PRELIMINARY
AIR POLLUTION SURVEY
OF
ALDEHYDES
A LITERATURE REVIEW
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
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PREFACE
This document represents a preliminary literature review whkh is being used as a basis for
further evaluation, both internally by the National Air Pollution Control Administration
(NAPCA) and by contractors. This document further delineates present knowledge of the
subject pollutant, excluding any specific conclusions based on this knowledge.
This series of reports was made available through a NAPCA contractual agreement with
Litton Industries. Preliminary surveys include all material reported by Litton Industries as
a result of the subject literature review. Except for section 7 (Summary and Conclusions),
which is undergoing further evaluation, the survey contains all information as reported by
Litton Industries. The complete survey, including section 7 (Summary and Conclusions)
is available from:
U. S. Department of Commerce
National Bureau of Standards
Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific
and Technical Information
Springfield, Virginia 22151
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PRELIMINARY
AIR POLLUTION SURVEY
OF
ALDEHYDES
A LITERATURE REVIEW
Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
Litton Systems, Incorporated
Environmental Systems Division
Prepared under Contract No. PH 22-68-25
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Raleigh, North Carolina
October 1969
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The APTD series of reports is issued by the National Air Pollution Control
Administration to report technical data of interest to a limited readership,
Copies of APTD reports may be obtained upon request, as supplies permit,
from the Office of Technical Information and Publications, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1033 Wade Avenue, Raleigh, North Carolina 27605.
National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. APTD 69-24
n
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FOREWORD
As the concern for air quality grows, so does the con-
cern over the less ubiquitous tut potentially harmful contami-
nants that are in our atmosphere. Thirty such pollutants have
been identified, and available information has been summarized
in a series of reports describing their sources, distribution,
effects, and control technology for their abatement.
A total of 27 reports have been prepared covering the
30 pollutants. These reports were developed under contract
for the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) by
Litton Systems, Inc. The complete listing is as follows:
Aeroallergens (pollens) Ethylene
Aldehydes (includes acrolein Hydrochloric Acid
and formaldehyde) Hydrogen Sulfide
Ammonia Iron and Its Compounds
Arsenic and Its Compounds Manganese and Its Compounds
Asbestos Mercury and Its Compounds
Barium and Its Compounds Nickel and Its Compounds
Beryllium and Its Compounds Odorous Compounds
Biological Aerosols Organic Carcinogens
(microorganisms) Pesticides
Boron and Its Compounds Phosphorus and Its Compounds
Cadmium and Its Compounds Radioactive Substances
Chlorine Gas Selenium and Its Compounds
Chromium and Its Compounds Vanadium and. Its Compounds
(includes chromic acid) Zinc and Its Compounds
These reports represent current state-of-the-art
literature reviews supplemented by discussions with selected
knowledgeable individuals both within and outside the Federal
Government. They do not however presume to be a synthesis of
available information but rather a summary without an attempt
to interpret or reconcile conflicting data. The reports are
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necessarily limited in their discussion of health effects for
some pollutants to descriptions of occupational health expo-
sures and animal laboratory studies since only a few epidemio-
logic studies were available.
Initially these reports were generally intended as
internal documents within NAPCA to provide a basis for sound
decision-making on program guidance for future research
activities and to allow ranking of future activities relating
to the development of criteria and control technology docu-
ments. However, it is apparent that these reports may also
be of significant value to many others in air pollution control,
such as State or local air pollution control officials, as a
library of information on which to base informed decisions on
pollutants to be controlled in their geographic areas. Addi-
tionally, these reports may stimulate scientific investigators
to pursue research in needed areas. They also provide for the
interested citizen readily available information about a given
pollutant. Therefore, they are being given wide distribution
with the assumption that they will be used with full knowledge
of their value and limitations.
This series of reports was compiled and prepared by the
Litton personnel listed below:
Ralph J. Sullivan
Quade R. Stahl, Ph.D.
