OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT EFFECTS
   ON A WESTERN CONIFEROUS
         FOREST ECOSYSTEM
                     TASK B REPORT:
                     Historical Background and
                     Proposed Systems Study of
                     the San Bernardino Mountain Area.
                     UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
                     FOREST SERVICE
                     UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT
                     of AGRICULTURE
              Supported By:
  U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
          Grant No. 68-O2-O3O3

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    OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT EFFECTS ON A
    WESTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST ECOSYSTEM
                  Task B
     Historical Background and Proposed
     Systems Study of the San Bernardino
                Mountain Area
                 JAN     1373
          Principal Investigator:
       0. C. Taylor, Associate Director
  Statewide Air Pollution Research Center
University of California, Riverside, CA 92502

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                 OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT EFFECTS ON A

                 WESTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Advisory Committee Chairmen:

     Vegetation - R. V. Bega, Pacific Southwest Forest
                  and Range Experiment Station, U.S.
                  Forest Service, Berkeley, CA

     Vertebrates - J. T. Light, U.S.  Forest Service,
                   Supervisors Office, San Bernardino
                   National Forest, San Bernardino, CA

     Arthropods - D. L. Wood, Division of Entomological
                  Sciences, University of California,
                  Berkeley, CA

     Meteorology - J. G. Edinger, Department of
                   Meteorology, University of
                   California, Los Angeles, CA

     Soils and Hydrology - L. J. Lund and A. L. Page,
                           Department of Soil Science
                           and Engineering, University
                           of California, Riverside,  CA

     Sociology - E. W. Butler, Department of Sociology
                 University of California, Riverside, CA

     Systems Integration - Bland Ewing, Division of
     Modeling              Biological Control, University
                           of California, Berkeley, CA

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                                                                     ii
                  OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT EFFECTS ON A

                  WESTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST ECOSYSTEM


                               CONTENTS

SECTION                                                              pAGE

          Summary	^v

          Introduction	1

  A.      Vegetation Committee Report

              Introduction 	  1
              Direct Effects of Oxidants 	 22
                  Physiological Effects	26
                  Histological and Histochemical Effects 	 27
              Community Composition Induced by Pollutants 	   31
              Recommendations for Future Study 	 35

  B.      Vertebrate Animal Committee Report

              Vertebrate Pathology
              Summary and Recommendations	12

  C.      Arthropod  Committee Report

              Terrestrial Habitats 	   1
                  Western Pine Beetle 	  3
                  Vegetational Changes Induced by Bark Beetle.  ...   5
                  Soil Arthropods	6
                  Sucking Insects 	  7
                  Insects that Influence Tree  Growth  	   9
                  Arthropods  Important to Reproductive Biology  ... 11
                  Spider-prey Relationships  	  12
                  Insectivorous Birds  	  14

              Aquatic Habitats  	 15

              Appendix:   Tree Losses  in Vicinity of
                  Lake Arrowhead	1
                  Interpretation  of Tree Loss	2
                  Historical  Notes  	   3
                  Discussion  	   4

 D.      Meteorology  Committee Report

             Introduction 	   1
             Large-scale Features  	   3
             Small-scale Phenomena 	  5
             Distribution of Oxidant  	  6

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                                                                      ill
SECTION                                                              PAGE

  E.      Geology, Soils and Hydrology Committee Report

              Geology 	   2
              Soils	5
                  Chawanakee Series 	   7
                  Shaver Series 	 10
              Drainage and Runoff	12
              Erosion, Sedimentation and Water Quality 	16

  F.      Sociology Committee Report

              Introduction 	  1
              Historical Background of Lake Arrowhead 	   2
              Human Population and Use of Habitat	6
              Possible Effect of Oxidant Pollutants 	 10
              Future Studies 	  21

  G.      Systems Integration and Modeling Committee Report

              Introduction 	  1
              Modeling 	  2
              Information System	10
                  Data Capture Subsystem ,	11
                  File Management Subsystem	14
                  Data Interpretation Subsystem 	 16
              Systems Coordination 	  17

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                                                                     iv
                                 Summary




Physical characteristics of the San Bernardino Mountains, i.e. geology,




topography, soils, hydrology, and climate are described in the following




report.  Histories of the vegetation, vertebrate and arthropod populations




and human activity are also included to illustrate the evolutionary




changes of modern times.  An attempt has been made to superimpose the




known and suspected influences of oxidant air pollution on this already




complex mosaic of physical and biological factors.  Finally, the available




knowledge of techniques needed to develop an elaborate conceptual model of




the forest ecosystem are presented and discussed.









Essentially, all of the recent air pollutant research has been concerned




with direct effects of oxidants on a few plant species, principally




ponderosa and Jeffrey pine.  These two species dominate a majority of




stands in the San Bernardino Mountains and thus are responsible for the




present structure which has special esthetic qualities valuable to




recreationists and the integrity of the present ecosystem.









Strongly discipline-oriented information about the forest system, e.g.




soils characteristics, meteorological phenomena, tree physiology, etc.




has been produced by most of the previous investigations.  Other studies,




directed towards community biology, have described the various constituents




of the system in qualitative, and sometimes quantitative terms.  Both




approaches may have spatial information incorporated into the studies.




However, the interactions among components, information necessary to

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operate a dynamic model of the system, are poorly identified and have




received little scientific attention since they require more than simply




an enumeration of the components of the system.









Future studies should be directed towards the establishment of life tables




for ponderosa and Jeffrey pine as well as other associated species.  This




approach will establish relative importance of the direct effect of




oxidant air pollutants and the various biotic and abiotic agents as




mortality factors during each stage of the life cycle from flowering and




anthesis through the intermediate size or age classes up to the mature




tree.  Construction of life tables will provide the core data needed for




the modeling process and associated studies will begin to describe the




indirect effects or reverberations in the ecosystem which are caused by




oxidant air pollutants.









A large group of professional scientists who consulted together about the




ecology of smog in this forest system, had several recommendations emerge




from their observations.










It was acknowledged that there are many more components in the system than




can be studied adequately.  The scientists felt that past studies have




adequately identified only a few of the principal components in the system




since many of these are probably the emergent properties of interactions




which simply have not been studied.  They believe that time is of the




essence in attempting to discover the important operating factors in the

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                                                                     vi
system.   Recent observations indicate an accelerating rate of air pollu-




tant damage.  There was serious concern that continued deterioration of




the forest ecosystem may reach a point at which there is no longer an




ability to recover, and that the changes observed would permanently




modify the system, very possibly in an undesirable manner.  Vegetation




and its dynamics were considered to be the principal objects of concern.




The major tree species should receive much greater attention than they have




in the past, and this attention should be focused on the life history




dynamics of the principal conifers and hardwoods.  Parallel with these




studies, major efforts should begin in order to understand the roles of




predators (herbivores) and parasites (pathologic organisms) in the life




history of the major vegetation.









Finally, the scientists involved in this review consider it necessary to




develop an elaborate conceptual model ofthis system based on what needs




to be known in order to describe its dynamics and to provide an oppor-




tunity to intelligently manipulate (manage) it, both through simulation




techniques and on the ground.  There was strong agreement that the develop-




ment of.this model was an integral part of any system's research done on




the San Bernardino National Forest.  They cautioned that the model must




conceptualize the system in such a manner that its complexity can be




analyzed, rather than to proceed to simplify the real features of the




system prematurely and thus lose the opportunity to investigate that




complexity.

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                                                                      vii
                            Appendix_to^ Summary




More detailed observations about needs, and recommendations can be found




on the following pages of the Task B report:




          Vegetation:     pp. 35-36




          Vertebrates:    p,  12




          Arthropods:     pp. 2, 4-7, 9-10, 12,  14-17




          Meteorology:    p.  14




          Soils:          see R. Arkley's "Research Needs", 2 pp.




          Sociology:      p.  10-18, 20, 22-26

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                             INTRODUCTION





     Extensive urban development and industrial growth in the South-




coastal basin of California during the past three decades has caused an




alarming increase in air pollutants.  Reactive hydrocarbons and nitrogen




oxides, precursors of oxidant pollutants, are generated in large quantities




during combustion of petroleum fuels to meet the energy demands of a




growing population.




     Ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) are two of the most damaging




pollutants in the complex mixture known popularly as "smog" or photochemical




oxidant air pollution.  These agents which cause serious damage to plants,




animals and humans are formed in the atmosphere above urban areas when




nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight.  Local




weather provides both the means of concentrating the contaminants e.g., the




temperature inversion, and lateral air movement or delivery system which




can transport heavily polluted air up to 80 miles downwind.




     In the Southcoast air basin, oxidant air pollutants have increased




phenomenally since the mid-1940's affecting broader and broader areas.




Similar increases have been witnessed in other large urban areas of Califor-




nia and in other states.  Very often the downwind areas typically agricul-




tural or mountainous with forests and other valuable wildland vegetation




receive longer durations of exposure to heavy pollution than the urban




source area.




     The mixed conifer forests of the Angeles and San Bernardino National




Forests, the extensive citrus and wine grape plantings and many acres of




vegetable crops - all downwind from the Los Angeles metropolitan area -

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have provided mute testimony of the serious damage by ozone and PAN.




Losses of agricultural crops have been estimated in the millions of dollars




annually and many sensitive crops can no longer be grown profitably.




     In the local National Forests, sensitive species such as ponderosa




pine began to show injury in the early 1950's.  Severely pollutant-injured




trees are made dangerously susceptible to the pine bark beetle which




quickly kills trees outright.  The result of moderate to severe oxidant




damage to nearly 100,000 acres of the total of 160,000 acres of mixed




conifer type in the San Bernardino National Forest has been the need to




select or salvage cut some management units as often as three times in ten




years to remove bark beetle susceptible trees.




     The effects of air pollutant damage to the forest cannot be estimated




in  terms of timber volume or dollars because the principal use of the forest




is  for the various recreational pursuits of the nearly 12 million people




who live within two hours drive.  Forest managers seek first to enhance




the visual properties of the landscape and to increase the quality of the




visitor's recreation experience.




     In the mixed conifer forests of the western Sierra Nevada Mountains




where oxidant damage is just beginning to be evaluated, both timber and




recreational values are at stake.




     Beyond the visible deterioration of several key species of the mixed




conifer forest, what additional events may be shaping up which may pro-




foundly affect all elements of this ecosystem?  What are the important




interactions between plants, animals and their physical environment which




will determine the future state of the system?  We do not have answers

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to these questions and cannot answer them with independent, highly frag-




mented, short-term research efforts.  A highly integrated systems approach




using many research disciplines will be required to determine the future




state of the mixed conifer forest of the San Bernardino mountains.  An




understanding of successional trends of vegetation and the subsequent effects




on arthropods, birds, animals and people can have these foreseeable benefits:




     1.  information for forest management.




     2.  upgrading, secondary standards for air quality.




     3.  providing a method for doing a systems study on other conifer




         forests threatened by pollution.




     4.  provide information to inform the public of the need for their




         support in controlling air pollution sources.




     The following report includes detailed historical information about




the biological and physical characteristics of the forested area proposed




for the interdisciplinary investigation of air pollutant impact and con-




cludes with suggestions for an integrated  systems study designed to prepare



a predictive model.

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                                                           Section A
                        Vegetation Committee Report

                       History and Suggested Protocol

                                    for

                      Environmental Protection Agency


                Study of the Impact of Oxidant Air Pollution

                    on the Mixed Conifer Forest Ecosystem
Committee Chairman:
R. V. Bega, Pacific Southwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station, U.S.  Forest
Service, Berkeley, California
Researched and Written By:
                           P.  R.  Miller,  Pacific Southwest Forest and
                           Range Experiment Station,  U.S.  Forest
                           Service,  Riverside,  California

                                    and

                           J.  R.  McBride, School of Forestry and
                           Conservation,  University of California,
                           Berkeley, California           '
Principle Contributors:
        Richard Minnich, University of California, Los Angeles
        J. S. Horton, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Station
        H. C. Fritts, University of Arizona
        Jerry Light, U.S. Forest Service, San Bernardino N.F.
        Hatch Graham, U.S. Forest Service, San Bernardino N.F.
        Ross Thibaud U.S. Forest Service, San Bernardino N.F.
        Philip Lord, U.S. Forest Service, San Bernardino N.F.
        Fields Cobb, Jr., University of California, Berkeley
        Hyram Johnson, University of California, Riverside
        J. R. Parmeter, Jr., University of California, Berkeley
        Rita Laird, University of California, Riverside
        0. C. Taylor, University of California, Riverside
        Kenneth Swain, U.S. Forest Service, Pest Control Region 5
        Michael Srago, U.S. Forest Service, Pest Control Region 5

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                                                                A-l
                                INTRODUCTION






Green vegetation is the most important element of the biological community




because it captures and stores solar energy and releases oxygen.  The other




members of the community, i.e. herbivores, carnivores, and decomposer organisms




are completely dependent on green vegetation—the "producer".  This guiding




principle underscores the importance of healthy vegetation as a "stablilizer"




of organization among the communities of organisms .in their controlling physical




environment.  An understanding of the changes in the plant communities suffering




chronic air pollution injury is vitally necessary to predict the fate of the




ecosystem.








This section describes the plant communities of the San Bernardino Mountains




and the suceessional trends which have determined community composition in




elevational zones prior to the influence of photochemical oxidant air pollution.




Emphasis has been placed on information, largely unpublished, which pertains




directly to this mountain range and its vegetation history.  Extrapolation of




information from the abundant literature on similar vegetation types in the




forests of the Sierra Nevada has been purposely limited because of the absence




there of the distinct marine influence experienced in the San Bernardino Mountains.








We are indebted to the self-made botanist Samuel B. Parish who lived in San




Bernardino from 1872 until after the turn of the century for many written works




(1894, 1917) on the vegetation of the mountains during that time.  John B.




Leiberg (1897-98) surveyed the San Bernardino Mountains to determine the acreage

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                                                               A-2.
of merchantable timber and also recorded the condition and species  composi-




tion of the forest in several elevational zones on both the northern and




southern slopes of the range.  Also, much useful information about the




appearance of the virgin forest, pioneer lumbering, fires, floods, and land




development (1769-1930) are recorded in a very comprehensive history:  "Saga




of the San Bernardinos" by La Fuze (1971).









Finally, this section discusses the current knowledge of both the direct and




indirect effects of photochemical oxidant air pollution particularly ozone on




the vegetation of the conifer forest and woodland chaparral zones.  Specific




recommendations are made for future research which is necessary to understand




the full impact of oxidant in the ecosystem.






Vegetation Zones and Types




The vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains is composed about equally of




chaparral and forest types with important minor elements of woodland, sagebrush,




and grassland.  Morton (1960) and Minnich (1969) have undertaken major treat-




ments of this vegetation.  Horton (1960) recognized six vegetation zones on




the basis of plant physiognomy and environmental conditions (Fig. Al):  chamise-




chaparral, woodland-chaparral, desert chaparral, Pinyon-Juniper woodland,




timberland chaparral, and coniferous forest.  One or more vegetation types occur




within each zone.  Twenty of these types were defined by Horton (1960) on the




basis of field reconnaissance.  Minnich (1969), using infrared color imagery




on aerial photographs, mapped 28 vegetation types in the San Bernardino Mountains




(Fig. A2).  The relationship between the vegetation types recognized by the two




authors is indicated in Table Al.  A brief description, based on Horton  (1960),




of each vegetation zone follows.

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                                                                A-3.
 The  Chamise-Chaparral  Zone  is  characterized by  a scrub  vegetation which varies




 in species  composition and  stand  density.   Chamise  (Adenostoma  fasciculatum)  is




 the  most  common species herein.   This  zone  is distributed  from  near  sea level




 to 3,500  to 5,000  feet on north-facing slopes and to 4,500 to 5,500  feet on




 south-facing slopes  (Fig. Al).  Within this range,  annual  precipitation varies




 from 13 to  35 inches.   Fire occurs  frequently and has been a primary factor




 in the evolution of  the vegetation.  Five major  vegetation types  are found  in




 the  chamise-chaparral  zone:   (1)  pure  chamise-chaparral, (2) chamise-ceanothus




 chaparral,  (3)  chamise-manzanita  chaparral,  (4)  scrub oak  chaparral,  and (5)




 coastal sagebrush.   The important species in each of these types  are listed




 in table  Al.   The  vegetation of the  chamise-chaparral zone has been  studied by




 a number  of investigators.   Comprehensive papers include those of  Cooper (1922),




 Miller, E.  H.,  Jr.  (1947), and Navek  (1967).








 The  Woodland-Chaparral Zone  is located on the coastal side of the mountains




 and  to a  limited extent in  the Mojave  River  drainages (Fig. Al).   It  is  charac-




 terized by  chaparral and woodland types dominated by oaks  and by localized




 stands of big-cone Douglas-fir and knobcone pine.  On north-facing slopes,  the




 zone may  begin  at elevations of 3,500  to 5,000 feet and extend to  5,000  or




 6,500  feet.   The lower altitudinal range on south-facing slopes is from  4,500




 to 5,500  feet while  the upper altitudinal range  is from 6,000 to  7,500 feet.




 Precipitation ranges from 22 to 45 inches a year.  As in the chamise-chaparral




 zone,  fire  is common.   Live oak chaparral, live  oak woodland, big-cone Douglas




 fir  forest, knobcone pine forest, and  coulter pine forest  are the major  vegeta-




 tion types in the zone  (Table Al).  Wright  (1966, 1968) has examined the




distribution  of knobcone pine and coulter pine within the  woodland-chaparral  zone.

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                                                                A-4.
 The  Desert  Chaparral  Zone is  characterized by open  scrub  vegetation.   Usually




 one-half  or more  of the soil  surface is exposed  and unprotected  by the shrubs.




 The  zone  occurs in the Mojave River drainages and the  Cajon  Pass area (Fig.  Al)




 and  is  generally  found at elevations of 3,800 to 7,500  feet.   In this range,




 precipitation  averages 12 to  25 inches annually.









 Fire is rare in this  zone because of the open cover, but  the  common species




 usually recover following burning in the same manner as the shrubs in the




 chamise-chaparral and woodland-chaparral zones.  The single vegetation type




 in this zone is the desert chaparral (Table AI).  Hanes (1971) discusses this




 type in his treatment of succession in the chaparral of southern California.









 The  Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Zone is principally located in Deep  Creek and in




 the  vicinity of Big Bear Lake (Fig. Al).  The zone  contains woodland  and scrub




 vegetation  in which Great Basin Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)  is found.  The




 woodlands are generally open with over half of the  soil surface  exposed.  The




 notable exception to  this open character is the occasional dense stands of




 Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis).  This zone ranges in elevation from 3,000




 to 9,000 feet with average annual precipitation of  10 to 30 inches.   Wildfires




 are  not common.









 Minnich (1969) recognized six vegetation types (Western Juniper-Mountain




 Mahogany Woodland, Pinyon Pine Woodland, Pinyon-Juniper Woodland, Great Basin




 Sagebrush,  Joshua Tree Woodland, and Juniper-Joshua Tree Woodland) in this  zone




while Horton (1960) divided the zone into two major types (Pinyon-Juniper




Woodland and Great Basin Sagebrush).

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                                                               A-5.
The Timberland Chaparral Zone is characterized by a scrub vegetation usually




under 4 feet in height, and may be open or very dense.  Timberland chaparral




occurs throughout the higher mountains (5,000 to 11,000 feet) and shows its




best development in the eastern portion of the San Bernardino Mountains (Fig. Al).




The average annual precipitation varies from 30 to 45 inches most of which




occurs in the form of snow.  Summer wildfires are common and are considered




a principle factor in the maintenance of the type.  A single major vegetation




type occurs in the zone—timberland chaparral (Table AI).









The Coniferous Forest Zone is found throughout the San Gabriel and San Bernar-




dino Mountains (Fig. Al).  It ranges in elevation from 5,000 to 6,500 feet on




north-facing slopes and 6,000 to 7,500 feet on south-facing slopes upwards to




the highest peaks (San Gorgonio, 11,502 feet).  These forests vary in both




stature and density according to vegetation types and environmental conditions.




At middle elevations, the stands of ponderosa pine-white fir forest are usually




dense and the height of trees will average 100 feet or more.  At higher elevations




a Krummholz type is found where the widely spaced trees are so stunted as to




resemble shrubs.  The precipitation is largely in the form of snow and ranges




from 25 to 50 inches a year.  Fires are common but the area burned recently is




usually small except where major fires driven by high winds spread from chaparral




areas into the forest.









Several vegetation types are found in the coniferous forest zone.  Horton (1960)




recognized seven types (pine forest, ponderosa pine-white fir forest, sugar




pine-white fir forest, grassland, black oak woodland, alpine forest, barren

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                                                               A-6.
areas).   Minnich (1969)  defined eight types in the zone on the basis of




imagery on color infrared aerial photographs.   Using this method, he was not




able to distinguish the different coniferous forest types recognized by Horton's




(I960) ground reconnaissance.  A comparison of the types recognized by both




Horton (1960) and Minnich (1969) is found in Table AI.









Plant Succession in the San Bernardino Mountains^




Plant succession is the naturally occurring change in vegetation types involving




a series of replacements of one type by another until a steady state is reached.




The vegetation type occurring in the steady state is able to replace itself and




is known as the climax.  The climax is in equilibrium with the dominant environ-




mental conditions in an area.









In most cases, the climate of an area is the determining factor in the development




of the climax.  However, within a climatic zone other conditions may be more




important in controlling plant succession.  The terms climatic climax, edaphic




climax, and fire climax designate climax types controlled by specific factors.




Within a broad regional area, such as the San Bernardino Mountains, several




different climaxes will occur because of the variations in environmental condi-




tions.  At some locations, the dominant factor is the climate while at others




the soil or repeated wildfires determine the climax.









As plant succession proceeds in an area, the natural development and replace-




ment of vegetation types may be interrupted by catastrophic events which




destroy or significantly change the existing vegetation.  Following a  cata-




strophe, plant succession continues but often at a different rate.  In order

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                                                               A-7.
to understand the changes of vegetation in the San Bernardino Mountains




caused by oxidant air pollution, knowledge of how other catastrophes have




influenced plant succession is necessary.








Wildfire




Fire is a major factor influencing succession in all of the vegetation zones




of the San Bernardino Mountains with the exception of the desert chaparral




and Pinyon-Juniper zone.  The adaptations for surviving fire exhibited by a




great number of the species in the chamise-chaparral and woodland-chaparral




zones indicates evolution in an environment where fire was frequent.








Fire in pre-historic times was due to lightning and Indian use and misuse of




fire.  Opinion varies as to the degree of burning by Indians prior to the




Spanish settlement of the California coast (Burcham, 1959; Aschmann, 1959).




Regardless of their cause, fires must have burned freely and extensively in




primitive times.  During the Spanish period (1769-1822), fire was introduced




as a management tool to improve forage for livestock.








The records of the extent and frequency of fires in the San Bernardino




Mountains prior to 1910 are sketchy (LaFuze, 1971).  From 1911 to 1971,




the U.S. Forest Service has kept fire records at the Forest Supervisor's




Office, San Bernardino National Forest, summarized in Figure A3.  This map




includes all of those fires which burned in or on the edges of the conifer




zone.  For simplification, fires which occurred only in the lower chaparral




zones were omitted.  The Cajon Pass area, for example, in the western one-third

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                                                                A-8.
of the map, was a complex of overlapping fires whose frequent occurrence  there




may be related to the major rail route through the pass.









Fire has had its greatest influence on the conifer zone in the western half of




the mountain region where logging activity was extensive starting in 1852




(Fig. 4).  Fires prior to 1910 were frequent, occurring in 1869, 1874, 1879,




1894, 1900, and 1903 in various parts of the forest.









In the eastern half of the mountain region (Fig. 3).  fires have been less




frequent and in some cases appear to be caused by lightning.  There are




references, however, which suggest that ranchers burned the rangeland annually




to improve the forage for the cattle in this eastern sector from the 1860's to




the early 1900's (Vestal et al., 1904; Horton, 1960).








Fire and Plant Succession




Examinations of the influence of fire on the composition of vegetation types




and plant succession in the chaparral zones indicate the capacity for sprouting




following burning exhibited by many species (Horton and Kraebel, 1955; Hanes,




1971).  Burned-over chaparral lands return to a chaparral cover within a few




years after burning as a result of sprouting.  Establishment from seeds also




contributes to post-fire vegetation since the seeds of many species are stimu-




lated to germinate by high temperatures (Stone and Juhren, 1951).  As long as




fire is a factor in the environment of the chaparral zones, a mosaic of scrub




dominated vegetation types will be encountered.

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                                                                A-9.
Chaparral dominated watersheds are subject to severe erosion following burning.




The annual winter floods which  follow the summer and fall fires cause severe




damage to urban developments at the base of the mountains, therefore great




effort is being made to control these wildfires in the San Bernardino




Mountains.  As fire control becomes more effective and the area burned is




reduced, the fire climaxes can be expected to succeed to climatic and edaphic




climaxes in the chaparral zones.  Horton and Kraebel (1955) suggest that




elements of the woodland-chaparral zone, particularly species from the live




oak chaparral and live oak woodland vegetation types, would become dominant




in the absence of fire.  Hanes  (1971) disagrees because several plots which




have not burned in the last 100 years are still dominated by chamise (Adeno-




stoma fasciculatum).  He concludes that a chamise dominated chaparral (pure




chamise-chaparral, chamise-ceanothus chaparral, chamise-manzanita chaparral)




would maintain itself on south-facing slopes and on the desert side of the




mountains in the absence of fire.  On north-facing slopes on the ocean side




of the San Bernardino Mountains, scrub oak-chaparral, live oak chaparral,




and live oak woodland would compose the mosaic of climax types if fire were




eliminated.








In the woodland chaparral,•the big-cone Douglas-fir stands are more and more




confined to the steep, easily-eroded draws under the influence of repeated




fires; and the canyon live oak  (Quercus chrysolepis), and some shrubs




(Arctostaphylos spp. and Ceanothus leucodermis) occupy the surrounding slopes.




When the oaks and other species sprout after fire, some new seedlings of




big-cone Douglas-fir may become established in the understory.  During a long

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                                                               A-10.
absence of fire, the firs begin to emerge from the canyon live oak canopy




thereby extending the fir forest out from the refuge of the steep draws




where fire seldom penetrates.  The success of the new fir forest depends on




whether the trees have grown large enough to survive the next fire (that is,




with foliage reaching above the oak canopy and with stem bark thick enough to




withstand heat).  If fire occurs soon, the new fir seedlings will be destroyed




and the oaks, manzanita, and chamise will sprout anew (Horton, personal




communication).








Occasionally, ponderosa pine will extend down into the upper limits of the




woodland chaparral on relatively gently sloping ridges with deep soil.  These




"stringers" of pine forest surrounded by shrubs and canyon live oak are very




vulnerable to fire and suffer from severe competition for soil moisture with




the chaparral species.








Fires have been frequent in the timberland chaparral zone of the San Bernardino




Mountains (Fig. A3).  The species in the timberland chaparral adapt to burning




like the chaparral species at lower elevations, but recovery of vegetation




following a fire is slower due to the shorter, copier growing season at the




higher elevations.








Fires in the coniferous forest zone were very frequent and destructive until




the last 20 years (Fig. A3) when more successful fire protection has limited




both frequency and spread.  Large fires in this zone have often originated




in adjacent chaparral areas (Fig. A3).  Fire control has had a distinct




influence on the structure and composition of forests in the coniferous forest




zone.   Periodic ground fires in this area prior to the twentieth century

-------
                                                               A-11.
resulted In a low level of fuel on the forest floor.  Seedlings and  saplings




of white fir (Abies concolor) and incense cedar  (Libocedrus decurrens) were




killed by these fires while pine and oak seedlings survived.  A map  and other




descriptions in LaFuze (1971) refer to the San Bernardino ''Mountain  Pinery"




during the 1850's when loggers were cutting the virgin forest.  This suggests




a very large amount of ponderosa and some sugar pines in the virgin  forest.








With the reduction in ground fire that came with the establishment of the




National Forests, an accumulation of ground fuel has occurred (Dodge, 1971).




The once open structure of the forests has changed to one composed of flammable




seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized trees reaching from the ground into the




crown canopy.  Under these conditions fire can have a much greater impact on




the forest than in previous times.  Fire in these forests today is capable of




destroying existing vegetation and initiating a secondary succession in which




timberland chaparral is likely to develop and may retard the succession back




to the conifer types.








Not all vegetation types within the coniferous forest zone are equally susceptible




to destruction by fire.  The sugar pine-white fir forests which occur on south-




facing slopes are typically open forests with practically no understory.  Fire




spreads very poorly in these forests because the areas between trees and




scattered shrubs are usually bare with surfaces of eroding soil, rock slides,




or rock outcroppings.








In the grassland type, fire is also less common because of the very moist meadow




conditions.   Fires do occasionally burn over grassland areas in the  late summer




and fall, but do not destroy the type.

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                                                                A-12.
Barren areas at high elevations are seldom exposed to fire.  Following  fires,




the thin lodgepole and limber pine stands of the barren areas are replaced




by timberland chaparral and succession back to former condition  is very slow.









In the drier zones on the desert side of the San Bernardino Mountains,  fire




is uncommon (Fig. A3) because the wide spacing of plants in this area discourages




its spread.  The desert chaparral type includes many species which are  capable




of sprouting after a fire, but regrowth of vegetation is very slow.  The species




of the Pinyon-Juniper woodland zone are not adapted to withstand burning and




pinyon pine (Pinus monophylla) in particular is nearly always destroyed.  How-




ever, fires are not frequent in this zone (Fig. A3).









Man's Activities Influencing Succession in the Conifer Zone




Logging has exerted a heavy influence on the vegetation of the conifer  zone




of the San Bernardino Mountains since 1852 when Mormon settlers began to cut




timber in the general vicinity of present-day Crestline (first Seeley Flat).




The progress of early logging, including harvest of big-cone Douglas fir at




lower elevations, from 1830 to 1930 (La Fuze, 1971) is presented in arbitrarily




chosen intervals of 20 years (Fig. A4).   During this  time span, the timber




harvest proceeded eastward into virgin timber until 1891 when some mills were




re-established in the western areas formerly cutover.









During the first 40-50 years (beginning 1852), many of the larger trees were




left standing because the water or steam-powered sawmills could not accommodate




them and it is probable that the soil and younger trees were not seriously




disturbed by the ox-drawn log wagons.

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                                                                A-13.
Timber harvest reached its peak from 1898 to 1912 with the establishment of




the Brookings sawmill and the narrow gauge logging railroad near the present




location of Running Springs  (Fig. A4).  The Brookings Company clear-cut most




of the 8,000 acres of timber available to them.  Trees of all sizes were cut




due to the demand for boxes  from the booming citrus packing industry in the




valley below.  The snaking of logs to rail cars by cable caused great damage




to seedling trees and to the soil surface.  Following a severe 3,500-acre




fire  caused by the Brookings locomotive in 1903, the Company was prohibited




from  further operation on government land (La Fuze, 1971).  Part of this




area  was  later converted to  timberland chaparral (Morton, 1960).








Gold  mining and  cattle ranching were the primary activities in the Big Bear




Lake  vicinity  and commercial logging there did not thrive.  Some steam engines




at the mines had sawmill attachments and much timber was harvested for mine




 construction,  houses,  and  fuel.  During the early 1900's, about five sawmills




near  Big Bear  Lake provided lumber  for local construction.  The placer mines




 and the wastes from deep mines  eliminated many  trees resulting in the issuance




 of citations by  forestry  officials  (La Fuze, 1971).








 After 1930,  commercial logging  in the  San Bernardino Mountains was  limited and




 sporadic.  The two most most valuable timber species have always  been sugar and




 ponderosa pine.   White fir, which is difficult  to  season,  and incense cedar,  with




 a high percentage of dry rot, were rarely used (Parish,  1894).








 Today, sanitation salvage logging is practiced whereby only "high risk" trees




weakened by age or by chronic damage from oxidant air pollution are removed




 (Hall and Pierce, 1965).   These trees are highly susceptible to attack by pine

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                                                               A-14.
bark beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) and the practice of removing them is defended




as a method of limiting the population build-up of the beetles through elimi-




nation of their food and lodging.









From 1948 to 1971, 132 contracts were executed, in many cases to remove fire




damaged timber.  On most stands, 10 to 15 percent of the stand is removed in




each cut and the same area is recut in 5 to 10 years depending upon the accumu-




lation of trees severely damaged by smog and bark beetle activity.









Figure A5 shows 29 areas on which more than 50,000 board feet was cut between




1948 and 1971.  Barton Flats and Holcomb Valley have been cut twice during this




period and one small parcel in the heavily smog-damaged area near Lake Arrowhead




has been cut three times.









Salvage logging is undoubtedly a significant factor influencing succession in




the conifer stand.  The selective logging of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines reduces




seed production of these species because the larger trees are removed.  After




16 years of observation, Powells and Schubert (1956) reported that the larger,




dominant ponderosa pines produced more than 99 percent of the cones.  Further-




more, even the small amount of soil surface disturbance by tractors and skidding




logs provides a mineral soil seedbed favorable to the white fir and incense




cedar, both of which are less important commercially and are more susceptible  to




fire.  These circumstances coupled with constant air pollution damage and growth




suppression of the more sensitive pines may lead in the ponderosa pine-white




fir and sugar pine-white fir forest types to a higher density of less valuable




and more fire vulnerable timber species such as white fir and incense cedar.

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                                                               A-15.
Another impact of logging has been an increase in the rate of fire spread.




Countryman (1955) relates this increase to a change in microclimate resulting




from the logging of closed canopy forests.  Rate of fire spread was shown to




increase up to four and one-half times in logged-over forests.  If the replace-




ment stock in the understory is white fir or incense cedar as indicated above,




fire mortality greater than for ponderosa or Jeffrey pine would result.








Since 1911, 850 acres were reforested in the San Bernardino National Forest




(not including the San Jacinto Mountain area).  The species planted included




Jeffrey, ponderosa, sugar, Coulter, and knobcone pines and the Jeffrey-Coulter




hybrid.  Small plots of Sierra redwood are included within the planted areas.




Poor seedling survival has made it necessary to replant and interplant the same




areas.  Seedling survival was generally poor, but has improved slightly since




1965 because of improved planting methods and more favorable soil moisture




(file reports, San Bernardino National Forest).








Fires have destroyed several of the better plantations throughout the years.




For example, the Bear fire in 1970 wiped out a successful plantation near




Thomas Hunting Ground.








The areas which are selected for replanting represent the best sites most




favorable for tree growth.  This practice results in a very "spotty" pattern




of tree replacement.  With generally poor survival, the total effect of




replanting at the current rate is not a major factor affecting succession




in the conifer forest.

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                                                                A-16.
In 1890-1910, when the larger virgin timber was gone from the mountains and




the Arrowhead and Big Bear reservoirs were built, the recreational use and




urbanization of the mountains boomed.  In 1893, the San Bernardino Forest




Reserve (National Forest) was created and in 1929 the San Gorgonio wilderness




area was set aside.  In 1929, 2 million visitors were counted entering the




mountain area, more by far than entered any of the famous national parks.




Today nearly 9 million visitors enter the forest annually.









The distribution of the permanent residents and recreational activity is




indicated in Figure A6a and b.  The shape of the four 1970 census tracts (Running




Springs approximated) and data for permanent residents and dwelling units was




obtained from SCRIS Report No. 3 (1971) (Fig. A6a).   The projection of popu-




lation and land use in the mountain communities from 1970 to 2020 prepared by




Urbanomics Research Associates (1970) , says "the fact that a high percentage




of the lands in question are designated as National Forests suggests minimal




urban and economic development in these areas in the future."  However, the




increasing attraction of the mountains for recreation may well result in the




construction of high rise developments.









Low to high intensity use of public land represented by the wilderness




area, picnic sites, improved campgrounds, and water and snow sports activity in




14 Recreational Information Management areas in 1970 is shown in Figure A6b  (File




report, San Bernardino National Forest).  Roads alone occupied 336 acres in




the Crestline-Lake Gregory areas in 1961 (Villa-Lovas, 1961).

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                                                               A-17.
Man's activities other than logging which alter the physical environment of


the forest include all of the characteristics of urbanization:


     1.  Disturbance has resulted from the construction of major highways and


          streets in a terrace-like configuration in new forest communities.


          Normal drainage is disrupted and those trees not removed have their


          root systems exposed or buried by cut and fill.  Asphalt is often


          placed over root systems and winter-salting of major roads causes


          salt damage to road side trees.  Constant trimming and tree removal


          is done in power and telephone line corridors.




     2.  A vast increase in the number of recreationists using the forest
                        f

          can deplete forest litter and compact the soil with heavy foot traffic.


          Ponderosa pine is the species least likely to survive in campgrounds


          because of bark beetle attack on larger stressed trees and mechanical


          damage to seedlings (Hall and Pierce, 1965; Magill, 1970).  The


          increase in off-trail motorcycle use, especially impromptu hill


          climbing on steep slopes, has produced a labyrinth of erosion scars


          where utiderstory vegetation and conifer seedlings have been torn from


          the soil.




c 3,   The disposal of treated sewage water from mountain communities presents


          difficult problems.  At present, Lake Arrowhead's effluent is being


          sprinkled from settling ponds onto chaparral vegetation in Maloney


          Canyon northeast of the Lake where a controlled study of the effects


          of irrigation on natural vegetation is in progress (Fig. A6a).  Big


          Bear Lake communities pump treated sewage water into the "dry" Baldwin

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                                                                A-18.
          Lake because permission was denied  for dumping  into  Arrastre Creek vhicl




          drains north to the Mojave Desert communities  (Fig.  A6a) .  The Crestlij,




          Lake Gregory area has many septic tanks and  leach  lines,  but is being




          converted to a sewer system.









     4.   Fire control in the urbanized and heavily used  forest has resulted in t|




          accumulation of large fuels on the  forest floor.   If a catastrophic




          wildfire should break out of control in the  conifer  forest,  these




          additional fuels could produce a hotter fire to kill even the larger




          trees (Dodge, 1971).









Influence of Abiotic Agents on Successionin the Conifer Zone




In addition to fire, the three most important abiotic  agents influencing  tree




growth, survival, and plant succession are drought, winter drying,  and




breakage by accumulated snow and ice.









Extended droughts occurred in 1893, 1894, and 1917 (La Fuze, 1971)  and  during




the late 1950's and early 1960's.  Species respond differently to drought




so that changes in stand composition and type distributions  are to  be  expected.




A differential response of seedlings of conifer species to drought  in  the




ponderosa pine-white fir forest type has been demonstrated and indicates  that




prolonged drought would result in a shift toward Jeffrey and ponderosa pine




in this type (Stone, 1957).









Winter desiccation causes injury to many trees in the  coniferous forest zone




as a result of an excess of transpiration over water absorption on  warm sunny

-------
                                                               A-19.
winter days when soil is cold or frozen.  The impact of winter desiccation has




not been studied in the San Bernardino Mountains.  However, the extensive areas




over which it occurs suggests that this damage may be significant in the develop-




ment and composition of vegetation types, especially on exposed ridge crests where




heavy accumulations of ice break the tops of the tree causing the crown to be




flat-topped.  John Muir commented on this in an 1896 visit there with Pinchot.




Ponderosa pine withstands the rigors of the ridge crest better than other species.








The Effect of Tree Diseases on Succession in the Conifer Zone




The infectious tree diseases of importance in the Pinyon-Juniper and main




conifer zone may be categorized as root rots, stem rots, limb and gall rusts,




needle diseases and both dwarf and true mistletoes.








Root Rots




Armillaria mellea, the oak root fungus, is a very widespread inhabitant of the




roots of many woody plants (Baabe, 1962).  It is only occasionally detected as




the cause of death of pines and firs in this area mainly because it becomes lethal




only on trees weakened by some other agent.  Proof of its common occurrence was




presented several years ago when the root systems of blown-down Jeffrey pines on




Skyline and Sugar Loaf Ridges south of Big Bear Lake were inspected.  Many large




roots were infected; these weakened roots probably brought about the windthrow.








Annosus root disease caused by Fomes annosus is found in discrete infection




centers involving from a few up to 20 trees, most often ponderosa and Jeffrey




pines and occasionally white fir.  Small infection centers occur in upper




Barton Flats, eastern Big Bear Valley, and the vicinity of Big Pine Flat




north of Big Bear Lake.

-------
                                                               A-20.
The black stain root disease caused by Verticicladiella wagnerii is a very




serious disease of pinyon pine.  Throughout nearly 8,000 acres of the Pinyon-




Juniper forest, this disease has been recognized in small centers ranging from




one-fourth to one acre.  It does not attack juniper but it was found on one




occasion on Jeffrey pine.  The area of most intense infection is east and




south of Baldwin "dry" Lake.









Stem Rots




Parish (1894) described the common occurrence of pocket dry rot of incense




cedar (Libocedrus^ decurrens) caused by Polyporous amarus.  It is still common




today and may seriously limit the longevity of incense cedar.  A very extensive




rot column is common in white fir (Abies concolor) but the exact decay organism




is unknown.  Polyporous schweinit zii is occasionally observed causing a root




and butt rot of Jeffrey pine.









Rusts




The gall rust caused by Peridermium harknessii is occasionally found on




ponderosa pine near Cedar Springs and Stockton Flat, and on lodgepole pine




(Pinus contorta) at Dollar Lake.  The limb rust found primarily on Jeffrey




and ponderosa pine caused by Peridermium stalactiforme occasionally becomes




locally epidemic; for example, in Green Canyon.  It is controlled by pruning




and tree removal.









Needle Diseases
The only needle disease of importance is caused by Elytroderma deformans.




It is the major needle disease of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines in western North

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                                                                A-21.
America.  Its perennial nature and its unique capacity to infect the host




twigs enables it to maintain itself even under adverse environmental conditions.




It reaches epidemic proportions near lakes and stream beds and in moist years.




This disease is found regularly throughout the San Bernardino National Forest.




Currently, intense infection centers are found northeast of Big Bear Lake and




in the upper Barton Flat area.








