Decision Series
United States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Office of
Research and
Development
Energy,
Minerals and
Industry
EPA-600/9-77-018
August 1977
Appalachian
Mineral Resource
Development:
Environmental
-------
THE ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT
RErD Decision Series
This volume is part of the Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series. The series presents the
key issues and findings of the Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Pro-
gram in a format conducive to efficient information transfer. The volumes are of three types:
Summaries—short synopses of larger research reports; Issue Papers—concise discussions of major
energy/environment technical issues; and Executive Reports-in-depth discussions of an entire
program area.
The Interagency Program was inaugurated in fiscal year 1975. Planned and coordinated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), research projects supported by the program range from
the analysis of health and environmental effects of energy systems to the development of environ-
mental control technologies.
The Decision Series is produced for both energy/environment decision-makers and the interested
public. If you have any comments or questions, please write to Series Editor Richard Laska, Of-
fice of Energy, Minerals and Industry, RD-681, U.S. EPA Washington, D.C. 20460 or call (202)
755-4857. Extra copies are available. This document is available to the public through the National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161. Mention of trade names or commercial
products herein does not constitute EPA endorsement or recommendation for use.
CREDITS
Text: Stephen J. Gage and J. Bruce Truett
Design and Support: Judy Gordon, Bob Spewak, Steve Stryker
Photography: EPA's Documerica Program; EPA's
Extraction Technology Branch, IERL,
Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA's Effluent
Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C.
-------
Appalachian
Mineral Resource
Development:
— JVT. ^-< ,
Environmental
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
August 1977
-------
-------
Introduction
The Appalachian region is rich in a variety of natural
resources, not the least of which are its scenic beauty, its
mineral deposits, its forests and other vegetation, and its
plentiful supply of clean air and water. These contribute
to the attractiveness of the region as a place to live and
as a seasonal and year-round recreational area.
In the past, certain of these resources were developed
to the detriment of others. This policy is no longer nec-
essary or economically defensible from the standpoint of
enlightened regional development. We now have avail-
able technological control measures that will permit ex-
tensive development of mineral resources without severe
or permanent adverse impacts upon the environment.
EPA has performed substantial research and develop-
ment on methods of controlling environmental pollution
from mines, mainly coal mines, in Appalachia. The
Agency has also done considerable work on pollution
control for other mineral extraction and processing oper-
ations. Most of the latter were not located in Appa-
lachia. Nevertheless, there are overall similarities be-
tween an open quarry, a fireclay mine and its associated
facilities, and many Appalachian coal mines and prepara-
tion plants. In general, the control technology principles
developed for coal mines and mineral extraction opera-
A ^
Open Stone Quarry
tions outside the Appalachian area are applicable to the
extraction and processing of non-fuel mineral resources
in the Appalachian Region.
-------
Mining and Processing Impacts on Water
Mineral extraction and processing can affect ground
water as well as surface water. The principal effects are
caused by acid drainage, sediments, dissolved metals,
slimes, and process chemicals.
Acid Drainage
One of the principal environmental effects of mining
or mineral processing is acidic pollution of surface
waters that is caused by mine drainage or by runoff from
refuse piles. The largely uncontrolled discharge of acid-
bearing material has had devastating effects on many
Appalachian streams. This problem has been seriously
complicated by the release of acid drainage from aban-
doned mines, some of which have flooded or partially
collapsed, and from unattended refuse banks. Acid
drainage can occur wherever oxidizable sulfur com-
pounds, such as pyrites, in the ore or mineral matrix are
exposed to the air under oxidizing conditions. It is by no
means limited to coal mines. A sulfur (pyrites) mine near
Culpeper, Virginia has polluted Contrary Creek with acid
runoff as the pictures on this page graphically show.
