The
Executive Course
on
Quality
     " building blocks to successful environmental management."
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The
Executive Course
on
Quality
     " building blocks to successful environmental management"
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The Environmental Protection Agency has printed this material under a licensing agreement
          with Organizational Dynamics, Inc. (contract number 68W1-0036).

                            First Printing: May 1991

                          EPA Quality Advisory Group
                     Office of Human Resources Management
                                401 M St., SW
                            Washington, DC 20460
                                (202) 382-6241
                                    ©1991
                         by Organizational Dynamics, Inc.
                      Printed in the United States of America
                               All rights reserved

The contents, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form for any purpose without
the written permission of the publisher, Organizational Dynamics, Inc. (ODI), Twenty-five
                   Mall Road, Burlington, Massachusetts 01803

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Introduction              The EPA Executive  Course  on Quality
                             EPA is faced with mounting challenges, not only nationally, but
                             also worldwide. The pressure on our agency to perform its
                             mission is increasing dramatically, from funding requirements, to
                             public expectations, to competition from environmental groups
                             and other federal  agencies. We need not look far to see how
                             numerous laws enacted by Congress  have a direct effect on
                             EPA—from the Great Lakes,  to coastal initiatives, to the Clean
                             Air Act,  to pollution prevention, and many more. New challeng-
                             es spark  hopes and fears in all of us. These  times provide us
                             with an opportunity to crystalize and capitalize on our hopes  and
                             to communicate and work openly with our fears. Through top-
                             down commitment, bottom-up  support, and effective communica-
                             tion side to side across functional areas, our environmental goals
                             can be met. The harnessing of the collective wisdom of all
                             people who are a part of EPA is  what The EPA Executive
                             Course on  Quality is  all about.

                             Addressing new challenges requires planning, prevention, and
                             continuous  improvement. Planning can help us sharpen our vision
                             and mission in order to  more clearly guide our everyday actions.
                             Prevention  of pollution is  the preferred approach, while total
                             quality management (TQM) can provide an effective delivery
                             system to make these objectives happen. Meeting new challenges
                             means understanding, on an ongoing basis, what we do and how
                             we do it. We cannot afford the status quo. If we are going to be
                             the leaders  in protecting our environment, we must together
                             continuously seek a higher ground.

                             TQM is  not meant to be a process or end in itself.  It is meant to
                             be a way of life,  a journey in which all employees  actively
                             participate in decision making in order to achieve the  goals of
                             EPA, increase job satisfaction, and provide results that will
                             maximize environmental health. It frames a context  within which
                             people can  use a  common language to design work  processes
                             based on the requirements of both internal and external cus-
                             tomers. We need  to assess whether each activity we as in-
                             dividuals engage in is adding value to accomplishing our mission.
                             Doing so will help to ensure  that the right things are being done
                             in the right ways  the first time.

                             It is people who make our mission successful. Within an
                             environment that stimulates their self-motivation, creativity, and
                             thoughtful sharing of information, employees  can take ownership
                             of the processes that will  enable us to meet  our environmental
                             goals.
                             i  Introduction

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Quality must be seen as an actionable strategy for achieving the
goals of the agency, from preventing pollution, to benefiting from
cultural diversity, to fulfilling the agency's overall mission and
vision. To that end, we are providing this course on quality. As a
result of this course, participants should acquire

 •  An understanding of the meaning and fundamental concepts
    of total quality

 •  Experience in  applying  several  models or blueprints for
    implementing TQM

 •  Practical experience in applying a core set of problem-
    solving tools required for successful implementation of TQM

 •  An analysis of their current leadership style and identification
    of changes necessary to empower employees to participate in
    the continuous improvement process

 •  Clarity about their role  in TQM implementation and leading
    the quality effort

 •  An understanding of the evolutionary phases  of quality
    improvement as well as the interdependent strategies
    necessary for planning  comprehensive TQM implementation
ii Introduction

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Contents                The EPA Executive Course on Quality
                          Module One: The Meaning of Quality



                          Module Two: Identifying the Cost of Quality



                          Module Three: You and Your Customer



                          Module Four: Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things



                          Module Five: Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right



                          Module Six: Leadership



                          Module Seven: Promoting Total Involvement



                          Module Eight: Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)



                          Reference Readings
                          iii Introduction

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Module One     The Meaning of Quality

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Contents                 The Meaning of Quality
                            Overview:  The Meaning of Quality                           2

                            Questionnaire: The Meaning of Quality                        3

                            Presentation: Approaches to Quality                           4

                            Video: "The Quality Advantage"                             6

                            Presentation: The Foundation and Pillars of Quality             7

                            Exercise: Rediscovering Core Values                          8

                            Presentation: The Five Pillars of Quality                       9

                            Exercise: Rating Your Organizational
                                    Pillars                                           12

                            Key Points: The Meaning of Quality                         13
                            1 The Meaning  of Quality

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Overview
The Meaning of Quality
                             This module introduces us to the meaning and foundation of total
                             quality management. We shall examine the differences in
                             approaches to quality in a little-q versus Big-Q organization. We
                             shall also learn a new definition of quality that incorporates the
                             five pillars on which a quality organization is built.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Identify the differences between little-q and Big-Q ap-
    proaches to quality

 •  Use a common language to talk with others in your organiza-
    tion about quality improvement

 •  Compare your understanding of the core values of the agency
    with that of other participants

 •  Use the five pillars of quality to analyze how well your
    organization is currently functioning
                             2 The Meaning of Quality

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Questionnaire            The Meaning of Quality
                             Quality is the most important topic of discussion in organiza-
                             tions today. There are probably as many different ideas about
                             quality as there are organizations.

                             To begin, let's look at what quality means to you. Respond to
                             the following statements:
                              1.  Compared to French gourmet cuisine,
                                 McDonald's food is not high quality.                 T   F

                              2.  If we want our products  and services  to
                                 be high quality, we have to spend more
                                 money and more time on that goal.                  T   F

                              3.  Quality performance must be supported
                                 by financial rewards.                                T   F

                              4.  Eighty-five percent of quality improve-
                                 ment does not depend on workers.                   T   F

                              5.  Cost of quality can be calculated as accurately
                                 as cost of production or a person's income tax.       T   F

                              6.  Doing things right is more difficult than
                                 deciding what the right thing to do is.               T   F

                              7.  My  boss is my most important customer.             T   F

                              8.  Knowing the requirements of my customer's
                                 customers is not really useful.                       T   F

                              9.  The goal of quality is to meet the
                                 customer's needs—no more, no less.                  T   F

                             10.  "If it ain't broke, don't fix it."                       T   F

                             11.  The highest quality performance is achieved when
                                 everyone in die organization follows  SOPs
                                 (standard operating procedures).                      T   F

                             12.  Quality will improve if workers are encouraged
                                 to figure out what's wrong and to make
                                 improvements.                                      T   F
                             3 The Meaning  of Quality

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Presentation             Approaches to  Quality
                            Most organizations say that they are committed to quality. One
                            way to determine the actual level of commitment is to examine
                            the organizational approaches that are reflected in people s
                            behaviors and beliefs. The matrix on the following page  shows
                            behaviors and beliefs that will differ between little-q organiza-
                            tions and Big-Q organizations.
                             4 The Meaning  of Quality

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Approaches to Quality


          The definition of quality is  ||   product oriented
customer oriented
Quality priorities are
Business decisions
are based on
Emphasis is on
Costs are
Errors are understood
to result from
Responsibility for
quality belongs to
Organizational culture
tends toward
Organizational
structure is
Problem solving is by
HI less important than cost, |||
III schedule, and volume ||;
|i short-term goals iff
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III detection of errors |||
;|| raised (when quality |f:
III is emphasized) 11
111 special causes |||
||| (workers making |||
III individual mistakes) Iff
§| quality control/ f||
III quality assurance, |||
|f| inspectors, and |||
HI specialists III
III finger pointing, blame |||
f| finding, and punishing |||
HI risk takers |||
III hierarchical, |||
11; bureaucratic, and static |||
III those in authority, if!
Hi top of pyramid f |
first among equals: "the driver"
of business decisions
balancing short-term
and long-term goals
prevention of errors
lowered (when quality
is emphasized)
common causes
(ineffective systems and
management practices)
everyone
continuous improvement,
innovation, and permission
to fail
flat, integrated, and fluid
teams, all employee levels
                             5 The Meaning  of Quality

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Video
"The  Quality Advantage'
                            So far, you have considered your assumptions and beliefs about
                            quality as well as the characteristics of a quality organization.
                            This video introduces a model you  can use to build characteris-
                            tics of quality into your organization.


Discussion Questions      1. How has watching the video changed your view of quality?
                            2. What values do the best organizations have in common?
                            3. The video describes quality as doing right things right. What
                               does this mean to you?
                           6  The Meaning of Quality

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Presentation
The Foundation and Pillars of Quality
                           A quality organization has five elements called the pillars of
                           quality. These pillars are based on organizational values such as
                           honesty, commitment to customer satisfaction, and commitment to
                           creating an environment in which employees can do their best
                           work.
                           The Pillars of Quality
                                              The Quality Advantage
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Organizational Values
                          7 The Meaning of Quality

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Exercise
Directions
Rediscovering Core Values
The five pillars are based on a foundation of organizational
values. In  this exercise you will discuss what you believe to be
the core values of your organization.


Step 1. In subgroups, discuss and list what you believe to be the
        core values of the organization.

Step 2. Reduce your  list to the five core values you believe are
        the most critical.

Step 3. Select one representative to present your five core values
        to the larger  group.
                              8 The Meaning of Quality

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Presentation
The Five Pillars of  Quality
Definitions
Before you can assess how well your organization is working,
you need to understand what each of the pillars represents.

Customer focus (meeting requirements). Within an organization,
employees supply products, services, and information to one
another. These exchanges link coworkers as internal  customers
and suppliers. An organization can better meet the needs of its
final,  external customers when it also works to meet the require-
ments of its internal customers.

Total  involvement (taking responsibility for quality). Quality is
not just the responsibility of management or quality control.
Everyone in the organization  must be involved in achieving
quality.

Measurement (monitoring quality). An  axiom of quality is, "You
can't  improve what you don't measure." An organization can't
meet quality  goals unless it establishes baselines and charts
progress against them. Deciding what to measure should be
heavily influenced by customer requirements.

Systematic support (leading and reinforcing). All systems in the
organization,  such  as planning, budgeting,  scheduling, and
performance management, need to support the quality effort.

Continuous improvement (preventing and innovating). An
organization needs to do tilings better tomorrow than it did
yesterday and be constantly on the lookout for ways to correct
flaws, prevent problems, and  make improvements. Through
continuous improvements, organizations foster creativity and
breakthroughs that increase their credibility with their customers.
Dimensions
Each of the five pillars has been further divided into three
component parts,  for a total of fifteen specific dimensions, to
provide a working model of a total quality organization.

The fifteen dimensions are  summarized on the following pages.
Each dimension includes a  capsule description of its essential
elements.
                             Pillar: Customer Focus

                              1. External customer orientation. Everyone in your organization
                                 knows who uses your products and services, and what
                                 customers do with your products and services.
                             9 The Meaning of Quality

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 2. Internal customer orientation. Everyone in your organization
    understands that he or she is a customer and a supplier to
    others within the organization. Everyone understands that
    satisfying internal customer-supplier requirements affects the
    quality of the products or services provided to external
    customers.

 3. Trends in customer satisfaction.  Because they understand that
    the final judge of quality  is the  customer, employees are
    concerned with trends in customer satisfaction. The  organiza-
    tion places a high priority on being close to the customer
    and responding to the customer's needs.  Employees  deal
    quickly and effectively with customer problems.
Pillar: Total Involvement

 1.  Top-down leadership. A total quality organization is driven
    by senior management and administered by middle manage-
    ment. Management demonstrates its commitment to quality
    by educating itself about total quality, providing resources
    and support to quality  activities, and visibly using and
    supporting the process  in its own work. Quality is as
    important as budget or schedule on the scale of organiza-
    tional priorities.

 2.  Bottom-up employee  involvement. No organization can
    achieve total quality  without extensive employee  involve-
    ment. Employees at all levels are encouraged to take part  in
    organized quality-improvement activities.  Suggestions for
    improvement from lower levels are given  serious considera-
    tion.

 3.  Side-to-side  integration. There is coordination among work
    units and across functions. Teams composed of people from
    different areas tackle common problems collaboratively.
    External suppliers are part of the quality  effort.


Pillar: Measurement

 1.  Self-measurement. Employees are expected to verify the
    quality of their own  work rather than depend on  others to
    inspect for quality. In addition to monitoring their own
    performance, they also receive regular feedback from their
    managers. Their teams  keep records on their efforts  to
    improve quality.
10 The  Meaning of  Quality

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 2.  Measures of work. The organization has a consistent set of
    quality-measurement standards that are reevaluated periodical-
    ly. Work groups monitor how well employees follow work
    procedures. They also track indicators that can give early
    warning of problems. The organization collects information
    on the extent to which people make timely corrections.

 3.  Measures of user feedback. Groups measure how  well they
    meet the needs of those who depend on them. They receive
    regular feedback from their customers. Problems are reported
    back to them quickly enough to allow for speedy correction.
Pillar: Systematic Support

 1.  Training and resources. The organization provides the
    resources and education needed to improve quality. Employ-
    ees are given the time  to be trained, and also the tools and
    support  necessary to apply their new skills  to their jobs.

 2.  Recognition and reward. The organization demonstrates its
    commitment to quality  by recognizing and rewarding those
    who work to improve the quality of products, services, and
    work processes. Employees who strive for quality have a
    better chance for advancement.

 3.  Policies and procedures. The rules and procedures by which
    the organization operates help to produce quality. Obsolete
    policies, redundant approval  steps, and other structural
    barriers  are removed in the interest  of customer focus.
Pillar: Continuous Improvement

 1. Prevention and problem solving. The organization stresses
    prevention rather than temporary quick fixes,  and seeks to
    learn from mistakes.

 2. Participative management. All employees are  encouraged to
    discuss work problems in an open way and to participate
    actively in decisions on how to do things better.

 3. Initiative and risk taking. Even when things are working
    well, people are encouraged to make improvements. All
    progress requires taking calculated risks and creative
    initiatives. Management fosters a climate in which initiative
    and prudent  risk taking are an accepted and necessary part of
    organizational life.
11 The  Meaning of Quality

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Exercise
Rating Your Organizational Pillars
Directions
In the previous presentation, you examined the characteristics of
the five pillars of quality. Now you will rate the strength of
those pillars in your organization and suggest ways to make
improvements.


Step 1.  For each of the pillars below, mark a line from 0 to 5
        (0 = low, 5 = high) indicating how strong you feel this
        pillar is  at present in your organization.

Step 2.  Present your responses to  the  group for the creation of
        combined ratings.
                            Your Pillars of Quality
                                                 The Quality Advantage
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Organizational Values
                            12 The Meaning of Quality

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Key  Points               The Meaning of  Quality
                            Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                            your own.

                             •  Quality means doing right things right.

                             •  People behave differently and have different beliefs in
                                organizations with little-q versus Big-Q approaches.

                             •  The five pillars that support quality in an organization are
                                customer focus, total involvement, measurement, systematic
                                support, and continuous improvement.

                             •  The pillars rest on a foundation  of core values.

                             •  Everyone in the organization must be responsible for
                                strengthening the pillars of quality.
                            13 The Meaning of Quality

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Module Two     Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Contents                 Identifying the  Cost of Quality
                            Overview: Identifying the Cost of Quality                     2



                            Presentation: The  1-10-100 Rule                              3



                            Exercise: Using the Cost-of-Quality Iceberg                    4



                            Presentation: Necessary and Avoidable Costs                   6



                            Video: "The Cost of Quality"                                7



                            Presentation: The Quality Grid                                8



                            Exercise: Estimating Your Cost of Quality                   10



                            Key Points: Identifying the Cost of  Quality                  13
                            1 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Overview
Identifying the  Cost of Quality
                            In the previous module, we explored what quality means and
                            why it matters. In this  module, we will discover the true costs of
                            not doing quality work. Any time the wrong things are done or
                            things are done wrong, there is a cost  to the organization. These
                            costs include such things as waste, rework, unnecessary overtime,
                            and job dissatisfaction.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Recognize the cost to your organization whenever quality
    work is not done

 •  Break down the cost of quality into two categories:  necessary
    costs and avoidable costs

 •  Estimate your own avoidable cost of quality and its  impact
    on your work
                            2 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Presentation
The 1-10-100 Rule
                             It makes a difference when a problem is fixed. The 1-10-100 rule
                             shows that if a problem is not anticipated  or fixed in your work
                             area when it occurs, it  will only become more costly to fix later,
                             in  terms of both time and money.
                                             Prevention
                                             Catching and fixing
                                             problems in your work area
                                                     Inspection
                                                     Catching and fixing problems
                                                     internally, but after they have left
                                                     the work area
                                                                Failure
                                                                Repairing the damage of
                                                                problems caught by external
                                                                customers
                             3 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Exercise
Using the Cost-of-Quality Iceberg
                            The cost of quality is like an iceberg: A  small part of it is
                            visible, while the larger part is hidden from view.
Directions
Step 1.  On the next page, place a check next to any of those
        costs that apply to your work area.

Step 2.  Write any additional cost-of-quality items in the blank
        areas.

Step 3.  Circle the five most significant costs in your work area.

Step 4.  Be prepared to present  these five costs of quality  to the
        group.
                            4 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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The Cost-of-Quality Iceberg
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                                                5  Identifying  the  Cost  of  Quality

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Presentation
Necessary  and  Avoidable  Costs
                              The cost of quality is composed of two types of costs: necessary
                              and avoidable. Necessary costs are required to achieve and
                              sustain a defined standard of work. Avoidable costs occur
                              whenever wrong  things are done or things are done wrong.

                              Necessary costs include prevention and inspection. Avoidable
                              costs include some inspection (or appraisal) costs and failure
                              costs.
                              The Cost of Quality
                                Prevention costs
                                are the costs of any
                                actions intended to
                                make sure, in
                                advance, that things
                                will not go wrong.
                                Prevention costs also
                                include the costs of
                                on-the-spot corrections.
                        Inspection costs are
                        the costs of finding
                        out if and when
                        things are going
                        wrong so correction
                        or prevention
                        actions can occur.
                        Some inspection is
                        necessary, while
                        other inspection is
                        redundant and does
                        not add significant
                        value.
Failure costs are the
costs you incur when
a customer is or will
be dissatisfied and
you have to pay the
price in damaged
reputation, rework,
waste, legal penalties,
special charges,
or loss of pride.
                              Identifying the necessary and avoidable costs of quality is the
                              first step toward reducing those costs. An organization's
                              managers and employees are the people  close enough to the
                              action to know where the waste really is.
                              6 Identifying the  Cost of Quality

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Video                     "The Cost of Quality"


                            You have identified some costs of quality in your work area. In
                            this video you will learn what you can do to reduce your
                            organization's cost of quality.


Discussion Question      If all the employees in your organization did exactly what they
                            were supposed to do,  and did their jobs perfectly, would all  your
                            cost of quality disappear?
                             7 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Presentation
The Quality  Grid


Every job has two dimensions: what you do and how you do it.

 1.  What you do falls into one of two categories: right things
    and wrong things.
                                               Right Things

                                                                          o
                                                                          o
                                                                          o
                            2. How you do it also falls into two categories: things done
                              right and things done wrong.
                                                 How You Do It
                                                             Things
                                                             Done
                                                             Right
                           8 Identifying the Cost of Quality

-------
Both dimensions (what you do and how you do it) can be
combined to create what we call a quality grid.  You can use  the
grid to evaluate your work. The example below  shows the
categories for various work activities.
The Quality Grid
                       How You Do It
       Right Things Wrong

      Wrote grant proposal as
      requested and on
      schedule, did not seek
      input from those affected

      Filled out correct form,
      information inaccurate
                            Right Things Right

                            Completed necessary
                            report correctly and on
                            schedule

                            Provided information as
                            requested, in an accurate,
                            timely manner
 Wrong Things Wrong

Scheduled unnecessary
meeting, poorly run

Sent bill to wrong person,
calculation incorrect
Wrong Things Right

Held meeting seeking
input on decision already
made, ran meeting well

Completed unnecessary
report, written well, and
submitted on time
                                                             o
                                                             o
 9 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Exercise                 Estimating Your Cost of Quality


                           Now that you understand the importance of doing right things
                           and doing things right, it is time to examine your own work.


Directions                 Step 1.  In the space below, list the major work activities you
                                   have been engaged in during the last two weeks.
                                   Examples: wrote memo on department absenteeism,
                                   attended meeting on budget variance, filled out standard
                                   requisition form, wrote recommendation for revising an
                                   SOP, listened to an employee's complaints.
                           10 Identifying the Cost of Quality

-------
The Quality Grid
                            Step 2.  Review your list. Write each of the activities you listed

                                    in the appropriate box below.
                                    How You Do It
             Right Things Wrong
                                         Right Things Right

                                                                                     a
                                                                                     o
Wrong Things Wrong
Wrong Things Right
                           11  Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Step 3.  Estimate the percentage of time you spent doing the
        activities that you listed in each square of the quality
        grid. Write  your estimates in the grid below.
Step 4.  Subtract your right things right (RTR) percentage from
        100 percent,  and you will have your avoidable cost of
        quality.
                Total

              -RTR

              = Avoidable
                Cost of
                Quality
100%
12 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Key Points               Identifying the Cost of  Quality
                            Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                            your own.

                             •  Quality means doing right things and doing things right.

                             •  An organization can improve quality while reducing costs.

                             •  The cost of quality includes two components: necessary costs
                                and avoidable costs.

                             •  Necessary costs are required to ensure quality work.

                             •  Avoidable costs are the result of not doing right things right.

                             •  Whenever employees don't do right things right, they add to
                                the avoidable costs of quality.

                             •  Everyone is responsible for reducing the avoidable costs of
                                quality.
                            13 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Module Three    You and Your Customer

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Contents                You and Your  Customer
                          Overview: You and Your Customer                         2



                          Presentation: Work as a Process                            3



                          Exercise: Identifying Customers and Suppliers                6



                          Video: "You and Your Customer"                          8



                          Presentation: The Customer's Expectations for Quality          9



                          Video: "Moving toward Alignment"                        10



                          Exercise: Aligning with Your Customer                     11



                          Key Points: You and Your Customer                       15
                          1  You and  Your Customer

-------
Overview
You and  Your Customer
                            This module introduces us to a new way of thinking about work.
                            We will see that everyone in our organization is both a customer
                            and a supplier. And we will see  how establishing and meeting
                            agreed-upon customer requirements and building positive relation-
                            ships between customers and suppliers are  critical to doing right
                            things right.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Recognize how everyone in a quality organization is part of
    a customer-supplier chain

 •  Identify your key customers and suppliers

 •  Understand the importance of first aligning customer needs
    and supplier capabilities and  then meeting agreed-upon re-
    quirements

 •  Use three simple questions to help build positive and
    productive working relationships with your customers

 •  Use the PRIDE elements—product or service, relationship,
    integrity, delivery, and expense—to guide  the development of
    customer-supplier agreements
                            2 You  and Your Customer

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Presentation
Work  as  a Process
                             In order to integrate quality into everything he or she does,
                             everyone in an organization must understand the  following:

                              •  All work is a process in which employees are both customers
                                 of and suppliers to each other, forming a chain.

                              •  You are a customer when you get material, information, or
                                 services from others in  your organization or from an outside
                                 source.

                              •  You are a supplier when you provide material, information,
                                 or services to others in  your organization or to external
                                 customers.

                              •  The materials, information, or services you receive from
                                 others as a customer are inputs.

                              •  The materials, information, or services you provide to others
                                 as a supplier  are outputs.

                              •  When you are doing right things  right, you add value to the
                                 inputs you handle.

                              •  Adding value is a key concept of TQM. Everyone in the
                                 agency should examine  all of his or her activities to
                                 determine whether each creates an output that adds sig-
                                 nificant value to the input received.
  The Customer-Supplier Chain
                             3 You and Your Customer

-------
You can create a flowchart of any work process in order to
identify the customer-supplier chain. Below, you'll find a
simplified flowchart illustrating the process of publishing a book.
Publishing a Book
Author writes
book, sends it
to editor.
Input i
Output
r
Editor makes
corrections on
manuscript, sends
it to production.
Input i
Output
r
Production supervisor
has manuscript
typeset, sends
it to printer.
Input i
Output
r
Printer prints book,
sends copies
to warehouse.
Input i
Output
'
                                      Value Added
                                      Value Added
                                      Value Added
                   Warehouse
                     manager
                   ships books
                  to bookstores.
Value Added
 Although this flowchart does not show all the steps required to
 get a book into print or all the customers and suppliers involved,
 it does illustrate essential customer-supplier links. In this chain,
 the author is the supplier of the manuscript, and the editor is the
 customer. The editor adds value to the book and produces output
 (the edited manuscript), which he or she then supplies to
 production, the next customer in line.
 4 You and Your Customer

-------
In the process of turning the manuscript over to production,  the
editor moves from the role of customer to that of supplier. In
fact, in the customer-supplier chain, everyone is at one time  or
another both a customer and a supplier. We  all wear two hats.

Identifying your role at any given point in the customer-supplier
chain helps you improve your customer-supplier relationships and
determine whether you are adding value; it also makes the work
flow more smoothly.
Summary

 •  In an organization everyone is both a customer and a
    supplier.

 •  The handoff of work from suppliers to customers creates the
    customer-supplier chain.

 •  Your work is part of a process of inputs, added value, and
    outputs moving through the customer-supplier chain. It is not
    an isolated activity.

 •  Your boss is both a customer of and a supplier to you, and
    you are both a customer of and a  supplier to your
    employees.

 •  When the requirements of every customer in the chain are
    met, your organization can reach its quality goals.
5 You and Your Customer

-------
Exercise
Directions
Identifying Customers and  Suppliers


In this exercise, you will identify your role in the customer-
supplier chain.


Step 1. Think of yourself as one link in a chain of activities.

Step 2. On the worksheet on the next page, write three of your
        most important outputs in the appropriate  spaces.

Step 3. Write the names of key customers who use these
        outputs.

Step 4. Write the most critical inputs you need to complete your
        outputs.

Step 5. Write the names of the key suppliers who give you
        these inputs.
                             6 You and Your Customer

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Worksheet
Identifying Customers  and Suppliers
                                                          Supplier
                                                           Input
                                                          My
                                                          Value-Added
                                                          Activity
                                                          Output
                                                          Customer
                      7 You and Your Customer

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Video
"You  and Your Customer"
                          This video emphasizes the importance of listening to your
                          customers. By focusing on what your customers want, you are
                          more likely to do right things right.
Discussion Questions
 1. What are the "lettuce and tomato rules" in your organization?
                            2. Are the employees in the restaurant doing right things?
                            3. How could the restaurant and its customers be better aligned?
                           8 You and Your Customer

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Presentation
The  Customer's Expectations for Quality
                            You've just seen a video in which well-meaning suppliers were
                            not aligned with the needs  of their customers. The concept of
                            PRIDE was introduced as a way of identifying the key elements
                            that must be aligned between customers and suppliers. Let's  take
                            a closer look at PRIDE.
                            Elements

                            Product or service
                             Criteria

                             1.  Is it what my customer
                                needs?

                             2.  Does it do what my customer
                                wants?
                            Relationship
                             1.  Do we trust each other?

                             2.  Have we talked about how
                                we will work together?
                            Integrity
                             1.  Can I provide the support that
                                my customer needs?

                             2.  If requirements are not met,
                                what will I do?
                            Delivery
                             1.  Do I ensure that the product
                                or service is delivered on
                                time to the right person or
                                location?

                             2.  Do I see that it arrives in
                                usable form?
                            Expense
                             1.  Does the customer believe
                                that the product or service is
                                a good value?

                             2.  Do I provide the customer the
                                product or service in a cost-
                                effective manner?
                            9 You and Your Customer

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Video
"Moving toward Alignment*
 Discussion Questions
                           Discussions between customers and suppliers must be based on
                           understanding and mutual support. To create this kind of
                           relationship, it is often necessary  to remove barriers  that separate
                           customers and suppliers. In this video, you will see  how three
                           key questions can help you remove these barriers and begin to
                           build positive working relationships with your own customers and
                           suppliers:
                            1. What do you need from me?

                            2. What do you do with what I give you?

                            3. Are there any gaps between what I give you and what you
                               need?
 1.  Could any of your existing customer-supplier relationships be
    improved by asking the three key questions? Which ones?
                            2. Are there any other questions you think suppliers and
                               customers  should ask each other?
                            10 You and Your Customer

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Exercise                 Aligning with Your Customer
                           The PRIDE concept is helpful in specifying the requirements that
                           you as a supplier need to meet. In this exercise, you will have an
                           opportunity to practice using the three alignment questions to
                           establish requirements with a customer.
Directions                  Step 1. Read the PRIDE reference page.

                            Step 2. Form a customer-supplier pair and complete the
                                   worksheet, "Aligning with Your Customer."

                            Step 3. Summarize the agreed-upon requirements in the
                                   worksheet, "Agreed-Upon Requirements."
                            11 You and  Your Customer

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Reference Page        PRIDE
                           The three questions that can help you align with your customers
                           are

                            1. What do you need from me? This first question can help you
                               use the PRIDE elements to understand different facets of
                               your customer's requirements.

                            2. What do you do with what I give you? This second question
                               can help you understand how the customer uses your input
                               so that you can make additional suggestions that may not
                               have occurred to the customer and better meet customer
                               requirements.

                            3. Are there any gaps  between what I give you and what you
                               need? The third question can give you an opportunity to
                               make explicit your capabilities with respect to customer
                               requirements so that both you and your customer are clear
                               about what is and is not possible. This alignment between
                               customer requirements and supplier capabilities is what
                               solidifies agreed-upon or valid requirements.
                           12 You and Your Customer

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Worksheet             Aligning with Your Customer
 1. What do you need from me?
       Product or service
        Relationship
        Integrity
        Delivery
        Expense
  2. What do you do with what I give you?
  3. Are there any gaps between what I give you and what you need?
                        13 You and Your Customer

-------
Worksheet             Agreed-Upon  Requirements
Product or service
 Relationship
 Integrity
 Delivery
  Expense
                         14 You and Your Customer

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Key Points              You and Your Customer
                            Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                            your own.

                             •  Work processes link  employees  as customers and suppliers in
                                a chain.

                             •  Your work is part of a process  of inputs, added value, and
                                outputs moving through the customer-supplier chain.

                             •  It is important that all employees determine whether each  of
                                their activities adds value to the overall mission of the
                                agency, and, if not, that they help redesign work processes to
                                ensure that each activity is value added.

                             •  Aligning customer needs with supplier capabilities  helps
                                ensure that you are doing right  things right.

                             •  Three key questions can facilitate alignment between
                                customers and suppliers:

                                 1. What do you need from me?

                                2. What do you do with what I  give you?

                                3. Are there any gaps between what I give you and what you
                                  need?

                             •  PRIDE is a way of identifying key elements  that must be
                                aligned between customers and suppliers.

