OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT EFFECTS
ON A WESTERN CONIFEROUS
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
TASK C REPORT:
Study Site Selection
and Verification Data
on Pollutants and Species.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
FOREST SERVICE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT
of AGRICULTURE
Supported By:
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Grant No. 68-O2-O3O3
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Oxidant Air Pollutant Effects on a
Western Coniferous Forest Ecosystem
Task C
Study Site Selection and On-Site
Collection of Background Information
Principal Investigator
0. C. Taylor, Associate Director
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center
University of California, Riverside, CA 92502
February 1973
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Research Advisory Committee
for Task C
D. L. Wood, Chairman
Forest Ecology
Joe R. McBride
School of Forestry and Conservation
University of California
Berkeley, California
Forest Pathology
Paul R. Miller
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center
University of California
Riverside, California
Insectan Fauna
David L. Wood
Department of Entomology and Parasitology
University of California
Berkeley, California
Terrestrial Vertebrates
Marshall White
School of Forestry and Conservation
University of California
Berkeley, California
Forest Soils
Rodney J. Arkley
Department of Soils and Plant Nutrition
University of California
Berkeley, California
Project Officer (EPA)
Ray Wilhour
National Ecological Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon
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Contributors to the Report
Dr. Donald L. Dahlsten
Dr. Leonard Felix
Dr. Fields Cobb
Mr. Kenneth Swain
Mr. Ross Thibaud
Mr. Henry P. Milligan
Mr. James A. Kolb
Mrs. Mary Kay Kolb
Mr. William Perkins
Dr- Peter A. Rauch
Dr. Richard Garcia
Dr. Robert F. Luck
Mr. David J. Voegtlin
Mr. Oscar Clarke
Mr. Larry Greenwood
Mr. Eugene A. Cardiff
Mr. Jerome T. Light
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Contents
Section Pages
Introduction
I General Description of Study Area 1-1 - 1-3
Appendix I - vegetation key
Appendix II - location of plots
II Vegetation of Principal Study Sites II-l - II-20
Dogwood 11-3
Snow Valley II-4
Sand Canyon II-6
Camp Angeles II-8
Barton Flats II-8
Heart Bar 11-10
Conclusions 11-12
III Oxidant Damage to Conifers III-l
Methods of Study III-2
Results III-4
Summary III-7
Future work III-8
IV Survey of Plant Disease Problems IV-1 - IV-5
V Soil Investigations V-l - V-4
VI Monitoring of Oxidant Pollution VI-1 - VI-7
Instruments and Procedures VI-1
Checklists VI-2a & 2b
Results VI-3
Summary VI-6
Future work VI-6
Appendix I - Summary of weather
Appendix II - Weather data
Appendix III - Precipitation
VII Terrestrial Vertebrates VII-1 - VII-54
Abstract VII-1
Introduction VII-3
Birds VII-7
Small Animals VII-12
Larger Animals VII-21
Reptiles & Amphibians VII-26
Future Investigation VII-31
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Section PaSeS
[-1 - VIII-8
VIII Insectan Fauna
Dogwood
Snow Valley VIII-Z
Heart Bar VI11-?
Camp Angeles VIII-4
Barton Flats VIII-5
Summary VIII-7
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List of Tables
Section II
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Section III
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Section VII
Table 1
Table 2
Page
Tree layer species composition, density, and
basal area 11-15
Shrub species occurring in transects . 11-16
Brush layer species area covered, percent cover,
and relative percent cover II - 17
Herb layer species II - 18
Cone and acorn production - 1972 II - 20
Summary of species composition at each plot
location including average damage score and range
of damage scores for each species III - 10
The distribution of ponderosa pines in six damage
classes at three locations III - 11
The distribution of Jeffrey pines in six damage
classes at four locations III - 12
The distribution of sugar pines into six damage
classes at four locations III - 13
The distribution of incense cedar into four damage
classes at two locations III - 14
The distribution of white firs into four damage
classes at five locations III - 15
The distribution of black oaks into four damage
classes at four locations HI - 16
Mortality rate and changes in damage scores of
individual ponderosa pines at the Dogwood plot III - 17
Mortality rate and changes in damage scores of
individual ponderosa pines at Barton Flats plot III - 18
Incidence of common infectious above-ground diseases
in each of the study plots III - 19
Estimated tree and shrub crown cover on the study
plots VII - 34
Estimated abundance of the common woody plant species
on the study plots VII - 34
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List of Tables (Cont'd)
Pages
Table 3 Bird census dates and weather conditions VII - 35
Table 4 Bird census dates and times from Eugene Cardiff VII - 36
Table 5 Tentative checklist of the common birds of the
coniferous forests of the San Bernardino Mountains VII-37 to 43
Table 6 Relative abundance of the species of birds observed
on the six study plots VII-44 & 45
Table 7 Mammal trapping dates and line designations VII - 46
Table 8 Preliminary list of small mammals occurring in
coniferous forest areas of the San Bernardino Mountains VII-47 & 48
Table 9 Trapping results of small mammals on the six study plots VII - 49
Table 10 Catch from 12 calhoun lines in the mixed conifer forest
of the San Bernardino National Forest VII - 50
Table 11 Preliminary list of the larger mammals occurring in
coniferous areas of the San Bernardino Mountains VII - 51
Table 12 Observation dates and weather for lizard counts VII - 52
Table 13 Preliminary list of the amphibians and reptiles
occurring in coniferous areas of the San Bernardino
Mountains VII-53 & 54
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List of Figures
Section I
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Section II
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Location map - General description of study area
Lake Arrowhead Transect - Vegetation map
Barton Flats Transect - Vegetation map
Lake Arrowhead Transect - Base map
Barton Flats Transect - Base map
Species diversity and density, Dogwood plot - 550 feet
Species diversity and density, Snow Valley plot - 900 feet
Species diversity and density, Sand Canyon plot - 1173 feet
Species diversity and density, Camp Angeles plot - 680 feet
Species diversity and density, Barton Flats plot - 750 feet
Species diversity and density, Heart Bar plot - 1265 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Dogwood plot
550 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Snow Valley
plot - 900 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Sand Canyon
plot - 1173 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Camp Angeles
plot - 680 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Barton Flats
plot - 750 feet
Tree and shrub profiles in a strip 20 feet wide, Heart Bar
plot - 1265 feet
Tree and shrub age distributions, Dogwood plot
Tree and shrub age distributions, Snow Valley plot
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Section II (Continued)—pg. 2
Figure 15 Tree and shrub age distributions, Sand Canyon plot
Figure 16 Tree and Shrub age distributions, Camp Angeles plot
Tree and shrub age distributions, Barton Flats plot
Tree and shrub age distributions, Heart Bar plot
Figure 17
Figure 18
Section III
Figure 1
Section VI
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Injury to ponderosa or Jeffrey pine trees decreases
(larger score) with distance from pollutant sources.
Number of hours daily when oxidant exceeded 8 pphm at
six stations, June-September 1972.
Daily oxidant maxima at six are related
A 48-hour record of oxidant concentrations reveals the
mechanism of oxidant transport
Transport of oxidant eastward along the Barton Flats
transect is uninterrupted by terrain
Transport of oxidant eastward along the Lake Arrowhead
transect is not uniform because of complex terrain
Seasonal trends in oxidant concentration and duration do
not reflect improvement from 1968 to 1972
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Introduction
The San Bernardino National Forest was selected for a study of the
impact of oxidant air pollutants because of its proximity to the heavily
populated south coast basin of California and because evidence of encroach-
ment of pollutants into the area. Researchers from four campuses of the
University of California and the United States Forest Service are cooperating
in the project to determine the impact of pollutants on the total ecosystem.
A report for Task B was prepared to present historical information about
the San Bernardino National Forest and to identify factors aside from air
pollutants which have affected specie distribution, health of organisms and
successional development in the forest.
This report for Task C is intended to identify and describe in considerable
detail two areas in the San Bernardino Forest selected to represent a reasonable
distribution of major forest species and to represent areas exposed to a gra-
dient of pollutants during the past two decades. The current condition of
various components of the ecosystem in these selected areas was determined by
on-site inspection and monitoring of atmospheric quality during the summer of
1972 by researchers in several disciplines involved in the study.
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Section I
General Description of the Study Area
Joe R. McBride
The San Bernardino Mountains have been selected as the principle site
for the study of the impact of air pollution on a western mixed conifer
forest. The literature concerning these mountains has been reviewed in a
manuscript prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency (Protocol Study
of the Impact of Oxidant Air Pollutants on a Western Mixed Conifer Forest:
Task B).
The purpose of this report is to describe a number of specific locations
within the San Bernardino Mountains. These sites were investigated during
the summer of 1972. The investigation involved field surveys to obtain back-
ground data on the following areas of effort: (1) an understanding of the
dominant species in terrestrial plant communities including species diversity
and density, age structure, size indication by crown class, seed production,
and insect and disease problems; (2) a survey of important insects looking at
species composition and density, sex ratio, predator population, and phenology;
(3) a knowledge of the important airborne and soil micro-organisms; (4) com-
parisons of soil types and soil-water relationships; (5) a preliminary com-
parison of climatic variables within the proposed study areas including tem-
perature, rainfall, material indicators of atmospheric pollutants, light
intensity, and evapo-transpiration; (6) determine dominant species diversity
and density of wildlife, phenology, age structure, and vigor; and (7) determine
the nature of the water shed and the possible interrelations with loss of
certain vegetation cover.
To initiate the field study two transects were established in the San
Bernardino Mountains (Figure 1). A transect approach was used in order to
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1-2
provide a gradient of both vegetative and air pollution conditions along
which the impact of oxidants could be studied. The transects were located
along expected gradients of oxidant air pollution. The Lake Arrowhead
transect was thought to be a gradient of high to moderate ozone concentra-
tion while the Barton Flats transect represent a moderate to low gradient.
Initially these ozone gradients were approximated on the basis of tree damage.
During the summer field monitoring stations were established to measure ozone
concentration along the transects. Results of these measurements will be
reported later.
The topography of both transects is mountainous. Elevations range from
3200 to 8095 feet along the Lake Arrowhead transect. The unique topographic
feature of this transect is the abrupt slope along the southern boundary of
most of the transect. This slope drops down to the San Bernardino valley.
As the inversion layer is destroyed almost daily during May - September basin
oxidants flow over the transect from its south and southwest boundaries. Above
the rim of the slope air movement is influenced by the topography. The Mojave
River, Deep Creek, and Grass Valley Creek drainages tend to funnel oxidants
north across the transect and into the desert.
The Barton Flat transect is located in general along the Santa Ana River.
Elevations along this transect range from 3950 to 8950 feet. The Santa Ana
River drainage is the dominant topographic feature of the transect. Oxidant
air pollution moves out of the basin either from beneath the inversion or
from the eroding edge of the inversion layer with the afternoon up-canyon flow.
This general pattern of air movement, up the canyon in the afternoon and back
down at night, provides a somewhat more uniform flow of oxidants across the
Barton Flats transect than occurs across the Lake Arrowhead transect.
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1-3
The dominant vegetation type on each transect is the Mixed Yellow Pine-
White Fir forest with Black Oak (PR. Figure 2 and 3) . This type is dominated
M
ponderpsia, P_. Jeffreyi, P_. Lambertiana, Libocedrus decurrens , Abies
concolor , and Quercus kelloggii . Species composition varies somewhat within
the type with Pinus jeffreyi dominating at the xeric end of the moisture gra-
dient and Abies concolor occurring at the mesic end. Various types of
chaparral also occur on both transects. Hard chaparral (Ceanothus leucodermis
dominant with C^. crassif olius , Arc to s taphy los glauca , .A. glandulosa, Cero carpus
spp. and scattered Adenostoma f as c icula turn) being the most common.
Within each large transect two plots, named Dogwood and Barton Flats —
previously established by the U.S. Forest Service for observation of air
pollution damage — - were selected for more detailed study (Figure 1) . Four
additional plots were also selected to insure that study sites would be available
where oxidant dosage ranged from low to high. These plots fell within the larger
Lake Arrowhead and Barton Flats transects (Figure 1) , and served as specific
study sites where data collection and field observation took place during the
summer of 1972.
A road and highway network provides easy access to nearly all sections
within each of the two larger transects. California state highways 18 and
138 cross the Lake Arrowhead transect (Figure 4) while the Barton Flats transect
(Figure 5) is traversed by California state highway 38. A detailed description
of access to each of the shorter plots is given in Appendix II.
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Appendix I - i
Appendix I. Vegetation Key (Based on Minnich, R. C. et al. 1969. Mapping
Montane vegetation in southern California. Tech. Report 3, Status Report 3,
USDI, Contract No. 14-08-0001-10674. 40p. 26 plates.)
CHAPARRAL
GS - ^*Soft" Chaparral Chamise dominant with some Ceanothus crassifolius,
scattered individuals in Arc to s taphylos spp. Rhus spp. and
Cercocarpus betuloides.
CH - Hard Chaparral - Ceanothus leucodermis dominant with _C. crassifolius,
Arctostaphylqs glauca, A. glandulosa, Cercocarpus spp. and scattered
chamise.
C^-jCOjC - Oak Chaparral - Quercus dumosa, lower elevation, north slopes,
likely dominant with C£. chrysolepus (CWQ) increasingly
evident above approximately 3500 feet, north slopes and
sometimes with California Bay.
CL_. - Emergent Oak Woodland in Hard Chaparral scattered or clustered
individuals of Quercus wislizenii and/or (J. chrysolepus in C
4500-5000 feet. '
CLjn'~ Interior Oak Woodland Quercus wislizenii with no C* but with
possible mixing of PJ, PF, species, also Mountain mahogany
(Cercocarpus ledifolius).
CF. , - Forest enclave in chaparral. Big cone Douglas-fir dominant
' (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa) Canyon oak dominance variable.
CE , CP, - Conifer emergent in chaparral. Coulter pine dominant
P Cp (Pinus coulteri) mixes with
DRY FOREST
DF - Dry forest. Coulter Pine and Black Oak (Quercus kelloggii) of
about equal incidence; occasionally there are nearly pure stands
of Black Oak. Little undergrowth.
MONTANE CONIFEROUS FOREST
PF - "Pure" Yellow Pine-White Fir Forest Pinus ponderosa, P_. jeffreyi,
P_. 1 ambertiana, Libocedrus decurrens, Abies concolor „ - Juniperus
occidentalis in drier margins.
PF- Mixed Yellow Pine-White Fir Forest with Black Oak. All the species
in PF and Quercus kelloggii.
CT - Timberland Chaparral Arctostaphylos patula, Ceanothus cordulatus,
Castanopsis sempervirens, Arctostaphylos patula with scattered
trees of the PF and occasionally LP groups.
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Appendix I - il
TF - Marginal Conifer Forest basically an ecotone. A mixture between
PF species with CF, and occasionally CE tree species.
PINYON - JUNIPER WOODLAND
PJ - "Dense" Western Juniper and Mountain Mahogany prominent Juniperus
D occidentalus. Cerocarpus ledifolius and scattered Great Basin
sage species (Artimisla tridentata, Chrvsothamnus nauseosus).
pj - "Pure" Mostly Pinyon Pine with scattered Juniperus califoruica
or J_. occidentals. Also Cercocarpus ledifolia, Artemisia
tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseosus.
pj - "Open with desert undergrowth, a few chaparral .species in
Arctostaphylos, Quercus; Pinions and Junipers widely scattered.
MISCELLANEOUS
S - SUBCLIMAX VEGETATION
G - GRASSLANDS
M - MEADOWS
B - BARREN
R - RIVERLINE VEGETATION - in the absence of tree species of the pre-
vailing plant grouping, i.e., this vegetation type includes tree
or bush species ecologically adapted to stream environments only.
Below 4000 feet, either Sycamore (Plantanus racemosa) or Cottonwood
(Populus trichocarpa); 4000 feet to 7000 feet, White Alder (Alnus
rhombifolia); above 7000 feet, Willow (Salix); Fish Creek, Quaking
Aspen (Populus tremuloides).
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Appendix II - i
Appendix II.
Camp Angeles
From Camp Angeles Ranger Station, follow Forest Service trail signs SW on
rough dirt road for 0.3 mile up to a small parking area. Walk up slope 50
yards to transect and look for 5+00 stake, proceed 206° to west end of plot.
West end of plot is distinguished by a recently dead 24" ponderosa pine on
the up-slope side which leans severely to the south (up-slope). Look for
CHOO stake NW of leaning tree. Tree #1 is PP, 10.5 dbh, 0+4 ft. distance
out, right 45 ft.; tree #2 is dead leaning tree; tree #3 is PP, 25.4 dbh,
0+17 ft. out, right 30 ft. Proceed on 26° azimuth to end of plot at 6+80 ft.
near stone water tank with metal roof.
Barton Flats
Proceed east on highway 38 from Camp Angeles R. S. 6.4 miles, enter under
arch gateway of Boy Scout Camp on left side of road, proceed 100* to chain
gate (F. S. gate lock) and follow partial dirt and partial black top road
down to meadow (Cienaga Larga). Drive west on south side of meadow along
ill-defined road and park. Walk to west end of meadow and look for several
large ponderosa pines at west edge of cienega. Tree #1 is PP 48.0 dbh, 0+14
ft. out, 2.5 ft. left. Tree #2 is PP 14.0 dbh, 0+60 out, 16.5 left. Proceed
on 270° azimuth to end of plot at 7+50 ft.
Heart Bar
Proceed east on Highway 38 to turnoff for Heart Bar State Park Campground.
Turn right and proceed SE 1.3 miles to intersection 1N02B, continue for
0.2 mile and park on right-hand side of road in the drainage (note 18" dbh
pine leaning north on the downstream side of the road (1N02B). Proceed SE
on foot up ill-defined road on upstream side of 1N02B for about 150-200 yards
where numbered trees will be observed on the right. Plot crosses road at 5+00
where metal stake is driven into ground. Turn left on 90° azimuth walk to
0+00. Turn back and proceed on 270° azimuth to west end of plot at 12+65.
Tree #1 is JP, 30.2 inches dbh, 0+4 ft. out, 2 ft. right, #101 JP, 5.0 inch dbh,
0+8.5 ft. out, right 18 ft.
Sand Canyon
Leave highway 38 at sign for Greenspot (ESE of Big Bear Lake), proceed west
on dirt road for 0.4 mile to a road fork, bear right. Continue 0.2 mile
more to second fork and take Sand Canyon Road, proceed 1.4 miles more to inter-
section (poorly defined), turn left uphill. Proceed 0.8 mile to fork, bear
right; proceed 0.3 mile more to second fork. Park at second fork, walk up
left fork 100 yards to trees 30, 31. Stake at base of 31 is 5+00. Proceed
uphill on 90° azimuth to beginning of plot or 0+00. Tree #1 is JP 14.7 inches
dbh, 0+12 ft. out, 27 ft. left; tree #2 is JP 0+8 ft. out, 49 ft. left. Pro-
ceed on 270° azimuth to west end of plot at 11+73 ft.
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Appendix II - ii
Snow Valley
About 250 yards west of Snow Valley Ski Lodge, turn north from highway 18
on dirt road to summer home tract. At 0.1 mile up road, (or immediately)
bear right at road fork. Proceed 0.1 mile further to intersection with
small green metal water tank just uphill (north), turn left. After approxi-
mately 0.3 mile, stop at road washout. Walk SW on road toward fallen tree
across road. Continue to next drainage and look for tags on tress. Ski
trail from Green Valley Lake comes down west side of this drainage and is
marked by orange triangles nailed to trees. Tree #1 is JP 30.1 inches dbh,
0+15 ft. out, 1 ft. right; tree #2 is JP 34.5 inches dbh, 0+15 ft. out and
10 ft. left. Plot is bisected by drainage. Proceed on 300° azimuth to end
of plot at 9+00 ft.
CrestPark (Dogwood)
At Crest Park, turn from Highway 18 to Rim of the World Drive. Proceed 0.1
mile and take left downhill on Meadow Brook Road. Continue 0.2 mile to
Arrowhead Lutheran Camp, turn right, continue on blacktop road until it turns
to dirt (dead snag is on right side of road) . Park on right (east) . Walk
due east to small clearing 100 ft. from PP #55 (dbh 30") which is near
parking place. At east edge of clearing about 99 ft. east of tree #55, the
first tree, PP #101, dbh 4.0 inches is 0+00 distance out and right 1.5 ft.;
tree #102 is black oak, dbh 4.0 inches, 0+7.5 ft. out and 36.5 left. First
tagged tree is ,#58, PP, 26.0 inches dbh, 0+56.5 ft. out, right 16 ft. Pro-
ceed on 270° azimuth to end of plot at 5+50 ft.
Notes on Tagged Trees: (1x2-3/4 inch numbered aluminum tags)
Plot Numbers on Tagged Trees Year Tagged
Dogwood 55 to 100 1968
Snow Valley 1 to 98 1972
Sand Canyon 1 to 70 1972
Camp Angeles 1 to 85 1972
Barton Flats 1 to 50 1968
Heart Bar 1 to 70 1972
Many untagged trees are being observed as well in each plot; these trees are
located by distance out and offset (right or left) only and are designated
by 101, 102, etc. or 1001, 1002.
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FIGURE I. LOCATION MAP
SCALE:
MILES 2 4 6 8 1O
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FIGURE 2. LAKE ARROWHEAD TRANSECT
VEGETATION MAP
SEE APPENDIX I FOR KEY TO SYMBOLS
MILES 1
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FIGURE 3. BARTON FLATS TRANSECT
VEGETATION MAP
.. -PJo
SEE APPENDIX I FOR KEY TO SYMBOLS
MILES 1
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FIGURE 4
LAKE ARROWHEAD TRANSECT
BASE MAP
N,
MILES 1
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FIGURE 5
BARTON FLATS TRANSECT
BASE MAP
MILES 1
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Section II
Vegetation of Principal Study Sites in the San Bernardino Mountains
Joe R. McBride
Acknowledgment s
The following assisted in data gathering and preparation of the report:
Dr. Paul R. Miller, William Perkins, Larry Greenwood, and Oscar Clarke.
Introduction
The vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains is made up of a mosaic of
vegetative types that reflect both environmental gradients and man's impact
on the land. Vegetative types range from desert brushlands to mesic coni-
ferous forests. Minnich et al. (1969) have classified and mapped tile types
in the study area. Their work, reviewed in an historical background report
on the San Bernardino Mountains (Miller and McBride, 1973) served as a basis
for the analysis of vegetation conducted during the summer. Initially their
maps were used to produce vegetation type maps for the Lake Arrowhead and
Barton Flats transects. These maps indicate that forests dominated by Pinus
ponderosa and P_. Jeffreyi occur extensively on both transects. The Montane
Coniferous Forest classification unit by Minnich et al., in which Pinus ponderosa
and 1?. Jeffreyi occur, was established on the basis of imagery on color infrared
photography (1:25,000). With this particular photography one cannot readily
distinguish the species composition of many coniferous forest stands. Since
the Montane Coniferous Forest varies considerably in species composition a
detailed description of stands in the study area was needed. Resources were not
available to classify and map all stands on the Lake Arrowhead and Barton Flats
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II-2
transects during the summer of 1972. Resources were, therefore, directed
toward a detailed examination of vegetation on the six plots. The objectives
of this examination were to determine (1) the species diversity, density, and
dominance, (2) age structure, (3) stratification, and (4) seed production.
Methods^
Species diversity, density, and dominance of trees and shrubs were cal-
culated from measurements taken on each of the six plots. On each plot the
location and diameter of all trees over 4 inches diameter breat height (d.b.h.)
was recorded. Shrub species were mapped on a sub-plot 20 feet wide located down
the center of each plot. These 20 feet wide plots ran the length of each tran-
sect. The area covered by each shrub species was then measured off of the
sub-plot. All herbaceous species on each plot were collected for the pre-
paration of species lists. All plants were not in flower at the time of
collection and many could, therefore, only be identified to genus.
The age structure of the stand of trees on each plot was based on ring
counts on cores taken from all trees over 2 inches in diameter occurring on the
20 feet wide sub-plot. These trees and shrubs were plotted on profile diagrams
which give an indication of stratification on each plot.
Seed production was estimated on the basis of cones present on the
conifer species. Cone counts were made in September and October on each plot.
The number of fruits on non-coniferous species were noted in the survey.
Results
The data collected from field surveys has been organized into a series
of tables, graphs, maps, and profile diagrams which are useful in making com-
parisons among the six plots. However, a more general description of each plot
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II-3
will be developed in the following paragraphs before comparisons are made
among the plots.
Dogwood Plot
The Dogwood plot is dominated by Pinus ponderosa which comprises about
70 percent of the basal area. (Table 1). Libocedrus decurrens, Quercus
Kelloggii, Pinus Lambertiana, and Abies concolor also occur on the plot. The
measured basal area of these species amounts to 107.3 square feet per acre.
