&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-600/7-79-116
May 1979
Development of
Measurement Techniques
for Fugitive Emissions
from Process and
Effluent Streams
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
-------
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide'range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
-------
EPA-600/7-79-116
May 1979
Development of Measurement Techniques
for Fugitive Emissions from Process
and Effluent Streams
by
Henry J. Kolnsberg
TRC—The Research Corporation of New England
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
Contract No. 68-02-2113
Program Element No. EHE624A
EPA Project Officer: D. Bruce Harris
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
-------
FOREWORD
This report summarizes the work completed by TRC - THE RESEARCH
CORPORATION of New England under EPA Contract Number 68-02-2133,
"Development of Measurement Techniques for Fugitive Emissions from Process
and Effluent Streams."
The results of three major research and development tasks assigned
under the task-level-of-effort contract are presented in detailed
summaries. Two additional major research and development tasks, for which
separate reports have been published, are summarized by abstracts of their
reports. Twenty two assigned service area and documentation and
publication tasks are briefly summarized.
The effort was sponsored by the Process Measurements Branch of the
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory at Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. Dr. Robert M. Statnick and D. Bruce Harris directed the
effort as Project Officers. Henry J. Kolnsberg was the Project Manager for
TRC. Gordon T. Brookman, Dr. Robert E. Kenson, and Roland L. Severance
served as Task Managers.
ii
-------
CONTENTS
Foreword ii
1. Introduction 1
2. Research and Development Task Descriptions 5
Evaluation of Non-Point Source Waterborne Emissions . . 5
Study of Remote Sensing Methods Applicability to
Fugitive Emissions Measurement 5
Evaluation of Surface Runoff at Integrated Iron and
Steel Plants 17
Design of a Fugitive Assessment Sampling Train .... 17
Preliminary Investigation of Techniques for the
Determination of Hood Capture Efficiency 22
3. Service Task Descriptions 33
4. Documentation and Publication Task Descriptions 39
iii
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Fugitive emissions are defined as those pollutants introduced into
the atmosphere or into ground or surface waters without first passing
through some stack, duct, pipe or channel designed to direct or control
their flow. They are generated from a wide variety of industrial process
sources, ranging from small, single-point sources such as process equip-
ment leaks to large, area sources such as material storage piles. Their
physical and chemical characteristics are varied, including airborne par-
ticulate matter, gases and vapors; and waterborne suspended solids and
dissolved gases, liquids, and solids. Their one common characteristic,
their lack of containment, makes both the assessment of the environmental
impact and the control of the fugitive emissions considerably more diffi-
cult than the assessment and control of point-source emissions.
The initial step in establishing controls for fugitive emissions is
the determination of the emission strength of the various sources and their
impact on the environment. Determinations of specific fugitive emission
concentrations, distributions and physical or chemical characteristics
usually cannot be made with the recognized standard sampling and measure-
ment techniques presently in use. Special measurement techniques must be
developed and verified to obtain data that will be universally accepted as
baseline information for the establishment of control systems and limita-
tions for industrial fugitive emissions.
Three general measurement techniques, related to the size or nature
of the fugitive emissions source, have been developed for airborne emis-
sions. The quasi-stack technique utilizes a temporary hood to capture the
emissions from a small source and transport them to a duct for measurement
using standard stack-sampling methods. The roof monitor technique uses
the structure enclosing sources as a capture hood and measures the flow and
concentration of the emissions from all sources within the structure as
they pass through a roof monitor or similar vent to the atmosphere. The
upwind-downwind technique measures the emission concentrations in the am-
bient atmosphere, utilizing recognized diffusion equations in mathematical
models to back-calculate source strength from the differences in concen-
trations. These techniques are very general and require modification and
adaptation for almost every specific site/source combination. Additional
techniques for waterborne emissions, both general methods and site-
specific modifications, are also needed.
This report summarizes the work completed by TRC - THE RESEARCH CORPO-
RATION of New England under EPA Contract 68-02-2133, "Development of Mea-
surement Techniques for Fugitive Emissions from Process and Effluent
Streams" toward the fulfillment of these needs. The contractual effort was
conducted from December 1975 to December 1978 for the Process Measurements
Branch of the EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory at
-1-
-------
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Dr. Robert M. Statnick was the
EPA Project Officer for the first half of the contract and D. Bruce Harris
was the EPA Project Officer for the concluding half. Henry J. Kolnsberg
was the Project Manager for TRC.
The objective of the contract was to provide measurement methodol-
ogies for airborne and waterborne fugitive emissions that would be appli-
cable to environmental assessment and control technology development
projects related to the stationary source energy and industrial process
programs of the Agency. The contract provided a continuing program of
evaluation, development, testing and field adaptation of existing and pro-
posed measurement techniques and programs in a 20,000 man-hour task-level-
of-effort format.
The contract effort consisted of 27 individual tasks, divided into
three general work areas. Five Research and Development tasks required
about 13,700 man hours of effort, 12 Service tasks about 1,400 man-hours
and 10 Documentation and Publication tasks about 1,900 man-hours. An
additional 1,400 man-hours were expended in the technical management of
the contract.
The Research and Development tasks included:
Task 02
Task 03
Task 04
Task 05
Task 07
Evaluation of Non-Point Source Waterborne Emissions
Study of Remote Sensing Methods Applicability to Fugi-
tive Emissions Measurement
Evaluation of Surface Runoff at Integrated Iron and
Steel Plants
Design of a Fugitive Assessment Sampling Train
Preliminary Investigation of Techniques for the Deter-
mination of Hood Capture Efficiency
The Service tasks were:
Task 20A -
Task 20D -
Task 20E -
Task 20H -
Evaluation of a proposed no-duct quasi stack measure-
ment technique
Preparation of alternative measurement approaches for
emissions from a coke quench tower
Preparation of a sampling program for fugitive emis-
sions from a coal cleaning facility
Assistance in the preparation of a guideline on par-
ticulate fugitive emissions
-2-
-------
Task 201 -
Task 20J -
Task 20L -
Task 20M -
Task 20N -
Task 20P -
Task 20R -
Task 20U -
Critical review of a feasibility study of source iden-
tification from ambient air monitoring
Preparation of a measurement program for particulate
matter emissions from iron ore loading operations
Review of a test plan for ambient monitoring of flu-
idized bed coal combustor emissions
Review of a sampling plan for fugitive emissions from
petroleum refineries
Critique of a proposed plan for the measurement of
mining particulate matter emissions
Preparation of a conceptual roof monitor measurement
approach for an open hearth shop
Critique of exposure profiling technique for particu-
late matter fugitive emissions
Consultation and assistance to an EPA contractor in
sampling refinery hydrocarbon fugitive emissions
The Documentation and Publication tasks included:
Task 20B -
Task 20C -
Task 20F -
Task 20G -
Task 20K -
Task 20Q -
Task 20S -
Preparation of a guideline for fugitive emissions mea-
surements
Preparation of a summary of airborne fugitive emis-
sions measurement techniques
Preparation of papers for symposium presentations
Preparation of a summary of fugitive emissions work
completed under IERL contracts
Preparation of a bibliography of research program ab-
stracts
Study to determine the need for a technical manual for
the measurement of industrial process water flows
Preparation of a chapter on fugitive emissions mea-
surements for a Level 1 environmental assessment pro-
cedures manual
Task 20T - Preparation and presentation of a paper on fugitive
emissions measurement for an EPA Symposium
Task 20V - Preparation and presentation of a paper on the devel-
opment of the fugitive assessment sampling train for
an EPA Symposium
-3-
-------
Task 06 - Organization of the Second Symposium on Fugitive Emis-
sions: Measurement and Control.
The work completed in each of these tasks is described in this report
along with the conclusions and recommendations resulting from the com-
pleted efforts. Only abstracts of the final reports for Tasks 02 and 04,
which were published as separate documents, are included.
-4-
-------
SECTION 2
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TASK DESCRIPTIONS
TASK 02 - EVALUATION OF NON-POINT SOURCE WATERBORNE EMISSIONS
A full description of this task is contained in Sampling and Modeling
of Non-Point Sources at a Coal-Fired Utility, EPA-600/2-77-199, September
1977. The report abstract is quoted as follows:
The report gives results of a measurement and modeling pro-
gram for non-point sources (NFS) from two coal-fired utility
plants, and the impact of NFS on receiving waters. The field
measurement survey, performed at two utility plants in
Pennsylvania, included measurement of overland runoff from NPS
and river sampling upstream and downstream of each plant site.
NPS sampled were stormwater runoff and leachate from coal stor-
age piles and runoff from impervious areas such as parking lots
and roofs which were covered with dust fallout from coal and ash
handling operations. A mathematical model was developed to
simulate both the quantity and quality of industrial NPS pollu-
tion and its impact on receiving waters. Field data indicated
that NPS pollution from utilities had little impact on the two
rivers, compared to the impact from sources upstream of each
site. Modeled results compared to field measurements within a
factor of 4 for both the quantity and quality of stormwater
runoff and its impact on the quality of the receiving waters.
Field survey results indicate that, for a cost-effective pro-
gram, sampling must be supplemented with modeling (the modeling
results indicate that the developed model can be used with a
minimum of field data to successfully simulate industrial NPS
pollution and its impact on receiving waters for the utility
industry).
TASK 03 - STUDY OF REMOTE SENSING METHODS APPLICABILITY TO FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS MEASUREMENT - JUNE 1976
Large scale programs to assess the environmental impact of fugitive
air emissions from industrial sources, using basically research type fugi-
tive emissions measurement strategies, have proven to be costly and
limited in accuracy. In many cases, the cost of measuring the fugitive
emissions from only one major source in a complex, multiple-emissions-
source process can exceed the cost of all sampling required to define the
point source emissions from the process.
The complexity of many proposed fugitive emission measurement methods
means that the time consumed in equipment preparation, setup and calibra-
tion is substantial and precludes their application for survey-type fugi-
tive emissions testing. Some quick, accurate, and potentially low-cost
-5-
-------
method is needed. Remote sensing of the fugitive emissions would be ideal,
since most remote systems are self-contained and do not necessarily re-
quire access to the emissions source.