Mistletoes
These are the most widespread and serious parasites of conifers in the San




Bernardino National Forest.  Species of the true mistletoe (Genus:  Phorodendron)




infect white fir  (_P. bolleanum ssp. pauciflprum) and incense cedar (P_. juniperinum




spp. libocedri).  At higher altitudes, white fir is heavily infected; the tops of




older trees in particular are often covered by mistletoe foliage.  The trees




weaken and die or are killed by bark beetles.  The mistletoe in incense cedar




causes negligible damage to its host.








The greatest timber loss can be attributed to the dwarf misteltoe (Genus:




Arceuthobium) on ponderosa, Jeffrey, Coulter, and knobcone pines (A.




campylopodum).  Branch arid trunk swellings and cankers and "brooming" cause




severe damage to the host.  Eventually badly infected trees must be removed




by sanitation salvage logging.  Jeffrey pine Is more susceptible to the dwarf




mistletoe than is ponderosa pine and areas of severe infection may be found




in the upper Barton Flat and in Holcomb Valley.  Coulter pines in the San




Bernardino Mountains suffer heavier infection and mortality than Jeffrey pine.




A., divaricatum is found on Pinyon pine near Horse Springs some 8 miles NE of




Lake Arrowhead and elsewhere in the Pinyon-Juniper zone.

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                                                               A-22.
It is evident that some of the tree diseases discussed above have a definite




influence on succession, either directly by killing trees outright (Black stain




root rot of pinyon pine and Fomes annosus root rot of pines and fir) or indirectly




by causing removal of infected trees (dwarf mistletoe and limb rust).






Direct Effects of Oxidant on Important Species. Particularly in the Conifer Zone






Identification of the cause—Conspicuous damage to needles of ponderosa pine




in the conifer zone was noticed in 1953 (Asher, 1956) but similar damage was not




observed in the chaparral zones on any species at that time.  This new damage




of unknown cause or origin was at first believed to be related to the black




pine leaf scale [Nuculaspis californica (Coleman)J, but a survey and subsequent




map by Stevens and Hall (1956) showed no coincidence between the occurrence of




heavy scale infestation and the new "needle dieback" of ponderosa pine.









The suggestion that an air pollutant might be the cause of this new disease




(Asher, 1956) led to an investigation, beginning in 1957, for the Kaiser Steel




Corporation to determine if flouride emission from the Kaiser plant at Fontana




was responsible for the damage.  Analysis of needle tissue did not indicate




sufficient flouride accumulation to cause injury, but the data gathered from




1957 until about 1961 suggested that damage was related to smog  (Kaiser Steel




Corporation file reports, 1956-1961).  The investigators noticed the same




symptoms on Coulter, Jeffrey, and sugar pines in the conifer  zone and  similar




mottle symptoms on wild grape, California sycamore, big leaf  maple, and willow




in the drainages.









Parallel observations described the "chlorotic decline" of  ponderosa  as  charac-




terized by a progressive reduction in terminal and diameter growth, loss of all

-------
                                                               A-23.
but the current season's needles, reduction in number and size of the remaining




needles, yellow mottling of the needles, deterioration of the fibrous root




system, and eventual death of the tree (Parmeter, Bega, and Neff, 1962).  Exami-




nation of roots, stems, and needles failed to disclose the presence of pathogenic




organisms.  An extended period of drought from 1946 to 1960 coincided with




the first observations of the condition.  Examination of annual terminal




growth indicated that healthy trees responded to increases in precipitation,




but trees in decline did not.  The inception of the decline corresponded




with reports of air pollution injury to grapes in the San Bernardino Valley




not more than 15 air. miles away  (Richards, Middleton, and Hewitt, 1958).








In 1960, reciprocal bud and twig grafts were established between healthy




and chlorotic decline trees growing side by side (Parmeter and Miller, 1968).




Four years' observation of these  twig grafts led to the conclusion that a




graft  transmissible agent, namely a virus, was not present and could be




discounted as a possible cause of the decline disease.  Fertilizer was applied




once to decline trees and observations for four growth seasons indicated no




improvement of tree condition  (Parmeter and Miller, 1968).  Mechanical injury




inflicted upon root systems of healthy trees did not induce chlorotic decline




symptoms nor did removal of all  ages of needles over a two year observation




period.  However,  the needles of ponderosa pine treated with 0.5 ppm ozone in




plastic enclosures for 9 to 18 days under field conditions developed a chlorotic




mottle, terminal dieback, and accelerated abscission similar to needle symptoms




of chlorotic decline  (Miller et  al., 1963) and the chlorophyll content of




needles treated with ozone for 18 days was generally less than that of ambient




air controls.

-------
                                                                A-24.
A series of studies extending from 1957 to 1966 (Richards et al, 1968)




identified ozone as the cause of the symptom syndrome referred to by Parmeter




as "X-disease" and "chlorotic decline" and the name "ozone needle mottle of




pine" was coined (Richards et al., 1968) to specifically name the causal




agent and permit the inclusion of other pine species exhibiting similar




symptoms.








Studies  concentrated mainly in the Crestline-Lake Arrowhead area (Asher, 1956




Hall and Stevens,  1956) indicated the damage, which extended for 12 miles




from west of  Crestline  to just east of Lake Arrowhead along the undulating




ridge crest,  was most severe at Crestline.  Evidence of the oxidant or ozone




injury  at Running  Springs, Camp Angeles and Forest Home areas was also reported




 (Kaiser  Steel Corp., Edmunds and Richards, 1959).









In the  summer of 1969,  damage to the ponderosa-Jeffrey pine stands in the San




Bernardino  National Forest, excluding the Big Bear Lake area but including




San Jacinto peak and the  San Gorgonio Wilderness area, was estimated by use of




special  aerial photographic techniques  developed by the U.S. Forest Services's




Pacific Southwest  Forest  and Range Experiment Station.  Of the  160,950 acres




of ponderosa-Jeffrey type within  the  forest boundaries, 46,230  acres had heavy  smog




damage;  53,920 moderate damage; and 60,800, light or no damage.  An estimated




1,298,000  individual trees were affected:  82% moderately, 15%  severely  and




3% completely dead (Fig.  A7, Wert et  al.,  1970).









The extent  and severity of damage to  shrub and  tree species  in  the chamise




chaparral  and woodland  chaparral  is not known.   Severe  damage  to the big-cone




Douglas-fir and slight  damage  to  knobcone pine  has been recognized in the

-------
                                                               A-25.
woodland chaparral (Miller and Millecan, 1971), but damage to shrubs such  as




ceanothus and manzanita has been ignored or unrecognized.









Measurements of the concentration gradients of total oxidant from the basin at




the city of San Bernardino up to the mountain crest on the south-facing slope




have shown the highest concentrations and longest duration of concentrations




greater than 0.10 ppm to be in the lower woodland chaparral zone (Miller,




McCutchan, and Ryan, 1970).








Incidence of bark beetle infestation




The sometimes sudden death of declining trees prompted field studies to




determine the role of bark beetles in the over-all picture and to compare




some physical and physiological characteristics of healthy and diseased




trees which could relate to increased susceptibility to beetle attack or




greater attraction of beetles.  A survey was made in 1966 to determine the




severity of the decline at the time of attack and to establish for future




examination neighbor trees which were also under the influence of air




pollution and which would be adjacent to emerging bark beetle broods from




the killed tree (Stark et al., 1968).








Trees exhibiting advanced chlorotic decline symptoms were more frequently




attacked by the western pine beetle, Dendroctonus brevicomis LeConte, and




the mountain pine beetle, I), ponderosae Hopkins, than those exhibiting less




severe symptoms of decline.  There was no apparent relationship of insect




attack or chlorotic decline with crown class, total height, length of live




crown or diameter.

-------
                                                              A-  26.
As a test of the survey results, 100 trees In each of three disease  categories




—advanced, intermediate, and healthy—were examined intensively for history




of insect attack.  The findings substantiated the survey results:  of 60 trees




showing incidence of bark beetle attack, 36 were in the advanced category, 19




in the intermediate, and 5 in the healthy group.  These data suggested that




chronic oxidant air pollution injury predisposes sensitive ponderosa pine to




bark beetle attack.









Selected physical and physiological characteristics of healthy and oxidant




inj ured trees






Oleoresin exudation pressure, yield, flow rate and crystallization rate,




sapwood and phloem moisture contents, and phloem thickness were observed (Cobb




et al., 1968).  Chronic oxidant injury caused a reduction in oleoresin




exudation pressure and the crystallization rate of oleoresin increased with




disease severity.  The moisture content of both sapwood and phloem tissues




showed a decrease from the healthy level in both intermediate- and advanced-




diseased trees.  There was also a progressive decrease in phloem thickness




with increase in disease severity.









The subsequent effect of chronic photochemical atmospheric oxidant injury on xylat




oleoresin composition, phloem sugars and reserve carbohydrates, and phloem pH




of ponderosa pine was studied (Miller et al., 1968).  Oleoresin samples from




healthy and advanced-diseased trees were analyzed for differences in monoterpenes




and resin acids, but no significant differences between healthy and  injured




classes were found, nor was there significant difference in quantities of




selected resin acid compounds present in healthy and diseased trees.

-------
                                                               A-27.
Samples for phloem carbohydrates were taken from groups of healthy, intermediate-,




and advanced-diseased trees.  There was a reduction generally in the amounts of




sugars and reserve polysaccharides, but only the decrease in reserve poly-




saccharides comparing intermediate- and advanced-diseased trees in the summer




was statistically significant.  There was no significant change in phloem pH




due to the disease.








Histological and histochemical appraisal ofozone damage to needle tissue






Chloroplasts aggregated in the peripheral portions of mesophyll cells within




5 days after the start of ozone fumigation (0.45 ppm).  Concurrently, the




homogenous distribution of proteins and nucleic acids was disrupted.   Acid




phosphatase activity increased within mesophyll cells during ozone exposure.




Mesophyll cell wall destruction occurred after appreciable intracellular




damage.  Histological and histochemical changes occurred within 5 to  7 days




while macroscopic symptoms were not visible until two to three weeks  after




fumigation (Evans and Miller, 1972a).








Two pine species most sensitive to ozone (ponderosa and Jeffrey) exhibited a




larger number of stomata per cross-sectional area of mesophyll cells  while the




number of mesophyll cells per stomata was lower.  The number of hypodermal




layers and thickness of epidermal and hypodermal layers was negatively




correlated with ozone sensitivity.  In the more ozone tolerant pine species




(Coulter and sugar), initial injury was more closely associated with sub-




stomatal mesophyll cells.  Oxone injury occupied a greater length of the entire




needle of the sensitive species as evidenced by the proximity of symptoms to




the needle base (Evans and Miller, 1972b).  These results suggest that needles




of ozone sensitive species may be more "ventilated" than those of tolerant




species.

-------
                                                               A-28.
Changes in apparent photosynthesis






Three-year-old ponderosa pines fumigated in controlled environment chambers




with ozone at 0.15, 0.30, or 0.45 ppm had apparent photosynthesis rates reduced




by 10, 70, and 85 percent, respectively, after 30 days exposure.  A fumigation




with 0.30 ppm ozone for 33 days reduced the polysaccharides content of both




current and one-year-old needles by 40 percent.  Soluble sugar content of




current year, ozone-injured needles increased 16 percent and that of the




one-year-old needles decreased slightly.  Higher content of ascorbic acid




in one year old needles did not protect the tissue from ozone injury (Miller




et al., 1969).









Apparent photosynthesis rate of whole plants after ozone injury was determined




in terms of C  0,, uptake which made it possible to compare the apparent photo-




synthetic activity of current-year needles with one year old needles.  One




group of seedlings demonstrated that one-year-old foliage was suppressed (77




percent of control), but the current-year foliage was not (113 percent of




control) even though each age of needle had lost about 25 percent of its




chlorophyll (Miller, 1965).









Ozone effects on specific photosynthetic reactions






Both light requiring and dark reaction sequences of photosynthesis were




investigated.  The Hill reaction rates of chloroplasts isolated from healthy




and ozone-injured needles were compared at several light intensities.  Chloro-




plasts from ozone-injured needles were less capable of Hill reaction activity




at all light intensities in spite of equal chlorophyll concentration.  Repeated




comparisons of the chlorophyll a/b ratio of extractions from 0  injured  and

-------
                                                               A-29.
healthy plants did not indicate any significant change (Miller, 1965) suggesting



that qualitative or quantitative chlorophyll changes are not the primary



cause of Hill reaction or apparent photosynthesis depression.








The pattern of labeling by C  0_ in the 80 percent ethanol soluble photosynthate


                                                         14
of healthy and ozone-injured needles was compared after C  0  fixation for



various lengths of time.  No qualitative differences in the pattern of labeling



in the photosynthate were observed following separation by two dimensional



paper chromatography (Miller, 1965).








Relative ozone sensitivity of the important conifer species





Extreme variability of response has been encountered among individuals of a



single species and between fumigations at different times (spring, summer,



fall).  Much more replication within experiments and repetition of fumigations



was required than initially anticipated.  The goal of fumigation work is to



provide a quantitative, statistically treated estimate of the relative sensi-



tivity of each species compared with ponderosa pine which is included in



every experiment.  These data are now being analyzed, but an approximation



of the relative ozone sensitivity of the various species is presented in Table



All (Miller, unpublished).








Effect of oxidant:(ozone) cm the growth of ponderosa pine





Oxidant concentrations with average daily peaks of 0.20 ppm occurred almost



every day from May through September during 1968-1970 at Rim Forest (5,680 feet)



in the San Bernardino National Forest (Miller, 1971).  Maximum daily concentra-



tions as high as 0.58 ppm have been recorded repeatedly.  In August 1968, groups

-------
                                                               A-30.
of sapling ponderosa pines were enclosed in greenhouses.  One house received




activated carbon filtered air, the other unfiltered ambient air.  A control




group, not enclosed in a house, was observed simultaneously.









After filtered air treatment for only one year, the symptoms of needle injury




virtually disappeared.  Even those trees in an advanced stage of injury were




able to recover in the filtered air environment.  These data illustrate the




amount of growth suppression due to photochemical oxidant damage which would




not otherwise be visible (Miller, unpublished).  In 1971, those trees in




filtered air which began with only one damaged needle whorl now have four




healthy whorls and the needle length of each new whorl is longer than the




last.  Trees receiving the two unfiltered air (ambient smog) treatments have




declined in vigor and most retain only one needle whorl.









In the above experiment ponderosa pine served as an accurate bioindicator of




both improved air quality and of ambient smog after only one year by virtue of




changes in needle symptoms, growth, and retention.  This remarkable capability




of pines to serve as an information storage system was also exploited in the




San Bernardino Mountains by Dr. Harold C. Fritts of the Laboratory of Tree Ring




Research, University of Arizona.  Figure A8 (Fritts, In Press) shows measurements




of ring width variation as a function of the date of the annual rings.  "The




abrupt decline in width at the beginning of the 1950's and 1960's is apparent




in both plots (Fritts, personal communication)."  Both of the oxidant-damaged




Jeffrey pines examined were cut in a sanitation salvage logging operation  in




1971 in the San Bernardino Mountains.  A complete statistical treatment of




these data would separate the anticipated variation due to tree age and annual

-------
                                                               A-31.
precipitation from variation in ring width due to air pollution.  This could




provide precise dating of the inception of damage and possibly reconstruct




the responses of the important species in the conifer zone,






      Possible Changes in Community Composition Induced by Oxidant Air




                                  Pollution






The complex of variables which interact to influence the individual plant and




subsequently shape the plant community are illustrated in Figure A9, modified




from Billings (1952).  It is apparent that both a primary and secondary




influence is exerted by oxidant air pollution in this system.  The task of




identifying and quantifying these influences must be performed, if only




provisionally, so that hypotheses for important change can be developed and




tested.









The effect of oxidant air pollution will not be the same in all vegetation




zones in the San Bernardino Mountains.  Measurement of oxidant concentration




gradients on the south-facing slopes of the mountains above San Bernardino




(Miller et al., 1970; Edinger et al., 1971) indicated that the chamise-ceanothus,




chamise-manzanita and lower portion of the woodland chaparral zones receive the




longest daily exposure to adverse oxidant concentration and often the highest




daily maximum.  However, the greatest visible damage is in the conifer zone.








The timing of severe oxidant exposure both on a daily and seasonal basis is an




important factor determining damage.  In the chaparral zones, the daily oxidant




peak occurs during periods of lowest relative humidity, whereas, in the




conifer zone, the peak oxidant occurs later in the day when relative humidity

-------
                                                               A-32.
is increasing (Miller et al.,  1970).   What influence does humidity have on




stomatal behavior and uptake of pollutant in each vegetation zone?








The Pinyon-Juniper forest and the desert chaparral are more remote and




not as heavily influenced by the marine air mass  bearing the oxidant air




pollution.  However, the Pinyon-Juniper zone and  the chaparral zones cannot




be excluded from consideration because of the wildlife of the conifer zone




which freely use the other zones for  feed or cover.








The riverine vegetation, which includes such species as California sycamore,




California bay and Fremont cottonwood, deserves great attention because it is




an area rich in wildlife and it often occupies the mid-to-lower elevation




southern slopes which receive long oxidant exposure.








Even the lodgepole pine (P_. contorta)  and limber  pine (P_. flexilis) above




8,000 feet cannot be considered exempt from oxidant injury, especially those




on the south-facing slopes of San Gorgonio Peak where the thermal updraft




carries polluted air upward.








At this time, no surveys have been made to identify oxidant damage in the




Pinyon-Juniper, riverine, or alpine zones.








The possible successional trends in the conifer  zone have been examined  in




relation to site, species composition, ponderosa  decline rate, mortality and




silvicultural literature (Miller, 1971).  The species composition  and age




structure in a heavily damaged 575 acre mixed conifer stand  (Table AIII)




show that ponderosa pine is by far the most numerous species in size classes

-------
                                                               A-33.
larger than 12 inches dbh (diameter-breast-height).  White fir had the greatest




number of survivors in three size classes from seedlings up to poles 11.9 inches




dbh; followed by ponderosa pine, incense cedars, and sugar pine.  From 1969 to




1971, the mortality of ponderosa pine was 8.1 percent in a subsample of 160 trees.




In.this group, the number of trees exhibiting no visible injury declined from




27 in 1969 to 11 in 1971.








the 575-acre study area was a relatively smooth, undulating ridge crest over-




looking the polluted air basin to the south and with an abrupt transition to




a north-facing slope dissected by several small intermittent drainages.




Ponderosa pine was most severely damaged by oxidant on the ridge crest where




it was greatest in number, perhaps demonstrating its suitability for this




more severe site.  A deterioration at the forest border is suggested, emphasizing




the importance of site as a factor determining succession in the conifer zone.








Hypothesis for Succession in the Conifer Zone






Earlier in this section, it was stated that ponderosa and Jeffrey pines are less




affected by drought and fire than white fir or incense cedar.  Sugar pine, a




very desirable species because of apparent oxidant tolerance, is generally




present in such low numbers that it has little potential for natural replacement




of other conifers.  Bark beetles, root diseases, dwarf mistletoe, sanitation




salvage logging and urbanization are factors interacting with oxidant air




pollution to deplete the numbers and depress the growth and regenerative capacity




of ponderosa and Jeffrey pine.  The growth of white fir and incense cedar is




visibly retarded by oxidant damage and it is probable that other valuable shrubs




and herbs are being eliminated completely from the community (Harvard and

-------
                                                               A-34.
Treshow, 1971).  Thus, oxidant damage is a potent new selection pressure in




the conifer forest.








Another problem of increasing importance is the large accumulation of heavy




fuels (Dodge, 1971, Dell and Wilson, 1971) in the conifer zone created as a




result of the smog-insect killed trees and of successful fire control policy.




The more abundant white fir and incense cedar regeneration in the understory




is less fire tolerant than are the pines.  Catastrophic fires can penetrate




the conifer forest (Bear Fire - 1970) during periods of high winds.  The




accumulation of heavy fuel causes a hotter fire which would destroy most of




the seedlings and more of the larger trees.  Also, the forest canopy is being




opened up through removal of trees by construction, selective logging and




mortality due to insects and smog, thus increasing rate of fire spread




(Countryman, 1955).  Historical records show that bad fire years occur about




every 8 years (Show and Kotok, 1924) .  Fire causes the site to become more




xeric and changes the nutrient and water status of the soil.  Oxidant air




pollution—the new selective force—retards the regeneration of all vegetation,




both pre- and post-fire.  The development of low value timberland chaparral




which occurred after early logging and fires (Horton, 1960) may be repeated in




additional acreages hard-hit by oxidant air pollution and by fire, thus offering




very poor prospects for the future of the conifer forest.  The most important




element is time.  The multiple effects of air pollution must be understood so




that remedial action can be defined and enacted to save not only the valuable




southern California conifer forests but also those of the western Sierra Nevada.

-------
                                                               A-35.
                      Recommendations for Future Study






1.  Reconstruct the history of oxidant air pollution impact on the several




    important conifer species and California black oak at selected sites




    in the San Bernardino Mountains by the methods of dendrochronology.




    Growth ring width variations when standardized for tree age and pre-




    cipitation records can show the relative effects of air pollution on




    different species, aided by X-ray techniques for measuring wood density.




    This would be a powerful tool for predicting future trends.  An unpolluted




    control area would be included.








2.  Carefully define successional trends in the conifer zone by a) estab-




    lishing permanent observation plots to describe rate of deterioration




    and mortality of both trees and understory vegetation and to observe the




    natural replacement of these smog-killed species; and b) determining the




    ecological potential of the major species through controlled environment




    studies and ordination along gradients of important environmental factors




    such as elevation, soil moisture and distance from pollution.








3.  Prepare better vegetation type maps with the aid of aerial photography.








4.  Investigate the effects of oxidant air pollution on the physiological




    potential of the important species with emphasis on the reproductive




    stages of the life cycle:  flowering, pollen germination, fertilization,




    maturation of seeds and fruit.

-------
                                                                A-36.
 5.  Determine if interactions between oxidant air pollution and the major

     established plant pathogens (e.g., dwarf mistletoes and root rots)

     alters pathogenesis or epidemiology (spread).



 6-  Define interactions between forest microclimate and oxidant air pollution

     which alters rate of pollutant uptake or tree sensitivity (e.g. thinning).



 7.  Identify the direct and indirect effects of oxidant air pollution on soil

     microorganisms (detoxification and nutrient cycling).



 8.  Sample and evaluate the beneficial or non-beneficial roles of root surface

     raicroflora (mycorrhizae) and the effect of oxidant air pollution on these

     organisms.



 9.  Estimate energy flow into a selected type in the conifer zone with and

     without oxidant exposure.



10.  Investigate the effects of combinations of pollutants on ponderosa pine

     based upon preliminary ambient air monitoring for selected pollutants, e.g.

     total oxidant, ozone, PAN, SO ,  NO .
                                  £•    3C



     Recommendations assembled from suggestions of:

     W.  C.  Snyder              W. W.  Wilcox
     M.  N.  Schroth             Oen Huisman
     D.  C.  Hildebrand          A. H.  Gold
     R.  D.  Raabe               A. R.  Weinhold

        of  the University  of  California,  Berkeley

-------
Table AI.  Vegetation zones, vegetation types,  and major  species" in.  cne  sau bex.uai.uxi'iO i^^^a.^^.
Vegetation
  zone*
               Horton's vegetation
                      type*
Minnich's vegetation       Map
        type**            symbol
                                             Major species
Chamise-
Chaparral
Woodland-
Chaparral
               Pure chamise-
                chaparral

               Chamis e-ceanothus
                chaparral
               Chamis e-manzanita
                chaparral
               Scrub oak
                chaparral
               Coastal
               sagebrush
               Live oak
               chaparral

               Live oak
               woodland

               Big-cone Douglas
               fir forest
      none
Soft chaparral
Hard chaparral
Oak chaparral
Coastal sage
scrub
Emergent oak
woodland

Interior oak
woodland

Big-cone Douglas
fir forest
                           so
                                                                 CS
                          Sro
                                                                  -BS
                                  Adenostoma fasciculatum
Adenostoma fasciculatum. Ceanothus
crassifolius, £. leucodermis, Quercus^
dumosa, Photinia arbutifolia, Rhus ovata.

Adenostoma fasciculatum, Arctostaphylos
glauca. A. glandulosa. Ceanothus
crassifolius. £. leucodermis

Quercus dumosa, (}.  wislizenii, Cercocarpa
betuloides, Ceanothus leucodermis, Garrya
yeatchii, Arctos taphylos glandulosa

Artemisia californica, Salvia apiana,
Eriogonum fasciculatum, Encelia farinosa,
Salvia mellifera, Diplacus longiflorus

Quercus wislizenii, Q. chrysolepis.
plus hard"chaparral species

Quercus wislizenii. (}. chrysolepis,
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, Cercocarpus ledifolius

Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, Quercus chrysolepis

-------
Table AI.  (cont.)
Vegetation
  zone*
Horton's vegetation
       type*
Minnich's vegetation
       type**
 Map
symbol
                  Major species
Woodland-
Chaparral
Desert
Chaparral
Pinyon-
Juniper
Woodland
Knobcone pine
forest
none (see
pine forest)

Desert
chaparral
Pinyon-Juniper
woodland
Knobcone pine
forest
Coulter pine
forest

Desert
chaparral
Western Juniper-
mountain mahogany
woodland

Pinyon pine
woodland
                                       Pinyon-Juniper
                                       woodland
 GEL.     pinus attenuata, Adenostoma fasciculatum,
         Arctostaphylos glandulosa, Ceanothus
         leucodermis,  Pickeringia montana
                                                                 CE
                                                                   CP
         Pinus coulteri, Quercus wislizenii, (}.
         chrysolepis, plus hard chaparral species

         Cercocarpus ledifolius, Quercus wislizenii,
         2.- dumosa, (£. chrysolepis, Ceanothus
         greggii, C. crassifolius, Fremontia
         californicus, Garrya veatchii

         Juniperus occidentalis, Cercocarpus
         ledifolius, Artemisia tridentata,
         Chrysothamnus nauseosus

         Pinus monophylla, P_. quadrifolia,
         Juniperus californica, J_. occidentalis,
         Cercocarpus ledifolius, Artemisia
         tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseosus
                                                  PJ      ginus monophylla, P_.  quadrifolia,  Juniperus
                                                          californica, J^ occidentalis,  Cercocarpus
                                                          ledifolius, Artemisia ^ridentata,
                                                          Chrysothamnus  nauseosus,  Arctostaphylos
                                                          glauca,  Quercus dumosa
D
                                                                 PJT
                                                                 PJ

-------
Table AI.  (cont.)
Vegetation
zone*
Pinyon-
Juniper
Woodland
Timberland
Chaparral
Coniferous
Forest
Horton's vegetation
type*
Great Basin
sagebrush
none
none
Timberland
chaparral
Pine forest
Minnich's vegetation
type**
Great Basin
sagebrush
Joshua Tree
woodland
Juniper-Joshua
Tree woodland
Timberland
chaparral
none (see Coulter
pine forest, dry
Map
symbol
GB
JS
JJ
CT
Major species
Artemisia tridentata, Artemisia arbuscula
nova, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Colegyne
ramossissitna, Eriogonum spp., Salvia spp.
Yucca occidentalis, Yucca brevifolia,
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Juniperus occidentalis, Yucca brevifolia,
Artemisia tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseous
Arctostaphylos oatula, Ceanothus cordulatus,
Castanopsis sempervirens
Pinus ponderosa, Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus
coulteri, Quercus kelloggii
               Ponderosa pine-
               white fir forest
               Sugar pine-
               white fir forest
               Grassland
forest)

Mixed yellow pine-
white fir forest
none (see pure yellow
pine-white fir forest)
Grassland or
meadow
.M
Pinus ponderosa, Pinus jeffreyi, Abies
concolor, Pinus lambertiana, Libocedrus
decurrens, Quercus kelloggii

Pinus lambertiana, P_, jeffreyi, Abies
concolor, Quercus chrysolepis, plus
timberland chaparral species

Bromus spp., Carex spp., Juncus spp.

-------
Table AI.   (cont.)
Vegetation
  zone*
Horton's vegetation
        type*
Minnich's vegetation
       type**
 Map
symbol
                                                                                    Major species
Coniferous
Forest
Black oak woodland
               Alpine forest
               Barren areas
none (see dry forest)
                        Subalpine forest
                        Krummholz
                                       Barren
                          LP
                          LP.
                                                                   K
         Quercus kelloggii,  Quercus chrysolepis,
         Pinus ponderosa,  Pseudotsuga macrocarpa,
         Ceanothus  iiitegerrimus

         Pinus contorta, P_.  flexilus, plus
         timberland chaparral species.

         Pinus contorta, Pinus flexilus,  plus
         stunted timberland  chaparral species.

         none
All Zones
               none
none (see Pine
forest, ponderosa
pine-white fir
forest)

none (see Pine
forest, black oak
woodland)

none
Marginal conifer
forest

Pure yellow pine-
white fir forest
                                       Dry forest
Riverine
vegetation
 TF      A mixture between pure yellow pine-white
         fir forest and timberland chaparral species

 PF      Pinus ponderosa,  P_.  jeffreyi, P_.
         laabertiana,  Libocedrus decurrens,  Abies
         concolor
                          DF      Pinus coulteri, Quercus kelloggii
         Platanus racemosa (below 4,000 feet)
         Populus trichocarpa   (below 4,000 feet),
         Alnus rhamnifolia (4,000-7,000 feet),
         Salix spp. (above 7,000 feet), Populus
         tremuloides (Fish Creek)

-------
Table AI.  (cont.).
Vegetation
  zone*
Horton's vegetation
      type*
Minnich's vegetation      Map
       type**            symbol
Major species
All Zones
Outside of
Above Zone
                   none
    none
   Subclimax
   vegetation

   Open desert
   vegetation
                                                                Varies with site
 * Horton  (1960)

 ** Minnich (1969)

-------
Table All.  Approximate ozone sensitivity of important western conifers.
                           Conifer Zone
                                      Woodland Chaparral Zone
               San Bernardino
               National Forest
                        Sierra
                        Nevada**
                     San Bernardino
                     National Forest
Sensitive
Ponderosa Pine

Jeffrey Pine

White Fir
Western
White Pine
Big-cone Douglas fir

 Monterey x Knobcone Pine
Moderately
sensitive
Coulter Pine

Incense Cedar

Rocky Mountain
  Ponderosa Pine
Red Fir
Knobcone Pine
Tolerant
Sugar Pine
Giant
Sequoia
   Miller, unpublished data.
**
   Species not native to the San Bernardino National Forest.

-------
Table AIII.   The relative numbers per acre of four conifer species in five

  size classes on a 575-acre study area severely influenced by oxidant air
            *
  pollution.
        Size
        Class
Ponderosa    Incense    White    Sugar
  Pine         Cedar     Fir     Pine
Seedlings up to
3.0 ft. tall

Saplings more than
3.1 ft. tall & less
than 3.9 inches dbh

Poles
4.0 to 11.9 inches
dbh

Standard
12.0 to 23.9 inches
dbh

Veteran
24.0 inches dbh
and larger

   Totals:

   % of Grand Total;
 1057        2381       1043      302
   33          33         57       10
   21          12         38
   18
   12
 1141        2440       1150      320

   23          48         23        6
  Miller,  1971.

-------
                              LIST OF FIGURES


Figure Al  Vegetative Zones.  Horton, 1960.

Figure A2  Vegetative Types.  (Minnich et al. 1969).   Attached at end of report

Figure A3  Wildfires.  1911-1970.

Figure A4  Logging.  1831-1930.

Figure A5  Sanitation-Salvage Logging.  1950-1971.

Figure A6  Distribution of Permanent Population and Recreational  Use.   1970.

Figure A6b Traffic Patterns in Fourteen Recreation Information Management
           Districts.  1970.

Figure A7  Smog Impact Area.

Figure A8 Decrease in Ring Width Growth Due to Air Pollution.   (Fritts,  In Press).

Figure A9  Suggested Interactions of Oxidant in the Forest Environment.

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    ID  -   148021
    RING WIDTHS
   1810  1820 1830 1840  1850  1860  1870
              ID  =  148032
              RING WIDTHS
                                         1890 1900  1910  1920  1930  1940  1950 19
            1630 1340  1850  1860  1870  I860  1690  1900 1910 1920  1930  1940  1950
Figure A-8 - Decrease in ring width
              growth due to air pollution.
              (Fritts, In Press)

-------
                     SUGGESTED  INTERACTIONS OF  OXIDANT IN THE  FOREST ENVIRONMENT
TOPOGRAPHY
   Figure A-9

-------
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-------
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     Damage,  Essen, West Germany In Press.




Miller, P.  R.  1971.  Oxidant-induced community change in a mixed conifer forest




     (Abstract).  161st Nat.  Mtg., Amer. Chem.  Soc., Div.  Agric. Food Chem.




     April 1, 1971.  Advances  in Chem. In Press.

-------
Miller, P. R. and A. A. Millecan.  1971.  Extent of oxidant air pollution




     damage to some pines and other conifers in California.  Plant Dis. Rptr.




     55:555-559.




Minnich, R. C., L. W. Bowden, and R. W. Pease.  1969.  Mapping Montane




     vegetation in southern California.  Tech. Report 3, Status Report 3,




     USDI, Contract No. 14-08-0001-10674.  40 p. 26 plantes.




Mirov, N. T.  1961.  Composition of gum turpentine of pines.  USDA, Tech. Bull.




     1239. 158 p.




Navek, Z.  1967.  Mediterranean ecosystems and vegetation types in California




     and Israel.  Ecol. 48:445-459.




Parish, S. B.  1894.  Distribution of southern California trees.   Zoe 4:332-352.




Parish, S. B.  1917.  An enumeration of the Pteridophytes and Spermatophytes




     of the San Bernardino Mountains, California.   Plant World 20:208-223.




Parmeter, J. R., Jr., R. V. Bega, and T. Neff.  1962.  A chlorotic decline of




     ponderosa pine in southern California.  Plant Dis. Rptr. 46:269-273.




Parmeter, J. R., Jr., and P. R. Miller.  1968.  Studies relating  to the cause




     of decline and death of ponderosa pine in southern California.  Plant Dis.




     Rptr. 52:707-711.




Raabe, R. D.  1962.  Host list of the root rot fungus Armillaria  mellea.




     Hilgardia 33:25-88.




Richards, B. L., J. T. Middleton, and W. B. Hewitt.  1958.  Air pollution with




     relation to agronomic crops:  V.  Oxidant stipple of grape.   Agron. J.




     50:559-561.




Richards, B. L., Sr., 0. C. Taylor, and G. F. Edmunds, Jr.  1968.  Ozone needle




     mottle of pine in southern California.  J. Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc.




     18:73-77.

-------
Show, S. B. and E. I. Kotok.  1924.  The role of fire in California pine forests.




     USDA, Dept. Bull. No. 1294.




Stark, R. W., P. R. Miller, F. W. Cobb, Jr., D. L. Wood, and J. R. Parmeter, Jr.




     1968.  Photochemical oxidant injury and bark beetle (Coleoptera:Scolytidae)




     infestation of ponderosa pine.  I.  Incidence of bark beetle infestation in




     injured trees.  Hilgardia 39:121-126.




Stevens, R. E. and R. C. Hall.  1956.  Black pine-leaf scale and needle dieback,




     Arrowhead-Crestline Area, San Bernardino National Forest, California,  Mayy




     1956, appraisal survey.  File Report. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range




     Exp. Sta., Berkeley, Calif. 6 p.




Stone, E. C. and G. Juhren.  1951.  The effect of fire on the germination of




     the seed of Rhus ovata Wats.  Amer. J. Bot, 38:368-372.




Stone, E. C.  1957.  Dew as an ecological factor.  Ecology 38:407-422.




Vestal, W. L. et al.  1904.  Report of the committee on forest and water.




     San Bernardino Board of Trade.  San Bernardino, Calif. 7 p.




Villa-Lovos, T. R.  1961.  An inquiry into the extent and cause of forest




     depletion in an inland southern California mountain region.  B.A. Thesis




     in Geography.  University of California, Riverside. 79 p.




Wert, S. L.  1969.  A system for using remote sensing techniques to detect and




     evaluate air pollution effects of forest stands.  Proc. 6th Int. Symp.




     Remote Sensing of Environment.  University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp.




     1169-1178.




Wert, S. L., P. R. Miller, and R. N. Larsh.  1970.  Color photos detect smog




     injury to forest trees.  J. Forestry 68:536-539-




Wright,  R. D.  1966.  Lower elevational limits of Montane trees.  I.  Vegetational




     and environmental survey in the San Bernardino Mountains of California.




     Bot.  Gaz.  127:184-193.

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Wright, R. D.  1968.  Lower elevational limits of Montane  trees.   II.   Environ-




     ment-keyed responses of three conifer species.  Bot.  Gaz.  129:219-226.

-------
                                                         Section B
          EFFECTS  OF OXIDANT AIR POLLUTION  ON  THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM
                      OF THE SAN BERNARDINO MOUNTAINS
Committee Chairman:   J.  T.  Light,  U.S.  Forest Service
Researched and Written By:

                     J. T.  Light, U.S.  Forest Service}  San Bernardino,
                     Hatch Graham, U.S. Forest Service, Wilbur  Mayhew,
                     University of California, Riverside,  Eugene Cardiff,
                     San Bernardino County Museum,  Glenn R.  Stewart,  Cal
                     Poly,  Pomona, Paul R. Miller,  University of California,
                     Riverside, Murray B.  Gardner,  University of Southern
                     California
Principle Contributors:

     Assisting in the development of this draft were A. Starker Leopold,
     U. C. Berkeley; Michael H. Horn, Cal State Fullerton; Herbert R.
     Melchoir, Cal State San Diego; Bruce Browning, California Department
     of Fish & Game, Sacramento; Ted Hanes, Cal State Fullerton; Bonnar
     Blong, California Department of Fish & Game, Idyllwild; Marvin J.
     Whalls, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo; Richard L. Hubbard, U.S. Forest
     Service, PSWF&RES, Fresno; Edward R. Schneegas, U.S. Forest Service,
     San Francisco.

-------
                      EFFECTS OF OXIDANT AIR POLLUTION




                          ON THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM




                      OF THE SAN BERNARDINO MOUNTAINS






                            VERTEBRATE PATHOLOGY






INTRODUCTION




An ecosystem is composed of four main constituents:   abiotic substances,




producers, consumers and decomposers (Odum, 1959).   This section deals with




consumers:  vertebrate organisms which are directly  or indirectly dependent




on producers or vegetation for food and cover.  Vertebrates in the forest




ecosystem include primary (herbivore) and secondary  (carnivore and insectivore)




consumers.  Primary consumers are grazers, browsers  and seed eaters.









The distribution of vertebrates in the forest ecosystem is governed by the




availability of water and the quantity and quality of the plants in the




system.









Each vertebrate organism occupies a distinct  ecologic niche in the forest




ecosystem.  Difficult to define, a niche may be described as a place in the




ecosystem in which a particular vertebrate is bound by its structural




adaptations, physiological responses and specific behavior.  The specific




role of the niche in the ecosystem is not completely understood.









A general listing of vertebrates and their habitat by vegetative types has




been compiled by the San Bernardino National Forest in a Habitat Management




Plan, Forest Wildlife (Light and Graham, 1968).

-------
                                                               B-2.
History of Vertebrates




Man's attitudes toward the environment have effected the status of vertebrates




in the San Bernardino Mountains both directly and indirectly.  These attitudes




can be divided into eras of impact which have altered the status of vertebrates




in the study area.








     Era of Abundance (1769-1840)




     Man's major concern during this period was survival.  The abundance of




     vertebrates provided the main food supply and depletion of the wildlife




     by Indians and outpost missions was minimal.








     Era of Exploitation (1840-1900)




     Extensive mining of the San Bernardino Mountains during this period




     resulted in large-scale slaughter of deer and bighorn sheep for food.




     Miners, cattlemen and other residents regularly harvested trout, deer,




     bighorn sheep, pigeon, quail and other small animals without restriction.




     Concern over the rapid decline of bighorn sheep led to the first hunting




     restrictions imposed in 1873, but considerable poaching persisted.




     Considered a threat to lives and property, the grizzly bear became




     extinct prior to 1921.  However, trout were abundant in the Santa Ana




     River near the confluence of Bear Creek (LaFuze, 1971) until the early




     1900's when natural regeneration diminished because of the damming of




     the river and the accumulation of sediment loads deposited in the channel.




     Range lands were heavily used by domestic livestock, thus reducing range




     carrying capacity and altering the habitat of many species.

-------
                                                          B-3.
The Homestead Act resulted in extensive development of valuable wildlife




areas for home tracts and pastures while much land was inundated by




reservoirs.  Such misuse persisted until informed citizens instituted




protective legislation for the conservation of wildlife resources.









Era of Preservation and Propagation (1900-1945)




During this period, numerous regulatory agencies were established by




the federal and state government to manage and protect wildlife resources.




Their activities included reduction of cattle on depleted range, protection




of bighorn sheep, imposition of hunting seasons and bag limits, protection




of all scavenger or carrion feeding birds, designation of wildlife refuges




and preserves, and protection from wildfire, insects and disease.  Various




species such as trout (1893), black bear (1934), beaver (1940) and upland




game birds were introduced to the San Bernardino Mountains.








Concurrent with these developments, the practices of the logging industry




during this period resulted in the conversion of extensive timber area to




vegetation favoring game population increases (Miller, 1972 ).








As a result of all these measures, wildlife populations increased beyond




all expections.  By the early 1940's, populations of game, primarily deer,




had increased beyond range carrying capacity.








Era of Regulated Harvests and Habitat Management (1945-1970)




The increase in game populations during the previous era necessitated a




period of control.  Studies (Dasmann, 1963; Lounghurst, 1952;  Taber, 1958)

-------
                                                           B-4.
indicated that management of deer populations  and  their habitat was




essential and that habitat conditions produced by  the environment played




the major role in game population (Dasmann, 1963).   Imbalances resulting




from environmental factors such as temperature and  amount  and distribution




of rainfall produce marked fluctuations in wildlife populations.









