-------
5. Additional seeding and fertilization: If stands of vege-
tative cover are not dense enough to give a protective cover, a second
application of seed, fertilizer, and mulch should be applied during the
first subsequent favorable season. After the initial seeding for bench
grading with steep, hard, and smooth cut slope surfaces, it is impera-
tive to apply one or more additional applications of fertilizer, seed,
and mulch as the partial stands that generally occur need to be improved
in density. Additional applications of fertilizer and seed when needed
.stimulate a persistent leguminous vegetation such as crownvctch.
Exhibits of additional (multi-step) applications are:
a. For initial seedins made during spring, apply a second ap-
plication of fertilizer, seed, and mulch in late summer and a third treat-
ment the following spring if the vegetative cover is unsatisfactory. For
retreatments on existing stands of vegetation, apply approximately one-
half of the initial rates of fertilizer, seed, and mulch.
b. For initial seedings made during the late summer to early
fall, apply a second application in spring and a third in the subsequent
late summer if needed.
c. For initial seedings made during winter, make a second ap-
plication of seed and fertilizer the next spring if stands are poor, also
using the initial rates; rexnulch if necessary.
B. Fill Slopes
1. Construction; The most favorable conditions for establish-
ing a vegetative cover can be found on fill slopes, where the soil and
rock materials fall naturally to form loose, rough, undulating slope sur-
faces. On the other hand, the common practices of blading or blading and
tracking to get smooth "pleasing" surfaces are objectionable for several
reasons:
(a) Such slopes become severely compacted by dozers which also
form discrete hard clods that are severed from a continuous soil contact.
These conditions reduce the soil capacity for infiltration; hence during
heavy rains, surface waters flow rapidly down slopes to cause severe sheet
and gully erosion. It is difficult to establish protective vegetative
cover quickly on such slopes. Several applications of seed, fertilizer,
and mulch are usually needed to get a suitable plant cover.
227
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(b) Erosion rills inadvertently occur when these operations
leave channels to concentrate water movement,
The desirability of loose, rough fill slope surfaces when rock
and soil materials fall naturally as fills are made, as compared to tracked
slopes, was verified on 1-79 during construction in 1974U After a heavy
7.5-cm (3-in_) rain, there was severe shoot and p,tilly erosion of around
800 nit/ha (400 tons/acre) on a tracked 2:1 fill slope. After the .slope-
was reworked, relracked, seeded, and properly mulched, a 2.5-cm (1-in.)
rain several days later caused severe erosion of all of the mulches and
chemical binders. After fitting the slope a third time, a vegetative
cover under favorable weather conditions was established. A similar 2:1
fill slope with loose rough surfaces and no mechanical equipment tra-
versing the slopes absorbed the water from the heavy rains, and no ap-
preciable water runoff and erosion resulted. A persistent vegetative
cover was obtained on this slope irrespective of the mulching treatments.
During construction, it is strongly recommended that fill slopes
be left rough and loose as described and that they be seeded to obtain
vegetative cover every 2 weeks or at intervals of 3-m (10-ft) lifts, which-
ever occurs first.
2. Establishing vegetation: The recommendations given for lime,
fertilizer, mulch, seed mixtures, and dates of seeding for cut slopes ap-
ply to fill slopes. It is easier to establish vegetation on fill than on
cut slopes; however, the multi-step procedure of reapplying seed, fertili-
zer and mulch should be followed when initial stands are too sparse to
control erosion. Sericea lespedeza may be substituted for crownvetch,
especially on sunny slopes. If the former is used, it should be seeded
only during the late winter to spring season (Figures 54 and 55).
C. Medians and Grassed Waterways
1. Construction: Slope surfaces of medians should be left
with a rough surface condition. Lime and fertilizer materials should
be incorporated by tillage to a depth of 7.5 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in.).
Tillage reduces runoff, channelization of waters, and erosion; and
water infiltration and moisture conditions are improved for quickly
developing a vegetative cover.
Drainageways should be constructed to have flat bottom sur-
faces about 1 m (3.2 ft) wide rather than "V"-shaped ditches that con-
centrate and accelerate the water flow to cause severe erosion. When
228
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-
-
Figure 54 - A Fill Slope on Which the Soil has Just Been Overcast and Allowed to Seek Its
Own Angle of Repose is a Better Plant Bed Than One That has Been "Manicured" With
Heavy Equipment (see Figure 55). (Courtesy of Roy Blaser, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University)
-------
Figure 55 - The Same Fill Slope as in Figure 54 That has Been Benched and Seeded. The
top strip is annual ryegrass, middle strip is weeping lovegrass, and the dark strip
at the bottom is German millet (photo taken 2 months after seeding). (Courtesy of
Roy Blaser, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
-------
little water flow is anticipated, the drainageways may be seeded with-
out special erosion control measures. Where considerable water flow
is expected, sod from adapted plant species, or jute, fiberglass, or
other suitable netlike materials may be used. Sodding is a superior
treatment for waterways. Jute or other netting materials must be in-
stalled with complete soil contact to force water flow over the nets.
Waterflow under the nets can cause erosion and vegetation failures.
Fiberglass should be stabilized with asphalt applied at 1,875 to 3,750
liter/ha (200 to 400 gal/acre).
2. Establishing vegetation; The lime, fertilizer and mulch-
ing recommendations given for cut slopes should be used also for medians
and grassed waterways. The seeding rates given for creeping red fescue-
grass and Kentucky-31 fescuegrass for the spring to fall and the summer
season should be reversed. For medians to be mowed, white or ladino
clover at 4.5 kg/ha (4 Ib/acre) should be substituted for crownvetch.
Recommendations for establishing trees and shrubs on critical
areas in West Virginia include the species of multiflora rose, wichurai-
ana rose, autumn olive, black locust, Hall's honeysuckle, coralberry,
shrub lespedeza, and Virginia pine. Spacing should be 1 x 1 m (3 x 3 ft)
for shrubs and 2 x 2 m (6 x 6 ft) for trees. Overseed the planted area
with a grass or a grass-legume mixture at half of the usual seeding rate,
to stabilize the soil until the trees or shrubs become large enough to
be protective. On some steep slopes or on highly erosive soils, a com-
plete surface mulch is also necessary.
Procedures to establish protective vegetation on the roadsides
of West Virginia arc cogently summarized in this way:
a. Test the soil to determine lime requirements and fertilizer
needs.
b. Select a mixture of grasses and legumes adapted to the soil
and climate.
c. Determine the best mulch to use considering slope and sea-
son of the year. (Hydromulch for steep cut slopes, straw for erosive
embankments.)
d. Apply lime, seed, fertilizer and hydromulch with a hydro-
seeder. The application of straw mulch requires a straw blower.
231
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V. SOURCES OF FURTHER RESOURCE INFORMATION
Department of Agronomy
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
703-951-6305
Office of Research and Special Studies Division
West Virginia Department of Highways
1900 Washington Street East
Charleston, West Virginia 25301
304-348-3339
Roadside Development Division
West Virginia Department of Highways
1900 Washington Street East
Charleston, West Virginia 25301
304-348-3338
Soil Conservation Service
1422 Federal Building
500 Quarrier Street
Charleston, West Virginia 25304
304-343-6181, Ext. 232
VI. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Blaser, R. E., and J. Woodruff, "The Need for Specifying Two- and Three-
Step Seeding and Fertilization Practices for Establishing Sod on High-
ways," Highway Research Board, Washington, B.C., Highway Research Record.
246:44-49 (1968).
Green, J. T., Jr., R. E. Blaser, and H. D. Ferry, "Establishing Persistent
Vegetation on Cuts and Fills Along West Virginia Highways, 92 pages (1973),
Haught, 0. L., "Geology of the Charleston Area," West Virginia Geological
Survey Bulletin 34 (1968).
Henderlong, P. R., "Establishing and Maintaining Plant Cover Along High-
ways," West Virginia Department of Highways, SRC-26 (1968).
232
-------
Perry, H. D., J. T. Green, and R. E. Blaser, "Establishing Vegetation on
Steep Slopes Concurrently with and Subsequent to Highway Construction,"
Interim Report (1974).
Soil Conservation Service, Critical Area Planting Standards, Section IV-A,
West Virginia, 2 pages (undated).
Staff, Guide for design in cut section through rock, Design Drawing No. 7,
West Virginia Department of Highways (1964).
Staff, Stand specifications—rocks and bridges, West Virginia Department
of Highways (1972).
Staff, West Virginia Department of Highways: Supplemental Specifications
(1974).
West Virginia Department of Highways, Personal Communication to R. E.
Blaser, dated 7 October 1974.
233
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VIRGINIA
Summary 235
I. Highvays 235
A. Introduction 235
B. The Problem 238
C. Demonstrations 239
D. Evaluation and Recommendations 240
II. Waterway and Dam Protection 250
A. Introduction 250
B. Vegetation Stabilization Procedures 250
C. Additional Guidelines , 253
III. Sources of Further Resource Information 254
IV. Additional References 255
-------
VIRGINIA—DEMONSTRATION AREA NUMBER 8
VEGETATING HIGHWAY CORRIDORS IN THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU
Summary
Soils in the Piedmont Plateau are in general well drained,
highly leached, low in plant nutrients, and acid. Favoring the rapid
establishment of vegetation are the moderate temperatures and adequate
precipitation. The soils on the demonstration site are highly erosive
and are classified as the soil Great Group of Hapludults. Lime is usu-
ally necessary on soils testing below pH 5.5; without lime the redtop
grass dominates the seeded vegetation, and it soon dies. In general,
lime, nitrogen, and phosphorus are required to quickly establish a
stand of vegetation. A mulch, net, or successful chemical binding
agents is also necessary after a seeding to hold the soil in place
until the plants become firmly established. A straw mulch has proved
superior to all others tested. Kentucky-31 fescuegrass has been the
best perennial cool-season grass for stabilizing slopes when adequate
lime, fertilizers, and mulch have been used. On soils of low fertility
and on south slopes, redtop grass and weeping lovegrass are most ef-
fective. Effective annual crops include rye, wheat, annual ryegrass,
and German millet. Crownvetch and sericea lespedeza are perennial
legumes that are used on slopes, not mowed, but seedling vigor is low.
Documentation is also given for rapid establishment of vegetation on
a grassed waterway, pond embankment, and spillway.
I. HIGHWAYS
A. Introduction
1. Location: Within the Piedmont Plateau the specific demon-
strations are located along highways U.S. 58 and U.S. 360 in Halifax
County located in central southern Virginia about 170 km (110 miles)
southwest of Richmond adjoining the State of North Carolina (Figure 56).
The county, roughly triangular in shape, has an area of about 208,384 ha
(520,960 acres); elevations range from about 90 to nearly 180 m (300 to
600 ft); the main drainage areas are Dan, Roanoke, Banister, and Hyco
Rivers, which receive waters from numerous creeks and intermittent streams,
235
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CO
Experiments with establishing vegetation on bare cut slopes.
Reseeding cut slopes with sparse vegetation.
Establishing vegetation on embankments and a waterway.
N
VIRGINIA
NORTH CAROLINA
Figure 56 - Location of Demonstrations on Establishing
Roadside Vegetation in Halifax County, Virginia
-------
U.S. Highway 58 crosses the southern part of the county In an
east-to-vest direction, and U.S. 360 crosses the central part of the
county from northeast to southwest*
2. Climate; The mean January temperature ranges from 3.3 to
8.3°C (38 to 47°F) and the mean daily July temperature ranges from 22.8
to 27.2°C (72 to 81°F). The frost-free days range from 180 to 240 days.
The last killing frost in spring generally occurs during the 1st week in
April and the 1st killing frost in autumn occurs on about 30 October, but
there is much variation among years. The average annual rainfall is about
107 cm (42 in.) with rather uniform monthly distribution.
Difficult periods for establishing vegetation are during the
midsummer months of drought when monthly evapotranspiration is often
double the amount of rainfall. Low temperatures and freezing soils
during the late autumn and winter months inhibit germination and growth
of seedling plants.
3. Soils; The soils are acid in reaction, low in fertility,
and highly erosive when disturbed. Calcium and phosphorus are very low.
Under the naturally acid conditions of surface soils and subsoils, high
soluble aluminum, low calcium, and low phosphorus inhibit the growth of
most of the grasses and legumes used for obtaining vegetative covers.
In addition, on disturbed soils, low soil organic matter allied with
poor soil structure inhibit water infiltration, thereby augmenting the
erosive processes. Soil organic matter is low, resulting in the release
of very small amounts of nitrogen for plant growth.
Granites, gneisses, and mica schist are the principal bedrock
materials underlying soils in most parts of Halifax County.
The processes of physical, chemical, and biological weathering
have reduced the bedrock to soft pliable material which varies from place
to place. This material has given rise to soils of the Cecil, Appling,
and Durham series.
According to the new U.S. system of soil taxonomy, these three
soil series are classified as follows:
Cecil - Typic Hapludults, clayey, kaolinitic, thermic
Appling - Typic Hapludults, clayey, kaolinitic, thermic
Durham - Typic Hapludults, fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic
237
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B. The Problem
During highway construction in the Piedmont Plateau, grading
specifications generally call for 1:1 slopes on cuts, resulting in hard
and smooth surfaces. Seeding for vegetative cover was generally delayed
until highway construction was nearly complete, and such delays caused
vertical rilling from uncontrolled water movement. This made it very
difficult to establish a protective vegetative cover.
The seeding specifications for the highway construction corri-
dor made by contractors or by personnel of the Virginia Highway Department
consisted of 561 to 674 kg/ha (500 to 600 Ib/acre) of a 10-6-4 fertilizer
and a seeding mixture of redtop, creeping red fescuegrass, chewings fescue-
grass, orchardgrass, and red clover. A straw mulch is used for both cut
and fill slopes. Specifications for medians were similar, except that a
redtop--creeping red fescue--chewings fescue--white clover mixture was
used. Fertilizer and seed were applied in a slurry with a hydromulcher.
Cut elopes were staked on 60-cm (2-ft) centers, and the stakes
protruded about 25 cm (10 in.) to hold the straw mulch in place. A light
spray of asphalt as a binder was often applied with the straw mulch.
These grading and seeding practices obtained fair results in
establishing protective vegetative covers on fill slopes and medians.
Reseeding and refertilizing, however, were often necessary to develop
a persistent vegetative cover. On the other hand, the usual fertilizer,
seed, and mulch treatments usually failed to give a satisfactory vegeta-
tive cover to control erosion on cut slopes. Several reapplications of
seed and fertilizer improved the vegetative cover but even with retreat-
ments, steep cut slopes with sunny exposures often had sparse vegetation
and severe erosion. In a final effort to obtain a suitable plant cover
on the cut slopes, various woody species adapted to these infertile soils
were hand planted. The plant cover developed too slowly for erosion con-
trol purposes and so was not satisfactory.
The poor vegetative cover did little to control erosion. This
resulted in coarse-grained particles being deposited in the highway con-
struction corridor and fine materials being transported further downstream,
causing pollution. To resolve these problems, the Virginia Highway Re-
Search Council entered into a research agreement with the Virginia Poly-
technic Institute and State University.
238
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C. Demonstrations
Several sites on the westbound lanes of U.S. 58 in the vicinity
of Turbeville were used for establishing demonstrations to solve the prob-
lems of successful establishment of persistent vegetative covers. All cut
slopes were established on a grade of 1:1 and "smooth11 graded; seeding
practices were generally delayed until construction was nearly finished.
This delay resulted in slope erosion caused by an erodible soil and smoothly
graded steep slopes. These factors added to the difficulty of establishing
vegetation. The cut slope faces ranged from 5 to 15 m (16 to 50 ft) in
height. Slopes, generally more than 90 m (300 ft) in length, were selected
to apply treatment variables on plots 4 to 6 m (12 to 20 ft) wide parallel-
ing the slope face. The treatment variables were replicated and subjected
to statistical analyses.
A soil sample to a depth of 15 cm (6 in.) was taken on a reddish,
friable clay loam subsoil (Cecil series) and sent for chemical fertility
testing. The test results were as follows: CaO, K^O, and Fo°5 vere a11
very low; however, MgO was high. Organic matter content was near nil;
hence, nitrogen was near zero. The soil was very acid, with pH 4.6.
Demonstrations were established on bare soil on 1:1 cut slopes.
The objectives were: (a) to obtain a vegetative cover quickly, and (b) to
obtain a persistent cover requiring little maintenance. The following
variables were investigated:
1. Rates of applying lime.
2. Rates of apply N-P-K fertilizers.
3. Slowly available and soluble sources of N.
4. Single versus several applications of N-P-K.
5. The adaptation of perennial grasses and legumes for de-
signing seed mixtures.
6. The use of companion species.
7. The place of temporary species.
8. The differential responses of plant species to lime and
fertilizer.
239
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9. Mulching treatments including nets.
10. Using wood stakes to hold straw in place.
11. Establishing lateral grooves across slopes 8 to 10 cm (3
to 4 in.) deep and 35 to 50 cm (14 to 20 in.) apart.
12. Other experiments with similar Piedmont soils but at dif-
ferent locations also investigated these factors and included topsoiling,
grading methods, and erosion control during all seasons by altering seed-
ing mixtures, and prolonged soil cover with special mulching practices.
D. Evaluation and Recommendations
1. Grading; Cut slopes should be as flat as practical, pre-
ferably 2:1 or less. Steeper slopes should be stair-step graded or left
serrate with about 30-cm (1-ft) serrations. Shallower cut slopes should
have "rough," loose surfaces leaving stones and rocks in place to give
varying slope exposure and microenvironments. Such slope conditions im-
prove water infiltration, give some seed, lime, and fertilizer coverage
to speed up germination and seedling growth. Such conditions have been
especially favorable for establishing crownvetch, a persistent legume
requiring no maintenance for many years. Establishing a vegetative cover
quickly is the best way to arrest erosion.
Seedings should be made about weekly or as gradings of 3- to
5-m (10- to 15-ft) vertical sections are ready. It is better to estab-
lish vegetation right after grading as delays cause soil crusting or
erosion, resulting in a very adverse environment for establishing vege-
tation.
Pursuing these procedures avoids the need for topsoiling. Top-
soils in this region are generally of poor quality and difficult to iden-
tify. They are also sources of weed seeds. Topsoiling often causes de-
lays in seeding and may allow seeds of weed species to grow and shade out
more desirable persistent species.
2. Liming; Liming the reddish Piedmont subsoil materials
(Cecil series) increases the soil pH and precipitates soluble aluminum,
adds calcium, and improves phosphate availability (Table 19). Grasses
and legumes that need lime on these soils are Kentucky-31 fescuegrass,
Kentucky bluegrass, creeping red fescuegrass, orchardgrass, perennial
240
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TABLE 19
LIMING AND FERTILIZING TO ESTABLISH VEGETATIVE
•L. 1
COVER FOR
EROSION CONTROL!/
Analysis of Soil
Quantity of Material Applied^'
Phosphorus
kg/ha
25
49
448
25
49
112
224
Ib/acre
22
44
400
22
44
100
200
Lime
kg/ha
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
tons /acre
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
Acidity
(PH)
4.5
4.5
4.5
7.4
7.6
6.9
6.8
Phosphorus
Available
kg/ha
11
18
161
7
19
143
222
Ib/acre
10
16
144
6
17
128
198
Total
ppm
329
312
744
171
229
888
1,319
Soluble
Aluminum
me/ 100 e of Soil
2.10
1.80
3.18
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
a/ McKee et al. (1965).
!>/ Nitrogen and potassium were uniformly applied over all treatments.
-------
ryegrass, bermuda grass, cereal grains (used as companion crops), crown-
vetch, birdsfoot trefoil, and clovers. Sericea lespedeza and redtop grass
are tolerant of the low calcium--high soluble aluminum in such red sub-
soils, but often also respond to lime. A Kentucky-31 fescue—redtop grass
mixture becomes dominated by fescuegrass in a limed soil to form a persis-
tent cover; without lime, redtop dominates the vegetative cover, while
fescuegrass soon dies. Redtop is an undesirable shallow-rooted, short-
lived species.
Liming of acid soil materials in the Piedmont Plateau adds cal-
cium and sometimes magnesium as a neutralizing agent, reduces acidity,
and decreases toxic soluble aluminum, making it possible to grown crown-
vetch. A finely ground dolomitic, agricultural limestone (around 30%
magnesium carbonate and 70% calcium carbonate) applied at the rate of
4.5 mt/ha (2 tons/acre) has generally been adequate. Surface applica-
tions of lime have been successful; however, stands develop into a dense
persistent cover much faster when lime is incorporated by tillage opera-
tions or if surfaces are loose or stair-step graded to obtain natural
incorporation of lime.
3. Fertilization; Because of the very low availability of
phosphorus and soil nitrogen in these red to yellowish subsoils (Cecil
and Appling series), seedling growth responses and vegetative cover were
hastened by liberal applications of N and P2®5' ^n tnc presence of lime,
excellent vegetative covers with strong root systems to inhibit erosion
were obtained within 6 lo 8 weeks. However, about 6 months after seeding,
when applying a 10-20-10 fertilizer at 1,120 kg/ha (1,000 Ib/acre), the
vegetation (predominately Kentucky-31 fescuegrass) became yellowish and
stunted, causing canopy cover to become sparse. This depressed growth
occurred because of the low soil organic matter and nitrogen. A second
application of a 10-20-10 fertilizer at 560 kg/ha (500 Ib/acre) about
6 months after seeding stimulated growth and improved the density of
the vegetation. On a soil low in phosphorus, roadside vegetation es-
tablishment is a failure without phosphorus fertilizer (Figure 57).
The most persistent cover occured, however, when a third application
of fertilizer was applied a year after the second application. As an
alternative, an excellent persistent vegetative cover was generally
obtained when applying around 179 kg/ha (160 Ib/acre) of N from a slow-
release ureaformaldehyde nitrogen source along the initial application
of 10-20-10 fertilizer. Responses in color and growth of grass were
apparent several years after application.
242
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S3
-•
Figure 57 - Both Plots Received the Same Treatments Except That on the Right no Phosphorus Fertilizer
was Applied. Vegetation establishment was a failure. (Courtesy Roy Blaser,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
-------
4. Mulches, nets, and binding agents: Good mulches (a) in-
crease infiltration of water into soils; (b) moderate temperatures; (c)
decrease evaporation and prolong periods of favorable moisture; and (d)
stabilize surface soils and fertilizer in place while seeds are germin-
ating and developing a protective cover.
Of all mulch materials tested on steep 1:1 slopes with hard,
smooth surfaces, straw and wood-fiber cellulose gave the best vegetative
cover. Binding agents such as asphalt, latex, and other chemicals used
alone were unsatisfactory. They gave results similar to no-mulch treat-
ments. Nets varying in mesh size and weight were very unsatisfactory,
as erosion started in areas where there was no soil contact. The major
problem was water movement under the nets rather than over the surface.
The least erosion and best vegetative cover occured when the
slopes were grooved on the contour before applying lime, fertilizer,
seed, and mulch. Straw mulch applied at 3 to 4 mt/ha (1.5 to 2.0 tons/
acre) and held in place with an asphalt spray, net, or with string, gave
the best vegetative cover in a shorter period of time than any other
mulch. Wood fiber at 2 mt/ha (0.85 tons/acre) was the next best mulch.
During the favorable seeding seasons either wood fiber or straw mulch
were satisfactory; but during moisture stress periods or for prolonged
protection of the soils, straw, woodbark, or voodchips at about 170
m/ha2 (550 yd/acre2) were the best mulches.
Chemical agents to bind wood fiber, straw, or woodbark were of
negligible value on slopes that were the most difficult to vegetate. Of
all binding agents tested, asphalt on straw has given the best response.
5. Seed mixtures; Seed mixtures should be designed to obtain
a protective soil cover, e.g., a rapidly developing canopy to inhibit
raindrops from dispersing soil fines that plug the channels through which
water moves into soils. Simultaneously, strong root systems from adapted
plants bind soil materials together to minimize erosion. Seeding mixtures
should be designed for the soil environments including moisture, pH, and
mineral nutrient status; latitude; altitude; biological factors such as
diseases and insects; season of seeding; and local slope environments.
More fertilizer, seed, and more adequate mulching are required
on hot sunny slopes than on cool shady ones. Sunny slope exposures en-
counter sharply higher temperatures than shady ones because of high in-
tensities of radiant energy. The high temperature in turn causes high
evaporation and transpiration. Droughty conditions then inhibit germin-
ation, seedling growth, and vegetative development. Thus, hot sunny
slopes require more fertilizer, seed, and better mulching than do cool
shady slopes.
244
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Seed mixtures should have small amounts of temporary species
(annual ryegrass, cereal grains, or German millet) that provide a vege-
tative cover quickly; the species will vary with season of seedling.
Excessive amounts of temporary species give a quick vegetative cover,
but later the soil often becomes bare and eroded because desirable per-
ennials that start slowly were shaded and killed.
Tall fescuegrass (cultivar Kentucky-31) is a hardy perennial
that is better adapted to the wide array of environmental factors than
any other cool season grass (Table 20). Redtop has been included in
mixtures because it gives a vegetative cover quickly, especially under
acid soil conditions high in soluble aluminum; however, this species is
short-lived. Weeping lovegrass, a warm season perennial, seeded during
the warm frost-free spring to early summer season is the best grass for
adverse (dry and hot) cut slope environments. It responds to lime and
needs to be fertilized liberally with P2°5 an<* N* Excellent stands are
being obtained in the corridor of major and secondary highways in the
Piedmont Plateau. Cut slopes in major and secondary highway corridors
in the Piedmont regions seeded with a hydroseeder In a wood-fiber mulch-
fertilizer—lovegrass seed slurry have developed excellent vegetative
cover quickly. Common bermuda grass seeded with tall fescue mixtures
contributes to the vegetative cover on "hot slopes" where it is often
the dominant species in canopy cover. On shady slopes, however, the
cooler temperatures and more favorable moisture cause tall fescuegrass
to suppress bermuda grass.
Cool season grasses, such as bluegrass, creeping red fescue-
grass and bromegrass, and legumes such as red and white clover are not
adapted to the harsh soil environment and droughty period with high tem-
peratures. The low organic matter and low soil nitrogen result in slow
growth and degeneration of grass sods unless nitrogen fertilizer is ap-
plied or perennial legumes are seeded to fix nitrogen. Annual lespedeza
is well adapted to the infertile soil conditions in the Piedmont; but
its short (5 months) season of growth and fine shallow decaying roots
allow severe erosion during the winter. The perennial legume, sericea
lespedeza, is exceptionally well adapted to the highly infertile red
and yellowish soils and subsoils in the Piedmont Plateau. The primary
problem with this legume is its slowness in developing stands because
of slow seedling growth the 1st year. For bare cut slopes, it is nec-
essary to lime and fertilize to establish a cover with such perennial
grasses as tall fescuegrass; later sericea lespedeza plants from early
and delayed germination will develop a very persistent protective cover
which requires a little maintenance for many years (Figure 58).
245
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TABLE 20
RECOMMENDED SPECIES AND SEEPING RATE BY SEASON
FOR VIRGINIA HIGHWAYS
Spring and Fall Seeding Seasons
(15 February to 15 May, and 1 September to 15 October)
Seeding Rate
Kentucky-31 Fescuegrass
Creeping Red Fescuegrass
Annual Ryegrass
Sericea Lespedeza
55
11
11
Ib/acre
50
10
10
30
Summer Seeding Season
(15 May to 1 September)—'
b/
Kentucky-31 Fescuegrass
Creeping Red Fescuegrass
Weeping Lovegrass
German Millet
Sericea Lespedeza
Seeding Rate
kg/ha
55
11
6 or
17
34
Ib/acre
50
10
5 or
15
30
Autumn and Winter Seeding Seasons
(15 October to 15 February).!::/
Cereal Rye
Creeping Red Fescuegrass
Kentucky-31 Fescuegrass
Seeding Rate
kg/ha
67
22
44
Ib/acre
60
20
40
a/ Crovmvetch and lespedeza should be inoculated at 10 times the rate
normally recommended by the manufacturers. Crovmvetch at 22 kg/ha
(20 Ib/acre) may be substituted, especially on cool slopes and with
liberal and incorporated lime and phosphorus. A soil pH of 5.8 or
higher is desirable for crownvetch. Redtop at 2.2 kg/ha (2 Ib/acre)
may be added; this grass thrives under acid-high aluminum soil con-
ditions.
t>/ Do not use lovegrass later than 1 August; it would be best to seed the
Sericea lespedeza or crownvetch the subsequent spring.
c/ Increase seeding rates to 507o after 15 November; also overseed with
crownvetch at 22 kg/ha (20 Ib/acre) or sericea lespedeza at 33 kg/ha
(30 Ib/acre) the next spring.
246
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I
Figure 58 - With no Maintenance Application of Lime and Fertilizer on a Piedmont Plateau 1:1 Slope,
Sericea Lespedeza is Crowding Out Kentucky-31 Fescuegrass, and Native Trees and Shrubs are Re-
placing the Sericea Lespedeza (Courtesy Roy Blaser, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University)
-------
6. Additional seeding and fertilization: The application of
additional seeding and fertilization is usually essential for obtaining
a suitable vegetative cover on steep cut slopes with hard, smooth surfaces,
With rough, loose and undulating surfaces one application of fertilizer,
seed, and mulch may be adequate. However, when using a total of 1,680
kg/ha (1,500 Ib/acre) fertilizer in a single application with a liberal
seeding rate, better and more persistent vegetative covers are obtained
by splitting the application (two-thirds at seeding, the remainder later).
Sunny slopes should usually receive additional applications. Split ap-
plications are recommended for seedings made during unfavorable growth
periods; also the multi-step principle assures the development of per-
sistent vegetation. The multi-step method allows for reseeding legumes
when initial stands are inadequate.
Examples of multi-step applications are:
a. For initial seedings made during spring, apply a second ap-
plication of fertilizer, seed, and mulch in late summer. If the vegeta-
tive cover is unsatisfactory, apply a third treatment the following spring,
The retreatments, pending stands of vegetation, may approximate one-half
of the initial rates.
b. For initial seedings made during the late summer or early
fall, make a second application in the spring. If needed, a third ap-
plication should be made the following summer.
c. For initial seedings made during winter, make a second ap-
plication of seed and fertilizer during the next spring if stands are un-
satisfactory. Remulch if necessary, also.
7. Sparse vegetation: The common occurrence of unsatisfactory
or a degenerating vegetation on cut slope environments in the Piedmont
region soon after seeding is now explainable by research findings. Lime
was not specified for seeding in highway construction corridors; hence,
the acid soil conditions, low calcium, and high soluble aluminum depressed
all species used in seeding mixtures, except possibly redtop grass.
Redtop grass is short-lived and not persistent. The low rate
of fertilization and the low amount of phosphorus in the 10-6-4 fertili-
zer, coupled with the acid soil conditions without liming, resulted in a
very low availability of phosphorus and inadequate nitrogen. Tall fescue,
a hardy persistent grass, was in a developmental stage and had not been
used in mixtures; also weeping lovegrass and sericea lespedeza are more
recent developments (Figure 59). The poorly adapted grasses used in the
mixtures degenerated.
248
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s
Figure 59 - Weeping Lovegrass has Been Successively Established on a Grooved,
South Slope in About 2 Months from Time of Summer Seeding
(Courtesy Roy Blaser, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University)
1:1
-------
The improving of the sparse vegetation in the highway corridor
was accomplished in two ways. Liberal applications of fertilizers high
in N and ?2°5 (10-20-5) were recommended and used to thicken the sparse
vegetative cover to give erosion protection. Later based on research,
sericea lespedeza was seeded into sparse stands of grass. This was done
before erosion occurred; lespedeza established quickly as the sparse
grass and other vegetation did not shade out lespedeza. It was also ob-
served that natural woody vegetation in the absence of mowing encroached
naturally to give variable aesthetically desirable persistent vegetative
cover.
II. WATERWAY AMD DAM PROTECTION
A. Introduction
The construction of ponds or lakes in watersheds to detain the
flow of water, and the stabilization of waterways with persistent vege-
tation can cause deposition of transported sediments and deter erosion,
soil depletion and other sediment problems. Clean water stored in the
ponds or lakes is useful to industry, agriculture, and local communities
of the area.
B. Vegetation Stabilization Procedures
A grassed waterway, pond embankment, and a spillway in Halifax
County, Virginia, on the U.S. Plywood Corporation property 2 miles east
of South Boston were seeded in early autum 1960 (Figure 56). The pro-
ject was supervised by personnel of the Soil Conservation Service. The
Helena and Wilkes soil series, formed from weathering of mica gneiss and
associated rocks, were described as nonfertile, being highly acid in re-
action and very low in phosphorus and nitrogen.
The range of channel gradients (percent) and permissible water
velocities for various vegetative covers in waterways recommended by the
Virginia Soil and Water Conservation Commission (1974) are shown in Table
21.
The pond with embankment and spillway and the jute waterways
are shown (Figure 60) soon after seeding with specifications by Virginia
Soil and Water Conservation Commission (1974) and Vaden (1966). Speci-
fications for seeding were:
250
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TABLE 21
THE RELATIONSHIPS OF VEGETATION, CHANNEL GRADIENT.
AND PERMISSIBLE (NONEROSIVE) VELOCITY OF WATER
IN GRASSED WATERWAYS
Vegetative Covers
1. Bermuda Grasak/
2. Reed Canarygrass
Fall Fescuegrass
Kentucky Bluegrass
3. Grass-Legume Mixtures
A. Red Fescuegrass
Redtop
Sericea Lespedeza
5. Annuals:
Annual Lespedeza
Small Grains (Bye,
Oats, Barley)
Ryegrass
Range of Channel
Gradients (7.)
0 to 5
5 to 10
Over 10
0 to 5
5 to 10
Over 10
0 to 5
5 to 10
0 to 5
0 to 5
Permissible
Velocity of
Water
ft/sec
6
5
4
5
4
3
4
3
m/ sec
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2.5
2.5
a/ To be used only below stabilized or protected areas.
b/ Recommended varieties of bermuda grass are Tufcote, common, U3,
Midland, and Coastal.
251
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Figure 60 - Erosion Control in Grassed Waterways, Pond Embankments and Spillway in Halifax County,
Virginia (Piedmont Plateau). Excellent stands of grass seedlings developed in jute-
lined waterways and straw-mulched embankments. Later, excellent vegetative cover
resulted from the lime and fertilizer treatments and the adapted Kentucky-31
tall fescuegrass seeding. (Courtesy of Soil Conservation Service)
-------
1. The separate application of A.5 to 6.7 mt/ha (2 or 3 tons/
acre) of finely ground limestone and 1,121 kg/ha (1,000 Ib/acre) of 45%
triple superphosphate or its equivalent disked in to a depth of 7.5 cm
(3 in.)« Separately and before the last disking, 1,121 kg/ha (1,000 lb/
acre) of a 10-10-10 fertilizer was applied.
2. The seed mixture included about 80 kg/ha (70 Ib/acre) of
Kentucky-31 tall fescuegrass and 2.2 kg/ha (2 lb) of white clover.
Sericea lespedeza at 22 kg/ha (20 Ib/acre) was added with spring seed-
ings and overseeded in the spring for seedings made during the autumn.
3. Small grain straw as a mulch was applied at 3.4 to 4.4
mt/ha (1-1/2 to 2 tons/acre) and was anchored either with asphalt emul-
sion or by a mulch anchoring tool ( a cut-away disc set flat that em-
bedded the straw into the soil).
4. The soil was rolled with a corrugated roller before and
after seeding; for the jute-lined waterways one-half of the seed was
applied before and one-half after laying the jute. Topsoiling is not
generally recommended in the Piedmont and was not used for this project.
The jute lining in the waterways was installed as recommended
by the Virginia Soil and Water Commission (1974):
1. The waterway was shaped and graded to handle the expected
waterflow.
2. All rocks over 3.75 cm (1.5 in.) in diameter and other ma-
terial were removed, leaving a loose, smooth soil for good mat-soil con-
tact to avoid water movement under the mat.
3. Matting was laid from the top of the channel or slope and
unrolled downgrade so that one edge of the strip coincided with the chan-
nel center.
4. A second strip of jute matting was laid parallel to the
first, on the other side of the channel, with at least a 5-cm (2-in.)
overlap.
C. Additional Guidelines
Based upon experience gained in establishing the grassed water-
way, and in vegetating the dam and spillway, Joseph Vaden of the Soil
Conservation Service recommends these additional procedures:
253
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1. Bury the upper end of the jute strips in a trench 10 cm
(4 in.) or more deep. Tamp the trench full of soil. Reinforce with a
row of staples driven through the jute about 10 cm (4 in.) downhill from
the trench. These staples should be about 25 cm (10 in.) apart. Then
staple the overlap in the channel center. These staples should be 90
to 120 cm (3 to 4 ft) apart. The outside edges may be stapled similarly
at any time after the center has been stapled.
2. Succeeding strips of matting, farther down the channel or
slope, are secured in a similar manner. Where one roll of jute matting
ends and another roll begins, the end of the top strip should overlap
the trench where the upper end of the lower strip is buried. Make the
overlap at least 10 cm (4 in.) and staple securely.
An exceptionally good sod cover of Kentucky-31 fescuegrass
developed in waterways, embankments, and on the spillway. White clover
failed to make a significant contribution and should be omitted from
future seed mixtures. Although sericea lespedeza was not used for
waterways, it should be used, as its deep roots resist washouts, and
the top growth slows water movement while also bending downhill and
causing a "shingling" protective effect.
III. SOURCES OF FURTHER RESOURCE INFORMATION
Department of Agronomy
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
703-951-6305
Environmental Quality Engineer
Virginia Department of Highways
1221 East Broad Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
804-770-4304
Halifax County Extension Office
Box 757
Halifax, Virginia 24558
804-476-2895
254
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Highway and Transportation Research Council
Department of Highways and Transportation
Box 3817
University Station
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
804-977-0290
Soil Conservation Service
Federal Building
400 North 8th Street
P.O. Box 0026
Richmond, Virginia 23240
804-782-2457
IV. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Berkley, D. G., R. E. Blaser, and R. E. Schmidt, "Effect of Mulches on
Microclimate and Turf Establishment," Agricultural Journal, 57;189-
192 (1965).
Blaser, R. E., "Soil Mulches for Grassing," National Academy of Science,
Highway Research Board, Roadside Development, 1030:15-20 (1962).
Blaser, R. E., "Principles for Making Up Seed Mixtures for Roadside Seed-
ings," National Academy of Science, Highway Research Board, Roadside
Development, 1120:79-84 (1963).