This figure is somewhat lower than thebasal area of the forest surrounding
the plot due to the presence of roads and trails on the Dogwood plot (Figure 1).
Pinus ponderosa and Q. Kelloggii are evenly distributed over the plot. Libo-
cedrus decurrens is clumped primarily in the first 100 feet of the plot.
The trees on the plot are arranged in three general strata (Figure 7).
The upper strata is dominated by a few old P_. ponderosa trees which are pro-
bably residual trees from logging operations of the 19th century. A few old
_L. decurrens also occur in this strata. Beneath these old veterans is a
layer of younger P_. ponderosa and 1L. decurrens which averages 40 to 60 feet
in height. This layer forms the dominant canopy of the forest. The lowest
tree strata is dominated by C^. Kelloggii, L^. decurrens, and _A. concolor.
This strata is below 30 feet in height which is probably a maximum height for
the (£. Kelloggii. The conifers in this lowest strata are for the most part
young slower growing tolerant species. These can be expected to grow beyond
the present limits of this lower strata.
Brush species were not encountered on the Dogwood plot. High tree density
may preclude their survival or establishment in the forest understory. The
herbaceous plants on the plot occurred in low density. These herb layer
species are listed in Table 4.
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II-4
Age distribution of trees on the Dogwood plot is shown in Figure 13.
This data suggests that events around the turn of the century set the stage
for establishment of tree seedlings. Pinus ponderosa and "L_. decurrens
became established at that time and continued to successfully establish
seedlings for the next 40 years. Subsequent to the 1930's the establishment
of P^ ponderosa.has declined. Establishment of L. decurrens continued to
increase until about 1960, since then no successful regeneration of L.
decurrens has taken place. Establishment of £. Kelloggii has occurred during
the last 60 years with a very rapid increase in the last 30 years. The large
number of (£. Kelloggii seedlings in the 0-9 year age class suggests this
species may eventually dominate the plot, assuming the decrease in conifer
regeneration is to continue. No seed production (Table 5) was observed on
the Dogwood plot in 1972. A similar lack of seed production was noted in 1971 .
Snow Valley
Pinus Jeffreyi is the dominant tree on the Snow Valley plot (Table 1).
Approximately 35 ]?. Jeffreyi trees/acre occur on this plot. This density is
nearly double that of ^. Kelloggii the next most important species on the plot.
Other trees found on the Snow Valley plot are P_. Lambertiana, L^. decurrens and
A- concolor. The tree density on this plot averages about 90 trees per acre.
The basal area of trees amounts to approximately 203 square feet per acre.
The plot is dissected by a creek along which most of the L,. decurrens
are found (Figure 2). (£. Kelloggii occur more commonly toward the upstream
portion of the plot but are not found immediately along side the creek. Pinus
Jeffreyi is uniformly distributed over the plot. A. concolor is found pri-
marily on the northeast facing slope above the creek. At the upper end of the
-------
II-5
plot A. concolor occurs at the base of the southwest facing slope near the
creek. At this location the southwest facing slope is very steep and the
base of the slope is protected from insolation in the late afternoon. Pinus
Lambertiana occurs in a random pattern in the upper half of the plot.
Five brush species occur on the plot (Table 2). Of these Ceanothus
leucodermis and Arctp_st_aphylos; Parryana var. pinetorum were located and mapped
on the 20 feet wide sub-plot (Figure 2). Ceanothus leucodermis covered appro-
ximately 9 percent of this sub-plot while A. Parryana var. pinetorum covered
about 4 percent (Table 3). The herbaceous flora of the plot could be dis-
tinguished into two groups of species. Along the creek occurred a group of
species adapted to the high soil moisture conditions of the spring and early
summer. Potentilla glandulara, Utrica Serra, and Zauschneria californica
laetifolia were characteristic of these riperian species. Above the riperian
zone, on the more xeric slopes, the herbaceous flora was represented by drought
tolerant species such as Achillea Millefolium, Anaphylis margaritaceae, and
Sitanion Hystrix (Table 4). In both environments the density of herbaceous
plants was very low.
The trees on the Snow Valley plot can be grouped into two strata as
seen in Figure 8. Pinus Jeffrey! dominates the upper strata which reaches
an average height of 130 feet. The lower tree strata is composed of (^.
Kelloggii, L^. decurrens, and A. concolor. The conifers in this lower strata
may be considered as transients. The shrub layer on the plot reaches to a
height of about 6 feet. The layer is discontinuous but does dominate the
ground surface to the exclusion of most herbaceous plants where it occurs.
Two species of willow, Salix lasiandra var. Abramsii and S^. Scouleriana,
occur in patches along the creek. A few individuals were over 4 inches in
-------
II-6
diameter and were treated as trees (Figure 2). Most of the willows were
of brush dimension; however, none of these fell within the 20 feet wide
sub-plot. It is estimated that the brush sized willows would cover about
3 percent of the plot.
The pattern of age distribution on the Snow Valley plot suggest a long
history of sporadic establishment of P.. Jeffreyi over the past 400 years.
(Figure 14) Establishment of this dominant species on the plot appears to
have reoccurred at intervals of 80 to 100 years. This may represent the
coincidence of fires which prepared the seed bed, good seed years, and a
favorable precipitation pattern. The last 150 years have been characterized
by the successful establishment of L. decurrens, A. concolor, and <£. Kelloggii.
The latter two of these have shown an increased number of seedlings esta-
blished since 1930. Quercus Kelloggii seedlings are especially numerous
which suggests the potential dominance of this species on the Snow Valley
plot.
Cone production was extremely low in 1972. Only four cones were observed
on P. Jeffreyi and five cones on P_. Lambertiana. Nine (£. Kelloggii trees
were producing acorns (Table 5).
Sand Canyon Plot
The Sand Canyon plot is dominated by P_. Jeffreyi and Cercocarpus ledifo-
lius (Table 1) . The P_. Jeffreyi occurs in an upper tree strata which reaches
over 100 feet in height (Figure 9). Abies concolor and Juniperus occidentalis
also occur in this strata. A lower tree strata dominated by £. ledifolius is
found on the plot. Tree density in both strata is low amounting to only about
46 trees per acre. At this density a closed forest canopy does not occur
-------
II-7
except where trees are clumped on the plot (Figure 3). The low tree den-
sity and the presence of C_. ledifolius and J_. occidentails are indicators of
the xeric conditions of the Sand Canyon plot.
Fifteen per cent of the plot is covered by brush species (Table 2). The
species making up this cover include Arctostaphylos Parryana pinetorurn,
Ceanothus leucodermis, Chryso thamnus nauseosus, and Ribes nevadense. Cerco-
carpus ledifolius plants under 6 feet in height were also classified and
mapped as brush on the plot. Brush density varies over the plot with heavy
patches occurring toward the upper end (Figure 3). A list of herbaceous
species found on the Sand Canyon plot is shown in Table 4.
An examination of the age distribution of the coniferous species on Sand
Canyon plot suggests a pattern of continuous tree replacement (Figure 15).
The periodic successful establishment of a few individuals of P^. Jeffrey!., A_,
concolor, and J_. occid entails have lead to a balanced all-age stand. The
situation with C_. ledifolius is somewhat different. In this species there is
an abundance of younger age classes, especially the 0-9 and 10-19 age classes.
This may indicate an improvement in conditions for seedling establishment of
C_. ledifolius in recent in recent times. The abundance of C_. ledifolius
seedlings impresses the observer with the species potential for dominating the
plot.
Cone and seed production on the Sand Canyon plot was exceedingly low in
1972 (Table 5).
-------
II-8
Camp Angeles Plot
The Camp Angeles plot is dominated by Plnus ponderosa. This species
makes up 53% of the number of trees on the plot and about one half of the
basal area (Table 1). The second most important tree is Abies concolor
which accounts for 28% of the trees and about 12% of the basal area. Pinus
Lambert!ana and Quercus Kelloggli also occur on the Camp Angeles plot.
Tree density is uniform over the plot with a total density of about 85
trees per acre. The conifer species are evenly distributed while the Q^.
Kelloggii show a tendency toward clumping on the plot (Figure A),
The trees on the Camp Angeles plot can be divided into two layers on
the basis of height (Figure 10). An upper strata of conifers occurs over a
lower strata of 0,. Ke 11 oggi i. A few younger conifers are found in this lower
strata. Beneath the tree layers is a discontinuous strata of shrubs com-
posed of Amorpha cali forni ca and Arctostaphylos Pr i n g 1ei drupacea. The
herbaceous species occurring on the Camp Angeles plot are listed on Table A.
The age distribution of P_. ponderosa suggests a relatively continuous
establishment of this species on the plot (Figure 16). Abies concolor and
Q. Kelloggi i show increased establishment during the past 50 years. The
large number of 0^. Ke 11 ogg i i seed 1 i n gs may be very significant to the balance
of species dominance in the future on the Camp Angeles plot.
Cone and seed production were nil on the Camp Angeles plot during 1972
(Table 5).
Barton Flats Plot
The Barton Flats plot is dominated by Pinus ponderosa and P_. Jeffreyi
(Table 1) . On the basis of tree number about 55 per cent of the stand is
-------
II-9
f.1 Ponderosa and 34 per cent is P. Jeffrey I. These two species are not
uniformly distributed over the plot, but occur in relatively distinct groups.
The P_. ponderosa is found at the beginning of the plot on a northeast facing
slope and at the end of the plot on nearly level ground (Figure 5), Pinus
Jeffrey! occurs on the southwest facing slope in the plot. Two oak species
(Quercus Kelloggii and (D_. Wisl izeni i) also are present on the Barton Flats
plot. These oaks have a basal area of 28.51 square feet which is about 19%
of the total basal area of the plot. The (£. Kel loggi i is primarily found on
the northeast facing slope with the P_. ponderosa whi le the (i. Wisl izeni i occurs
only on the southwest facing slope.
The structure of the tree cover on the Barton Flats plot is characterized
by three different strata. The highest strata is made up of very old pines
which reach a height of 140 to 160 feet. Trees in this strata are widely
separated and do not exhibit crown closure (Figure 11). A middle tree strata
occurs on the plot and is composed primarily of P_. ponderosa and Q. Kel loggi i.
The average height of this layer is 80 feet. The lowest tree strata is
dominated by P_. Jeffrey! but also contains the (}. Wisl izeni i . This strata
is restricted to the southwest facing slope. It averages only 30 feet in
height. The pines in this lowest strata will no doubt grow beyond their
present height but the Q_. Wisl izeni i is not expected to grow much taller.
Two shrub species, Amorpha californica and Ribes montigenum, occur on
the Barton Flats plot. No individuals of these species were located on the 20
feet side sub-plot. It is estimated that they covered less than one percent
of the area of the entire plot. An extensive area of Pteriduim aguilinum
lanuginosum is located near the west end of the plot. Plants of this species
are about 1-3 feet high and form a dense cover. Their distribution has been
-------
11-10
mapped on the 20 feet wide sub-plot (Figure 5). Other herbaceous species
found on the Barton Flats transect are listed in Table 4. Each end of the
plot borders on an open meadow. Herbaceous species common to the meadow
environment were found in the forest at each end of the plot. These
included Koeleria cristata, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Verbascum Thapsus, and
Poa rupicola. Away from the ends of the plot the normal low density montane
forest herbaceous flora was found,
Quercus Kelloggii exhibits an age class distribution on the Barton
Flats transect that is normally associated with climax forest species
(Figure 17). Numerous seedlings and saplings are available to move into
openings which may occur in the forest canopy. In contrast, the pines seem
past the point of maximum establishment. They will require some event,
such as logging or fire, to open the crown canopy and prepare seedbeds for
further establishment.
Cone and seed production was extremely low on the Barton Flats plot in
both 1971 and 1972 (Table 5).
Heart Bar Plot
The Heart Bar plot was situated further to the east than the other five
plots. In this location the environment is more xeric. This xeric condition
is reflected in the low tree density (59.6 trees/acre) and low basal area
(66.13 square feet per acre) of the forest stand. The stand is (Figure 6)
dominated by P_. Jeffreyi which has a basal area of nearly 51 square feet
per acre. Pinus Jeffreyi trees make up 87.8 percent of the total number
of trees on the plot (Table 1). Pinus Lambertiana. A. Concolor, and £.
ledlfoliua are also present on the Heart Bar plot.
-------
11-11
The open character of the forest on the plot makes the identification
of strata somewhat academic. Layers can be identified, but they seldom
are encountered in the superimposed manner one normally associates with
stratification of forest stands. Figure 12 illustrates this problem.
Brush is common on the Heart Bar plot. Large patches of Ceanothus
leucodermis and Arctostaphylos Parryana pinetorum occur over much of the
plot (Table 3). Scattered individual Chrysothamnus nauseosus and Cerco-
carpus ledifolius plants are also common. Less common species are Amorpha
californica and Salix Scouleriana. Approximately 20 percent of the area
of the plot is dominated by shrubs.
Herbaceous plants are widely scattered on the Heart Bar plot. Their
density is quite low and only a few species are represented (Table 4).
An analysis of the age distribution of trees on the Heart Bar plot
suggests a rather continuous addition of trees over the past 160 years
(Figure 18). Curves characteristic of climax or sub-climax species are
not evident.
Seed production on the Heart Bar plot exceeded that of the other five
plots in 1972. Eighteen P_. Jeffreyi and eight ,A. concdlor trees produced
cones (Table 5).
-------
11-12
Concl us ions
The material brought together in this report demonstrates the variation
in vegetation which exists along the gradients of oxidant air pollution selected
for study in the San Bernardino Mountains. This oxidant gradient parallels
a moisture gradient along which forest types have segregated out. Variations
in age structure as well as species composition and density occur along these
gradients. This variation poses a problem for research in the area. The
experimental approach, in which the investigator uses a control for compara-
tive purposes, may not be applicable to this area. It may be necessary to
search further for another smog free control area, or to adapt a non-experi-
mental approach to determining the impact of oxidant air pollution on the
vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains. A survey approach which would
follow mortality of the various components of the vegetation over time may
prove the most applicable method. This could be supplemented by greenhouse
and growth chamber observations of injury from ozone. With these observations
and a picture of current age structure of various forest stands, one could
predict in a specific way the future condition of the forest. In order to
develop this capacity the following sorts of investigations should be initiated.
1. A determination of stand composition and age structure
for those forest stands in which P_. ponderosa and/or
• f f reyi dominate.
2. Monitoring of plant mortality on an expanded series of
permanent plots.
3. Studies to measure the relative physiological potential
of the major trees and shrubs to withstand oxidant air
pollution at various stages of their life cycles.
-------
11-13
An identification of those environmental factors which are
most closely correlated with the normal pattern of seed
production, seedling establishment, and tree growth.
-------
11-14
Literature Cited
1. Miller, P. R. and J. R. McBride, 1973. Vegetation Committee Report (Sec. A)
In: Oxidant Air Pollutant Effects on a Western Coniferous Forest Ecosystem.
Task B Report. Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of
California, Riverside.
2. Minnich, R. C., L. W. Bowden, and R. W. Pease, 1969. Mapping montane vege-
tation in southern California. Tech. Report 3, Status Report 3, USDI,
Contract No. 14-08-0001-10674. 40p. 26 plates.
-------
11-15
Table 1: Tree layer species composition, density, and basal area
Species
Pinus
ponderosa
Pinus
lambertiana
Libocedrus
decurrens
Abies
concolor
Quercus
kel loggii
Pinus
Jeffrey!
Juniper us
occidental is
Cercocarpus
led! fol i us
Quercus
wisl izeni i
TOTAL
Plot #
# trees*
spp. comp.**
densi ty***
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
density
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
densi ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
densi ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
dens i ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
densi ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
dens i ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
dens i ty
basal area
# trees '
spp. comp.
dens i ty
basal area
# trees
spp. comp.
dens i ty
basal area
Dogwood
85
60.7
68.0
69.41
3
2.2
2.4
.90
29
20.7
23.2
19-81
8
5.7
6.4
1.75
1.5
10.7
12.0
15.63
0
0
0
0
140
100.0
112.0
107.30
Snow
Va 11 ey
0
13
7.0
6.3
30.56
28
15.0
13.6
46.10
32
17.2
15-5
12.98
40
21.5
19-4
9.87
73
39-3
35.4
103.60
0
0
0
186
100.0
90.2
203.11
Sand
Canyon
0
0
0
18
14.4
6.7
16.82
0
61
48.8
22.7
66.93
3
2.4
1.1
5.46
43
34.4
16.0
9.55
0
125
100.0
46.5
98.76
Camp
Angeles
70
53.0
44.8
114.33
5
3.8
3.2
32.16
0
37
28.0
23-7
38.90
20
15.2
12.8
34.77
0
0
0
0
132
1100.0
84.5
220.16
Barton
Flats
139
55.9
80.8
73.39
0
0
0
16
6.4
9-3
26.07
86
34.5
50.0
44.40
0
0
8
3-2
4.7
2.44
249
100.0
144.8
146.30
Heart's
Bar
0
2
1.2
0.7
1.24
0
18
10,4
6.2
13.93
0
152
87.8
5:2.4
50.91
0
1
0.6
0.3
0.05
0
173
100.0
59.6
66.13
** spp. composition given in
*** density given on # trees/acre
**** basal area given in ft2/acre
-------
11-16
Table 2. Shrub species occurring on transects
Camp
Species Dogwood Snow Valley Sand Canyon Angeles
Amorpha californica x
Arctostaphylos Parryana
pinetorum x x
Arctostaphylos Pringlei
drupacea *
Ceanothus cordulatus x
Ceanothus leucodermis x x
Cercocarpus ledifolius x
Chrysothamnus nauseosus x
Ribes montigenum
Barton Heart
Flats Bar
x x
X
X
X
X
X
Rlbes nevadense x
Sal ix las iandra
Abrams i i x
Sal ix Scouleriana x
X
-------
11-17
Table 3.
Brush layer species area covered, per cent cover, and
relative per cent cover
Species
Amorpha
cal i fornica
iCeanothus
', leucodermis
Arctostaphy los
t parryana
• var. pinetorun
iChrysothamnus
nauseosus
Willow***
i
iCercocarpus
led! fol ius
Ribes
nevadense
TOTAL
Plot #
area covered*
% cover
rel . % cover**
area covered
% cover
re 1 . % cove r
area covered
% cover
rel . % cover
area covered
% cover
re 1 . % cove r
area covered
% cover
rel . % cover
area covered
% cover
re 1 . I cove r
area covered
% cover
rel . % cover
area covered
% cover
rel . % cover
Dogwood
0
Snow
Valley
4100.7
9.4
70.8
1693.0
3.9
29.2
5793.7
13.3
100.0
Sand
Canyon
2304.8
5-3
33-9
2333-6
5.4
34.3
57.6
0.1
0.9
749.1
1.7
11.0
1354.1
3.1
19.9
6799-2
15.6
100.0
Camp
Angeles
5564.1
12.8
96.6
198.7
0.4
3.4
5762.8
13.2
100.0
Barton
Flat
45.1
0.1
100.0
45.1
0.1
100.0
Heart's
Bar
400.9
0.9
4.3
2939.7
6.7
31.4
4730.2
10.8
50.6
1069.0
2.4
11.4
187.1
0.4
2.0
26.7
0.1
0.3
9353.6
21.5
100.0
r\
* area covered given in ft /acre
** relative per cent coverage
*** Salix lajiamJra^ on the Camp Angeles transect; Salix Scoul.eriana on
the Heart's Bar transect
-------
11-18
Table 4. Herb layer species
Snow Sand Camp Barton Heart
Species Dogwood Val ley Canyon Angeles Flats Bar
Achi1 lea Millefolium x x
Agrostis sp. ? x
Amorpha fruticosa x x
Anaphalis margaritacea x x x x
Arabis sp. ? x x x
Artemisia Dracunculus x x x
Artemisia ludoviciana x x
Asclepias eriocarpa x
Barbarea americana x x
Bromus carinatus x x x
Bromus tectorum x
Capsella Bursa-pastoris x
Cardamine Breweri x
Carex brevipes x x
Carex fracta x x
Castilleja Martini! x x x
Caulanthus amplexicaulIs x
Chaenactis santolinoides x
Chrysothamnus Parryi x
Convolvulus fulcratus x x
Cordylanthus sp. ? x
Corethrogyne filaginifolia x x x x
Cryptantha sp. ? x
Danthonia sp. ? x
Elymus sp. x
Equisetum arvense x
Erigeron sp. ? x
Erigeron foliosus x x
Eriogonum Kennedyi austromontanum x
Eriogonum molestum x
Eriogonum Parishii x
Eriogonum umbellatum bahiaeforme x x
Eriogonum umbellatum polyanthum x x x x
Eriophyllum confertiflorum x x
Erysimum capitatum x x x x x
Euphorbia Palmeri x
Galium sp. ? x x
Galium bifolium x
Gayophytum dfffusum x x x x x
Gi1ia splendens x
Gutierrezia californica x x
Hypericum sp. ? x
Iris Hartwegi? austral is x x x
Juncus obtusatus x
Koeleria cristata x x xx
Lathyrus laetifolius x
Linanthus breviculus x
Linanthus Nuttal1i i x
Linanthus parviflorus croceus x x
-------
11-19
Table 4. Herb layer species (cont.)
Snow Sand Camp Barton Heart
Species
Lotus excubitus
Lotus grand iflorus
Lotus HeermannI i
Lotus oblongifolius
Madia sp. ?
Monardella lanceolata
Monardella viridis saxicola
Oenanthe calffornica
Orthocarpus densiflorus gracilis
Penstemon Grinnel 1 f i
Penstemon labrosus
Poa rupicola
Potentilla sp. ?
Potentllla glandulosa
Pteridium aqullinum lanuginosum
Pyrola picta
Scutellaria Austinae
Silene sp. ?
Sisymbrium altissimum
Sitanion Hystrix
Sol idago sp. ?
Solidago californica
Sol idago occidental is
Stephanomeria virgata
Taraxacum vulgare
Tetradymia (comosa) ?
Thalictrum Fendleri
Urtica Serra
Vicia cal ifornica
Zauschneria californica latifolia
Dogwood Valley Canyon Angeles
X
X X
XX X
X X
X X
X
X
X
XXX
XXX
X
X
XX X
X
X X
X
XXX X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
Flats
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Bar
X
X
X
X
X
-------
11-20
Table 5
Cone and acorn production-1972
Species
,
Pinus
ponderosa
Pinus
lambertiana
Libocedrus
decurrens
Abies
concolor
Quercus
Kelloggii
Pinus
j_eff reyi
Dogwood
*
0/82
"
0/3
.
0/28
0/8
•
0/15
0
Snow
Valley
o
2/13
0/29
0/31
9/39
4/74
Sand Camp
Canyon Angeles
0 1/68
0 0/5
T
0 % Q
V j U
I
** I
0/17 0/37
(
i
0 ft 2/19
i
I
2/60 f 0
1
Barton
Flats
2/129
0/83
o
0
1/14
0
Heart
Bar
0
0/2
0 1
i
**[
8/18 I
i
|
[
o i
s
10/104
Number of trees having any cones (acorns)
total number of trees of a species
Male cones often present with or without female cones
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FIG. 7. DOGWOOD PLOT - 550 FEET
120
100
so
60
40
20
0
100
200
300
400
5OO
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
J
1
._•
J
J
^
J
rmui »1 UBU(_tUKUb rfffPi QUERCU«;
^ PONDEROSA \ DECURRENS |R S5!oGGI
-------
FIG.8. SNOW VALLEY PLOT - 900 FEET
2OO
ISO
160
140
120
100
80
6O
40
20
0
100
2OO
300
400
500
60O
7OO
800
90O
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
./*
PINUS
PONDEROSA
LIBOCEDRUS
DECURRENS
f
QUERCUS
KELLOGGI
QUERCUS
WISLIZENI!
t
y-
PINUS
JEFFREYI
A
A
PINUS
*- LAMBERTIANA
Ihh*
fate.