With hunting restricted by fire closures, limited access,  private property,




game refuges and firearms closures, habitat management  has become the




primary method of wildlife control.  Habitat management plans,  with




emphasis on increased availability of water and forage,  have  been developed




by the San Bernardino National Forest Service  for the following species:




     San Bernardino Deer Herd (Light, 1965)




     San Gabriel Deer Herd (Winter and Light,  1965)




     Quail (Graham, 1966)




     San Gorgonio Bighorn (Light, et al., 1966)




     Birds (Graham, 1966)




     San Gabriel Bighorn (Light, et al., 1967)




     Forest Wildlife (Light and Graham, 1968)




     Beaver (Light, 1969)




     Fish (Light, 1969)









Coordination of other land uses is now needed  if the wildlife resource is




to continue its role in the forest ecosystem.









Era of Environmental Concern (1970-      )




Beginning in 1970, national attention was focused on the cumulative effects




of human activity upon the environment.  Concern developed for the perservati"11




of our national resources.

-------
                                                               B-5.
     Nevertheless, current human activities continue to effect the Forest




     Ecosystem.  Construction of homes and highways is replacing many




     important wildlife habitats (Aschmann, 1959).  Producer plants and




     primary consumers have been and are continuing to be displaced.




     Oxidant air pollution emanating from the Los Angeles and San Bernar-




     dino basins is having a pathological effect on vertebrates.  The users




     of the homes and highways further contribute to this air pollution.




     Recreational activities such as shooting, motorcycling, and hiking




     effect the use of a habitat by both the primary and secondary




     vertebrates.  Vertebrate habitats in the line of sight zone are




     being displaced as if by the bulldozer.









     The cumulative effects of human activity in the Forest Ecosystem are




     eroding away the habitat of the primary consumer vertebrates such as




     the deer and the bighorn; deer now being primarily concentrated  in




     areas inaccessible or not often frequented by man (Fig. A6b)-









Having put the status of vertebrates in historic perspective, it is now




necessary to isolate the major or critical vertebrate species in the  eco-




system in order to consider the possible effects of oxidant air pollution on




the selected vertebrate species.









The current status of vertebrates is shown on the graphic map of the San




Bernardino Mountains (Fig. Bl  ) which indicates locations of selected vertebrates,




See the Habitat Management Plan Forest Wildlife (Light and Graham, 1968)  for a




complete listing of habitat types and vertebrates.

-------
                                                              B-6.
THE VERTEBRATES IN THE ECOSYSTEM




Determining the effects of oxidant air pollution on the vertebrate environment




in the Forest Ecosystem requires a thorough inventory of all vertebrates; a




life history of each vertebrate type; a determination of the dependency of a




vertebrate on a particular community or group of plant communities; and the




isolation of all the possible environmental variables affecting the vertebrates.









Inventory of the vertebrates in the San Bernardino Mountains (Light and




Graham, 1968) has begun.  General life history data on the listed vertebrates




is available but not in sufficient detail to relate specifically to the




vegetation communities in the San Bernardino Mountains.  The vertebrates studied




for their life histories which occupy vegetation types in the oxidant air




pollution impact zones (P. R. Miller, 1970) are:




     Bewick's Wren                    (Swarth, 1916)




     Brown towhee                     (Davis, 1951)




     Scrub & Steller's Jays           (Swarth, 1918)




     Deer                             (Taber and Dasmann, 1958)




     Wood Rat                         (Horton, et al., 1944)




     Mole                             (Grinnell and Swarth, 1912)




     Chickadee                        (Grinnell, 1918)




     Nuthatches                       (Korris, 1958)




     Chipmunks                        (Johnson, 1943)




     Gnatchatchers                    (Grinnell, 1926)




     Trout                            (Calhoun, 1966)




     Turkey Vulture                   (Stager, 1964)

-------
                                                               B-7.
Studies of other species may have been made, but an extensive review of




literature will be required to extract them.









The larger mammals and birds of interest to man such as deer, bighorn, gray-




squirrel, quail, and pigeon have received extensive study in northern California,




but not in the San Bernardino Mountains.  Inventories (Light and Graham, 1958)




have been made of the above species in the San Bernardino Mountains using




behavior and physiological studies made in other areas for comparative analysis




in determining habitat management.  However, precise physiological (life




history) data must be gathered on these vertebrates if the effect of oxidant air




pollution is to be determined.








Vertebrate - Vegetative Type Dependency




The dependency of vertebrates on plant communities in the forest biome may be




simple or complex.  The Vertebrate-Habitat Dependency Matrix (Table Bl)




(Munnich, 1971; Horton, 1960; Light and Graham, 1968) gives a broad example




of the dependency of vertebrates on the various vegetation types which fall




within the zone of heaviest oxidant air pollution impact (Miller et al., 1970).








Vertebrate Food Chains




The quantity of vertebrate mass by vegetation types is indicated on the vertebrate




- habitat dependency matrix.  Another step with respect to each vertebrate's




role in a food chain will enable isolation of the ecologically important verte-




brate for study.  The matrix then provides a source for developing a vertebrate




food chain or energy flow chart using the Producer and Consumer constituents of




the system.

-------
                                                               B-8.
A simplified vertebrate food chain for larger vertebrates in the black oak

woodland vegetative type is:

          Consumers:

               Secondary:  Mountain lion, Man, Audubon's Warbler,
                           Coyote, Bobcat, Red-tailed Hawk

               Primary:    Gray Squirrel, Deer, Band-tailed Pigeon

          Producer    :    Black Oak mast



More complex vertebrate food chains were derived from the matrix for the pine

forest, bigcone Douglas fir and chamise chaparral plant communities of the San

Bernardino Mountains and are shown in the Appendix.



From a cursory analysis of the Vertebrate - Habitat Dependency matrix a listing

of important vertebrates with significance for the oxidant air pollution study

has been devised  (Appendix B).



VERTEBRATE PATHOLOGY

The pathological effects of oxidant air pollution on vertebrates has received

limited study in the clinical laboratory, but no study of its affects on

vertebrates in the wilds has been made.



Oxidant air pollution effects in this discussion are classified as either

Direct or Indirect.  The Direct effects result from exposure of the vertebrate

to ambient air.  The Indirect effects result from exposure of both vegetation

and vertebrates to ambient air involving a break down in the food chain of a

group or particular species of vertebrates.

-------
                                                               B-9.
 Direct Pathology




 Clinical  laboratory  research  of mice and rats has  revealed that ambient air




 depresses running  activity  (Emik,  et al.,  1969;  Campbell,  et al.,  1970),  causes




 an Increased  susceptibility to  pulmonary infection but  not to increased




 pulmonary neoplasia  (Gardner  et al., 1966,  1970) and promotes the  development




 of a renal  (kidney)  degenerative disease in male rats (Gardner et  al.,  1969).




 These studies also indicated  that  neoplasia and renal degenerative diseases




 varied significantly when comparing  one  strain of  mice  and rats  with another.




 Such pathological  studies have  not been  performed  in the San Bernardino



 Mountains.








 It has been well documented (Gardner, 1966) that photochemical  smog will  "exert




 an irritant effect upon human respiratory and ocular mucous  membranes".   The




 probability that this could occur  with other  vertebrates exists.   In the  San




 Gabriel Mountains, bighorn  sheep,  Ovis canadensis  nelsoni, have  been found to




 be totally or partially blind from what  appears to be cataracts  (white blotches




 in the eyeball).  Older bighorn appear to be  those effected.  This pathological




 phenomena has been observed only in  bighorn in the Lytle Creek and East Fork




 of  the San Gabriel River watersheds  of the range where heavy oxidant air  pollution



 occurs.









Air pollution is suspect in causing  respiratory ailments in  animals.  The effect




could be particularly acute in animals already suffering a high  incidence of




respiratory ailments  (lungwo mi-pneumonia complex is  common in bighorn sheep) or




in animals with a high metabolic rate (swallows,  swifts, warblers, etc.).

-------
                                                              B-10.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate  (PAN), a common constituent of smog,  causes  eye  irritation




in humans.  This eye  irritation could be far more serious  to  those vertebrates




which depend on their eyesight for survival, such as swallows,  eagles  and hawks.








Other effects may occur such as interrupted embryo development  similar to that




which results from Hypoxia.  The function of the olfactory gland  in vertebrates




may be impaired by the ambient air causing a decrease in food-gathering ability,




such as in the Turkey vulture (Stager, 1964),  Few of the smaller vertebrates




(rodents and lizards  live more than three years in the wild which will make it




difficult to demonstrate any pathological effects of oxidant  air  pollution




(Stewart, 1971).








Indirect Pathology




     The effect of air pollution on plant development and succession  is extremely




important to wildlife.  Plants can be adversely affected in many  ways,  but in




general, studies indicate that most plants are affected in a  quantitative rather




than in a qualitative sense.  Growth of truck farm crops such as  lettuce and




celery and of citrus  trees has been retarded due to photochemical reactions




resulting from oxidant air pollution (Hindawi, 1970; Jacobson et  al.,  1970).








The probability exists that certain herbs and shrubs in the forest ecosystem




of the San Bernardino Mountains are also effected by oxidant  air  pollution.




Observations indicate a quantitative reduction in growth of chamise  leaves,




Adenostoma fasiculatum, although the nutrient quality of chamise  remained the




same (Hanes, 1971).

-------
                                                               B-ll.
Deer habitat analysis conducted by the San Bernardino National Forest Service




indicates that deer use fluctuates with the growth trends of important browse.




Any reduction in vegetation growth, either naturally or as a result of ambient




air, would have far reaching and subtle effects on vertebrates dependent on




annual forage production.








Most vertebrate biologists believe that the primary effects of oxidant air




pollution on vertebrates in the San Bernardino Mountains will prove to be




exerted indirectly through changes in the vegetation.  From an analysis of




the vertebrate food chain models of most vegetative types the herbivore




vertebrates, including the rodents and ungulates, appear to provide a signi-




ficant research link.  The survival of this group is dependent on the




quantitative production of forage plants.  The productivity trends of the




herbivores will similarly effect the productivity trends of omnivore and




carnivore vertebrates who prey on the herbivores.








The probable effects of oxidant air pollution on the aquatic environment would




be of an indirect nature.  Limited studies have been made of the effect ambient




air would have on vertebrates in this environment (Holeton, 1971; Whitworth,




1970).  Direct pathologic effects may result from the ingesting of suspended




particulate matter arriving in the aquatic environment from the atmosphere




through precipitation (Whitworth, 1970).  Indirect pathological effects on




coldwater fish, which predominate in the San Bernardino Mountains, may result




from the loss of vegetation, thereby causing an increase in water temperatures,




a reduction in dissolved oxygen, an increase in biological oxygen demand, and a




reduction of desired aquatic insects which serve as food.  Research should be




directed toward an entire aquatic ecosystem located in the ambient air impact



zones as described by P. R. Miller (1970).

-------
                                                               B-12.
SUMMARY & RECOMMENDATIONS




An inventory of animals existing in the San Bernardino Mountain area has been




made and their habitat relationships to plant communities is fairly well known.




However, the details of each species' ecologic niche and their dependency on




certain vegetation is only partially understood.  The role of each species in




the ecosystem is only basically known (Primary consumer, secondary consumer).




Food habits are known in detail for only a few species.








Present knowledge of the physical effects of oxidant air pollution on the




animals themselves can be derived only sketchily from limited research on




laboratory animals.  Nothing is known about the multitude of possible effects




from injury by oxidant air pollution to green plants (producers) and the




habitat changes that may then gradually occur.  It is easy to speculate




about changes in quality of forage for ruminants; quantity of food for




seedeaters; plant succession and food availability for animals with specific




food requirements; insect abundance; litter accumulation for shelter of small




mammals and reptiles; and microclimatic changes.  Hard facts, obtained by




well-directed, intensive research, are badly needed to measure the magnitude




of the environmental change, both existing and potential.








More precise information on all variables effecting important systems of




vertebrates is needed.  Most vertebrate biologists agree that precise inventories




of all vertebrates need to be made in the oxidant air pollution impact areas




(Miller, 1970).  Once this is accomplished, the effects of oxidant air pollution




on vertebrates can then be measured.  Most contributors expressed the need  to




establish  a baseline (or control) forest ecosystem not influenced by oxidant




air pollution in order to compare the effects of ambient air on the  vertebrates.

-------
                                                                B-13.
                               LITERATURE CITED


 Arbib,  R.  S.,  et.  al.   American Birds incorporating Audubon Field Notes
      Notes.  N.A.S.  Vols.  1-25.

 Aschmann,  H.   1959.  The Evolution of a Wild Landscape and its  Persistence in
      Southern  California.   A.  A. G.,  Vol.  49,  No.  3,  Part  2.

 Buie, E. E.  1958.   Best of Buie, "Bear May Still  be in Those Hills".  Sun
      Telegram.

 Campbell,  K. I., Emik,  L.  0.,  Clark,  G.  L.,  Plata,  R.  L.   1970.   Inhalation
      Toxicity  of Peroxyacetyl  Nitrate.   A.M.A.,  Arch.  Environ.  Health.  Vol.  20,
      pp. 22.

 Dasmann, W. P.  and Dasmann,  R.  F.  1963.   Abundance and Scarcity  in California
      Deer.  CDF&G, California  Fish &  Game, Vol.  49, No.  1.

 Emik, L. 0., and Plata,  R.  L.   1969.  Depression of Running Activity in Mice
      by Exposure to  Polluted Air.  A.M.A., Arch, of Environ.  Health, Vol.  18,
      pp. 574.

 Gardner, M. B.  1966.   Biological Effects  of Urban  Air Pollution.  Arch, of
      Environ. Health, Vol.  12,  pp.  305-313.

 Gardner, M. B., Loosli,  C.  G.,  and Hanes,  B.   1969.  Histopathologic Findings
      in Rats Exposed to Ambient and Filtered Air.   Arch, of Environ. Health,
      Vol.  19.

 Gardner, M. B., Loosli,  C.  G.,  Hanes, B.,  and  Blackmore, W.   1970.  Pulmonary
      Changes in 7000 Mice  Following Prolonged Exposure to Ambient  and
      Filtered Los Angeles Air.   A.M.A., Arch, of Environ. Health,  Vol. 20.

 Graham, H.  1965.  A Quail Habitat Management Plan.  U.S. Forest Service,
      San Bernardino.

 Graham, H.  1967.  A Bird Habitat Management Plan.  U.S. Forest Service, San
      Bernardino.

 Hanes, T.   1971.  Personal Communication.  Calif. State College at Fullerton.

 Hindawi, I. J.   1970.  Air Pollution Injury  to Vegetation.  National Air
     Pollution Control Administration Publication No.  AP-71.

 Jacobson,  J. S. and Hill, A. C.   1970.  Recognition of Air Pollution Injury to
     Vegetation - A Pictorial Atlas.  Informative Report #1,  TR-7  Agric.
     Committee, Air Pollution Control Assoc.

LaFuze, P.  B.   1971.   Saga of the San Bernardinos.  Vol. I and  II, San
     Bernardino County Museum Assoc.

-------
                                                                B-14.
Light, J. T.  1965.  Habitat Management Plan.  San Bernardino Deer Herd Unit.
     U.S. Forest Service.

Light, J. T., Zrelak, T., and Graham, H.  1966.  Habitat Management Plan, San
     Gorgonio Bighorn, U.S. Forest Service.

Light, J. T., Winter, F., and Graham, H.  1967.  Habitat Management Plan.  San
     Gabriel Bighorn, U.S. Forest Service.

Light, J. T.  1968.  Habitat Management Plan, Forest Wildlife.  San Bernardino
     National Forest, mimeo, 37 pp. and Appendix.

Light, J. T.  1967.  Habitat Mangment Plan.  Forest Fishery of San Bernardino
     National Forest, Unpublished.

Light, J. T.  1969.  Habitat Management Plan, Beaver.  U.S. Forest Service.

Longhurst, W. M., Leopold, A. S., and Dasmann.  1952.  A survey of California
     Deer Herds Their Ranges and Management Problems.  CDF&G, Game Bulletin
     No. 6.

Miller, P. R., McCutchen, M. H. and Ryan, B. C.  1970.  Influence of Climate
     and Topography on Oxidant Air Pollution Concentrations that Damage
     Conifer Forests in Southern California.  Presentation to VII International
     Symposium of Forest Experts on Fume Damage, Essen, W. Germany.

Odum, E. P.   1959.  Fundamentals of Ecology.  W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia
     and London.

Stager, K. E.  1964.  The Role of Olfaction in Food Location by the Turkey
     Vulture.  Contributions of Science, L. A. Museum, No. 81:1-63.

Stewart, G. R.  1971.  Personal Communication.

Taber, R. D. and Dasmann, R. F.  1958.  The Black-tailed Deer of the Chaparral.
     CDF&G, Game Bulletin, No. 8.

Winter, F. and Light, J. T.  1965.  Habitat Management Plan.  San Gabriel Deer
     Herd Unit, U.S. Forest Service.

-------
         Til
         ol
K«,<.,,«  v,,;t,^t^


MAMMALS
                                                     vrnnr-PMi  - MAIMTAT ntPitwiscv MATRIX
                                                     --- — ...... -•—- . .........................

                                                                      cra   sa   en-     fit   Ji   a   ffa    s.    a    a    .'!•.
Mule,
Shrew,  Dusty
Hyolts. rrinqcd
Myotis, DWernla
Bat, Hoar>
Bit, Western Red
Bat, Lurap-nMed
Bat. PallV
Ground Squirrel,
  California
Ground Snulrreu
  GoldmantloJ
Chipmunk, Lodiienolp
Chipmunk, Merrlam
Gopher, Dntta roeket
House, Little pocket
House, White-eared
  pocket
House, San  Diego
  pocket
House, California
  pocket
 Kangaroo Rat, Pacific
Mouse, Western  Harvest
Mouse, Canyon
 Mouse, Brush        ,
 Hoodrat, Dusky-footod
 Meadow Mouse, California
 Jack Rabbit, Black-tailed
 Cottontail, Audubon
 Rabbit,  Brash
 Gray Squirrel
 flying Squirrel,
 Beaver,  Golden
 Raccoon
 Ringtail ed Cat
 Weasel,  Long-tailed
 Skunks
                                                                1
                                                                5
                                                                3
                                                                I
                                                                S
                                                                3
                                                         *
                 Northern
uouyci ^
Fox, Gray 111
Coyote 1 ' ' '
Bobcat ' z
Bear. Black
Hon. Mountain « J
Deer. Mule 1131
Bighorn sheep 	 __ — „ „_
Total" Mass 8 i5 10 16 2«
REPTILES t AHPHIB1AHS
lizards
Western Fence Lizard 1 111
Saqebrush Lizard
Side-blotchffd Lizard 1
Granite night Lizard
Western Skink
Gilbert's Skink
Western WhtnUll
foothill Alligator Lizard '
California leqlcss Li/ard
Snakes
SyBber snake
Rinqnecked snak»
Yellow-bellied racer
California Kinq snake
Mtn. Kinq snake
Striped whipsnake '
Common whiosnake 23 j
Gopher Snake 11111
Pacific Barter 3
Rattlesnake 1111
Western Garter
Amphibians
tschscTioFtz'5 SaleMnder
S, California Salairiaider
W. Spade Foot
Western Toad
Pacific Tree Fron
Canyon Tree Froq
ReJ-leqqed Frog
YelloM-leqqed Froq
Bull Froi
Total" ''Mass C t. .iynn-,
                                                                                                                                              £•

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TABLE  Bl   (cont'd)                              -.

                                       »                                                    ,     *    TF                £L
Audubon's  Warbler                                                                                                          2
!!lack-(.hinnf(1 Sparrow          23                                                                                    3
i!lack-thro?ted fir.-/ Warbler                                       3                                     .     ,    -            ,
Rim-bird,  Western                                                                                 '                             ,
Bush-tit.  Common                            32                                               -           -    ,
Clilckadcc, fountain                                               1                               132
Creeper,  Brown                                                                                          _     „
Crossbill, Red                                                                                          it-
Dipper                                                                                                                          3
Dove,  Mourning                        2                   1                                                    »           •      1
Eagle,  no i den                                                     3                                           3           '
Finch,  Cossln's                                                                                                                 ,
Finch,  House                   3      3     3             3                2                                                     3
Finch,  Purple                                                             3
Flicker,  P.edshafted                                                                               5                             1
Flycatcher, Ash-throated              23                             3                       2                             *
Flycatcher, Dusky                                                                                 J                7      ?
Flycatcher, Olive-sided                                                                           '                             3
Flycatcher, Western                                                                                                             ^
Gnatcatchtr, Bluc-ciray                123                                                                      £    .
Goldfinch, Lawrence's                 23                                                                      £
Goldfinch, Lesser              232                                                                      \
Hawk,  Cocn?r's                                            33               1                           »    i       i         i
Hawk,  Red-tailed                      1                           3                               \           i                 \    \
Hav;k,  Sparrow                  22                   1                                                    *                 »
Hummingbird, Calliope                                                                                                     7
Himwingb'.rd, Anna's            3323                                                                z     ,
Jay, Scrub                     23323                1                                                     *
Jsy, Stellar's                                                                                    3     3     3
Junco, Oregon                                                                                                 ;*
Kinglet,  Ruby-crowned                                                                                         »
Kinglet,  Golden-crowned                                                                                       '           71
La?u)1  Bunting                 23                                                                                         i
Martin, Furole                                                    3                                           ,    ,                     • ,
Nutcracker, Clark's                   '                                                                        z    '
3                222
 Nuthatch, Piqmy
                                                                                                         3
 Nuthatch, Red-breasted                                                                                        '
 Nuthatch, White-bressted     '                                                                     3      3     3    i                           •
 Orange-crowned Viarbler                                                                                                    f    "•               •
 Owl,  Great-horned                                                                                 33                Z               t
 Owl,  Lontj-eared                                           32                                                                            J
 Owl,  Pigmy                                                        3                               2            2                1               j
 Owl,  Saw-whet                                                                                     13
 Owl,  Screech                                                              3                       2                             3
 Owl,  Flamulated                                     •                              •                            ?                                r
 Owl,  Spotted                                                      2                              ,3            I                                J
 Phoebe, Block                                                                                                                  ,
 Pigeon, Bandtailed                                                1                               3        -^                   Z
 Poorwlll                       132
 Ouail, California                                                                                                                   3
 Quail, Mountain                                    3                                                                                »          t
 Roadrunner                            3                                                                                             '          .
 Robin                                                                                                         33           3
 Saosucker, WilUanison's                                                    '                                   31                      '
.Saosucker, Yellow-bellied                                                 3                                   3                                I
 Solitaire, Townsend's                                                                              .           3           ™                    .'
 Solitary 71reo                                                            3                            ,                       3         ,     j
 Sparrow, Lark                         1                                                                                                        I
 Soarrow, Rufous-crowned        32                                                                                                        J
 Sparrow, Sage (Bell)           33.                                                                                   I
 Swallow, Violet-green                                             "I                                           3          •                 •>    j
 Thrasher, California           3311                                                                                           ,
 TUmouse, Plain                                    133                                               H                    ,
 Towhee, Brown                         312                      1                                                                    (
 Towhee, Green-tailed           3                                                                                          3                    •,
 Towhee, Rufous-s-'ded           132321                                                            3               !:
 Herbllnq Vireo                                                                                                                 3               0,
 Western Tan^qer                                                   3                                           33,
 Wilson'^ Warbler                                                                                                          •     3                ^
 Woodpecker,  Acorn                                                 3                               32                                 I
 Hnodnecker,  Downy                                                                                                              3                .
 Wcodnecker,  Hairy                                                 1                  '33                2                g
Woi.dneckcr,  Nuttall'i                                     ?       3                               1                              3                0
WoodDCCher.  White-headed                                                                          123                                 I
Wren,  BpwitVs                 3321                                                                            3                ,
Wren,  ilousf                            123                                       .                              3                n
Hrenti t                        23                                                           2                             1 -               |
Yellow Warbler                	      _    	    	     __      	      	       	      	     	    	   	  	     _   JL   	

       Total1'1 Mass           36      55     2?.    19     35      36      22        1       0      40     15   <<2   27     26  103   1.6    U

    I   - (tight !i Graham, 1%'!) 1-raro,  ?~fairiy cornraon, S-atn/ndant
    II  - (Minnlch, I-I/1  dnd Hnrton,  WO)

          T',  -I,,..•.(!•'!  ?,.,',!• f.cruh                   r.i>r--('.M)'Hcr I-in" iwiUnAnt                      (l-f(1v«l»-|i,p
          (   '•,«  (t,-.-.'ri.)l                         Cf i,, f. •,;. ,.i,.- ('in.' |-'i!->1i..-:iit                     (P;.f,r.v,..!,mrt
          r.i  Hied l.h'- rr^l                         IiF-lirv ,' '.vir,'                                    I I'-Siih-." !i>i •.'•  *••! M
          '•,i ',• . i •. ' •:  f/.H!),,rr,i'                  U-t'.;ici  ..'  '...illir I nn-.i
          '•'  ->.\  '., -, !<]•• ••<•: li:"r-"-nl                ;-f..-r.ii,.  ii,.  Wiii.' II- i DI'I- >

          '.i -. -.'.ir./..r,  rv.k                          Ci -'f1.i. ' ••!, i :  i •..ifi'ii-i ,<1
   !H  •  I:M '  "..•.
    ! ;    I-'   ,-Mv.',-.--.  l-iii-.-'-i'.iyo"'. ^-'"r..! »'i:(-.  ' •• i> f. l-rnrc

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PAGE NOT
AVAILABLE
DIGITALLY

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 PAGE NOT
AVAILABLE
DIGITALLY

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                                              Appendix Section B
              Appendix:  VEGETATION TYPE TABLES


          Listing of Key Wildlife Plants:  Their
               Wildlife Values* and Management


CHAM1SE-CHAPARRAL ZONE

     Pure Chamise Chaparral Type
     Chamise-Ceanothus Chaparral Type
     Chamise-Manzanita Chaparral Type
     Scrub Oak Chaparral Type
     Coastal Sagebrush Type

WOODLAND-CHAPARRAL ZONE

     Live Oak Chaparral Type
     Live Oak Woodland Type
     Bigcone Douglas fir Forest Type
     Knobcone Pine Forest Type

DESERT CHAPARRAL ZONE

     Desert Chaparral Type

PINYON-JUNIPER WOODLAND ZONE

     Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Type
     Great Basin Sagebrush Type

TIMBERLAND CHAPARRAL ZONE

     Timberland Chaparral Type

CONIFEROUS FOREST ZONE

     Pine Forest Type
     Ponderosa Pine - White Fir Forest Type
     Sugar Pine - White Fir Forest Type
     Grassland Type
     Black Oak Woodland Type
     Alpine Forest Type
     Barren Areas

RIPARIAN WOODLAND TYPE

OTHER IMPORTANT WILDLIFE PLANTS

*  Protein values given in the following tables indicate the range which
   starts high in the spring and drops to the low in winter.

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                  FURE-CHAMISE CKAFAB&AL TYPE
       Location:
       Principally found in areas of low
       rainfall such as foothills on
       coastal side of mountains, Cajon
       Pass and H.Fk. of Mojave River.
       From low levels to 5,500 feet on
       south-facing slopes.
                                                                                                                          Climate:
                                                                                                                          Rainfall:  13 to 25 Inches
                                                                                                                          Growing season:  8 to 12 months
                                                                                                                          Mean sunnier max;  82°-94°
                                                                                                                          Mean winter oin;  29°-45°
                                                                                                                  Other Classifications:
                                                                                                                  Chaparral (ttunz)
                                                                                                                  Transition and Mountain Climatic Zone
                                                                                                                  Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALVES
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                                      rase leal atum
             (In this type chamise conprtses 75% or
             more of the composition of the stand.
             From Sen Gorgoaio Pass south, red-
             shank (AdenostPma sparsifglliiml may
             replace chamise in this rvpe,)
Food
   Seeds - important food of Lawrence goldfinch (5-10% of diet)
   Flowers - woodrat
   Browse - poor producer of vital protein (4 to 14%) but relatively good source of
   maintenance energy for browsers-rates fair to good as feed for deer.
Cover
   Good except for roosting
                                                                                                                                                                    Areas of  this  type  are more productive when opened up and
                                                                                                                                                                    interspersed with perennial grasses which provide the
                                                                                                                                                                    protein lacking in  chamise.  Islands should be left if
                                                                                                                                                                    better cover species  are not available.  Because of the
                                                                                                                                                                    arid location  water is often needed.
OTHER SPECIES IN TYPE:
                         WHITE SAG!
                           Salvia ag
                         CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK
                           Quercus dimc-ss
                         BIGBEKRY MASZASIIA
                           Arctostapnylos glauca
                         EASTWOOD MANZAXiTA
                           ArctDstaphylgs glandulosa
These species occur scattered and together make tip less than 25% of this type.
this type their primary value is that they add variety.
Food
   Seeds - berries and acorns
Cover
   Fair to good
                                                                                                   Leave for cover in small islands.  Since all these  except
                                                                                                   Sage are "hard" species and chamise is relatively soft;
                                                                                                   this type can be converted economically with a double-disc
                                                                                                   treatmemt of the chaoise while skipping the other species.

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                    CHAMISE-CEANOTHU S
                      CHAPARRAL TYPE
                    Location:
                    Host widespread  type  on  the  coastal
                    side df  the mountains; however not
                    found  in Cajon or Lone Pine  Creeks
                    or  in  the  desert drainages;  rarely
                    over 4,000 feet.  Generally  indicates
                    better site than Pure Chamise Chapar-
                    ral type.
                                                                                                                           Climate:
                                                                                                                           Rainfall:  13 to 35 inches
                                                                                                                           Growing season:   8 months
                                                                                                                           Mean Summer max:  82°-94°
                                                                                                                           Mean Winter mini  29°-45°
                                                                                                                 Other Classifications:
                                                                                                                 Chaparral  (Munz)
                                                                                                                 Transition Climatic  fcone
                                                                                                                 Upper Sonoran Life Zone
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                             MANAGEMENT
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                         CHAMISE
                           Adenostoma fasciculatum
                                                                     Seeds - important to Lawrence goldfinch  (5-10% of diet)
                                                                     Flowers - tfoodrats
                                                                     Browse - poor producer of vital protein  (4 to 14%) although it provides minimum
                                                                     energy requirements for deer.
                                                                                                               Chamise is less valuable  than Ceanothus  i*ich is co-
                                                                                                               dominant in this type.  This type  represents  s  good site
                                                                                                               for conversions, stoniness and  slope permitting.
                                                     t 40%
                         HOARYLEAF CEANOTHUS
                           Ceanothus crassifolius
                         In some places replaced by:
                         CHAPARRAL WHITETHORN
                           Ce anothus leueodermis
             Food
                Seeds - in diet of quail, woodrats, ground squirrels
                Browse - important to cottontails;  fair to good protein supply {11-15%)  and pre-
                ferred by deer; rated good to excellent,
             Cover
                Excellent, especially the thonyC_.  Leucodermts
                                                                                                                                                                     Ceanothus is more desirable than chamise.   In  conversion
                                                                                                                                                                     projects and wildlife feed openings, the  Ceanothus  should
                                                                                                                                                                     be selected for the islands to be retained.
 OTHER  SPECIES  US TYPE:
                         CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK
                           Quercus  dumosa
t 201
Food
   Acorns - highly valued for many species of mammals and birds.   Significant in diet
   of bandtailed pigeon (10-25% of diet), quail (5-10% fragments), redshafted flicker
   (5-10%), jays (25-50%), rufous-sided townee (5-10%), plain titmouse <5-10%),
   California thrasher (2-5%), raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher (10-25%), mule deer
   (10-25% in winter).  Acorns are low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates
   and good energy producers.
   Browse - Protein levels 16 to 237. in spring, drops to 8% In mature foliage. Accounts
   for 10-25% of diet of mule deer in some localities, up to 50% in spring.
Cover
   Excellent for most species.
                                                                                                                In this type, scrub oak is a valuable shrub  to retain
                                                                                                                for its high wildlife values.
                          TOTON (Christmasberry)
                            Photlnla arbuetfolia
                Beyrigs - taken by many birds in small amounts:  Wrenti
                tailed pigeon, redbreasted sapsucker, California thrash
                Browse - little used when mature
               jver
                Larger specimens (8-10*) provide good roosting cover
                                                                                                                       WrentiC (2-5% of diet)  also band-
                                                                                                                             ter.
                                                                                                                                                                      Occasional specimen shrubs should be retained.
                                                                   Pood
                                                                      Fruit
                          EUGARBUSH
                            Tthus ovata
                ?d
                Fruit - taken by many birds and small :
                of diet), mountain quail (2-5%)
                                                                                                                                                                      Retain occasional specimen shrubs.
                                                                                                                als,  especially bandtailed pigeon (2-5%
             Cover
                Excellent

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                   CHAHXSE-MARZANITA
                     CHAPARRAL TYPE
            LOGation:
            Less extensive than Pure-Chemise or
            Chamlse-Ceanothus Chaparral but of
            widespread occurrence above 2,500
            feet. 'Density of macusanita varies
            from heavy to scattered.  Bigberry
            manzanita is usually at lower eleva-
            tions and at Cajora Pass (more arid
            sites).  Eastwood manzanita is mostly
            on the coastal slopes above A,000 feet.
                                                                                                                        Climate;
                                                                                                                        Rainfall:   13  to  35  inches
                                                                                                                        Growing season;   8 months
                                                                                                                        Mean  summer max:  82°-9A°
                                                                                                                        Mean  winter min:  29°-4S°
              Other Classifications:
              Chaparral  Ofunz)
              Transition and Mountain Climatic Zone
              Upper Soncran Life Zone
                         SPECIES
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                              MANAGEMENT
DOMINANT SPECIES;
                                                                Food
                                                                    Seeds  -  important  food  of Lawrence goldfinch  (5-10% of diet)
                                                                            - voodrats
                         CHAMISE
                           Adenostoma  fasciculate
     jj
   Browse - poor producer of vital protein (4-15%) but relatively good source of main
   tenance energy for deer-rates fair to good for feed,
Cover
   Good loafing and escape; poor roosting.
                                                                                                   Where  slope  and  soil  conditions permit conversion, perennial
                                                                                                   grass  will normally be sore  productive than this type for
                                                                                                   most wildlife.   A  few islands  should be retained for variety
                                                                                                   and cover.
                         BIGBERRY MANZANITA
                           Arctostaohyiog glanca

                         EASTWOOD MANZAHITA
                           Arc tos taphy1os glandulgsa
Food
   Berries - taken by many birds and mammals, California skunk (2-5%), and jays,
   mockingbirds, raccoons, ground squirrels, black bear, coyotes, etc.
   Browse - although taken some by deer, manzanita is A poor source of protein
   (.57, or less) and has feu redeeming characteristics for forage; rated poor.
Cover
   Often forms tall, impenetrable thickets - excellent for escape.
                                                                                                                                                                    Hay be used for islands for escape cover and for the berries
07&ER ASSOCIATED^ SPECIES:
                         HOARYLEAP CEAHOTHUS
                           Ceanothus crassifolius
                Usually associated with bigberry manzanita

                         CHAPARRAL WHITETHORN

                May be associated with either species  of
                manzanita
Food
   Seeds - in diet of quail, woodrata,  ground squirrels.
   Browse - important in diet of cottontail, fair to good protein supply (11-15%)
   and preferred by deer; rated good to excellent.
Cover
   Excellent
Preferred "leave" species for islands in conversion  in  this
type.

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                        SCRUB-OAK
                     CHAPARRAL  TYPE
                                                                             Location:
                                                                             On north-facing slopes mostly above
                                                                             4,000 feet to 5,500 feet
                                                        Climate:
                                                        Rainfall:  20 to 35 inches
                                                        Growing season:  8 months
                                                        Mean sunnier max:  82°-90°
                                                        Meic winter mln:  29°-40°
              Other Classifications:
              Chaparral  
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EASTWOOD MABZAHITA
  AgctoBtaphyloa glandulosa
                                          Least valuable of the conmon species of this type.
                                                                                                                                         Select wanzanita patches f?r wllctlife feed openings and
                                                                                                                                         browseways in this type.
                                                                                                                                                                          SCRUB-OAK CHAPARRAL  TYPE

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                  COASTAL SAGEBRUSH TYPE
                                                                            Location:
                                                                            Generally below 3,000 feet on
                                                                            elopes facing prevailing westerly -
                                                                            in the "fog belt;" Canyon mouths.
                                                                                              Climate:
                                                                                              Rainfall:  10 to 20 inches
                                                                                              Growing season:  8 to 12 months
                                                                                              Mean sunmer max:  68°-90°
                                                                                              Mean winter min:  57°-48°
Other Classifications:
Coastal Sag* Scrub  (Munz)
Intermediate Valley Climatic  Zone
Sonoran Life Zone
Lower
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
 DOMINANT SPECIES:
WHITE SAGE
  Salvia apiana
                                                                Food
                                                                   Seeds - birds, esp. Lesser goldfinch
                                                                   Flowers - bees, hummingbirds, esp.  Costa
                                                                   Browse - lov value
                                                                Cover
                                                                   Loafing cover for small birds and raamnals
                                                                                                                                         Consider conversioi
                                                                                                                                         on suitable soils.
                                                                                                                                                                                       in dense areas above 15 inches rainfall
                                                                Food
                                                                   Browse - poor
                                                                Cover
                                                                   Loafing cover for small birds and mat
                          CALIFORNIA SAGEBRUSH
                            ATternesia californica
                         CALIFORNIA BUCKWHEAT
                             ErioEonum faselculatm
                                      Food
                                         S_ee_ds_ * good, esp.  for birds and small  mammals;  key food for Bell sparrow (10-25% of
                                         diet).
                                         Flowers - 1-51 of diet of jackrabbits,  ground squirrels
                                      Cover
                                         Little value
                                                                                                                                                                   Leave patches of buckwheat when planning conversion.
                         IWCIENSO
                           Sncelia  farinosa
                         (Primarily  from  Flunge Creek east)
                                                                   Seeds -  sunflower-ltke widely used  by upland game birds,  and  esp.  American  goldfinch.
                                                                   house sparrow and  whitecrown sparrow
                                                                   Browse • poor
                                                                Cover
                                                                   Little valus
                                                                                                                                                                   Leave occasional patches or individual specimens.
OTHER INDICATOR SPECIES:
                                         Seeds -  goldfinches,  other  birds
                                         Flowers  -  huscicebirds,  esp.  Costa
                                         Browse  -  little value
                                                                                                                                                                   Consider conversion of  dense  areas to provide interspersion
                                                                                                                                                                   of perennial grasses and  forbs.
                         SLACK SAGE
                           Salvia me.