                             •  Customer satisfaction is the result of meeting agreed-upon
                                requirements.
                            15 You and Your Customer

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Module Four    Continuous Improvement—Doing
               Right Things

-------
Contents                Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things
                          Overview: Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things      2

                          Presentation: The Quality Blueprint                         3

                          Presentation: The Quality Blueprint—Step One                6

                          Tool: Brainstorming                                      7

                          Tool: Multivoting                                        9

                          Tool: Selection Grid                                    10

                          Exercise: Applying the Quality Blueprint—Step One          12

                          Presentation: The Quality Blueprint—Steps Two, Three,
                                      and Four                                  15

                          Exercise: Applying the Quality Blueprint—Steps Two, Three,
                                   and Four                                      16

                          Key Points: Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things    19
                           1 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

-------
Overview                 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things


                            We have completed the first three modules of The EPA Executive
                            Course on Quality which cover essential quality concepts and
                            techniques. Now it is time to apply this information for the
                            purpose of continuous improvement. In this module we shall
                            present a seven-step  blueprint for managing quality implementa-
                             tion. We  shall complete the first four steps that focus on doing
                             right things.  (The last three steps will be discussed in module 5.)


 Objectives                 By  the end of this module, you  will be able to

                              •  Review  cost-of-quality and customer data along with your
                                 assessment of the five pillars to identify improvement
                                 opportunities

                              •  Apply several problem-solving tools to select one process-
                                 improvement opportunity from your list

                              •  Determine the key customers of this process and, using the
                                 PRIDE  model, establish their requirements and identify the
                                 gaps
                              2 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Presentation
The Quality Blueprint
                              The quality blueprint is a disciplined way to undertake quality
                              improvement efforts that will make a difference in your
                              organization.  The first  four steps  are a guide to doing right
                              things. The last three steps are a guide to doing things right.
                                      7.  Measure
                                         and monitor.
                             6. Develop and
                                execute solutions.
                                                               1. Identify
                                                                 improvement
                                                                 opportunities.
                                     5. Describe and
                                       analyze the
                                       current process
                                                                             2.  Identify key
                                                                                customers
                                                                                and suppliers.
                                                                             3. Establish
                                                                               agreed-upon
                                                                               requirements.
                               3 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Doing Right Things
           Steps

       1.   Identify improvement
           opportunities.
       2.  Identify key customers
           and suppliers.
       3.  Establish agreed-upon
           requirements.
        4.  Identify the gaps.
How

Listen to your customers.
Look at your current measures of the
   five pillars.
Identify avoidable costs of quality.
Set priorities for critical improvements.

Ask, "Who gets my output?"
Ask, "Whose input do I need?"
Determine critical customers and
   suppliers.

Ask your customers
   "What do you need from me?"
   "What do you do with what I give you?"
   "Are there any gaps between what I
    give you and what you need?"

Establish performance measures.

On the basis of your data, identify the
   gaps between what your customers
   need and what your work process
   can supply.

Ask, "What data do I have to
   confirm gaps?"
                             4 Continuous Improvement—Doing  Right Things

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Doing Things Right
           Steps

        5.  Describe and analyze the current
           process.
        6.   Develop and execute solutions.
        7.  Measure and monitor.
How

Flowchart processes to understand
   how things work now.
Focus on bottlenecks, nonvalue-added
   steps, and rework.

Analyze \\\Q root causes of breakdowns
   using the vrfiy technique and other
   quality improvement tools.

Ask, "Does the current process consis-
   tently meet customer requirements?"
If the current process can meet
   requirements, fix it so that it
   meets them every time.
If the current process cannot meet
   requirements, develop a new process.

Use contingency diagrams and
   prevention checklists to anticipate
   and eliminate problems.

Execute your action plan for improving
   the process.
Establish comprehensive measures and
   feedback systems.
Document results.
                              5 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Presentation
The Quality  Blueprint—Step One
                             The first step in the quality blueprint is identifying improvement
                             opportunities. Several tools can help you in this process. They
                             include brainstorming, multivoting,  and the selection grid.
                             Step One
                                     7.  Measure
                                        and monitor.
                             6. Develop and
                               execute solutions.
                                    5. Describe and
                                      analyze the
                                      current process.
                                                              1.  Identify
                                                                 improvement
                                                                 opportunities.
                                                                            2. Identify key
                                                                              customers
                                                                              and suppliers.
                                                                            3. Establish
                                                                              agreed-upon
                                                                              requirements.
                                                              4.  Identify
                                                                 the gaps.
                             6  Continuous Improvement—Doing Right  Things

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Tool                       Brainstorming
What It Is                  A technique for generating a list of ideas about an issue.


What to Use It For         •  Generating lists of

                                  Problems
                                  Topics for data collection
                                  Potential  solutions
                                  Items to monitor

                             •  Obtaining multiple ideas  and/or more group energy


How to Use It             Step 1.  Decide on a topic (such as "problem ideas" or "ideas for
                                    solutions").

                            Step 2.  Have each member in turn offer an idea about the topic.
                                    Other members should refrain from any comment, listen
                                    carefully, and build on each other's ideas.

                            Step 3.  Have one person record all the  ideas on a flipchart.

                            Step 4.  Continue the process until the team feels it has  ex-
                                    hausted its ideas  on  the topic.

                            Step 5.  Discuss and clarify the ideas  on the list.
                            7 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Example                    A cross-divisional work group was given the task of coming up
                             with a "wish list" for the new agency lunchroom. Six people got
                             together and generated  the following list of ideas:

                             Running water and sink         Soft drink  machine
                             Relaxing music                 High-capacity coffee maker
                             Tables and chairs               Refrigerator
                             Microwave oven                Toaster
                             Chandelier/candlelight            Linen tablecloths
                             Full-time attendant              Fruit-juice  fountain
                             Food delivery service            Free bagels and cream cheese
                             Massage lounge chairs           Multi-beverage dispenser
                             Recycle containers


Keep in Mind                •   Set a time limit for the brainstorming session.

                              •   Offer ideas only when it is your turn. Between turns, write
                                 down ideas  so you  do not forget them.

                              •   Any idea is acceptable, even  if it seems  silly, strange, or
                                 similar to a previous idea. Some of the best ideas are simply
                                 variations on what somebody else just said.

                              •   Say "pass" if you do not have an idea on your turn.

                              •  Never criticize, question, or even praise  others' ideas during
                                the brainstorming session.
                            8 Continuous Improvement—Doing  Right Things

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Tool
Multivoting
What  It Is
A technique for narrowing down a list of ideas or options. It is
used in conjunction with brainstorming.
What to Use It For
Selecting a problem, topic for data collection,  solution, or item to
monitor
How to Use It
Step 1. Use brainstorming to generate a list of topics. Have one
        person record the ideas on a flipchart. Review and
        clarify each idea. With the consent of the group,  similar
        ideas can be combined.

Step 2. Have each member assign ten points to one or more of
        the ideas  (e.g., team members can assign all ten points
        to one idea, five to one and five to another, one  to each
        idea, or any other combination).

Step 3. Ask team members to record their points for each idea
        on  a separate  Post-it note and to place the  Post-it note
        next to the idea on the flipchart, or have team members
        call out their votes in turn.

Step 4. Tally the  votes for each idea.  Narrow down the list to
        the four to six ideas that received the most votes.
 Example
The cross-divisional work group who brainstormed a wish list for
the new agency lunchroom wanted to narrow down their list of
ideas  from seventeen to five. Each group member was  assigned
ten points with which to vote for the topics. Here is the resulting
list.
                             Running water and sink (4)
                             Relaxing music (1)
                             Tables and chairs (11)
                             Microwave oven (7)
                             Chandelier/candlelight
                             Full-time attendant
                             Food delivery service
                             Massage lounge chairs
                             Recycle containers (10)
                               Soft drink machine (8)
                               High-capacity coffee maker (10)
                               Refrigerator (15)
                               Toaster (4)
                               Linen tablecloths
                               Fruit-juice fountain
                               Free  bagels and cream cheese
                               Multi-beverage dispenser
Keep  in  Mind
• Feel free to distribute your votes in any way you like.

• To preserve anonymity, multivoting can also be done  by
  written ballot (sometimes called nominal group technique).
                             9 Continuous  Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Tool
What It Is
Selection Grid
A method for selecting one option from several possibilities. It
involves deciding what criteria are important and using them as a
basis for reaching an acceptable decision.
What to  Use  It For
    Choosing a single problem from a list of problems

    Choosing a single solution from a list of solutions
How to Use It
Step 1. Narrow the list of potential choices: Ask which items
        are of special interest to the group (or use multivoting).

Step 2. Choose criteria, each with a scoring system (e.g. yes/no,
        high/low, or whatever seems most appropriate).

Step 3. Make a grid with the criteria across the top and the
        options on the left side. Fill in the grid to evaluate how
        well each option satisfies each criterion.

Step 4. Use the information on the grid to help you select the
        best option.

Here are two ways to think about criteria.

 1. Worthwhile. Is the problem worth working on? This can
    include quality (for the customer), cost (to the organization),
    and hassle  (for those who do the work).

 2. Doable. Can we make progress on the situation? This can
    include support (from management and others), time (for us
    to see the work through to completion), knowledge  (about the
    topic), and interest (in working hard at it).
 Example
The Pied Pipers were a quality action team from Local #256,
Pipefitters and Welders. The team, composed of six individuals,
was trying to decide among three problems they might work on:
(1) poor washer assemblies, (2) inadequate inventories of large-
scale pipes in the field warehouses, and (3) lack of coordination
between the Pied Pipers and other working teams. Each member
of the team voted once on  whether he or she thought the prob-
lems were  worth tackling, whether management support could be
gained, and whether he or she had sufficient time and interest  to
work on that particular concern.
                             10 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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                            Selection Grid
Problem
Poor washer
assemblies
Inadequate
inventories
Lack of
coordination
Selection Criteria
Worthwhile?
Yes: 3
No: 3
Yes: 5
No: 1
Yes: 6
No: 0
Mgmt.
Support?
Yes: 3
No: 3
Yes: 4
No: 2
Yes: 2
No: 4
Time?
Yes: 4
No: 2
Yes: 5
No: 1
Yes: 1
No: 5
Interest?
High: 3
Low: 3
High: 4
Low: 2
High: 5
Low: 1
Keep in Mind
While the selection grid did not answer precisely what problem
to work on,  it was clear to the Pied Pipers that inadequate inven-
tories of large-scale pipes was something that most of the mem-
bers felt strongly about and for which there was time, interest,
and probably management support. The  team chose this problem
on which to work.


 •  List your criteria without regard to the options.

 •  The selection  grid may not give you a clear-cut decision,  but
    it does provide information. You must still  make the final
    judgment.
                            11 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Exercise                  Applying the  Quality  Blueprint—Step One
                            In this exercise you will complete step 1 of the quality blueprint
                            by choosing one process to improve from a list of improvement
                            opportunities.
                            opportunities


Directions                  Step 1.  Take a few minutes to review the data from modules 1,
                                    2, and 3—current ratings of the five pillars, avoidable
                                    costs of quality, and customer-supplier gaps.

                            Step 2.  Read the criteria for process selection on the following
                                    page.

                            Step 3.  Based on these criteria and your data, brainstorm a list
                                    of process-improvement opportunities. The processes  you
                                    choose need to be existing processes for which you can
                                    identify clear beginning and ending points.

                            Step 4.  Use multivoting to narrow the list to four to six
                                    processes.

                            Step 5.  Use a selection grid to choose one process  for improve-
                                    ment. (You may use the worksheet, "Selection Grid.")

                            Step 6.  Record the process you have selected for improvement.
                                    Write a process  statement that includes the  parameters of
                                    the process, i.e., where it begins and where it ends.
                           12 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Reference Page         Criteria  for Process Selection
                            The process you choose should

                             •  Be relevant and important to the team or work group

                             •  Be actionable, in  that the work group has at least partial
                               control over its outcome

                             •  Be repetitive, not a one-time or infrequently occurring event;
                               it must exist now as  something that can be identified,  stud-
                               ied, and flowcharted

                             •  Be aligned with the organization's mission and strategies
                               (i.e., have a service or product-improvement goal)

                             •  Be recognized as  needing change and improvement

                             •  Not have obvious solutions for improvement

                             •  Involve^nultiple customers and suppliers who can be iden-
                               tified

                             •  Have a high enough priority to secure  the necessary commit-
                               ment of time to improve it

                             •  Be a manageable  size; if your process  is too long or
                               complicated, use a part of it that fits the criteria above
                            13 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Worksheet
Selection Grid
        Problem
                                     Selection Criteria
                       14 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Presentation
The  Quality Blueprint—Steps Two,  Three,
and  Four
                            Once you have selected a process to improve, you can identify
                            the key customers and suppliers in this process, establish the
                            agreed-upon requirements, and target the gaps.
                            Steps Two, Three, and Four
                  7. Measure
                    and monitor.
          6. Develop and
            execute solutions,
                 5. Describe and
                   analyze the
                   current process
                                         1. Identify
                                           improvement
                                           opportunities.
                                                           2. Identify key
                                                             customers
                                                             and suppliers.
                                                           3. Establish
                                                             agreed-upon
                                                             requirements.
                            15 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Exercise
Applying the Quality Blueprint—Steps Two,
Three, and Four
                           Steps 2, 3, and 4 of the quality blueprint ensure that you arc
                           doing the right thing with respect to the process you have
                           selected for improvement. After you have identified your key
                           customers, you must contact them and ask them about their
                           expectations for quality. However, for the purpose of this
                           exercise, a member of the group will play  the role of one of
                           your customers, drawing  on current knowledge of this customer's
                           expectations.

                           Plan to meet with your actual customer to  verify (or modify)
                           your assumptions and to  negotiate valid requirements.
Directions
Step 1.  Review the process you selected for improvement.

Step 2.  Brainstorm a list of your key customers.

Step 3.  Pick one of these customers.

Step 4. Have a group member play the role of this customer.

Step 5.  Have the "customer" identify requirements and gaps by
        answering the three questions in the worksheet on the
        following page.

Step 6.  With the rest of the group acting as the supplier,
        negotiate  your requirements using the PRIDE dimen-
        sions.

Step 7.  Summarize your agreed-upon requirements on the
        worksheet, "Agreed-Upon Requirements."
                            16 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Worksheet             Aligning with  Your Customer
1. What do you need from me?
       Product or service
        Relationship
        Integrity
        Delivery
       Expense
2. What do you do with what I give you?
3.  Are there any gaps between what I give you and what you need?
                       17 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Worksheet             Agreed-Upon Requirements
Product or service
Relationship
 Integrity
 Delivery
 Expense
                        18 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Key Points              Continuous  Improvement—Doing  Right Things
                          Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                          your own.

                           •  In order to improve quality, you must listen to your
                              customers and then remove the  obstacles that prevent you
                              from doing right things right.

                           •  The quality blueprint can be used by managers, either
                              individually or in informal  work groups, to improve quality.

                           •  The first four steps of the quality blueprint can help you
                              determine what the right things  are for a process that needs
                              improving.
                            19 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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                                    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^mmmm^^m^m
Module Five     Continuous Improvement—Doing
               Things Right

-------
Contents                 Continuous  Improvement—Doing Things Right






                           Overview: Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right       2



                           Exercise: Snowstorm Survival                               3



                           Presentation: The FADE Problem-Solving Process              8



                           Presentation: Integration of the Quality Blueprint and FADE     9



                           Video: "Introduction to QAT"                             12



                           Presentation: The Quality Blueprint—Step Five               13



                           Exercise: Applying the Quality Blueprint—Step Five          14



                           Tool:  Flowchart                                         15



                           Tool:  Fishbone Diagram                                  18



                           Tool:  The Why Technique                                20



                           Tool:  Pareto Analysis                                    21



                           Presentation: The Quality Blueprint—Step Six               24



                           Exercise: Applying the Quality Blueprint—Step Six           25



                           Tool:  Force-Field Analysis                                26



                           Tool:  Contingency Diagram                               29



                           Tool:  Action Plan                                       31



                           Presentation: The Quality Blueprint—Step Seven             33



                           Presentation: Guidelines for Developing Quality Measures      34



                           Tool:  Measurement Matrix                                36



                           Exercise: Developing Quality Measures—Step Seven          38



                           Tool:  Trend Chart                                       42



                           Tool:  Specifications and Control  Limits                     44



                           Key Points: Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right    48
                           1 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Overview
Continuous  Improvement—Doing Things  Right
                           In the previous module, you used the quality blueprint to select a
                           process that needs improvement and to practice doing right
                           things. You asked your customers about their requirements and
                           about any gaps between what they need and what you provide. In
                           this module, you will apply the quality blueprint to  your process
                           in order to ensure that you are doing things right in meeting your
                           customers'  needs.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Understand the links between the quality blueprint and the
    FADE problem-solving methodology

 •  Apply some specific tools to help reveal the possible root
    causes of problems  and to develop solutions

 •  Create an action plan to implement your solution

 •  Develop quality measures for your work process

 •  Recognize special and common (or system) causes of
    variation in work processes

 •  Understand trend charts and specifications  and control limits
                           2 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Exercise
Snowstorm Survival*
                             In this exercise, you will explore the notion of synergy. Working
                             first by yourself and then in groups, you will test your group's
                             power to enhance individual judgments.
Directions
Step 1. Read the story below.

It's 2:00 P.M. on a Friday and  you look out your office window.
The sky is white and snow is lightly falling. The weather report
predicted snow, but not until evening, and you are  surprised at its
early arrival.

You return to your desk to work on a project you've been
involved in all week, occasionally glancing out the window.  By
4:00 P.M. the snow has considerably increased.  Only one or two
inches  appear to cover the ground, however, and you are anxious
to complete your project before the weekend, so you continue
working.

By 4:30 P.M. you realize  you are looking out the window at a
fierce blizzard. You can barely  see the building across the  street.
You realize that if you're  going to get home, you'd better  leave
at once. You're not too worried, since you have  a nine-passenger
Jeep with four-wheel drive, and you've yet to encounter terrain
that could stop it.

You get your gear together, grab some file folders, and on an
impulse you call your spouse to say you are leaving and expect
to be home by 7:00 P.M.  at the latest.

When you  get to the lobby, you meet several of your colleagues,
all  of whom live forty miles north, in the same general area as
you. They  are looking forlornly at  the growing snowdrifts and
discussing the merits of staying at work or making a run for it.
You offer to take anyone  who wants to come along with you;
four agree. After fighting the gale-force winds, you finally settle
in the Jeep, warm up the engine, and take off.
                                  'Many of the details of this  story are taken from situations
                             that occurred during a massive snowstorm in New England in the
                             winter of 1978, when hundreds of commuters were trapped in traffic
                             following the sudden and unexpected onset of a blizzard.
                             3 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things  Right

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 You put your vehicle into four-wheel drive and head for the
 highway. At first, traffic is minimal and the Jeep plows through
 the snow. But the highway is jammed when you arrive, so you
 decide to detour via a special route you're familiar with. It is
 longer and takes you through rolling farmland with empty fields
 and few houses.

 Within  twenty minutes you are having trouble holding the road.
 Within  an hour  even your sturdy Jeep is unable to make any
 headway against the two-foot drifts. You push on as far as you
 can go, then stop and give your passengers the bad news. There's
 less than half a  tank of gas left, you're at  least five miles from
 the nearest farmhouse, and all you  have in the Jeep outside of
 standard equipment are the following  items:

  •  A collapsible shovel

  •  A dashboard-mounted compass

  •  Various maps of Massachusetts and New Hampshire

  •  A case of beer and one quart of scotch that you forgot to
    bring into your house the previous evening

  •  Fifty feet of nylon rope

  •  Two three-pound cans of coffee, unopened

  •  A Swiss  army knife

  •  Two weeks' worth of newspapers,  which were headed for
    recycling

  •  A flashlight  with two good batteries

 The five of you  review all the resources in the Jeep  that might
 be useful and come up with an additional six items. They  are

  •  The spare tire

  •  A collapsible fishing pole

  •  Flares

  •  A 20' x 20' canvas tarp

 •  The rearview mirror

 •  The gasoline in the tank
4 Continuous Improvement—Doing  Things Right

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The weather report on the radio is dire. The news sinks in: You
are stuck miles from shelter in one of the worst snowstorms ever
to hit your area.

It is  now 7:00 P.M. The temperature is rapidly falling, and the
snow has begun to drift to the level of the Jeep's roof. You
discuss your survival strategy.

You  all feel the need to do something:  stay with the Jeep, try to
reach a farmhouse or the highway, split up, or remain together.

Step 2. Work individually to complete the individual ranking
        worksheet. Rank the fifteen items listed according to
        their importance for survival. Put a 1 next  to the most
        important item, a 2 next to the second most important
        item, and so on through 15.

Step 3. At the direction of your facilitator,  break into small
        groups. Using the  group ranking worksheet, record a
        group ranking for  the fifteen  items. Avoid voting;  try to
        reach consensus by sharing your rationales.

Step 4. Be prepared to interpret your results and to discuss your
        group's decision-making process with the large group.
5 Continuous  Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Worksheet
      Snowstorm Survival—Individual Ranking
     Items




 1.   Shovel




 2.   Compass




 3.   Maps




 4.   Alcohol




 5.   Rope




 6.   Coffee cans




 7.   Knife




 8.   Newspapers




 9.   Flashlight




 10.  Spare tire




 11.  Fishing pole




 12.  Flares




 13.  Tarp




 14.  Mirror




 15.  Gasoline
Your Ranking
Expert Ranking
                                                          Difference
                                         Individual Score
                         6 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Worksheet
      Snowstorm Survival—Group Ranking
     Items




 1.   Shovel




 2.   Compass




 3.   Maps




 4.   Alcohol




 5.   Rope




 6.   Coffee cans




 7.   Knife




 8.   Newspapers




 9.   Flashlight




 10.   Spare tire




 11.   Fishing pole




 12.   Flares




 13.   Tarp




 14.   Mirror




 15.   Gasoline
Group Ranking
Expert Ranking
Difference
                                        Group Score
                        7 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation
The FADE Problem-Solving Process
                             In the previous exercise you compared working individually with
                             working on a team. In the rest of this module you will be
                             working in teams to complete steps 5  through 7  of the quality
                             blueprint cycle.

                             Here  we introduce the FADE methodology, which  is a team-
                             based approach to problem solving and continuous  improvement.
                             The FADE methodology includes four phases and twenty-three
                             problem-solving tools to be used by quality action  teams  (QATs).
                             (Refer to "The  QAT Problem-Solving Process" in the reference
                             readings.) Each phase has a distinct output or set of outputs.

                             It is important for managers to realize that workers are frequently
                             the most knowledgeable about how current processes work.
                             Therefore, QATs will be especially important to  managers in
                             gaining valuable information from those who work  closely with
                             key processes.
                             The FADE Process
                                                   Written statement of problem
                                                         Select one
                                                          problem
                    Generate
                     list of
                    problems
                                Vferify/
                                define
                                problem
                                  Record of
                                   impact
                                                                        Decide what
                                                                        you need to
                                                                           know
                                                                          Collect data:
                                                                           baselines/
                                                                            patterns
                                                                                    List of
                                                                                    most
                                                                                  influential
                                                                                    factors
                                            Determine
                                            influential
                                             factors
         Gain
Organi- \ commitment
zational
commit-
 ment
                                                                  Generate
                                                                  promising
                                                                  solutions
                                                                   Solution for
                                                                    problem
                     A plan for
                   implementation
                             8 Continuous  Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation
Integration  of the Quality Blueprint and FADE


The quality blueprint is intended for managers to use, either
individually or in informal work groups, in order to continuously
improve work processes within their authority.

The FADE methodology is a more structured problem-solving
discipline within the process-improvement  cycle. It is used by
formal QATs when criteria include:

 •  Process complexity

 •  Data-intensive requirements

 •  Significance of impact on agency goals

 •  Cross-functional or work-group team composition
 The Quality Blueprint and FADE
       7. Measure & monitor
                               Doing
                               Things
                               Right
   6. Develop & execute
     solutions
                                                1. Identify improvement
                                                  opportunities
       5. Describe & analyze the
          current process
                 Doing
                 Right
                 Things
2. Identify key customers
   and suppliers

                                   3. Establish agreed-upon
                                     requirements

                            9 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Doing Right Things
           Steps

        1.  Identify improvement
           opportunities.
        2.  Identify key customers
           and suppliers.
        3.  Establish agreed-upon
           requirements.
        4.  Identify the gaps.
How

Listen to your customers.
Look at your current measures of the
   five pillars.
Identify avoidable costs of quality.
Set priorities for critical improvements.

Ask, "Who gets my output?"
Ask, "Whose input do I need?"
Determine critical customers and
   suppliers.

Ask your customers
   "What do you need from me?"
   "What do you do with what I give you?"
   "Are there any gaps between what I
     give you and what you need?"
Establish performance measures.

On the basis of your data, identify the
   gaps between what your customers
   need and what your work process
   can supply.
 Ask, "What data do I have  to
   confirm gaps?"

                                                           Ill lift: I i • Illllllllllllllllillll
                              10 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Doing Things Right
           Steps

        5.  Describe and analyze the current
           process.
        6.   Develop and execute solutions.
        7.  Measure and monitor.
How

Flowchart processes to understand
   how things work now.
Focus on bottlenecks, nonvalue-added
   steps, and rework.

Analyze the root causes of breakdowns
   using the why technique and other
   quality improvement tools.

Ask, "Does the current process consis-
   tently meet customer requirements?"
If the current process can meet
   requirements, fix it so that it
   meets them every time.
If the current process cannot meet
   requirements, develop a new process.

Use contingency diagrams and
   prevention checklists to anticipate
   and eliminate problems.

Execute your action plan for improving
   the process.
Establish comprehensive measures and
   feedback systems.
Document results.

                              11 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Video
"Introduction  to QAT"
                            In previous modules, you have been introduced to the quality
                            blueprint for continuous improvement The blueprint is intended
                            to emphasize the need  for quality to be seen as a comprehensive
                            process that includes, but goes beyond, effective problem solving.
                            Paying serious attention to key customers and their requirements
                            is central to the success of total quality implementation. Once
                            those requirements have been established, gaps have been
                            identified, and an opportunity for process improvement has  been
                            selected, it is equally important to engage in effective problem
                            solving. This video reinforces the FADE model. This model
                            provides the people in  your organization with a common
                            language and set of problem-solving tools that they can  use in
                            quality action teams to improve all your products and services.
Discussion Questions
 1. What are some of the ways in which quality action teams
   will be important to you and your quality improvement
   process?
                            2. What seemed important to the success of the team's process
                               in the video?
                            3. What do you believe will be important in your role with
                               respect to the success of your quality action teams?
                           12 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation
The Quality  Blueprint—Step Five
                             In step 5 of the quality blueprint we move from doing right
                             things to doing things right. Once you have a clear sense of your
                             customers' requirements and any existing gaps, you can describe
                             and analyze  the process to target problem areas blocking
                             execution.
                             Step  Five
                                     7. Measure
                                       and monitor.
                                                             1. Identify
                                                               improvement
                                                               opportunities.
                                                                           2. Identify key
                                                                             customers
                                                                             and suppliers.
                            6.  Develop and
                               execute solutions.
                                 5. Describe and
                                   analyze the
                                   current process.
                                                                           3. Establish
                                                                             agreed-upon
                                                                             requirements.
                                                             4. Identify
                                                                the gaps.
                             13 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Exercise
 Applying  the  Quality  Blueprint—Step Five
                            In this exercise, you will apply several problem-solving tools to
                            describe  the work process you have selected and identify possible
                            causes for problems.

                            These tools include the flowchart, the fishbone diagram, the  why
                            technique, and Pareto analysis. The following pages contain a
                            brief description of each tool along with more detailed instruc-
                            tions about how to  use it.
Directions
Step  1. With your group, construct a flowchart of the process
        you have selected for improvement.

            Identify the problem areas, redundancies, or gaps in
            the process as it currently exists, keeping in mind
            customer requirements.

        •   Pick one of these problem areas or opportunities for
            improvement  on which you will work further  to
            determine root causes.

Step 2. Use a fishbone diagram to brainstorm possible root
        causes of problems  that appear in the  flowchart.

Step 3. As  an option,  you may want to use the why technique to
        uncover any additional root causes.

Step 4. Construct a Pareto diagram to help separate the root or
        most influential causes from the rest.
                           14 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool                        Flowchart
What It Is                   A drawing that shows the steps of a work process in the
                             sequence in which they occur.


What to Use  It For          •  Understanding and improving the work process

                              •  Creating a common understanding of how work should be
                                done
How to Use It              The main elements of a simple flowchart are

                                D   Box       —    activities

                                ^   Diamond  —    decision points

                              —^  Arrow     —    direction of flow from one activity to
                                                     the next

                             Step 1.  Gather  a group of people who represent the various
                                     parts of the process you have selected. For the purposes
                                     of learning how to flowchart, if you do not have key
                                     players present, try to take the perspective of those
                                     players and describe the current process as  best you can.

                             Step 2.  Decide  where the process begins and ends.

                             Step 3.  Brainstorm the main activities and decision  points in the
                                     process, writing each activity on a separate  Post-it.

                             Step 4.  Arrange these activities  and decision points  in their
                                     proper order, using arrows  to show direction of flow.

                             Step 5.  As needed, break down the activities to show their com-
                                     plexity.
                            15 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Example
The Clearwater Agency wanted to examine the steps involved in
working with the states to best coordinate  the efficiency and
quality of the grant process. They decided to first determine the
process they were currently  using. A team of four people
involved in different aspects of the grant process met to identify
the major steps in the process. From the master chart below,
individual departments met to establish  more specific flowcharts.
Taking into consideration internal and external  customer
requirements, they were then able  to identify inefficiencies and
opportunities for improvement in the flow  of the grant process.
                             Flowchart for  Clearwater Grant Process
                                         Agency gives
                                          guidance
                                           to state
                                       Agency and state
                                        negotiate and
                                          complete
                                          workplan
                                        State prepares
                                         and submits
                                          application
                                                if complete
                                           Agency
                                           reviews
                                           Award
                                          committee
                                        determines and
                                          prepares
                                           award
                                         Award letter
                                         is signed and
                                         sent to state
                           if incomplete.
                                                                         Agency
                                                                      makes comments
                                              State
                                            responds to
                                         agency comments
                             16 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Keep in Mind              •  Flowcharts make sense only when there is a standard flow to
                               the work process.

                            •  When the process is complex, draw a simple sequence of
                               events first; then make up additional flowcharts to show  the
                               details within complex portions of the work.

                            •  Flowcharts can be done from top to bottom or from side to
                               side.

                            •  It is important to determine initially the beginning and end
                               points.
                           17 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It Is
 Fishbone Diagram
A diagram showing a large number of possible causes for a
problem. Detailed causes are attached to a small  number of main
causes so that the completed diagram looks something like the
skeleton of a fish.
What to Use It For
    Getting the big picture of a problem

    Facilitating team members' use of their personal knowledge
    to identify causes of the problem

    Providing ideas for data  collection and/or solutions
How to Use It
Step 1. Write the problem on the right side of a flipchart. Draw
        a large arrow that points toward  the problem.

Step 2. Draw arrows indicating the main types of causes (or
        contributing factors) and pointing toward the central
        arrow.

Step 3. Brainstorm for specific causes. Attach each  specific
        cause to  an appropriate main cause.

Step 4. Break down the causes further by brainstorming for
        subcauses.

The most commonly used  categories of causes are people,
machines, methods, and materials. These categories usually apply
to a wide range of problems, and using them  guarantees that
most of the relevant causes will be put into the diagram. Some
other possibilities  include policies, procedures, and environment.
Example
At the top of the next page you will see an example of how
fishbone analysis was used at the Jefferson Health Services
Agency to identify the causes for the high turnover rate of
personnel. Using the categories of people, machines, materials,
and methods, a team of  supervisors identified possible  causes.
                            18 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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                              High Personnel Turnover Fishbone


                                      People                  Machines
                                              lack of communication
                                                                              inadequate office equipment
                                                      \v                    N.    phone system breakdown
                                          no systematic training N.                     \.