Norman L. Durocher
Yanis C. Athanassiadis
Sydney Miner
Harold Finkelstein, Ph.D.
Douglas A. Olsen, Ph0D.
James L. Haynes
IV
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The NAPCA project officer for the contract was Ronald C,
Campbell, assisted by Dr. Emanuel Landau and Gerald Chapman.
Appreciation is expressed to the many individuals both
outside and within NAPCA who provided information and reviewed
draft copies of these reports. Appreciation is also expressed
to the NAPCA Office of Technical Information and Publications
for their support in providing a significant portion of the
technical literature.
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ABSTRACT
The principal effect of low concentrations of
aldehydes on humans and animals is primary irritation of the
mucous membranes of the eyes, upper respiratory tract, and skin.
Animal studies indicate that high concentrations can injure
the lungs and other organs of the body. Aldehydes, particu-
larly formaldehyde, may contribute to eye irritation and
unpleasant odors that are common annoyances in polluted
atmospheres. Aldehydes, either directly or indirectly, may
also cause injury to plants.
Aldehyde emissions result from incomplete combustion
of hydrocarbons and other organic materials. The major
emission source appears to be vehicle exhaust, but significant
amounts may be produced from incineration of wastes and burn-
ing of fuels (natural gas, fuel oil, and coal). In addition,
significant amounts of atmospheric aldehydes can result from
photochemical reactions between reactive hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides. Moreover, aldehydes can react photochemically
to produce other products, including ozone, peroxides, and
peroxyacetyl nitrate compounds. Local sources of aldehydes
may include manufacturing of chemicals and other industrial
processes that result in the pyrolysis of organic compounds in
air or oxygen.
vii
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Reported emission data from various sources Tiave
been compiled for aldehydes in general and for formaldehyde
and acrolein. Initial ambient air measurements of aliphatic
aldehydes by the National Air Sampling Network in 1967 indicate
that the average concentrations for several cities range from
3 to 79 pg/m3.
Control of aldehyde emissions is being studied along
with current hydrocarbon (organic) control programs.
However, the use of certain combustion control techniques, such
as catalytic afterburners, may cause an increase in the amount
of aldehydes emitted.
No information has been found on the economic costs
of aldehyde air pollution or on the costs of its abatement.
Numerous analytical methods for determining "aldehydes,"
formaldehyde, and acrolein have been reported. Satisfactory
colorimetric methods are available.
Two aldehydes—formaldehyde and acrolein—are of
particular interest in the study of air pollution and have
been given special attention in this report.
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Reported Sensory Responses of Man to Formaldehyde
Vapors 7
2. Reported Sensory Responses of Man to Acrolein
Vapors 10
3. Reported Correlation Between Aldehyde Concentration
and Odor Intensity in Diesel Exhaust 13
4. Survival Time of Mice Exposed to Formaldehyde and
Acrolein in Presence of Aerosols 20
5. Eight-Hour Day Threshold Limit Values, American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
1967 25
6. Ambient Air Quality Standards 26
7. Summary of Emissions of Aldehydes, 1963 28
8. Concentrations of Aldehydes ir Atmosphere at El Monte
and Huntington Park, Calif 52
9. Summary of Qualitative Colorimetric Determination
Methods 57
10. Properties, Toxicity, and Uses of Some Aldehydes . . 84
11. Toxicity of Aldehydes to Animals via Inhalation . . 91
12. Reported Aldehyde Emission Data 94
13. U.S. Production of Formaldehyde, 1958-68 102
14. Principal U.S. Manufacturers of Acrolein and Formal-
dehyde 103