Four remote sensing techniques have been identified as potentially
useful for fugitive emissions measurement. They are:
1. Tunable Laser Method
2. Lidar Method
3. Long Path Transmissometer Method
4. Time-Lapse Photography Method
The objective of this task was to review the capabilities of these
four sensing methods. Each method was reviewed separately with regard to
its principle of operation, limitations, and application to fugitive emis-
sion measurement.
Remote Sensing of Fugitive Gaseous Emissions Using Laser Infrared Spectro-
scopy
The use of laser systems for gaseous air pollution detection and
monitoring has advanced greatly over the past few years due to improvements
in both laser technology and signal processing techniques. Because almost
every gaseous air pollutant has characteristic absorption bands at middle
infrared frequencies (2.5-25um), tunable infrared laser systems have been
successfully used for pollutant monitoring in several recent studies.
Such devices have found application in point sampling, in in situ source
monitoring, and in ambient air measurement of CO and NO.
Among those lasers which are capable of emitting infrared radiation
are parametric oscillators, spin-flip Raman lasers, gas lasers, and semi-
conductor diode lasers. The use of a combination of these lasers makes
possible complete coverage of the infrared absorption band regions between
0.63 and 34|jm. Compared to conventional infrared instrumentation, the
laser system usually has better sensitivity and specificity because of the
high intensity, narrow spectral bandwidth, coherence, small beam diameter,
and the small directional divergence offered by the laser.
Three fundamental monitoring techniques are available with laser sys-
tems: remote heterodyne detection, resonance fluorescence, and direct
absorption. Remote heterodyne detection is a completely passive, single-
ended technique in which characteristic infrared emission lines from a
gaseous pollutant are detected by heterodyning them with tunable laser
radiation of the same wavelength. The technique of resonance fluorescence
is an active one making use of absorption and subsequent re-radiation of
laser light. This method, however, appears most useful for only a few
atoms and molecules. Direct absorption of laser radiation offers the
greatest versatility of the three schemes. This technique was therefore
considered for the quantitative remote measurement of gaseous fugitive
emissions from industrial sources.
-6-
-------
oc'
O
Principle of Operation—
The measurement of air pollutant concentration by attenuation of
laser infrared lines depends upon finding coincidences between laser lines
and pollutant absorption lines. When infrared radiation of a resonant
frequency of a molecule impinges on the molecule, radiant energy is
absorbed by that species. The intensity of the absorption is proportional
to the concentration of the absorbing species and to the path length, as
described by the Lambert-Beer Law:
P. = P exp (-«' CL)
t o r o
where
P is transmitted power
P is initial power
c' is the absorption coefficient of gas
C is gas concentration
L is path length
Thus, measurement of the transmitted power will provide the concen-
tration of the absorbing species if the other parameters are known.
Instrumentation used for infrared absorption techniques must include
a source of radiation and a detector together with associated optics. One
possible arrangement consists of the source and detector virtually side by
side and requires the use of a reflector to return the radiation to the
detector. A second possibility puts the detector and source at opposite
ends of the measurement path. Both are considered long-path techniques.
Limitations—
Although long path laser infrared systems look promising for measure-
ment of fugitive emissions, there are several critical problems which need
to be considered:
Interferences—One very serious problem in infrared spectroscopic
studies is that of interferences from atmospheric C02 and water vapor.
This is an ever-present difficulty, for each contains strong absorption
bands in the infrared region of the spectrum. Water completely blanks out
the far infrared and absorbs strongly in the middle region between 5.5 and
7.5ym. Fortunately, most of the major pollutants contain at least one
strong absorption line or band from 3-15um so that it may be possible to
work around the C02 and water vapor lines and bands using high resolution
instrumentation.
-7-
-------
Temperature Effects—Because semiconductor diode lasers can be tuned
by varying their temperature, they are sensitive to changes in temperature
and must be cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures when in use. This can
be accomplished by use of a closed-cycle cooler and liquid-nitrogen-cooled
detectors. The detector must be refilled with liquid nitrogen every ten
hours.
Distance Effects—Long optical paths are generally needed to bring
bands of low-concentration pollutants to detectable levels. The path
length required depends on pollutant concentration, the strength of the
absorption bands, and system sensitivity. Successful work has been done
over paths less than 1 km.
Quantitative/Qualitative Considerations—
Long path remote sensing techniques are capable of measuring only the
average concentration of a pollutant over the optical path between the
transmitter and the receiver. Pollutant concentrations that can be de-
tected over a 1 km path, assuming that a 5% signal change is detectable,
range as low as 0.02 ppm for CzHn with a COz laser.
Although qualitative applications of this technique have not been
reported in the literature, it seems that such applications could be suc-
cessful. Although the entire spectrum cannot be scanned with a single
radiation source (because no laser is yet tunable over the whole range),
several lasers set on the most probable pollutant absorption wavelengths
lould be used over the path to be measured. A slgnal change, which would
indicate the presence of an absorbing pollutant, would only need to be
calibrated to make the measurement quantitative as well.
Application to Fugitive Emissions—
No reports of the use of infrared laser techniques to measure fugitive
emissions have been made to date. Using the absorption technique described
above, CO, NO, S02 and ethylene have been successfully measured from open
sources, in ambient air and in in situ situations. Considering these
results, it appears that the application of such techniques in the measure-
ment of fugitive emissions would be successful provided that:
(a) The emitted plume is large enough to permit the use of long paths
if the pollutant concentration is low,
(b) It is possible to install a retroreflector or detector on the far
side of the plume,
(c) The pollutant to be measured has an infrared absorption band
outside a COz or water absorption band,
(d) Any aerosol backscatter is accounted for.
In addition to these limitations, several considerations should be
kept in mind:
-8-
-------
(a) The fugitive source that is being measured must be well defined.
(b) Only the average concentration over the path can be determined.
(c) The uncontrolled environment may cause optical scintillations
which could reduce sensitivity compared to controlled laboratory
situations.
(d) Vibrations and misalignment could cause problems.
Remote Sensing of Fugitive Particulate Emissions Using Lidar
Lidar has been used successfully for air pollution detection since
its development in 1963 for meteorological use. Its utility stems from its
ability to remotely detect particulate matter in the atmosphere at dis-
tances up to 30 km. The lidar technique also has the advantage of being
independent of external sources of electromagnetic radiation because it is
an active system. Lidar systems have been used in the delineation of cloud
layers, determination of upper atmosphere density and temperature pro-
files, determination of smoke plume opacity and in the remote measurement
of transport, diffusion and relative particulate concentration profiles of
clouds of particulates.
Principle of Operation—
The principle of lidar operation is very similar to that of conven-
tional radar. In both systems a pulse of energy is transmitted and
scattered by objects in the atmosphere. A small fraction of this pulsed
energy is scattered in the backward direction, detected and measured as a
function of the range at which the scattering occurred.
The difference between the two systems is the type of energy source.
Lidar systems utilize laser radiation of wavelengths somewhere between the
far infrared and the near ultra-violet portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, operating at much shorter wavelengths than conventional radar
systems. This characteristic gives lidar the capability of detecting very
small objects such as atmospheric particles. Conventional radars would
totally overlook objects of this size.
The laser energy associated with lidar systems is highly monochro-
matic, essentially coherent and concentrated in very short high-powered
pulses. This energy is directed by refracting or reflecting lens systems
in a beam signal. A suitable receiver lens system then collects the energy
back-scattered by the molecules and particulates within the beam. An
energy sensitive transducer (normally a photomultiplier tube) detects this
back-scattered energy which is then displayed on an oscilloscope as a
function of range.
Return signals may be photographed or magnetically recorded. The use
of magnetic video disc memory provides an input to more sophisticated
-9-
-------
analysis procedures such as automatic data input for computer processing.
This is a key feature of sophisticated lidar systems.
The general lidar equation of the received signal is:
P Cr/3180
Pr = exp
where
P = power received from range r
P = transmitted power
C = velocity of light
T = pulse duration
3180 = volume backscattering coefficient of the atmosphere at
range r
A = effective receiver aperture
a = extinction (attenuation) coefficient at range r
All the values of this equation are known values of the system except
the volume backscattering coefficient (3180) and the extinction coeffi-
cient (0).
The volume backscattering coefficient (3180) of the atmosphere at
range r is defined as the ratio of the amount of energy backscattered from
a defined unit volume to the amount initially received. It is a measure of
the effectiveness of the scatterers as a target. The extinction coeffi-
cient (a) is defined as the attenuation of a pulse traveling to a point r
and back to the receiver. It accounts for all the interactions that
extract energy from the laser beam.
The magnitude of 8180 and 0 depend upon the wavelength of the incident
energy and the number, size, shape and refractive properties of the illumi-
nated particles per unit volume. These particles can consist of true
particulate components or an aerosol.
Limitations on Method—
Although lidar systems look promising for the measurement of fugitive
particulate emissions, there are several critical parameters which need to
be considered:
-10-
-------
Particle Size—Lidar systems can detect scattering from particles
larger than 1/10 of the wavelength of the light source. For example, the
ruby laser, commonly used in laser radar systems, operates at a wavelength
of 0.694um and can theoretically detect scattering particles greater than
0.07ym in diameter. This theory however applies only for "clear" and
stable atmospheric conditions. Small particles such as those in aerosols
can therefore in reality be uncounted because of background effects not due
to the aerosol itself.
Distance Effects—There are short and long range distance limitations
with the use of lidar systems. Short range limitations are a function of
the unit's transmitter/receiver optical system geometry. The intersection
of the transmitter beam and the receiver field of view can create a false
peak in the receiver system, thereby masking valid scattering return sig-
nals. The short range limitation for the lidar system used in a recent
study was approximately 300 meters. Closer than this, false signals pre-
dominated over scattering return signals.
Long range distance limitations are a function of the power of the
laser source and the composition of the scattering medium. The more power
a laser source has, the farther the signal will travel before it is com-
pletely attenuated. Conversely, the larger the scattering particles and
the denser the scattering medium the shorter distance the laser signal will
travel before it is completely attenuated. Typical lidar systems used for
meteorological observation have long range distance limitations of about
40 kilometers.
Time Limitations—The time required to make one complete observation
of a dispersing fugitive cloud depends upon the number of cross sections of
the emission cloud that are made and the number of vertical lidar shots per
cross section. These two factors depend on the size of the fugitive cloud.
The Stanford Research Institute lidar study group has stated that each
vertical scan of 20-30 lidar shots requires 2-5 minutes. A set of three
vertical scans or cross sections, therefore, requires 10-15 minutes.