Fortunately, acid drainage can be controlled when
the flow of drainage or runoff can be diverted to treat-
ment facilities where the drainage is neutralized. For ex-
ample, at a fireclay surface mine in Pennsylvania, the
clay deposits are interspersed with seams of coal and the
SUMMARY:
MINERAL EXTRACTION AND
PROCESSING IMPACTS ON WATER
IMPACTS
• Acid waters
• Sediments
• Dissolved metals
• Slimes
• Processing chemicals
SOURCES
• Mine drainage
• Processing/beneficiation plants
• Trailing pile runoff/leaching to surface or
ground water
• Access roads
EFFECTS
• Destruction of aquatic and other wildlife
• Interference with water supplies
runoff is acidic. The runoff is channeled to a treatment
facility where it is neutralized by contact with limestone
slurry. From a storage tower, the limestone slurry flows
through a trough which is baffled to maximize contact
between the acidic runoff and the limestone slurry,
thereby effecting maximum neutralization.
2
-------
Sediments
Far more extensive than acid drainage and, in the
aggregate, far more damaging is the presence of sediment
in surface water. Some analysts consider sediment the
most serious water pollutant that results from mining
because of its widespread occurrence as well as the sever-
ity of its impact on the aquatic environment. Whenever
soil is exposed to rain or melting snow in non-arid
climate—in direct mining operations or in associated
development such as haul roads, temporary or perma-
nent housing sites, and large equipment installations-
erosion occurs unless careful control measures are imple-
mented. When soil does erode, the rate of sediment yield
is, of course, much higher on sloping terrain such as that
typical of Appalachia.
Physical damage from sediment transport takes the
form of disrupted flow patterns in streams, reduction of
capacity and altered hydrologic characteristics of lakes
and reservoirs, and weakening of dams and other reten-
tion or diversion structures. Biological damage includes
clogging the gills of fish and blanketing river bottoms
with silt which inhibits the reproduction of fish and
benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms. In addition, in-
creased turbidity caused by suspended sediment reduces
light transmission and affects the growth of aqua-
tic plants.
MINERAL EXTRACTION AND
PROCESSING - SEDIMENTS
SOURCES
• Earthmoving
- Excavation/overburden removal
- Road construction
- Site preparation
• Beneficiation
EFFECTS
• Erosion
• Siltation of streams, lakes, reservoirs
• Destruction of aquatic life
A variety of sediment-control measures are available.
Among the most common are settling ponds—areas
where the velocity of a sediment-bearing stream is slowed.
As a result of the decrease in velocity, much of the sedi-
ment settles out. Settling ponds work well for relatively
heavy particles, but they are less effective for smaller,
lower density particles. Sediment control can sometimes
• - -5 \ \\
"-- I. f LI
^^MmmL
*?
Sediment Loss from Logging Road
be facilitated by addition of agglomerating agents to
settling ponds.
Haul roads are a significant source of sediment in the
Appalachian Region. Generally, sediment-bearing runoff
from construction sites for roads and other ancillary
facilities cannot be contained for diversion through set-
tling ponds.
EPA has studied control of sediment loss from log-
ging roads in the northwestern U.S. A recently under-
taken EPA project is evaluating methods for controlling
sediment caused by construction of haul roads for a new
mine in Kentucky. Baseline measurements are being
made to determine sediment yield from existing roads.
The control methods under study include: (1) sloping
the road surface so that runoff occurs toward the hill
rather than toward the downhill side, thereby facilitating
collection of the runoff for subsequent treatment; (2)
different types of road surfaces; (3) rapid stabilization of
exposed banks; and (4) control of bank and shoulder
slopes.
Sediment from mining and beneficiation (e.g., crush-
ing and washing of the ore) operations is relatively sim-
ple to control. Most of the water flows can be contained
(except during flood conditions) and passed through set-
tling ponds or other treatment facilities.
-------
Dissolved Metals
When the soil or refuse from mining contains water-
soluble metallic compounds, or materials that oxidize
upon exposure to weather to form soluble compounds,
drainage from the mine or refuse pile contains metallic
ions or compounds. In general, the solubility of metallic
compounds is greater when the water is more acidic. The
problem of dissolved metals present in runoff can persist
long after a mine has been deactivated.