Blaser, R. E., and W. H. McKee, "Regeneration of Woody Vegetation Along
Roadsides," Highway Research Record, 161:104-115 (1967).
Blaser, R. E., G. W. Thomas, C. R. Brooks, G. J. Shoop, and J. B. Martin,
Jr., "Turf Establishment and Maintenance Along Highway Cuts," Highway
Research Board, Washington, D.C., Roadside Development. 9,213:5-19 (1961).
Blaser, R. E., and C. Y. Ward, "Seeding Highway Slopes as Influenced by
Lime, Fertilizer, and Adaptation of Species," Highway Research Board,
Washington, D.C., Roadside Development. 61.3:21-39 (1958).
Blaser, R. E., and J. Woodruff, "The Need for Specifying Two- and Three-
Step Seeding and Fertilization Practices for Establishing Sod on High-
ways," Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., Highway Research
Record, 246:44-49 (1968).
255
-------
Buol, S. W., Editor, "Soils of the Southern States and Puerto Rico," A
Joint Regional Publication by the Agricultural Experiment Stations of
the Southern States and Puerto Rico Land-Grant Universities with Coop-
erative Assistance by the Soil Conservation Service, USDA, 105 pages
(1973).
Carson, E. W., Jr., "The Responses of Lespedeza Cuneata to Nitrogen and
Grass Associates," Master of Science Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic In-
stitute (1963).
Carson, E. W., Jr., and R. E. Blaser, "Establishing Sericea Lespedeza on
Highway Slopes," Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., Roadside De-
velopment. 1030:3-14 (1962).
Green, J. T., Jr., J. M. Woodruff, and R. E. Blaser, "Stabilizing Dis-
turbed Areas During Highway Construction for Pollution Control," Final
Report, Agronomy Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, 84 pages (1973).
Jurney, R. C., S. 0. Perkins, R. E. Devereux, S. S. Obenshain, E. Shulkcum,
and G. W. Patterson, "Soil Survey of Halifax County, Virginia," Bureau
of Chemistry and Soils, Series 1934, No. 5, 56 pages (1938).
McKee, W. H., R. E. Blaser, and D. W, Barkley, "Mulches for Steep Cut
Slopes," Highway Research Board, Highway Research Record. ^:35-42
(1964).
McKee, W. H., Jr., and R. E. Blaser, "Fertilizer Maintenance as Related
to Sod Degeneration and Encroachment of Woody Species," Research Report,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Research Division, pp. 28-321 (1967).
McKee, W. H., A. J. Powell, Jr., R. B. Cooper, and R. E. Blaser, "Micro-
climate Conditions Found on Highway Slope Facings as Related to Adapta-
tion of Species," Highway Research Board, L3JD9:38-43 (1965).
McKee, W. H., R. E. Blaser, A. J. Powell, R. B. Cooper, U. Yadar, and
P. Boashart, "The Establishing and Maintenance of Vegetation on Various
Environments Along Interstate Highways," Annual Report, Virginia Agri-
cultural Experiment Station in cooperation with the Virginia Council of
Highway Investigation and Research and U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, 60
pages (1965).
Shoop, G. J., C. R. Brooks, R. E. Blaser, and G. Thomas, "Differential
Responses of Grasses and Legumes to Liming and Phosphorus Fertiliza-
tion," A^r^cjjUuraj^OTjrnal, £3:111-115 (1961).
256
-------
Van Dine, J. W., and W. F. Sledjeski, "Soil Survey of Charlotte County,
Virginia," Soil Conservation Service, USDA in cooperation with Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, 97 pages (1974).
Woodruff, J. M., J. T. Green, and R. E. Blaser, "Weeping Lovegrass for
Highway Slopes in the Virginias," Highway Research Board, Washington,
D.C., Highway Research Record, 41^;7-14 (1972).
Woodruff, J. W. and R. E. Blaser, "Establishing Crownvetch on Steep Slopes
in Virginia," Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., Highway Research
Record. 335:19-28 (1970).
Vaden, J. H., "Vegetative Protection for Water Storage in Virginia," pre-
sented at the Annual Meeting of the Soil Conservation Society of America,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 15-17 August 1966.
"Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook," Virginia Soil and Water
Conservation Commission, P.O. Box 1163, Richmond, Virginia 23209, April
1974.
257
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MASSACHUSETTS
Summary • 259
I. Introduction 259
II. Soils 262
III. Grasses and Legumes 263
IV. Woody Plants 266
V. Mulches and Fertilizers 268
VI. Crownvetch 269
tT\
VII. Sources of Assistance *"'•*
VIII. Additional References 274
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MASSACHUSETTS—DEMONSTRATION AREA NUMBER 9
ROADSIDE VEGETATION
Summary
Massachusetts is characterized by cool temperatures, a humid
moisture regime throughout the year, and acid soils of low fertility.
The soils are classified in the extensive Great Group of Haplorthods.
Soil tests have invariably indicated a need for lime, nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium fertilizers. Recommended seeding mixtures vary
vith the decision to mow or not to mow. In general, shrubs are favored
over grasses because the area is a forest and shrub environment. Shrubs
that are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis are
preferred.
Research results documented throughout the State of Massachusetts
in this manual include a comparison of woody plant species near Gardner,
Walpole, and Merrimac; variable mulches and fertilizers on the growth of
Hertz juniper near Erving; and a comparison of dates of seeding for crown-
vetch near the town of Granville (Figure 61).
I. INTRODUCTION
The State of Massachusetts lies at a latitude mostly north of
the 42nd parallel. Except for Cape Cod, adjacent coastal areas, and the
Connecticut River Valley, Massachusetts is hilly to mountainous, with
elevations mostly between 152 and 610 m (500 and 2,000 ft).
The climate is variable due to the fact that it lies in the
storm path of the prevailing westerly winds that cross the United States
and encircle the world at middle latitudes. The winds may be cold and
dry from the Arctic region or warm and moist from the Gulf of Mexico.
Variability of climate is also due to the proximity of the Atlantic
Ocean and differences in elevation within the State. During summer
when the westerly winds are weak, gentle ocean breezes often blow
from the east.i'
I/ "Climates of the States, Vol. I, Eastern States," National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 480
pages, pp. 175-191 (1974).
259
-------
10
&
O
Figure 61 - Locations Where Research Results are Documented as Discussed in the Summary
-------
Average annual temperatures vary from 8°C (46°F) in the west-
ern mountains to 9°C (49°F) in the central hills to 10°C (50°F) near the
Atlantic Coast. The highest temperature on record was 41°C (106°F) and
the lowest -37°C (-24°F). The growing season varies from 120 to 200 days.
These temperatures place the State of Massachusetts in "Plant Hardiness
Zone 5" -29° to -23°C (-20 to 10°F). The State is also placed mostly in
Plant Growth Region 27 (See Section III).
Precipitation averages from 102 to 127 cm (40 to 50 in.) a
year, and monthly means are between 8 and 10 cm (3 and 4 in.). Droughts
are extremely rare with most monthly totals of rainfall varying from 50
to 200% of normal. At least 0.03 cm (0.01 in.) of precipitation falls
on an average of 1 day in three. Intensity of rainfall is normally
mild; however, the heaviest is received during summer thundershowers.
Snowfall varies directly with elevation and ranges between 64 to 203 cm
(25 to 80 in.) a year. The number of days with fog varies from 15 to
100, and the number of clear days per year is between 90 and 120. Per-
centage of possible sunshine is from 45 to 60. Relative humidity is
usually high, with monthly means mostly 60 to 807..
Climatic factors favorable for the establishment of adapted
vegetation are the high relative humidity, the even distribution of pre-
cipitation each month of the year, and the moderate accumulation of snow-
fall that protects plants from extremes of temperature. Unfavorable cli-
matic factors for establishing vegetation are glaze ice formation, frost
heaving, and occasional hailstorm, and an occasional summer drought. Ice
storms that produce glaze on vegetation is a deterrent to successful es-
tablishment and maintenance of plants, especially woody plants, on dis-
turbed soils. Another climate-related restraint to vegetation establish-
ment is "heaving" of plants. This phenomenon consists of the formation
of ice crystals near the roots and crown of plants and the growth of
such crystals from the bottom. The net result is that plants are forced
out of the ground with the ice crystals where their roots desiccate and
die.
A serious constraint on the successful establishment of vege-
tation on roadsides and other disturbed soils is the low fertility acid
soil conditions and low water-holding capacity of the soils. The latter
limitation, however, is ameliorated by the uniform distribution of ade-
quate precipitation, coupled with high relative humidity.
261
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The ecological environments of climate and soil in the State
of Massachusetts are conducive to tree and shrub vegetation. To estab-
lish and maintain grasses and legumes on roadsides in such an environ-
ment requires the application of lime every 3 to 5 years to maintain
the soil pH at about 6.5 and fertilizer to raise the levels of N, P,
and K perhaps five times above their present levels. Periodic mowing
is necessary for maintaining grasses and legumes. Most of the research
results reported here will therefore relate to shrubs.
II. SOILS
The soil order of Spodosols is the predominant soil in all
six Nev England States as well as in northern Wisconsin, northern
Michigan, and northeastern New York. The most extensive soil Great
Group of the Spodosols is Haplorthods, comprising 297,020 km2 (114,680
miles2)—3.27. of the land area of the United States.
Undisturbed Haplorthods are well-drained soils characterized
by the presence of a strongly acid organic layer 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4
in.) thick underlain by a light gray sandy (albic) horizon of compar-
able thickness, resting on a dark brown horizon consisting principally
of amorphous organic matter plus aluminum, and sometimes iron. All
horizons are strongly acid to medium acid, low in lime, and low in es-
sential plant nutrients. Haplorthods are moist throughout the year
and throughout the profile except that they may be dry for less than
45 days a year. The soil temperature regime of Haplorthods consists
of a mean annual temperature at a 50-cm (20-in.) depth of less than
8°C (47°F), and a difference in mean annual temperature of winter
and summer at this depth of more than 5*C (9°F). Entic Haplorthods
is the soil family to which all 13 soil series belong that are dis-
cussed here in relation to establishing vegetation on roadsides in
Massachusetts.
The relatively cool temperature, acid reaction, and small
reserve of available essential elements in Haplorthods make the es-
tablishment of vegetation difficult. In contrast, the moist soil
profile during most of the year favors vegetation establishment.
Annual precipitation of 102 to 127 cm (40 to 50 in.) falling as gen-
tle rain or snow, and high humidity because of the proximity to large
bodies of water, assure more infiltration, low evaporation, and low
transpiration.
262
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III. GRASSES AND LEGUMES
Where grasses and legumes are to be used to vegetate highway
cuts, fills, and medians it is necessary to follow these guidelines if
successful establishment is expected:
1. Divert excess surface water from the planting site by di-
version terraces above the slopes and, on long slopes, at recommended
intervals.
2. Protect the area from fire, grazing, and trampling by
people.
3. Shape the final grade to a 3:1 slope or flatter.
4. Make a seedbed 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) deep and leave
the surface rough enough to provide a good medium for seed germination.
5. Send a representative soil sample to a chemical soil test-
ing laboratory.
6. Add whatever lime is recommended according to soil test
results, for the particular grass-legume mixture specified. Mix the
lime with the soil to the depth of the seedbed.
7. Add the amount and kind of chemical fertilizer indicated
by the soil te*t and mix to seedbed depth. (Do not permit lime and
fertilizers to come in contact with each other because of loss of ni-
trogen) .
8. Seed the grass-legume mixture with a specialized grass
seed drill, if the slopes permit; if not, use a hand seeder and rake
seed into the soil. A hydroseeder is also satisfactory (Figures 62
and 63). If the area is to be mowed, the most commonly recommended
grasses and legumes are red fescuegrass, fine leaf fescuegrass, Durar
hard fescuegrass, tall fescuegrass, annual ryegrass, weeping lovegrass,
ladino clover, and alsike clover. If no mowing is planned, perennial
ryegrass, red fescuegrass, and crownvetch are recommended.—' Black
\l Hottenstein, W. L., "Highway Roadsides," In: Turfgrass Science.
A. A. Hanson, and F. V. Juska, editors, American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, 715 pages, pp. 603-637 (1969).
263
-------
0
; - -
~
• > '
• •
1 • -.. \
*N« . *•
__^ -"-
.
"***•
V "• "'**
v • • v- • >.- •'
- :^->^
Figure 62 - A Hydroseeder Spreading a Mulch and Seed Slurry on a Fill Slope on Route
81 South of Winchester, Massachusetts (see Figure 63)
(Courtesy of University of Massachusetts)
-------
tn
Figure 63 - A Close-Up of the Same Kind of Hydroseeding Operation as in Figure 62, on Route 659
Near Harrisonburg, Massachusetts (Courtesy of University of Massachusetts)
-------
locust can also be established from seed, along with the grasses, but only
away from the road.—'
9. Add the recommended amount and kind of mulch. In Massachusetts
voodchips are usually the most suitable. Woodchips can be made from nearby
whole trees up to a diameter of 51 cm (20 in.) with a "Total Chipharvester"
and spread by a "Chip Spreader" to a depth of 2.5 cm (1 in.). This depth
will involve a quantity of 255 m/ha^ (135 yd/acre^). For effective sedi-
ment control, mulch should be applied as soon as final soil grade has been
established. Permanent seedings can then be made during the proper season*
10. Maintain vigor of grasses and legumes by adding any lime fer-
tilizer as directed by an annual soil test.
IV. WOODY PLANTS^/
Eleven woody plant species that are climatically adapted to
Massachusetts were planted on each of three roadside sites, then mulched
with 7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in.) of woodchips. All plantings were estab-
lished during May and June of 1970 and evaluated at the end of the second
growing season in 1971. The plantings were made on three moist soils
series belonging to the soil family of Entic Haplorthods (least fertile),
sandy, mixed, mesic.
Location, slope, and soil series information for the plantings
are as follows:
1. Central northern Massachusetts near Gardner, on a north-
facing 2:1 fill slope of Charlton loam along State Highway No. 2.
2. Central eastern Massachusetts near Walpole, on a west-
facing 2:1 cut slope of Gloucester loamy sand along Interstate Highway
95.
If Zak, J. M., et al., "The Rise of Adaptable Plant Species for Roadside
Cover in Massachusetts," Roadside Development Report 23-R5, Univer-
sity of Massachusetts, Amherst, prepared for the Massachusetts De-
partment of Public Works and the U.S. Department of Transporation,
Federal Highway Administration, 160 pages, February 1972.
2/ Zak, J. M., J. Troll, and L. C. Hyde, "Direct Seeding of Woody Plant
Species Under a Wood Chip Mulch Along Highways," Roadside Develop-
ment Report 21, December 1971.
266
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3. Northeastern Massachusetts near Merrimac on an east-facing
2:1 cut slope of Merrimac sandy loam along Interstate Highway 95.
The 11 woody plant species used were:
1. Autumn olive;
2. Bayberry;
3. Bearberry;
4. Bittersweet, oriental;
5. Cedar, red;
6. Indigo bush;
7. Inkberry;
8. Larch, Japanese;
9. Locust, bristly;
10. Plum beach; and
11. Sweet fern.
Survival percentage was highest for most species on the north-
facing fill slope on Charlton loam near Gardner. There are three reasons
for this:
1. North slopes are more moist and cooler than other aspects.
Also, plants on these slopes are slower to start growth in early spring
and therefore, are not injured as much by frost.
2. Soils on fill slopes are usually deeper, more fertile, and
more moist than the materials on cut slopes. The additional water comes
from highway runoff.
3. Charlton loam on the fill slope contains more silt-plus-
clay than Gloucester loamy sand or Merrimac sandy loam in the cut slopes.
The additional fines supply more nutrients and provide better water/air
relations to the plant root zone.
Very little growth of any species occurred the 1st year; but
during the second growing season, all species grew well. Autum olive,
bayberry, beach plum, bearberry, bristly locust and indigo bush grew
more rapidly on the Merrimac sandy loam than on the Gloucester loamy
sand or Charlton loam.
Because of their slow growth on all three sites, beach plum
and bearberry are not recommended on any upland sites away from coastal
areas. Previous research at the University of Massachusetts has indi-
cated that both species are ecologically well adapted to low elevations
along the Atlantic Ocean, especially on Cape Cod.
267
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Bristly locust and Indigo bush are legumes and, as with all
legumes, have the characteristic of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in sym-
biotic relationships with specific bacteria. Certain nonlegumes also
possess this valuable characteristic. Included in this research were
autumn olive, bayberry, and sweet fern, which, although not legumes,
have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiosis with speci-
fic bacteria.
The 8- to 10-cm (3- to 4-in.) layer of woodchips that was
spread on all three planting sites provided excellent erosion control.
They were expected to be effective until the woody plants got large
enough to protect the soil against surface erosion.
V. MULCHES AND FERTILIZERS
A 3-year experiment was conducted to test four kinds of mulches
and four fertilizers on the growth of Hertz juniper. The site was a south-
facing 4:1 cut slope of Gloucester sandy loam on State Highway No. 2 near
Erving, Massachusetts, in the central northern part of the State.
The mulches were:
I. Hay at the rate of 2.2 mt/ha (1 ton/acre).
2. Fiberglass mat, 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick and 1 m2 (1 yd2),
slit to the center and placed around each Hertz juniper plant. Hay
mulch was placed between the fiberglass mats to cover the slope com-
pletely.
3. Woodbark to a depth of 5 cm (2 in.).
4. Woodchips to a depth of 5 cm (2 in.).
Within each mulch treatment there were five randomized fertili-
zer treatments, each replicated 10 times. The four fertilizer treatments
were:
1. Bone meal (2-27-0) at the rate of 5.4 kg/m2 (10 lb/yd2).
2. Slow-release water-soluble fertilizer (16-8-6) in a per-
meable plastic packet weighing 56.7 g (2 oz); "Eeesy-grow" used at the
rate of one packet per plant.
268
-------
3o Slow-release fertilizer (20-10-5) in a tablet weighing
21 g (Agriform)^vused at the rate of one tablet per plant.
4. Water-soluble liquid fertilizer (Fer-mel) (18-18-18), used
at the rate of 50 ml/plant (1 pt/plant) of a mixture of 6 kg of fertili-
zer in 1,000 liters (5 Ib of fertilizer in 100 gal.) of water.
5o Control (no fertilizer).
Survival of all plants was excellent. Growth during the 1st
year was slow on all treatments. At the end of the third growing season,
these conclusions were made:
1. Woodbark was superior to other mulches, as measured by
height and diameter growth of the test plant, Hertz juniper.
2. Woodchips were almost as desirable as woodbark (Figures 64
and 65).
3. Fiberglass with mat-hay mulch produced plants that were
slightly better than those with hay alone, but the difference was not
significant,,
4. Hay alone was the least effective mulch, probably because
of the weed seeds in the hay.
Plants given the slow-release 20-10-5 tablet of Agriform were
superior in height to those receiving other fertilizers. Next in re-
sponse were plants that received the slow-release 16-8-6 "Eeeasy-grow"
plastic packet, bone meal, water-soluble 18-18-18 liquid, and control
(no fertilizer).
VI. CRCWNVETCH
Crownvetch is a sprawling herbaceous legume with a profusion
of pink flowers that has a very wide climatic adaptation to Plant Hardi-
ness Zones 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (see Section III). It will grow on dry,
infertile soils on road cuts but grows best on well-drained fertile mat-
erials soil. Crownvetch will not thrive on wet or strongly acid soils.
It grows to a height of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in.). Roots are perennial
but the tops die each winter and mat down to form a protective soil mulch
during the dormant season. Propagation is by crowns and seeds.
269
-------
-
Figure 64 - In Wooded Areas Such as Massachusetts, Local Trees and Shrubs Can Readily
be Chipped for Use as a Mulch to Stabilize Surface Slopes Until Perennial
Vegetation is Well Established (Courtesy of John Zak, University of
Massachusetts)
-------
• -
--•
Figure 65 - Woodchips and Woodbark Can be Spread Uniformly by a Mechanical Spreader
on Construction Slopes (Courtesy of John Zak, University of Massachusetts)
-------
Seeds are often so slow in germinating that crownvetch does
not become well-established during the most critical season, which is
immediately after construction activities have been conducted. Once
established, however, crownvetch is vigorous and aggressive and there-
fore an excellent perennial for ground protection and sediment control.
To overcome the deficiency of slow establishment, research plots with
several companion crops were established on Hollis stony fine sandy
loam, a member of the family of Entic Lithic Haplorthods which is
loamy and moist. The plots were on a roadside, west-facing, 2:1 cut
slope, 17 m (55 ft) in height, in central northern Massachusetts near
Granville. No topsoil was applied.
The treatments consisted of a uniform application of 2.2 mt/ha
(1 ton/acre) of agricultural limestone and 900 kg/ha (800 Ib/acre) of
0-20-20 fertilizer per acre. On 11 December 1968, the crownvetch (vari-
ety Penngift) was inoculated with the appropriate bacteria, hand seeded
at the rate of 20 kg/ha (18 Ib/acre), and covered lightly by hand raking.
Companion crops that were seeded in separate plots and their
seed rate per acre comprised:
1. Ryegrass, 22 kg/ha (20 Ib/acre);
2. Creeping red fescuegrass, 22 kg/ha (20 Ib/acre);
3. Kentucky-31 tall fescuegrass, 22 kg/ha (20 Ib/acre);
4. Rye, cereal, 28 kg/ha (25 Ib/acre); and
5. Check (no companion crop).
After seeding, the entire area was mulched with 2.2 mt/ha (1
ton/acre) of hay.
All companion crops germinated quickly and formed a protective
cover for the soil. The crownvetch developed much more slowly, but at
the end of the 3rd year it represented from 85 to 98% of the total ground
cover.
Based upon other research by the University of Massachusetts,
the best seeding date for crownvetch is April to July, and the second
best months are November and December. Other research in all highway
districts of Massachusetts on seven soil series indicated that crown-
vetch can be established most quickly with potted plants (one plant
272
-------
per 3 in. peat pot). Reproduction by bare-root crowns was second best,
by a comparison of 92 to 767. survival, respectively.
VII. SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE
Bureau of Transportation, Planning and Development
Massachusetts State Department of Public Works
100 Nashua Street, Morton Building
Boston, Massachusetts 02114
Commissioner of Agriculture
100 Cambridge Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02202
617-727-3000
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
College of Food and Natural Resources
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
415-545-2243
Director, Agricultural Experiment Station
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
413-545-2771
Director of Extension
Univeristy of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
413-545-2666
Massachusetts Association of Conservation Commissions
506 Statler Office Building
Park Square
Boston, Massachusetts 02116
617-542-1584
Massachusetts Association of Conservation Districts
211 Westboro Road
Grafton, Massachusetts 01536
617-839-5301
273
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Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
U.S. Porest Service
6816 Market Street
Upper Darby, Pennsylvania 19082
215-352-5800
State Conservationist
Soil Conservation Service
27-29 Cottage Street
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
413-549-0650
VIII. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
"Grass," The Yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
892 pages (1948).
Hanson, A. A., and F. V. Juska, "Turfgrass Science," Monograph No. 14,
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, 715 pages (1969).
Havis, J. R., and W. W. Hamilton, "An Evaluation of Planting Methods for
Liner-Size Plants on a Highway Slope," Roadside Development Report 18,
May 1971.
Heath, M. E., D. S. Metcalfe, and R. F. Barnes, Forages—The Science of
Grassland Agriculture. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 755
pages (1973).
Jonsson, G. B., J. Troll, S. 0. Odurupwe, L. C. Hyde, and J. M. Zak,
"Direct Seeding of Shrubs Along Roadsides in Massachusetts," Roadside
Development Report 39-R5-2656, University of Massachusetts, prepared
for Massachusetts Department of Public Works in cooperation with the
U.S. Department of Transporation, Federal Highvay Administration, 10
pages, December 1974.
"Landscape for Living," The Yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, 376 pages (1972).
Seymour, E. L. D., The Wise Garden Encyclopedia. Grosset and Dunlap, New
York, 1,380 pages (1970).
274
-------
"Soil Series of the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands:
Their Taxonomic Classification," Soil Conservation Service, U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture, 361 pages, August 1972.
Walsh, L. M., and J. D. Beaton, "Soil Testing and Plant Analysis," Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, 491 pages (1973).
Zak, J. M., et al., A Handbook for the Selection of Some Adaptable Plant
Species for Massachusetts Roadsides, Roadside Development Report 24-R5-
2656, University of Massachusetts, prepared for Massachusetts Depart-
ment of Public Works in cooperation with U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation, Federal Highway Administration, 160 pages, February 1972.
Zak, J. M., and P. A. Kaskeski, "Crownvetch for Roadside Cover in
Massachusetts: Time of Seeding/1 Roadside Development Report 15, July
1970.
Zak, J. M., and P. A. Kaskeski, "Effects of pH and Soil Fertility on Seed-
Ing Establishment on Crownvetch in Massachusetts," Roadside Development
Report 9, October 1968.
Zak, J. M., J. Troll, and L. C. Hyde, "Direct Seeding of Woody Plant Spe-
cies Under a Wood Chip Mulch Along Highways," Roadside Development Re-
port 21, December 1971.
275
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ALASKA
Page
Summary 277
I. Introduction 277
A. Demonstration Area 277
B. Soil Conditions 281
C. The Problem 284
II. Tundra—A Unique Environment 286
III. Permafrost 287
A. Introduction 287
B. Soil Disturbance 288
IV. Seeding, Liming, and Fertilizing 296
V. Establishing Vegetation on the Soil Great Group of
Cryaquepts 296
A. Site Preparation 296
B. Seed Specifications 299
C. Seeding Technology 299
D. Vegetative Plantings 299
E. Maintenance 300
VI. Sources of Assistance 300
VII. Additional References 304
-------
ALASKA--DEMONSTRATION AREA NUMBER 10
SOILS VEGETATING IN CENTRAL ALASKA ALONG THE ALASKAN PIPELINE
Summary
In central Alaska astride the Artie Circle, the 1,270 km (789-
mile) Alaskan pipeline and an adjacent service road are being built.
In the central half of this pipeline route the predominant soils belong
to the Great Group of Cryaquepts (cold), comprising 9.97. of the land
area of the United States. Annual precipitation averages about 25 cm
(10 in.), but the area is humid because of very low evaporation and
transpiration. Freeze-free days average 65 to 115, depending mostly
on elevation. Soil disturbed by construction activities along this
stretch of the pipeline is liable to be very unstable because of buried
ice lenses (permafrost) that melt. Depending on the size and shape of
ice lense, the surface water and sediment may move rapidly down the
slope or it may move straight down, causing caverness erosion. It is
very important to maintain an insulating organic cover on the soil to
prevent the underlying permafrost from thawing. Exposed soil must be
covered quickly to reduce excessive melting and subsequent erosion and
high sediment yield. Types of soil cover may be the natural surface
organic layer, straw, hay, woodchips, or a synthetic mat. Liming and
fertilizing must be based on a soil test, seeding must be done between
May 15 to June 15, and the seeding mixtures must include only cold-
resistant plants. Specified herbaceous and woody groundcover are also
recommended.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Demonstration Area
The demonstration area chosen in Alaska to document examples
of successful procedures for establishing vegetation on specific sites
lies along the central sector of the route of the Alaskan pipeline. The
entire pipeline extends from the new oil fields at Prudhoe Bay southward
for a distance of 1,270 km (789 miles) to the Pacific Ocean warm-water
port at Valdez (Figure 66).
277
-------
to
««l
CO
LEGEND
Pipeline Route
Gas Line
D Pump Station
Existing Highway
-—— Proposed Highway
O Airports
BARROW
Prudhoe Boy Oil Field
fta«i9e \
—Dietrich Pass \
WKotzebue
Brooks
/*
bue (/ \
_ B!ITi.El«_ '^— — _Arctjc_Circle J
r f,v v3
il ^
^
^ /
cr
Source: Alaskan Pipeline Service
Company.
Thompson Pass
Keystone Canyon
ANCHORAGE
Figure 66 - Details Along the Alaskan Pipeline from Prudhoe Bay Oil Fields to Valdex,
a Warm-Water Port on the Pacific Ocean, a Distance of 789 Miles
-------
Geographically, the route of the Alaskan pipeline follows ap-
proximately along the meridian of longitude 150 degrees west and at a
range between 61 degrees north and 70 degrees north latitude. The Artie
Circle, at 66-2/3 degrees north latitude is, therefore, slightly north
of the center of the route. The City of Fairbanks is in the center of
the demonstration area.
The northern terminus of the Alaskan pipeline starts at Prudhoe
Bay, a 78-km^ (30-mile^) perpetually wet area that lies at elevations
between sea level at the Beaufort Sea in the Artie Ocean, to about 183 m
(600 ft) on the north slope of the Brooks range of mountains. Here, an-
nual precipitation is only 4 in. a year, falling mostly as snow. Only
42 days a year have mean temperatures above freezing and there are no
days when the mean daily temperature is 21°G (70°F) or above. The num-
ber of hours of sunlight on June 22 is 24; i.e., the sun never sets.
On December 22, the sun never rises above the horizon.
Figure 66 is an outline map of Alaska that shows the approxi-
mate location of the Alaskan pipeline route, with some of the geographic
locations indicated. Figure 67 is a map on which is demarcated the soil
and site groups used as the basis for seeding and fertilizing recommen-
dations. The part of the area delineated as "Interior Area" includes
the demonstration area. Within this area are six seeding recommenda-
tions made for contrasting soils. Only soil Groups 4 and 5 are classi-
fied within the soil Great Group of Cryaquepts, and for this reason the
recommendations for only these two groups are given here. For recommen-
dations for the other site groups in Alaska, read "A Vegetative Guide
for Alaska."!/
From the Brooks range of mountains on southward to within a
few miles of Valdez, the land is rolling and often mountainous. The
most difficult topography for the pipeline to cross will be the Endicott
Mountains, the Ray Mountains, the Yukon River near the Artie Circle, the
Alaska Range, the Thompson Pass and the Keystone Canyon in the Chugach
Mountains not far from Valdez.
Snowfall is the principal form of precipitation in this central
region. Thompson Pass, the route of the Alaskan pipeline at the southern
If Cooperative Extension Service, "A Vegetative Guide for Alaska,"
~ University of Alaska, M7-N-22612, 50 pages (1972).
279
-------
Barrow.
to
CO
o
Road and Pipeline Route
~jr
Point Hope
LEGEND
Arctic Area
>6
-------
end of the central region, has all of Alaska's snowfall records, which
are as follows:—
Maximum for one season (1952-1953) - 2,476 cm (974.5 in.)
Maximum monthly record (February 1953) - 757 cm (298 in.)
Maximum 24-hr record (December 1955) - 157 cm (62 in.)
For this report the demonstration area consists of the soil
Great Group of Cryaquepts that occurs within this central region.
Mean annual total hours of sunshine along the route of the
pipeline is about 2,000. this is approximately the same as for the
northwestern and northeastern regions of the United States mainland.
For comparison, Miami, Florida, has 3,000 and Yuma, Arizona, has 4,000
hr of sunshine a year.
B. Soil Conditions
Specifically, the soil Great Group of Cryaquepts has developed
on high mountains or at high latitudes, some with permafrost and some
without..2-' Cryaquepts comprise 905,205 km2 (349,500 miles2) in the
United States, about 9.9% of the total land area. The soil surface is
characteristically organic, comprising about 30 cm (12 in.) of sphagnum
moss, leaves, twigs, and roots. The roots of most plants are restricted
to this organic layer. The mineral section of the soil is often silty
with weak and platy structure, overlying rock fractured by frost action.
On construction sites it is recommended to strip the organic soil sur-
face and use it for topsoiling.
The interior area in Figure 67 has been divided into six soil
and site groups for purposes of seeding and fertilizing recommendations.
However, only Groups 4 and 5 are classified in the soil Great Group of
Cryaquepts. These two groups will be used in this manual to illustrate
the techniques of establishing vegetation (Figures 68 and 69). For the
disturbed areas along the Alaskan pipeline, the soil exposed for seeding
I/ U.S. Department of Commerce, "Climates of the States, Vol. II, West-
ern States," National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 975
pages (1974).
21 Soil Survey Staff, "Soil Taxonomy," U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C., October 1973.
281
-------
The soils and sites in this group have textures
ranging from silty clay loam to fine sandy loam. The
natural drainage may be impeded by slowly permeable
layers in the substrata, permafrost, or low lying
positions on the landscape. The water table is usually
more than 61 cm (2 ft) below the surface but may
fluctuate to higher levels for short periods of time
during the growing season.
If these soils and sites are drained, they are
generally suitable for growing the same plants which
are adapted to Group 1. If they are undrained, plant
choices will be limited to those that are tolerant to
cool, moist conditions.
TYPICAL SOIL
PROFILE
Loamy
- (24")
61 cm
Impeded Drainage,
Loamy
Major Soil
Limitations
Impeded
drainage
Drainage
Class
Engineering
USDA Classification
Texture Unified AASHO
Somewhat
poorly
drained or
poorly
drained
More than
51 cm
(20 in.)
Silty clay
loam,
silt loam
sandy loam,
fine sandy
loam
ML
CL
SM
A-2.A-4
A-6
Some
A-7
Available
Water Holding
Capacity
More than
13 cm (5 in.)
(nay be water-
logged for short
periods)
Figure 68 - Soils With Moderate Limitations Due to Excess Moisture
282
-------
This group of soils and sites has a wide range
of textures and are generally wet throughout the
growing season. The water table is usually within
61 cm (2 ft) of the surface. These wet conditions
may be due to slowly permeable materials, high
permafrost tables, slow surface runoff, or seepage
from adjacent areas.
Many of these soils and sites are not feasible
to drain, and plant choices are limited to those
that are the most tolerant to cold, wet soil condi-
tions. If they can be drained to maintain the water
table to a depth of 61 cm (2 ft) or more, the choice
of plants can be widened.
TYPICAL SOIL
PROFILE
Variable
Sand
to Clay
Wet, Variable
Texture
Major Soil
Limitations
Wetness
(high water
table)
Drainage
Class
Poorly
drained
More than
51 cm (20 in.)
May have
up to 41 cm
(16 in.) of
peat on surface
Engineering
USDA Classification
Texture Unified AASHO
Very wide range
Available
Water Holding
Capacity
Usually
waterlogged
Figure 69 - Soils With Severe Limitations Due to Excess Moisture
283
-------
or planting vegetation will vary more than will the surface of an un-
disturbed area; for this reason, on-site inspection will be necessary
to modify the generalized recommendations. Contrasting soils should
also be tested for more specific lime and fertilizer recommendations
by sending a sample to the Extension Service, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701. Before collecting the soil samples, write to
the Extension Service for specific directions.
TO illustrate the physical characteristics of permafrost, a
soil-and-geologic profile to a depth of 13.7 m (45 ft) is presented from
a deep boring near Fairbanks, Alaska, located in the central part of
the interior area. The last glacier moved over most of this interior
area was about 10,000 years ago. "Time zero" for soil formation can be
assumed to have started at that time. Radiocarbon dating of the soil
core in Figure 70 reveals that at a depth of 1.8 m (6 ft), the age of
the organic material was 7,000 years; at 3.4 m (11 ft) it was 8,500
years; and at a depth of 10.4 m (34 ft) it was 30,700 years. By inter-
polation, approximately 1,000 years have been required to develop an
average 0.3 m (1 ft) of soil.
C. The Problem
For approximately 3 years the construction of the Alaskan
pipeline was delayed. Arguments against construction included:
1. The oil would be kept hot as it is pumped through the pipe-
line. The hot pipe, if buried in the soil, would melt the permafrost,
collapse the soil-ice support, break the pipe, and spew millions of gal-
lons of hot oil over the ... "fragile tundra and beautiful forestland
into its streams and rivers, melting the permafrost and triggering a
whole series of disastrous effects, perhaps for hundreds of miles. Such
a calamity might easily happen in a terrain forbidden to human technology
because of its severe cold, treacherous instability, and its frequent
earthquakes."
2. If the pipeline were supported above ground to better with-
stand possible earthquakes . . . "it would obstruct animal migrations,
greatly deface the landscape, and still be subject to potential break-
age."!/
JL/ Wilderness Society, "Alaska Alert-Russian Roulette in the Artie,11
729 Fifteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 (undated).'
284
-------
1.5 —
3.0-
4.6-
*" 6.1-4
i
2 I
O |
7.6—
9.1 —
10.6 —
12.2 —
14.0—'
15 —
20-
25 —
30-
35—
40-
45-
m*
w>\
leddith brown sandy tilt w/cones rich in organic
mot«rial. Littl* vitibU lc». Mottled gray to rad
oxldlz*d ZOOM. Aetlv* layer (low moiitunt content)
front 0' ro 2.3'. Thin band of dtnw, compact, light
brawn to y«llow fibroin organic material at 4.8'.
Grodm from nddlth brown to brownish gray lilti.
'•at son*. Fibrous woody organic matirial.
Gray illtt. Very thin Umn.
Transition to more oigonic-rich illt».
Small wwig* of tc*. High fibraut organic content.
Gray lilt.
Numtroui large logi.
Very fibrout organic gray lilt.
No maulve Ice (mall veinleti).
Gray silts. Predominantly woody organic material.
Grayish brown organic silt. Predominantly rootlets.
No woody peat.
Hair ice (segregation Ice) from »' to »',
Brownish gray silt. Large veinlets of ice.
Woody organic zones from 34' to 35'.
Very fibrous organic material. Occur! in peaty
maim. Small twigs incorporated in silt.
High organic content.
Sandy silt.
Foliated ice.
Clear ice.
Legend
Organic »net
Logs, branches, twigs
_-_ Noticeable areas of ice tensing
® 7000 Samples of organic material radiocarbon dated
& appropriate age in yean.
Figure 70 - Typical Record of Ice in Permafrost (Sellmani/)
a/ Sellman, P. V., "Geology of the USACR8EL Permafrost Tunnel, Fairbanks,
~~ Alaska," USACRREL Technical Report 199 (1967).
285
-------
The president of the Alaska Pipeline Service Company, re-
sponded with these statements:!'
1. "All design, materials, and construction practices om-
ployed in the installation of the pipeline will be in accordance wiLh
safe practice for the Arctic environment. . ."
2. "Engineering and procurement plans were initiated under
the Federal Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, but the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 established new 'ground rules.' An environmental im-
pact statement, in compliance with the new Act has been prepared and
filed with the Secretary of the Interior in Washington, D.C."
3. "It is almost an engineering law that energy consumption
correlates directly with gross national product. Gross national product
has been accepted as a measure of progress."