15. Uses of Formaldehyde in the United States, 1964. . . 104
16. Yields of Aldehydes via Photochemical Oxidation of
Hydrocarbon-Nitrogen Oxide Mixtures 105
17. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Automobile Engines 106
18. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Diesel Engines . . 109
19. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Commercial
Aircraft 114
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LIST OP TABLES (Continued)
20. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Combustion of Coal . 116
21. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Combustion of Fuel
Oil 117
22. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Natural Gas
Combustion 119
23. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Incinerators .... 120
24. Aldehyde Emissions from Oil Refineries 122
25. Reported Aldehyde Emissions from Various Sources . . 123
26. Industrial Oven Effluents 126
27. Concentration of Aldehydes in the Air, 1967 127
28. Concentration of Aldehydes in the Air, 1958-67 ... 129
29. Concentration of Aldehydes in the Air, 1951-57 ... 131
30. Concentration of Aldehydes in Metropolitan Areas
by Population, 1958 132
31. Comparison of Methods for the Determination of
Formaldehyde 133
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. EFFECTS 4
2.1 Effects on Humans 4
2.1.1 Physiological Effects 4
2.1.1.1 Formaldehyde 5
2.1.1.2 Acrolein 9
2.1.2 Annoyance Effects 11
2.1.2.1 Odor 11
2.1.2.2 Eye Irritation 12
2.2 Effects on Animals 14
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals ... 14
2.2.2 Experimental Animals 15
2.2.2.1 Formaldehyde 15
2.2.2.2 Acrolein 17
2.2,2.3 Synergistic Effects 19
2.3 Effects on Plants 21
2.3.1 Formaldehyde 23
2.3.2 Acrolein 24
2.4 Effects on Materials 24
2.5 Environmental Air Standards ......... 24
3. SOURCES 27
3.1 Natural Occurrence 27
3.2 Production Sources 29
3.2.1 Formaldehyde Manufacture 29
3.2.2 Acrolein Manufacture 31
3.3 Product Sources 33
3.3.1 Formaldehyde Products 34
3.3.2 Acrolein Products 37
3.4 Other Sources 38
3.4.1 Atmospheric Photochemical Reactions . 38
3.4.1.1 Photochemical Formation of
Aldehydes 39
3.4.1.2 Products from Photooxidation
of Aldehydes 40
3.4.2 Mobile Combustion Sources 41
3.4,2.1 Automobiles 42
3.4.2.2 Diesel Vehicles 43
3.4.2.3 Aircraft 43
3.4.3 Stationary Combustion Sources .... 44
3.4.3.1 Combustion of Coal 44
XI
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CONTENTS (Continued)
3.4.3.2 Fuel Oil Combustion 45
3.4.3.3 Natural Gas Combustion ... 45
3.4.3.4 Incinerator Emissions .... 46
3.4,3.5 Emissions from Petroleum
Refineries 47
3.4.4 Noncombustion Sources 47
3.4.4.1 Thermal Decomposition .... 48
3.4.4.2 Drying or Baking Ovens ... 48
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations 50
4. ABATEMENT 53
5. ECONOMICS 54
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 55
6.1 Sampling Methods 55
6.2 Qualitative Methods 56
6.3 Quantitative Methods 56
6.3.1 Aldehydes 56
6.3.2 Formaldehyde 60
6.3.3 Acrolein 61
REFERENCES 63
APPENDIX 83
X11
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1. INTRODUCTION
Aldehydes* are products of incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons and other organic materials. They are emitted
into the atmosphere by exhaust from motor vehicles, incin-
eration of wastes, and combustion of fuels (natural gas,
fuel oils, and coal). Furthermore, aldehydes are formed from
the photochemical reactions between nitrogen oxides and
certain hydrocarbons, which are also emitted from the sources
*Aldehydes are organic compounds having a terminal
carbonyl group. The general formula for aldehydes is R-CHO,
where R represents either the hydrogen in the formula for
formaldehyde or a hydrocarbon radical (such as CH3- for
acetaldehyde or CHa=CH- for acrolein). In the aliphatic
series the first two aldehydes, formaldehyde (Gj) and
acetaldehyde (C2), are gases at room temperature, while
propionaldehyde (C3) through hendecanal (C^), are liquids.
