfires. Forest litter is burned off in a well-controlled
operation, thus leaving less igni table material in the forest.
Other fire prevention techniques are also utilized by national,
state, and local forest managers to reduce the potential for
fires. Adequate manpower and equipment for fire control is
the next best POM emission control method for forest fires.
Slash burning of waste material is practiced by loggers.
Small piles, composed of small branches often with leaves
attached, are formed along logging roads and burned with
supervision. Combustion, and thus emission, characteristics
vary widely with the area, forest type, and weather.
c. - Location and Capacity
Statistics on the acreage burned by wildfires are nain-
19/
tained by the U.S. Forest Service. ' The 1976 acreages are
shown in Table III-7 for groups of states and by size and
cause classes in protected areas. The Forest Service estimated
in 1976 that the total area burned by wildfires in the U.S.
was 1.8 x 10 m (4.4 x 10 ~ m acres) -in^ that- the total area
burned by prescribed fires was 1.2 x 10 m (3.0 x 10 acres).
The amounts of fuel estimated to be available in those areas
x 10*
151/
are 43 x 106 Mg (47 x 106 tons) and 15 x 106 Mg (17 x 106
tons), respectively.
100
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•nau t:x - 7
MEA sanaa n mortsta in THS CURED STATES in 1976
-------
d. Emission Estimates
Forest fires, especially wildfires, are a major source of
POM in the atmosphere. Emission factors per mass of fuel
burned were developed from average results reported for dupli-
597
cate tests by McMahon and Tsoukales in 1977. ' The tests
involve burning slash pine needle litter in a controlled
environment burning room and sampling with a modified "hi-vol"
sampler. The samples were extracted with methylene chloride,
separated by liquid chromatography, and analyzed with gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry. Emission factors are
given in Table III-l (P. 29) for different fire conditions.
The intermediate estimates of BaP emission factors from these
tests with pine needles ranged from 27 ug/kg for flaming
heading fires to 770 ug/kg of fuel for backing fires. Emission
estimates ranging from 9.5 to 127 Mg/ year from forest fires
have been reported in the literature. ' ' A recent study
for EPA listed emissions from prescribed burning as 4.5 Mg/year. '
No estimate was made in this study because of the great uncertainty
and variability in forest fire combustion processes and their
resultant emissions. For purposes of comparison with reported
estimates, numbers of 1.8 and 45 Mg/year were generated by
assuming burning of the total estimated fuel available for
wildfires and prescribed fires of 58 x 10 Mg ' with the
overall emission factors developed from burning pine needles
in laboratory-simulated heading and backing fires, respectively.
Actual emissions from a fire are highly variable as type and
availability of fuel, burning conditions, and area burned all
78/
vary with the location, climate, and season. '
e. Future Trends
There will likely be little change in acreage burned per
year unless major increases in fire prevention and fire control
efforts are implemented. Presumably, POM emissions from
forest fires will remain somewhat constant.
102
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Q. Mobile Sources
1. Gasoline Consumption
a. Process
Gasoline is burned in spark-ignition internal combustion
engines by passenger cars, trucks, and buses. Diesel engines
and two-cycle engines used in motorcycles, motorboats, and lawn
mowers are discussed separately.
b. Emission Sources
POM emissions from gasoline consumption result from inef-
ficient fuel use due to air to fuel ratios less than stoichio-
metric, driver operating modes, engine deterioration, and
combustion chamber deposits. Fuel quality is also an important
factor. The aromatic content, of the gasoline, additives, and
lubricants can affect POM formation levels. Begeman and Colucci
as reported in the MAS study, ' estimate that as much as 36
percent of the benzo(a)pyrene in exhaust gas can be attributed
to the fuel benzo(a)pyrene content.
The lead content of gasoline also influences che POM emis-
sion levels. In place of lead additives, aromatic hydrocarbons
are usually increased to maintain high octane levels. However,
potential increases in POM emissions due to higher fuel aro-
maticity are offset by changes in the nature of combustion
chamber deposits when unleaded fuel is used. ' Research is
continuing to clarify the role of combustion chamber deposits
in POM formation.
The pyrolysis of heavy motor oil also generates POM which
may be released in exhaust. Generally, mocor oil deposits in
the engine build up over the operating life of che car and
particularly between oil changes.
103
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c. Emission Controls
Emission control devices presently in use have greatly
reduced POM emissions. Engine modifications/ such as exhaust
gas recirculation which was introduced in 1968, have reduced
the emissions of polynuclear aromatics from those of uncontrol-
38/
led models by 65 to 80 percent. Catalytic converters
similar to those which became common in 1975 have been shown
38/
to reduce polynuclear aronatic emissions by about 99 percent. '
As described by the Motor Vehicle Manufacturer's Association, '
the various control devices which have been introduced
include:
• Crankcase controls were installed
nationwide starting with 1965 models,
two years after they were introduced
in California. Before being controlled,
the crankcase was the source of about
20 percent of emissions of hydrocarbons,
the unburned fuel active in photo-
chemical smog formation.
• Exhaust controls, introduced nation-
wide on 1963 models, accelerated the
reduction of hydrocarbon emissions
and brought major reductions of emis-
sions of carbon monoxide, an invisible,
odorless gas which forms the bulk
of automotive emissions.
• Evaporative fuel losses from gasoline
tanks and carburetors were nearly elim-
inated by controls on all new cars
beginning with 1971 models.
104
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Improved NO control systems on some
X
1971 and 1972 nodels, and on all models
for 1973 and after lowered, total vehicle
emissions of oxides of nitrogen, the
other major ingredient in photochemical
smog formation.
Catalyst or equivalent control systems
were introduced on cars in 1975 to meet
much tougher emission levels for hydro-
carbons and carbon monoxide while at
the same time improving vehicle fuel
economy.
Only three percent of the cars on the road in 1976 were
without emission controls of any kind. The breakdown, as
derived by the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association, '
is shown in Table III-8.
d. Location and Capacity.
Gasoline demand in the U.S. was 1,139,000 cubic meters
(7,153,000 barrels) per day in October 1977 (four-week
average). e' This implies an approximate consumption of
4.JL6 x 108 ra3 (2.61 x 109 bbl or 4.16 x 10ij- licers (1.10 x
10 ~ gallons) of gasoline in 1977. About 20 percent or 3.3
x 10 liters of this demand was for unleaded gasoline. c/
e. Emission Estimates
Estimates of PCM emission factors were available from
38 /
Gross ' for automobiles of various ages burning leaded and
105
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TABLE III-8
CARS IN OPERATION WITH EMISSION CONTROLS (cars in thousands)
63/
1966
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Catalyst or equivalent, NO ,
fuel evaporation, exhaust and
crankcase controls
NO , fuel evaporation, exhaust
and crankcase controls
Fuel evaporation, exhaust and
crankcase controls
Exhaust and crankcase controls
Crankcase control only
No controls
TOTAL cars
Catalyst or equivalent, NO ,
fuel evaporation, exhaust
and crankcase controls
NO , fuel evaporation, exhaust
and crankcase controls
Fuel evapoaration, exhaust and
crankcase controls
Exhaust and crankcase controls
Crankcase control only
No controls
TOTAL percent
0
0
0
573
31,060
39,631
71,264
PERCENT
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
43.6
55.6
0
*
6,787
27,676
35,813
12,846
83,122
OF CARS
0.0
0.0
8.2
33.3
43.0
15.5
0
726*
16,213
27,214
32,879
9,469
86,411
IN OPERATION
0.0
0.8
18.8
31.5
37.9
11.0
0
8,950
18,734
26,365
28,988
6,745
89,782
WITH EMISSION
0.0
9.9
20.9
29.4
32.3
7.5
0
18,675
18,607
25,522
24,817
4,962
92,583
CONTROLS
0.0
20.2
20.0
27.6
26.8
5.4
4,684
22,053
18,476
24,650
21,359
3,998
95,220
4.9
23.2
19.4
25.9
22.4
4.2
14,155
21,820
17,937
22,928
17,697
3,253
97,790
14.5
22.3
18.3
23.5
18.1
3.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Improved control systems on some
emissions of oxides of nitrogen.
1971 and 1972 models and on all models for 1973 and after lowered total vehicle
NOTE; Data as of July 1st of each year, not model year.
-------
unleaded gasoline. These are shown in Table III-l (P.30). An
overall figure of 9 pg BaP/1 for the estimated 1977 auto popula-
tion was derived by SEA. The figure was developed by weighting
the emission factors for model types by the percentage of total
mileage travelled by each type of auto using the age distribution
of the U.S. auto population for 1976 ' and the average annual
miles driven for autos of various ages. ' The distribution by
percentage of annual travel used for the various test results was
32.3 percent 1970 automobile with a catalytic converter and using
unleaded gasoline (1975-1977 model years); 48.2 percent 1970
automobiles with engine modifications (1970-1974); 9.5 percent
1968 automobiles with engine modifications (1968-1969); and 10.0
percent 1966 uncontrolled automobiles (1966 and older) with the
latter three types using leaded gasoline.
Estimates of total annual 3aP emissions from automobile
gasoline consumption are shown in Table III-2 (P. 36). The EZA
best estimate of 3aP emissions is 2.7 Mg/year for a 1975 estimated
consumption of 2.96 x 10 1. '
6 9/
f. Future Trends '
By 1985, domestically manufactured automobiles are likely to
meet the EPA fuel economy standard of 11.7 km/1 (27.5 mpg). The
continued penetration of small, fuel efficient imports will raise
the average new car fuel economy to 12.1 !cn/l (28.5 mpg).
A major factor behind the increase in new car fuel mileage
is the diesel, which is about 25 percent more efficient than the
conventional engine and which is likely to capture up to 15
percent of the new car market by 1985.
In 1985, gasoline consumption is expected to be about 2.6 x
10— liters per year. ' This represents a decline in total fue]
consumption of 6.1 percent. As more of the automobile
107
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population will be equipped with catalytic converters or equi-
valent control, the 1985 weighted emission factor is projected by
EEA to be 0.8 ug/1. Therefore, total emissions of BaP from
gasoline-powered automobiles are projected to be less than one
metric ton in 1985.
2. Diesel Fuel Consumption
a. Process Description
Diesel oil, which is burned in the diesel engine, is used by
some automobiles, trucks, and other motor vehicles. An unregu-
lated flow of air is fed into the engine and mixed with the fuel.
The mixture is compressed and thus ignited when it reaches the
cylinder or combustion chamber. The injection of the highly-
pressurized gases into the cylinder causes a sudden reduction in
their pressure, in turn creating air temperatures which cause the
ignition. The energy of the burning mixture moves the pistons.
The pistons' motion is transmitted to the crankshaft that drives
the vehicle. The burned mixture then leaves the car through the
exhaust pipe.
b. Emission Sources
Overloading and poor maintenance of diesel engines is a
primary cause of POM formation. However, even under normal op-
erating conditions, diesel engines at low and idle speeds produce
higher POM emissions, presumably because of lower combustion-
chamber temperatures. ' Fuel composition appears to have little
effect on POM emission levels. '
c. Emission Controls
Proper loading, fueling, and maintenance of diesel engines
can significantly lower POM emissions. Exhaust controls and
other devices are not commonly used on diesel vehicles.
108
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d. Location and Capacity
Statistics on diesel fuel sales, on and off highways, are
maintained by the Bureau of Mines. These are shown in Table
III-9. ' A breakdown of automobile fuel consumption by diesels
and gasoline engines is given in Table 111-10. This was derived
from data in the EZA report to the Office of Technology Assessment,
Technology Assessment of Changes in the Use and Characteristics
of the Automobile. ' From this information, it can be seen
that nearly all of the 1975 on-highway diesel use of 3.4 x 10
liters was consumed by trucks (heavy duty diesels).
e. Emission Estimates
Emission factors for light and heavy duty diesel engines
were derived using data from several studies.1''49/72/92'92'110/
For light duty diesels, the 3SO emission factor shown was cal-
culated from che 3SO emission factors per kilometer given for
49/"
various speeds by Laregosti, et al. The figure shown in
Table III-l (?. 30) is based on an assumption of time at speed
distribution of 35 percent at 35 km/hOur, 35 percent at 64
km/hour, 25 percent at 38 km/hour, and five percent at 96 km/hour;
diesel mileage was assumed to be 9.4 km/1 (22 mpg). The benzo(a)pyrene
emission factor given in mass per mass of fuel by Springer and
3aines * was converted to mass per volume of fuel, assuming a
diesei oil density of 365 g/i (7.83 Ib/gal) (Ho. 2 oil). The
best estimate of 3a2 emissions from diesei automobiles is thus
38 ug/1 of diesel fuel burned.
The estimated emission factors for heavy duty diesels are
also given in Table III-l (?. 30). The reported 3aP emission
factors range from 2.3 to 130 ug/1. The intermediate estimate
of 3.7 ug/i was calculated bv taking the geometric mean cf t.ie
92/
results of the two tasts resorted bv Soindt.
109
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TABLE II1-9
SALE OF DISTILLATE FUEL OIL '
(millions of liters)
BY USE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1971-1975
a/
Heating
Industrial, excluding oil company
use
Oil Company Use
Electric Utility Companies
Railroads
Vessels
Military
On-llighway Diesel
Off-Highway Diesel
All Other
TOTAL U.S.
SALES OF
Heating
Industrial, excluding oil company
use
Oil Company Use
Electric Utility Companies
Railroads
Vessels
Military
All Other
TOTAL U.S.
1971
83,385
8,066
2,240
5,617
13,713
3,332
2,771
26,548
7,937
1,614
154,427
RESIDUAL
28,945
21,657
5,187
59,115
201
12,517
4,645
971
133,238
1972
86 , 384
9,593
2,131
10,864
15,422
3,518
3,209
30,057
7,979
1,725
170,890
FUEL OIL ' BY USE
(millions of
30,384
22,627
7,042
69,215
181
12,390
3,915
1,413
147,166
1973
85,353
10,701
2,369
12,393
16,348
4,259
3,116
35,203
8,830
1,888
180,460
IN THE UNITED
liters )a/
30,566
24,208
8,053
80,997
193
14,693
3,640
1,435
163,785
19742/
78,416
10,181
2,195
13,460 '
16 , 368
3,936
2,822
35,141
7,750
1,611
171,879
STATES,
27,488
22,851
7,987
75,551 '
187
14,476
6,427
1,352
153,139
1975
77,446
10,174
2,167
10,366 '
14,816
4,156
2,862
34,533
7,787
1,605
VA f
165,913 V
1971-1975
24,659
17,864
8,027
72,329 '
93
15,370
3,032
964
142,337
% Change
- 1.2
- 0.1
- 1.2
-23.0
- 9.5
5.6
1.4
- 1.7
0.5
- 0.3
- 3.5
b/
-10.3
-21.8
0.5
- 4.3
-50.4
6.2
- 6.6
-28.7
- 7.1
-------
TABLli III-9 (Continued)
FOOTNOTES
Includes diesel fuel.
2/
Revised.
3/
Includes range oi 1.
4/ uata foe 1975 includes 3,125 million liters (19,656,000 bbl) of distillate 02 and 399 million liters
(2,510,000 bbl) of distillate U4 fuel oil used at steam electric plants. Also included are 503 mil-
lion liters (3,161,000 bbl) of kerosine-type jet fuel used by electric utility companies. The 1974
data include 3,759 million liters (23,646,000 bbl) of distillate 112, 526 million liters (3,307,000
»jbJ) of distillate tt4 fuel oil used at steam electric plants and 022 million liters (5,170,000 bbl)
of kerosine-type jet fuel used by electric companies.
includes Navy grade and crude oil burned as fuel.
6/
Data tor 1975 exclude 3,524 million liters (22,166,000 bbl) of distillate fuel oil used at steam elec-
trie plants. The 1974 data exclude 4,242 million liters (26,603,000 bbl) of distillate fuel oil used
at btuam electric plants.
a/
Quantities originally reported as thousands of barrels. Converted to millions of liters using a conversion
factor of 1S0.9U7 liters or 0.150907 cubic meters per barrel.
b/
Percent change reported is from 1974 to 1975.