CERCOCARPUS
LEDIFOLIUS
AMORPHA
CALIFORNICA
SALIX
LASIANDRA
RIBES
'NEVADENSE
ABIES
CONCOLOR
JUNIPERUS f~ ^ CHRYSOTHAM -
OCCIDENTALIS NUS
NAUSEOSUS
CEANOTHUS
LEUCODERMI S
• PTERIDIUM
AOUILINUM
ARCTO -
STAPHYLOS
PARRYANA
-------
FIG.9. SAND CANYON PLOT - 1173 FEET
5OO
600
7OO
800
900
1000
1100
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
I PINUS
PONDEROSA
LIBOCEDRUS
DECURRENS
QUERCUS
KELLOGGI
QUERCUS
WISLIZENII
.. PINUS
J ' JEFFREYI
ONUS
LAMBERTIANA
CERCOCARPUS
LEDIFOLIUS
AMORPHA
CALIFORNICA
SALIX
LASIANDRA
RIBES
"NEVADENSE
ABIES
CONCOLOR
JUNIPERUS
OCCIDENTALS
-CHRYSOTHAM-
NUS
NAUSEOSUS
CEANOTHUS
UEUCODERMIS
- PTERIDIUM
AOUILINUM
ARCTO -
5TAPHYLOS
PARRYANA
-------
FIG. 10. CAMP ANGELES PLOT - 680 FEET
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
". PINUS
PONDEROSA
LIBOCEDRUS
DECURRENS
QUERCUS
KELLOGGI
QUERCUS
WISLIZENII
PINUS
> I JEFFREYI
J
ttU
RNUS
LAMBERTIANA
CERCOCARPUS
LEDIFOLIUS
AMORPHA
CA LI FORMICA
SALIX
LASIANDRA
RIBES
NEVADENSE
ABIES
CONCOLOR
JUNIPERUS
OCCIDENTALIS
-CHRYSOTHAM-
NUS
NAUSEOSUS
CEANOTHUS
LEUCODERMIS
PTERIDIUM
AOUILINUM
ARCTO -
STAPHYLOS
PARRYANA
-------
FIG. II. BARTON FLATS PLOT - 750 FEET
200
180
160
140
120
10O
80
60
40
20
O
100
200
3OO
4OO
500
6OO
700
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
titty
: PINUS
PONDEROSA
LI BOCEDRUS
DECURRENS
f
QUERCUS
KELLOGGI
QUERCUS
WISLIZENII
j" PINUS
J"v JEFFREYI
"X « 4
U
-> * J
-* * — — — '
1 ABIES J
^ CONCOLOR /
91 / i
-7 SALIX
OL LASIANDRA
Mk_RIBES
NEVADENSE
I*"IIL PTERIDIUM
AOUILINUM
^^ ARCTO-
3&sa- STAPHYLOS
PARRYANA
-------
FIG, 12. HEART BAR PLOT - i265 FEET
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
V
sT
J1
«:
V
600
800
1100
KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS ON PROFILE MAPS
. PINUS
PONDEROSA
LIBOCEDRUS
DGCURRENS
f
QUERCUS
KELLOGGI
OUEROJS
WI5LIZENII
.. RNUS
* \ JEFFREYI
PINUS
LAMBERTIANA
CERCOCARPUS
LEDIFOLIUS
AMORPHA
CALIFOffNICA
5ALIX
LASIANDRA
RIBES
"NEVADENSE
ABIES
CONCOLOR
JUNIPERUS CS f> CHRY5OTHAM-
OCCIDENTALIS NUS
NAUSEOSUS
CEANOTHUS
LEUCODERMIS
- PTERIDIUM
AOUILINUM
ARCTO-
STAPHYLOS
PARRYANA
-------
Fis.13 AGE DISTRIBUTION: DOGWOOD
80-
70-
Sso-
a
CO
o
5
40-
± 30-
O
10-
PfNUS PONOERO5A
O -a PiNUS LAMBERTIANA
^ A ABIES CONCOLOR
A A LIBOCEDRUS DECURRENS
" m QUERCUS KCLLO66M
i I
?*?§???!
ASE CLASS
-------
FIG.I4. AGE DISTRIBUTION : SNOW VALLEY
a
UJ
< 50-
QC
UJ
a
40-
u
D
Q 30-
>
Q
? 20-
u.
O
a: 10-
i
Lu
tQ
E
D
•
i
*
\
\
\
\
X
\
V
\
1
"'A-.A-'* • K-HI
7\ ••"
D • ' A*
21 i i i i i
oct. A » • Q net
AGE CLASS
-------
FI6.I5. AGE DISTRIBUTION : SAND CANYON
80H
ff
ui
u
<70H
UJ
Q.
60H '
PsoH
Q
Z
- 40-
u.
O
Df
uJ 30-
10
I
j
•—• PJNUS JEFFREYI
A.....A ABIES CONCOLOR
e—e JUNIPERUS OCCIDENTALIS
H a CERCOCARPUS LEDIFOLIU5
AGE CLASS
-------
FIG.I6 RGE DISTRIBUTION: CflMP flNGELES
lloH
no-
IOO-
90-
Ul
o 80H
a:
0" 70-
cc
a eoH
u.
o
a
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PINUS PONDEROSR
a PINUS LHMBERTIRNR
* 'A R8IES COWCOLOR
• • QUERCUS KELLOGGII
i i i r i i i i M
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
flBE CLRSS
-------
FIG. 17 RGE DISTRIBUTION: BflRTON FLflTS
tw-
110-
PINUS PONQER05R
PINUS JEFFREY!
PINUS LRMBERTlflNH
QUERCU5 KELLDGGII
QUERCUS WISLIZENII
90-
80-
U
a
u
IU
G.
0
Z
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or
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20-
10-
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I | | 1 I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
"Jfllfs 11
iyiil ft i
RGE CLRSS
-------
FIG.I8 RGE DISTRIBUTION: HERRI BRR
HI
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30-
a:
£ 10
10-
V -^ .A—A.
&••&.£.....£*a •&
-* PINUS JEFFREY
A -A PBIE5 CONCDLOR
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-------
Section III
Oxidant Damage to Conifers on
Selected Study Sites, 1972
Paul R. Miller
Acknowled gments
The following assisted in data gathering: Dr. Leonard Felix, Dr. Joe McBride,
Dr. Fields Cobb, Kenneth Swain, and Ross Thibaud.
Introduction
Two of the six vegetation plots (Fig. 1) were established in 1968 in con-
junction with an aerial photography study. The remaining four plots were
established in 1972. The original intent was to label 50 ponderosa and/or
Jeffrey pines larger than 12 inches diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) per
plot and observe them to determine the yearly trends in oxidant damage. The
length of 100-foot-wide plots ranged from 550 to 1,200 feet depending on stand
density. This activity was a joint project of the U. S. Forest Service, Region
5, Pest Control, and Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Objectives of the Task C section of this protocol study were immediately
coordinated with the on-going Forest Service work and much additional vegetation,
vertebrate, arthropod, and soils data were acquired at the six selected locations,
Air quality data (total oxidant) was obtained for nearly 4 months at sites as
close as possible to the vegetation plots.
This section of the report compares the present level of damage to all
conifers and black oak (when present) with the air quality data gathered nearby.
-------
III-2
Mortality and changes in damage scores at the Dogwood and Barton Flats plots
from 1968 to 1972 are compared. The incidence of infectious tree diseases is
reported in each plot on a tree by tree basis; the incidence of disease and
insect fauna both in the plots and the surrounding area are reported in other
sections of the report.
Methods
A scoring system for ponderosa and Jeffrey pines which has been tested
during the last four years was used to determine the amount of oxidant damage.
Key characteristics are assigned a number and a sum of these numbers represents
the score for each tree. Binoculars were used routinely to determine needle
condition in the upper tree crown; all trees larger than 4.00 inches d.b.h. in
each plot were evaluated:
Characteristic; Score
Needle retention (number of years retained)
Upper crown 0 ranging up to 6
Lower crown 0 ranging up to 6
Needle condition (one score value given to
each annual whorl)
Upper crown
Green 4
Chlorotic mottle 2
Uniform yellow or necrosis 0
Lower crown
Green 4
Chlorotic mottle 2
Uniform yellow or necrosis 0
Needle length (upper and lower crown)
Average expected length 1
Less than expected length 0
-------
III-3
Characteristic: (cont'd) Score
Branch mortality (lower crown)
Normal mortality i
Pronounced mortality 0
Experience has shown that the following descriptions of score ranges for
ponderosa and Jeffrey pines are meaningful:
0 - dead
1-8 - very severe damage
9-14 - severe damage
15-21 - moderate damage
22-28 - slight damage
29-35 - very slight damage
36+ - no visible symptoms
The evaluation of sugar pine was done by the same method used for ponderosa
and Jeffrey pine, but because this is the first time that sugar pine has been
observed in this way, the descriptions versus score ranges are considered pro-
visional at this time.
Incense cedar and white fir were evaluated for oxidant damage using the
same characteristics as those for pine. The resultant score values necessitated
the provisional application of different ranges, e.g. white fir: 1-29, 30-59,
60-89, 90+; incense cedar: 1-14, 15-29, 30-44, 45-60. It was not possible to
use the needle length characteristic with incense cedar.
Black oak was evaluated by giving separate values for leaf condition in the
upper and lower crown (in September and early October): green = 4, slight yellow
mottle =3, moderate yellow mottle = 2, severe mottle with necrosis =1, complete
necrosis = 0. The 0 or 1 scores were given for leaf size (upper and lower) and
mortality of small twigs or branches. The provisional score ranges for black oak
were: 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15+.
The incidence of common tree diseases was tallied at the same time that the
trees were inspected for oxidant damage.
-------
111-4
Dosage
(hrs > 0.08 ppm)
12.6
7.9
7.4
7.3
6.5
5.7
Percent
dosage
100
63
59
58
51
45
Average
damage score
*p 14
**j 22
P 15
p 19, J 17
J 35
J 34
Results
Damage versus apparent dosage — The most easily interpreted description of
oxidant damage to ponderosa and/or Jeffrey pines in all six plots relative to
dosage is indicated in Figure 1. The most severe damage is at Rim Forest
(Dogwood plot; p 14 = ponderosa, average score 14.0). A simple ranking of
dosage versus damage follows:
Dogwood
Snow Valley
Camp Angeles
Barton Flats
Sand Canyon
Heart Bar
*p = ponderosa pine
**J = Jeffrey pine
The only serious discrepancy in order of damage and dosage was at Snow Valley.
Because the monitoring station was 2-1/2 miles NW at Green Valley Lake, it is
possible that Snow Valley received less oxidant exposure than Green Valley Lake.
The greatest distance between vegetation plot and monitoring station was at Sand
Canyon where the corresponding monitoring station was at Fawnskin on the north
shore of Big Bear Lake about five miles NW of Sand Canyon and closer to the
pollution source.
It must be emphasized that for the purposes of this report the durations of
adverse oxidant observed during this June-October 1972 sample period are being
considered as an indication of the relative exposures over the previous 20-25
years. Other important variables including precipitation and soils cannot be
included until more data are gathered. These and other environmental factors
-------
III-5
undoubtedly interact with oxidant to increase or decrease damage.
Relative oxidant damage to six tree species ~ A very sensitive indication
of oxidant damage to ponderosa and Jeffrey pines was obtained along the tran-
sects of decreasing oxidant exposure. The evaluation of the characteristics of
oxidant damage to sugar pine was fairly sensitive but observations of incense
cedar, white fir, and black oak require much more refinement. Other species
prominent on some plots such as mountain mahogany and willow were not evaluated
for oxidant damage at all because at the time of examination in September and
October, it is difficult to separate symptoms of oxidant air pollution from the
normal leaf pigment changes expected in the fall.
The relative numbers of six species in each plot, their average damage
score and range of damage scores is presented in Table 1. There is a discon-
tinuity involving ponderosa and Jeffrey pines along both transects. Ponderosa
is present along the western lower elevation portions of each transect while
Jeffrey pine alone is located in the eastern higher elevation areas. Both
species are intermixed at the Barton Flats plot allowing a comparison of oxidant
damage under similar conditions. As indicated earlier (Fig. 1), the average damage
scores are not really different (ponderosa 19, Jeffrey 17). In Tables 2 and 3,
the distribution of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines into damage classes at Barton
Flats is not very different. In contrast, the damage class distributions of
ponderosa pines at Dogwood and Barton Flats (Table 2) are quite dissimilar as
is the comparison of Jeffrey pines at Barton Flats and Heart Bar (Table 3) —
an effect of different oxidant dosages. These data suggest that it will be
possible to consider the two species as closely comparable bioindicators of air
pollution damage over the broad range that they occupy.
The small numbers of sugar pines in Table 4 makes it difficult to identify
any reliable trend in tree condition from plot to plot. The same is true of the
-------
III-6
Information on incense cedar (Table 5), white fir (Table 6), and black oak
(Table 7).
A significant number of individual white firs with moderate to severe
oxidant damage were encountered at Dogwood and Camp Angeles. Although white
fir is less sensitive than ponderosa or Jeffrey pines in general it will be
one of the most useful bioindicators because it was the only conifer found at
all the plots except Barton Flats (Table 1) and even then there were many just
outside the plot.
The improvement of the scoring system for species other than ponderosa
and Jeffrey pines is a high priority task. Improvements will include several
observations during the summer and fall to follow the progression of symptom
development and to identify more reliable characteristics for inclusion in the
scoring system.
Rates of mortality and tree deterioration — Comparisons are made for
change in damage class and mortality of individual ponderosa pines at Dogwood
(Table 8) and Barton Flats (Table 10) from 1968 to 1972. In both Tables, it is
possible to observe the fate of each tree. There are many shifts from higher
to lower score classes and a small number of individuals that remained in the
two highest classes. On the darker side, the average score at Dogwood decreased
by 3.86 and at Barton Flats 2.98, both significant at 0.01 probability. The
mortality for the 4-year period was 10 percent and 8 percent, respectively.
These two data points (in time) are not sufficient to describe the shape of
the mortality curve at the present levels of oxidant dosage.
Incidence of infectious tree diseases — The frequency of infection of plot
trees by several common above-ground pathogens was determined (Table 10). The
-------
III-7
most serious problem was frequent damage by the Elytroderma needle cast at
Sand Canyon and especially at Heart Bar. This fungus, Elytroderma deformans
(Weir) Darker, is systemic in the twigs from which it invades new needles.
Damage intensity varies from year to year and is usually confined to local
areas.
Dwarf mistletoe was occasionally present on plot trees. It is known to
occur in much higher intensity in areas between and adjacent to the plots where
it causes serious damage.
True mistletoe on white fir was a significant problem at Sand Canyon,
less important at Heart Bar.
A Dieback of the smaller branch tips of white fir was observed with sig-
nificant frequency but the cause is unknown.
In general, there was less incidence of above-ground diseases in the
plots receiving the highest oxidant dosages. It is not possible to suggest a
cause-effect relationship at this time.
Root and heart rots were not encountered on labeled trees in the plots
but were present in the immediate vicinity of some plots; the incidences of
these diseases are presented in the following section (Cobb-Preliminary Survey).
Summary
The severity of oxidant damage to ponderosa and/or Jeffrey Pines decreased
along two overlapping transects for a combined distance of 28 miles. The duration
of total oxidant concentrations exceeding 0.08 ppm daily ranged from 12.6 hours
at the west end to 5.7 hours at the east during a 4-month sampling period in
1972. This range of oxidant durations was considered a useful estimate of the
long-term effects since the early 1950's along the two transects representing
increasing distance from the pollution sources — coastal and inland urban areas.
The method for estimating damage to ponderosa and Jeffrey pines was quite
-------
III-8
satisfactory. But much additional work is needed to determine the best
characteristics for quantitating damage to other conifer and hardwood species,
including calibration of a scoring system for each sepcies. It should be
feasible to use ponderosa and Jeffrey pines together as interchangeable bio-
indicators since one does not exist as a continuum from the west to the east end
of the mountain area. These species appear to be very similar in their sensitivity
to oxidant injury. White fir was present at all plots and will also be a sensi-
tive bioindicator.
The mortality of ponderosa pines in the Dogwood and Barton Flats plots from
1968 to 1972 was 10 and 8 percent, respectively. Damage to the remaining trees
increased very significantly. A simple-minded linear projection of this mortality
rate would find only 2 or 3 of the original number of trees remaining at Dogwood
by 2020. The dynamics of damage and mortality due to oxidant and other inter-
acting agents is a question of extreme importance in the proposed ecosystem study-
There was no serious incidence of tree diseases in the plots themselves
except for heavy infections of Elytroderma needle cast on Jeffrey pines at the
eastern plots, particularly Heart Bar.
Recommendations for Future Work
1. Stretch the study area as far from west to east as the extent of the
conifer forest will allow. This would include installation of similar observa-
tion plots west of Dogwood and east of Heart Bar.
2. Replicate the sample plots by choosing new locations of similar
vegetation cover within the present study area.
3. Investigate locations in northern Baja California where stands of
Jeffrey pine may provide two or three control plots where oxidant air pollution does
not exist.
-------
III-9
4. Improve procedures for evaluating the severity of oxidant damage on
species other than ponderosa and Jeffrey pines, including other conifers,
hardwoods, shrubs and herbs.
-------
Table 1. Summary of species composition at each plot location including average damage score and range
of damage scores for each species.
Dogwood
(100)
Snow
Valley
(63)-
Camp
Angeles
(59)
Barton
Flats
(58)
Sand
Canyon
(51)
Heart
Bar
(45)
N
Ave.
Range
N
Ave.
Range
N
Ave.
Range
N
Ave.
Range
N
Ave.
Range
N
Ave.
Range
Ponderosa
pi ne
82
14.6
1-31
0
0
0
68
15-5
4-51
129
18.9
5-45
0
0
0
0
0
0
Jeffrey
pine
0
0
0
74
22.3
10-43
0
0
0
83
17-3
1-41
62
35.0
20-49
104
34.3
12-54
Sugar
pine
3
39.0
34-43
13
35-0
24-65
5
21.4
12-37
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
27.0
69-70
Incense
cedar
28
27.0
9-57
29
27-3
15-58
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
White
fir
8
46.4
22-68
31
84.5
42-118
37
76.4
32-121
0
0
0
17
76.2
26-102
18
73.2
41-92
Black
oak
15
4.9
1-8
39
9-6
5-31
19
5.4
3-8
14
7-1
3-10
0
0
0
0
0
0
M
M
M
I
—Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concentrations exceeded 0.08 ppm
from June through September 1972.
-------
III-ll
Table 2. The distribution of ponderosa pines in six damage classes at
three locations.
Plot
name 1-8
Dogwood N 5
(100) % 6.3
Camp N 5
Angeles. % 7.4
(59) 1'
Barton N 14
Flats * 10.3
(58)
9-14
42
52.5
28
41.2
34
25.0
Damage
15-21
24
30
26
38.2
41
30.1
Classes
22-28 29-35 36+
720
8.7 2.5 0
7 1 1
10.3 1.5 1.5
22 16 9
16.2 11.8 6.6
— Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
tration exceeded 0,08 ppm from June through September 1972.
-------
111-12
Table 3. The distribution of Jeffrey pines in six damage classes at
four locations.
Plot
name
Snow
Valley,
(63) I/
Barton
Flats
(58)
Sand
Canyon
(50
Heart
Bar
(45)
1-8
N 0
% 0
N 15
% 18.0
N 0
% 0
N 0
% 0
9-14
4
5.5
16
19.0
0
0
2
2.0
Damage C
15-21
35
48.6
35
41.7
2
3-4
9
8.7
lasses
22-28
23
32.0
10
12.0
9
15.2
18
17-5
29-35
7
10.0
6
7.1
25
42.4
33
32.0
36+
3
4.2
2
2.4
23
39.0
41
39.8
I/
Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
trations exceeded 0.08 ppm from June through September 1972.
-------
111-13
Table 4. The distribution of sugar pines Jnto six damage classes at
four locations.
Plot
name
Dogwood N
(100) %
Snow N
Valley %
(63) !/
Camp N
Angeles %
(59)
Heart N
Bar %
(45)
1-8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9-14
0
0
0
0
2
40,0
0
0
Damage Classes
15-21 22-28
0 0
0 0
1 5
7.2 35-7
1 1
20.0 20.0
0 1
0 50.0
29-35
1
33.3
3
21.4
0
0
0
0
36+
2
66.6
5
34.7
1
20.0
1
50.0
~ Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
tration exceeded 0.08 ppm from June through September 1972.
-------
111-14
Table 5- The distribution of incense cedar into four damage classes at
two locations.
Damage Classes
Plot
name 1-14 15-29 30-44 45-60
Dogwood N 3 15 10 1
(100) % 10.3 51-7 34.5 3-4
Snow N 1 18 7 1
Valley. % 3.7 66.6 26.0 3-7
(63) iX
I/
Percent of the hours dally (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
tration exceeded 0.08 ppm from June through September 1972.
-------
111-15
Table 6. The distribution of white firs Into four damage classes at
five locations.
Plot
name
Dogwood N
(100) %
Snow N
Va 1 1 ev %
(63) I/
Camp N
Angeles %
(59)
Sand N
Canyon %
(51)
Heart N
Bar %
1-29
2
25-0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Damage Classes
30-59 60-89 90+
k 20
50.0 25-0 0
4 19 9
12.5 59-4 28.1
10 14 13
27-0 38.0 35-0
2 13 2
11.8 76.4 11.8
if 12 2
20.0 60.0 10
~~ Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
tration exceeded 0.08 ppm from June through September 1972-
-------
111-16
Table 7. The distribution of black oaks into four damage classes at
four locations.
Plot
name 0-4
Dogwood N 7
(100) % 47.0
Snow N 1
Valley. % 2.6
(63) 1'
Camp N 5
Angeles % 26.0
(59)
Barton N 1
Flats % 6.7
(58)
Damage
5-9
8
53-0
23
59-0
14
74.0
12
80.0
Classes
10-14
0
0
13
33.3
0
0
2
13-3
IS*
0
0
2
5.1
0
0
0
0
I/
~ Percent of the hours daily (12.6 hr) at Rim Forest when oxidant concen-
tration exceeded 0-08 ppm from June through September 1972.
-------
111-17
Table 8. Mortality rate and changes in damage scores of Individual ponderosa
pines at the Dogwood plot, 1968-1972.
Average
score
H* ^
Score
classes O(dead)
Average
score
69,83
52,65
Score
classes O(dead)
5-6
100
96,97
92,9*1
84,87
77,83
69,72
64,65
59,60
53,57
1-8
5-1
99,100
92,94
87,90
80,86
76,77
61,64
59,60
57,58
1-8
11.1
99
90,91
86,88
80,85
76,78
61,71
52,56
9-14
10.0
98
91,96
85,88
82,84
75,78
56,72
9-14
1968
17-3 26.3 35.0
93,98 74,82
75,81 68,70
58,73 55,63 89
15-21 22-28 29-35 36+
1972
15-8 25-5
97
81,93
70,71 74,68 55,89
15-21 22-28 29-35 36+
Mortality 1968-1972 » 10*
Average Score Difference 1968-1972 - 3-86
(significant at 0.01 probability)
-------
111-18
Table 9. Mortality rate and changes in damage scores of individual ponderosa
pines at the Barton Flats plot, 1968-1972.
1968
Average
score
Score
classes
Average
score
Score
classes
6.8
49
43,47
14,35
O(dead) 1-8
4.0
17,35
38,49 12,14
15,31 7,9
O(dead) 1-8
12.3
17,42
12,15
7,9
4,5
9-14
1
11.8
47
25,43
4,24
9-14
19.2
41
38,40
36,37
33,34
31,32
24,25
16,22
6,13
1,3
15-21
972
19-7
42
36,41
32,33
22,27
. 6,11
15-21
26.0
30,48
11,27
2,10
22-28
26.8
40,45
28,37
18,26
13,16
5,10
1,2
22-28
31.3
50
45,46
29,44
26,28
8,18
29-35
27-4
48,50
44,46
30,39
23,29
3,8
29-35
44.4
39
21,23
19,20
36+
40.3
21
19,20
36+
Mortality 1968-1972 = 8%
Average Score Difference 1968-1972 = 2.98
(significant at 0.01 probability)
-------
Table JO. Incidence of common Infectious aboveground diseases in each of the six study plots,
Dwarf mistletoe
Jeffrey pine
Ponderosa pine
Sugar pine
True mistletoe
Wh i te fir
1 ncense cedar
Black oak
Elytroderma deformans
Jeffrey pine
Ponderosa pine
Dogwood
—
0/82
0/3
0/8
0/28
0/15
_ —
0/82
Snow
Val ley
Disease
0/74
__
0/13
1/31
2/29
0/39
1/74
__
Camp
Angel es
1 ncidence/Total
--
6/68
2/5
0/37
--
0/19
_. _
0/68
Barton Sand
Flats Canyon
Trees Each Species
6/83 0/62
0/129
—
6/17
--
1/14
0/83 1 8/62
1/129
Heart
Bar
0/104
--
0/2
3/18
—
--
47/104
--
Branch tip dieback
(cause unknown)
White fir
0/8
1/31
0/37
4/17
10/18
-------
1 — Topographic map of the
San Bernardino Mountains.
Contour interval is 500 ft.
Figure 1. Injury to ponderosa or Jeffrey pines
decreases (larger score) with distance
from pollutant sources
-------
Section IV
A Preliminary Survey of Plant Disease Problems
in the San Bernardino Mountains
Field W. Cobb
A survey of disease problems was made in and around plots (see General
Introduction) established along air pollution gradients in the San Bernardino
Mountains. The survey was made during the last week in August, 1972. Thus,
the observations made must be evaluated relative to the seasonal occurrence
of some pathogens and/or symptoms. Other problems of significance might be
detected earlier in the season. The survey was conducted concurrently with
one on insect pests but did not involve a plant taxonomist familiar with the
grasses, herbaceous plants or some of the shrubs. As a consequence, few ob-
servations were made on these latter plant species.