                                                         X.                    \       High
                                                                                    ""  Turnover
                                                           4                 4      of Personnel
                                          poor work areas	 7 ^ ^uitmen,      /
                                         \ shared desk space / \  .  ! '  .  ...     7
                                           	^/   \ swport        X inadequate trainino
                                  procurement bottleneck    /                 /poor recognition
                              \   \changing procedures/       1oo much red lapy  ^    " ^ ^^
                                \ /^.nnnhniMvinoi    /     lack of advancement /          \  '    . .
                                 \chan9.n9 budget   /      cppottuiSto   /           \ ""wsalanes
                                                                 "7 diffused decision making
                                                        responsibility /\      \        '    ~ .
                                                        . r  '	Sr  \      \ lack o) employee involvement
                                                        too little  /    \      '       '  '
                                                                       unclear direclion to employees
                                  Materials             Methods
                               The group decided to display their thinking in a very visible,
                               accessible area and invited others  in the agency to add to or
                               change the categories and items. They determined that the
                               primary causes over  which they had control were  in  the area of
                               methods. They were  then  able to gather further data  to clearly
                               identify the primary causes of the problem and to work on
                               solutions.
Keep in Mind                 •   The most commonly used categories of causes are people,
                                   machines, methods, and materials.

                                •   The fishbone diagram only shows possible causes. If in
                                   doubt, check your ideas with data.

                                •   In most cases,  it is  not of great importance where on the dia-
                                   gram  you put a particular cause.

                                •   Fishbone diagrams are very useful when  displayed publicly.
                                   You can invite people to add causes, and you can show what
                                   progress  is being made in eliminating the causes.

                                •   You may want to make a second or third fishbone diagram
                                   based on the first fishbone diagram.
                              19 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It Is
The  Why Technique
The why technique is an alternative technique to the fishbone
method for uncovering the root causes of problems. If a root
cause is beyond your control, it should be brought to the
attention of others in your organization who can do something
about it.
What to Use It For
    Identifying root causes

    Probing for fundamental causes underlying more obvious
    causes

    Accessing causes in an uncomplicated manner
How to  Use It
Step 1.  Select a problem. Ask, "Why did the problem occur?"

        First layer cause(s):
                           Step 2. Take the cause(s) that you uncovered in the first box,
                                   and ask the why question  again.

                                   "Why did that happen?"

                                    Second layer cause(s):


                           Step 3. Continue asking why until you believe you have
                                   uncovered the most important causes.

                                   "Why did that happen?"

                                   Third layer cause(s):


                                   "Why did that happen?"

                                   Fourth layer cause(s):


                                   "Why did that happen?"

                                   Fifth layer cause(s):
                           20 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It Is
Pareto Analysis
A bar chart (Pareto diagram) that visually represents the
distribution of occurrences being studied. The most frequent
occurrence is represented at  the far left, with other occurrences
represented in descending order to the right.
What to Use It For
Identifying the one or two situation categories in which most of
your problems occur
 How to Use It
Step 1. Define the categories to be used in your diagram.

Step 2. Sort the data into categories. Arrange the categories in
        descending order as defined by the data.

Step 3. Make a bar graph based on the data, with the highest
        category on the  left.

Step 4. Check your diagram for a Pareto pattern (in which the
        highest categories are responsible for most of the
        effects).

Step 5. Use the Pareto diagram as  a guide to action or to fur-
        ther analysis.
 Example
A division of Morton's Service Agency was interested in
determining the most frequent concerns expressed by customers
when they called the agency for information. The division formed
a representative QAT in which they determined what they needed
to know and developed a survey to gather the  information. They
then polled a random sampling of customers over a one-week
period and charted the results on a Pareto diagram.
                             21 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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                            Most Frequent Customer Telephone Complaints
120-
110-
100-
90-
80-
& 70~
£ 60-
i::
•5 3Q_
1 20-
^ 10-







43%


OJO/
JCO/

11% | 10%
Person Didn't get Nobody else Left message Not told
requested information tried to but call not that person
unavailable requested help returned requested
was
unavailable
for two
Cateaorv of Comolalnts weeks
                            The QAT found the results very helpful. The top category (43
                            percent) was that the person requested by the caller was unavail-
                            able. Realizing that the agency could not always control
                            availability, they combined that category with the second highest,
                            that the caller did not get the  information requested (21 percent).
                            They decided that the callers who could not speak directly with
                            the person requested could at  least be helped with necessary
                            information by someone else.  Therefore, the QAT decided to
                            determine solutions for helping customers get the information
                            requested on the first call.
Keep in Mind
Find appropriate categories by asking the questions what,
where, when, who, why, and how.

Most problems require more than one Pareto diagram, each
exploring a different question.

Draw the diagrams you want before you begin to collect
data. Include the subcategories and a unit of measure.
                            22 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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    The information in the Pareto diagram can tell you where to
    focus in solving the problem. If the diagram does  not give
    you enough information to proceed to solutions, it may still
    suggest what to investigate next. Typical next steps are a
    fishbone diagram,  a flowchart, or more Pareto diagrams
    (based on new data).
23 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation
The  Quality Blueprint—Step  Six
                            When we have uncovered the root causes of our quality problem,
                            we can move to  step 6 of the quality blueprint, developing and
                            executing solutions.
                            Step Six
                                    7.  Measure
                                       and monitor
1.
Identify
improvement
opportunities.
                                                                          2. Identify key
                                                                            customers
                                                                            and suppliers.
                            6. Develop and
                              execute solutions.
                                5.  Describe and
                                   analyze the
                                   current process.
                                                                          3. Establish
                                                                            agreed-upon
                                                                            requirements.
                                                            4. Identify
                                                               the gaps.
                            24 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Exercise                  Applying the Quality Blueprint—Step Six
                            In this exercise, you will apply several problem-solving tools to
                            develop a solution to the problem you have selected and then
                            implement the solution. These tools include: force-field analysis,
                            contingency diagram, and action plan. The following pages
                            contain a brief description of each  tool along with more detailed
                            instructions about how to use it.
Directions                 Step  1. Brainstorm a list of possible solutions and select one
                                    that appears most promising (multivoting and/or selection
                                    grid may be useful here).

                            Step  2. After you have selected a solution, use a force-field
                                    analysis  to identify both the driving forces that will help
                                    implement  your solution and the restraining forces you
                                    may face.

                            Step  3. Choose a restraining force over which your group has
                                    some control,  and use the contingency diagram to come
                                    up with  ways  to  ensure that the restraining force
                                    worsens.

                            Step  4. Drawing on your force-field analysis and contingency
                                    diagram, develop an  action plan to implement your
                                    solution.
                            25 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What  It Is
Force-Field Analysis
A method for listing, discussing, and dealing with the forces that
make possible or obstruct a change you want to make. The
forces that help you achieve the change are called driving forces,
and the forces that work against the change are called restraining
forces.
What to Use It For
    Determining if a solution can get needed support

    Identifying obstacles to execution

    Suggesting actions for reducing the strength of the obstacles
 How to Use It
 Step 1.  Draw a force-field chart (a large T).

 Step 2.  Write the current  situation at the top center of the chart.

 Step 3.  Write the desired  situation at the top right of the chart.

 Step 4.  Brainstorm for driving forces (pushing toward what you
         want) and enter them on the left side of the chart.

 Step 5.  Brainstorm for restraining forces (preventing you from
         getting what you want) and enter them on the right side
         of the chart.

 Step 6.  Discuss the chart  and determine which  factors can be
         altered to increase the chances of success.

 Step 7.  Decide whether your solution is doable. If it  is, make a
         list of action items to  alter the  forces. If it is not,
         develop another solution.
 Example
 In Morton's Service Agency, a division decided to try to resolve
 the problem of customers not receiving information they
 requested at the time of calling. The QAT working on the
 problem decided that, while they could not always reach  the
 specific person requested by the caller, they could try to  find out
 the information  needed by the caller and determine if someone
 else was available who could help.

 One solution they were considering  was to develop a division
 directory identifying key people in various areas of expertise as
 well as back-up people in each of those areas. Before presenting
                             26 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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their solution to management, the group used a force-field
analysis to determine obstacles and to see how they could
increase the  success of the solution.
 Morton Service Agency's Force-Field Analysis of Caller
 Satisfaction

Current Situation
Sixty-four percent of
callers do not get
information requested


Desired Situation
Directory to facilitate
information access
on first call

        Driving Forces

 Agency cares about
 customers
 Agency wants to practice
 what it preaches
 Low cost due to desktop
 publishing
 Management support
Restraining Forces
                                 Difficult to keep directory current
                                 enough to be useful
                                 Questions will likely go beyond
                                 information in the directory
                                 Employees who receive customer
                                 calls may not understand directory
The QAT decided that an important restraining force was
difficulty keeping the directory current. They decided to put the
directory in a format that could easily accommodate changes.
They also decided to come  to their weekly meetings prepared to
do  a quick update of any changes.

In order to address the restraining force of information that went
beyond the directory, the group decided to keep a log next to the
phone to be filled in any time  the directory was insufficient to
help direct the caller to a person who could be of help. They
would then make necessary additions to the directory based on
the log.
27 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Keep in Mind               •   You should always finish a force-field analysis by making a
                               list of action items.

                            •   If restraining forces  are too overwhelming, consider a differ-
                               ent solution.
                            28 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It is
Contingency Diagram


A creative method  to brainstorm and outline a list of oppor-
tunities for improving a given situation.
What to Use It For
    Imagining worst-case scenarios  and developing a prevention
    checklist  based on those scenarios

    Generating creative solutions

    Drawing  on the creative, uninhibited energies of a group
 How to Use It
Step 1. Draw a contingency diagram and prevention checklist.
        (See the example on the following page.)

Step 2. Select a situation that you would like to prevent and
        write it in the oval.

Step 3. Brainstorm actions that would cause the problem to
        continue or worsen, and write those  actions on the lines
        next to the oval.

Step 4. Describe actions that would prevent  the situation from
        continuing or worsening (the opposites of the actions
        you have written on the lines). List these  actions as
        specifically as possible on the prevention checklist.
 Example
 On the following page is a contingency diagram for a recurring
 problem: too little time to respond to congressionals.
                             29 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Contingency  Diagram
                                                                      Problem
                                                                   Too little
                                                                   time to respond
                                                                   to congressionals
                                    Prevention Checklist
                      /   Develop a specific plan to educate people in Congressional
                          Control Office

                      /   Have signature authority as close as possible to where
                          answer resides
                      /  Have a QAT review SOP to ensure it is made useful
                      /•  Allow for interim informational updates
                              30 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It Is
Action Plan
An outline of who will do what, when, and by what methods. It
ensures that nothing is left to chance as you set out to implement
a new way of doing things.
What to Use It For
    Planning the implementation of a solution

    Coordinating data collection
 How to Use It
Create a chart that shows your plans in an organized way. In-
clude answers to the six questions below.

Step  1.  What needs to be done  (i.e., specific tasks, arrange-
         ments, etc.)?

Step  2.  When does  each task need to be done (do some  tasks
         need to be completed before others; when should each
         task be finished)?

Step  3.  Who will do each task?

Step  4.  How will it be done (i.e., specific methods)?

Step  5.  What resources are needed (i.e., materials, equipment,
         expert advice, etc.)?

Step  6.  Are there special circumstances or needs  that should be
         taken into account?
 Example
 A committee interested in a more efficient and productive system
 for responding to congressionals decided, after doing a contin-
 gency diagram, that one action they needed to take was to
 educate the people in the Congressional Control Office about the
 best procedures for responses. They developed the action plan on
 the following page.
                             31 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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                           Action Plan for Educating the Congressional Control
                           Office
Keep in Mind
Action to
Be Taken
Gather data
to determine
necessary
components
of training
Develop
training
program

Print
training
booklets



Provide list
of people
to be
trained
Arrange
for
training
logistics

Conduct
training


Date
Completed
10/30
11/30

12/15



11/30


12/5

12/24


People
Respon-
sible
Sam
Myra
Sally
Roy

Rita
Joe



Ralph


Martha

Sally
Roy


Method
• Develop
survey
• Pilot
survey
• Conduct
survey
Follow
model
used in
telephone
training
program
Publishing
department



Check with
Mark
at Control
Office
•Find
location
• Organize
supplies
• Coordinate
times
Experiential,
using cases


Resources
Needed
Desktop
publishing


Check with
Publishing






Help from
Sally and
Roy in
identifying
needs

• Flipcharts
• Markers
• Training
booklets
• Note paper
• Pencils
Special
Needs
•Data
analysis
assistance
• Advice on
survey
questions


• Editing
assis-
tance
• Lowest
possible
cost



Lowest
possible
cost

Correct
number
of chairs
around
tables put
into
square
Put the action plan in writing.


Do not worry about filling in the columns one at a time The
parts of the action plan can be filled out in any order.


You can use  a flowchart to show the sequence of activities.
                          32 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation
The  Quality  Blueprint—Step  Seven
                            In the previous step we created an action plan to improve one of
                            our work processes. In step 7, we develop measures to monitor
                            the results of these improvement efforts and to target new
                            opportunities.
                            Step Seven
                                   7. Measure
                                      and monitor.
                            6. Develop and
                               execute solutions.
1.
Identify
improvement
opportunities.
                                                                          2. Identify key
                                                                             customers
                                                                             and suppliers.
                                                                          3.  Establish
                                                                             agreed-upon
                                                                             requirements.
                                    5. Describe and
                                      analyze the
                                      current process.
                                                             4.  Identify
                                                                the gaps.
                             33 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Presentation             Guidelines for Developing Quality Measures
                            To implement quality successfully, we must know how to
                            measure whether we are doing the right things right. If we select
                            useful measures, we can learn whether we are getting better at
                            meeting customer requirements and where we need to make
                            improvements in our work processes.

                            Before you develop new quality measures or revise old ones,
                            review the following fundamental  guidelines.

                             1. Establish a baseline. Establish a baseline for each of your
                               measures and refer back to it. Knowing where you started
                               tells you what progress you have made.

                             2. Keep it simple. Clear, relevant measures give you and
                               everyone else in the organization important information.
                               Measures that  are too complicated or too numerous will
                               probably be ignored.

                             3. Use action-oriented measures. Choose measures that provide
                               information you can use to make decisions, take action, or
                               evaluate the success of a current activity. The data should let
                               you know where to focus energy and improvement efforts.
                               Measuring the number of complaints may present you with
                               important data, but measuring the number of complaints by
                               type will tell you where to begin addressing problems.

                             4. Look for frequent performance problems. Over time, your
                               measures should enable you to detect frequent variations
                               from agreed-upon performance. Frequent variations often stem
                               from common  causes and, therefore, have a  higher priority
                               for action than a performance problem that might happen
                               once. A manager may want to learn why responses to
                               customer inquiries take  over an hour.  The manager will not
                               gain much from investigating  the one response that took over
                               two hours because of a major power failure.

                             5. Use both process and results measures.

                               a. Use process measures to make sure you are doing what
                                  needs to be  done to achieve your desired outcomes.  To
                                  develop process measures you must  first identify the
                                  desired result. Then ask, "What would we have to do to
                                  be able to reach this result?" The process measure should
                                  warn you when a result is in jeopardy.  The process
                                  measure may include tracking the use of quality
                                  techniques.
                            34 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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     For example, you may identify lower turnover as your
     desired outcome. After talking with employees, you decide
     that the way to reach this result is to involve more
     employees in problem solving. A relevant process measure
     would be the number of employees on problem-solving
     teams.

   b. Use results measures to verify and control the outputs of
     your  work process. These measures focus on outcomes,
     deliverables, or accomplishments such as total  services
     provided, on-time deliveries, and number of new products.

6. Use both self-measures and customer-focused measures.

   a. Self-measures are measures chosen to track work group
     success that may not be  important or visible to your
     customer but are important to you. One example of a self-
     measure is the amount of overtime required  to complete a
     production order on schedule.

   b. Customer-focused measures are measures of what is
     important to your customer and what you promise to
     provide, such as percentage of on-time deliveries or
     completion of work that meets customer specifications.

   These last two guidelines will help you select a comprehen-
   sive and balanced set of measures.
35 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It  Is
Measurement Matrix
A device to assist people in thinking about measures to help
ensure that they are doing right things right.
What to Use It For
    Developing a comprehensive set of quality measures for a
    work group, department, or individual

    Establishing early warning signals to take advantage of the 1-
    10-100 rule
How to Use  It
Step 1.  Develop measures to track your quality improvement
        efforts. Use the following questions as guidelines:

            Self-Process: What early warning signs will be
            especially important to me in tracking  how work is
            done?

            Self-Results: What will  I accomplish that might be
            invisible to my customer, yet critical to me?

        •   Customer-Process: What early warning signs will
            concern my customer regarding how work is done?

        •   Customer-Results: What will I accomplish that is
            chosen by, or based on feedback from, my
            customer?

Step 2.  Display your measures in a measurement matrix.

Step 3.  Check that you have

        •   Included measures important to you as well as
            measures important to your customer

        •   Considered measures as  early warning  signals  as
            well as a tracking device
                            36 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Example
Measures Developed by a  Customer Service Group
                                                Process
                                             Results
                            Self
                            Customer
                Instances missing
                  customer data
                   No. of sales

                No. of rescheduled
                   service calls
                    Total calls

            Recall and repair expenses
             Repair commitments met
                Total repair calls

               Seconds waiting time
                     Call
No. of repeat trouble reports
     Trouble reports

  No. of service callbacks
     No. of calls made

    No. of service calls
        Units sold
   On-time service calls

  Percent service manuals
        accurate
                            37 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Exercise                 Developing Quality Measures—Step Seven
                           In this exercise, you will work on developing quality measures
                           that will help you track your progress in implementing the
                           quality blueprint in your work group.


Directions                 Step 1. Devise measures for the process you have chosen by
                                  answering the questions in each of the four categories of
                                  the measurement matrix. Record your measures on the
                                  worksheet on the following page.

                           Step 2. Read the reference pages on process variation as well as
                                  the measurement tools—trend chart and specifications
                                  and control limits—which follow.

                                  •   Think about areas in which there is variation in  the
                                      work process you have chosen.

                                  •   Brainstorm examples of special causes and common
                                      causes for that variation.

                                      What data would you need in order to determine
                                      whether to take preventive action?
                          38 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Worksheet
Measurement Matrix
                             Process
                                 Results
      Self
     Customer
                      What early warning signs
                      will be especially important
                      to me in tracking how work
                      is done?
                     What early warning signs
                     will concern my customer
                     regarding how work is
                     done?
                       What will I accomplish that
                       might be invisible to my
                       customer, yet critical to me?
                        What will I accomplish that
                        is chosen by, or based on
                        feedback from, my customer?
                           39 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Reference Page         Process Variation
                            We have looked at guidelines for determining what to measure. It
                            is also important to know how to measure the variation that
                            exists in all processes.

                            No  violinist, no matter how highly skilled, can perform a
                            composition in precisely the same way he or she played it in a
                            previous concert. No machine, no matter how finely tuned, can
                            produce unit after unit of exactly identical output. The amount of
                            variation may be very small—perhaps so  small that only the most
                            sensitive instruments can  detect the difference—but there will
                            always be some variation. It  is an inescapable reality.
                            Causes of Variation

                            There are many possible causes of variation in a work process.
                            For example, some of the  typical causes of variation in a service
                            process are

                             •  Design of the work allocation system

                             •  Choice of equipment

                             •  Maintenance procedures

                             •  Change  in source of information

                             •  Environmental change  (temperature, humidity, etc.)

                             •  Accidents

                             •  Employees' mistakes

                             •  Supplier input

                            The causes of variation in any process can be divided into two
                            fundamentally different types—common (or system) causes and
                            special causes.

                            Common causes  (or system causes) are the causes of variation
                            that are built into the process, that is, the ones that are usually
                            expected to  occur, given the way the process or system is
                            designed.

                            Special causes are those causes that are not built into the
                            process, that is, ones that in fact disrupt the normal operation of
                            the process  and are  not expected.
                            40 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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 A homespun example may help to clarify this important
 distinction between common and special causes. Imagine  that
 someone is cruising along a New England highway on a  beautiful
 autumn  day, admiring the changing colors of the leaves. Traffic
 is light, the  car is  running fine, life is good. Suddenly the driver
 feels a jolt and the car lurches to the left; then, just as quickly,
 the car recovers  and  is once again running smoothly toward  the
 distant hills. This example demonstrates  the type of variation that
 arises from a special cause. Something unusual happened,
 something quite different from the normal variation caused by the
 running  of the engine and the tires rolling on the pavement. Was
 it a pothole, or a rabbit crossing the road, or the first sign of an
 impending problem with the front-end suspension of the car? The
 driver had better look into it and find out.

 Suppose, on the  other hand, that your car makes a  rattling noise
 when you accelerate quickly and that it has always done so. You
 know that your make of car tends to do this as a result of its
 catalytic conversion system. So you attribute the rattling noise to
 a probable common cause, the catalytic converter.

 You  can eliminate  variation that arises from special causes by
 analyzing the cause and developing a solution. Finding and
 eliminating the special causes of variation in a work process is
 part of the job of the people who work in the process.

 Because the  variation arising from a common (or system)  cause
 is built into the process, the only way this type of variation can
 be reduced is by changing the process. Consequently, the only
 people who can affect the common causes of variation are those
 who  are empowered to change the process itself.
41 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What It Is
Trend Chart
A way to describe what is happening by summarizing quantities
of data in a simple visual display.
What to Use It  For
    Graphically depicting data over time

    Depicting changes not only in raw numbers, but also in
    percentages and averages
How to Use It
Step 1. Choose a measure and put it on the vertical axis.

        The measure you choose will  depend on the nature of
        your solution. It could be number of errors, dollars
        saved, percentage of instances, or whatever.

Step 2. Choose a time interval for taking measurements and put
        it on the horizontal axis.

        You may want to monitor hourly, daily, weekly, or
        monthly. Again,  the interval must be suited to your
        solution.

Step 3. Enter your measurements—data points—chronologically
        onto the chart.

        Do this  continually as data become available. If you
        wait for a long  time and record all your data at once,
        you will miss opportunities for immediate action.

Step 4. Draw a  line connecting the data points.

Once you have constructed a trend chart, you can look for
patterns. Comparing new  data with old data will often show a
dramatic improvement. If you do not see the change you want,
check whether the procedure is being implemented correctly or if
modifications are needed. Find the causes for the problems that
the chart uncovers.
                            42 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Example
Temperature over a Seven-Day Period
                                  70°-
                              o
                              U.
                              2
                              §   60°H

                                  50°-


                                  40°-
                                             I      I       I      I
                                           Mon.  Tues.  Wed.   Thurs.

                                                              Day
                                          Fit
Sat.   Sun.
                            By plotting the average daily temperatures in this format, it is
                            easy to see that temperature  variations follow a consistent pattern.
                            Indeed, if we extended the trend chart over many weeks, we
                            would be  able to determine what season we were in. One or two
                            unusual temperature readings (eighty degrees against a range of
                            forty-five  to sixty degrees) would not necessarily signal the
                            beginning of summer. But a series of higher temperatures might
                            prompt you to begin shopping for bathing suits.

                            In a similar way, if managers plot various performance measures
                            over time, they can recognize normal versus abnormal patterns  in
                            work processes.
                            43 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

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Tool
What They Are
Specifications and Control Limits
Specifications are indicators of the level of performance you want
or need.

Control limits are indicators of how the process usually performs;
they are calculated by applying mathematical formulas to the past
history of the process.
What to Use Them For
 •  Specifications can be used for monitoring your process so
    that you can see at a glance whether it is giving you what
    you want.

 •  Control charts can be used for monitoring your process so
    that you can see at a glance whether it is doing something
    unusual (i.e., whether it is "out of control").

Both specifications and control limits can be  shown on trend
charts and can be used with other measurement tools.
How to Use Them
For specifications, use the following three steps:

Step 1. Construct a trend chart with lines drawn to show the
        specification limits.

Step 2. Enter new data points on the chart as the data become
        available.

Step 3. When you see a point outside the specification limits,
        use the FADE problem-solving process to find and
        remove the cause of the undesirable  variation in  your
        process.

For control charts, use the following four steps:

Step 1. Follow the procedure established by  your organization
        for collecting samples, computing data points, and enter-
        ing the data points  on your control chart (i.e., a  trend
        chart with upper and lower control limits added).

Step 2. As each new point is entered, examine the entire se-
        quence of points displayed on the chart.
                            44 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

-------
                             Step 3.  Apply the guidelines below to determine whether your
                                      process is behaving normally (is in control) or is doing
                                      something unusual (is out of control).

                                      The process is in control when the sequence of points
                                      displayed on the chart meets all four of the following
                                      criteria:

                                      1.  All points are within the control limits.

                                      2.  Most of the  points are much closer to the process
                                         average than to the control limits.

                                      3.  About half the points  are above the process average,
                                         and about  half are below.

                                      4.  No clear pattern has emerged which would allow
                                         you to  predict where the next point seems likely to
                                         fall.

                                      The process is out of control when the sequence of
                                      points displayed on  the chart exhibits any of the follow-
                                      ing conditions:

                                      1.  One point  falls outside the control limits.

                                      2.  There are two consecutive points close to one of the
                                         control  limits.

                                      3.  The points have begun to fall predominantly on one
                                         side of  the process average.

                                     4.  A clear pattern has emerged which would allow you
                                         to predict where the next point seems likely to fall.

                             Step 4. After determining whether  your process is in or out of
                                     control, take action as required. When  your process is in
                                     control, no action is  required. When your process is out
                                     of control, use  the FADE problem-solving system to find
                                     and remove  the cause of the abnormal variation.


Example                    A team of office workers  decided to tackle the  long-standing
                             debate about whether the temperature in their office was too hot
                             or too cold. The temperature  control system was supposed to
                             maintain  a constant temperature of 68 degrees during working
                             hours. It  had become an accepted practice, however, for anyone
                             who felt cold to adjust the thermostat upward. Usually, someone
                            45 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

-------
else soon began to feel that the office was too warm and pushed
the thermostat down.

In an effort to resolve the dispute, the team persuaded  everyone
in the office to leave the thermostat alone for a one-week period
so they could gather data on how the temperature control system
actually performed. They also got everyone to agree that as long
as the temperature stayed between  67 and 69 degrees, they would
be satisfied.

On Monday morning, the team borrowed a sensitive thermometer
from the lab, set it up in a central location in the office, and
started to take temperature readings every half hour, beginning at
11:00. At lunchtime two of the team members got some graph
paper, constructed a trend chart with  specification limits drawn in
at 67  and 69 degrees, and began entering the data points. At the
end of the  day, the chart looked  like this:
Trend Chart of Office Temperature
       71° -,
       70° -
       -69°
       68°
       •67°
       66°
       65°
  I   '  I   I  I   I  I   I  I  I   I  I   I
8:00   9:00 10:00 11:00  12:00 1:00  2:00

                     Time of Day
                                                3:00
  I
4:00
 I
5:00
46 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

-------
 On Tuesday afternoon, using the data already collected, the team
 proceeded to calculate control limits and set up a control chart.
 The chart for  Wednesday is shown below.
 Control Chart of Office Temperature
    71°  -
    70°
    69°
    68°
 .2
 8  67°  -
    66°
    65°  -
                                                       UCL
                         A       /\
                                V
                                         /\   Process
                                           \  Average
                                                      LCL
 niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiT—
8:00  9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00  2:00  3:00 4:00
                 Time of Day
                                                   5:00
The control charts for Thursday and Friday looked very much
like the chart for Wednesday. After examining their control
charts, the team concluded mat the temperature control system
could maintain  a temperature very close to 68 degrees—when it
was allowed to operate on its own, without human interference.
When the team shared their data with the other people in the
office, everyone agreed to leave the thermostat alone and put on
sweaters if they felt cold.
47 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

-------
Key  Points              Continuous Improvement—Doing  Things Right
                           Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                           your own.

                            •  Quality improvement involves doing things right along with
                               doing the right things.

                            •  The FADE problem-solving model is an integral part of the
                               quality blueprint for continuous improvement.

                            •  The people who are closest to working every day with your
                               organizational processes are most often in  the best position to
                               identify and solve problems related to those processes.

                            •  Working in teams to resolve critical issues helps people feel
                               committed to following through with the solutions.

                            •  Quality measures are essential to the success of your quality
                               improvement efforts.

                            •  It is important to pay attention to both  process and results
                               measures as well as special and common (system) causes of
                               variation in work processes.
                           48 Continuous Improvement—Doing Things Right

-------
Module Six      Leadership

-------
Contents                 Leadership
                            Overview: Leadership                                       2

                            Discussion: Great Leaders of Today                          3

                            Exercise: Using the Applied Leadership Questionnaire          4

                            Presentation: The Effective Leadership Model                  9

                            Exercise: Assessing Your Employees' Independence Level     11

                            Presentation: Effective Use of the Four Leadership Styles      14

                            Exercise: Selecting Appropriate Leadership Styles
                                     for TQM                                         15

                            Exercise: Adapting Leadership Styles—Strategies              16

                            Key Points: Leadership                                     21
                             1  Leadership

-------
Overview
Leadership
                             Quality awareness and team-based problem solving are necessary
                             for total quality but not sufficient by themselves.  An organization
                             committed to quality must be led by managers who create an
                             environment in which quality can flourish.

                             It is  the leaders of the  agency who  will demonstrate in their
                             actions a commitment to truly involving employees in decision
                             making. The voice of the employees is important not only in
                             order for employees to feel valued,  but also so that those closest
                             to the work processes can share  information necessary for
                             decisions that will best support the mission of the agency.

                             In this module we explore the manager's role as leader. We also
                             look at the relationship between  managers and employees. We
                             learn how to use a range of techniques for managing and devel-
                             oping people  with different abilities, skills, and experience.
 Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Assess your leadership style and its impact on your work
    unit

 •  Apply a leadership style that is appropriate to the characteris-
    tics of the groups that you manage

 •  Use leadership techniques  to help your employees reach their
    full potential
                             2  Leadership

-------
Discussion
Great Leaders  of Today
                            In this activity you will see how the characteristics of great
                            leaders are similar and different from those of effective managers
                            you have known.
Discussion Questions
 1. Think of several people you feel are (or were) strong leaders
    in the world.
                             2. Identify characteristics that give (or gave) these people
                                influence over others.
                             3. Think of the best managers you know (have known).
                             4. Identify the characteristics they have (had) that were not
                                identified above.
                              5. Answer the following questions:

                                •  How are leaders and managers similar?
                                   How are they different?
                             3 Leadership

-------
Exercise
Using the Applied Leadership  Questionnaire
                            In this activity you will assess your leadership style.
Directions
Step 1.  Read each statement in the questionnaire on the
        following pages and circle the number that matches your
        typical response. If you act differently with different em-
        ployees, try to identify your most frequent response.

Step 2.  Transfer the number that you recorded as your typical
        response to the line in "The Applied Leadership
        Grid—I" that  corresponds to the statement.

Step 3.  Add the scores in  each section. Place the totals in the
        boxes provided.

Step 4.  Write your total scores in the corresponding boxes in
        "The Applied  Leadership Grid—II."
                           4  Leadership

-------
Questionnaire
 Your Leadership  Style
  1. I check employees' work on a regular
    basis to assess their progress and
    learning.