-------
TABLE 111-10
TOTAL ADTO FUEL CONSUMPTION—BASE CASE
(1010l/yr(109 gal/year))69/
Fuel
Gasoline
Diesel
TOTAL
20001/
17.3-19.1 (45.7-50.53)
6.85-7.39 (18.7-20.33)
29.6 (78.11) 27.7 (73.3) 24.4-27.0 (64.4-71.36)
1976
29.6 (78.10)
0.004 (0.01)
1985
26.2 (69.2)
1.6 (4.1)
AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATES IN FUEL CONSUMPTION
69/
Gasoline
Diesel
TOTAL
Historical Rates (%)
1960-19751965-1972
4.17
4.17
4.9
4.9
Base Case
Projected Rates (%)
1976-2000
I/
-1.8 to - 2.2
+36.8 to +37.5
-0.4 to -0.8
I/
Higher end of range based on assumption of negligible new
car fuel economy improvement in post-1935 period.
112
-------
The estimates shown in Table III-2 (P. 3C) of total
annual 3aP emissions were calculated from these emission
factors and the consumption figures given in Tables III-9 and
111-10. The current light duty diesel emissions of BaP are
negligible with a best estimate of 0.013 Mg/year. Heavy duty
diesel emissions are much larger/ but still small, at 0.13
Mg/year for 1975.
f. Future Trends
Diesel fuel consumption is expected to rise considerably
in the 1980's due to the fuel economy of diesel engines.
Estimated 1985 consumption for diesel automobiles is 1.6 x
10 liters. Improvements in. engine design and emission
controls are expected to accompany the increased demand.
Assuming that emission characteristics remain the same/ the
estimated annual Ba? emissions will increase to 0.61 Jig from
light duty diesels and 0.21 Mg from heavy duty diesels.
3. Rubber Tire Wear
a. Process Description
Degradation of automobile tires releases hydrocarbonoceous
particles to the atmosphere. Carbon blacks and organic
materials that are used in tire manufacturing may contain POM
and other high-molecuiar-weight organic compounds.
b. Emission Sources
Oxidation and wear of tires on roadways degrades the
rubber material. The organic compounds in the rubber may be
oxidized by the heat of friction. . Par-tides and gas which
may contain poiycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are continuously
released during the operation of the vehicle.
113
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c. Emission Controls
No methods are presently known to reduce tire degradation.
Substitutes may be found for carbon black or other raw materials
used in making tires. Presumably, these substitutes will also
contain hydrocarbons. The types and qualities of these hydro-
carbons and the likelihood of their emission as POM, however,
could vary significantly.
d. Location and Capacity
At one time, tire consumption was dominated by original
equipment sales for new vehicles but road mileage is now so high
that tire demand is more closely related to gasoline sales than
to new car production. Marchesani, et al., as reported in the
HAS study, ' estimates that 3.9 metric tons (4.3 tons) of
rubber particles from tires are emitted per day per million
people in the United States. The results of a recent study '
lead to an estimate of the total generation of tire debris in
the U.S. of approximately 6000 Mg/yr.
e. Emission Estimates
In one study, no POM was detected in the preliminary analysis
of particulate matter collected from tires run at up to 56
km/hour (35 mph) with 450 kg (1,000 Ib) loads on a paved indoor
track. ' The National Academy of Science study ' estimated a
rough emission factor for benzo(a)pyrene of 0.14 kg/day (0.3
Ib/day) per million population based on the analytic data of
Falk, et al.27/
The maximum estimate of annual BaP emissions from rubber
tire wear is 11 Mg/year. This is a very conservative estimate
based on the population dependent emission factor and the 1977
68/
population. ' Recent work by the General Motors Research Lab
measured gaseous emissions of higher molecular weight organics,
which would include any POM's, of about 0.5 mg/km for each
157 158 12
tire. ' Assuming a total tire mileage per year of 6 x 10
km, ' annual emissions of higher molecular weight organics
from tire wear could approach three million metric tons. Pre-
sumably, the POM and BaP fractions of these organics are quite
small.
114
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f. Future Trends
Rubber tire wear has tended to follow growth trends in
the motor fuel industry. Gasoline and diesel fuel consumption
are expected to decrease by 6.1 percent through 1985. However,
since this decrease in fuel consumption is largely due to
increased mileage per amount of fuel, the rubber tire wear
will remain constant or even increase with the total vehicle
miles travelled or with population. Using the population
dependent emission factor and the U.S. Census Series II (moder-
ate) estimate of the total U.S. population in 1985 of 233
million, ' maximum BaP emissions are projected to increase
slightly to 12 metric tons per year.
4. Motor Fuel Consumption in Two-Cycle Engines
a. Process Description
Two-cycle engines operate on a mixture of premixed oil
and gasoline. The combustion is less efficient than a four-
cycle engine primarily because the exhaust remains in the
combustion chamber after each cycle.-
b. Emission Sources
The combustion of gasoline and oil yields large amounts
of benzo(a)pyrene and other POM. The emission levels are a
direct function of oil concentration in the fuel mixture. The
presence of heavy components in the fuel and the inefficient
two-cycle engine cause extensive POM formation.
c. Emission Controls
Emission controls are not commonly used on two-cycle en-
gines. Adaptation of standard controls for four-cycle engines
is feasible.
115
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d. Location and Capacity
Fuel consumption by motorcycles in 1975 was reported to
9
be 1.69 x 10 liters by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration.
Figures for other two-cycle engines were not available for
this study.
e. Emission Estimates
An emission factor of 2.9 mg/1 for benzo(a)pyrene from
two-cycle motorcycle engines was derived from data collected
by Hunigen, et al. reported at the 1966 International Clean
Air Congress and cited by the NAS study. ' The total emissions
estimate is based on this factor and a more conservative
q
motorcycle fuel consumption figure of 1.94 x 10 liters derived
69 121/
by EEA. ' ' Annual BaP emissions are estimated to be 5.6
metric tons.
No estimates are available on other two-stroke engine
emissions.
f. Future Trends
Automobile fuel consumption is projected to decrease 6.1
percent by 1985. However, since motorcycles already have high
fuel efficiencies, it is unlikely that fuel consumption will
decrease because of increased fuel efficiency. Although the
population of the age group most likely to use motorocycles as
their major means of transport has been decreasing, EEA has
conservatively estimated that mileage and BaP emissions will
remain constant through 1985.
116
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SECTION IV
ESTIMATES OF POPULATION
EXPOSURE TO POM
A. Discussion of Alternative Estimation Techniques
1. General
In this section, some of the methods which can be used to
estimate population exposures are briefly outlined and discuss-
ed. Census data are available which give the number of people
residing in areas ranging in size from states to city blocks.
Therefore, the limiting factor for exposure estimates is gener-
ally information on the location and production characteristics
of point sources and the local consumption of fuel or other
indicators of the sizes of area sources. This type of data is
required to estimate emissions and thus ambient concentrations.
For POM's, the unavailability and unreliability of such informa-
tion made it necessary to use an ambient air concentration
approach rather than an emissions approach. The following
sections outline the estimation techniques that were considered
and briefly discuss their advantages, disadvantages, and limi-
tations. BaP was used as a surrogate for POM in estimating
exposure, as BaP emission factors are available for most sources
and are more generally comparable than 3SO or POM emission
factors. (BaP source testing results from different test series
and sources should be more comparable with each other because
3aP is a single compound for which analytical procedures can be
calibrated relatively easily and accurately. Therefore, al-
though the comparability of the results of different sampling
117
-------
procedures for BaP is as questionable as it is for BSO or POM,
the results of sampling and analysis should be more comparable
for BaP.) Also, adequate ambient air quality monitoring data
are available only for BaP.
2. Estimation by Dispersion Modelling of Emissions Esti-
mates Derived From Local Production/Consumption Figures
The population exposure estimation technique that best con-
siders localized spatial variations in the ambient concentration
of a pollutant is one that considers the contributions of in-
dividual point and area sources. The accuracy of this technique
is limited by the accuracy of the emission factors and source
data used to estimate emissions and the reliability of the dis-
persion model and its meteorological data or assumptions.
However, this technique is still preferable to the other feasi-
ble techniques because it considers the actual number of people
residing in a relatively small area and thus exposed to an
estimated concentration. The alternative technique would in-
volve assuming a uniform population density or ambient concen-
tration over an area as large as a city or state.
EEA has developed a computer-based population exposure
estimation system for the contiguous United States. U.S. Census
data were associated with a set of several million nodes, each
representing approximately ten square kilometers. This system
can be used to count the number of people exposed to a range of
concentrations generated by a single point source (assuming the
relationship represented by a dispersion model between the
emission and stack characteristics and the ambient concentra-
tions) . This system has been used to estimate the populations
exposed to individually "significant" point sources, i.e.,
sources which individually generate ambient concentrations
118
-------
greater than some "significant" level. However, when multiple
sources have overlapping effects, the limits on available
computer capacity prevent the addition of the contributions
by the various sources to the concentration at each node
when using nodes representing areas small enough to be
reasonably assigned a single level of concentration. There-
fore, for multiple sources/ the results of the current
system can be used to calculate the product of population
times concentration of exposure or the total number of
people exposed to at least a specified level of concentration,
but not the concentrations to which actual populations are
exposed.
The POM sources were assessed using their 3aP emission
factors to determine if they individually produced "significant"
ambient concentrations of 3aP. "Significant" ambient concentra-
tions of 3aP were arbitrarily defined as 0.4 ng/m because few
non-industrial cities had greater ambient concentrations. If
any sources had been "significant," the EEA population exposure
system would have been used for these sources. However, indivi-
dual point sources (e.g., fuel combustion and industrial process
sources) were estimated to produce only marginally "significant"
ambient concentrations even when using very conservative produc-
tion and stack characteristics. These conservative plant charac-
teristics included PTMAX hourly averages, which are often an
order of magnitude or more higher than annual averages, maximum
emission factor, largest plant size, and conservative stack
conditions—i.e., relatively low flow rates, temperatures, and
stack heights. More "typical" production and stack character-
istics such as best emission factor, controlled emissions, and
more representative plant sizes were estimated to produce less
than significant concentrations.
119
-------
The more diffuse energy consumptive sources of POM, such as
industrial, commercial, institutional, residential, or mobile
fuel users, or open burning sources of POM can be considered as
area sources. However, no reliable data on fuel consumption or
open burning is available on a local basis for the entire na-
tion. Bureau of Mines fuel consumption data are only available
on the state level, while the National Emissions Data System
(NEDS) file has been found to have significant anomalies in
the data. Thus, the contributions of the various area
sources in a locality could not be estimated and summed, as
adequate data are generally not available. Therefore, since
no point or area sources were found to produce individually
significant concentrations (the effect of area sources were
estimated by the technique discussed in the following sec-
tion) and the contributions of the various sources in an
area could not be adequately estimated, the technique of
counting the population exposed to an estimated concentra-
tion in a relatively small area could not be used.
3. Estimation by Dispersion Modelling of Emissions
Proportional to NEDS Emissions
Since fuel consumption and other "production" data were not
available for specific localities on a national basis, emissions
information from the National Emissions Data System (NEDS) was
used to estimate ambient air concentrations for screening purposes,
The NEDS file contains data on the emissions of various pollu-
tants by the various source types in an Air Quality Control
Region (AQCR). These data may be based on either actual or
estimated production or consumption information which has been
aggregated from the local level. It is generally recognized
that these data are often dated and have serious inaccuracies
and anomalies; however, since it is currently the only source of
such information available on a national basis, it is frequently
120
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used in the hope that the aggregated values are suitable for
comparison purposes. For the purposes of this study, it was
felt that the NEDS output could be used for rough screening
of area sources to ascertain if they were likely to produce
"significant" concentrations of 3aP.
The total emissions for a source type reported in a NEDS
output were used to estimate the ambient 3aP concentration in an
AQCR using the Hanna-Gif ford urban area source model. ''
The NEDS output used was an AQCR Emissions Report run by SPA on
September 7, 1977. 3aP emissions from a source type were as-
sumed to be proportional to the annual particulate emissions
given in the NEDS output. 3aP emissions, which may exist as
vapors until after they exit the stack, are probably not di-
rectly proportional to particulate emissions.. However, particu-
late emissions should give some indication of the completeness
of the combustion. The ratio of 3aP emissions to NEDS particu-
emissions was assumed to be that of the SEA 3aP emission
factor to the AP-42 particulate emission factor. ' Only the
AQCR's which had. the largest emissions from a source type of
those AQCR's included in the NEDS run were considered. The
annual emissions were assumed to be constant throughout the year
and to be distributed uniformly over the total urbanized area in
the. major metropolitan areas in the AQCR. The urbanized areas
given in the National Functional System tlileage and Travel Sys-
tem ' were used. The calculated rate of emissions per
unit area was used to estimate an ambient concentration by
using the Hanna-Gifford Model assuming a wind speed of two
meters per second.
This type of ambient concentration estimate based on MEDS
emission data is questionable at best; however, it should be
adequate for screening purposes. Generally, the assumptions
involved are conservative (i.e., lead to high ambient ccncen-
121
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trations). All the emissions are assumed to be emitted from
the total urbanized area, not the AQCR as a whole or the
individual urbanized areas. However, there may be local
areas with higher emissions and concentrations because the
emissions are assumed to be evenly distributed. The assumed
wind speed of 2.0 m/s is also extremely low for an annual
average so that more typical concentrations would be a
factor of two or three lower than those estimated. In
addition, the NEDS system is quite often outdated and the
iargest discrepancies appear to be in the small combustion
sources such as residential coal and open burning. Though
these sources have generally decreased drastically in recent
years, these changes are often not reflected in the NEDS
file.
The results of this analysis for area sources of POM showed
that the AQCR's with the greatest emissions were, at most, margin-
ally significant. The sources that were barely significant,
even for the worst case AQCR's and maximum BaP emission factors,
were combustion of residential coal, industrial oil, indus-
trial wood, commercial/institutional oil, gasoline in motor ve-
hicles, industrial incinerators, auto body open burning, and
slash burning of wood. None of these source types were esti-
mated to produce "significant" levels of BaP (>_0.4 ng/m ) for
the other cities for which data were available or for more
likely emission factors. As a check, the gasoline-powered motor
vehicle emissions were calculated for Los Angeles using the
daily vehicle miles travelled (DVMT) density assuming a gasoline
consumption of 6.4 km/1 (15 mpg). The calculated emission rate
per unit area was a factor of two lower than from the NEDS data.
Using the Miller-Holzworth Model as calibrated for Los Angeles, °
assuming Stability Class 3, a mixing height of 300 m, and a wind
speed of 2.0 m/s, the calculated ambient concentration was a
factor of three lower than the previous estimate and, thus, was
below the "significant" level. Therefore, the emissions from
-------
the various area sources were presumed to individually produce
ambient concentrations no greater than 0.4 ng 3aP/ra .
4. Estimation From Ambient Air Quality Data
The estimation of population exposures from ambient air
quality data would be the preferred method if monitoring results
were available for very localized areas; however, for POM's
the situation is quite different. The National Air Sur-
veillance Network (NASN) included sampling for 3a? at ap-
proximately 120 stations throughout the country from 1966
through 1970. BaP monitoring has been continued at 40 sites
until the present. In addition, some states, particularly
Pennsylvania (94 locations) and Maryland (50 locations),
have recently begun to conduct 3aP monitoring. Other
localities have, at times, also monitored for 3aP ambient
concentrations. In addition, special studies, generally
regarding the effect, of coke oven emissions, have measured
ambient air concentrations of 3aP in various areas of inter-
est for a brief period. Thus, 3aP sampling has been con-
ducted at only several hundred different sites throughout
the country at any time. At many of these sites, no data
are available for recent years. And many large areas of the
country have never been monitored for 3aP. In addition, the
comparability of the various results is questionable between
different sampling techniques, organizations, and even
between different years for the same technique and organi-
zation.