The lower members of the aliphatic series show a rapid decrease
in water solubility, whereas caproaldehyde (C6) and higher
molecular weight aldehydes have practically no solubility.73
The odors of aldehydes vary considerably. The lower aliphatic
aldehydes (Cj to C7 ) have pungent, penetrating, unpleasant
odors, while the higher aldehydes (C8 to C14) have generally
pleasant odors and are used in making perfumes. The aldehydes
above C14 have no appreciable odor.7^ Aldehydes with double
bonds (unsaturated), such as acrolein and crotonaldehyde,
tend to have a more penetrating and unpleasant odor than their
corresponding members in the aliphatic series. The aromatic
aldehydes generally have pleasing odors and are used in the
perfume and food-flavoring industries.73 Physical properties
of aldehydes are given in Table 10 in the Appendix.
Aldehydes are very reactive compounds. They can
easily undergo either reduction or oxidation reactions, as
well as addition reactions (including self-polymerization)
with many types of compounds. Detailed descriptions of these
reactions can be found in most organic chemistry textbooks or
encyclopedias.
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mentioned above. Thusi the ambient air is continually being
polluted by aldehydes from emission sources and from atmos-
pheric photochemical reactions. Moreover, aldehydes them-
selves can undergo photochemical reactions yielding oxidants
(including ozone, peroxides, and peroxyacyl nitrate compounds)
and carbon monoxide among the major products.
At low concentrations the principal effect of alde-
hydes on both humans and animals is irritation of the eyes
and upper respiratory tract. This is particularly true for
the lower molecular weight aldehydes. The unsaturated alde-
hydes are several times more toxic than the saturated aldehydes.
In addition, aldehydes have been involved in plant
damage. In some cases, the damage appears to be a result
of oxidants produced by the photochemical reaction of
aldehydes.
In the air pollution field major interest has been
shown in two specific aldehydes—formaldehyde and acrolein.
This is partly due to their effects on humans and to the
fact that their concentrations are generally higher than
those of other aldehydes present in the atmosphere. In
addition, some reports indicate that formaldehyde and
possibly acrolein may contribute to the odor and the eye
irritation commonly experienced in polluted atmospheres.
Thus, in addition to discussions of aldehydes in general,
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special attention has been given to formaldehyde and
acrolein in this report.*
*Aldehyde concentration data in this report are
calculated as formaldehyde. When necessary, conversion of
reported concentration data to Ug/m3 was made by using the
following factors: for aldehydes and formaldehyde, 1,200
iag/m3 = 1 ppm; for acrolein, 2,500 |-ig/m3 = 1 ppm.
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2. EFFECTS
Despite the wide use of aldehydes and the consequent
potential of aldehydes as air pollutants, comprehensive
studies are not available as to their effect on humans, ani-
mals, plants, and materials. Particularly lacking are long-
term studies with low concentrations of aldehydes. Much of
the available information on toxicity of aldehydes pertains
to the effects from single, acute exposures on animals.
2.1 Effects on Humans
2.1.1 Physiological Effects
The principal effect on humans of aldehyde vapors
appears to be primary irritation of the eyes, respiratory
tract, and skin.52'70 The unsaturated (olefinic) and the
halogenated aldehydes generally cause more noticeable
irritation, than do the saturated aldehydes. Aromatic and
heterocyclic aldehydes generally cause less irritation than
saturated aldehydes. Furthermore, the irritant effect
decreases with increasing molecular weight within a given
aldehyde series. The toxicity of aldehydes appears to
correspond with their irritant properties, although there are
many exceptions. The toxicity of aldehydes generally decreases
70 1ft 9
as the chain length increases. ' However, the addition
of a double bond greatly increases the toxicity of aldehydes.
The lower, water-soluble aldehydes act chiefly on the eyes
and upper respiratory tract, while the higher, less soluble
aldehydes tend to penetrate more deeply into the respiratory
tract and may affect the lungs.168
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All aldehydes possess anesthetic properties. 0>
However, an anesthetic effect, observed mainly in animal
184
experiments, is usually obscured by the more prominent
irritant action on the eyes and upper respiratory tract.