4. "... we are currently in a period of hysteria in which
people without information or skills or training can long delay develop-
ments vital to our national well being. . . This is far too important
a matter to be left in the hands of untrained, irrational people."
II. TUNDRA--A UNIQUE ENVIRONMENT
The Arctic and Subarctic Regions of Alaska along the route
of the pipeline are so unfamiliar to most planners and resource mana-
gers in mainland United States that a special effort will be made here
to characterize the area:
1. Low precipitation but also a very low rate of evapora-
tion; the net result of which is a humid climate.
2. Vegetation consists of lichens, mosses, sedges, willow
trees, and low-growing paper birch trees. Other common hardwoods in-
clude quaking aspen, balsam poplar, and black cottonwood that commonly
grow in mixtures and with white spruce and black spruce.—'
I/ Patton, E. L., "Transportation of Oil from the Arctic by the Trans
~ Alaska Pipeline," Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Paper
No. SPE 3252, 8 pages (1971).
2/ U.S. Forest Service, "Silvicultural Systems for the Major Forest
~ Types of the United States," Agricultural Handbook 445, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 114 pages (1973).
286
-------
3. The principal animals are grizzly bear, moose, caribou,
wolf, wolverine, fox, ground squirrel, lemming, and Arctic shrew. Birds
include geese, ducks, shore birds, whistling swan, loon, gulls, terns,
hawks, eagles, snowy owl, plover, and ptarmigan. (Vegetation established
to stabilize the soil along the Alaskan pipeline may be eaten by some
of the wild animals and birds.)
4. Soils in the Arctic and Subarctic Alaska, in nature, have
from about 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in.) of organic matter on the surface.
Even without much live vegetation to shade the surface, this organic
blanket is effective in reducing the penetration of heat from the sun
and thus to keep stable a soil that has ice lenses or permafrost at
shallow depths. Under natural conditions, the soils are relatively
stable.
Any construction activity that exposes bare mineral soil to
the sun causes the ice in the soil to melt. Following the melting,
slopes begin to fail causing excess flows of surface water to carry
sediment toward water courses. In many situations, the surface water
will melt a vertical ice lense and move down the cavity thus opened,
causing rills, gullies, and an underground lake.!/ Topsoiling with
the natural organic surface soil will insulate against melting of
permafrost and subsequent soil collapse.
5. During freezing weather, all earthmoving, such as in cut
and fill slopes and borrow areas, should be done around the clock. The
reason is that any delays will permit the soil to freeze, and frozen
soil cannot be packed with unfrozen soil to achieve uniform density and
stability. Upon becoming heated by the sun, the frozen soil chunks
will leave a pocket or a sunken surface above them.
III. PERMAFROST
A. Introduction
For many years, the term permafrost has been used as a short-
ened, coined word to mean "permanently frozen soil."
I/ Departments of the Army and the Air Force, "Arctic and Subarctic
Construction: Foundations for Structures," Technical Manual No.
5-852-4, Chapter 4, Washington, D.C. (1972).
287
-------
One succinct characterization of permafrost is that it is
neither ice, nor water, nor soil, but all three vith horizontal,
vertical, and seasonal variability (Figure 71). This figure illus-
trates no permafrost—only an annual frost zone, as is common in the
northern part of the mainland of the United States. On the right side
of the drawing, the zone labeled "suprapermafrost" is the entire zone
above the top of the permafrost. Within this zone are two subzones--
the annual frost zone (as on the left side of the drawing), and the
pereletok--a transition zone between the permafrost and the annual
frost zone which may be either thawed or frozen for one or two sum-
mers .
In Alaska, the southern boundary of continuous permafrost
is approximately along the Arctic Circle, and the southern boundary
of discontinuous permafrost is along the northern side of Bristol Bay
and the Gulf of Alaska at an elevation of about 152 m (500 ft). At
all locations, permafrost is greater under dense forests, on mineral
soils covered with a thick surface mat of organic matter, in fine-
textured soils, and on tops of hills. It is estimated that approxi-
mately 10% of the land surface of Alaska is in peat or muck bogs or
swamps (muskegs). Low-lying organic soils seldom have continuous
permafrost, but in themselves they present very serious problems of
construction because of their very low trafficability (Figures 72 and
73).
B. Soil Disturbance
Any wildfire or construction activity that destroys the
protective organic surface layer will start the process of thawing
of seasonally frozen ice or permafrost. The result is subsidence,
surplus water that starts flowing, and a weakened soil structure
that releases silt and clay that move by mass flow with melt-water
and pollute water courses.
288
-------
AREA OF PERENNIALLY
FROZEN GROUND
AREAS OF SEASONAL
FROST ACTION
'7777777777777X77777777X////.
Frost Table
Frozen
X/Zone
Annual
Frost
Zone/
//Annual Frost Zone
//
/(Active Layer V
Supraperma frost
Residual r-Permafrost
Thaw Zone
X
'/// Permafrost
Unfrozen
ne/.
Legend
Frozen
I Unfrozen
Bottom of
Permafrost
DEFINITIONS OF SOIL AND OTHER TERMS RELATING TO FROZEN GROUND AREAS
A»mol Iron iont (octlva layer). Th* tap layer el ground
tubjtcl le annual fraetlng and thawing. In arctic and
subarctic regions whera annual (reeling penetrate* to
Ik* aemafrott lobla, tuproparmebett and In* annual
ft»tt IOM era Identical.
iicejujca. let In oxca** el the fraction which would bo
fotolned at wotar In tht toll veld* upon thawing.
Frast toblg. The turioca, utually Inegulat, wMch r«p»a-
•twtl Iht Itvel, at any time In tprlng end tuMMff, le
•hkh thewlng of tha ttoienel freien ground hat
Fteian iona. A ronga of d«pih within which the »oll It Ire*
ion. The tioim tana may ba boundad both top end bet-
tern by unfteten tell, or et tha to* by the ground turfaca.
Gtound let. A body of more or lett clear ice within Iroian
ground.
Ice wedge. A wadga-thoHd lea me»t In parmafrott, vtwelly
attacletadwithflttvrt polygent.
A twrfaca lee met* formed by fraatlng of tuccaislve
•hoot* el water.
Mtfthag. Poorly drained organic tarroln contlttlng of o met of
living vegetation overlying paet of varying thlckneit, from
• few Inches to atony loot.
Pefmefrott. Perennially froien ground.
Parmefroit table. Tha surface which rapretentt the upper limit
Peteletoh.. A Iroian loyor et the bete el the ectlve layer which
peejalne vntnawed for ene or two tummert.
Retldual thaw tona. A leyer of unfraien ground between the
permolrott end the ennuel frett tone. Thlt leyer deat net
ecltt where annuel frett extends to pemwfrost.
Irett table.
!. Tha antira laytr of |
»the patma*
Source: Department of the Army Technical Manual.
Department of the Air Force Manual.
Departments of the Army and the Air Force, July 1966.
Figure 71 - Illustrations of Terminology Used to Identify Characteristic
Structural Classifications of Soil Features in Areas of Frozen Ground
289
-------
PERMAFROST
Continuous Permafrost-variable
depth, coarse to fine material
Continuous Permafrost - Deep,
generally fine groined material
Discontinuous Permafrost
Numerous Isolated Masses
of Permafrost
Isolated Masses of Permafrost
Figure 72 - Location of the Relative Abundance of Permafrost in Alaska
(Courtesy of U.S. Bureau of Land Management)
-------
Figure 73 - Gully Erosion in Alaska Resulting from Surface Waters Running
Down a Constructed Pipeline. Because of permafrost, water cannot
percolate downward (see Figure 71). (Courtesy of U.S.
Bureau of Land Management)
291
-------
In 1972, 90 million hectares (222 million acres) of land in
Alaska were burned by 641 reported wildfires. The traditional tech-
nique of stopping the fires was to bulldoze a fuel breakdown to mineral
soil around the perimeter of the fires and then permit the fires to
"burn themselves out." This system is effective in the mainland United
States, but on soils with permafrost, serious erosion and sediment move-
ment result.— Standard and routine techniques used in the conterminous
48 States of constructing fire lines to slow or halt the spread of a
fire do not work in Alaska. When the same practice is tried in Alaska
on fine-textured soils with permafrost, the surface of the permafrost
melts; the underlying ice prevents percolation; and finally the ice
may collapse, and cavernous erosion, as well as surface gullies, result.
The resulting silts and clays released by surface erosion add sediments
to nearby streams and lakes.—'
Techniques used to successfully control erosion on bare soils
with permafrost include the building of a terrace across the slope of
the fire lanes at intervals of 27 to 46 m (30 to 50 yd) to divert sur-
plus surface water into undisturbed soil and vegetation along the sides
of the fire lane and seeding an adapted grass and legume mixture over the
entire fire lane, after liming and fertilizing the soil according to
the recommendations resulting from a chemical soil test. The most suc-
cessful grass seeded so far has been Manchar smooth bromegrass (Figures
74, 75, and 76).
q /
Another recommended technique^' consists of bulldozing the
protective organic layer back over the mineral soil of the fire lanes
after the fires have been suppressed and before the bulldozers leave
the area.
JL/ Bureau of Land Management, "Influence of Man-Caused Surface Distur-
bance in Permafrost Areas of Alaska," Report of special committee
assigned by State Director of Alaska, U.S. Department of the In-
terior, 21 pages (1973).
McVee, C. V., "Permafrost Considerations in Land Use Planning Manage-
ment," State Director, Bureau of Land Management in Alaska, Mimeo-
graphed, 13 pages (1973).
"il Bolstad, R., "Catline Rehabilitation and Restoration," In: "Fire in
the Northern Environment—A Symposium," 13 and 14 April 1971, Uni-
versity of Alaska, College (Fairbanks), Alaska, pp. 107-116 (1971).
3/ Lotspeich, F. B., E. W. Mueller, and P. J. Frey, "Effects of Large
Scale Forest Fires on Water Quality in Interior Alaska," U.S. De-
partment of the Interior, 115 pages, February 1970.
292
-------
Figure 74 - A Roadway Through Ice-Rich Soil, Even on Gentle Slopes,
Often Erodes Because the Surface Waters Cannot Move Downward
(see Figure 75) (Courtesy of U.S. Bureau of Land Management)
293
-------
Figure 75 - The Same Roadway as in Figure 74 That has Been Seeded and
Mulched With a Layer of Excelsior. Nearby evergreen branches
would accomplish the same results (see Figure 76). (Courtesy
of U.S. Bureau of Land Management)
294
-------
Figure 76 - The Same Road as in Figures 74 and 75, Showing an
Excellent Stand of Adapted Grasses (Courtesy of U.S.
Bureau of Land Management)
295
-------
IV. SEEDING. LIMING. AND FERTILIZING
The seeding, liming, and fertilizing recommendations given
in this manual have been taken from "A Vegetative Guide for Alaska. "
-------
TABLE 22
SEEDING MIXTURES IN CENTRAL ALASKA FOR DISTURBED SOILS WITH
MODERATE LIMITATIONS DUE TO EXCESS MOISTURE
Mixtures and Species
Mixture in Order of
No . Preference
1
,
2 <
3
Creeping Foxtail
White Dutch or
A Is ike Clover
>
Creeping Foxtail
Kentucky Bluegrass
White Dutch or
Alsike Clover
„
f
Timothy
Creeping Red
Fescuegrass
White Dutch or
Alsike Clover
V
'Smooth Bromegrass
Variety Name
in Order of
Preference
Garrison
Garrison
Nugget or
Merion
Engmo
Arc tared or
Olds
Manchar or
Polar
Seeding
Drilled
kg/ha
11
3
11
6
6
3
7
9
6
3
11
17
Ib/aere
10
3
10
5
5
3
6
8
5
3
10
15
Rate
Broadcast
kg/ha
22
7
22
11
11
7
13
18
11
7
22
34
Ib/acre
20
6
20
10
10
6
12
16
10
6
20
30
White Dutch or
.Alsike Clover
297
-------
TABLE 23
SEEDING MIXTURES IN CENTRAL ALASKA FOR DISTURBED SOILS WITH
SEVERE LIMITATIONS DUE TO EXCESS MOISTURE
Mixture
No.
Mixtures and Species
In Order of
Preference
Creeping Foxtail
1
2
Kentucky Bluegrass
White Dutch or
Alsike Clover
Creeping Foxtail
White Dutch or
Alsike Clover
Timothy
3
Kentucky Bluegrass
Variety Name
in order of
Preference
Garrison
Nugget or
Merion
Garrison
Engmo
Nugget or
Merion
Seeding Rate
Drilled
kg/ha
11
6
6
3
11
3
7
6
6
Ib/acre
10
5
5
3
10
3
6
5
5
Broadcast
kg/ha
22
11
11
7
22
7
13
11
11
Ib/acre
20
10
10
6
20
6
12
10
10
White Dutch or
Alsike Clover
Note: The permafrost, a condition common to these soils, will normally change to surface
seasonal frost if grass is grown for more than 5 years.
298
-------
soil. In addition, standing water may hinder seedbed preparation in
some soil areas, while other areas are at the proper moisture content.
A good test for adequacy of seedbed preparation is to walk over the
area; the heel impression should be barely visible when proper com-
paction and tilth have been achieved.
B. Seed Specifications
It is highly important to use seed of only northern varieties
of grasses and legumes. If possible, buy only named certified seed
from a reputable seed distributor. Many legume seeds must be scarified
to increase germination percentage, and all legume seeds must be inocu-
lated with the exact strain of bacteria recommended by specialists.
Under adverse conditions, common on Cryaquepts, it is usually advisable
to apply twice the recommended amount of bacterial inoculum to obtain
satisfactory nodule bacteria.
C. Seeding Technology
The best time of year to sow seed is from May 15 to June 15,
with August 10 as a "last chance" date to reduce the hazards of winter-
killing of the seedlings. Annual ryegrass or grain rye can be seeded
as late as September 1 if a quick-growing temporary fall and winter
cover is needed to reduce erosion and sediment yield. If this "catch-
crop" is sown, the recommended perennial mixture should be seeded the
following spring.
Seed may be drilled, broadcast, or seeded with a hydroseeder.
The preferred method is by drilling with a grass drill to a depth of 6
to 13 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.). If broadcasting, use twice the amount of
seed as for drilling. When the slopes are too steep for drilling, a
hydroseeder can be used with success for seeding, fertilizing, and
mulching.
D. Vegetative Plantings
Vegetative plantings include sprigging and sodding, and the
planting of herbaceous and woody ground covers. Although more ex-
pensive, vegetative plantings are sometimes recommended for rapid
establishment of protective covers on extremely sensitive sites such
as on steep slopes.
299
-------
Some grasses native to Alaska reproduce vigorously by rhizomes
(underground stems), but produce very few seeds. Such grasses have a
potential for propagation by sprigging.
Herbaceous and woody plants, both native and exotic, are avail-
able commercially in Alaska for planting on disturbed soils in the inter-
ior area. Although not much research work has been done on this subject,
some successful plantings have been made. Tables 24 and 25 list plants
most likely to grow successfully on Cryaquepts.
E. Maintenance
After seeding or planting, the plants must be kept moist,
but not wet, until they have become well established. Watering must
be done, therefore, at the time of the first indication of wilting of
plants on the most droughty soils. Any areas with a poor stand may
need reseeding, additional drainage, or mechanical structures for safe
water disposal. A grass or straw mulch may be necessary if the slopes
are very steep, or the soil is easily disturbed by the splash of rain-
drops. Woodchlps or wood excelsior may also be used with success.
Newer synthetic materials sometimes used as mulches are fiberglass and
polyvinyl acetate.
VI. SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE
Sources of technical and on-site assistance in the Alaskan in-
terior on vegetating soils in the interior of Alaska include:
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska
Fairbanks, 99701, 1514 South Cushman, 907-479-7571
Homer, 99603, Box 195, 907-235-8698
Palmer, 99645, Box 736, 907-745-3360
Anchorage, 99504, 2651 Providence Avenue, 907-277-1488
Juneau, 99801, Box 109, 907-586-7131
Aniak, 99557
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, University of Alaska
Palmer Research Center
Palmer, Box AE, 907-479-7311
300
-------
Pink Milfoil
Moss Sandwort
Dusty Miller
Snow-In-Summer
Maiden Fink
TABLE 24
HERBACEOUS GBODMDCOVERS FOR INTERIOR ALASKA
Plant Characteristics
Site Adaptation
Plant
Yarrow
Soil
Texture
Coarse to
Drought
Tolerance
Excellent
Vet & Flood
Tolerance
Poor
Acid
Tolerance
Good
Height
cm
46
in.
18
Plant
cm in.
8
3
Root
System^
Fib
Cover
Rate0.'
SI
Medium
Coarse to Excellent
Medium
Poor
Good
15-5 6-2
8
Fib
Coarse Good Excellent Good
Coarse Excellent Poor Fair
Medium Good Good Good
Coarse Good Poor Good
5 2 30 12
6 2-1/2 30 12
8-15 3-6 90 36
5-15 2-6 60 24
SI
Fib
Rhiz
Fib
Rhiz
Rap
Rap
Bap
Med
a_/ This is the approximate spacing in pure stands. Since most of these seeds are extremely small (10,000 to 225,000
seeds/oz) it is suggested that planting be done as a mixture with grass seed. The amount of seed to apply per
acre would normally be approximately 1/2 cup.
b/ Type of root system: Fib-fibrous root system, Rhiz-rhizomatous.
c/ This is a relative spreading rate following establishment: Si-slow, Rap-rapid, Med-medium.
-------
TABLE 25
WOODY GROUMDCOVERS FOR INTERIOR ALASKA
Plant Characteristics
Site Adaptation
Plant
Box Rosemary
Dwarf Caragana
Wintergreen
Creeping Juniper
Cinquefoil
Indian Snowberry
Soil
Texture
Fine
Medium
Fine
Coarse
Medium
Medium
Drought
Tolerance
Poor
Excellent
Poor
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Wet & Flood
Tolerance
Excellent
Poor
Excellent
Poor
Poor
Poor
Acid
Tolerance
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Good
Height
cm
30-60
60-90
8
30-46
60-90
60-90
in.
12-24
24-36
3
12-18
24-36
24-36
Plant
Spacing3./
cm in.
1.8
1.8
1.0
2.4
1.0
1.8
6
6
3
8
3
6
Root Cover
System^ RateS/
Rhiz
Fib
Fib
(Stolons)
Fib
(Branch Tip)
Fib
Fib
(Suckers)
Med
Med
Med
Med
SI
Rap
a/ This is an optimum spacing. Less dense plant spacing may require interplating with herbaceous groundcovers to
achieve adequate ground coverage.
b/ Type of root system: Fib-fibrous root system, Rhiz-rhizomatous.
c/ This is a relative spreading rate following establishment: Si-slow, Rap-rapid, Med-medium.
-------
Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Fairbanks, 1750 Westwood Way, 907-479-6767
Homer, Box 394, 907-235-8668
Palmer, Box F, 907-745-3350
ALASKA ASSOCIATION
OF SOIL CONSERVATION SUBDISTRICTS
Alaska Association of Soil Conservation Subdistricts
President
Mile 41
Richardson Highway
Fairbanks 99701
Telephone: 907-488-2233
Vice President
Box 1279
Homer 99603
Telephone: 907-235-8542
Vice President
Box 742
Palmer 99645
Telephone: 907-745-4173
Secretary-Treasurer
Box AE
Palmer 99645
Telephone: 907-745-3257
Bureau of Land Management
U.S. Department of the Interior
555 Cordova Street
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
Department of Environmental Conservation
Juneau 99801
Telephone: 907-586-6721
Department of Highways
P.O. Box 1467
Juneau, Alaska 99801
303
-------
Department of Natural Resources
Juneau 99801
Telephone: 907-586-6352
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Alaska Water Laboratory
U.S. Department of the Interior
College, Alaska 99701
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Alaska Water Laboratory
College (Br. Fairbanks) Alaska 99701
Telephone: 907-479-2251
VII. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
"The Forest Ecosystem of Southeast Alaska 1. The Setting/1 General
Technical Report PHW-12, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Portland Oregon; Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, 40 pages (1974).
Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20242.
Note: Topographic maps on a scale of 1:250,000 are available for most
areas of Alaska. Write to the U.S. Geological Survey for a
free list of available quandrangle maps.
"Influence of Man-Caused Surface Disturbance in Permafrost Areas of
Alaska," Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior,
21 pages (1973).
Lotspeich, Frederick B., Ernst W. Mueller, and Paul J. Frey, "Effects
of Large-Scale Forest Fires on Water Quality in Interior Alaska,"
Alaska Water Laboratory, Federal Water Pollution Control Administra-
tion, U.S. Department of the Interior, College, Alaska, 115 pages
(1970).
"1973 Alaska Revegetation Workshop Notes," Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, No. RP-239, 68 pages (1973).
"A Vegetative Guide for Alaska," Cooperative Extension Service, Univer-
sity of Alaska, Fairbanks, No. M7-N-22612, 50 pages (1972).
304
-------
V. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
A. Location of State Extension Service Directors 305
B. State Agricultural Experiment Station Directors 311
C. State Conservationists Offices of the U.S. Soil
Conservation Service 315
D. State Highway Department Locations 320
E. State Departments of Agriculture 326
F. U.S. Forest Service: National Forest Regions, Research
Units, and Region Offices of State and Private
Forestry 332
6. Plant Materials Centers, Soil Conservation Service, and
Cooperating Agencies 334
H. Transportation Research Information Service 334
I. Resource Associations and Organizations 335
J. Selection and Limitations of Mulching Materials for
Stabilizing Critical Areas 348
K. Representative Soil Test Interpretations for Lime,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium 369
L. Seed and Seeding Data for Grasses, Forbs, Legumes, and
Shrubs Adapted to the 17 Western States 377
M. Characteristics and Seeding Recommendations for Grasses
and Legumes Adapted to the Midwestern United States. . . 378
N. Scientific Names of Plants Mentioned 408
-------
V. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (Concluded)
0. Conversion Factors 413
P. Definition of Terms Used in This Manual 427
Q. General References 448
-------
V. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
A. Location of State Extension Service Directors
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Address
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721
P.O. Box 391
Little Rock, Arkansas 72203
University of California
2200 University Avenue
Berkeley, California 94720
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut 06268
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware 19711
FTS
303-484-2273
FTS Informa-
tion and
Assistance
205-263-7521
Commercial
Telephone No.
205-826-4444
or 821-1314
202-442-0150 907-479-7246
602-792-6011 602-884-2711
501-378-5011 501-376-6301
415-486-3559 415-841-5121 415-642-7252
303-837-0111 303-491-6281
203-244-2000
203-244-2000
302-654-6131
203-486-2917
203-486-4125
302-738-2504
-------
State
District of
Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Guam
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Address
Federal City College
1424 K Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia 30601
University of Guam
P.O. Box EK
Agana, Guam 96910
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho 83843
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa S0010
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas 66506
FTS
FTS Informa-
tion and
Assistance
Commercial
Telephone No.
202-967-1221 202-727-2113
904-376-1681 904-392-1761
404-546-2011 404-542-3824
808-948-8234
808-948-8228
208-342-2711 208-885-6681
217-525-4011 217-333-2660
317-633-7521 317-633-7000 317-749-2413
or 317-633-7675
515-294-4576 515-232-0011 515-294-4576
913-234-8661 913-532-5820
-------
State
Kentucky
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Maine
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Mississippi
Missouri
Address
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
University of Maine
Orono, Maine 04473
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, Mississippi
39762
University of Missouri
309 University Hall
Columbia, Missouri 65201
FTS
606-252-2775
606-252-2775
504-388-2386
517-337-4283
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tion and
Assistance
606-252-2312
606-252-2312
504-348-0181
Commercial
Telephone No.
606-257-4772
606-257-2833
504-343-7444
207-942-8271 207-581-7200
301-752-8460 301-454-3742
617-223-2100 413-545-2766
617-223-2100 413-545-2715
517-372-1910 517-355-2308
612-334-3012 612-373-1223
601-948-7821 601-325-4436
314-442-2271 314-882-4561
or 882-4662
-------
U)
o
oo
State
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Address
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59715
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska 68503
University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada 89507
University of New Hampshire
Taylor Hall
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
Rutgers - the State University
P.O. Box 231
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001
New York State College of
Agriculture
Ithaca, New York 14850
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
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Fargo, North Dakota 58102
FTS
402-475-3621
603-868-7732
FTS Informa-
tion and
Assistance
406-587-4511
402-475-2611
702-784-5911
702-784-5911
Commercial
Telephone NOj
406-994-3402
402-472-7211
702-784-6611
702-784-6611
603-669-7011 603-862-1520
201-846-4500 201-932-9306
505-843-0311
505-843-0311
607-772-1050
505-646-1806
505-646-3015
607-256-2117
701-237-5618
919-755-4020 919-737-2811
or 737-2812
701-237-5771 701-237-8931
-------
O)
O
VO
State
Ohio
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Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Address
Ohio State University
2120 Fyffe Road
Columbus, Ohio 43210
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
University of Puerto Rico
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico 00928
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Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
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Clemson, South Carolina 29631
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Brookings, South Dakota 57006
University of Tennessee
P.O. Box 1071
Knoxville, Tennessee 37901
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College Station, Texas 77843
FTS
614-293-6181
405-231-4322
503-752-4203
615-524-4257
FTS Informa-
tion and
Assistance
614-469-6600
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Commercial
Telephone No.
614-422-6891
614-422-6181
405-253-4011 405-372-6211
503-752-4281 503-754-2713
412-644-3311 814-863-0331
809-765-8000
or 764-0655
401-528-1000 401-792-2476
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803-765-5011 803-656-3382
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-------
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West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Address
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84321
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont 05401
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
P.O. Box 166, Kingshill
St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington 99163
West Virginia University
294 Coliseum
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
University of Wisconsin
432 North Lake Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
University of Wyoming
Box 3354 University Station
Laramie, Wyoming 82070
FTS
FTS Informa-
tion and
Assistance
Commercial
Telephone No.
801-524-5500 801-752-4100
802-862-6501 802-656-2990
804-782-2000 703-951-6705
809-773-0246
509-838-4611 509-335-2511
304-296-3441 304-293-5691
608-256-4441 608-262-9510
307-778-2220
307-778-2220
307-766-4133
307-766-3253
-------
B. State Agricultural Experiment Station Directors
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Address
Auburn, Alabama 36830
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
Tucson, Arizona 85721
Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720
College of Agricultural and
Environmental Sciences
University of California
Davis, California 95617
Citrus Research Center
Agricultural Experiment Station
Riverside, California 92502
San Joaquin Valley Agricultural
Research and Extension Center
Earlier, California
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
New Haven, Connecticut 06504
Storrs, Connecticut 06268
Newark, Delaware 19711
University of Florida
Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences
Gainesville, Florida 32601
Athens, Georgia 30601
Experiment, Georgia 30212
311
Commercial
Telephone No.
205-826-4840
907-479-7188
602-884-2711
501-575-2253
415-642-3235
916-752-0107
714-787-3101
209-646-2794
303-491-5371
203-787-7421
203-486-2917
302-738-2501
904-392-1784
404-542-2376
404-227-9471
-------
State
Guam
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Address
Tifton, Georgia 31794
Agana, Guam 96910
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
Moscow, Idaho 83843
Urbana, Illinois 61801
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Agriculture and Home Economics
Experiment Station
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
Manhattan, Kansas 66502
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
Life Sciences and Agricultural
Experiment Station
University of Maine
Orono, Maine 04473
College Park, Maryland 20742
Amberst, Massachusetts 01002
East Lansing, Michigan 48824
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Mississippi State Agricultural and
Forestry Experiment Station
Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762
Commercial
Telephone No.
912-382-5561
808-948-8234
208-885-6151
217-333-0240
317-749-2461
515-294-2518
913-532-6147
606-257-4772
504-388-4181
207-581-7161
301-454-3707
413-545-2766
517-355-0123
612-373-0751
601-325-5455
312
-------
State
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
Address
Columbia, Missouri 65201
Bozeman, Montana 59715
Lincoln, Nebraska 68503
Reno, Nevada 89507
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001
Ithaca, New York 14850
Geneva, New York 14456
North Carolina Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Fargo, North Dakota 58102
Agricultural Research and Development
Center
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
Agricultural Research and
Development Center
Wooster, Ohio 44691
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico 00928
Commercial
Telephone No.
314-882-3846
406-587-3121
402-472-2045
702-784-6611
603-862-1450
201-247-1766
505-646-1806
607-256-5420
315-787-2211
919-737-2717
701-237-7654
614-422-6891
216-264-1021
405-372-6211
503-754-1251
814-865-2541
809-767-9705
313
-------
State
Rhode Island
Address
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
South Carolina Clemson, South Carolina 29631
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Virgin Islands
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Brookings, South Dakota 57006
Knoxville, Tennessee 37901
College Station, Texas 77843
Logan, Utah 84321
Burlington, Vermont 05401
Agricultural and Life Sciences
Research Division
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blackaburg, Virginia 24061
Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin
Islands 00850
Pullman, Washington 99163
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
LaramLe, Wyoming 82070
Commercial
Telephone No.
401-792-2474
803-656-3141
605-688-5131
615-974-7121
713-845-3711
801-752-4100
802-656-2980
703-951-5282
509-335-4563
304-293-2395
608-262-1251
307-766-4133
314
-------
C. State Conservationists Offices of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service*
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Address
Wright Building
138 South Gay Street
P.O. Box 311
Auburn, Alabama 36830
204 East 5th Avenue
Room 217
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
230 North 1st Avenue
6029 Federal Building
Phoenix, Arizona 85025
FTS
Commercial
Telephone No.
205-887-4542 205-887-8070
907-274-7626 907-274-7626
602-261-3271
Federal Building, Room 5029 501-378-5445
700 West Capitol Street
P.O. Box 2323
Little Rock, Arkansas 72203
2828 Chiles Road
P.O. Box 1019
Davis, California 95616
2490 West 26th Avenue
Room 313
P.O. Box 17107
Denver, Colorado 80217
Mansfield Professional Park 203-244-2547
Route 44A
Storrs, Connecticut 06268
Treadway Towers, Suite 2-4 302-658-6448
Nine East Loockerman Street
Dover, Delaware 19901
602-261-3271
501-378-5445
916-678-4411
303-837-4275 303-837-4275
Federal Building
P.O. Box 1208
Gainesville, Florida 32601
904-377-3277
203-429-9361
302-678-0750
904-373-2493
* As of August 1974.
315
-------
State
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Address
Heritage Building
468 North Mi Hedge Avenue
P.O. Box 832
Athens, Georgia 30601
440 Alexander Young
Building
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
Room 345
304 North 8th Street
Boise, Idaho 83702
Federal Building
200 West Church Street
P.O. Box 678
Champaign, Illinois 61820
Atkinson Square-West
Suite 2200
5610 Crawfordsville Road
Indianapolis, Indiana 46224
823 Federal Building
210 Walnut Street
Des Moines, Iowa 50309
760 South Broadway
P.O. Box 600
Salina, Kansas 67401
333 Waller Avenue
Lexington, Kentucky 40504
3737 Government Street
P.O. Box 1630
Alexandria, Louisiana 71301
USDA Building
University of Maine
Orono, Maine 04473
FTS
Commercial
Telephone No.
404-546-2275 404-546-2275
808-546-3165 808-546-3165
208-342-2601 208-342-2711
217-356-1147 217-356-3785
317-633-7201 317-633-7201
515-284-4260 515-284-4260
913-827-9728 913-823-9535
606-252-2749 606-252-2312
318-445-6611 318-448-3421
207-942-8393 207-866-2132
316
-------
State
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
Address
FTS
Room 522, Hartwick Building 301-344-4180
4321 Hartwick Road
College Park, Maryland 20740
27-29 Cottage Street 413-549-0650
Amberst, Massachusetts 01002
1405 Harrison Road 517-337-4242
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
200 Federal Building and
U.S. Courthouse
316 North Robert Street
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Milner Building, Room 490
P.O. Box 610
Jackson, Mississippi 39205
Parkade Plaza Shopping Center 314-442-3141
(Terrace Level)
P.O. Box 459
Columbia, Missouri 65201
Federal Building
P.O. Box 970
Bozeman, Montana 59715
134 South 12th Street
Lincoln, Nebraska 68508
U.S. Post Office Building
P.O. Box 4850
Reno, Nevada 89505
Federal Building 603-868-7734
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
Commercial
Telephone No.
301-344-4180
413-549-0650
517-372-1910
612-725-7675 612-725-7675
601-948-2405 601-948-7821
1370 Hamilton Street
P.O. Box 219
Somerset, New Jersey 08873
314-442-2271
406-587-3322 406-587-4511
402-475-3301 402-475-3301
702-784-5304 702-784-5304
603-868-7582
201-846-4720 201-846-4500
517 Gold Avenue, S.W.
P.O. Box 2007
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103
505-766-2173 505-766-2173
317
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State
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Address
Midtown Plaza* Room 400
700 East Water Street
Syracuse, New York 13210
Federal Office Building
310 New Bern Avenue
Fifth Floor, P.O. Box 27307
Raleigh, North Carolina 27611
Federal Building
P.O. Box 1458
Bismarck, North Dakota 58501
311 Old Federal Building
Third and State Streets
Columbus, Ohio 43215
FTS
Agriculture Building 405-253-4204
Farm Road and Brumley Street
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074
Washington Building
1218 Southwest Washington
Street
Portland, Oregon 97205
Federal Building and
Courthouse
Box 985 Federal Square Station
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17108
Caribbean Area
1409 Ponce de Leon Avenue
Stop 20
Santurce, Puerto Rico 00908
222 Quaker Lane
West Warwick, Rhode Island 02893
Commercial
Telephone No.
315-473-3530 315-473-3530
919-755-4210 919-755-4210
701-255-4421 701-255-4011
614-469-6785 614-469-6785
405-253-4204
503-221-2751 503-221-2751
717-782-2297 717-782-2297
809-725-8966
Federal Building
901 Sumter Street
Columbia, South Carolina 29201
803-765-5681
401-828-1300
803-765-5681
318
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State
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Address
FTS
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
239 Wisconsin Avenue, S.W. 605-352-8333
P.O. Box 1357
Huron, South Dakota 57350
561 U.S. Courthouse
Nashville, Tennessee 37203
16-20 South Main Street
P.O. Box 648
Temple, Texas 76501
4012 Federal Building
125 South State Street
Salt Lake City, Utah 84111
96 College Street
Burlington, Vermont 05401
Federal Building, Room 7408 804-782-2457
400 North 8th Street
P.O. Box 10026
Richmond, Virginia 23240
360 U.S. Courthouse
West 920 Riverside Avenue
Spokane, Washington 99201
75 High Street
P.O. Box 865
Morgantovn, West Virginia 26505
4601 Hammersley Road
P.O. Box 4248
Madison, Wisconsin 53711
Federal Office Building
P.O. Box 2440
Casper, Wyoming 82601
Commercial
Telephone No.
605-352-8651
615-749-5471 615-749-5471
817-773-1214 817-773-1711
801-524-5052 801-524-5052
802-862-6261 802-862-6501
804-782-2457
509-456-3711 509-456-3711
304-296-3151 304-599-7151
608-252-5351 608-256-4441
307-265-3201 307-265-5550
319
-------
D. State Highway Department Locations
State
Address
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
State Highway Department
State Highway Building
Montgomery, Alabama 36104
Department of Highways
P.O. Box 1467
Juneau, Alaska 99801
Arizona Highway Department
206 South 17th Avenue
Phoenix, Arizona 85007
Arkansas State Highway Department
P.O. Box 2261
9500 New Benton Highway
Little Rock, Arkansas 72203
California Department of Transportation
Division of Highways
1120 North Street
P.O. Box 1499
Sacramento, California 95807
Department of Highways
4201 East Arkansas Avenue
Denver, Colorado 80222
Connecticut State Department of Transportation
24 Wolcott Hill Road
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
Department of Highways and Transportation
Transportation and Public Safety
Administration Building
P.O. Box 151
Dover, Delaware 19901
Department of Highways and Transportation
Presidential Building, Room 519
415 12th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20004
320
-------
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Address
Florida Department of Transportation
Haydon Burns Building
Tallahassee, Florida 32304
Division of Planning and Progress
Georgia Department of Transportation
No. 2 Capitol Square
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
Hawaii Highways Division
Department of Transportation
869 Punchbowl Street
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
Department of Highways
3211 West State Street
P.O. Box 7129
Boise, Idaho 83707
Department of Transportation
Administration Building
2300 South 31st Street
Springfield, Illinois 62764
Indiana State Highway Commission
State Office Building
100 North Senate Avenue
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
Iowa State Highway Commission
Highway Commission Building
826 Lincoln Way
Ames, Iowa 50010
State Highway Commission of Kansas
State Office Building
Topeka, Kansas 66612
Division of Planning
Bureau of Highways
Kentucky Department of Transportation
State Office Building
Ann Street
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
321
-------
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Address
Louisiana Department of Highways
Capitol Station
P.O. Box 4245
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 04330
Maryland State Highway Administration
300 West Preston Street
P.O. Box 717
Baltimore, Maryland 21201
Bureau of Transportation
Planning and Development
Massachusetts State Department of Public Works
100 Nashua Street
Morton Building, 5th Floor
Boston, Massachusetts 02114
Michigan Department of State Highways
State Highway Building
425 West Ottawa
Lansing, Michigan 48904
Department of Highways
State Highway Building
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Mississippi State Highway Department
Highway Laboratory Building
412 Woodrow Wilson Avenue
P.O. Box 1850
Jackson, Mississippi 39205
Missouri State Highway Commission
State Highway Building
119 West Capitol
Jefferson City, Missouri 65102
Department of Highways
East 6th Avenue and Roberts Street
Helena, Montana 59601
Department of Roads
South Junction of U.S. 77 and N-2
Lincoln, Nebraska 68509
322
-------
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Address
Nevada Department of Highways
State Highway Building
1263 South Stewart Street
Carson City, Nevada 89701
New Hampshire Department of Public Works
and Highways
John 0. Morton Building
Concord, New Hampshire 03301
New Jersey State Department of Transportation
1035 Parkway Avenue
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
New Mexico State Highway Department
P.O. Box 1149
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501
New York State Department of Transportation
1220 Washington Avenue
Albany, New York 12226
Division of Highways
North Carolina Department of Transportation
and Highway Safety
State Highway Building
Raleigh, North Carolina 27602
State Highway Department
State Highway Building
Bismarck, North Dakota 58501
Ohio Department of Transportation
Department of Transportation Building
25 South Front Street
Columbus, Ohio 43215
Oklahoma Department of Highways
Jim Thorpe Building
Lincoln Boulevard at NE 21st Street
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105
State Department of Transportation
Oregon Highway Division
State Highway Building
Salem, Oregon 97310
323
-------
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Address
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
1118 State Street
P.O. Box 2926
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
Puerto Rico Highway Authority
P.O. Box 3909, G.P.O.