Each plume cross section observation must be calibrated for the fol-
lowing three factors in order to obtain contours of relative particulate
concentrations:
1. Range effect
2. Log-amplifier transfer function
3. Pulse-to-pulse variation in transmitted power
Location Effects—Another limitation to the use of lidar systems is
the testing location. The direction of the transmitted beam should be
perpendicular to the centerline of the plume or fugitive cloud in order to
obtain maximum return power. This is an important factor because lidar
systems detect backscattered signals which may be relatively small. Any
-11-
-------
plan to measure fugitive emissions with a lidar system should include
several test sites that are located perpendicular to the most frequent wind
directions.
Qualitative/Quantitative Considerations—
Lidar systems have primarily been used for qualitative applications.
There are two factors which limit the use of lidar systems for quantitative
applications; reducing the lidar equation to one unknown and accounting
for multiple scattering effects.
The lidar equation defines the received power of the lidar systems as
a function of range in terms of two variables; the backscattering coeffi-
cient and the attenuation coefficient. The lidar equation must be reduced
to one variable if the return signal is to generate quantitative informa-
tion. This may be done by independently determining the value of one of
the variables or by assuming that a specific relationship exists between
the two variables.
Independent determination of one of the variables requires specific
measurements or qualifying assumptions. The measurements required may
include particle shape, refractive index, density and particle size dis-
tribution. Independent measurements, qualifying assumptions and assump-
tions relating backscatter coefficient to attenuation coefficient all
place limitations on the accuracy of any quantitative results attained.
Multiple scattering effects must also be considered when attempting
to obtain quantitative information from the lidar equation. Multiple
scattering can produce responses in the lidar receiver system that are
greater than expected and indicate misleading high quantitative amounts.
Multiple scattering effects occur to the greatest extent during turbulent
meteorological conditions. Lidar testing is normally done through stable
atmospheres where multiple scattering effects are considered negligible.
The degree to which this assumption is valid limits the accuracy of quanti-
tative results.
Application to Fugitive Emissions—
Lidar as a remote sensor of fugitive emissions would find best appli-
cation where particulate emissions or aerosols would normally be measured
by upwind-downwind networks. Lidar shows promise of being more accurate
than the usual upwind-downwind techniques although no application to fugi-
tive emission measurements has been documented.
Proven Fugitive Emission Applications—The Stanford Research Insti-
tute conducted a program in May and October of 1968 which utilized a lidar
system to remotely track the dispersion of the effluent from tall stacks at
a generating station. Although emissions from a stack cannot be considered
a fugitive source, the technique used to measure them can be almost direct-
ly applied to the measurement of fugitive emissions.
-12-
-------
The program consisted of several studies. One study remotely tracked
the stack plumes for distances up to 20 kilometers. The most common
distance reported was 3 kilometers. Each observation was made at a single
point located as close to perpendicular to the plume as possible and
consisted of 20-30 vertical lidar shots for each of as many as 3 azimuth
angles.
The study also attempted to obtain quantitative data by making cor-
rections for attenuation, computing return signals on the basis of
scattering theory and by making independent particle size measurements. A
short series of measurements showed a close agreement with calculated val-
ues from power plant data and wind speed.
In obtaining this type of quantitative data, several limiting factors
were apparent. First, the size distribution and the optical properties of
the particulates were assumed to be spatially uniform. Second, multiple
scattering was considered to be negligible. Third, considerable effort
was necessary to correct for attenuation.
Remote Sensing of Fugitive Particulate Emissions Using Transmissometera
In the measurement of stack emissions, transmissometers have been
utilized as continuous monitors of plume opacity near the stack outlet.
Response curves of particulate emission rate versus opacity have made it
possible to continuously monitor particulate emissions as & function of
the measured opacity. If a roof monitor is considered as a large cross-
sectional area stack, a transmissometer ought to be applicable to quanti-
tatively monitoring the roof monitor fugitive particulate emissions.
Principle of Operation—
Transmissometers are devices that measure the attenuation of visible
light across a fixed path in relation to some characteristic of the path
that tends to change light transmittance. The most common example is a
transmissometer used to measure the opacity of suspended particulate mat-
ter emissions from a stack.
While the principal application of such devices is to measure and
record stack plume opacity, they can be used as indicators of particulate
mass concentrations in the stack. The application of interest here is to
measure particulate mass concentration across the relatively long paths
normally required to encompass fugitive emissions.
The transmittance (T) of a particulate cloud is related to opacity (0)
as:
T - 1-0
The optical density (D) of a cloud is related to transmittance as:
D = log 1/T
-13-
-------
In general, for any given type and thickness of participate cloud the
concentration of particulates is directly related to optical density or
the log of 1/T. The relative optical density of a cloud of particulates at
a given concentration and optical path length is strongly influenced by
particle size and index of refraction, acceptance angle of the transmis-
someter and other variables. Much work has been done over the years in
developing relationships between the transmittance (or opacity) of an
aerosol cloud and its particle concentration. The most useful equation
relating particle concentration and several particle variables to opacity
is:
cm - fE log 1/T
where
c - particle mass concentration,
m
K * specific particulate volume divided by the aerosol attenua-
tion coefficient,
p - particle density,
L « path length through aerosol cloud,
T - transmittance through aerosol cloud.
Limitations—
Although transmissometers can be considered for the measurement of
fugitive particulate emissions, there are several problem areas:
Uniformity of Particulate Composition—Because of the strong depen-
dence of response of the transmissometer to particle size and refractive
index, there can be serious problems in quantifying roof monitor fugitive
emissions. If the emission source or sources within the building have
variable particle size and/or refractive index emissions, the transmis-
someter readings may not give valid mass emission results unless special
calibration procedures can be established for the specific conditions
involved.
Path Length of Light Beam—Obtaining sufficient signal strength at
the receiver to register the full range of opacity may impose limitations
on the path length over which the light beam can be transmitted. This must
be experimentally determined using an emission source similar, in terms of
particle size and refractive index, to that being measured. The maximum
path length can then be calculated from opacity versus light path length
test results.
-14-
-------
Uniformity and Representativeness of Roof Monitor Emissions—If the
emissions flow out of the roof monitor is not uniform, problems may be
encountered in using a fixed path and geometry transmissometer to estab-
lish the average emissions from the roof monitor in any given time period.
A second set of transmissometers mounted perpendicular to the primary set
might be required in such cases to establish the relative uniformity of
emission flows from the roof monitor.
Mechanical Vibration—Since alignment of the source and the sensor of
transmissometers is critical to the determination of the opacity of the
emissions, vibration can be a serious problem in their use on roof moni-
tors. Severe vibrations can be experienced in roof monitors as the result
of craneway movements or thermal plumes from high temperature operations.
Application to Fugitive Emissions—
No published reports have been located describing the application of
transmissometers to fugitive emissions measurement.
For a transmissometer to be successfully applied to the measurement
of particulate fugitive emissions, data must be obtained regarding the
physical characteristics of the particles and the constancy of their char-
acteristics over the measurement period. In general, transmissometers
could best be used on fugitive emissions from processes that generate
particulates of constant physical properties.
Transmissometers might also be used in an upwind-downwind configura-
tion if particle characteristics remain constant and it is possible to
obtain a reliable relationship between particle concentration and the ex-
tinction coefficient. Several transmissometer beams could be arranged to
intercept the fugitive particulate plume at various elevations. Wind
velocity measurements at each elevation would permit computation of the
particulate material flux at several levels.
Remote Sensing of Fugitive Particulate Emissions Using Time-Lapse
Photography
Time-lapse photography has been used in a wide variety of studies to
identify and monitor pollution resulting from natural and man-made causes.
The main advantages of time-lapse photographic measurement are: Action is
stopped and a permanent record provided; changes in emissions generation
and flow direction over relatively long time periods are detected and
discretely identified.
Principle of Operation—
In time-lapse photography a series of discrete still photos are made
at a predetermined time interval on motion picture film and projected at
standard speeds to reduce the time span of the action. Events occurring
over extended periods of time can then be viewed in short periods or
stopped entirely for analysis.
-15-
-------
Time-lapse photography can effectively be employed to trace the path
of a dispersed plume, indicate changes in the siee of a plume, and deter-
mine if visible emissions are emitted from a specific site over a specific
period of time, without long-term visual observation. It is also theoreti-
cally possible to relate the optical density of the filmed image to the
opacity of a fugitive cloud. The opacity can in theory also be related to
a mass emission rate. To date this has not been accomplished successfully.
Image density measurements can be made at this time by commercially avail-
able densitometers, but no technique has been developed to relate such
density measurements to plume opacity or particulate concentration.
Limitations—
Time-lapse photography techniques have certain limitations for the
measurement of fugitive emissions. They are only applicable to visible
emissions. This mandates that they be used only to measure particulate
emissions of high opacity. They can ordinarily be used only during day-
light hours. They cannot be used during adverse weather conditions such as
rain, snow, fog, etc., because of visibility and contrast problems.
Application to Fugitive Emissions-
Purdue University is currently conducting a study for the National
Science Foundation to measure trace metals in the environment. One portion
of the program is involved in a preliminary study of fugitive emissions
from coke pushing operations at a steel plant along Lake Michigan This
study was conducted during the summer and fall of 1975 and attempted to
quantify emissions primarily through the use of hi-yolume samplers in the
fugitive emission plume. Photographs of the emission plume were used to
determine the time periods in which the sampler was within the plume and to
define the shape of the plume. Stop-motion analysis of the film was
utilized,
Conclusions and Recommendations
While each of the four methods reviewed showed some promise of adapt-
ability as a useful tool for the measurement of airborne fugitive emis-
sions, no single method may be used as a general technique for the assess-
ment of all types of emissions to the atmosphere. Each could, with
considerable developmental effort, be used to measure either gaseous or
particulate emissions, but not both.
Interviews with users and manufacturers of the various devices
studied indicated that no significant efforts were being made or planned
for their development as remote fugitive emissions monitors. Most of those
interviewed could not provide even a rough idea of the amount of develop-
mental effort that might be required to adapt their devices to the intended
purpose or offer any estimates as to the probability of the success of such
efforts.