Although the spatial distribution of the monitoring sites
does not provide for an accurate estimate of the concentrations
to which various local populations are exposed, an approach
based on ambiant air quality data had to be used because r.o
better approach was feasible. The results of a recent study
on the population exposures to coke oven emissions by Suta1" '
were used to estimate the population exposure to 3a? in
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cities where coke ovens were located. Population exposure
is expressed in terms of the product of the population and
annual average ambient concentration. The estimated con-
centrations and exposed populations given by Suta were used
directly, while the background levels given were used for
any remaining population in the Standard Metropolitan Statis-
tical Areas (SMSA's) which were assumed to be affected by
the coke oven emissions. (The affected areas were assumed
to be the SMSA in which the coke oven is located and neighbor-
ing SMSA's in the direction of the assumed prevailing wind
if more people were reported to be exposed than reside in
the coke oven SMSA.) For non-coke oven areas/ the ambient
BaP concentrations were extrapolated to "1975" unless single
year data were available for 1974, 1975, or 1976. A common
year was used because ambient BaP concentrations have been
noted to be decreasing with time. ' No significant rela-
tionship was found between these "1975" concentrations and
the population density or population of the cities in which
urban samples had been taken. Therefore, the populations in
non-coke oven areas were assumed to be exposed to the "1975"
ambient BaP concentration, if available, or to national
average concentrations for large urban areas, smaller
cities and towns, and rural areas. The details of this
estimation procedure and the aggregated results are given in
the following section.
B. Analysis and Results of the Ambient Concentration Technique
For the reasons discussed in the previous section, popula-
tion exposures were estimated from the available ambient air
BaP concentrations110' 111/ 1 ' 'for areas without coke
118/
ovens and from the results of a recent study ' for areas
with coke ovens. This method was the best feasible even
124
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though the ambient air has been monitored for 3aP at only
several hundred sites in the country at any time. As a
decreasing trend in 3aP ambient concentrations had been
demonstrated at most stations over recent years, ' the
data from various years were estimated for a common year,
"1975." The year "1975" was chosen as a common year to
reflect these decreasing trends and because much of the
state and local data were available for only 1974, 1975, or
1976. These values were used directly as were the annual
average BaP concentrations for 1975 for other sites. For
monitoring locations without recent data, the concentrations
from earlier years were extrapolated to 1975. Since the
ambient BaP concentrations must be asymptotically approaching
the background or zero level, the concentration was extra-
polated using a regression of the logarithm of the concentration
versus time.
The data from many stations showed highly significant
decreasing trends with coefficients of determination (R *s) as
high as 0.97. However, the data at other stations showed little
variation over time, and thus, very low R 's (i.e., <_0.01). For
several locations with only a few data points, a high concentra-
tion in one of the last years in which samples were taken would
cause the regression line to slope upward, i.e., to show an
increasing trend in ambient 3aP concentrations over time. This
situation usually occurred for the NASN sites that were last
sampled for BaP in 1970. Since the stations where sampling had
been continued generally showed decreasing or constant trends
with time (presumably due to the decreased use of inefficient
combustion sources of 3aP such as. residential coal use and open
burning), a value of concencration approximately equal ro che
maximum ambienr. 3aP concentration in any sample year was se-
lected for che "1975" value.
125
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For non-coke oven cities, the benefit of stratifying the
"1975" annual average BaP concentrations with respect to popula-
tion density or population was explored; however/ the advantages
of this approach were found to be negligible at best. Popula-
tion density and population figures taken from census data for
99/
urbanized areas were chosen as surrogate measures of fuel
consumption and other consumptive sources of BaP. Regressions
between the ambient BaP concentrations for "1975" and the ur-
banized area population densities and populations of cities
without coke ovens showed no significant relationship. (The R
was less than 0.022 for the population density of 92 areas
versus the "1975" BaP concentration and less than 0.011 for the
population of 24 areas.) The non-coke oven cities were grouped
by ranges of population density and the means and standard
deviations of the ambient annual average BaP concentrations for
"1975" were calculated. No discernible trend of concentration
with respect to population density could be found. (The calcu-
lated values were 1.30 + 1.24 ng/m for 13 areas with more than
4,000 people per square mile, 1.20 + 1.09 ng/m for 27 areas
with 3,000 to 4,000 people per square mile, 0.79 £ 0.61 ng/m
for 22 areas with 2,500 to 3,000 people per square mile, 1.21 +
1.21 ng/ra for 19 areas with 2,000 to 2,500 people per square
mile, and 1.70 + 3.26 ng/m for 11 areas with 1,000 to 2,000
people per square mile.)
Because no significant relationships could be found between
the ambient air BaP concentrations and the most likely surro-
gates of consumption, a national average BaP concentration for
all non-coke oven cities of a certain size was deemed to be the
best measure available. Using all the data that were found for
non-coke oven cities greater than 25,000 population (98 areas),
a concentration of 1.05 £ 1.00 ng/m was calculated. As the
coke oven population exposure study by the Stanford Research
126
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Institute (SRI) had given a value of 0.38 ng/m as the
average of the 1975 data from NASN sites in cities without
coke ovens (13 sites}, it was suspected that the extrapolated
values might be causing the discrepancy. Therefore/ a
further check was made by calculating a mean for the 33 non-
coke oven cities either with one monitor (generally NASN
sites) or with area averages of several monitors (generally
PA or MD sites) for either 1974, 1975, or 1976. The cal-
culated ambient 3aP annual average concentration was 1.13 +
1.06 ng/m . It should be noted that the SRI average con-
centration for non-coke oven cities was calculated using
data for selected cities and was not used in the SRI analysis. '
Therefore, in calculating population exposures for this type
of area in which no BaP sampling had been done, a BaP concen-
tration of 1.1 ng/m was used. Similarly, a value of 0.36
£ 1.04 ng BaP/ra was calculated from the 17 data points for
town and cities of 10,000 to 50,000 population which were
not in a SMSA (Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area).
Also, a value of 0.15 + 0.17 ng/in was calculated for the 21
data points in parks or other rural locations. Thus, values
of 0.86 and 0.15 ng/m were used for these types of areas,
respectively.
The rough estimates of population exposure to 3aP
calculated from the SRI coke oven study results and from
monitoring data and the average concentrations calculated in
this study for non-coke oven areas are given in^ Table IV-1.
National aggregates of the estimates of the numbers of
people exposed to concentrations within ranges and the total
population exposure (reported as the product of the number
of people in an area times the estimated ambient BaP concen-
tration to which they are exposed divided by 1,000) are
presented. The population figures used were taken from the
127
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98/
1970 census. ' Table IV-1 also shows the results of a
sensitivity analysis using the 95 percent confidence limits
of the calculated national average concentrations for non-
coke oven areas and the census breakdowns of population by
type of area. The number of people estimated to be exposed
to concentrations within a certain range and the total
propulations exposure generally vary by a factor of two or
less.
The exposure estimation procedure is outlined in Table
IV-2. A sample calculation for Utah is given in Appendix G.
The populations and average exposure concentrations for BaP
concentrations due to coke oven emissions were taken direc-
118/
tly from the SRI study. ' The numbers of people exposed
118/
within certain ranges of radii are given by Suta. ' For
each range, an average concentration is given or the concen-
tration is noted to be the background concentration. SRI
used background concentrations developed from monitoring
results varying from those for nearby sites to as general a
number as a statewide average in an attempt to approximate
background levels in the neighborhood of the coke ovens.
Although more urban area-specific background levels were
sometimes available, the SRI background levels were used for
the populations in coke oven areas not exposed to greater
concentrations. Thus, the population exposure estimates for
coke oven areas from this study are reasonably consistent
with those of the SRI study. Generally, the population
estimated by SRI to be exposed to coke ovens or their back-
ground levels were less than the urban population in the
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) and state in
which the coke ovens were located. Therefore, the urban
population not exposed to concentrations due to coke oven
emissions was assumed to be exposed to the background
concentration. In some cases, the total urban and rural
population of the SMSA had to be used. For some areas, the
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Tahiti IV-1
Mj£thod of Calculation
KKA exposure calculation
using data from SRI for
coke oven areas and
ambient data or national
average concentrations
fot non-coke oven areas I
means of national average
concentrations"/
upper limits of 95
peicent confidence
of national . .
concentrations '
BbllUiTlVlTV OF NATIONAL llaP EXPOSURE ESTIMATES
Population
Uxpoaure
. (1000's of
Population (1000's) Exposed to DaP Concentrations "(ng/n ) People x
>5.0 1.0-5.0 0.5-1.0 <0.5 ' '
lower limits of 95 |ier-
c-ent confldenoe intervals
of notional average
concenttattonab/
National average
concentrationu
for totdl population
cate
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TABLE IV- 2
PROCEDURE FOR BaP POPULATION EXPOSURE
CALCULATIONS IN EACH STATS3/
Cities with Coke Ovens (Data From
For each area with coke ovens :
£ r
Total exposed at >SRI background = . . (SRI estimated
population within distance range i from coke oven j) x
(SRI estimated BaP concentration within distance range i
from coke oven j )
Remaining urban population in SMSA = (total urban popu-
lation in SMSA from 1970 Census) - (population counted as
exposed at >SRI background) '
Total exposure in SMSA (>SRI background) = (total exposed
at >SRI background) + (remaining urban population in SMSA)
x (SRI background concentration)
II. Non-Coke Oven Cities With Ambient Monitoring Results0'
For each city with monitoring results:
Total exposure in city = (urban population in city) x (es-
timated "1975" 3aP concentration — from actual or extra-
polated data presented in SRI11S/1
130
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TABLE IV-2 (Continued)
PROCEDURE FOR 3aP POPULATION EXPOSURE
CALCULATIONS IN EACH STATEa/
c/
III. Non-Coke Oven Cities Without Ambient Monitoring Results '
A. Urban Populations in Uncounted SMSA's:
Uncounted urban population In SMSA's = (total urban popula-
tion in SMSA's in state) - (total urban population in
SMSA's already counted)
Total urban exposure in uncounted SMSA's = (total urban
population in SMSA's) x (national average of recently
measured and extrapolated "1975" concentrations for areas
with populations >25,000 = L.I ng/ra )
B. Uncounted Urban Populations Outside of SMSA's:
Uncounted urban population outside of SMSA's = (total
urban population outside of SMSA's in state) - (total
urban population outside SMSA's already counted)
Total uncounted urban exposure outside of SMSA's = (un-
counted urban population outside of SMSA's) x (national
average of recently measured and extrapolated "1975"
concentrations for non-SMSA areas of 10,000-50,000 pop-
ulation = 0.86 ng/n )
C. Uncounted Rural Populations:
Uncounted rural population = (total rural copulation in
state) - (total rural populat-on already counted)
131
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Table IV-2 (Continued)
PROCEDURE FOR 3aP POPULATION EXPOSURE
CALCULATIONS IN EACH STATE3/
Total uncounted rural exposure = (uncounted rural popula-
tion) x (national average of recently measured and extra-
polated "1975" concentrations for rural areas of less
than 10,000 population = 0.15 ng/m )
IV. Total Exposure in Statec'
Total exposure in state = (total exposure at >SRI back-
ground in coke oven SMSA's) + (total exposure in non-coke
oven cities with monitoring results) + (total exposure
in uncounted SMSA's) +• (total uncounted urban exposure
outside of SMSA's) + (total uncounted rural exposure)
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TA3LZ IV-2 (Continued)
PROCEDURE FOR 3aP POPULATION EXPOSURE
CALCULATIONS III EACH STATED
FOOTNOTES
a' An example of the population exposure estimate assump-
tions and calculations for the Stats of Utah is given in
Appendix G-
' If the remaining urban population in an SMSA was nega-
tive (i.e., if the population estimated by SRI to reside
within 15 km of all coke ovens was greater than the 1970
Census population of the SMSA), the uncounted exposed
population was counted at the lowest exposure concentra-
tions and assumed to reside in the rural population of
the SMSA. Any remaining exposed population was assumed
to reside in neighboring SMSA's.
c/
' Population data was taken from che 1970 Census.
133
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population reported by SRI to be exposed to the concentrations
attributable to coke ovens or to the background levels was
greater than the total population in the SMSA or in the part
of the SMSA within the state in which the coke ovens were
located. If this were so, the remaining exposed population
was counted in the part(s) of the SMSA in other states, in
adjacent SMSA's in the same or adjacent states, or in the
rural population of adjacent areas, depending on the locality
and the presumed prevailing wind direction in the area.
The people in each state which were not counted as exposed
to coke oven generated concentrations or their background levels
were then counted at estimated concentrations of exposure. For
cities without coke ovens where ambient BaP sampling had been
conducted, an actual (1974, 1975, or 1976) BaP concentration or
an extrapolated (from data for previous years) BaP concentration
for "1975" was used. The calculated national average concen-
trations were used to estimate the population exposures for
the areas not affected by coke ovens .where sampling had not
been conducted. The concentration and population categories
used for each state were: (1) 1.1 ng/m for the urban
population within SMSA's; (2) 0.86 ng/m for the urban
population outside SMSA's; and (3) 0.15 ng/m for the rural
population. It should be noted that although the exposures
to rural average concentrations were calculated for total
unexposed rural populations in a state, the rural population
is actually dispersed throughout the urban (both SMSA and
non-SMSA) and rural areas of the state. Therefore, it is
assumed that the BaP concentration generally decreases to
the rural average level on the outskirts of and between
urban areas.
The results of this very approximate estimation procedure
are given in Table IV-1 for the nation while the intermediate
134
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estimates on the state level are given in Appendix H.
Assuming that the estimates of exposure concentrations used
in this study were correct, the population weighted national
average BaP exposure concentration would be 2.7 ng/m for
people exposed to concentrations directly attributable to
coke ovens. Similarly, for all people in coke oven areas,
i.e., those exposed to the coke oven-caused levels or back-
ground levels developed by SRI, and for everyone in the
country, the national average BaP exposure concentrations
would be 1.3 ng/m and 0.37 ng/m , respectively.
The quality of these estimates of population exposure should
be noted. Because they are based on data from a relatively
small number of monitoring sites which have been operated at
various times using different equipment, and because the nature
of POM production probably leads to significant spatial varia-
tions in ambient concentrations, the calculated values of
population exposure are very rough estimates. These esti-
mates, however, were the only ones feasible within the time
available for the study and probably are the only type of
estimate currently feasible.-
A significant improvement in these population exposure
estimates will require improved emissions, production, and
localized consumption data, or greatly increased ambient air
monitoring data. Quite a few studies are in progress which
are investigating the sampling, emissions, transformations,
and health effects of airborne POM. As most of these studies
involve basic research, laboratory testing, or field testing,
the quantity and quality of results that will be achieved
within a given time cannot be predicted. However, the
results of these studies should improve the data base on
POM's. Nevertheless, this improvement may not be enough to
allow the use of better estimation techniques.
135
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As the calculation procedure assumed national average
exposure concentrations which had standard deviations of
about the same magnitude as the average, the calculated
state and national population exposures generally do not
account for local, or even regional, variations in ambient
BaP concentrations. These variations are probably often
significant. Therefore, the observation that the calculated
population exposure estimates are usually higher for states
with larger populations is at least in part due to the use
of national average ambient concentrations. Those states
with coke ovens are generally estimated to have higher
population exposures than other states with nearly equal
population. Presumably, the errors inherent in the estimation
procedure have a lesser effect when the results are aggregated
to the national level. Since the range of commonly measured
ambient BaP concentrations is less than an order of magnitude,
the aggregated population exposure estimates should be, at
worst, an indication of the actual order of magnitude.
136
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SECTION V
DISCUSSION OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART AND
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Discussion of Sampling and Analysis Techniques
Numerous POM sampling and analysis techniques have been
used by various groups at various times; therefore, the compara-
bility of results is questionable. Reviews of the earlier
techniques are given in the National Academy of Science study
and the more recent Scientific and Technical Assessment Report
on Particulate POM ' by EPA. More recently, techniques have
been developed to collect more of the vaporous POM. Although
there are no standard techniques, the general sampling and
analysis techniques and their comparability are outlined
briefly in the following paragraphs. For more detailed
information, the reader is referred to the original docu-
ments and EPA source testing results..
