United S«s§
aradl
ER&
Cooperative Research
Washington OC 20250
United States
Industrial En¥irormental Research
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/7-80-07:
ApriC Dii©
and Development
Direct-Seeding of
Commercial Trees on
Surf ace-Mine Soil
Jnteragency
Energy/Environment!
R&D Program
Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-80-073
April 1980
DIRECT-SEEDING OF COMMERCIAL TREES ON SURFACE-MINE SPOIL
by
Donald H. Graves, Stanley B. Carpenter and Robert F. Wittwer
Forestry Department
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40546
EPA/IAG D6-E762
SEA/CR No. 706-15-7
Project Director
C. 0. Little
Associate Director
Agricultural Experiment Station
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
Program Coordinator
Eilif V. Miller
Mineland Reclamation Research Program
Science and Education Administration - Cooperative Research
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, DC 20250
Project Officer
Ronald D. Hill
Resource Extraction and Handling Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This study was conducted in cooperation with the Science and Education
Administration, Cooperative Research, USDA, Washington, DC 20250.
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory-Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
The views and conclusions contained in this report are those of the
authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies
or recommendations of the Science and Education Administration-Cooperative
Research, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
11
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution
control methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved
methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.
Reported here is a study of direct seeding of several tree species on
coal mine spoils. The results of this study should be of interest to those
persons planning and/or directing a vegetation program for surface mines.
For further information contact the authors or the Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory-Cincinnati.
David G. Stephen
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
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ABSTRACT
Two small-seeded species, Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Siev.
& Zucc.), and European alder (Alnus glutinosa (1.T~Gaertn.) and three large
seeded species, northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), pin oak (Quercus palus-
tris Muenchh.), and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa Michx.) were direct-seeded on
three aspects on minesoil in eastern Kentucky. Treatments included four mulch
applications - water-borne fiber mulch (w.f.m.), hardwood bark, bark and
manure, and composted municipal waste; two fertilizer applications—224 and
448 kg/ha of 16% N, 32% ?205, 8% I^O; and two rates of herbaceous vegetation
seed—11.2 and 22.4 kg/ha. A one-to-one ratio of yellow sweetclover (Meli-
lotus officinalis (L.) Lam.) and a tetrablend ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)
was used. Growth and survival were evaluated during two consecutive growing
seasons.
Survival for both Paulownia and European alder was poor (2%). Survival
for northern red oak, bur oak, and pin oak was much higher at 34%, 50%, and
46%, respectively. Initial germination for all species was significantly
higher on the warmer south-facing aspect. Mulching increased survival of all
species, with the composted municipal waste mulch ranking the highest and
w.f.m. the lowest. Mulching also enhanced growth, with bark/manure mulch
increasing growth the most. Survival of all species decreased when fertilizer
was added but height growth was increased. The effect of competition appeared
to affect germination more than any other variable. Those plots without
herbaceous competition survived best. The high seed rate (22.4 kg/ha) was
second followed by the 11.4 kg/ha seed rate. The higher seed rate appeared
to act as a mulch, reducing evaporation losses, thus providing more moisture
for the tree seedlings. Competition appears to reduce height growth of all
species with increasing application rates of herbaceous cover. Although
survival was low for Paulownia, it grew the best averaging 65.0 cm. Pin and
bur oak ranked next with mean heights of 12.1 and 12.5 cm, respectively.
Northern red oak grew the least averaging 9.2 cm.
Overall, the oaks as a group survived and grew well, indicating that
direct-seeding oaks may be more practical than planting bare-root stock or
containerized seedlings.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 706-15-7 by the
Forestry Department, University of Kentucky under the sponsorship of the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the period July 22,
1977 to November 30, 1979 and work was completed as of December 1, 1979.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 2
3. Recommendations 3
4. Methods 4
5. Results and Discussion 6
Germination and Survival 6
Table 1 6
Table 2 7
Height Growth 8
References 9
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
Surface-mining accounts for the largest annual reduction of commercial
forest land in Kentucky. Most reclamation efforts are directed toward the
establishment of grasses and legumes since they tend to rapidly establish and
stabilize the site to reduce erosion and sediment loss. Additional time and
labor is required for tree planting as compared to seeding grasses and legumes
and mortality is usually high, adding more costs to an already expensive
operation. Therefore, unless better methods of establishing trees on minesoil
are found, Kentucky and other states will have a difficult time in meeting OSM
requirements in establishing a forest land use category in final reclamation
plans. Direct-seeding could provide the method for including more trees in
minesoil reclamation.