In light of these facts, it was recommended that no further effort be
expended on the investigation or on the development of a remote sensing
-16-
-------
technique at this time under this task. It was suggested that TRC and
IERL/RTP maintain an awareness of further developments in remote sensing
techniques and devices and resume the effort if such developments indicate
a reasonable probability of successfully adapting a technique to the mea-
surement of fugitive emissions.
TASK 04 - EVALUATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF AT INTEGRATED IRON AND STEEL PLANTS
A full description of this task is contained in Assessment of Surface
Runoff from Iron and Steel Mills, EPA-600/2-79-046, February 1979. The
report abstract is quoted as follows:
The report presents the results of a program whose objec-
tive was to assess whether surface runoff from iron and steel
mills is an environmental problem. Included is a compilation of
existing data available before this program, results of informa-
tion gathered from plant tours, and results of a field survey at
two fully integrated mills on tidal rivers. Data collected at
the two sites indicate that the coal and coke storage piles and
the coal and coke handling areas have the highest potential for
contaminating stormwater. The data also indicate that TSS run-
off concentrations are typical of urban runoff concentrations
while TDS values are approximately one to two times the typical
urban runoff concentrations. From plant tours it was found that
stormwater controls which presently exist within the steel
industry are limited. The only system specifically designed for
stormwater control exists at Armco's Houston Works where coal
piles have been diked as a control measure for both fugitive air
emissions and stormwater runoff. Some mills collect stormwater
runoff with process wastewater for subsequent treatment at a
terminal plant. Those methods which are applicable to the
industry include rainfall detention ponding rings for flat
roofs, swirl degritters, and retention basis or sedimentation
ponds.
TRC concluded that, with the exception of runoff from coal
and coke storage areas, stormwater runoff is not a problem when
compared to point source control.
TASK 05 - DESIGN OF A FUGITIVE ASSESSMENT SAMPLING TRAIN (FAST)
This task, which could not be completed within the time limitations of
this contract, has been transferred to a new contract, number 68-02-3115,
for continuation. A detailed report on the design, fabrication and testing
of the sampling system will be prepared under the new contract. A brief
summary of the work completed on the task is presented below.
Discussions between TRC personnel and the EPA Project Officers
resulted in a target design specification for an ideal sampling train as
the development starting point. This ideal sampler was described as being
— 17—
-------
able to obtain, from the ambient air in the vicinity of an industrial
fugitive emissions source, a 500-milligram sample of suspended particulate
matter and a similar-sized sample of organic vapors in an eight-hour sam-
pling period. The particulate matter sample would be separated into respi-
rable (smaller than 3 micrometer) and non-respirable (larger than 3
micrometer) fractions. The sample sixes were selected to correspond to the
then-considered minimum for complete analysis including bioassay. The
sampler was also to be self-contained and portable; it would require mini-
mum power and, using commercially available components wherever possible,
cost less than $10,000 to fabricate in the prototype version.
An extensive computerized literature search and review was conducted
in the hope of obtaining sufficient information on ambient concentrations
of industrial fugitive emissions as particulate matter and organic vapors
to prepare a realistic system design specification for the system, desig-
nated the Fugitive Assessment Sampling Train (FAST). While this search and
review revealed almost no data on ambient concentrations, it did provide a
wealth of information on emission rates from a wide variety of industrial
processes. A series of calculations based on recognized atmospheric dif-
fusion equations for a range of atmospheric, topological and wind condi-
tions were then performed to relate the published emission rates to ambient
concentrations. These calculations indicated that an ambient concentra-
tion of 200 micrograms per cubic meter can be found within 100 to 500
meters of sources emitting between 0.6 and 23 kilograms per hour—a range
covering about 90 percent of the industrial sources for which data ia
available.
This 200 microgram per cubic meter concentration was used to deter-
mine the sampling rate required to obtain a 500 milligram sample in an
eight-hour period of 5.2 cubic meters per minute (184 CFM) as the initial
system design parameter. A Roots lobe-type vacuum blower, capable of
moving the required volume of air against a pressure drop of about 10 cm
Hg, was selected as the particulate sampling prime mover. A system of
drive belts and pulleys was utilized to operate the blower at the required
3800 RPM from a three horsepower drive motor. The drive system also
provides enough flexibility to adjust the speed and the sampling rate up to
about 20% if required.
To provide for the separation of the particulate matter sample into
respirable and non-respirable fractions, an Air Correction Design 6UP San-
itary Cyclone Separator was selected. Its design capacity of 6.3 cubic
meters per minute (222 CFM) provides a Dso at about 2 micrometers at a
pressure drop of about 0.6 cm Hg. The cyclone was selected as preferable
to filter- or impactor-type collectors since the sample is removed from the
sampling streams and minimizes the degradation in sampling rate or effec-
tiveness caused by the deposition of particulate matter on flow-through
filters or impactor plates.
Consultations with Mr. Kenneth Gushing of the Southern Research
Institute, under contract to the Process Measurements Branch in the area of
-18-
-------
particulate matter sampling, indicated that Reeves-Angel 934AH glass fiber
filter material would be about 99.95% effective in collecting the fraction
of the particulate matter sample down to about 0.3 micrometers passed
through the cyclone. A circular format was selected for the filter mate-
rial to provide the most even distribution of the sample on the filter
surface and minimize the pressure drop buildup. A circular filter holder
was designed to acconmodate a 929 square centimeter (1 square foot) filter,
limiting the pressure drop across the unloaded filter to 3.7 cm Hg. A
louvered inlet section was also designed to reject particles larger than
100 micrometers to complete the particulate matter sampling section of the
train.
To provide stable samples of airborne organic vapor emissions, it was
decided to utilize an adsorbent resin in a removable canister that could be
easily transported from the sampling site to a laboratory for extraction
and analysis of the sample. Dr. Philip Levins of Arthur D. Little, Inc.,
under contract to the Process Measurements Branch in the organics sampling
area, provided consultation to TRC on the resin. The best available resin,
XAD-2, which is almost 100% effective in retaining organic vapors C« and
higher, was determined to require a canister containing about 75 kilograms
to provide a 500-milligram sample. This was prohibitive from the stand-
points of size and cost, and the design criterion was revised to obtain the
minimum sample required for a Level 1 assessment of 14 milligrams. This
sample size requires only 2.1 kilograms of resin and a sampling rate of
only 0.14 cubic meters per minute (5 CFM). A canister was designed and an
oil-less Cast vacuum pump selected to draw the sampling stream from the
main stream after the particulate matter is removed.
The system design was reviewed and approved and procurement and fab-
rication efforts started. At this time, the EPA's Health Effects Research
Laboratory suggested that an additional size fraction of the particulate
matter sample be included to help in the assessment of the inhalable (less
than 15 micrometer) portion of the emissions. It was decided to add a
battery of six single stage Sierra Instrument impactors to the system to
effect this additional fractionation betweeen the inlet and the cyclone.
These impactors were designed to provide a Das for 15 micrometer particles
at the system sampling rate with a pressure drop of only 0.05 cm Hg, and
could therefore be added without affecting the system design.
The final system design is shown schematically in Figure 1. Design
flow rates and pressure drops for each system element are shown enclosed in
brackets. Samples retained by each element are shown in parenthesis.
-19-
-------
INLET
[184 CFM]
IK
•
ILE
V
^~
T
l\
—».
— •
T.C.
i
--S
,,.,r«
FILTER
VACUUM
GA6E
EXHAUST
EXHAUST
[0.6 CM Ht]
FLOW
METER
[6 CFM]
Figure 1. Fugitive assessment sampling
train design operating condition
The procured and fabricated elements of the prototype system were
then loosely packaged onto a space frame about 75 cm (2.5 feet) square by
183 cm (6 feet) high to allow easy access to the elements during develop-
ment testing. The main sampling blower and the organic vapor sampling pump
were separately mounted to improve the system's portability and permit the
location of the blower and pump exhausts away from the sampling inlet.
After a successful operational test and a few modifications to the
system were completed at TRC, the FAST was shipped to the Southern Research
Institute's laboratory for calibration testing of the particulate sampling
section. Tests were run by Southern using monodisperse ammonium fluores-
cein aerosols provided by their vibrating orifice aerosol generator at
3, 10 and 15 micrometers. The test results for the cyclone, shown in
Figure 2 as points plotted on the manufacturer's design curve, are in very
good agreement. The test results for the impact or, also shown in Figure 2,
indicate good agreement with the design curve for smaller particles but are
considerably lower than expected for the 15 micrometer particles of major
concern.
-20-
-------
100
II
II
70
M
5 ••
IM
3 co
*Z
ik
IM
« *°
o
u SO
Ml
-J
_l
S 20
10
oust Finn
SUIITIATII*
IMPACT!*
ORCAOtO riATISO
CYCLONE -*
I T
GYCIONE OISION CURVE
1 ' IMPACTOR OESIIN
CURVi -I
I
.3 .4 .5 •« .7.0.01.0 2 3 4 B 0 7 0 010
PARTICLE DIAMETER. MICROMETERS
10
Figure 2. Collection efficiency as e function of particle
diameter for the FAST impactor and cyclone
Since it was felt that this discrepancy was caused by bouncing of the
larger particles off the glass fiber substrate used in the impactors, a
test was run using a grease substrate in an attempt to reduce the bounce.
This resulted in a slight improvement in performance, but not to a level
considered satisfactory for further development. A joint effort by TRC and
Southern Research has been initiated to design and fabricate an elutriator
to replace the impactor as the 15 micrometer fractionator. It is expected
that the elutriator, envisioned as a battery of parallel settling cham-
bers, will replace and perform the functions of both the inlet louvers and
the impactors.
A field test of the FAST has been planned at a coke oven battery,
where the system will be tested simultaneously with two Battelle mega-vol
samplers and a standard hi-vol sampler in the measurement of emissions from
coke pushing operations. This test, to be run prior to the fabrication and
-21-
-------
installation of the elutriator, should provide sufficient data for con-
tinued development of the cyclone and filter sections as well as an initial
indication of the effectiveness of the adsorbent canister train design.
It is expected that the PAST will require some modifications and a
repeat of the calibration and field testing cycle after the addition of the
elutriator. Verification tests of the total system will be performed after
the modifications and additions have been completed and an operating pro-
cedures manual will be prepared and published for the final version.