  2. I hold periodic meetings to show support
    for agency policy and mission.

  3. I appoint employees to task forces to
    recommend action on policies affecting
    them.

  4. I provide employees with clear responsi-
    bilities and allow them to decide how
    to fulfill them.

  5. I make sure employees are  aware of and
    understand all agency policies and
    procedures.

  6. I recognize employees' achievements
    with encouragement and support.

  7. I discuss any organizational or policy
    changes with employees prior to
    taking action.

  8. I discuss the organization's  strategic
    mission with employees.

  9. I demonstrate each task involved in
    doing a job.

10. I regularly meet with employees to
    discuss their needs.

11. I avoid making judgments or premature
    evaluations of ideas.

12. I ask employees to think ahead and
    develop long-term plans  for their
    areas.
                                                                        A?  A?  A?  A?  A?


                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345



                                                                         12345



                                                                         12345



                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345



                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345


                                                                         12345



                                                                         12345
5 Leadership

-------
13. I set performance standards for each
    aspect of an employee's job.

14. I explain the benefits of achieving
    work goals to employees.

15. I rotate  the role of meeting
    coordinator among my employees.

16. I emphasize the importance of quality,
    but allow my employees to establish the
    control standards themselves.

17. I have employees report back to me after
    completing each step of their tasks.

18. I hold regular meetings to discuss work
    status.

19. I provide employees  with the time and
    resources to pursue their own
    developmental goals.

20. I expect employees to  create their own
    goals and submit them to me in finished
    form.

21. I try to  assign work  in small, easily
    controlled units.

22. I focus on opportunities, not problems.

23. I avoid evaluating problems and concerns
    until after they are discussed.

24. I ensure that information systems are
    timely and accurate,  and that informa-
    tion is fed directly to employees.
                                                    r
f?
                                                     A?  A?  A?
                 JT
                 *
12345


12345


12345



12345


12345


12345



12345



12345


12345

12345


12345



12345
6 Leadership

-------
Worksheet
The Applied Leadership Grid—I
3
7
11
15
19
23

4
8
12
16
20

24






Total







Total
















2
6
10
14
18
22 Total

1
5
9
13
17

2-j Total

                    7 Leadership

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Worksheet
The Applied  Leadership Grid—II
                                    O)
                                    c
                                   '5.
                                    o
                                            High developing
                                            Low structuring
                                                    Facilitating
                                                       High developing
                                                       High structuring
                                                 Coaching
                                            Low developing
                                            Low structuring
                                                       Low developing
                                                       High structuring
                                                     Delegating
                                                 Directing
                                                                     Structuring
                                                  Facilitating

                                             Involve employees in decisions
                                             that will affect their work.
                                             Help employees feel free to ask
                                             questions and discuss important
                                             concerns.
                                             Hold frequent team or staff meetings
                                             Help employees locate and suggest
                                             their own development activities.
                                             Listen to employees' problems and
                                             concerns without criticizing or
                                             judging.
                                                  Coaching

                                           Represent managements position
                                           in a convincing manner.
                                           Try to motivate with monetary and
                                           nonmonetary rewards.
                                           Sell employees on their own ability
                                           to do the job.
                                           Praise employees for good work.
                                           Provide employees with a lot of
                                           feedback on how they are doing.
                                                  Delegating

                                             Delegate broad responsibilities to
                                             employees and ask them to handle
                                             the details.
                                             Expect employees to find and
                                             correct their own errors.
                                             Provide employees with feedback
                                             on results.
                                             Allow employees to take risks and
                                             innovate.
                                                  Directing

                                            Provide detailed instructions.
                                            Give employees specific goals and
                                            objectives.

                                            Check in frequently with employees
                                            to keep them on track.

                                            Enforce rules and regulations.

                                            Demonstrate the steps involved in
                                            doing the job.
                                    8  Leadership

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Presentation              The Effective  Leadership Model
                             Being a successful leader means more than having a certain
                             personality; it requires integrating your style with the group's
                             characteristics and the job situation.
                             Dynamic Leadership Process
                                                         Leadership
                                                            /style   ^

                                                                   \
                                                     	^ ^  Job
                                        characteristics                       situation
                             We have looked at four leadership styles: delegating, facilitating,
                             coaching, and directing. Now we shall examine how the
                             characteristics of group members can help us determine the most
                             effective leadership style. In studying differences among groups
                             at work, three characteristics seem to emerge.

                              1. Ability. This refers to expertise in the required skills and the
                                 speed with which the group can learn the tasks involved.

                              2. Experience. This refers to the  group's experience with the
                                 work, combined with transferable  skills or learned behaviors.

                              3. Motivation. This refers to  the confidence and energy levels
                                 that are necessary to assume responsibility for new tasks and
                                 to complete them.

                             These three characteristics can be combined into a dimension that
                             we call the independence level. This dimension is a continuum
                             which, for our purposes, can be somewhat  arbitrarily divided into
                             the four segments  defined on the  next page.
                              9 Leadership

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 Independence-Level Scale
                30
20
 10
H-
High
independence
Moderate to
high
independence
Moderate to
low
independence
Low
independence
  •  Low independence. The group is either new at the job or
    faced with complex, unusual tasks. The leader must assume
    that the group has little or no ability, few,  if any,  transfer-
    able skills, and low  motivation or confidence. The leader
    must be highly directive.  Support tends to be less  important
    at this time,  as both leader and  group are most concerned
    with correctly performing the details of the job.

  •  Moderate to  low independence. The group has some transfer-
    able skills and learns readily, but has never performed the
    tasks in this  new assignment. This  group is willing to try,
    but is slightly anxious about failing. The leader will have to
    provide a lot of support as well as clear, specific direction.

  •  Moderate to  high independence. The group  has  significant
    ability on the job, is highly motivated and confident, but
    lacks specific experience in  one or more aspects of a  new
    assignment. This group requires  support and some  direction
    from the leader.

  •  High independence. The group is highly qualified to do the
    job, has done it successfully  before, and is  confident and
    very willing  to take on new challenges  without  much  direc-
    tion or support.

To be effective, the leader analyzes the job requirements and the
group's characteristics, and chooses an appropriate management
style.

While this module focuses on how leaders match their style to
the characteristics of their groups, these concepts and principles
can easily be adapted to  managing individuals.
10 Leadership

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Exercise
 Assessing Your Employees' Independence  Level
                            As we have seen, effective leaders match their leadership style to
                            the independence level of their employees. In this exercise, you
                            will practice identifying the independence level of the groups you
                            manage.                                            &   v y
Directions
 Step 1.  Turn to the worksheet on the following page.  On a scale
         of 0 to 40 evaluate a group you manage on the basis of
         three characteristics: ability, experience, and motivation.
         (40 = extremely high ability, experience, or motivation.)
         To do this, mark the appropriate value along the line
         provided for each characteristic. Then place the score  in
         the space provided.

 Step 2.  Add the three scores for ability, experience, and motiva-
         tion.  Then divide by three to get a final independence-
         level score.

 Step 3.  Plot this number on the independence-level scale.

 Step 4.  Now that you have determined the group's independence
         level, refer back to "The Applied Leadership Grid—II."
         Note the score that best represents  your leadership style
         and make a mark in the corresponding quadrant in the
         worksheet, "Leadership Grid."

 Step 5.  Mark your group's independence-level score on the scale
         below the quadrants. Draw a perpendicular line connect-
         ing the  independence-level score with the curve in the
         quadrants above. This will indicate the management style
         that is appropriate for that independence level.

Step 6.  Compare this indicated management style with  your
         dominant leadership style.
                           11 Leadership

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Worksheet
        Independence-Level  Scale
 Ability
 Refers to expertise
 and talent for the
 task, skills, and
 learning speed
h

0
                                               '        AW,
5     10     15     20    25     X     35     40      Score
 Experience
 Prior experience in
 this type of work
 combined with any
 transferable skills
 or learned behaviors
                                       H	h
                                                           Experience
       5     10     15    20     25     30     35     40       Score
  Motivation
  The confidence and
  energy level
  necessary to take
  on and to complete
  new tasks
             10
15     20
25
                                 30
35
H

 40
                                                           Motivation
                                                              Score
                                                                                   Total
                                                                                   Score
                     40
             30

            -t-
                    20
       10
High
independence
Moderate to
high
independence
Moderate to
tow
independence
Low
independence
                                                                                   Total
                                                                                 Score+ 3
                             12 Leadership

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Worksheet
Leadership  Grid
                                  High developing
                                  Low structuring
                                               High developing
                                               High structuring
                                      Low developing
                                      Low structuring
                                       Low developing
                                       High structuring
                                Low
                                                      Structuring
                                                        High
                             40
               30
20
10
High
independence
Moderate to
high
independence
Moderate to
tow
independence
Low
independence
                           13 Leadership

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Presentation
Effective  Use of the Four Leadership Styles
                                Each  of the four leadership  styles has its strengths. To help
                                groups act independently, managers must gradually move from
                                directive management to more  supportive management. Fully
                                independent groups need less support.

                                In  the model below, you'll review a variety of tactics for suc-
                                cessfully applying the four styles. Note how you can use some of
                                these  tactics to motivate your employees to move from one
                                quadrant to another.
                                The Four Leadership Styles
                                            Facilitating

                                     Involve employees in decisions
                                     that will affect their work.
                                     Help employees feel free to ask
                                     questions and discuss important
                                     concerns.
                                     Hold frequent team or staff meetings.
                                     Help employees locate and suggest
                                     their own development activities.
                                     Listen to employees' problems and
                                     concerns without criticizing or
                                     judging.
                                                Coaching

                                        Represent management's position
                                        in a convincing manner.
                                        Try to motivate with monetary and
                                        nonmonetary rewards.
                                        Sell employees on their own ability
                                        to do the job.
                                        Praise employees for good work.
                                        Provide employees with a lot of
                                        feedback on how they are doing.
                                            Delegating

                                     Delegate broad responsibilities to
                                     employees and ask them to handle
                                     the details.
                                     Expect employees to find and
                                     correct their own errors.

                                     Provide employees with feedback on
                                     results.

                                     Allow employees to take risks and
                                     innovate.
                                                Directing

                                        Provide detailed instructions.
                                        Give employees specific goals and
                                        objectives.

                                        Check in frequently with employees
                                        to keep them on track.
                                        Enforce rules and regulations.
                                        Demonstrate the steps involved in
                                        doing the job.
                                14 Leadership

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Exercise                  Selecting  Appropriate Leadership  Styles
                            for  TQM
                            In this activity, you will think about the appropriate leadership
                            style for various TQM activities.


Directions                  Step 1.  Your facilitator will divide you into four groups, each of
                                     which will be assigned a different leadership style. In
                                     your small group, brainstorm a list of TQM activities
                                     that you believe would best be addressed by the
                                     leadership style you have  been assigned.

                            Step 2.  Narrow the list to the top three activities for which your
                                     group's leadership style is an appropriate match.
                             15 Leadership

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Exercise                  Adapting  Leadership Styles—Strategies
                            What follows are strategies for changing your leadership style to
                            suit the independence level of your employees. Even though you
                            have already determined your dominant leadership style, remem-
                            ber that effective managers adjust and adapt their style of leader-
                            ship as necessary.


Directions                 Step 1.  Now that you have determined your dominant leadership
                                    style, select an employee who needs your leadership on
                                    a new task he or she is facing.

                            Step 2.  Determine the independence level of that employee.

                            Step 3.  Use the following reference pages  to develop a strategy
                                    for using a leadership style best suited to that employee.
                             16 Leadership

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Reference Page         Dominant  Leadership Style—Delegating
                            If your dominant style is delegating, and the employee you are
                            trying to lead is at

                            Independence Level 1   You are probably leaving this person in
                                                   the dark. He or she needs more direction
                                                   and requires the how, what, when, and
                                                   where of tasks. For now, you can skip
                                                   the why; he or she is too busy learning
                                                   the basics to care.  Write some goals and
                                                   job descriptions for this person, and plan
                                                   at first to devote at least 25 percent of
                                                   your time to him or her. Give lots of
                                                   feedback and have the employee regularly
                                                   report to you.

                             Independence Level 2   This person needs  more direction. This
                                                   person also appreciates praise and, in
                                                   fact, needs support to get to the  next
                                                   level. He or she already has some good
                                                   job knowledge and at times seems inde-
                                                   pendent. Don't let that fool you. The
                                                   employee still needs you at least  10
                                                   percent of the time for feedback and new
                                                   ideas. Invest the time to help the employ-
                                                   ee develop.

                             Independence Level 3  You may feel he or she doesn't  need
                                                   your help very much. With some, this is
                                                   true, but with others, their  work  quality
                                                   will suffer if they  don't have a chance to
                                                   bounce ideas off you with  some regulari-
                                                   ty. An employee still needs meetings and
                                                   problem-solving sessions, and will contin-
                                                   ue to benefit from the sharing of ideas.
                                                   Arrange meetings  and get-togethers  so
                                                   that a free flow of information and  ideas
                                                   can take place on  a regular basis.

                             Independence Level 4  You're right on in your leadership style.
                                                   This employee can be left alone. But
                                                   never make the mistake of ignoring the
                                                   employee, or  you'll lose him or her.
                                                   Everyone needs praise and rewards, and
                                                   everyone benefits  from interaction. If you
                                                   manage very  independent people, let
                                                   them know how important they  are to
                                                    you, and solicit their ideas on a regular
                                                    basis.
                              17 Leadership

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Reference Page
Dominant Leadership  Style—Facilitating
                            If your dominant style is facilitating, and the employee you are
                            trying to lead is at

                            Independence Level 1  You may be pooling ignorance. A level  1
                                                  employee is not yet prepared to share
                                                  and problem solve with more skilled
                                                  peers or superiors. Putting a person with
                                                  low ability,  sparse knowledge, and little
                                                  motivation in such a setting will confuse
                                                  and frustrate him or her. Try to give
                                                  more direction and spend more time with
                                                  the person. Ask what is needed to do the
                                                  job right, and respond with help.

                            Independence Level 2  The employee may respond well to your
                                                  style, but may be left without adequate
                                                  direction to  properly do his or her job.
                                                  Ask  the employee if you are giving
                                                  enough  direction. If you've been support-
                                                  ive and nonjudgmental so far, the person
                                                  will tell you, and you can act accord-
                                                  ingly.

                                                  This employee will respond well to your
                                                  style. He or she doesn't need a lot of
                                                  direction, but enjoys the give-and-take of
                                                  participating and sharing ideas. Keep it
                                                  up. You might empower this employee.
                                                  Let the employee take full responsibility
                                                  for projects  and come to you only when
                                                  necessary. This way you'll keep in touch,
                                                  but also take the first steps toward
                                                  developing him or her.

                            Independence Level 4  He or she may find your facilitative style
                                                  likeable, but sometimes  unnecessary.
                                                  Doing the job independently is more
                                                  important than participating with people
                                                  who  are not directly involved in the
                                                  effort to get results. Talk to your
                                                  employee. Some meetings are necessary,
                                                  but let him or her take charge. Give
                                                  greater supervisory responsibility for
                                                  some of your tasks. This will give him
                                                  or her a new goal, and  free some of your
                                                  time to  develop  lower-level people.
Independence Level 3
                            18 Leadership

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Reference Page         Dominant  Leadership Style—Coaching
                            If your dominant style is coaching, and the employee you are
                            trying to lead is at

                            Independence Level 1   You may have discovered that your
                                                   coaching style is not working. Praise and
                                                   support are no substitute for clear direc-
                                                   tion. Withhold your praise until you see
                                                   clear evidence of accomplishment. Until
                                                   then, give more direction in terms of
                                                   specific steps required to do the job, and
                                                   provide lots of feedback to correct per-
                                                   formance problems.

                             Independence Level 2  You are right in tune here. Praise and
                                                    support, but don't neglect clear direction.
                                                   The level 2 employee is good, confident,
                                                    and able, but has not yet mastered the
                                                   job, so feedback and direction are essen-
                                                    tial.

                             Independence Level 3   Your coaching style may turn this  em-
                                                    ployee off. He or she probably doesn't
                                                    need quite as much direction as you like
                                                    to  give. Be less like a teacher with this
                                                    person and more like an equal. Try to
                                                    offer less advice  and  spend your time
                                                    problem solving with the employee.

                             Independence Level 4   This employee does not often need your
                                                    praise and direction. You may even be
                                                    coming across as  an interference—
                                                    benevolent perhaps, but unnecessary.
                                                    Back  off as much as possible. Praise
                                                    only at the end of an assignment;  don't
                                                    get involved in the work process. Be
                                                    willing to take some  risk as far as this
                                                    person is concerned.
                              19 Leadership

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Reference Page
Dominant Leadership  Style—Directing
                            If your dominant style is directing, and the employee you are
                            trying to lead is at

                            Independence Level 1  You are doing the right thing. An em-
                                                  ployee with a low independence level
                                                  needs a telling style in which you clearly
                                                  explain the job. Check for understanding,
                                                  and make sure that you give explicit
                                                  directions.
                            Independence Level 2
                            Independence Level 3
                            Independence Level 4
                      Ask your employee how he or she would
                      like to arrange the next project. If the
                      response is satisfactory, let him or her
                      run with it. Allow your employee a little
                      more freedom and see what happens. If
                      your employee succeeds, back off and
                      praise him or her.

                      Avoid issuing orders. Hold a meeting
                      with your employee  and ask for ideas.
                      This may surprise your employee, partic-
                      ularly if you've  never done this before.
                      Therefore, you will do more listening
                      than speaking; try not to censor any ideas
                      that come up. If something  seems reason-
                      able, back off and let your employee run
                      with it.

                      You're  lucky this person still works for
                      you; a telling style can really  turn off a
                      highly independent person. If this person
                      is really that competent, get out of the
                      way and let him or her work. If you
                      need to tell him or her something, do so.
                      Be specific and  clear but then get out of
                      the picture. If the employee is truly at
                      level 4, he or she will deliver and save
                      you time in the  process.
                             20 Leadership

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Key  Points                Leadership
                             Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                             your own.

                              •  In order to support quality, managers need to be effective
                                 leaders and role models for their people.

                              •  Effective leaders take into consideration the needs and
                                 abilities of their employees as well as the specific situation
                                 and modify their style accordingly.

                              •  Leaders not only manage their people;  they provide oppor-
                                 tunities for growth and development.

                              •  Implementing TQM will require a range of leadership styles.
                              21  Leadership

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Module Seven   Promoting Total Involvement

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                                              	^^^^^•II^^Bi
Contents                Promoting Total  Involvement
                          Overview: Promoting Total Involvement                     2
                          Exercise: The New Truck                                 3
                          Discussion: Dynamics of Participation                       5
                          Video: "Participation and Quality"                          6
                          Presentation: Effective Decision Making                     7
                          Exercise: Using Participative Management                    g
                          Discussion: Group Decision Making                         9
                          Key Points: Promoting Total Involvement                   10
                        1 Promoting Total Involvement

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Overview
Promoting Total  Involvement


As we saw in the previous module, managers often lead effec-
tively by involving their people. In this module we help
managers find answers to three questions about participative
management: Why do I use it? When do I use  it?  How do I use
it? We use a participative management scale to determine the
level of employee involvement most appropriate for a given
situation. We then take a special look at the benefits to be gained
by involving groups in the design of systems that affect them.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Use participative management techniques to involve your
    employees effectively

 •  Apply the participative management scale  as a guide for
    using participative techniques

 •  Identify situations that you might manage more effectively by
    involving groups as well as individual employees
                              2 Promoting  Total  Involvement

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Exercise
The New Truck*
                            In this exercise, you will experience the process of participative
                            decision making and relate it to your work experience.
Directions
Step 1. At the direction of your facilitator, break into small
        groups.

Step 2. Read the material  that follows.

Assume that you are repairmen for a large utility company. Each
day you drive to various locations in the city to  do repair work.
Each of you drives  a small truck and takes pride in its appear-
ance. You  are possessive about your trucks and like to keep them
in good running order.  Naturally you'd like to have new trucks,
too, because a new  truck would also give you a  feeling of pride.

Here are some facts about the trucks and the  men in the crew.
You report to Walt  Marshall, the supervisor of repairs.

George     Seventeen years  with the company,  has a two-year-
            old Ford truck

Bill         Eleven years with the company,  has a five-year-old
            Dodge  truck

John        Ten years  with the company, has a  four-year-old
            Ford truck

Charlie     Five years with the company, has a three-year-old
            Ford truck

Hank        Three years with the company, has a five-year-old
            Chevrolet  truck

Most of you drive only in the city, but John and Charlie  cover
suburban jobs.
                                 'Norman R.F. Maier and Gertrude Casselman Verser,
                            Psychology in Industrial Organizations, 5th ed. (Houghton Mifflin,
                            1982), pp. 189-191. Reprinted by permission.
                            3 Promoting Total  involvement

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Step 3.  At the direction of your facilitator, take the role of one
         of the repairmen listed above. Your facilitator will give
         you directions for your role, which you should read.
         Accept the facts and assume the attitude supplied for
         your specific role. From this point on, let your feelings
         develop in accordance with the events that transpire in
         the role-playing process. When facts or events arise that
         are not covered by the roles, make up things that are
         consistent with how you imagine them to be in  real life.
4 Promoting Total Involvement

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Discussion
Dynamics  of Participation
                           In the previous exercise you experienced participative decision
                           making. Now you will have an opportunity to discuss the
                           dynamics of employee involvement in decision making.
Discussion Questions
 1. How would you describe the quality of the solutions
   achieved in "The New Truck" exercise?
                            2.  Were all the participants satisfied with the solutions?
                            3.  Can you think of situations when it is impossible to treat all
                               individuals alike?
                            4.  Are the situations you thought of in question 3 situations in
                               which employee participation is important?
                           5 Promoting  Total  Involvement

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Video
'Participation and Quality'
                           In this video, we will describe the process of participative man-
                           agement and present some examples of how it works. The video
                           will stress the importance of selectively using participative tech-
                           niques. As you will see, participative techniques are essential to
                           improving quality and productivity.
Discussion Questions
1.  If participative techniques are so powerful, why don't all
   managers use them?
                            2. Under what circumstances might you not want to use partici-
                               pative management?
                           6 Promoting Total Involvement

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Presentation              Effective Decision Making
                             A good decision is one that thoroughly and efficiently produces
                             the desired goals.

                             Participation in decision  making involves two important dimen-
                             sions. The first is  the quality of the decision. Making high-
                             quality decisions requires weighing the objective facts, and then
                             deciding. This has traditionally been done by  people with  the
                             necessary technical expertise  to ensure the quality of the decision.

                             The second dimension of decision making is acceptance. The
                             degree to which employees accept a decision  directly affects their
                             willingness, enthusiasm, and commitment, and their  ability to
                             carry it out. Studies and  experience show that people are more
                             likely to accept and understand a decision in which  they took
                             part. In decision making, keep the following three guidelines in
                             mind:

                              1.  Define the problem. When a problem is clearly defined,  the
                                 solutions  often appear by themselves.

                              2.  Clarify the relative importance of both quality and  accep-
                                 tance.

                              3.  Determine to what extent you will involve employees in  the
                                 decision-making process.  The scale below will help you
                                 decide on  the  level of employee participation you  will want,
                                 based on  the relative importance of quality and acceptance in
                                 the success of the decision.
                                 Participative Management Scale
                                  I	1	1	1	1	1
                                 Tell        Sell      Gather    Getrecom-     Group     Group
                                                 information  mendations    decides    decides
                                                            from group    with mgt.    without
                                                                         veto    mgt. veto
                            7  Promoting  Total Involvement

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Exercise
Using Participative  Management
                             In this exercise, you will generate a list of situations and deter-
                             mine when participative management should  be used.
Directions
Step 1. Divide into small groups.

Step 2. Brainstorm types of situations about which a decision
        must be made, and in which you might want to involve
        a group of employees.  Choose one  situation from this
        list on which your small group will work.

Step 3. Determine the relative importance of quality and accep-
        tance in making this decision.

Step 4. Select a management style that will match the relative
        importance of quality and acceptance for the  success of
        this decision. Identify the  style on the scale below.
                                Tell       Sell     Gather    Getrecom-
                                                 Information  mendations
                                                           from group
                                         	1	
                                           Group    Group
                                           decides    decides
                                          with mgt.    without
                                            veto    mgt. veto
                             Step 5.  Identify the costs and benefits of your choice.

                             Step 6.  Prepare to explain your decision-making process to the
                                     larger group.
                             8 Promoting Total Involvement

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Discussion
Group  Decision Making
                            In this module, you have had a chance to experience participative
                            decision making, to discuss when it is important, and to practice
                            using the participative management scale  to determine the extent
                            to which employees ought to be involved in particular decisions.
                            In this activity, you will have an opportunity to use all  of the
                            above to focus on how  to enhance the benefits of group decision
                            making and to determine when unilateral  decisions should be
                            made.
Discussion Questions      1. What are the benefits of using a group?
                             2. How might a skilled team leader enhance the quality of a
                               team's decision?
                             3. When should a leader make a unilateral decision?
                            9 Promoting Total  Involvement

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Key  Points              Promoting Total Involvement
                           Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                           your own.

                            •  Participative techniques contribute to both the quality of
                               decisions and employee acceptance.

                            •  The participative management scale  can help you select
                               appropriate ways to involve employees in work related situa-
                               tions.

                            •  Groups are powerful forces whose synergy can be used to
                               further quality improvement.

                            •  Effectively managing teams can enhance the quality of team
                               decision making.

                            •  There are times when participative decision making is not
                               appropriate.
                            10  Promoting Total  Involvement

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Module Eight    Implementing Total Quality
               Management (TQM)

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Contents                Implementing Total  Quality  Management (TQM)





                          Overview: Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)     2



                          Presentation: TQM—Keys  to Successful Implementation        3



                          Discussion: Granting Amnesty                              7



                          Presentation: The Common Roadmap—Evolution Is Predictable  8



                          Presentation: Leadership and Commitment                  10



                          Exercise: Evaluating Your  Leadership and Commitment       11



                          Presentation: Strategies for Implementing TQM              12



                          Exercise: Implementing TQM—Strategies                   13



                          Presentation: Implementation Checklist                     17



                          Exercise: Contracting for Change                          21



                          Key Points: Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)  24
                          1  Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Overview
Implementing Total Quality  Management (TQM)
                            You have now completed the seven modules of The EPA
                            Executive Course on Quality which cover essential quality
                            concepts and techniques along with corresponding quality
                            management skills. In this module we look at the "big picture"—
                            the steps that must be taken to implement total quality throughout
                            EPA and ensure that it becomes a way of life for managers and
                            employees alike. The implementation of TQM  is not an overnight
                            process. It begins with a common language of quality, including
                            problem-solving  tools  and techniques. It continues as each
                            employee works individually and in functional and cross-
                            functional teams to identify and continuously improve the
                            agency's key work processes. Total quality management is a
                            never-ending journey that is fueled by an ongoing commitment to
                            continuous improvement and an openness to changing the way
                            we work. This includes the actions that senior managers  must
                            take as leaders and champions of quality improvement.
 Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to

 •  Understand the importance of using the voices of your
    customers, employees, and processes in planning

 •  Help the agency to "walk the talk" of amnesty

 •  Identify the  evolutionary phases of quality improvement and
    target possible road blocks

 •  Examine the profile of a quality leader and decide what you
    can do to model that profile

 •  Use eight implementation strategies to help you focus your
    areas of action throughout the organization

 •  Develop some action steps that specify your own personal
    commitment to implementing quality
                            2 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Presentation
TQM—Keys to Successful Implementation
                         Successful implementation requires thinking not only about where
                         your organization is but also where you want it to go.


                         It requires listening to the voice of customers, the voice of
                         employees, and the voice of key processes. Taking these voices
                         into account when planning grounds us in quality in the ways we
                         have been discussing throughout the previous  modules.



                         TQM Implementation
                                       The voice
                                         of the
                                       customer
                               TQM Implementation
                   The voice
                     of the
                    process
                               The voice
                                 of the
                               employee
                         3 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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The Voice of the  Customer


 •   Customer requirements


 •   Product


 •   Service


 •   Reputation


 •   Processes


 •   People


 •   Policies


 •   Responsiveness


 •   Communication


 •   Competitors


 •   Product/service gaps

 •   Anticipation of needs
The voice
  of the
customer
 4 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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                                         The voice
                                           of the
                                         employee
The Voice of the Employee


 •   Awareness and validation of quality
    strategy


 •   Amnesty


 •   Competing priorities


 •   Obstacles  to successful
    implementation


 •   Impact of quality on daily work


 •   Buy-in of the quality effort


 •   "Sacred cows" and myths


 •   Communication and interaction


 •   Knowledge of problem-solving and
    process-improvement skills

 •   "Get ahead" norms


 •   Degree of involvement in decision making


 •   Perceptions of effectiveness of management styles

 •   Suggestions for proceeding
5 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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The Voice of the Process


 •   Output

 •   Productivity


 •   Cycle time


 •   Error rate

 •   Rejects


 •   Accuracy

 •   Returns

 •   Scrap

 •   Information


 •   Efficiency

 •   Effectiveness

 •  Communication


 •  Cost
The voice
  of the
 process
 6 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Discussion
Granting  Amnesty
                            Inherent in listening to the voice of employees is the concept of
                            amnesty. For TQM to be successful, it is critical that employees
                            and managers alike speak the truth and take risks in the interest
                            of the greater good of the agency.

                            Therefore, for senior managers to be credible, they must grant
                            amnesty to those from whom they hear potentially uncomfortable
                            news. In the same vein, employees must be willing to take the
                            initiative to raise issues  that they believe are important to  EPA's
                            mission.

                            In this discussion, you will explore what it means to  "walk the
                            talk" of amnesty.
Discussion Questions
 1.  If you were raising a difficult, potentially threatening issue
    with a colleague or with someone to whom you report, what
    would be some of your concerns or fears?
                             2.  What would the other person need to say and do to make
                                you feel comfortable about raising concerns?
                             3.  What concerns do you believe the employees who report to
                                you will have about being open, honest, and direct with you?
                             4. What do you need to say and do that will lead employees to
                               believe you "walk the talk" when it comes to amnesty!
                            7 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Presentation
The  Common Road map—Evolution Is
Predictable
                            The implementation of TQM will proceed through four
                            identifiable phases—readiness, expansion, integration, and
                            regeneration.
                            Evolution Is Predictable

                                     Readiness   Expansion    Integration
                                          Regeneration
                            At any given time:

                             •   Different parts of the organization will have evolved at
                                different rates.

                             •   Within any part of the organization different stages will be
                                present.

                             •   Evolution through the phases will demand attention and a
                                continuous application of energy.

                            The phases of TQM are important for planning organization-
                            wide TQM deployment and serving an individual manager as a
                            guide for leading TQM in his or her department or small unit.
                            Total quality improvement requires asking people to change not
                            only how they do their work,  but also how they actually view
                            their work. It requires a fundamental shift in  norms, attitudes,
                            and organizational culture. It is natural for people to resist
                            change, especially when it is complex. Therefore, as your total
                            quality implementation proceeds through the identifiable phases,
                            the strength and nature of the  resistance is predictable, and to
                            some extent preventable. Being aware of this evolutionary process
                            can help you anticipate the predictable stages and road blocks
                            you will likely encounter, as well as facilitate the eventual
                            acceptance of quality as the way of doing work.
                           8 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Four Phases of TQM Implementation

Phase 1—Readiness. The readiness phase is marked by variation
in understanding of TQM, its relevance to individual and/or
organizational work, its priority among other mission require-
ments and/or improvement initiatives, its suitability within
particular environments, its compatibility with certain management
styles, and its staying power as a lasting force in the organiza-
tion. Some parts of the organization will be in high readiness for
TQM and will absorb it quickly; other parts will be in low
readiness and will require more preparation for TQM to  become
part of daily work.