Metal Tailings Drainage
Many of these dissolved metals are toxic to humans,
animals, fish, and vegetation. Low concentration of
heavy metals in the runoff can harm aquatic life in the
receiving waters, and common metals can be detrimental
at high concentrations. Nonmetals such as fluorides
may also be present in runoff at harmful concentrations.
In addition to the problem of toxicity, dissolved
metals can impart color, taste, and hardness characteris-
tics to the receiving waters. They may even render the
water unsuitable for direct industrial use.
An EPA-sponsored study is investigating methods of
using sewage sludges to reduce both the metals content
and the acidity of runoff (and leachate) from the tailings
piles at an abandoned pyrites mine on Contrary Creek
near Culpeper, Virginia. The pyrites extracted from this
deep-shaft mine were used as a source of sulfur, not of
metals. At this mine, the tailings areas constituted the
major source of water pollutants. Control measures con-
sisted of regrading the land, applying sewage sludge to
condition the soil, applying lime and nutrients, and es-
tablishing new vegetation (primarily grasses and le-
gumes). The lime neutralizes the soil, thereby reducing
acidity of the runoff and rendering the metals less sol-
uble. In addition, the heavy metals tend to form or-
ganic complexes with organic material present in the
sludge and this also reduces their solubility.
Other treatment methods are available to remove
most of the undesirable metals. These techniques, how-
ever, can be applied only when the drainage or runoff is
in a relatively concentrated form, that is, before it
reaches the receiving stream. These treatments involve
such techniques as precipitation (rendering the com-
pounds insoluble so that they separate out from the run-
off), flocculation (aggregating suspended particles so
that they can be easily removed mechanically), and
chelation (reactions in which the metal ions are com-
bined, usually with organic compounds, to form less ..ol-
uble substances.)
Dissolved Metal Drainage from Closed Mine
-------
Slimes
Slimes constitute a major problem that arises from
the extraction of certain types of clays and gravel.
Slimes consist of a dilute suspension of very fine mineral
particles in water; they tend to stay in suspension for
long periods of time—in the form of a cloudy liquid or a
gel. Increased turbidity of a stream decreases the amount
of sunlight penetrating the water and therefore the rate
of photosynthesis of the aquatic flora. The entire biome
of the stream can be affected.
Slimes must be treated by evaporation or by storage
for extended periods. Either approach, as currently
employed, can involve substantial investment in treat-
ment facilities or in land for storage of the slimes. The
period of settling may last as long as three months
although flocculating agents can reduce the required
time to a few hours.
The picture opposite shows a mine from which clay is
extracted for the production of fuller's eaith, oil-sorbent
materials, and cat litter. Also visible in the picture is
the settling pond that is used for treating runoff from the
mine. At the processing plant, the mined clay is crushed
and screened, then dried and calcined. The latter processes
generate dust, and wet scrubbers remove fine particles of
clay from the waste air streams. Scrubber water is dis-
charged into a recycle pond; the slimes settle out and the
water is recycled through the wet scrubbers.
EPA is supporting efforts to improve the control of
slimes from stone-processing operations. The research is
being conducted at five separate gravel production sites
near Raleigh, North Carolina. The clay slimes that are
General View of Clay Mine
generated in these operations are voluminous and diffi-
cult to thicken. One of the techniques being used for
slime control is the settling pond. EPA's research project
at these production sites will characterize the different
types of slime at the different sites in terms of particle
size distribution, chemical and mineralogical constit-
uents, filterability, and other characteristics. The project
will also evaluate methods for more efficient slime
handling and reclamation—faster thickening by addition
of coagulants, centrifugation, filtration, etc.—with the
aim of producing a stable landfill residue that can be
cultivated and that will support a plant cover.
Sand & Gravel Quarry
-------
Extraction and Processing
Impacts on Air
In addition to the problems of water pollution,
mining and mineral processing operations can also affect
air quality. The principal air pollutant is fine particles.