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936
Department of Transportation
State Office Building, Smith Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
State Highway Department
1100 Senate Street
Columbia, South Carolina 29202
Department of Transportation
Pierre, South Dakota 57501
Department of Transportation
Transportation Building
Nashville, Tennessee 37219
Texas Highway Department
P.O. Box 5051
Austin, Texas 78703
Utah State Department of Highways
757 West 2nd South
Salt Lake City, Utah 84104
State of Vermont Department of Highways
State Administration Building
Montpelier, Vermont 05602
Department of Highways
1221 East Broad Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Department of Highways
Highway Administration Building
Maple Park at Franklin
Olyapia, Washington 98501
324
-------
State
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Address
West Virginia Department of Highways
1900 Washington Street, East
Charleston, West Virginia 25305
Department of Transportation
Hill Farm
4802 Sheboygan Avenue
Madison, Wisconsin 53702
Wyoming Highway Department
Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001
325
-------
E. State Departments of Agriculture
Ul
State
Alabama
Alaska
American Samoa
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Commissioner
Director
Director
Director
Director
Director
Commissioner
Commissioner
Address
Department of Agriculture and Industries,
State Office Building, 501 Dexter Avenue,
P.O. Box 220, Montgomery, Alabama 36104
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 800
Palmer, Alaska 99645
Department of Agriculture, Fago Pago,
American Samoa 96920
Arizona Commission of Agriculture and
Horticulture, P.O. Box 6189,
Phoenix, Arizona 85005
Arkansas State Plant Board, P.O. Box 1069,
Little Rock, Arkansas 72203
Department of Agriculture, 1220 N Street,
Agriculture Building, Sacramento,
California 95814
Department of Agriculture, 424 State
Services Building, 1525 Sherman Street,
Denver, Colorado 80203
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
State Office Building, Hartford, Connecticut
06115
Commercial
Telephone No.
205-269-6141 and
205-264-4290
907-745-3236
602-271-4191
501-371-1021
916-445-7126
303-892-2811
203-566-4667
-------
State
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Guam
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Secretary
Commissioner
Commissioner
Director
Chairman
Commissioner
Director
Director
Secretary
Secretary
Address
Department of Agriculture, Drawer D,
Dover, Delaware 19901
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services,
The Capitol, Tallahassee, Florida 32304
Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Building,
Capitol Square, Atlanta, Georgia 30334
Guam Department of Agriculture, Government of
Guam, USA, Agana, Guam 96910
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 5425,
Honolulu, Hawaii 96814
Idaho Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 790,
Boise, Idaho 83701
Department of Agriculture, State Fairground,
Springfield, Illinois 62706
Agricultural Experiment Station, 102 AES
Building, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana 47907
Department of Agriculture, State House,
Des Moines, Iowa 50319
State Board of Agriculture, 1025-S State
Office Building, Topeka, Kansas 66612
Commercial
Telephone No.
302-678-4811
904-599-7345
404-656-3600
808-841-3071
208-384-3242
217-525-2274
317-749-2461
515-281-5321
913-296-3556
-------
State
Kentucky
Louis iana
Maine
Maryland
oo Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Commissioner
Commissioner
Commissioner
Director
Commissioner
Director
Commissioner
Commissioner
Commissioner
Address
Department of Agriculture, Capitol Annex,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
Department of Agriculture and Immigration,
P.O. Box 44302, Capitol Station,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804
Department of Agriculture, State Office
Building, Augusta, Maine 04330
State Board of Agriculture Programs,
State Board of Agriculture, College Park,
Maryland 20742
Department of Agriculture, State Office
Building, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston,
Massachusetts 02202
Michigan Department of Agriculture,
Lewis Cass Office Building, Lansing,
Michigan 48913
Department of Agriculture, 530 State Office
Building, St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
P.O. Box 1609, Jackson, Mississippi 39205
Department of Agriculture, 100 East Capitol
Avenue, Jefferson State Office Building,
Jefferson City, Missouri 65102
Commercial
Telephone No.
502-564-4696
504-389-5453
207-289-3871
301-454-3713
617-727-3002
517-373-1050
612-221-2856
601-354-6563
314-636-7166
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to
N>
VO
State
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Commissioner
Director
Director
Commissioner
Secretary
Director
Commissioner
Commissioner
Commissioner
Director
Address
Department of Agriculture, Capitol Annex
Building, Helena, Montana 59601
Department of Agriculture, State Capitol,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68509
Nevada Department of Agriculture, 350 Capitol
Hill Avenue, P.O. Box 1209, Reno, Nevada 89504
Department of Agriculture, State House,
107 Main Street, Concord, New Hampshire 03301
New Jersey Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box
1888, John Fitch Plaza, Trenton, New Jersey 08625
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3189,
Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001
Department of Agriculture and Markets,
State Campus, Albany, New York 12226
Department of Agriculture, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27602
Department of Agriculture, 601 Capitol
Building, Bismarck, North Dakota 58501
Ohio Department of Agriculture, State Office
Building, Columbus, Ohio 43215
Commercial
Telephone No.
406-449-3144
402-471-2341
702-784-6401
603-271-3551
609-292-3976
505-646-3007
518-457-4188
919-829-7125
701-224-2231
614-469-2732
-------
State
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
u>
o
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
President
Director
Secretary
Secretary
Director
South Carolina Commissioner
Secretary
Commissioner
Commissioner
Address
Ohio Department of Agriculture, State Capitol
Building, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105
State Department of Agriculture,
Salem, Oregon 97310
Department of Agriculture, 2301 N. Cameron
Street, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 10163,
Santruce, Puerto Rico 00908
Department of Natural Resources, Veterans
Memorial Building, 83 Park Street, Providence,
Rhode Island 02903
Department of Agriculture, Wade Hampton Office
Building, P.O. Box 11980, Columbia, South
Carolina 29211
Department of Agriculture, Pierre, South
Dakota 57501
Department of Agriculture, Box 40627,
Melrose Station, Nashville, Tennessee 37204
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 12847,
Capitol Station, Austin, Texas 78711
Commercial
Telephone No.
405-521-3866
503-378-4665
717-787-4737
809-722-2120
401-277-2000
803-758-2426
605-224-3375
615-832-6155
512-475-2760
-------
u>
State
Utah
Vermont
Virgin Islands
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Commissioner
Commissioner
Commissioner
Commissioner
Director
Commissioner
Secretary
Commissioner
Address
Department of Agriculture, 412 State Capitol
Building, Salt Lake City, Utah 84114
Department of Agriculture, Agriculture
Building, Montpelier, Vermont 05602
Department of Agriculture, St. Croix,
Virgin Islands 00820
Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
P.O. Box 1163, Richmond, Virginia 23219
Department of Agriculture, General Administration
Building, P.O. Box 128, Olympia, Washington 98501
Department of Agriculture, State Capitol
Building, Charleston, West Virginia 25305
Department of Agriculture, 801 West Badger Road,
Madison, Wisconsin 53702
Department of Agriculture, 313 Capitol Building,
Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001
Commercial
Telephone No.
801-328-5421
802-223-2311
809-772-0990
703-770-3501
206-753-5050
304-348-2201
608-266-7100
307-777-7321
-------
F. U.S. Forest Service; National Forest Regions. Research Units.'and Region
Offices of State and Private Forestry
National
Forest
Region
No.
10
Address
Forest Service-USDA
Federal Building
Missoula, Montana 59801
Phone: 406-549-6511
Forest Service-USDA
Federal Center
Building 85
Denver, Colorado 80225
Phone: 303-234-3131
Forest Service-USDA
New Federal Building
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87101
Phone: 505-843-2401
Forest Service-USDA
324 - 25th Street
Ogden, Utah 84401
Phone: 801-399-6011
National
Forest
Region
No.
8
10
Address
Forest Service-USDA
319 Southwest Pine Street
Portland, Oregon 97208
Phone: 505-221-3625
Forest Service-USDA
Suite 800
1720 Peachtree Road, N.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30309
Thone: 404-526-5177
Forest Service-USDA
Greyhound Building
633 West Wisconsin Avenue
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203
Phone: 414-224-3693
Forest Service-USDA
Juneau, Alaska 99801
Phone: 907-586-7263
Forest Service-USDA
630 Sansome Street
San Francisco, California 94111
Phone: 415-556-4310
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Research Units
Research Units
Forest Products Laboratory
Forest Service-USDA
North Walnut Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53705
Phone: 608-257-2211
Institute of Tropical Forestry
USDA-Forest Service
P.O. Box AQ
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico 00928
Phone: 809-765-0404
Intermountain Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
Forest Service Building
Ogden, Utah 84401
Phone: 801-399-6361
North Central Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
University Farm
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101
Phone: 612-645-0841
Northeastern Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
6816 Market Street
Upper Darby, Pennsylvania 19082
Phone: 215-352-5800
Pacific Northwest Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
809 Northeast 6th Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97208
Phone: 508-234-3361
Pacific Southwest Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
Stead Building
1960 Addison Street
Berkeley, California 94701
Phone: 415-841-5121
Rocky Mountain Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
Forestry Building
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
Phone: 303-482-7332
Southeastern Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
Post Office Building
Asheville, North Carolina 28802
Phone: 707-254-0961
Southern Experiment Station
Forest Service-USDA
T-10-210 Federal Building
701 Loyola Avenue
New Orleans, Louisiana 70113
Phone: 504-527-6787
State and Private Forestry
Northeastern Area
Forest Service-USDA
6816 Market Street
Upper Darby, Pennsylvania 19082
Phone: 215-352-5800
Southeastern Area
Forest Service-USDA
Suite 800
1720 Peachtree Road, N.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30390
Phone: 404-526-5964
333
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G. Plant Materials Centers. Soil Conservation Service, and Cooperating
Agencies
ALASKA, Star Route B, Box 357, Palmer 99645
ARIZONA, 3241 Romers Road, Tucson 85705
CALIFORNIA, P.O. Box 68, Lockeford 95237
FLORIDA, Route 2, Box 242, Brooksville 33512
GEORGIA, Box 680, University of Georgia, Americus 31709
HAWAII, P. 0. Box 74, Hoolehula, Molokia 96729
IDAHO, P.O. Box AA, Aberdeen 83210
KANSAS, Route 2, P.O. Box 829, Manhattan 66502
KENTUCKY, Plant Materials Centers, Quicksand 41363
MARYLAND, Building 509, Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville
MICHIGAN, Route 1, Rose Lake, East Lansing 48824
MISSISSIPPI, P.O. Box D, Coffeeville 38922
MISSOURI, P.O. Box 108, Elsberry 63343
MONTANA, Route 1, Box 81, Bridger 59014
NEW JERSEY, P.O. Box 236-A, RD-1, Cape May Court 08210
NEW MEXICO, Route 1, Box 28, Los Lunas 87031
NEW YORK, P.O. Box 295, Route 352, Big Flats 14814
NORTH DAKOTA, P.O. Box 1458, Bismarck 58501
OREGON, 3420 Northeast Granger Avenue, Corvallis 97330
TEXAS, Route 1, Box 133-A, Knox City 75929
WASHINGTON, Johnson Hall, Washington State University, Pullman 99163
H. Transportation Research Information Service (from the Tranaporatlon
Research Board, National Research Council, National Academy of Sci-
ence, National Academy of Engineering)
Manager, Highway Research Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20418 (Telephone: 202-961-1782).
Highway Research Information Service, Room 515, Joseph Henry Building,
2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418
334
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I. Resource Associations and Organizations
Ul
AGRONOMY
American Forage and Grassland Council
P.O. Box 48
State College, Pennsylvania 16801
Executive Secretary
American Society of Agronomy
677 South Segoe Road
Madison, Wisconsin 53711
Executive Vice President
Crop Science Society of America
677 South Segoe Road
Madison, tfsiconsin 53711
Executive Vice President
Soil Conservation Society of America
7515 Northeast Ankeny Road
Ankeny, Iowa 50021
Director
Soil Science Society of America
677 South Segoe Road
Madison, Wisconsin 53711
Executive Vice President
ARCHITECTURE
American Institute of Landscape Architects
6810 North 2nd Place
Phoenix, Arizonia 85012
American Society of Landscape Architects
1750 Old Meadow Road
McLean, Virginia 22101
Executive Director
BOTANY
American Association of Botanical Gardens
and Arboreta, Inc.
Horticulture Department
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003
Secretary-Treasurer
Botanical Society of America
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Secretary
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CONSTRUCTION
w
American Land Development Association
604 Solar Building
1000 - 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
Arizona Landscape Contractors Association
326 West Cambridge Avenue
Phoenix, Arizonia 85003
Executive Secretary
Associated Landscape Contractors of America, Inc.
1750 Old Meadow Road
McLean, Virginia 22101
Executive Director
Associated Landscape Contractors of Oregon
Box 2228
Salem, Oregon 97308
Associated Landscape Designers and Contractors
702 North 65th Street
Seattle, Washington 98103
California Landscape Contractors Association, Inc.
4570 Campus Drive
Suite 8
Newport Beach, California 92660
Executive Director
Illinois Landscape Contractors Association
Box 484
Bloomingdale, Illinois 60108
Executive Secretary
Minnesota Landscape Maintenance Association, Inc.
6643 Coifax Avenue, N.
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55430
Executive Secretary
National Landscape Association
230 Southern Building
15th and H Streets, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
Executive Vice President
Ornamental Growers Association
645 North Milwaukee Avenue
Wheeling, Illinois 60090
Secretary-Treasurer
Professional Landscape Contractors of Ohio
2265 Green Road
Cleveland, Ohio 44121
Historian
Texas Landscape Contractors Association
7700 Northaven Road
Dallas, Texas 75230
Director
Wisconsin Landscape Contractors Association
4209 35th Street
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 532LI
Secretary-Treasurer
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ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
FARM EQUIPMENT
The Conservation Foundation
1250 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
Council on Environmental Quality
722 Jackson Place
Washington, D.C. 20006
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Public Affairs
Washington, D.C. 20460
Keep America Beautiful, Inc.
99 Park Avenue
New York, New York
Executive Vice President
National Audubon Society
1L30 5th Avenue
New York, New York 10028
National Wildlife Federation
1412 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
The Nature Conservancy
1522 K Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
2950 Niles Road
St. Joseph, Michigan 49085
Executive Secretary
Farm and Industrial Equipment Institute
410 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60611
Executive Secretary
Farm Equipment Manufacturers Association
230 South Bemiston
St. Louis, Missouri 63105
Executive Vice President
Farm Equipment Wholesalers Association
Suite 1100
Upper Midwest Building
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401
Executive Director
National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers Association
2340 Hampton Avenue
St. Louis, Missouri 63139
Executive Vice President, Dealer
Business Management Services
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FERTILIZERS
HARDWARE
u>
W
00
Association of American Plant Food Control Officials,
Department of Biochemistry
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Secretary
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
P.O. Box 540
Benjamin Franklin Station
Washington, D.C. 20044
Executive Secretary
Fertilizer Institute, The
1015 18th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
President
Manufacturing Chemists Association
1825 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20009
Vice President, Secretary-Treasurer
National Fertilizer Solutions Association
Suite 910
Lehman Building
Peoria, Illinois 61602
Executive Director
Rational Limestone Institute, Inc.
1315 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
President
Potash Institute of North America, Inc.
1649 Tullie Circle, N.E.
Atlanta, Georgia 30329
Inc.
National Houseware Manufacturers Association
1130 Merchandise Mart
Chicago, Illinois 60654
Managing Director
HORTICULTURE
American Horticultural Society
Mount Vernon, Virginia 22121
Executive Director
American Society for Horticultural Science
914 Main Street
St. Joseph, Michigan 49085
Executive Director
Horticultural Dealers Association,
99 Church Street
New York, New York 10007
Secretary-Treasurer
Inc.
Horticulture Research Institute,
230 Southern Building
Washington, D.C. 20005
Executive Vice President
IRRIGATION
Irrigation Technical Services
P.O. Box 268
Lafayette, California 94549
Sprinkler Irrigation Association
Suite 310
13975 Connecticut Avenue
Silver Spring, Maryland 20906
Inc.
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING
vo
Alabama Nurserymen's Association
860 Terrace Acres
Auburn, Alabama 36830
President
American Association of Nurserymen, Inc.
230 Southern Building
Washington, D.C. 20005
Executive Vice President
American Nurserymen's Protective Association
Rural Route 2
Box 25
Indianapolis, Indiana 46231
Secretary-Treasurer
American Rock Garden Society
90 Pierpont Road
Waterbury, Connecticut 06705
Secretary
Arizona Nurserymen's Association
326 West Cambridge
Phoenix, Arizona 85003
Executive Secretary
California Association of Nurserymen
First Western Bank Building
1005 Eighth Street
Sacramento, California 95814
Executive Secretary
Canadian Nursery Trades Association
1568 Carling Avenue
Ottawa, Canada K1Z 7M5
Executive Vice President
Colorado Nurserymen's Association
1814 South Meade
Denver Colorado 80219
Executive Secretary
Connecticut Nurserymen's Association
P.O. Box 352
West Haven, Connecticut 06516
Executive Secretary
Del-Mar-Va Association of Nurserymen
Box 306
Selbyvilie, Delaware 19975
Secretary
Eastern Regional Nurserymen's Association
101 Executive Boulevard
Elmsford, New York 10523
Executive Director
Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association
2016 Southwest 27th Terrace
Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33312
Executive Secretary
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING (Continued)
LO
§
Georgia Nurseryman's Association
c/o Miller Hall
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia 30601
Executive Secretary
Greater Atlanta Nurserymen's Association
107 Lakeview Avenue, N.E.
Atlanta, Georgia 30305
Idaho Nursery and Tree Association
2528 North Cloverdale Road
Boise, Idaho 83702
Secretary-Treasurer
Illinois State Nurserymen's Association
645 North Milwaukee Avenue
Wheeling, Illinois 60090
Secretary
Indiana Association of Nurserymen,
Entomology Hall
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Executive Secretary
Iowa Nurserymen's Association
7261 Northwest 21st Street
Ankeny, Iowa 50021
Executive Secretary
Inc.
Kansas Association of Nurserymen
1239 South Hickory Street
Ottawa, Kansas 66067
Secretary
Kentucky Nurserymen's Association
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Secretary
Lake County Nurserymen's Association
P.O. Box 135
Mentor, Ohio 44060
Secretary
Louisiana Nurserymen's Association
Box 4492
University of Southwestern Louisiana
Lafayette, Louisiana 70501
Secretary
Maryland Nurserymen's Association
Joppa Road
Ferry Hall, Maryland 21128
Executive Secretary
Massachusetts Nurserymen's Association
715 Boylston St.
Boston, Massachusetts 02116
Executive Director or
Associate Director
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING (Continued)
Metropolitan Detroit Landscape Association
P.O. Box 550
Wayne, Michigan 48184
President
Michigan Association of Nurserymen
5127 Aurelius Road
Lansing, Michigan 48910
Secretary
Mid-Plains Nurserymen's Association
3481 East 10th Street
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57103
Minnesota Nurserymen's Association
Box 271
Hastings, Minnesota 55033
Secretary-Treasurer
Mississippi Nurserymen's Association
Mississippi State University
P.O. Box 5425
State College, Mississippi 39762
Secretary-Treasurer
Missouri Association of Nurserymen
233 Timber-crest Road
Klrkwood, Missouri 63122
Executive Secretary-Treasurer
Montana-Wyoming Turf and Nurserymen's Association
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59715
Secretary
National Landscape Association
230 Southern Building
Washington, D.C. 20005
Administrator
Nebraska Association of Nurserymen
2342 South 40th Street
Lincoln, Nebraska 68506
Secretary-Treasurer
Nevada Turfgrass and Landscape Council
Box 16004
Federal Station
Las Vegas, Nevada 89101
President
New England Nurserymen's Association
P.O. Box 352
West Haven, Connecticut 06516
Executive Secretary
New Hampshire Plant Growers Association
RFD 2
West Franklin, New Hampshire 03235
Secretary-Treasurer
New Jersey Association of Nurserymen
Department of Horticulture and Forestry
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Secretary
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING (Continued)
to
New York State Nurserymen's Association, Inc.
101 Executive Boulevard
Elmsford, New York 10523
Executive Director
North Carolina Nurserymen's Association
Box 5023
College Station
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
Secretary
North Dakota Nurserymen's Association
Highway 81
South Fargo, North Dakota 58102
Secretary
Ohio Nurserymen's Association
1540 West 5th Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43212
Executive Secretary
Oklahoma Nurserymen1s Association
4717 West Park Place
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73127
Secretary
Oregon Association of Nurserymen, Inc.
12750 Southwest Pacific Highway
Portland, Oregon 97223
executive Secretary
Pennsylvania Nurserymen's Association
Hilltop and Ridge Roads
Boiling Springs, Pennsylvania 17007
Executive Director
Rhode Island Nurserymen's Association
339 Woodward Hall
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
Secretary
South Carolina Nurserymen's Association
Horticulture Department
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Executive Secretary
South Dakota Nurserymen's Association
P.O. Box 1014
Aberdeen, South Dakota 57401
Secretary-Treasurer
Southern Nurserymen's Association
3813 Hillsboro Road
Room 227
Nashville, Tennessee 37215
Executive Secretary
Tennessee Nurserymen's Association
P.O. Box 57
McMinnville, Tennessee 37110
Executive Secretary
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING (Continued)
U>
Texas Association of Nurserymen
512 East Riverside Drive
Suite 207
Austin, Texas 78704
Executive Vice President
Utah Association of Nurserymen
3500 South 9th East
Salt Lake City. Utah 84106
Executive Secretary
Vermont Plantsmen's Association
Reading, Vermont 05062
Executive Secretary
Virginia Nurserymen's Association
Campbell's Native Nursery
RFD 2
Sedley Road
Franklin, Virginia 23851
Secretary
Washington State Nurserymen's Association, Inc.
1201 25th Avenue, Ct., N.E.
Puyallup, Washington 98371
Executive Secretary
West Virginia Nurserymen's Association
415 Jefferson Road
South Charleston, West Virginia 25309
President
Western Association of Nurserymen
9305 Vaughn
Raytown, Missouri 64133
Executive Secretary
Wholesale Nursery Growers of America, Inc.
230 Southern Building
Washington, D.C. 20005
Executive Vice President
Wisconsin Nurserymen's Association
1452 Highway B
OconomoHoc, Wisconsin 53066
Secretary
Oregon Tall Fescue Commission
2111 Front Street, N.E.
Salem, Oregon 97303
Oregon Chewings and Creeping Red Fescue Commission
1349 Capitol Street, N.E.
Salem, Oregon 97303
Society of Commercial Seed Technologists
Colborn Seed Testing Service
2600 Woods Boulevard
Lincoln, Nebraska 68502
Secretary-Treasurer
Manhattan Ryegrass Growers Association
P.O. Box 145
Hubbard, Oregon 97032
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NURSERY AND LANDSCAPING (Continued)
TREES
Ul
*»
•p-
Sod Growers Association of Mid-America
15515 Wolf Road
Orlaad Park, Illinois 60462
Executive Secretary
Turf Research Foundation
10L Park Avenue
New York, Hew York 10017
President
SOIL CONDITIONERS
Peat Producers Association of the United States
1224 17th Street, N.W.
Washington, B.C. 20036
General Counsel
Perlite Institutes, Inc.
45 West 45th Street
Hew York, New York 10036
Managing Director
U.S. National Committee of the International Peat
Society
2202 Washington Avenue
Silver Springs, Maryland 20910
Secretary-Treasurer
American Forest Institute
1619 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Washington, B.C. 20036
Executive Vice President
American Society for Horticultural
Science
Mount Vernon, Virginia 22121
International Shade Tree Conference, Inc.
P.O. Box 71,
Three Lincoln Square
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Executive Secretary
National Arborist Association
1750 Old Meadow Road
JfcLean, Virginia 22101
Executive Secretary
National Christinas Tree Growers Association
225 East Michigan Street
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53202
Executive Director
Society of American Foresters
1010-16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
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UJ
PEST CONTROL
Association of American Pesticide Control Officials, Inc.
1615 South Harrison Road
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
Secretary
Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association
50 East 41st Street,
New York, New York 10017
Executive Director
Crop Protection Institute Biological Research Center
P.O. Drawer S,
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
Director
Entomological Society of America
4603 Calvert Road
College Park, Maryland 20740
Executive Secretary
International Pesticide Applicators Association, lac.
P.O. Box 66022
Burien, Washington 98166
National Agricultural Chemicals Association
1155 15th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20005
President
National Pest Control Association
250 West Jersey Street
Elizabeth, New Jersey 07207
Executive Director
National Sprayer and Duster Association
850 Wrigley Building, N.
410 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60611
Executive Secretary
Weed Science Society of America
Department of Agronomy
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Business Manager-Treasurer
National Association of Insect Electrocuter Manufacturers
P.O. Box 150
Clinton Corners, New York 12514
Secretary
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POWER EQUIPMENT—PARTS
Automotive Electric Association
Suite 202
Executive Plaza Building
1301 West 22nd Street
Oak Brook, Illinois 60521
Executive Vice President
Maryland Lawn Mower Dealers Association, Inc.
P.O. Box 68
Kingsville, Maryland 21084
President
10
Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, Inc.
Suite 903-05
1725 K Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006
Executive Director
Power Saw Manufacturers Association
P.O. Box 7256
Belle View Station
Alexandria, Virginia 22307
Executive Secretary
SEED/SOD
American Rhododendron Society
2232 Northeast 78th Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97213
Executive Secretary
Association of American Seed Control Officials
Seed Laboratory
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Secretary-Treasurer
Atlantic Seedmen's Association
101 Park Avenue
New York, New York 10017
Executive Secretary
Better Lawn and Turf Institute
Route 4
Kimberdale
Marysville, Ohio 43040
Director
Central Plains Turfgrass Foundation
Waters Hall
Kansas State University
Horticulture
Manhattan, Kansas 66506
Secretary-Treasurer
Chewings Fescue and Creeping Red Fescue Commission
1349 South Capitol Street, N.E.
Salem, Oregon 97303
Executive Secretary
-------
SEED/SOD (Continued)
Cultivated Sod Association of Hew Jersey
College of Agriculture and Environmental Science
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Secretary
Delaware Turfgrass Association
Agriculture Hall
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware 19711
Florida Turfgrass Association
903 Lee Road
Orlando, Florida 32810
Executive Secretary
Garrao, inc.
Association Building
9th and Minnesota
Hastings, Nebraska 68901
Highland Colonial Bentgrass Commission
Department G
Suite 1
Rivergrove Building
211 Front Street, N.E.
Salem, Oregon 97303
Sod Growers Association of Michigan
60 Rush Lake Road
Pickney, Michigan
Secretary
Marion Bluegrass Association
101 Park Avenue
Room 607
New York, New York 10017
Public Relations Director
New Jersey Turfgrass Association
P.O. Box 359
Springfield, New Jersey 07081
President
Oklahoma Turfgrass Research Foundation, Inc.
115 Life Science East,
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074
Executive Secretary
Oregon Highland Colonial Bentgrass Commission
2111 Front Street, N.E.
Salem, Oregon 97303
Oregon Ryegrass Growers Seed Commission
2111 Front Street, N.E.
Salem Oregon 97303
Source:
"Grounds Maintenance," Intertec Publishing Corporation, Kansas City, Missouri, December 1973.
-------
J. Selection and Limitations of Mulching Materials for Stabilizing
Critical Areas!/
1. Introduction; The most effective way to stabilize a criti-
cal area is to establish plants quickly. Mulching nearly always shortens
the time required to establish a suitable plant cover by reducing evapora-
tion, moderating soil temperatures to promote germination and seedling
growth, preventing crusting, and controlling wind and water erosion.
Any substance spread, formed, or left on the soil surface may
act as a mulch. There is an infinite variety of mulching materials: straw,
hay, and other crop residues, sawdust, woodchips, wood fiber, bark, manure,
brush, jute or burlap, gravel, stones, peat, paper, leaves, plastic film,
and various organic and inorganic liquids—and this is not a complete list.
Mulching helps stabilize critical areas by improving plant
establishment, through conserving moisture, moderating temperatures, pre-
venting surface crusting, and reducing erosion. Among the many mate-
rials suitable for mulching, crop residues such as straw and hay generally
are the most available, economical, and conmonly used. The standard amount
is 1-1/2 to 2 tons of straw per acre. A variety of wood residues, includ-
ing woodchips, bark, excelsior, and cellulose fiber, are available as
mulching materials. Several petroleum products, such as asphalt and resin-
in-water emulsions, are useful as mulches for establishing vegetation.
Also available for special situations are plastic films, gravel, stones,
manure, jute, peat, and paper. Selection depends on characteristics of
the area to be stabilized and the availability, cost, and properties of
the mulch material.
Investigations in New Mexico have shown the advantages of mulch-
ing for establishing perennial species. For simmer seeding near Santa Fe,
the most effective mulch material was straw or a white petroleum resin;
these materials reduced moisture losses and lowered mid-afternoon tempera-
tures in the top inch of soil during the time seeds were germinating and
seedlings emerging.
I/ Presented by H. W. Springfield, Range Scientist, Rocky Mountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, Albuquerque, New Mexico, at the Criti-
cal Area Stabilization Workshop of the New Mexico Interagency Range
Committee, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, 27-29 April 1971. Reproduced
without change (except for handbook style conformity), including
literature cited.
348
-------
How effective a mulch will be depends on many factors, includ-
ing physical and chemical properties of the soil, land-forming or cultural
practices, and characteristics of the mulch itself, such as color, roughness,
and manner of application (Qashu and Evans, 1967).—' The effect of color
and roughness of the soil surface are directly related to the radiation
balance at the surface and, consequently, heat transfer in the soil. Slope,
aspect, and orientation of the soil surface influence the solar energy
received. Other considerations are steepness and length of slope, soil
texture and depth, rate of application of the mulch, and weather before,
during, and after application.
2. Mulch materials and application; Materials for mulching will
be discussed in the following order: crop residues, wood residues, petroleum
products, latex emulsions, plastic films, gravel, stones, and other mate-
rials.
a. Crop residues; Crop residues undoubtedly are the most
widely used mulching materials. They may be produced in place or hauled
in.
A special category of crop residues are those produced in
place, such as stubble mulch and no-tillage cropping. For some situations
the most practical method for stabilizing the soil is to grow an annual
crop like sorghum and convert it to a temporary mulch in place. Bartee
(1964)2.' reported "dead litter mulch" effective for establishing vegeta-
tion on floodwater-retarding structures in Texas; he found by mowing the
sorghum to a height of 6 to 10 in., the mulch material was distributed
evenly over the area and the stalks kept the cut material from blowing
away. A disadvantage is that this type of mulch cannot be established in
all seasons, or on all areas.
.!/ Qashu, H. K., and D. D. Evans, "Effect of Black Granular Mulch on
Soil Temperature, Water Content, and Crusting," Soil Science Society
of America Proceedings, 3JU 429-435,(1967).
27 Bartee, L. D., "Evaluation of Mulch Materials for Establishing Vegeta-
tion on Small Dams," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 19jll7-
118 (1964).
349
-------
The crop residues most commonly used as mulch are wheat
straw and native hay, hauled in (Chepil et al., 19631/). Either oat or
barley straw is as effective as wheat straw, and tame hay is as good as
wild hay. The material should be free of seeds. As a rule, the best
mulch is the one most available and nearest. A fine-stemmed baled mulch
is preferable to a loose mulch for mechanical spreading. Beater-type mulch
spreaders work well on level areas, but a blower-type is best for steep
slopes. Methods that require the least hand labor usually prove most
economical. Regardless of the material or method, the mulch should be
spread uniformly. Baled material tends to fall in bunches unless it is
cut or shredded, and scattered or blown with force. The average length
of cut stems should not be less than 6 in. if the mulch is to be anchored
mechanically. Brush usually has to be spread by hand, though a mechanized
procedure has been developed (Herbel, 197ll/); an advantage of brush as
mulch is its slow decomposition.
Straw and hay mulches should be anchored. According to
Chepil et al. (1963) the best mechanical equipment is a disk packer. Cook
et al. (1970)!/ reported a straw can be held in place by punching it into
the soil with a mulch tiller, a modified sheepsfoot roller, or a weighted
farm disk. Chemical agents, such as asphalt, may be used to anchor straw
or hay. The liquid asphalt spray usually is injected directly into the
stream of mulch as it comes out of the spreader.
In a classical experiment, Russel (1940)-^ exposed moist
soil to different conditions for 4 days during the summer; relative losses
were:
_!/ Chepil, W. S,, N. P. Woodruff, F. H. Siddoway, and D. V. Annbrust,
"Mulches for Wind and Water Erosion Control," Agricultural Research
Service. ARS 41-84, 23 pages (1963).
2/ Herbel, C. H., "Environmental Modification for Seedling Establish-
ment," in: The Biology and Utilization of Grass. V. Youngner and
C. McKell, Ed., Academic Press, Inc., New York, in press (1971).
3_/ Cook, C. W., I. B. Jensen, G. B. Coltharp, and E. M. Larson, "Seed-
ing Methods for Utah Roadsides," Utah Agricultural Experiment
Station Resources Series 52, 23 pages, illustrated, (1970).
4/ Russel, J. C., "The Effect of Surface Cover on Soil Moisture Losses
by Evaporation," Soil Science Society of America Proceedings (1939)
4:65-70 (1940).
350
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Bare soil 100%
Bare soil shaded from sun 64%
Bare soil shaded from sun and wind 47%
Straw mulched (1-1/2 in. thick) 27%
Russell concluded that half the effect of the straw mulch was due to ob-
struction of solar radiation.
More recent research has clearly demonstrated the value of
straw as a mulch material. Straw mulches proved superior to several manu-
factured mulches for establishing turf on roadside slopes in Michigan
(Beard, 196&1/). Straw alone, straw plus asphalt, and mulchnet over straw
were better than Soil Card, Erosionet, and jute net. Though the manufac-
tured mulches provided initial protection against erosion, they failed to
retain sufficient soil moisture for grass establishment.
For establishing plants on highway banks in Georgia, 2
tons of straw per acre proved superior to jute, water-soluble latex,
plastic film, sawdust, or no mulch (Richardson and Diseker, 1965=.'). Fur-
ther studies in Georgia showed 2 tons of straw per acre adequately pro-
tected newly seeded 407. backs lopes when subjected to 1.3 in. of rain in
30 min (Barnett et al., 1967.2/). When the slopes received 2.7 in. of rain
in 60 min, two treatments stood out as best: (a) the "whisker dam" or
Florida method, where the straw is pressed into loose soil by a 3-ft-
diameter roller equipped with blunt coulters 8 to 12 in. apart, and (b) the
Cartersvilie method where after seeding, the area is cultipacked and
covered with straw at the rate of 2 tons/acre. In all cases where asphalt
spray was part of the treatment, the effectiveness of the mulch was de-
creased.
J./ Beard, J. B., "A Comparison of Mulches for Erosion Control and Grass
Establishment on Light Soil," Michigan Agricultural Experiment
Station Quarterly Bulletin. 48j369-376 (1966).
2/ Richardson, E. C., and E. G. Diseker, "Establishing and Maintaining
Roadside Cover in the Piedmont Plateau of Georgia," Agronomy Journal,
5J7_: 561-564 (1965).
3_/ Barnett, A. P., E. G. Diseker, and E. C. Richardson, "Evaluation of
Mulching Methods for Erosion Control on Newly Prepared and Seeded
Highway Backslopes," Agronomy Journal. 59:83-85 (1967).
351
-------
On backslopes in South Dakota, water infiltration was
faster and erosion much less from plots mulched with 1-1/2 tons of straw
per acre, compared with unmulched plots (Hovland et al., 1966i'); but
stands of perennial plants did not develop due to competition from grain
seedlings that grew from seeds in the straw. In Utah, straw at 1-1/2
tons/acre anchored with asphalt at 300 gal/acre gave good results, but
Cook et al. (1970) pointed out this mulch is susceptible to being carried
away by wind and water. In Texas, prairie hay or straw at 1-1/2 tons/
acre applied with 0.05 gal/yard2 of asphalt effectively conserved moisture
and protected the soil (McCully and Bowmer, 1969=').
For stabilizing coal spoil banks in Wyoming the most ef-
fective treatment was seeding, then mulching with straw and jute netting
(Jacoby, 1969-/). Straw alone resulted in denser seedling stands than
jute alone. For reducing soil losses from newly constructed backslopes
in the Pacific Northwest, straw mulch at the rate of 2 tons/acre over
grass-legume mixtures were found essential (Dyrness, 1970!/).
In the Australian alps, fine meadow hay applied at 2-1/3 to
3 tons/acre and anchored with asphalt proved effective on 2:1 slopes
(Clothier and Condon, 19685-'). The asphalt emulsion (anionic, medium
setting) was applied at 400 to 500 gal/acre; this high rate was neces-
sary due to strong winds in the alpine and subalpine environment.
On 15% slopes in Indiana, mulch rates of 1/4 and 1/2 ton/
acre reduced soil losses to less than a third of those from unmulched
I/ Hovland, D., D. E. Wesley, and J. Thomas, "Establishing Vegetative
~ Cover to Protect Roadside Soils in South Dakota," South Dakota
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 527. 31 pages, illus-
trated (1966).
2/ McCully, W. G., and W. J. Bowmer, "Erosion Control on Roadsides in
~ Texas," Research Report 67-8 (final), Texas Transportation In-
stitute, 33 pages, illustrated (1969).
3/ Jacoby, P. W., "Revegetation Treatments for Stand Establishment on
"~ Coal Spoil Banks," Journal of Range Management. 22:94-97, illus-
trated (1969).
4/ Dyrness, C. T., "Stabilization of Newly-Constructed Road Backslopes
*~ by Mulch and Grass-Legume Treatments," USDA Forest Service Research
Note PNW-123, 5 pages, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experi-
ment Station (1970).
5/ Clothier, D. P., and R. W. Condon, "Bitumen-Straw Mulching for Better
"~ stabilization on the Kosciusko Road. New South Wales," Soil Con-
aprvation Service Journal. 24:218-230 (1968).