The efforts to date in the development of this Fugitive Assessment
Sampling Train have been quite successful and encouraging. The completion
of the planned effort wil provide a useful tool for rapid, reasonable
assessments of fugitive particulate matter and organic vapors from a wide
variety of industrial sources.
TASK 07 - PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF TECHNIQUES FOR THE DETERMINATION OP
HOOD CAPTURE EFFICIENCY
Hooding has been used for many years as an effective means of collect-
ing open source emissions such as fumes, gases, dust and particulates, «o
that they may be transported to a control device for proper treatment to
reduce the amount of pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. Most of
the previous work with hoods and hooding systems has been directed toward
the control of small industrial process emissions. The objective of this
task was to perform a preliminary investigation of methods to measure the
capture efficiency of hoods for large process emission source control.
The eventual goal of this effort and subsequent efforts indicated by
the preliminary investigation is to produce a technical manual on hood
capture efficiency measurements that will describe the techniques that may
be employed to determine hood efficiencies.
A comprehensive literature search was conducted to determine the
state-of-the-art in hood capture efficiency measurements. Through discus-
sions with individuals concerned with hood capture efficiency measurements
in the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Institute of Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, industry, and research organizations, a number
of processes where the measurement of hood efficiency could be important
were identified. The techniques currently being used to determine the
efficiencies of capture hoods for some of these industrial processes were
investigated in an attempt to formulate a basic set of specifications that
could be applied to a general technique. New techniques identified during
the study were also analyzed on this basis.
Literature Search
An exhaustive literature search was performed using the System Devel-
opment Corporation (SDC) computerized data banks, along with literature
searches performed by the University of Connecticut Health Center and the
-22-
-------
EPA library service. Data baaea covered included NTIS, Pollution, Compen-
dex, APTIC, Toxicology, MEDLARS and the Library of Congress.
Before scanning the data bases, a search strategy was formulated
whereby a list of key word identifiers, with major and minor categories,
was generated. These identifiers were fed into each data base, starting
with very general categories and working down to specific identifiers. The
computer then searched its files and printed the titles of those articles
which contained those key words in the title or abstract. Typical key word
identifiers used in this search included: HOOD, CAPTURE, EMISSIONS,
EXHAUST, DESIGN, EFFICIENCY, ENCLOSURE, AIR POLLUTION, VENTILATION, FUME,
COLLECTION, TESTING, AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION. By using these identi-
fiers individually and in various combinations and permutations, as well
as keying in certain categories of articles not to be accessed, major
articles and reports on hood capture efficiency measurements were located.
The search into each data base was usually considered complete when the
same articles or group of articles was accessed by using two or three
different groupings of key words. Subsequent to the literature search,
phone calls were made to the authors of the more pertinent articles to
attempt to trace secondary references and to discuss their knowledge of the
state-of-the-art of hood capture efficiency measurements.
Thirteen primary references were found in the open literature which
could apply to measuring hood capture efficiency. The bulk of the material
found in the literature dealt with a variety of emission measurement tech-
niques, but contained little information on hooded processes or the effi-
ciencies of hoods.
ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS
Since the information obtained through the literature search was so
sparse, additional information was obtained by directly contacting knowl-
edgeable individuals identified in the search or in previous professional
contacts as having an interest in, or concern with, hood capture efficiency
measurements.
Telephone contacts and personal interviews with ten individuals, four
from academic or research organizations, four from industry, and two from
the EPA; resulted in the identification of nine measurement techniques
potentially applicable to the problem and a number of industrial processes
that could require capture efficiency measurements as part of a program to
improve the control of their emissions.
These techniques and processes were reviewed in detail and reduced to
a list of four techniques that could provide measurements with acceptable
error limits and five processes representative of the problems that might
be encountered in the general application of the techniques. The measure-
ment techniques are:
-23-
-------
1 - Tracer techniques
2 - Multi-point probes
3 - Physical modeling
4 - Optical measurements
The processes ares
1. Metallurgical coke production
2. High alloy electric furnace steel production
3. Electrolytic smelting of aluminum
4. EOF steel production
5. Rubber tire production
The techniques and their possible applications to the processes are
described in the section following.
Measurement Methods Applications
Tracer Methods—
Tracer studies have already been conducted for industrial hygiene
tests of hood and ventilation system capture efficiency. Nitrous oxide has
been used as a gas tracer to determine the air change efficiency of an
operating room ventilation system, determined by measuring the rate of
decay of nitrous oxide in the operating room air. Uranine dye released
through a nebulizer has been used as a particulate tracer to measure the
effectiveness of an auxiliary air hood in a chemical use laboratory. in
this application, auxiliary air is used to increase the air dilution inside
a vent hood to more rapidly dissipate toxic fumes. Any fumes not captured
by the hood could leave the hood through the hood face area where the
operator stands. Air samples were taken in the hood face with and without
auxiliary air. The hood face sample was assumed to be the uncaptured
emissions, and the hood capture efficiency was thereby calculated from the
weight of uranine dye released in the hood and the hood face sample weight
This hood capture efficiency method appears attractive for application to
larger air pollution emission sources.
Scale-up of the tracer technique to large emission sources would re-
quire that uncaptured emissions be sampled at several different locations
around the hood face. The larger area within which the escaped tracer must
be sampled can increase the errors in the hood capture efficiency measure-
ment unless a very complex sampling network is set up. Costs and error
limit constraints would have to be examined on a case-by-case basis to
calculate the most cost-effective configuration for a hood capture effi-
ciency test. Another limitation is the temperature stability of the
tracer. For high temperature processes, Freon or sulfur hexafluoride gas
and uranine dye or dioctyl phthalate particulate tracers would not be
suitable. High temperature tests would be limited to the use of more
stable materials, such as helium, titanium chloride and zinc sulfide as
tracers.
-24-
-------
Tracers offer some distinct advantages over other hood capture effi-
ciency methods in that background concentrations of the actual air contam-
inant do not interfere with the efficiency measurements. Most of the
tracers used for such tests are detectable at far lower concentrations than
most air contaminants. This can increase the accuracy of the hood capture
efficiency measurements even where tracer concentrations are low as a
result of the distance from the hood to the sampling point or the large
face area of the hood where they are released. The tracers become diluted
with tracer-free air as they travel further from the hood or when they
encounter large volumes of outside air at the face of a large hood. Since
most tracers can be accurately measured in the parts per billion range
while most pollutants can only be measured in the parts per million range,
it is possible to measure a tracer added at a concentration as much as
three orders of magnitude lower than that of the pollutant emitted and have
the same measurement accuracy.
A basic procedure for a tracer test would be as follows:
1. Background measurements are taken of the tracer concentration
before any tracer gas is released in the area.
2. The tracer is introduced uniformly into the emission source.
The time period and rate of addition are measured.
3. A sample of the air captured by the hood is taken in the duct
leading from the hood at a point where flow is generally uniform
in the duct. Tracer concentration and total gas flow are mea-
sured for a definite time interval.
4. Over the same time interval, the hood face concentration of
uncaptured tracer and the flow of air away from the hood are
measured.
5. Background measurements of tracer concentrations are taken after
release of the tracer gas has stopped.
6. The mass flow rates of tracer in the duct and around the hood
face are calculated. This data is used to determine hood capture
efficiency.
7. The test is repeated as required to determine the accuracy and
precision of results.
Application of tracers to sources of interest for hood capture effi-
ciency measurements would include:
-25-
-------
Source
Characteristics
Tracer
1. Metallurgical Coke
Production
High Alloy Electric
Furnace Steel
Electrloytic Alum-
inum Smelting
4.
BOF Steel
Production
5. Rubber Tire
Production
Hot, short tine interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates &
gases released.
Hot, short time interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates &
gases released.
Hot, continuous low volume
flow through large hood area.
Fume, particulatea & gases
released.
Hot, short time interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates
released.
Warm, short or long time
interval low volume flow
through small hoods. Fume,
particulates & gases released.
Helium or
titanium
chloride
Helium or
titanium
chloride
Helium or
zinc sulfide
Helium or
titanium
chloride
, Freons,
uranine dye or
dioctyl phthalate
The tracer method is given the highest ranking of the four possible hood
capture efficiency measurement methods.
Multipoint Probe Methods—
Multipoint probe methods have already been applied with some success
to the determination of hood capture efficiency for large scale processes.
Recent EPA studies on the capture of emissions from coke pushing operations
using coke-side sheds have shown that there are deficiencies in the pushing
system design that allow some particulate and fume emissions to escape at
the ends of the sheds. Tests were performed using EPA method 5 particulate
test trains traversing the shed leakage points during pushing operations.
Tests at two coke ovens showed the utility of the method. At the same time
as these tests were conducted, the particulate and fume captured by the
shed were measured using an EPA method 5 train traversing the duct leading
from the shed to a stack or control device. The success of these tests
demonstrates that this method can be applied to significant emission
sources where hood capture efficiency measurements would be needed to
define the potential degree of control of the source in question.
In comparison to the tracer-method, which can use a similar sampling
method and network, the multipoint probe method suffers from two disadvan-
tages. The first is that a direct measurement of the pollutant in question
-26-
-------
can be less sensitive and accurate than that of a tracer. The second is
that the background levels of pollutant within the plant atmosphere can be
significant enough to cause appreciable errors in direct measurement.
The multipoint probe method is a direct measure of hood capture effi-
ciency under actual operating conditions, and in that sense can be termed a
more dependable method of determining hood capture efficiency than the
tracer method. As with tracers, the sampling network can be complex and
the cost-effectiveness of the testing method must be assessed on a case-by-
case basis.
The basic test procedure would be identical to that described for
tracers, except that the actual pollutant rather than a tracer would be
measured.
Application of multipoint probes to sources of interest for hood
capture efficiency measurements would include:
Source
1. Metallurgical
Coke Production
2. High Alloy
Electric Furnace
Steel
3. Electrolytic
Aluminum Smelting
4. BOF Steel
Production
5. Rubber Tire
Production
Characteristics
Hot, short time interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates &
gases released.
Hot, short time interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates &
gases released.
Hot, continuous low volume flow
through large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases released.
Hot, short time interval high
volume flow through large hood
area. Fume and particulates
released.
Warm, short or long time
interval low volume flow
through small hoods. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Pollutant
Measured
Particulates
by EPA Method
5
Particulates
by EPA Method
5 (Modified)
Particulates
by EPA Method
5
Particulates
by EPA Method
5 (Modified)
Hydrocarbons
by FID.