Phase 2—Expansion. While some parts of the organization are
bogged down, others will be moving ahead. Gradually a critical
mass of  successes will be achieved, and a "flywheel" effect will
create a  broader and deeper deployment of TQM. Converts from
among those "bogged down" portions  of the organization will be
made as  they observe long-standing problems beginning  to
disappear, as standards of operational  effectiveness begin inching
upwards, as doing the right thing right happens the first  time
more and more often. These converts  will  take up the TQM
process in their work areas as  success breeds success.

Phase 3—Integration. During this phase, TQM techniques and
ways of  thinking about work (continuous improvement, total
involvement, measurement, etc.) will have  become incorporated
into daily routines. Supportive  systems (personnel systems like
performance appraisal, promotions, communications, planning, and
budgeting) will, during this phase, become linked in support of
TQM to  reinforce it as a way  of life within an organization.
Moreover, vendors to an organization  will  have adopted  TQM
methodologies, and will be delivering  services on time and within
cost and  performance parameters. Customers will have joined in
partnership to further tighten the mutual understanding of
customer requirements and supplier capabilities.

Phase 4—Regeneration. In this phase, the organization appears to
have become "reborn" as the cultural transformation  promised by
TQM becomes a reality. The entire organization is rededicated to
customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, cost  containment, and
productivity. The bottom of the organization is linked to the top
in its pursuit of strategic initiatives aimed at continuously
improving mission effectiveness. Horizontally, those elements
which are joined in a common work process are  tightly
integrated, as measures of "handoff' effectiveness reveal  a steady
drop in errors.
9 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Presentation
Leadership and  Commitment
                                We have considered the importance of using the voices of the
                                customer, the employees, and the processes  to plan how to get
                                from where you are to where you want to be. We have also
                                identified the common  evolutionary process  of resistance and
                                eventual internalization of the total quality effort.

                                However, the quality implementation will move  from readiness
                                through expansion, integration, and regeneration  only  if senior
                                managers demonstrate active commitment and leadership. There
                                are  important differences between allowing,  supporting,  managing,
                                and leading your quality effort.
                                Senior Management's Role  in TQM
                                                                                           Lead
                                                       Commit yourself to becoming a champion of TQM.
                                                       Insist on the use of TQM to achieve organizational goals.
                                                       Hold people accountable for supporting quality goals.
                                                       Never compromise quality for schedule, volume, or cost.
                                                       Ensure that TQM is part of decision making in all
                                                        organizational procedures.
                                                  Chair a quality council, head a quality action
                                                    team, and remove barriers.
                                                  Establish TQM measures to track your organization's
                                                   success.
                                                  Implement innovative recognition and reward systems
                                                   for TQM efforts.
                                                  Model doing "right things right."
                                                                                 I Manage
                                                                            Support
                                           Delegate the responsibility for TQM initiatives.
                                           Create upper-management TQM initiatives.
                                           Kick off TQM training sessions for your people.
                                           Endorse TQM as a priority for the organization.
                                           Include TQM topics in presentations.
                                                                        Allow
                                     Allow people in your organization to attend TQM training.
                                     Attend TQM training yourself.
                                     Create a TQM coordinator's position that reports to upper
                                       management.
                                     Fund limited TQM training without becoming directly
                                       involved.
                                     Fund an exploratory TQM pilot effort.	
                               10 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Exercise                  Evaluating  Your  Leadership and  Commitment


                            People both within and outside your organization will be alert to
                            the degree to which you are committed to the total quality effort.
                            They will very readily be noticing who does and does not  "walk
                            the talk."  In this exercise you will consider your role and level
                            of commitment in leading the  quality implementation.


Directions                  Step 1. In small groups, discuss what you will need to do in
                                    order  to actively lead your organization's quality effort.
                                    Record your conclusions.
                            Step 2. In the same groups, discuss what you can imagine
                                    getting in the way of your leading the quality effort.
                                    What are the barriers to successful leadership? Record
                                    your conclusions.
                            Step 3. Select a representative to report your findings in the
                                    large group.
                            11  Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Presentation            Strategies for Implementing  TQM
                           Being aware of key elements of quality implementation, under-
                           standing and anticipating the evolutionary phases of effecting
                           change, and taking seriously your level of commitment in leading
                           the change process are all critical.

                           To drive the evolution of TQM forward throughout an organiza-
                           tion, a further portfolio of interrelated strategies is required.

                             •  These strategies define the framework for TQM deployment
                               and serve as a test of the  comprehensiveness of TQM
                               implementation action plans.

                             •  These strategies are intended to provide field executives with
                               sufficient guidance and  direction so as to promulgate detailed
                               plans for their own implementation of TQM.

                             •  These strategies are highly integrated. They are self rein-
                               forcing and interdependent Taken altogether, they comprise
                               the basis for detailed TQM implementation planning.
                            Internal Implementation Strategies

                             1.  Leadership and commitment

                             2.  Infrastructure

                             3.  Focus and rollout

                             4.  Measurement

                             5.  Education

                             6.  Resources

                             7.  Information and communication

                             8.  Systems alignment
                             12 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Exercise                  Implementing TQM—Strategies
                            In this module, we have discussed the critical determinants of
                            successful implementation, identified the predictable evolution of
                            a total quality effort, and identified strategies for focused action
                            in implementing TQM. In this exercise, you will have an
                            opportunity to think more specifically of your role  in focusing
                            the actions of people in your part of the organization as you
                            implement TQM.
 Directions                 Step 1. Your facilitator will divide you into small groups and
                                    assign each group two implementation strategies from
                                    the list of eight identified in the previous presentation.
                                    In your group, use the reference pages which follow to
                                    discuss answers to the questions associated with the two
                                    strategies you have been assigned.

                            Step 2. Pick a representative to report your conclusions to the
                                    large group.
                             13 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Reference  Page        The  Eight  Internal Implementation Strategies


                          Leadership and Commitment Questions

                           •  How will  implementing TQM complement your strategic
                              objectives?

                           •  How will  you demonstrate commitment to TQM?

                           •  How will  you hold others accountable  for TQM?

                           •  What will you personally  do to guarantee the successful
                              implementation of TQM?
                          Infrastructure Questions

                           •  How will the TQM implementation be organized?

                           •  How will TQM be managed?

                           •  Who will be accountable for its implementation?

                           •  How will TQM affect headquarters and field operations?


                          Focus and Rollout Questions

                           •  How will TQM be implemented in the short term and long
                              term?

                           •  What opportunities will be worked on first, second, third,
                              etc.?

                           •  In what locations will TQM begin?

                           •  When will external customers and suppliers be involved?


                          Measurement Questions

                           •  What is currently being measured?

                           •  What processes and results should be measured to meet both
                              internal and external customer needs?
                           14 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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 •   Who will be responsible for TQM measurement?

 •   How will TQM measures be used?

 •   How will TQM measures be integrated with other measures?


Education Questions

 •   What training is presently being successfully offered?

 •   What quality training needs now exist?

 •   How will needs be filled?

 •   Who will facilitate training sessions and how many
    facilitators are  needed?

 •   How will training sessions be organized?

 •   How will educational success be measured?


Resources Questions

 •   What resources will be  needed?

 •   Where will the resources come  from?

 •   Will TQM be  a resource priority?

 •   How will return on investment  (ROI) be measured?


Information and Communication Questions

 •   What information  is required for TQM decision making?

 •   How will this  information be accessed?

 •   How and to whom will the TQM process be communicated?

 •   Who will be responsible for this function?
15 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Systems Alignment Questions
 •  How will TQM be aligned with strategic and financial
   systems?
 •  How will TQM be aligned with human resources manage-
   ment systems?
 •  How will TQM be integrated with current improvement
   efforts?
 •  What other systems need to be brought into alignment?
 16 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Presentation             Implementation Checklist
                           Implementing total quality is highly complex and, as we have
                           seen, involves an unfolding evolutionary process. Identifying the
                           degree of effort you will put into the various implementation
                           strategies in the short term versus the long term can  serve as a
                           reminder of the evolving nature of this  sophisticated change
                           effort.  Throughout the change process, the following checklist can
                           serve as a useful device for reflecting on your current status of
                           implementation as well as on further implementation  in the short
                           and long terms.
                            17 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Reference Page
Implementation  Checklist
        Leadership and Commitment
        • Vision
        • Implementation plans
        • Management accountability
        • Personal involvement
         Infrastructure
         • TQM management structure
         • Lines of accountability
         • All operations/locations
         • Reporting methodology


         Focus and Rollout
         •  Short-term rollout
          -Locations
          -People
          -Processes
         •  Long-term rollout
         •  Involvement of customers
         •  Involvement of suppliers
         Measurement
         • Current measures
         • Customer measures
         • Process measures
         • Results measures
         • Tracking and reporting
         • Integration
                                         Present
                                          Status
                            Short
                            Term
Long
Term
                                          • -High effort
                                          O - Medium effort
                                          O-Low effort
                            18 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Education
• Current training
• Needs analysis
• Facilitators identified and trained
• Rollout guidelines
• Measurement
Resources
• Needs identified and fulfilled
  -Financial
  -People
  -Facilities and equipment
• ROI measures
Information and Communication
• Needs and sources identified
• Communication plan
• Evaluation and reporting


Systems Alignment
• Strategic
• Financial
• Human resources
• Other improvement efforts
                                  Present
                                   Status
Short
Term
Long
Term
                                  • - High effort
                                  C - Medium effort
                                  O - Low effort
                   19 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Public Responsibility
• Environment
• Ethics
• Local citizenship
• Policy/legislation
Customer Alignment
• Customers identified
• Valid requirements
• Satisfaction measures
• Improvement plans
• Partnerships
• Future needs
Supplier Alignment
• Suppliers identified
• Valid requirements
• Satisfaction measures
• Certification
• Partnerships
• Future needs
                                   Present
                                   Status
Short
Term
Long
Term
                                  • - High effort
                                  O - Medium effort
                                  O - Low effort
                  20 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Exercise
Contracting for  Change
Directions
In this final exercise, you will develop some action plans for
leading the quality effort in your work group or in your part of
the organization.

You may want to refer back to the leadership and  commitment
activities, and the internal implementation strategies and checklist
in this module.

Step  1.  Pair off with one person in the group  with whom you
         can provide  mutual support, reflection, and improvement
         on your quality efforts. In your pair, brainstorm a list of
         concrete actions you, as senior executives, can take  to
         visibly lead  the quality effort.

Step  2.  Each of you now pick at least one item from the list
         which you believe  should have a high priority and
         important yield for you and your organization.

Step  3.  Using the force-field analysis worksheet on the next
         page, identify the present state and desired state for the
         item you picked in  step 2. Then list the driving and
         restraining forces. Work jointly, first with  one of your
         pair's  priorities and then with the other's.

Step  4.  Discuss  with your partner what you can do to strengthen
         or build on  the driving forces and reduce  or eliminate
         the restraining forces.

Step  5.  Drawing from the force-field  analysis, fill  in the action
         plan worksheet.

Step  6.  If time permits, follow steps  2 through 5 with other
         items  on your brainstorm list.

Step  7.  In the large  group,  share your plans. As others report
         their plans, add to  your own  plan any further activities
         that would be helpful to you  and your organization.

Step  8.  Plan to  meet with  your partner in the future to discuss
         your progress.
                              21 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Worksheet
Force-Field Analysis—Contracting for Change
  Area for Improvement:
                                Present State
                                Desired Outcome
               Driving Forces
                        Restraining Forces
                       22 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Worksheet
Action Plan—Contracting for Change
 Name:
       Date:
Work Unit:
Leadership
Actions
(what)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Steps
(how)






Account-
ability
(who)






Dead-
lines
(when)






Monitoring
Mechanisms
(how it is going)






Resources
Needed






                     23 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Key  Points               Implementing Total Quality  Management (TQM)
                           Below are some of the key points in this module. Please add
                           your own.

                            •  Successful implementation requires listening to the voice of
                               your customers, the voice of your employees, and the voice
                               of your processes.

                            •  Amnesty will only work if managers "walk the talk" and if
                               employees are  willing to express their suggestions and
                               concerns in the interest of the greater good of the agency.

                            •  Implementation of TQM will likely  evolve through four
                               phases:  readiness, expansion, integration, and regeneration.

                            •  Being aware of the four evolutionary phases can help you
                               anticipate and acknowledge road blocks and facilitate
                               eventual acceptance of your quality  effort.

                            •  For TQM to be successful, senior management must
                               continuously "walk the talk" and demonstrate active
                               leadership and  commitment.

                            •  TQM implementation planning rests in eight detailed,
                               interdependent  strategies which are highly integrated:
                               leadership and  commitment,  infrastructure, focus and rollout,
                               measurement, education, resources, information and com-
                               munication, and systems  alignment.

                            •  The above eight strategies should unfold over time, some
                               being activated in the short term and others in the long term.
                           24 Implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)

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Reference Readings

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Contents                 Reference  Readings
                           Reading: The Meaning of Quality                           2



                           Reading: Identifying the Cost of Quality                    13



                           Reading: You and Your Customer                          21



                           Reading: Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things       30



                           Reading: Quality Action Teams                            41



                           Reading: The QAT Problem-Solving Process                 54



                           Reading: Leadership                                      62



                           Reading: Participation and Quality                          72
                            1 Reference Readings

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The Meaning of Quality

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Reading
The Meaning of Quality
"Consumers are willing
to pay more for higher
quality products."
A revolution in quality improvement is underway in organiza-
tions throughout the world. If supported and carefully nurtured,
this revolution will transform the way we work.

The ideas behind this revolution are simple once we look at
them. However, making these simple ideas work amid the com-
plexities of organizational life can be both difficult and
challenging.

The EPA Executive Course on Quality will help you transform
quality ideas into  action by presenting them in a language that
everyone in your organization can understand. Learning a
common language of quality  will help you and the people who
work for you communicate more effectively, work as a team,  and
solve problems so that they don't recur. Finally, if reinforced  by
management, this  new attitude about quality will create an en-
vironment in which people want to come to work and are able to
do their best work.
                             The Quality Revolution

                             The quality  revolution is rooted deep in American  soil, but it was
                             the Japanese who first put quality ideas into widespread practice.

                             After World War H, "Made in Japan" was synonymous with
                             junk. Then,  in the early fifties, the Japanese were introduced to
                             quality improvement techniques.  Since  that time, the Japanese
                             have become world-class competitors, largely through the sys-
                             tematic application of the quality concepts and techniques  pio-
                             neered by the American consultants W. Edwards Deming, a
                             statistician,  and Joseph Juran, an engineer, along with Japanese
                             colleagues,  such as Kaoru Ishikawa.

                             The revolution in quality in the United States has  been fueled not
                             only by foreign  competition but also by rising customer expecta-
                             tions. With  a broader array of products and services to choose
                             from, consumers are demanding higher quality in their purchases
                             than ever before. A Gallup poll conducted for Quality Progress
                             magazine, for example, found that consumers are willing to pay
                             more for higher quality products. That means they are less
                             concerned with cost than value. There is every reason to  believe
                             that consumers' expectations about quality will continue to rise in
                             the years ahead, forcing organizations  to improve  quality—or lose
                             business to competitors who do.
                              3 The Meaning of Quality

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"Inspection-based
systems never catch
all the errors."
                             As Donald Ephlin, vice president of the United Automobile,
                             Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, has
                             said,  "Quality is job security today. . . . There's no sense in
                             being competitive in cost if you're not competitive in quality. I
                             think quality has always been important, but it's much more
                             important today because our competition is good and they con-
                             centrate on quality."
Big-Q

In the United States,  the concept of quality has evolved from
traditional quality control, called little-q quality, through the inter-
mediate stage of quality assurance, to the more comprehensive
concept of total quality improvement, known as TQI or Big-Q
quality.

Traditionally, organizations have sought to achieve quality stan-
dards through inspection and testing. This practice has  placed the
responsibility for quality on quality  control  or quality assurance
specialists. In service industries, inspectors and supervisors per-
form many of the same functions, but they lack the formal status
of quality control specialists. Either  way, quality guardians have
generally lacked the organizational status or political clout to
revise project schedules, let alone  change the way work is per-
formed. Moreover,  inspection-based  systems never catch all the
errors.

In contrast, companies  that embrace Big-Q  quality make every
employee responsible for quality by teaching what quality means,
why it matters,  and how to achieve it. These companies dramati-
cally reduce  the number of errors  or defects reaching customers.
When an organization begins supporting quality in Big-Q terms,
it makes a real  breakthrough.

Over the past several years, we have spent hundreds of hours
listening to quality control professionals, line managers, and
hourly workers. They complain that they already know how to
correct—or even prevent—defects, but that  they are not en-
couraged to  do  so. They feel frustrated by  the diminished view
of quality reflected in statements like "It's good enough" or
"We'll correct it in the field if there's a problem."

By the time  a problem is discovered in the field, corrective
action is more expensive, and  the company's reputation has been
tarnished. Moreover,  giving responsibility for quality to one
department or group  of people may send a message  to the other
people in the organization that they don't need to worry about
quality. In contrast, relying on the people who produce the
                              4 The Meaning of Quality

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product or deliver the service to ensure that it is done right sends
a very different message to the organization—a  message that
quality is everyone's responsibility.

Big-Q quality differs from litde-q in other respects, tod (see next
page). For example, it

 •  Is customer oriented instead of product oriented

 •  Stresses prevention

 •  Is part of everyone's day-to-day  work

 •  Focuses on the long term

Big-Q quality requires a revolution in organizational culture that
replaces  finger pointing with continuous improvement, rewards
initiative, and encourages problem solving by employees and
teams at all levels.
5 The Meaning  of Quality

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Approaches to Quality
The definition of quality is |1|
Quality priorities are 111
Business decisions iff
are based on |||
SSJ
Emphasis is on |;|
Costs are H
Errors are understood fff
to result from i|i|
Responsibility for |||
quality belongs to |f
Organizational culture ||
tends toward if |
Organizational iff
structure is iff
Problem solving is by If
product oriented 11
less important than cost, III
schedule, and volume 11:
short-term goals HI
detection of errors ill
raised (when quality |:|i
is emphasized) 11
special causes i||
(workers making |||
individual mistakes) ||1
quality control/ |§
quality assurance, i||i
inspectors, and |||
specialists |i|
finger pointing, blame f|J
finding, and punishing ||
risk takers ||
hierarchical, |||
bureaucratic, and static iff
those in authority, If
top of pyramid Hi
customer oriented
first among equals: "the driver"
of business decisions
balancing short-term
and long-term goals
prevention of errors
lowered (when quality
is emphasized)
common causes
(ineffective systems and
management practices)
everyone
continuous improvement,
innovation, and permission
to fail
flat, integrated, and fluid
teams, all employee levels
                        6 The Meaning of Quality

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Defining Quality

Traditionally, quality has referred to the performance of a product
or service.  But the quality of your  final output is only one aspect
of a total quality organization. As you read this, the people who
work for you are hard at work (you hope). Each of those people
is part of a complicated chain of transactions that stretches from
the raw material vendor supplying your  organization to the
ultimate customer receiving the completed product or service.

Most people are somewhere in the  middle of that chain, receiv-
ing intermediate products (information, materials, goods, etc.)
from people and processing them to produce intermediate  items
for other people in the  chain.

Big-Q means that quality is not just for the end user. On  the
contrary, every activity  in the customer-supplier chain has a
quality dimension. For Big-Q to  be realized, each of those inter-
actions needs to be performed well.

Big-Q also means that,  in addition  to product quality  (the charac-
teristics of the  end product or service), quality has other dimen-
sions, including the relationship with the customer,  the integrity
with  which we support  our products and services, the timeliness
of delivery, and the cost to the customer of acquiring the  product
or service.

There are many definitions of Big-Q quality. One of the simplest
is doing  right things right. The two elements of this definition
are

  1. Alignment, which is doing right things. Right things are the
    results that meet customer requirements.

  2. Execution,  which is doing things right. Doing things right
    refers to the way you do work.
Quality Pays

The realization that quality pays and, furthermore, that it repre-
sents a potential competitive advantage in the marketplace is a
breakthrough for many agencies  and companies.

Contrary to popular perception, higher quality need not cost
more. The attitude that there must be a  trade-off between cost
and quality is based on the assumption that quality happens after
the fact (i.e., that it has to be  inspected in). Companies that use
quality improvement techniques, however, build quality in from
7  The Meaning of Quality

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"Because it leads to
business growth and
expansion, quality
improvement can  protect
jobs while creating  new
ones."
the start. Through better processes that result in less waste and
rework, companies actually save money in the  long run  (and
often in the short run, too).

In terms of profitability, businesses in the United States  that have
improved quality are  showing the same spectacular results as
businesses in Japan—not only in products, where the Japanese
have done so well, but also in services. For example:

 •  AT&T has reported that its investments in  quality yield a 20
    percent return and an 18 percent net cost savings.

 •  In 1984, quality improvement efforts at General Electric led
    to a 34 percent reduction  in quality costs through less waste
    and fewer rejects.

 •  At a leading utility company, where  1,400  teams  and other
    quality efforts involve virtually every employee in the com-
    pany, savings attributed to quality improvement are estimated
    at more than $1 million a week.

 •  At Westmghouse's  Semiconductor Division, scrap has been
    reduced 58 percent (saving over $2.4 million), material
    returned by customers has decreased 69 percent (saving over
    $600,000),  and service performance has improved 20 percent
    since quality improvement began in 1982.

Quality improvement  has potential benefits in addition to cost
savings; it can  help expand market  share, boost sales, and justify
higher profit margins. Note that Japanese cars in the late eighties
represented 30  percent of the U.S. market,  although in many
cases they were priced  higher than comparable  domestic  models.
Finally, because it leads to business  growth and expansion, qual-
ity improvement can protect jobs while creating new ones.

We need to take a broader view of the role quality plays in
achieving organizational and individual goals. We need to recog-
nize that quality needn't cost more, and that it  will improve a
company's competitive position.

Furthermore, we need to see  that quality involves more than just
products or services and that it applies to internal as well as
external customers. We must recognize that everything the or-
ganization does has a quality component, and that everyone
shares responsibility for quality.
                             8  The Meaning  of Quality

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 The Breakthrough in Action

 Accepting a new definition for quality and making quality a
 priority are essential, but they are not enough. For quality to
 become the way we do business in our organizations requires a
 breakthrough in action. We have to break out of established ways
 of thinking and acting. We have to learn new behaviors, and we
 need both skills and the mandate to practice them.

 Douglas D. Danforth,  former  chairman of Westinghouse, has said,
 "Everyone needs to say by his or her actions that quality is a
 way of life ... that we apply the same high standards of perfor-
 mance to our jobs  that we do to our personal lives."

 In GDI's experience, accomplishing this  breakthrough requires
 dedication to five basic principles, along with knowledge of the
 specific practices needed to implement each one. These five
 pillars of quality are customer focus,  total involvement,
 measurement, systematic support, and continuous improvement.
 To support quality, these pillars must be built on a foundation of
 organizational values that employees can believe in and live by.
 On the following pages we'll  examine each of the pillars in turn.
 The  Pillars of Quality
                      The Quality Advantage
             «
2
a.

|

i
                       Organizational Values
9 The Meaning of Quality

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"The unrecognized
quality experts in any
organization are the
people who do the
work."
Customer Focus

Quality means customer satisfaction, which can be measured by a
product's conformance to a customer's requirements. Quality is
not necessarily the same for every customer, but each customer
expects to have his or her requirements met. A satisfied
Chevrolet owner may have requirements different from those of a
satisfied Cadillac owner—or a satisfied van owner. Yet all three
vehicles may be of equal quality, if they meet the needs of their
respective owners.

Within  your organization, people supply products, services, and
information to one another. In these exchanges, you are linked as
internal customers and suppliers. You can better meet the needs
of your final, external  customers when you work to meet the
requirements of your internal customers. Everyone  in your or-
ganization must understand the requirements of all of his or her
customers and continue to meet these requirements even while
working to improve his or her own processes.
                             Total Involvement

                             Beginning with senior management, every level of the organiza-
                             tion must be involved in organized quality improvement activ-
                             ities. Everyone in the organization is responsible for quality, top
                             to bottom and side to side. Each employee has  an important role
                             to play.

                             The unrecognized quality experts in any organization are the
                             people who do the work. Who knows more than the  experienced
                             sales representative about how to qualify prospects or reduce
                             unnecessary sales calls? Who knows  better than the conscien-
                             tious production  worker how to reduce product  defects? Who
                             knows more than the customer service representative  about what
                             customers do and don't like about your organization? Certainly,
                             the sales manager has a great deal  to contribute to the reduction
                             of unproductive sales calls, and the engineer has ideas about how
                             to reduce defects. But it would be a  mistake to solve those
                             quality problems without the advice and ideas of the unrecog-
                             nized quality experts.
                             Measurement

                             It's important to track your own progress, because you can't
                             improve what you don't measure. You can't meet quality goals
                             unless you establish baselines and chart progress against them.
                             10 The Meaning of Quality

-------
                            You should be influenced by customer requirements as you
                            decide what to measure, and you should have those closest to the
                            work do the measuring. You should make decisions using facts
                            and data, rather than using intuition or shooting from  the hip.
"If quality counts, it
should be recognized
and rewarded."
Systematic Support

Too often, good ideas produce mediocre results because of a lack
of systematic support If quality is important to your strategic
advantage, then it must be reinforced by structures, policies, and
procedures that encourage its development and discourage com-
peting priorities. It must be part of your strategic plan, your
budget process, and—most important of all—your performance
management system. If quality counts, it should be recognized
and rewarded. If you're not willing to promote and reward those
who improve how the work  is done (as distinct from those who
rush in at the last minute to put out fires), you'll never achieve
quality.
                            Continuous Improvement

                            There's always room for improvement—and there always will be.
                            In a quality organization, "good enough" is never good enough.
                            Every aspect of Big-Q must be used to ensure customer satisfac-
                            tion, or you are not achieving quality. Keep looking for a better
                            way, even if your customers are satisfied with how you serve
                            them now.  In a fast-changing world, it is only a matter of time
                            before  their needs change. When they do, you want to be ready
                            to establish or maintain your competitive advantage.

                            Quality is really a never-ending journey, not a destination. We
                            need to do things better today than  yesterday and be constantly
                            on the lookout  for ways to correct problems, prevent problems,
                            and make improvements. Even when the customer's needs have
                            been completely and precisely met,  a better, more efficient
                            approach is always possible. The quality journey is a continuous
                            search  for a better way.
                            Implementing Quality

                            Many people agree that quality pays. But although they endorse
                            the principles of the five pillars of quality, they still complain
                            that there is no way to put the ideas into action. Their reasons
                            include the following:

                             •  Top management isn't really committed to quality.
                            11 The Meaning of Quality

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"Quality improvement
can be the ultimate
integrator of your
organization. . ."
 •   Employees won't believe management is serious about it.

 •   Employees won't cooperate.

 •   There's too little money and expertise to undertake quality
    efforts.

These are all plausible reasons  not to do anything. But there
are powerful incentives—aside from the benefits of strategic
advantage—for implementing quality ideas. One is that people
really do support quality improvement efforts if senior manage-
ment is serious about them. We have seen this  in our work with
organizations in all segments of industry, as well as government
agencies and healthcare institutions. Two essential truths can help
you establish and sustain a quality improvement effort.

 1. Most people want  to be proud of the work  they do and the
    organization they do it for. If you give people a mandate, a
    mechanism, and the support (tools, training, and opportunity)
    to do a job well, they'll do it. If you create an organization
    with values people can support, they will.

 2. People support what they help create. A person who does a
    job five days a week, year in and year out, probably has
    ideas about how to do the job better. But in practice,  he or
    she may rarely be encouraged to voice those ideas. Employ-
    ees will take an active role in designing systems to improve
    quality if you make it clear that jobs won't be jeopardized
    by improvements they suggest.

Quality improvement can  be the ultimate integrator of your
organization, the umbrella under which you can achieve some of
your most critical objectives: improved product  quality, lower
costs, stronger customer loyalty, increased employee morale,
lower turnover, reduced absenteeism, a larger share of the market,
and even higher profits.

Quality can become a  rallying cry for organizational improve-
ment. It can turn a company around, transform  its culture, and
inspire the changes necessary to compete more  effectively.
                             12 The  Meaning of  Quality

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Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Reading                   Identifying the Cost of  Quality
                             Traditionally, when faced with shrinking resources, organizations
                             make across-the-board reductions or cut efforts such  as training
                             and planning that have a long-term payoff. Without training and
                             careful planning, necessary  costs are  cut along with avoidable
                             costs—the wheat discarded  with the chaff. Quality improvement
                             efforts suffer as a result. Managers can  cut expenses without
                             cutting capabilities by taking a cost-of-quality  approach to cost
                             assessment This approach provides an attractive alternative to the
                             usual cost-cutting methods.

                             You can think of the cost of quality  as  an iceberg; on the sur-
                             face, there are the costs we often associate with quality, such as
                             defective products, rework,  and quality control department ex-
                             penses. Below the surface is a less obvious but even larger block
                             of costs that we may not attribute to quality. It includes the costs
                             of unwanted employee  turnover, poorly  run meetings, overdue
                             receivables, and excess inventory. Once  you have identified both
                             the obvious and  the hidden costs of quality, you can ferret out
                             avoidable costs and begin to reduce them.

                             A  number of organizations  working toward a quality advantage
                             have succeeded in cutting costs without cutting capabilities.

                              •   A Federal Express  quality  team initiated a program to cut
                                 waste  that ultimately resulted in a $187,000 annual cost
                                 savings and  a one-time savings of $500,000 in capital expen-
                                 ditures. The cost of the quality team's efforts was paid back
                                 in just two weeks.

                              •   A premier consumer products company found  that 55 percent
                                 of its  billing department employees  were engaged in correct-
                                 ing  and inspecting  invoices. This amounted to a  total of  $35
                                 million or a cost of $25 to collect an average  bill of $90.

                              •   At John Hancock Life  Insurance Company, a senior vice
                                 president noted that the thirty quality  teams in his area
                                 produced "hundreds of thousands of dollars in underwriting
                                 cost savings and productivity gains" in one year.

                              •   At a leading publishing house, printing crews  identified
                                 newsprint wastage  as a major cost of quality.  By careful data
                                 gathering and problem  solving, they reduced wastage by 75
                                 percent, thereby saving $250,000 a  year.
                             14 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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"Unlike most budget-
cutting efforts ... a
cost-of-quaKty approach
leads to doing better
with less."
Unlike most budget-cutting efforts, which lead to doing less with
less, a cost-of-quality approach leads to doing better with less.
The difference is that most budget cuts are conducted without the
cooperation and support of the managers and workers  who  will
be affected by the cuts and who know where the waste really is.
In an effort to protect themselves and their departments, people
try to rationalize why particular cuts shouldn't be made. In Big-
Q organizations, managers and workers with the right  techniques
and attitudes can distinguish  fat from bone  and concentrate on
trimming the fat. This kind of an activity can lead to  increased
morale and a  greater commitment to the organization,  instead of
to the demoralization that comes with most budget cuts.
                             How Do You Define the Cost of Quality?

                             As discussed in the reading on the meaning of quality, the two
                             key measures of an organization's success are alignment and
                             execution. Alignment, what  you do, is measured by how well you
                             are meeting your customers' needs. Execution, how you do it, is
                             measured by whether you achieve the highest return at the lowest
                             cost. Alignment is doing the right things, and execution is doing
                             things right. Ultimately, the key goal of the organization and
                             each of its members is to do right things right.