Moreover, the quantities of aldehydes that are generally
tolerable by inhalation are so rapidly metabolized that no
anesthetic symptoms are observable. The degree of anesthetic
activity decreases with an increase in molecular weight of
I Q^l
aliphatic aldehydes. °^
Sensitization can occur by cutaneous contact with
liquid solutions of aldehydes, but direct sensitization to
the vapor of aldehydes is rare.
In general, definite cumulative organic damage to
tissues, other than that related to primary irritation or
sensitization, is not commonly found.70 The fact that
aldehydes are readily metabolized in the body217 probably
accounts for the lack of a cumulative-type damage.
Table 10 in the Appendix lists some of the toxic
effects of aldehydes on humans. Additional information on
particular aldehydes can be found in the review by Fassett.70
2.1.1.1 Formaldehyde
The principal effect of formaldehyde vapors on humans
appears to be irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes,
nose, and other portions of the upper respiratory tract. 7'™
76,83,133,168 vapors may also cause skin irritation. Symptoms
that have been observed from nonfatal exposures to formaldehyde
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include lacrimation, sneezing, coughing, dyspnea, a feeling
of suffocation, rapid pulse, headache, weakness, fluctuations
in body temperature, and, in sensitive persons, a dermatitis.
Inhalation of high concentrations can cause laryngitis,
bronchitis, and bronchopneumonia. Reported responses of
man to formaldehyde are summarized in Table 1.
Several reports indicate that irritation of the eyes
and upper respiratory tract can first be detected at approxi-
mately 1,200 ng/m3 (1 PPm) or below-38'127'132'154 According
to Fassett,70 no discomfort is noted until 2,400 to 3,600
ng/m3 (2 to 3 ppm), when a very mild tingling sensation may
be detected in the eyes, nose, and posterior pharynx. At
4,800 to 6,000 ug/m3 (4 to 5 ppm), the discomfort increases
rapidly, and mild lacrimation may appear in some people.
People generally cannot tolerate this concentration for more
than 10 to 30 minutes. Concentrations of 12,000 |ag/m3 (10 ppm)
cause profuse lacrimation in all people and can be endured for
only a few minutes. In the concentration range of 12,000 to
24,000 |jg/m3 (10 to 20 ppm), breathing becomes difficult,
coughing occurs, and irritation extends to the trachea. Upon
removal from this exposure, lacrimation subsides promptly,
but the nose and respiratory irritation may persist for an
hour or more. The concentration at which serious inflammation
of the bronchi and upper respiratory tract would occur is not
known, but it has been estimated that exposure to 60,000 to
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TABLE 1
REPORTED SENSORY RESPONSES OF MAN TO FORMALDEHYDE VAPORS
Concentration
( Liq/m3 )
12
70
80
98
156-540
300-6,000
600
1,000
1,080-1,920
1,200
2,400-3,600
4,800-6,000
6,000
12,000
24,000
24,000
24,000
60,000-120,000
Exposure
Time Response
Eye irritation threshold
Odor threshold
Chronaximetric response
threshold
Cortical reflex
threshold
Irritant threshold
Irritant threshold
Odor threshold
Slight irritation
Irritant threshold
Odor threshold
8 hr Tolerable; mild irrita-
tion of eyes, nose, and
posterior pharynx
10-30 min Intolerable to most
people; mild lacrima-
tion; very unpleasant
Throat irritation
threshold
few min Profuse lacrimation
15-30 sec Lacrimation
30 sec Irritation of nose and
throat
1-2 min Sneezing
5-10 min May cause very serious
Ref .