Several thousand acres of trees have been established in the southeastern
United States by direct-seeding.* Advantages of direct-seeding include lower
costs, less labor and equipment and ease of ability to regenerate remote or
inaccessible areas.^ Direct-seeding has often failed to produce adequate
stands of seedlings on minesoil for different reasons. Dessication of germi-
nating seedlings, rodent and bird predation and erosion and siltation are
often blamed for direct seeding failures.-^
Survival of spot-seeded northern red oak (Quercus rubra), chestnut oak
(Quercus prinus), pin oak (Quercus palustris) and Virginia pine (Pinus
virginiana) on minesoil in southeastern Kentucky increased by 22 percent when
treated with 2.5 cm of shredded bark and a 9 g fertilizer tablet (18% N-8%
^2^5 ~ 3% K20 - 1% mg). First year height growth was increased by approxi-
mately 85 percent when the bark mulch and fertilizer tablets were used.^
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), and slash pine
(.Pinus elliottii) were successfully direct-seeded on minesoil in Alabama.
It was estimated that by aerial seeding, the total costs ran about one-third
that of hand planting seedlings.^
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Large-seeded species such as oaks appear to be better suited for direct-
seeding of minesoil than the small-seeded species such as Paulownia and
E. alder. Stratifying the alder seed and subjecting them to light before
seeding should improve their success in the field. Germination of Paulownia
seeds might have been increased by a pre-germination light treatment to
reduce their high light requirement.
Highest germination, survival and best growth for all species occurred
on the southeast facing aspect which exhibited higher minesoil temperatures
and contained higher minesoil moisture. Germination of tree seeds was
enhanced by mulching with bark/manure, Real Earth or bark, as it contained
more moisture than either the control or w.f.m. plots. Seedlings mulched with
bark/manure exhibited the best growth, probably because of additional nutrients.
Mulching effects on height growth were not significantly different from the
control after the second growing season. Fertilizer additions decreased
germination by aiding the growth of ryegrass and sweetclover which out-competed
the seeds for light, minesoil moisture and nutrients. Height growth of the
seedlings was not significantly affected by fertilizer treatments. Height
growth decreased as herbaceous species seeding rates increased. These results
suggest that successful direct-seeding of oaks on minesoil can be achieved
and that better germination may be obtained by mulching with bark/manure or
Real Earth. Planting less competitive grasses and legumes in combination with
tree seeds may help improve both germination and survival.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
Various treatments of mulch, fertilizer and herbaceous cover will affect
tree growth and survival in many different ways. Tree growth relative to
other types of plants exhibit slow growth characteristics; therefore, certain
effects of these treatments may not appear for several years. For this
reason, the research in this report should be continued. Data contained in
this report only covers initial establishment of tree seedlings and no clear
picture of treatment effects on survival and growth can be made without data
from five to ten years.
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SECTION 4
METHODS
Plot.s were established in March 1978 on minesoil near Jackson, Kentucky.
The purpose .of the study was to investigate the potential use of direct-
seeding .as a silvicultural tool on minesoil. Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa)
European alder (Alnus glutinosa), northern red oak (Quercus rubraT, pin oak
(Quercus .palustris) and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) were direct-seeded in
combination with several treatments on freshly disked minesoil.
A split-plot design was replicated twice on three aspects - ridge,
northwest (335°) and southwest (155°). On each aspect 15.5 m by 15.8 m plots
were replicated twice and treated with one of the following treatments,
selected at random.
(1) Control - no mulch applied.
(2) Waterborne fiber mulch - processed wood fiber, 560 kg/ha.
(3) Processed bark - 66 m-Vha.
(4) Processed bark and chicken manure - 66 m-Vha.
(5) Real Earth - composted solid municipal waste and sewage sludge,
27 mt/ha.
Each plot was split in half into species subplots 7.3 m by 15.5 m and
each was seeded with tree seed after all other treatments were applied. The
sublots were further subdivided into three fertilizer subplots, 5.2 m by
7.3 m, and treated with fertilizers (0, 224, or 448 kg/ha of 16% N, 32%
^2^5» 8% K20). The fertilizer subplots were divided in half with each half
containing three 1.2 m by 1.2 m competition plots spaced .6 m apart. Either
0, 11 or 22 kg/ha of a one-to-one mixture of yellow sweetclover (Melilotus
officinalis) and tetrablend ryegrass (Lolium perenne) were broadcast seeded
onto each subplot.
Germination tests results on European alder and Paulownia seeds conducted
prior to the field trials were used to determine seeding rates. Paulownia
seeds were collected in southeastern Kentucky in 1976 and dry stored at 4°C.
Approximately 80 percent of the Paulownia seeds tested germinated within .30
days when exposed to light. The seeding rate for Paulownia was ten seeds per
spot. The seeds were placed in small depressions and covered lightly with
mulch or minesoil material. The total number of Paulownia seed-spots was 1080.