                             The cost of quality includes all the costs of providing defect-free
                             products and services. It includes the costs  of prevention or
                             inspection (appraisal) and failure (see next page). Experts in the
                             field have found that these  costs amount to 20 to 25 percent of
                             operating costs in manufacturing organizations, and up  to 30
                             percent (or more) in  service organizations.

                             Although some costs of quality are necessary and useful, other
                             costs of quality are avoidable and wasteful. Whenever you're
                             failing to do right things right, you're incurring an avoidable cost
                             of quality.
                              15 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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 The Cost of Quality
  Prevention costs
  are the costs of any
  actions intended to
  make sure, in
  advance, that things
  will not go wrong.
  Prevention costs also
  include the costs of
  on-the-spot corrections.
Inspection costs are
the costs of finding
out if and when
things are going
wrong so correction
or prevention
actions can occur.
Failure costs are the
costs you incur when
a customer is or will
be dissatisfied and
you have to pay the
price in damaged
reputation, rework,
waste, legal penalties,
special charges,
or loss of pride.
16 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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As you pursue quality, you will find that your prevention costs
increase, while your inspection and failure costs  decrease by a
much greater amount.  Thus, your  total cost of quality will go
down.
How Quality Pays Off
          Total Cost of Quality
            .' •: :•:•: :•
               Inspection
              Prevention
                                   Total Cost of Quality
       Inspection
                                       Prevention
          Before beginning the
       quality improvement process
     As a result of the
quality improvement process
The Employee's Role

The concept of doing right things right puts the responsibility for
quality where  it belongs—in the hands of each employee. Most
employees have the ability to  define what the right things are,
but they can't do it alone. They must work with their customers
and their manager to identify and understand customer and
organizational  needs.
17 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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Employees can also determine how to do things right. Again,
employees  do not operate in a vacuum. Quality is achieved only
when the knowledge and skills of all employees are brought to
bear on the work process in which they are involved.
The Manager's Role

In order to reduce the cost of quality, managers must communi-
cate their priorities and expectations to their employees and
facilitate the quality improvement process by involving  employees
and ensuring that they have the confidence and skills required to
do the job. It is not the manager's job to provide  solutions. Big-
Q quality means that the best people to improve a work process
are the people who do the work.
Prevention and Correction

The key to reducing costs is prevention. For example, if you set
up  and  follow a maintenance schedule for your car that includes
checking the  oil regularly, you will ensure that automotive prob-
lems related to lack of oil will never occur.

The next best thing to prevention is early detection and treatment
of problems.  If you don't add oil regularly,  you need to add it as
soon as the oil light goes on.  If you don't do either prevention
or early treatment, you may wind up with a cracked engine
block, a large expense that could have been avoided.

The same principle applies to  problems in organizations. The best
solution is prevention.

Despite prevention efforts, however, some quality problems may
still occur. This means that you  need to develop your own
inspection systems rather than wait  for someone else  to catch
your mistakes.

For example, when a secretary makes an error in a letter, the
most cost-effective solution is  for the secretary to catch it and
correct  it, thus  preventing the  error from going out further.
But suppose the secretary doesn't catch the  error. The boss finds
the typo, circles it, and gives  the draft back to the  secretary  for
correction. Now, the cost of quality includes not only the secre-
tary's time but also that of the boss.
18 Identifying the Cost of Quality

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"// a customer does
bring a problem to your
attention, you should
consider yourself lucky."
It could be worse. Suppose this letter is written to a customer,
and suppose that neither the secretary nor the boss catches the
error. The important customer sees the error and thinks,  "How
can I trust these people when they can't even send a professional
letter? Maybe I should take my business elsewhere." Now the
boss may have to get on the phone or visit the customer to make
amends. At best, the boss's time has been used  up in regaining
the respect of the customer. At worst, the customer has been lost.

Ideally, a customer will never have a reason like this to  com-
plain  to you or your organization.  However, if a customer does
bring a problem to  your attention,  you should consider yourself
lucky. Research  indicates that only about 4 percent of dissatisfied
customers complain to their suppliers. The other 96 percent tell
their friends and  associates instead. Thus, they become ill-will
ambassadors who undermine your  organization's reputation and
help competitors  take away business  from you.

An old rule of thumb says that a satisfied customer will  tell three
people, but a dissatisfied customer will tell twenty people.
Although making amends to a customer for a  mistake is  costly, it
is  still less costly than losing the customer altogether.
                             The Cost of Quality:  A Competitive  Advantage

                             Traditional ways of measuring performance often  place managers
                             and their departments in competition with one another. They are
                             often evaluated on different criteria that may not take into
                             account how well they work together toward organizational goals.
                             Sales may be evaluated by number of trips booked, seats sold,
                             new accounts opened, or contracts received. Production may be
                             evaluated by output per hour or number of units shipped.
                             Accounting may be evaluated by  accuracy and ability to keep
                             costs down. Quality control inspection may be evaluated by the
                             number of defects discovered in the organization's products or
                             services.

                             Different criteria for different departments cause conflicting
                             values. Production sees the ideal world as one with long lead
                             times and high predictability, as well as a limited product line.
                             For marketing and sales,  the ideal world has a warehouse  or
                             service operation on every  street corner, along with an infinite
                             variety of products that meet every whim and fancy of the
                             customer and that cost next to nothing. Finance values a
                             company without buildings, equipment, or even people, where
                             resources can be shifted to the hottest investment opportunities.
                             These opposing values lead to conflict  and competition among
                             the different functions. To  some degree such conflict is con-
                             19 Identifying the Cost of Quality

-------
 stractive. What better way to raise key issues than to have
 marketing pushing its position against production, or finance
 pushing its position against marketing? But it also results in
 competition for resources  and a win-lose mentality in which one
 function's gain is another's loss.

 A more effective model for organizations is a network of mutual-
 ly reinforcing dependencies. If, for example, finance  doesn't
 provide the resources for better equipment, production loses the
 opportunity to raise productivity or cut costs.

 In today's tough, competitive environment, the win-lose mentality
 is even more destructive than it was in the past. To succeed in
 this tougher environment requires an ability to move  faster with
 fewer mistakes, to cooperate rather than compete, and to create
 win-win situations. The traditional measures simply don't do the
 job. A new measure is needed, one that encourages cooperation
 and teamwork. The cost of quality can provide that measure.
20  Identifying the Cost of  Quality

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You and Your Customer

-------
Reading
You and Your Customer
"Work in the modern
organization has become
too complex to be
managed and controlled
only from the top down."
In recent years, more and more organizations have realized that
quality is important to gaining a competitive advantage and
essential to a company's survival. This increased awareness has
created a unique opportunity for organizations  to apply the
principles of quality  to day-to-day management in order to make
fundamental and lasting improvements in how  they do business.

The key to quality improvement is to recognize and then act on
one  simple proposition:  Quality begins and ends with  the cus-
tomer. While most organizations recognize the importance of the
customer, many fail to align their capabilities with the customer's
needs. Outdated managerial practices and organizational structures
often frustrate  the company's ability to meet customers' needs.

Most organizations are structured into specialized functional units
whose members are more loyal to their function than  to the
organization. These units compete with one another for money
and  resources.  The route to the top in these organizations is
through  the vertical chain of command. We call this chimney
stack management because people get ahead by moving upward
in one vertical cylinder—defending the interests of marketing or
administration  or region C rather than the interests of  the
organization as a whole, much less the customer.

Other organizations are managed by the matrix model, which
attempts to link people across functions.  In practice, this model
sometimes adds to confusion and conflict by imposing a second
reporting structure.  Neither model seems flexible enough to
manage the complexity of a modern organization in a  way that
ensures continuous responsiveness to customers. Why? Work in
the modern organization has  become too complex to be managed
and controlled  only from the top down.
                            The Customer-Supplier Chain

                            Managers at all levels are  discovering that they can increase
                            effectiveness and efficiency by encouraging their employees to
                            see themselves as one another's customers and suppliers, linked
                            in a chain that extends back into the organization from the
                            ultimate, external customer.
                            22 You and Your Customer

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This simple structure can support complex work processes. It
represents the natural flow of work across functions and between
employees in an organization. In many companies, only a small
percentage of employees have direct contact with  the organiza-
tion's paying customers. However, all of us depend on others for
the products or services we need to  do our jobs. We are sup-
pliers to the people who depend on  us for input and customers of
the people who supply  us with output.

In fact, work can be  seen as a process in which customers re-
ceive inputs (e.g.,  machine parts or data) from their suppliers,
add value (e.g., assembly or information processing) to those
inputs, and then pass outputs (e.g., assembled units or finished
reports) on to their own customers.1

You can describe a process broadly  (processing a  customer's
request from the first meeting or telephone  inquiry to payment
for work completed) or narrowly (ordering a needed part for a
computer). Either way,  the customer's needs are better satisfied if
the people from the separate functions—parts, customer service,
field service, and billing—are all trying to meet the needs of the
next internal process, rather than if they are primarily concerned
about the welfare of their own functions.

As a manager concerned with customer satisfaction in a competi-
tive world, you don't want your parts department  thinking only
of its own interests and asking, "How can we minimize  inventory
and thus reduce costs?" Rather, you  want your parts department
thinking of its customers' interests as  well as the  organization's
interests and, therefore, asking, "How  can we make sure we have
the parts the service department needs to do its job without
carrying unnecessary  parts in inventory?"
Alignment

Alignment, or the matching of supplier capabilities with customer
needs, is a requisite of the quality process.

The process of alignment begins with a redefinition of the
customer-supplier relationship. Rather than see each other as
adversaries trying to take advantage of each other, customers and
suppliers work together as collaborators to achieve alignment.
Their collaboration must also help promote the overall  goals of
the organization.
     'For more  on the internal  customer-supplier chain, see G.H.
Labovitz, "Keeping Your Internal Customers Satisfied,"  Wall Street
Journal, July 6, 1987.


23 You and Your Customer

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When you achieve alignment, customer satisfaction becomes a
shared goal; it is no longer the burden of the  supplier alone.
Internal customers are responsible for making  their needs known
to their suppliers.

Why should the internal customer make this effort? Because the
ultimate goal of alignment is to support the mission of the
overall organization. And this is the one goal  that applies equally
to all your employees, in both roles—customer and supplier.

Conceptually,  alignment is easily grasped.  It has three variables:
(1) customer needs, (2) supplier capabilities, and (3) organiza-
tional values, vision, mission, and strategies—or what we shall
refer to for simplicity's sake as organizational  goals.

As a manager, your challenge is to help your  people  achieve
three-way alignment. That means matching supplier capabilities
with customer needs,  to reach the goals of the organization.
Alignment
          I
          £
                                         Organizational
                                             goals
                           Customer Needs

In every transaction, both customers and suppliers must have
their needs and interests met, or alignment will not occur. If
customers feel that the value of the product or service isn't worth
the price, they won't buy it. On the other hand,  if suppliers don't
feel that they are receiving  a fair price for the product or service,
they won't willingly sell it.
24  You and Your Customer

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Traditionally, suppliers within an organization have had a captive
market in their internal customers,  so they have not had to take
their internal customers' needs into account. In more and more
organizations today, however, managers are free to decide
whether to buy their services internally or purchase them outside,
thus forcing internal suppliers to become increasingly customer
oriented.

One of the dangers in seeking customer-supplier alignment is that
the supplier will go overboard in meeting customer needs and
will subvert organizational goals.
Lack of Alignment with  Organizational  Goals
                                        Organizational
                                            goals
                                            X
           .o
           a
                          Customer Needs

 As a manager, you need to monitor carefully the alignment
 process between your employees and avert situations in which
 customers and suppliers may be seeking alignment in ways that
 will not promote organizational  goals.
 Gaps

 Sometimes supplier capabilities lag behind customer require-
 ments. That is, while the customer's needs are in line with
 organizational objectives, the supplier lacks the capability to meet
 them. This results in a performance gap, which usually  requires
 rework to prevent customer dissatisfaction.
 25 You  and Your Customer

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Performance Gap
                                         Organizational
                                            goals
                    Performance gap
                         Customer Needs

In this case, suppliers need to increase their capability to meet
customer requirements, or they'll lose the business to someone
who can. And customers need to provide clear and complete
feedback to help their suppliers close  this gap.

A gap can also occur when supplier capabilities exceed customer
requirements. If you are giving customers more than they want or
appreciate, you are, in the short term, wasting your effort. A
customer who wants to buy a telephone that will last five years
won't pay extra for one built to last forty years if given a choice
—unless, of course, you can convince this customer that it is
worth making the additional investment

Educating the customer about  some of your potential capabilities
opens the door to even higher levels of alignment, especially if
no competitor is able to match these capabilities.
26  You and Your Customer

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                            Opportunity Gap
"You need to know
your boss's objectives,
and your people need
to know yours."
                                                                   Organizational
                                                                       goals
                                                                  Opportunity gap
                                                      Customer Needs

                             Building Customer-Supplier Alignment

                             How do you foster customer-supplier partnerships that build
                             alignment?

                             First, you must identify your own customers and suppliers, and
                             then meet with them to discuss and agree upon requirements. To
                             help facilitate this exchange, we suggest you ask the following
                             questions of your customers:

                              •  What do you need from me?

                              •  What do you do with what I give you?

                              •  Are there  any gaps between what I  give you and what you
                                 need?

                             Next, you must help your employees understand alignment. Meet
                             with them to make  sure they follow through with their customers
                             and suppliers.  To do this effectively, you need to know your
                             boss's objectives, and  your people need to know yours. That way
                             you can ensure that the  alignment processes between customers
                             and suppliers actually  contribute to organizational goals. The
                             same three questions can be  used to clarify requirements  between
                             managers and employees, who are customers of and suppliers to
                             one another.
                              27 You and Your Customer

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Third, once the requirements are agreed upon, focus on a few
highly visible work processes. The requirements tell you what
needs to be done; the work processes show how it should be
done. In the course of this program, you have been introduced to
flowcharting. A flowchart describes the steps in a work process
in graphic  form. When you bring together the people involved  in
a work process and have them draw a flowchart, you and they
can sometimes resolve conflicting perceptions between what is
actually happening and what should be happening.  The flowchart
also makes it  easy to identify unnecessary steps and bottlenecks.
Once these are identified, you can work to eliminate them, thus
improving  your capability to meet your customers'—and your
organization's—needs.
Alignment Works

A major division of Jostens, a Fortune 500 publishing company
based in Minneapolis, committed itself to total quality improve-
ment as a long-term competitive strategy. The first step in this
effort was making sure everyone in the division knew that he or
she had his  or her own customers  and suppliers, according to
Fred Bjork,  divisional vice president and general manager.

That realization "opened up all kinds of doors," Bjork recalls,
"because people suddenly  had a  context in which they could
surface problems  and iron them  out together. What might have
been taken as 'bellyaching' before was now seen by suppliers as
helpful feedback."

Jostens Printing and Publishing prints high school  and college
yearbooks. The division's  dedication to internal customer satisfac-
tion  was soon extended to external customers. "Our customers—
the students and the schools—are also our suppliers. They pro-
vide the text, pictures, logos, and other art we need to produce
their yearbook," he explains.

"We've had great success  expanding our customer focus to the
students. By helping them see their relationship with us in
customer-supplier terms, we have significantly reduced the proof-
ing and approval  process.  And they feel more comfortable and
involved throughout the production process,"  Bjork adds.
Organizational Collaboration

We've all read stories about people in flood-stricken areas who
form a human chain to pile sandbags against a rising river.
Working together, they safeguard their homes and families.
28  You and  Your Customer

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The sandbags are passed from hand to hand—supplier to cus-
tomer, supplier to customer—and put in  place to form a dike.
The first few exchanges are awkward, but soon suppliers and
customers understand one another's needs and capabilities, and
the flow becomes smooth and orderly. The partnerships between
people enable the sandbags to flow faster and faster to the end  of
the line. If the citizens can keep the river from flooding, the
whole community benefits.

A cooperative and effective human chain benefits organizations
too. Working toward quality  goals fosters greater organizational
collaboration based on alignment and on strong customer-
supplier relationships.

When you manage your work processes  in  a way that encourages
alignment and facilitates customer-supplier partnerships, you are
pushing responsibility and encouraging initiative  through the
entire organization. The resulting gains—in communication and
commitment,  in effectiveness and efficiency—will go a long  way
toward creating a competitive advantage for your organization.
 29  You and Your Customer

-------
Continuous Improvement—Doing
Right Things

-------
Reading
Continuous Improvement—Doing Right  Things
"When trouble erupts,
many organizations
spend more time fixing
the blame than fixing
the problem."
"Turning an error into
an opportunity for
improvement is a key
component of the quality
process."
Everyone agrees that continuous improvement is an eminently
sensible and cost-effective way to maintain an organization's
competitive edge. When employees constantly improve the way
they do their jobs, they strengthen the organization's ability to
meet the needs  of its customers.

In practice, however, many organizations do little more than pay
lip service to continuous improvement. Subscribing to the adage
"If it ain't broke, don't fix it," many  managers find little time  for
improvement efforts. Even the best-intentioned managers, facing
new crises every day, can find their continuous improvement
program turning into sporadic improvement—or no improvement
at all for months at a time.

Organizations often do not learn from mistakes; many don't study
their mistakes to find the lessons they contain. The saying "Those
who ignore history are bound to repeat it" has a corporate corol-
lary: "Those who don't learn from their mistakes are bound to
make them again." Since  continuous improvement is  an excellent
way to avoid making the same costly mistakes again and again,
why don't organizations take it more  seriously?

There are several reasons. Organizations, like people, often don't
confront their difficulties or acknowledge their errors because it's
painful and embarrassing  to admit mistakes.  The most common
response to a problem is to deny it, minimize it, or blame it on
someone else. When trouble erupts, many organizations spend
more time fixing the blame than fixing the problem.

Then, too, some organizations wish to maintain an aura of invin-
cibility, which discourages the bearers of bad news. In a varia-
tion of the  "kill the messenger" syndrome, word goes out that
only good news is welcome. In those organizations it is an
unlucky employee—or manager—who challenges the conven-
tional wisdom, no matter  how misguided it might appear to be.
                            Searching for Buried Treasure

                            Fortunately,  the quality revolution has fostered a new attitude.
                            Organizations are discovering that learning from mistakes is
                            integral to continuous improvement. Turning an error into an
                            opportunity for improvement is a key component of the quality
                            process.

                            Japanese industrialists have even been known to refer to a mis-
                            take as  a treasure, a golden opportunity to find out what went
                            31 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

-------
wrong and make changes. The lesson for managers is simple:
Milk mistakes for all they're worth. Learn everything you can
from each one. No one can do right things right the first and
every time, but everyone can become wise enough to avoid
making the same mistake twice.

One reason Japanese industrialists can view mistakes so positively
is that they have embraced a rule first put forward by Deming.
The rule states that 80 to 85 percent of errors have common
rather than special causes. Common causes are created by sys-
tems, which are controlled by management Special causes  are
due to individual events or behavior, which are controlled by
individual workers. If an error is caused by a defect in a system,
it presents an opportunity for a permanent improvement in  the
system.

When an organization responds to a crisis with finger pointing,
employees react by concealing information instead of sharing it,
and everybody loses. One of the major challenges in managing
quality is to create a climate in which everyone feels free to
share experiences (good and bad) and  to learn from mistakes
without resorting to defensiveness and faultfinding.
The Three Elements of Continuous Improvement

Once you have established a climate that supports continuous
improvement, you need to think systematically about how to
make improvements. Here are three ideas that will help.

  1. Fix problems on the spot.

  2. Prevent problems from occurring in  the first place.

  3. Improve your ability to meet customer needs.

Let's look at each of these elements in turn.


Fix It!

To err is human—but machines make mistakes too. Unless the
day comes when everyone—and everything—in your organiza-
tion can do right things right every time, you need ways to catch
errors and fix them. Many managers belittle quick fixes on the
grounds that they are not lasting solutions, but a  skillful and
timely fix plays an important role in quality improvement.
 32 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Correction costs are not all created equal. They can be divided
into three distinct categories.

 1. Mistakes caught and fixed in your work area. These fixes are
    known as on-the-spot corrections, and they represent the most
    cost-effective way to catch mistakes.

 2. Mistakes caught and fixed internally after they leave the
    work area where they are made. Sometimes called down-
    stream correction, this is the next best way to catch mistakes.

 3. Mistakes caught by the external customer. This is the most
    expensive way  to catch and fix an error, because the damage
    to your organization's image and to the relationships with
    your customers far outweighs the cost of repairing the
    product or improving the service.

A good rule of thumb for comparing the relative costs of these
three fixes is the 1-10-100 rule. This rule holds  that for every
hour or dollar your organization spends correcting a problem on
the spot, it costs ten times that much  to correct  it downstream.
To repair a mistake discovered by an external customer—and to
repair the damage  to  your reputation—will cost one hundred
times as much time or money as fixing the  mistake on  the spot.

Still,  it is better to  know about a mistake from a customer than
never to know about  it at all. Research indicates  that 96 percent
of your dissatisfied customers will never tell you about  their
quality complaint, and so will never give you the chance to fix
it. But they will tell their friends and associates,  thus costing you
future business.

Since satisfying your customers is  in your best interest, here are
three guidelines for fixing problems on the spot.

 1. Fix it right away, while it's happening.

    The sooner you catch a problem and correct  it, the  easier and
    cheaper the solution will be. Take time  to fix it now, and
    you  save all the rework and other problems  that occur  when
    the problem gets  downstream or to the customer.

    Remember the old adage, "A stitch in time saves nine."
33 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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"Prevention is at the
heart of quality
improvement."
2. If you can't fix it, get someone who can.

   Sometimes you spot a problem that's  outside your control. In
   these situations you need to alert the people who can do
   something about it. You may see from its smeared copies
   that the office photocopier  is about to break down. Don't
   wait for someone else to discover the problem or for the
   inevitable breakdown to occur.  Instead, inform whoever is
   responsible  for the copier.

 3. Use your instincts.

   From your  extensive knowledge of your  work, you have your
   own ways of knowing when something is going wrong. Trust
   your internal warning system, which reflects  a wealth of ex-
   perience and judgment. If  something doesn't  sound right, feel
   right, or "smell right," investigate.
                             Prevent It!

                             Prevention is at the heart of quality improvement. The way to
                             maximize the percentage of time you spend doing right things
                             right is to institute prevention systems before work begins. Every
                             time you fix a problem you should ask, "Can this problem crop
                             up again?" If the answer is yes, it's time for prevention.

                             If you have to fight fires, you may not have time for prevention.
                             And you may prefer the excitement of fighting fires to the
                             discipline of prevention. But  the enormous payoff from preven-
                             tion  will also be exciting in the long run.

                             You already prevent problems in everyday life. Consider driving.
                             While the number of automotive accidents and deaths is  disturb-
                              ing  it's also astonishing that  the figures aren't higher. The
                              possibilities for error are tremendous. Driving on the wrong side
                              of the road, changing  lanes without looking, falling asleep at the
                              wheel  and becoming  angry in traffic and ramming somebody
                              deliberately (instead of just thinking about it) are just a few of
                              the ways to make an  accident highly probable.

                              What prevents these potential accidents? A combination of traffic
                              signals  safety devices, police presence, driver training and ex-
                              perience and plenty of common sense  and personal attentive-
                              ness Highway safety  involves both a technology and an attitude
                              of prevention, supported by rewards (and punishments).
                               34 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Just as you practice prevention when you drive, you already take
many preventive measures on the job. However, there are still
many areas where prevention is not valued. How can quality—
doing right things right—be ensured? Again, as in driving, you
need to think about prevention all the time, watching to see if
anything can go wrong, and developing innovative ways to make
sure things go right. You also need the support of all the pillars
of quality. Unless managers provide the time and resources
necessary for prevention, errors are just waiting to happen.

Prevention consists  of identifying and defining problems, analyz-
ing and eliminating their root causes, finding better solutions  or
ways of operating, implementing these solutions, and evaluating
the results. This kind of problem elimination can be time-con-
suming and difficult. Too often, we act without adequate informa-
tion—and then have to rework our solutions.

A model, or framework, can help you  systematically work
through  a problem  and find its solution. The first step in elimi-
nating a problem is to define it carefully, collecting data about
when and how it occurs. Then analyze your findings to uncover
the root causes.
 The Why Technique

 One way to do this is by using the why technique. Gather people
 who are familiar with the problem and ask them why the prob-
 lem occurs. Then question each answer, asking why that is so.
 Continue asking why until you have traced the problem back to
 possible root causes. Test the validity  of your hypotheses by
 collecting data. Understanding the whys of a problem may make
 solving it easy.

 To see how this works, consider the following scenario.  Suppose
 that as director of dietary services you are confronted with
 hospital patients' complaints that their food is cold. After collect-
 ing data, you find that it's really only the eggs  at breakfast that
 are cold when served. If you stop here and base your solution on
 the data you have collected so far, you  might develop a system
 for reheating individual trays for patients who complain. This
 solution would involve a lot of time and money. But if  you look
 further, you can discover a common cause and  prevent patient
 complaints.
  35 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Using the why technique, you ultimately discover that the kitchen
holds the cooked eggs in unheated trays. When you discuss this
problem with the cooks, they agree to keep the trays over hot
water. You verify that the eggs now leave the kitchen hot. Three
weeks later, you check with the patients and find that they no
longer complain about cold food. You have eliminated a problem
and prevented it from happening again.

Asking the patients  again after the solution is in place is a way
of monitoring your new process. Monitoring  and measuring are
important in both problem solving and prevention because they
provide precise  feedback. Before making a change,  you  must
have accurate information about the current situation. After
making the change,  you need to know if the situation has
improved. If you don't know, for example, how many people
complained about cold food, you can't tell whether or not the
number of complaints has decreased. You will need this informa-
tion  not only for one particular improvement, but also for any
further improvements you may want to make.
The Contingency Diagram

Eliminating problems by attacking their root causes requires skill,
time, and practice. Here's a simple tool for troubleshooting a
present or future situation: Use a contingency diagram to generate
a prevention checklist. The contingency diagram uses reverse
logic. First, think of ways you can make the problem happen.

For example, suppose you want middle-management support for
quality improvement teams. Gather a group of people interested
in the problem and  brainstorm ways of guaranteeing that middle
managers won't support quality improvement teams. Your ideas
might include: teach team members a strange language the  man-
agers don't understand, demand that teams get time off from
their jobs (without adequate explanation),  announce that the teams
will  work on problems middle management has been unable to
solve, and insist that managers support the teams without
question.
                                                Middle-
                                             management
                                               resistance
                                               to teams
Take on managers' problems.
36 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Next, examine every cause of managerial nonsupport you iden-
tified and make a checklist of how to avoid these causes. In this
case, your list might include: train managers before training team
members, negotiate  with managers about released time  for team
activities, structure input from managers into problem selection,
and encourage managers to voice and resolve their concerns.
                    Prevention Checklist

                  Train managers first.

                  Negotiate with managers for
                  time with team.

                  Invite problem-selection input
                  from managers.

                  Encourage managers to voice
                  concerns.
Improve It!

The goal of continuous improvement is more than just preventing
and fixing problems. It's even more than striving to always meet
customer requirements. Continuous improvement means just what
it says: always looking for ways to improve how you do work
and better meet your customers' needs. Can your product or
service be made even safer? More reliable? More cost effective?
Longer lasting? Easier to use? Can your production process or
service delivery be simplified? Constantly  addressing questions
such as these  can  help you and your people develop an attitude
that promotes  continuous improvement. But even that isn't
enough. You need to  find ways to make examining and learning
from mistakes  a routine part of the way you  manage.
A Continuous Improvement Strategy

How can a manager support fixing problems instead of fixing
blame? One strategy is to hold a review session at the end of a
project. Review sessions  provide an opportunity  to give and
receive feedback, as well as to learn from the good and bad
things that happened during a project.
 37 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Here's one example. During a four-month project, there had been
many complaints about communication. There had also been a lot
of confusion and errors because old drafts had gotten mixed up
with successive copies of the report.

The week after the project ended, the members  of the project
team met for ninety minutes to critique the experience. The team
leader  gave each person a chance to  spend up to five minutes
outlining what he or she  had learned in the course of the project.
"What were you most satisfied with?" she asked. "What do you
wish had been done differently? What surprised you—positively
or negatively—about working on this project?" The team leader
captured the gist of each person's comments on a flipchart.

On the basis of these comments, the  team developed recommen-
dations for future projects. They agreed to use electronic mail
more frequently to  streamline communications, and to date
successive  drafts of project reports in order to eliminate con-
fusion  and rework.

In addition to developing ways to improve their workflow, the
team celebrated their  successes and cleared up misunderstandings,
enabling them to start the next project with renewed enthusiasm.

Imagine the payoff if everyone in an organization is empowered
to look for such lessons and act on them.
Continuous Improvement in Meeting Customer Requirements

Customer requirements change. Therefore, your capabilities must
change in order for you to keep  up with, and ahead of, your cus-
tomers' requirements. Ask yourself the following questions:

 1. What am I doing now that is unnecessary for satisfying
    customer requirements?

 2. Are there better ways of doing what is currently  necessary?

 3. What untapped capabilities do I have for meeting current
    customer requirements?

 4. How will my customers' needs be different in the future,  and
    how can I prepare to  meet them?

 5. How can I meet my customers' requirements  faster,  cheaper,
    and with fewer errors so that I can maintain or enhance my
    competitive  edge?
38 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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 6.  How can I involve my customers and suppliers in looking at
    my  work process, not only to tighten alignment, but to
    reduce my avoidable costs of quality?

Forming partnerships with your internal customers  and suppliers
is a good way to improve your capabilities. Here's how it works:
Each person forms a partnership with the next person in the
process  to figure out how to better meet the needs of the third
person in the process. These three people then join forces to
figure out how to better serve the next person in the chain. If
this collaboration continues up and down the  entire chain of
customers and suppliers, then the whole organization will inte-
grate and focus on better meeting the needs of the external
customer.

Is this a pipe  dream, an unreachable goal? It  doesn't matter
whether it is or not. Even if the ideal is not perfectly realized, an
organization that strives for a totally integrated customer focus
can achieve a level of responsiveness, innovation, and cost-
effectiveness unmatched by any of its competitors.
 How Can You Support Continuous Improvement?

 Continuous improvement means fixing problems on the spot,
 preventing problems before they happen, and improving your
 ability to meet new or existing customer requirements. You can
 do all of that as an individual. You can do it even better when
 your organization backs you up with systematic support by
 responding quickly to problems, providing the time and methods
 needed for prevention, and fostering innovation and adaptability.

 Here are ten actions you, as a manager, can  take to support
 continuous improvement in your organization.

  1.  Give your people the big  picture. When  they know your
     vision, they can better see where they fit in.

  2.  Solicit new ideas.  Give timely, constructive feedback on all
     the ideas you hear, along with recognition for those that are
     worthwhile.

  3.  Encourage everyone to talk—preferably in person—with his
     or her customers and suppliers.

  4.  Make your people responsible for finding out how their
     outputs are really  used.
 39 Continuous Improvement—Doing  Right Things

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 5. Encourage people to create flowcharts of their work processes
   and look for ways to make improvements.

 6. Make your work area a safe haven for the open discussion of
   problems. Encourage learning from experiences, both good
   and bad, and share that knowledge. Discourage blaming and
   defensiveness of any kind.