Since the purpose of the survey was to obtain information that would
assist in planning a project on the influence of pollution on the mixed-
conifer ecosystem, striking absences of plant pathogens and parasites as well
as the occurrence of these organisms were noted.
Dogwood Plot
Vegetation is mixed-conifer, predominantly ponderosa pine but with
black oak, white fir, incense cedar and sugar pine in that order of abundance.
Mortality in ponderosa pine was 10 percent from 1968 to 1972; these trees
were showing substantial pollution injury and many had been attacked by
bark beetles. Observations and isolations yielded no evidence of root decay
organisms although deterioration of the small rootlet systems by faculative
parasites is highly probable. No dwarf mistletoe and needle casts were
observed in this stand. A few of the white firs and incense cedars were dead
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IV-2
or showing symptoms of reduced vigor. Examination of the root collar zones
on several of these trees indicated that root decay, e.g., Fomes annosus on
white fir, might be involved but isolations failed to confirm this. The
black oak was generally in a state of decline with moderately severe branch
cankering. Isolations from oak cankers consistently yielded a dark pig-
mented fungus, as yet unidentified. Fruiting structures of slash or litter
decaying fungi and mycorrhizal fungi were conspicuously absent although
there had been recent rains. In summary, the abundance of cankering on oak
branches, the lack of sporophores of decay organisms or mycorrhizal fungi, and
the absence of evidence of the occurrence of Armillaria mellia on weakened
trees may be significant relative to the occurrence of air pollution. The
apparent absence of dwarf mistletoes and needle casts probably have no rela-
tionship with air pollution in the case of this plot, although it cannot be
ruled out relative to the needle casts.
Snow Valley
Vegetation is predominantly Jeffrey pine with a few white firs and black
oak. Relatively sparse brush is predominantly Ceanothus with some manzanita.
Jeffrey pine on the site has light to moderate infection by Elytroderma
deformans, a needle cast fungus. Dwarf mistletoe in the pine is moderate to
heavy. A few pines and white firs have been killed by bark beetles after
infection by Fomes annosus. F_. annosus has been confirmed by isolation.
Some of the white firs have moderate infection by true mistletoe. Black oak
is generally in better condition than at Dogwood with less dieback and canker-
ing. The Ceanothus has moderate cankering. Isolations have yielded a brown
pigmented fungus. Armillaria mellea was not observed on any of the conifers,
-------
IV-3
but this may not be surprising here because of the more widely spaced trees.
Heart Bar State Park
Timber vegetation is predominantly Jeffrey pine with some white fir.
Understory is manzanita, Ceanothus, Mt. Mahogany and, in the wetter drainage,
willow and cottonwood. Both Jeffrey pine and white fir appear to be in poor
condition, with a significant number of dead trees of both species. Major
cause of mortality in both species appears to be Fomes annosus root rot
followed by bark beetles. Fomes annosus has been confirmed by isolation.
Brown cubical root and butt rot caused by Polyporus schweinitzii was also
confirmed in several of the Jeffrey pines. Occurrence of limb rust on
several Jeffrey pines is also suspected, and Elytroderma deformans infection
is light to moderate. Other needle diseases of pine appear to be absent.
The white fir has moderate to heavy infection by true mistletoe and several
firs have extensive heart rot decay by Echonodontium tinctorium. White fir
twig dieback apparently caused by an unidentified canker fungus is also
extensive, especially in the lower parts of the crowns. Manzanita, Ceanothus
and Mt. Mahogany have moderate to heavy branch cankering. The cause(s) of
manzanita cankers appears to be the same as in other parts of California. The
same brown-pigmented fungus was isolated from Ceanothus on this plot as from
the same plant on other plots.
Camp Angelus
Vegetation tending toward the mixed-conifer, predominantly ponderosa
pine with some oaks and white fir. Ponderosa pine appears to be reasonably
vigorous. Pine mortality is light to moderate; a few trees may have F.annosus
but this has not been confirmed. Armillaria mellea occurred on one of the
-------
IV-4
pines. Elytroderma infection appeared to be very light, and dwarf mistletoe
in pine was heavy in a single infection center. The white fir was generally
in good condition but a significant number of trees less than 4 inches dbh
were severely damaged by oxidant; no cankering or root diseases were observed.
Infection by true mistletoe was light in fir but heavy in black oak. Branch
dieback on oak was present but not severe in those trees receiving full
sunlight.
Barton Flats
Vegetation is predominantly ponderosa and Jeffrey pine with some black
oak. Dwarf mistletoe is occasionally encountered on pines with heavy main
stem infection in the younger trees. Mortality of pine was 9 percent from
1968 to 1972. Bark beetles, pollution injury and Fomes annosus are contri-
buting to the mortality; that caused by F_. annosus appears to be significant
but this has not been confirmed by isolations from dying trees. Several of
the black oaks have moderate cankering and dieback as well as moderate true
mistletoe infection. No Armillaria was found.
Sand Canyon
Site appears to be dry with Jeffrey pine predominating. There are some
white firs, pinon pine, and juniper in the overstory. Understory is pre-
dominantly mountain mahogany, manzanita and Ceanothus. There is moderate
Elytroderma needle cast infection in the Jeffrey pine, but little or no
dwarf mistletoe. The white fir has moderate true mistletoe infection and a
few trees have been top-killed. Heart rot (E_. tine tor ium) is also present
in white fir as is a light amount of branch cankering. No serious problems
were observed on the pinon pine and juniper. The mountain mahogany has
-------
IV-5
moderate dieback. Cankering on manzanita is light and on Ceanothus, it
is moderate.
Summary
The major pathogenic or parasitic organisms affecting several of the
major plant species in the San Bernardino Mountains appears to be the
following:
Pines — Root pathogens, including £. annosus, P_. schweinitzii, and
in some areas Annillaria mellea. Little is known about the damping-off
fungi, the so-called "soft rots" or other fungi that infect the rootlets
only. Dwarf mistletoe. Elytroderma deformans. Limb rust.
White fir — Root pathogens. True and dwarf mistletoe. Canker organisms,
Echonodontium tinetorium heart rot.
Incense cedar — Root pathogens.
Mt. Mahogany — Canker organisms.
Black oak — Canker organisms. True mistletoe. Root pathogens.
Manzanita — Canker organisms. Root pathogens.
Ceanothus — Canker organisms.
-------
Section V
Soil Investigations 1972
R. J. Arkley
Field Examinations of Soil Morphology
Initial exploratory studies of the soils on six selected plots were
begun in November 1972. The six plots are located along with pollution gra-
dients; three plots (Crest Park near Lake Arrowhead, Snow Valley west of Big
Bear Lake, and Sand Canyon east of Big Bear Lake) form one sequence, and Camp
Angeles, Barton Flats, and Heart Bar, all in the vicinity of Mt. San Bernar-
dino, form another. The two sequences differ in soil parent materials. The
first contains residual soils formed directly on weathered granitic rocks;
the second contains soils formed on colluvial material classified as "fanglo-
merate and landslide breccia" of the Cushenbury Springs formation of
Pleistocene age.
In order to obtain comparable stands of pine forest along the pollution
gradients it was found necessary to vary the altitude of the plots. The
approximate altitudes are as follows:
Crest Park 5600 ft Camp Angeles 5760 ft
Snow Valley 6800 ft Barton Flats 6240 ft
Sand Canyon 7500 ft Heart Bar 6720 ft
Based upon multiple regression equations using air temperature, altitude,
plant cover, and latitude, the mean annual soil temperatures at these sites
can be expected to vary from about 51°F at Crest Park to 41°F at Sand Canyon,
with consequent differences in soils. However, the effects of these differences
-------
V-2
can probably be sorted out by study of tree growth rates and tree rings prior
to the onset of air pollution.
Soil profiles were examined at four of the six sites; the other two were
inaccessible due to unseasonal heavy snows. The soils at Crest Park and at
Camp Angeles were found to be of somewhat similar character in spite of the
difference in parent materials, although they differed markedly in content
of coarse fragments.
The soil at Crest Park is classified tentatively as an unnamed Pachic
Ultic Argixeroll, find loamy, mixed mesic soil. This classification trans-
lates into a soil with a thick, dark sandy loam surface horixon and an acid,
textural B horizon (sandy clay loam texture) of mixed clay mineralogy and
moderate soil temperature regime. The soil reaction is moderately acid in
the surface (pH 5.8) and slightly more acid in the subsoil (38 to 56+ inches)
(pH 5.5) by solorimetric estimate. Dense partially weathered granitic bedrock
was encountered at 56 inches.
The soil at Camp Angeles is a Shaver stony fine sandy loan classified
tentatively as a Pachic Ultic Haploxeroll, coarse loamy, mixed mesic soil.
This classification reflects also a thick, dark surface horizon, with no
textural B horizon but rather a subsoil of the same texture as the surface
and which is increasingly acid with depth. The pH of the surface is near
neutral, grading to pH 5.5 at 37 inches and below. The underlying material
is stony granitic colluvial material.
Thus, the main difference in the two soils is in stoniness and in the
developed textural B horizon. The two are similar in the thick dark surface
soil and increasing acidity with depth.
-------
V-3
The soil at Snow Valley is a Corbett loamy coarse sand classified ten-
tatively as a Typic Xeropsamment, mixed frigid soil, which is a soil with
only a thick dark surface with no textural profile development, mixed
mineralogy, and a cold temperature regime (<47°F, mean annual soil tempera-
ture). Reaction is slightly acid in the surface and strongly acid in the
lower C horizon. Hard weathered granitic rock was found at the 26 inches
depth.
The Barton Flat site is located on a ridge which has a configuration
suspiciously like a moraine at the lower boundary of a meadow. However, the
geologic maps of the area only show glacial deposits at higher elevations.
Because of the stoniness of this soil it was impossible to determine the type
of soil without power equipment such as a back hoe, although it was found that
the soil was dark and rich in organic matter to a depth of about 12 inches and
could be quite similar to the stony Shaver soil at Camp Angeles which was
examined in a road cut.
Implications for Research Investigations
As a result of these observations, it is clear that in order to sample
and monitor the noisture regimes of these soils it will be necessary to exca-
vate the soil at representative sites with power equipment such as a backhoe
in order to install moisture sensors and to obtain quantitative measures of
the content of coarse rock fragments in the soils during the excavation pro-
cedure. A general procedure might be to excavate a narrow trench parallel to
the slope, screen and measure the rock fragments in the pit by increments of
depth during the excavation process, collect soil samples, describe the soil
-------
V-4
morphology in detail, install sensing and measuring devices laterally from
the trench into the soil, seal that side with heavy plastic film, and then
refill the trench. The plastic film would be used to prevent laterla move-
ment of moisture to or from the disturbed trench-fill.
-------
Section VI
Monitoring Oxidant Air Pollution in the
San Bernardino Mountains, June-September 1972
Paul R. Miller and Henry P. Milligan
Introduction
Six stations were located in two overlapping transects each extending from
west to east but in entirely different terrain (Figure 2). The three northern
stations occupied two ridgetop positions at Rim Forest (5,640 ft.) and Green
Valley Lake (6,880 ft.), and a side hill position on the north shore of Big
Bear Lake at Fawnskin (6,900 ft.). The southern stations were located on the
north-facing slope of the Santa Ana River drainage basin at Camp Angeles (5,800 ft.),
Barton Flats Visitor Center (6,320 ft.) and Heart Bar State Park headquarters
(6,688 ft.).
The northern transect was 18 miles long, the southern was 13 miles and
because they overlapped, the total distance from west to east was 28 miles going
from higher to lower exposures to air pollution.
Monitoring stations were located as close as possible to the six vegetation
plots where the evaluations of tree damage were made relative to distance from
the pollution source.
Instruments and Procedures
Mast ozone meters and Leeds and Northrup Speedomax H strip chart recorders
were used at each station. The instruments were locked in a ventilated metal
or plywood box just large enough to accommodate both pieces of equipment side-by-
side. The Teflon air sampling tube extended 6 to 8 inches from the box. The
box had legs which raised it about 3 ft, above the ground.
The box was usually positioned 30 to 75 ft. away from houses or other
-------
VI-2
obstructions which would modify the flow of polluted air from the direction
of the urban basin. At five stations power was supplied from a 115 AC, 60 Hz
outlets. At one station a small thermoelectric, propane-fueled generator pro-
vided DC current which was converted to AC for the instruments. Interference
of exhaust gases from the generator with the ozone sensor was virtually
eliminated by placing the generator about 75 ft. away in the dominantly upwind
direction at Heart Bar State Park.
The monitoring stations were maintained on a Monday, Wednesday, Friday
schedule. The round trip mileage was nearly 200 miles. It was necessary to
follow a checklist at each station because heat, smog, and driver fatigue some-
times caused the omission of a vital function which could result in the loss
of 3 days' data (see the checklist).
Mast ozone meters were returned to the Air Pollution Research Center at
Riverside for maintenance and calibration every 4 to 6 weeks. Because the
elevation at Riverside and the various stations was different by 4,000 to
6,000 ft., it was necessary to apply a positive correction factor at each
station. The correction factor was obtained by dividing the pressure (mb) at
Riverside and the calibration point by the pressure (mb) at the sample point.
The hourly oxidant concentration, maximum for the day, and time of the daily
maximum were transferred from the strip charts to summary sheets and then card
punched. The computer print-out included corrections for the calibration and
elevation factors as well as hourly and daily means for each month and the number
of hours daily when total oxidant exceeded .08 ppm.
-------
VI-2a
Checklist for Oxidant Monitoring Station Maintenance
Station Number Station Location
Date Date
(month-day-year) (Julian - year)
Time: Arrival and Shutdown
0100 - 2300
Mast Ozone Meter: Serial number . K Factor
1. Add fresh solution to supply reservoir
2. Pour spent solution from exhaust reservoir leaving enough
to cover tygon tube .
3. Inspect supply reservoir and remove dirt .
4. Inspect both sides of sensor block , if necessary, remove
air bubbles , dirt .
5. Check to insure firm connection of,
(a) Teflon air sampling tube .
(b) Tygon tube below sensor cell_
(c) Signal wire from sensor cell
6. Check for date when meter must be taken down for repair and
calibration .
7. Lubricate air pump and solution pump cam. every 2 weeks,
Needed
Not Needed
8. If necessary, replace meter in case of malfunction,
Needed
Not Needed
9. RESTART Mast meter making certain that switch is on Remote
-------
VI-2b
Checklist for Oxidant Monitoring Station Maintenance (Cont'd)
Strip Chart Recorder
1. Label chart paper: Station
Time
K Factor
2. Has the pen been inking properly: yes no
3. Trouble shoot Mast meter by looking at yesterday's record on the take-up
reel of recorder.
(a) Background concentration of 0 to 0.06 ppm evident at night:
yes no
(b) Daylight concentration exceeds the night background: yes no
(c) Should Mast meter be replaced: yes no
4. Remove paper weekly: Monday or Wednesday
5. Is there enough paper to last until the next visit .
6. Is the recorder amplifier OK .
7. Is the chart advance ON , the proper speed .
8. Recheck to be sure that Departure time
Date
K Factor
are written on chart paper.
Final Procedures
1. Lock the box
2. Take bottle of solution and any chart paper to truck
3. Describe: Temperature:
(Wet) (Dry)
Cloud cover:
(tenths), thunderheads,
Visibility
(good) (poor)
Wind: Speed Direction
-------
VI-3
Results
Oxidant data was obtained for part of June and all of July, August, and
September at each station. Monitoring was continued through October but wet
weather and technical difficulties limited the amount of data which was of value
for station-to-station comparisons.
Seasonal changes in oxidant concentration — Variation of daily oxidant
maxima during the sample period for all stations is summarized in Figure 2.
It is possible to view the changes in daily peak concentrations from day to
day during the sample period at a single station or compare the relative peak
concentrations on a given day from station to station.
The controlling influence of weather on episodes of high oxidant is
readily apparent. For example, June 29 and August 20-22 were dates of the
most severe episodes at nearly all stations during the entire sample period.
Reference to the summary of southern California weather (Appendix I) shows
that the episode in June involved a High pressure system aloft with temperatures
in the high 90's to 100 degrees with the top of the marine layer down to 900 ft.
During August 20-22, there was a moderate onshore pressure gradient with marine
air inland to 4,000 ft. and high pressure aloft. This kind of weather pattern
unfortunately is very typical during the summer. On the other hand, a combina-
tion of other features kept oxidant concentrations relatively low in the
mountains during the last 5 days of August and most of September. Two tropical
storms, Gwen on August 29 and Hyacinth on September 5, brought moist air,
thunderstorms and much instability to the mountain area. The other influence
during September was the repeated occurrence of high pressure systems inland
causing an offshore pressure gradient and strong Santa Ana winds which prevented
-------
VI-4
easterly advection of polluted air.
The temperature, dew point, relative humidity, wind speed and direction
recorded at each station at the time when technicians performed maintenance
on the instruments is included in Appendix II. These data are not useful
for further analysis of meteorological trends because the information was not
taken at the same time each day but they are helpful for spot checking environ-
mental conditions which accompany oxidant concentrations at that time of day.
Monthly averages of the daily maxima, the number of hours daily that oxidant
exceeded .08 ppm (Federal Air Quality Standard), and the single highest daily
maximum for each month are presented in Table 1. Because there was missing
data at all stations (Figure 2), these averages reflect incomplete but useful
trends. Definite gradients of oxidant concentration are indicated along the
two west to east transects. But the gradient from Rim Forest to Fawnskin is
more prominent than that from Camp Angeles to Heart Bar State Park. The
terrain features where the latter stations are located help explain the dif-
ference because the transport of polluted air up the Santa Ana drainage basin
is unimpeded by any physical barriers. Transport along the other transect is
complicated by a much more variable terrain including the main ridge of the
mountains with intersecting drainages and the fact that the eastern-most station,
Fawnskin, is in a distinct basin not directly comparable with ridgetop sites.
In Figure 1, the numbers superimposed on the terrain map are averages for
June through September of the duration (hours) daily when oxidant concentrations
exceeded .08 ppm at the six stations. This summary emphasizes the difference
between the northern and southern transects and validates the hypothesis that a
significant gradient of oxidant exposure exists from west to east across the
Forest.
-------
VI-5
Daily changes in oxidant concentration and duration — A more detailed
analysis of the changes at all six stations is presented in Figure 3 where hourly
concentrations for 48 hours are plotted. Again, one is struck by the unifor-
mity in the hourly changes at Camp Angeles, Barton Flats, and Heart Bar. The
times of the daily oxidant maxima are nearly identical here as in Figure 4
where the average of hourly concentrations for August 23-26, 1972 are presented.
At Heart Bar, the slightly later arrival of oxidant is counterbalanced by a
slower decay of ozone after sundown. There is probably less nitric oxide (NO)
available at this more remote, higher elevation site to serve as an ozone sink.
A comparison of Rim Forest, Green Valley Lake, and Fawnskin in Figure 3 and
Figure 5 (hourly averages for July 1-5, 1972) shows that Rim Forest and Green
Valley Lake are under greater influence from South Coast basin air than Fawn-
skin. Green Valley Lake begins to register the advected oxidant about 4 hours
later than Rim Forest in both Figures 3 and 5. Fawnskin (Figure 5) shows a
minimal influence from basin air during this period but in the 48-hour period
(Figure 3), there is some evidence that the Big Bear basin may have its own
unique air pollution problem. On both June 24 and 25, 1972, there appears to
be synthesis of oxidant beginning at 0700 plus advection from outside the basin.
A radiation inversion may frequently trap polluted air overnight in the basin
so that N0? and hydrocarbons are immediately available for oxidant synthesis
at sunrise.
Comparison of 1972 oxidant at Rim Forest with earlier years — The trend
in oxidant levels as measured by an average of the daily maxima from May through
September each year is indicated in Figure 6. The average maxima (pphm) for
the 6 months during each year are as follows:
-------
VI-6
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
20
18
22
22
22
According to this index, air quality is not improving.
Inclement spring and fall weather have made it difficult to maintain an
oxidant monitoring station in the mountains. It is certain that the above
data do not reflect the total dosage experienced by forest vegetation each
year.
Summary
Oxidant air pollution concentrations were measured continuously from mid-
June through September 1972 in the San Bernardino mountains at six stations in
a downwind configuration from the polluted South Coast air basin to the west.
During this time, the duration of oxidant concentrations above .08 ppm ranged
from 12.6 to 5.7 hours thus defining a gradient of oxidant dosage from west to
east. The magnitude of this gradient compared well with amounts of damage to
coniferous vegetation in nearby plots. These observations also indicate that
probably there is no portion of the coniferous forest in the 5,000 to 7,000 ft.
zone in the San Bernardino National Forest which does not receive significant
exposure to oxidant air pollution. Considerably more sampling will be required
to challenge the above statement and to better quantify the dosages received
at selected sites. This initial data adequately supports the proposed protocol
for a study of the effects of oxidant air pollution on a mixed conifer ecosystem.
Recommendations for Future Work
1. Continue to collect total oxidant data at the same six stations in the
following years but improve the quality of the oxidant monitoring instruments
by replacing the Mast analyzers with the DASIBI, UV, specific ozone analyzer.
-------
VI-7
The quality and quantity of data must be improved.
2. At one selected station continuously monitor N02, S02, and peroxy-
acetyl nitrate. These instruments could be placed in a trailer (available)
and moved from site to site.
3. At all six permanent stations, continuously measure temperature,
humidity, wind speed and direction, precipitation, insolation and evaporation.
4. If new equipment (item 1) is available, then older oxidant monitoring
instruments can be used to expand the observation network for limited times.
It will be desirable to extend the sample transect west of Crestline and east
of Big Bear Lake first. Later, observations should be made north of the tran-
sect running from west to east.
5. Automate the data acquisition system at the six more permanent stations
(item 1) so data will be placed initially on magnetic tape to eliminate the
labor and long time required to transfer data from strip charts to punch cards.
Share technical skills and costs for establishing and maintaining a base station
to receive data by wire or telemetry from the six sensor stations with a U.S.
Forest Service project at the Forest Fire Laboratory, Riverside. The Fire
Meteorology Project will select and test an automated system as part of their
current research in 1973.
6. Cooperate with the San Bernardino County Air Pollution Control District
so that the most effective network of monitoring stations can be established and
data can be shared.
-------
Table 1. Summary^ of oxidant data at six San Bernardino Mountain
stations-June-September 1972 (pphm).
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Average daily max.
Highest daily max.
Hrs > 8
Average daily max.
Highest daily max.
Hrs > 8
Average daily max.
Highest daily max.
Hrs > 8
Average daily max.
Highest daily max.
Hrs > 8
Rim
Forest
20
37
9.9
23
39
11.5
25
45
17.4
20
31
11.7
Green
Valley
Lake
19
40
13.3
17
31
9.0
17
35
6.0
13
23
3.3
Fawnskin
17
23
12.4
13
21
7.2
13
21
4.4
10
16
1.9
Camp
Angeles
19
32
6.2
19
27
7.8
21
46
9.6
16
28
6.2
Barton
Flats
13
22
7.6
21
33
7.6
18
30
7.9
13
19
6.2
Heart
Bar
16
31
5.3
18
35
5.6
19
36
6.9
15
29
5.3
I/
Averages do not represent an equal number of days or the same days at each station (see Figure 2).
-------
Appendix I
Summary of Southern California Weather, May-September 1972 (excerpted from
the California Fire Weather Reports, U. S. Forest Service).
May 1-10
Southern California experienced above normal temperatures and low humidities.
By the ktb, the onshore pressure gradient increased, producing a stronger
flow of marine air inland. This lowered the temperatures and increased the
humidities all the way into the intermediate valleys. By the 6th, the marine
layer had increased to a depth of 5,000 ft. Conditions remained about the
same until the 8th when a slow warming and drying trend developed. By the
10th, the upper ridge was just beginning to move onshore to further increase
temperatures. The pressure gradient was very weak, but trending offshore.
No precipitation occurred for the period and no strong winds were reported.
May 11-20
The period began with a weak offshore pressure gradient. The marine layer
was confined mostly to the immediate coast. Temperatures inland were in the
upper 80's and relative humidities averaged 20 percent. There were no strong
winds. Similar conditions prevailed through the ]kth. By the 13th, the San
Bernardino area had temperatures up to 100 degrees. Top of the marine layer
was around 500 ft. with only coastal fog. Humidities averaged from 10 to 20
percent. A cooling trend beginning on the 15th brought temperatures back to
normal. By the 19th, temperatures were in the 30's in mountain areas and the
high 50's-low 60's elsewhere. Humidities ranged from 50 to 100 percent. On
the 18th, Strawberry Peak had southerly winds of 33 rnph and Rock Camp had
southeasterly winds of 28 mph on the 19th. No thunderstorms were reported,
but precipitation occurred on the 19th and 20th. Total amounts ranged from
.05 to an inch, but stations at higher elevations averaged about -3 inch.