These range from harmless materials to suspected
carcinogens such as asbestos fibers, depending on the
type of mineral being processed. When containment of
the processing operations is possible, control of many
types of airborne particles can be accomplished by such
measures as filtration, wet scrubbing, electrostatic precipi-
tation, and inertial separation (e.g., by cyclone devices).
When extraction and processing occurs in the open, dust
is a persistent problem.
MINERAL EXTRACTION AND
PROCESSING IMPACTS ON AIR
IMPACTS
• Dust
• Exhaust fumes
• Evaporation from chemical-containing ponds
SOURCES
• Mining and quarrying operations
• Stone crushing and grinding
• Power equipment
EFFECTS
• Inhalation/ingestion of airborne particulates
• Formation of smog by interaction of dust and
exhaust with terpenes and other organic
compounds volatilized from trees
The Impact of Mining
Residues
Refuse banks consisting of accumulations of solid res-
idues from mineral extraction and processing operations
may be sources of water pollutants and airborne particu-
lates. However, they may also constitute rich sources of
minerals other than the one being extracted in each par-
ticular mine. For example seams of high quality clays
sometimes occur interspersed with coal deposits; in some
cases only one of these minerals is being recovered. Simi-
larly, the refuse from pyrites mines may someday become
an economical source of iron or copper.
Clay Processing Wet Scrubber
Preplanning of mining and processing operations
should include an assessment of the values of the second-
ary minerals in the overburden and refuse. Should these
values be significant, it may be advantageous to arrange
the deposit and storage of the residues in a way that will
facilitate subsequent recovery of these other mineral re-
sources.
MINERAL EXTRACTION AND
PROCESSING - SOLID RESIDUE
SOURCES
• Overburden
• Mining spoil
• Refuse from beneficiation
EFFECTS
• Unsightly accumulations
• Sources of dust, polluted drainage, leachate
POSSIBLE BENEFIT
• Source of secondary minerals
6
-------
Increased Mineral
in Appalachia
In order to understand better the possible environ-
mental impacts of increased mineral production in Appa-
lachia, three hypothetical situations involving mineral
development will be discussed in greater depth. These are:
• Increased used of domestic aluminum ores
• Increased production of base metals in Appalachia
(copper, zinc)
• Expanded use of industrial rock near Appalachia
No attempt will be made, in these examples, to assert
either the economic feasibility or the technical sound-
ness of these hypothetical scenarios.
Scenario:
Aluminum Production
Let us hypothesize that national policy requires that,
for whatever reason, as much as possible of our alu-
minum supply be obtained from domestic sources.
United States Geological Survey statistics indicate that
domestic supplies of bauxite, the primary source of alu-
minum, are inadequate for meeting our needs and would
have to be supplemented by other aluminum-bearing
minerals. Deposits of two such minerals—aluminous sap-
rolite and aluminous shale—are located in Appalachia
and the southern Piedmont. Another source is kaolinitic
clays which are found in the southeastern Piedmont. In
addition, there are deposits of kaolinitic clay containing
diaspore in Pennsylvania.
Four of the twenty-odd U.S. plants in which alumina
is presently reduced to metal are located in different
parts of Appalachia (Ohio, Tennessee, West Virginia, and
Alabama). These four plants constitute about 25 percent
of the total U.S. production capacity. Let us assume that
these plants could be appropriately modified to process
the bauxite substitutes to metallic aluminum. (We are
ignoring the step of producing alumina from ore, with its
subsequent reduction to the metallic state.) An addi-
tional power requirement—perhaps 15-20 percent-
would be involved, but that would be acceptable. Be-
cause of available power and ample water supplies, the
Appalachian plants would be retained in their present
locations.
The ores would be mined in the southern Piedmont
areas or in Pennsylvania and shipped to the nearest alu-
minum plant. What would the environmental conse-
quences be? For simplicity and brevity, we shall consider
only the effects within Appalachia, not at the extraction
.sites in other regions.