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European alder seeds were planted by mixing the seeds with sand and broad-
casting them onto their respective subplots. European alder seeds were
acquired from a commercial source and were not stratified before seeding.
Only 32 percent of the seeds germinated when exposed to light and kept
moistened. The seeding rate for alder was approximately 2 grams per subplot
or 10 seeds per one tenth meter square. The oak seeds used in the study were
collected in the Lexington area. For northern red oak, bur oak and pin oak,
one acorn was placed in each.planting hole. The- number of seed-spots for
each species was northern red oak - 540, bur oak - 360 and pin oak - 270.
Germination was evaluated in mid-July by tallying the number of seed-spots
containing live seedlings. Growth and survival were tallied in late
September 1978 and early October 1979. The Neutron probe was used to
determine minesoil moisture. Minesoil temperatures were monitored with
Coleman soil moisture-temperature cells.
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SECTION 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
GERMINATION AND SURVIVAL
Of the five species tested, the large-seeded species appeared to be most
adapted for direct-seeding of minesoil. The oak species averaged 43.0 percent
germination over all treatments. Bur oak germinated best at 50.0 percent
followed by pin oak and northern red oak with 46.0 and 34.0 percent respec-
tively (Table 1). Paulownia germination was only one percent and European
alder failed completely. Seedling mortality was observed during the second
growing season, resulting in 94.4 percent survival for northern red oak and
92.0 percent survival for pin oak. Bur oak increased over-all germination
from 41.0 percent to 50.0 percent during the second growing season.
TABLE 1. MEAN PERCENT GERMINATION AND HEIGHT OF FIVE SPECIES DIRECT-SEEDED
ON EASTERN KENTUCKY MINE SPOIL AFTER TWO GROWING SEASONS
(1978 and 1979)
Species Mean germination Mean height
(percent) (cm)
1978 1979 1978 1979
European alder
Paulownia
Northern red oak
Bur oak
Pin oak
0
1
36
41
50
0
1
34
50
46
0.0
11.3
5.5
8.5
8.3
0.0
65.0
9.2
12.5
12.1
Percent survival for paulownia, northern red oak, bur oak, pin oak was
higher on the southeast facing slope (109 percent) than the ridge (97 percent)
or the northwest facing aspect (98 percent) (Table 2). Percentages over 100
were caused by late germination of bur oak during the second growing season.
Two factors appear to be underlying this response. First, spoil samples
collected from each aspect site revealed that the southeastern exposed site
contained more nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium than either the ridge or
northwest facing sites. Secondly, the southwest facing plots contained
significantly (p<0.05) greater spoil moisture and exhibited higher spoil
temperatures than the other two sites. The results indicate that both factors
enhanced the germination and survival of tree seeds on that site.
Mulching with Real Earth or bark/manure increased seed germination by
over 5 percent when compared to bark, w.f.m. or the control plots. Response
to the mulching treatments probably was due to the individual capacities of
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TABLE 2. SINGLE VARIABLE EFFECTS OF ASPECT, MULCH, FERTILIZER AND GRASS-LEGUME
COMPETITION OF MEAN GERMINATION AND HEIGHT GROWTH OF DIRECT-SEEDED
PAULOWNIA, NORTHERN RED OAK, BUR OAK AND PIN OAK AFTER TWO GROWING
SEASONS (1978 and 1979) ON EASTERN KENTUCKY MINE-SPOIL
Variable
Aspect
northwest
ridge
southeast
Germination
1978
P F— Percent
0.01**
26
30
39
Survival 1979
4/
Percent —
98
97
109
Height Growth (cm)
P F 1978^
0.10
7.4
7.0
7.8
1979
11.6
9.8
12.4
Mulch 0.15
control 29
hydromulch 29
bark 29
bark/manure 34
Real Earth 36
Fertilizer 0.06*
<£' 34
224 30
448 30
Competition 0.10**
0.10
103
107
110
101
99
104
101
108
0.10
7.0
7.0
7.6
8.4
7.1
6.9
6.9
7.5
0.10
— *Denotes slight significance.
**Denotes highly significant response.
1979 Data not analyzed statistically.
I/
I/
V
5/
10.8
12.0
11.6
12.1
11.1
11.1
11.8
11.9
CH-
11
22
37
27
30
103
107
105
7.2
7.2
7.2
12.5
11.1
10.7
Fertilizer rates expressed in Kg per ha.
Seed rates expressed in KG per ha.
Percentages over 100 caused by late germination of bur oak during second
growing season.
1978 Height growth average over all species.
1979 Height growth averaged over oak species only.
Paulownia excluded because of low survival.