Particulates
by EPA
Method 5
The multipoint probe method is given the second highest ranking of the
four possible hood capture efficiency measurement methods.
-27-
-------
Physical Models—
Physical models have been applied to the study of hood capture effi-
ciency measurements, especially for industrial hygiene purposes. Com-
pleted studies include an investigation of a modeled mining ventilation
system using methane as a quantitative tool and smoke for visual and
quantitative measurements of hood capture efficiency. A scale model, low-
volume, high-velocity hood system was studied using dioctyl phthalate as a
tracer, its concentration being measured by a light scattering photometer.
For hot processes, laboratory heating devices and titanium chloride smoke
was used to follow the travel path of heated fumes from their source to a
nearby capture hood. Temperature measurements were used to determine
pollutant flux.
The physical modeling technique serves best as a screening test for
full scale measurements rather than an end in itself. There are several
dangers in using the model data to scale up to full scale hoods. The model
system may have different characteristics unless all required similitudes
are carefully examined. Even a single key element out of scale could
distort the test results substantially. In small scale systems, the mea-
surement techniques can physically perturb the system by introducing
obstructions to flow or by diverting the flow path. Models can be very
helpful in evaluating the design parameters for full scale systems. It is
much more cost-effective to work out design changes to optimize emission
collection on a small scale before constructing a full scale hood and
attempting to measure its emission capture efficiency.
A basic procedure for a physical model test would be as follows:
1. A scale model system is constructed which retains the similitude
of the key variables of a full scale system.
2. An appropriate gas, particulate or aerosol is selected to repre-
sent the pollutant of interest in the system.
3. A system is installed to present the pollutant to the hood in the
same manner as in a full scale system.
4. Background readings of the scale model pollutants are taken.
5. A test is run using a probe system to capture the pollutant in
the hood and on the hood face. The time interval and total
pollutant release are measured.
6. Background pollutant readings are taken after pollutant release
has been terminated.
7. If possible, all of the pollutant captured by the hood is col-
lected in a control device as is all of the pollutant not cap-
tured by the hood.
-28-
-------
8. The concentration, mass flow rate and/or total mass of collected
and uncollected pollutant are measured and used to determine
hood capture efficiency.
Application of physical models to sources of interest for hood cap-
ture efficiency measurements would include:
Source
1. Metallurgical Coke
Production
4.
5.
High Alloy Electric
Furnace Steel
Electrolytic
Aluminum Smelting
BOF Steel
Production
Rubber Tire
Production
Characteristics
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Hot, continuous low volume
flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates
& gases released.
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Warm, short or long in-
terval low volume flow
through small hoods.
Fume, particulate & gases
released.
Physical Model
Rectangular opening
with infrared heater.
Titanium chloride
smoke or helium in
test gas.
Cylinder with gas
flame at bottom.
Titanium chloride
smoke or helium in
test gas.
Scale model probably
not possible.
Cylinder with gas
flame at bottom.
Titanium chloride
smoke or helium
as test gas.
Scale model of
machine & infrared
heater. SFe, Freons,
zinc sulfide, dioctyl
phthalate, uranine
dye or titanium
chloride tracer
The physical model method is considered the first step in the applica-
tion of other hood capture efficiency measurement methods, and not an end
in itself.
Optical Methods—
Optical methods have not yet been applied to the measurement of hood
capture efficiency, but they have been applied to fugitive emissions mea-
surement. The extrapolation from that one use to the other can be made
quite reasonably. The fugitive emissions from coke oven pushing were
studied using two movie cameras located on horizontal axes through the
-29-
-------
plume perpendicular to each other to define the plume size and shape and to
verify auxiliary in-plurae particulate measurements. Fluoride emissions
from gypsum ponds have been measured using a long path infrared transmis-
someter with auxiliary wet chemical fluoride measurements. Optical
methods are therefore applicable to both gases and particulates and would
be well suited to hood capture efficiency measurement.
Optical methods require calibration by an independent measurement
method and are therefore no more reliable or accurate than the calibration
method. In addition, for specific sources, the backscatter of light radia-
tion by the emissions can be so severe that no meaningful measurements can
be taken. This can be true whether the optical method measures backscatter
of light from the emissions or forward transmission through the emissions.
Optical methods do have the advantage of not requiring complex sam-
pling networks and can be operated at a safe distance from hazardous areas
near the source of emissions. Optical methods can also isolate specific
pollutant in the source if all emissions are gaseous, and can follow the
travel path of uncaptured emissions for considerable distances.
Considerable effort would be required to extend the state-of-the-art
of optical methods to include their use in hood capture efficiency tests.
The basic methods are applicable as they are now employed for fugitive
emissions measurement, but modifications to effective ranges and sensi-
tivities and extensive calibration efforts are required before efficiency
tests can be undertaken.
A basic procedure for an optical method test would be as follows:
1. The optical monitor is set up to scan the area around the hood
face. Velocity measurement devices are also set up here.
2. A calibration run is done on the optical monitor by introducing a
known amount of the pollutant to be measured into its optical
path and a background reading done for the pollutant of
interest.
3. The pollutant is released in the vicinity of the hood, and the
sampling time of the optical system determined.
4. The optical monitor scans the hood face area and a sample taken
from the hood duct.
5. The calibration run is repeated and a background reading is
taken.
6. The mass flow rate in the duct and around the hood face is
determined from the calibrated optical measurements and the ve-
locity traverses.
-30-
-------
7. Hood capture efficiency is then directly calculated from mass
flow rate data.
Application of optical methods to sources of interest for hood cap-
ture efficiency measurements would include:
Source
1. Metallurgical Coke
Production
2.
High Alloy Electric
Furnace Steel
3.
Electrolytic
Aluminum Smelting
4. EOF Steel Production
5. Rubber Tire
Production
Characteristics
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases re-
leased.
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Hot, continuous low volume
flow through large hood
area. Fume, particulates
& gases released.
Hot, short time interval
high volume flow through
large hood area. Fume,
particulates & gases
released.
Warm, short or long in-
terval low volume flow
through small hoods.
Fume, particulates &
gases released.
Optical Methods
Photographic plus
EPA Method 5, or
calibrated trans-
mis someter.
Photographic plus
EPA Method 5, or
calibrated trans-
mi s some ter .
Infrared long
path or calibrated
transmissometer.
Photographic plus
EPA Method 5, or
calibrated trans-
missometer.
Infrared long path
or calibrated
transmissometer.
The optical monitor can be used for hood capture efficiency measure-
ment if development work is done to adapt it from its present use in
fugitive emission measurement.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION
The information gathered in the literature search and interviews
conducted during this task, while sufficient to provide descriptions of
the applicability of a few possible measurement techniques for the deter-
mination of large hood capture efficiencies, clearly indicates that no
really definitive work has been completed in this area. There is not
enough information to identify any single method as universally applicable
or to formulate a meaningful specification for such a method. To correct
-31-
-------
these deficiencies and provide inputs to a technical manual, TRC recom-
mends that a program be implemented to test the proposed methods to deter-
mine the most applicable method for general use and the modifications
required to its application to specific source and hood configurations.
The method and its modifications could then be evaluated in a series of
field trials at actual process sites and the results used to prepare a
technical manual describing the planning and performance of broad capture
efficiency measurement programs.
-32-
-------
SECTION 3
SERVICE TASK DESCRIPTIONS
TASK 20A - EVALUATION OF A PROPOSED NO-DUCT QUASI STACK MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUE
An evaluation was made of a measurement method proposed by another EPA
contractor to determine the emission strength from an electric furnace.
The method proposed to determine source strength by simultaneously moni-
toring the temperature and pollutant concentration at points within the
furnace plume and relating the measurements to source strength through a
hypothetical relationship developed in a series of laboratory-scale exper-
iments .
The evaluation resulted in a recommendation that additional analysis
of furnace plume dynamics be performed to more fully define the circum-
stances in which the proposed test method or a similar approach would
greatly simplify emissions quantification.
TASK 20D - PREPARATION OF ALTERNATIVE MEASUREMENT APPROACHES FOR EMISSIONS
FROM A COKE QUENCH TOWER
A test methodology and plan for the measurement of emissions from coke
quenching towers was prepared. The test program, to provide data for the
establishment of specific emission factors, was to be carried out by a
contractor to another office within the EPA.
Methodologies employed in earlier attempts to measure coke quench
tower emissions were reviewed and found basically ineffective. The prob-
lems involved in making measurements were defined:
o Emission period less than 3 minutes long.
o Emission velocity, temperature, and moisture content vary with
time.
o Emission concentration likely to vary across tower opening.
o High water vapor and liquid droplet proportion in emissions.
o Emission exit flow likely to be skewed by tower baffles.
o Area of emission exit flow large.
o Particulates present in wide size range and as dry solids,
suspended solids, and solids condensed from vapors.
-33-
-------
The test methodology suggested utilized a modified EPA Method 5 sam-
pling train/Aerothera HVSS 4 CFM stack sampler with a probe designed to
traverse the tower opening. A resin bed was added to collect organic
species emissions. Standard sample analyses were suggested for the prob-
able pollutants. Analyses of the various quench waters used were suggested
to determine the effect of water composition on the character of the
emissions.
The test plan specified the necessary pretest survey information to
be obtained; the mechanical operation, manner and frequency of sampling
required; and the data to be recorded. It also included an estimate of
manpower and time requirements and total program costs.
TASK 20E - PREPARATION OF A SAMPLING PROGRAM FOR FUGITIVE EMISSIONS FROM A
COAL CLEANING FACILITY
A sampling program for the measurement of fugitive emissions at a coal
cleaning facility proposed to be built in the state of Pennsylvania was the
subject of a report prepared as the initial phase of this task. The report
specified the allowable emissions from such a facility under applicable
Federal and State Agency regulations for both atmospheric contaminants and
waterborne effluents. Principal potential sources of fugitive emissions
at the proposed facility were identified, along with their typical air and
water pollutants. Brief upwind-downwind air sampling and receiving body-
runoff water sampling programs were described for a typical coal cleaning
facility and rough cost-manpower estimates developed.