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                             MONKEY FLOWER
                                         longiflorus
                                                                                   - most  favored  native  food  of Allen hummingbird  -  also  preferred by  Anna
                                                                        Cover
                                                                           Slight value
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for value to hummingbirds and scenic beauty.
The Following Usually Occur in This_Type .
IndiyIduals^ Widely Spaced;
                             SUGASBTJSH
                               Rhua  ovata
Food
   Fruit - taken by many birds and small
   diet}, mountain quail (2-5%)
Cover
   Excellent
Is,  esp.  bandtailed pigeon (2-5% cf
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for cover  in  conversion projects.
                              CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK
                                Quercus dumosa
   Acorns - highly valued for many species for mammals  and birds.   Significant  in
   diet of bandtailed pigeon  (10-25% of diet), quail  (5-10%  fragments), redshafted
   flicker (5-10%), jays  (25-50%), plain  titmouse  (5-1.0%), California  thrasher  (2-57«},
   raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher  (10-25%), mule deer  (10-25% in winter).  Acorns are
   low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates  and good energy producers.
Cover
   Excellent  for most species
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for cover  in  conversion projects.
                              HOLLYLEAF CHERRY
                                Prunus ilicifglia
   Fruit _and_jeeds - Scrub Jay, pbainopepla, raccoon,  chipmunk  and woodrats  take  the
   fruit and/or  its large seed,
   Browse  - preferred by mule  deer.  Has high  (20%)  protein  levels in  spring (April;
   declining  (11Z) by fall  (Oct)
Cover
   The  dense, prickly foliage  is excellent  cover.
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for browse and cover  in  conversion projects.
                              MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY
                                Cercocarpus  betulaides
 Food
    Seeds  -  taken  by some  birds
    Bro-vse -  highly esteemed as  forage.   Protein levels range from a low of  7%  in
    January to 157. in April  and  about 9% in fall.   Highly palatable; rated excellent
    for deer  (2-5%), good  for bighorn.
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for cover in conversion projects.
                                                                                                                                                                                                            COASTAL SAGEBRUSH  TYPE

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               LIVE-OAK
            CHAPARRAL TYPE
            Location;
            On north-facing slopes from 3,500 to
            6,500 feet;  south-*facing slopes from
            A,500 to 7,500.   Mostly on the coastal
            slopes and to a limited extent in the
            Mojave River drainages.
                                                                                                              Climate-.
                                                                                                              Rainfall:   22  to  45  inches
                                                                                                              Growing season:   6 to  9 months
                                                                                                              Mean summer max:  8l°-93°
                                                                                                              Mean winter rain:  26°-40°
              Other Classifications:
              Chaparral (Munz)
              Mountain Climatic Zone
              Upper Sonoran and Transition Zone
                                                                                            WILDLIFE VALUES
SPECIES:
                INTERIOR LIVE OAK
                  Quercus wislizenii
Food
   Acorns - highly valued for many species of mammals and birds.   Significant in diet of
   bandtailed pigeon (10-25% of diet), quail (5-10% fragments), redshafted flicker (5-10%),
   jays (25-50%), rufous-sided townee (5-10/0, plain titmouse (5-10%),  California thrasher
   (2-5%), raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher (10-257=), mule deer (10-25% in winter).  Acorns
   are low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates and good energy producers.
   Browse - Protein level 16 to 237. in spring, drops to 87. in mature foliage.  Accounts
   for 10-25% of diet of mule deer in some localities, up to 507. in spring.
Cover
   Excellent for most species.
land permitting access to adjoining types;  typically  scrub
oak chaparral on coastal slopes and desert  chaparral  on
interior.  Not usually considered good chance  for  conversioi
In fuelbreaks situations, consider thinning and pruning.
                CANYON  LIVE  OAK
                  Quercus chrysolepls
                Occurs  scatceringly throughout
                type  except  on drier slopes
Food
   Acorns - approximately same as above.
   Browse - low in palatability; crude protein 5 to 11%; rated fair to poor; usually
   unavailable.
Cover
   Excellent for roosting.
                                                                                                                                                         Save for roosting trees.
                                                      Similar to interior live oak described above.
                                                                                                                                                         When favoring woodland development, remove this species in
                                                                                                                                                         favor of Interior or Canyon Live Oak in fuelbreak thinning.
                CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK
                Occurs  at  lower limits of this
                type  where it merges with other
                types
                                                      These preferred browse species are a valuable supplement to the live oaks in this type.
                                                                                                                                                         Retain where possible in development projects.
                CHAPARRAL WHITETHORN
                  Ceanotfaua  leucpdermjls

                MOUNTAIH MAHOGANY
                  Cercocarpus betuloides
                                                      These species add little to the wildlife values in this type.
                                                                                                                                                         Where projects  require fuel reduction, select these species
                EASTWOOD MANZANITA
                  Arctostanhvlos elandulosa
                BIGBERRY MAHZANITA
                  A.  ftlauca

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                 LIVE-OAK WOODLAND TYPE
                                                                             Location:
                                                                             Host frequently found  on  north-facing
                                                                             slopes 3,500  to 6,500  feet but  less
                                                                             common than Live Oak Chaparral  type.
Climate:
Rainfall;  22 to !>5 inches
Growing season:  6 to 9 months
Mean summer max:  810-93°
Mean winter aim  260-iO'!
                                                                                                                Other Classifications:
                                                                                                                Foothill-Woodland (Muni)
                                                                                                                Mountain Climatic Zone
                                                                                                                Upper Sonoran to Transitio
                                         [Life  Zone
                                                                                                                                                                                             MANAGEMENT
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                          CANYON LIVE OAK
                            Quercus chrvsolepis
Food
   Acorns - highly valued for many species of mammals and birds.  Significant in diet of
   bandtailed pigeon (10-25% of diet), quail (5-10% fragments), redshafted flicker
   (5-10%), jays (25-507.), rufous-sided Towhee (5-107.), thrasher (2-57.), raccoon (5-102.),
   pocketgopher (10-25%), mule deer (10-25% in winter).  Acorns are low in protein but
   high in fats and carbohydrates and good energy producers.
   Browse - Protein levels 16 to 237= in spring, drops to 8% in mature foliage.  Accounts
   for 10-25% of diet of mule deer in some localities, up to 507. in spring.
Cover
   Excellent for roosting.
This type is usually an intermediate  stage in the succession
to a bigcone douglas-fir Forest  Type,   There is little habi-
tat management directed toward  this  type.
                          BIGCOHE DOUGLAS-FIR
                            Fseudotsuga macrocarpa
                          Scattered trees frequently occu
                          among the oaks
Food
   Seeds - valued by many birds and mammals especially rodents.
   Foliage - taken sparingly by several forms.
Cover
   Roosting - used by many birds and squirrels.
   Nesting - important to nuthatches, creepers, woodpecker and other cavity nesters.
                                                                                                                                                                   Retain a few selected snags  for  nesting.

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B1GCONE DOCGLA5-7I3
     FOREST TVP£
                                                         Lgcation:
                                                         Usually north-facing slopes.  >test
                                                         extensive  in Eastern San Gabriel
                                                         Mountains.
                                                                                                                       Climate:
                                                                                                                       Rainfall:  22  to 45 inches
                                                                                                                       Growing season:  6 to 9 months
                                                                                                                       Mean Summer max:  81°-93°
                                                                                                                       Mean Winter min:  26°-40°
                                                                                                                  Other Classifications:
                                                                                                                  Chas-firral -T (Munz)
                                                                                                                  Yel'.cv Pine Forest (Munz)
                                                                                                                  Mount sir. Climatic Zone
                                                                                                                  U^cer Sot^ren Life Zone
                                                                                   WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                               Where terrain penults removal to manage for healthy  forest,
                                                                                                                                               decadent species may be reooved to increase vigor of residual
                                                                                                                                               stand.  Retain a few selected snags for cavity nests or
                                                                                                                                               sentinel posts.
                                                                                                                                               This type is most valuable for insectivorous birds and for
                                                                                                                                               squirrels.  It is not extensive and usually is not a habitat
                                                                                                                                               which benefits by cultural treatment.
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                         BIGC03E DOUGLAS-FIR
                           Pseudotsuga nacrocarps
Food
   Seeds - valued by many birds and mammals especially rodents.
   Foliage - taken sparingly by several forms.
Cover
   Roosting - used by many birds and squirrels.
   Resting " important to mithatces, creepers, woodpecker and other cavity nesters.
                                             Food
                                                Acorns - highly valued for many species of oaiamals and birds.  Significant In diet of
                                                bandtailed pigeon  (10-25% of diet), quail (5-10% fragements), redshafted flicker
                                                (5-10%), jays  (25-20%). rufous-side towhee (3-10%), plain titmouse (5-10%), California
                                                thrasher (2-5%), raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher (10-25%), mule deer (10-25% in winter).
                                                Acorns are low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates and good energy producers.
                                                Browse - Protein levels 16 to 23% in spring,  drops to 87= in mature foliage.  Accounts
                                                for 10-25% of diet o£ mule deer in some localities, up to 50% in spring,
                                             Cover
                                                Excellent for roosting.
                                                                                                                                               Retain for acom production sinor browse value, cover,  etc.

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                     KNOBCONE-PINE
                      FOREST TYPE
                                                                            Locat.ion:
                                                                            Restricted to small areas  of poor
                                                                            site in City, Plunge and Keller
                                                                            Creeks.  Below 5,000 feet.
                                                        Climate:
                                                        Rainfall:  13 to 35 inches
                                                        Crowing season:  8 months
                                                        Mean Simmer max:  82°-94°
                                                        Mean Winter min:  29°-45°
Other Classifications:
Chaparral  (Mtinz)
Transition or Mountain Climatic  Zone
Upper Sonaran Life  Zone
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                             MANAGEMENT
DOMISAXT SPECIES:
                                                                Food
                                                                   Seeds  -  seldom available  in thia  closed cone species
                                                                   Browse - little value
                                                                Cover
                                                                   Provides good cover for most species
                                                                                                   Retain for cover.  Site is usually not good enough for
                                                                                                   conversion.
                           Plnus attenuata
OTHER ASSOCIATED SPECIES:
                         EASTWOOD MflHZANITA
                           Arctostaphylog glandulps
Food
   Berries - taken by many birds and mammals, California skunk (2-5%), and jays,
   mockingbirds, raccoons, ground squirrels, black bear, coyotes, etc.
   Browse - although taken some by deer, manzanita is a poor source of protein (67. or
   less) and has few redeeming characteristic for forage; rated poor.
Cover
   Often forms tall, impenetrable thickets - excellent foe escape.
                                                                                                                                                                  Retain  for  berries  and cover in this type except in  fuel-
                                                                                                                                                                  break or  browseway  locations.
                          CHAMISE
                            Adenostoma fasctculatuia
                                                                Food
                                                                   Seeds - important to  Lawrence  goldfinch (5-10%  of diet)
                                                                   Flowers - Woodrats
                                                                   Browse - poor producer of  vital  protein (4 to  14X) although it provides minimum
                                                                   energy requirements for deer.
                                                                                                   Select browseway routes for fuelbreaks througl
                                                                                                   when the choice presents itself.
                          CHAPARRAL WHITETHORN
                            Ceanpthus leucoderBtis
Food
   Seeds - in diet of quail, woodrats, ground squirrels
   Browse - important to cottontails; fair to good protein supply
   preferred by deer; rated good to excellent.
Cover
   Excellent, especially the thorny C. leucodermis
                                                                                                                                                                  Retain for browse  in  this  type.
                          CHAPARRAL-PEA
                            Pickeringla montana
                                                                Food
                                                                   Seeds -  valued by quail whan within their  range,  ground squirrels,  kangaroo rats
                                                                   Browse - taken by deer, especially after burns; notably high protein levels in
                                                                   April and May (.197,)  drops  to 6  to  8% in winter; rated'good  to excellent.
                                                                                                   Select for browaaways to develop sprouts or for pollarding
                                                                                                   studies.

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                 DESERT CHAPARRAL TYPE
             i-ocatlon:
             Mcjave River drainages,  Cajou Pass
             area, north and east slopes of San
             Jacintc and Santa Rosa Mountains:
             3.80C tc 7,500 feet; this type is
             open grown vith numerous sub-shrubs
             and auch exposed soil.
                                                                                                                       Climate:
                                                                                                                       Rainfall:   12  to  25  inches
                                                                                                                       Growing season:   5 to 8 months
                                                                                                                       Mean  Summer max:  88°-95°
                                                                                                                       Mean  Winter min.:  20°-30°
Other Classi ftcations:
Pinyon-Juniper Woodland  (Munz)
Climatic Zone
Upper Sonaran Zone
                                                                                                     WILDLIFE VALUES
30MINAST SPECIES:
                         DESERT MAHOGANY
                           Cercocarpus Iedifpli.u8
                         Also found in other types up
                         to 10,500
                                                                Food
                                                                   Seeds  -  taken by  sorae birds
                                                                   Browse - highly esteemed as forage.  Protein levels range  from  a  low of 7% in January
                                                                   to  15% in  April and about 91 in  fall.  Highly palatable; rated  excellent  for deer
                                                                   (2-57;),  good for  bighorn.
                                                                                                    Because of the comparatively  low rainfall,  this type is
                                                                                                    open grown with low density.   It is  very slow to recover
                                                                                                    after damage by fire, drought  or heavy grazing.  Major
                                                                                                    management should be directed  toward protection of the
                                                                                                    valuable forage species where  present and available.
                                                                                                    On depleted areas consider reseeding key species such as
                                                                                                    Desert Mahogany and flannelbush.  Where plants have become
                                                                                                    unavailable because o£ height,  considerable pollarding
                                                                                                    projects (top pruning) and moderate  grazing with livestock.
                         CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK
                           Quercus dumosa

                         CANYON LIVE OAK
                           P.. chrvsolepis
    Acorns -  highly valued  for many  species  of mammals  and birds.   Significant in diet of
    bandtailed pigeon (10-25% of  diet),  quail  (5-10% fragments), redshafted flicker
    (5-107,),  jays  (25-507.),  rufous-sided townee (S-10%),  plain titmouse (3-10%),  California
    thrasher  (2-57,),  raccoon (5-10%),  pocketgopher  (10-25%), mule  deer (10-257. in winter).
    Acorns are low in protein but high in fats and  carbohydrates and good energy  producers,
    Browse -  Protein levels  16 to 23%  in spring,  drops  to 8% in fall with mature  foliage.
    Accounts  for 10-257= of  diet of mule  deer in some localities, up to 50% in spring.
 Cover
    Excellent for  raost species.
                         DESERT CEANOTHUS
                           Ceanothus greggil
                                                               Food
                                                                  Seeds - used by quail, woodrats, ground squirrels.
                                                                  Browse - used by jackrabbits, deer, but less valuable than other d
                                                               Cover
                                                                  Fair
                                                                     leanothus;  rated fair
                         FLANNEL BUSH
                           Fremontia callfqrnica
                                                               Pood
                                                                  Seed's - rodents
                                                                  Browse. - taken with apparent relish by all classes of hoofed browsers; rated excellent
                                                                  for deer.
                        VEATCH SILKTASSEL
                          Carrya veatehli
                                                                                shed by birds  especially robins,  waxwings, etc.
                                                                  Browse  -  fair to  good for deer.   Protein level  is from 5 to 127..
Cover
   Good tc fair for loafing and escape.
                                                                                                                                                                   See  above

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                      PINYON-JUNIPER
                       WOODLAND TYPE
             Location:
             Principally  in  Deep Creek,  in the
             vicinity of  Big Bear Lake,  on the
             north slopes of Santa Rosa  Peak and
             Martinez Mountain; also occurs in
             Cajon Creek; at elevations  between
             3,000 to 9,000  feet.
                                                                                                                        CIli
                                                                                                                        Rainfallr  10 to 30 inches
                                                                                                                        Growing season:  5 to 8 months
                                                                                                                        Mean Summer max:  &8°-95°
                                                                                                                        Mean Wtnter win:  20°-30°
              Other Classi Cications:
              Ptnyon-Juniper Woodland  (Munz)
              High Desert Climatic Zone
              Upper Sonoran Life  Zone
                                                                                                     WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                           MANAGEMENT
DOMIKAHT SPECIES:
                          SINGLSLEAF PINYON
                            PInus monophylj.a
                          FOURLEAF PIN70K
                            Pinus 
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                GREAT BASE." SAGEBRUSH TYPE
                                                                              Location:
                                                                              Most commonly on gentle slopes  a
                                                                              valley floors on desert slopes;
                                                                              3,000 to 7,000 feet.
                                                                                                                          Glim
                                                        Rainfall:   10 to 30 inches
                                                        Growing season:  5 to 8 months
                                                        Mean Summer max:  88°-95°
                                                        Mean Winter min:  20°-30°
                  01her_ C lass i £ ica t ions:
                  Sagebrush Scrub (ttunz>
                  Kigh Desert Climatic  Zone
                  Upper Sonoran Life Zone
                                                                                                       WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                               MANAGEMENT
DOHINAST SPECIES:
                         BASIN*  (BIG) SAGEBRUSH
                           Arternesia tridentata
                         BLACK SAGEBRUSH
                           Artemesia arbviscula nova
Food
   Seeds - used by a few species of birds and mammals.
   Browse - a staple for wintering deer on desert slopes, but must be taken with other
   species to be digestible.  Black sagebrush may be more palatable than Basin.
Cover
   Important to some species of birds in foraging.
Sagebrush on gentle slopes and valley  floors  is  often evi-
dence of past heavy grazing on native  perennials and
subsequent encroachment by the sagebrush.  When  residual
grasses constitute 6 to 8% of ground cover, consider  release
spraying sagebrush with 2 Lbs. 2, 4-D  per  acre.   If perennials
are depleted, spray should be followed by  reseeding with
wheatgrasses.

There is sufficient sagebrush in other areas  to  provide any
needs not now recognized.
OTHER ASSOCIATED SPECIES:
Food
   Slightly used by :
                                                                                          : birds and by rabbits.   Poor browse  for deer.
Should be included for spraying to release •
grasses.
                                                                                                                                                                                                              ore  valuable
                         RAB3IT3RVSH
                           ChrV5 a thammis spp.
                         3CCKHHEATS

                         SAGES
                           Salvia sgjp.
                         S.LACKBRUSH
                           Coleogyne ramossissima
                                                                  Generally low value in this type except ss  cover for birds which use grasses and forbs
                                                                  in this type for food.
                                                                                                                                                                 Same as above.

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                TIX3=3LAM> CKAPARRAI. IYPE
                                                                             Lofiattop:
                                                                             Throughout the higher mountains;
                                                                             best developed in eastern San
                                                                             Bernardino Mountains; 5,000 to
                                                                             11,000 feet.
                                                        Rainfall:   30  Co 45  inches
                                                        Growing season:  2 to  7 months
                                                        Mean Sunnier max:  65°-80°
                                                        Mean Winter min:  7  -34°
              Other Classifications;
              Yellow Pine Forest fMunz) and Subalpine  Fores
              Mountain Climatic Zone
              Transition and Boreal Life Zone
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                              MANAGEMENT
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                         MOUNTAIN WHITETHORN
                           Ceanothua cordulatus
Food
   Seeds - mountain quail,  chipmunks take some.
   Browse - fair to good protein levels (6 to 15%);  preferred by deer (33% of diet in
   some localities);  rated  good to excellent.
Cover
   Excellent for escape, nesting cover.
This type provides good wildlife  feed  and cover at the
higher elevations where it is open  grown with only about
505; cover density.  At the lover  fS-6,0001)  elevations it
forms solid brushfields which could be improved by browse-
ways, openings and accessways.  In  the denser stands it is
usable mainly by nesting songbirds.
                         PARRY MANZANITA
                           Arctostaphylos oarryana var.
                              pinetorum
                                                                 Food
                                                                    Berries - taken by many birds and mammals, especially fox sparrow (10-25% of diet),
                                                                    black bears, etc.
                                                                    Browse - rated poor.
                                                                 Cover
                                                                    Excellent; provides nesting cover for fox sparrow, green-tailed townee and others.
                                                                 Food
                                                                    Nuts - taken by chipmunks (2-5%) in small
                                                                    Browse - poor to useless.
                                                                 Cover
                                                                    Fair
                                               lounts by other rodents  and birds.
                         BUSH CHINQUAPIN
                           Castanopsis semperyirens
                         DEER BRUSH
                           Ceanothus integerrJams
Food
   Seeds - mountain quail, chipmunks and rodents take some.
   Browse - one of the most valued summer browse feeds in California;  well-balanced
   amounts of crude protein, fat, mineral matter and nitrogen-free extract;  protein
   levels have been measured as high as 27% in spring; a higher nutritive value than
   most grasses.
Cover
   Good
                                                                                                                                                                    Deerbrush  should be  encouraged where found.  When clearing
                                                                                                                                                                    for plantations, Leave  as  much as possible.  It will divert
                                                                                                                                                                    deer  from  the  seedlings.

                                                                                                                                                                    After 10 to  15 years of age,  deerbrush may be out-of-reach
                                                                                                                                                                    or decadent.   Pollarding may  induce sprouting and increased
                                                                                                                                                                    vigor.

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                    PINE FOREST TYPE
                                                                             Location:
                                                                             Rather extensive in the San Bernardino
                                                                             and San Jacinto Mountains between
                                                                             5,000 and 8,000 feet; also in San
                                                                             Gabriels and Santa Rosa to limited
                                                                             extent.
Climate:
Rainfall:  25 to 50 inches
Growing season:  4 to 7 months
Mean Summer max:  80°-93°
Mean Winter min:  22°-34°
                                                                                                               OthejrClassifications:
                                                                                                               Yellow Fine Forest  (Munz)
                                                                                                               Mountain  Climatic Zone
                                                                                                               Transition  Life  Zone
                         SPECIES
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMINANT SPECIES;        COULTER PINE
                           Pinna coulteri
                  Generally at lower levels; common
                  in headwaters Deep Creek and Mojave
                  River, Western slopes of San Jacinto.
                         PONDEROSA FINE
                           Pinus ponderosa
                  Mostly below 6,000 feet.
                         JEFFREY PINE
                           Plnus Jeffrey-t
                  Mostly above 6,000 feet.
Food
   Pines rank near the very top in importance to wildlife.  They are included in the
   diet of more  species than any other genus save oak.
   Seeds - notably valuable to Clark nutcracker  (74% of diet), red crossbill (66%),
   pygmy nuthatch  (25-50%), redbreasted nuthatch (25-507.), chipmunks (25-50%),
   bandtailed pigeon  (10-25%), evening grosbeak  (10-25%), hermit warbler  (10-257.),
   rosy finch (5-10%), pinesiskin (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground
   squirrel  (5-10%), whitefooted mouse (5-10%) and many others to a lesser degree.
   Seeds, bark,  foliage - taken by beaver  (5-107.), gray squirrel (25-50%), and locally
   by deer in varying amounts.
Cover
   Vital for nesting for several species such as nuthatches, brown creeper, woodpeckers,
   eagles, bandtailed pigeons, flying and gray squirrels and many others.
                                         Manage in accordance with Timber Management  Flan for
                                         Southern California Forests and San  Bernardino  Working
                                         Circle to promote a healthy vigorous  forest  for its recre-
                                         ation and watershed values.

                                         When seeding skidtrails and landings, consider  wildlife
                                         enhancement in seedmix.

                                         Judiciously select snags to be retained  for  cavity nesters
                                         and for nests and sentinel posts for hawks,  owls,  eagles.
                         CALIFORNIA BLACK OAK
                           Ojiercys kelloeeli
Food
   Acorns - probably at the top of the wildlife food list nation-wide.  Their greatest
   value is in the critical winter season when other foods are scarce.  In this area
   they are of particular value to bandtailed pigeon {25-50% of diet), scrub jay
   (25-50%) Steller jay (25-50%), gray squirrel (25-50%), whitebreasted nuthatch (10-25%),
   varied thrush (10-25%), Lewis woodpecker (10-25%), acorn woodpecker (10-25%), flying
   squirrel (10-25%), beechey ground squirrel (10-25%), mule deer (10-25%) and at least
   ten other species.
   Browse - black oak sprouts, leafage and twigs are used extensively when within reach
   by deer, rated good to excellent.
Cover
   Often used as den trees and nesting by birds and squirrels.
                                                                                                                                                                  Black oak should be retained as a valuable  component of the
                                                                                                                                                                  recreation forest for its beauty, variety and contrast, its
                                                                                                                                                                  wildlife values and watershed values.

                                                                                                                                                                  Removal of decadent trees is justified  to reduce over-
                                                                                                                                                                  stocking and promote more vigorous, healthy young growth.
                                                                                                                                                                  Care should be taken to retain den trees.

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                     PONDEROSA  PINE-
                 WKITT  FIR FOREST TYPE
             Location:
             On gentle  to ^oderace slopes with
             deep soils at altitudes of 5,000
             to 8,000 feet.  Occ-urs in small
             stands throughout the coniferous
             forests but is :aost extensive in
             headwaters of Santa Ana River and
             Deep Creek and in Black Mountain
             Scenic Area.
                                                                                                                         Climate:
                                                                                                                         Rainfall:   25  to 50  inches
                                                                                                                         Growing season:  4 to  6 months
                                                                                                                         Mean Summer max:  80°-93°
                                                                                                                         Mean Winter min:  22°-34°
                 Yellow Pine Torest (Wunz)
                 Mountain Climatic Zone
                 Transition and Boreal Life Zone
                                                                                                       WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                              MANAGEMENT
DQMIKAKT SPECIES:
                         PONDEROSA PINE
                           Finns ponderos,
                         JEFFREY PINE
                           Pinus jeffreyj
Food1                            ' 'Ir'" "J J" ^ :'"""
   Pine rank near the very top in Importance to wildlife.  They are Included  in the
   diet of more species than any other genus save oak.
   Seeds - notably valuable to CLark nutcracker (74% of diet), red crossbill  (667.),
   pygmy nuthatch (25-507.), rcdbreasted nuthatch (25-50%), chipmunks  (25-50%), band-
   tailed pigeon (10-251), evening grosbeak (10-25%), hermit warbler  (10-25%), rosy
   finch (5-10%), pinesiskin (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground
   squirrel (5-10%), white-footed mouse (5-10%) and many others to a  lesser degree.
   Seeds, bark, foiiaae - taken by beaver (5-10%), gray squirrel  (25-50%), and locally
   by deer in varying amounts.
Cover
   Vital for nesting for several Species such as nuthatches, brown creeper, woodpeckers,
   eagles, bandfcailed pigeons,  flying and gray squirrels and many others.
 Manage in accordance with Timber Management  Plan for Souther
 California Forests and San Bernardino Working Circle to
 promote s healthy vigorous forest for its  recreation and
 watershed values.
 When seeding skidtrails and landings, consider wildlife
 enhancement in seed mix.
 Judiciously select snags to be retained for  cavity neeters
 and for nests and sentinel posts for hawks,  owls,  eagles.
                         WHITE FIR
                           Abies concoloT
                                                                 Food
                                                                     Seeds  -  taken by many birds and squirrels including CLark nutcracker  (2-5%),
                                                                     chipmunks  (2-5%).  red crossbill, pygmy nuthatch, whitefooted mouses and others.
                                                                     Twigs  and needles  - palatability and preference appears to vary greatly between
                                                                     individual plants.  Ycung fir trees are not infrequently "browsed heavily by deer.
OTHER ASSOCIATES SrECEES:
                         SUGAR PIKE
                           Pinus 1ambertiana

                         INCENSE CEDAR
                           Libocedrus decurretia
See pines above.  Sugar pine is especially valuable for its large seeds and as a perch
because of its height.
Food
   Incense Cedar is only of minor value as wildlife food.
Cover
   The dense protective shelter of cedar is especially valuable in winter.
                         CALIFORNIA BLACK OAK
                           Quercus kellogBii
   Acorns - probably at the tope of the wildlife food list nation-wide.   Their greatest
   value is in the critical winter season when other foods are scare.   In this area they
   are of particular value to bandtailed pigeon (25-5070  of diet,  scrub  jay (25-50%),
   steller jay (25-50%), gray squirrel (25-50%), whitebreasted nuthatch  (10-25%),  varied
   thrush (10-25%), Lewis woodpecker (10-25%), acorn woodpecker (10-25%),  flying
   squirrel (10-257O, beachey ground squirrel (10-25%), mule deer  (10-25%) and at least
   ten other species.
   Browse - black oak sprouts, leafage and twigs are used extensively  when within reach
   by deer, rated good to excellent.  Cared leaves are used by deer when softened by
   rains.
Cover      *
   Often used as den trees and nesting by birds and squirrels.	      	
Black oak should be retained as a valuable  component of the
recreation forest for its beauty, variety and contrast, its
wildlife values and watershed values.

Removal of decadent trees is justified  to reduce over-
stocking and promote more vigorous, healthy young growth.
Care should be taken to retain den  trees.

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                    SUGAR PINE-
               WHITE FIR FOREST TYPE
            Location:
            Widespread  in San Gabriels, in Mill
            Creek  and Santa Ana River In San
            Bernardinos and to limited extent in
            San Jaeintos mostly on south facing
            steep  slopes with active creep;
            altitudes 5,000 to 8,000 feet.
                                                                                                                      Climate:
                                                                                                                      Rainfall;   25  to  50  inches
                                                                                                                      Growing season:   4 to  6  months
                                                                                                                      Mean  Summer max:  80°-93°
                                                                                                                      Mean  Winter rain:  22°-34°
                                                                                                                                                     Other Classifications:
                                                                                                                                                     Yellow  Pine Forest  (Munz)
                                                                                                                                                     Mountain  Climatic Zone
                                                                                                                                                     Transition and  Boreal Life Zone
                                                                                                    WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMtSAST SP-CIE5:
SUGAR PINE
  Piuus 1ambertiana

JEFFREY PINE
  Finus Jeffrey!
                                                                 Pines rank near the very top in importance to wildlife.   They are  included  in the  diet
                                                                 of more species than any other genus save oak,
                                                                 Seeds - notably valuable to Clark nutcracker (74% of diet),  red crossbill  (66%), pygmy
                                                                 nuthatch (25-50%),  redbreasted nuthatch (25-50%), chipmunks  (25-50%),  bandtailed pigeon
                                                                 (10-25%),  evening grosbeak (10-25%), hermit warbler (10-25%), rosy finch (5-10%),
                                                                 pinesiskin (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground squirrel (5-10%), white-
                                                                 footed mouse (5-10%),  and many others to a lesser degree,
                                                                 Seeds, bark, foliage - taken by beaver (5-10%),  gray squirrel (25-50%),  and locally by
                                                                 deer in varying amounts.
                                                              Cover
                                                                 Vital for  nesting for  several species such as nuthatches,  brown creeper, woodpeckers,
                                                                 eagles, bandtailed  pigeons,  flying and gray squirrels and many others.
                                                                                                   Management in accordance with  Timber  Management Plaa fcr
                                                                                                   Southern California Forests  and  San Bernardino Working Circle
                                                                                                   to promote a healthy vigorous  forest  for its recreation and
                                                                                                   watershed values where  slopes  permit.

                                                                                                   When seeding skidtrails and  landings, consider wildlife
                                                                                                   enhancement in seed mix.

                                                                                                   Judiciously select snags to  be reatined for cavity ntsttrs
                                                                                                   and for nests and sentinel posts for  hawks, owls, eagles.
                         MHITE FIR
                           Abies coi
                                                              Food
                                                                 Seeds - taken by many birds and squirrels  including Clark nutcracker (2-5%),  chipmunks
                                                                 (2-5%), red crossbill, pygmy nuthatch,  whitefoot mice and others,
                                                                 Twjgs and needles -  palatable and preference appears to vary greatly between  individual
                                                                 plants.  Young fir trees  are not infrequently browsed heavily by deer.
ASSOCIATED SPECIES:
                         CANYON LIVE OAK
                           Quercus chrysolepis
Food
   Acorns - highly valued for many species of maiimals and birds.  Significant in diet of
   bandtailed pigeon (10-257. of diet), quail (5-10% fragments), redshafted flicker  (5-10%),
   jays (25-507.), rufous-sided towhee (5-107.), plain titmouse  (5-10%), California thrasher
   (2-5%), raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher (10-25%), raule deer (10-25% in winter).  Acorns
   are low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates and good energy producers.
   Browse - Protein levels 16 to 23% in spring, drops to 8% in mature foliage.  Accounts
   for 10-25% of diet of mule deer in some localities, up to 50% in spring.
Cover
   Excellent for roosting.
                                                                                                                                                                 Leave for .mast, cover and variety.
                  Tis&erland chaparral species are often
                  associated with this type.  There  is
                  little herbaceous understory.


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                     GRASSLAND TYPE
            On alluvial soils in the Forest Zone.
            Nowhere extensive.  Both dry grass-
            lands and wet grasslands occur.  In-
            troduced grasslands now total over
            5,000 acres through type conversion
            efforts
                                                                                                                         Climate:
                                                                                                                         Rainfall!   25  to 50  inches
                                                                                                                         Crowing season:  4 to  7 months
                                                                                                                         Mean Simmer max:  80°-93°
                                                                                                                         Mean Winter mint  22°-34°
Other Class1fications:
Yellow Pin* Forest  (Mwn
Mountain Climatic Zone
Transition Life Zone
                         SPECIES
                                                                                                       WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMINANT SPECJES:
                         DRY GRASSLANDS
                  These areas contain many species
                  of annual grasses and forts,
                  Broraus - Species are typical, ^inch-
                  grasses and perennial forbs are
                  also found.
Grass seeds are valuable to birds and small mammals.  Their leaves and stems are used by
rabbits, deer and other herbivores, and in addition the plants provide protective cover
to many small and medium-sized animals.

Individual grasses and forbs of specific value are listed in the R5 Range Analysis Field
Guide.
                                                                                                                                                                    Maintain and where possible  enhance by addition of peren-
                                                                                                                                                                    nials, legumes, etc.
                                                                 Achens  of sedge are eaten by many species  of wildlife.  Rush  is  less valuable.
                                                                                                                                                                    Maintain wet meadow types and enhance by  addition  of
                                                                                                                                                                    legumes.
                         WET GRASSLANDS
                  Predominantly sedges. Cares sp
                  and Rushes, Ju-ncus sp.

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                       BLACK-OAK
                     WOODLAND TYPE
                                                                            Location:
                                                                            Common  from 5,000 to 7,000 feet
                                                                            usually on flat or rolling sites
                                                                            with  deep soil
                                                        Climate:
                                                        Rainfall:   25  to  50  inches
                                                        Growing season:   4 to  7 months
                                                        Mean  Summer max:  80°-93°
                                                        Kean  Winter min:  22°-34°
              Other Classifications:
              Yellow Pine Forest (Munz)
              Mountain Climatic Zone
              Transition Life Zone
                                                                                                                                                                                           MANAGEMENT
                                                                                                      WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                         CALIFORNIA BLACK OAK
                           Quercus kelloemii
Food
   Acorns. - probably at the top of the wildlife food list nation-wide.   Their greatest
   value is in the critical winter season when other foods are scarce.   In this  area
   they are of particular value to bandtailed pigeon (25-507e of diet),  scrub jay (25-50%),
   gray squirrel (25-50%), Steller jay (25-50%),  whitebreasted nuthatch (10»25%),  varied
   thrush (10-257,), Lewis woodpecker (10-25%), acorn woodpecker (10-25%),  flying squirrel
   (10-25%), mule deer (10-25%), and at least ten other species.
   Browse - black oak sprouts, leafage and twigs  are used extensively when within reach
   by deer-rated good to excellent.
Cover
   Often used as den trees and nesting by birds and squirrels.
A large part of the black oak woodland type was  formed as  a
result of early day logging of the conifers.   The mature
conifers were removed, and subsequent burning  destroyed young
trees.  The California black oak, which sprouts  vigorously
from the burned stump, then became the dominant  species
wherever it was common in the original forest.   In  recent
years under more intensive fire protection, ponderosa pine
is becoming more abundant in the woodland  stands.

Manage to increase variety of species in stand.
                         CANYON LIVE OAK
                           Quercus chrysglepig
                                                                 Food
                                                                    Acorns - as above
                                                                    Browse - low in palatability;  crude protein 5 to 11%;  rated fair to poor;  usually
                                                                    unavailable.
                                                                 Cover
                                                                    Excellent for roosting.
                                                                                                                                                                 Save for roosting  trees.
                         PONDEROSA PINE
                           Fifiua ponderosa
Food
   Pines rank near the very top in importance to wildlife.  They are included in the diet
   of more species than any other genus save oak.
   Seeds - notably valuable to Clark nutcracker  (747, of diet), red crossbill (6670, pygmy
   nuthatch (25-50%), red-breasted nuthatch (25-50%), chipmunks (25-50%), bandtailed
   pigeon  (10-25%), evening grosbeak (10-25%), hermit warbler  (10-25%), rosy finch  (5-10%)
   pinesiskiit (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground squirrel (5-101), white-
   footed jjsouse (5-10%) and many others to a lesser degree.
   Seeds, barfa. foliage - taken by beaver (5-10%), gray Squirrel (25-50%), and locally by
   deer in varying amounts,
Cover
   Vital for nesting  for several species such as nuthatches, brown creeper, woodpeckers,
   eagles, bandtailed pigeons, flying and gray squirrels and many others.
                                                                                                                                                                 Maintain to  increase variety.
                         BIGCONE DOUGLAS-FIR
                           Pseudotsufta macrocarpa
                                                                 Food
                                                                    Seeds - valued by many birds and mammals especially rodents.
                                                                    Foliage - taken sparingly by several forms.
                                                                 Cover
                                                                    Roosting - used by many birds and squirrels.
                                                                    Nesting - important to nuthatches, creepers, woodpeckers and Other cavity nesters.
                                                                                                                                                                                         riety.
                         DEERBRUSH
                           Ceanothus Integerrimtis
Food
   Seeds - mountain quail, chipmunks, and rodents take  some.
   Browse - one of the most valued summer browse feeds  in California;  well-balanced
   amounts of crude protein, fat, mineral matter and nitrogen-free  extract;  protein
   levels have been measured as high as 277., a higher nutritive value  than most  grasses.
Cover
   Good
                                                                                                                                                                  Deer brush sould be encouraged  where found.  When clearing
                                                                                                                                                                  for plantations, leave as much  as  possible.  It will divert
                                                                                                                                                                  deer for seedlings.

                                                                                                                                                                  After 10 to 15 years of  age,  deer  brush may be out-of-reach
                                                                                                                                                                  or decadent.  Pollarding may  induce sprouting and increased
                                                                                                                                                                  vigor.

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                   ALPINE  FORBSt TYPE
                                                                                   on:
                                                                                    ibove 8,000 feet on the high
                                                                                   ins  of the San Bernardino,  San
                                                                                   I, San Jacinto and Santa Rosa
                                                        Rainfall  (Snow):  25-50 inches
                                                        Growing Season:   7  Co IA weeks
                                                        Mean Summer max:  65°
                                                        Mean Winter rain:  5°
Other Classifications:
Lodgepole Forest and Subalpine  Forest (Munz)
Mountain Climatic Zone
Boreal Life Zone
                                                                                                       WILDLIFE VALUES
DOMINANT SPECIES:
                          LODGEPOLE PINE
                            Firms  contorta
Food
   Pines rank near the very top in importance to wildlife.  They are included  in  the diet
   of more species than any other genus save oak.
   Seeds - notably valuable to Clark nutcracker  (74% of diet), red crossbill  (66%), pygmy
   nuthatch (25-50%), red-breasted nuthatch (25-50%), chipmunks (25-50%), bandtailed
   pigeon (10-25%), evening grosbeak (10-25%), hermit warbler  (10-25%), rosy finch  (5-10%),
   pinesiskin (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground squirrel (5-10%), white-
   footed mouse (5-10%) and many others to a lesser degree.
   Seeds, bark,  foliage - taken by beaver (5-10%), gray squirrel (25-50%), and locally by
   deer in varying amounts.
Cover
   Vital for nesting for several species such as nuthatches, brown creeper, woodpeckers,
   eagles, bandtailed pigeons, flying and gray squirrels and many others.
                                                                                                                                                                    Because cover is scarce, existing vegetation is encouraged
                         LIMBER  PIKE
                            Finus flesills
   Pines rank near the very top in importance to wildlife.  They are included in the diet
   of more species than any other genus save oak.
   Seeds - notably valuable to Clark nutcracker  (747. af diet), red crossbill  (6&%), pygmy
   nuthatch (25-50%), red-breasted nuthatch (25-50%), chipmunks (25-50%), bandtailed
   pigeon (10-25%), evening grosbeak (10-25%), hermit warbler (10-25%), rosy finch  (5-10%),
   pinesiskin (5-10%), Lewis woodpecker (5-10%), antelope ground squirrel (5-10%), white-
   footed mouse (5-10%), and many others to a lesser degree.
   geeds, bark. foItggji - taken by beaver (5-10%) , gray squirrel (25-507=), and locally by
   deer in varying amounts.
Cover
   Stunted, shrubllke (Krummholz) pines provide excellent cover.  The more erec
are used by cavity-nesters.
                                                                                                                                                                    In some areas grass would be a valuable addition to the
                                                                                                                                                                    flora.   Consider small plots in bighorn range.
                                                                                                                                                  spec linens
OTHER SPECIES:
                                                                 See  Timberland Chaparral  Type
                  Timberland chaparral  species  occur as
                  isolated  individuals  throughout this
                  type.

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         BARREN AREAS
LOGatton:
Principally occur on the highest
peaks usually above 7,000.  Above
10,000 are vldeapread and occupy
moderate as well as precipitous
slopes.  Rocky cliffs are a type
of barren area important to several
species of wildlife.
                                                                                                            Climate:
                                                                                                                                                                   Alpine Fell-field (Mim2>
                                                                                                                                                                   Mountain Climatic Zone
                                                                                                                                                                   Boreal Life Zone
                                                                                        WILDLIFE VALUES
By definition, barren areas have less
than 51 of the surface covered by vege-
tation.  Several palatable forbs and a
few grasses are found in the higher areas
and are reported in San Gorgonio Bighorn
Habitat Management Plan and San Gabriel
Bighorn Habitat Management Plan.
Cover
   Rocky cliffs and precipitous terrain in barren areas afford excellent "cover"  for
   species nimble enough to negotiate the area.   They afford vantage points  to observe
   the approach of enemies.   The bighorn is seldom found far from this  type.   Some
   species of birds will nest nowhere else.
                                                                                     With bighorn, food IB often limiting adjacent to the barren
                                                                                     cover areas.  Grass should be planted where soil and slope
                                                                                     afford an opportunity for success.

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                 RIPARIAN WOODLAND  TYPE
             Lgc at ion:
             In narrow  belts  along permanently
             flowing streams  in  all zones.  Also
             in other canyons where groundwater is
             near the surface; at springs  and seeps.
                                                                                                                          Climate:
                                                                                                                          In  all  conditions where  abundant
                                                                                                                          moisture  is  present.
Other Classific.atig.ps;
Al1 zones and types.
                                                                                                         WILDLIFE VALUES
                                                                                                                                                                                              MANAGEMENT
DOMINANT SPECIES;
                          Below 7,000 feet:
                          WHITE ALDER
                           Alnus  rhombifolia
 Food
    Seeds  -  taken  by  a few birds, notably goldfinch  (2-5% of diet) and pinesiskin  (2-5%).
    jBrowse -  taken fairly often, probably for moisture and roughage; low value - rated
    fair to  useless for deer.
    Bark - taken in limited amounts by beaver.
 Cover
    Dense  stands provide effective escape cover and  shelter.
                                                                                                                                                                    Generally maintain cover along flowing streams for shado,
                                                                                                                                                                    and water temperature control and cover.  In very dense
                                                                                                                                                                    situations, thinning for water-yield may be justified  but
                                                                                                                                                                    wildlife values muse be fully considered.
                         FREMONT COTTONWOOD
                           Polulus  fremontti
                         BLACK COTTONWOOL
                           Fopulus  trichocarpa
  3oa
   Bugsj catkinS) seeds  -  taken by quail  (locally up  to 10%), other birds.
   Bark - highly preferred by beaver  (up  to 50% of diet in some locales), also used by
   cottontails, squirrels  and meadow mouse,
   Browse - used frequently by deer but rated  fair to poor as feed.
  jver
   Fair, commonly used by  cavity nesting  birds.
                         CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE
                           Platanus racemosa
                                                                  Food
                                                                     Sycamore is  generally of  little  value;  the pendant seed  balls  are  utilized by  only  a
                                                                     few species,  the purple finch  being the only bird  using  the  seed in measurable amounts
                                                                     (2-5%).   Beaver  may  take  a  bite  in passing.
                                                                  Cover
                                                                     May be valuable  as a perch  for insectivorous birds and  for nesting.
                                                                                                   Leave specimen trees for their beauty.
OTHER SPECIES:
                  The following occur  only  in the
                  chaparral zones of the coastal slopes.