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the mulches to hold moisture. During the first growing season, significantly
less minesoil moisture was observed in the w.f.m. and control plots than
Real Earth or bark/manure. Surface minesoil moisture was not a factor during
the second growing season, because of a record rainfall in Kentucky during
1979. Also mulches tend to become less effective in moisture conservation
with time.
Germination was affected slightly by additions of fertilizer. Germination
decreased from 34 to 30 percent when either 224 or 448 kg/ha fertilizer rates
were applied. These results suggest that the grass and legume species
responded rapidly to the fertilizer and consequently shaded the tree seed,
preventing light from reaching the seeds. Overall survival was not affected
by fertilizer treatments.
Seeding a grass-legume cover at the time of direct-seeding appeared to
affect germination more than any other variable tested. Seeding a grass-
legume cover at 11 kg/ha decreased germination from 37 to 27 percent. Again
grasses, especially ryegrass, germinates and becomes established quicker than
tree seeds, robbing them of light, moisture and soil nutrients. Doubling
the seeding rate to 22 kg/ha resulted in a slight increase in germination (30
percent) over the lower seed rate used. Herbaceous cover did not appear to
effect survival.
HEIGHT GROWTH
As expected, the paulownia seedlings that survived grew tallest averaging
65.0 cm after the second growing season. Bur oak and pin oak grew moderately
well with 12.5 and 12.1 cm respectively, while northern red oak seedlings
averaged 9.1 cm.
The results in Table 2 indicate the growth response of seedlings to the
various treatments. Although the differences in growth observed between
aspect sites were not significant, seedlings on the southeast grew best.
These differences in growth were probably due to better moisture and minesoil
fertility of that site.
Seedlings mulched with bark/manure were taller (8.4 cm) than seedlings
mulched with any other material. The additional nutrients provided in the
mulch may account for the increase in growth. However, the use of mulch did
not affect height growth during the second year. Fertilizing with 448 kg/ha
increased height growth slightly over the 224 kg/ha treatment of the control.
Herbaceous cover did not significantly affect height growth in the first
growing season. It did appear to have a negative effect on growth the second
season with increased seeding rates of herbaceous species.
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REFERENCES
1. H. J. Derr and W. F. Mann, Jr., "Direct-seeding pines in the South",
USDA Agric. Handb. 391, 66pp., 1971.
2. H. L. Williston and W. E. Balmer, "Direct-seeding of southern pines -
a regeneration alternative", USDA For. Serv. SE For. Mgt. Bull. 6pp.,
Apr. 1977.
3. G. A. Limstrom, "Extent, character and forestation possibilities of
land stripped for coal in the Central States", USDA For. Serv. CS
Tech. Pap. No. 109. 79pp., 1948.
4. R. F. Wittwer, D. H. Graves and S. B. Carpenter, "Establishing oaks and
Virginia pine on Appalachian surface-mined lands by direct seeding",
Reclamation Review (In press), 1979.
5. T. Wiseman, "Hitting pay dirt with pine seeds: strip mines reforested".
Mining Cong. J. pp. 59-60, Dec. 1978.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-80-073
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
DIRECT-SEEDING OF COMMERCIAL TREES ON SURFACE-MINE SPOIL
5. REPORT DATE
April 1980 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Donald H. Graves, Stanley B. Carpenter, and Robert F.
Wittwer
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Forestry Department
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40546
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1NE623
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
CR 706-15-7
EPA-IAG D6-E762
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
This project is part of the EPA-planned and coordinated Federal Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program.
16. ABSTRACT
Three large-seeded tree species, northern red oak (Quercus rubra), pin oak
(Quercus palustris), and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) and one small-seeded species
Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa), were spot-seeded and European alder (Alnus glutinosa)
was broadcast-seed on eastern Kentucky minesoil. Treatments included four mulches
- waterborne fiber mulch, shredded bark, shredded bark and poultry manure and Real
Earth (composted municipal waste and sewage sludge), two fertilizer treatments and two
rates of grass/legume ground cover seed sown in competition with the tree species.
Germination, growth and survival were evaluated during two consecutive growing seasons.
All three oak species germinated and grew well while both small-seeded species
failed to become established from seed. Germination was affected by aspect, mulching
fertilizing and competition. Minesoil moisture appeared to be indirectly responsible
for most of the significant results. The variables tested had little effect on the
first years growth of the species tested. Height growth, after the second growing
season, appeared to be affected by herbaceous cover.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Coal
Surface Mining
Trees
Revegetation
Kentucky
Fertilizer
Germination
Mine Soil
Spoils
Growth
6F 8A ^F
8H 10A 10B
7B 7C 13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to the Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
16
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
10
>US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1980-657-146/5633
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