FIRST SCENARIO - ALUMINUM
ASSUMPTIONS
• Existing Appalachian aluminum mills continue
in operation
• Non-bauxite ores shipped in from nearby states
• Some ore extraction in Appalachian states
• Little change in infrastructure
PRIMARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
• Direct
- Different solid residues
- Greater quantities of residue
- Higher energy requirements
• Indirect
- Increased sediment from new roads, railroads,
power transmission lines
First, and possibly the most important factor, is trans-
portation—hauling the ore from the new source to the
mill. This may involve construction of rail lines or heavy
duty highways over hilly terrain which has the potential
for widespread soil erosion and production of sediment.
Second, depending on which aluminum-bearing min-
eral was used, it may be necessary to treat and dispose of
types of wastes different from the "red mud" and other
residues that are typical of bauxite refining. In any
event, greater quantities of solid residues would derive
from the substitute, lower quality ores, thereby exacer-
bating the solid waste disposal problem.
Third, there would be a need for additional electric
power. Installation of additional transmission facilities
may be required; this would cause sediment release and
have adverse impacts on the scenery.
It is unlikely that any significant shift in population
or change in the supporting infrastructure in Appalachia
would be caused by the described changes in type and
location of ore supply. The major potential environ-
mental effects in Appalachia would result from ancillary
developments (road, railroad, electric transmission line
construction) and the disposal of solid residues and
slimes. Suitable control methods—e.g., well designed
haul roads to prevent sediment release—will prevent or
minimize the adverse impacts of these developments.
-------
Scenario: Production of Base Metals-Copper
Copper-bearing deposits have been identified in
northeastern Alabama, Tennessee, northern Georgia,
western North Carolina, western Virginia, and Pennsyl-
vania. Copper is now mined in the Ducktown District of
Tennessee and in western North Carolina; these mines
account for about one percent of U.S. production of
copper.
If copper mining were expanded in Appalachia and
processing were carried through to the metallic product,
additional mines, beneficiation plants, and smelters
would be required. The construction of mines and in-
dustrial development would probably necessitate estab-
lishment of new communities or expansion of existing
communities to support this development.
The environmental impacts of these developments
would be diverse. Because pyritic minerals are associated
with the copper ore, runoff and leachate would probably
be acidic with high concentrations of dissolved metals.
Sediment could derive from ore beneficiation processes,
and sulfur-containing gases and dusts could be emitted
from smelters. Underground mining, if used, could result
in surface subsidence in future years should shafts col-
lapse in exhausted and abandoned mines. The develop-
ment of supporting residential and commercial areas and
construction of roadways would produce sediments. The
quantities of municipal and industrial solid wastes would
increase.
Typical Western Copper Smelter
SECOND SCENARIO - BASE METALS
(COPPER, ZINC)
ASSUMPTIONS
• New mines, production facilities needed
• New roads, residential areas needed
PRIMARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
• From support facilities
- Sediment from roads, mining camps, etc.
- Municipal wastes, sewage
• From copper (direct)
- Acid drainage
- Dissolved metals
- Smelter fumes, dust
- Additional solid residue
• From zinc (direct)
- Overburden (if strip mining is used)
- Large amounts of solid residue
Fortunately, available control technology can prevent
most of these adverse environmental effects. There have
been problems with the application of some types of
control techniques to prevent emissions from smelters,
and the control of sediment from large-area sources
remains a problem. Nevertheless, with the application of
appropriate technological measures, the most serious
environmental impacts can be controlled.
Base Metals-Zinc
About one-fourth of domestic zinc is produced in the
Appalachian areas of Tennessee, Virginia, and North Car-
olina. There are also zinc deposits in central Pennsyl-
vania, northwestern Georgia, central Tennessee, and cen-
tral Kentucky.
The impacts from further development of zinc re-
sources in Appalachia would probably be minimal com-
pared with those that would result from the expansion
of copper production. Currently, most zinc deposits
are mined underground. The large deposits of zinc ores
in Appalachia permit mechanical mining on a larger scale
at relatively low cost.