                         COAST LIVE OAK
                           Quercus agrifolla
Food
   Acorns - highly valued for many species of mammals and birds.  Significant  in diet of
   bandtailed pigeon  (10-25% of diet), quail  (5-10%  fragments), redshafted flicker  (5-10%),
   jays (25-50%), rufous-sided towhee  (5-10%), plain titmouse  (5-10%), California thrasher
   (2-5%), raccoon (5-10%), pocketgopher  (10-25%), mule deer (LO-25%  in winter).  Acorns
   are low in protein but high in fats and carbohydrates and good energy producers.
   Browse - Protein levels 16 to 23% in spring, drops to 8% in mature  foliage.  Accounts
   for 10-25% of diet of mule deer in some localities, up to 50% in spring.
Cover
   Excellent for most species.
                                                                                                                                                                    Leave for food value.
                         BIGLEAF MAPLE
                           Acer macrophvlIurn
Food
   Seeds, buds and flowers - taken by evening grosbeak, nuthatches, purple finch, sap-
   suckers (sap), flying squirrel, gray squirrel, chipmunk, white-footed mouse, woodrat.
   ^rovsa^and barlt - Used by beaver and deer.  Leafage is usually out of reach of deer
   but sprouts arc cropped with relish; rated fair to poor.
Cover
                                                                                                                                                                    Leave for food and
                                                                    Fair to good; birds use the seed  stalks  in nest buildings.

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                             CALIFORNIA LAUREL (BAY)
                               Umbellularia callforntca
 Food
    Bgrri.ea - little used
    Browse - seldom used especially when mature.  However sprouts, which occur after
    a fire or cutting, are often heavily browsed by deer.  Some individual plants may
    be killed by close cropping.  After reaching maturity, their palatability appar-
    ently decreases markedly; rated good to fair for deer.
Cover
    Good
                                                                                                                                                                     Leave for cover.
DOMINANT SPECIES;
                     Above  7,000  feet
                     The principal  riparian dominants at
                     higher  elevations  are the several
                     species of:
                                                                  Food
WILLOW
  Salix lagiandra
    1: I- 23E- Abramsii
    JJ. caudate var. Bryantiai
    S. melanopsis
    S. «. var. BolaBderiana
    £• lutea Vfflf- Wataonii
    S. lemapnii
          uleriana
                                                                                  foliage - important to many birds arid mammals including Fine grosbeak
                                                                         ^^^
                                                                     (5*10% of diet), cottontail rabbit, meadow mouse,; perhaps more important, willows are
                                                                     resting. places and cover for many forms of terrestrial insects and thus attract many
                                                                     species of insectivorous birds such as warblers, vireos, chickadees, tit-mice and
                                                                     others .
                                                                     Bark - heavily used by the beaver.  It is their principal food species on this
                                                                     forest, wherever it is present in their range.
                                                                     Srovse - Willow browse is of relatively good nutritional balance, crude protein
                                                                     levels vary from 7 to 187, with bare twigs of winter dropping to i-5'i.  Rating year-
                                                                     long: fair.
                                                                  Cover
                                                                     Excellent in summer.
                                                                                                   Willows normally should be  left for food and cover.  However
                                                                                                   in some instances unbroken,  dense decadent stands develop
                                                                                                   where thinning, topping and  opeaiag-up would benefit wild-
                                                                                                   life as well as other values.
                                                                                                                                                                                                         RIPARIAN WOODLAND TYPE

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                     OTHER IMPORTANT
                     WILDLIFE PLANTS
                                                                           Location:
                                                                           The plants on this list are not con-
                                                                           fined to a single vegetation type but
                                                                           are relatively common and have impor-
                                                                           tance to wildlife.  This list is not
                                                                           intended to be all-inclusive.
                                                                                                                       Climate:
                                                                                                                                                                               0ther Classifications:
                                                                                                    WILDLIFE VALUES
                         CALIFORNIA COFFEEBERRY


                         HOLLYLEAF REDBERRY
                           Rhamnus crocea var. ilicifolia
Food
   Berries - provides 5-10% of diet of Mockingbird,  Phainopepla,  Swainson thrush;  also
   used by bandtailed pigeon, California thrasher, Sapsucker,  raccoon and robin, hermit
   thrush, varied thrush, bear, ringtailed cat,  beechey ground squirrel  and  woodrat.
   Browse - taken by deer and bighorn; crude protein ranges from 7.5  to  19%; browse  rated
   good to poor for deer--coffeeberry is preferred over redberry.
Cover
   Fair to good.
                                                                                                                                                                 The buckthorns seldom form dense stands.  Their presence
                                                                                                                                                                 adds variety of food and cover type and usually are  good
                                                                                                                                                                 candidates for "leave" shrubs in brush conversions.
                         POISON-OAK
                           Rhus diversiloba
                         SQUAWSUSH
                           Rhus trilobate
   Berries * Sumac berries are taken by a large number of birds;  they are significant in
   the diet of the wrentit (10-25X) and the pocket mouse (10-257,) and important (5-iOX)
   for red-shafted flicker, aapsuckers, California thrasher,  hermit and Swainson thrushes
   and downy and nuttall woodpecker.
   Browse - poison-oak rates higher.than grass in crude protein content.   In its early
   growth stage it has been found as high as 357=; it drops to 8% in the mature leaf.
   Squavbush is less palatable.  Poison-oak rates good for deer;  squawbush fair to poor.
Cover
   Fair to excellent.
                                                                                                                                                                 The sumacs occasionally occur  in very dense  patches  which
                                                                                                                                                                 afford excellent cover.  However poison  oak's  anti-social
                                                                                                                                                                 qualities make it hard to recommend  for  a  "leave"  plant in
                                                                                                                                                                 areas of public use.  Nevertheless,  it has redeeming
                                                                                                                                                                 features for wildlife.                                    .-.
OTHER SPECIES:
                         GOOSEBERRY AND CURRANT
Food
   Berries - taken by many birds, small mammals, coyotes.
   Browse - rated fair to poor for deer although taken fairly heavily after frosts hav
   turned the leaves.
Cover
   Spiny species excellent; other good to fair.
                                                                                                                                                                 Useful  for variety - especially in Timber Chaparral type.
                           Sambucus caerulea
Food
   Berries - especially important source of summer food for sany kinds of songbirds.
   Robins and others eagerly consume the berries even before they ripen.  Elderberries
   are of high value to phainopepla (up to 50% of diet), blackheadtd grosbeak (5-10%),
   Steller jay (5-10%), Suainson thrush (5-10%), many others.
   Browse - taken eagerly by deer in late summer and fall especially after frosts have
   blackened ehe leaves.  Rated good to poor.
Cover
                                                                                                                                                                  Encourage for its high value  for songbirds.

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SERVICEBERRY
  flaeian.chi.er
   Berries - sought by thrushes and many songbirds during early summer.   Squirrels,
   chipmunks and even bears relish the fruit; frequented by green-tailed towhee
   north of Onyx Summit.
   Browse - sought by most grazing animals; protein Levels above 107. through Che
   summer, lower in winter.  Rated good to fair for deer.
Cover
   Fair
                                                                                                                                        Serviceberry  is  a  sprouter  and  should  respond well to
                                                                                                                                        pollarding.
FOCRWING SALTBUSH
  Atriplex canescens
Food
   Seeds - valuable for quail, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, horned lark.
   Browse - highly palatable and nutritious.  Good deer winter food; taken heavily by
   jackrabbits.  Rated good to fair for deer.
Cover
   Good to excellent.
                                                                                                                                         Highly adaptable to different sites.  One of the beet
                                                                                                                                         species for browse plantings, although may need protection
                                                                                                                                         from rodents and rabbits when seedling.
                                                                                                                                                                       OTHER IMPORTANT WILDLIFE PLANTS

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                                                             Section C
             The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollution on the

               Mixed-Conifer Forest Ecosystem—Arthropods
Researched and Written By:
                           David L.  Wood
                           Professor of Entomology and Entomologist  in
                           Experiment Station Department of Entomology
                           and Parasitology,  University of California,
                           Berkeley
Principle Contributors:
     William D.  Bedard,  Pacific Southwest Forest & Range  Experiment  Station
     Donald  L. Dahlsten, University of  California,  Berkeley
     Clarence J.  DeMars, Pacific Southwest Forest & Range Experiment Station
     Bland E.  Ewing,  University of California,  Berkeley
     Don C.  Erman,  University of California,  Berkeley
     Richard C.  Garcia,  University of California, Berkeley
     Thomas  Koerber,  Pacific Southwest  Forest & Range Experiment  Station
     Peter A.  Rauch,  University of California,  Berkeley
     Evert I.  Schlinger, University of  California,  Berkeley

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              The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollution on the




                 Mixed-Conifer Forest Ecosystem—Arthropods






     The mixed conifer forest of the Westside of the Sierra Nevada




Mountains has served man as a renewable source of timber, water, forage




and wildlife.  Demand for these resources and the development of new




uses, i.e., for homesites and many forms of recreation, is increasing




as populations and their mobility increase.  Furthermore, timber harvest




is predicted to decline 20% by the end of the century  (Oswald, 1970).




     Man's activities, such as logging, both fire prevention and fire




initiation, road and dam construction, clearing for transmission lines,




home building, inundation and stream diversions, surface mining, appli-




cation of pesticides and photochemical air pollution, have seriously




disrupted these forest ecosystems.  Extreme site deterioration has often




resulted from mining, burning and logging.  In these instances, bare soil




of the lower horizons is all that remains where trees once stood.  However,




less extreme site deterioration is more common, resulting in the replace-




ment of forests with brush species.




     Animals have played an influential and selective role in determining




the succession of vegetation following these disruptions.  They assist




in the incorporation of organic matter into the soil and in the release




to the soil of minerals tied up in plant residues.  As primary and




secondary consumers, pollinators, and disease vectors  they assist one




species to displace another.  Soil components, such as arthropods,




pathogens,  moisture, structure and chemistry, in turn  influence the




capacities of plants to tolerate animal damage.  Also, during vegetation

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                                                                C-2.
 succession there is a concomitant succession of arthropods in both existing




 and newly created aquatic habitats.




      Our approach will be to focus on the web of relations among arthropods




 exposed to high, moderate and low levels of photochemical air pollutants in




 an attempt to determine how these pollutants nfluence the capacities of




 plants to tolerate animal damage.  Also, during vegetation succession there




 is a concomitant succession of arthropods in both existing and newly created




 aquatic habitats.




      Our approach will be to focus on the web of relations among arthropods




 exposed -to high, moderate and low levels of photochemical air pollutants in




 an attempt to determine how these pollutants influence populations of arthro-




 pods that are 1) known or suspected to play crucial roles in changing age




 structure and species composition of vegetation; 2) occupy aquatic habitats,




 and 3) inhabit the soil.




      Because of the enormous number and diversity of this group of organisms




 their study in relation to air pollution is virtually unlimited.  Therefore,




 we propose that efforts be directed to at least the above major habitats in




 the mixed-conifer ecosystem.   The literature review is therefore limited to




 only a few key references for each study viewed as most promising in revealing




 the various impacts of photochemical pollutants on this ecosystem.  Of course,




 these studies must be integrated with the other components in order to qualify




 as ecosystem research.




      See page C-26 for a first approximation of the photochemical  air pollution



and consumer subsystem.

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                                                               C- 3.
I.   Terrestrial Habitats




     A.   The Role of  the Western Pine Beetle  in the  Succession of  the




          Mixed-Conifer Ecosystem Exposed  to Photochemical  Air  Pollutants.






     The western pine  beetle  (Dendroctonus brevicomis)  plays  a  significant




role in the  succession of coniferous  ecosystems  in western  North America.




In  the interior ponderosa pine  of the forests  in the  north  plateau  sub-




region, mature and overmature stands  are killed  by this bark  beetle in




patterns that favor both the  younger  and thriftier age-groups of ponderosa




pine (Keen,  1950).  The role  of this  primary tree killer in westside




mixed-conifer forests  is not  so clearly understood.   However, during dry




climate cycles up to 90% of some stands are killed (Keen, 1950).




     Man's activities  have created  conditions  which favor this  insect as




an  important agent in  changing  the  course  of plant succession.   Trees




injured directly through logging and  construction activity  and  indirectly




through changes in drainage patterns  become more susceptible  to infesta-




tation (Miller and Keen, 1960).  Thus, attraction centers are created,




which increases the risk of attack  on nearby uninjured  trees  (Hall  and




Pierce, 1965).  Certain root  pathogens (Fomes  annosus and Verticicladiella




wagenerii) predispose  ponderosa pine  to attack by this  bark beetle  (Cobb




et al., 1971).  The incidence of these root diseases  in second-growth




stands has probably been favored by logging activity.  Ponderosa pines




exhibiting advanced symptoms  of photochemical  air pollution injury  are




killed  by I), brevicomis and £.  ponderosae  at a much greater rate than are




healthy trees (Stark et al.,  1968).   (See  Appendix—"History  of Tree Losses




in the  Vicinity of Lake Arrowhead, San Bernardino County, California 1922-71")




Even-aged  stands,  resulting from logging activity at  the turn of the century

-------
                                                                C-4.
as well as those stands created by fire, are particularly  susceptible  to




the western pine beetle (Miller and Keen, 1960).  A light  selection  cut




has been found to reduce mortality from I), brevicomis in eastside  (Wickman




and Eaton, 1962) and in Southern California (Hall and Pierce, 1965)  forests.




     Techniques are now available to estimate the total population of




the western pine beetle and 80 species of parasites, predators and other




associated insects (Dahlsten, 1970; Otvos, 1970; Demars, et al., 1970).




This includes tree sampling methods (DeMars, 1970; Berryman, 1970) which




provide estimates of population variability between trees, and aerial




photographic techniques (Caylor and Thorley, 1970) which provide estimates




of the total number of infested trees over large areas.  Using life  tables




(DeMars et al., 1970) it should be possible to detect differences in




abundance and structure of populations in areas variously  exposed to




pollutants.  A highly detailed and structured data bank exists on western




pine beetle populations at Blodgett Forest for the last decade (Stark and




Dahlsten, 1970; Dahlsten, 1971) and at Bass Lake (Bedard and Wood, 1970)




and McCloud Flats (Gustafson et al., 1971) for two years.  Computer




programs are being prepared which will allow these data to be ordered in




a variety of ways so that they can be analyzed and used to produce dynamic




models of processes that determine abundance.  This background, together




with inputs developed from other studies in recent years,  notably from




plant pathology, physiology, soils, and vegetation, enables us to assess




when and how photochemical pollutants influence the abundance of western




pine beetle and its associated species, and, in turn, plant succession




in the mixed-conifer ecosystem.

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                                                                C-5.
     Similar studies  of  the mountain pine beetle,  Dendroctonus ponderosae,




 which is also exploiting pollutant-injured ponderosa pine,  could be undertaken.






     B.   Detection and  Quantification  of Vegetational  Changes Resulting




          from Bark Beetle  Activity  Induced by Photochemical  Pollutants.






     The determination of the amount and  distribution of producer and




 consumer biomass, and the rates at which  various processes  affect their




 accumulation and utilization, are important  aspects  in  the  ecosystem




 description and analysis.   The measurement methods used must  recognize




 and utilize the stand structure and  composition in a multi-stage  sample




 framework (Langley, 1969).  Aerial photography is the most  effective way




 to gain the maximum information from any measurement made on  the ground.




 Photographs allow identification of bark beetle activity (Caylor and




 Thorley,  1970;  Heller, 1968, 1970)  and conifer root diseases  (Hadfield,




 1970).   There is  a need to provide  this  support service to those




 researchers  in  all groups who require remote sensing information.  This




project  requires  a photography and  mapping unit which can consistently



and accurately provide:




         1.  Information about  broad classes of  vegetation and changes  in




             vegetation  for the entire  area.




         2.  Large scale photo  support  for ground  plots established by




             plant ecologists,  soil  scientists,  entomologists, pathologists,




             mammologists,  ornithologists and others.




         3.  Up-dated maps.




         4.   Tables measuring tree mortality and tree establishment trends.




         5.   Probabilities  for sampling frames of photo-detectable  charac-




             teristics.

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                                                                C-6.
     C.    The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollutants on Soil Arthropods.






     In recent years, the importance of soil animals has received increasing




attention (Wallwork, 1970).   They are significant in a number of areas




including the dynamic processes of soil formation, soil fertility as well




as nutrient and mineral cycling (Edwards et al., 1970).  In addition, the




influence of soil animals on pesticide degradation and movement in the soil,




as well as on other human waste products, is under investigation (Lechten-




stein, 1970; Dunger, 1968).



     With the acknowledged importance of soil animals from a number of




standpoints, the disruptive effects on the soil community resulting from




man's activities should be considered carefully.  Some of these influences




have been investigated, including pesticides (Davis, 1968; Barrett, 1968;




Edwards, 1970), fertilization  (Rapapat, 1964), radiation  (Edwards, 1970),




fire  (Buffington, 1967),  and agricultural practices  (Oliver, 1966).




Despite  recent  interest in these areas, more detailed, long-term investi-




gations  are  needed,  especially in the forest environment  where  soil




formation and  fertility are  largely  dependent on  natural  processes.   The




effects  of  logging,  silvicultural practices, road construction  and urban




encroachment,  and,  in particular  of  smog,  are becoming increasingly




important,  especially with  the mounting pressure  on montane recreational




areas (Huhta,  1967;  Moritz,  1965).   Recent work (Wenz and Dahlsten,




unpubJ.)  indicates  that  the  effect  of fire on soil  microarthropods can




be significant from the standpoint  of community simplification.  This




may be of  particular interest  with  the use of controlled burning as a




management  tool.

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                                                                C-7.
     The effect of changes on stand structure and composition caused by




photochemical pollutants offers an excellent opportunity to study the




concurrent effect on soil microarthropods.  Studies already underway




(Wenz and Dahlsten, unpubl.) permit comparisons with natural, undisturbed




areas.  Characteristics of such disturbances can be obtained, i.e.,




simplification of both numbers of species and number of individuals of




each species, rate of recovery, effects on predator-prey systems and




trophic level relationships.  The pattern of succession, accompanying




and affecting changes in the stand following damage by photochemical




air pollutants, can be studied, as soil organisms may be important in




vegetational succession (Shine, 1971).  Studies of forested areas under-




going the rapid changes exhibited in the San Bernardino Mountains should




be especially productive.






     D.  The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollutants on Sucking Insects.






     Sucking insects are a widespread and common group of insects in




montane forests.  Seldom, however, are they of any concern because of




their associated natural enemy complex which regulates their population




at levels below that which will cause economic concern (Huffaker et al.,




1971) .




     These insects are seldom pests when they do occur in large numbers,




but they usually indicate an environmental disruption (Dahlsten et al.,




1969).  Recent trends in land development of montane areas as well as




increased recreation activities in forested areas increases the need  for




the development of indicators of any adverse impacts from such activities,




The incidence of Phenacaspis pinifoliae, the pine needle scale, as well

-------
                                                                C-8.
as that of other scales and aphids, provides one of the potentially  good




indicators for monitoring these impacts.




     Personal observation, along with that of others (Buttrick, 1912),




indicates that pine needle scale survives better on trees which are  under




physiological stress.  Therefore, the environmental impact of such factors




as photochemical air pollutants, soil compaction, overwater or changes of




water table relationships, may all influence scale populations which in




turn may be a measure of disruption.  Matsucoccus aclyptus is presently




in outbreak phase on pinyon pine only in Southern California which may




be a symptom of photochemical air pollution injury to the tree or a  direct




affect on the parasitoid complex (Legner, unpublished data; U. C., Riverside,




Dept. of Biological Control, Exp't. Station Project 2729).




     Currently, at South Lake Tahoe, investigators are studying a pine




needle scale infestation which has resulted from thermal fogging of  insec-




ticides for mosquito control (Dahlsten et al., 1969).  Luck (unpublished)




has shown that the insecticide residue on the foliage is sufficient  to




cause mortality of the scale parasites.  Preliminary information suggests




that the tree's physiological state has an effect on the density of  scale.




Over-mature trees were more heavily colonized by scales.  The aphid,




Schizolacnus pini-radiatae, was also present in higher numbers immediately




following the cessation of fogging, while in untreated areas such




increases were not observed.




     Both the scale and the aphid have a moderately wide host range




(Terry,  1936; Palmer, 1952).  The scale very seldom, if ever, causes tree




mortality under forest conditions (McDaniel, 1929) and is noted for  its




large natural enemy complex (Thompson, 1946).  The scale is not a vagile

-------
                                                                C-9.
animal.   Population movements are restricted to the area around the




population (Brown,  1958) and hence there would not be a tendency to




migrate out of the area in which the disruption was occurring.  The




scale has only one generation per year and would therefore be most




effective as a monitor of chronic effects of photochemical smog.




Because the aphid produces many generations per year it could be an




excellent monitor of acute effects that may be expressed by diurnal and




seasonal variation in exposure to photochemical oxidants.




     With the increased impact of man on the forest ecosystem through




recreational activity and increasing technology, it is vital that we




develop the capability of predicting potentially serious and irrever-




sible environmental damage.  The sucking insects appear to have great




potential in developing such a capability.






     E.  The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollutants on Insects that




          Influence Tree Growth.






     Phytophagous insects exert a powerful influence on the growth rate




of host plants.  Since they feed selectively on only one or a few species,




they in turn influence their competitive ability.  Those insects which




affect commercially important tree species of the mixed-conifer forest have




received the most attention.




     The pine reproduction weevil, Cylindrocopturus eatoni, kills young




ponderosa and Jeffrey pines (Eaton, 1942; Stevens, 1965) while the




Yosemite bark weevil, Pissodes yosemite, kills ponderosa, Jeffrey, and sugar




pine (Stevens, 1966).  Thus, the age and species composition of young




forests can be greatly influenced by these insects.  A consequence of such

-------
                                                                C-10.
mortality is a change in the growth rate of the non-host species and




remaining individuals of the host species.




     Other insects directly affect the growth rate of young trees by




killing the growing terminal, as does the ponderosa pine tip moth,




Rhyacionia zozana (Stevens, 1966), or by consuming the foliage, as does




the pine needle sheath miner, Zellera haimbachi (Stevens, 1959).  Defoli-




ating insects such as the Douglas fir tussock moth Hemerocampa




pseudotsugata not only reduce the growth rate but can kill large trees




(Wickman, 1958).  Sawflies are another widespread class of defoliators




which potentially affect the competitive ability of their hosts (Struble,




1957; Dahlsten, 1961).  Neodiprion abietis (complex), N. fulviceps




(complex) and Zadiprion rhoweri which attack white fir, hard pines, and




pinyon pine, respectively, are important species in Southern California




forests.




     Non-commercial plants such as oak, manzanita, and bittercherry also




support an assemblage of insects which may kill them or affect their growth




rate.  The western forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma californicum




(Stelzer, 1971), and the ceanothus silk moth, Hyalophora euryalis  (Essig,




1926), are known to feed on a variety of brush plants.  During the summer




of 1971 there was a spectacular outbreak of the California tortoise shell,




Nymphalis californica, which caused extensive defoliation of Ceanothus  spp.




in northern California.  Until very recently, these plants were  classed as




woody weeds and any attention devoted to  them was directed at  killing them




so that they could be replaced by desirable species of  trees  (Bently,  1967)




Undoubtedly, photochemical pollutants will influence differentially these




brush species and their insectan herbivores.

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                                                               C-ll.
     F.  The Impact of Photochemical Air Pollutants on Arthropods




         Important to the Reproductive Biology of Vegetation in the




         Mixed-Conifer Ecosystem.






     Plant pathogens, vertebrates and invertebrates are all major factors




in the reproductive biology system of plants.  However, this outline




refers specifically to arthropod consumers.  Nectar and pollen gatherers




are considered as consumers.




     Recent studies in pollination biology (Levin, 1970; Levin and Anderson,




1970; Marshall and Jain, 1970) and in seed-consumer ecology (Janzen, 1969)




have indicated that arthropod interaction with plant reproductive biology




can exert very strong selective pressure on plant survival and distribution




patterns.  Arthropods play no apparent role as pollinators of the conifer




and Fagaceae components of the mixed-conifer ecosystem.  However, they are




critical to the pollination biology of other major plant species especially




in the Rhamnaceae (Ceanothus), and Ericaeceae (Arctostaphylos).  Pollen and




nectar production of numerous other plant species, especially the abundant




annual ground forms, play an important if not critical role as a food




source for many arthropod groups (Arthur, 1962; Leius, 1963, 1967; Syme,




1966; Thorpe, 1938, 1939).  For example, forest pest arthropods are para-




sitized or preyed upon by syrphids, clerids, tachinids, and ichneumonids,




among others.  These groups, along with such pest groups as the lepidopteran




defoliators,  require rich sources of amino acids and carbohydrate for




reproduction and energy.  They obtain these from the abundant flowering




plants  associated with the forest ecosystem.  Simultaneously, they serve




the reproductive biology of the plants by acting as pollinating agents.

-------
                                                               C-12.
     Studies of seed- and fruit-consumers apply to all plant species.




Many studies have described the presence and abundance of seed- and




fruit-consumer of conifers and other plants (Keen, 1958; Gashwiler, 1970;




Janzen, 1969; Powells and Schubert, 1956).  Generally these studies




conclude that a very large proportion (50-100%) of the seed crop is




selectively destroyed with such consistency that the structure of the




system is directly affected.




     Studies on pollination, pollen and nectar production and consumption,




and seed- and fruit-consumers could be designed to elucidate mechanisms




and interactions most sensitive to perturbations caused by photochemical




pollutants.  The distribution and abundance of consumers interacting




with plant reproduction systems can be identified and their effects




analyzed.  For example, the impact of decreased growth rate of ponderosa




pine caused by photochemical pollutants on the abundance and species




composition of the insects associated with the cones and seeds could be




readily determined.  Our knowledge of the biology and key interactions




with Ponderosa pine of such insects as Conophthorus ponderosae (Coleoptera:




Scolytidae) and Laspyrezia miscitata (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae) is




advanced.






     G.  The Impact of Photochemical Pollutants on Spider-Prey Relation-




         ships .






     Spiders are the only large class of arthropods all of whose species




are uniquely adapted as predators of other arthropods, especially insects.




Through their considerable species diversity and their capabilities  to




exploit numerous insect niches, spiders must exert tremendous pressure in

-------
                                                                C-13.
a myriad of ways upon various arthropods  in a mixed-conifer  ecosystem.




The presence in this ecosystem of approximately  150  species  representing




30 families has been observed only  recently (Dahlsten  and  Schlinger,




unpublished data).  Further, spiders  occupy all  available  habitats  from




those deep in the soil  (e.g., Antrodiaetus)  to those at  the  tops  of trees




(e.g., Paraphidippus).




     The importance of  spiders to forest  management  practices was




emphasized by Vite" (1953), and Kirchner  (1964),  who  advocated using




spiders to control forest insect pests.   Nevertheless, studies necessary




to substantiate the positions suggested by  Vite"  and  Kirchner (loc.  cit.)




have not been forthcoming.  Even in the large integrated ecological research




program of the "Soiling Project", there is  a conspicuous absence  of data on




these ubiquitous predators (Ellenberg, 1971).




     During the past 15 years, several useful specific studies have been




published concerning spider interactions  with litter and soil arthropods




(Huhta, 1965; Martin, 1965; Simon,  1966;  Clarke  and  Grant, 1968;  Moulder,




et al., 1970; Coyle, 1971), and several others concerning  spider  relation-




ships with certain defoliating insects have also appeared  (Turnbull,  1956;




Luczak, 1959; Loughton, et al., 1963; Dondale, 1966; Bosworth, et al.,




1971).  Similarly, a whole series of  useful papers concerning spider-




mosquito relationships has pointed  out the  potential value of spiders as




biological control agents for this  important group (Dabrowsky, 1966-1969).




     While the above kinds of studies are quite  useful, none attempts to




relate,  in more than a limited way, the complex  interactions that must  exist




between spiders,  primary consumers, other secondary  consumers, as well  as




reducers,  to  the whole of the ecosystem under study.   Since  some  spiders




are  long-lived and often move through different  habitats during the same or

-------
                                                               C-14.
different seasons during their lifetime, we might expect these species  to play




an entirely different role as predators than those which build webs or  those




which reside in burrows and are quite sedentary.



     Spiders often reach extremely high densities, even as high as 50/cu ft




(Schlinger et al., 1960a), and, at these densities, internal spider parasitoids




(Acroceridae) are quite evident (Schlinger, 1960b).  The effect of these




parasitoids on spider populations has not been carefully investigated,  and




since some of these parasitoids as adults are useful pollinators, i.e.,




Eulonchus spp. (Schlinger, 1960c; Grant and Grant, 1965), certain self-incom-




patible  plants may be greatly affected  (through the Eulonchus) by a drop in




or  the destruction of spider population.



     Gertsch  (1949) and recently Bristowe  (1971)  suggest that  spiders in




general  have  little preference for prey.  However, considerable specificity




has been noted (Schlinger, unpublished  data).



     Spider-prey  relationships could be elucidated concurrently with  the




preceeding studies of soil arthropods,  defoliators, sucking  insects,  and  insects




that influence plant reproductive biology.  Comparative studies  of  spiders




in  these diverse  habitats  and  in portions  of  the  mixed-conifer ecosystem exposed




to  high  and  low  levels  of  photochemical pollutants offer considerable promise




in  locating  some  of  the more subtle  but crucial impacts of  such pollutants on




this ecosystem.






     H.    The Impact of Photochemical  Pollutants on Insectivorous Birds.






     Previous studies  in California  (Dahlsten and Copper, unpublished) have




shown  that hole-nesting birds are an important component of the natural control




complex  of several  forest insect  pests.  In addition, the hole-nesting species,




particularly the mountain chickadee, lend themselves to study because  they nest

-------
                                                               C-15.
readily in artificial nesting sites.  Nest boxes have been used successfully




in California for six years (Dahlsten and Copper, unpublished).




     The effectiveness of birds as predators of specific insect species has




been debated, namely that avian predators are extremely important at low




insect population densities but are not important mortality agents during




insect epidemics.  Insectivorous birds have been studied extensively in the




Old World (Bruns, 1960; Poznanin, 1956) but have been ignored, by comparison,




in North America, particularly the hole-nesting species.  Studies by Buckner




and Turnock (1965) and Coppel and Sloan (1970) have shown the importance of




birds in the population dynamics of several defoliators in North America.




However, both of these studies concentrated on birds generally, rather than on




a single species, although they included hole-nesting species.




     The hole-nesting species receiving the most attention in North America




have been the woodpeckers.  Woodpecker predation on bark beetles has been studied




in detail for the spruce beetle, Dendroctonus (Otvos, in Stark and Dahlsten,




1971).  Woodpeckers have also been studied in relation to other woodboring




insects (Solomon and Morris, 1970).



     Many of the hole-nesting birds appear to be closely associated with




certain insect feeding groups (i.e., sucking insects, defoliators, and bark




beetles).  Thus, any change in age structure or species composition of insect




populations caused by the activities of man such as logging, road construction,




insect control,  home construction and photochemical air pollution undoubtedly




will in turn affect the populations of their avian  predators.









II.   Aquatic Habitats.



     Studies on  forest mountain aquatic ecosystems require as  intense a monitoring

-------
                                                               c-16.
program of the extraneous physical and chemical components of the water as




would be required for the atmosphere for the study of terrestrial ecosystems.




The present water quality monitoring stations operated by the United States




Forest Service at a number of locations in the San Bernardino National Forest




would be roughly equivalent to the function of the meteorological and moni-




toring program of the atmosphere to the forest ecosystem as a whole.  Data from




these monitoring stations should reflect the trends of nutrient flow from the




surrounding land masses, and therefore be of major importance to a study of




the terrestrial system.  Since these nutrients and other physical and chemical




qualities of the water affect the aquatic flora and fauna, the data from the




monitoring systems could be used to study the influences of these components




on aquatic life as well.  However, it must be emphasized that the aquatic




systems are as fully complex as terrestrial systems, and therefore the amount




of information obtained reflects only the amount of expertise and time




devoted to the study.




     In addition, water quality monitoring systems similar to ones proposed or




in operation in the San Bernardino Mountains should be extended to control




sites  (regions of no oxidant injury to terrestrial fauna).  This would permit




certain predictions about the amount of nutrient runoff resulting from the




impact of atmospheric pollutants on the Terrestrial system.




     The flora and fauna of aquatic systems have been receiving greater atten-




tion during recent years and a number of scientific studies have demonstrated




their usefulness as indicators of water quality  (Gaufen,  1957; Hynes,  1960,  1970,




and others).  Their role in serving as indicators is of major  importance,  but




it is also apparent that an understanding of the interactions  of  this  ecosystem




is important in itself in order to interpret the role of  aquatic  organisms and

-------
                                                                 C-17.
 and their interactions to the components of  the  forest  ecosystem.




      Initially a survey of the aquatic organisms  inhabiting water  sources




 in the study area would give some information as  to  the past, as well as the




 present, condition of the aquatic systems  (Tarzwell  and Gaufin, 1953; Gaufin




 and Tarzwell, 1956; Tarzwell, 1965; Gallup et al., 1970; Howmiller and Beeton,




 1971).   Changes in the populations of these organisms or displacement by other




 organisms might be reflected by an increase in a particular species.  For




 example, certain species of insects of public health importance such as




 mosquitoes,  chironomids,  simuliids, etc., are adversely or favorably affected




 by direct changes in water quality.  Indirectly,  certain predatory species,




 such as notonectids,  dytiscids,  Tricoptera, etc., which are important in




 regulating these insects,  might  be adversely affected,  resulting in an




 increase in the species  pestiferous to man.




     The direct impact of  air oxidant  pollutants  on aquatic systems has  not




 been studied  extensively.  However,  an area where the direct  impact of oxidants




 might be measured and followed is  the  surface microlayer.   As  pointed out by




 Parker  and Barsom (1970) "...this  thin horizontal layer  may have considerable




 ecological importance.  Not only is  the knowledge of  the natural chemical




 composition of  surface microlayers  on  lakes,  streams, and oceans fragmentary




 but  the  influences of substances introduced by man, such as petroleum, long




 chain-alcohols, synthetic pesticides and surface  active  compounds on  the biota




which inhabit the microlayer cannot be  estimated.  We submit that the interaction




of the microlayer with both the air and subsurface water may be  of  sufficient




ecological importance as  to be a major contributing factor  in  currently




unexplained problems of air and water pollution."

-------
                                                                C-18.
                              LITERATURE CITED






Barlett, B. R.  1964.  Integration of chemical and biological  control  ±n




     Biological Control of Insects Pests and Weeds, P. DeBach, Ed.,  Cahpman




     & Hall, Ltd., Lond. 844 pp.




Barrett, G. W.  1968.  The effects of an acute insecticide stress on a semi-




     enclosed grassland ecosystem.  Ecology 49:1019-1035.




Bedard, W. D., and D. L. Wood.  1970.  Field evaluation of synthetic pheromones




     for the suppression and survey of the western pine beetle.  Administrative




     study on file Pacific SW Forest and Range Expt. Sta., Berkeley, Calif.




Bentley, J. R.  1967.  Brushfield reclamation in California.  Proc.  of Symp:




     Herbicides and vegetation management in forests, ranches, and non-croplands.




     Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Oregon, P. 186-195.




Berryman, A. A.  1970.  Procedures employed in sampling the populations of




     insect predators attacking developing broods of the western pine  beetle.




     In Stark, R. W. and D. L. Dahlsten, eds. 1970.   pp. 66-74.




Bosworth, A. B., Haney, H. G., Sturgeon, E. D., Morrison, R. D., and R. D.




     Eikenbary.  1971.  Population trends and location of spiders in Loblolly




     pines, with notes of predation of the Rhyacionia complex.  Ann. Ent. Soc.




     Amer. 64(4):864-870.




Bristowe, W. S.  1971.  The World of Spiders.  304 pp. Collins, London.




Brown, C. E.  1958.  Dispersal of the pine needle scale Phenacaspis  pinifoliae




     (Fitch) (DiaspidaetHomoptera).  Canad. Ent. 90(11):685-690.




Buffington, J. D.  1967.  Soil arthropod populations of the New Jersey pine




     barrens as affected by fire.  Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 60(3):530-535.




Buttrick, P. L.  1912.  Notes on insect destruction of fire-killed timber in




     the black hills of South Dakota.  J. Econ. Entomol. 5(6):456-464.

-------
                                                               C-19.
Caylor, J. A., and G. A. Thorley.  1970.  Sequential aerial photography  as an




     aid in the evaluation of bark beetle population trends in westside  Sierra




     forests.  In Stark, R. W. and D. L. Dahlsten, editors.  1970.  pp.  8-32.




Clarke, R. D. and P. R. Grant.  1968.  An experimental study of the role of




     spiders as predators in a forest litter community,  Ecol. 49(6):1152-54.




Cobb, F. W., D. L. Wood, R. W. Stark and J. R. Parmeter, 1971.  Unpublished




     data.




Cobb, F. W., Gustafson, R. W., W. D. Bedard, and D. L. Wood.  1971.  Field




     evaluation of synthetic pheromones for the suppression and survey of the




     western pine beetle McCloud Flats, Shasta-Trinity Nat'l. Forest.   Pilot




     Control Study on file Branch of Pest Control, Regional Office, U.S.F.S.,




     San Francisco.




Coyle, F. A.  1971.  Systematics and natural history of the mygalomorph  spider




     genus Antrodiaetus and related genera Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 149:269-402.




Dabrowsky-Prot, E. et al.  1966-1969.  (A series of articles on spiders  and




     mosquito relationships, published mostly in Bull. Acad. Pol. Science).




     11 references in all.




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Dahlsten, D. L.  1970.  Parasites, predators, and associated organisms reared




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     56:357-366.

-------
                                                                C-20.
DeMars, C. J., Jr.  1970.  Frequency distributions, data  transformations,




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     D. L. Dahlsten, eds. 1970.  pp. 42-65.




DeMars, C. J., Jr., D. L. Kahlsten, and R. W. Stark.  1970.  Survivorship




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     1962-1965,  and a preliminary life table.  In Stark,  R. W. and D. L.




     Dahlsten, eds. 1970.  p. 134.




Dondale, C.  D.   1966.  Life histories of some common spiders from trees  and




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	•  1970.  c) The effects of gamma irradiation on population of
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-------
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-------
                                                               C-22.
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-------
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                                                                  C-26
          First Approximation:   Photochemical Air Pollution and



                   the Consumer Subsystem— Arthropods
                         ATMOSPHERIC  FACTORS
                          SECONDARY CONSUMERS
PRIMARY CONSUMERS
J TERTIARY CONSUMERS



CO
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•M
•H
i a
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a, a,




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                         POPULATION DYNAMICS
AQUATIC CONSUMER




   COMMUNITY
                                                  TERRESTRIAL CONSUMER




                                                      COMMUNITY

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                       Appendix Section C






APPENDIX:  HISTORY OF TREE LOSSES IN THE VICINITY OF LAKE ARROWHEAD,




            SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, 1922-1971
                                 by
               R. L. Dalleske, Consulting Entomologist




               R. A. Kimball, Assistant Entomologist
                        Berkeley, California




                            December 1971

-------
                                INTRODUCTION






     In order to assess a possible relationship between tree mortality due




to bark beetles and air pollution, an attempt was made to reconstruct the




history of tree losses in the vicinity of Lake Arrowhead, San Bernardino




County, California.  The literature used was comprised of reports from the




files and archives of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service,




Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California,




and the Region 5 Forest Service administrative office in San Francisco,




California.  The agencies responsible for the reports include the U.S. Forest




Service, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (BEPQ),  California Division




of Forestry, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), County of San Bernardino, and




the Zone 5 Flood Control District.  Undoubtedly, many old reports are on file




in state and county offices, and on Ranger Districts of the San Bernardino




National Forest, but these were not used in the present report.




     The use of infestation record sheets facilitated the summarization of the




loss figures  (Table  2, Figure  2).






                            AREA OF INFESTATION






     The area covered by this report includes Township 2 north, Range 2 west,




San Bernardino meridian; T2N, R3¥, S.B.M.; and T2N, R4W, S.B.M. (see map).




The respective names and abbreviations assigned the townships are Green Valley




(GV), Arrowhead (AH), and Crestline (C).  Historically,  the initial work was




done in the Arrowhead township, but later expanded to include Crestline, and




then Green Valley.  While the infested acreage has probably fluctuated widely




over time, the loss figures presented are within one of more of the above

-------
                                                                 il
townships.  Sporadic work was done in  the vicinity  of Big Bear Lake (T2N, R1E),




but was not included in this report.






                        INTERPRETATION OF TREE LOSS






     The history of tree loss due to bark beetles is  presented graphically in




Figure 1, and tabularly in Table 1.  Several points should be kept in mind when




interpreting these figures:




     1.  The figures are for several species of trees.  Only  in three instances




were the losses broken down by tree species, and even then, included a number




of "unknowns".  The four species represented by the figures are Ponderosa pine,




Coulter pine, sugar pine, and Jeffrey pine.




     2.  More than one infesting insect species is involved.   The most commonly-




mentioned species are Dendroctonus brevicomis LeConte, I),  monticolae (=ponderosae




Hopkins), I), jeffreyi Hopkins, Ips spp., and Melanophila  californica Van Dyke.




     3.  Some of the figures presented are estimates  of trees infested, others




are actual counts, and still others represent only the number of trees treated.




For information regarding figures for specific years,  see the appendix which




contains the infestation record sheets.




     4.  The figures do not include infested trees removed by logging on private




lands, nor do they include trees removed by private property  owners who never




reported their losses.




     5.  No exact figure of the spotting efficiency can be given, but it is assumed




that 10 to 15 percent of the infested trees in a given area were probably missed.




The unsuccessful eradication attempts by the CCC during 1933-34 probably reflect




to a certain degree the fact that not all infested  trees  can  be found, even by



an experienced spotter.

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                                                                 ill
     6.  Prior to  1940,  occasional  attempts were  made  at  spotting  and treating




 trees infested by  summer-generation beetles.   However,  practically all of  the




 control work was done in the winter or  spring  on  overwintering-brood  trees.  It




 is therefore assumed that many  infested trees  were never  counted,  since the




 summer generations were  largely ignored.  With the advent of year-round treat-




 ment , summer-brood trees were included  in the  count.




     7.  Some years (1928-30 and 1934)  show no infested trees.  However, this




 probably indicates waning interest  in control  activity  due to low  beetle




 population levels, rather than  a lack of infested trees.