May 21-31
Temperatures were in the upper 90's from the 27th on, and relative humidities
ranged from 15 to 30 percent. A Low aloft over the southwest coast and Baja
California, which persisted from the 27th through the 31st, produced widely
isolated thunderstorms in the San Bernardino N.F., but the only measurable
precipitation reported for the period was 1.5 inch on the 31st at Converse.
Because of the easterly, warm flow during the latter part of the period,
areas near the coast reached record breaking temperatures, and the marine
layer was either very shallow or nonexistent from the 27th on.
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Appendix I - ii
June 1-10
A Low aloft over Baja California brought moisture over the area on the 1st.
There were numerous lightning strikes, although the showers were light. On
the 2nd and 3rd, there was a weak upper trough off the coast and an upper
High over the southwest interior. Scattered thunderstorms persisted on the
2nd, but none on the 3rd. An upper Low over Baja, bringing moist, unstable
air into the area, was the dominate feature again from the 4th-?th. Numerous
thunderstorms persisted during these A days. Precipitation amounts were .93
at Fawnskin and .74 at Converse on the 5th, and^from .15 to .35 on the San
Bernardino N.F. on the 6th. From the 8th-10th an upper trough off the coast
produced a deep marine layer, from A,000 to 6,000 ft. This kept temperatures
cool. By the afternoon of the 10th, however, the trough had weakened and
temperatures were up 8 degrees and humidities down 20 percent.
June 11-20
On the llth, a weak upper-trough was over Baja California and a ridge aloft
was moving eastward to the California coast. Pressure gradient was moderately
offshore, temperatures were increasing, and relative humidities were down.
Winds were from the northeast . Pressure gradient had changed to onshore by
the 12th, allowing a shallow marine layer along the coast. A weak upper-
trough off the coast caused a deepening of the marine layer on the 13th-
15th, and slight cooling occurred. Further deepening of the marine layer,
to 3,000 ft. was noted on the 17th and 18th. Slight warming occurred on the
19th, the marine layer was down to 2,000 ft., and humidities were down con-
siderably. On the 20th, an upper Low just off the coast to the southwest
produced a moist south-southwest flow. There was a substantial increase in
relative humidities, slight decrease in temperatures, and considerable
cloudiness. Many thunderstorms occurred in the afternoon on the San
Bernardino N.F. The San Bernardino N.F. had less than .33 inch precipitation.
June 21-30
An upper Low off the coast to the southwest produced moist south-southwest
flow aloft on the 21st. Thunderstorms were reported on the San Bernardino
N.F. and precipitation ranged from .20 to -59 inch on the 21st. A deepening
upper trough off the west coast produced a cooling trend on the 22nd with
an 18-degree drop in temperatures. On the 22nd, the top of the marine layer
increased to 6,000 ft. and widely scattered showers occurred, though very
little measurable precipitation was recorded. The trough weakened slightly
on the 23rd. On the 26th, the top of the marine layer was around 2,500 ft.
A High aloft over the area on the 27th-29th produced warming and drying.
Temperatures were in the high 90's to 100 degrees and the top of the marine
layer was down to 900 ft. on the 29th. A cooling trend began on the 30th.
-------
Appendix I - iii
July 1-10
A high-pressure system aloft and weak to moderate onshore pressure gradient
at the surface were the dominant features for the 10 days. The top of the
marine layer varied from 1,000 to 2,500 ft. From the 5th-7th, temperatures
at lower elevations reached the 100-degree mark and relative humidities
ranged from 10 to 20 percent. But at higher elevations, temperatures were
in the upper 90's and relative humidity from 8 to 15 percent for these three
days. No strong winds or thunderstorms occurred.
July 11-20
For the first 3 days of the period, temperatures were over the 100-degree
mark in the valleys and the high 80's-low 90's in the mountains. Pressure
gradient was weak, and marine air did not penetrate inland. An increase of
onshore flow on the 14th caused a decrease in temperatures in the low levels.
This trend of increasing onshore pressure gradient and decreasing temperatures
continued through the 19th, when the pressure gradient between Los Angeles
and Tonopah was 13.2 mb. A deep upper trough over the western U.S. on the
20th caused the marine layer to deepen to 5,000 ft. Temperatures became very
low for this time of the year. Valley stations had high readings in the low
80's; in the mountains, Fawnskin reached 72 degrees. Winds through the passes
averaged 20 to 30 mph from the southwest on the 17th-19th.
July 21-31
The area was under the influence of a weak trough aloft for the first k days
and a weak upper High from the 25th on. Top of the marine layer was A,500 ft.
on the 21st, 2,000 ft. on the 22nd, and marine air was practically non-
existent inland for the remainder of the period. Temperatures were above
normal for most of the period. On the 30th, for example, coastal slopes had
from 100-107 degrees and higher elevations were in the low 90's. A few
thunderstorms were reported on the Cleveland N.F. on the 28th, but on the
29th and 30th they became more widespread reaching all the forests. Except
for winds associated with the thunderstorms, strong winds were reported at
Fawnskin, southeast at 31 mph on the 31st.
August 1-10
Marine air, with the top from 2,000 to 3,500 ft., kept temperatures cool for
the first 3 days. Inland valleys had high temperature readings in the mid-
80's on the 3rd, and relative humidities averaged ^0 percent in the mountains
and 35 percent at lower levels. By the 6th, a warming trend brought inland
temperatures to the 100-degree mark. Moist southeast flow aloft kept
humidities relatively high and produced isolated thunderstorms on the San
Barnardino N.F. on the 4th-8th and again on the 10th. Precipitation at Big
Bear was .27 inch on the 5th. The city of San Bernardino reported .08 inch
on the 10th, Except for areas of thunderstorms, winds were exceptionally light
because of a weak pressure gradient.
-------
Appendix I - iv
August 11-20
On the llth, the area was under the influence of a High aloft over south-
western U.S. The weather pattern changed abruptly on the 12th. A Low aloft
just off the coast of Baja California brought moist, unstable air to the
area. Areas from the Los Padres N.F. southward received some precipitation.
Kenworthy on the San Bernardino N.F. received 1 inch of rain and areas along
the coast, including Los Angeles, had up to .33 inch. Temperatures were in
the high 60's to high 70's. From the 13th on, a trough aloft off the west
coast produced a drier southwest flow aloft. Except for the 15th-17th,
there was a fairly moderate onshore pressure gradient with marine air inland
to *t,000 ft.
August 21-31
High pressure aloft was the dominant feature for the first 3 days, whereas
low pressure aloft influenced weather in the area for the remainder of the
period. An upper-level trough developed over southern California on the
24th, and persisted in the area through the 28th. The dominant feature from
the 29th on was a low pressure area called tropical storm Gwen, which was
off the coast of central Baja California on the 29th. A moderate offshore
pressure gradient existed on the 22nd. At lower elevations, temperatures were
over 100 degrees and humidities were low. By the 24th, the pressure gradient
was moderate onshore, and the top of the marine layer was at 4,000 ft.
Widely scattered thunderstorms occurred on the 27th, 29th, and 31st. Pre-
cipitation amounts were light and the storms were confined to the San
Bernardino and Cleveland National Forests on the 31st.
September 1-10
The period was exceptionally cool and cloudy as a result of low pressure
aloft. At the beginning of the period, a weak Low was just off the southwest
coast. There was a moderate onshore pressure gradient. South-southeasterly
flow aloft produced widely scattered showers and thunderstorms on the 2nd
on the San Bernardino N.F. Precipitation amounts on the 3rd ranged from
.02 to .13 inch and temperatures were from the low 80's in the valleys to
the mid-70's at mountain stations. Relative humidities were around 40 percent
at low levels and over 50 at higher elevations. This same trend continued on
the 4th with scattered showers. On the 5th, increased moisture, because of
tropical storm Hyacinth, produced widespread showers and thunderstorms.
By the 6th, Hyacinth had dissipated, though there was still enough moisture
in the area to produce scattered thunderstorms. From the 7th on, the area
was under the influence of a deepening trough along the coast. This
resulted in a very deep marine layer and cooler temperatures.
-------
Appendix I - v
September 11-20
A deep trough aloft off the west coast produced a strong onshore pressure
gradient with the top of the marine layer at 7,000 ft. on the 11th. The
cyclonic flow aloft weakened on the 12th, when temperatures increased
slightly. Weak low pressure aloft continued for most of the period.
There was very little change on the 13th through the 16th except for minor
variations in humidities and depth of marine layer. On the 19th, top of the
marine layer was 3>500 ft. On the 20th, an upper-level ridge moved into
the area. A surface high pressure area over Montana produced moderate off-
shore pressure gradient and a moderate Santa Ana condition. Strong winds
were generally confined to the higher peaks and ridges. Butler Peak had
northeast winds to 50 mph.
September 21-30
The period began under a dying Santa Ana condition. Temperatures ranged
from 100 degrees in the low levels to 85 degrees at higher elevations.
Relative humidities were 8 to 18 percent. Maximum winds recorded at national
forest stations were northeast 23 mph. A strong upper trough moved into the
Pacific Northwest on the 22nd, and conditions remained hot and dry. By the
23rd, a cooling trend began as the upper trough deepened and moved over the
western U.S. This condition persisted through the 28th. Top of the marine
layer varied from 2,000 ft. on the 23rd to 5,000 ft. on the 25th and 26th.
On the 29th, a surface High built rapidly over the Plateau and produced a
short-lived moderate Santa Ana condition. Maximum winds occurred the morning
of the 29th; maximum pressure difference between Los Angeles and Tonopah
was -? mb. By the 30th, there was still a moderate offshore pressure
gradient producing high temperatures and low humidities.
-------
Appendix II
DATE
June 26
June 28
June 30
July 3
July 5
July 10
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
0920
1005
1200
1400
1330
1315
0935
1050
1200
1353
1320
1252
0950
1100
1200
1340
1300
1240
1039
1206
1308
1617
1532
1430
1000
—
1400
1615
1547
1500
1040
1150
1240
1550
1535
1512
DB
_ _
75
75
72
76
72
77
80
85
87
90
86
88
90
93
93
90
92
82
80
92
81
78
82
--
— •*
--
84
82
80
80
86
84
84
80
80
DP
_ _
_-
--
--
--
— -
35
37
38
39
42
31
53
42
42
44
42
37
44
37
45
39
33
35
__
"*—
--
42
41
40
48
45
55
51
45
49
A.
„. _
--
--
T-
"
— —
20
16
6
15
15
8
20
15
12
15
15
10
24
16
15
18
15
15
—
™ "•
--
19
18
16
35
20
31
26
25
30
ws
2
1
1
3
1
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
0
6
0
4
0
5
6
-
**
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
6
0
WD
NE
E
E
NE
E
E
--
—
--
— -
--
~ •*
--
—
—
- —
NW
•_ M
S
- —
s
— -
NW
NW
--
NE
— —
— -
SW
--
— —
—
—
N
—
-------
Appendix II - ii
DATE
July 12
July 14
July 17
July 20
July 26
July 28
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1215
1050
1000
0850
0842
0915
0940
1105
1205
1340
1320
1305
1235
1325
1435
1615
1600
1520
0900
1045
1025
1330
1300
—
1215
1315
1410
1630
1550
1535
1640
1535
1415
1105
1125
1255
DB
95
83
78
73
78
79
85
94
95
—
76
— —
79
83
85
78
75
80
58
70
68
76
76
— -
85
82
85
81
81
80
82
81
84
91
87
83
DP
53
47
39
46
46
41
44
44
37
--
^5
— -
46
51
48
52
48
42
50
36
36
50
52
—
38
43
41
44
39
37
46
50
44 ,
19
46
49
qj
HUM.
22
25
20
33
28
20
22
14
10
--
30
--
30
29
24
37
35
22
75
22
22
35
35
--
20
25
19
23
19
19
28
31
22
24
22
27
WS
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
-
0
—
8
4
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
-
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
10
3
2
3
6
WD
__
--
--
--
__
- -
--
sw
--
--
--
w
E
--
--
--
NW
—
--
--
--
--
--
SW
sw
w-sw
w-sw
w-sw
w-sw
sw
sw
sw
sw
sw
s
-------
Appendix II - ill
DATE
July 31
Aug. 2
Aug. 4
Aug. 7
Aug. 9
Aug. 11
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
MB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1230
—
1130
0930
1005
1030
1000
noo
1200
1355
1320
1300
1015
1319
1206
1015
1035
1103
1525
1255
1200
1000
1035
1115
1525
—
1425
1005
1105
1150
1515
1425
1250
1038
1110
1150
DB
97
--
81
82
85
81
78
78
80
80
78
80
79
83
83
79
78
79
79
--
77
75
78
81
80
— -
79
74
79
81
77
78
83
81
78
77
DP
58
—
50
52
56
50
42
39
42
40
42
37
39
47
45
41
44
38
56
--
55
61
59
60
52
—
52
53
55
48
54
64
45
58
56
55
%
HUM.
35
--
29
30
35
29
20
22
22
24
24
17
20
25
22
20
25
20
45
--
44
57
48
45
37
— -
52
40
54
50
50
60
18
43
45
43
WS
9
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
5
5
0
0
5
3
5
4
3
7
3
3
5
0
—
0
0
0
4
0
0
7
0
6
8
WD
SW
--
--
--
--
— -
--
--
--
SW
NE
SW
w
—
--
w
w
s
SW
SW
SW
SE
SE
NE
--
-~ —
--
--
--
S
--
—
SW
--
NW
NW
-------
Appendix II - iv
DATE
Aug. 15
Aug. 18
Aug. 21
Aug. 23
AUG. 25
Aug. 28
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
MB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1510
1405
1305
09'* 0
1035
1155
1*30
1235
1125
0920
09*0
1000
13*5
1230
1103
0930
0955
1015
13*0
12*0
n*o
1000
1020
1050
1330
1230
1125
09*0
1020
1035
1330
1235
1125
09*0
1010
1035
DB
73
83
78
65
75
71
69
76
75
63
65
66
82
8*
81
7*
76
75
8*
86
91
77
82
81
72
83
76
71
71
68
80
76
73
71
70
66
DP
39
31
30
31
19
26
*7
36
27
38
31
29
38
26
33
32
*1
*2
26
*2
35
35
32
30
*9
*5
*1
38
*3
*3
*8
*3
*1
38
*1
**
%
HUM.
28
18
13
20
15
15
*5
19
13
35
28
20
19
9
13
15
2*
25
19
19
10
16
18
12
5*
23
2*
25
31
*0
30
23
28
25
30
*1
WS
12
0
6
0
*
*
12
6
*
0
3
6
7
0
0
0
0
6
11
0
3
0
0
*
7
0
7
5
5
7
*
*
0
5
3
*
WD
SW
--
SW
- —
NW
NW
S
SW
SW
--
N
NW
S
—
—
--
--
SW
S
—
SW
—
__
SE
S
--
SW
S
NE
SE
S
NE
--
S
E
SE
-------
Appendix II - v
DATE
Aug. 30
Sept. 1
Sept. 4
Sept. 6
Sept. 8
Sept. 11
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1350
1245
1150
1000
1035
1050
1235
1135
1045
0840
0915
0955
0705
0742
0835
1045
1005
0945
1515
1130
1037
0915
0936
0954
0930
1015
1115
1255
1235
1205
0940
1030
1125
1305
1245
1215
DB
76
70
72
75
74
73
82
73
82
67
71
72
67
62
65
74
68
68
64
63
60
60
62
60
64
75
76
72
71
71
54
59
73
64
61
64
DP
56
55
50
52
53
52
39
39
38
37
35
39
53
49
49
56
56
51
58
49
49
55
49
47
43
31
36
56
54
54
51
23
13
44
44
35
1
HUM,
48
50
44
42
44
44
20
24
16
28
20
25
57
60
80
50
63
50
80
55
64
85
60
59
44
15
18
53
52
52
76
18
9
4$
49
29
WS
10
0
0
0
0
6
12
5
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
5
0
0
0
5
0
7
0
0
0
10
5
5
2
0
7
WD
s
__
__
_ _
SE
S
E
SW
—
w
_ .
—
__
--
--
--
s
--
SW
--
__
--
s
--
s
--
-~
--
s
E
S
s
--
w
-------
Appendix II - vi
DATE
Sept. 13
Sept. 15
Sept. 18
Sept. 20
Sept. 22
Sept. 25
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
0935
1020
1120
1300
1235
1210
0930
1010
1055
1430
1410
1145
1235
1150
1050
0915
0940
1005
1155
1100
1020
0840
091-5
0935
1310
1230
1120
--
1015
1040
1430
1145
1235
1630
1335
1320
DB
64
67
81
74
74
77
69
68
79
80
80
76
73
64
73
64
62
67
70
72
73
63
62
64
81
73
71
—
70
71
70
71
77
70
66
71
DP
33
21
22
35
35
24
17
23
29
37
37
33
55
50
29
52
51
41
35
20
27
27
21
22
27
27
29
--
27
22
47
29
28
48
38
35
H(k
30
10
5
20
20
9
25
10
10
18
18
15
50
55
30
61
65
30
23
8
12
18
15
12
10
12
15
--
15
10
40
16
10
40
30
20
WS
3
3
3
4
10
9
10
5
3
0
0
4
10
10
0
4
0
5
5
7
4
5
5
4
12
4
4
_
0
4
6
0
7
6
5
8
WD
S
E
S
S
NW
SE
S
NE
SW
--
--
SE
S
SW
NE
W
--
E
S
NE
S
W
E
SE
S
E
S
—
--
NW
S
SW
S
SW
W
-------
Appendix II - vii
DATE
Sept. 27
Sept. 29
Oct. 2
Oct. 4
Oct. 6
Oct. 9
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1135
1050
1005
0815
0845
0915
1235
1150
1105
0915
0935
1010
1320
1030
09^5
0814
0845
0905
1315
1240
1155
1010
1035
1105
1225
1125
1040
0930
0950
1000
1110
1020
0935
0810
0835
0855
OB
73
64
71
53
52
62
79
73
74
67
68
67
55
52
53
46
43
48
66
66
60
56
55
58
70
65
60
65
64
62
53
51
57
52
53
51
DP
42
32
35
34
35
28
49
39
35
37
36
37
46
27
22
41
33
29
50
35
34
44
39
31
47
45
43
41
46
45
48
49
43
49
46
44
%
HUM.
3
25
20
44
45
20
30
24
20
27
24
27
65
30
25
80
70
44
54
25
30
61
30
3
40
45
49
35
47
50
75
88
55
86
75
75
ws
10
4
4
0
0
0
5
5
4
0
3
5
7
0
0
0
0
0
5
8
8
4
8
5
6
9
7
0
10
7
4
4
4
0
0
5
WD
S
W
S
-_
—
--
S
NW
S
--
W
S
SE
--
__
--
--
--
ME
S
SE
SE
SE
W
S
SE
S
--
NW
NW
S
S
S
--
--
NW
-------
Appendix II - viii
DATE
Oct. 11
Oct. 13
Oct. 16
Oct. 18
Oct. 20
STATION
RF
GVL
FS
CA
8F
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
RF
GVL
FS
CA
BF
HB
TIME
1320
1240
1150
1022
1050
1105
0940
1030
1155
1330
1305
1245
__
—
--
0955
1030
1100
1245
1200
1100
0930
0950
1005
1305
1220
1125
0945
1006
1030
PB
71
66
65
63
61
65
59
56
62
63
64
73
--
--
--
54
54
51
48
47
55
51
47
46
45
43
42
51
47
41
DP
39
29
20
27
23
24
43
35
41
40
46
41
--
—
--
27
16
18
44
40
36
42
42
39
43
43
38
44
43
37
HOM.
28
19
10
18
18
15
53
40
42
40
48
27
__
--
-;-
30
70
22
85
73
45
69
80
74
95
90
85
88
85
85
WS
9
7
4
3
5
9
14
12
10
11
9
3
-
-
-
5
0
5
9
7
0
0
0
0
8
0
1
2
0
8
WD
s
SE
SW
W
W
S
S
E
SE
SW
NW
N
--
—
—
S
--
SW
s
SE
--
--
—
--
N
—
S
SW
--
N
-------
Appendix 111
Precipitation at Lake Arrowhead Fire Station, 1943-1971
1943
1944
1945
1946
194?
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Mean =
Standard Deviation =
61.08
49.82
51.42
59.65
14.75
28.98
49.78
23.24
38.78
59.08
14.66
50.67
29.60
25.82
40.63
43.07
24-34
32.14
19.50
32.90
32.54
30.54
67.19
38.01
55.87
20.06
98.54
34.61
33.80
40.04
18.05
ill - l
-------
1 - Topographic map of the
San Bernardino Mountains.
Contour interval is 500 ft.
Figure 1. Number of hours daily when oxidant exceeded
8 ppnm at six stations, June-September 1972
-------
RIM FOREST 5640ft
GREEN VALLEY LAKE
FAWNSKIN 6900 ft
CAMP ANGELES 5800 ft
HEART BAR 6688 ft
-o
Q>
a
s-
s-
ro
c
o
(O
to
•I—
X
o
>>
•r-
IO
CVJ
OJ
15 25 I 5 15 I 25 15 15 25 5 15 25 I 5 I 15 25
10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30
1972
-------
JUNE 24, 1972
JUNE 25, 1972
20
10
0
20
I I0
CL °
20
Z 10
Q 0
g 20
-I '°
< 0
_ RIM FOREST 5640 ft
I I I I
I i I I I L
l i 1
_ GREEN VALLEY LAKE 6880 ft
1 i i i i i
1 I l i I t I l i i l
_FAWNSKIN 6900 ft
1 1 1
_ CAMP ANGELES 5800 ft
1 I i Ti
l l l i l
J I L
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
_ BARTON FLATS 6320 ft
10
0
20
10
HEART BAR RANCH 6688 ft
00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
HOURS
Figure 3. A 48 hour record of oxidant concentrations reveals the mechanism of oxidant transport
-------
AUGUST 23-26, 1972
I
Q.
Q_
Z
<
Q
X
o
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
20
15
10
5
.CAMP ANGELES 5800 ft
I
I
I
BARTON FLATS 6320 ft
i I
I
I i
.HEART BAR 6688 ft
_L
00
8
10
12 14
HOURS
16
20
22
Figure 4. Transport of oxidant eastward along the Barton Flats
transect is uninterrupted by terrain
-------
JULY 1-5, 1972.
I
Q_
Q_
25 H
20
15
10
5
0
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
20
15
10
5
RIM FOREST 5640ft.
1
I i I . I . I
GREEN VALLEY 6680 ft.
X
o
o
.L_L
I I I I I I I I i
I I I I I I I I I I
.FAWNSKIN 6900 ft.
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Figure 5. Transport of oxidant eastward along the Lake Arrowhead transect is
not uniform because of complex terrain
-------
RIM FOREST, CALIFORNIA
in ^"n
• vJvJ
' ~^o
0 «J\J
E
*T ^
1. .CO
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=1
21
>< 1 *>
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;J -I ^
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f
i
t
i
i
1
96
J8
r
_
96
9
_ <
/
1
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I
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97(
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19
71
r
;
\
197;
B
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12 s:
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A °
8 z:
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6LU
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-------
Section VII
A survey of terrestrial vertebrates in the mixed conifer portion of the
San Bernardino Mountains
Marshall White
and
James A. Kolb
School of Forestry and Conservation,
and
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
University of California, Berkeley 94720
November, 1972
This report represents a summary of a survey conducted during the summer
of 1972 by the authors as the Terrestrial Wildlife Committee's contribution
to Task C of the overall "Study of the Effect of Air Pollution on Forest
Ecosystems," directed by 0. Clifton Taylor, Statewide Air Pollution
Research Center, University of California, Riverside 92502.
-------
VII-1
Abstract - This paper summarizes the research findings of the Terrestrial
Vertebrate Committee studying the effects of oxidant air pollution on the
forest ecosystem of the San Bernardino Mountains during the summer of 1972.
Task C involved field work to obtain current information about the ecosystem
in specific plots chosen to be representative of substantial areas. The
primary goal of this portion of the study was to inventory the vertebrates
present on the study plots. Six study plots were chosen to coincide with
the six study plots established by the plant pathology group.
The study focused primarily on three important groups of vertebrates:
common resident birds, mammals, and amphibians and reptiles.
A list of the birds found on the six study plots was prepared and
the relative population densities were determined using techniques
modified from Emlen (1971). A tentative checklist of the birds which may
be expected to be found in the coniferous forests of the San Bernardino
Mountains was also prepared. In all, some 57 species were observed, from
a theoretical list of 86 species. Eight species of birds were found on
all six plots. Some of these eight species could serve as focus for
studies designed to show the effects of different levels of oxidant air
pollution on the avifauna of the mountains.