8
-------
Zinc deposits occur in an alkaline matrix, and con-
sequently the problems of acidic runoff and dissolved
metals are minimum. The solid residue from zinc mining
and extraction can be utilized. Pebbles in the residue are
useful for concrete aggregate, and the waste material
from the mills, which is almost all carbonate rock, can
be sold for use as agricultural lime and aggregate mate-
rial. However, should strip mining be used, the removed
overburden would comprise large quantities of solid resi-
due that may not be usable. There is also, of course, the
problem of sediments that would be generated by min-
ing and beneficiation operations.
The proximity of many zinc deposits to mainline rail
and modem highway facilities and to high density popu-
lation areas is also a major factor that favors growth of
the industry. The development of residential and other
community facilities to support expanded zinc produc-
tion would therefore probably be much less than that
required for expanded copper mining, and environ-
mental effects would be correspondingly fewer.
Scenario:
Stone Production
At present, stone in its various forms is the most
valuable non-fuel mineral commodity produced in the
Appalachian region, comprising 31 percent of the total
value of non-fuel mineral production in the area. Stone
deposits are principally limestone, but granite and sand-
stone are also present in substantial quantities. Deposits
are ubiquitous throughout the region in virtually un-
limited quantity. Production of dimension, crushed, and
ground stone is limited only by demand, capacity of
production facilities, economic factors including trans-
portation costs, and environmental considerations.
THIRD SCENARIO - INDUSTRIAL ROCK
ASSUMPTION
• Most additional production will occur near
urban or populated areas
PRIMARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
• Dust, airborne particles
• Solid residue
• Pits, drainage retention ponds
• Suspended solids in drainage, runoff
• Slimes from washing operations
• Competition for high-value real estate
Because of its weight and bulk, stone is costly to
transport. Stone is therefore generally quarried as close
as possible to the point of use—developed, urbanized
areas. Stone quarries and processing plants usually re-
quire large land areas for their operations and for dis-
posal or treatment of solid residue. Slime-containing
ponds may also be large. The quarry area itself is gener-
ally not a thing of beauty. Stone quarries and processing
plants must compete with other land uses for scarce land
in urban areas or in the limited area stream valleys of
Appalachia.
Typical Stone Quarry Operation
Stone production generates large quantities of waste
materials, mainly oversized or undersized crushed stone,
which require disposal. Processing and crushing opera-
tions are noisy and create dust. Pit water pumpout and
process water usually contain high concentrations of sus-
pended solids. These materials are generally of a benign
nature and tend to settle rapidly. However, some wash
waters do contain clay-sized particles that form slimes,
which present the disposal and treatment problems dis-
cussed earlier.
The principal direct environmental impacts of stone
extraction and processing operations are dust in the air,
suspended sediment and possibly slime and alkalinity in
the water, and noise. Secondary impacts are those result-
ing from specialized transportation requirements (mainly
sediment in runoff) and the possible effects on land
values.
9
-------
Internalization of Total Costs
In any scheme for development of the Appalachian
mineral resources, several important cost factors must be
considered if the development is to be economically
feasible. Obviously, environmental costs are now a major
input to any decision on whether to develop a given
resource and how to proceed with the development.
Increasingly, we are learning that environmental cost
factors are not limited simply to abatement of water and
air pollution at the extraction and processing site. In
some cases, secondary related problems that involve
transportation and socio-economic factors generate
higher costs for environmental protection than do the
direct costs of controlling pollution from the mineral
development itself. Examples of secondary problems,
which were discussed above, include cutting new roads
in the Appalachian terrain, providing housing for
workers and their families, and providing the ancillary
community services of water supply, sewage disposal,
schools, and social amenities that large scale mining and
processing development would necessitate.
The key point in development cost analysis is that all
significant environmental costs should be identified and
considered along with the usual capital and construction
costs. If this is done properly, the potential developer,
the concerned regulatory agencies, and the affected pub-
lic will have a sound basis for deciding, first, whether to
proceed at all, and then, what the cost-effective alterna-
tives are. In this way, environmental protection costs can
be included from the beginning stage and paid out dur-
ing the course of the mining and processing develop-
ment.