The major POM sampling techniques that have been used are
EPA Method 5, modified Method 5 high volume samplers, and adsor-
39 44 128/
bent samplers. ' ' ' The most extensive work on POM's,
39/
reported in AP-33, ' used a Method 3 sampling train including a
heated filter to collect particles followed by ice-bach imping-
ers to condense vapors. Thus, this method collected some, but
probably not all/ vapors and most of the particles. Sampling
results were reported as total POM collected and measured per
sampled volume, and thus, per energy or material input. Modi-
fied Method 5 high volume samplers have been used in order to
sample open sources such as open burning, especially in research
facilities where the burning is done in fairly large enclosures.
Also, high volume samplers may be used to increase the quantity
of sample available for analysis so that lower concentrations of
POM species in air can be detected by a given analytical technique
137
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With the increased indications that the vaporous POM
may be the larger fraction, adsorbent samplers have been
developed to collect vapors with an increased efficiency.
Generally, a heated filter is followed by a condenser and a
resin adsorbent, such as Tenax, Chromosorb, or XAD-2. Tenax
44/
samplers as developed by Battelle ' have been most extensively
studied to date; however, it is likely that XAD-2 will be
used for the new EPA Source Assessment Sampling System
(SASS). This system, when fully developed, is to have the
capability for POM sampling and to routinely collect an
adequate sample for organics analysis. The Tenax adsorbent
system has been shown in the lab to recover 80 to 115 percent
of POM's placed in the stream even in the presence of sulfur
or nitrogen oxides or other additives. Field testing, to
43 /
date, has demonstrated good reproducibility. ' However, in
comparison runs with Method 5 or Method 5 high volume sam-
plers, the adsorbent system combination of sampling and
analysis techniques has measured POM emissions at least an
43 44/
order of magnitude greater. ' '
The number of analysis techniques that have been used is
even greater than that of sampling techniques because an analy-
sis technique generally includes extraction, separation, and
analytical measurement steps. The early work by Hangebrauck, et
39/
al. ' used benzene extraction, separation by column chromato-
graphy, and analyses by ultraviolet spectrophotometry to measure
quantities of ten POM species. Other solvents, e.g., dichloro-
methane, have been used in other studies, while separation
techniques used have included thin-layer, liquid, and gas
chromatography. POM's have also been analyzed using fluo-
rescence, flame ionization, or mass spectrometry, generally
in combination with liquid or gas chromatography. Various
research groups have measured from six to 23 POM species.
138
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Mass spectrometry-computsr systems, which are among the most
commonly used systems and are growing in usage, can identify
nearly all known POM's with, reasonable accuracy and sensitivity
(on the order of nanograms per sample for most systems) . Known
POM's are those species which have been individually identified,
characterized, and cataloged (by their spectral peaks) in the com-
puter system. Many other POM species probably exist; however,
some of these will be measured by some systems as the computers
scan for "typical POM molecular weights" within the POM range of
molecular weights.
The comparability of results from different combinations of
sampling and analysis techniques is not quantitatively known at
present; however, it presumably varies with the conditions and
44/
may vary by as much as an order of magnitude. ' The major dif-
ferences are probably caused by the differences in the sampling
collection efficiency for POM vapors. Theoretically, most POM
species are vaporous at typical power plant stack conditions.03
Field work has shown that the varporous fraction of POM
is generally significant for most stacks and processes
so the differences in results for different vaporous col-
lection efficiences may be quite significant. Also, when it
condenses as a particle, or adsorbs onto a particle, a
particular POM species may either stabilize so that it is
less susceptible to degradation by ultraviolet light (e.g.,
BaP) or destabilize to become another POM species (e.g.,
fluorene to fluorenone). Since such interspecies transfor-
mations occur, stack samples including vapors may measure
most POM; however, the quantities of individual species will
generally be different than those measured in the plume
after adsorption of the vaporous POM onto particles.0 ''
Another complication is that the polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PNAH) have been the focus of research efforts ar.c
LT9
-------
thus are readily measured. If they destabilize, PNAH are gen-
erally transformed into quinones or other POM species, which are
often not detected. It is generally thought that the results
from ultraviolet spectrophotometry analysis of EPA Method 5
train samples, the results from gas chromatography-mass spectro-
metry-computer analysis of adsorbent train samples, and the
actual quantity present in emissions differ by an order of mag-
nitude or less. ' ' However, a POM species may be transformed
to another species when adsorbed onto a particle ' ' or when
reacted with gases (e.g., NO2/ 03, or PAN) in the atmosphere. -32'133'13
Therefore, the POM in the ambient atmosphere may be significantly
different, both in quantity and character, from what would be
suggested by emissions testing results.
B. Current Studies and Research Recommendations
Due to the renewed and increased interest in atmospheric
POM, many current studies are investigating the sampling, emis-
sions, transformations, and health effects of airborne POM. As
most of these studies involve basic research or laboratory or
field testing, the quantity and quality of results that will be
achieved within a given time cannot be predicted. Therefore,
this section only outlines briefly the areas of concentration,
general objectives, and tentative timetables of current studies
regarding the topic of this study, the emissions, control, and
population exposure of POM. The studies noted are not a com-
prehensive listing of all current work involving the study of
POM; however, most of the major studies involving emissions, con-
trol, and population exposure should be included.
The following paragraphs outline the current studies and re-
search recommendations regarding POM in the areas of exposure es-
timation, sampling and analysis, stationary sources, and mobile
sources. Some general comments may be made about these areas
140
-------
and other areas less directly related to POM emissions and ex-
posure. Work is proceeding within most of the areas where
further research is required. However, discussion may be of
value in outlining the scope of some of the current studies and
thus, in pointing out the needs for future research.
In order to improve the estimation of population exposure,
either ambient concentration data or source emissions and produc-
tion or consumption data must be increased and improved. No
aajor federal effort is known to exist that will increase the
number of BaP, or other POM, monitors. As a multitude of local
monitors would be required to assess the exposures of local pop-
ulations (assuming the people stayed in an area of constant
exposure concentration), such a massive effort is not recom-
mended. Some success is being achieved with the calibration
of BaP emissions modelling to the data from five ambient
139/
monitors in the three-county Detroit area. ' (This model
will be used to estimate exposure levels in the past for
epidemiclogical studies.) An EPRI-sponsored study is analyzing
the organic matter, including PAH in New York City total
suspended particulars samples, and investigating seasonal
and long-term trends in order to attribute ambient concen-
trations to sources. These types of studies examining
the relationship between emissions and exposure concen-
trations for relatively small land areas could greatly
increase the understanding of the mechanisms involved and
improve the quality of such exposure estimates. As some
states (e.g., Pennsylvania and Maryland) are conducting
relatively widespread monitoring of 3aP, the results of such
monitoring could improve the development and calibration of
exposure concentration estimation from data on local sources.
The data base for emissions modelling requires improvement
in two major areas: the quality and representativeness of emis-
sion factors for all potential sources of POM and the quality
141
-------
and availability of consumption or production data for local
point and area sources. Much work is being done that should im-
prove the available emission factors; it is outlined in the fol-
lowing paragraphs. Most of the available point source data is
based on the National Emissions Data System (NEDS). This data'
base is generally recognized to have major short-comings and
anomalies; however, no major effort is being planned to update
and correct the data for the entire nation. Improved data are
being collected for some areas. Fuel consumption and other area
source data are generally available only on the state level.
An NSF-sponsored study is collecting data on personal energy
consumption for transportation by county for selected SMSA's
which could be expanded to the nation within about two years. '
Efforts to improve and standardize sampling and analysis
of POM are being funded by EPA in conjunction with the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) for stationary sources and
also by the Coordinating Research Council (CRC) for mobile sources.
Most of the stationary source studies involve laboratory and field
testing and validation of the Source Assessment Sampling System
(SASS),43'53'144/ This system will routinely collect enough
sample for analysis of organics using a gas chromatograph-mass
spectrometer as the system will have an adsorbent, probably
XAD-2. EPRI is funding work by Oak Ridge National Lab to deter-
mine whether hopper ash POM can be used as an indicator of or-
148/
ganics adsorbed in fly ash. ' There is little concern about
gasoline emissions as catalytic converters control POM effective-
ly; however, the comparability and accuracy of the wide variety
141/
of diesel exhaust sampling and analysis techniques ' are ques-
tionable. EPA is conducting some in-house work on organics,
but are concentrating on the oxygenated fractions, and are sponsor-
142/
ing some research on PNA analysis. ' The CRC has sponsored a
round-robin on sampling techniques, the results of which suggest
142
-------
that scintillation counters and tracers should be used; however,
142/
this is an expensive technique which is not preferred by SPA. '
As analysis procedures ara being improved, CRC is consider-
ing funding projects concerning the sampling of oarticulate die-
sel emissions. As these fine particles may undergo chemical and
physical transformations, it is not certain that adequate
i 43/
methods can be developed." ' The development, validation, and
usage of standardized POM sampling and analysis techniques with
comparable results should be continued.
In addition to the field validation of the SASS train the
other major development in stationary source emissions data is
the Pine Particle Emissions Information System (FPEIS). Within a
year, this new EPA data system should include a significant
427
amount of data on organics ' . All SASS train sampling results
will be routinely put into the system. The planned field vali-
dation for the SASS train and other POM sampling will include
testing of (date results expected) utility (3/79), industrial
(5/80), commercial/institutional (9/79), residential (9/78),
and internal combustion (11/79) stationary combustion sources
by TRW,3 ' coal-fired stoker boilers by the American Soiler In-
stitute (6/78, 5/79) , 5' coal-fired utilities, industrial
boilers, and residential furnaces (1978) by Monsanto Research
Corporation, ' coke oven pushing (1979), quenching, leaks, stacks,
and by-product plants (1978) ,'°' and coal-fired utilities to
assess control efficiency (1973, 1979) by XV3 (for SPRI).33'
147/
Another EPA study may measure POM from waste oil incineration.
Although the results of these studies should improve the quantity
and quality of POM emissions data, its representativeness will
still be questionable as specific sources have different designs,
operation, and maintenance. Therefore, source sampling should
be continued in order to nore thoroughly investigate these ef-
fects and the efficiencies of various types of con-roi equipment
for POM.
143
-------
The POM emissions from future energy sources are being
investigated by several organizations. EPA has done some
testing of low-Btu coal gasification and was attempting to
arrange testing of high-Btu gasification and liquefaction. '
Studies for EPA have also been initiated GCA to conduct
environmental assessments of fluidized bed combustion, coal
combustion, catalytic combustion of oil, and gasification of
149/
oil. ' The Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Research
Centers have been measuring trace organics in process and
effluent streams, including those for solvent refined coal
(SRC). ' EPRI is considering conducting studies of aromatic
hydrocarbons in the emissions and work environments of coal
gasification and liquefaction plants. '
The emissions from burning coal refuse banks and forest fires
should also be investigated. The on-going MSHA study should
delineate the magnitude of the problem of emissions from burn-
ing refuse banks in that it will locate them and make general
797
observations about emissions. The. U.S. Forest Service intends
78/
to routinely sample for POM in its combustion experiments.
These efforts will improve the quality of the existing data
base; however, due to the variability and uncertainty involved,
much more work is recommended.
As stated previously, the studies in progress concerning the
generation of POM by mobile sources are investigating the sampl-
ing and analysis of diesel emissions. Some results are forth-
coming from the Department of Energy (DOE) on POM emissions from
both stationary and automobile diesel engines. ' The focus
of current research should continue to be the development of re-
liable, standardized and comparable sampling and analysis pro-
cedures for diesel emissions.
144
-------
There are several other research needs that could be crit-
ical. The identification and assessment of emissions from po-
tential sources and emission points of POM should be continued.
The chemical and physical transformations of POM in the stack,
plume, and atmosphere must be assessed in much greater detail
before the exposures to a particular species of POM attributable
to specific emission sources can be estimated with any degree of
certainty.
145
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121. U.S. Office of Highway Planning, Fuel Consumption 1975, 1976.
122. National Coal Association, Steam Electric Plant Factors, 1976,
Washington, DC, 1977.
123. Energy and Environmental Analysis, Incorporated, Market-
Oriented Planning Study (MQPPS), Draft Final Report for
Energy and Development Administration, September 1977.
124. Wright, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, March
1978, Personal Communication.
125. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United
States, 1976, Washington, DC, 1977.
126. Hanna, Steven R., "A Simple Method of Calculating Dispersion
From Urban Area Sources," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 2,1(12) : 774-777, December 1971.
127. Gifford, F.A., "Applications of a Simple Urban Pollution
Model," Proceedings of the American Meteorology Society
Conference on Biometeorology, Philadelphia, PA, November 1972.
128. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Standards of Performance
for New Stationary Sources," Federal Register, Volume 36,
Number 247, December 23, 1971.
129. Trenholm, Andrew R., Standards Support Section, Industrial
Studies Branch, ESED, EPA, "Benzene Emissions From Coke
Ovens," Memo to William F. Hamilton, Chief, Economic Analysis
Branch, SASD, EPA, Durham, NC, October 1977.
156
-------
130. Trenholm, Andrew R. , and Beck, Lee L. / "Assessment of
Hazardous Organic Emissions From Slot-Type Coke Oven
Batteries," Internal SPA Report, Durham, NC, March 16, 1978.
131. U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Estimates and Projections
1977-2050, Series P-25, No. 704, July 1977.
132. Pitts, James N., Jr., Grossjean, Daniel R., et al., "Mutagenic
Activity of Nitrogenous Pollutants in Ambient and Simulated
Atmospheres," Presented before the Division of Environmental
Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, Anaheim, CA,
March 12-17, 1978.
133. Grossjean, Dr. Daniel R., Statewide Air Pollution Research
Center, University of California, Riverside, CA, Personal
Communication, April 1973.
134. Bornstein, Mark, GCA Technology Division, Boston, MA,
Personal Communicatin, March 1973.
135. Seizinger, D. E., Bartlesville Energy Research Center, DOE,
Bartlesville, OK, Personal Communication, April 1973.
136. Spinet, R. S., Gulf Research and Development Company, Pittsburgh,
PA, PersonalCommunication, March 1973.
137. Eimutis, E. C., and Quill, R. P., Source Assessment: Non-criteria
Pollutant Emissions, ?3 270-550, July 1977.
138. Gundel, L., Chang, S. G., and Novakov, T. , "Heterogeneous Reactions
of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Soot Extracts with NO2,"
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Energy & Environment Division,
Atmospheric Aerosol Research Annual Reoort 1975-1977,L3L-6819,
TID-4500-R66, 1977.
139. Nagda, Niren, Geomet, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD, Personal
Communication, November, December 1977, January 1973.
140. Kneip, T. J., Lezko, M. A., et al, "Organic Matter in New York
City TSP, Comparisons of Seasonal Variations and Relationships
to Source Tracers," Presented at the Conference on Carbonaceous
Particles inthe Amosphere, Berkeley, CA, March 20-22, 1973.
141. Lipkea, w. H., Johnson, J. H., and Vuk, C. T., "The Physical
and Chemical Character of Diesel Particulate Emissions - Measure-
ment Techniques and Fundamental Considerations," SP-430, Society
of Automotive Engineering Congress and Exhibition, Detroit, MI,
February, 27 - March 3, 1978.
157
-------
142. Tejada, Sylvestre/ ESRL, EPA, Durham/ NC, Personal Communica-
tion, March 1978.
143. Zengel, A. E., The Coordinating Research Council, New York, NY,
Personal Communication, March 1978.
144. Johnson, Larry, Process Measurement Branch, IERL, EPA, Research
Triangle Park, NC, Personal Communication, March 1978.