The common small mammal species present on the six study areas were
determined via standard "Calhoun line" procedure. Field and lab work were
accompanied by a brief literature search. Brush mice, deer mice, Merriam
chipmunks, and meadow mice were common and are likely candidates for
detailed study. Permanent markers were established for future studies of
the small mammal populations. Sex ratios of the captured species were
-------
VII-2
determined. An interesting pattern was seen in both the number of individuals
captured per plots and in the number of species captured per plot. It
appears possible that increasing oxidant air pollution damage is coupled
with a decreasing number of species and a decreasing number of individuals
captured.
The species of larger mammals likely to be present on the six study
plots was determined. Larger mammal species were viewed in terms of
suitability for use as indicators of changes in the forest ecosystem due
to oxidant air pollution. It was suggested that the western gray squirrel
because of its relative abundance, the size of its home range, the ease
of observation, and its heavy dependence upon food from the principal
trees of the mixed conifer type would be a good candidate for more
intensive study.
The reptile and amphibian species likely to be present on the six
study plots and their relative abundance, where known, were determined.
One of the two heavy oxidant air pollution damage study plots was found
to have significantly more lizards than any of the other plots.
A proposal for future research is attached to this report.
-------
VII-3
INTRODUCTION
For convenience the mixed coniferous forest ecosystem may be viewed
as consisting of several major components: inorganic substances, organic
compounds, climate regime, producers, macroconsumers, and microconsumers
(Odum 1971). It is known that when one part of an ecosystem or community
changes, the intimate nature of the internal relations within the ecosystem
or community causes changes in the other parts. This report is concerned
with macroconsumers, vertebrate organisms which are directly or indirectly
dependent on producers (vegetation) for sustenance, and with the possibi-
lity of macroconsumer change due to changes within the forest ecosystem
because of increasing levels of oxidant air pollution.
The following data were gathered as part of Task C, the final step
of the protocol study of the effects of oxidant air pollution on the
forest ecosystem of the San Bernardino Mountains. Task B of the protocol
study involved the preparation of a report on the background and historical
information available for the vertebrate populations of the San Bernardino
National Forest. Material for the report was gathered from library
publications, reports and notes from archives, and through consultation
with individuals who have recorded observations in the area. Task C is
the logical sequel to a historical review. Task C involves field work
to obtain current information about the ecosystem in specific plots
chosen to be representative of the oxidant air pollution effected areas.
The primary goal of this portion of the study was to inventory the
vertebrates present on the study plots. Six study plots were chosen to
coincide with those established by the Plant Pathology
-------
VII-4
Committee. Our study focused primarily on three important groups of common
vertebrate species: resident birds, mammals, and amphibians and reptiles.
The principal objectives of the study of common resident birds were:
to prepare a list of the common species found on each of the plots, to
determine population densities and sex and age composition when possible,
and to assess the general health and vigor of key populations. Work
included both field observations and a search of published and unpublished
material useful in preparation of a written summary of the findings.
Extensive field observation of small mammals was accompanied by a
cursory literature search. Aside from elaborating which small mammal
species were present on the study plots, determination of population
densities and sex and age composition were primary goals of this research.
Description of any pathology, assessment of the general health and vigor
of the populations, and comparison of the results from the six different
areas were also stated objectives.
Field observations of the larger mammals were more restricted.
Primary objectives for this portion also revolved around making a list
of species likely to be resident in the mixed conifer zone of the San
Bernardino mountains. Suitability of the various larger mammal species
as potential indicators of oxidant air pollution damage was also examined.
Cursory field observations and literature search regarding the reptile
and amphibian populations were also undertaken after arrival on the site.
The last fundamental objective for this section of the Task C phase
of the protocol study was to provide sufficient recommendations to
-------
VII-5
direct the course of future work. Promising courses of investigation
and pressing needs for study are noted. Future studies should build
upon the data collected in the performance of this task. This summary
is based upon data collected by Kolb during a period of approximately
one month of field work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;
No study such as this is the product of a single person's endeavors.
As such, it is only fitting to acknowledge those without whom this
study would not have reached fruition. Special thanks go to Mary Kay
Kolb, who spent matching time with James in the field recording and
making observations and generally serving sundry needs for which she
proved invaluable. Acknowledgement must also go to Eugene A. Cardiff
for much valuable help, especially on the bird censusing^ O. Clifton
Taylor, Associate Director, Statewide Air Pollution Research Center;
Jerome T. Light, Jr., Wildlife Biologist with the San Bernardino National
Forest; Paul Miller, of the University of California, Riverside and the
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station; and the staffs
of the Forest Supervisor's Office in San Bernardino, the Arrowhead Ranger
District Office at Rim Forest, and the San Gorgonio Ranger District
Office at Mill Creek, and to the members of the other Committees making
up this study group.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS
All six study plots were located in the San Bernardino Mountain area
of the San Bernardino National Forest. The plots at Rim Forest (Dogwood)
-------
VII-6
Snow Valley, and Sand Canyon were located on roads originating at State
Highway 18. The plots at Heart Bar, Barton Flats (Boy Scout Camp), and
Camp Angelus were all off of State Highway 38.
The study plot at Rim Forest was located in Section 21, near the
border of Section 28, T.2N, R.3W, Redlands Quadrangle. It was about
2 miles by road ENE of Rim Forest Ranger Station.
The Snow Valley study plot was located in Section 25, T.2N, R.2W,
Redlands Quadrangle, about 5^ miles NE of Deer Lick Station.
The Sand Canyon plot was about 4% miles SE of the Moonridge
turnoff of State Highway 18 in Section 36, T.2N, R.1E, Lucerne Valley
Quadrangle.
The Heart Bar study plot was located in Section 26, T.1N., R.2E.,
San Gorgonio Mountain Quadrangle, approximately 1% miles SE of Heart
Bar State Park Campground.
The Barton Flats study plot was about 5 miles NE of the town of
Camp Angelus, California, in Section 17, T.1N., R.1W., San Gorgonio
Quadrangle.
The Camp Angelus study plot was located in Section 27, R.1N., R,1W,,
San Gorgonio Quadrangle about % mile south of Camp Angelus Station.
Vegetation
All six study plots were located in the mixed conifer type typical
of the San Bernardino mountains. The tree and shrub species found on each
of the six plots, along with the approximate extent of crown coverage
found in the vicinity of the Calhoun lines, are shown on maps, 1-6,
-------
VII-7
filed with the raw data from this summary. Percent crown cover (including
area covered by the shrub layer) was sampled from 10 - 20 percent of map area by
using a plastic dot grid randomly thrown on the map. The approximate
crown cover and species mix so determined are given in Tables I and II.
BIRDS
The purpose of this phase of study was to prepare a species list of
the birds found on the six study plots, and to estimate relative popula-
tion densities.
Procedures
We used a bird census procedure modified from that outlined by Emlen
(1971). One transect per plot was placed in such a manner that it
incorporated the area sampled for small mammals. The bird transect
routes bisected the study plots mostly along straight lines, although
existing trails were used when convenient. The transect routes were
flagged with red surveyor's tape to facilitate location. The length of
the transects varied slightly (Table II). The width of the transect is
a function of the detectability of the particular species in question,
and so varies slightly with species. Maximum width was about 300 feet.
Each of the six transects was walked three times by Kolb. The
transects were also walked twice each by Eugene A. Cardiff, Curator of
birds and mammals at the San Bernardino County Museum. Species, lateral
distance from the transect to first sighting of bird, and vegetation type
were recorded for each bird that could be identified.
-------
VII-8
The observer walked slowly with frequent short pauses, taking about
one hour per transect. Birds which could not be identified were not
counted. An attempt was made to avoid counting an identified bird more
than once. Following Emlen's guide, squeaking and pishing sounds were
used to lure hidden birds into view. The transects were walked at three
times beginning (a) from sunrise to 8:30 am EOT (b) in midmorning,
finishing by noon; and (c) in the evening beginning at 5:00 pm and
finishing by 8:00 pm. A brief summary of dates and weather follows
(Table III).
All means of natural detection, visual and auditory, were used and
the type of detection recorded with each observation. The location of
unseen singing birds was approximated as well as possible after careful
scanning.
Since our bird transect sampled essentially a single point in time,
the results are not representative of the areas at all times of the year.
The best way to remedy this situation is, of course, to sample on a regular
basis throughout the course of the year. Since such extensive sampling
was not feasible for this phase of the study, literature which might prove
helpful in piecing together the annual picture was sought. In addition
to published accounts, interviews and suggestions were solicited from
knowledgeable people in the area.
Results and Discussion
Good estimates of absolute population density as distinct from indices
of relative abundance have been virtually unavailable for nonflocking land
birds except in the breeding season when singing males, representing mated
-------
VII-9
pairs, restrict themselves to more or less fixed territories where they
or their nests can be counted (Emlin 1971). Since this phase of the
study was conducted at a time during the year which found very few, if
any, birds nesting, conventional methods involving nest counts, mated
pairs, etc. were impossible. There was not sufficient time to use mark
and recapture techniques.
While the data was gathered in accordance with the requirements of
this method, the data will not be strictly analyzed in terms of determining
coefficients of detectability because of the small numbers of individuals
recorded for many species. The data so collected also lends itself to
determination of relative abundance indices for the various species.
While relative abundances will be indicated, the accumulated data which
will eventually permit the determination of coefficients of detectability
are on file for future reference.
These field observations and a literature review yielded information
which allows the creation of a tentative checklist of the 86 birds which
/
may be expected to be found in the coniferous forests of the San Bernardino
Mountains in which our six study plots were located (Table V).
The results of 30 bird censuses are summarized in Table VI. In all,
some 57 species were observed. Of these 57, 8 species were observed on
all 6 study plots; 2 species were observed on 5 of the 6 study plots;
10 species were observed on 4 study plots; 8 species were observed on 3
of the study plots; another 12 species were observed on only 2 of the study
plots; and 18 species were only observed on a single study plot. The study
plots were paired so that there would be two similar plots in each of three
intensities of oxidant air pollution heavy, moderate, and light. The number
-------
VII-10
of species common between the members of each pair is important. This
figure may be taken as a crude measure of the similarity of the two plots.
Theoretically, the more similar the plots, the greater the number of
shared species. The Rim Forest plot and the Camp Angelus plots, represent-
ing heavy smog levels, had 19 species (49%) in common out of a total of
39 species found in either or both plots. The Snow Valley plot and the
Barton Flats plot representing moderate smog levels had 17 species (45%)
in common out of 38 total species. The Sand Canyon plot and the Heart
Bar plot representing areas of light oxidant air pollution, were found to
have 15 species in common out of 34 total species. There were no significant
differences in the number of species observed between plots of the same
t
intensity of oxidant air pollution exposure (X^.2
Task C for the avifauna of the coniferous forest study plots has primarily
been directed at inventory, with the purpose of providing baseline data
for future studies as well as revealing the possible presence of gross
differences between the study plots.
The effects of oxidant air pollution may either be primary (direct) or
secondary (indirect). Primary effects result from exposure of both vege-
tation and vertebrates to ambient air. Secondary effects result from
exposure of both vegetation and vertebrates to ambient air involving a
breakdown in the food chain of a species. The determination of primary
effects of oxidant air pollution were beyond the scope of this phase but
must be considered for any future studies. Increases in eye irritation
and/or infection which could decrease visual acuity could have serious
effects on flycatchers, hawks and other groups which rely heavily on
-------
VII-11
excellent vision to obtain food. Alterations in metabolic functions
and changes in metabolic rates also might occur.
It has been long recognized that a change in one species or a group
of species can exert a change in another group or species. In talking
about secondary effects we are dealing with the interactions between
the various members, both plants and animal, that form the coniferous
forest communities we are studying. The myriad of interactions is not
well understood, but enough is known to make reasonable predictions and
assumptions about what changes have or may occur as a result of oxidant
air pollution. Feriancoua-Masaroua and Kalivodoua (1965) studied bird
population composition for three years in areas affected by flourine
concentrations in the air. The authors found severe damage to conifers
and various deciduous species caused a change in the areas which affected
the nesting habits of local birds. The number of nesting species was
found to be lowest in the zone with maximal damage. Also, a shift of
nesting species away from the source of pollution was in progress. It is
interesting to note that the number of transient bird species did not
appear to correlate with damage. If one considers the breeding season as
particularly stressful, it can be hypothesized that the added stress of a
disturbed environment was sufficiently great to prohibit successful
breeding in the affected areas. Similar changes may be occurring on the
San Bernardino National Forest.
Data on hand show that at least 8 species of birds were found on all
plots. These eight species could serve as key species to be used in
-------
VII-12
studies designed to show the effects of different levels of oxidant air
pollution on birds. The eight species are: mountain chickadee , violet-
green swallow, western wood pewee, Steller's jay, Oregon junco, band-
tailed pigeon, western blue bird, and the white-breasted nuthatch. Three
of these eight species have diets almost strictly limited to insects:
the western wood pewee, the violet green swallow, and the western blue-bird.
The Steller's jay is more omnivorous, insects comprise from 10 to 45 percent of
the diet, acorns to 50 percent, and various other items including elderberry
composing the remainder. The diet of the Oregon junco typically is seeds
weevils, ants, and other insects. The mountain chickadee and the white-
breasted nuthatch feed on both insects and tree seeds. The band-tailed
pigeon, on the other hand, subsists largely on acorns, hollyleaf cherry,
dogwood, and other fruits. There are advantages in studying both special-
ized and generalized feeders. The specialized feeder would be particularly
sensitive to changes in food supply, and changes in the population
characteristics of specialized feeders could reflect changes in the food
supply (e.g., pine nuts). On the other hand, generalist feeders may be
viewed as ecosystem integrators, tieing strands of the food web together.
Changes in population numbers of generalist feeders may, therefore,
reflect rather large scale aberrations in ecosystem functioning. The
ideal situation, then, is to monitor several species simultaneously.
SMALL MAMMALS
The purpose of this phase of the study was to determine the common
small mammal species present on the six study areas. Accompanying the
-------
VII-13
inventory were procedures designed to estimate the relative densities
of these populations, and to look for gross indications of disease or
abnormalities that might be related to oxidant air pollution.
The field and lab work was accompanied by a brief literature search.
Permanent markers were established for future studies of the small
mammal populations.
Procedures
Most of the small mammal data were collected via the use of museum
special snap traps set out in standard "Calhoun Line" procedure (Calhoun
1959). Calhoun Type B lines were employed, consisting of 20 trapping
stations, each station 50 feet from the rest in a straight line. Three
museum special traps used at each station.
Two Calhoun lines were established on each of the six study plots.
The lines were laid out approximately parallel to each other and about
50 feet on each side from the centerline established for the plant
pathology work. Traps, baited with peanut butter, were placed within
3 feet of a stake.
Following standard procedures the traps were checked for captures
morning and evening for a total of three days. Morning runs were begun
by 7:00 am and finished before noon, while afternoon runs were begun
no earlier than 4:00 pm and were finished by 8:30 pm. The dates the
trapping occurred and the numbering system employed are given in Table
VII. Table VII also shows the method of naming lines and the locations
of the numbered lines. Animals were removed and placed in plastic bags
along with labels denoting date and location of capture as well as time
-------
VII-14
of day. The specimens were promptly frozen in the field using dry ice
and were later transported to the University of California's Field
Station at Sagehen Creek for dissection.
In the lab, specimens were weighed to the tenth gram and standard
measurements (total length, tail length, hind foot length, and ear length)
were taken. The external anatomy of the specimen was surveyed while
looking for ecto-parasites. Ecto-parasites were saved and any unusual
coloration or marking was noted. During dissection the body cavity was
scrutinized for endoparasites and/or any gross irregularities. Liver
and kidneys were examined for cysts, scar tissue, or any other peculiar-
ities. The amount and location of fat deposits were noted. The lungs
were cursorily examined for abnormalities. The reproductive tracts,
stomachs, and lower jaws were dissected out and retained. All of the
items retained were fixed in 10 percent formalin and preserved in 70 percent ethanol
for possible future investigation. The carcasses were re-frozen and are
being retained for possible future histological work.
The weather on the various trapping dates is given below:
7/19 cool and breezy am, warming pm
7/20 cool, clear, slight breeze (some fog at Rim Forest),
warming pm
7/21 warm, clear, slight breeze
7/22 warm, clear
7/26 warm am, cooling with some breeze pm.
7/27 warm, clear am, breeze pm.
7/28 clear, hot am., sultry, smoggy, warm pm with some clouds.
-------
VII-15
Results and Discussion
Small mammal censusing via Calhoun lines offers several advantages
over large mammal studies. Small mammal censuses are less time consuming,
less expensive, and can be performed with fewer people. Since smaller
animals typically require a smaller area for sustenance, a given area will
normally support more small mammals than large mammals. Small mammal study,
then usually allows much larger sample sizes for a given amount of field
work. Another important factor to consider in working with small mammal
populations is the normally short life span of small mammals. Many species
of small mammals live less than three years on the average. A short life
span has both advantages and disadvantages when studying the effects of
oxidant air pollution on an animal population. A short life span means
a high turnover rate within the populations. If oxidant air pollution
changes the reproductive capacity (or the viability) one, for example,
would expect to see changes in population structure. These changes would
be more rapidly revealed in a population with a high turnover rate. So,
one might expect to see changes in population structure, no matter what
the immediate cause, more rapidly in a species population with a short
life span and a high turnover rate than in a more long-lived population
with a slower turnover rate. A possible disadvantage to working with a
population with a high turnover rate might come from the fact a given
individual is not exposed to oxident air pollution for a very long period
and therefore, may not show primary effects of air pollution.
A cursory review of the literature provided a list of the small
mammal species that would likely be found on the six mixed conifer plots
studied (Table VIII).
-------
VII-16
The results of the Calhoun line trapping are seen in Tables IX and X,
which summarize all data from the 12 Calhoun lines (two lines per plot).
In all, 83 specimens were obtained representing 10 species.
Table X also gives the sex ratios for each species. For species with
2
a sample size larger than five, X tests were performed to determine if
deviations from an expected sex ratio of 100 males/100 females were
significant. The results follow:
Species
Significant Confidence
difference? level
d.f.
Peromyscus maniculatus
Micro tus californicus
Eutamias merriami
Peromyscus boylii
yes
iw
yes
no
no
957,
95%
Neotoma fuscipes
no
957,
95%
-
-
-
nly in
25
52
2.56
.64
.20
1
1
1
1
1
Peromyscus maniculatus
and in Microtus californicus.
Uneven sex ratios are not uncommon. They are a result of differential
mortality (ie. one sex is more vulnerable to some than the other). It is
possible that one sex is more strongly affected by oxidant air pollution.
Studies designed to further elucidate the differences in the sex ratio as
well as to compare these ratios to ratios from areas not affected by oxidant
air pollution and to find possible causes for the observed differences should
be considered for the future.
-------
VII-17
The number of individuals caught on each trap line and also on each of
the six plots is given in Table IX. For statistical comparison the numbers
per plot were compared. The two lines of a given plot were only 100 feet
apart, but the plots were separated by a substantial number of miles.
There was no significant difference between the number of individuals
caught on plots A and F, the heavy oxidant air pollution damage plots
2
(X = 1.8, 1 d.f.). The two plots chosen to represent light oxidant air
pollution damage (C & D) also showed no significant difference in total
catch between them. The number of species trapped on the two moderate
oxidant air pollution plots was, on the other hand, significantly differ-
2
ent (X = 17.8, 1 d.f.). In other words, while the two light plots were
similar to each other and the two heavy plots were similar to each other,
the two moderate plots were not similar as far as the number of individuals
trapped is concerned. Armed with this information a few more simple
statistical tests can be made.
Since there is no statistical difference between A and F and between
C and D, the average of A and F and of C and D are used in the following
tests. Using said averages it was found that there were significantly
fewer individuals captured on the plots with high oxidant air pollution
levels. Presumably there were more animals available to be caught on the
light oxidant level plots than on the heavy plots. These differences may
be related to air pollution levels, through direct effects on the animals,
or indirectly through effects on the vegetation. There is a variety of
other possible causes, unrelated to air pollution levels. The reasons for
these differences in small mammal population numbers is a high priority
study topic.
-------
VII-18
Since there was a significant difference in the number of individual
animals trapped on the two moderate oxidant air pollution plots, it was
not valid to combine the two numbers and treat that number as represent-
ative of the number of animals on the moderate plot. In view of the
difference, B and E were separately tested against the average obtained
for the light plots and then against the average obtained for the heavy
2
oxidant air pollution plots. The X tests performed indicated that the
number of individuals captured on plot B (Snow Valley) was significantly
greater than the average number of individuals trapped on the heavy oxidant
2
air pollution plots (X = 25.2, 1 d.f.). There was no significant differ-
ence between the number of specimens captured on plot E (Barton Flats)
and the average number of individuals trapped on the heavy oxidant air
pollution plots (X2 = 1.38, 1 d.f.). The results were slightly different
when one considers the light oxidant air pollution plots. The number
of individuals trapped on plot B (Snow Valley) was significantly greater,
but only at the 90 percent level than the average number of individuals caught
2
on the light plots (X = 2.76, 1 d.f.). It was also found, that the
number of species caught on plot E (Barton Flats) was significantly
(957» level) less than the average number of individuals caught on the
light plots (X2 = 7.54, 1 d.f.).
Snow Valley plot and Barton Flats plot are both meant to represent
similar areas of moderate oxidant air pollution damage yet on one we see
significantly more individuals captured than on the light oxidant air
pollution plot, and on the other significantly fewer individuals trapped
-------
VII-19
than on those same light oxidant air pollution damage areas. Probably
the sample sizes are too small to make meaningful statements about
differences and/or similarities between plots. This criticism is easily
remedied by continued sampling of the study areas in question.
The number of species caught per plot was low, ranging from 1-6,
(Table IX) but showed an interesting trend. The smallest number of species
was observed on the plots with the heaviest oxidant air pollution damage
while the largest number of species was observed on the plots least affected
by oxidant air pollution. At this stage one cannot be certain as to the
reasons for these apparent differences but there is the possibility that
oxidant air pollution resulting in primary and secondary damage are con-
tributing factors.
While we were not equipped, with either material or time, to do a
thorough investigation of the possible primary effects of oxidant air
pollution on individual animals, we did look for any apparent anomalies
including growths, ecto and endo-parasites, and obvious gross deformities
which were observed during the course of the dissections performed on
each individual captured. No important anomalies or diseases were evident.
While there has been little work done using wild populations of small
mammals as test animals, some work has been performed on laboratory
animals which might point the way for future studies and might help histo-
pathologist focus on certain susceptible organs. Gardner et al (1969)
suggested that the ambient Los Angeles atmosphere may promote the develop-
ment of chronic nephritis, a renal degenerative disease, in laboratory rats.
-------
VII-20
Gardner et al (1970) also reported findings that suggest that prolonged
exposure to ambient Los Angeles air is associated, at least in several
strains of laboratory mice, with an increased susceptibility to pulmonary
infection but not necessarily to increased pulmonary neoplasia. Purvis
et al.(1969) found that exposure of mice to ozone reduced their resistance
to infection and effectively increased mortality in previously infected
mice. Mudd et al.(1969) found that ozone oxidized several amino acids
and may contribute to changes in the permeability of the cellular membrane.
While it is always dangerous to extrapolate across species lines from
findings such as those above, the above experiments may help to suggest
possible future experiments. The use of controlled environment chambers
can be considered. Combining both plants and animals in the same chambers
may be both feasible and economical. Autopsy of animals subjected to
filtered and ambient air in controlled environment chambers should be
coupled with autopsy findings from animals periodically trapped in the
wild to yield the most useful data.
While differences in the small mammal populations on the six study
areas appear to be significant, the mechanisms responsible for these
differences and the absolute magnitude of these differences needs much
further investigation. Hopefully considerable input on other aspects of
the forest system will become available as a result of the other aspects
of this multidisciplinary study. Data on the characteristics and changes
in the vegetation, invertebrate populations, microclimate, and other aspects
of the forest ecosystem should go a long way toward delineating the mechanisms
of change responsible for the observed differences.
-------
VII-21
LARGER MAMMALS
The purpose of this portion of the study was to determine the
species of larger mammals which were present, or would likely be present,
on the six study plots. In this context, "larger mammal" refers to deer,
coyotes, etc. but also includes the two tree squirrels found in the area.
Evaluation of the present status of these species, relative abundance in
the mixed conifer type and the suitability of these species, as indicators
of changes in the forest ecosystem due to oxidant air pollution were also
considered as goals of this section.
Procedures
Time did not permit much observation of the larger mammals. Records
were kept as the opportunity arose during the course of other activities.