 7. Encourage problem solving. Place  a premium on "speaking
   with data." Make sure your people have found the root
   causes of problems before they attempt solutions.

 8. Uphold high standards and model  them in your words and
   actions.

 9. Encourage all of your people to have periodic discussions in
   which they take a fresh look at their customers'  needs, how
   they meet them, and how they use the feedback  they receive.

10. Be alert to developments  in other fields  that you can adapt to
   your own  work.
Payoffs from Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement means small but beneficial changes that
add up. It also means breakthroughs. These breakthroughs spring
from forming partnerships with customers and suppliers and from
taking  a fresh look at what you do and how you do it; often
you'll find a significantly better way.

The first step toward such a breakthrough is asking the question
posed in module 3:  "What do you do with what I give you?"
The more you know about the actual use  customers make of your
outputs, the more you will be able to think of better ways to
meet their needs. The choice is yours. Only you can create a
Big-Q  organization.

What are the payoffs for you? You will experience more candor
and teamwork; fewer hassles as you solve and prevent problems;
greater responsibility; and more job satisfaction.  Life in a little-q
organization may seem easier and simpler, but life in  a Big-Q
organization is much more challenging and rewarding. Big-Q
empowers you to take responsibility as an individual for  doing
right things right, for clarifying and honoring commitments, and
for making things better.

The payoffs of quality—customer satisfaction, individual  pride,
and profitability—are enormous for everyone.
40 Continuous Improvement—Doing Right Things

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Quality Action Teams

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Reading
Quality Action Teams
"Today's competitive
environment demands
constant attention to
improvements in
quality."
Imagine an organization where everyone—not just management
—is committed to improving both quality  and productivity, shares
responsibility for  achieving organizational  goals, and uses a
common problem-solving language. That's the kind  of organiza-
tion that quality action teams (QAT) can help you build. Based
on years of applied management research in dozens  of countries,
QAT is rooted  in the idea that the most important goal for any
organization in  the 1990s is the pursuit of quality, not only in
services and products but also in every aspect of  the work pro-
cess.

Why quality? Today's competitive environment demands constant
attention to improvements  in quality. Consumers are ever more
insistent on getting full value for their money, whether they're
buying goods or services. They want to  know that what  they've
bought will work well and keep working well. Reputations and
relationships are established that make consumers  return  again
and  again to the proven vendor of quality—even if  the price is
higher. The organization that fails to strive for a measurable in-
crease in quality every year will fall behind.

Conventional wisdom in many organizations holds that quality is
costly and that  it  always competes with  productivity, timeliness,
and  other critical  factors. This theory of trade-offs may be true in
extreme cases but otherwise has proven  to be false.  Actually,
improved quality  means less rework and, therefore,  higher pro-
ductivity. But to get a high payoff, quality has to be built into
the actual work process. It's far cheaper and more reliable to
build quality in than to try to inspect it  in later. What's  needed
is a system for involving every employee,  at every  level, in
designing the work process for maximum quality  and minimum
cost.

Fortunately, it's not hard to involve people in the quest for
quality.  Both employees and consumers  recognize and admire
quality.  They derive  a sense of satisfaction and pride from their
association with a high-quality organization and product.
                             42 Quality Action Teams

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The Three Pillars of QAT

Quality action teams work well because they're a balanced
system that rests on three pillars: (1) technical competence, (2)
teamwork, and (3) administrative structure.
              Technical                Administrative
             Competence                 Structure
Just as a stool will fall down if any one of its legs is missing,
QAT also needs each of its  three pillars to be strong.

 1. Technical competence  lets team members experience success
    and personal development as they learn to use new skills.
    Problem-solving steps  and tools relate directly to doing things
    right, that is, to getting  high-quality  work done in the  most
    efficient manner.

 2. Teamwork is crucial because without it ideas that are techni-
    cally correct may still be doomed to failure. Teamwork is the
    ability to communicate with and take account of others—the
    basic human relations  that are the underpinning of a success-
    ful organization.

 3. Administrative structure  is absolutely necessary if technical
    competence and teamwork are to be integrated within  an or-
    ganization. QAT is not a natural process for most organiza-
    tions. It competes with other philosophies, habits, and  priori-
    ties. If it's not supported by a committed organizational
    structure, it will  simply  be absorbed by the usual way of
    doing things.

Any single pillar of the system can be emphasized, perhaps
successfully, for a time, but used alone  it will soon lose its
impact.
43 Quality Action  Teams

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"Very quickly,  QAT
leads to greater
organizational
integration."
For example, Rensis Likert and Stanley Seashore2 explored
what happened when organizations implemented just the tech-
nical pillar. They looked at a number of companies that had
taken "strong steps to reduce costs, eliminate waste, and increase
productivity." In the  first year's results, there were usually mea-
surable gains in productivity, earnings, and the like. Management
had definitely changed in the desired direction. But even by the
end of that first year, Likert and Seashore began to see declines
in employee attitude, motivation, and communication.

As they watched for a longer time, these employee reactions
began to take very measurable forms.  Turnover and absenteeism
increased, as  did labor grievances.  The quality of products and
services suffered, and in the end customers reacted by taking
their business elsewhere. The initial gains had been overshadowed
and offset by adverse reactions.

A similar dynamic of initial gains and  longer-term losses is  likely
to be encountered by a purely human relations program  that
doesn't emphasize high standards of quality and production at the
same time. As you work with  QAT, you'll need to preserve the
balance between the  three pillars of this program, never over-
emphasizing one at the expense of the  others.
                             The Benefits of QAT

                             The first thing you'll see as you implement QAT is a change in
                             attitude. Employees who participate take much greater personal
                             responsibility for the  success of all aspects of the work process.
                             This shows up in better morale, less blaming of others, and a
                             more positive attitude. It also  shows up in higher productivity,
                             lower  absenteeism, and fewer  employee grievances. After about
                             six months you'll see the teams beginning to solve specific
                             quality problems. As  they implement their ideas, they will
                             produce cost savings, improve service, reduce waste, and, most
                             importantly, begin to improve the quality that the outside
                             customer receives.

                             Very quickly, QAT leads to greater organizational integration,
                             producing  improved communication up and down the hierarchy.
                             Side-to-side links  are enhanced as groups of managers begin to
                             use the team problem-solving  approach to deal with the problems
                             they have  in common. This happens because QAT  provides a
                                 2Rensis Likert and Stanley E. Seashore, "Making Cost Control
                             Work," Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec.  1963.
                             44 Quality Action Teams

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legitimate and structured way for employees—both workers and
managers—to have a more effective say in improving the way
work is done. It's the combination of structured meetings, new
techniques, and organizational support that allows  these benefits
to occur.
Top-Down Implementation of QAT

QAT works best when it has the active support of all levels of
the organization. In fact, the same need for management support
and involvement is paramount in other such programs,  whether
developed in-house or implemented by a consultant.

For example, in one  study twenty-two experts who had long
worked with and studied such programs were asked to  rate the
influence of sixty-six different factors.3 The scale  used was
 1 = not important
 2 = some importance
 3 = important
4 = very important
5 = critical importance
The chart below shows the top five of those sixty-six factors and
indicates both the mean score and the variance (a measure of
how widely the individual scores differed from the mean).
Top Five  Factors to QAT Success
Factors
1 . Voluntary participation
2. Top management support
3. Support of first-line supervisors
4. Involvement of middle
management in the process
5. Middle management support
Mean
4.8
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.6
Variance
.16
.21
.22
.23
.44
    3H. Ned Seelye and Joyce A. Sween, "Critical Components of
Successful U.S. Quality Circles," Quality Circles Journal,  March
1983, pp. 14-17.
45 Quality Action Teams

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"The QAT system is a
synthesis of participative
management and statis-
tical quality control."
These data convey one essential message: For a program like
QAT to reach its potential, it needs the support, understanding,
and active involvement of every part of the organization. This
makes  sense when you consider that QAT is  really a system—not
just a bunch of isolated teams.  The system requires communica-
tion, coordination, resources, and a culture that supports involve-
ment by all employees in quality improvement.

The most logical  way to do this is to begin at the top and work
down, making sure that QAT is clearly understood and vigorous-
ly supported by managers and supervisors before it is used by
those who work under them. This is  why we  recommend that
any implementation  scheme gain commitment  from higher levels
before it proceeds down the hierarchy. Of course, the final aim
of the program is to reach everyone in the organization.
                            The Foundations of QAT

                            The QAT program is based on two management systems that
                            have been studied and developed over the last thirty years  and
                            that have become cornerstones of modern organizational success.
                            The QAT system is a synthesis of participative management and
                            statistical quality control.

                            Participative management. The concept of participative  manage-
                            ment evolved from research such as the study conducted in the
                            late  1920s at the Western Electric Company's Hawthorne Works
                            in Illinois. There researchers examined the factors influencing
                            worker efficiency. Flying in the face of the conventional wisdom
                            that  "a kick in the pants and a nickel in the pay envelope" would
                            motivate workers, this research revealed  that workers' attitudes
                            and nonmonetary needs were at least as  important to productivity
                            as working conditions and pay.

                            For example,  the Hawthorne researchers  tested the impact of
                            lighting on employee output. They increased the amount of
                            lighting in a sample work area and found that the productivity of
                            the workers increased, as they had expected. To confirm this
                            finding, they then reduced the amount of lighting in a different
                            work area—but productivity increased there as well!

                            The researchers were puzzled by this apparent contradiction.
                            Interviewing  workers, they discovered that  it wasn't the change in
                            lighting that made the workers produce  more;  it was the interest
                            and concern of the researchers that  made the difference. This
                            research finding became  known as "the  Hawthorne  effect" and
                            was generalized into a principle  of human  behavior—namely, that
                            46 Quality Action Teams

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"Researchers like
McGregor and Rensis
Likert argued in effect
that workers respond in
kind to  the  way they are
treated."
people respond positively to a show of interest in their well-
being, almost regardless  of the form that interest takes. It gradu-
ally became clear that such  traditional incentives as money  and
the threat of job  loss were not the only factors involved in
worker motivation;  other, more intrinsic concerns were at work as
well.

In the 1940s, psychologist Abraham Maslow developed a motiva-
tional theory centering on a universal hierarchy of needs, from
the most basic physiological needs (e.g., air, food, water) to
higher order needs  (e.g., self-esteem). The  hierarchy culminates in
a feeling of personal fulfillment that Maslow called self-
actualization. According to Maslow, as a person satisfied one
order of needs—the physiological, for example—needs at the next
level  became activated, and  this implied that motivational tech-
niques had to shift  accordingly.

When this theory was translated to the workplace, it was argued
that an organization that tries to spur its employees  to greater
effort with promises of higher pay and fringe benefits  may  be
aiming at the wrong target. Food may be an incentive to a
hungry worker, but to one with  a full belly and a need for  self-
esteem, more meaningful job responsibility may be a greater
stimulus to productivity.

Still,  management hadn't changed its view of the worker as
basically passive, someone who  had to be motivated from the
outside. A carrot had merely been substituted for a stick. But in
the 1960s, Douglas McGregor, relying on thirty years of research,
challenged even this traditional management assumption. Labeling
managers  who held such views as "Theory X" managers,
McGregor suggested that a new, more enlightened "Theory  Y"
manager was making his or her way up the ladder of the best
organizations, managing  more successfully  by operating on a
different set of assumptions: (1) that work  is as natural a human
activity as rest and play, (2) that people at all levels of an
organization are capable of creative thought,  and (3) that given a
chance to develop their potential, people will welcome greater
responsibility.

Researchers like McGregor and Rensis Likert argued in effect
that workers respond in kind to  the way they are treated. If
management treats them as irresponsible and lazy, then they will
act irresponsibly and lazily.  If, on the other hand, workers are
encouraged to show initiative and take responsibility, they will do
so. These, then, were the seeds of the idea of participative man-
agement: abandoning the carrot-and-stick approach to motivation
and making work more meaningful by encouraging worker par-
ticipation  and responsibility.
                             47 Quality Action Teams

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"In the 1950s and after,
the concept of total
quality control was
developed."
Although participative management made good sense to social
scientists, it remained until recently a strange and threatening
concept to many managers. For one thing, they felt it was un-
proven. Who could demonstrate that  giving managers, let alone
workers, responsibility for improving productivity through the
techniques of participative management would translate into a
better bottom line on the balance sheet? What if it proved an
expensive and time-consuming exercise in futility that destroyed
organizational  discipline and authority?

Moreover, though it was developed in the United States, there
was something foreign about participative management. It wasn't
something that managers had experience doing. It wasn't taught
in M.B.A. programs, and it didn't fit the take-charge, Fm-the-
boss-here image that managers had for generations adopted in
organizations in the belief that it  would produce results. Besides,
many would suggest, hadn't the American management system
wrought an  economic miracle,  making the United States the
strongest nation on  earth and providing the average family with a
standard of  living unmatched anywhere? When it came right
down to it,  why tamper with success?

Indeed, there would have been no reason to tamper with success
if it had continued unabated. However, despite its economic
miracle, the United States eventually had to confront the limits of
its success  and face the problem of international competition.
Since money,  working conditions, and job security seemed to
have lost their power as motivators for American workers, man-
agement needed to consider other alternatives. The work of
Maslow, McGregor, and others was persuasive in suggesting that
participative management might be worth a try.

Statistical quality control. The second major principle behind
QAT  is statistical quality control. Quality control got its start in
the 1920s at the Bell Laboratories, where the concepts of
statistical quality control and control charts were introduced into
the production process.

Later,  the demands of World War II led the U.S. armed forces to
enlarge the  scope of quality control to include inspecting outside
vendors to see that the military's quality standards were being
met in every aspect of the production process.

In the 1950s and after, the concept of total quality control was
developed. It was an idea that expanded quality control  by (1)
making it the  responsibility of everyone in the company, from
                             48 Quality Action Teams

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"Quality control pro-
grams take advantage of
the powerful tools of
sampling and statistical
analysis."
bottom to top, and (2) including consumers as the final arbiters
of quality, to be consulted regularly about their satisfaction with
the product or service. Total quality control means that insistence
on quality is built into every organizational system and process.

Quality control programs take advantage of the powerful tools of
sampling and statistical analysis developed by  scientists and
mathematicians over the last century. These techniques make  it
possible to understand the  capabilities of a process, monitor it,
and set specifications beyond which deviations will not be toler-
ated. Thus, a process can readily be determined to be either in
control or out of control.  Minor variations in processes need  not
signal trouble, but significant variations can be spotted at once
and corrected before they become too costly or disruptive.

Moreover, quality control techniques can help  sort out  problems
that are within the control  of line workers as well as problems
inherent in the system itself, hence controllable only by manage-
ment. This sorting-out capacity allows problems to be attacked
and solved at their appropriate  levels.
"A process can readily
be determined to be
either in control
or out of control."
Synthesis in Japan

Although both participative management and quality control were
developed largely in the West, particularly in the United States,
the idea of participative management, as we  have seen, did not
coincide with the traditional hierarchical notions of management
which were prevalent.  For many years participative management
remained more an ideal than a reality. On the other hand, quality
control was readily accepted by many American companies as
another aspect of the technical rationalization of the work pro-
cess.

Following World War  II, an unforeseen development led  to a
synthesis of the  two concepts. In an effort to make Japan into a
westernized nation and a strong ally, the United States  sent
several American experts, including W. E. Deming, an  authority
on statistical quality control, to aid Japan in  strengthening its
industry. The Japanese government and the JUSE (Japanese
Union of Scientists and Engineers) supported Deming's ideas, and
statistical quality control was adopted by Japanese industry. In
1954  another American, Joseph D. Juran, advised the Japanese
that quality  control should involve a total program of organiza-
tional excellence promoted by management, thus  linking quality
control to participative management Excellence would be pos-
sible only when everyone in the organization, including the line
workers, understood the need for quality and could contribute
directly to its attainment.
                             49 Quality Action Teams

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This idea was refined and implemented by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa
and other Japanese researchers. They developed a system wherein
small groups of workers  (quality control circles) meet on a
voluntary basis to solve their own work problems. Quality was
very broadly defined, and these quality circles could work on
almost any problem allowed by management. By  1982,  twenty
years after the first companies formed  quality  circles, Japan  had
more than 600,000 circles in operation, involving an estimated
eight million workers.

Among the features of Japanese quality circles were

 •  Company-wide participation

 •  Emphasis on  the education and training of quality circle
    members

 •  Solution  of problems by quality circles

 •  Formulation of new standard procedures by quality  circles

 •  Careful monitoring of quality circle activity by  management
    and constant  input from management

 •  Voluntary participation by workers and mandatory participa-
    tion  by management

 •  Nationwide promotion of quality circle activity

Quality circle programs began in factories, but they now embrace
workers in hotels, restaurants, department  stores, insurance com-
panies, construction firms, and other sectors of the economy.
Today, one out of every eight Japanese workers is involved in a
quality circle.


The Synthesis Is Adopted in the United States

For the most part, quality circles  were unknown in the  United
States until Juran, who had worked with the Japanese, introduced
the idea to Americans in an article published in 1967. Four years
later, in  1971, General Motors introduced a variation of the
quality circle concept, which it called Quality of Work Life. Since
that  time, this program has been a model of the system-wide
benefits that result when quality circle concepts are adopted by
an entire  organization.
50 Quality Action Teams

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"Many once-skeptical
executives now sing the
praises of team problem-
solving programs."
By 1982, the International Association of Quality Circles  (IAQC)
estimated that 1,500 American organizations in the public and
private sectors had team problem-solving programs, up from 150
organizations three years previously. These programs, according
to the IAQC, involved up  to 300,000 workers, in virtually every
sector of the economy, who looked for ways to cut costs,
improve quality, guarantee on-time performance, lower the acci-
dent rate, and raise morale. The results were often  dramatic. For
example:

 •  A group of workers at Westinghouse in Baltimore noted that
    it took fifteen minutes to warm up the wire-bonding
    machines they worked on and that, while they waited, vir-
    tually no work got done.  Their solution: Have one worker
    come in fifteen minutes before the others and warm up all
    the machines. Estimated savings:  $800,000.

 •  At Lockheed, where documented savings in the first two
    years totaled $2.8 million, one operation managed to reduce
    the product reject rate from approximately thirty units per
    1,000 working hours to fewer than six per 1,000  working
    hours.

 •  At General Motors in  Tarrytown, New York, the  percentage
    of substandard body welds in one department plunged from
    35 percent to  1.5 percent within a few months after a
    quality-of-work-life program was introduced.

 •  At a Jones and Laughlin  steel mill in Youngstown, Ohio,
    production of seamless pipe rose 40 percent when employees
    were encouraged to use participative management techniques.

 •  The Mount Sinai Medical Center in Florida achieved  savings
    of more than $189,000 in an  18-month period as a result of
    its program.

 In fact, fourteen QAT users who kept comprehensive cost figures
 found an average of better than $14,000 saved per team each
 year in 1983 and 1984.

 Many once-skeptical executives now  sing the praises  of team
 problem-solving programs.  In the  words of Chairman Walter A.
 Fallen of Eastman Kodak,  "You can't drive a good work force
 30 percent harder, but we've  found we could often work  30
 percent or  even  150 percent smarter." He explained, in an article
 in Fortune magazine, that the answer lies in instilling a strong
 sense of teamwork among employees  and giving them more say
 about how they  do their jobs.
                             51  Quality Action Teams

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"QAT gives the people
closest to the problems
the responsibility, train-
ing, and support neces-
sary to solve them."
In the years that lie immediately ahead, the most successful
organizations will be those that both innovate and implement
effectively. Given the forces of competition and accelerating
technology, organizations increasingly need to draw the best
efforts from their most critical internal resource:  their people.
QAT gives the people closest to the problems the responsibility,
training, and support necessary to solve them. Implemented
vigorously, QAT will help ensure the kind of innovation and
implementation necessary for an organization to survive and
prosper in the years ahead.

In fact, we have moved far beyond the simple concept of worker
teams in the early U.S. quality circle efforts. While retaining
voluntary problem-solving teams as one fundamental element,
QAT now encompasses a  variety of both mandatory and volun-
tary teams at all levels, cemented together by a strong organiza-
tional structure. By giving employees an understanding of how to
work effectively in teams  and by emphasizing their crucial
importance to quality, QAT provides the foundation for a whole
series of quality  efforts—such as policy deployment from above,
clear standards for work which reflect user needs, the ability to
work with suppliers to improve their quality, and zero-inventory
programs—efforts that together make up a total program of
quality improvement for the organization.
                             Trouble in Paradise

                             Success stories about participative management are abundant
                             today. But a closer look reveals a number of failures—partici-
                             pative management programs that aren't working and that may
                             leave an organization with less teamwork than when the program
                             started. Why do some programs succeed—often  with documented
                             savings of as much as eight times the investment—while others
                             founder?

                             There is a myth that  the problem lies in the difference  between
                             the "Japanese way" and the "American  way." To be sure, Japan
                             has a very different culture from the West, yet we see  frequent
                             examples of successful collaboration between American and
                             Japanese firms. Even more striking is the fact that American
                             workers are sometimes more productive when they are  managed
                             by the  Japanese than when they are managed by their American
                             counterparts. What, then, is the nature of the problem?

                             In case after case where participative management programs fail,
                             we see that management wasn't brought in at the outset to
                             understand the new program, learn to make it work for them, and
                             contribute to its design and implementation. Participative manage-
                             ment has too often solicited the participation of the workers but
                             52 Quality Action  Teams

-------
not of the managers. Managers who were not adequately prepared
for and involved in the participative program viewed the new
system as undermining their ability to function effectively, and
they actively resisted its implementation.

The Japanese are accustomed to a consultative mode of operating
that involves all levels of the organization. There is nothing
foreign about this; American companies with successful employee
involvement programs do exactly the same. The  support and
involvement of management are vital to the  success of these
programs, and when that support and involvement are present, the
programs  succeed.

All that problem-solving teams require  to be successful is good
management, which involves (1) listening to ideas and opinions
and considering them  seriously, (2) making information easily
accessible instead of hoarding  it,  (3) planning activities well  in
advance, and (4) creating an atmosphere in which people feel
they are all working toward the same goal.
 53 Quality Action Teams

-------
The QAT Problem-Solving Process

-------
Reading                  The QAT  Problem-Solving Process
                            Learning to solve problems effectively is one of the most worth-
                            while of quality activities. Here are some of the benefits.

                             •  Problems get solved permanently. The whole idea of problem
                                solving is to prevent problems from recurring, not just to
                                "clean up the mess" after they happen.

                             •  The quality of work life is improved. Every time a problem is
                                solved permanently, it's one more annoyance that doesn't
                                have to be dealt with anymore. As problems get solved, the
                                work begins to go more smoothly, and it's  easier to plan
                                effectively.

                             •  Everyone is able to do better work. As people (at all levels)
                                learn new skills and see that their ideas are supported by
                                others, they become more involved in their work and are
                                able to do  it better.

                             •  Communication and coordination are improved. Effective
                                problem solving involves coordination among different indi-
                                viduals and different work units. A problem-solving system
                                creates communication paths that clarify what needs to be
                                done  and that help people address problems more effectively.

                            In the end, a good  problem-solving system  does much more than
                            just solve problems. It trains everybody  in habits of thinking and
                            acting that allow the whole organization to  work more smoothly
                            and more effectively.
                             Outline of the System

                             The quality action teams problem-solving system consists of four
                             phases. Each phase is complete once you have certain outputs.
                             These are used as the inputs for the phase that follows (except,
                             obviously, in the last phase). Here is an outline of the four
                             phases  and the outputs for each.

                             Phases                            Outputs

                             I.  Focus. Choose a problem        A written statement of the
                                and describe it.                 problem

                             II.  Analyze. Learn about the        Baseline data
                                problem from >data.             A list of the most
                                                               influential factors
                             55 The QAT  Problem-Solving Process

-------
"The system-
abbreviated FADE
—works for all
problems, no matter
how big or small."
                             III. Develop. Develop a
                                 solution and a plan.
IV. Execute. Implement the
    plan, monitor results,
    adjust as needed.
A solution for the problem
A plan for implementing
the solution

Organizational commitment
An executed plan
A record of impact
The system—abbreviated FADE—works for all problems, no
matter how big or small. Let's take a very simple example from
everyday life to show how the FADE system works.

Focus. Let's  suppose that every so often the circuit  breaker for
your living room is tripped and all the lights  there go out. Each
time this happens, you go to the basement, reset the switch, and
the lights come back on—until the next time. Finally,  you realize
that this problem will continue to annoy you until you take
decisive action. You want a solution that will safely keep the
living room circuit breaker from  being tripped.

Analyze. You collect data, testing all the outlets in the house to
see which ones are connected to the offending circuit  breaker.
You  discover, to your surprise, that the refrigerator and the
upstairs bathroom share the circuit breaker with  the  living room.
You  suspect  that whenever your  son uses a hair dryer upstairs,
the circuit breaker is likely to be tripped. You collect  more data
(by having your son use  the dryer) and find that you were
correct. You  now understand the main factors contributing to the
problem. You also have a baseline measure, because you know
that the problem has occurred seven times  during the last three
months.

Develop. Using your analysis  as  a basis, you consider  solutions.
You  could  tell your son not to use the dryer at certain times,  but
you know that this solution will  last only as long as your son's
memory, which is currently not long. To ensure that you solve
the problem safely, you decide to have some rewiring  done that
will lessen  the load on any single circuit breaker.  You and your
son create an action plan to call  the electrician,  arrange a time
for the work  that won't disturb the rest of the family,  and get
your spouse's approval to spend  the money.

Execute. You secure your spouse's support for the plan and have
the electrician do the work. You are there  to coordinate the ef-
forts and make sure the work is  done the way you want it. Three
months later,  there have been no more problems with  the living
room lights. Your solution has worked perfectly.
                             56 The QAT Problem-Solving Process

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"You can compare the
FADE system to building
a frame house."
You can compare the FADE system to building a frame house,
which involves a few fundamental phases. First, you have to
make a foundation. Then you can build the frame. The next
phase involves putting on a roof and the external walls. Finally,
you can do the internal work.

Within  these phases, there's room for variation. Just as specific
houses differ from each other, every problem also is unique and
may require a somewhat different approach. The four phases and
their outputs are still necessary,  but the specific steps that are
followed and the tools that are used have to be chosen to suit the
situation.

Even  so, there's a particular series of steps  (three steps per
phase) that works for most problems. There are also certain basic
tools (like the hammer or drill in house building) that  are almost
always very useful for problem solving. These steps and tools are
what we teach in the phases that follow. You'll find that once
you learn the steps and understand the tools, you  can use  them in
new sequences, as required by each problem. The steps for each
phase, plus a toolbox, are listed  below and  on the next page. The
tools are presented in the order in which you're likely  to first use
them. Many of the tools are used again later, just as you'd use a
hammer or a drill at many  different points in building  a house.
                             Suggested Steps


                             Phase I:  Focus

                             Step I-A.    Generate a list
                                         of problems.

                             Step I-B.    Select one problem.
                            Step I-C.    Verify and define the
                                         problem.
                                     Tools
                                     (in sequence as taught)
                                     Brainstorming
                                     Multivoting
                                     Selection grid

                                     Impact analysis
                                     Problem statement
                            Phase II: Analyze

                            Step II-A.  Decide what you need
                                        to know.

                            Step n-B.  Collect data—baselines
                                        and patterns.
                                     Checklist
                                     Data-gathering plan
                                     Sampling
                                     Survey
                                     Checksheet
                            57 The QAT Problem-Solving Process

-------
Step II-C.  Determine the most
            influential factors.
Pareto analysis
Fishbone diagram
Flowchart
Phase ni: Develop

Step III-A. Generate a list of
            promising solutions.

Step in-B. Select one solution.

Step in-C. Develop an imple-
            mentation plan.
Innovation transfer
Cost-benefit analysis

Force-field analysis
Standard operating
  procedure
Action plan
 Phase IV: Execute

 Step IV-A.  Gain commitment.



 Step IV-B.  Execute the plan.

 Step IV-C.  Monitor the impact.
Building individual
  support
Presentation
Measuring and monitoring
Basic descriptive charts
Specifications and  con-
  trol limits
 58 The QAT Problem-Solving Process

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 Below is a guide that shows some of the common uses for each
 of the tools. Each tool is taught in only one phase (indicated by
 the circled checkmarks) but can be used in any of the phases
 indicated.
 Tool Selection Guide

Action plan
Basic descriptive
charts
Brainstorming
Building individual
support
Cost-benefit analysis
Checklist
Checksheet
Data-gathering plan
Fishbone diagram
Flowchart
Force-field analysis
Impact analysis
Innovation transfer
Measuring and
monitoring
Multi voting
Pareto analysis
Presentation
Problem statement
Sampling
Selection grid
Specifications and
control limits
Standard operating
procedure
Survey
Focus

/
0
/

/
/

/
/

0

/
0
/

0

0
/

/
Analyze
/
/
/
/

0
0
0
0
0



/

0
/

0

/

0
Develop
0

/
/
0
/

/

/
0

0

/

/


/

0
/
Execute
/
0
/
0

/

/





0

/
0



0
/
/
59 The QAT Problem-Solving  Process

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"Most employees learn
the FADE cycle the
same way you'd learn to
play tennis—learn a
little theory, but spend
most of your time
practicing and doing it."
 "You're learning some
 measurement skills and
 some communication
 skills that can  help you
 not just in your formal
 teams, but whenever you
 try to improve  how
 things are done."
How to Learn the FADE Cycle

Most employees learn the FADE cycle the same way you'd learn
to play tennis—learn a little  theory, but spend most of your time
practicing and doing it. If you're a member of a new quality
action team, you'll be meeting over a period of time to do one
or more projects.

In the team, you'll get an overview of the FADE cycle. Then
you'll work on your project, learning the details  of the steps and
tools as you go along. You'll probably pay more attention to
some tools than  to others, depending on how much you have to
use them for your immediate problem.

You may work this way for  three or more months before you
finish the first project. By the time you've finished it, you'll
have a pretty good idea of how the cycle works. As  you get into
new projects, you'll be able  to concentrate on other tools and fill
in some of the gaps. By the  time  you've finished three or four
projects, you'll be working very efficiently, and you'll feel  com-
fortable using  whatever tool  you need whenever you  need it. For
other employees—particularly leaders and managers—the first
exposure to the FADE cycle may  be in a training group. There
you will try to learn the concepts  of problem solving rather than
solve an immediate problem. In that case, you'll probably use
any problem that helps you understand the steps  and tools.  It
could be something from work life, from home, or a problem
you make up.  You'll probably go  through the process more
quickly than you would working in a team because you'll not
really be trying to solve the  problem. You'll put a bigger por-
tion of your time into learning than into  doing. By the time
you're done, you'll understand the cycle  well enough to help
others use it.

In either case, you're learning a process that is simple yet sys-
tematic. You're learning some measurement skills and some
communication skills that can help you not just in your formal
teams,  but  whenever you try to improve how things are done.
The process we present here can be used equally well in any
situation, no matter what you're doing or what your position
may be.
                             60 The QAT Problem-Solving  Process

-------
 Learning the FADE  Process and  Tools
                         Learn tools.
                      Watch phase video.
                     Participate in exercises
                       to practice tools.
                    Use appropriate tools to
                     solve quality problems.
61 The QAT  Problem-Solving Process

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Leadership

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Reading                   Leadership
                             If management is the process of planning, organizing, directing,
                             controlling, and coordinating resources to achieve organizational
                             goals, then what is leadership?

                             Leadership is harder to define than management. What's the extra
                             dimension in leadership?