145. Bowen, Joshua, Chief, Combustion Research Branch, IERL, EPA,
Research Triangle Park, NC/ Personal Communication, March 1978.
146. Reznik/ Dick, Monsanto Research Corp., Dayton, OH, Personal
Communication, March 1978.
147. Weinstein, Norm, ReCon Systems, Princeton, NJ, Personal
Communication, March 1978.
148. Perhac, Ralph, Environmental Assessment Department, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA, Personal Communications, March 1978.
149. Turner, P. P., Chief, Advanced Processes Branch, IERL, EPA,
Research Triangle Park, NC, Personal Communication, March 1978.
150. Barush, Steve, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Personal Communication,
March 1978.
151. MacDonald, Bob, Cooperative Fire Protection Staff Group, Forest
Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC, Personal
Communication, July 1978.
152. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (MDAD, OAQPS), SAROAD Comoute
Data System/ Research Triangle Park, NC, 1977.
153. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, Public Law 95-95, 91
Statute 635-796, August 7, 1977.
154. American Iron and Steel Institute, Directory of Iron and
Steel Works of the U.S. and Canada, 1974.
155. Miller, M. E., and Holzworth, G. C., "An Atmospheric Diffusion
Model for Metropolitan Areas," Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, 17(1); 46-50, January 1967.
156. Suta, Benjamin E., Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA,
Personal Communication, September 1973.
158
-------
157. Cadle/ S. H., and Williams, R. L. , "Gas and Par-ids Emissions
from Automobile Tires in Laboratory and Field Studies."
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 28, (5) : 502-
507, May 1973.
153. Cadle, Steven H., Environmental Science Department, General
Motors Research Laboratory, Warren, MI, Personal Communication,
October 1978.
159. Rhodes, Bill, ISRL, SPA, Research Triangle Park, NC, Personal
Communication, March 1978.
160. Ballantine, David, Environment Division, DOE, Washington,
DC, Personal Communication, March 1978.
161. Campion, Raymond, Exxon, Inc., Houston, TX, Personal Communi-
cation, October 1978.
162. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Compliance Data System,
Research Triangle Park, NC, April 1977.
159
-------
APPENDIX A
COAL CONSUMPTION BY STEAM ELECTRIC PLANTS IN L975
(25 megawatts or greater)
Total Consumption
Location Number of Plants (1,000 Mg(l,000 ton))
NEW ENGLAND
Connecticut 0 0(0)
Maine 0 0(0)
Massachusetts 3 729 ( 804)
New Hampshire 1 382 ( 972)
Rhode Island 0 0(0)
Vermont 1 12 ( 13)
TOTAL 5 1,623 ( 1,789)
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
New Jersey 5 2,041 ( 2,250)
New York 10 5,557 ( 6,125)
Pennsylvania 27 33,227 ( 36,626)
TOTAL 42 40,324 ( 45,001)
EAST NORTH CENTRAL
Illinois 25 29,237 ( 32,223)
Indiana 26 24,704 ( 27,231)
Michigan 26 18,300 ( 20,723)
Ohio 34 42,117 ( 46,426)
Wisconsin 18 8,314 ( 9,716)
TOTAL 129 123,671 (136,324)
WEST NORTH CENTRAL
Iowa 23 4,437 ( 4,891)
Kansas 6 2,707 ( 2,984)
Minnesota 16 6,650 ( 7,330)
Missouri 18 16,054 ( 17,696)
Nebraska 5 1,156 ( 1,274)
Morth Dakota 5 3,786 (4,173)
South Dakota 3 1,477 (1,623)
TOTAL 76~ 36,266( 39,976)
160
-------
APPENDIX A (Continued}
COAL CONSUMPTION 3Y STEAM 2LZCTRIC PLANTS IN L975
(25 negawatts or greater)
Total Consumption
Location Number of Plants (1,000 Mg(1,000 ton))
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Delaware 2 864 ( 952)
District of Columbia 1 101 ( 111)
Florida 5 5,223 ( 5,757)
Georgia 7 11,474 ( 12,648)
Maryland 5 3,512 ( 3,371)
North Carolina 13 16,507 ( 18,196)
South Carolina 9 3,993 (4,402)
Virginia 7 3,619 (3,989)
West Virginia 12 23,411 ( 25,806)
TOTAL 61 68,703 ( 75,732)
SAST SOUTH CSNT3AL
Alabama 10 15,694 ( 17,300)
Kentucky 18 20,289 ( 22,365)
Mississippi 2 1,273 ( 1,409)
Tennessee 3 1,401 ( 13,348)
TOTAL 38 54,360 ( 59,922)
WEST SOOTH CENTRAL
Arkansas 0 0(0)
Louisiana 0 0(0)
Oklahoma 0 0(0)
Texas 2 3,205 ( 9,044)
TOTAL 2 3,205 ( 9,044)
MOONTAIN
Arizona 2 3,864 (4,259)
Colorado 9 5,151 ( 5,678)
Idaho 0 0(0)
Montana 3 987 ( 1,088)
Nevada 2 4,022 ( 4,434)
New Mexico 2, 5,712 ( 7,399)
Utah 4 1,331 ( 2,013)
Wyoming 5 5,273 (5,915)
TOTAL 27 28,340 ( 31,791)
LSI
-------
APPENDIX A (Continued)
COAL CONSUMPTION BY STEAM ELECTRIC PLANTS IN 1975
(25 megawatts or greater)
Total Consumption
Location Number of Plants (1,000 Mg(l,000 ton))
PACIFIC
California 0 0(0)
Oregon 0 0(0)
Washington 1 3,637 ( 4,009)
TOTAL 1 3,637 ( 4,009)
UNITED STATES
TOTAL 381 366,129 (403,588)
Reported numbers may not add to totals due to rounding.
162
-------
ASSSMDIX 3
1CCAIICN, TT?S, AND CAPACITY CF PiT
Company and Location
id Co.
Aclantic ais
Carson
Process
b/
?CC
Charge Capacity (cviaic aecers
cer ssraaa dav)a/
Fresh Faed
9,100
1,300
Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
Zl Segundo
Richmond
Exxon Company
3en.icia
Gulf Oil Company
San-ca ?a Springs
Lion Oil Company (Tosco)
aakarsfield
Martinez
Mobil Oil Corporarion
Torrancs
?owerine Oil Corporacion
Sanra Fe
Shell Oil Company
Martinez
Texaco , Inc .
'Jnion Oil Ccmcanv of
Los Angeles
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
?CC
7,500
3,700
7,200
2,100
•1,300
7,500
9,200
L,300
7,300
5,600
4,450
7,150
1,400
790
2,100
50
Mone
2,200
Mcne
50
6,400
790
>ni
1,100
Asaoera Cil (u.3.), Ir.c.
Commerce Ciry
1,200
163
-------
APPENDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY OP PETROLEUM
CATALYTIC CRACXING FACILITIES?1/
Company and Location
COLORADO (Continued)
Continental Oil Company
Denver
DELAWARE
Getty Oil Corporation, Inc.
Delaware City
HAWAII
Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
Barbers Point
ILLINOIS
Amoco Oil Corporation
Wood River
Clark Oil s Refining Corp.
Blue Island
Hartford
Marathon Oil Company
Robinson
Mobil Oil Corporation
Joliet
Shell Oil Company
Wood River
Texaco, Inc.
Lawrenceville
Lockport
c/
Process
b/
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
Union Oil Company of California
Lemcnc FCC
Charge Capacity (cubic aeners
ger stream day)a/
Fresh Feed
2,400
9,900
3,000
6,000
4,100
4,100
5,300
15,000
15,000
5,400
4,300
3,700
Reevele
160
2,400
480
640
160
160
1,300
NR
Hone
MR
NR
1,300
164
-------
A7PSIDI2 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TXZ, AtfD caSftCZTX OF PST2CLSCM
CAZALTTIC C3AOCTG ?AdL2TIZS71/
gaj.y and Location
Process
b/
INDIAMA
Amoco Oil Company
Coocera-cive , Inc.
Chicago
Indiana Fara Bureau Caoceratiive
A3scc-iatz.cn , Inc .
Mt. Veaon
•tack Island Reiiiir.? Corp.
Indianapolis
SANS AS
Apco Oil Corpora-clan
Arkansas City
C3A , Inc .
Derby Rer^amg Csmpany
£-Z Serve
Shallow Hater
Getty Oil Ccapany
II dorado
:fcfail Oil Carpora-ci
Aucusca
Mational Caceera-ive 2ef in
Asscc^acion
McSherscn
FCC
FCC
?CC
FCC
FCC
Charge Cacaciry (cuiic aecars
ger gtrgaia day)a/
Fresh Feed
22,000
7,500
1,000
2,500
1,500
3,300
3,200
Recycle
790
320
None
130
FCC
FCC
TCC
TCC
?CC
2,500
1,400
1,700
370
4,900
240
130
270
NR
2,700
320
150
165
-------
APPENDIX B CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY OF PETROLEUM
CATALYTIC CRACKING FACILITIES?1/
Charge Capacity (cubic meters
per stream day)a//
Company and Location Process
KANSAS (Continued)
Pester Refining Company
El Dorado FCC
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Kansas City FCC
KENTUCKY
Ashland Petroleum Co.
Catlettsburg FCC
Louisville Refining, Division
of Ashland Oil, Inc.
Louisville FCC
LOUISIANA
Cities Service Oil Co.
Lake Charles FCC
Continental Oil Company
Lake Charles TCC
Exxon Company
Baton Rouge FCC
Good Hope Refineries, Inc.
Metairie FCC
Gulf Oil Company
Alliance Refinery, Belle Chasse FCC
b/
Murphy Oil Corporation
Meraux
Shell Oil Company
Morco ''-•'
Tenneco Oil Company
Chalmette
FCC
FCC
FCC
Fresh Feed
1,700
5,100
8,600
1,600
19,900
4,300
26,900
2,500
12,000
1,670
16,000
3,500
Recycle
SO
2,500
160
NR
3,200
790
None
None
370
80
320
vcc
-------
APPSHDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPS, AND CAPACITY OF PSTSQLZCM
CATALYTIC CSAOdNG FACILITIES?1/
Company and Location
Process
b/
Charge Capacity (cuiic aerers
=er stream dav)a/
Fresh Feed
Reevele
LOUISIANA (Continued)
Texaco
Convent
MICHIGAN
Dow Chemical U.S.A.
3ay City
Marathon Oil Company
Detroit
Total ?etroleuiaf lac.
Alaa
Continental Oil Company
Wrenshall
Koch Refir.lng Company
3os amount
Mor^hwestam Refining Co. ,
Division of Ashland Oil Co.
St. Paul Park
MISSISSIPPI
Aaerada-Hess Corporation
Pur-713
Chevron U.S.A., L.IC.
Pascacotila
Amoco Oil Company
Sugar Creek
FCC
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
TCC
FCC
11,000
950
4,000
2,100
1,500
7,000
3,300
2,300
3,900
320
720
240
30
160
240
320
FCC
5,500
1,900
167
-------
APPENDIX 3. CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY OF PETROLEUM
CATALYTIC CSAOdNG FACILITIES
Comoanv and Location
Process
b/
Charge Capacity (cubic meters
per stream day]a'
Fresh Feed
Recycle
MONTANA
Cenex
'Laurel
Continental Oil Company
Billings
Phillips Petroleum Company
Great Falls
NEBRASKA
CSA, Inc.
Scottsbluff
NEW JERSEY
Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
Perth Amboy
Exxon Company
Linden
Mobil Oil Corporation
Paulsboro
Texaco, Inc.
Westvillec/
NEW MEXICO
Navajo Sevining Company
Artesia
Shell Oil Company
Ciniza
NEW YORK
Ashland Petroleum Company
North Tonawanda
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
1,800
2,200
290
380
830
1,100
480
1,100
190
30
4,800
21,500
4,000
6,400
1,300
3., 200
None
NR
250
570
FCC 3,500
l.fift
None
-------
APSZSDI2 3
TY33, ASD CAPACITY or PSTSOLZUM
71/
rriC C2ACCNC- FAC
Comcanv and Location
Process
b/
Charge Capacity (cubic aetars
ser 3-craaa day) a//
Fresh Feed
Reevele
MEH
(Canciauedl
Mobil Oil Corporation
Suffalo
NORTH DAKOTA
Amoco Oil Company
Mandan
OEIO
Ashland ?«troleum Company
Canton
Gulf Oil Company
Claves
Toledo
Standard Oil Company of Ohio
Toledo
Sun Petroiaua Products Co.
Toledo
OKLAHOMA
Apco Oil Corporation
iiji ?e-cr-=iauia Co.
Corn: ir.er.-gal Oil Company
Ponca Cicy
Hudson 5e.fi.ii2C Company
TCC
?CC
FCC
FCC
FCC
rcc
3,000
3,700
3,390
7,900
FCC
1,100
3, GOO
7,000
1,10C
350
1,700
120
FCC
?CC
FCC
FCC
2,300
3,150
5,990
3,330
320
320
1,200
3,000
1,200
270
2,100
430
169
-------
APPENDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TY?S, AMD CAPACITY OF P3T2OLZUM
CATALYTIC C3ACXZNG FACILITIES 1/
Company and Location
OKLAHOMA (Continued)
Kerr-McGee Corporation
Wynnewcod
OKC Refining, Inc.
Oksnilgee
Sun Petroleum Products Co.
Duncan
Tulsa
Texaco, Inc.
West Tulsa'
c/
Vickers Petroleum Corp.
Ardmore
PENNSYLVANIA
3? Oil Corporation
Marcus Hook
Gulf Oil Company
Philadelphia
Sun Petrol sum Products Co.
Marcus Hook
United Refining Co.
Warren
TZNNESSS2
Charge Capacity (cusic ae-cers
aer stream day)a/
Processb/
FCC
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
?CC
FCC
FCC
rcc
Fresh Feed
1,330
1,300
4,000
4,300
2,900
3,420
7,200
14,000
12,000
1,750
Recycle
320
320
1,630
220
SR
160
250
1,000
2,400
30
Delta Pef
Memchis
Company
TCC
2,150
Hone
170
-------
APS21EI2 3 CCNTT^IUZD
TY3S, AMD CAPACITY OF PTT2.CI.ZuM
rriC C2ACSTHG FACILITIES' V
re Capacity (cubic
ser s-craan dav)
Company ar.d laca-gisr.
TSXAS
American Pe-czofina, Inc.
Mt. ?laasaac
?orr Arthur
Amoco Oil Compajiy
Texas Citv
c Richfield Campany
Hous-cn
Champ iin. Petrol sum Corp.
Carpus Chris-ti
Chevron "j'.S.A., lac.
£1 Paso
Cc-as-al Stazas Psnrcchemical
Company
Corpus Chris-ci
Cosden Oil i Chezical Co.
Process^
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
?cc
FCC
rrssh Faad
L,5QO
5,100
26,300
11,000
3,SOO
3,500
3,000
3,300
Recycle
350
320
5,200
790
30
430
95
ISO
Crown Can-cral Perroiaum
Corporation
Souszon
Diamond Shamrock Corp.
Sunrav
FCC
HCC
5,300
1,330
1,330
1,400
220
320
Scson Ccarpar.v
Savsown
FCC
21,SCO
3,300
Soif Oil Compar.y
Arthur
FCC
19,COO
950
17L
-------
APPENDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY 0? PETP.OL2DM
CATALYTIC CRACKING FACILITIES?1/
Charge Capacity (cubic aetars
per stream dav)
Company and Location
TEXAS (Continued)
La Gloria Oil and Gas Company
Tyler
Marathon Oil Company
Texas City
Mobil Oil Corporation
Beaumont
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Borger
Sweeny
Shell Oil Company
Deer Park
Odessa
Southwestern Refi.ii.ig Co., Inc.
Corpus Christi
Sun Petroleum Products Company
Carpus Christi.
Texaco, Lnc.
Amarilloc/
El Paso
Port Arthur
Texas City Refining, Inc.