The listing (below) of the costs of mineral development
is by no means all-inclusive, and certainly any feasibility
study in a region so large and diverse as Appalachia will
have to be site-specific. The list is useful, however, as an
indication of some of the generic problem areas that must
be considered in a good cost analysis.
At first glance it may appear that the numerous fac-
tors, beyond the usual basic development considerations,
would be overwhelming for anyone attempting to ana-
lyze total costs. In fact, much of the data for cost analy-
sis is included in the environmental impact statement
that is often required under Federal and even state law
for any new large development.
The different types of information needed for the cost
analysis are listed on the following page, together with
data sources. For example, baseline water quality dis-
charge data; air quality, emissions, and control informa-
tion; and demographic data, including present and pro-
jected population, housing, employment, taxes, etc., are
available from the appropriate government agencies. In
addition, it should be noted that new mineral mining and
processing industries are subject to EPA's Effluent Limi-
tations Guidelines that have been promulgated for certain
segments of the mineral extraction and processing indus-
tries, namely: minerals for construction; clays, ceramics,
and refractory minerals; and ore mining and dressing.
TOTAL COSTS OF MINERAL DEVELOPMENT - CONSIDERATIONS
POLLUTION CONTROL
• Water
- Runoff/drainage
- Process wastes
- Leachates
• Air
- Dust, airborne particles
- Aerosols
• Fumes
• Noise
• Solid residue
- Storage
- Leaching prevention
- Reclamation
AESTHETIC/AMENITY DAMAGE
IMPACT ON WILDLIFE/FRAGILE
OR RARE ECOSYSTEMS
SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT
Workforce and family housing
Schools
Road construction/maintenance
Water supply
Sewage treatment
Social amenities
ALTERNATIVE LAND USE AT SITE
• Residential
• Agricultural
• Recreational
• Mineral development
• Industrial (other)
AVAILABILITY OF OTHER RESOURCES
• Energy
• Water
• Chemicals
• Other process-specific resource needs
10
-------
TYPICAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR TOTAL COST ANALYSIS
FACTOR
SOURCE
Water Pollution Control
Air Pollution Control
Housing
Community Water Supply
Community Sewage Treatment
Schools
Public Services
Transportation
Social Amenities
Energy Availability
EPA Effluent Guidelines Documents
EPA New Source Performance Standards; State Air Quality
Implementation Plans
Census Data; Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment (HUD) Documents
State/County Health Departments; State and U.S. Geo-
logical Surveys; Soil and Water Conservation Districts
State/County Health Departments and Departments of
Public Works
State/Local School Boards; Census Data
State/Local Officials; Census Data
State Department of Transportation (DOT); County High-
way Departments; DOT Studies
Census Data; State Departments of Parks and Recreation
State Public Utilities Commissions
It is important that responsibility be designated for
continuing the control of pollution after an extraction
or processing operation is closed down. Although pres-
ent effluent guidelines recommend that control measures
be continued for about five years after a mine ceases
operations, the site may persist as a source of pollution
for a much longer time. Regulatory guidance is needed
to provide for long term protection of the environment
from discontinued mineral extraction and processing
operations.
When the overall costs for control of primary and
secondary environmental impacts as well as for installa-
tion of the necessary infrastructure have been reviewed,
then the ultimate decision about mineral development
should be made by an analysis of trade-off parameters.
In the spirit of the National Environmental Policy
Act, we should undertake a total cost assessment of min-
erals development in the Appalachian Region. The price
paid to expand minerals development in Appalachia
should include the full costs of environmental control at
each phase of development planning, and these costs
should be paid for as part of the development process. In
this way, there will be reasonable assurance that the
right decisions are being made, the most cost-effective
alternatives are being selected, and the development is
proceeding in an environmentally sound manner.
11
------- |