     8.  The figures do  not include "pole-sized"  trees  which were  treated.




     From the above, it  is concluded that the  total tree  loss figures  for each




 year are conservative.






                              HISTORICAL NOTES






     The following is a  brief chronology of the history of tree losses  in the




 Arrowhead Lake area:




     1922-28.--The BEPQ  surveyed the area for  the first time in March  1922.




 Control work soon followed.  Excellent  records of trees spotted and treated were




 kept by BEPQ personnel.   Toward  the end of this period, the job was turned over




 to private landowners, the county forester, and the U.S.  Forest Service.  By 1928,




 the infestation was declared "under control".   (References 1, 12,  14,  15, 16,




 17, 23.)




     1929-32.—No control activity  due  to low beetle populations.   (Ref. 19.)




     1933-34.—An attempt was made  by the CCC  to  eradicate the bark beetle




populations  in the area;  it failed.  Field estimates of the 1931 and  1932 brood




trees were made during the treatment period.   (Ref. 2.)

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                                                                 iv
     1935-38.—Sporadic control attempts were made by private and government




agencies.  The infestation increased sharply, and it became apparent that a




more organized effort at control would have to be made.  It should be noted




that the figure for 1939 tree loss (Fig. 1 and Table 1) is a field estimate,




not an actual count.  (Ref. 10, 19, 20, 21, 22.)



     1939-52.—The Zone Five Flood Control Board issued funds in 1939 to aid in




a cooperative effort with private interests, the U.S. Forest Service, and the




California Division of Forestry, to cope with the increasing beetle populations.




By 1940, the populations were greatly reduced, and the control program became




one of "minimum maintenance".  During the period 1947-48, the infestation began




to increase, reaching a peak in 1951.  (Ref. 11, 18, 19.)



     1953-71.—The infestation has persisted at a much higher average level than




in previous years.  Annual maintenance control work has continued.  The infes-




tation reached its greatest peak in 1971.   (Ref. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 24.)






                                 DISCUSSION






     Despite the  conservative nature of the annual tree loss counts, the overall




trend toward an increase in loss is probably valid.  Particularly interesting




is the period from 1951 to the present.  If the peak loss years during this time




can be interpreted as  "outbreaks" and  the years between as "endemic" periods,




it can be seen that both are higher  than similar peaks and troughs prior  to 1951.




Also, it is during the post=1951 period that  smog  levels began to  increase in




this area.




     While it was not possible  to do so for the present  report,  it would be




desirable to inspect the treatment  records  kept by the various agencies  involved




to see if they include the species  treated.  If  this  information is  not

-------
available for each year, it might still be possible to calculate a correction




factor to estimate the number of infested ponderosa pines.




     One of the earliest reports remarked on the presence of bettle-infested




trees on or near construction sites.  It would be interesting to see if this




relationship has continued through the years.




     Finally, many of the old reports in the archives of the U.S. Forest Service




contain information which might be useful in reconstructing the history of the




Lake Arrowhead area with respect to logging, aforestation, fire, and other




factors leading to vegetational changes which might affect the beetle popula-




tions .

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                                                                vi
                              ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS






     The personnel of Forest Insect Research,  U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Pacific




Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, and the personnel of the




Regional Office of Region Five,  U.S.  Forest Service, were most cooperative in




compiling the information for this report.

-------
                                                                 vii
                                  TABLE 1.

                           Annual Loss, 1921-1971

                     Lake Arrowhead Infestation Area


YEAR          LOSS—(sum/ow)*         YEAR             LOSS—(sum/ow)

1921            76                    I960              804
  22            40  (13/27)             61             1869
  23             1                      62             2552
  24           207                      63             2432
  25           364                      64             2661
  26           172                      65             1750
  27            48                      66              995
1931            12*                     67              686
  32            15*                     68              722
  33           280                      69              922
  35            12                    1970             3820
  36           142  (82/60)             71             4145  (3224/921)
  37           233  (33/200)
  38           270
  39          2279* (1735/544)
1940           570
  41            62
  42            32

  ,,            ...           * sum = summer generations

  45            35
  ,,            ,fi             ow  = overwintering generation

  47            99
  48           121
  49           154
1950           275
  51          1250
  52           925
  53          1488
  54           756
  55           615
  56           568
  57           662
  58           772
  59           855

*Field estimates,  not actual counts.

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             TABLE 2
                                 INFESTATION  RECORDS
                                                            AREA:   LAKE ARROWHEAD-CKESTLINE

YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.



Total volume
(MBF),
by sup p.
Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
REF. NO. &
PAGE NOS.

1921-22
OW
SUR=BEPQ
CON=G&P

PP=20
CP=44
1 12u



PP=43.7
GP=33.33
U=27.0
AH
YES
(SEC'S)
14.pl-5,


1922
1922
SUM
CON=GIP


13 u
2




U=7.58
TT=6.81

AH
YES
(SEC'S)
15.1-6


1923
1922-23 1922-23 1923
OW OW SUM
SUR=BEPQ
CON=G&P NONE NONE

27 u
3




U-26.07


AH
YES
(SEC'S)
15.1-6 23.1 23.1


1924 1925
1923-24 1923-24 1924 1924-25 1924-25 1925 1925-26
OW OW SUM OW OW SUM OW
SUR=BEPQ NONE NONE SUR=BEPQ NONE ?
NONE CON=? 4 4 CON=G&P 6

1 u PP=114
CP=64
JP=2
U=27
U=27
5
NOT PP=79.81
GIVEN CP=69.83
JP=2.3
NOTM YES
GIVEN (SEC'S)
AH
23pl 23.1-2 23.1-2 23.1-2 23.2-7


                                                                                                                            <
                                                                                                                            H-
                                                                                                                            H-
NOTES:
1) 12 additional abandoned trees found; spp. unknown 2) 7 standing and 6 windthrown;  spp.  unknown; also
used 7 trap trees. 3) does not include several group killings of small trees  (15 pi.)  4) no work
performed, but "many" trees infested. 5) 250 trees  (spp. unknown) total, but  CA. 70 not  treated;  27
unknowns treated by LAC during the winter of '24-'25. 6) Survey report referred it,, but  not given (23.p7).

-------
                             INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                        AREA:   LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF) ,
by spp.
j Given
Location
(section, etc)

REFERENCES

1926
1925-26 1926
OW SUM
SUR=?
CON=G&P ?
1 1
364 u


NOT
GIVEN

YES—
AH-C

17.1-2
12.3
1.P1-2
1927
1926-27 1926-27 1927
OW OW SUM
CON=G&P
? SUR=G ?
1 2
172 u
3

U=151.42


YES—
MAP
AH-C
12.1-8
16. P2

1928
1927-28 1927-28 1928
OW OW SUM
CON=G&P
? SUR=G ?
2
48 u
4

PP=25.24
CP=3.89
SP=1.79
YES -MAP
AH-C

13.1-3
16. P2

1929
1928-29 1928-29 1929 1929-30
OW OW SUM OW

? NONE NONE NONE













NOTES:
1) Report missing (Funke, 1926). 2) Records vague. 3) 109 trees treated. 4) 18 trees treated.

-------
                                   INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                             AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE

YEAR 1930
1929-30 1930
GENERATION OW SUM
Survey or
control work NONE NONE
and group
# trees
found , by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
1931 1932
1930-31 1930-31 1931 1931-32 1931-32 1932
OW OW SUM OW OW SUM
both=
NONE 1 1 CCC 11
12 U
1
U=8.54
1
YES-
MAP
AH-C-GV
2.1-22

1932-33 1932-33
OW OW
both=
CCC 2
15 U 1
U=6.91
1
YES-
MAP
AH-C-GV
2.1-22
1933
1933 1933-34
SUM OW
both=
2 CCC
66 U 3
U=57.89
YES-
MAP
AH-C-GV
2.1-22
NOTES:
1) Figures are for abandoned trees found in fall of 1933-apparently an attempt was made to reconstruct
history of infestation for 1931 & 1932. 2) No record of work for these periods. 3) Includes Miller  Canyon.
                                                                                                                             x

-------
                                  INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                             AREA:   LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE

YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp .
Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
1934
1933-34
OW
both=
CCC
214 u
u=207.24
YES
Map
AH-C-GV
2.1-22
1935 1936
? 1935-36 1936
OW SUM
SUR= ?
BEPQ
10-12 82 u
possibly
not not
given given
AH AH
20.pl. 21. p2
1937
1936-37 1937
OW SUM
SUR= SUR=BEPQ
BEPQ CON=?
CON=LAC
60 u 33 u
?2
AH YES-
Map,
SEC'S AH
21.1-3 21. p2
NOTES:
1) "Not more than 10 or 12 of these dead trees  were seen in the  total  distance of 6.5 miles..."
pi.  2) "Figures not available." pi.

-------
INFESTATION RECORDS
AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE

TEAR
JENERATION
Survey or
control work
md group
f trees
iound by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
>y spp.
Given
location
[section, etc)
REFERENCES
TOTES :
1938
1937-38 1938
OW SUM
CON=LAC
U=200
not
given
AH
22.4.

1938-39
OW
SUR=BEPQ
U=270
not
given
AH-C-GV
22. pi, 4.
1) Only treated trees 2) gives
4) actual no . trees treated in
1939
1939
SUM
SMR=BEPQ
1735u
5
not
given
MAP
AH-C-GV
10.1-5
ave. DBH 3) estimate
AH-C-GV 5) estimated
1940 1941
1939-40 1940 1940-41 1940-41 1941
OW SUM OW OW SUM
CON=CCC both=
G&P
BEPQ
550pp3 U=570
544u4
not not „
given given
MAP* AH-C-GV
AH-C-GV
11. pp8-9 19.p4-8
*18.p8
of infested trees, but not all in AH-C
loss.

1941-42
OW
both=
G&P
U=62
1
2
AH-C-GV
19.p4-8


-------
                          INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                              AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR 1942
1941-42 1942
GENERATION OW SUM
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
Given
Location
(section, etc)
1943
1942-43 1942-43 1943
OW OW SUM
both=G&P
U=32
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
GV-AH-C
(maps)
1944
1943-44 1943.44 1944
OW OW SUM
both=G&P
u=28
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
GV-AH-C
(maps)

1944-45 1944-45
OW OW
both=G&P
U=41
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
GV-AH-C
(maps)
1945
1945 1945-46
SUM OW
both=G&P
U=35
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
GV-AH-C
(maps)
REFERENCES
                  19.p4-8
19.4-8
                                                                                     19.p4-8
                                                                                               19.4-8
NOTES:
1) Only treated trees
2) Gives ave. D8H
                                                                                                                            H-
                                                                                                                            H-
                                                                                                                            H-

-------
                                   INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                                     AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found , by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
V
1946
1942-43
OW
both=G&P
U=46
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
AH-C-GV
19.4-8
1947
1947-48
OW
both=G&P
U=99
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
AH-C-GV
19.4-8
1948
1948-49
OW
both=G&P
UXL21
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
AH-C-GV
19.p4-8
1949
1949-50
OW
both=G&P
U=154
1
NONE
GIVEN
2
AH-C-GV
19.p4-8
NOTES:
1) Only treated trees
2) Gives ave. DBH

-------
                                   INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                     AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE

YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
1950 1951 1952 1953
195°-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54""
ow ow ow
both=G&P both=G&P both=G&P both=P
5
Ca.275U Ca.l250U Ca.925U 1488U
1 3 4
NOT NOT NOT NOT
GIVEN GIVEN GIVEN GIVEN
2 2 2
AH-C-GV AH-C-GV AH-C-GV AH
19.p4-8 19.P4-8 19.p4-8 3.pl2
24.
NOTES:
1) Actually spotted only 210 trees-275 is an estimate. 2) Gives ave DBH 3) 963 trees treated 4) 841
trees treated.  5) 26,740 acres (Swain).

-------
  Given
Location
(section,etc)
REFERENCES
                                  INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                                   AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
_ 	 — 	 	
YEAR
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
#trees
found by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
1954 1955 1956
1954-55 1955-56 1956-57
OW
both=P both=P both=P
1 1 1
756U 615U 568U
NOT NOT
GIVEN GIVEN
1957
	 •••
both=P
1
66 2U

                  AH-C
                  4.pl2
                  24.
                                           AH-C
5.11
24.
6.11
24.
7.pl5
24.
NOTES:
1) 26,740 acres (Swain)

-------
                          INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                             AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR
   Given
 Location
 (section,  etc)
         1958
                  AH-C
                                                     1959
                  1960
AH-C
                    1961
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by supp.

2
bothXP
772 U

NOT
GIVEN
1959-60
both=P both=P
2 2
855 U 804 U1

NOT
GIVEN

both=P
2
1869 U


 REFERENCES
                  8.pl7.
                  24.
9.pl9
24.
24.
 NOTES:
1) + 130 abandoned.
2) 49273 Acres (Swain)

-------
                           INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                   AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR
  Given
Location
(section, etc)
         1962
                  AH-C
1963
1964
                                                                                                       1965
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
//trees
found , by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF),
by spp.
both=G
&P 1
2552 U
NOT
GIVEN
both=G&P both=G&P both=G
111
2432 U 2661 U 1750 U

REFERENCES
                                  24.
                                           24.
                                24.
                                  24.
NOTES:
1) 49,273 Acres (Swain)

-------
                            INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                                     AREA:   LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
YEAR
   Given

 Location

 (section, etc)
        1966
                  AH-C
1967
1968
                                                                                                        1969
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
#trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBF)
by spp.
both=G both=G both=G both=G
1 1 1 1
995 U 686 U 722 U 922 U
NOT
GIVEN
 REFERENCES
                                   24.
                                           24.
                                24.
                                                                                                               24.
 NOTES:
1) 49273 acres (Swain)
                                                                                                                            x
                                                                                                                            H-

-------
                                  INFESTATION RECORDS
                                                                                   AREA:  LAKE ARROWHEAD-CRESTLINE
  YEAR
  Given
Location
(section, etc)
REFERENCES
         1970
                  AH-C
                                  24.
1971
GENERATION
Survey or
control work
and group
# trees
found, by
spp.
Total volume
(MBP),
by spp.
both=G both=G
2 2
3820 U 3224 U 921 U
1
NOT
GIVEN
                                    24.     24.
NOTES:
1) to 9/30/71
2) 49,273 acres (Swain)

-------
                                                                   xxi
                   ABBREVIATIONS USED IN APPENDIX





SUE:      survey  work




CON:      control work




Pi        private concerns




G:        government concerns  (federal,  state,  local)




BEPQ:     U.S.D.A.  Bureau of Entomology  and Plant Quarantine




CCC:      Civilian Conservation  Corps




LAC:      Lake  Arrowhead  Company




AH:       Lake  Arrowhead  township




C:        Crestline township




GV:       Green Valley township




SEC's:    sections  (by number, township  and range)




SUM:      summer  generation




OW:       overwintering generation




CP:       Coulter pine




JP:       Jeffrey pine




PP:       ponderosa  pine




SP:       sugar pine




TT:       trap  tree




U:       unknown species, tree




SPP:     species

-------
                              LITERATURE CITED


Anonymous.  "Historical notes and miscellaneous field notes—San Bernardino
     National Forest".

Browne, A. C.  1934.  "Forest insect control work conducted in Southern
     California National Forests by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the
     season of 1933".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1954.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1953".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1955.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1954".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1956.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1955".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1957.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1956".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1958.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1957".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1959.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1958".

California Forest Pest Control Action Council.  1960.  "Forest Insect Conditions
     in California, 1959".

Carlson, S. T.  1939.  "1939 Forest insect survey, San Bernardino National
     Forest".

Dunston, C. E.  1940.  "Annual Report, Calendar year 1939, Region 5".

Funke, F. W.  1927.  "San Bernardino Project—Spring control work—1927".

Funke, F. W.  1928.  "San Bernardino Project—Spring control work—1928".

Hartman, R. D.  1922.  "Arrowhead Lake Project (formerly Little Bear Lake)".

Hartman, R. D.  1922.  "Report on the Arrowhead Lake Project for 1922".

Hartman, R. D., et al.  "San Bernardino National Forest—control data, 1922-39".

Miller, J. M.  1926.  "Memorandum for S. A. Nash-Boulden and County Forester
     Tuttle; Insect control—San Bernardino National Forest".

Miller, J. M.  1940.  "Forest insect control  in the pin areas of the San
     Bernardino County Flood Control District, Zone Five".

-------
Moore, A. D.  1953.  "A review of insect control in the Arrowhead-Crestline
     infestation area, 1921-53".

Patterson, J. E.  1936.  "Report of forest insect conditions in the southern
     National Forests of the California District—June 1936".

Patterson, J. E.  1937.  "Memorandum for Arrowhead Lake Company:  Reporting
     forest insect conditions in the coniferous forests surrounding Lake
     Arrowhead during the year 1937".

Patterson, J. E.  1938.  "Report of forest insect conditions in the southern
     National Forests of the California District, October-November, 1938".

Person, H. L.  1925.  "Arrowhead Lake Project, Spring control work—1925".

Swain, K.  1972.  "A broad evaluation of zones of infestation within the San
     Bernardino National Forest".  (Unpublished).

-------
  4OOO
<2 3000
4)
0>
-0

6
CO
CO
o
   2000
   1000
TOTAL  TREE  LOSS  PER  YEAR

LAKE  ARROWHEAD INFESTATION AREA
                       a * Field  estimate
                                   PI B» m ra
                                 1940    1945   1950

                                     YEARS
                                                                       p
1921  1925   1930    1935
       Figure 1.
                                          1955
I960   1965
1970

-------
     BARK  BEETLE   INFESTED  PONDEROSA PINES — WESTERN  SECTION,  SAN  BERNARDINO  N. F.
  200O
  1800
  I6OO
uj 1400
UJ
o:
  1200
a

U.J
  IOOO
   800
   6OO
   400
   200
RROWHI
ARROWHEAD -CR
UJ






UJ
ut
e
o
                                .UJ.
                                 x
AR
         TO777771 OVERWINTERING GENERATIONS


         HUH SUMMER GENERATIONS
—CRESTLINE —GREEN  VALLEY
SUMMER
936 SUMMER

937 SUMMER

                        Pi CM —
                        in r*) 
-------
                                                     Section D
                  OXIDANT AIR POLLUTION - METEOROLOGY



                                   by

                            James G.  Edinger

                        University of California

                        Los Angeles,  California
Committee Chairman:   James G.  Edinger
                     University of California
                     Los Angeles,  California

Principal Contributors:   Richard Minnich,  Geography
                         University of California
                         Los Angeles, California

                         Paul  R. Miller
                         Pacific Southwest Forest
                         and Range Experiment Station,
                         U.S.  Forest Service
                         Riverside, California

-------
                                                               D-2.
                    OXIDANT AIR POLLUTION - METEOROLOGY






Introduction




Meteorology is involved in a number of ways in determining the impact of air




pollution on an area.  Atmospheric motions determine the dilution of contami-




nants both horizontally and vertically and also prescribe the transport of




contaminants from source areas to receptors.  Consequently the exposure of




forest areas in the San Bernardino mountains to oxidant air pollution depends




not only upon the atmospheric conditions in these mountains but upon those




found in the remainder of the South Coast Air Basin as well.









Meteorology has many impacts on forest ecosystems in the area such as




temperatures, humidities, winds, and rainfall.  Although the emphasis here




is on the impact of air pollution, these other variables are of importance




also.  For example, the pattern of the strong, hot, dry, northeasterly




winds known as "Santa Ana winds" dictates the behavior of the wildfires




that periodically devastate large areas of forest and chaparral;  and the




pattern of rainfall (Fig. Dl) influences strongly the distribution of vegeta-




tion (Minnich, 1971).









This report, in presenting what is presently known, divides the material into




three parts:  (A) the large-scale meteorological features affecting the




transport and diffusion of air pollution in the South Coast Air Basin, (B)




the small-scale atmospheric phenomena generated by the local terrain




prescribing the details of pollution distribution, and (C) an estimate of the




distribution of oxidant air pollution in the San Bernardino Mountains based




on available oxidant concentration data combined with meteorological inference.

-------
                                                               D-3.
The meteorological data were compiled by the network of stations shown in




Figures 2 and 3.  These observational sites are operated by the U.S. Forest




Service, the California Division of Forestry, the California Division of




Water Resources, and the Big Bear Fire Department.   The oxidant data stem




from field investigations made by the U.S.  Forest service and the University




of California.




A.   Large-scale meteorological features




The various types of large-scale weather patterns can be separated into three




categories:  (a) those producing general on-shore flow, putting the San




Bernardino Mountains downwind of the nearly 100 mile expanse of urban and




industrial sources between these mountains  and the  coast,  (b)  those producing




prevailing off-shore flow leaving the mountains upwind of  the pollution




sources, and (c) those providing the mountains with polluted currents from




the basin in some sectors and with opposing currents of unpolluted air in




others.




     a.  On-shore flow




          The net daily motion of air across the basin is  usually from sea




          to land.  Particularly in Spring, Summer  and Fall, the presence of




          the north Pacific semi-permanent  anticyclone off the coast of




          California provides a northwest flow along the coast.  During these




          seasons a strong daytime sea-breeze coupled with a weak nocturnal




          landbreeze superposed on this northwest flow produce a net on-shore




          transport of air.  Typically marine air from the coast takes about




          one day to reach the San Bernardino Mountains.









          Associated with this northwest flow are large-scale subsiding




          motions aloft which create the persistent low level temperature

-------
                                                         D- 4.
     inversion lying immediately above the shallow, cool, moist marine




     layer.  The primary air pollutants are injected into this marine




     layer whereupon the inversion above, devoid of turbulent mixing




     motions, inhibits the vertical diffusion of the pollution from




     the marine layer.  The marine layer typically is a little less




     than 1000 ft deep as it crosses the coastline.  In the Spring it



     tends to be somewhat deeper and in the Pall a little shallower;



     however, day to day variations tend to be greater than these




     seasonal changes (De*farrai£> et al, 1965).








     During the Winter, occasional cyclone passages produce strong




     on-shore flow devoid of any low ^Level inversion.  With strong



     winds across the source area and no inversion to impede the verti-



     cal diffusion of the pollution, the air contamination reaching the




     San Bernardino Mountains is extremely dilute during these conditions,








b.   Off-shore flow



     Occasionally the typical weather pattern is interrupted by the




     development; of a strong high pressure area in the Great Basin



     resulting in a reversal of the general flow.  The most striking



     example of this phenomenon is the strong "Santa Ana wind".  In this



     situation the South Coast Mr Basin pollution is swept out to sea -



     and the threat of air pollution in the San Bernardino Mountains v




     is replaced by another hazard, the threat of wildfires.

-------
                                                                D-5.
      c.   Opposing flows




           Depending upon the strength of the high pressure system in the




           Great Basin and the pattern and strength of the winds aloft, the




           flow of air from the desert, through the passes and over the ridges,




           varies from the violent "Santa Ana wind" to a light northerly or




           easterly flow.  In the latter case, the winds may be sufficiently




           vigorous to halt the advance of the polluted up-slope flow in the




           passes and on the more exposed slopes.   On other occasions,  mainly




           in summertime, the opposing flows are provided by downdrafts under




           thunderstorms which develop in deep moist currents moving into the




           mountains from the south and southeast.






 B.   Small-scale phenomena




 The character of the terrain from the coastline inland to the peripheral




 mountain ranges prescribes the nature of the small-scale meteorological




 factors which perturb the general flow.   The differential heating of land and




 sea impose the diurnal variation of sea- and land-breeze in the basin, typi-




. cally developing air motions as vigorous as the general flow upon which they




 are superposed.   The mountain ranges are obstacles to the cool dense marine




 air and steer it like a polluted stream  into the  passes on either side of the




 San Bernardino Mountains.   At the same time, the  heated daytime slopes of the




 mountain ranges  heat that  part of the marine layer coming into contact with




 them,  thus forming  a buoyant layer that  ascends the slopes to the ridges and




 peaks.   This  film of heated air rising along the  slopes, often referred to




 as  a thermal  chimney,  vents polluted air out of the basin.

-------
                                                                D-6.
 The heated coastal plain and floors of the valleys leading from the coast to




 the San Bernardino Mountains systematically raise the temperature of the




 marine layer as it moves inland.  At some point during this journey the marine




 layer becomes sufficiently warm to destroy the inversion; i.e. air in this upper




 layer is no longer warmer than the marine layer below.  The polluted marine




 layer is then free to mix vertically with the pollution-free air above and




 this active dilution results in a systematic decrease in pollution concen-




 trations as the air travels inland.   Typically this  final demise of the




 inversion occurs in the mountain passes  and in the thermal chimney along the




 basin-facing slopes.  The peripheral ranges, of which the San Bernardino




 Mountains are a part,  then,  typically delineate the  inland limit of the




 polluted marine layer trapped beneath £he inversion.   At and beyond this




 limit a rapid decrease in concentrations takes place via vertical  diffusion




 providing the marked improvement in visibility from  the  coastal  side of the




 peripheral ranges  to the desert.








 At  night a weak off-shore flow replaces  the more vigorous  daytime  on-shore




 flow in the basin.   The mountain slopes  and canyons become the site of




 drainage winds.  Mountain basins  such as  that  at Big  Bear  impound  the chilled




 air moving  down the  slopes to  form a strong nocturnal  temperature  inversion.




 In  general,  then,  the nighttime hours  are  characterized  by a  retreat of  air




 from  the mountains.




 C.   Distribution of oxidant in  the  San Bernardino Mountains




Measurements of  the oxidant concentrations  in  the San  Bernardino Mountains




have been made since 1967  (Miller, 1971).   These surface observations have




been supplemented by measurements aloft during several intensive field

-------
                                                              D- 7.
experiments (Edinger et al, 1970);   These studies reveal several important




facets in the distribution of oxidant in the mountains.









At elevations above the top of the inversion (average about 3500 ft) the




exposure to oxidant falls off with distance downwind.  The graph in Fig.' D4,




based on October 1967 data, illustrates that both the average daily total




oxidant maximum and the number of hours when total oxidant exceeded 0.10 ppm




decrease with distance downwind from Rim Forest (5,780 ft).









Observations made on the slopes below and upwind of Rim Forest in June




1970  indicate that the maximum concentration actually occurs at about




3500  ft.   This is the typical elevation of the top of the temperature




inversion  and is the altitude on the mountain slopes where the rapid




vertical diffusion of polluted marine air begins.  The concentrations




tend  to decrease slightly with distance downslope (upwind) from the




3500  ft contour.  Some features of  the vertical distribution of pollution




in the marine layer prior  to its arrival at  the mountains  suggest reasons




for this result.









The measurements made by  aircraft over  the urban  source  areas  upwind  of




the mountains indicate that  the pollutants are not uniformly distributed




vertically in the layer beneath the inversion.   Figures  D5 and D6  are




typical examples of  soundings of  oxidant and temperature from  the




surface up through  the marine layer,  inversion layer and the air above.

-------
                                                          D-8.
They illustrate the tendency for a maximum concentration near the base




of the inversion.  Frequently this maximum actually occurs in the very




lowest layer of the inversion.  Earlier observations (Sdinger, 1963) of




high moisture content in the lowest part of the inversion support the




hypothesis that the uppermost part of the marine layer is a layer of




convective debris that accumulates just below the warm dry inversion




air above.  Being warmer than the remainder of the marine layer below,




this debris becomes an extension downward of the inversion.  It does




not mix subsequently with the marine layer below and so is not subject




to those reactions with new material introduced at the ground which




consume oxidant.  Consequently the photochemical processes which




create the oxidant proceed unopposed in this lowest part of the inversion.








Not infrequently the aircraft soundings also revealed layers of high




oxidant content completely imbedded within the inversion as illustrated




in Figures D7 and D8.  Visual and photographic evidence suggests that




these layers of photochemical aerpsol are injected into the inversion




from the polluted thermal chimney moving up the slopes of the San




Gabriel Mountains on the north.  Encapsulated in the inversion where




no mixing motions exist to diffuse and disperse them and where no




destructive reactions operate, these layers also achieve high oxidant




concentrations.  These layers come into contact with the slopes of the




San Bernardino Mountains near the 3500 ft level.  This is the level at which




maximum oxidant concentration is observed.








The basic processes working in concert to produce the vertical profile

-------
                                                           n-9.
 of oxidant delivered from the source area to the slopes of the San




 Bernardino Mountains are summarized in the sketches shown in Fig. D9.  On




 days  when the inversion is weak (i.e.  when there is little difference in




 temperature from the base to  the top of the inversion), it will be destroyed




 by convective erosion from below prior to its  arrival at the San Bernardino




 Mountains.  On such days the  polluted current  will be deep and dilute




 upon  arrival at the mountains and fairly uniform vertically.  On the




 majority  of days,  however, the inversion is strong enough to reach the




 slopes  of the San  Bernardino  Mountains intact,  although thinned and




 weakened  substantially by the erosion from below.   The  final breaking




 of the  inversion occurs in the thermal chimney.   At this point, typically




 3500  ft.,  the pollution encapsulated in the inversion is released into




 the upslope flow.   This is a  possible  explanation for the maximum in




 concentrations observed at this  level.









 Fig.  DID  shows the area between  3000 and 4000  ft.  on the basin-facing




 slopes  of the San  Bernardino  Mountains  where the maximum oxidant concen-




 trations  are  to be expected.   This  area extends  laterally from Cajon Pass




 to San  Gorgonio Pass.   Since  Cajon  Pass at  its  summit has an elevation




 of 3500 ft.,  the zone  of maximum concentration  should terminate near the




 summit  because at  this  elevation even  the uppermost part of the inversion




 is  finally affected by  surface heating  and  is destroyed.  However, in San




 Gorgonio Pass  the  summit is at approximately 2500 ft; therefore, the polluted




 air, with  inversion intact, can  flow through the pass for some distance




before  the  inversion is  broken.   Consequently,  the zone of maximum concentra-




 tions should extend some  distance around the south side of the San Bernardino




Mountains  into  the desert.  Just how far depends upon such variables as the

-------
                                                          D-10.
strength of the inversion, the wind speed, and the time of day, in




addition to the height of the top of the inversion.









It is difficult to specify the lateral variation of oxidant concentrations




along this maximum zone.  Some variability is expected since the broad




polluted stream from the basin source area is not homogeneous laterally.  In




addition, the trajectories from the sources vary from day to day and also




influence the lateral distribution.  The scant data taken immediately upwind




of the mountains substantiate this conclusion.  Table Dl shows the mean daily




maximum values of oxidant at Riverside and San Bernardino for the years 1968,




*69, and '70.  During this period the values at Riverside consistently




exceeded those at San Bernardino by close to 33%.  If this is representative




of the lateral distribution of oxidant before it reaches the mountains, a




similar gradient of concentration along the 3500 ft contour can be expected.








As previously indicated, concentrations also decrease with distance downwind




from the 3500 ft contour on the basin-facing slopes.  Taking this into account




along with the lateral gradient described earlier, a simplistic typical hori-




zontal distribution of oxidant throughout the mountains can be projected.  A




host of local terrain effects distorts this general picture, as do anomalous




local weather events.  Summer thunderstorms, in particular, profoundly alter




the pollution distribution in the mountains.  Minnich (1967) has made a




study of these storms and the distribution of thundershowers over the range.




Fig. Dll gives a distribution of the rain days resulting from summertime




convection.  The locations having the maximum number of rain days are likely




to be the sites experiencing diminished air pollution.  The downdrafts




produced by the precipitation oppose the upslope  flow which otherwise

-------
                                                          D-ll.
delivers pollution from the source areas.   Furthermore,  the shade




afforded the slopes by the clouds dramatically weakens the heating




responsible for the upslope motion.   The difference in the number




of rain days from place to place within the range is seen to be




substantial, varying from 4 per summer season at the west end to




30 near the summit of San Gorgonio Peak.









Another complication affecting the distribution of oxidant on the slopes




is the lateral distribution of oxidant imbedded in the inversion before




it reaches the range.  If this source of oxidant, as suggested earlier,




is largely responsible for the maximum concentrations observed at the




3500 ft level on the slopes, the lateral distribution of oxidant within




the inversion could influence the pattern of oxidant across the range




at all levels above 3500 ft.  However, until observations concerning




this lateral distribution in the inversion can be made,  no positive




conclusions can be drawn.









Other influences are introduced by smaller terrain features within the




mountains such as south-facing vs. north-facing slopes,  box-canyons vs.




through-canyons, broad valleys and basins vs. deep narrow canyons.  All




these have their own unique influence on the transport and turbulent




diffusion of polluted air passing over and through them.  Each location




requires its own special study as regards these micrometeorological




details, a task beyond the scope of this discussion.









With the limited information available, a description of  the  impact  of




air pollution and its geographical distribution  throughout  the San

-------
                                                           - 12.
Bernardino Mountains must be  in  the broadest of  terms.   To  summarize,




the impact of oxident poJtlutipn  depends upon the following  factors




related to atmospheric  conditions:  a) whether the site  is  facing the




basin  (south-facing) or facing the desert  (north-facing), b) whether




the basin^facing slopes are above or below 3500  ft, c) the  distance




downwind on slopes above 3500 ft when the  wind is from the  basin, d)




the average wind speed  from the  basin and  e) the frequency  of summer




thundershowers at the site.









Among  the factors listed above only the effect of the wind  speed has




not been discussed.  Wind speed  influences  the reactions between oxidant




and the trees.  Assuming that the rate at  which  the reactions take place




increases with heavier  oxidant concentration, the rate at which the




oxidant is delivered (the wind speed) is involved.  Thus, the greater




the wind speed the more rapidly  oxidant is  replenished.








The average wind at a location is affected greatly by the terrain.  The




windiest locations are:  (a)  passes low enough to admit  the marine layer




still  capped by the inversion, (b) tops of  long  steep slopes, (c) heads




of canyons on the sunny side  of  the range,  and (d) the crests of steep




low ridges extending out into passes across the  general  flow.








Since  our concern lies with forests susceptible  to oxidant  damage, the




area of concern is limited, as shown on the map  in Fig.  D10, to those areas




where  pqnderosa and Jeffrey pines are found.  These areas all occur above




the 3500 ft. contour which, as discussed above is the site  of the maximum




oxidant concentrations.

-------
                                                            D-13.
 Certain locations in the San Bernardino Mountains have been selected to




 identify the places where the greatest impact of oxidarit air pollution on




 ponderosa and Jeffrey pine forests may be expected.  These maximum impact




 areas are:  (A)  Rim Forest,  (B)  Camp Angeles, and (C) the upper end of




 Mill Creek canyon above 6000 ft.   The sites selected where impact should




 be minimum are (D)  Big Pine  Flat  and (E)  the east end of the Big Bear Basin.




 These selections are not all inclusive nor are they absolute, but should




 be considered as best estimates  subject to revision when more complete




 data coverage in the mountains becomes available.  Certainly the sparse




 data currently at hand suggests great variability from place to place




 and from time to time.  Consider,  for example,  the data in Table D2,  which




 contrasts daily  maximum oxidant values at Rim Forest with those at the




 east end of Big  Bear Lake for August and  September 1968.   As our simple




 criteria would require,  the  values  at Big Bear  are much lower than those




 at Rim Forest.   However, Table D3,  indicating the highest daily maximum




 values reported  at  the two stations,  shows that for both  months the




 highest individual  readings  were reported at  the Big Bear station.




 Some special array  of meteorological and  source factors combined to




 deliver higher concentrations of oxidant  to the more remote location  on



 these days.









 The  conclusions  reached  in this section were  constructed  on slim data and




 therefore  must be considered very  tentative.  Nevertheless, the data




 available  does permit  a  few  firm conclusions.   The San Bernardino Mountains




 encounter  air with  oxidant concentrations  exceeding the State ambient




 air quality standards  every  day from May  through September.  In its 1970




Annual Report the San Bernardino County Air Pollution Control District

-------
                                                          D-14.
reported that the standard (0.10 ppm of oxidant) was exceeded in the city




of San Bernardino on 167 days during that year.  The analysis above




indicates the concentrations in the San Bernardino Mountains downwind of




the city are even higher.  The data also clearly indicates that marked




differences in the impact of air pollution occur within the range; in




particular, marked decreases in the downwind direction above 3500 ft.








More detailed analysis of oxidant distribution in the range requires more




complete networks of data at the surface and aloft, within the mountain




range and upwind.  In the last analysis, however, the most telling data




concerning the meteorological details may well be non-meteorological infor-




mation, such as the detailed distribution of oxidant damage to vegetation




throughout the San Bernardino Mountains.  The initial efforts in this field




by Miller (1971) and Wert (1969) have already provided important Insights.

-------
                                                               D-15.
Acknowledgements




Special thanks are due Paul Miller and Rich Minnich for providing not only




firm facts and figures but some very suggestive observations that otherwise




would remain invisible between the rows and columns of figures.

-------
                                                               D-16.
                             Literature  Cited


Minnich, R. A., 1971:  An analysis of annual rainfall in the San Bernardino
     Mountains,  (private communication)

DeMarrais, G. A., G- C. Holzworth, and C. R. Hosier, 1965:  Meteorological
     summaries pertinent to atmospheric transport and dispersion over southern
     California, Tech. Paper No. 54, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
     86 pages.

Miller, P. R., 1971:  Oxidant^induced community change in a mixed conifer
     forest, American Chemical Society Symposium, April.

Edinger, J. G., M. H. McCutchan, P. R. Miller, B- C. Ryan, M. J. Schroeder,
     and J. V. Behar, 1970:  The relationship of meteorological variables
     to the penetration and duration of oxidant air pollution in the eastern
     South Coast Air Basin, Project Clean Air, University of California
     Research  Reports, Vol 4, Research Project S-20.

Edinger, J. G., 1963:  Modification of the marine layer over coastal southern
     California, J. Appl. Meteor. 2 (6), 706-712,

Minnich, R, A., 1971:  Distribution of thundershower days in the San Bernardino
     Mountains, Summer 1967, (private communication).

Wert, S. JL., 1969:  A system for using remote sensing techniques to detect
     and evaluate air pollution effects on forest stands, Proc. of the sixth
     international symposium on remote sensing of environment, Vol II pp 1169-
     1183.  (Willow Run Laboratories, University of Michigan).

-------
Table Dl.  Yearly mean of the daily maximum hourly average




           Concentration of oxidant for the cities of San




           Bernardino and Riverside,  (ppm)

1968
1969
1970
San Bernardino
.09
.11
.12
Riverside
.13
.15
.15

-------
Table D2.  Average daily maximum oxidant concentration at



           Rim Forest^ and Big Bear for August and September



           1968,
1968
Aug
Sept
Rim Forest
,21
.17
Big Bear
.12
.08
Table P3.  Highest daily maximum oxidant concentration recorded



           at Rim Forest and Big Bear for August and September



           1968.  (ppm)
1968
Aug
Sept
Rim Forest
.32
.31
Big Bear
.37
.33

-------
 Figure  legends
 Fig

 Dl   Average  annual  rainfall in  San Bernardino Mountains,  1870-1970,
      (inches)

 D2   Weather  stations  recording  observations  at  14:30  (USFS)  or 14:00 PST

 D3   Weather  stations  making night wind  observations and  fire lookout
      observations  (07:00 PST)

 D4   Average  daily total oxidant maximum and  number of hours  when total oxidant
      exceeded 0.10 ppm, as  a function  of distance  downwind from Rim Forest,
      October,  1967.

 D5   Vertical soundings of  oxidant and temperature, 16:20  PST,  June 20, 1970,
      Rialto-Miro  airport.

 D6   Vertical soundings of  oxidant and temperature, 13:44  PST,  June 19, 1970,
      El Monte.

 D7   Vertical soundings of  oxidant and temperature, 13:28  PST,  June 20, 1970,
      Santa Monica.

 D8   Vertical soundings of  oxidant and temperature, 13:28  PST,  June 20, 1970,
      Santa Monica.

 D9   Schematic vertical cross-sections illustrating meteorological features
      that influence  the vertical distribution of air pollution in the South
      Coast Air Basin.

 D10   Map of San Bernardino  Mountains.  Elevation in thousands of ft mean sea
      level given  by  numbers of contours.  Stippled area  denotes location of
      ponderosa and Jeffrey  pines.  Hashed area denotes zone of expected
      maximum oxidant concentration.

Dll   Number of thunderstorm rain days, June 28 - Sept  10,  1967.

-------
15

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-------
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Figure D-3

-------
	AV<3. DAILY  MAX. OXIDANT (PPM)
5
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-------
    0
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OXIDANT (PPM)

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                        Figure D-5

-------
              O.I
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             OXIDANT
                    TEMPERATURE
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                      Figure D-6

-------
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             OXIDANT
            TEMPERATURE
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                  TEMPERATURE (°C)
                   30
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                      Figure D-7

-------
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                    TEMPERATURE
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-------



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-------
                                                        Section E
GEOLOGY, SOILS AND HYDROLOGY OF THE SAN BERNARDINO MOUNTAINS
                  L. J. Lund and A. L. Page
                        Coordinators
                        Contributors

                  Willie Z. Brock
                  Soil Scientist
                  U. S. Forest Service
                  144 North Mountain View
                  San Bernardino, Ca.  92408

                  W. N. Johnson
                  Hydrologist
                  U. S. Forest Service
                  144 North Mountain View
                  San Bernardino, Ca.  92408

                  Lanny J. Lund
                  Assistant Professor
                  Department of Soil Science and
                    Agricultural Engineering
                  University of California
                  Riverside, Ca.  92502

                  Albert L. Page
                  Associate Professor
                  Department of Soil Science and
                    Agricultural Engineering
                  University of California
                  Riverside, Ca.  92502

-------
                      TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                            Page
GEOLOGY	   2
SOILS
DRAINAGE BASINS AND RUNOFF	12
EROSION, SEDIMENTATION AND WATER QUALITY	15

-------
                                                                 E-2
     The San Bernardino Mountains are part of the Traverse Range




Province that extends from west to east across parts of Santa Barbara,




Ventura, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and Riverside Counties, Cali-




fornia (Bailey and Johns, 1954).  They are situated between 116 30'




and 117°30' West Longitude and 34°00' and 34°25 '  North Latitude.  The




San Bernardino National Forest in this area is bounded on the north by




the Mojave Desert, the east by the Little San Bernardino Mountains, the




south by the Upper Santa Ana Valley and Yucaipa-Beaumont Plains, and on




the west by the San Gabriel Mountains.