172
127,128
127,128
127,128
38
154
195
127
132
70
70
70
210
70
33
33
33
70
damage
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8
120,000 |ag/m3 (50 to 100 ppm) for 5 to 10 minutes might
cause serious damage. (See Section 2.2.2.1 for a discus-
sion of the effects of high concentrations of formaldehyde
on experimental animals.}
Repeated exposures to formaldehyde vapors may result
in chronic irritation of the eyes, nose, and other portions
of the upper respiratory tract.47' 168 Inflammation of the
47
eyelids may also result from repeated exposures.
Dermatitis and skin sensitization from cutaneous
exposures to formaldehyde solutions and related derivatives
are well documented. According to Fassett, skin sensitiza-
tion from exposure to formaldehyde vapors is rare; furthermore,
no cases of authentic pulmonary sensitization have occurred.
However, persons who have already developed an eczematous
skin sensitization may have a skin reaction on exposure to
formaldehyde vapors.
197 17R
Melekhina ' conducted studies to determine
sensory threshold responses to formaldehyde. The odor
threshold concentration for very sensitive people was 70
ng/m3. Reflex reactions threshold concentration for optical
chronaxy tests was 80 |ag/m3 , and for dark adaptation the
concentration was 98 |ag/m3 . Concentrations up to 2,500 (jg/m3
produced no detectable changes in the frequency and rhythm
of respiration.
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All fatal poisonings reported from formaldehyde have
resulted from ingestion.
2.1.1.2 Acrolein
Acrolein vapors are highly toxic to humans. The vapor
is extremely irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. '
80,143,168,185 symptoms that have been reported from inhalation
of acrolein include lacrimation, swelling of the eyelids,
shortness of breath, pharyngitis, laryngitis, bronchitis,
oppression in the chest, and somnolence.48,133,143 rp^e
reported responses of man to acrolein vapors are summarized
in Table 2.
Concentrations of acrolein as low as 625 |ag/m3 (0.25
ppm) can cause moderate irritation of the eyes and nose in 5
185 P19
minutes. '*•"•- Slight nasal irritation occurs from a 1-
minute exposure to acrolein at 2,500 ug/m3 (1 ppm). After
2 to 3 minutes at this concentration, eye irritation is quite
noticeable and after 4 to 5 minutes it becomes practically
1 ft9 •
intolerable. Sim and Pattle •" reported that lacrimation
occurred within 20 seconds at 1,880 )jg/m3 (0.805 ppm) and
185
within 5 seconds at 2,800 |ag/m3 (1.22 ppm). Smith
reported that moderate eye and nasal irritation is produced
from a 5-seoond exposure at 13,750 (ag/m3 (5.5 ppm), while a
20-second exposure is painful. Exposures to 54,500 \j.g/m3
185
(21.8 ppm) are immediately intolerable to humans.
Pulmonary edema may develop from exposures to high concentra-
4ft 1 fift
tions of acrolein. Sax reports that inhalation
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10
TABLE 2
REPORTED SENSORY RESPONSES OF MAN TO ACROLEIN VAPORS
Concentration
(ucf/nvM
525
600
625
800
1,500
1,750
1,880
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,800
4,500
4,500
13,750
13,750
13,750
54,500
375,000
Exposure
Time
5 min
20 sec
1 min
2-3 min
2-3 min
4-5 min
5 sec
1 min
3-4 min
5 sec
20 sec
60 sec
Immediate
10 min
Response
Odor threshold
Dark adaptation response threshold
Moderate irritation
Odor threshold
Respiratory rhythm and wave
amplitude response threshold
Chronaximetric response threshold
Lacrimation
Slight nasal irritation
Slight nasal irritation and
moderate eye irritation
Eye and nose irritation
Moderate nasal irritation;
practically intolerable eye
irritation
Lacrimation
Slight eye irritation
Profuse lacr imation; practically
intolerable
Slight odor; moderate eye and
nasal irritation
Painful eye and nasal
irritation
Marked lacr imat ion; vapor
practically intolerable
Intolerable
Lethal
Ref .