Larger mammal censusing poses special logistic problems because of the
typically extensive range of larger mammals and the correspondingly low
population density. Exceptions to the statement regarding low density may
be the relatively abundant western gray squirrel and the northern flying
squirrel. This section, then, is largely based on literature review
coupled with a small number of actual field observations.
Results and D iscus s ion
The number of individuals and the number of larger mammal species in
the area is relatively low. Table XI is a list of the principal mammals
found in the area which were too large to be captured in the snap traps
used for small mammal censusing.
While much is known about some of these species in other areas, scant
work has been performed on these species as they occur in the mixed
conifer type of the San Bernardino mountains.
-------
VII-22
Black bear
In 1933 bLack bear, captured in Yosemite, were released in the San
Bernardino National Forest by the California Department of Fish and Game.
Six black bears were released near Big Bear Lake, and ten were released
in the Santa Ana Canyon region. Since 1933, the bear has wandered
extensively, while settling in the general areas of release, and now ranges
throughout much of the San Bernardino National Forest. The black bear
population in the area has increased and prior to 1970, from 3 to 8 bear were
harvested from the Forest annually (Light and Graham 1968).
Areas frequented bythe black bear encompass several of the six oxidant
air pollution study areas including: Rim Forest, Heart Bar, and Barton
Flats plots. Numbers of bears on these areas, and indeed, on the whole
forest, are not high. Light (personal communication dated July 7, 1972)
notes that about 15 bears were recorded for the Barton Flats area while
the Rim Forest area recorded approximately 5-10 bears. The rather
localized distribution of bears coupled with their low population numbers
would make them poor candidates for an oxidant air pollution damage
indicator species.
Long-tailed weasel
Little work has been done on the long-tailed weasel. TMs species is
common in the mixed coniferous ecosystems of the San Bernardino National
Forest. The long-tailed weasel is not frequently seen though they are often
active by day. The normal home range is from 30 to 40 acres (Burt &
Grossenheider 1964) in and adjacent to grass land plant communities, a
sizeable area for a mammal a foot long. Populations may reach 15 to 20 per
square mile.
-------
VII-23
Badger
Badgers are relatively rare in the coniferous regions of the San
Bernardino mountains. Mostly nocturnal, the badger is often abroad during
the day, especially in the early mornings and late afternoons (Burt and
Grossenheider 1964; Ingles 1965). On a national scale, badgers are
rapidly decreasing in number because of conflicts with man.
Coyote
Coyotes are present In most of the vegetation types found in the San
Bernardino National Forest. While they are most common in open woodlands,
they are occasionally seen in the coniferous forest. This summer we
observed 4 coyotes; one on the dirt road leading to the Sand Canyon plot
and another one-half mile west of the Snow Valley plot, and two were seen in
the vicinity of the Heart Bar plot.
Coyotes utilize large areas for food gathering, a normal hunting route
being up to 10 miles long. The coyote is a highly adaptive animal, with a
diet ranging from manzanita berries to rodents or larger susceptible mammals.
The fact that coyotes frequently utilize many different vegetation types limits
their usefulness as indicators of change over a wider variety of vegetation
types must not be overlooked. The high adaptability of the coyote may also
limit its use as an indicator since coyotes have been able to maintain their
numbers elsewhere in spite of rather drastic changes in their native habitat.
Bobcat
The bobcat is a rare inhabitant of the coniferous forest ecosystem of
the San Bernardino National Forest. While the bobcat may wander 25 to 50
miles, it usually frequents an area with a radius of about 2 miles. Bobcats
are usually nocturnal and solitary. When analyzing the bobcat's suitability
-------
VII-24
as an indicator species, the same caveats (biotic laws) regarding range
size must be considered for the bobcat as for the coyote mentioned above.
Mountain lion
The rarely seen mountain lion ranges throughout the San Bernardino
National Forest. Chiefly nocturnal, lions may be abroad during the day.
Except when the cubs are small, the mountain lion roams widely and may
move 75 to 100 miles from its place of birth. The large range, the small
numbers and the difficulty of observation make the mountain lion a rather
poor candidate for an animal to monitor changes in the forest ecosystem.
The number and/or frequency of occurrence of lions on the six study plots
is not known by the authors although a mountain lion was reportedly seen
near the plot at Heart Bar in early July, 1972.
Western gray squirrel
The western gray squirrel is abundant throughout the mixed coniferous
forest areas of the San Bernardino mountains. This species is arboreal but
is often seen on the ground. The home range is typically from one-half to
two acres. Populations vary from 2 squirrels per acre to 1 squirrel for ten
acres. Western gray squirrels feed mostly on acorns and conifer seeds.
Western gray squirrels were abundant on all of the six study plots,
although no measurements were made of population densities. Because
of its rather heavy dependence upon food from the principal trees,
sometimes resulting in tree depredation, of the mixed conifer type,
the western gray squirrel would be a good candidate for more intensive
study. The size of the home range, the relative abundance of this species
and the ease of observation, are also favorable factors that would
-------
VII-25
facilitate future studies. Gray squirrels have received attention in
other areas because of their classification as a game animal.
Northern flying squirrel
Little is known about the nocturnal northern flying squirrel. The
estimated home range is about 4 acres. Population levels of 1 to 2 per
acre in the summer are not uncommon in other areas. While no northern
flying squirrels were observed, probably due to their nocturnal habits,
there have been sight records from Camp Angelus. The numbers and presence
of northern flying squirrels on the six plots today are unknown. The
northern flying squirrel, like the western gray squirrel, does not hibernate
and so is active and available for study, weather permitting, year around.
The northern flying squirrel is somewhat more omnivorous than the western
gray squirrel.
Mule deer
As the most important big game animal of the Pacific States, the mule
deer has received considerable attention and study. Mule deer usually occur
singly or in small groups, although they are considerably more gregarious
in winter. The home range typically includes from 90 to 600 acres or more.
Longhurst et al. (1952) note that the carrying capacities of most
southern California deer ranges are low, largely due to the relatively low
density of desirable forage plants. The authors also note that most of the
deer in the region do not exhibit migratory habits but on occasion there may
be elevational drift primarily due to inclimate weather conditions, a factor
that should be appreciated when considering this species for future study.
A considerable amount of time and effort has been devoted to surveying
the deer herds of the San Bernardino Mountains by both the United States
-------
VII-26
Forest Service and the California Department of Fish and Game. Some of
these studies covered the area incorporated by one or more of the six
oxidant air pollution damage plots. Anyone contemplating future work on
the deer found on these plots is referred to Light (1965) and the 2620
Deer Herd Inspection files for Bacon Flats and Converse located at the
Arrowhead District Ranger Office at Rim Forest and the San Gorgonio
District Ranger Office at Mill Creek, respectively. The inspection areas
at Bacon Flats and Converse are within the study plots.
The only deer we observed on the plots was a single doe at Heart Bar.
The low population numbers and large ranges pose difficulties in studying
this species. The fact that deer tend to follow definite trails aids in
observation. Their primary forage plants in the area of the study plots
are Ceanothus cordulatus, Cercocarpus ledifolius, and acorns of Quercus
species. The mule deer is a questionable target species for detailed
study as an indicator of changes due to oxidant air pollution.
Not much is known about larger mammal populations, on the study areas.
Most of these animals are only rarely found in the mixed conifer ecosystem
of the San Bernardino mountains. From ease of study and suitability, the
western gray squirrel seems to be the candiate from this group for further
s tudy.
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
The purpose of this portion of the study was to determine the species
of reptiles and amphibians which were present, or would likely be present, on
the six study plots. Evaluation of the present status of these species,
and their relative abundance, were also goals.
Procedures
Time did not permit much observation of reptiles and amphibians. We did
make one transect on each study plot to count the number of lizards observed
-------
VII-27
in a given distance. Mary Kay Kolb walked a total of two thousand feet
on each plot by traversing the two Calhoun lines we had previously staked.
Lizards could be observed for a distance of aboutten feet on either side
of the line walked. Each lizard seen was recorded and the number of the
Calhoun line stake nearest the siting was recorded. Species identifica-
tion was not always possible, but most were sagebrush lizards. The dates
of observation, times and weather are seen in Table XII. The numbers
obtained from the walks are a rough index of the suitability of the study
plots for lizard habitat. The field work was accompanied by a cursory
literature search.
Results and Discussion
The coniferous forest zone of the San Bernardino mountains supports
several reptile and amphibian species. A preliminary list of the species,
including relative abundance when known, is found in Table XIII,
Time did not permit detailed study of any of the above species. No
literature was discovered pertaining to the affects of oxidant air pollution
on reptiles and/or amphibians. None of the reptiles and amphibians listed
above are primary consumers. Changes in the organisms they require for
food would be expected to cause changes in the relative abundance of the
herpetofauna. Primary affects of oxidant air pollution on reptiles and
amphibians are unknown.
The Calhoun line trapping mentioned above netted 11 Sagebrush lizards
and 2 Southern alligator lizards. One Sagebrush lizard was captured on
line A (Rim Forest), B (Snow Valley) and C (Sand Canyon) and 8 Sagebrush
lizards were captured on line F (Camp Angelus). One Southern alligator
lizard was captured on line F (Camp Angelus) and one was captured on line
-------
VII-28
E (Barton Flats). Sagebrush lizards were abundant on the Camp Angelus
study plot which was representative of heavy oxidant air pollution damage.
Chi square tests were performed to see if any of the differences noted
were significant. The number of lizards observed at Camp Angelus was found
to be significantly greater than the number observed on any other plot
2
(X = 14.8 to 38, 1 d.f.)- The number observed at Snow Valley was signi-
2
ficantly higher than the numbers observed at Sand Canyon (X =4.6, 1 d.f.)
and at Heart Bar (X2 = 11, 1 d.f.). The number observed at Barton Flats
2
was significantly greater than the number observed at Heart Bar (X = 7,
1 d.f.). All other differences appear to be nonsignificant.
The precise reasons for the much greater number of lizards at Camp
Angelus are unknown. These lizards are relatively plentiful and might
well serve as indicators of forest ecosystem change due to oxidant air
pollution. Both the causes for the differences in numbers and the
suitability of these species as indicators await further study.
Future studies should be directed at determining precisely which
amphibian and reptile species are present on the study plots; the relative
numbers of these species; the affects of various levels and durations of
oxidant air pollution on these species (both primary and secondary affects);
and, the suitability of these species as indicators of forest ecosystem
change, especially change due to changing levels of oxidant air pollution.
The Sagebrush lizard probably would be the best choice for detailed study.
-------
VII-29
LITERATURE CITED
Burt, W. H., and R. P. Grossenheider. 1964. A field guide to the mammals.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 284 pp.
Calhoun, J B. 1959. Revised sampling procedure for the North American
Census of Small Mammals (NACSM). Population Dynamics of Vertebrates
release No. 10. Administrative publication, U. S. Dept. H. E. W.,
Bethesda, Maryland. 12 pp. and appendix.
Emlen, J. T. 1971. Population densities of birds derived from transect
counts. Auk 88(2):323-341.
Feriancoua-Masaroua, Z., and Eva Kalivodoua. 1965. The effect of
exhalations from the aluminum plant in Ziar N/Hronom on the spectrum
of bird species in the vicinity of the plant. Biologia (Bratislava),
20(2):109-121. In Air Pollution Abstracts, APTIC No. 32672.
Gardner, M. B., Loosli, C. G., and B. Hanes. 1969. Histopathologic
findings in rats exposed to ambient and filtered air. Arch, of
Environ. Health 19:637-647.
Gardner, M. B., Loosli, C. G., Hanes, B., and W. Blackmore. 1970. Pulmonary
changes in 7000 mice following prolonged exposure to ambient and filtered
Los Angeles air. Arch, of Environ. Health 20:310-317.
Ingles, L. G. 1965. Mammals of the Pacific states California, Oregon,
Washington. Stanford University Press, 506 pp.
Light, J. T. 1965. Habitat management plan. San Bernardino Deer herd
unit. U. S. Forest Service, San Bernardino N. F., mimeo, 37 pp. and
r
appendix.
-------
VII-30
Light, J T., and H. Graham. 1968. Habitat management plan, forest
wildlife. San Bernardino National Forest, mimeo, 37 pp. and appendix.
Longhurst, W. M., A. S. Leopold, and R F. Dasmann. 1952. A survey
of California deer herds, their ranges and management problems.
CDF&G, Game Bull. No. 6. 136 pp.
Mudd, J. B., R, Leavitt, A., Ongun, and T. T. McManus. 1969. Reaction of
ozone with amino acids and proteins. Atmospheric Environment 3:669-682,
Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamental of ecology. W. B. Saunders Co. 574 pp.
Peterson, R. T. 1961. A field guide to western birds. Houghton Mifflin
Co. 366 pp.
Purvis, M. , S. Miller, and R. Ehrlich. 1960. Effects of atmospheric
pollutants on resistance to respiratory infections. Amour Res. Found.
Chicago, 111. 31 pp.
Stebbins, R. C. 1966. A field guide to western reptiles and amphibians.
Houghton Mifflin Co. 279 pp.
-------
VII-31
Proposed Investigation
Preliminary research proposal
Impact of oxidant air pollutants on terrestrial vertebrates in the
mixed conifer forest.
Principal Investigator: Marshall White.
School of Forestry and Conservation, and Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology, University of California,Berkeley.
Filed concurrently with this proposal is a summary of the terrestrial
vertebrate survey (Task C). One of the major purposes of Task C was to
establish the course of future studies. While the Task C studies were cursory,
we do have at hand an impression of the character of the terrestrial
vertebrate fauna, and a list of key species that merits study in depth.
Objectives
Studies with the following objectives are in order.
1) Describe in detail the terrestrial vertebrate fauna
2) Describe in detail the ecology, population dynamics and food habits
of a few key species, and then relationships and impact on Ponderosa
and Jeffrey pine.
3) Describe the direct (physical and physiological) effects of oxidant
air pollutants on individuals.
4) Compare the findings from (1-2-3) above with information from similar
habitats, including areas with no oxidant air pollution problems.
5) Characterize the effects of various levels of oxidant air pollutants
on this fauna, on the individual key populations, and on individuals.
6) Compare the vertebrate fauna of today with that recorded in 1908 by
Joseph Grinnell (Grinnell, J. 1908. The biota of the San Bernardino
-------
VII-32
Mountains. U. C. Publs. in Zoology 5(1):1-170.) This provides an
unique opportunity to assess changes to a forest covered by man over
a 60-year period.
Termof Study: 3 to 5 years
Procedures
A study of 3 - 5 year duration is proposed. The studies would
proceed along these basic lines of endeavor.
1) CHARACTERIZATION OF THE TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE FAUNA
The goal is to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the
group of terrestrial vertebrates utilizing the various habitats and
different levels of oxidant air pollution within the mixed conifer area
and their relationship to and impact upon Ponderosa and Jeffrey pine.
This includes analysis of occurrence, distribution; abundance, seasonal
and annual variation, habitat affinities, interrelationships. Comparisons
with control areas.
2) DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE ECOLOGY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS OF KEY,
INDICATOR SPECIES.
The goal is to gather detailed population data on a few species that
are important in the whole system, using these populations as indicators
and measurers of the effects of oxidant air pollution on terrestrial
vertebrates in the mixed conifer system. Reproductive performances and
food habits measures and comparisons will be emphasized.
Topics to be included:
Population density, sex ratios, age ratios, productivity, survival,
food habits, habitat requirements, effects of habitat alterations,
animal interrelationships, plant-animal interrelationships.
-------
VII-33
Species to be included:
Species tentatively selected for detailed study are as follows:
Birds
mountain chickadee white-breasted nuthatch
Steller jay Oregon junco
Gassin finch
Mammals
brush mouse Merriam chipmunk
deer mouse western gray squirrel
3) CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DIRECT (PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL) EFFECTS
OF OXIDANT AIR POLLUTANT ON TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES
The goal is to compare the health and vigor of individuals exposed
to various levels of oxidant air pollutants with that of individuals
from control areas.
to include comparisons of:
size and weight, condition, growth rates, external tissue
pathology, internal tissue pathology, disease and parasite loads.
Techniques
A variety of techniques will be used, such as field counts and
observations, livetrapping, kill-trapping, mist netting, collecting by
shooting, to obtain information in the field. Laboratory procedures would
include standard preparation, preservation, and necropsy procedures, and
experimentation with individuals in environmental chambers containing
various levels of oxidant air pollutants if facilities and resources are
available.
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VII-34
Table I. Estimated tree and shrub crown cover on the study plots.
Plot Percentage cover
Rim Forest (Dogwood) 64
Snow Valley 52
Sand Canyon 55
Heart Bar 47
Barton Flats (Boy Scout Camp) 42
Camp Angelus 49
Table II. Estimated abundance of the common woody plant species on the
study plots.
Per cent of total per
Species Plot
Jeffrey pine
Ponderosa pine
White fir
Black oak
Sugar pine
Incense cedar
Juniperus sp
Mt . Mahogany
Ceanothus sp
Salix sp
Arctostaphylos sp
Rabbit brush
Ribes sp
Chaparral flowering ash
Rim
Forest
46
23
18
11
I
1
Snow
Valley
38
5
15
15
25
Tr.
1
1
Sand
Canyon
41
22
5
22
2
6
1
1
study plot
Heart Barton
Bar Flats
43 25
60
8
15
15
14
Tr.
15
5
Camp
Angelus
55
13
16
Tr.
15
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VII-35
Table III. Bird census dates and weather conditions.
Plot Date Early am Date
Rim Forest 8/1 clear,warm 8/2
Snow Valley 8/2 cool,clear, 8/1
calm
Sand Canyon 8/5 cool,clear, 8/5
calm
Heart Bar 8/5 warm,, clear, 8/2
slight breeze
Mid-am
Date
Barton Flats 8/3
Camp Angelus 8/3
very cool, 8/4
clear
cool,clear,
slight breeze 8/4
clear,warming 8/1
slight breeze
clear,warm 8/2
moderately 8/2
warm,windy,
scattered clouds
clear,warm 8/2
warming,clear 8/4
warm,clear 8/4
slight breeze
Pm
clear,heavy
smog,moderate
breeze
clear,cooling
slight breeze
cooling,clear
some smog
smoggy but clear
slight breeze,
warm but cooling
warm, smoggy
windy,warm
very smoggy
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VII-36
Table IV. Bird census dates and times from Eugene Cardiff.
Date
8/8/72
8/8/72
8/8/72
8/10/72
8/10/72
8/10/72
8/23/72
8/23/72
8/23/72
8/24/72
8/24/72
8/24/72
Plot
Snow Valley
Sand Canyon
Heart Bar
Camp Angelus
Barton Flats
Rim Forest
Snow Valley
Sand Canyon
Rim Forest
Camp Angelus
Barton Flats
Heart Bar
Time
8:22 am
10:55 am
4 : 15 pm
8:30 am
10:07 am
4:08 pm
7:06 am
9:54 am
3:50 pm
8:07 am
9:30 am
11:10 am
Weather
clear, calm, cool
cool, partly cloudy
thunder and lightening
cool, partly cloudy,
just after rain showers
clear, calm, cool
clear, calm, warm
cool, partly cloudy,
just after rain showers
not recorded
rt
n
n
it
n
-------
VII-37
Table V. Tentative checklist of the common birds of the coniferous forests
of the San Bernardino Mountains* Listed in Phylogenetic Order
Species
Status
Principal foods
FALCONIFORMES
Accipitridae
Goshawk
(Accipiter gentilis)
Sharp-shinned hawk
(Accipiter striatus)
Coope r ' s hawk
(Accipiter cooperii)
Red-tailed hawk
(Buteo lamaicensis)
GALLIFOKMES
Phasianidae
Mountain quail
(Oreortyx pictus)
COLUMBIFORMES
Columbidae
Mourning dove
(Zenaidura macroura)
Band-tailed pigeon
(Columba fasciata)
STRIGIFORMES
Strigidae
Great horned owl
(Bubo virginianus)
Pygmy owl
(Glaucidium
Flammulated owl
(Otus flammeolus)
rare winter visitor
winter visitor
rarely resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
summer resident
upland mammals and
birds
small upland birds,
large insects
upland birds and
mammals
small upland mammals
insects (10%) seeds,
lupine, clover, etc.
seeds, turkey mullein,
fiddleneck
acorns, hollyleaf
cherry, dogwood,
other fruits and seeds
medium sized mammals
and birds
insects, small mammals
small rodents
-------
Table V (Cont'd)
VII-38
Species
Status
Principal foods
Purple martin
(Progne subis)
Corvidae
Steller's Jay
(Cyanocitta stelleri)
Clark's nutcracker
(Nucifraga columbiana)
Paridae
Mountain chickadee
(Parus gambeli)
Sittidae
White-breasted nuthatch
(Sitta carolinensis)
Red-breasted nuthatch
(Sitta canadensis)
Pygmy nuthatch
(Sitta pygmaea)
Certhiidae
Brown creeper
(Certhia familiaris)
Troglodytidae
Bewick wren
(Thryomanes bewickii)
House wren
(Troglodytes aedon)
Turdidae
Hermit thrush
(Hylocichla guttata)
Western bluebird
(Sialia mexicana)
summer resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
resident
summer resident
resident
winged insects
insects (10-45%)
acorns (50%)
elderberry
grasshoppers,
pine nuts (up to 75%)
insects, conifer seeds
beetles, acorns,
pine nuts
beetles, pine nuts
spittlebugs, ants
pine nuts
spiders, bark beetles,
etc., pine nuts
insects, limited amt.
of seeds
insects, limited amot
of seeds.
beetles, ants, etc.
grasshoppers, beetles
etc. (75-100%)
-------
Table V (Cont'd)
VII-39
Species
Status
Principal foods
Screech, owl resident
(Otus asio)
Saw-whet owl resident
(Aegolius acadieus)
Spotted owl resident
(Strix occidentalis)
Long-eared owl resident
(Asio otus)
CAPRIMULGIFORMES
Caprimulgidae
summer resident
Common nighthawk
(Chordeiles minor)
APODIFORMES
Apodidae
White-throated swift resident
(Aeronautes saxatalis)
Trochilidae
resident
summer resident
summer migrant
summer migrant
Anna's hummingbird
(Galypte anna)
Calliope hummingbird
(Stellula calliope)
Rufus hummingbird
(Selasphorus rufus)
Allen's hummingbird
(Selasphorus sasin)
PICIFORMES
Picidae
Red-shafted flicker resident
(Colaptes cafer)
Yellow-bellied sapsucker resident
(Sphyrapicus varius)
small rodents, insects
insects, small mammals
small rodents
reptiles and small
rodents
insects
insects
penstemon, tree
tobacco, manzanita,et>
penstemon, tree tobacco
manzanita
penstemon, tree tobacco
penstemon, tree tobacco
manzanita
ants, other insects
(45-1007=,), acorns
beetles, ants, insects
(30-857o) tree sap,
some fruit
-------
VII-40
Table V (Cont'd)
Species
Status
Principal foods
Williamson's sapsucker
(Sphyrapicus thyroideus)
Acorn woodpecker
(Melanerpes formicivorus)
Hairy woodpecker
(Dendrocopos villosus)
White-headed woodpecker
(Dendrocopos albolarvatus)
Lewis woodpecker
(Asyndesmus lewis)
PASSERIFORMES
Tyrannidae
Ash-throated flycatcher
(Myiarchus cinerascens)
Hammond flycatcher
(Empidonax hammondii)
Dusky flycatcher
(Empidonax oberholseri)
Western flycatcher
(Empidonax difficilis)
Olive-sided flycatcher
(Nutallornis borealis)
Western kingbird
(Tyrannus verticailis)
Western wood peewee
(Contopus sordidulus)
Traill's flycatcher
(Empidomax jraillii)
Hirundinidae
Violet-green swallow
(Tachycineta thalassina)
Tree swallow
(Iridoprocne bicolor)
resident
resident
resident
resident
winter visitor
summer resident
migrant
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
resident? winter
visitor
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
insects, cambium
and inner bark,
mostly pine
acorns, (40-90%),
insects
barkbeetle larvae,
ants, caterpillars,
adult beetles, etc.