352
-------
areas (Meyer et al., 197QI'). A 1-ton/acre rate decreased soil loss to
only a sixth of that from no mulch. Runoff velocity for the 1/4-ton rate
was only half that for no mulch.
b. Wood residues: Sawdust, woodchips, bark, and shavings
constitute an abundant source of mulching material in many areas. Wood
residues such as these not only protect the soil surface but also add
organic matter. As a general rule, supplemental nitrogen (N) should be
applied with wood residue mulches.
In evaluating wood residues for mulching it is important
to consider particle-size distribution, carbon (C):N ratio, composition,
and rate of decomposition (Bollen and Glennie, 196 ll/). Advantages of
wood residues are: they are easier to apply, longer lasting, and less
susceptible to blowing or fire than straw or hay. Disadvantages are
competition for available N, decrease of pH if the material is strongly
fermented, and packing of fine particles. Chips, shavings, and mi11run
sawdust make good mulch, but re-saw sawdust packs tightly and may retard
aeration and infiltration. If the C:N ratio exceeds 25:1, microorganisms
carrying on decomposition will compete with plant roots for available N.
Bark is available from most primary wood manufacturing operations and
sawdust is available at most sawmills; both are very low in N, however
(Basham and Thompson, 1967.2/):
£H N (%)
Wood 5.2 0.1
Bark 3.6 0.2
Feat 3.8 0.8
JL/ Meyer, L. D., W. H. Wischmeier, and G. R. Foster, "Mulch Rates Re-
quired for Erosion Control on Steep Slopes," Soil Scientist Society
of America Proceedings. 34:928-931 (1970).
2/ Bollen, W. B., and D. W. Glennie, "Sawdust, Bark, and Other Wood
Wastes for Soil Conditioning and Mulching," Forest Products
Journal, 11,:38-46 (1961).
2/ Basham, B. M., and W. S. Thompson, "An Economic Study of the Produc-
tion and Use of Sawdust and Bark as Mulches and Soil Amendments
for Horticultural and Agricultural Purposes," Mississippi Forest
Products Laboratory Information Series No. 6, 25 pages (1967).
353
-------
Neither bark nor sawdust has any long-term effect on soil pH, which can
be maintained near neutral by applying 10 Ib of lime per cubic yard of
wood residue. For bark, a screened grind ranging from 1/2 in. to fines,
with most particles 1/50 to 1/8 in., is satisfactory for mulching. The
C:N ratio can be adjusted to near 25:1 by adding 5 to 10 Ib of fertilizer
N per ton of bark.
Bark has a potentially important use as a soil stabilizer
for highway banks and other slopes (Bolen, 1969-i/); it could be applied
economically with suitably designed hydraulic spreading equipment.
Another wood residue mulch is excelsior or shredded wood
chopped in 8-in. lengths which can be applied with or without asphalt
at the rate of 2 tons/acre (Thompson and Palmertree, 1967-/). Green wood
excelsior fibers 4 to 6 in. long applied at 2 tons/acre with a mulch
blower provided good soil protection on 3:1 slopes in Minnesota (Foote
et al., 19661'). This long-fibered wood mulch proved as good as straw
plus asphalt and had the advantage over straw of not requiring anchoring.
Both the excelsior and straw were superior to short-fibered wood cel-
lulose pulps, applied hydraulically, for soil protection and plant estab-
lishment. Excelsior applied at 1-1/2 tons/acre, and held in place by
0.05 gal/yard2 of asphalt, was less effective than prairie hay but better
than woodchips or asphalt as mulch for roadside seeding in Texas (McCully
and Bowmer, 1969). If applied as a mat, excelsior was expensive, laborious
to apply, decomposed rather rapidly, and attracted mice which fed on the
seedlings in Utah (Cook et al., 1970).
Wood cellulose fiber, available commercially in bales
usually is mixed with water and seed to form a slurry, which is sprayed
with a hydroseeder. Bartee (1964) reported wood fiber at the rate of
I/ Bollen, W. B., "Properties of Tree Barks in Relation to Their Agri-
cultural Utilization," USDA Forest Service Research Paper PNW-77,
36 pages, illustrated, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experi-
ment Station (1969).
2/ Thompson, W. R., and H. D. Palmertree, "Mulches Improve New Turf
Stands," Weeds. Trees and Turf. 6:48, 50 (1967).
3/ Foote, L. E., B. F. Himmelman, and~D. L. Kill, "Vegetation and
Erosion Control," Minnesota Department of Highways, Investiga-
tion No. 614, Interim Report, 39 pages, illustrated (1966).
354
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330 lb/1,000 gal. of water per acre was effective in establishing vegeta-
tion on eroded soils in Texas. In Utah, wood fiber at 1,500 Ib/acre gave
consistently good results except where there was frost heaving or exces-
sive surface water flow (Cook et al. , 1970). If applied at less than
1,000 Ib/acre, or on steep, unstable slopes, little benefit was obtained.
c. Petroleum products; Several petroleum products are
suitable as agricultural mulches. Specially formulated emulsions of
asphalt, known under various trade names, have been used throughout the
world to reduce evaporation, prevent soil crusting, promote seed germina-
tion, and advance the seeding date. The film clings to, but does not
penetrate deeply into the soil; is not readily destroyed by wind or rain;
and remains intact 4 to 10 weeks or longer (Black and Popkin, 1967— ).
Chepil et al. (1963) identified cutback asphalts and asphalt
emulsions. Slow, medium, and rapid-curing materials are available for
cutbacks, whereas the asphalt-in-water emulsions usually are rapid setting.
Asphalts for surface films should be slow curing or slow setting to allow
grass seedlings to break through the film more easily. A rapid-setting
kind is needed for anchoring straw. Heating is required to make concen-
trated cutback sprayable and is usually needed with asphalt emulsion too.
The undiluted asphalt emulsion is somewhat less effective in controlling
erosion than the undiluted cutback asphalt. Asphalt films are virtually
nonporous and consequently much of the rainwater runs off. Therefore
seeds may fail to germinate if insufficient soil moisture is present be-
fore the asphalt is applied. According to Chepil et al. (1963) the rate
of application to control erosion should be 1/4 gal/yard2 (1,200 gal/
acre). An asphalt emulsion applied at this rate on sandy soils will go
through the winter nearly intact, but the film will disintegrate within
2 weeks to 3 months on silty clay or clay due to the swelling and shrink-
ing of the soil. Cutback asphalt films, on the other hand, are more
resistant to weathering and will remain intact 6 to 12 months.
The ideal film, according to Chepil et al. (1963), is stable
against erosion, sufficiently porous to allow water to enter, yet in-
soluble in water and resistant enough to the weather that it lasts until
permanent vegetation becomes established. Next to well-anchored straw
or hay, the resin in water emulsion comes closest to meeting these re-
quirements.
I?Black, J. F., and A. H. Popkin, "New Roles for Asphalt in Controlling
"" Man's Environment," Presentation at Annual Meeting, National Pe-
troleum Refiners Association, San Antonio, Texas, 3-5 April 1967.
355
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Resin-in-water emulsions are stable and can be diluted
with large quantities of water without breaking the emulsion. The resins
resist weathering and soil bacteria. The emulsion leaves the surface
permeable to water and stabilizes the soil against erosion by wind or
water. The film is stable on sandy soils but breaks up within a few
weeks on silty clay or clay soil. Seedlings emerge better through resin-
in-water film than through asphalt or latex films. Reain-in-water emul-
sion diluted 1:1 with water should be applied at the rate of 1/8 gal/
yard^ (600 gal/acre) to protect loamy sands or sandy loams against wind
erosion (Chepil et al., 1963).
Petroleum mulches have been found useful under a variety
of environmental conditions and for a variety of purposes. Results of
more than 100 field trials in Italy, England, and Trinidad showed asphalt
mulch markedly reduces moisture losses by evaporation, protects the soil
surface from rain damage, and reduces erosion (Jordan and Sampson, 196&1/).
Adams (1967>i' claims petroleum mulch film is pliable, readily penetrated
by seedlings, disintegrates within several months, and is metabolized by
soil microorganisms.
Based on rangeland studies in eastern Colorado, Benent et
al. (1961)^' concluded the net effect of asphalt mulch on plant establish-
ment varied with species and kind of asphalt. They recommended the reac-
tion of a given species to an asphalt mulch be checked. They also re-
ported that high intensity storms tended to break up the asphalt film
and reduce its effectiveness.
A smooth surface containing a minimum of coarse fractions
requires less material and results in a better film (Cannon, 196&!/).
Compaction of the surface soil before spraying the asphalt has been re-
ported to be beneficial (Johnson et al., 1966-L/).
I/ Jordan, D., and A. J. Sampson, "Crop Responses to Bitumen Mulches,"
Span, 9j 157-160 (1966).
21 Adams, J? E., "Effect of Mulches and Bed Configuration. I. Early-
Season Soil Temperature and Emergence of Grain Sorghum and Corn,"
Agronomy Journal. 59^:595-599 (1967).
3/ Bement, R. E., D. F. Hervey, A. C. Everson, and L. 0. tylton, Jr.,
"Use of Asphalt-Emulsion Mulches to Hasten Grass-Seedling Estab-
lishment," Journal of Range Management. 14:102-109 (1961).
4/ Cannon, M. D., "Synthetic Strip Mulches," Western Farmers Equipment.
63JFMW13-FMW14 (1966).
5/ Johnson, W. H., 0. K. Hedden, and J. 0. Wilson, "How Liquid Mulches
Affect Moisture Retention, Temperature, and Seedling Growth,"
Agricultural Engineering, 47:196-199 (1966).
356
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Because the asphalt is in direct contact with the soil,
the thicker the film, the more effective it is in reducing evaporation
and the higher the soil temperature if the asphalt is dark colored
(Collis-George et al., 19631/). But if the application rate is too high,
the film may prevent seedlings from breaking through (Johnson et al.,
1966). the best coating may be one that suppresses evaporation, but does
not necessarily eliminate vapor movement; coatings with minute cracks
proved effective under certain conditions (Gerald and Chambers, 1967— ).
For roadside seeding in Texas, McCully and Bowmer (1969)
reported asphalt applied at 0.2 gal/yard2 was less effective than prairie
hay or excelsior. Asphalt was not effective for roadside seeding in
Utah because the solar heat absorbed by the asphalt was lethal to fragile
grass seedlings, according to Cook et al. (1970).
d. Latex emulsions: These are elastomeric polymer emul-
sions that, when diluted with water and sprayed on the soil, produce a
rubbery film resistant to erosion (Chepil et al., 1963). The emulsion
breaks readily on contact with the soil and therefore does not penetrate
the surface readily. The film limits movement of water into the soil.
In dryland cotton studies, Soil Card (a latex emulsion)
applied as a liquid spray (1 part to 9 parts water) at the rate of 1,000
gal/acre resulted in emergence of seedlings as good as from conventional
procedures and the results were less variable; but the yield increases
were not sufficient to justify the cost (Batchelder and Porterfield,
1967^').
In mulching to establish a cover on newly constructed road-
side slopes in Michigan, Beard (1966) found seedling stands were poorer
where Soil Card was used. Soil Card also provided less erosion control
than other mulches.
e. Plastic films; Mulching with plastic films has in-
creased considerably over the past few years, generally in the produc-
tion of high-value crops. Plastic mulch is an excellent vapor barrier
I/ Collis-George, N., B. G. Davey, D. R. Scotter, and D. R. Williamson,
"Some Consequences of Bituminous Mulches," Australian Journal of
Agricultural Research. 14^:1-11 (1963).
2/ Gerard, C. J., and G. Chambers, "Effect of Reflective Coatings on
Soil Temperatures, Soil Moisture, and the Establishment of Fall
Bell Peppers," Agronomy Journal. 59:293-296 (1967).
J3/ Batchelder, D. G., and J. G. Porterfield, "Applying Mulches for Im-
proving Seedling Establishment," American Society of Agricultural
Engineers Transactions (ASAE). 10:625-627 (1967).
357
-------
and prevents the normal evaporation of water from the soil surface (Smith
et al., 196?i/). With a plastic mulch, the drying front that normally
progresses from the surface downward is arrested, and the result is a
more uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil profile.
Information concerning the effects of plastic mulches on
soil temperature is contradictory. Thus, some investigators have re-
ported an increase in soil temperature with black plastic, some reported
a decrease, and others report no change. Apparently the effect varies
with placement. If the black plastic is in direct contact with the ground,
most of the heat will be absorbed by the soil. But if there is an in-
sulating air layer under the black plastic, the surface soil may be no
wanner than bare soil (ARS, 1961£/).
Translucent film operates like a greenhouse by transmitting
insolation which is converted to sensible heat at the soil surface. White-
and aluminum-pigmented films reduce soil temperatures by reflecting in-
cident sunlight.
Exposure for 6 months to weather conditions in central
Arizona seriously degraded clear, orange, and white polyethylene (1 mil),
but the black still performed effectively (Gliniecki, 1959^ ). After 12
months exposure, the 1-mil black had deteriorated but 3-mil black re-
mained durable.
In southern New Mexico, a mulch of perforated white poly-
ethylene (1 mil) applied over seeded rows gave better stands than un-
mulched; the better stands were attributed to more favorable soil moisture
and temperature conditions (Herbel, 1971). On hot, sunny days, soil tem-
peratures at the 0.5-in. depth were 10 to 18° cooler under the white
plastic.
ll Smith, E. M., R. W. Skaggs, and J. H. Casada, "Potential Field for
Heat Transfer in Soil Covered by Different Plastic Mulches,"
American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Paper No. 67-101,
16 pages (1967).
2/ United States Agricultural Research Service, "Applied Mulches and
Mulching," ARS 22-71, 12 pages (1961).
3/ Gliniecki, V. L., "Evaluating Polyethylene Films for Agriculture,"
Down to Earth. 15:7-9 (1959).
358
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f. Gravel, stones, and other materials; Gravel, stones,
and crushed rock have an advantage over most other mulches--they are
permanent; if the individual pieces are no smaller than 1/2 in. in diam-
eter, they will withstand a wind velocity of 85 mph (Chepil et al., 1963).
But to control wind erosion the pieces must almost cover the soil surface.
The finer the gravel, the less required to cover the ground.
Experiments in Colorado by Corey and Kemper (1968)— indi-
cate a gravel mulch on a fallow surface is the most promising method for
increasing infiltration of precipitation. These investigators point out,
"No device has been conceived which can prevent entirely the exit of
water from the soil surface, while at the same time permitting it to pass
into the soil."
Studies during the growing season in Kansas showed a 1-in.
layer of gravel painted with flat black paint had the highest net radia-
tion, followed in order by clear plastic, bare soil, straw, and aluminum-
painted gravel (Hanks et al., 196l£'). Soil temperature (3/8 in.) was
highest under clear plastic, followed by bare soil, black gravel, aluminum
gravel, and straw. Evaporation was greatest from bare soil but about the
same for the mulch treatments.
For seeding roadsides in Utah, gravel 3/4 to 2 in. in diam-
eter applied to a 2-in. depth controlled surface erosion and promoted
consistent stands of grass (Cook et al., 1970).
Manure, which might be a special category, often has more
value as a mulch than as a source of plant nutrients. On 10 to 12%
slopes in Ohio, erosion measured 0.5 ton/acre where mulched with manure
compared to 12.5 tons/acre where unmulched (ARS, 1961). Manure mulch
also has been found to reduce blowing of sandy soil.
Jute netting, used for stabilizing very steep roadbanks,
may be considered a mulch material. It consists of a netting of woven
jute twine, packaged in blanket-type rolls and held on the surface by
wire staples (Thompson and Falmertree, 1967). Tested for establishing
I/ Corey, A. T., and W. D. Kemper, "Conservation of Soil Water by Gravel
Mulches," Colorado State University Hydrology, Paper No. 30,
23 pages (1968).
2_/ Hanks, R. J., S. A. Bowers, and L. D. Bark, "Influence of Soil Sur-
face Conditions on Net Radiation, Soil Temperature, and Evapora-
tion," Soil Science, 41:233-238 (1961).
359
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a plant cover on coal spoil banks in Wyoming, jute netting alone was
less effective than straw alone; a combination of these two mulches gave
the best results (Jacoby, 1969). For establishing a cover on newly con-
structed roadside slopes in Michigan, jute netting was not as good as
straw alone or straw plus asphalt (Beard, 1966). In Utah, jute netting
was effective and long-lasting, but expensive and laborious to apply;
moreover, where the netting is not properly applied water will run under-
neath and create gullies (Cook, et al., 1970).
Bran mixed with a seed-fertilizer slurry and applied with
a hydroseeder provided a good mulch cover on fill slopes in Connecticut
(Button and Potharst, 1962^'). Bran mixed with wood fiber in a 4:3 ratio
produced an excellent cover that showed no signs of deterioration after
90 days.
Applying black granular coke on sandy soil near Tucson re-
sulted in higher soil temperatures, higher soil moisture, and a friable
soil surface compared with a rigid crust where not mulched (Qashu and
Evans, 1967).
In Mississippi, Thompson and Palmertree (1967) applied fiber-
glass as a mulch with special compressed air equipment at the rate of
100 lb/100 yards2.
In Utah, macerated paper, produced by passing newspaper
through a hanmermill and applied as a slurry at 1,500 Ib/acre, gave
satisfactory results but was not as long-lasting as straw-asphalt or
wood fiber (Cook et al., 1970).
Final selection of a mulch material will depend on several
considerations: (a) characteristics of the area that needs to be stabili-
zed, such as size, shape, slope, aspect, roughness, physical and chemical
properties of the soil, and precipitation, temperatures, and wind; (b)
species of plants to be seeded and their requirements for germination,
seedling emergence, and establishment; (c) characteristics of the mulch
material itself, including color, durability, availability and cost; (d)
needs for special equipment and costs of application.
3. Mulching to improve plant establishment in New Mexico;
Establishment of plants by direct seeding on critical areas is an un-
certain practice in all except the wetter parts of New Mexico due to
erratic, unpredictable, and insufficient precipitation. Because the seeds
of most plant species must be planted only an inch deep or less, they
I/Button, E. F., and K. Potharst, "Comparison of Mulch Materials for
Turf Establishment," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 17:
166-169 (1962).
360
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are subjected to severe stresses. The moisture and temperature condi-
tions required for seed germination and seedling emergence rarely occur
naturally for more than a few days in succession. Some form of environ-
mental modification is needed to insure success in revegetating deterio-
rated or disturbed areas. Mulches offer possibilities for accomplish-
ing the necessary modification in environmental factors, especially
moisture and temperature.
Several investigations in southern New Mexico have shown the
advantages of mulching for establishing perennial forage species (Herbel,
1971). A mulch of white polyethylene perforated over seeded rows gave an
excellent stand of grass seedlings compared to only a sparse stand in
check rows. Soil temperatures in the seed zone were 10 to 18°F cooler
in hot, sunny weather, and soil moisture remained adequate for more days
under the white film. A mulch of uprooted brush plants deposited by
special equipment over seeded strips also proved effective. The brush
mulch resulted in more soil moisture, lower temperatures, and better
stands of grass.
Mulching has been studied in central New Mexico from 1965 to
1970 as a method for establishing four-wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens)
and winterfat (Eurotia lanata). Results of preliminary tests in 1965
and 1966 near Corona and Magdalena shoved better plant establishment
where a light layer of native grass was applied over seeded rows
(Springfield, 19701').
In a series of experiments at Santa Fe from 1967 to 1970,
several mulches were compared under different weather conditions. The
basic idea in these tests was to plant the seed in moist soil, then
apply a mulch that would delay soil moisture losses and provide near-
optimum temperatures in the seed zone. Procedures for all experiments
were similar. Seeds were planted shallow—four-wing saltbush, 1/2 in.
deep; winterfat, 1/16 to 1/8 in.--in moist soil at the rate of 15 viable
seeds per foot of row. Mulches applied immediately after seeding were:
I/ Springfield, H. W,, "Germination and Establishment of Four-Wing
Saltbush in the Southwest," USDA Forest Service Research Paper
RM-55, 48 pages, illustrated, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station.
361
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straw, aluminized asphalt,^ WPR (white petroleum resin),!' and Soil
Card.-/ Soil moisture was determined gravimetrically in 1967 and 1968
and by gypsum blocks in 1969 and 1970. Soil temperatures were measured
by thermistors placed in test rows at the same level as the seeds.
In 1967, four-wing saltbush seeds were planted and mulches ap-
plied 10 July. Seedlings began emerging 18 July and reached maximum
stands 28 August:
Number of Seedlings per Foot
Straw 3.6
Aluminized asphalt 2.7
No mulch 0.7
Soil Card 0
During the first 2 weeks, the soil was consistently more moist in mulched
than in unmulched rows. Mid-afternoon soil temperatures were 20 to 25°
cooler in straw-mulched rows than in other rows.
The 1968 study with four-wing saltbush was begun 9 July. Rain-
fall vas negligible the first 9 days, therefore the effectiveness of the
various mulches was well tested. Less soil moisture was lost under the
mulches than in the unmulched rows. Thus, soil moisture remained above
the wilting percentage in all mulched rows for 10 days, whereas it dropped
below wilting by the 6th day in unmulched rows. Midafternoon temperatures
during the 1st week were much lower under straw and WPR:
I/ Experimental products supplied by Dr. R. L. Perm, Chevron Research,
Richmond, California. Aluminized asphalt, identified as 64R-1101,
is a dispersion of a leafing aluminum pigment in an asphalt-volatile
hydrocarbon solution; white petroleum resin, 68R-5268, a dispersion
of a white pigment in a petroleum derived resin aqueous emulsion.
Trade and company names are used for the benefit of the readers,
and do not constitute endorsement or preferential treatment by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2/ A pigmented latex compound manufactured by Alco Chemical Corporation,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trade and company names are used for
the benefit of the reader, and do not constitute endorsement or
preferential treatment by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
362
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Air (shade) 84
Straw 83
WPR 80
Aluminized asphalt 100
No mulch (control) 103
Soil Card 108
Seedlings began emerging 6 days after seeding. Stands in rows mulched
with straw or WPR were significantly better than those in other rows;
these better stands are explained by cooler temperatures, together with
higher soil moisture.
In 1969, three mulch studies were conducted: two with four-
wing saltbush and one with winterfat. Rates of mulch application per
100 ft of row were:
Light Medium
Straw (air-dry) in pounds 1.9 3.8 5.8
WPR (not diluted) in
gallons 1.0 2.1 3.2
Soil Card (1:9 dilution)
in gallons 1.0 2.1 3.1
The first study with saltbush was conducted during hot, dry, windy weather.
Mulches were only partially effective in preventing moisture losses from
the top inch of soil, which dried rapidly the 1st week after seeding.
The advantages of mulching became evident the 5th and 6th day when more
moisture was available to the germinating seed in mulched rows than in
unmulched rows. By the 7th day, soil moisture tension exceeded 15 atmos-
spheres in all rows. Nevertheless, a few seedlings emerged. On the 20th
day, seedlings per foot numbered 0.6 for WPR, 0.5 for straw, and 0 for
Soil Card and no mulch. High temperatures probably account for the lack
of seedlings in rows mulched with Soil Card. Temperatures in the seed
zone at 2:00 p.m. the 6th day—a critical time for the seeds, and seedlings-
were as follows:
IE
Air (shade) 94
Straw 92
WPR 80
No mulch 113
Soil Card 116
363
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Cooler temperatures, in combination with slightly more moisture avail-
able when needed by the germinating seeds, account for the seedlings
that emerged in rows mulched with WPR or straw.
The second 1969 study with four-wing saltbush, installed 25 July,
was conducted during cool, moist weather. Neither soil temperatures nor
moisture tensions reached high levels, but certain mulch treatments re-
sulted in significantly better seedling establishment. The most seedlings
became established in rows mulched lightly with straw, as these averages
show:
Rate Number per Foot of Row
Light 5.6 a
Medium 4.4 ab
Heavy 3.5 be
WPR Light 4.6 ab
Medium 3.5 be
Heavy 2.8 c
Soil Card Light 2.9 c
Medium 1.4 d
Heavy 1.1 d
No mulch 3.1 c
The poor stands in rows mulched with Soil Card suggest this dark green
elastic coating may impede seedling emergence.
The 1969 mulch study with winterfat was begun 25 August.
Emergence and establishment were better where mulch was applied over
the seeded rows:
Number of Plants per Foot of Row
1 Week 1 Month 1 Year
After After After
Seeding Seeding Seeding
1.7 2.7 1.9
1.1 1.8 1.6
0.8 1.6 0.8
364
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2
0.2
0.5
0
0
8
0.7
0.8
0.3
0.6
12
1.1
0.9
0.3
0.5
26
1.3
1.0
0.3
0.4
The greater number of seedlings where WFR was applied is explained by
lower temperatures and more moisture. Temperatures under WPR were cooler
than under straw. Likewise soil moisture tension usually remained less
in rows mulched with WFR.
In 1970, winterfat seeds were planted in moist soil and mulches
applied 24 June. Winterfat seedlings began emerging the 2nd day. Seedling
stands developed as follows:
Number of Seedlings per Foot (by days)
Straw
WPR
Soil Card
No mulch
Stands were significantly better in rows mulched with straw or WPR than
in other rows.
The essentially rainless period of 12 days after seeding pro-
vided a good test of the mulches. WPR and straw effectively conserved
soil moisture. The germinating seeds and developing seedlings were sub-
jected to less moisture tension in rows mulched with straw or WPR.
Differences in temperatures under the three mulches also help explain
the differences in seedling emergence. During the first 8 days, soil
temperatures under Soil Card exceeded 100°F every afternoon; the un-
mulched soil reached 100°F several times. Soil temperatures remained
less than 80°F under WPR most days. Temperatures beneath straw likewise
were comparatively cool.
The results of these studies at Santa Fe support the basic idea
of planting seeds in moist soil and applying a mulch that provides near-
optimum temperatures and moisture for germination. In each study, mulch-
ing resulted in more moisture for a longer time in the seed zone. As
pointed out by McCully and Bowmer (1969), a good mulch properly applied
may double the time that moisture in the seed zone is adequate for germina-
tion. In some instances mulching may do little more than tip the balance
in favor of the germinating seed and developing seedling.
Success of the mulching technique—as used at Santa Fe—is con-
tingent on adequate rainfall. Rain is needed for initial seeding and
mulching; and rain is needed later to keep the seedlings alive and grow-
ing. Therefore, the seedings were made in summer when rainfall is more
dependable. High soil temperatures resulting from high solar radiation
in summer were expected to cause problems.
365
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Mulches with reflective properties proved most effective mainly
because seeds of four-wing saltbush and winterfat require relatively cool
temperatures for germination. Seeds of species with higher temperature
requirements might have responded differently to the various mulch treat-
ments. However, investigators have found white- to cream-colored petroleum
resin emulsions useful for establishing vegetables in summer when the tem-
peratures of bare soil inhibit germination (Gerard and Chambers, 1967).
These investigators reported reflective coatings, though still develop-
mental, show promise because they are easy to apply, suppress evaporation,
maintain favorable soil temperatures, and are easily penetrated by seedlings.
Least effective of the mulches tested at Santa Fe was Soil Card.
This material formed a dark green elastic coating that absorbed radiant
energy, transmitted it downward, and raised the soil temperatures too high
in summer for good germination. This characteristic of certain mulches
to raise soil temperatures could be an advantage during cool seasons. For
example, the seeds can be placed in moist soil in early spring when soil
temperatures are low, and then covered with a dark-colored mulch like
Soil Card.
366
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APPENDIX
(Supplemental Cost Information For Section J)
ESTIMATED COSTS
Chepil et al. (1963)
Crop Residues
Application Rate Cost/Acre^
(tons)
Method of Anchoring
Disk packer
Cutback asphalt
Asphalt emulsion
Hay
2.5
2.0
2.0
Straw
3.0
2.5
2.5
(dollars)
Hay
105
160
210
Straw
120
220
310
a/ Includes seedbed preparation, seeding, and all mulching costs.
Petroleum Mulches
Application Rate Cost/Acre ($)
Cutback asphalt 1/4 gal/yard2 250
(1,200 gal/acre)
Asphalt emulsion same 350
Resin-in-water 1/8 gal/yard2 225
(600 gal/acre)
Other
Fine gravel (1/12 to 1/4 in. diameter) - 20 tons, $55/acre
Medium gravel (1/4 to 1/2 in. diameter) - 50 tons, $200/acre
Coarse gravel (1/2 to 1-1/2 in. diameter) - 100 tons, $375/acre
367
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Bartee (1964) costs of mulching only for establishing plant cover or
dams in Texas.
1. Forage sorghum for dead litter - $34/acre
2. Hay at 2.5 tons/acre - $175/acre
3. Wood pulp (300 lb/1,000 gal. water) at the rate of 1,000 Ib
of pulp per acre - $204/acre
Cannon (1966) cotton planting in Arizona not including application or
special equipment costs.
1. 1.25 mil polyethylene, 20 in. wide - $58/acre
2. Petroleum mulch, 6-in. band at the rate of 100 gal/acre -
$35/acre
Batchelder and Porterfield (1967) cotton planting in Texas Soil Card
(diluted 1:9 in water) applied in 10-in bands at the rate of 1,000
gal/acre - $55/acre.
Jacoby (1969) coal spoil banks in Wyoming.
Cost/Acre
Material ($)
Straw
Jute netting
Jute-straw
McCully and Bowmer (1969) roadsides in Texas.
o
Prairie hay at 1.5 tons/acre plus asphalt at 0.05 gal/yard -
$130/acre
Material ($)
182
1,307
1,488
Labor ($)
91
68
91
Total ($)
273
1,375
1,580
368
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K. Representative Soil Test Interpretations for Lime, Nitrogen. Phos-
phorus, and Potassium]/
1. Interpretation of pH test - liming! A map (Figure 77) show-
ing the general subsoil pH conditions in Minnesota is furnished. By using
Table 26 and the map, the tonnage of lime needed can be readily obtained
for the different SMP (Shoemaker, McLean and Pratt test) buffer index
values or soil-water pH values. The SMP buffer index is a pH value ob-
tained by use of a buffer solution which takes the reserve soil acidity
into account. Reserve acidity is dependent on the amount of organic
matter and clay content of each of the soils. The SMP buffer index is
not run unless the soil-water pH value is below 6.0. Thus from Table 26,
if a soil has a SMP buffer index value of 6.4 the lime requirement would
be 5.0 tons/acre for Area 1 (Figure 77) and 2.5 tons/acre for Area 2.
As a general practice no lime is applied unless the pH drops below 6.4
in Area 1 and 6. 1 in Area 2..;
Table 27 shows the quantity of limestone recommended to change
the pH of organic soil (peat and mucks). Lime is not added to organic
soils unless the soil-water pH is below 5.5 and then at much lower rates
than for mineral soils. The minimum rate of liming for organic soils is
2 tons/acre and the maximum is 5 tons/acre.
Various other liming materials and their equivalent weight or
volume as related to ground agricultural limestone are given in Table
28.
2. Interpretation of organic matter test - nitrogen: The
organic matter test is expressed as a percent and interpreted as shown
in Table 29. The organic matter test is only an indirect indication of
the long-term nitrogen supplying power of the soil. Whether nitrogen
will be released by organic matter breakdown depends on the moisture
status of the soil (high or low moisture--slow release), temperature (high
temperature and adequate moisture--rapid release), and type of organic
matter.
\l Reproduced without change (except for handbook style conformity) from:
Foote, L. E., D. L. Kill, and A. H. Holland, "Erosion Prevention
and Turf Establishment Manual," Office of Materials, Construction
Division, Minnesota Department of Highways, 43 pages, pp. 19-22 (1970).
Note: Similar soil test interpretations are available from each state
soil testing laboratory whose address may be obtained by writing
to the respective State Extension Service Director (Section V-A).
369
-------
nn
Figure 77 - Map Used With Table 26 to Determine Line Need
for Mineral Soils
370
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TABLE 26
THE QUANTITY OF GROUND LIMESTONE RECOMMENDED TO CORRECT
SOIL ACIDITY AS RELATED TO AREA OF THE STATE
AND
SMP Buffer
Index
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
Soil-Water
PH
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
PH TEST VALUE (MINERAL SOILS ONLY)
Lime Required (tons /acre) to
Soil-Water pH to 6.5
Area 1
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
0
0
3
3
4
4
Raise
Area 2
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.5
0
0
0
0
0
2
371
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TABLE 27
THE QUANTITY OF GROUND LIMESTONE RECOMMENDED TO CORRECT SOIL ACIDITY AS
RELATED TO THE pH TEST VALUE FOR ORGANIC SOILS (PEATS AND MUCKS)
Soil-Water Lime Required*/
pH (tons/acre)
5.4 2
5.3 2
5.2 2
5.1 2
5.0 2
4.9 3
4.8 3
4.7 4
4.6 4
4.5 and lower 5
a/ Application rates are same for Area 1 and Area 2.
TABLE 28
AMOUNTS OF OTHER LIMING MATERIALS EQUIV/T-ENT TO 1 TON
OF GROUND AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE
Materials Amounts
Marl 2 yards3
Carbide refuse lime 2 yards3
Water-softening process lime 2 yards3
Papermill refuse lime 2 yards3
Sugar beet refuse lime 2 yards3
Blast furnace slag 1 ton
Limestone sludge 1 ton
Eggshells 1 ton
tydrated lime 1}400 Ib
372
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TABLE 29
INTERPRETATION OF SOIL TEST RESULTS
Percent Organic
Relative
Level
Very low
Low
Medium
§ High
Very high
Group I
Loamy Sands,
Sands
< 0.6
0.6-1.5
1.6-2.5
2.6-3.5
> 3.5
Group II
Sandy Loams,
Loams,
Silt Loams
< 1.6
1.6-3.0
3.1-4.5
4.6-5.5
> 5.5
Matter*/
Group III
Clay Loams,
Silty Clay Loams,
Clays. Sandy Clays
< 2.6
2.6-4.5
4.6-6.5
6.6-7.5
> 7.5
Absorbed
Phosphorus^'
(Ib/acre (P))
< 6
6-10
11-20
21-30
> 30
Exchangeable
Potassium^'
(Ib/acre flQ)
< 60
60-90
91-220
221-260
> 260
£/ As determined by the wet combustion method using 2 N potassium dichromate and concentrated
sulfuric acid.
b/ As determined by using Bray's No. 1 extracting solution.
£/ As determined by using 2 N ammonium acetate extracting solution and the Perkin-Elmer Flame
Photometer.
-------
Most roadside seedbed soils on new construction projects are subsoils,
mixtures of sub and topsoil or at best subsoils covered with a slope
dressing (generally 3 in. of unconsolidated topsoil). Since subsoils
usually have a very low organic matter content, the organic matter test
is of somewhat limited value.
The amount of nitrogen to apply is determined by the organic
matter test, soil texture (more on sandy soils), seed mixture to be used
(more with grasses and less when legumes are included), criticalness of
the area (the potential for erosion damage) and the socioeconomic factors
(more in urban areas—less in rural). Generally 50 to 85 Ib of nitrogen
per acre are recommended.
The pounds of fertilizer needed per acre to obtain the amount
of nitrogen recommended is determined by pounds of N per 100 Ib fertilizer
times number of hundredweight of fertilizer recommended per acre. Thus
600 Ib of 15-10-20/acre equals: 15 Ib N/cwt times 6 cwt or 90 Ib N/acre.
The minimum-maximum amounts used are 24 to 120 Ib/acre. The lower range,
24 to 50 Ib is used as a starter fertilizer on the organic matter-rich
prairie soils of southwestern Minnesota and in the Red River Valley of
the north. The higher ranges, 85 to 120 Ib are used on sandy soils where
no real "topsoil" is present and organic matter is very low or in urban
areas of poor subsoils where, due to former buildings, topsoil is scarce
and yet a good turf (not coarse legumes or grasses) is desired.
3. Interpretation of phosphorus test; The phosphorus test is
expressed as pounds of readily extractable F per acre furrow slice (6-in.
depth). It is interpreted as shown in Table 29. However, this interpre-
tation is for agricultural use and assumes former and future applications
of phosphorus. This assumption cannot be used in highway work. Since P
is readily "fixed" in the soil and not leached out in any quantities, it
is possible at construction time to fertilize with P for as many as 10
years. Over time a sufficiently large amount of the applied element will
be recovered by the vegetation to justify heavy application rates. Also
the P test becomes somewhat inaccurate once a pH of 7.2 or 7.3 is reached
and as the pH increases the test becomes more inaccurate in that it over-
estimates the amount of available P (the reason for this overestimation is
unknown).
Phosphorus content in fertilizer is expressed as pounds of
P205 per 100 Ib of material. The fertilizer industry is now in the
process of changing over to analysis readings based on pounds of actual
elemental phosphorus. Until such time as the change is complete, it is
374
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necessary to either convert the P test to pounds of ?2°5 (p x 2.29 =
or to convert the fertilizer P205 to P (?2°5 x °-^ ~ p)- Since the
trend is to use the amount of elemental P it is best to convert the
fertilizer, P2®5 to pounds of phosphorus.
The minimum-maximum P application range is 15 to 110 Ib/acre
(34 to 250 Ib P205). Generally, at least 15 Ib/acre of P is always
recommended as a starter. Under favorable pH conditions (6.2 to 6.8
soil-water solution test) and in a noncritical, better- than- aver age
situation, it is recommended that the P test values from the fertility
sample plus application should equal at least 50 Ib/acre. If the pH is
below 6.2 or between 6.9 and 7.4, the P test value plus application
should equal at least 80 Ib/acre. If the pH is 7.5 or over, the P test
value plus application should equal 110 Ib of P per acre. The above
guidelines are altered according to the area or site. If the organic
matter content is fairly high, topsoil plentiful, not particularly ero-
sive and the soil texture a loam, the application can be somewhat re-
duced. If subsoils are being used, the soil texture is sandy or clay-
like and the area has a high erosion potential, the application is in-
creased.
Some authorities might consider these P applications rather
high, especially in the case of high P test results (40 to 60 Ib) but
severe deficiency symptoms can be seen on roadside cuts in such indicator
plants as yellow foxtail where fertility tests showed very high amounts
of absorbed phosphorus. These P deficiency symptoms have been corrected
by P fertilization. Also, as mentioned before, with P there is an op-
portunity to fertilize on a long-term basis.
4. Interpretation of potassium test; The potassium soil test
is based on pounds of exchangeable K per acre (K x 1.20 = K20) and the
fertilizer analysis is based on pounds of K20 per 100 Ib of material
(K20 x 0.83 • K). The industry is now changing over to pounds of ele-
mental potassium. Potassium is much less important in grass establish-
ment than it is in legume establishment and maintenance. Thus the rate
of application depends on both test results and the seed mixture to be
used.