Texas City
Union Oil Company of California
Beaumont
Winston Refining Company
Fort Worth
b/
Process
FCC
FCC
FCC
TCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
FCC
Fresh Feed
1,600
4,300
14,000
3,300
3,900
5,400
11 ,.000
1,670
1,900
3,200
1,300
1,100
21,500
4,300
5,200
Recycle
790
750
MR
NR
2,400
790
None
370
110
1,000
MR
MR
NR
160
640
FCC
540
410
172
-------
A2S2IDI2 3 CCNTi:iUiD
ca?a.crrv c? PST
Charge Casaci-y (Cijic
and Lcca-ior.
OTAH
Amcco Oil Ccnrpar.'/
Salt: I^aka City
devrcn J.5.A.
Salt laxa Cizv
Husky Oil Caccar.y
Moria Salt LaJca
Phillips Pstralaus Ccnpar.v
Woods Cross
PLanaau, Inc.
3cosevelt
Amoca Oil Cc
YorJctawn
WRSHZNGTOM
Mobil Oil Ccr?orarion
Femdala
Shell Oil Company
Anacomas
Tsxaco .
Anaccr^as
>Sar=hy Oil Csrcera^i
Process
b/
FCC
?CC
HCC
TCC
rcc
rcc
?cc
?cc
Fresh Teed
2,900
1,700
L,100
700
L,300
330
4,500
4,050
5,700
•;,aco
Recycle
640
Mcne
150
400
;oo
Sone
790
320
2,700
I, SCO
130
173
-------
APPENDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TYPE, AND CAPACITY OF PETROLEUM
CATALYTIC C3ACXZMG FACILITIES?1/
Company and Location
Process
b/
Charge Capacity (cubic aecars
oer s-creaa dav) a/
Fresh Feed
Recycle
WYOMING
Amoco Oil Company
Casper FCC
Husky Oil Company
Cheyenne FCC
Cody FCC
Little America Refining Company
Casper TCC
Sinclair Oil Corporation
Sir.cla.ir FCC
Tesoro Petroleum Corporation
Newcastle TCC
1,500
1,600
520
1,000
2,300
640
330
400
160
640
190
480
Texaco, Inc.
Casper
1,100
174
-------
A5SSXDIX 3 CONTINUED
LOCATION, TY3S, AHD CAPACITY OF PST3GLZUM
CATALYTIC CPACKI2IG FACILITIES7L/
Capacities originally reported in barrels per stream day. Converted to cubic
aeters per stream day using a conversion factor cf 0.153987 cubic raeters
per barrel and rs'aidi-ig zs zhe nusber of signiiican- figures arigmall/ resorted.
= Fluid Catalyris Cracking.
TCC =• Theraofor Catalytic Cracking.
3CC a Scudriflow Ca-iaiv-tic Cracking.
S31 ** Mot ?scorted.
All figures are per calendar day. Stream day figures were .not: reported.
175
-------
APPENDIX C
34/
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
Company Name and Location Company Name and Location
ALABAMA CALIFORNIA (Continued)
Celotex Corporation Certain Teed Produces Corp.
Birmingham, Jefferson 35200 Richmond, Contra Costa 94804
GAF Corporation Fibreboard Corporation
Mobile, Baldwin 36600 Martinet, Contra Costa 94553
Koppers Company Fibreboard Corporation
Woodward. Jefferson 35139 Oakland, Alameda 94600
Logan Long Company Flintkote Company
Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa 35401 Los Angeles, Los Angeles 90000
ARKANSAS Flintkote Company
San Andreas, Calaveras 95249
Bear Brand Roofing, Inc.
Bearden, Quachita 71720 John-Manville Products
Los Angeles, Los Angelas 90053
Celotex Corporation and Pittsburg, Contra Costa
Camden, Columbia 71701
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Elk Roofing Company Compton, Los Angeles 90223
Stephens, Quachita 71746
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Southern Asphalt Roofing Core. San Leandro, Alameda 94755
Little Rock, Pulaski 72200
Lunday-Thagard Oil Co.
CALIFORNIA South Gate, Los Angeles 90280
Bird & Son, Inc. Nicolet Indus-cries
San Mateo, San Mateo 94403 Hollister, Santa Cruz 95023
Bird & Son, Inc. Owens Corning Fiberglas
Wilmington, Lake 90744 Santa Clara, Santa Clara 95000
Celotex Corporation Rigid Mfg. Co., Inc.
Los Angeles, Los Angeles 90031 Los Angeles, Los Anceles 90022
176
-------
SHIHX C
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS EM 1973
34/
Company Name and Location
CALIFORNIA CConcinued)
Mrs. Paul Smi'liwick
Los Angelas, Los Angeles 30066
_S_tandard Materials Co. , Inc.
Merced, Merced 95340
Thermo Materials, Inc.
San Disco, San Diego S2109
United Stares Gypsum Co.
South Gate, Los Angeles 90280
COLORADO
Colorado Situmuls Co.
D envsr, 0enver 30216
GAT Corporation
Denver, Denver 302IS
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Denver, Denver 30215
CONNE CTTCUT
Allied Chemical Corporation
Moun-v:.lia, New London 06353
Tiio Co., Inc.
Stra-^ford, Ta^rrield 06497
05LAWAAS
Edge Moors, Mew
Inc.
13309
Comaar-v Name and Location
DSLAWA^S (Continued)
Artie Roofings, Inc.
i'7iJjning-on, New Casule L9809
JLORIDA
GAF Corporation t
Tamca, Sillsborc'ugh
Gardner Martin Asphai- Corp.
Tanpa, Hillsbcrough 33605
Lloyd A. ?ry Roofing Co., Inc.
?t.~Lauderdale, 3roward 33315
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Jacksonville, Duval 32206
GEORGIA
Certain Teed Prcduc-s Ccrp.
Port Tvencvorrh, iffinghazn 91407'
Csrr:ain Taed Produces Corp.
Savannah, Chatham 31402
GA? Corpora-ion
Savannah, Charhaa 31402
Gib son Zciaans Company
Conyers, Rcckdale" 30207
Jonns-Danville ?rcduc-s
Savanna.-, Chazhasi 31402
Llcvd A. ?rv Rccfinc Co.
Aciln-a, Fulzcn 20211
177
-------
AEEENDIX C (.Continued)
LISTING T3F ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
34/
Company Name and Location
GEORGIA (Continued)
Mullins Bros. Pvgn. Cntrc.
E. Point, Fulton 30044
Southern Paint Products
Atlanta, Fulton 30310
The Ruberoid Company
Savannah, Cha tham 31402
ILLINOIS
Allied Asphalt Paving Co.
Hillside, Cook 60162
Allied Chemical Corporation
Chicago, Cook 60623
Amalgamated Roofing Div.
Bedford Park, Cook 60501
Becker Roofing Co. (2 plants)
Chicago, Cook 60647
Bird & Son, Inc.
Chicago, Cook 60620
Celotex Company
EUc. Grove Village, Cook 60007
Celo.tex Company
Peoria, Peoria 61600
Celotex Company
Wilmington, Kankakee 60481
Company Name and Location
ILLINOIS (Continued)
Cer-cain Teed Products Corp.
Chicago Heights, Cook 60411
Certain Teed Products Corp.
E. Saint Louis, Saint Clair 62205
Crown Trvgg Corp.
Joliet, Will 60434
Flintkote Company
Chicago Heights, Cook 60411
FS Services, Inc.
Kingston Mines, Peoria 61533
GAF Corporation
Joliet,"will 60433
Globe Industries, Inc.
Chicago, Cook 60600
J.W. Mortell Co. Inc.
Xankakee, Kankakee 60901
Johns-Manville Corporation
Madison, Madison 62060
Johns-Manville Corporation
Waukegan, Lake 60085
Keepers Company
Chicago, Cook 50600
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Argo, Cook 60501
178
-------
ABSEHDIX C (Continued)
347
LISTING OP ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973 '
Company Name and Location
ILLINOIS (.gcnti-iued)
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Summit, Clay 50501
Logan Long Company
Chicago, Cook 60533
McCalaan Construction Co.
Danville, Vermilion 51332
Midwest Products Co., Inc.
Chicago, Cook 60619
Hicoiet Industries
Union, 3oona 62635
Rock Road Construction Co.
Chicago, Cook.
Seneca Petroleum Co., Inc.
Chicago, Cook 50515
Triangle Construction Co.
Xankakee, Sankakee 50901
Washington Paint Products
Chicago, Cook 60624
INDIANA
Asbestos .".anufacturi.-c Cor^s.
Michigan Ci-y, La Pcrta 46360
GAJ Corporation
Mount "emcn, Posey 47520
Glace Industries, Ir.c.
Lowell, Lake 45356
Company Name and Location
INDIANA (Continued)
2\ 3. Reed & Comnany, Inc.
Gary, Lake 46406
Llovd A. Fry
3rookville, Franklin 47021
IOWA
Becker Roofing Co., Inc.
Burlington, Des Moines 52501
Ceiotex Corporation
Dubucue, Dubucue 52001
Tufcreta Company, Inc.
Des Moines, Polk 50309
KANSAS
Royal 3rank Roofing, Inc.
Phillipsburg, Phillips 57561
LOUISIANA
3ire s Son, Inc.
Shreveport, Caddo 71102
Dei~a Roofing Mills, Inc.
Slidiil, Saint Tanmasa. 70433
Johns-Manvilla Corpcra-icn
Marrerc, Jefferson 70072
Slidell Felc Mills, Ir.c.
Siideii, Sain- Taamiazin 70453
179
-------
APPKTJDTX c . (Continusa)
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
34/
Company Name and Location
MARYLAND
Congoleum-Nairn, Inc.
Finksfaurg, Carroll 21048
GAF. Corporation
Baltimore/ Baltimore 21224
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Jessup 20794
MASSACHUSETTS
Bird & Son, Inc.
Norwood, Norfolk 02062
Essex Chemical Corporation
Peabody, Essex 01960
GAT Corporation
Millis, Norfolk 02054
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Waithan, Middlesex 02IS4
Patrick Ross Company
Cambridge, Middlesex 02142
MICHIGAN
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Detroit, Wayne 43217
GAF Corporation
Warren," Macomb 43089
MINNESOTA
Duval Mfg.Co., Inc.
Minneapolis, Hennepin 55426
Company STane and Location
MINNESOTA (Continued)
Duval1 Mfg. Co., Inc.
Minneapolis, Hennepin 55412
EDCO Products, Inc.
Hopkins, Hennepin 55343
GAF Corporation
Minneapolis, Hennepin 55411
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Minneapolis, Hennepin 55412
B.F. Nelson Mfg.Co., Inc.
Minneapolis, Hennepin 55413
E.J. Pennig Co., Inc.
St. Paul, Ramsey 55103
United States Gypsum Co.
St. Paul, Ramsey 55100
MISSISSIPPI
Atlas Roofing Mfg. Co.
Meridian, Lauderdale 39301
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Hazelwood
MISSOURI
Certain Teed Products Corp.
Kansas City, Jackson 54126
GAF Corporation
Kansas City, Jackson 54126
180
-------
APPENDIX C (Continued)
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 197334/
Company Mame and Location
MISSOURI (Continued)
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Hazelwcod, 5-. Louis 63042
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
N. Kansas City, Clay 54115
Midwest ?ra Core Conraany
Kansas City, Clay 54119
Tamko Asphaiz Products, Inc.
Joplin, Jasper 54301
MZW HAM?SHIRS
Tiio Company, Inc.
Manchester, Hillsbcro 031QL
MEW JZRSZY
Atlantic Cemen- Company
Sayonne, Hudson 07002
3ird and Son, Inc.
Perth Amboy, Middlesex 03352
Celotex Corporation
Sdgewater, Middlesex 07020
Celotax Corporation
Perth Asbcy, Middlesex 083S2
Flintkote Company, Inc.
£. Rutherford, Bergen G7073
?linz:«o-t3 Ccmpany, i-c.
Morris 07331
Company Name and Location
NZW JERSEY (Continued)
GAP Corporation
Scu-h Sound Brook, Somerset 03380
Johns -Manvi lie Corporation
Manvilla, Somerset 03335.
KamaJc Chemical Corporation
Clark, Onion 07065"
Congo leuin Mairm, Inc.
Seamy, 3ercen 07032
Soppers Ccnpany, Inc.
Westfield, union 07090
Lloyd. A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Keamy, Bergen 07032
Middlesex OIC Products Ixcv.
Wccdb ridge, Middlesex C7095
Tilo Company, Inc.
Wests ielc, 'Jnion 07092
Cni-ed States Gypsum Company
Jersey Cicy, Hudson 07300
MSW MEXICO
Dura Roofing Man f act urine , Inc.
AJJaucnerrue , Berr.aiiiic 37103
MZW YCPJC
AU
-------
APPENDIX C (Continued)
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
34/
Company Name and Location
NEW YORK (Continued)
Allied Chemical Corporation
Singhamton, Broome 13902
Company Name and Loca-cion
OHIO (Continued)
Johns-Manvi lie Corporation
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44134
Durok Building Materials Xoppers Company, Inc.
Hastings-3dsn., Westchester 10706 Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44106
Tilo Company, Inc.
Poughkeepsie, Outchess 12603
Tilo Company, Inc.
Watertown, Jefferson 13601
Weatherpanel Sidings, Inc.
Buffalo, Erie 14207
NORTH CAROLINA
Celotex Corporation
Goldsboro, Sampson 07530
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co, Inc.
Morehead City, Carteret 23557
Rike Roofing and Mfg. Co.
Charlotte, Mecklenburg 28201
OHIO
Celotex Corporation
Cincinnati, Hamilton
45215
Certain Products Company
Milan, Erie 44846
Consolidated Paint Varnish
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44114
Gibson Homans Company, Inc.
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44106
Koppers Company, Inc.
Youngstown, Mahoning 44500
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Medina, Cuyahoga 44256
Logan Long Company, Inc.
Franklin, Warren 45005
Midwest Products Company, Inc.
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44110
Overall Paint, Inc.
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44146
Ranco Industrial Products
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44120
SET Products, Inc.
Cleveland, Cuyahoga
44106
Tremco Manufacturing Company
Cleveland, Cuyahoga 44104
OKLAHOMA
Allied Ma-erials Corpora-ion
Stroud, Lincoln 74079
Big Chief Roofing Company, Inc,
Ardmore, Cartar 73401"
132
-------
C (Continued)
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
Company Name and Location
OKLAHOMA (Continued)
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Oklahoma City, Caradian 73117
OREGON
3ird and Son, Inc.
Portland, Multncmah 97200
Flbreboard Corporation
Portland, Multnomah 97210
Flintkote Company, Inc.
Portland, Multnomah 97203
Herbert Malarkey Roofing Co.
Portland, Muitnomah 97217
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co., Inc.
Portland, Multnomah 97210
Shell Oil Company
Portland, Muitnomah 97210
PENNSYLVANIA
Allied Chemical Corporation
Philadelphia, Philadelphia 13146
Consany Name and Location
PENNSYLVANIA (Continued)
ESB Inc. Del.
Mertztown, Berks 19539
GAF Corporation
Erie, Erie 15500
Xevstone Roofing Mfg. Company
York, York 17403
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Smmaus, Lehigh 13049
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Ccnraanv
York, York "17404
Monsev Products Ccmpanv
. Philadelphia, Philadelphia 19123
a.C. Price Company
Philadelphia, Philadelphia 13115
Tilo Conraanv, Inc.
Philadelphia, Philadelphia 19113
SOUTH CA50LINA
3ird and Son, Inc.
Charleston Hts., Charleston 2940:
Celotex Corporation
Philadelphia, Philadelphia 19146 TSNNSSSZS
Celctex Corporation
Sunhury, Northumier lar.d 17301
Certain Teed Products Cert.