                             Think of someone you have worked for whom you regard as a
                             leader. Forget for a moment the qualities you believe he or she
                             embodies. Concentrate instead on what people have said about
                             the leader.  Chances are, many of these characteristics are re-
                             flected in the following statements:

                              •  "She made me see things in a new light."

                              •  "He took the blinders from my eyes. I could see possibilities
                                 I hadn't recognized before."

                              •  "She made me outdo myself; I never realized what  I was
                                 capable of before."

                              •  "He had a  way of bringing out the best in people."

                              •  "She made this an exciting place to work."

                              •  "He set an example for people to follow."

                              •  "Some of the most important things I know about this busi-
                                 ness, I learned from her."

                              •  "He made believers out of us."

                             People who inspire tributes such as these are more than manag-
                             ers. They have vision, set directions, and enable people to extend
                             their capabilities. They inspire loyalty and command respect.

                             In this reading, we will examine that extra dimension that charac-
                             terizes leaders.  We will also learn four distinctive leadership
                             styles:  directing, coaching, facilitating, and delegating.

                             The starting point for a discussion of leadership is an understand-
                             ing of the bases of social power. What is it that enables some
                             people to direct the work of others?
                             63 Leadership

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"The quality necessary
for leadership is referent
power; developing this is
what leadership is all
about."
Bases of Social Power

The answer lies in one or more of these five kinds of power.

 1. Reward power. Since people are motivated by the desire to
    satisfy a particular set of needs,  rewards are valuable tools
    for influencing behavior. These rewards take many forms,
    ranging from money to  praise  (especially in front of a work-
    er's peers). Most bosses control  rewards, and employees
    understand this.

 2. Coercive power. While  use of reward power is positive
    leadership, use of coercive power is negative leadership. The
    stronger the penalty, the more negative the leadership. Every
    day many managers use both types of power. Whichever type
    predominates sets the climate within the work unit.

 3. Referent power.  This is  the quality that causes an employee
    to emulate his or her boss. Bosses who have referent power
    are regarded as role models. Their views, values, mannerisms,
    skills, and even  gestures may be studied and copied. A boss
    with referent power strongly influences employees' thoughts
    and actions.

 4. Expert power. A manager who possesses relevant expertise
    can influence others because of this expertise. This is the one
    area  in which technical  competence, skill,  and knowledge can
    contribute to a leader's  effectiveness. Expert power is related
    to referent power in that knowledge is a respected character-
    istic.

 5. Legitimate power. Managers doing prescribed jobs within
    their rightful authority have, by definition, legitimate power.
    Because  they represent authority, employees normally will
    follow their lead. In the eyes of employees, only if managers
    exceed their limits of authority do they lose legitimate power.

All managers have legitimate power; it goes with the title. This
power can be enhanced by demonstrated support from upper
management. Some managers demonstrate expert power,  which
can be enhanced by training and experience. All managers have
some level of reward and coercive power, this can be enhanced
by delegation from upper management. However, the quality
necessary for leadership is referent power; developing this is
what leadership is all about.

Some managers are unable to  control group activities, regardless
of the powers bestowed on  them, because they are competing for
influence with the group's informal leaders, the group itself, or
other external factors. Many managers exercise little or no leader-
                              64 Leadership

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ship, creating  a vacuum that is filled by informal leaders who
become de facto influences of thought and action. Our goal is to
ensure that responsibility for influencing the activities of a work
unit remains with, or returns to, the formally designated supervi-
sors and managers of these units by helping the  managers devel-
op effective leadership styles.

There have long been rival schools of thought about leaders. One
holds that leaders are born, not  made; the other that leaders are
made, not born.
Universal Leadership

The traditional school contends that leaders are born, not made.
There are two variations within this school. One  group of adher-
ents says that "natural leaders" are  distinguished  from "natural
followers" by certain universal traits.  While those who have
studied the subject disagree, the popular notion—promoted by
Hollywood and the mass media—is that leaders are people of
commanding presence, decisive judgment, authoritative voice,
good looks, and boundless self-confidence. General George Patton
during World War n, John Wayne  in any starring movie
role—these hard-nosed,  no-nonsense risk takers would be leaders
anywhere, according to  popular folklore.

While there is some truth to this stereotype (most leaders are,
after all, decisive and do appear self-confident), the model fails
to help most managers;  most of us  are  not now,  and never will
be, this type of leader.

A variation of the universal-trait theory of leadership holds that
leaders demonstrate universal behavior.  This school believes  that
if a leader exercises the right mix of  direction and control while
showing concern  for the needs of followers, the result will be
high commitment and performance  in virtually all circumstances.

A well-known example  of the universal behavior theory describes
the ideal leader as a team player who shows equal concern for
people, quality, and productivity.  Yet  some  situations clearly
require more concern for people than  for quality  and productivity,
and vice versa.

Many of us know of fast-rising corporate executives who seem-
ingly could do no wrong in one organization. After a promotion
or joining another organization, however, their luck dramatically
changed. How many of those  in your high school class  voted
most likely to succeed actually achieved the kind of success
foreseen for them?
65  Leadership

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"The key variable in
effective leadership is the
situation of the follow-
ers,"
Situational Leadership

The school of thought that maintains leaders are made, not born,
is based on a belief that there are no universal traits or behav-
iors, only situational ones; leadership must be appropriate to a
situation in order to be effective. For example, a turnaround
expert who is taking over a failing company, with  orders to cut
staff, may  need to demonstrate very different leadership qualities
from those needed by  a leader trying to encourage his or her
people to become more entrepreneurial. This school also has two
variations.

One is based on a belief  that there are certain situational traits
that make leaders effective in certain situations but not in others.
Leaders, these people say, are successful in motivating their
followers when  both the situation and the expectations of the
followers are congruent. President Lyndon  Johnson was a brilliant
tactician in maneuvering his Great Society legislation through
Congress, but his foreign  policy skills were not  deft enough to
avoid the quagmire of a winless war in Vietnam.

The other variation of situational leadership centers on situational
behavior. A leader who uses situational behavior adapts  his or
her traits to the circumstances.  The concept of situational behav-
ior was popularized  in the 1960s and 1970s in the situational
leadership  theories of Hersey and Blanchard. In  their model,
successful  leadership behavior is contingent upon the maturity
and competence of the followers. Arguing  that neither autocratic
nor democratic styles are  right  or wrong in themselves, adherents
maintain that the key variable in effective  leadership  is the
situation of the  followers.

Lee lacocca was a rising  star at Ford Motor Co., but his outspo-
ken manner and entrepreneurial spirit ultimately kept him from
gaining the presidency of the company. However, these qualities
were precisely what was necessary to revive the flagging fortunes
of Chrysler Corp., and today lacocca is one of America's most
admired men. Similarly, John F. Kennedy became a hero when
he rescued the crew of his Navy PT boat in the Pacific  during
World War JJ. When asked what made him heroic, he simply
replied, "My boat was sinking."

In view  of this  discussion, it is sobering to wonder how many
potential leaders—whether "natural"  or "situational"—never  got
their moment in the sun,  never had  the opportunity to demon-
strate their leadership ability.

Hubert Humphrey once said, "Behind every great man there's a
surprised mother-in-law!"  By the same token, it can be said that
there are no great people, only circumstances that create them.
66 Leadership

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Leaders and Followers

What can we managers learn from the above discussion to help
us become leaders? One clear lesson is that we needn't be born
leaders to lead. Another is that it  is not so much the situation,
but our response  to the situation, that makes us leaders. A third
lesson is that since there is usually no one "man (or woman) for
all seasons," something about the relationship between the manag-
er and his or her followers creates a leader. Let's look at how to
apply these lessons.

The four styles of leadership available to a manager—delegating,
facilitating, coaching, and directing—are illustrated on the scale
below. Determining which style is most effective for you is
covered in module 6. Your style should reflect both the risk or
sensitivity of the  job  situation and the characteristics of the group
you manage. In studying characteristics of groups at work, we
need to look at three critical variables.

 1.  Ability. The expertise,  talent, and skills required to do the
    job, and the speed with which the group learns the tasks
    involved.

 2.  Experience. The group's track record with the kind of work
    in question, combined  with transferable skills or applicable
    learned behaviors.

 3.  Motivation. The confidence and energy level necessary to
    assume responsibility for new  tasks and to complete them.

Together these three factors measure a group's independence
level,  as represented on the scale below.

The scale tells us that your leadership style should be a function
of your group's independence level, as measured by members'
ability, experience, and motivation. Match your style to the
group, and you should obtain better results from them. In  the
session that follows, you will find an instrument to help you
gauge these factors in your own work unit.
Independence-Level Scale

    40            30            20            10
       	1	1	h
High
independence
Moderate to
high
independence
Moderate to
low
independence
Low
independence
        Delegating      Facilitating      Coaching      Directing
67 Leadership

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Another point to stress here is that leading groups, not individu-
als, is the focus of leadership. The more independence you can
grant a group, the more opportunities it has for creativity, innova-
tion, and flexibility. Thus, in  most situations,  preparing the group
for greater responsibility and independence works to your advan-
tage.

Although the group should be the focus of your leadership, keep
in mind that the same model  can  help you determine how to
manage any individual within the  group. Your relationship with
individuals is also a function  of their ability, experience,  and
motivation. When your people, individually or in a group, are
capable of working productively with little supervision, you are
able to achieve  your greatest productivity.
Examples of Leadership

 1. The impossible assignment. Leader A took over a major
    airline and set what seemed like an impossible goal: to
    become the number one on-time airline in the company's
    area of operation. His  staff identified the  variables that
    accounted for delay, researched the factors that caused each
    variable, and created action plans  to prevent or correct each
    cause. Less than six months later, the goal was  achieved.

 2. Redirecting strategy. Leader B took over  a lagging, num-
    bers-driven  food manufacturing division in which  successive
    waves of cost cutting had reduced quality, market share, and
    profits. Decentralizing  operations,  she restructured the compa-
    ny around  strategic menu segments (snacks, main dishes,
    desserts) rather than specific products, launched a drive to
    improve quality, and ordered development of new food
    products that would appeal to discriminating palates rather
    than to the  meat-and-potato  set.  The upscale approach, tied to
    quality and not low prices, paid off in higher sales, market
    share, and  worker productivity.

 3. Organizing  work. Leader C  was put in charge of  the night
    shift at a printing company noted  for its long hours and
    frequent crises in meeting deadlines. Her  predecessor, who
    had prided himself  on being the only problem solver in  the
    shop, had hoarded information. He had been fired for repeat-
    ed failure to anticipate problems and  for chronic cost over-
    runs.  Leader C posted a work-flow status report and updated
    it twice a day; she  also  scheduled regular staff meetings to
    involve others in problem solving. What got the troops
    excited, however, was the goal she set: to reduce job turn-
    around time by 10  percent within a month, using task force
    teams to figure out how it could be done.
68 Leadership

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What made this CEO, this division head, and this first-line
supervisor effective leaders? Was it their leadership styles—or
something else?
The Common Ingredient

All three got their people excited by

 •  Establishing a vision, mission, or goal

 •  Communicating it in a way that fired up the followers

 •  Making these same followers feel part of something impor-
    tant, uplifting, and satisfying

More important than charisma, bearing, or interpersonal skills,
this may be the secret ingredient that vaults someone to a posi-
tion of leadership: the ability to convey a sense of vision  and
mission in a way that transforms and enhances the followers'
sense of the possible.

Students of the subject say that leaders motivate followers to

 •  Transcend self-interest for the sake of organizational goals
    and values

 •  Raise their need level from security and safety to self-esteem
    or autonomy

 •  Share the leader's vision of the  importance  of the goals or
    values to  the organization's future

In the process, according to researcher Bernard  M. Bass,  these
leaders motivate followers to achieve more than the followers
themselves thought they  could. They also strengthen workers'
commitment to the organization, and induce feelings of trust,
admiration, loyalty, and mutual respect.

This may sound like  a very tall order, but think about the num-
ber of managers you  know who are trying to do something  even
more difficult: practicing heroics day after day.


The Question of Heroics

Because of the mythology surrounding the subject of leadership,
many managers still think leadership requires a kind of manageri-
al omnipotence. A manager is seen  as a problem fixer, master
technician, fountain of knowledge, workaholic—an organizational
69 Leadership

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"Today's  leader is a lot
like an orchestra  con-
ductor. He or she must
know the capabilities of
all the instruments, but
there's no reason he or
she should be able to
play them all—or fix
them."
counterpart of the fastest gun in the West. The old image persists
because many of the people  who taught us management thought
the secret of leadership was  personal heroics.

Yet the example  set by today's best leaders  suggests that leaders
in this day and age cannot be omniscient.  Given the  technical
nature of modern organizations and the range of jobs and skills
required, a manager's job is  not so much to perform heroics as
to produce them. Today's leader is a lot like an orchestra con-
ductor. He or she must know the capabilities of all the instru-
ments, but there's no reason  he or she should be able to  play
them  all—or fix them. Others can do these jobs.

Leaders see the big picture. They need not know where all the
puzzle pieces go, but they  must know what the picture should
look like and how to coordinate the efforts of each person who
holds a piece of the puzzle.  They point out the pattern, and they
have  the ability to mobilize and excite others to create the pic-
ture, or realize the vision.

The president of  a giant insurance company attended a staff
meeting during which the subject of customer responsiveness
came up. The vice president  of administration stood up and said:
"We're receiving seventy thousand inquiries a month  about our
services. From now on, I'd like to see us make it a policy to
answer all inquiries within two business  days." He sat down,
feeling proud of himself, and cast a sidewise glance at the presi-
dent,  looking for approval.

The president stood up, thanked the vice president for his idea,
and proceeded to tell the staff why that goal wasn't good
enough: "We can do better than that," he said. "Imagine if you
called an airline to find out about a flight  and  they said they'd
get back to you in two days. Is our business that different? Do
our customers deserve any less service than theirs? Can't we
make it a goal to get back with some response on the same
day?" He appointed a task force to develop a strategy for
same-day response to inquiries. Within four months, same-day
response was a reality. It also became a competitive advantage,
which helped pay for itself in increased revenues.

We began  this reading by asking you to think of a leader you
have  known, and to recall  what people have said about him or
her. Now,  think of the best boss you ever had and ask yourself
two questions: What did he or she do to rate as your best boss?
How  did he  or she make you feel?
                              70 Leadership

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                             We've asked these questions countless times over the past fifteen
                             years, and the  answers usually are as follows:

                             What Boss Did           How I Felt

                             Listened                   Valued

                             Delegated                 Challenged

                             Set high  standards         Committed to excellence

                             Left me alone  to do       Trusted
                             my job

                             Supported me              Cared for

                             Gave me positive and      Developed
                             negative feedback

                             Instructed/taught me       Coached

                             If you want to develop your own leadership potential, begin by
                             learning a lesson from your best boss. Then remember your best
                             leader. Follow their examples.


Summary                   We looked at  the five bases of social power and contended that
                             one distinguishes  a leader from a manager: referent power, the
                             quality that causes people to look up to their boss.  We looked at
                             the arguments  for and against the theory that leaders are bom,
                             not made, and concluded that while some  may be born and not
                             made, others are made, not born. What  makes people leaders is
                             their response  to situations and the relationships they establish
                             with their followers.

                             We also  learned that we  use our responses to  control and influ-
                             ence many situations. We explored four leadership styles and said
                             that the appropriate style for you depends  on three  factors: the
                             ability, experience, and motivation of your group. We also looked
                             at some examples  of leadership and concluded that it is a lead-
                             er's ability to  mobilize people on behalf of a  vision or goal that
                             distinguishes a true leader from an ordinary manager.

                             Finally,  we suggested that if you want to  develop  your leadership
                             potential, you  should think back to your best boss and your best
                             leader and strive to be like them.
                             71  Leadership

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Participation and  Quality

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Reading                   Participation and Quality
                             In the final analysis, there is only one reason to be a participa-
                             tive manager—to get better results. Consider the following ex-
                             amples:

                              •   In a study of participative management programs at four
                                 large industrial organizations, Peter Richardson found that
                                 successful implementation led to significant cost reductions,
                                 improved safety, higher morale, and better employee rela-
                                 tions. Long-term success was primarily dependent upon
                                 sustained  commitment by top management.

                              •   At a consumer products plant of Warner-Lambert Company,
                                 an employee-involvement program led to a 21 percent in-
                                 crease in  production and a 10 percent decrease in costs over
                                 a one-year period.

                              •   A Canadian firm applied participative management techniques
                                 to its office-space  planning and design. Adjustable work
                                 stations were installed, and changes were made to reduce
                                 video glare and to improve lighting and acoustics. As a
                                 result, productivity rose by 15 percent.

                              •   A printer of educational materials, games, newspapers, and
                                 magazines implemented an employee-involvement program at
                                 each of its plants.  Everyone from first-line supervisors to
                                 plant managers learned participative management techniques.
                                 Then these people applied what they had learned. Cross-
                                 functional work teams found ways to reduce inventory,
                                 lengthen production runs, and shorten press downtime. The
                                 result: a 17 percent increase in productivity, and more co-
                                 operation  than management had seen in years.

                             These are random examples pulled from an expanding body of
                             literature documenting the experiences  of countless managers.

                             Today it is estimated that 10,000 organizations in  the United
                             States alone have formal  employee-involvement programs, includ-
                             ing  quality circles and quality-of-work-life projects. In thousands
                             of other organizations, participative management is growing
                             informally. Managers and supervisors are discovering that they
                             can usually accelerate quality and productivity improvement by
                             involving their people  in  solving workplace problems or in deci-
                             sion making.
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What is participative management? To begin with, it is not
management by democracy. No one suggests that you,  as a
manager, should have your workers vote on whether they want to
come to work tomorrow. You are responsible for the quality,
timeliness,  and cost-effectiveness of the products and services you
produce or deliver. Participative management is the involvement
of people in decisions about the design or implementation of
systems that affect them.
Authority and Responsibility

Managers who practice participative management have a clear
idea of the distinction between authority and responsibility. Au-
thority is synonymous with legitimate power.  It is the right to
command or the power to act. Responsibility implies account-
ability to higher management. As a manager,  you can delegate
authority—the power to act—but you can never delegate respon-
sibility; you are  always accountable for seeing that your unit's
work is accomplished, no matter who within the work unit is
actually doing that work.

The boss's job is to manage, and the employee's job is to do the
work expected of him or her. But the more a manager can dele-
gate authority, the more discretionary time he or she will have to
work on more important  issues.
The Act of Delegation

Every time a manager delegates work to an employee, he or she
does three things.

 1. Assigns  duties. That is, the person who is delegating indicates
    what work the employee should do.

 2. Grants authority.  Along with  responsibility for doing the
    work, the employee needs to  have rights, such as the author-
    ity to spend money on people or  materials, or to take what-
    ever other steps are necessary to complete the new duties.

 3. Creates  an obligation. In accepting  an assignment, the em-
    ployee is contracting to take responsibility for finishing the
    job to the manager's satisfaction.
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"Many managers resist
delegating authority for
fear a job won't be done
well—or that it mil be
done too  well..."
Two Kinds of Delegation

A manager may delegate duties by describing them in terms of
activities to be performed or results to be achieved. A sales
manager who assigns a new salesman to call on a specified
number of customers  within a specific territory is delegating
activities. When the same sales manager tells a salesman what
volume of sales he expects the territory to produce, he is dele-
gating  in terms of results. Many managers do both.

In delegating responsibility, it  is important for you to make clear
what activities or results  you expect from your people. The better
your employees understand your expectations, the better able they
will be to fulfill them.
                             Delegation and Participation

                             Delegation, the process of pushing decision making down an
                             organization's hierarchy, creates  a participative climate. A man-
                             ager who delegates, framing orders in a broad, general way, is as
                             much a consultant as a director.

                             Delegation enriches the jobs of employees. It gives them the
                             responsibility for interpretation—the sense of being their own
                             boss and exercising control over their own environment. It pro-
                             motes autonomy and self-motivation.

                             Many managers resist delegating authority for fear a job won't be
                             done well—or that it will be done too well, making the em-
                             ployee look more  competent than the manager. Sometimes,
                             managers do not delegate enough authority to enable the employ-
                             ee to effectively accomplish an assignment.

                             In one instance, the head of a specialty store chain was leaving
                             on a business trip. She asked the vice president of finance to do
                             a comparative analysis in her absence of print and electronic
                             media expenses, and to have it on her desk when  she returned.
                             The finance man told her that to do  so, he would  need figures
                             from the merchandising department, whose vice president  was
                             very wary of sharing information. He asked the boss to give him
                             something in writing to authorize his  request for the figures. The
                             president said she would dictate a memo, but forgot in the last-
                             minute rush before her trip.

                             When the finance  man called merchandising, he  was rebuffed, as
                             he had feared. When he told the merchandising vice president
                             that he had been directed by their mutual boss to do an analysis
                             requiring merchandising's figures, he  was told, "Sorry, pal.
                             You're not my boss."
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Obviously, there is a risk involved in  any act of delegation. After
all, you can control your own actions, but you can't control the
actions of other people. What if they screw up? If you are re-
sponsible for the end result, isn't it more likely to be positive if
you do the job yourself?

Often, yes. But there are some risks involved in not delegating.
First, for every job you do yourself, there are other jobs  that may
not get done, and some that may be more important. Second, if
you aren't preparing your people for greater responsibility, you're
probably not motivating them or working to optimize produc-
tivity.

In baseball, when the player-manager enters the game during a
clutch play, he is  usually taking a short-term view—trying to win
one game at the expense of building future leadership. Participa-
tive techniques develop a team to take a  long-term view, and can
help prepare your people for future leadership.
Benefits of Participation

To the manager, participation pays the following dividends:

 •  Builds self-reliance. By making people less dependent on
    managers for detailed direction, participation contributes to
    organizational strength and stability.

 •  Builds succession management. This improves the chances for
    a manager to be promoted without leaving a big hole.

 •  Frees the manager to concentrate on challenges that really
    require his or her  attention.

 •  Produces better ideas, which are more effectively imple-
    mented.

 •  Produces better communication and coordination, higher
    creativity, and  cohesion. Psychologists researching the climate
    of an organization will  often record the number of times
    employees say  "we" rather than "they."

As we approach the twenty-first century, some see participation
as a means to restore human values that were lost in the effort to
achieve efficiency by oversimplifying work and oversupervising
employees.  Others  see it as a necessary step for organizations
that wish to survive in the face of rapidly changing environments
and fierce competition.
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Paradoxically, participation can increase a manager's influence.
When managers subject their ideas to the scrutiny of their em-
ployees, they increase understanding  and gain valuable knowledge
and information from those closest to the issues. By allowing
themselves to be influenced through  this process, managers are
likely to make better decisions that are more widely accepted  by
their employees. Through  supportive  action,  the manager makes a
social contract with the group; this creates a savings bank of
goodwill on which he or she can later draw, when needed.
Prerequisites for Participation

Participative management techniques are not a panacea for all
problems. The best times to use  participative techniques are  when
you don't know the answer, when you want to get input,  when
you want commitment, and when you are managing change. The
times not to use them are almost the opposite—when you do
know the answer (and won't be  swayed), when you don't need to
know what people think, when commitment is unnecessary, or
when the situation is beyond the control or competence of those
you manage.

Here, drawn from the research of organizational behaviorist Keith
Davis, are some more specific guidelines for deciding when  to
involve others,  whom to involve, and to what extent to involve
them.

 •  There must be  sufficient time for participation prior to
    action. In an emergency, participative problem solving is far
    less appropriate than instant, autocratic direction.

 •  The cost of the participation should not exceed the value of
    the outcome. There  is a difference between participating in
    the decision to design a new layout for the plant and the
    decision to reorder pencils for the stockroom. Employees
    cannot spend their time participating in the decision-making
    process if it keeps them from their other duties.

 •  The subject must be relevant to the participant or it will be
    misconstrued as busywork. Employees should be brought into
    decisions that affect their working lives. While  a production
    crew should be involved in  the layout and design of a new
    plant, it probably would not be appropriate to have them
    decide whether to locate it in Poughkeepsie or in Tuscaloosa.
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    The participant must have the ability—that is, the intelli-
    gence and the knowledge—to participate in the decision. One
    would not consult computer programmers on profit and loss
    projections  for the coming quarter. However, a programmer
    might be able and willing to participate in decisions about
    cost reduction and the planning and procurement  of new
    systems.

    The participants must be able to communicate with one
    another. Participative management can work only when the
    participants speak the same language.

    No party to the decision should feel that his or her position
    is threatened by participation. If a worker believes his status
    on the job  will be adversely affected,  he may not participate,
    just as a manager may refuse to participate if he  feels that
    his authority is threatened. Defensive participation is worse
    than no participation at  all.
Group Decision Making

In addition to the guidelines for when to use participative man-
agement, here are some suggestions for successful group decision
making in meetings. They have been adapted from the work of
William Dowling and Leonard Sayles, who have helped many
managers organize successful meetings.

 •  Suggest participation only when the group's acceptance of a
    solution is at least as important as  the quality of the  deci-
    sion. Decisions about vacation schedules, coffee breaks, and
    phone coverage during lunch are of little concern to manage-
    ment as long as the work is done. For example, a vacation
    schedule is likely to displease someone, since  conflicts are
    almost inevitable. Consequently, the manager who passes this
    task on to the group also passes on the headache of solving
    conflicts. And because the group is left with the responsibil-
    ity of drawing up the schedule, the results  are more likely to
    be accepted by all the  members involved.

 •  Set clear limits for discussion. Certain aspects of any topic
    are reserved for management. Setting  a budget ceiling for an
    activity, and then allowing employees to design the activities
    under that ceiling, is very different  from asking employees
    how much the activity should cost.
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 •  Make the extent of desired participation clear. Are you ask-
    ing the group for suggestions on how to solve the problem,
    or are you asking the group  to solve the problem for you?
    Both  approaches are valid forms of participative  management,
    but managers run the risk of unfulfilled expectations if at the
    outset they do not clearly define what they want. If a group
    of employees come up with a solution to the problem, think-
    ing that mis  was their assignment, and you, as manager,
    thank them for their suggestion  and reject  it, they will feel
    frustrated and may  refuse to  go  through the process  again.

 •  Avoid defining the problem prematurely, or you may confuse
    the problem's cause with its  symptoms. One manager called a
    meeting to deal with the problem of bills not getting out on
    time.  After much discussion,  someone traced the  problem to
    chronic absenteeism among key  personnel.  The manager then
    asked the group to  examine the  causes of absenteeism and to
    come up with a solution that would also solve the late billing
    problem.

 •  Don't ask for ideas if you've already made up your  mind.
    It's okay to use a group to validate a tentative decision, but
    don't mislead people into thinking you have an open mind
    when you're  not willing to listen to them.

The drives that cause people to form groups in the first
place—the desire for status, recognition, power, and protection
from the pressures of the organization—can be satisfied by the
joint  action of management working  with the group. Properly
managed,  group decision making  serves to channel energy into
cooperation, rather than competition, with management.

Here are some suggestions for promoting  the establishment of
cohesive work units.

 •  Keep  enemies apart. Be careful when assigning individuals to
    jobs; try not  to create friction.

 •  Put friends together. This often will result  in a higher noise
    level and more talking on the job, but evidence shows that
    more  work will get done in the  process. In a study in which
    carpenters and bricklayers were allowed to choose job mates,
    those  who worked with their  friends outproduced those who
    were not permitted to choose. Similar results have been ob-
    tained with air force pilots, hospital laundry workers, and
    many others.
79  Participation and Quality

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    Give special attention to people who find it difficult making
   friends. Use informal leaders to help integrate these people
    into groups. It can do much to improve their performance
    and keep them from eventually quitting, a result that costs
    the organization money in training and lost productivity.

    Avoid fostering competing subgroups. Place together individ-
    uals performing similar kinds of tasks,  or who are from
    similar backgrounds. Although competition is  considered
    healthy, competition among subgroups in an organization
    often leads to tactical  warfare among the groups and reduces
    productivity. Energies  are spent in war games.
Unions and Participative Management

More than one attempt to implement participative management
has been met with suspicion and resistance from organized labor.
Since most of the impetus for changing and improving the way
work is done comes from management rather than labor, many
union leaders feel that job enrichment is just an excuse  to make
employees work harder.

Here are three guidelines, based on studies about  gaining union
support for large-scale participation programs.

 1. Limit the scope of any joint program. Focus on quality-of-
    work-life issues, and avoid traditional collective-bargaining
    issues.

 2. Give the union  a strong voice  in defining the program goals.
    Many unions are skeptical about employer motives,  and
    union reps will hesitate to enter into  cooperative efforts if
    they are not given a voice.

 3. Promote these programs as enhancements. Make it clear that
    they are intended to supplement, not  replace or interfere with,
    collective-bargaining procedures.

Union representatives naturally fear that efforts to boost produc-
tivity will end up costing jobs. Nevertheless, a recent study of
participative management programs in a heavily unionized indus-
trial organization found that unions and management can agree
and  work together on this most sensitive  issue. Indeed, one of the
great benefits of participation, when successfully implemented, is
that  employees and unions gain a better understanding of the
economic realities.
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                             In the study, when cutbacks and terminations were unavoidable,
                             those who left the company went with a greater sense of dignity,
                             and those who remained felt pride in their contributions to their
                             operation's competitiveness.
"An employee has a
right not to participate;
some people just want to
be told what to  do."
 Limitations

 Although the benefits of participative management are evident,
 and the practice often results in improved quality, higher produc-
 tivity, better morale, and lower costs, participation does have its
 disadvantages. With today's complex technology, specialized work
 roles often make it difficult for people to participate much be-
 yond their particular job environments. Moreover, unless a clear
 contract is established, many individuals  will expect to be con-
 sulted on every  issue, even those to which they cannot contribute.

 In addition, an employee has a right not to participate; some
 people just want to be told what to do. Because of this,  manag-
 ers must sometimes reach out, grab people by the throat,  and
 drag them into this process when input for better decision making
 is needed. At other times, employees' desire for minimum inter-
 action with their supervisor should be honored.

 Occasionally practitioners of participative techniques can  become
 lost in procedure and overlook philosophy. The substance of
 participative techniques  does not automatically flow from  the
 procedures. There is no cookbook to follow.

 The extent of top management's commitment to,  and involvement
 in, participative management is  one of the most important factors
 in ensuring its long-term success. Obviously, an initial lack of
 top management support for participation can seriously diminish a
program's chances for success. Even a highly successful program
can stagnate if continuity is not maintained through policies set at
higher levels in the organization.

Despite these limitations, participative techniques  work. They are
not the answer to all organizational problems, but they are useful
when management wishes to improve existing systems and gain
consensus and commitment—especially during periods of organi-
zational change.
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Summary                   Participative management is the involvement of people in deci-
                             sions about the design or implementation of systems that affect
                             them. Participative management is not management by democ-
                             racy. It is a way of increasing the quality or acceptance of deci-
                             sions—often both. It should be used selectively—when you don't
                             know the answer, when you want input, when you want commit-
                             ment, and when you are managing change.

                             Don't use participative management when there isn't time for
                             people to be meaningfully involved, when the  cost of participa-
                             tion outweighs the value of participating, or when the subject is
                             beyond the participants' competence. Never use participation for
                             issues that threaten employees' job security or positions.

                             Always tell people the extent  to which you are asking them to
                             participate. Do you want them to analyze the problem? Come up
                             with a list of possible solutions? Evaluate solutions? Recommend
                             a preferred solution? Or actually make the decision? Above all,
                             don't ask for ideas if you have already made up your mind about
                             what you want to do.
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