The minimum-maximum range of K application is 26 Ib/acre (32 Ib
of K20) as a starter under any condition to 230 Ib of K per acre (277 Ib
of K20) on soils with a very low K test where legumes are to be seeded.
Generally, it is recommended that the K test from the fertility sample
plus application equal at least 200 Ib of K per acre. If legumes (other
than white clover) are included in the seeding mixture as a major component,
375
-------
but are expected to be on a temporary status (6 years or less—alfalfa,
red clover, and alsike, are examples) then the K test plus application
should equal at least 250 Ib. If the legumes included are expected to
be on a permanent basis (crownvetch, creeping alfalfa and birdsfoot
trefoil) and the major component of the cover, then the K test plus ap-
plications should be equal to at least 300 Ib/acre. At no time is the K
test plus application total allowed to drop below 150 Ib/acre.
Potassium is somewhat mobile in the soil and is leached out.
But the leaching rate is slow and it is possible to fertilize with K for
the future on a short term.
376
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L. Seed and Seeding Data for Grasses. Forbs. Legumes, and Shrubs Adapted
to the 17 Western States!/
TABLE 30
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN SEED AND SEEDING TABLED
II
State of Adaptation Codes
Arizona AZ
California CA
Colorado CO
Idaho ID
Kansas KS
Montana MO
Nebraska NB
Nevada NV
New Mexico NM
North Dakota ND
Oklahoma OK
Oregon OR
South Dakota SD
Texas IX
Utah UT
Washington WA
Wyoming WY
Climatic Zones of Adaptation Codes
Cold - moist winters - CM
(winter moisture equal to or
greater than summer)
Cold - dry winter - CD
(winter moisture less than summer)
Warm - moist winters - WM
(winter moisture equal to or greater
than summer)
Warm - dry winters - WD
(winter moisture less than summer)
Soils of Adaptation Codes
Sandy - S
Loam - L
Clay - C
Alkali or salty - A
Wet - W
I/ Reproduced without change (except for handbook style conformity) from:
Range Rehabilitation and Equipment Work Conference, Plant Materials
Subcommittee, Second Annual Report, Tucson, Arizona, 29 January
1974.
Note: See Section III-K for more details on seed and seeding recommenda-
tions .
377
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M. Characteristics and Seeding Recommendations for Grasses and Legumes
Adapted to the Midwestern United States!/
1. Grasses
a. Bentgrass (Agrostis spp.): Redtop has the ability to
grow under a variety of conditions.It is one of the best grasses for
wet land but it also resists drought and grows on soils so low in lime
that most other grasses fail. The strength and rhizomatous character of
the roots make it useful on banks to prevent erosion. Redtop should be
seeded on a compact well-prepared seedbed. It is usually sown broadcast,
at the rate of 8 to 15 Ib of seed per acre when seeded alone. In a mix-
ture, 2 to 4 Ib are commonly used. Fall is considered the best time of
year to seed redtop.
The fine bentgrasses, colonial bent, creeping bent, and
velvet bent, have been found well adapted for putting greens with other
grasses for lawns in much of the northern half of the United States.
b. Bromegrass (Bromus spp.): Grasses of the genus Bromus
are found mostly in the north temperate zone. About 43 species are native
to the United States. Some of our most important forage species as well
as our most troublesome weeds belong to this genus.
Smooth brome (Bromus inermis) is a long-lived perennial
sod grass with heavy creeping rhizomes. It is adapted especially to
regions of moderate rainfall and low to moderate summer temperatures.
Smooth brome makes its best growth on moist, well-drained clay loam soils
of relatively high fertility. Smooth brome is resistant to drought.
During the dry periods in its most southwesterly region of adaptation,
it becomes dormant until revived by fall moisture.
Several improved varieties and strains of smooth brome
are available. Lincoln, Achenbach, Fischer, and Elsberry are varieties
certified in several States.
JL/ Reproduced without change (except for handbook style conformity) from:
Jackobs, J. A., 0. N. Andrews, Jr., C. L. Murdock, and L. E. Foote,
"Turf Establishment on Highway Right-of-Way Slopes--A Review,"
University of Illinois Agronomy Studies Series No. 77, Illinois
Cooperative Highway Research Program (1967).
378
-------
Smooth brome is usually planted in mixtures with legumes.
The time and method of seeding will be influenced by the other species
in the mixture. Conditions for seeding, seedling emergence, and de-
velopment are usually best in the spring.
The seeding rate varies depending upon the mixture. In
Illinois, 9 to 12 Ib/acre of bromegrass and 6 to 8 Ib/acre of alfalfa has
been found to be satisfactory.
Field bromegrass (Bromus arvensis L.) is a winter annual
adapted to the Corn Belt and eastward. Its extensive fibrous root sys-
tem makes it a good species for holding soil.
The other annual bromegrasses which are not recommended
for highway rights-of-way are considered, for the most part, as weedy
species. The most common of these is cheat, Bromus tectorum. which
occurs in waste places and grain fields.
c. Bluegrass (Poa spp.): The bluegrasses number about
200 species. They are distributed throughout the world, but mostly in
the temperate or cooler regions.
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) was introduced from
Eurasia. It is common in the northern part of the humid portion of the
United States. The latitude of southern Tennessee is its southern limit
of satisfactory growth.
Kentucky bluegrass is best adapted to well-drained,highly
productive soils of limestone origin. Several varieties are available
including Arboretum, Delta, Merion, Newport, Park, and Troy. Merion is
probably the most commonly used lawn turf variety in the northern United
States.
Kentucky bluegrass is usually seeded in mixtures. It is
best to sow in the fall at 4 to 6 Ib/acre in mixtures which include other
grasses. For turf purposes and rapid establishment, from 20 to more than
100 Ib/acre have been used. Prior to seeding, the soil should be limed
and fertilized as needed. The seed should be sown on a firm seedbed and
covered lightly.
Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa) resembles Kentucky blue-
grass somewhat but has a distinct bluegreen foliage. It matures later
than Kentucky bluegrass and once grazed or mowed, makes little recovery
during the remainder of the season. Its culture and management is similai
to that of Kentucky bluegrass.
379
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d. Fescue (Festuca spp.): There are over 100 different
species of fescue. They vary from fine to coarse leaved. The growth habit
may be creeping or erect. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and meadov
fescue (Festuca elattor) are the two most important species in the United
States.
Tall fescue has a wide range of adaptation. It is tolerant
of poor drainage, particularly in the winter. With good drainage it has
a deep penetrating root system. Tall fescue has been shown to do well
on soils ranging in pH from 4.7 to 9.5. It does well on mountain slopes
and on low lands. It is a long-lived perennial and has been shown to
make growth when the mean weekly temperature is above 40°F. It is not
completely dormant when the mean weekly temperature is 34°F. Most of
the tall fescue in the United States is either Alta or Kentucky 31. Alta
is common in the west and northwest and Kentucky 31 in other parts of the
United States.
In general, seedling establishment is slow. Although tall
fescue is vigorous after it is established, such vigor is not present in
the early stages of growth. As a result of slow initial growth, a clean
firm seedbed is most desirable. Seed should not be planted more than
1/4 to 1 in. in depth, depending on soil conditions. Recommended rates
of seeding vary from 2 to 16 Ib/acre. The higher rates are for well-
drained land where a large proportion of other species is desired.
Meadow fescue is a somewhat smaller plant than tall fescue
and is not as widely adapted. The chief factor limiting its use in the
United States has been its susceptibility to leaf rust. Cultural and
management practices for meadow fesuce are similar to those for tall fescue.
There are three major species of fine fescue: sheep fescue,
red fescue, and Chewings fescue.
Sheep fescue is adapted to about the same climatic condi-
tions as Kentucky bluegrass. It succeeds better on sandy or gravelly
soils than most grasses. The usual rate of seeding is 25 to 30 Ib/acre
for pure stands.
Red fescue resembles sheep fescue but its leaves are brighter
green and it does not grow in tufts but creeps by underground stems. There
are two distinct forms, red fescue and Chewings fescue. Red fescue is a
creeping grass and Chewings is a tufted grass. Like sheep fescue they are
both hardy plants and are especially adapted to shaded dry sites.
380
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e. Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata); Orchardgrass occurs
throughout much of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. In
North America it is found in the eastern Canadian provinces and in the
United States from the Canadian border to the Gulf States, from the Atlantic
Coast to the edge of the Great Plains.
Orchardgrass is less winter hardy than smooth brome, timothy,
or Kentucky bluegrass. It is adapted farther south than these species
and is considered to be more heat tolerant. It starts growth fairly early
in spring and continues to grow until freezing weather.
Orchardgrass is less exacting in soil requirements than
many of the cultivated grasses. It is able to persist and make growth
on relatively thin infertile soils. However, it responds well to high
levels of fertility, especially to nitrogen. It does not do very well
on highly alkaline soils. Orchardgrass recovers rapidly after grazing
or mowing.
Host of the Orchardgrass seeded in the United States has
been of unimproved domestic origin. Several varieties have been released
which show promise. Potomac has probably been used most extensively.
The new variety Sterling is expected to find wide usage in the Corn Belt
States.
It is best to seed Orchardgrass in the early spring. Fall
and late summer seedings may be successful if early enough to allow good
establishment. The most commonly recommended rates are 3 to 10 Ib/acre
in association with legumes.
f. Ryegrass (Lolium spp.): The name ryegrass applies,
in general, to two primary cultivated species of the genus Lolium;
Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium
perenne).
Italian ryegrass is usually considered an annual. Under
some conditions it behaves as a biennial, or even as a short-lived
perennial. Perennial ryegrass is quite similar to Italian ryegrass.
As its name indicates it is a perennial but is short-lived.
381
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The ryegrasses are not as winter hardy as many grasses
Including orchardgrass and timothy. They have a wide range of soil
adaptation. For moat satisfactory growth, however, they require soils
of medium to high fertility. They will stand fairly wet soils if there
is reasonably good surface drainage. They are not dry land grasses
and will not persist in regions with climate extremes of cold, heat or
drought.
Ryegrass can be seeded either in the fall or early spring.
In sections where winters are severe, spring seedings are used. Where
winters are mild early fall seedings are advisable. The seed should be
covered, preferably to a depth of approximately 1/2 in. When seeded
alone, a seeding rate of 10 to 25 Ib/acre is recommended. When seeded
in mixtures the rate is usually 4 to 5 Ib/acre.
g. Timothy (Phleum pratense): Timothy is adapted to
cool, humid climates. In the United States most of the timothy is
produced in the northern half of the area east of the Missouri River.
Timothy is a bunch grass with erect culms 20 to 40 in.
tall. The root system of timothy is relatively shallow and fibrous. It
does not spread laterally to form a sod. Although Individual shoots are
biennial, new shoots develop vegetatively each year and the plant be-
haves as a perennial.
Timothy may be seeded either in the fall or spring. Seed-
ing rates vary from 2 to 10 Ib/acre depending on the species with which
it is seeded in mixtures.
h. Reed canary grass (Phalarls anmdinacea); Reed canary-
grass is adapted to much of the northern half of tne united States and
southern Canada. When seeded, in most cases, it has been on poorly drained
sites subject to flooding and silting. It is a tall coarse, sod form-
ing, cool season perennial.
The natural habitat of reed canarygrass is poorly drained,
wet areas, but it has been found to be one of the most drought tolerant
cool season grasses when grown on upland soils. However, on upland soils
it becomes sod bound and relatively unproductive unless heavily fertilized.
382
-------
Late summer seeding is usually best, especially on poorly
drained areas. Spring seeding is satisfactory when field conditions per-
mit and weeds are not a problem. When good seed is used (807> or higher
germination) a seeding rate of 5 to 8 Ib/acre is adequate.
i. Zoysia (Zoysia spp.): There are three species of
zpysia in the United States, Manilagrass (Zoysia matrella); Japanese
lawngrass (Zoysia japonica); and Mascarenegrass (Zoysia tenuifolia).
Mascarenegrass is the least hardy and is only grown in California and
the south. Japanese lawngrass is the most winter hardy of the three
species. It has been grown successfully as far north as Boston. It is
tough, harsh and once established very hardy and persistant. Manilagrass
is the most widely used of the Zoysias. It has survived the winter as
for north as Rhode Island, but its general limit of adaptation is ap-
proximately 40 degrees north latitude. It will tolerate some shade,
especially in the south.
Seed of the Zoysia grasses is not available in commercial
quantities; therefore, vegetative planting is necessary. One square yard
of sod is sufficient to sprig plant 750 to 1,OOQ ft2 with rows 8 to 10
in. apart and sprigs 3 in. apart in the rows. It is best to establish
the Zoysias in the spring as soon as the soil is warm.
One of the principal weaknesses of the Zoysias is their
slow rate of establishment. It usually requires at least 2 years to
obtain a good cover at the recommended rate of planting. Other grasses
may be planted between the rows to afford cover until the Zoysia is estab-
lished.
2. Legumes; Although it has previously been stated that grasses
give better erosion control because of their greater soil aggregating
properties, the value of legumes should not be minimized. It is generally
accepted that a mixture of grasses and legumes produces more vegetation,
partly due to the nitrogen fixation in the nodules of the legumes which
also favors the grass in the mixture. Some legumes also have a very deep
tap root system which is valuable in holding the soil in place, especially
on the steeper slopes.
There are a large number of legumes, many of which have proven
valuable in erosion control. The purpose of this review is to list the
adaptation of some of the more common ones for the midwestern area.
383
-------
a. Alfalfa (Medicago spp.)t Alfalfa Is worldwide in dis-
tribution. It is veil adapted co a wide range of soil and climatic con-
ditions. It has withstood temperatures of -80°F in Alaska, and certain
types are grown in Death Valley, California, where maximum temperatures
reach 130*F. It is best adapted to deep loam soils with porous subsoils.
Good drainage is essential. Alfalfa also requires large amounts of lime
and does not do well on soils that are decidedly acid. Alfalfa grows
extremely well in dry climates on fertile soil where there is plenty of
moisture available, such as under irrigation. Alfalfa is relatively
tolerant of alkaline soils but does not do well on highly alkaline soils.
It is highly drought resistant but goes into dormancy during dry periods
and does not resume growth until moisture is available.
There are two major species of alfalfa, jfedtcagp sativa
and Medicago falcata. Medicago sattva is a native of Asia and is purple-
flowered and erect. Strains of this species vary in their winter hardi-
ness but as a group tend to be less hardy than Medicago falcata which is
a native of Siberia. It is a yeHow-flowered plant and tends to be decum-
bent.
There is a third group of alfalfas, the variegated alfalfas,
which are believed to have arisen from natural crossing between Medtcago
sativa and Medicago falcata. Flower color of this group ranges from
purple through blue and yellow to white.
There are many varieties of each type of alfalfa. The
common varieties are composed of regional strains with different climatic
adaptation. They are usually identified by the name of the State where
they originated. All regional strains of common alfalfa are susceptible
to bacterial wilt. Buffalo, a variety derived from Kansas common, and
the Turkistan alfalfas are resistant to bacterial wilt. The variety
Lahontan is of Turkistan origin. Ranger and Vernal are varieties of the
variegated types of alfalfa which are also resistant to bacterial wilt.
Alfalfa may be seeded either in later summer or early
spring. In regions south of the northern Nebraska border and Illinois
Highway 40, late summer seedings are usually best. North of this line,
spring seedings are usually more successful. A companion small grain
crop sown at about half the usual rate is often used. In most areas
from 10 to 20 Ib of seed per acre is recommended. The cultipacker seeder,
384
-------
by which the seed is broadcast between two rollers, has given good re-
sults. When seed is drilled, they should not be planted too deep; 1/4
to 1/2 in. is preferred depending upon the soil type.
b. Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus): The range of
birdsfoot trefoil in the United States is from the eastern part of Kansas,
Nebraska, and the Dakotas to the Atlantic coast and south to the Ohio
River. There is also considerable acreage in California and Oregon. It
is not adapted to the low rainfall areas of the west except under irriga-
tion, nor to the humid south.
Birdsfoot trefoil has developed a reputation for the
ability to maintain stands on infertile soils. Like other crops, how-
ever, it makes best growth on the more productive soils or where highly
fertilized. It has been shown to be tolerant to acid soils. Seedlings
of birdsfoot trefoil are slow in development and do not compete well
with rapidly growing seedlings of other species.
A firm well-prepared seedbed with few competing plants of
other species is important in the establishment of birdsfoot trefoil.
It should be seeded in the spring or early summer at the rate of 5 to 6
Ib/acre. No other legume should be seeded with birdsfoot trefoil.
c. Sweetclover (Melilotus spp.): Sweetclover thrives
under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. It has one important
restriction in that it cannot tolerate acid soils. It is drought re-
sistant and winter hardy. It is one of the first species to invade and
make successful growth on highway cuts where nonacid subsoil is exposed.
The requirements for establishing stands of Sweetclover
are similar to those for alfalfa. The seeds of Sweetclover are "hard"
and will not germinate until they have been scarified mechanically or
otherwise. If the soil pH is below 6.0, lime should be added well ahead
of seeding. Scarified seed is planted at the rate of 10 to 15 Ib/acre.
Seedings are usually made in the spring with a companion crop.
d. Red clover (Trifolium pratense): Red clover is widely
adapted throughout the world. It is best adapted where summer tempera-
tures are moderately cool to warm and where adequate moisture is avail-
able throughout the growing season.
Fertile well-drained soils of high moisture-holding capacity
are best for red clover. It does not have the drought resistance of alfalfa.
385
-------
It will grow on moderately acid soils, but does best on soils of pH 6.0
or higher. Root-rots and crown-rots are serious diseases of red clover
and in the midwest often eliminate stands during the 2nd year. Because
of its disease susceptibility, red clover should not be considered a
permanent species in this area.
Early spring seedings are usually preferred. It is com-
monly seeded with a companion crop. It may be broadcast on winter wheat
or rye in February or March. Seeding rates are 8 to 10 Ib/acre when
seeded alone and 4 to 6 Ib/acre in mixtures with grass.
e. Lespedeza (Lespedeza spp.): Two annual and one
perennial species are the most important lespedezas in the United States.
The two annual species are introductions from the Orient, common lespedeza
(Lespedeza striata) and Korean lespedeza (Lespedeza stipulacea). The
perennial species of most importance is Lespedeza cuneata. sericea
lespedeza.
The lespedezas normally ace not adapted north of the Ohio
and Missouri rivers. However, they have been included in roadside plant-
ings in Illinois with considerable success. They are adapted to a wide
range of soil types and fertility levels. Lespedeza will make consider-
able growth on badly eroded soils and on acid soils low in phosphate.
They make better growth, however, on productive well-drained soil. Korean
lespedeza is least tolerant of acid soils and most tolerant of alkaline
soils.
Lespedeza may be sown from mid-winter to early spring.
Broadcasting without covering will generally give satisfactory stands in
pastures, meadows and in small grains. When seeded alone 25 to 30 Ib of
good quality seed per acre should be used.
f• Hairy vetch (Vicia vllloea): Hairy vetch is a winter
annual with a semivine of growth. It will stand cold temperatures below
0°F and suffers winter damage only when there is severe soil heaving.
It can be grown almost anywhere in the United States. It is widely adapted
to different soil types and grows well on light sandy soils as well as
heavier soils. It is usually seeded in the fall at 20 Ib/acre.
386
-------
g. White clover (Trifolium repens); White clover is widely
distributed throughout the world. In general white clover is best adapted
to the clay and silt soils of the humid section of the United States.
There are three general types: (a) large, (b) intermediate, and (c) low
growing. Ladino, Pilgrim and Merit are three varieties of the large type.
Ladino is the most common variety in the northern United States. The
northern common white clover is more winter hardy than Ladino, and it is
present with Kentucky bluegrass in most unimproved pastures. One to four
pounds of seed are generally sown in the late summer or fall.
h. Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum): Alsike clover is
especially adapted to cool climates and wet soils. It will do well on
moderately acid to moderately alkaline soils. It is grown extensively
in the eastern and northern midwest States.
The time and method of seeding are similar to that for
red clover. Four to six pounds of seed per acre are considered as full
seeding rates.
i. Crownvetch (Coronilla varla); Crownvetch is a perennial
legume with creeping steins 2 to 6 ft long. It develops a heavy, branched
root system. It reproduces by seeds and spreads vegetatively by fleshy
rhizomes. Because of its creeping stems, strong rhizomes, and reclining
growth habit it is an ideal plant for erosion control.
Crownvetch appears to be well adapted north of the 35th
parallel. It grows best on well-drained soils. While it grows on mod-
erately acid, rather infertile soils, it makes best growth when adequately
fertilized and limed.
Crownvetch may be planted as seed or as crowns. When seeded
the recommended rate is 5 to 10 Ib of we11-scarified seed per acre at 1/4
to 1/2 in. Since it is a new species to this country, it is important
that seeds be inoculated with the proper strain of Rhizobium. Emergence
and seedling growth of crownvetch is very slow.
When crowns are planted, the recommended rate is one crown
every 3 ft2. Closer spacing will result in complete coverage sooner.
387
-------
SEED AHD SEED OK BAtA FOR COMMOHtY USED SPECIES
u>
oo
oo
Species
Bluegrass, big
(Pea aapla)
Bluegraas, caaby
(Poa eaibyt)
Bluegrass, Kentucky
(tat pratansis)
(Cool Season Grasses)
Native Recommended
or Average Seeds/ft2 lb/acre£/
Intro- Available Seed Average Genoi- at 20-25 States of
duced Varieties Seeds/lb Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft Adaptation
N Sherman 917,000 Floret 90 70 21.0 1.0 AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, HM, HD,
OR, OT, WA, WY
N 1,584,000 Floret 84 88 36.4 1.0 CA, CO, ID, MO,
MV, HD, OR, SD,
UT, VIA, WY
I Cougar, Fylklng, 2, 156,000 Floret 90 75 50.0 0.5 all
Marion, Hevport,
Hogget, Pennstar,
Climatic
Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation
CM L
CM L
CD-CM S, L, W
WM-WD
Bluegrws, sandberg*
(Poa aeeqndal
Blnegrass, upland
(foa glaucantha)
Broaa, California*
(Broaua Carlnatua)
, field*
(Broaua arvenils)
Wlndaor
Draylar
Floret
Floret
Floret
Floret
CA, CO, ID, MO,
NV, SD. OR, SD,
UT, WA, WY
MO, WY
CA, OR
CA
CM
S, L, C
a,/ Sounded to 1/2-lb units - shrub species should be seeded at a rate of one-fourth to one-third that shown.
b/ Liait to higher elevations or wet areas.
c/ RecoBswnded seeding rate Is one-half that shown for other species. Buffalo grass should not be broadcast.
d/ With proper scarification.
* Seed is usually in short supply or not available. Naaed varieties are grown under irrigation and usually available. Species without naaed varieties are often subject
to wild harvest with a variable supply.
-------
SEEDING DATA FOR COMMONLY USEB SPECIES
(Cool Season Grasses)
Species
Brae, Japanese false
fBrachypodiuH pinnatun)
Bros, meadow*
(Broom biaberateinii)
Bros*, suruntaln*
(Btosns •arclnatua)
LO
00
\O Broa*, nooth
(Bronua ioersile)
Fescue, green*
(Festuca vlrldula)
Fescue, hard
fF««tuca ovina var.
Native
or
Intro- Available Seed
duced Varieties Seeds/lb Unit
I Floret
I Regai 100,000 Floret
N Brcoar 90,000 Floret
I Homesteader, 125,000 Floret
Lancaster,
Lincoln, Lyon,
Magna, Manchar,
Saratoga, Baylor,
Achenback, Blair,
Carlton
N 479,000 Floret
I Durar 565,000 Floret
Recomended
Average Seeds/ft2 Ib/acre5/
Average Gernl- at 20-25
Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft2
CA
92 85 2.4 10.0 CO,
MM,
WA,
90 85 1.9 12.0 AZ,
MO,
or,
92 85 2.9 8.0 AZ,
MO,
OR,
90 15 11.0 2.0 CO,
WA
95 85 13.0 2.0 all
TX
Climatic
States of Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
WM L, C
ID, MO, NV, CM, CD L, W
ND, OR, UT,
WY
CA, CO, ID, CM, CD L, C
NV, MM, OR,
WA, WY
,
CA, CO, ID, CM, CD- S, L, W
NV, HM, ND,
UT, WA, WY
ID, MO, OR, CM L
but KS, OK, CM, CD L, C
duriuscula)
-------
SEED AMD SEEDING DATA FOR COMMONLY USED SPECIES
Native
or
Intro- Available
Species duced Varieties Seeds/lb
Fescue, Idaho* N 450,000
(Festuca Idahoensts}
Fescue, red N A re Cared, Bargena, 47?, 000
(Festuca rubra> Boreal, Illahee
Olds, Rainier
Fescue, a Keep* N 565,000
(Pestuea ovlna)
Fescue, tall I Alta, Fown, 242,000
(Festuca anindinaflea) Fortune, Goar
Fescue, thurber's tt
(Festuca thurbert)
Foxtail, creep log (meadcw) N Garrison 613,000
(Alonecurus arundlnaceua)
Foxtail, *eadov I 900,000
(Alopecurus pratensis)
(Cool Season Grasses)
Reconmended
Average Seeds/ ft lb/acre^
Seed Average Genni- at 20-25
Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft
Floret 90 30 10.3 2.0 CA
NV
WY
Floret 97 80 11.0 2.0 CA
OK
Floret 95 85 13.0 2.0 A2
MO
SD
Floret 96 86 5.5 4.0 AZ
MO
OR
Floret CO
Climatic
States of Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
, CO, ID, MO, CM, CD L
, OR, UT, WA,
, ID, MO, NV, CM, CD L, C
, UT, WA, WY
, CA, CO, ID, CM L
, NV, ND, OS,
, UT, WA, WY
, CA, CO, ID, CM, CD^' L, C, A, H
, NV, KM, ND,
, ITT, WA, WY
, UT, WY CM S, L
Splkelet 90 73 14.1 2.0 all except OK, CM, CD W
TX
Splkelet 90 80 21.0 1.0 ID
, MO, OR CM, CDf S, L, C , A.
-------
SEED AND SEEDING DATA. FOR COMONLY USED SPECIES
(Cool Season Grasses)
Native
or Average Seeds/ft
Intro- Available Seed Average Gernl- at
Species duced Varieties Seeds/ Ib Vnit Parley nation 1 Ib/acre
Indian rlcegrasa* N 235,000 Floret 95 11 5.4
(Orraopais toaenoides)
Muttoograsa* N Floret
(Poa fendlerlana)
Jo Meedle and thread* N 115.000 Splkelet 29 13 2.6
'"' (Stlpa coaata)
Heedl«gcai«, green N Green Stlpagrass 181,000 Spifcelet 97 24 4.2
(Stlpa viridula) Lodora
Heedlegraaa, thurber's R Spifcelet
(Stlpa thurberlana)
Oatgrat*. tall R Tualatin 150,000 Splkelet 84 79 3.4
lArrhenatneruB elatlus)
Orchardgxass I Akaroa, Chinook, 540,000 Floret 90 80 12.0
fDactyllg gloaerata) Later, Palestine,
Recomended
Ib/acre2/ Climatic
20-25 States of Zones of Soils of
Seeds/ft2 Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
4.0 all except OK CM, CD, WD S, L
2.0 CA, OR, HA, ID, CM, HM L, C
ND, SD, WY, UT,
NV, AZ, NK
B.O all CD, WD S
5.0 AZ, CO, KS, MO, CM, CD S, L
BE, ND, NM, SD,
HY
CA, ID, HV, OR, CM, CD, WD S, I
WA
7.0 AZ, CA, ID, MO, CM, CD^' L, W
NV, OR, UT, WA,
HY
2.0 all CM, CD^ S, L, W
Pooar, Potomac
-------
SEED ADD SEEDING DATA FOR COMMONLY USED SP
Spec lea
Bescuegrasa
CBroaua Carthartlcus)
Byegraas, Italian
(LoltiMB auttlflorun)
Ryegrass, prennial
Jo Hollas pereanel
NJ
Sallograas
(Oryiopals •lllacea')
Soft-che*c
fBroaus aolllg)
Timothy
ClhleiiBi pratense)
Wbest grass, beardless*
(Aaropyrop Inerne)
(Cool Season Grasses)
Sattve Recommended
or Average Seeds/ft lb/»creS/ Climatic
Intro- Available Seed Average Cerol- at 20-25 States of zones of
duced Varieties Seeds/lb Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft2 Adaptation Adaptation
H Gasel, Lament, 90,000 Floret 95 85 1.6 14.0 CA, NV, OK, OR, CD
Prairie , Texas jg
46
I Astor, Gulf 241.000 Floret 98 90 5.5 4.0 CA OR WM
WlBnera
I Lion 247,000 Floret 98 90 5.7 4.0 «11 CM, CD
I 884,000 90 80 20.3 1.0 AZ, CA, CO, ID, WM
MO, NV, ND, UT,
UY
I Blando Floret CA, ID, MO, 8V, CM, CD, WM
OR, UT, WA
I Cltnax, Druonond, 1,300,000 Grain 97 80 30.0 1.0 all CM, CD^
Essex, Swallow
H Hhttmar 126,000 Floret 98 75 2.9 7.0 CO, ID, MO, NV CM
OR. UT UA UY
Soils of
Adaptation
S L
*J , 4J
L
S, L, W
L
S, L, C
L, W
L C
**» "
-------
SEED AND SEEDDIG DATA FOR COMMONLY USED SPECIES
VO
(Cool Season Grasses)
Native
or
Intro- Available Seed
Species duced Varieties Seeds /lb Unit
Wheatgrass, bluebuncb* K 117,000 Floret
(Agropyron « pic a tun)
Wheatgrass, crested I Sunmit, Norden 200,000 Floret
(desert)
(Acropyroa destorm)
Wheatgrass, crested I Hebr. 3576 200,000 Floret
(fairway) Parkway
(Agropyron cristatun)
Wheatgrass, ioteraedlate I Awir, Chief, 100,000 Floret
(Agropyron toteraedima) Greenar, Oahe
Tegmar
Wheatgrass, pubescent I Green leaf, Luna, 91,000 Floret
(Agropyron tricfaophorum) Topar
Wheatgrass, Siberian I t-27 250,000 Floret
(Agropyron slbericua)
Wheatgrass, slender H Primar, Revenue 160,000 Floret
(Ayropyron trschvcaulua)
Recoonended
2 «/
Average Seeds /ft Ib/acre—
Average Germi- at 20-25
Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft2
96 31 2.7 8.0 CO,
HD,
WY
95 85 4.6 5.0 AZ,
W>,
OR,
95 85 4.6 4.5 AZ,
MO,
OR,
90 85 2.4 10.0 AZ,
w,
OR,
90 85 2.0 12.0 AZ,
MO,
OR,
95 85 5.7 4.0 AZ,
MO,
OR,
90 85 3.7 7.0 AZ,
MO,
Climatic
States of Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
ID, MO, HV CM, CD^ L, C
OR, OT, WA,
CO, CA, ID, CM L, C
HV, m, TO,
UT, WA, WY
CA, CO, ID, CM L, C
HV, NM, HD,
UT, WA, WY
CA, CO, ID, CM, CD L
HV, NM, ND,
OT, WA, WY
CA, CO, ID, CM, CD L, C, A
BV, HM, HD,
UT, WA, WY
CA, CO, ID, CM, CD L, C
NV, NM, ND,
UT, WA, WY
CA, CO, ID, CM S, L
NV, NM, ND,
OR, UT, WA, WY
-------
SEEP AND SEEDIHG DATA FOR COMMONLY USED SPECIES
u>
(Cool Season Grasses)
Native
or
Intro-
Species duced
Wheatgrass, streanbank N
(Agropyron rlparlua)
Wheatgrass, tall I
(Agropyron elongatlum)
Wheatgrass. thicks pike N
(Aaropyron dasystachyum)
Wheatgrass, western N
(Agropyron snithii)
Available Seed
Varieties Seeds /lb Unit
Sodar 170,000 Floret
Alkar, Jose, 79,000 Floret
Largo, Orbit
Crltana 186,000 Floret
Arriba, Barton, 110,000 Floret
Roaana
2 Recommended
Average Seeds/ ft Ib/acreS/
Average Germi- at 20-25 States of
Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft2 Adaptation
97 92 3.6 7.0 AZ, CO, ID, MO,
NM, ND, OR, UT,
WA, WY
95 85 1.8 12.0 All
95 91 4.3 5.0 CO, ID, MO, NB,
NV, ND, OR, SD,
DT, WA, WY
85 60 2.5 10.0 All
Climatic
Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation
CM, CD S, L, C, A
CM, CD^ L, C, A, W
CM, CD S, L
CM, CD S, L, C, W
Wildrye, basin*
(Elynus clnereusQ
Wildry«, blue*
(Elysns glaueus)
Wildrye, Canada*
canadensis)
Mandan
165,000 Floret
131,000 Floret
106,000 Floret
78
80
80
83
85
80
3.8
3.1
2.4
6.0 CA, CO, ID, MO, CM, CD L, C, A, W
NV, OR, SD, UT,
WA, WY
8.0 AZ, CA, CO, ID, CM, CD S, L, W
MO, NV, KM, OR,
SD, DT, WA, WY
9.0 All but NV CM, CD, S, L, C, W
WD
-------
SEED AND SEEDING DATA FOR COMMOHLY USED SPECIES
VO
Ut
Wildrye, creeping
(beardless)
(Elyaus trlticoldes)
Wildrye, maanoth*
(Elymua giganteua)
Wildrye, Kuaalan
(Elynug luge eus)
Native
or
Intro-
duced
Avallable
Varieties
Volga
Hayak, Sa«fcl,
Vtnall
(Cool Season Grasses)
Recommended
Average Seeds/ft Ib/acre5/
Seed Average Gernt- at 20-25
ids/lb Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ ft
51,000 Floret 88 90 1.2 20.0
Floret
70,000 Floret 90 80 3.9 6.0
States of
Adaptation
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, OR, OT,
WA, V!
CA, OR, HA, WY
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, DM, ND,
OR, SD, UT, WA,
WY
Climatic
Zones of
Adaptation
CM, CD
W, DW, CW
CM, CD
Soil* of
L, C
Veldlgrass, perennial*
(ghrharta calyclna)
Mission
CA
-------
SEED ADD SEEDING DATA FOR COMMONLY USED SPECIES
Native
or
Intro-
Species duced
Bahlagrass I
(Paspalua notatua)
Benuda I
(Cynodoo dactylon)
U)
vO
°* Bluestea, big N
(Andropogon gerardll)
Bluesteai, Caucasian I
(Andropogoq caucaalcus)
Bluestea. little N
(Andropogon gcooarlus)
Bluestea, sand N
(Andropogon hallll)
Bluestea, yellow* I
(Bothrlochloa lachaeaua)
Available
Varieties
Pensacola
Coastal, Green-
field Midland,
Midway, Santa
Ana
ChaBp, Raw,
Pawnee
Aldous , Blaze
Pastura
Ellda, Garden
Woodward
El Kan, King
Ranch Plains
(Warm Season Grasses)
Recomaended
Average Seeds /ft2 lb/acre-
Seed Average Gemd- at 20-25
Seeds /lb Unit Purity nation 1 lb/acre Seeds/ft2
166,000 Splkelet 72 70 3.8 5.0
1,580,000 Splkelet 97 86 36.3 1.0
191,000 Grain 90 82 4.4 6.0
860,000 Splkelet 35 27 19.7 1.0
379,000 Splkelet 50 80 8.7 3.0
125,000 Splkelet 70 69 2.9 8.0
830,000 Splkelet 19.1 1.0
Climatic
States of Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
TX WM, WD S, L, C, A, W
AZ, CA, NM,
OK, TX
CO, KA, MO,
NM, ND, OK,
TX, WY
AZ, CA, NM,
TX
CO, KA, MO,
NM, ND, OK,
TX, WY
AZ, CO, KS,
NB, NV, NM,
OK, TX, UT,
AZ, CA, CO,
NV, NM, OK,
NV, CD, WD L, C, A, W
NB, CM, CD S, L, W
SD,
OK, L, C
NB, CM, CD, WD S, L
SD,
MO, CM, CD, WD S
NO,
SD
KA, CD, WD L
TX,
UT
-------
SEED AHD SEKPMC PMCA TOE COMHOHI.Y USED SPECIES
CO
(Ham Season Grasses)
Native
or Average Seeds/ ft
Intro- Available Seed Average Gersd- at
Species duced Varieties Seeds /lb Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre
Brlstlegrass, plains* H 293,000 70 40 7.0
(Setaris •scrostachva)
Bristlegrasa, yellow K 1,409.000 60 70 32.0
(Setarla luteacens)
•uffslograss^/ H Hesa, Sharp's 42,000 Bur 88 45 1.0
(Buchloe dactyloldea) lev roved
Buffelgrass 1 B-1S, Biggins 440,000 10.1
CPennlsetua ciltare)
Canarvgraas, reed N Frontier, 550,000 Floret 98 64 12.8
fPhalarls arundinacea) loreed
Cordgrass, prairie* H
fSpartlna pcctlnata)
RecoBBeaded
Ib/ecre*-' CllMtlc
20-25 States of Zones of Soils of
Seeds/ft Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
3.0 AZ, CO, DM, TX CD, WD S, L
1.0 AZ, CA, KM, OK, CD, HM, WD S, L
TX
10.0 AZ, CO, KA, H3, CD, WD C, W
KB, NM, ND, OK,
SD, TX, WY
2.0 AZ, CA, TX WD L
2.0 all but TX CM, CD^ S, L, W
all but A2, CA, CM, CD W
JCV
Cottontop, Arizona*
(Trlchachoe Callfornlca)
1,092,000 Splkelet 40
70
25.1
1.0
AZ, TX
WD
S, I.