York, York 17303
acd St. C-cbian, luzerr.e 13707
Ceiotex Corporation
Memphis, Shelby 33100
Lloyd A. Fry Rcofir.g Company
phis, Shelby 33107
133
-------
r (cnntinue.dl
LISTING OF ASPHALT ROOFING PLANTS IN 1973
34/
Company Name and Location
TEXAS
American Petrofina Texas
Mt. Pleasant, Titus 75455
Celotex Corporation
Houston, Liberty 77000
Celotex Corporation
San Antonio, 3exar 78200
Certain Teed Products, Corp.
Dallas, Dallas 75216
Daingerfield Mfg. Company
Daingerfield, Morris 75638
Flintkote Company
Ennis, Ellis 75119
GAP Corporation
Dallas, Dallas
Gulf States Asphalt Co., Inc.
Beaumont, Jefferson 77704
Johns-Manville Corporation
Ft. Worth, Tarrant 76107
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Irving/ Dallas 75060
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Houston, Harris 77029
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Co.
Lubbock, Lubfaock 79408
Company Name and Location
TEXAS (Continued)
Ruberoid Comoany
Dallas, Dallas 75222
Southwestern Petroleum
Fort Worth, Tarrant 76106
Texas Sash and Door
Fort Worth, Tarrant 76101
UTAH
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing Company
Woods Cross, Davis 84087
WASHINGTON
Certain Teed Products Corp.
Tacoma, Pierce 98421
Kollogg Company, Inc.
Washington
B. F. Nelson Mfg. Company, Inc.
Washington
WEST VI3GI?Tia.
Celotex Corporation
Chester, Hancock 26034
184
-------
ALAUAM/V
J Nil I ANA
Al'PliNIHX D
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF SINTlilUNU FACir.lTIliS IS4<
I .oca t. ion
Company
Number of
Sinter Slrunds
Capacity
1000 Mg/yr (tons/year)
Uepublic Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
1
4
280
7,061
( 310)
(7,783)
CO
ui
CAI.II-'OKNIA
t'ontaua
COI.OKAIX)
Kaiser Steel Corp.
1,120
(1,240)
1'uubLo
ILLINOIS
C.P.&l. Steel Corp.
878
( 968)
South Chicago
Cliicciyo
tt: Clliy
Soul.ll CIlLCdCJO
InLerlake Steel Corp.
Calumet Steel FUv.
Uepublic Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
Granite City Steel Uiv.
Steel Div.
1
1
1
1
230
215
397
1,300
896
177
( 250)
( 237)
( 4.18)
(1,400)
( 988)
( 195)
(jary
Cliiuaijo
Harbor
Inland Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
Yountjstowit Sheet & Tube
UethLehem Steel Corp.
1
5
1
1
1,870
4,818
718
1,041
(2,060)
(5,311)
( 792)
(1,148)
-------
APPENDIX D (continued)
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF SINTERING FACILITIES
154,162/
oo
o\
Location
KENTUCKY
Ashland
MARYLAND
Sparrows Point
MICHIGAN
Detroit
River Rouge
NEW YORK
Buffalo
Star Lake
OIIJO
Cleveland
Cleveland
Lorain
Youngstown
Youngstown
Campbell
Warren
Company
Armco Steel Corp.
Bethlehem Steel Corp.
National Steel Corp.
Great Lakes Steel Co.
Bethlehem Steel Corp.
Jones & Laughlin Steel
Jones & Laughlin Steel
Republic Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
Republic Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
Youngstown Sheet & Tube
Republic Steel Corp.
Number of
Sinter Strands
Capacity
1000 Mg/yr (tons/year)
760
3,739
( 840)
(4,122)
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2,300
1,200
1,489
1,592
1,000
278
145
90
1,140
650
34
(2,500)
(1,300)
(1,641)
(1,755)
(1,100)
( 306)
( 160)
( 99)
(1,260)
( 720)
( 38)
-------
APPUND1X D (continued)
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OP S1NTEULNG I-1 AGILITIES
154.162/
I-
l 111 Lib
Ufaddouk
Scixonbimtj
A I iijuii>L>a
Kcinkln
MuKeuuport
Swede land
Mont:S:>en
Moiijantown
TEXAS
(.one Star
UTAH
Company
U.S. SLeel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
U.S. Steel Corp.
U.S. SUeeL Corp.
Junes fc. l.au
-------
APPENDIX S
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF CA230N BLACK ?LANTS, 197766/
Company Same a Location
Ashland Oil, Incorporated
Aranas Pass, Texas
Cities Service Company
Seminole, Texas
Cabot Company
Pampa, Texas
Ashland Oil, Incorporated
Shamrock, Texas
Sid Richardson Carbon Company
Big Spring, Texas
Cabot Company
3ig Spring, Texas
Cities Servi-ce Company
Conroe, Texas
Cities Service Company
Seagraves, Texas
Continental Carbon Company
Sunray, Texas
J. M. Huber Corporation
Baytown, Texas
J. M. Huber Corporation
Borger, Texas
Phillips Petroleum Company
Borger, Texas
Phillips Petroleum Company
Orange, Texas
Ashland Oil, Incorporated
Belpre, Ohio
Phillips Petroleum Company
Toledo, Ohio
Ashland Oil, Incorporated
Iberia, Louisiana
Annual Capacity in
Millions of Kilogr*™*? (pounds)
Process
68
16
24
48
50
108
44
41
43
117
81
130
52
45
32
116
(150)
( 35)
( 53)
(105)
(110)
(238)
( 97)
( 90)
( 95)
(253)
(179)
(287)
(113)
(100)
( 70)
(255)
Furnace
Channel
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace &
Thermal
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
188
-------
A2P21DIX 2 (Continued)
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OP CV33GN 3LAC3C PLANTS, 1377
S6/
Coraoanv Marne s Location
Mil
Annual Capacity
ions of kilograms (sounds)
Process
Cabot Company
Franklin , Louis ian a
Cabot Company
Villa Platza, Louisiana
Cities Service Company
lola , Louisiana
Cities Service Company
Mortii Send, Louisiana
Continental Carbon Company
Westlake , Louisiana
Int'l .minerals i Cneaical Corp,
Sterlington , Louisiana
Sid Sichariscn Carbon Company
Addis , Louisiana
Ashland Oil, Incorporated
Mohave , California
Cities Service Company
Mohave , California
Continental Carbon Company
3akarsiiald, California
Cabot Company
Waveriy, Ves- "ir^inia
Cito.es Service Company
j4ounds-7T.Ha, Wes-c Virginia
Cities Service Company
£1 Dorado, Arkansas
Contmencal Carbon Company
Pcnca Cirv, -klar.cma
Earncn Colsrs Corporation
98
110
32.
96
54
59
46
27
24
35
74
71
37
51
VA
(213)
(243)
( 70)
(212)
(120)
(130)
(102)
( 60)
( 53)
( 77)
(1S3)
(137)
( 32)
(135)
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace s
Furnace
Theraal
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Furnace
Fumaca
F'irnacs
Halsdcn, Mew Jersey
189
-------
APPENDIX F
LOCATION ANO CAPACITY OF
MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS30'
SLate
MICHIGAN
Capacity (Mg/day
(tons/day))
Central Wayne County
Detroit (Southfield)
Grosse Point
South East Oakland County
vo
o
MISSOURI
St. Louis (North)
St. Louis (South)
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Manchester
NEW JERSEY
Ewing
Red Bank
NEW YORK
Babylon
Beacon
Buffalo
Eastchester
Freeport
Garden City
Hempstead
I lemps te ad
lluntington
Islip
l.ackawanna
Lawrence
730 ( 800)
160 ( 200)
540 ( 600)
540 ( 600)
360 ( 400)
360 ( 400)
90 ( 100)
220 I
44
360
90
540
180
140
160
540
680
270
270
140
100
240)
[ 48)
400)
100)
600)
200)
150)
175)
600)
750)
300)
300)
150)
200)
State
(NEW YORK Continued)
Long Beach
Mount Vernon
New Rochelie
North Hempstead
Oyster Bay
Rye
Scarsdale
Tonawanda
Valley Stream
NEW YORK CITY
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
New York City
Capacity (Mg/day
(tons/day))
OHIO
Euclid
Franklin
Lakewood
Miami County
Parma
Sharonvllie
PENNSYLVANIA
Ambridge
Bradford
Delaware County
180
540
360
540
450
140
140
230
180
910
910
910
910
910
180
140
270
140
200
450
140
180
730
200)
600)
400)
600)
500)
150)
150)
250)
200)
(1,000)
(1,000)
(1,000)
(1,000)
(1,000)
( 200)
( 150)
( 300)
( 150)
( 225)
( 500)
( 150)
( 200)
( 800)
-------
At>PUNDJX F
LOCATiON AND CAPACITY OK
MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS '
State
Capacity (My/day
(tuna/day))
State
Capacity (Mcj/day
(tons/day))
CONNECTICUT
AntiOnlci
KCN'llJCKY
V.D
Uctrlen
liabt llaitcord
liar L ford
New Canaan
Mew Haven
New London
Stamf ord
Stratford
Waterbui y
We at liar I: ford
fl.Oltl.nA
Mraward County
Hade County
I'ort Landerdale
(HL'owanl County)
Miami (Datle County)
Tampa
100
100
120
320
540
110
650
110
360
2J9
270
270
200)
200)
130)
350)
60O)
125)
720)
120)
400)
264)
300)
300)
II.I.INOJb
Chicacjo
ChJ catju
Clilcaijo (South Ooty)
C i C«i fo
Ixiuisville
IOIIISIANA
270 ( 300)
270 ( 300)
410 ( 450)
020 ( 900)
910 (1,000)
1,100 (1.200)
1.500 (1,600)
1,100 (1,200)
450 ( 500)
New Orleans
New Orleans
New Orleans
New Orleana
New Orleans
Shreve^ort
MARYLAND
Baltimore
MASSACIIUSIflTa
Del men t
brain tree
U rock ton
Uruokline
Pall 1(1 ver
irraiiilmjliain
JNIUANA
Marbluliead
Reading
Salem
Sau
-------
APPENDIX P
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF
MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS30'
State
(PENNSYLVANIA Continued)
Delaware County
Delaware County
Philadelphia
Philadelphia
Shlppensburg
TEXAS
Amarillo
(o UTAH
Ogden
VIRGINIA
Alexandria
Newport News
Norfolk
Portsmouth
Capacity (Mg/day
(tons/day))
450 ( 500)
450 ( 500)
540 ( 600)
540 ( 600)
65 ( 72)
320 ( 350)
410 ( 450)
270 ( 300)
360 ( 400)
360 ( 400)
320 ( 350)
Oshkosh
Port Washington
Sheboygan
Sturgeon Bay
Haukesha
Capacity (Mg/day
(tons/day))
320 ( 350)
68 ( 75)
220 ( 240)
140 ( 150)
320 ( 350)
-------
APPENDIX G
EXAMPLE OF UaP EXPOSURE CALCULATION FOR UTAH
Citiuu with Coke Oven a
L'rovo
f rom
£JH| 118/1
Distance
from Coke
Ovens (km)
0-0.5
0.5-1
1-3
3-7
(7-15)
Popula-
tion
exposed A
19
0
3,044
20,307
72,123
Estimated
DaP Concen-
tration
(iKj/m3) D
10.0
5.8
2.6
1.2
0.5
Product
A X D 3
(pe6ple x ng/nt )
190
0
791.4
36,664.4
background)
£ Total exposed at >SRI background; 31,950
Total exposure at >SRI background: 42,769
Heinaining urban population In SMSA = (total in SMSA) - (population counted as exposed
at >SH1 background)
Keiuaining urban population in SMSA = 120,554 - 31, 950
HenidJniiKj urban population in SMSA = 88,604
Total exposure in SMSA (» SHI background) = (total exposed at >SRI background) h I(remain!i
urban population in SMSA) x (SRI background concentration))
Total exposure in SMiJA (>SIU background) = 42,769 I (88,604 (0.5 ng/m3) )
Total exposure in SMSA (>SU1 background) = 87,071 people x ng/n3
-------
APPENDIX G (Continued)
EXAMPLE OF BaP EXPOSURE CALCULATION FOR UTAH
II. Non-coke Oven Cities With Ambient Monitoring Results
A. Oqden
data compiled by SRI: Ambient Concentration (ng/m ) Measured in Year
Data Source
NASN
extrapolation)
CHESS/CHAMP ave. 2.05 (range of
12 samples: 0.0-7.2)
If more recent data had not been available, a concentration for 1975 of 2.5 ng/m would
have been assumed. (Although a logarithmically decreasing ambient concentration approaching
an asymptote or background concentration is likely, a time series of DaP concentrations
with a high value near the end of the series of measured values is unlikely to continue with
exponentially or even linearly, increasing values.) However, the 1975 average of the CHESS/
CHAMP i
Ogden.
1966
0.5
1968
0.02
1969
0.67
1970
2.49
1975
(8.55 loga
CHAMP monitors of 2.05 ng/m was assumed to represent the current ambient concentrations in
Total exposure in SMSA = (urban population.in SMSA) x (estimated 1975 concentration)
Total exposure in SMSA = 110,279(2.05 ng/m )
Total exposure in SMSA = 226,071 people x ng/m
B. Salt Lake City
Data compiled by SRI:. Ambient Concentration (ng/m ) Measured in Year
Data Source 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1975
NASN 1.2 0.7 0.97 0.65 1.44 (1.15 logarithmic
extrapolitan
CHESS/CHAMP - ave- 2-37 (range
Salt Lake City of 12 samples: 0.2-5)
-------
»u
Ul
APPliNlUX G (Continued)
BXAML'ljR 01' »aP KXPOSUKC CALCULATION J-'Oll UTAH
CIILSS/CIIAMP Kearns ave. 1.20 (rancje
of 12 samples:
O.J-3.6)
ClltlSS/CIIAMP Macjna ave. 1.09 (range
of 12 samples:
0.1-2.9)
Assumed average of recently measured DaP concentration:; from CHESS/CHAMP sites in
metropolitan SuJ t La)ce City of (2.37 I 1.20 I l.09)/3 - 1.55 ng/m3 was representative
of the current ambient concentrations in Oyden.
ToUil exposure in SMSA - (urban population in SMS A) x (estimated 1975 concentration)
Tol:.t I exposure in SMSA = 521,316 (1.55 ng/m3)
Total exposure in SMSA = 000,040 people x
1 1 ' • Non-Coke Oven Areas Without Ambient Monitorlnfj Results
A . Urban Populations in Uncounted SMSA 'a
Uncounted urban population in SMSA's = (total in state) - (total in cities counted)
Uncounted urhan population in SMSA's = 752,149 - (120,554 I 110,279 - 521,316)
Uncounted utban population in SMSA's = 0
3
Assumed national average ot* J.I ng/m calculated from recently measured and extrapolated
"1975" ctmhiunt UaP concentrations for non-coke oven cities with populations of greater
tlmn 25,000.
Total urhan exposure in uncounted SMSA's = (uncounted urban population in SMSA's x (national
average: concentration for urban areas with populations >25,000)
Total urban exposure in uncounted SMSA's - 0 (l.L nrj/m3)3
Total urhtin exposure in uncounted SMSA's - 0 people x ng/m
It. U ncouiited Urban Populations Outside of SMSA's
Uncounted urban populations outside of SMSA's = (total in state) - (total already counted)
Uncounted urhan populations outside of SMSA's = 99,323 -- 0
Uncounted urban populations outside of SMSA's - 99,323
-------
APPENDIX G (Continued)
EXAMPLE OF BaP EXPOSURE CALCULATION FOR UTAH
Assumed national average of 0.86 ng/m calculated from recently measured and extrapolated
"1975" ambient DaP concentrations for non-SMSA urban areas of 10,000 to 50,000 population
without coke ovens.
Total uncounted urban exposure outside of SMSA's = (uncounted urban population outside of
SMSA's) x (national average concentration for non-SMSA areas of 10,000-50,000 population)
Total uncounted urban exposure outside of SMSA's = 99,323 (0.86 ng/m3)
Total uncounted urban exposure outside of SMSA's = 85,418 people x ng/m3
C. Uncounted Rural Populations
Uncounted rural population = (total in state) - (total already counted)
Uncounted rural population = 207,801 - 0
Uncounted rural population = 207,801
Assumed national average of 0.15 ng/m calculated from recently measured and extrapolated
"1975" ambient BaP concentrations for rural areas of less than 10,000 population without
,_, coke ovens.