     The San Bernardino Mountains are characterized by deep, steep-




walled canyons and altitudes ranging from 4,000 to over 11,000 feet




(Figure EH) .  A subdued upland surface which is discontinuous is found




in the Lake Arrowhead-Big Bear Lake region and is covered primarily by




conifer forest.  San Gorgonio Peak, the highest point in southern




California (altitude 11,502 feet), is located in the eastern end of the




San Bernardino Mountains along with many other prominent peaks and ridges.






                                GEOLOGY





     A generalized geologic map of the San Bernardino Mountains is




shown in Figure E2.  This range was formed by uplift along the San




Andreas fault zone on the south and along several steeply dipping




reverse faults on the north.




     The area is  composed mainly of gneisses, schists, plutonic rocks,




sediments,  and recent alluvium,  the Cactus granite formation (Miller,




1946), which is mainly a light-colored quartz monzonite of Mesozoic age,




is exposed  over a large portion of the mountain area, especially in

-------
                                                                E-3
 the Lake Arrowhead  region.   This  exposure  is  found  primarily  on  the




 subdued upland  surface.   Metomorphosed  sedimentary  rocks  of Paleozoic




 age are abundant  in the  area and  numerous  intrusions  of metomorphosed




 rocks  are  found in  both  the Cactus  formation  and  other plutonic  bodies.




 Sedimentary rocks of Pliocene and Pleistocene age are .also found in  the




 area along with Recent alluvium.




     The texture  of the  rocks found in  this mountain  area vary from




 fine textured volcanics  to  gravels  which contain  boulders several feet




 in diameter.  Rocks which have been fractured and broken  to a great




 extent are found  in much of the mountain area, especially near faults




 and in fault zones.  In  some areas  only normal jointing and fracturing




 are exhibited by  the rocks.  The  presence  or  absence  of fractures and




 joints is  important to the  hydrologic characteristics of  the area in




 their  effect on infiltration and  runoff.






                                  SOILS





     Soils have formed in the San Bernardino  Mountains through the




 influence  of  climate, relief, vegetation,  parent  materials and time.




 The climate varies  from  semi-arid to humid depending  on altitude.  The




 vegetation varies from chamise chaparral on the foothills to coniferous




 forest in  the Lake  Arrowhead regions.   These  factors  are  discussed in




 following  sections.




     As noted in  the geology section, parent  materials vary from Recent




alluvium to weathering products of  Pre-Cambrian rocks.  Igneous, sedi-




mentary and metamorphic  rocks are present  to  serve  as sources of parent




material as well  as alluvium derived from  these sources.  The types  of

-------
                                                                E-4
parent material have influenced the texture, depth, and other properties




of the soil found in this area.




     Relief has been an important factor in soil formation in this area.




Slopes vary from nearly level to nearly vertical.  Soils found on steeply




sloping  land are generally shallow due to erosion processes during soil




formation.  Deeper soils are found on landscapes that are more stable




such as  on the relatively subdued upland surface around Lake Arrowhead.




     The effects of climate and vegetation are impared on the parent




materials.  As parent materials are exposed to climate and vegetation




for longer periods of time, soil formation processes result in deeper,




finer textured soils.  If relief is such that erosion would equal soil




formation, time would have little effect on soil properties.




     The various geologic materials in the San Bernardino Mountains




have weathered by physical and chemical processes to form parent




materials.  These parent materials have been differentiated into soil




profiles by the processes of additions, removals, transfers and trans-




formations.  Differences in the rates of these four processes have




resulted in the formation of different soils.




     Soil bodies which are similar in all properties (color, structure,




depth, pH, etc.) except surface texture, are grouped together into a




classification category, soil series.  Soil types and soil phases which




are subdivisions of soil series are used as mapping units when mapping




soils within an area of interest.




     No general mapping has been done in the San Bernardino Mountains;




however, some mapping has been done by the U. S. Forest Service and the

-------
                                                                 E-5
 Soil Conservation Service  in small areas within the  San Bernardino

 Mountains.  The  soil  series  that  have  been mapped  in these  areas are

 given  in Table El along  with  some  of their  important  properties.  Other

 soil series which may occur  in the Lake Arrowhead  region are given in

 Table E2.  Since  little  mapping has been done,  few  series have been

 described and correlated for this area.  Some  of the  series names given

 in Table Elare those  which most nearly represent the  observed soil

 characteristics.

     Most of the  soils  mapped are coarse textured, well  drained and

 have a  low water  holding capacity.   These  properties  are primarily the

 result  of relief  and  parent  materials.  Two soil series which may occur

 in the  San Bernardino Mountains are Chawanakee  and Shaver.  These may

 represent somewhat a  set of  end-members of the  soils  found in this area.

 The former is a shallow soil and  the latter a deep soil.  The official

 description of these  series  is  as  follows:


                           Ghawanakee Series

     The Ghawanakee series is  a member of the loamy, mixed, mesic,

 shallow family of  Dystric Xerochrepts.  Typically, Chawanakee soils

 have grayish brown, medium acid,  coarse sandy loam A horizons and very

 pale brown, medium acid B2 horizons  overlying strongly weathered

 granitic bedrock.

Typifying Fedon:    Chawanakee coarse sandy loain - forested.
                    (Colors  are for dry soil unless otherwise stated.)

01    1-1/2-1/2"  -- Grayish  brown,  dry, loose litter  of bear clover,
           leaves  and twigs with occasional pine needles.

02    1/2-0" -- Very dark grayish brown partly  decomposed litter,
           weakly matted.

-------
                                                               E-6
A1      0-6" -- Grayish brown (10YR 5/2)  coarse sandy loam,  very dark
           grayish brown (10YR 3/2) moist;  moderate medium and fine
           granular structure; slightly hard,  friable;  many  fine^small
           shrub roots; many small pores; medium acid (pH 5.7); diffuse
           smooth boundary.   (3 to 6 inches thick)

B2     6-18" -- Very pale brown (10YR 7/3)  coarse sandy loam, brown
           (10YR 5/3) moist; very weak fine granular structure; hard,
           friable, few small shrub roots;  some continuous pores;
           medium acid (pH 5.7); abrupt irregular boundary.   (8 to
           30 inches thick)

C     18-32" — Pale brown disintegrated  and partly decomposed parent
           rock; mineral grains retain original orientation; thin
           discontinuous reddish brown (SYR 4/4 and 4/6, dry) clay
           films on some mineral grains and partially fills  some
           spaces between grains, diminishing with depth, disappearing
           below 30 inches;  grades to unweathered rock at undetermined
           depth.


                             Shaver Series

     The Shaver series is a member of a coarse-loamy, mixed, mesic

family of Pachic Ultic Haploxerolls.  The soils have dark grayish brown

to grayish brown coarse sandy loam Al horizons, brown coarse sandy loam

AC horizons, pale brown coarse sandy loam upper C horizons which over-

lie strongly weathered acid igneous rock.

Typifying Pedon:    Shaver coarse sandy loam - forested
                     (Colors for dry conditions unless otherwise noted)

Oil   --    3-2" -- Dried litter of white fir and sugar pine needles,
               some twigs.

012   --    2.0" -- Partially decomposed litter; abundant white fungal
               mycelia; rests abruptly on:

All   —    0.2" -- Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) coarse  sandy  loam,
               very dark brown  (10YR 2/2) moist; strong fine crumb
               structure; soft, very friable; abundant fine roots;
               many fine interstitial pores; slightly acid  (pH 6.5);
               abrupt wavy boundary.   (2 to 9 inches thick)

-------
                                                                E-7
A12    --    2-5"  -- Grayish brown  (10YR 5/2) coarse sandy loam, dark
               brown  (10YR 3/3) moist; moderate  fine crumb structure;
               soft,  very friable; abundant fine, plentiful medium,
               few coarse roots; many fine interstitial pores; slightly
               acid  (pH  6.3);  clear wavy boundary.  (3 to 14 inches
               thick)

AC     --    5-33"  -- Brown  (10YR 5/3) coarse sandy loam, dark brown
                (10YR  3/3) moist; weak fine crumb structure; soft, very
               friable;  abundant fine, plentiful medium and coarse
               roots, very few large roots; many fine interstitial pores;
               slightly  acid  (pH 6.2); abrupt wavy boundary (12 to 54
               inches thick)

Cl     —   33-73"  -- Pale brown (10YR 6/3) coarse sandy loam, dark brown
                (10YR  4/3) moist; massive; slightly hard, very friable,
               very slightly  sticky; many fine, medium and coarse roots,
               very few  large  roots; common fine and medium tubular
               pores, many fine interstitial pores; medium acid (pH 5.9);
               abrupt irregular boundary.  (7 to 40 inches thick)

C2     --    73"+  -- Light gray, strongly weathered quartz diorite;
               original  rock  fabric clearly visible in place; easily
               excavated and  crushes readily to a coarse sand; porous;
               occasional  large tree roots; many feet to unweathered
               rock  (R).
     A  property associated with many southern California soils of

 interest  to any ecology  study  is water repellency.  Water repellency

 will have an effect  on infiltration and runoff characteristics of any

 soil that is water repellent.  The water repellency in some soils is

 intensified by heat  such as a  forest fire,  Debano (1969) found the

 water repellency  in  a 2  to 4 inch depth increased in a burned area

 compared  to an unburned  area.

     Water repellent soils are present in the San Bernardino Mountains

 (Holzhey, 1969).  Some areas show seasonal repellency while others are

water repellent year-around.  The various degrees of water repellency

appear  to be related to  vegetation, parent material and topography;

however, no specific relationship has been found.

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                                                                E-8
                      DRAINAGE BASINS AND RUNOFF





     The creeks and rivers for the San Bernardino Mountains are




indicated in Figure 3.  The northern slopes of the study area are




drained by Deep Creek and the West Fork of the Mojave River along




with other minor tributaries and intermittent streams.  The creeks




and rivers on the northern slopes drain into the Mojave River.  The




combined flow of the West Fork of the Mojave River and Deep Creek dis-




charges an annual average of 84,500 acre feet onto the adjacent valley




floor.  All of this runoff, except for flood periods, becomes a recharge




to ground water storage in the Mojave Desert.  The geology of the




northern slopes is of principally granitic origin (Figure 2E) .  Geologic




parent materials of this nature are generally the least water absorptive




and retentive mantle rock and because of this the northern slopes which




drain into the Mojave River have high winter flood runoff and low summer




delayed runoff.  Storm surface runoff occurs in the San Bernardino




Mountains only during a shower of unusual intensity.  Due to the




characteristics of the mantle rock this runoff is caused by temporary




ground water storage.  Relative to runoff characteristics mantle rock




can be placed in three rather broad categories:  (a) least absorptive




and retentive mantle rock having maximum flood runoff and minimum summer




delayed runoff; (b) moderately absorptive and retentive rock having




moderate flood and summer delayed runoff; and (c) most absorptive and




retentive mantle rock having minimum flood runoff and maximum summer




delayed runoff.  For the northern slopes draining into the Mojave Desert




about 80%, 5%, and 15% of the mantle rocks fall into the  categories of

-------
                                                                E-9
least absorptive and retentive, moderately absorptive and retentive,




and most absorptive and retentive, respectively  (Troxell, 1954).




     The southern slopes of the study area are drained by the Santa




Ana River and its tributaries  (Figure E3).  The more important creeks




on the southern slopes almost  immediately south  of Lake Arrowhead




include Plunge Creek, City Creek, Strawberry Creek, Waterman Canyon




Creek, and Warm Creek.  Approximately 30% of this region contains mantle




rock with least absorptive and retentive properties, while 60%  and 10% of




the mantle rocks in the region can be classified as moderately absorptive




and retentive, and most absorptive and retentive, respectively.  The




Santa Ana River and Mill Creek drain the southern slopes southeast of




the study area.  Mantle rock for this region can be categorized as




about 20% least absorptive and retentive, 30% moderately absorptive




and retentive, and 50% most absorptive and retentive.  The southern




slopes west of the study area are drained principally by Lone Pine




Creek and Lytle Creek.  Mantle rock in this region is approximately




80% most absorptive and retentive and 15% moderately absorptive and




retentive.  In summary, mantle rock on the northern slopes of the San




Bernardino Mountains provide the least conducive conditions for ground




water runoff and storage, while those to the west of the study area on




the southern slopes provide the conditions conducive to the maximum




ground water runoff and storage.

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                                                                E-10
               EROSION, SEDIMENTATION AND WATER QUALITY





     There are very few data available on erosion, sedimentation, and




water quality for the study area.  The U. S. Forest Service—  are




currently in the early stages of setting up a water quality program for




the  San Bernardino National Forest.  Parameters to be measured include




flow, temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, phosphates, total




hardness, total dissolved solids, bacteria, sedimentation and erosion.




     Acute erosion problems commonly occur following forest fires.  An




example of this is the Plunge Creek drainage (Figure E3)which is some-




what similar in geology and soils to the Deep Creek area.  Sediment




measurements for the first year after a wildfire showed debris yields




up to 108,500 cubic yards per square mile.  Debris gradually decreased




to 3,600 cubic yards per square mile ten years after the burn.—




Removal of vegetation by logging, housing developments, roads, and any




other means may increase stream flow, erosion, and sedimentation.




Drastic reduction in timber stands caused by air pollution would, in




effect, produce results similar to forest fires.  Since reductions




caused by air pollution would be gradual, their effects should not be




as acute as those associated with fire.




     Changes which may occur in soil properties would be restricted to




the  surface horizons.  If the canopy were to be reduced by forest




thinning, this would affect both the amounts of organic matter ac-




cumulated in the soil surface and the rate at which it would be
_!/ Private communication, U. S. Forest Service.

-------
                                                               E-ll
microbially decomposed.  The soil surface would intercept more heat




thereby resulting in a greater degree of decomposition of the organic




materials.  Coniferous vegetation produces an acidic environment.




Under conditions where the amounts deposited on soils were reduced




the chemical weathering of the soil materials would be retarded.   On




the steep slopes if vegetation were drastically reduced,  seasonal




erosion of surface deposited materials would alter the normal soil



forming processes.

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                                                               E-12
                              REFERENCES





Bailey, T. L. and R. H. Jahns.  1954.  Geology of the Traverse Range




     Province, Southern California.  In Geology.of Southern California.




     Bulletin 170, Vol. 1.  Division of Mines, Dept. of Natural Re-




     sources, State of Calif.  San Francisco,  pp. 83-106.





Debano, L. F.  1969.  The relationship between heat treatment and water




     repellency in soils.  In Water Repellent Soils.  Proceedings of




     the Symposium on Water Repellent Soils.   Univ.  of Calif., River-




     side,  pp. 265-279.





Holzhey, C. S.  1969.   Water-repellent soils  in Southern California.




     In Water Repellent Soils.   Proceedings of the Symposium on Water




     Repellent Soils.   Univ.  of Calif.,  Riverside,   pp.  31-41.





Miller, W. J.  1946.   Crystalline  rocks  of Southern  California.   Geol.




     Soc.  Amer.  Bull.  57:457-542.





Troxell, H.  C.   1954.   Hydrology of  the  San Bernardino and Eastern San




     Gabriel Mountains, California.   Hydrologic  Investigations Atlas



     HA 1.   U.  S.  Geological  Survey.

-------
Soil Series
Ahwahnee*
Auberry*
Bancas*
Behemotoch*
Chiquito*
Cieneba*
Godde*
La Posta
Mottsvtlle
Oak Glen
Soboba*
Stoner*
Tollhouse
Slope on
Surface which series Parent
texture occurs material
7=
coarse
sandy loam
coarse
sandy loam
fine
sandy loam
gravelly
loam
very gravelly
sand
rocky sandy
loam
very gravelly
loam
loamy coarse
sand
stony loamy
sand
sandy loam
cobbly
loamy sand
cobbly
loamy sand
cobbly
sandy loam
5-50
15-30
15-50
15-75
20-50
9-50
> 70
5-30
9-15
0-30
2-9
15-30
5-50
decomposed
granodiorite
weathered
granite
weathered
granite
schist
weathered
granodiorite
weathered
granite
weathered
schist
decomposed
granodiorite
granitic
alluvium
granitic
alluvium
granitic
alluvium
weathered
granodiorite
weathered
granodiorite
Natural
drainage
well
well
well
well
excessive
well
well
excessive
excessive
we 111/
excessive
well
well
Runoff
medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
medium to
very rapid
medium
to rapid
medium to
very rapid
very rapid
medium
to rapid
slow
very slow
to medium
slow
medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
Erosion
hazard
moderate
to high
moderate
to high
high
high to
very high
moderate
moderate
to high
very high
high
slight
slight
slight
moderate
slight
to high
Effective
depth
in.
24-40
40-60
30-40
30-40
20-30
10-20
10-20
20-36
60+
60+
60+
24-48
10-20
Available
water
capacity
medium
to low
medium
medium
low
low
low
very low
low
low
medium
to high
low
medium
low
*   Series indicated most nearly corresponds with the observed field characteristics.
I/  Seasonally wet.

-------
Table E2. Soil series which may occur in the San Bernardino Mountains
Soil Series
Bull Trail

Ghawanakee

Coarsegold

Crafton

Grouch

Shaver

Sheephead

Surface
texture
sandy loam

sandy loam

loam

sandy loam

sandy loam

s andy 1 oam

fine sandy
loam
Slope on
which series
occurs
%
9-15

10-30

10-30

20-50

10-30

10-30

10-30

Parent
material
granitic
alluvium
weathered
granite
weathered
mica schist
micaceous
schist
weathered
granite
weathered
granite
micaceous
schist
Natural
drainage
well

well

well

well

well

well

well

Runoff
medium

medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
medium
to rapid
slow to
medium
medium
to rapid
Erosion
hazard
moderate

moderate
to high
moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Effective
depth
in.
60+

10-40

20-40

20-40

24+

60+

10-20

Available
water
capacity
low

low

med ium
to high
medium

well

low

low


-------
Figure Legends






Fig.




El    Topographic map of the San Bernardino Mountains.




      Contour interval  is 500  ft.








E2    Geology map of the San Bernardino Mountains.








E3    Drainage basins in the San Bernardino Mountains

-------
Figure E-l — Topographic map of the
            San Bernardino Mountains
            Contour interval is 500 ft.

-------
| Qoi

| Ql

I Ot


1 Qc
1 	
PC

1 Prtilt

1
1 Me
ALLUVIUM

QUATERNARY LAKE DEPOSITS

QUATERNARY. NONMARINE
TERRACE DEPOSITS

PLEISTOCENE NONMARINE

UNDIVIDED PLIOCENE NONMARINE

MIDDLE AND /OR LOWER
PLIOCENE NONMARINE

UNDIVIDED MIOCENE NONMARINE
O
o
N
0
01
LU
5



w
O
N
O'
LJ
<
O.

"
Ei
  gr   MESOZOIC GRANITIC ROCKS



I  fri 1 MESOZOIC BASIC INTRUSIVE ROCKS



|  JRv  | JURA-TRIAS METAVOLCANIC ROCKS



j  m  | PRE-CRETACEOUS METAMORPMIC ROCKS



[  mg1 PRE-CRETACCOUS METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS



[  IP  | PALEOZOIC MARINE



[  C  | UNDIVIDED CARBONIFEROUS MARINE


i	1
       PRE-CAMBRIAN METAMORPHIC ROCKS


      I PRE-CAMBRIAN IGNEOUS AND

      I METAMORPHIC ROCK COMPLEX
                                                                                        Figure E-2 — Geology map of the

                                                                                                          San Bernardino  Mountains.

-------
Figure E-3 Drainage basin in the San Bernardino Mountains.

-------
                                                          Section F
                      Sociology Committee Report

                    History and Suggested Protocol
                                  for
                    Environmental Protection Agency

                  Study of the Impact of Oxidant Air
            Pollution on the Mixed Conifer Forest Ecosystem
Committee Chairman:  Edgar W. Butler, Department of Sociology,
                     University of California, Riverside

Principal Contributors:  Sheldon Bockman, Sociology, University
                         of California, Riverside
                         John H. Freeman, Sociology, University
                         of California, Riverside
                         Charles E. Starnes, Sociology,  University
                         of California, Riverside
                         Joanne Hancock, Research Assistant
                         Sociology, University of California, Riverside
                         David McElroy, Research Assistant, Sociology,
                         University of California, Riverside

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                                                         Section F








                              I.  INTRODUCTION






This section of the report presents results of the search for historical




and demographic data and information on the utilization of the Lake Arrowhead




region by the human population, along with some background material suggesting




possible effects of oxidant air pollution upon the human population.  In




addition, a brief description of a frame of reference for future studies of




the effects of oxidant air pollution upon man in the Lake Arrowhead region is




given.  Beyond describing the historical background, the human population and




its use of the Lake Arrowhead habitat, and the possible effects of  oxidant air




pollution on man, this report briefly suggests a frame of reference for the




long term study of oxidant air pollution and begins to outline methods and




techniques that may be used in areas other than Lake Arrowhead to more effectively




study the impact of air pollution upon man.









A large number of social scientists, in a variety of disciplines, have




expressed interest in future research endeavors to be centered in the Lake




Arrowhead region; the following persons made contributions to the compilation




of data and writing of the Social sciences section contained herein.






                  Edgar W. Butler, Coordinator, Sociology, U.C.R.




                  Sheldon Bockman, Sociology, U.C.R.




                  John F. Freeman, Sociology, U.C.R.




                  Charles E. Starnes, Sociology, U.C.R.




                  Joanne Hancock, R.A., Sociology, U.C.R.




                  David McElroy, R.A., Sociology, U.C.R.

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                                                                F-2.
                II.  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON LAKE ARROWHEAD






The introduction of human society to the San Bernardino Mountains, with  the




exception of small, scattered Indian settlements, probably began  in  the  Spring




of 1852 when the first roadway was cleared to the top of the mountains.  Amasa




Lyman, Bishop Crosby, and Charles Crisman organized a party of men from  the




Mormon fort in San Bernardino to begin work on a steep, narrow roadway which




opened the mountains and valuable timberland to them.  The year of 1852 was a




busy one in the mountains, for in the Fall of that year a United  States deputy




surveyor climbed to the highest peak and took bearings for the first true




east-and-west map line in Southern California.









Ten years after Mormon settlers from San Bernardino set up several small logging




operations in the mountains, lumbering had become a major enterprise.  Most




settlers were content with farming the land in the valley below,  but numerous




pioneers established small land holdings in the mountains.  However, no large




settlements sprang up in the mountains until the 1920*s.  Many species of




wildlife roamed the mountains in considerable numbers, but the human population




settled itself in the logging camps or in the valley below.  Gold and other




minerals were discovered in the mountains and many small placer mines and claims




were established with such pictureque names as Sitting Bull, Blowout, Lone Star,




Diablo, and Upset.









Settlement took place in Bear Valley and further west in Grass Valley and Little




Bear Valley.  Little Bear Valley is of particular concern to this study because




the Little Bear meadow became the site of Lake Arrowhead.  The Talmadge Mill




was located near the site where the Lake Arrowhead "Village" was  later established

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                                                                 F-3.
 The history of Lake Arrowhead as a "lake" began in 1891 when the Arrowhead




 Reservoir Company incorporated and built the first passable road into  the




 mountains,  thus making them more accessible.  Substantial organized settle-




 ment in the mountains began with the building of small, private  lodges such




 as the "Squirrel Inn" and by 1895 tourists were treking up the Arrowhead  toll




 road to visit the primitive yet comfortable retreats.   The mountains were




 "officially" conquered on June 30, 1900 when a Locomobile made a test  run




 up the narrow winding road to Bear Valley, across  the mountains,  and down the




 Arrowhead toll road.  The Arrowhead Reservoir Company had been in operation




 for thirteen years when,  in 19,04, it let the official contract to build the




 cement corewall for the little Bear Valley reservoir.   Such a major construc-




 tion project was a great  undertaking given the primitive roads and  the




 difficult accessibility to the site.








 Accessibility to the mountains was always a problem.  Transportation on the




 roads was hazardous because of steep grades and switchbacks which often proved




 fatal to  loggers bringing lumber down from the mountains.   Tourists visiting




 the mountains with increasing frequency found transportation  lacking because




 automobiles  were not permitted on the toll road.   A solution  to  the transporta-




 tion problem was begun when the Pacific Electric Railway laid track from  San




 Bernardino  to the Arrowhead Hot Springs Hotel in Waterman Canyon  at the base




 of  the mountains.   In  1908,  the Arrowhead Road was given to  the  County of




 San Bernardino  and automobilists began to drive cars up  the  County  Road in




Waterman Canyon.   Within  a  year the  road was  open  to automobiles, thus creating




a booming tourist  business.

-------
                                                               F-4.
The permanent residents in the mountains were hearty,  rowdy, pioneering




people who sometimes backed up their words with guns and violence.  Logging




as a destructive element in the mountains was impeded when the mountains




became a national forest and rangers enforced some order on the mountain




society.  In contrast to tough permanent residents, summer tourists who




visited the area were wealthy, upper-class people who could afford to be




dilletante nature lovers.  The tourist society was a gay, carefree crowd




given to elegant balls in outdoor pavilions,  potato and raarshmallow roasts,




watermelon feasts, and campfire sings.  Catering to the tourist trade, like




the logging and mining industries, had become a paying enterprise in the




mountains.









In 1920, the Lake Arrowhead Company purchased the properties of the Arrowhead




Reservoir and Power Company which was centered in Little Bear Valley.  A




spokeman for the new company said that the Arrowhead Company planned to create




a lake in the west fork of the Mojave and send water to some of the desert-




side irrigation districts; to raise the Little Bear Dam thirty-one feet. .  .




and change its name and that of the lake formed to "Lake Arrowhead".  Within




two years the Lake Arrowhead project had been mapped out in minute detail,




planning the development of every foot of the five-mile shoreline.  The




directors of the company met with the Rim of the World Association and




attempted to get better roads and stage service to Lake Arrowhead.









In the middle of April, the Arrowhead Lake Company began putting its develop-




ment plans into effect.  A large group of men leveled a terrace for  the




business section at the west end of the lake near the Little Bear Resort




buildings which were being demolished.  In the pine woods across the cove  from

-------
                                                               F-5.
 the village,  housekeeping cabins were built.   At Orchard Bay  a  pay  auto-camp




 to hold a thousand cars for fishermen was built.  The grand opening of  the




 first facilities,  including a hotel,  village  stage depot,  shops, market,  art




 shop, drug store,  dance pavilion, and a gas station,  was set  for June.








 The opening of the new Lake Arrowhead Company brought dignitaries from  all




 over Southern California and two hundred and  fifty newspapermen and women.




 All were impressed with the orderly growth, the unifying architecture,  the




 combination of the works of Nature with artistic and  beautiful  works of man.




 Transportation was still somewhat of  a problem even during the  summer.  The




 Motor Transit Company which offered two round trips a day  to Lake Arrowhead




 was notorious for  lateness, discomfort, speed at viewpoints, overloading, and




 danger,  since a car tumbled off  a soft shoulder at  a  steep grade.   The




 Company held  a $5,000 contract for delivery of the  U.S.  mail as well.








 Lake Arrowhead became a thriving settlement with 44 resorts, all supplied with




 electricity.   The  services  of a  doctor, minister and  local court judge also




 were available.  The first  permanent  social organizations were  started—a masonic




 lodge and  a women's  club.   In 1923 the Pacific Telephone Company completed a




 single line through  to Lake Arrowhead,  enabling the mountain community to




 communicate with the outside world.   The Federal government appropriated




 $75,000  to  the National Forest-Highway program for  construction of  a good road




 to  the top  of  the mountain.








     The Lake Arrowhead  complex  offered additional  services to  its  residents with




the opening of a branch  office of  the  Pacific  Southwest  Savings and Trust Company.

-------
                                                               F-6.
Spiritual needs were attended to by Catholic priests who held mass in the




hall across from the Lake Arrowhead Post Office.  American Legion members




residing in Lake Arrowhead received a 14 acre government plot on which to




place a building.  The North Shore subdivision was being offered, with such




notables as an heiress of the National Biscuit Company purchasing land.




Other retreats were established by movie stars Buster Crabbe, Gene Lockhart,




J. Carrol Nash, and Myrna Loy.  The number of permanent year-round residents




was increasing and in 1924 the first school—Lake Arrowhead Elementary School




—was established in a small, wood frame building for the 14 children of




permanent residents.  The area became increasingly popular as a resort settle-




ment and there were upwards of 200 resorts there in 1924.  With the increased




number of residents and visitors, fires and environmental pollution appeared,




as well as a decline in wildlife.









Growth continued during the next few decades and today the area contains many




large homes, mountain retreats, and a larger resident population and millions of




visitors.






     III.  THE HUMAN POPULATION AND ITS USE OF THE LAKE ARROWHEAD HABITAT






Currently, the forest region has a human population highly variable in density




and spatial distribution, and the population fluctuates by season, month, day




of the week, and snowfall.  Several different and relevant human populations




utilize the Lake Arrowhead region, thus any evaluation of land use requires




information on the following:  (1) permanent residents, (2) owners who




intermittently utilize their property as summer and recreational facilities

-------
                                                               F-7.
for themselves, relatives,  and  friends, and  (3) "visitors"—the transient




population.  Population  data pertaining to the permanent residents and




intermittent users  can be obtained  from the  United States Census and are




discussed  in more detail below.  Estimates only are available for the



visitor population.









Assuming that residential growth in the San  Bernardino National Forest will be




minimal and that zoning  will prohibit multiple family housing units or high-rise




construction in the Lake Arrowhead  region, the actual population growth poten-




tial  of Lake Arrowhead is severely  limited by geographical constraints.




However, recent expansion of one of the major access highways to four lanes




decreased  highway congestion and made accessibility easier fbr an increased




number of  visitors.  Other  major routes may  be widened thus providing easy




accessibility to Lake Arrowhead for virtually all Southern California residents.




While the  permanent population growth may have upper limits, this easy accessi-




bility, coupled with higher per capita incomes, may result in an ever increasing




visitor use of picnic grounds, campgrounds,  and other recreational facilities,




leading to increased locally produced air pollution and despoliation of the




environment.








Lake Arrowhead is located in San Bernardino  County, one of the eleven counties




constituting Southern California.   Southern  California is expected to have a




population of eighteen million persons by 1980.  Of the 684,072 people enumerated




in San Bernardino County in the 1970 U.S. Census of Population and Housing,




180,000 of them were added  during the previous decade.  San Bernardino County




contains 20,160 square miles and is highly diverse in its social, economic,

-------
                                                               F-8.
and topographic composition.   The vast majority of the population (all but




138,000) reside in the valley south of the national forest boundary.  In




addition to the local resident population, the San Bernardino National Forest




receives an estimated eight million visitors a year.









A precise description, beyond sheer numbers, of the population in the immediate




Lake Arrowhead environments is extremely difficult because each agency defines




boundaries somewhat differently.  One boundary, San Bernardino County Planning




District 16, includes the Lake Arrowhead census tract as well as two others.




In 1970, this planning district contained a population of 18,267.  The popu-




lation  is expected to grow to 25,000 by 1980 and to over -31,000 by 1990.  Census




Tract 101—Lake Arrowhead—had a population of 2,343, in 1950; 4,247 by 1960;




and a population of 10,437 in 1970.  During the past decade the resident popu-




lation  has been increasing at a faster pace than dwelling units, suggesting




that an increasing proportion of people are utilizing their property at Lake




Arrowhead as a full time, permanent place of residence.  Enumeration district




data (E.D's 210-223) indicate that the immediate Lake Arrowhead habitat had a




population of 3,031 in 1970.  Using a slightly different population base of




2,672 (less two of the above E.D.'s), in 1970 the resident population was 98.4%




white,  with a median age of 31.2 years.  Almost 63% of the dwelling units were




vacant  at the time of the 1970 census, 25.4% were occupied by owners, and




11.8% were occupied by renters.  The vacancy rate,  of course, reflects  the




important recreational facet of the Lake Arrowhead  region and part-time use




by people from Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San  Bernardino Counties  and  else-




where.  Over 90% of the dwellings are single-unit structures.   Median value of




owner occupied units at the time of the census was  $31,250; median  rent was




$131 per month.

-------
                                                                F-9.
 Land use within the immediate vicinity of the Lake is primarily residential




 except for the "Village" which contains commercial, shopping, and business




 areas, a small lake adjacent to the country club, a riding club, the University




 of California Conference Center, and a few public facilities, such as schools.




 The Lake Arrowhead population concentration is virtually surrounded by the San



 Bernardino National Forest.









 Because of the small permanent population living in the mountain region,  most




 of the oxidant air pollution is not locally produced, but rather comes from




 population concentrations and industry in Los Angeles, Orange,  and Riverside




 Counties, and from the valley population of San Bernardino County.  Therefore,




 although the population growth in the mountain region is limited by the amount




 of land now available for private use, the air pollution supply is virtually




 unlimited.   As the population of the Los Angeles basin increases and as industry,




 automobiles,  and other sources of pollution increase, it is expected that the




 air pollution problem will become more severe in the Lake Arrowhead region.








 One major use of the mountain region,  of course, is  recreation.   People tend to




 use recreational facilities without regard to jurisdictional boundaries;




 therefore,  the Lake Arrowhead recreational area has  a potential population




 reservoir,  throughout Southern California, of eighteen million  persons to draw




 upon.   This vast population reservoir  generates recreational demands ranging




 from  the most urban to the  most rustic,  including picnic grounds,  riding  and




 hiking  trails,  scenic  drives and  parkways, and skiing,  fishing,  hunting,  and




 boating areas (SCAG,  September,  1970).   The region embraces the San Bernardino




National Forest which  is the largest national forest  in Southern California.




About 3/4's of the  acreage  of  the Lake Arrowhead region is included in the

-------
                                                               F- 10.
National Forest, which drew an estimated 8 million visitors last year.  These




visitors included those who stayed one day or less as well as campers and




vacationers who stayed several days.









As indicated on Figure G-l, virtually all of the major recreational facilities




in San Bernardino County (excluding only the Colorado River area and the Prado




Basin) are concentrated in the San Bernardino Forest—Lake Arrowhead vicinity.




Silverwood Lake in the region is in process of being fully developed as a




multiple-purpose recreational center and will very shortly substantially




increase the number of visitors to the region.  In addition, Holcomb Valley




is an underdeveloped section with high potential recreation usage.









Precise data on the specific use of main highways are available from the




California State Department of Highways.  Utilization of public campsites




and picnic grounds, Natural Preserves, etc., are available from the United




States National Forest Service, San Bernardino, California, and Washington,




D.C.  When more time and resources are available these data sources will allow




a determination of the total in-and-out flow of traffic into the region.




Currently, we do not have an estimate of the impact of air pollution of the




human population of the Lake Arrowhead region nor of the effect of air




pollution and the human population on the ecological balance of the Lake




Arrowhead environment.







           IV.   POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF OXIDANT AIR POLLUTION ON MAN






     In this section we discuss the following:  (A) the perceptual awareness of




air pollution,  (B)  the possible impact of air pollution on human behavior,  (C) the

-------
                                                                Ml.
organization of  the  human  population,  (D)  the organizations  that  people may




belong  to,  (E) the economic  costs  of air pollution,  and  (F)  its health and



mortality implications.






     A>  Perceptual  Awareness.   Studying the  perceptual  awareness of air pollution




assumes  that humans  are  the  creators of the condition, the measurers of the




problem, and the sources of  the  solution.  The fact  that pollution exists and




is relative to human perception  carries with  it two  important considerations.




The first is to  what degree  the  conditions are tolerable; the second is the




extent  that toleration varies by different population segments.  Differential




perceptual awareness may lead to varying behavioral  and organizational responses




by human beings  (Molotch,  forthcoming).  Perception, or lack thereof, of air




pollution may be considered  exclusive of its  involuntary effects upon individuals.




In fact, literature  suggests that  air pollution has  its most adverse effects on




older persons, yet it is older persons who are the least perceptive of air




pollution.  Only if  air pollution  is perceived as a problem, will corrective




action be taken,  because it  is probable that  only those persons who perceive




air pollution as  a serious problem are likely to attempt to do anything about




it.  Further, it is  probably only  an aware and awakened public that will




support effective control programs.








Previous studies  of  the perceptual awareness of air pollution have focused




primarily on the following:



     (1)  Perception of the nature and extent of air pollution as a problem.




     (2)  Where knowledge about air pollution is obtained.




     (3)  What  are the attitudes about the air pollution problem.




     (4)  What,  if anything,  should be done about air pollution.

-------
                                                               F-12.
     (5)   What  programatic elements  persons will accept and support in efforts




          by local,  state, and federal governments  to overcome the air pollution




          problem.



     (6)   How accurately individuals perceive air pollution.




     (7)   Whether perception of the  air pollution problem galvanizes the individual




          into behavioral responses.




     (8)   What are the perceived causes of air pollution.








No data exists that describes the level of awareness of air pollution by the




region's population.  Casual discussions with residents and newspaper articles




suggest a polarity of responses.  Many residents are highly disturbed by the air




pollution and want to something about it.  Other residents deny its very




existence and, obviously, since the  problem does not exist for them, nothing




should be done about it from their point of view.






     B.  Behavior.  While knowledge  about and perception of air pollution are




important areas of concern, it is conceivable that  air pollution may effect




human behavior regardless of whether or not it is perceived.  One obvious




response to it if it is perceived is to avoid it by moving to another pollution




free location  (Butler, et al, 1972).  Air pollution may restrict other behavior




such as the amount of physical exertion that is deemed desirable by authorities




(i.e., in schools physical education may be terminated if air pollution reaches




a specified level, a level which appears to vary by school district in the Los




Angeles basin).  Furthermore, air pollution may restrict breathing, result in




eye and nose irritation or make the individual feel so poorly that  he does not




want to work or become involved in physical activities.

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                                                               ~ 13.
Under severe air pollution conditions, visibility may be so markedly reduced




that normal community activities must be halted or altered.  Under less severe




conditions, visibility impairment may not even be noted by the individual,  but




in fact is reduced to such a degree tfcat automobile accidents are more likely




to occur.









Conversely, some behavior by individuals contributes to the community air pollution




problem as well as to their own specif ic likelihood of being affected,  Some




occupations expose people to severe polluted conditions for long periods of




time and then have an unusually high risk factor of morbidity and mortality.




Occupations such as  traffic policeman, automobile mechanic, and truck driver




immediately come to  mind.  In addition, cigaret smoking, use of fireplaces, use




of certain methods of cooking, and of aerosal sprays all contribute to




individualized air pollution.








Our future studies will explore these facets of human behavior, as well as




others, in an attempt to measure the effect of air pollution upon human behavior




in the Lake Arrowhead region.






     C.  Organization of the Human Population.  The environment, technology,




and human  population structure  (spatial distribution, etc.,) and organization




are related to air pollution.  Through its use of the environment  and  its  impact




upon the environment through its technology, the human population  is responsible.




for most air pollution and is the only species that can do anything about




overcoming the air pollution problem.








People residing in large population  concentrations  are  ordinarily organized




around urban life forms and use the  environment  in certain ways which produce

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                                                               F- 14.
air pollution.  In Southern California this air pollution drifts to the Lake




Arrowhead region, and elsewhere, and is added to locally produced oxidants.




From a broad context, then, the entire metropolitan complex, as well as local,




state, and federal influences, 3.8 important in studying the local air pollution




problem.  A study of the political impact and influence which various individuals,




groups, organizations, and industries have upon decision-making at the local,




state, and federal level in regard to air pollution (its control, management,




and effects) is imperative in the study of the organization of the human popu-




lation and its impact upon the environment.









On a more localized scale, a study of the ways in which the problems of air




pollution in recreational areas can erect barriers or precipitate effective




local and extra-local public action is important.  The communication and




determinants of public information and consequent attitudes toward various




alternative solutions are substantially a product of the social organization




of the population.  The human population's response to air pollution in the




local communities should have an impact upon local communities and their




organizational structure.  That is, there could be attempts by local permanent




residents, as well as intermittent residents and visitors, to influence local,




state, and federal officials in the use of social power, management techniques,




etc., in order to overcome air pollution.  In this regard, assuming that air




pollution will shortly become a very salient issue to the residents of the Lake




Arrowhead region, organizations will soon be established to combat air pollution.




Some of these organizations may be associated with extra-local organizations




formed to combat air pollution and other environmental hazards on a larger scale.

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                                                               F-15.
Will these organizations have an influence upon regulatory measures designed to




control technology?  Will there be effective attempts by individuals and organi-




zations to influence management systems in regard to air pollution?  How will




the management systems be brought into being?  Who will manage the management




systems?  How effectively will they  implement controls?  All of these aspects




need to be examined  at the  local level and tied to state and federal social




power  sys terns.






     D.   Organizations.  How people  behave and how they organize  in activities




related to  air  pollution is the essence  of our concern.  People may organize,




 either in formal or informal groups, to  study the problem  of air  pollution




 and the effective means  of initiating local  and  extra-local public action;  to




 discuss various alternate solutions; to  evaluate the monetary, health,  and




 other costs of air pollution; to influence local, state,  and  federal  officials




 in the use of social power in an attempt to  overcome air pollution;  and to  study




 the impact of regulatory measures in controlling technology and  energy use.








 Currently, there are no local organizations in the Lake Arrowhead area concerned




 with  air pollution  in the  region.   There have been attempts by a few isolated




 individuals to  combat pollution, but there have been no organized efforts in




 the region to influence local, state, and federal officials to overcome air




 pollution.  Given  the heavy  damage  from air pollution that is expected to become




 highly visible  over the next few years  (e.g., thousands of trees dying), it may




 be expected that some local  organizations will be formed  to combat air pollution.




 In addition, it is  expected  that  there will  be  concern  expressed over  the




 increasing recreational  use of  the  area and  the  possiblity of undesirable




 housing, apartments and  condominiums being built, and how various  solutions may




 be effectively implemented through  enforcement  of regulatory measures.