(75-80%), dogwood
ants, pinyon nuts
(70%), insects
ants, other insects
(no grubs) 30-60%)
acorns, elderberry
winged insects
winged insects
winged insects
winged insects
winged insects
bees, wasps,
grasshoppers, etc,
winged insects
winged insects
insects
insects, dogwood
-------
Table V (Cont'd)
VII-41
Species
Status
Principal foods
Mountain bluebird
(Sialia currucoides)
Towendsend's solitaire
(Myadestes townsendi)
Robin
(Turdus migratorius)
Sylviidae
Golden-crowned kinglet
(Regulus satrapa)
Vireonidae
Solitary vireo
(Vireo solitarius)
Warbling vireo
(Vireo gilvus)
Parulidae
Audubon's warbler
(Dendroica auduboni)
Black throated gray warbler
(Dendroica nigrescens)
Myrtle warbler
(Dendroica occidentalis)
Townsend's warbler
(Dendroica townsendi)
Wilson's warbler
(Wilsonia pusilia)
Painted redstart
(Setophaga picta)
Black-throated green warbler
(Pendroica virens)
Nashville warbler
(Vermivora rufleapIlia)
resident
resident
summer visitor
winter visitor
resident
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
winter visitor
winter visitor
summer resident
rare winter visitor
rare visitor
rare visitor
ground beetles,
weevils (75-100%)
beetles, juniper
berries, pine
caterpillars,
earthworms, etc.
juniper berries,
cherries, etc.
wasps, bugs, flies
insects, some berries
insects (90%)
ants, bugs, spiders,
etc. (0-28%)
insects
flies, beetles, ants,
etc. (80-100%) fruits
(up to 20% in winter)
insects
insects
insects
insects
insects
-------
VII-42
Table V (Cont'd)
Species
Status
Principal foods
Hermit warbler
(Dendroica occidetitalis)
Orange-crowned warbler
(Vermivora celata)
MacGillivray's warbler
(OpororA/is tolmiei)
Thraupidae
Western tanager
(Piranga ludoviciana)
Fringillidae
Black-headed grosbeak
(Pheucticus melanocephalus)
Cassin's finch
(Carpodacus cassinii)
House finch
(Carpodacus mexicanus)
Purple finch
(Carpodacus purpureus)
Evening grosbeak
(Hesperiphona vespertina)
Pine siskin
(Spinus pinus)
Lawrence's goldfinch
(Spinus lawrencei)
Lesser goldfinch
(Spinus psaltria)
rare visitor
summer resident
rare visitor
summer resident
summer resident
resident
resident
resident
winter visitor
winter visitor
summer resident
resident
resident
insects
insects
insects
wasps, bees, ants,
beetles, etc.(85-95%)
insects, spiders, etc.
(30-60%), elderberry,
fruits
insects, nuts
aphids, caterpillars,
etc. (0-8%); filaree,
turkey mullein,
mustard (95-100%)
insects, nuts
beetles, caterpillars,
etc. pine, wild cherry,
manzanita, etc.
(20-100%)
caterpillars,spiders,
etc. (10-80%), filaree,
pine, alder, etc.
(20-90%)
aphids, caterpillars,
(50% spring); sunflower
star thistle, filaree,
(50-100%)
aphids, caterpillars
(0-10%) starthistle
(54%) pigweed, etc.
(90-100%)
-------
VI1-43
Table V (Cont'd)
Species
Status
Principal food;
Red crossbill
(Loxila curvlrostra)
Rufous-sided towhee
(Pipilo erythrophthalmus)
Green-tailed towhee
(Chlorura chlorura)
Lazuli bunting
(Passerina amoema)
Chipping sparrow
(Spizella passerina)
Fox sparrow
(Passerella iliaca)
White-crowned sparrow
(Zonotrichia leucophrys)
Lincoln's sparrow
(Melospiza lincolnii)
Oregon junco
(Junco oreganus)
Gray-headed junco
(Junco caniceps)
Slate-colored junco
(Junco hyemalis)
Pine grosbeak
(Pinicola enucleator)
resident
resident
summer resident
summer resident
summer resident
winter resident
summer resident
summer resident
resident
rare winter visitor
rare winter visitor
uncertain
spiders, caterpillars,
etc. (2-18%), pine nutsa
fir seeds, etc. (82-1005
beetles, ants, moths,
etc. (9-51%); pigweed,
elderberry, etc.
(40-85%)
beetles, ants, etc.
(15-60%) pigweed,
elderberry, etc.
(40-85%)
grasshoppers, etc.
wild oats, miner's
lettuce, needle grass,
etc. (50-60%).
grasshoppers, other
insects (0-66%);
filaree, wildcats, etc.
(34-100%)
millipeds, ground beetle
(7-48%), ragweed, etc.
parasitic flies, ants,
etc. (0-35%) pigweed,
other grasses, etc.
(65-100%)
beetles, ants, etc.
(7-69%) pigweed, etc.,
(31-83%)
weevils, ants, seeds
ants, pine, seeds
weevils, other insects,
wildcats, chickweed, etc
seeds, fruits
*Largely from Peterson 1961, and Light and Graham 1968 .
-------
VI1-44
Table VI. Relative abundance of the species of birds observed on the 6
study plots. Relative abundance figures 1-5 represent
actual numbers of birds observed as follows: 1 = 14 sightings,
or more; 2 = 9-13; 3 = 5-8; 4 = 2-4; and 5 = 1 sighting.
Relative abundance on
Species
Cooper Hawk
Red tail Hawk
Mt. Quail
Mourning Dove
Bandtail Pigeon
Gt. Horned Owl
Flamulated Owl
Spotted Owl
Common Nighthawk
Whitethroated Swift
Anna Hummingbird
Allen Hummingbird
Rufous or Allen
Hummingbird
Redshafted Flicker
Yellowbelly Sapsucker
Williamson Sapsucker
Acorn Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Whiteheaded Woodpecker
Ashthroated Flycatcher
Dusky Flycatcher
Western Flycatcher
Olivesided Flycatcher
Western Kingbird
Trail Flycatcher
Western Wood Pewee
Violet-Green swallow
Steller Jay
Clark Nutcracker
Mt. Chickadee
Whitebreasted Nuthatch
Redbreasted Nuthatch
Pygmy Nuthatch
Brown Creeper
Bewick Wren
House Wren
Western Bluebird
Robin
Solitary Vireo
Warbling Vireo
Audubon Warbler
Rim
5
3
4
4
4
5
3
3
3
4
5
5
4
2
1
1
4
4
4
3
4
5
Camp
Angelus
5
4
1
3
4
5
5
4
3
3
3
4
5
3
1
1
3
4
2
4
5
Snow
Valley
5
4
3
5
3
4
1
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
3
1
1
1
3
5
4
4
4
study plots
Barton
Flats
4
2
5
5
4
5
1
5
5
4
1
1
1
3
5
3
4
4
3
5
5
Sand
Canyon
5
5
4
3
4
5
4
2
3
3
1
4
2
4
3
Heart
Bar
4
5
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
2
1
4
1
5
5
1
4
4
2
5
# of plots on
which species
observed
2
4
1
2
6
1
1
1
1
1
4
3
3
5
4
3
3
4
1
4
2
1
3
2
1
6
6
6
1
6
6
2
4
4
2
4
6
1
2
2
2
-------
Table VI continued
VII-45
Relative abundance on
Species
Blackthroated Gray
Warbler
Wilson Warbler
Nashville Warbler
Hermit Warbler
Orange Crown Warbler
Macgillivray warbler
Western Tanager
Blackheaded Grosbeak
Gas sin Finch
Lawrence Goldfinch
Lesser Goldfinch
Chipping Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
Oregon Junco
Lazuli Bunting
Rufous sided Towhee
Rim
5
5
5
3
4
3
5
3
4
4
Camp
Angelus
5
5
5
4
3
2
Snow
Valley
3
4
3
3
4
4
1
5
study plots
Barton Sand Heart
Flats Canyon Bar
5 5
5 4
4 4
5
4
5
5 1
4
5
244
# of plots on
which species
observed
3
4
2
2
4
1
1
1
5
1
1
3
3
6
1
2
-------
VII-46
Table VII. Mammal trapping dates and line designations.
Plot
Lines
Dates (inclusive)
Rim Forest
Snow Valley
Sand Canyon
Heart Bar
Barton Flats
Camp Angelus
A 1-A 20, and
A21 - A40
Bl - B20, and
B21 - B40
Cl - C20, and
C21 - C40
Dl - D20, and
D21 - D40
El - E20, and
E21 - E40
Fl - F20 and
F21 - F40
July 19, 1972 P.M. to July 22,
1972 A.M.
July 19, 1972 A.M., to July 21,
1972 P.M.
July 19, 1972 A.M., to July 21,
1972 P.M.
July 26, 1972 A.M., to July 28,
1972 P.M.
-------
VII-47
Table VIII. Preliminary list of small mammals occurring in coniferous
forest areas of the San Bernardino Mountains.*
Species
Food
INSECTIVORA
Soricidae
Ornate shrew (Sorex ornatus)
CHIROPTERA
Vespertilionidae
Yuma myotis (Myotis yumanensis)
Long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis)
Long-legged myotis (Myotis volans)
CARNIVORA
Mustelidae
Long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata)
RODENTIA
Sciuridae
Golden-mantled ground squirrel
(Spermophilus lateralis)
Merriam chipmunk (Eutamias merriami)
Lodgepole chipmunk (Eutamias speciosus)
Geomyidae
Pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae)
Heteromyidae
California pocket mouse
(Perognathus californicus)
Pacific kangaroo rat (Dipodomys agilis)
earthworms
insects
insects
insects
mice
seeds, fruits, insects,
eggs, meat
pine nuts, seeds
pine nuts, seeds
roots, tubers, bromegrass,
fescue
Incense cedar seeds, grass
and forb seeds
bromegrass, seeds
-------
VII-48
Table VIII. Continued
Species
Food
Cricetidae
Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus)
Brush mouse (Peromyscus boylei)
Pinyon mouse (Peromyscus truei)
Dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes)
California meadow mouse
(Microtus californicus)
Seeds, pine nuts, acorns,
insects
Acorns, pine nuts, seeds,
berries
seeds, nuts
seeds, nuts, acorns, fruits,
green vegetation, fungi
grasses, sedges, other
green vegetation
^Largely from Light and Graham, 1968; Ingles, 1965; and Burt and Grossenheider,
1964.
-------
VII-49
Table IX. Trapping results of small mammals on the six study plots
(2 lines per study plot).
Rim Snow Sand Heart Barton Camp
Forest Valley Canyon Bar Flats Angelus
Species j ? $ % •# $ &$ #3 dT> % T°tal
P.
E.
P.
M.
N.
E.
S.
P.
D.
S.
bojrlei 1 12 12 1 11
merriami 21 13534
maniculatus 9122 11
californicus 14 2
fuscipes 1112
speciosus 1 2
lateralis 1 1
truei J-
agllis 1
ornatus *•
28
19
16
7
5
3
2
1
1
1
Total individuals 4 32 22 18 6 1 83
Total species 2 44 6 4 1 10
-------
VII-50
Table X. Catch from 12 Calhoun lines in the mixed conifer forest of the
San Bernardino National Forest.
Species
jPeromyscuj boylei
Eutamias merriami
Peromyscus maniculatus
Microtus californicus
Neotoma fuscipes
Eutamias speciosus
Spermophilus lateralis
Peromyscus truei
Dipodomys agilis
Sorex ornatus
Totals
#c aught
28
19
16
7
5
3
2
1
1
1
83
Percent of
total catch
34
23
19
9
5
4
3
1
1
1
100
Percent
males
54
42
75*
14*
40
100
0
100
0
0
*Sex ratio significantly different from 1:1 at 95% level
-------
VII-51
Table XI. Preliminary list of the larger mammals occurring in coniferous
areas of the San Bernardino Mountains.*
Species Principal foods Relative
abundance
Carnivora
Ursidae
Black bear (Euarctos americanus) small mammals, berries, 3
nuts, tubers, insects,
eggs, carrion, garbage
Mustelidae
Long-tailed weasel small mammals to rabbit 2
(Mustela frenata) size, some birds
Badger (Taxidea taxus) small rodents 3
Canidae
Coyote (Canis latrans) rabbits, small rodents 3
fruits
Felidae
Bobcat (Lynx rufus) small mammals, few birds 3
Mountain lion (Felis concolor) deer, rabbits, rodents 3
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Western gray squirrel acorns, seeds of conifers 1
(Sciurus griseus)
Northern flying squirrel acorns, seeds, nuts 2
(Glaucomys sabrinus) insects, bird eggs
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) shrubs, twigs, and herbs 3
^Largely based on Light and Graham 1968; Burt and Grossenheider 1964; and
Ingles 1965.
**Key to relative abundance figures: 1 - abundant; 2 - fairly common;
3 - rare.
-------
VII-52
Table XII. Observation dates and weather for Lizard counts.
Plot
Rim Forest
Snow Valley
Sand Canyon
Heart Bar
Barton Flats
Camp Angelus
Date
8/8/72
8/8/72
8/8/72
8/9/72
8/9/72
8/8/72
Time
8:45
10:30
12:25
8:17
12:00
2:58
- 9:20 am
-10:55 am
- 1:00 pm
- 8:45 am
- 1:05 pm
- 3:30 pm
Weather
moderately warm, clear
warm, clear
cloudy, warm, rain began
as count ended.
clear, cool but warming;
damp ground
hot, calm, some scattered
clouds.
warm, rain before start
but clearing.
-------
VII-53
Table XIII. Preliminary list of the amphibians and reptiles occurring
in coniferous areas of the San Bernardino Mountains.*
Species
Principal food
Relative
abundance
Lizards
Sagebrush lizard
(Sceloporus graciosus)
Side-blotched lizard
(Uta stansburiana)
Granite night lizard
(Xantusia henshawi)
Western skink
(Eumeces skiltonianas)
Gilbert's skink
(Eumeces gilberti)
Southern alligator lizard
(Gerrhonotus multicarinatus)
California legless lizard
(Anniella pulchra)
Snakes
Rubber boa
(Charina bottae)
Ring-necked snake
(Diadophis punctatus)
Mountain kingsnake
(Lampropeltis zpnata)
Striped racer
(Masticophis lateralis)
Western terrestrial garter snake
(Thamnophis ejlegans)
Western diamond-back rattlesnake
(Crotalus atrox)
insects
insects
insects
insects
insects
insects
insects
1**
small mammals &
lizards
insects
small mammals
small mammals
small marana Is, fish -
mammals
-------
VI1-54
Table XIII. Continued
Species
Principal food
Relative
abundance
Amphibians
Ensatina
(Ensatina eschscholtzi)
California slender salamander
(Batrachoseps attenuatus)
Western toad
(Bufo boreas)
Pacific tree-frog
(Hyla regilla)
insects
insects
insects
insects
^Largely from Stebbins 1966; Light and Graham 1968.
**Relative abundance: 1 = numerous; 2 = moderately abundant; 3 = uncommon.
-------
Section VIII
Insectan Fauna Associated with Trees
Along Transects of Oxidant Air Pollution in the
San Bernardino Mountains, 1972
David L. Wood and Donald L. Dahlsten
This survey was conducted August 28-30, 1972, by the following scientists:
U. C. Berkeley
Dr. Field W. Cobb, Jr. Department of Plant Pathology
Dr. Peter A. Rauch Department of Entomological
Sciences
Dr. Richard Garcia " "
Dr. Donald L. Dahlsten " "
Dr. David L. Wood " "
Mr. David J. Voegtlin " "
Dr. Joe R. McBride School of Forestry and Conservation
U. C. Riverside
Dr. Robert F. Luck Department of Entomology
U. S. Forest Service
Dr. Paul R. Miller Pacific Southwest Forest & Range
Experiment Station
Mr. Kenneth M. Swain Regional Office, R-5
The survey was conducted in the plots established by Swain, Miller, and R.
Thibaud, U. S. Forest Service and described in this report by McBride.
Dogwood - Severe Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera: Scolytidae
1. Ponderosa pine - 16" dbh - killed by Dendroctonus brevicomis -
tree abandoned.
2. Incense cedar - 9" dbh - occupied by Phloeosinus sp. - evidence
of woodpecker predation.
-------
VIII-2
3. Ponderosa pine - 1-5" dbh - killed by Ips latidens.
A. Ponderosa pine - 8" dbh - fresh attacks by Dendroctonus
ponderosae - pitch tubes present.
5. Ponderosa pine - 6" dbh - fresh attacks by Dendroctonus
ponderosae - pitch tubes present.
6. Ponderosa pine - 10" dbh - killed by D_. brevicomis - larvae
present - severe oxidant injury.
7. Ponderosa pine - Pityophthorus in dead tip.
8. Ponderosa pine - 32" dbh - killed by I), brevicomis - larvae
at base of tree (#97).
9. Ponderosa pine - 24" dbh - EL brevicomis and JD. ponderosae
in dead tree.
10. Ponderosa pine - several with I_. latidens.
11. Ponderosa pine - 4" dbh - I. latidens and flatheaded borers.
12. White fir - 24" dbh - killed by Scolytus ventralis - larvae
present. Also under attack by the ambrosia beetle, Platypus.
Hymenop tera: Pamphilidae
Sawfly larvae of Acantholyda sp. on ground *
Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Ponderosa pine - Galls (Contarinia ?) at base of faside.
Hotnoptera: Diaspididae
Sugar pine - Chionaspis (Pheacaspis) sp. - light infestation
parasitized.
Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae
Ponderosa pine - Rhyacionia (zozana ?)- light infestation.
Snow Valley - Slight Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera: Scolytidae
1. Jeffrey pine - 12" dbh -Dendroctonus jeffreyi.
2. Jeffrey pine - 32" and 22" dbh - old kills by D. Jeffreyi.
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VIII-3
3. Jeffrey pine - 28" dbh - killed by D. jeffreyi - brood
recently emerged.
A. White fir - 16" dbh - killed by S_. ventralis - emergence
has been initiated - some late larvae present.
Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae
Jeffrey pine - very heavy infestation of a needle miner, near
Recurvaria milleri.
Homoptera: Diaspididae
Manzanita and Ceanothus - an unknown species of scale was found
on both species of plants.
Heart Bar State Park - Very Slight Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera: Scolytidae
1. White fir - 3" dbh ' killed by S_. ventralis.
2. Jeffrey pine - 10" dbh - killed by IK jeffreyi - just emerging -
many cerambycid larvae present.
3. White fir - 29" dbh ' No. S_. ventralis at breast height - many
cerambycids.
4. White fir - 18" dbh - Same as for #3.
5. Jeffrey pine - 14" dbh - killed by D. jeffreyi (#53) - new brood
adults and emergence holes present.
6. Jeffrey pine - 32" dbh ' old kill by D. jeffreyi.
7. White fir - 22" dbh - same as #3 and #4 - all three look like
las t year' s kill. May be killed by Tetropium ablet is or _S_.
ventralis may be present higher in the tree.
8. Mountain mahogany - unknown species of bark beetle.
Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae
Jeffrey pine - moderate infestation of a needle miner near R_. milleri.
Homoptera: Diaspididae
Jeffrey pine - Nucalaspsis sp.
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Camp Angelas - Moderate Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera - Scolytidae
1. Ponderosa pine - 30" dbh - killed by 1). brevicomis in 1971.
2. Ponderosa pine - 14" dbh - killed by D. brevicomis (#5F) -
broo emerged - I), valens and resinosus at root crovm - Fomes
annosus sample taken (CA-1).
3. Ponderosa pine - 6" dbh - dead for two years. Killed by flat-
headed borers - F_. annosus sample taken (CA-2).
4. White fir - 10" dbh - dead for longer than one year - killed
by S^. ventralis - round-headed borers present.
5. Ponderosa pine - 10" dbh - killed by D. brevicomis - dead
longer than one year -termites present - resinosus in roots.
6. Ponderosa pine - 19" dbh - very old kill by £. brevicomis -
extensive blue-s taining.
7. Ponderosa pine - 3" dbh - dead - Armillaria mellea and Polyporus
vulvatus present.
8. Ponderosa pine - 22" dbh - killed by D_. brevicomis (#2) - brood
emerged - IK valens in base - basal infection of dwarf mistletoe.
9. Ponderosa pine - 25" dbh - (#3) - basal infection by dwarf
mistletoe.
10. White fir - 39" dbh ' no S_. ventralis at base - flatheaded and
roundheaded borers, termites and ambrosia beetles present - dead
longer than one year.
11. Ponderosa pine - 13" dbh - killed by EK brevicomis and £.
ponderosae - dead longer than one year.
Damage source unknown.
1. Black oak - branch dieback - extensive on oaks in this plot - a
few aphids were found.
General
No Armillaria mellea was found in this plot.
Lepidoptera: Arctiidae
White fir - evidence of feeding on the needles by possibly
Halisidota argentata was abundant - should survey in June to verify.
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Barton Flats - Moderate Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera: Scolytidae
1. Ponderosa pine - 6" dbh - dead for longer than 2 years - flat-
headed borers present. _F. annosus may be present.
2. Jeffrey pine - 16" dbh - dead for longer than 2 years - killed
by IK jeffreyi - J\ annosus may be present.
3. Jeffrey pine - 16" dbh - dead for one year (#31) - killed by !)•
jeffreyi - flatheaded borers present. JF. annosus may be present.
4. Jeffrey pine - 32" dbh - killed by ID. jeffreyi - flatheaded and
roundheaded borers, termites, ambrosia beetles present. Also
Polyporus vulvatus.
5. Jeffrey pine - several 4" dbh - F_. annosus probably present -
flatheaded borers and Pityophthorus also present.
General
1. Many types of galls in Quercus chrysalepis.
Sand Canyon - Very Slight Oxidant Injury
Coleoptera: Scolytidae
1. White fir - top killing by S_. ventralis.
2. Mountain mahogany - dieback caused by some unknown bark beetle
species.
General
1. Mountain mahogany is extensive on this plot.
2. Very little conifer reproduction.
3. No bark beetle activity noted.
Sucking Insects - Survey performed by David J. Voegtlin
The family Aphididae was the main group of sucking insects collected on
this survey trip. Collections were made by beating small white fir (Abies
concolor) and pine, (Pinus jeffreyi, Pinus ponderosae) as well as lower
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branches of the larger trees. Collections from each tree were kept separate
initially but later aphids of the same species were combined for each plot.
A listing of the species diversity on each of the plots follows:
Oxidant Injury Plot No. of Species Present
Severe Dogwood 1 sp. on Abies concolor 3 spp. on Pinus
ponderosae
Slight Snow Valley 2 spp. on Abies concolor 2 spp. on P_. jeffreyi
Very slight Heart Bar 4 spp. on P_. jeffreyi
Moderate Camp Angeles 3 spp. on P_. jeffreyi
Moderate Barton Flat 1 sp. on P_. jeffreyi
Very slight Sand Canyon 1 sp. on Abies concolor 4 spp. on P_. jeffreyi
A general assessment of aphid abundance was made in each plot. At Snow
Valley aphids were very abundant, i.e., easily found and on a number of
trees in fairly large numbers. There were fewer aphids at Sand Canyon and
Heart Bar but they were not difficult to find. At Dogwood and Barton Flat
aphids were very scarce and some species counts were based on one alate
female. One species of Cinara was found in all cases where collections were
made on Abies concolor. One elongate needle feeding aphid was common on
pine in all plots. Where aphids were present in moderate numbers, in all
cases ants were also present. On large clusters ofqphids there were often
many ants seen among the aphids. At least four species of ants were collected
in association with aphids. One ant species was common to all plots and was
found tending aphids on both the fir and pines. Parasitized aphids were
collected at Dogwood (2 mummies) and several were collected at Snow Valley.
All were Cinara spp. on pine. More time was spent collecting in these two
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areas than in the other four.
Predator larvae, Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, were fairly common on
most plots, also adult Coccinellidae and Neididae were observed. Most
aphids collected were on young trees, usually not over ten feet tall.
However, it was not possible to sample the upper portions of the large
trees. The distribution of these aphids is of interest since it may be
related to some of the physical and/or physiological characteristics of the
host trees. It is common to find two small trees which are in branch-to-
branch contact where one branch will have a large colony of aphids and the
other will have none. It is likely that similar plots could be found along
the pollution gradient so that parasites and predators of aphids as well as
the aphids themselves could be studied and compared.
Summary
This preliminary survey reveals the presence of the key bark beetle
species in all plots. A relationship between oxidant injury to ponderosa
pine and mortality caused by Dendroctonus brevicomis and D^. ponderosae has
been established in previous studies but must be verified in the future on
these plots. Also this relationship remains to be established for other conifer
species, i.e. sugar pine - £. ponderosae, Jeffrey pine - I), jeffreyi and white
fir - j[. ventralis. Also the relationship between oxidant injury to mountain ma-
hogany and dieback caused by an unknown Scolytid species is worthy of investi-
gation.
This survey also reveals an abundance of aphids on the principle vegeta-
tion. This group of arthropods is of special interest because of their
extreme sensitivity to disruptions caused by logging, road building, pesticide
application and other activities of man. Oxidant injury to their host plants
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may also produce similar changes in their population dynamics.
Other species encountered that may be of interest are the diaspine
scales, Chionaspis (Phenacaspis) and Nucalaspis, and the defoliating species
on white fir (Halisidota) and on Jeffrey pine (Recurvaria).
Because this survey was not either extensive or intensive and because
observations were not made periodically through the season, further work will
be necessary in order to establish a firm observational basis for more inten-
sive study of any possible causal relationships with oxidant injury to the
host plants or the insects themselves.
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