VO
m Total uncounted rural exposure = (uncounted rural population) x (national average concentra
tions for rural areas of less than 10,000 population)
Total uncounted rural exposure = 207,801 (0.15 ng/m3)3
Total uncounted rural exposure = 31,170 people x ng/m
IV. Total Exposure in State
Utah
Total exposure in state = (total exposure at > SRI background in coke oven SMSA's) + (total
exposure in non-coke cities with monitoring results) + (total exposure in uncounted SMSA's)
+ (total uncounted urban exposure outside of SMSA's) + (total uncounted rural exposure)
Total exposure in state = 87,071 + (226,071 + 808,040) + 85,418 + 31,170
Total exposure in state = 1,237,770 people x ng/m3
Total exposure in state 3* 1,200,000 people x ng/m3
-------
AJVOfflll K
ESTIMATES OF POPULATION EXPOSURES TO UP !V THE UNITED STATSS
Population (1000* >) Counted as Exposed to laP Concentration
CVumber AssusMd a: Mational ivtraie Concentrations)
>5.0 n»/n5
Alaoaaa 16
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California 1
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idano
rilineis i
Indiana 249
1m*
tjinsw
(encuesy 16
Louis lana
Maine
Maryland
Hassacnusetts
•Uchifan 48
Minnesota
KlSSlSSlBpl
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Sevada
Ne. HasBihin
Sen Jersey
"ie" Hexico
tan »ork 57
«or-.h Carolina
xerth Dakota
Ohio 32
Oklahoma
Oreron
Pennsylvania 655
tirade Island
South Carolina
South Duota
Tennessee
Texas «0
Utan -0
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
«est Virginia 4
>iseonsin
•vauif
U.S Total :,OS9
1.0-S
SS2
-
904
156
12.330
1.367
1.265
-
-
2.853
*37
-
88
2.326
1 ,582
267
372
1,131
516
67
183
4,277
5.332
96
304
1.042
147
161
358
174
1.703
297
14.148
1.141
59
5.221
111
1.063
6,396
7
232
75
7IS
4.790
664
-
373
339
279
871
.
76.719
.0 nj/n5
(25)
-
•
(156)
(3.380)
(208)
(1.263)
-
.
(2.833)
(737)
•
-
(775)
(530)
(267)
-
(76)
(5161
(*7)
-
(3.999)
(1.017)
(59)
(304)
(260)
(147)
(161)
-
(174)
C2S1)
-
C.068)
(«44)
-
C32)
(111)
(122)
•
(7)
Ml)
(75)
.
(3,336)
•
-
(97)
(3391
(74)
(515)
.
(3.186)
0.5-
416
97
205
S46
2.366
367
770
396
TS7
1.197
:.9io
S3
298
6.851
1,588
7SS
645
352
657
327
2.821
S33
728
613
442
1.12S
::4
324
37
212
5,076
411
1,618
1.015
215
3,167
1,022
340
1.902
818
755
III
1.389
2.407
188
104
1.366
796
485
:.306
118
S2.S74
1.0 nj/«
C20)
(97)
(205)
(517)
(748)
(264)
(229)
M3)
-
(1.197)
(809)
(S3)
(238)
(1.330)
(824)
(TS8)
(645)
(SS2)
(657)
(327)
(78)
MS4)
(728)
(547)
(682)
(621)
(201)
(324)
(371
(212)
(1.255)
Mil)
(997)
(1.01S)
(215)
(964)
(613)
(340)
(828)
(83)
(S27)
(221)
(«92)
(1.499)
(99)
(104)
(386)
(550)
(311)
(748)
(118)
(M.343)
<0.5 n
2,461
203
662
1.221
3,336
474
999
153
•
2,740
:.84s
7!S
327
1,936
1,774
1.800
1.230
1.520
2.468
598
918
879
2.767
3.096
1.230
:.509
324
998
93
3S2
2,388
30?
2,433
2.927
344
2.233
1.427
689
2.841
122
1.604
369
1.800
4.000
208
340
2,410
2,:73
977
1.540
214
73.294
*/»S
(1.2S71
(1SS)
(362)
(962)
(1.817)
•(474)
(687)
(1S3)
•
(1.321)
(1.8Z2)
(130)
(3=7)
(1.766)
(1.684)
(1.208)
(762)
(1.S20)
(1.2351
(488)
(91 S)
(879)
(2.321)
(1.278)
(1.230)
(1.399)
(324)
(S71)
(93)
(322)
(795)
(307)
(2.433)
(2.797)
(344)
(2.167)
(819)
(689)
(2.841)
(122)
(1.338)
(3«9)
(1.418)
(2.276)
(208)
(301)
(I.ri4)
(933)
(977)
(1.S07)
(131)
(s:.iri)
Totll
Population.
(1000's)1'
3.444
300
1.771
1,923
19.953
2.207
3,032
548
TS7
6,789
1.S90
769
713
11.114
5,194
2.824
2,247
3.219
3,641
992
3.922
S.689
S.87S
3,805
2.217
1,»77
694
1.483
489
738
7.168
1.316
IS. 237
S.flS2
618
10,652
2.559
2.091
11.794
947
2.591
666
2.924
11.197
1.0S9
444
4,648
3.409
1.744
1.418
332
203.:::
Total Estimated
SXDOSURS • i
{ (population
« nosed),
exoosure'con-
eentret:on).J
(1000'J of peoplf
2.300
120
2,100
S90
18,000
3,200
2.300
240
540
4.600
2,600
32
390
10,000
6.400
1.200
1.300
3.000
1.500
'SO
2.700
5.400
9.600
1,600
1.100
2.600
390
740
600
440
S.SOO
530
::.ooo
2.800
450
12.000
1.300
2.100
19.000
740
1,600
330
2.400
9.200
i,:oo
ISO
2.700
! . 700
1.300
2.800
140
180. 900*'
not tfrve iue to rounainj ;..j:.
197
-------
APPP.NDIX 1
LIST OF NAMES, LOCATIONS, AND PHONE NUMBERS OF PERSONAL CONTACTS
vo
CD
Name
Ballantine, Dr. David
Bambaugh, Carl
Barush, Steve
Becker, Don, Manager
Benedict, John
Bennett, Roy L.
Benson, James
Bills, Bill
BJack, Frank
Bornstein, Mark
Bowen, Dr. Joshua, Chief
Brodovicz, Ben
Brown, Dave
Brown, Jane
Cadle, Dr. Steven
Calaizzi, Gary
Campion, Dr. Raymond
Carrigan, Dr. Richard A.
Carpelan, Dr. Marian
Caton, Dr. Robert
CrawCord, A. R.
Affiliation
Location
Phone Number
tic
NC
DDL:, EV Washington, DC
Radian Corporation Austin, TX
EPRI Palo Alto, CA
Recycled Oil Program Washington, DC
NI3S, Institute for Materials Research
WVA Air Pollution Con- Charleston, WV
trol Commission
EPA, LSRL Research Triangle Park,
PA DER, Air Quality & llarrisburg, PA
Noise Control Division, Abatement & Compliance
KY DNRER, Division of Frankfort, KY
Air Pollution Control Engineering Program
EPA, ESRL, Mobile Research Triangle Park,
Sources
GCA Technology Division Bedford, MA
Combustion Research Research Triangle Park,
Branch, EPA, IERL, Energy Assessment & Control
PA DER, Air Quality & llarrisburg, PA
Noise Control Division
NIOGII Cincinnati, Oil
NIOSII Cincinnati, OH
GM Research Lab, Warren, MI
Environmental Science Department
BOM Denver, CO
Exxon, Inc. Houston, TX
I1SF, ASAR, Research Washington, DC
Applications
University of California Riverside, CA
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, Information
Administrator of En- Toronto, Ontario, Canada
vi ronment
Exxon Research & En- Linden, NJ
gineering Company
202-
512-
415-
202-
353-3610
454-4797
855-2469
921-3837
304-348-3286
919-
717-
502-
919-
-541-3173
•787-4324
•564-6844
541-3037
617-275-9000
NC 919-541-2470
Division
717-787-2347
513
513
•684-8235
-684-3255
313-575-3090
303-234-
713-656-
202-632-
4060
3174
5970
714-787
Center
416-965
3545
4081
201-474-2443
Edgerton, Kurt
MESA
Pittsburgh, PA
412-621-4500
-------
LISTS OF NAMCS,
Name
Fr lc-, Dr. Ted
l.ctlire, Tom
Levins, Or. ljhili|>
Lincoln, John
Mac: Don.) I il . Moh
APPENDIX 1 (Continued)
LOCATIONS, AND IMIONIi NUMBKKS OF PFKSONAL CONTACTS
All iJ iat ton Loci) Lion
PA DliK, 1)1 vis lun of llcirriiiluirrj, PA
Nino HesI oration
University of California Hi vursitle, CA
SLutewido Air Pollution Research Center
iixxon Kesccircli (. Ki\- l.indon, NJ
cjineerin«j Company
, NJren
Mti(|iui!jon , Malcolm O.
RIIV i ronmeiiLa I Coordinator
Mdlonoy, Ken
TIM/, Hnvi roiiinenta 1
l^iKjineer i mj
IIKOMLT. Forestry
Kedomlo Ueacli, CA
Ga i thcrsburLaff
KPA, UiHL, Industria] Kunearcli Trinnqlc Park, IIC
Process Division, Process Measurement Branch
Battel le-Coluinljus f.nhs CoLunhus, OH
EPA, llctzardous HasLes Washimjl.on, DC
liPA, ESUL Kescnrch Triunrjlu Park, NC
NYU MedicaJ School, in- Tuxedo, H.Y.
stitute of L-lnvironnental Medicine
LPA, MDAD, AJI Manacje- Uesearch Triancjle Park, NC
men I. Tecltnolocjy H ranch
A.D. Little, I'nc. Ccimbr iclcje, MA
MKSA Airliiujton, VA
U.S. Forest Service, Washiiujton , DC
Cooperative t'ire Pi'otucLion Slaf*; Group
GMUMliT GaJ thorsbury, MD
ROM, IJruceton Research Pittsburgh, PA
Office, CoaJ Mine Viro Control Group
KVH Tustin, CA
_ Number
717-707-7G60
714-7U7-3545
201-474-2044
2i3-
30 J-
919-
919-
C14-
205-
919-
914-
535-
940-
541-
541-
424-
755-
541-
351-
1450
0755
2745
2557
6424
9201
3085
5355
919-541-5475
GL7-UG4-5770
703-235-1204
202-235-0039
301-940-0755
412-092-2400
714-032-9020
-------
APPENDIX I (Continued)
LIST OF NAMES, LOCATIONS, AND PKOME NUMBERS OF PERSONAL CON'.l'ACTS
tsj
O
O
Name
MatLhews, Birch
McCarley, Ed, Chief
McElroy, Mike
McMahon, Charles
McNay, Lewis
Natusch, David F.S.
O'Brien,
Orw.i n, Bob
Pdone, James, Chief
Pireovich, John, Director
PLaks, Norman, Chief
Potter, llerschel
Raybold, Richard L.
Reznik, Dr. Dick
Rhodes, Dill
Rosen, Hal
Affiliation
Location
Itcdondo Beach, CA
TRW, Environmental
Engineering
EPA, Emissions Measure- Durham, NC
ment Branch
EPRI Palo A]to, CA
U.S. Forest Service, Macon, GA
Southern Forest Fire Research Lab
BOM, Mining Research Spokane, UA
Center
Colorado State Univer- Fort Collins, CO
sity, Department of Chemistry
Bureau of Census, Pop- Washington, DC
ulation Division
PA DER, Solid Waste Ilarrisburg, PA
Management Division, Bureau of Land Protection
BOM, Division of En- Washington, DC
vironment
Smoke Management, U.S. Macon, GA
Forest Service, Southern Forest Fire Research Lab
EPA, IERL, Industrial Research Triangle Park, NC
Processes Division, Metallurgical Processes Branch
MESA Arlington, VA
Gnithersbnrg, MD
Dayton, Oil
Phone Number
213-536-3334
919-541-5245
415-855-2471
912-746-9436
509-484-1610
303-491-6381
202-763-5002
717-787-7382
UBS, Electronics Lab
Monsanto Research Cor-
poration
EPA, IERL, Energy As- Research Triangle Park, NC
' sessment & Control Division, Fuel Process Branch
University of California Berkeley, CA
Lawrence-Berkeley Labs, Atmospheric Aerosol Kesearch
202-634-
912-746-
919-541-
703-235-
301-921-
513-268-
1251
1477
2733
1284
3786
3411
919-541-2851
415-843-2740
Group
-------
APPENDIX I (Conl:iiuicd)
LIST Of NAMES, LOCATIONS, AND PHONE NUMUEKS OF PERSONAL CONTACTS
IvJ
o
I-1
Name
fit. Louis, Richard
Smi III, dune
SiuiLh, Dr. .'Joint
Sommcrer, Dr. Diane,
l)i recto I*
Spnu.1t, Robert S.
Springer, Karl
StahLoy, Dr. Stewart
SLasikowski, l)i*. Margaret
Suta, Dr. Menjamin E.
Tc-jada, Dr. Sylvebtre
Tuckor, W. Gene, Chief
Turner, P.P. , Chief
Venezin, Ron
Wcinsteiri, Norm
Whi tc, Or. f.owe I 1
Uincr
•/elJnski, Dr. Wilbur
'/engcl , A. K.
AfCiliation
Location
PA DEK, AJr Ouhurcj, I'A
Noise Control Division
iiPA, ESliD ne.soarch TriannJe Park, IIC
L-:i'A, IKRL Kuuocircli Triangle Park, NC
York Itcuearch Corpora- Stcii'iTord, CT
tion, LlnvironiacnLal Science
Cul f Kesearch & De- llarmarvi 1 le, PA
velopment Coriioration
Southwest Research Jn- San Antonio, TX
stitute
University of Mary- College Park, MD
Iciiid, Cheiuistiy Departnienl.
IiPA Ann Arbor, Ml
Stanford Research Menlo Park, CA
JnstJ tute
LPA, ESKL Research Trianqle Park, NC
KPA, IKRL, Office of Research Triangle Park, NC
Piogram Oi>erations, Special Studies .'51'ctf.f
EPA, IliRl., Knergy As- Research Triangle Park, MC
Phone Number
7J7-7U7-2347
'J19-541-5421
919-541-2921
203-325-1371
412-020-5000
532-604-5111
301-454-4679
313-660-4200
415-326-6200
919-541-2323
919-541-2745
9J9-54J-2025
sessment t, Control Division, Advanced Processes Branch
919-541-2547
EPA, IKRL, Industrial Research Triangle Park, NC
Processes Division, Chemical Processes Branch
ReCon Systems Princeton, N.J
ASARCO Salt Lake City, UT
U.S. forest Service, Washington, DC
Division of Timber Management
Penn State University University Park, PA
Department of. Geography
The Coordinating Re- New York, M.Y.
search Council, Inc.
609-921-2112
801-262-2459
202-447-6093
014-065-1650
212-757-1295
-------
APPENDIX 1 (Continued)
LIST OF NAMES, LOCATIONS, AND PHONE NUMBERS OF PERSONAL CONTACTS
Maine Affiliation Location
Seizinger, D. E.
TrenhoLm, Andrew R.
Wasser, Jack
DOE, Dartlesville Energy Bartlesville, OK
Research Center
EPA, ESED, Industrial Research Triangle Park, NC
Studies Branch, Stand-
ards Support Section
EPA, 1ERL, Energy Assess-Research Triangle Park, NC
merit & Control Division,
Combustion Research
Branch
Phone Number
918-336-2400
919-541-5301
919-541-2476
10
o
t\j
-------
|