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                                                               F- 16.




The form that organizations may take are varied, and  the  impetus  for  organizations




may be local or extra-local.  With the aid of  "experts" in  air  pollution,




organizations may be formed which  essentially will utilize local "voluntary"




participation.  Discussion groups and educational meetings  should be  helpful in




allerting local persons to the air pollution problem  and  the means by which they




can do something about it.  Another "community organization" approach is to




focus on conflict rather  than on discussion and education.  Here  organizations




which stress the external nature of the "enemies" from other regions  (e.g. the




L. A. Basin) and how local residents may combat them would  be the focus.




Hostility toward outsiders, including government and  industry,  is  apparent in




this approach to meeting  the problem.  In both instances, organizations might




be formed which would act as "watch dogs" over public agencies who are charged




with air pollution control and management responsibilities.









Others, of course, argue  that there is more to overcoming the air  pollution




problem than organizing or acting as watch dogs.  Molitch (forthcoming) argues




that the problem of air pollution is not simply one of obtaining  the  right kinds




of information and acting upon it, and points  out that there are vested interests




in the continuation of air pollution.  This perspective asserts that  the use,




control, and knowledge of social power is the  only way that technology, which




is producing air pollution, can be effectively managed and  brought under control.




An organized and mobilized public wielding its power would  be a factor to be




reckoned with and would make air pollution more than  a symbolic issue.  That is,




laws would be enforced and have a real impact  upon controlling  air pollution.






     E.  Economic.  It must be made explicit in .any discussion  of the costs of




air pollution that social values are inherent  in the  concept of "costs".  In




estimating costs, reliable and valid measurements are necessary and these costs




will vary according to the point of view of those who are calculating them.

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                                                                F-17.
Further,  trade-offs  and  alternative control management  programs only make  sense




when one  considers  the point  of  view of  those who  are making  the estimates,  and




from what value  vantage  point they are making the  estimates.   The  "emmitors"




and "receptors"  do  in fact  have  different  views  of the  necessity of risks  and




how much  should  be  spent to avoid certain  levels of risk.  Monetary costs  in




converting  old plant equipment and transportation  vehicles to  acceptable levels




(by whose standards?) and the building of  new plants and vehicles  can probably




be estimated fairly accurately.   However,  social and health costs  are virtually




impossible  to measure with  any precision.   For example, in regard  to the effects




of air  pollution upon health  and mortality,  how  does one measure the cost  of a




father  or a mother  to their children?  How much  effect  does air pollution  have




on present  and future earnings,  on average duration and severity of temporarily




disabling and efficiency-reducing capabilities,  on permanent disabilities, on




increased probability of morbidity and mortality from other diseases, and  on




absentism at work and at school?  Further,  how can one  estimate air pollutant




costs in  its impact  on the  size, composition, distribution and income of the




population?  Finally, what  would it cost to  find and treat victims and what




costs accrue to  those who attempt to avoid air pollution all together (Weisbord,




1961; Butler,  et al, 1972)?









At a somewhat  different  level, an investigation  is needed to evaluate air




pollution effects in high and low pollution areas  by measuring the need and




cost of more frequent painting of the exteriors  of housing, the time spent in




routine housecleaning, the  hours of use  of garments  between cleanings, the




expenditures on  laundering  supplies,  the frequency of washing  cars, and the




willingness  of the public to  pay for the amelioration of air pollution, and

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                                                               F-18.
finally,  the effect of air pollution upon property and rental values.  These




factors suggest that air pollution has costs other than those ordinarily antici-




pated (Ridker, 1967).









For this project, our concern would be mainly with the costs that the public




pays in regard to morbidity, mental well-being, perceived costs of air pollution,




and what the public would be "willing to give up" in order to solve the impure




air problem.  These facets are discussed at more length below.  The questions




are related to "who will pay and how much is it going to cost them?"









     F.  Health and Mortality.  Goldsmith (1968) has pointed out that "a man can




live for five weeks without food, for five days without water, but only five minut




without air".  He further suggests that before the effects of air pollution upon




health can be determined, the following requirements must be met:  (1) pollution,




or an index of it, must be measured; (2) one or more effects must be measured;




(3) a relationship between the two must be shown—pollution and its effects.









The few studies accomplished to date suggest that premature infants and the




infirm are highly susceptible to air pollution.  Most suceptible, however,




are the aged.  Goldsmith further lists the effects of air pollution and




argues that they are differentially distributed among the different ages




and medical statuses:   (1) acute sickness or death; (2) chronic diseases,




shortening of life, or impairment of growth; (3) alteration of important




physiological functions such as ventilation of  the lung, transport of




oxygen by hemoglobin, dark adaptation (ability  to adjust eye mechanisms  for




vision in partial darkness), or other functions of the nervous system;

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                                                                F-19.
 (4) other  symptoms,  such  as  sensory  irritation, which in  the absence of




 obvious  cause might  lead  a person  to  seek medical attention and relief;




 (5) discomfort,  odor,  impairment of visibility, or other  effects of air




 pollution  in sufficient strength to lead individuals to change residence or



 place  of employment.









 In  studying  the  above  human  responses to air pollution, Goldsmith (1968)




 presents a cogent  argument for  the most sensitive measuring instruments




 possible since almost  any level of effect upon some individuals will




 seriously  effect others.   There is an additional problem  of ferreting out




 the characteristics  of persons  with different thresholds  of resistence to




 air pollution.









 Goldsmith  concludes  from  his review of the literature that individual




 pollution, cigaret smoking and  the like, is a major causal factor in lung




 cancer whereas community-wide air  pollution is, to date,  only a "suspected"




 factor.  Sufficient  exposure to air pollution appears to be a factor in




 chronic  bronchitis and emphysema,  although probably it is not the only causal




 agent.   There is some  evidence  that cigaret smokers are more susceptible than




 non-smokers  in a common polluted environment.  Furthermore, there is evidence




 suggesting a link  between air pollution and asthmatics.   The available studies




 are not  definitive because few  of  them have sorted out individual air pollution




 from community air pollution.   One obvious solution is to study young children.




When this has been done,  the studies  indicate "a strong case for adverse




effects of air pollution  on lower  respiratory tract conditions" (Goldsmith,




1968).

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                                                               F-20.
Little data exists which establishes a relation between air pollution and




mental well-being.  However, a series of studies conducted in California




during 1956-61 indicate that perception of air pollution is associated with




feelings of overall malaise as well as physical symptoms such as eye irritation,




asthma, nose complaints, headaches, and chest pains.  Further, these complaints




were more prevalent during periods of high air pollution counts than during




favorable weather conditions.









No studies to our knowledge have examined the effects of air pollution on




the health of the population in the Lake Arrowhead region.  The methodology




to measure most health effects exists and the health of the human population




in the region will be one of particular importance for future investigation




in the Lake Arrowhead habitat.








Research has demonstrated that periods of unusually high air pollution are




associated with small increases in excess mortality—that is, mortality beyond




that ordinarily expected on a normal probability basis.  Several problems exist




in measuring air pollution's effect upon mortality in the Lake Arrowhead Region.




First, ordinarily a very large population is necessary so that excess deaths can




be estimated, unless there is a "disaster" such as the ones in Donora, Pennsyl-




vania in 1948, London in 1948 and 1952, New Orleans in 1955, and world-wide in




1962 (Goldsmith, 1968).  Second, the intermittent nature of a substantial




proportion of the Lake Arrowhead population precludes precise estimates of the




effect of air pollution in the region upon the mortality rate.  The mortality




that does occur will vary substantially by subregion because  the population




age structure is highly variable.  Research suggests that  the most susceptible

-------
                                                               F-21.
to air pollution mortality are the aged, infants, and those with antecedant history




of respiratory and/or heart problems.







                   V.  FUTURE STUDIES FRAME OF REFERENCE






In a broad-based ecosystem approach to the study of the human consequences




of air pollution in  the Lake Arrowhead region, the following could be used




as a starting point  for the long term research endeavors to be undertaken




by the social science inter-disciplinary team.  Four primary elements make up




the approach:   (1)   Environmental Studies, (2) Technological Inputs, (3)




Human Population Structure, and  (4) Organization of the Human Population




(Duncan, 1961).  Each of  these segments are discussed individually and then




they are briefly incorporated into an overall research scheme.









     (1) Environmental Studies.  In our terms, environmental studies are all




those endeavors that involve research concerned with vegetation cover, animals




(other than Homo sapiens), soils and hydrology, and air monitoring and meteoro-




logy.  We  have  assumed from previous discussions and proposals from the




committees in each area,  or in each particular sub area of investigation, that




particular "models"  will  be developed,  as well as models linking together these




various sub models.








These environmental  research endeavors, along with technological background  data,




are extremely important to the social scientists in  furnishing  the  necessary




independent variables needed to measure the  impact of air pollution upon the




human population and ecosystem.  Environmental studies will  make  available  to




the social scientists objective measurements  of  the  products of  technology  (air

-------
                                                               F_22.
pollution) and objective measures of environmental changes brought about by




technological inputs.  Air pollution probably has a direct effect upon individuals,




but we expect that relevant effects for social policy come only when large numbers




of individuals begin to perceive that the environment is drastically changing,




e.g., the trees are dying, and ascribe the cause as air pollution.  In short,




environmental studies would give us objective measures of the changing environment.




The social scientists' contribution would be to measure the impact of these




objectively measured inputs of air pollution and environmental changes upon




human beings.




     (2) Technological Inputs.  The study would use technological data only




in a descriptive sense.  Social scientists are interested in the sources of




pollutants, whether industry, automobiles, or any other sources.  However,




social scientists will be interested primarily in technology as it produces




air pollutants and whether any environmental changes as measured by the




natural and physical scientists in the region can be attributed to these




by-products of technology.  Further, we will be using as key aspects of our




study environmental changes in the Lake Arrowhead region made possible by




changing technology, resulting in construction of freeways, bridges and




transportation networks that make accessibility to the region simpler for




larger proportions of the human population residing in the greater Los Angeles    ,




metropolitan basin and elsewhere.                                                 1




     (3)  Human Population Structure.  Social scientists, of course, are          ,




concerned with human populations.  We expect to be concerned with  the demo-       j




graphy of the region:  migration patterns, fertility, morbidity, and mortality.   (




We would be especially interested in describing the population  in  absolute        j




numbers and density, by various sites in  the Lake Arrowhead region.  Both

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                                                                F-23.
 number and density are highly variable in this  region because  of  the  extensive

 recreational land utilization.  The permanent,  intermittent, and  transient

 populations need to be considered in any research  design in the Lake  Arrowhead

 region.   There are changes in absolute numbers  and density of  population as

 results  of the in-and-out-flow of people at various times and  seasons.  In

 addition, measures of morbidity,  mental and physical health, and  their interaction

 with socio-economic status are important.  Data from various hospitals, the Kaiser

 Medical  Plan, and individual medical practitioners would be invaluable.

 In all the above population characteristics, measurement of perceptions,

 knowledge, attitudes, and behavior occurring across time as the environment

 begins to change and possibly deteriorate  are especially important.




 It is possible,  of course,  to determine if changing knowledge and attitudes about

 air pollution are translated into meaningful attempts to change the technology's

 impact upon the  environment.   Individual behavior  such as selling property and

 moving away from the region or no longer visiting  it on an intermittent basis

 are examples of  possible  behavioral manifestations.  Psychological mental stress

 that air pollution may or may not have  upon the individual and the impact of

 pollution upon various value systems that  the population may hold in regard

 to government, politics,  and social problems, would be another focus of

 research.   What  are the political implications  if  the recreational use of

 Lake Arrowhead declines?   Social  scientists would  be concerned primarily with

 the  extent  of knowledge about air pollution, attitudes toward air pollution, and

how  air pollution effects behavior of the population living in the area.   In
                        f
addition,  they would  be concerned with  the kind of support the population would

give  to abatement or  management systems.  A human  population based model would

incorporate many  of the aspects that are included  in other models discussed in

-------
                                                               F-24.
this report.  A basic assumption is that perception and behavioral manifestations




of air pollution varies by morphological and social characteristics including




age, sex, social class and so forth.  Not only does perception vary, interpre-




tation of what can be done about the particular problem varies by morphological




and social characteristics.  These notions lead us to the fourth element in our




ecosystem frame of reference.




     (4)  Organization of the Human Population.  When social scientists discuss




the organization of the human population, they are in essence describing behavior




of the human population, in social groupings; that is, where and how they interact




in social groups for some particular purpose.  The communication and determinants




of public information and attitudes regarding the existence of the problem and




determinants of attitudes toward various alternative solutions would be examined.




Problems of use-management, land development, commercialization, and historical




patterns of economic exploitation of area resources, and comparative problems




of polluted (e.g. Lake Arrowhead) vs. relatively non-polluted (e.g. Big Bear or




Idyllwild) areas would be of interest to social scientists.  What impact has all




of this upon the perception of Lake Arrowhead as a place "to get away from it




all", its perceived "natural beauty", and its healthful living?




                                                                \



The population's response to air pollution in the local area in an organizational




sense such as the attempts by local permanent residents, as well as intermittent




residents, to influence local, state, and federal officials in  the use of social




power in an attempt to overcome the air pollution problem is directly relevant




here.  In this regard, then, the study of the formation of local and extra-local




groups and the process they use to combat air pollution and other environmental




hazards would be mandatory.

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                                                               F-25.
Within the same  frame  of  reference,  the  impact which  local,  permanent,  and




intermittent residents have upon  regulatory measures  attempting  to  control




technology needs  to be studied.   These regulatory measures include  varying




energy usage as well as  the type  of  energy usage, family  size  limitation,




disposal  techniques, and  economic controls upon various kinds  of technologi-




cal inputs to  the environment  that create pollutants, i.e. automobiles  and




factories.  Are  there  any effective  attempts by individuals, either permanent,




transient, or  intermittent, to influence management systems  in regard to air




pollution?  This  would include how these management systems were brought into




being and how  they are implemented.  All aspects of local, state and federal




social power systems could be  examined.  Again, the model, or  models, derived




from our  analyses would be integrated  with the other models developed focusing




on technology  and environment  to  form  a  larger ecosystem model.









Briefly,  the total system views the  relationship between  the environment and




technology at  the beginning of the causal network.  Technology's impact upon the




environment has  implications for  the structure of the human population, including




absolute  numbers, density, age structure, migration, fertility, mortality and




morbidity; and for how the population  is organized and in what fashion  it is




organized in relation  to  changes  in  technology and the environment.









If social scientists and  their orientations or approaches are  to be considered




in this particular research endeavor,  they need to have some input  on "site"




selection, which  should include a representative sample of uninhabited  and




habited sites.  Habited sites  would  include those sites which  are exposed to

-------
                                                               F-26.
transient use, and would include wilderness areas in which virtually no people




are found as well as picnic grounds and camp sites which have substantial and




continual use by transients; Intermittent-permanent areas, which includes sites




of weekend and/or summer visits by owner-residents and/or renters; and Permanent




residential areas or sites which includes various subareas in which the majority




of people reside the year around.  The use of aerial photographs of the region




would be useful here in assessing differential tree damage to selected sample




sites with varying human population usage.  The severity of the problem may be




related to the input of sheer numbers of people which may itself result in




differential  impact upon the forest, as well as air pollution.  Environmental




data on these specific sites allows a linking of actual environmental changes




to the structure  and organization of the human population.

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                                                               F-27.
                              LITERATURE  CITED



Butler  Edgar W.   Ronald  J. McAllister and Edward J. Kaiser.  Air Pollution
     and Metropolitan Population  Redistribution.  In Press.


Duncan  Otis Dudley.  From Social System  to Ecosystem, Sociological Inquiry.
     31 (Spring, 1961): 140-149.	a	!L


Goldsmith, J. R.   1968.   Effects  of Air Pollution on Human Health, in Mr
     Pollution.  Arthur C. Stern  (ed.).  New York:  Academic Press.   	

Molotch, Harvey.   Pollution as a  Social Problem, Social Problems.  Jack D.
     Douglas (ed.).  New  York:  Random House.  In Press.

Ridker, Ronald G.  1967.  Economic Costs of Air Pollution.  New York:   Frederick
     A. Praeger Press.


Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG).   Interim Open Space
     Element of the Southern California Regional Development Guide.  SCAG,
     September, 1970.     ~"~~	


Weisbord,  Burton,  1961.  Economics of Public Health.   College Park:   University
     of Pennsylvania Press.

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PAGE NOT
AVAILABLE
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                                                             Section G
               The Impact of Oxidant Air Pollution on the

          Mixed-Conifer Forest Ecosystem—Systems Integration
Researched and Written By:
                            Bland Ewing, Associate Specialist
                            Division of Biological Control
                            University of California
                            Berkeley, California

                                 and

                            Peter A. Rauch, Senior EDP Systems Analyst
                            Division of Entomology and Parasitology
                            University of California
                            Berkeley, California

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                                                                G-l.
               The Impact of Oxidant Air Pollution on the




          Mixed-Conifer Forest Ecosystem—Systems Integration






Three inter-related components to the Systems aspect of this study are:




     1.  Modelling




     2.  Information System




     3.  Systems Coordination and Integration




Each component has specific attributes that can be described independently




of the other components.









The components themselves, however, are not independent.  Design of any




component will directly affect in significant ways the other components.




It is therefore wise to take a unified approach to development of all




three components.  The Systems aspect of the study is built by linking




the components together into a functional unit.









The need for a Systems approach to an ecological study such as the one




proposed for the San Bernardino Mountains can be summarized with the




following observations.




     1.  Extensive resources must be brought to bear on the problem,




         including large-scale funding, and numerous technical and




         research personnel.




     2.  A large, very diverse data base will be generated to study




         the problem.




     3.  The problem is complex (because the system is dynamic and




         interactive),  multidisciplinary in content, and subject to




         redefinition during the course of investigation.

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                                                                G-2.
     4.  Both the data and the personnel must be coordinated for




         systematic progress toward solution of the problem.









These observations suggest the first-order constraints and priorities on




the design of the Systems aspect of the study.









Modelling




Preceding sections of this report clearly bring out the great complexity of




the mixed conifer forest, even though relatively little is known about this




ecosystem.  Also, the high degree of interdependency cutting across tradi-




tional disciplines is brought out well in the sections on plants and




arthropods, and in the summary.









As a result of the studies on population dynamics of western pine beetle




and large-scale synthetic pheromone field evaluation tests that have been




done at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Pacific Southwest




Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Berkeley over




the last few years, there is detailed information on a small portion of




this mixed conifer forest system.  This system includes adult ponderosa




pine, root diseases, and western pine beetle with its parasites, predators,




and other associated insects, all of which form an intricate network of




strong interactions that are generally non-linear, showing thresholds,




saturations, and state-dependent time delays.  Important interactions are




discrete and stochastic and many of the processes are sequential in the




sense that past history strongly affects present and future behavior.

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                                                                 G-3.
 There does  not seem to be anything unique about the small portion of the




 forest that has been studied in detail; thus there is every reason to




 believe that the remainder of the forest will be at least as complex and




 functionally similar in its interactions.









 Flora and fauna of this region have co-evolved over an extended  period  of




 time and in spite of interference by man the system is still reasonably




 intact.   It appears that interactions between the major conifer  species




 and between the conifers and other plants,  insect pests,  disease,  soils,




 climate, and fire, are such that dense, even-age pure conifer stands  are




 unstable.   The forest breaks up into a mosaic of different  species which




 shift their position through time.  It is only man's  short  life  span  that




 makes it difficult to appreciate how dynamic the mixed conifer forest is.




 It  is a system that may change significantly and rapidly  under the impact




 of  oxidant  air pollution damage.









 It  is not  clear how one could - or even if  one should - try to manage the




 stand to compensate for damage caused by air pollution.   Such a  highly




 complex, non-linear system may be quite counter-intuitive in  its response




 to  direct manipulation.   The forest  is responding to  a constantly  changing




 physical environment:   daily and  annual cycles,  shifting  weather patterns,




 short- and  long-term changes in climate.  The  system  may  have multiple




 equilibrium points  or  under varying  input no equilibrium  at all.   It  could




 turn  out that  extensive,  selective air pollution damage to  the forest could




so alter the composition  of the forest that  it would  never  return  to  its




original state even  after  air  pollution levels were reduced.

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                                                                G-4.
Different mortality patterns could produce differing attitudes toward the




smog damage.  If in an area of fairly uniform conditions the ponderosa




pines declined at approximately the same rate, the trees could decline for




a period of ten or fifteen years without much increase in mortality, and




then having reached their physiological limit at roughly the same time a




large portion of the trees could die over a few-year period.  White fir




and incense cedar in the understory of the ponderosa pine forest would be




released and would eventually grow to produce many years later a new forest




of white fir and incense cedar.  Another possibility is that the micro-




climate and soil conditions would be sufficiently varied and the genetic




resistance of individual trees would differ enough so that the ponderosa




pine mortality would be widely distributed over time and space.  As indi-




vidual trees died this would release fir and cedar in their immediate




vicinity and the stand gradually would be converted from a ponderosa pine




forest to a white fir and incense cedar forest.  A third possibility is




that by the time the ponderosa pine was dying from air pollution there




would be sufficient damage to the fir and cedar so they would be stunted




in their growth, and consequently as the ponderosa pines died the forest




would be invaded by brush species.  Even though the same number of ponderosa




pine eventually died, people would probably react very differently to each




of these three cases.









It would be very desirable to predict the course of change in the forest




under different patterns and levels of air pollution.  What would happen if




the levels of air pollution remained essentially the same into the distant




future or if air pollution was to gradually increase?  Would the forest be

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                                                                 G-5-
 eliminated entirely?  Far stricter air pollution standards  and  control




 methods  are proposed for 1975-76.   If these controls  were to  significantly




 drop  the levels of oxidant air pollution in the Los Angeles basin, what




 effect would this have on the mixed conifer forest?   Would  the  changes




 in the forest be significantly different if the reduction was delayed




 until 1980 or 1985?









 Also  it  would be desirable to know if there were any  practical  ways of




 manipulating the forest to at least partially  compensate  for  the damage




 caused by oxidant air pollution.   Any management of the forest  to compensate




 for air  pollution damage would have to involve economic considerations




 over  an  extended period of time.   An annual expenditure of  a  few percent




 of the total value of the forest is all that would be practical.  This




 means that any manipulation of the forest would have  to be  limited and




 selective.   To be effective it would have to be well  integrated with the




 naturally occurring processes in the forest.









 Trying to predict long-term changes in the  forest resulting from air




 pollution damage through direct experimentation will  have only  limited




 value.   Forests are simply too extensive in space and time  to be a




 reasonable  object for experimentation.  Spatially, forests  are  functionally




 intact ecosystems of  tens  to hundreds  of square miles.  Temporarily, the




major  tree  species  of the  mixed conifer forest  have potential life spans




of  300 to  400  years  and  generation times of  50  to 100 years.  A single tree




is not a  forest.   Even a square mile of forest  in isolation would show




abnormal patterns  of  reproduction,  dispersion,  growth and death, interacting

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                                                                G-6.
with fire, disease, and insect pests in an atypical manner, thus changing




the dynamics of the system and the successional patterns.









Experimental science is most effective as a multistage process where the




design of each experiment is based upon the information and knowledge




gained from preceding experiments.  Unfortunately, it is difficult to see




how one could even carry out a single controlled experiment that would be




extensive enough in space and time to contribute significantly to under-




standing successional processes within the mixed conifer forest.  About




the only possible approach to understanding the forest would be to




experiment with many of the components of the forest under a variety of




conditions over a short period of time.  The forest is a diverse mosaic of




animals, plants and physical conditions.  A wide range of naturally




occurring experiments on various components of the forest is continually




in progress and needs only to be monitored.  In addition, these experiments




can be supplemented with artificial field and laboratory studies to




elucidate specific features of the forest system.   However, data gathered




in this manner are not in a form suitable for predicting the long range




consequences of oxidant air pollution on the mixed conifer forest.  Nor




are the data suitable for exploring various management strategies which




might be used to at least partially compensate for the damaging effects of




air pollution on the forest.









Experimental data must be transformed from an organization describing




changes in the system for many varied conditions over a short period of




time into one showing changes for a particular set of conditions over an

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                                                                 G-7.
extended period of time.  These reorganized data could then be used to




predict the long range changes in the composition of the forest under




different concentrations and distributions of air pollution through time.




Also, one could explore, under different patterns of air pollution, the




consequences of strategies aimed at reducing damage or mortality caused by




disease, bark beetles, mistletoe, and animals that consume cones and seed.




It may be that over an extended period of time, at the present levels of




air pollution, it will be impossible to maintain ponderosa pine, but that




under proper management conditions a forest of white fir, incense cedar




and sugar pine would be stable.









Perhaps it would be well to stress again the impossibility of answering




these questions through direct experiment.  It simply is not feasible to




directly explore through experimentation the effects of different manage-




ment strategies or patterns of air pollution over tens to hundreds of square




miles of forest and decades to centuries of time.  Complex, non-linear,




multiloop systems with  state-dependent time lags are counter-intuitive in




their properties.  To successfully control such a system one has to anti-




cipate future states and compensate for conditions in the future rather




than those of the present.  Since, in general, different processes have




different delays associated with them, a whole array of future  states of




the system must be anticipated to successfully control the system.  Trying




to manage a system of this complexity by responding to present  and past




states of the system almost certainly will be  ineffective and  can  even




produce changes contrary to those desired.  Thus  the successful prediction




or management of a. system with such a structure depends  on having  validated,

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quantitative, predictive mathematical or algorithmic models.  The con-




struction of these models from many small, short term, indirect experiments




must be a central activity in any effective study of the dynamics of the




mixed conifer forest.









The formation and transport of oxidant air pollution is an exogenous




variable in this study.  There are other extensive studies investigating




these problems from the analytical and algorithmic modelling approach.









Direct effects of oxidant air pollution on the hydrology of the system is




probably negligible.  The emphasis in hydrology would be to monitor water




quality and other hydrological aspects to determine whether indirect




effects of air pollution on vegetation would affect the hydrological




system.  Until such effects can be demonstrated, modelling of the hydro-




logy of the system must be considered external to this study.









Modelling efforts on systems of the nature and magnitude of the San




Bernardino forest ecosystem, such as the IBP Biome studies, have been




investigating the concepts of productivity, energy transfer and nutrient




cycling.   Because of this emphasis their approaches to modelling have been




radically different than those required for this type of study.









The San Bernardino National Forest is no longer based on a timber producing




economy.   Its main value is as a recreational and watershed site.  For




recreational value, the forest's significant attributes are described by




its structure;  species distribution, abundance and diversity, age distribution

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                                                                G-9.
of its principal floristic components, wildlife diversity, and the abundance




and quality of its surface water, among others.  These attributes combine




to produce the aesthetic qualities required in a recreational forest




setting.  They also describe the parameters which must be manipulated by




forest managers.  Predictive models of this system would therefore have to




include these attributes into their own structure, for there is no clear




relationship demonstrated between such concepts as productivity and




floristic diversity that would be useful to this problem.









Very  little work has been done that considers the forest structure within




the framework of a dynamic model.  There is an abundance of literature




that  describes static models of such things as species diversity and




distribution.  These models give little insight into the underlying




mechanisms that drive the system and are of no use in simulating the




dynamics of a system subjected to different management strategies, or to




such  stresses as air pollution.









Analytical models applicable to a system of the structure described here




can be found in the area of mathematics dealing with stochastic processes.




General summaries of the mathematical theory can be found in Karlin, 1966,




and Harris, 1963.  Examples of the application of stochastic theory to




biological problems in population ecology are found in Chiang, 1968, and





Reddingius, 1971.

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                                                                G-10.
Several computer languages which have recently become available will




facilitate the design and implementation of synchronous and asynchronous




stochastic algorithmic models.  These include APL/PLUS as implemented on




UCLA CCN's IBM 360/91 computer, and SIMSCRIPT II.5 as marketed by




Consolidated Analysis Centers, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif.









Information System




Modelling and other analyses performed during this study will, of course,




be driven by real and simulated data.  These data will be accumulated from




various sources throughout the study, principally from the field, and




secondarily from literature and simulation studies.  Because of the




magnitude and complexity of the study, careful attention must be given to




the problem of data base generation and management.  Early planning and




development of an Information System will result in a more fully coordi-




nated study, and will produce long-run economies in people-time and in




data processing.









General observations about data management in this study are:




     a.  Data are not usually gathered in the order in which they are




         to be accessed for analysis.




     b.  Data describing many parameters of the  system must be simul-




         taneously accessed during analysis.




     c.  People are not very adept at performing manually the tasks




         implied by a. or b.




     d.  Data are structurally very diverse.




     e.  Data are qualitatively very diverse.

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                                                                 G-ll.
     f.  There-exists  substantial  a, posteriori  information  about  the




         diverse  structural  and  qualitative  attributes  of data, and




         about  the multiple  ways in which  they  will be  used.




     g.  This information  can  be used  to enhance—or even to make




         possible—the ability of  researchers to "get at" the data.




     h.  Electronic  data processing (EDP)  provides the  necessary medium




         to perform  these  tasks  well.




     i.  However, it is necessary  to effectively interface  the tech-




         nology of EDP with  the  user,  in this case the  ecologists in




         the field and other investigators.









In order to accommodate these  observations the  following structure is




recommended.  The Information  System should be  divided  into three well-




integrated subsystems.  First, for input,  there should  be a data capture




(data recording,  verification, and editing) subsystem.  Second, for mani-




pulating the data, there should  be a generalized file management subsystem.




Third, for output, there should  be a data  interpretation (reduction,




analysis, report  generation, and graphics) subsystem.   Each of these sub-




systems would operate  on different  data bases,  each usually being generated




from output of  the preceding subsystem.









     I.  The data capture  subsystem presents the most difficult problems




regarding human engineering  requirements which  are very necessary to




consider in this subsystem.

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                                                                G-12.
It is at the point of data capture that the greatest opportunities to




generate unrecoverable errors usually occur in ecological studies.  There




are numerous reasons that can be suggested to support this contention.




Much sampling in ecological studies is manual in nature.  Automated




recording stations and devices, although commonly used for certain appli-




cations, are generally not available; e.g. they do not exist, they cost




too much, the technology is not developed, etc.  It is necessary therefore




to design the data capture system to reduce errors generated by common




human problems such as fatigue, fallible memories, boredom with repetitious




tasks, illegible and ambiguous handwriting, and individual competency.









Each, or even several, of these traits may be of minor concern in a study




where the principal investigator is the only participant.  Re can generally




decipher his own handwriting.  Also, he is probably more aware of the con-




sequences of deviation from the defined tasks since he has a "world view"




of his project.









In a multi-disciplinary project with several to many principal investigators




and technical support personnel this is not true.  In this situation each




person's contribution represents only a small part of the overall project.




This does not imply that it is an insignificant part, nor does it imply




that each part is unlinked in a multiplicity of ways to other parts of the




project.   The data that are entered into the system, then, must be "available"




to others,  i.e.  they must be rendered into useful information.  Raw data must




therefore be legible, commensurate with other similarly gathered data, of




identifiable origin, and accurately entered into the system.

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                                                                G-13.
In addition to the human problems of data transfer, there are other reasons




to make every effort to develop good management techniques for data capture.




It is frequently not possible to "re-capture" data that have been lost,




destroyed or otherwise rendered not usable.  One such situation occurs




with destructive sampling where the measurements cannot be taken twice.









Another situation  that frequently occurs in ecological fieldwork is the




observation  of what may be  termed "rare" or "unusual" events, or




"opportunistic"  observation.  Measurements acquired on such events frequently




provide useful insight into the problems being studied.  Suitable ways to




incorporate  these  observations into  the data base should be developed.




Otherwise,  they  get  recorded as miscellaneous notations in the margins of




data recording forms  and  are left behind during transcription.









Measurements taken on time-dependent parameters cannot usually be repeated




since they  are  only meaningful in  their proper time-frame relationships




to measurements  on other  parameters.








Even after  every reasonable effort  is made to prevent  accidental  loss  of




raw data,  errors are still going  to be introduced  into the data base.   So,




data verification (against the  original copy)  and  editing  (of  the errors




uncovered)  must  be included into  the data capture  subsystem.   The process




 of "checking" the digitized data against  the original data  should be done




by those responsible for having  generated the  original data.   They are




usually the ones most likely to recognize any  of  a multitude of  discre-




pancies that can and usually do occur.  This procedure can  be optimized to




 simplify the process and to reduce the time required to do  the checking.

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                                                                G-14.
     II.  The generalized file management subsystem is the least problematic




to acquire or design since two suitable options are already available.




They differ from each other substantially in structure and investment in




resources.









Within  government agencies there are  (or will be) several file management




systems of particular usefulness to ecological studies of the type proposed.




The USDA Forest Service is currently negotiating the establishment of GIM




(General Information Management system).  It may be available by summer,




1973.   It is proposed to be available on a nationwide network of Computer




Sciences Corporation of Los Angeles.  It will probably be relatively costly




to use  but this is far from determined yet.









Another system reputed to be quite useful is RECON, the NASA Information




System.  Its. availability is undetermined.









Although systems such as these may be available, the practicality of using




them would involve major considerations of convenience, as well as of costs




and other more technical factors.  File management is only one of the three




subsystems needed in the Information System.  These file management systems




are not available at all computing facilities.   Conversely, other necessary




computational tools (to be used in the data capture and data interpretation




subsystems) may not be available at the installations having file management




systems.  Given limited resources, the solution normally involves some sub-




stantial compromise such as abandoning the best of one world and making do

-------
                                                                 G-15.
with  less.   Two such compromises might be to:




      A.   Physically transport data (on some machine-readable medium such




as  magnetic tape)  from one installation to the other.   This  permits the




continued utilization of desired software resources.   However,  the  time




delays  can be devastating to productive use of researchers'  time.   Ideas




will  continually be tested against the data base.   Efficient interactive




capability between the investigator and the data permits  the continuity




of  thought processes that must be part of any  research program.  This is




even  more critical when several investigators  must  participate  in a multi-




disciplinary environment.  The quality of the  communications system can




be  the  determining factor in the success of a  project.









      B.   Determine whether the "robustness" of a computer center's




resources is sufficient to allow a useful information  system to be




developed without  the services of a sophisticated file management sub-




system.   A measure of such robustness  would include considerations  of




languages diversity, utility routines  scope, communications  features, size




and cost  of processors and peripheral  storage,  and  other  factors.   Given a




system  robust in other resources, it is possible that  more programmer time




can be  dedicated to "managing" files to compensate  for the lack of  a more




automatic system.









Obviously,  the  turn-around time under  the latter compromise  should  be




shorter (and balanced in  other ways, such as in cost)  to be  competitive




with  compromise  A-

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                                                                G-16.
An effective interactive information system is needed not only for the




investigators but also for the programmers who support the principal




research personnel.  Although the principal investigators are able to




distribute their workloads among multiple obligations, such as teaching,




committee meetings, field work, and data interpretation, the programming




staff is generally dedicated solely to design, implementation and execution




of programming support.  Effective utilization of programmers' time is




best served by a highly interactive computing environment.









Ecologists have made little use of sophisticated file management systems




in the past.  (Indeed, such systems have not been available except during




the past few years, and they are not widely distributed.)  There is still




much to be learned about how best to interface them into ecological




studies.  A definite need for them is indicated, however.









     III.  The data interpretation subsystem receives raw data from the




various files created previously and processes them to eventually produce




information that can be interpreted by the researchers.   From this process




future emphasis and direction of the study can be planned.   This planning




and re-planning permits refinements to be incorporated into the study plan




as more is learned about the system.  For, although there is general




agreement that the forest-smog system is degenerating and should be studied,




no one would suggest that we know exactly how the study should proceed.

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                                                                G-17.
 The  tools  and techniques used  in data analysis will  strongly  reflect  the




 experiences  and biases  of the  individual investigators, which are varied




 and  many.  Because systems such as  the San Bernardino National Forest  are




 poorly understood, it is certain that a variety  of techniques will be




 applied to analyze the  behavior of  this system.  Many of  these techniques




 are  themselves under development, and new ones will  undoubtedly be




 formulated.









 It is  therefore reasonable to  provide a great degree of flexibility to




 design new methods of analysis.   This  flexibility would be based upon




 having a broad spectrum of computing  languages and associated resources




 available.   They would  include as a minimum, APL/PLUS, PL/1,  FORTRAN and




 SIMSCRIPT  II.5.   An array of languages such as these will allow ideas to




 be rapidly implemented  in the  most  natural manner to test the validity of




 the  method.   If  proven  to be useful,  then full-scale implementation for




 overall efficiency can  be pursued.









 Systems  Coordination




 The  necessity  to provide a formally recognized mechanism for  coordination




 and  integration  of a large multidisciplinary study is obvious.  No one




 person will be able  to  assume  sole  technical direction for the project.




 The  scope  of the project is too  br"oa
-------
                                                                G-18.
decision-making committee will assure that serious deficiencies develop




and persist in planning and executing the study.









First, then, it is recommended that a technical decision-making (DM)




committee be an integral part of the study.  This committee should have




representatives from each of the major disciplines involved in the study.




The committee would be responsible for on-going evaluation of progress,




and for providing solutions to the many major logistic and technical




problems that will arise during the study.  It would also have the res-




ponsibility to propose the direction and priorities for future research.




Since it is to function as a multidisciplinary committee, its members




should be selected for their proven ability to function in this type of




disputatious atmosphere.  This technical DM committee will function well




only if it has effective communication lines established within itself,




and with the remainder of the project.  Three essential lines can be




considered the minimum configuration.









First, there should be a full-time Field coordinator.  This person would




have the responsibility to assure that plans are implemented and carried




on as required, or to determine why they cannot be carried out.  The Field




coordinator must be a broadly-trained individual, one who can communicate




effectively, and who is resourceful.  This person is possibly the single




most critical participant in the study, since he assumes the responsibility




to determine that a well-planned study is actually being executed.

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                                                                 G-19.
A  second line of  communications  should be established  between  the  committee




and  the  Information System.   This  may  be done through  an  Information  System




coordinator,  a person with the responsibility to  coordinate  development




and  implementation of the various  Information System subsystems.   He  would




establish priorities for data processing based on information  supplied




by the technical  DM committee.   He would work with the Field coordinator




to determine  the  characteristics of data capture  processes of  the  various




investigators.  This will provide  further necessary information to design




and  operate a more intelligent Information System.  He would keep  the




technical DM  committee informed  about  the status  of the Information System,




i.e. progress,  problems,  requirements,  etc.,  associated with proper




functioning of  the System.   He would work with  the Modelling coordinator




(discussed below)  to establish System  requirements of  that effort.









A  third  line  of communications,  the Modelling  coordinator, would have




primary  responsibility to bring  together the  group  of  investigators for




the  purpose of  constructing  a model(s)  (representation) of the system




under study.  Since  the model will  necessarily be  a limited view of the




real system it  is  most  important that  the  particular view represent the




best information available.   Therefore,  all principal  investigators should




be expected to  participate in the formal modelling  effort.  As indicated




previously, the model will be driven with  real and  simulated data.  Much




of the real data are to be generated during the study.   (As indicated in




other parts of  this report,  there is a paucity of  information on many




important components in the  system.)  Data collection  and modelling

-------
                                                                G-20.
efforts must then be run concurrently to assure that the information




needed for the model is indeed the information being gathered in the field.




The Modelling coordinator would have the responsibility to determine that




goals of the study are correctly represented in the modelling effort.  He




would develop a framework for the overall modelling strategy and be




responsible for its updating or modifications as necessary.









The two most important points to be derived from the above discussion




about lines of communication are that  1) there do exist several critical




points of coordination, and 2) participation in group interactions is




essential.  From this it should be concluded that special effort must be




made to place reliable people in those positions of coordination, and




that all principal investigators should be expected to convene frequently




to contribute their talents to the modelling project.  Needless to say,




a substantial travel budget should be established within the Systems




component of the study to be able to bring people together.









One other manpower component must be discussed within the framework of




Systems coordination.  This project will need a number of full-time




investigators to support the principal, or as VanDyne,  1972, refers to




them, contractual investigators.  On countless projects the graduate




student has traditionally filled this role.  He had, by this stage in his




career, developed sufficient tools to be productive.  He is generally




highly motivated and has a vested interest in contributing to the success




of a project.

-------
                                                                G-21.
A graduate student does have serious restrictions, however, that can be




disruptive to a large-scale integrated project.  His other obligations,




such as classwork, prevent full-time and year-round participation in a




project.  Not all project work is suitable for dissertation material,




and various problems of proprietary and originality arise.









The manpower market has traditionally been limited to the graduate student,




The current availability of recent (and not so recent) Ph.D.'s provides




other options with advantages over the use of graduate student manpower.




These include completed training, well-oriented interests, proven skills,




full-time availability to participate, and greater self-direction.   It




can be further argued that post-doctoral contributors probably cost very




little more than do graduate students.  Double the salary of a graduate




research assistantship, add the costs to the project of cultivating the




talents of the student, plus the relatively high risk of failure on the




student's part to find a dissertation project to his liking and you have




most of the price of a recent Ph.D.

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                                                                G-22.
                              Literature Cited




Abraham, F. F.  Computer simulation of diffusion problems using the




     continuous system modeling program (CSMP) language.  IBM Data




     Processing Division 320-3284.




Chiang, Chin Long.  1968.  Introduction to stochastic processes in bio-




     statistics.  John Wiley & Sons.




Harris, T. E.  1963.  The theory of branching processes.  Gottingen &




     Heidelberg, Springer, XIV.




Karlin, Samuel.  1966.  A first course in stochastic processes.  Academic




     Press.




Reddingius, J.  1971.  Gambling for existence.  Acta Biotheoretica,




     Vol. XX. Suppl. I.




VanDyne, George M.  1972.  Organization and management of an integrated




     ecological research program with special emphasis on systems analysis,




     universities, and scientific cooperation, pp. 111-172.  In




     Mathematical Models in Ecology, J. N. R. Jeffers (ed.), Blackwell




     Scientific Publications.

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