The final phase of this task was a review of a preliminary test plan
prepared by an EPA contractor for the proposed Homer City coal cleaning
facility. The plan was judged to be quite effective for meeting most of
its stated objectives. An improved program for obtaining specific ambient
measurements was suggested. It was also suggested that the test plan be
revised to include measurements of opacity from specific plant sources as
indicated in the proposed EPA standards cited in the Phase I report.
TASK 20H - ASSISTANCE IN THE PREPARATION OF A GUIDELINE ON PARTICULATE
FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
A number of service task-type reports on particulate fugitive emis-
sions from this and previous EPA contracts were supplied to another EPA
contractor preparing a particulate guideline document. A review of that
contractor's work plan resulted in a number of suggestions to facilitate
the proposed effort or to readily broaden its scope.
TASK 201 - CRITICAL REVIEW OF A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF SOURCE IDENTIFICATION
FROM AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
A critique of a very lengthy feasibility study of source identifica-
tion from ambient air measurements, prepared by another EPA contractor,
resulted in a suggestion for modifications to the report. A format was
-34-
-------
outlined, and a section-by-section list of actions suggested to make the
study more readable and useful.
TASK 20J - PREPARATION OF A MEASUREMENT PROGRAM FOR PARTICULATE MATTER
EMISSIONS FROM IRON ORE LOADING OPERATIONS
This task, to prepare a proposed test method for the measurement of
particulate matter as fugitive emissions from an iron ore mining opera-
tion, involved a visit to the U.S. Steel Mintac mine in Mountain Iron,
Minnesota, to observe the operations generating the emissions. The opera-
tion of principal concern was the loading of iron ore into rail cars by
electric shovels, which generates a puff of suspended particulate matter
with each shovel dumping. The puffs were observed to diffuse rapidly into
the ambient atmosphere, becoming invisible after traveling no more than 10
meters even on a day with low prevailing wind speeds (estimated at 3-6
km/hr).
A method was proposed to obtain particulate matter samples from the
puff as it passes a point immediately downwind of the loading operation
utilizing isokinetic samplers with 37 millimeter filters. The samplers
were to be suspended from poles that could be manually located near the
centerline of the puff and controlled to operate only when actually in the
puff. Microscopic examination of the filters would provide approximate
concentration levels and particle size distributions. Two synchronized,
electrically operated cameras would be utilized to obtain pictures of the
puff in short intervals as it passed the sampling point, one camera aligned
along the puff's path and the other normal to the path. The pictures would
be analyzed to determine the size and shape of the puff. These size data,
combined with the concentration data obtained from the filter analyses,
would provide a good estimate of the total particle flux at the sampling
point, assuming that the particle density is constant and that the distri-
bution within the puff is reasonably close to normal.
TASK 20L - REVIEW OF A TEST PLAN FOR AMBIENT MONITORING OF FLUIDIZED BED
COAL COMBUSTOR EMISSIONS
A plan prepared by another EPA contractor for an ambient monitoring
program designed to determine the impact of operating a fluidized bed coal
combustor on the ambient atmosphere in the Georgetown, D.C. area was re-
viewed under this task.
The plan was found to be generally well conceived. Suggestions were
made to add an additional SOa sampling site and to reschedule the proposed
program to shorten the required time duration and reduce the overall pro-
gram cost.
-35-
-------
TASK 20M - REVIEW OF A SAMPLING PLAN FOR FUGITIVE EMISSIONS FROM PETROLEUM
REFINERIES
The objective of this task was to review and evaluate a work plan
prepared by another EPA contractor for the measurement of fugitive emis-
sions at petroleum refineries. The evaluation included a visit to a Gulf
Coast refinery in the company of the contractor's personnel who were then
making preparations to conduct the measurement program. The task report,
based on the observations made during that visit, discussions with the
contractor's personnel and our prior experience in measuring similar fugi-
tive emissions, included a summary section quoted in part as follows:
TRC believes the plan to be generally sound in its concep-
tion and intent. Specific recommendations are discussed in some
detail in ... this Report. Those recommendations include:
1. Removal of refinery location, size, and age as "choice
parameters" and the consequent restriction of choice param-
eters to so-called micro factors. We believe the focus
should initially be on specific pieces of equipment cur-
rently in use at U.S. refineries.
2. Revision of the statistical experimental design so that
within a factored "micro-type" the sampling be conducted
randomly.
3. Revision of the measurement method for baggable sources to
eliminate potential and, in our judgement, likely oppor-
tunities for improper bag sealing around pieces of equip-
ment. Use of a quasi-stack method appears to be a better
alternative.
4. Revision of the measurement method for certain non-baggable
sources, such as the uncovered API Separators at Gulf Coast
Refinery A. The emphasis here is that direct measurement,
even with admitted imperfections, is to be preferred to
indirect measurements combined with theoretical assump-
tions implicit in the mass transfer equations proposed in
the Plan.
TASK 20N - CRITIQUE OF A PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF MINING
PARTICULATE MATTER EMISSIONS
This task, essentially a follow-on effort to Task 20J described
above, consisted of a critique of the measurement plan prepared by another
EPA con tractor for the ore-loading operation particle sampling. The
critique was delivered as a verbal discussion with the EPA project officer
and was not formally documented. Its basic content is reflected in the
critique prepared under Task 20R, described below.
-36-
-------
TASK 20P - PREPARATION OF A CONCEPTUAL ROOF MONITOR MEASUREMENT APPROACH
FOR AN OPEN HEARTH SHOP
This task, to develop a conceptual approach for an open hearth shop
roof monitor fugitive emissions measurement program, was designed to
assist another contractor to EPA Region III to quantify the fugitive emis-
sions from the U.S. Steel Corporation's Fairless Works.
A visit to the site resulted in the preparation of an extensive report
that outlined the variables affecting the generation and measurement of
the fugitive emissions and proposed a measurement approach with detailed
descriptions of the monitoring system principles and design, the necessary
meteorological monitoring system and its associated data transmittal sub-
systems, and the methods proposed for data acquisition, processing, and
presentation. Cost and schedule estimates were also included in the
report.
TASK 20R - CRITIQUE OF EXPOSURE PROFILING TECHNIQUE FOR PARTIUCLATE MATTFW
FUGITIVE EMISSIONS "Ana*
This task was a critique of the exposure profiling technique for the
quantification of participate fugitive emissions as developed and tested
by another contractor for lERL's Metallurgical Processes Branch The
technique is basically the same as that used in the measurement of the iron
ore loading operations referenced in Task 20N, above. A summary of the
critique is quoted as follows:
The exposure profiling technique described [in the] report
'A Study of Fugitive Emissions from Metallurgical Process (inte-
grated Iron and Steel Plants)1 appears to be a viable method for
estimating source strengths or emission factors from open
sources of particulate fugitive emissions. Its level of
accuracy, as indicated by the test results in the report, is
probably commensurate with the requirements of a level 1 assess-
ment, within a factor of 2 or 3 of the actual emissions.
Both the vertical grid array of samplers, used primarily
for line or large-area sources, and the two-dimensional array
of samplers, used for small-areas or virtual point sources are
essentially small versions of the more generally applicable up-
wind-downwind technique's sampling arrays or network. Designed
to be used much closer to emission sources than upwind-downwind
samplers, the exposure profiling technique can obtain particu-
late samples with a much lower ratio of background to source
emission concentrations, enabling the estimation of source
strength from a specific source that would be difficult or
impossible to obtain using other techniques. Exposure profiling
is, in general, less expensive and faster than upwind-downwind
sampling in situations where both are applicable.
-37-
-------
The technique is not as universally applicable, however, as
upwind-downwind sampling. It requires site conditions that per-
mit close access to the source and is limited to winds of
moderate speed and fairly constant direction. Its proximity to
the sources means that the samples will contain a high propor-
tion of particulates larger than those normally considered sus-
pended, thus increasing the difficulty in quantifying the
suspended fraction.
The review of the exposure profiling technique leaves
little doubt that the method is reasonable effective within
limits. Additional testing is required to determine what those
limits are and to help refine the method so that it will produce
more consistent results.
TASK 20U - CONSULTATION AND ASSISTANCE TO AN EPA CONTRACTOR IN SAMPLING
REFINERY HYDROCARBON FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
A meeting at RTF with three other EPA contractors and their Project
Officers was held to define and discuss the problems being encountered in
the sampling of hydrocarbon fugitive emissions in programs being conducted
at a number of petroleum refineries. The meeting resulted in a subsequent
visit to one of the refineries to observe the situation. As the result of
this visit, TRC prepared a procedure for the sampling of Cs and lighter
hydrocarbons using Tedlar bags and evacuated plexiglass containers. TRC
also prepared recommendations to improve sampling methods to ensure iso-
kinetic sampling of multiphase sources.
-38-
-------
SECTION 4
DOCUMENTATION AND PUBLICATION TASK DESCRIPTIONS
TASK 20B - PREPARATION OF A GUIDELINE FOR FUGITIVE EMISSIONS MEASUREMENTS
The preparation of a guideline for the selection of the moat effective
program for the measurement of fugitive emissions from industrial sources
was the objective of this task. A draft of the guideline was prepared
according to the original directive to include definitions and categoriza-
tions of airborne industrial fugitive emissions; descriptions of the
existing techniques for their measurement; criteria relevant to the selec-
tion of measurement techniques; and baseline estimates of manpower, time
requirements, and costs for typical measurement programs.
Prior to the release of this draft for EPA approval, it was decided by
the EPA Project Officer to broaden the scope of the guideline to include
the same information for waterborne fugitive emissions. The task was
therefore deferred until the completion of the water-related Tasks 02 and
04 which were expected to provide much of the information required. The
task will be resumed at a later date and will result in a guideline for
measurement programs for all types of industrial fugitive emissions, both
air and waterborne.
TASK 20C - PREPARATION OF A SUMMARY OF AIRBORNE FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
The initial phase of this task was a review of a chapter on fugitive
emissions sampling in a Level 1 Environmental Assessment Procedures Manual
prepared by another contractor for IERL/RTP. A meeting with the other
contractor and their EPA Project Officer to discuss the comments made in
the review led to a directive to prepare another version of the chapter.
This version included summaries of measurement techniques, measurement
equipment, sampling system designs, analysis methods, and data reduction
for both air and waterborne fugitive emissions in a Level 1 or survey
assessment. Estimates of manpower requirements for the designated assump-
tions of preliminary survey completion and a one-week field program were
prepared.