-------
SEED AND SEEDING DATA. FOB. OOIMDNLY USED SPECIES
Specie*
Curly SBsqulte*
fHllaria balancer i)
Dalllagnss
(Fanaloa dilatatuo)
Dropseed, glint*
(SpoTobolut eljanteuB)
w Dtopnwl. MM*
vO (Sporobolus flexuoaua)
oo
Dropaeed, aand
C Sporobolus crretandrug)
Dropseed, spike*
(Sporobolu* contractua)
Sativa
or
Intro- Available
duced Varieties
N
I
H
R
H
H
(Harm Season Grasses)
Recoomended
Average Seeds/ft^ lb/acrei/
Seed Average Genni- at 20-25
Seeds /lb Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft2
269,000 Spikelet 28 19 6.2 4.0
220,000 Spikelet 70 70 5.0 4.0
1,417,000 Grain 90 51 32.5 1.0
3,329,000 Grain 98 62 76.4 1.0
5,298,000 Grain 90 70 123.0 0.5
Grain 1.0
States of
Adaptation
AZ
AZ, CA, OK, IX
AZ, CO, Hi, OK,
IX
m, AZ, ra
All
AZ, CA, CO, US.,
HV, IX, UT
Cllaatic
Zones of
Adaptation
WM, WD
WM
MM, WD
HD, WM
CM, CD, m
CD, WM
Soils of
Adaptation
C
L, C, H
S
S
S, L, C
S
Fescue, Arizona*
ffescua arisonica)
Redondo
550,000 Floret 90
75 12.8
2.0
AZ, CO, NV, HN CM, CD
IX
-------
SEED AND SEEDIHG DATA FOB COMCHLV USED SPECIES
(Ham Season Grasses)
Species
Galleta*
(Rllarla laaestl)
Grua, black*
Oouteloua ertonoda)
Graaa, blue
Oonteloua grscllls)
C!'•••» tldeoats
(Boateloaa cnrtlaandula)
Harding grata
(Phalarla tuberoM)
Indiangrass (yellow)
Native ReonMi-nded
or Average Seeds/ft2 Ib/acre*/ Climatic
Intro- Available Seed Average Germi- at 20-25 States of Zones of Soils of
duced Vartatiea Seeds/Ib Holt Purity nation 1 Ib/ecre Seedg/ft2 Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
Klelngrass
(Panlcua coloratum)
H Sonera
Hogal
H Lovlngton
159,000 Splkelet 69
1,335,000 Splkelet 40
712,000 Splkelet 40
Butte, El Reno, 143,000 Splkelet 60
Pierre, Proaler
Trallway, Tuc-
«on, Uvalde, —
Vaughn
Hlntergreen
N Bolt, LLano
Ovage, Oto
Selection 75
547,000 95
175,000 Splkelet 89
497,000 Spikelet 97
80
60
60
SO
80
53
72
3.7
31.0
16.5
3.3
8.1
4.0
11.4
6.0
1.0
1.5
7.0
3.0
,6.0
2.0
AZ, CA, CO, HV, CM, CD S, L, C, A
m. TX, or
AZ, CO, DM, OK, CD, WD S, L
ra, or
All but ID, OR, CM, CD, WD S, L, A
HA
All but ID, OR, CM, CD, WD S, L
WA
AZ, CA, DM, OK, WM
OR, IX
L, C
00, KS, NB, NH, CM, CD S, L, W
ND, OK, SD, TS,
UT, WY
AZ, NM, TX
WD
S, L
-------
S
Species
XoU.Cn..
flbalaria tobexoM «r.
b.trt inlands)
lorecxaas, ather.tona
flTi em iial 1 a erharp***'*** ^
Rnttroeti* Uilo ~ Isj)
lavagns., boar frmaplm)
ftra«Toatia curvula
conferta
Umgrass, labejemi
(Brsftroetlji lateaunitUlii)
Ijyvecraaa. aand
(KrejjToetis tddioojfja)
Native
ox
Intro- Available
•faced Variatiea
I Itjrla
I
I A-84
I Cttalina
I
H Bend, Hebr.-
27
(Warn Season Grasses)
Racoanealed
Average Seeds/ ft lb/acre±/
Seed Average Genii- at 20-25
Seeds/ Ib Unit Purity nation 1 It/acre Seeds/ ft2
Grain
2,922,000 Grain 90 70 69.0 0.5
2,922.000 Grain 90 70 69.0 0.5
4,245,000 Grain 90 60 99.0 0.5
1,550,000 Grain 93 75 35.6 1.0
Climatic
States of Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation Adaatatloi
IX
AZ, CA, m, TX TO S, L, C
AZ, CA, m, HV, WD S, L
IX
AZ, CA, »M, HV, WD S, L
TX
AZ, CA, Ml, HV, WD S, L, C
DC
CO, ES, NB, (H, CD, WD S
OK, IX
-------
SRBD AHD SKEDING D&U FOR CCMfOHLY USED SPECIES
(Warn Season Grasses)
Native
or Average Seeds /ft2
Intro- Available Seed Average Getad- at
Species duced Varieties Seeda/lb Doit Purity nation 1 tb/acre
Lovegrasa, weeping I Morpa A-O67 1,463.000 Grain 90 90 34.0
(grajnroittg- curvla)
lovegragg, vlloan I Polar 1,103,000 Grain 95 52 25.3
(EraKroBtla superba)
•P-
° Muhly, bush* H 1,500.000 Floret 50 40 38.0
QtahlenbentU oortertt)
Muhly, •ountala* N 530,000 Floret 80 30 12.0
(Huhlenberyla Montana)
KecOBBwnded
Ib/acre?-/ Climatic
20-25 States of Zones of Soils of
Seeds/ ft2 Adaptation Adaotation Adaotation
1.0 AZ, CA, NV, DM, CD, HD S, L
OK, TX
1.0 AZ, CA, tW, TX VD S, L
1.0 AZ, NH, TX, DI HD S, L
2.0 AZ, NH, CO, UT CM, CD S, L
Muhly, sptke
El Vado
I wrlgjjtii)
1,635,000 Floret
50
Panic, blue
(Panlcua antldotale)
Panic, harvard
fPanleiaB harvard!!)
679,000 Spike let 70
Spikelet
50
60
38.0
16.0
1.0 AZ, CO, 1M, UT CM, CO
1.5
8.0
K, AZ, CA, »tp Wife/
OK
S, L
S, L, H
nt,
CD, WD
-------
SEED AMP SEEDIMG DAI*. FOR OOtMONLY USED SPECIES
Native
or
Intro- Available
Spectea d*»ced Varieties Seeds/ Ib
Khodeagraaa I 2,143,000
(Chloria Bayaaa)
Sacaton, (giant)* H 1,758,000
(Soorobolua vrUthtll)
Sacaton, alkali* H 1,750,000
(Sporobolua alroldeat
Sandreed, prairie* H 274,000
(Calaaonita looglfolla)
gpranglatop, green* H 538,000
aantochloa dubta) ......
Swltchgraa* If BUcbrall Cad- 278,000
28, Pathfinder,
Suaa>er
Tobota* H 204,000
(Hilarta nut lea)
Vine •saqulte* H 143,000
/Plaa*l4a»laaBi Ak^t*altlBB\
(Want Season Gracaes)
Average
Seed Average Gerni-
Pnlt Purity nation
Grain 60 60
Grain 98 80
Splkelet 98 80
Grain
90 80
Spikelet 95 62
Spllcelot 8 42
Spikelet 50 30
Seeda/ft2
at
1 Ib/acre
49.2
40.0
40.0
6.3
12.5
6.4
4.7
3.3
Reconmended
20-25 State* of
Seeda/ft2 Adaptation
1.0 CA, TX
1.0 AZ, CA, DM, EC
0.5 All but HD
3.5 CO, ID, MO, KB,
HD, SD, \K
2.0 AZ, OK, TX
4.0 AZ, CO, ID, IS,
NB, HV, HI, DD,
OK, SD, TX, UT
5.0 AZ, Hi, TX
7.0 AZ, CO, KS, MK,
Climatic
Zones of
Adaptation
WD
HM, CD
WM, CM, CD,
WD
CM, CD, HD
WM, HD
CM, CD
CD, WD
CD
Soils of
Adaptation
L
L, C, H, A
L, C, A, W
S
S, L
S, L, W
1. C. A. W
L, C. W
OK, TX, UT
-------
SEEP AMP SEEDIHG MIA FOR COMCMLY USED SPECIES
(Porb» and Legumes - Cool)
Specie*
Alfalfa
(Medlcago lativa)
Alfalfa, sickle*
(Hedlcago falcata)
Native
or
Intro- Available
duced Varieties
I Ladafc, Nomad,
Rambler, Ranger,
Washoe
Recoooeaded
Seed
Seeds/lb Unit
225,OOO Seed
454,000 Seed
Average Seeds/ ft Ib/acreS/
Average Germl-
Purity nation
99
97
85
90
at
1 Ib/acre
5.2
10.4
20-25
Seeda/ft
4.0
States of
Adaptation
Climatic
Zones of Solla of
Adaptation Adaptation
All
CD,
2.0 CA, 00, ID, MO, CM
BV, OR, UT, HA,
VY
5, L, C
•F"
O
U>
Buckwheat, California*
(ErlogonuB fasclculatua)
Burnet, snail
(SapguiBorba minor)
Chickpea*
(Clcer arietinua)
Caoaryclover, hairy
(Doryeaiun hlrautum)
Clover, «trawberry
(Tyfolium fragiferum)
Salina
53,000
Seed
323,000 Seed
90
99
80
90
90
1.2
7.4
16.0
3.0
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, HV, NH, OR,
UT, WA, WY
CA
All
CD,
CM
CM,
S,
S, L, H
-------
SEED AND SEEDING DATA FOR COMHOKLY USED SPECIES
Native
or
Intro- Available
Species duced Varieties
Clover, vhlte N
(Trlfolli» repens)
Lupine, blue* N
(Luplnua angustlfollug)
Medic, black* I
(Medlcato lupullna)
Mllkvetch, cicer I Lutana
(Astragalus cicer)
FensteBOO, lock? Mountain!* H Bander.
-------
SEEP ASP SEEDING DATA FOR COHMOHLY USED SPECIES
Species
Svectc lover
(Melt lotus spp.)
Trefoil, big
(Lotos ulittinoBua)
Trefoil, birds foot
K. (Lotus corniculatus )
O
01 Trefoil, narrowleaf
(Lotus' tenuis)
Vetch, braable
(Vicia enulfolla)
Vetch, crown
(Coronllla varla)
Vetch, Hungarian
(Vicia pannonlca)
Vetch, woollypod*
(Vicia daavearpa)
(Forbs and Legunea - Cool)
native Recoanended
or Average Seeds/ft lb/aere^ Climatic
Intro- Available Seed Average Genni- at 20-25 States of Zones of Soils of
duced Varieties Seeds/ Ib Unit Purity nation 1 Ib/acre Seeds/ft Adaptation Adaptation Adaptation
I 262,000 Seed 99 85 6.0 4.0 All CM, CD^ S, L, W
I Marshfield 828,000 Seed 98 80 23.0 1.0 All CM, CD^ S, L
I Granger, Tana, 418,000 Seed 96 90 9.6 3.0 All CM, CD^/ S, L, W
Cascade, Douglas
383,000 Seed 98 82 8.8 2.5 CA, OR, WA, ID, CM, MM, CD L
MO, SD, WY, VI,
NV, AZ, NM
I 11,000 Seed 97 90 0.2 100.0 All CM, MM L
I Emerald, Perm- 119,000 Seed 97 80 2.7 8.0 All CM, CD S, t
gift, Vol
I Seed All CD, CWr' C, W
I Seed
-------
SEED AND SEEDING DATA FOR COMMJNLY USED SPECIES
Native
or
Intro-
S pec lea duced
Apache, plume* H
(Fallugia paradoxa)
Bitterbrush, antelope* H
(FursUa tridentata)
(Shrubs)
Available Seed Average
Varieties Seeds /lb Unit Purity
420,000 80
20,000 80
Average
Germt-
natlon
45
80
Seeds /ft2
at
1 Ib/acre
9.6
0.5
Recommended
Ib/acreS/
20-25
Seeds/ft
2.5
40.0
States of
Adaptation
AZ, CA, CO, NV,
NM, TX, UT
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, KM, OR,
Climatic
Zones of
Adaptation
CM, CD; WM
CM, cnk/
Soils of
Adaptation
S, L, C, W
S, L
Bush, encelia*
(Encella frute»cens)
Bursage*
(Franaerla spp.)
Mahogany, mountain*
(Cercocarpus nontanus)
Sagevort*
(Arteeeaia tridentata
vascyana)
Saltbush, fourvlng
(Atrlplex cancicens)
or, WA, WY
40,000
2,576,000
30,000
80 40
BO 90
0.9
591.7
0.7
21.0
0.5
30.0
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, NH, HD,
OR, SD, UT, WA,
WY
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, NH, ND,
OR, SD, UT
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, NV, MM, OR,
TX, UT, WA, WY
CM, CD
S, L
CM, CD, WD S. L, C, A
-------
SEED ATO SEEDIBG DATA FOK OOMCHLT USED SPECIES
Rabbitbruth, rubber*
(Ch
Winterf«t*
fEarotia Janata)
Native
or
Intro- Available
duced Varieties
>er* »
oauaeosus)
(Shrubs)
Average Seeds /ft
Seed Average Gtrad- at
Seeds/ Ib Unit Purity cation 1 Ib/acre
335,000 7.7
Kecoocended
Ib/acreS/
20-25
Seed*/ ft2
3.0
States of
Adaptation
AZ, CA, CO, ID,
MO, SV, m, OX,
UT, HA, WY
Climatic
Zones of Soils of
Adaptation Adaptation
CM, CD S, L, C, A,
H
150,000
80
3.3
7.0
All
CM, CD
S, L
-------
N. Scientific Names of Plants Mentioned*
Alder, thinleaf
Alfalfa
Alkali sacaton
Alsike clover
Annual lespedeza
Annual rye
Annual ryegrass
Arizona fescuegrass
Aspen
Aster
Autumn olive
Bahiagrass
Balsam poplar
Barberry, creeping
Bayberry
Beach plum
Bearberry
Bentgrass
Bermuda grass
Big bluegrass
Big bluestern
Big sagebrush
Bindweed
Birdsfoot trefoil
Bitterbrush, antelope
Bittersweet, oriental
Black cottonwood
Black gramagrass
Black locust
Black spruce
Bladdersenna
Blando (soft) bromegrass
Blue gramagrass
Box rosemary
Bristly locust
Alnus tenuifolia
Medicago sativa
Sporobolus airoides
Trifolium hybridum
Lespedeza striata
Secale cereale
Lolium species
Festuca arizonica
Populus tremuloides
Aster species
Elaeagnus umbellata
Paspalum notaturn
Populus balsamifera
Berberis repens
Myrlca pennsylvanica
Prunus maritima
Arctostaphylos urva-ursi
Agrostis species
Cynodon dactylon
Poa amp la
Andropogon gerardi
Artemisia tridentata
Convulvulus arvensia
Lotus corniculatus
Purshia tridentata
Celastrus orbiculatus
Populus species
Bouteloua eriopoda
Robinia pseudoacacia
Picea mariana
Colutea arborescens
Bromus nollis
Bouteloua gracilis
Andremeda pollfolia
Robinia fertilis
* 1. Fernald, M. L., Gray's Manual of Botany. American Book Company
8th Ed., 1,632 pages (1950).
2. "Fertilizer Technology and Use," Soil Science Society of America.
2nd Ed., pp. 597-600 (1971).
3. "Grass: The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948," U.S. Department of
Agriculture, pp. 838-854.(1948).
4. Seymour, E. L. D., ed., The Wise Garden Encyclopedia. Grosset
and Dunlap, 1,380 pages (1970).
408
-------
Buffalo grass
Bulbous bluegrass
Canada thistle
Canada wtldrye
Caucasian sagebrush
Ceanothus, deerbrush
Ceanothus, redstern
Ceanothus, snowbrush
Ceanothus, wedgeleaf
Cereal rye
Cheatgrass
Cherry, bessey
Cherry, bitter
Chewings fescuegrass
Chinese privet
Chokec henry, black
Cicer milkvetch
Cinquefoil, bush
Coralberry
Corn
Crabgrass
Creeping foxtail
Creeping juniper
Creeping red fescuegrass
Crested wheat grass
Desert wheat grass
Crimson clover
Crownvetch
Dodder
Dogwood, redosier
Douglas-fir
Durar hard fescuegrass
Elder, blueberry
Eriogonum, sulfur
Fairway wheat grass
Field bromegrasa
Fine-leafed fescuegrass
Fireweed
Forsythia
Four-wing saltbush
Buehlpe dactyloides
Poe bulbosa
Cirsium arvense
Elymus canadenis
Artemisia species
Ceanothus integerrimus
Ceanothus sanquineus
Ceanothus velutinus
Ceanothus cuneatus
Secale cereale
Bromus tectorum
Prunus besseyi
Prunus emarginata
Festuca rubra var. commutata
Ligustrum species
Prunus virginiana melanocarpa
Astragalus species
Potentilla fruticosa
Syap horicarpua orbiculatus
Zea mays
Digitaria species
Alopecurus arundinacea
Juniperus horigontalis
Festuca rubra
Agropyron cristatum
Agropyron desertorum
Coronilla varia
Cuscuta species
Cornufl stolonifera
Pseudotsuga menziesil
Festuca ovina var. duriuscula
Samfaucus cerulea
Eriogonum umbellaturn
Apropyron cristatum var. fairway
Bromus arvensis
Festuca capillata
Epilobium augustifolium
Forsythia species
Atriplex canescens
409
-------
Foxtail millet
Fringed sage
German millet
Goldenrod
Greenleaf manzanita
Hairy vetch
Hall's honeysuckle
Hard fescuegrass
Honeysuckle, tertarian
Incense cedar
Indian ricegrass
Indigo bush
Inkberry
Intermediate wheat grass
Iris
Jeffrey pine
Johnsongrass
Juniper, common
Kentucky bluegrass
Kentucky 31 fescuegrass
Leafy spurge
Lehmann livegrass
Locust, black
Lodgepole pine
Maiden pink
Meadow bromegrass
Meadow foxtail
Millet
Moss sandwort
Mountain bromegrass
Mountain mahogany
Mountain muhly
Mountain rye
Mountain sage
Mulefat
Multiflora rose
Needle-and-thread
Oats
Orchardgrass
Paper birch
Fenstemon, bush
Perennial ryegrass
Perennial sow thistle
Pinemat manzanita
Setaria italica
Artemisia frigida
Setaria italica
Solidago species
Arctostaphylos species
Vicia vlllosa
Linicera species
Festuca ovina var. duriuscula
Lonicera tartarica
Calocedrus decurrens
Oryzopsis hymenoides
Amorpha fruticosa
Ilex glabra
Agropyron intermedium
Iris species
Pinus ponderosa var. jeffreyi
Sorghum halepense
Juniperus communis
Poa pratensis
Festuca elatior var. arundinacea
Euphorbia esula
Eragrostis lehmanniana
Robinia pseudoacacia
Pinus contorta
Dianthus deltoides
Bromus erectus
Alopecurus pratensis
Setaria species
Arenaria verna
Bromus carinatus (Bromus marginatus)
Cercocarpus montanus
Muhlenbergia montana
Secale montanum
Artemisia species
Baccharis species
Rosa multiflora
Stipa comata
Avena sativa
Dactylis glomerata
Betula papyrifera
Penstemon fruticosus
Lolium perenne
Sonchus arvensis
Archtostaphylos species
410
-------
Pink milfoil
Ponderosa pine
Prairie cordgrass
Pubescent wheat grass
Quackgrass
Quaking aspen
Red cedar
Red clover
Red fescuegrass
Red osier dogwood
Redtop
Reed canarygrass
Reeves spirea
Rose, woods
Russian knapweed
Russian wildrye
Rye, grain
Ryegrass, annual
Sagebrush, big
Sand dropseed
Sedge
Sericea lespedeza
Serviceberry
Sherman big bluegrass
Shrub lespedeza
Siberian wheat grass
Sideoats gramagrass
Slender wheat grass
Smooth bromegrass
Snowberry, common
Snowberry, mountain
Snow-in-summer
Sodar streambank
wheat grass
Sorghum
Soybeams
Spirea
Spirea, douglas
Squawcarpet
Sumac, rocky mountain
Sweetclover
Sweetclover, white
Sweetclover, yellow
Sweet fern
Achi1lea millefolium
Pinus ponderosa
Spartina pectinata
Agropyron triehophorum
Agropyron repens
Populus tremuloides
Juniperus virginiana
Trifolium pratense
Festuca rubra
Cornus stolonifera
Agrostis alba
Phalaris arundinacea
Spirea species
Rosa woodsii ultramontana
Centaurea pieris
Elymus junceus
Secale cereale
Lolium multiflorum
Artemisia tridentata
Sporobolus cryptandrus
Carex species
Lespedeza sericea (Lespedeza cuneata)
Amelanchier species
Poa amp la
Lespedeza bicolor
Agropyron sibiricum
Bouteloua curtipendula
Agropyron trachycaulum
(Agropyron pauciflorum)
Bromus inermis
Symphoricarpos albus
Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Cerasttum tomentosum
Agropyron riparium
Sorghum vulgare
Glycine max (gj.ycj.ng spja,
Spirea species
Spirea douglasii roseata
Ceanothus prostratus
Rhus glabra cismontana
Melilotus species
Melilotus alba
Melilotus officinalis
Comptonia asplenifolia
411
-------
Switchgrass
Tall fescuegrass
Tall oatgrass
Tartarian honeysuckle
Timothy
Topar pubescent wheat grass
Tualatin oatgrass
Vetch, hairy
Virginia pine
Virglnsbower, western
Weeping lovegrass
Western wheat grass
Western yarrow
White clover
White Dutch clover
White spruce
Whitetop
Wichuraiana rose
Willow
Willow, scouler
Wintergreen
Winter honeysuckle
Winter ryegrass
Wormwood, oldman
Yarrow
Yellow sweetclover
Panicum virgatum
Festuca elatior var. arundinacea
Arrhenatherutn elatius
Lonicera tartarica
Phleum pratense
Agropyron tricophorum
Arrhenatherum elatius var.
tualatin
Vicia villosa
Pinus virginiana
Clematis species
Eragrostis curvula
Agropyron smithii
Achillea species
Trifolium repens
Trifolium repens
Picea glauca
Lepidium draba. Lepidium repens.
and Hvmenophyaa pubescens
Rosa wichuraiana
Salix species
Salix scouleriana
Gaultheria procumbens
Lonicera species
Lolium species
Artemisia abrotanum
Achillea millefolium
Helilatus officlnalis
412
-------
0. Conversion Factors—
Various conversion factors are included in this section for
the convenience of the user of this manual in calculations areas, rates,
and volumes. Conversion factors are generallyshown for four signifi-
cant digits suitable for field use with a slide rule. For office cal-
culations, more precise conversion factors of five or more significant
digits may be needed in some instances.
To Convert
acre
acre-ft
acre-ft/sq mi
UNITS AND EQUIVALENTS
Conversion Factors
Into
A
hectare or sq hectometer
sq feet (sq ft)
sq meters (sq m)
sq miles (sq mi)
cu ft
cu yds
gallons (gal}
cu meters (cu m)
cu ft/acre
Multiply By
1»3,560.
1.562 x 10~$
1*3,560.
1,613.
325,850.
1.23U.
66,06
I/ National Engineering Handbook, Chapter 10, Section 3, Soil converva-
~ tion Service, USDA, April 1971.
413
-------
To Convert
Into
Multiply By
acre-ft/sq mi
acre-ft of water
acre-inch
tons/sq mi
tons/acre
watershed inches
cu meters/sq km (cu m/sq km)
tons
acre-ft
cu ft
See Figure 78 (a and b)
.'01875
1.76.3
1,359.
.08333
3,630.
Celsius or
Centigrade {C}
centimeters (cm)
centimeters/sec (cps)
cubic centimeters (cc)
cubic feet (cu ft)
Fahrenheit (F)
feet (ft)
inches (in.)
meters (m)
millimeters (mm)
ft/min
cu ft
cu in.
U.S. gallons (U.S. gal)
liters (1)
U.S. pints
U.S. quarts
cu cms (cc)
cu in.
cu meters (cu m)
cu yards (cu yd)
U.S. gallons
liters (1)
1.8C + 32
0.03281
0.3937
0.01
10.0
1.197
3.531 x 10"5
0.06102
2.6U2 x 10""
0.001
2.113 x 10"3
1.057 x 10~3
28,320.
1,728.
0.02832
0.0370U
28.32
After getting tons/sq mi from Figure 78 (a and b), multiply by 1.56
x 10~3 to convert to tons/acre.
414
-------
J 34547891 2 34547891 J 34547891 2 34547891
2 3 4547891
Ln
3 454789
1.0
0.0001
2 345
ACRE-FEET
Figure 78a - Conversion of Tons to Acre-Feet for Various Volume Weights
-------
1.000.000
2 3 4 i * 7 I t 1
2 3 4 5 4 7 8 t \
3 4 5 * 7 8 » 1
2 3 4 5 t 7 8 •> 1
2 3 • 5 t 7 « » 1
2&M
/
t/
K
::.!
100.000
1
I
7
t
5
4
:^>/
•^r-~
-H-
77p
-y4fe
/y/S\/:s
£Avl
C^3
10.000
5H
Tt
X /
22
'-/
7&
.
Z
1.000
:.. jrh
CONVERSION OF
TONS TO ACRE-FEET
FOR VARIOUS VOLUME WEIGHTS
^ . , —
34St?8f 2 3
-------
To Convert
Into
Multiply By
cu ft/acre
cubic feet of water
cubic feet/sec (cfs)
cu ft/sec/sq mi (csm)
cubic ft/sec (cfs)
cfs-days
cubic inches (cu in.)
cubic meters (cu m)
cu m/sq km
cu mi (U.S. statute)
cubic yards (cu yd)
inches-depth (in.-depth)
pounds (Ibs)
kgs/sq cm
kgs/sq meter (kgs/sq m)
pounds/sq ft (psf)
pounds/sq in. (psi)
acre-ft per day (ac-ft/d)
acre-ft per year (ac-ft/yr)
million gal's/day (mgd)
cu m/sec
liters/sec/sq km (l/sec/sq km)
gallons/min (gpm)
cu ft
cu cms (cc)
cu ft
cu ft
U.S. gallons (U.S. gal)
cubic yards (cu yd)
ac-ft/sq mi
acre-ft
cu cms (cc)
cu ft
cu meters (cu m)
U.S. gallons (U.S. gal)
acre-ft
2.751* x 10"s
62.1*3
0.0301*8
301*. 8
62,1*3
0.4335
1.981*
72U. 0
0.6U63
0.02832
0.0915
1*1*8.8
86.UOO.
16.39
5.787 x 10-1*
35.32
26U.2
0.76^5
21.0 x 10'1*
3.379 x 106
7.61*6 x 10s
27.0
0.76U6
202.0
6.19
days
deg F
seconds (sec)
deg C (Centigrade
or Celsius)
86,1*00.
(F° - 32).5556
417
-------
To Convert
Fahrenheit (F)
fathoms (fthm)
feet (ft)
feet/min (fpm)
feet/sec (fps)
Into
P
Centigrade (c)
meter (m)
feet (ft)
centimeters (cm)
kilometers (km)
meters (m)
miles (mi)
cms/sec (cps)
feet/sec (fps)
kms/hour (km/hr)
miles/hour (mi/hr)
meters/min (m/min)
miles/hour (mph)
km/hour (km/hr)
Multiply By
(F° - 32). 5556
1.829
6.000
30. 1*8
3.0U8 x 10-"
0.301*8
x 10'4
0.5080
0.01667
0.01829
0.01136
18.29
0.6818
1.097
gal (U.S.)
gallons of water
gallons/min (gpm)
grams (g)
gram of vater
cubic cms (cc)
cubic feet (cu ft)
cubic inches (cu in.)
gallons Br. Imp. (gal Br. Imp.)
liters (1)
pounds of vater
cu ft/sec (cfs)
liters/sec (l/sec)
cu ft/hr
pounds (ibs)
cu cm of vater (cc of vtr)
3,785.0
0.1337
231.0
0.8327
3.785
8.3U53
2.228 x 10~3
0.06308
8.0208
2.205 x 10-3
1.0 (at 1*°C)
418
-------
To Convert
hectares
hours (hr)
Into
H
acres
sq feet (sq ft)
days
weeks (vk)
Multiply By
2.U71
1.076 x 105
.OU167
5.952 x 10-3
inches (in.)
inches (watershed)
inches eroded
centimeters (cm)
cu ft/sec/sq mi .(csm)
tons
2.5^0
13.58U
1.815 x volume wt
(pcf) of upland
soil
K
kilograms (kg)
pounds, (lb) avoirdupois
tons, short (T)
kilograms/sec(kg/sec) tons (short)/year (T/yr)
kilometers (km) miles (mi)
2.205
1.102 x 10-3
3U.786.
0.621U
liters (l)
liters/sec/sq km
cubic cm (cc)
gallons U.S. (gal U.S.)
cubic ft/sec/sq mi (csm)
1,000.
0.2642
10.93
meters (m)
M
yards (yd)
feet (ft)
inches (in.)
1.091*
3.281
39.37
419
-------
To Convert
meters (m)
microns (w)
miles(U.S. stat)(mi)
miles/hour (mph)
Into
miles (stat) (mi stat)
meters (m)
kilometers (km)
feet/sec (fps)
milligrams/liter(mg/l parts/million (ppm)
milliliters (ml) liters (l)
millimeters (mm) inches (in.)
microns (u)
million gallons/day(mgd)cu ft/sec (cfs)
acre-ft/day
cu m/min
minutes (min)(angles) degrees (deg)
Multiply ay
6.21U x 10"1*
1.0 x 10-6
1.609
1.U67
1.000*
0.001
0.03937
1 x 103
3.069
2.629
0.01667
ounces (oz)
ounces/gallon(U.S.)
(oz/gal-U.S.)
grams (g)
pounds (lb)
gms/liter (gm/l)
28.35
0.0625
7.U89
parts per million (ppm) iudlligrams per liter (mg/l)
pounds (lb) grains
grams (g)
kilograms (kg)
ounces (o»)
tons**
1.000*
7,000.
1*53.6
0.1*536
16.00
.0005
* True within 1 percent when the concentration is less than 10,000 ppm.
** Tons means short tons (2000 Ibs) unless otherwise indicated, as tons
(metric) or tons (long).
420
-------
To Convert
pounds of vater
pounds of vater/min
pounds/cu foot(pcf)
pounds/cu in.
pounds/gallon (U.S.)
pounds/cu foot (pcf)
pounds/sq foot(psf)
Into
cubic feet (cu ft)
cubic inches (cu in.)
gallons (gal)
cu ft/sec (cfs)
grams/cu cm (g/cc)
kgs/cu meter (kg/cu m)
pounds/cu in. (pci)
gms/cu cm (g/cc)
gms/liter (g/l)
tons/acre-foot(tons/acre-ft)
pounds/sq in. (psi)
Multiply By
0.01602
27.68
0.1198
2.670 x 10-1*
0.01602
16.02
5.787 x 10-1*
27.68
119.8
21.78
6.9UU x 10-3
rods
feet(ft)
miles
16.50
3.125 x 10~3
sq centimeters(sq cm)
square feet (sq ft)
square inches(sq in.)
sq kilometers(sq km)
square meters (sq m)
square miles (sq mi)
square yards (sq yd)
square inches (sq in.)
acres
sq cms
sq miles (sq mi)
sq ft
acres
square feet (sq ft)
square kms (sq km)
square meters (sq m)
square yards (sq yd)
square feet (sq ft)
square meters (sq m)
0.1550
2.296 x HT5
6.1*52
0.3861
10.76
6UO.O
27.88 x 106
2.590
2.590 x 106
3.098 x 106
9.000
0.8361
421
-------
To Convert
tons (long)
tons (metric)
tons (metric)/sq km
tons
tons/sq. mi
tons of water/2U hrs
tons/acre-ft
Into
T
pounds
kilograms (kg)
tons
pounds (ibs)
tons/sq mi
kilograms (kgs)
pounds (ibs)
tons (long)
tons (metric)
acre-ft/sq mi
tons(metric)/sq km
tons/acre
pounds of water/hour
gallons/min (gpm)
cu ft/hr
pounds/cu ft (pcf)
Multiply By
2,21*0.
1,000.
1.102
2,205.
2.851*
907.2
2,000.
0.8929
0.9078
See Figure 78 (a and b)
0.350
1.5625 x 10-3
83.33
0.166U
1.335
O.OU591
watershed in.
watershed inches
W
acre-ft/sq mi
acre-ft (total)
53.33
53.33 x drainage
area (in sq
mi)
years (yr)
seconds (sec)
31.5576 x 106
422
-------
Figure 78 (a and b) are charts for converting various volume
weights or weights of sediment per acre-foot to tons. Table 31 below
is convenient for the conversion of various volumes of hydraulic or
sedimentation data. Table 32 is the Greek alphabet. Table 33 shows
map scales and equivalents for use with aerial photographs and USGS
quadrangles. Table 34 illustrates conversions in volume weight between
pounds per cubic foot and tons per acre-foot. Table 35 converts inches
to feet.
TABLE 31
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR HYDRAULIC VOLUMES
Initial
Unit
Cfs-days
Ft3 x 106
Gal. x 106
Acre-ft
In/mile2
Multiplier to Obtain:
Cfs-Days
11.574
1.5472
0.50417
26.889
FtJ x 10°
0.08640
0.13368
0.04356
2.3232
Gal. x 10b
0.64632
7.4805
••
0.32585
17.379
Acre -Ft
1.9835
22.957
3.0689
53.33
In/mile*
0.037190
0.43044
0.05742
0.018750
A a Alpha
B (J Beta
p y Gamma
A 6 Delta
TABLE 32
GREEK ALPHABET
H 17 Eta
9 6 Theta
I t Iota
K k Kappa
N V Nu
~ £ Xi
0 o Omicron
n ir Pi
E f Epsilon A X Lambda P P Rho
Z ? Zeta M M Mu 2 a Sigma
Suspended Sediment and Sediment Yield
T r Tau
T \> Upsilon
* ^ Phi
X X Chi
* 0 Phi
£2 u Omega
Conversion of parts per million by weight to sediment yield in tons;
«%
ppm x discharge (ffyperiod) x 62.4
1,000,000 x 2,000
« sediment load (tons/period)
423
-------
TABLE 33
MAP SCALES AND AREA EQUIVALENTS
(Aerial Photographs and USGS Quadrangles)
Fractional
Scale
1:600
1:1200
1:2400
1:3600
1:4800
1:6000
1:7200
1:7920
1:9600
1:12000
1:15840
l:20000k/
1:2400Q£/
1:31680£/
1:62500£/
1:63360£/
1:125000£/
1:126720£/
1:250000£/
1:500000£/
Formulas
Ft/In
50.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00^
500.00
600.00
660.00
800.00
1,000.00
1,320.00
1,666.67
2,000.00
2,640.00
5,208.33
5,280.00
10,416.67
10,560.00
20,933.33.
41,666.67
Scale
12
In/Mile^
105.60
52.80
26.40
17.60
13.20
10.56
8.80
8.00&/
6.60
5.28
4.ook/
3. 168^
2.640
2.000
1.014
1.000
0.507
0.500
0.253
0.127
63.360
Scale 43
n
Acres/In
0.0574
0.2296
0.9183
2.0661
3.6731
5.7392
8.2645
10.000
14.692
22.957
40.000
63.769
91.827
160.000
622.744
640.00
2,490.98
2,560.00
9,963.91
39,855.63
(Scale)2
,560 x 144
In2/Acre
17.424
4.356
1.089
0.484
0.272
0.174
0.121
0.100
0.068
0.044
0.025
0.157
0.011
0.006
0.0016
0.0016
0.0004
0.0004
0.0001
0.000025
43,560 x 144
(Scale)2
Mlle2/In2
0.00009
0.00036
0.0014
0.0032
0.0057
0.0090
0.0129
0.0156
0.0230
0.0359
0.0625
0.0996
0.1435
0.2500
0.9730
1.0000
3.8922
4.0000
15.5686
62.2744
(ft/in)''
(5,280)
a/ To determine miles per inch, divide scale by 63,360.
!>/ Common aerial photograph scales.
£/ Common USGS quadrangle scales.
424
-------
TAIIU 34
yOlUME-HEiCHr CONVERSIONS
1 lb/ft3
Lb/Ft3
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
= 0.0005 tonsj
Tons/Ft3
0.0500
0.0495
0.0490
0.0485
0,0480
0.0475
0.0470
0.0765
0.0460
0.0455
0.0450
0.0445
0.0440
0.0435
0.0430
0.0425
0.0420
0.0415
0.0410
0.0405
0.0400
0.0295
0.0290
0.0285
0.0260
0.0275
0.0270
0.0265
0.0260
0.0255
0.0250
0.0245
0.0240
0.0235
0.0230
0.0225
0.0220
0.0215
0.0210
0.0205
0.0200
'ft3;
Tpns/Acre-Ft
2,178.0
2,156.2
2,134.4
2,112.7
2,090.9
2,069.1
2,047.3
2,025.5
2,003.8
1,982.0
1,960.2
1,938.4
1,916.0
1,894.9
1,873.1
1,851.3
1,829.5
1,807.7
1,786.0
1,764.2
1,742.4
1,285.0
1,263.2
1,241.5
1,219:7
1,197.9
1,176.1
1,154.3
1,132.6
1,110.8
1,089.0
1,067.2
1,045.4
1,023.7
1,001.9
980.1
458.3
936.5
914.8
893.0
871.2
lb/ft
Lb/Ft3
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
Lb/ft3 x 21.78 = tons/acre-ft
Tons/Ft3 Tons/Acre-?t
0.0395
0.0390
0.0385
0.0380
0.0375
0.0370
0.0365
0.0360
0.0355
0.0350
0.0345
0.0340
0.0335
0.0330
0.0325
0.0320
0.0315
0.0310
0.0305
0.0300
0.0195
0.0190
0.0185
0.0180
0.0175
0.0170
0.0165
0.0160
0.0155
0.0150
0.0145
0.0140
0.0135
0.0130
0.0125
0.0120
0.0115
0.0110
0.0105
0.0100
1,720.6
1,698.8
1,677.1
1,655.3
1,633.5
1,611.7
1,589.9
1,568.2
1,546.4
1,524.6
1,502.8
1,481.0
1,459.3
1,447.5
1,415.7
1,393.9
1,372.1
1,350.4
1,328.6
1,306.a
849.4
827.6
805.9
784.1
762.3
740.5
718.7
697.0
675.2
653.4
631.6
609.a
588.0
566.3
544.5
522.7
500.9
479.2
457.4
435.6
1 acre-ft * 43,560 ft3 - 1,613.33 y»rd»3.
1 day " 24 ht « 1,440 mln • 86,400 sec.