Ill
141
185
141
141
141
182
185
185
80
185
182
185
185
185
185
185
185
143
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11
of acrolein may cause an asthmatic reaction.
No cases of chronic toxicity are known.48,70,185
However, repeated contact with the skin may produce chronic
irritation and a dermatitis. Acrolein is reported to be a
•I (-Q
weak sensitizer.
Plotnikova studied some of the sensory responses
of man to acrolein. The threshold concentration of acrolein
on the reflex action and optical chronaxy was determined to
be 1,750 |_ig/m3, while 1,500 ug/m3 was the threshold for
respiratory rhythm and wave amplitude. Threshold response
to dark adaptation was established at 600 ng/m3, which was
below the measured odor threshold of 800 ng/m3.
There was one reported case of fatal poisoning from
acrolein inhalation of 375,000 ug/m3 (150 ppm) for 10
143
minutes.
2.1.2 Annoyance Effects
Several studies have been made to determine the
contribution of aldehydes to the odor and eye irritation
resulting from air pollution. Although present studies
indicate that these effects are not entirely the result of
atmospheric aldehydes, the aldehydes seem to contribute in
some degree to these effects.
2.1.2.1 Odor
The reported odor threshold values for formaldehyde
and acrolein appear to be in the range of 70 to 1,200 |jg/m3
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12
(0.06 to 0.2 ppm) and 525 to 800 ug/m3 (0.2 to 0.3 ppm),
respectively (see Sections 2.1.1.1 and 2.1.1.2). Three
separate studies65'155'216 on odors in diesel exhaust (see
Table 3) indicate that the odor threshold for aldehydes
(measured by modified Schiff reagents) is in the range of
600 to 14,400 ng/m3 (0.5 to 12 ppm). Although these studies
show a correlation between odor intensity and aldehyde
concentration, the relationships differ somewhat. Linnell
and Scott 14 found that the concentration of formaldehyde
and acrolein in diesel exhaust, when diluted to the odor
threshold, was too low to be a major contributing factor to
the odor of diesel exhaust. In contrast, Fracchia et al.77
measured the concentration of certain aldehydes in automobile
exhaust and concluded that the odor might be due to an
additive effect of all the concentrations of these aldehydes.
2.1.2.2 Eve Irritation
"Eye irritation is by far the most noticeable obnoxious
symptom of smog as far as the public is concerned," according
to Hamming and MacPhee84.
In 1960, Renzetti and Bryan147 found a good correlation
between intensity of eye irritation and the concentration of
total aldehydes (measured by bisulfite method) and of formal-
dehyde in the Los Angeles smog. Renzetti and Schuck148 studied
the photooxidation of hydrocarbons and found that formaldehyde
and acrolein accounted for the majority of the eye irritation
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13
TABLE 3
REPORTED CORRELATION BETWEEN ALDEHYDE CONCENTRATION
AND ODOR INTENSITY IN DIESEL EXHAUST
Aldehyde Concentration
(ua/m3)*
Odor
Unit
0
1
2
3
4
5
Odor Intensity
No odor
Very faint
Faint
Easily noticeable
Strong
Very strong
Reference
155
624
6,600
57,600
504,000
Reference
65
1,140
4,800
21,600
96,000
Reference
216
8,520
14,400
25,200
42,000
72,000
120,000
*Calculated as formaldehyde.
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14
produced by photochemical products. However, the concentra-
tion of these aldehydes needed to produce eye irritation in
these experiments was well in excess of measured atmospheric
concentrations. Several other compounds were thought to
explain eye irritation, '^/193 but most have not proved to
be of major importance, with the exception of peroxyacyl
172
nitrate compounds. Recently, Schuck et al. found in
simulated atmosphere experiments that the linear correlation
between eye irritation intensity and formaldehyde concentra-
tion does not hold at concentrations below 360 ug/m3 (0.3
ppm). In fact, concentrations of 60 ug/m3 (0.05 ppm) and
600 ug/m3 (0.5 ppm) produce the same irritation intensity in
most of the people exposed. Furthermore, it was found that
the human eye can detect and respond to as little as 12 ug/m3
(0.01 ppm) formaldehyde. Thus, these authors predicted that
the concentration of formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate
in polluted air can account for most of the detected eye
irritation.