The TRC-prepared chapter was integrated with some of the originally
reviewed material by the other contractor to produce a chapter in the draft
version of the document that concentrated on an ambient air assessment. A
separate chapter addressed the problem of sampling liquids but made no
specific reference to waterborne fugitives.
TASK 20F - PREPARATION OF PAPERS FOR SYMPOSIUM PRESENTATIONS
This task included the preparation and presentation of two technical
papers relative to the measurement of fugitive emissions for the Symposium
-39-
-------
on Fugitive Emissions; Measurement and Control, held in Hartford,
Connecticut, in May of 1976. The Symposium was organized by TRC for
IERL/RTP under a previous contract. The papers and their published
abstracts were:
Fugitive Emissions Problems in Perspective - J.E. Yocom
Primary emphasis on control of air and water pollutants has been
placed on point sources. Fugitive emissions, or those emitted from
non-point sources, are important contributors to environmental degra-
dation in many areas and in relation to many types of industrial
operations. Because of the potentially high cost of controlling such
emissions it is important that their significance be accurately
assessed.
This paper discusses many types of fugitive emissions and the
methods for assessing them. Fugitive emissions are extremely site
specific in respect to their measurement and control, and this paper
presents examples of measurement programs that put fugitive emissions
in proper perspective in relation to other source categories and
other environmental impacts.
A Guideline for the Measurement of Air-borne Fugitive Emissions from
Industrial Sources - H.J. Kolnsberg
The paper presents a guide for the selection of the most effec-
tive program for the measurement of airborne fugitive emissions from
an industrial source. The quasi-stack, roof monitor and upwind-
downwind techniques presently utilized for sampling a wide variety of
air-borne pollutants are described. General criteria for the selec-
tion of the most effective sampling program, relative to character-
istics of the site, process and emissions are discussed. Baseline
estimates of manpower, time and cost requirements for typical mea-
surements programs for each technique are provided.
The publication of the proceedings of this symposium and the prepara-
tion of the symposium review article that was published in the November
1977 issue of the Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association were
also included in this task.
The task was completed with the publication of three Technical
Manuals on the measurement of fugitive emissions by the Quasi-Stack, Roof
Monitor and Upwind-Downwind sampling methods. These Manuals were prepared
under previous contracts for IERL/RTP and are designed to guide environ-
mental engineers in the utilization of the methods. Each presents criteria
for the selection of the best applicable method and describes the sampling
strategies and equipment, sampling system design, sampling techniques, and
data reduction. Estimates of manpower and time requirements are presented
for typical overall and specific measurements programs.
-40-
-------
TASK 20G - PREPARATION OF A SUMMARY OF FUGITIVE EMISSIONS WORK COMPLETED
UNDER IERL CONTRACTS
This task involved the preparation of a brief historical summary of
the fugitive emissions work carried out by TRC for IERL/RTP under two
previous contracts and early work on the current contract.
The summary described the results of the tasks performed under Con-
tract Number 68-02-1815, "Development of Sampling Procedures to Determine
the Emission Rate and Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Fugitive
Emissions" and Contract Number 68-02-2110, "Development of Sampling Proce-
dures - Fugitive Emissions (Particulate and Gaseous)."
The tasks under Contract Number 68-02-1815 included the identifica-
tion of major industrial sources of fugitive emissions, the evaluation of
samping strategies applicable to the measurement of the identified
sources, the preparation of a field test procedure utilizing one of the
evaluated strategies (the quasi-stack method was selected), the
performance of the field program, and the preparation of a technical manual
for the selected strategy.
The tasks under Contract Number 68-02-2110 included the preparation
of technical manuals for the roof monitor and upwind-downwind sampling
strategies; the review and evaluation of fugitive emissions data and/or
proposed sampling plans and methodologies for coal storage piles, copper
smelters, cattle feedlots, sand and gravel transport, abestos storage
piles, and steel furnace operations; and the organization of the Symposium
on Fugitive Emissions: Measurement and Control.
TASK 20K - PREPARATION OF A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH PROGRAM ABSTRACTS
A bibliography of research program abstracts related to the measure-
ment or control of fugitive emissions was prepared from the most recent
published compilation of such abstracts. This was EPA 600/7-76-025, pub-
lished in November 1976 and listing 377 programs started in FY 1975 under
the auspices of 9 different government agencies. The bibliography,
intended by the project officer as an internal IERL reference, listed 74
fugitive emissions related programs and briefly summarized their fugitive
emissions relevance.
TASK 20Q - STUDY TO DETERMINE THE NEED FOR A TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THE
MEASUREMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS WATER FLOWS
An extensive literature survey into the state-of-the-art of process
water flow measurement indicated that no definitive document or collection
of literature exists that could be used as a reference in designing a flow
measurement program. Since such measurements are an important part of the
assessment of the effects of process-water-borne emissions, it was recom-
mended that a program be undertaken to develop a technical manual on flow
measurement and sampling of process water streams. A program for the
-41-
-------
manual development was proposed which included a tentative outline of the
manual format.
TASK 20S - PREPARATION OF A CHAPTER ON FUGITIVE EMISSIONS MEASUREMENTS FOR
A LEVEL 1 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL
A section on fugitive emissions measurements was prepared for the
revised version of the Level 1 environmental assessment manual being pre-
pared by another EPA contractor. The section expanded the section of the
original version, prepared by a third contractor using the TRC inputs of
Task 20C, to include applications of the FAST system and measurements of
waterborne fugitives.
TASK 20T - PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF A PAPER ON FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
MEASUREMENTS FOR AN EPA SYMPOSIUM
A paper entitled "Environmental Assessment Measurement Techniques for
Fugitive Emissions" was prepared and presented at the lERL-Sponsored Sym-
posium on Process Measurements for Environmental Assessments in Atlanta,
Georgia in February 1978. The paper was published in the symposium pro-
ceedings. The abstract of the paper is cited below as published.
The paper describes the sampling and measurement techniques cur-
rently being employed or developed to determine the impact of indus-
trial fugitive emissions on the environment. Three general sampling
techniques for airborne fugitive emissions and one for waterborne
fugitive emissions as stormwater runoff are presented and evaluated
with respect to their inherent accuracies and limitations. Site-
specific modifications of the general techniques used in recent
studies at a variety of industrial locations are described and the
results of the measurement programs reviewed. Efforts toward the
development of a fugitive ambient sampling train for the measurement
of airborne particulate and organic emissions are summarized.
TASK 20V - PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF A PAPER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE FUGITIVE ASSESSMENT SAMPLING TRAIN FOR AN EPA SYMPOSIUM
A paper entitled "Development of a Fugitive Assessment Sampling Train
for Particulate and Organic Emissions" was prepared and presented at the
lERL-sponsored Symposium on the Transfer and Utilization of Particulate
Control Technology in Denver, Colorado in July 1978. The abstract of the
paper is cited below as published in the symposium program.
The measurement of fugitive emissions from sources that preclude
the capture of emissions before their diffusion into the ambient
atmosphere poses some unique problems. Devices designed to obtain
ambient samples for area studies generally do not provide samples of
particulate matter large enough for meaningful quantification and
qualification analyses in a reasonable sampling period, and are
usually completely non-directional in their sampling.
-42-
-------
The paper describes a program for the development of a prototype
portable Fugitive Ambient Sampling Train (FAST) designed to obtain a
500-milligram particulate matter sample in an 8-hour sampling period
downwind of most industrial sources. The development of the design
criteria, establishment of operating parameters, selection and design
of hardware components, fabrication and initial testing of the FAST
are described in detail, and the program for the qualification
testing of the completed unit is outlined.
TASK 06 - ORGANIZATION OF THE SECOND SYMPOSIUM ON FUGITIVE EMISSIONS:
MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
The organization of this symposium as a forum for the exchange of
information relative to fugitive emissions among the industrial, govern-
mental and academic communities included the selection of a site, arrange-
ment for facilities, solicitation of speakers and session chairmen, prepa-
ration of published and mail announcements, processing of registrations,
management of the meeting, and publication of proceedings.
The symposium was conducted at the Greenway Plaza Hotel in Houston,
Texas on May 23-25, 1977. It was attended by about 200 individuals from
consulting and academic (25%), governmental (30%) and industrial (45%)
organizations. Eighteen technical papers were presented and published in
!«S^ -,-fW1™ °n Fugitive Emissions; Measurement and Control, EPA-
600/7-77-148, December 1977. " ~~
-43-
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please reed Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-79-116
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Development of Measurement Techniques for Fugitive
Emissions from Process and Effluent Streams
6. REPORT DATE
Mav 1979
5. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Henry J. Kolnsberg
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
TRC--The Research Corporation of New England
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE624A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2113
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final; 12/75 -12/78
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES JERL-RTP project officer is D. Bruce Harris, MD-62, 919/541-
2557.
16. ABSTRACT
repOr|. summarizes work completed in this continuing program of eval-
uation, development, testing, and adaptation of existing and proposed measurement
techniques for air and waterborne industrial process fugitive emissions. Results of
five major research and development tasks are presented: (1) a measurement and
modeling program for waterborne emissions from coal-fired utility boilers; (2) a
study of the applicability of remote sensing methods to the measurement of airborne
fugitive emissions; (3) a survey and measurement program to assess the environ-
mental problems caused by runoff from integrated iron and steel mills; (4) the design
and development of a fugitive assessment sampling train for particulate and organic
vapor emissions; and (5) an evaluation of techniques for the determination of large
hood captive efficiencies. Summaries of service area tasks related to fugitive emis-
sions measurements include: methodology developments for emissions measurement
programs at coke quenching towers , coal cleaning plants , iron ore loading opera-
tions, and an open hearth shop's roof monitors; and reviews of proposed sampling
programs and methods for fugitive emissions from mining operations , petroleum
refineries, and coal cleaning operations. Abstracts of three papers on fugitive emis-
sions topics presented at EPA symposia are included.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution
Measurement
Industrial processes
Leakage
Mathematical Models
Coal
Combustion
Iron and Steel Indus-
try
Dust
Electric Power Plants Organic Compounds
Petroleum Refining
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Fugitive Emissions
Particulate
Coal Cleaning
13B
14B
13H
12A
10B
21D
21B
11F
07C
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
47
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
------- |