425
-------
TABLE 35
A CONVERSION OF INCHES TO TENTHS OF FEET
1 in. = 0.08 ft 7 in. » 0.58 ft
2 in. - 0.07 ft 8 in. - 0.67 ft
3 in. - 0.25 ft 9 in. - 0.75 ft
4 in. = 0.33 ft 10 in. - 0.83 ft
5 in. * 0.42 ft 11 in. - 0.92 ft
6 in. - 0.50 ft 12 in. - 1.00 ft
Slope Conversions: Grade, Degree, Percent
Degree
Grade (°) Percent
1/4:1 76
1/2:1 64
3/4:1 53.5
1:1 45 100
1-1/4:1 39 80
1-1/2:1 34 67
1-3/4:1 31 57
2:1 27 50
2-1/4:1 24.5 45
2-1/2:1 22 40
2-3/4:1 20 36
3:1 18.5 33
3-1/4:1 17 31
3-1/2:1 16 29
3-3/4:1 15 27
4:1 14 25
National Bureau of Standards, ASTM Metric Practice Guide, NBS Handbook 102,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, 46 pages (1967).
The Sillicocks-MLller Company, Conversion Factors: Pamphlet (address:
7 West Parker Avenue, Maplewood, New Jersey 07040).
Zimmerman, 0. T., and I. Lavine, Conversion factors and Tables: Industrial
Research Service, Inc., Dover, New Hampshire (1955).
426
-------
P. Definition of Terms Used in This Manual-
AASHD classification (soil engineering): The official classi-
fication of soil materials and soil aggregate mixtures for highway con-
struction used by the American Association of State Highway Officials.
Aeration, soil; The process by which air in the soil is re-
plenished by air from the atmosphere. In a well-aerated soil the air
in the soil is similar in composition to the atmosphere above the soil.
Poorly aerated soils usually contain a much higher percentage of carbon
dioxide and a correspondingly lower percentage of oxygen. The rate of
aeration depends largely on the volume and continuity of pores in the
soil.
Agronomist; A specialist in soil and crop sciences (as af-
fecting the establishment and maintenance of grasses, erosion control,
and soil management).
Air porosity; The proportion of the bulk volume of soil that
is filled with air at any given time or under a given condition, such as
a specified moisture condition. Commonly considered to be the larger
pores; that is, those filled with air when the soil is at field capacity.
Sometimes called noncapillary pore space when determined as the bulk
volume of pores that are unable to hold water when subjected to a ten-
sion of 60 cm (23.63 in.) of water.
Alkali soil: (a) A soil with a high degree of alkalinity
(pH 8.5 or higher) or with a high exchangeable sodium content (157. or
more of the exchange capacity) or both, (b) A soil that contains suf-
ficient alkali (sodium) to interfere with the growth of most crop
plants (newer term is sodic soil).
Amendment, soil; An alteration of the properties of a
soil, by the addition of substances such as fertilizers, lime, gypsum,
and sawdust to the soil for the purpose of making it more suitable for
the production of plants.
\J "Erosion Control on Highway Construction," National Cooperative High-
way Research Program, Synthesis of Highway Practice No. 18, High-
way Research Board, Division of Engineering, National Research
Council, National Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineer-
ing, pp. 32-38 (1973). "Glossary of Scientific Terms," Soil Sci-
ence Society of America, pp. 1-33, July 1973.
427
-------
Angle of repose; The angle between the horizontal and the maxi-
mum slope that an unconsolidated soil material ultimately assumes through
natural processes.
Annual plant: A plant that completes its life cycle and dies
in 1 year or less.
Apron; A floor or lining to protect a surface from erosion; for
example, the pavement below chutes, spillways, culverts, or at the toes
of dams.
Aspect (slope); The direction that a slope faces.
Available nutrient; That portion of any element or compound
in the soil that can be readily absorbed and assimilated by growing
plants.
Available water; The portion of water in a soil that can be
readily absorbed by plant roots. Considered by most workers to be that
water held in the soil against a pressure of up to approximately 15 bars.
Available water-holding capacity (soils); The capacity to
store water available for use by plants, usually expressed in linear
depths of water per unit depth of soil. Commonly defined as the dif-
ference between the percentage of soil water at field capacity and the
percentage at the wilting point. This difference in percent multiplied ,
by the bulk density and divided by 100 gives a value in surface inches
of water per inch depth of soil. ,
Bedload; The sediment that moves by sliding, rolling, or bound-
ing on or very near the streambed; sediment moved mainly by gravitational
forces, or both, but at velocities less than the surrounding flow.
Bedrock; The solid rock underlying soils and the regolith.
Berm: A raised and elongated area of earth for erosion con-
trol intended to direct the flow of water.
Borrow pit; The excavation resulting from the extraction of
borrow soil materials.
Broadcast seeding; Scattering seed on the surface of the soil.
Contrast with drill seeding, which places the seed in rows in the soil.
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Brush matting; (a) A matting of branches placed on badly
eroded land to conserve moisture and reduce erosion while trees or other
vegetative cover are being established, (b) A. matting of mesh wire and
brush used to retard streambank erosion.
Bulk density, soil; The mass of dry soil per unit bulk volume.
The bulk volume is determined before drying to constant weight at 105°C.
Bunchgrass; A grass that does not have rhizomes or stolons
and forms a bunch or tuft.
Calcareous soil; Soil containing sufficient free calcium car-
bonate or calcium-magnesium carbonate to effervesce visibly when treated
with cold 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
Capillary water; The water held in the "capillary" or small
pores of a soil, usually with tension greater than 60 cm (23.63 in.) of
water. Much of this water is considered to be readily available to
plants.
Cemented; Indurated; having a hard, brittle consistency be-
cause the particles are held together by cementing substances such as
colloidal organic matter (humus), calcium carbonate, or the oxides of
silicon, iron, and aluminum. The hardness and brittleness persist even
when wet.
Channel; A natural drainagevay that conveys water or a ditch
excavated for that purpose.
Check dam; A small dam constructed in a gully or other small
watercourse to decrease the streamflow velocity, minimize channel scour,
and promote deposition of sediment.
Chiseling; Breaking or loosening the soil, without inversion,
with a chisel cultivator or chisel plow.
Clay (soils); (a) A mineral soil separate consisting of par-
ticles less than 0.002 mm in equivalent diameter, (b) A soil textural
class, (c) (engineering) A fine-grained soil that has a high plasticity
index in relation to the liquid limits.
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Claypan; A dense, compact layer in the subsoil having a much
higher clay content than the overlying material, from which it is sepa-
rated by a sharply defined boundary; formed by downward movement of clay
or by synthesis of 4: lay in place during soil formation. Clay pans arc
usually hard when dry, and plastic and sticky when wet. Also, they
usually impede the movement df water and air, and the growth of plant
roots.
Clearing; The removal of vegetation, structures, or other ob-
jects as an item of highway construction.
Climate; The sum total of all atmospheric or meteorological
influences, principally temperature, moisture, wind, pressure, and evapo-
ration, which combine to characterize a region and give it individuality
by influencing the nature of its land forms, soils, vegetation, and land
use.
Clod; A compact, coherent mass of soil ranging in size from
5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in.) to as much as 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in.);
produced artifically, usually by the activity of man by plowing or digg-
ing, especially when these operations are performed on clay soils that
are either too wet or too dry for normal tillage operations.
Clone; A group of plants derived by asexual reproduction from
a single parent plant. Such plants are, therefore, of the same genetic
constitution.
Compaction; Increasing soil bulk density and decreasing
porosity due to the application of mechanical forces to the soil. Firm-
ing is a process of achieving a desirable degree of compaction.
Companion crop: Seeding of a short-life crop with the per-
manent species to aid in erosion control until the permanent species
are established.
Conservation; The protection, improvement, and wise use of
natural resources according to principles that will assure their highest
economic or social benefits.
Contour; The shape of a land surface as expressed by contour
lines.
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Contour ditch; A ditch laid out approximately on the contour.
Contour grading plan; A drawing showing an arrangement of con-
tours intended to integrate construction and topography, improve appear-
ance, retard erosion, and improve drainage.
Contour line; (a) An imaginary line on the surface of the earth
connecting points of the same elevation, (b) A line drawn on a map con-
necting points of the same elevation.
Cool-season plant; A plant that makes its major growth during
the cool portion of the year, primarily in the spring and fall, but in
some localities in the winter.
Corridor; A strip or band of land forming a passageway between
two or more points. The width of a corridor may vary from several miles
in rural areas to a lesser width in urban areas.
Creep; Slow mass movement of soil and soil material down rela-
tively steep slopes primarily under the influence of gravity, but facili-
tated by saturation with water, strong winds, and by alternate freezing
and thawing.
Critical velocity; The velocity at which a given discharge
changes from tranquil to rapid flow.
Cut and fill; A process of earth moving by excavating part of
an area and using the excavated material for adjacent embankments or fill
areas.
Dam; A barrier to prevent or restrict the flow of water.
Debris; A term applied to the loose material arising from the
disintegration of rocks and vegetative material; transportable by streams,
ice, or floods.
Debris dam; A barrier built across a stream channel principally
to retain rock, sand, gravel, silt, or other material, such as trash or
leaves.
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Debris guard: A screen or grate at the intake of a channel,
drainage, or pump structure for the purpose of stopping debris.
Decumbent; Curved upward from horizontal position.
Deposition; The lying down of material because of reduction
of carrying capacity.
Desilting area; An area of grass, shrubs, or other vegetation.
used for inducing deposition of silt and other debris from flowing water.
Diversion (channel); (Same as interception ditch.) A ditch
constructed across the slope for the purpose of intercepting surface
runoff; changing the accustomed course of all or part of a stream.
Drainage; The removal of excess surface water or groundwater
from land by means of surface or subsurface drains.
Drill seeding; Planting seed with a drill in relatively nar-
row rows, generally less than a foot apart. Contrast with broadcast
seeding.
Drop-inlet spillway; An overfall structure in which the water
drops through a vertical riser connected to a discharge conduit.
Dyop. structure (drop); A structure for dropping water to a
lower level and dissipating its surplus energy; a fall. A drop may be
vertical or inclined.
Ecology; The branch of science concerned with thav relation-
ship of organisms and their environment.
^cosystem; A community of organisms and the surroundings in
which they live.
Effective precipitation; That portion of total precipitation
that becomes available for plant growth. It does not include precipita-
tion lost to deep,percolation below the root zone or to surface runoff.
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Emergency spillway; A point of discharge used to carry run-
off water which exceeds a given design flood resulting from rainfall.
Environment: The sum total of all the external conditions
that may act upon an organism or community to influence its development
or existence.
Environmental design; A design (of a highway) that includes
consideration of the impact of the facility on the community or region
based on aesthetic, ecological, cultural, sociological, economic, histori-
cal, conservation, and other factors.
Erodible: Susceptible to erosion.
Erosion; Detachment and movement of soil or rock by water,
wind, ice, or gravity. The following terms are used to describe dif-
ferent types of water erosion.
Accelerated erosion: Erosion much more rapid than natural,
or geological, resulting from the influence of the activities of man or,
in some cases, of animals.
Geologic or natural erosion; Natural erosion caused by
geological processes acting over long geologic periods and resulting in
the wearing away of mountains, and the building up of flood plains or
coastal plains.
Gully erosion; The erosion process whereby water accumu-
lates in narrow channels and, over short periods, removes the soil from
this narrow area to considerable depths, ranging from 30 to 60 cm (1 to
2 ft) to as much as 170 to 254 cm (75 to 100 ft).
Rill erosion; An erosion process in which numerous small
channels of only several centimeters (inches) in depth are formed; occurs
mainly on recently cultivated soils.
Sheet erosion; The removal of a fairly uniform layer of
soil from the land surface by runoff water.
Splash erosion; The spattering of small soil particles
caused by the impact of raindrops on very wet soils. The loosened and
spattered particles may or may not be subsequently removed by surface
runoff.
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Erosive: Refers to wind or water having sufficient velocity
to cause erosion. Not to be confused with erodible as a quality of soil.
Exotic; An organism that has been introduced from another
continent.
Family, soil; In soil classification one of the categories in-
termediate between the great soil group and the soil series.
Fertility, soil: The quality of a soil that enables it to pro-
vide nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper balance for the growth
of specified plants when other growth factors (such as light, moisture,
temperature, and the physical condition of the soil) are favorable.
Fertilizer: Any organic or inorganic material of natural or
synthetic origin which is added to a soil to supply certain elements es-
sential to the growth of plants.
Fertilizer grade: The guaranteed minimum analysis, in percent,
of the major plant nutrient elements contained in a fertilizer material
or in a mixed fertilizer. A 20-10-5 fertilizer refers to the percentage
of N-P205-K20, respectively.
Fertilizer requirement; The quantity of certain plant nutrient
elements needed, in addition to the amount supplied by the soil, to in-
crease plant growth to a designated optimum.
Flume; An open conduit on a prepared grade, trestle, or bridge
for the purpose of carrying water across creeks, gullies, ravines, or
other obstructions. Sometimes used in reference to calibrated devices
used to measure the flow of water in open conduits.
Forb; An herbaceous plant that is not a grass, sedge, or rush.
Grade: (a) The slope of a road, channel, or natural ground.
(b) The finished surface of a canal bed, roadbed, top of embankment, or
bottom of excavation; any surface prepared for the support of construc-
tion, like paving or laying a conduit, (c) To finish the surface of a
canal bed, roadbed, top of embankment, or bottom of excavation.
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Graded stream: A stream in which, over a period of years, the
slope is delicately adjusted to provide, with available discharge and
with prevailing channel characteristics, just the velocity required for
transportation of the load (of sediment) supplied from the drainage basin.
The graded profile is a slope of transportation. It is a phenomenon in
which the element of time has a restricted connotation.
Gradient; The rate of regular or graded ascent or descent.
Grassed waterway: A natural or constructed waterway, usually
broad and shallow, covered with erosion-resistant grasses, used to con-
duct surface water from cropland.
Great soil group; One of the categories in the system of soil
classification that has been used in the United States for many years.
Ground cover; Herbaceous vegetation and low-growing woody
plants that form an earth cover.
Groundwater; Phreatic water or subsurface water in the zone
of saturation.
Growing season: The time during which a plant is periodically
producing growth. This period will vary depending on the climate and is
usually specified in the contract. It reflects climatic conditions and
normal growth periods for the area in which the work is to be accomplished.
Grubbing: The process of removing roots, stumps, and low-grow-
ing vegetation.
Habitat: The place where a given organism lives.
Hardpan; A hardened soil layer in the lower A or in the B
horizon caused by cementation of soil particles with organic matter or
with materials such as silica, sesquioxides, or calcium carbonate. The
hardness does not change appreciably with changes in moisture content,
and pieces of the hard layer do not slake in water.
435
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Haul road: A temporary road, generally unimproved, used to
transport material to and from highway construction, borrow pits, and
waste areas.
Heaving; The partial lifting of plants out of the ground, fre-
quently breaking their roots, as a result of freezing and thawing of the
surface soil during the winter.
Heavy soil: (Obsolete in scientific use.) A soil with a high
content of the fine separates, particularly clay, or one with a high
drawbar pull and hence difficult to cultivate.
Herbaceous: Vegetation that is nonwoody.
Herbicides: Chemicals used to control or eradicate vegetation.
Humid: A term applied to regions or climates where moisture,
when distributed normally throughout the year, should not be a limiting
factor in the production of most crops. The lower limit of precipitation
under cool climates may be as little as 51 cm (20 in.) annually. In hot
climates it may be as much as 152 cm (60 in.)- Natural vegetation is
generally a forest.
Humus; That more or less stable fraction of the soil organic
matter remaining after the major portion of added plant and animal resi-
dues has decomposed, usually amorphous and dark-colored.
Hydraulic grade line; In a closed conduit, a line Joining the
elevations to which water could stand in risers or vertical pipes con-
nected to the conduit at their lower end and open at their upper end.
In open channel flow, the free surface of the water.
Hydraulic gradient; The slope of the hydraulic grade line.
The slope of the free surface of water flowing in an open channel.
Impeded drainage: A condition which hinders the movement of
water through soils under the influence of gravity.
Incorporate: To mix foreign materials, such as pesticides,
fertilizers, or plant residues, into the soil.
Indicator plants: Plants characteristic of specific soil or
site conditions.
436
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Indigenous: Produced, growing, or living naturally in a partic-
ular region or environment.
Infiltration: The flow of a liquid Into a substance through
pores or other openings, connoting flow into a soil in contradistinction
to "percolation," which connotes flow through & porous substance.
Inlet; The upstream end of any structure through which water
may flow.
Inoculation; The process of adding cultures of symbiotic micro-
organisms to legume seed to enhance atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
Interception channel (diversion channel); A channel excavated
at the top of earth cuts, at the foot of slopes, or at other critical
places to intercept surface flow; a catch drain.
Interceptor drain: A surface or subsurface drain, or a combina-
tion of both, designed and installed to intercept flowing water.
Interdisciplinary approach: An analysis method which involves
the application of the training and knowledge of persons from many pro-
fessions in the assessment of potential impacts of highway projects on
the economy, society, and the natural environment.
Internal soil drainage: The downward movement of water through
the soil profile. The rate of movement is determined by the texture,
structure, and other characteristics of the soil profile and underlying
layers and by the height of the water table, either permanent or perched.
Relative terms for expressing internal drainage are none, very slow, slow,
medium, rapid, and very rapid.
Invert; The lowest part of the internal crosssection of a lined
channel or conduit.
Landscape architect: A person trained in the art and science
of arranging land and objects upon it for human use and enjoyment such as
reducing sedimentation.
Landscape personnel; Persons trained, engaged in, or associated
with roadside development. The term as used by highway departments may
include agronomists, architects, and others.
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Landslide: The failure of a slope in which the movement of the
soil mass takes place along interior surfaces of sliding.
Leached soil: A soil from which most of the soluble materials
(CaC03» MgC03, and more soluble materials) have been removed from the eu-»
tire profile or have been removed from one part of the profile and have
accumulated in a lower part.
Leaching; The removal of materials in solution from the soil,
Legume; A member of the legume or pulse family, Leguminosae.
One of the most important and widely distributed plant families. The
fruit is a "legume1' or pod that opens along two sutures when ripe.
Flowers are usually papilionaceous (butterflylike). Leaves are alternate,
have stipules,and are usually compound. Includes many valuable food and
forage species, such as the peas, beans, peanuts, clovers, alfalfas,
sweet clovers, lespedezas, vetches, and kudzu. Practically all legumes
are nitrogen-fixing plants.
Loess; Material deposited by wind and consisting of pre-
dominantly silt-sized particles.
Mottled zone; A layer that is marked with spots or blotches
of different color or shades of color. The pattern of mottling and the
size, abundance, and color contrast of the mottles may vary considerably
and should be specified in soil description.
Mottling; Spots or blotches of different color or shades of
color interspersed with the dominant color.
Median; The portion of a divided highway separating the roads
for traffic in opposite directions.
Mulch; Natural or artificial material used to provide more
desirable moisture and temperature relationships for plant growth, it
is also used to control unwanted vegetation.
Native species; A species that is a part of an area's original
fauna or flora.
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Outfall; The point where water flows from a conduit, stream,
or drain.
Overfall; An abrupt change in stream channel elevation; the
part of a dam or weir over which the water flows.
Parent material (soils): The unconsolidated, relatively un-
weathered mineral or organic matter from which the surface of soils have
developed.
Particle-size analysis: Determination of the amounts of dif-
ferent particle sizes in a soil sample, usually by sedimentation, sieving,
micrometry, or combinations of these methods.
Fed; A unit of soil structure such as an aggregate, crumb,
prism, block, or granule, formed by natural processes (in contrast with
a clod, which is formed artificially).
Percolation, soil water; The downward movement of water through
soil, especially the downward flow of water in saturated or nearly satu-
rated soil at hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 or less.
Perennial plant: A plant that normally lives for 3 or more
years.
Permeability; The capacity for transmitting a fluid. It is
measured by the rate at which a fluid of standard viscosity can move
through material in a given interval of time under a given hydraulic
gradient.
Permissible hydraulic velocity; The highest velocity at which
water may be carried safely in a channel or other conduit. The highest
velocity that can exist through a substantial length of a conduit and
not cause scouring of the channel. Syn., safe or noneroding velocity.
PH. soil; A numerical measure of acidity or hydrogen ion ac-
tivity of a soil. The neutral point is pH 7.0. All pH values below 7.0
are acid and all above 7.0 are alkaline. The negative logarithm of the
hydrogen-ion activity of a soil. The degree of acidity (or alkalinity)
of a soil as determined by means of a glass, quinhydrone, or other suit-
able electrode or indicator at a specified moisture.content or soil-water
ratio, and expressed in terms of the pH scale (see reaction, soil).
439
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Plant regeneration; The development of volunteer vegetation
from seed or by other natural reproductive processes from plants exist-
ing nearby.
Planting season; The period of the year when planting and/or
transplanting is considered advisable from the standpoint of successful
establishment.
Pressure pan (traffic sole, plow pan, tillage pan, traffic p*n,
ploy sole, compacted layer); An induced subsurface soil horizon or layer
having a higher bulk density and lower total porosity than the soil mate-
rial directly above and below, but similar in particle size analysis and
chemical properties. The pan is usually found Just below the maximum depth
of normal plowing and frequently restricts root development and water
movement.
Productivity, soil; The capacity of a soil, in its normal en-
vironment, for producing a specified plant or sequence of plants under a
specified system of management. The "specified" limitations arc neces-
sary since no soil can produce all crops with equal success nor can a
single system of management produce the same effect on all soils.
Productivity emphasizes the capacity of soil to produce crops and should
be expressed in terms of yields.
Profile, soil; A vertical section of the soil through all its
horizons and extending into the parent material.
Pure live seed; The product of the percentage of germination
plus the hard seed and the percentage of pure seed, divided by 100.
Rainfall intensity; The rate at which rain is falling at any
given instant, usually expressed in inches per hour.
Reaction, soil; The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil,
usually expressed as a pH value. Descriptive terms commonly associated
with certain ranges in pH are: extremely acid, less than 4.5; very
strongly acid, 4.5 to 5.0; strongly acid, 5.1 to 5.5; moderately acid,
5.6 to 6.0; slightly acid, 6.1 to 6.5; neutral, 6.6 to 7.3; slightly
alkaline, 7.4 to 7.8; moderately alkaline, 7.9 to 8.4; strongly alkaline,
8.5 to 9.0; and very strongly alkaline, greater than 9.1 (see pH, soil).
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Rejgolith: the unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and
soil material on the earth's surface; loose earth materials above solid
rock. (Approximately equivalent to the term "soil" as used by many
engineers and geologists).
Revetment; A facing of stone or other material* either perma-
nent or temporary* placed along the edge of a stream to stabilize the
bank and protect it from the erosive action of the stream.
Riprap; Broken rock, cobbles, or boulders placed on earth
surfaces, such as the face of a dam or the bank of a stream, for protec-
tion against £he action of water (waves); also applied to brush or pole
mattresses, or brush and stone, or other similar materials lived for soil
erosion control.
Roptbed; The soil depth modified by tillage or amendments In
which plant roots are or will be growing.
Bounding, slope; The modeling or contouring of roadside slopes
to provide a curvilinear transition between several planes; e.g., tops,
bottoms, and ends of cuts and fills. ;
Runoff; That portion of the precipitation on a drainage area
that is discharged from the area in stream channels. Types Include sur-
face runoff, groundwater runoff, or seepage.
Saline soil; (a) A nonalkali soil containing sufficient soluble
salts to impair^ its productivity but not containing excessive exchange-
able sodium, ilhia name was formerly applied to any soil containing suf-
ficient, soluble .salts to interfere with plant growth, commonly greater
than $,000 ppnu, (b) A nonsodic soil containing sufficient soluble salt
to impair its productivity. The electrical conductivity of the satura-
tion extract is greater than 2 mohms/cm at 25°C.
Saltation; Particle movement in water or wind where particles
skid or bounce along the streambed or soil surface.
Scalping; Removal of sod or other vegetation in sftots or strips.
Scarify; To abrade, scratch, or modify the surface!;-.for example,
to scratch the impervious seed coat of hard seed, or to break the sur-
face of the soil with a narrow-bladed implement.
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Scour; The wearing away of terrace or diversion channels or
streambeds.
Sediment: Solid material, both mineral and organic, that is
in suspension, is being transported, or has been moved from its site of
origin by air, water, gravity, or ice.
Sediment load; The quantity of sediment, measured in dry
weight or by volume, transported through a stream crosssection in a given
time. Sediment load consists of both suspended load and bedload.
Sediment pool; The reservoir space allotted to the accumula-.
tion of submerged sediment during the life of the structure.
Sedimentation; The geologic process which includes erosion,
transportation, and deposition of solid particles by wind or water.
Seed purity; The percentage of the desired species of seeds
in relation to the total quantity, including other species, weed seeds,
and foreign matter.
Seedbed: The soil prepared by natural or artificial means to
promote the germination of seeds and the growth of seedlings.
Seepage; Water escaping through or emerging from the ground
along an extensive line or surface as contrasted with a spring where the
water ententes from a localized soot.
a^v*«^ ^** ««*w«*«o<*> v ** *..*.»•%» w& w
-------
Settling basin; An enlargement in the channel of a stream or
a damned area to permit the settling of debris carried in suspension.
Sheet erosion; The removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil
from the land surface by runoff water.
Sheet flow; Water, usually storm runoff, flowing in a thin
layer over the ground surface. Syn., overland flow.
Side slope; The slope of the sides of a canal, dam, or em-
bankment. It is customary to name the horizontal distance first, as
1.5:1 or, frequently, 1-1/2:1, meaning a horizontal distance of 1.5 ft
to 1 ft vertical.
Site; (a) In ecology, an area described or defined by its bi-
otic, climatic, and soil conditions as related to its capacity to produce
vegetation, (b) An area sufficiently uniform in biotic, climatic, and
soil conditions to produce a particular climax vegetation.
Slope; The degree of deviation of a surface from the horizontal,
usually expressed in a ratio, percent, or degrees.
Slope characteristics; Slopes may be characterized as concave
(decrease in steepness in lower portion), uniform, or convex (increase
in steepness at base). Erosion is strongly affected by shape, ranked in
order of increasing credibility from concave to uniform to convex.
Slope drains; Permanent or temporary devices that are used to
carry water down cut or embankment slopes. May be pipe, half sections,
paved, or have special plastic lining.
Sod; A closely knit ground cover growth, primarily of grasses.
Sod grasses; Stoloniferous or rhizomatous grasses that form a
sod or turf.
Soil conditioner; Any chemical material added to a soil sur-
face for the purpose of improving its physical condition.
Soil conservation; Protection of the soil against physical
loss by erosion or against chemical deterioration; that is, excessive
loss of fertility by either natural or artificial means.
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Soil horizon; A layer of soil or soil material approximately
parallel to the land surface and differing from adjacent genetically
related layers in physical, chemical, and biological properties or char-
acteristics, such as color, structure, texture, consistency, kinds and
numbers of organisms present, and degree of acidity or alkalinity.
Soil map; A map showing the distribution of soil napping units
in relation to the prominent physical and cultural features of the earth's
surface.
Soil management; The combination of all tillage operations,
cropping practices, fertilizer, lime, and other treatments applied to
the soil for the production of plants.
Soil organic matter; The organic fraction of the soil that
includes plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition,
cells and tissues of soil organisms, and substances synthesized by the
soil population. Commonly determined as the amount of organic carbon
contained in a soil sample passed through a 2-mm sieve.
Soil series; The basic unit of soil classification being a
subdivision of a family and consisting of soils which are essentially
alike in all major profile characteristics except the texture of the A
horizon.
Soil structure; The combination or arrangement of primary soil
particles into secondary particles, units, or peds.
Soil survey; A general term for the systematic examination of
soils in the field and in laboratories; their description and classifica-
tion; the mapping of kinds of soil; the interpretation of soils accord-
ing to their adaptability for various crops, grasses, and trees; their
behavior under use or treatment for plant production or for other pur-
poses .
Soil texture; Soil textural class names of soils are based
upon the relative percentages of sand, silt, and clay (see Figure 79).
Spoilbank (waste); A pile of soil, subsoil, rock, or other
material excavated from a drainage ditch, pond, or other cut.
Sprigging; The planting of a portion of the stem and/or root
of grass.
444
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iwft ClAT |t •!»>•»)
I*
y/YY)
I \ I WIT LOAM \ /
' \ / \ i \ i \
Figure 79 - Graph Showing the Percentages of Sand, Silt,
and Clay in the Soil Textural Classes
445
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Stilling basin; An open structure or excavation at the foot
of an overfall, chute, drop, or spillway to reduce the energy of the de-
scending stream.
Subsoil; The stratum of material beneath the surface soil.
Surface soil; the uppermost part of the soil, ordinarily
moved in tillage, or its equivalent in uncultivated soils, ranging in
depth from about 13 to 20 cm (5 to 8 in.). Frequently designated as the
plow layer, the Ap layer, or the Ap horizon.
Terrace (agriculture); An embankment or combination of an em-
bankment and channel constructed across a slope to control erosion by
diverting runoff instead of permitting it to flow uninterrupted down the
slope.
Tillage; The mechanical manipulation of soil for any purpose;
but in agriculture it is usually restricted to the modifying of soil
conditions for crop production.
Tillage equipment (tools): Field tools and machinery which are
designed to lift, invert, stir, or pack soil, reduce size of clods and
uproot weeds; i.e., plows, harrows, disks, and cultivators.
Tilth; The physical condition of soil as related to its ease
of tillage, fitness as a seedbed, and its impedance to seedling emergence
and root penetration.
Toe (engineering); The lower edge or edges of a slope.
Tolerant; Capable of growth and survival under competitive
growing conditions.
Topography (lay-of-the-land); The configuration of the earth's
surface, including the shape and position of its natural and man-made
features.
Tbpsoil; The upper layer of soil containing organic matter
and usually suited for plant survival and growth. On a construction
site the topsoil is commonly saved for topsoiling.
Transpiration; The process by which water vapor is released
to the atmosphere by the foliage or other parts of a living plant.
446
-------
Trap efficiency: A measurement of the effectiveness of a
basin to trap sediment.
Underground (underflow) runoff (seepage); Water flowing toward
or into stream channels from adjacent ground.
Urbanized area; An area identified by the U.S. Bureau of the
Census as having a population over 50,000 or by the Office of Manage-
ment and Budget as'a standard metropolitan statistical area. Small urban
areas are those areas which have a population of 5,000 to 50,000.
Vegetation; Plant life collectively.
Warm-season plant; A plant that completes most of its growth
during the warm portion of the year, generally late spring and summer.
Watte (construction); Excess earth, rock, vegetation, or
other materials resulting from highway construction.
Water control (soil and water conservation); The physical con-
trol of water by such measures as conservation practices on the land,
channel improvements, and installation of structures for water retarda-
tion.
Water table; The upper surface of groundwater or that level
below which the soil is saturated with water.
Water table, perched; The water table of a saturated layer of
soil which is separated from an underlying saturated layer by an unsatur-
ated layer.
Watershed area (catchment); All areas within the confines of
a drainage divide.
Weathering; All physical, chemical, and biological changes
produced in rocks, at or near the earth's surface.
447
-------
Q. General References
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451
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452
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453
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454
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455
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456
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White, D. B., and I. B. Bailey, "Vegetation Maintenance Practices, Pro-
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New Hampshire Soils," Extension Publication No. 2, Cooperative Exten-
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Winkworth, R., 1974 President of the National Association of State
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*
Wyant, D.C., W. C. Sherwood, and H. N. Walker, "Erosion Prevention During
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457
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VI. ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTORS
Page
A. General 458
B. National Organizations 461
C. Federal Agencies 462
D. State Agencies 464
E. Private Firms 465
F. Land-Grant Universities 465
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VI. ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTORS
A. General
The Environmental Protection Agency also acknowledges substantial
assistance from the following contributors.
Victor Barry, Jr.
Division of Plant Sciences
SCS, USDA
Washington, D.G.
Lindo J. Bartelli
Soil Survey Interpretations
USDA
Washington, D, C.
Richard Braramer
State Highway Department
Santa Fe, New Mexico
J. E. Burford
Hydrologic Data Laboratory ARS/USDA
Beltsville, Maryland
John Creech
National Arboretum
Washington, D.C.
Euel Davis
Division of Watersheds
Bureau of Land Management
Washington, D.C.
George Edmundson
SCS Plant Material Center
Lockeford, California
Dick Howe 11 and Roger Hallin
California Department of Transportation
(CALTRANS)
Sacramento, California
459
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Gordon Huntington
University of California at Davis
Davis, California
D. Earl Jones
Arlington, Virginia, Department of
Housing and Urban Development
Washington, D.C.
Kermit N. Larson
U.S. Forest Service
Odgen, Utah
Andrew T. Leiser
Department of Environmental Horticulture
University of California at Davis
Davis, California
John E. McClelland
Soil Survey Operations,
SCS, USDA
Washington, D.C.
Wayne McCully
Extension and Research Center
Vernon, Texas
Walter Megahan
Intermountain Forest and Range Research
Station
Boise, Idaho
William W. Mitchell
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Palmer Research Center
Palmer, Alaska
Douglas L. Smith
Environmental Design and Control Division
Office of Research
Federal Highway Administration
Washington, D.C.
Grant W. Thomas
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
460
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H. B. Vanderford
Mississippi State University
State College, Mississippi
Dirk van dcr Voet
Soil Conservation Service
Washington, D.C.
William Wertz
U.S. Forest Service
Washington, D.C.
Leonard Wood, Chief
Environmental Control Group
Federal Highway Administration
Washington, D.C.
James A. Yost
J. B. Gilbert and Associates
South Lake Tahoe, California
B. National Organizations
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
St. Joseph, Michigan
American Society of Agronomy and Soil
Science Society of America
Madison, Wisconsin
The American Society of Civil Engineers
New York, New York
American Society of Landscape Architects
McLean, Virginia
National Association of Conservation Districts
Washington, S.C.
National Association of State Foresters
Environmental Committee
Department of Natural Resources
Madison, Wisconsin
461
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Department of Natural Resources
Olytnpla, Washington
South Dakota Division of Forestry
Rapid City, South Dakota
National Forest Products Association
Washington, D.C.
National Landscape Association
Washington, D.C.
Society of American Foresters
Washington. D.C.
Society of Range Management
Denver, Colorado
Transportation Research Board
Washington, D.C.
C. Federal Agencies
Alaska Bureau of Land Management
USDI
Anchorage, Alaska
Bureau of Land Management
U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, D.C., and Denver Federal Center
Bureau of Reclamation
U.S. Department of the Interior
Denver Federal Center and Washington, D.C.
Division of Forestry
Bureau of Land Management
USDI
Washington, D.C.
EPA Region X
Seattle, Washington
Federal Highway Administration
U.S. Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C.
462
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Federal Power Commission
Project Environment and Conservation Section
Washington, D.C.
Forestry Division, United States Navy
Alexandria, Virginia
Massachusetts SCS at Amberst
Mississippi SCS at Jackson
Texas SCS at Temple
California SCS at Davis
Alaska SCS at Anchorage
National Park Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Denver, Colorado
National Park Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, D.C.
Northeast Forest Experiment Station
U.S. Forest Service
Upper Darby, Pennsylvania
Southeast Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Athens, Georgia
The Technical Service Centers of SCS in Portland, Oregon;
Fort Worth, Texas; Upper Darby, Pennsylvania; and
Lincoln, Nebraska; through assistance of soil Survey
Operation Division, SCS/USDA, Washington, D.C.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
U.S. Agency for International Development (AID)
U.S. Department of State
Washington, D.C.
463
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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory
Hanover, New Hampshire
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C.; and their
Technical Information Center Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi
United States Department of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service
Forest Service
Agricultural Research Service
Federal Extension Service
U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station
Fort Collins, Colorado
U.S. Geological Survey
Washington, D.C.
D. State Agencies
California Bureau of Land Management
State Bureau of Land Management
Portland, Oregon
State Department of Environmental Resources
Ebensburg, Pennsylvania
State Forestry Department
Raleigh, North Carolina
Utah Water Research Laboratory
Logan, Utah
Information was requested and received from the State highway
departments of the 50 States, the District of Columbia and the Common-
wealth of Puerto Rico.
464
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E. Private Firms
J. B. Gilbert and Associates
Planning and Engineering Consultants
Sacramento, California
"Grounds and Maintenace Magazine," Kansas City, Missouri
Howard-Needles-Tammen-Bergendoff
Consulting Engineers
Central Offices
Kansas City, Missouri
Jones and Stokes
Sacramento, California
F. Land-Grant Universities
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska
University of Arizona
Tuscon, Arizona
University of California
Davis, California
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
465
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Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
University of Maine
Arons, Maine
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota
Mississippi State University
State College, Mississippi
Montana State College
Bozeman, Montana
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska
University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
466
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Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Purdue University
Lafayette,Indiana
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
Utah State University
Logan, Utah
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
University of West Virginia
Morgantovn, West Virginia
University of Wisconsin
Hadison, Wisconsin
467 *UJ& OOVEMNMNT HUNTING WFtCE:WS ttO-81
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(fltiae read Instructions on the rtvene before completing)
1. REP
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Methods of Quickly Vegetating Soils of Low
Productivity, Construction Activities
6. REPORT DATE
July 1975 (approval date)
». PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Francis Wm. Bennett and Roy L. Donahue
S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, Missouri 64110
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-01-2632
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Planning and Standards
401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OP REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
16. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. AB*tRACT '
The study has produced a user's manual for the SO states on latest Methods and
procedures for establishing dense stands of perennial vegetation on soils of
low productivity that have been disturbed by construction activities, will hold
the soil in place and thus minimize water pollution by sedimentation. The 450
page manual has defined common ground, in a practical and applied way, among
many technical disciplines. The sciences of soil, geologic material and plant
growth are defined and related. Emphasis of the manual is on vegetating soils
that naturally are low in productivity. Soil Great Groups that fit this criteria
representing 39Z of the United States land area are discussed. The soil and
plant research of many professional scientists are related and brought into focus.
Demonstration sites at 10 locations are characterized and documented.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
^.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TfRMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Soil Erosion
Pollution
Soil Fertility
Construction
Environmental Engineering
Erosion Control
Water Brosion
Water Pollution
Soil Fertility
Soil Stabilization
1312, 0807,
0203, 0201,
1308
19. SECURITY CLASS {TMsRtport}
20, SECURITY CLASS (TMtftft)
91. NO. OF PAGES
468
22. PRICE
BPA Porw 11M-1 (f.7*)
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