Recent data of interest in relation to these
findings are the ambient air concentrations in the Los Angeles
area: for aliphatic aldehydes, 196.8 ug/rn3 ? for formaldehyde,
163.2 ug/m3; and for acrolein, 27 u9/m3•
2.2 Effects on Animals
2.2.1 Commercial and Domestic Animals
No cases were found of injury or death of domestic or
commercial animals from environmental exposure to aldehydes.
-------
15
2.2.2 Experimental Animals
The effect of aldehyde vapors on animals is similar to
that found in humans (see discussion in Section 2.1). The
principal effect observed is primary irritation to the mucous
membranes of the eyes and the uppar re3oiratory tract,particu-
larly the nose and throat. Exposure to high concentrations of
aldehydes may cause injury to the lungs as well.
Fassett has summarized the reported toxicity data
on exposures of animals to aldehydes; part of his sununary
(toxicity from inhalation of aldehydes) is given in Table 11
in the Appendix.
2.2.2.1 Formaldehyde
Studies indicate that high concentrations of formalde-
hyde, besides causing prompt and severe irritation of the eyes
and respiratory tract, may cause injury to the lungs and
183
other organs. Thus, Skog, exposing rats (in groups of
eight) to high concentrations of formaldehyde (e.g., 960,000
iag/m3 or 800 ppm), found hemorrhages and pulmonary edema and
signs of hypercrinemia and perivascular edema in the liver
1 C C
and kidneys. Salem and Cullumbine exposed groups of 50
mice, 20 guinea pigs, and 5 rabbits simultaneously to
formaldehyde (19,000 (jg/m3 ) and other aldehydes for periods
up to 10 hours. Autopsy of the animals killed by the vapors
showed expanded edematous and hemorrhagic lungs, fluid in the
pleural and peritoneal cavities, consolidation, distended
alveoli, and ruptured alveolar septa. In addition, Murphy
-------
16
et al. found in a group of eight male rats that the
alkaline phosphatase activity in the liver was increased
after the rats inhaled 4,200 ng/m3 (35 ppm) formaldehyde
for 18 hours.
The response of lung functions has been studied
«C oft ftO 1 "}^
with normal and tracheotomized animals. ' The
responses to formaldehyde inhalations were an increase in
/
flow resistance and in tidal volume and a decrease in the
respiratory rate. According to Amdur,25 the responses of
tracheotomized animals were similar, but much greater, than
those observed with the normal animals. The author
attributed this result to the fact that the tracheal cannula
prevents removal of the formaldehyde by the nasal and upper
airway passages. In contrast, Davis et. al.62 recently
reported that in comparison with normal animals, tracheotomized
animals showed an increase in respiration rate accompanied by
a decrease in tidal volume. These findings were ascribed to
the fact that the receptors for the responses observed in the
normal animals are in the upper airway (i.e., larynx and
above), which was blocked in the tracheotomized animals.
Exposure of the larynx and the nasopharynx of the tracheotomized
animals elicited the responses shown by normal animals.
Investigators have demonstrated that formaldehyde can
cause cessation of ciliary activity.55,59,101 In Qne study,^
low doses of formaldehyde, such as 3,600 |ag/m3 (3ppm) for
-------
17
50 seconds or 600 ug/m3 (0.5 ppm) for 150 secondsf caused
cessation of ciliary beat in anesthetized, tracheotomized
rats.
•jn
In a Russian study, Gofmekler investigated the
effects of continuous exposure of pregnant rats to concen-
trations of formaldehyde of 12 and 1,000 Ug/m3. Two groups
of 12 female rats were exposed, each group to one concentra-
tion. Another group of 12 pregnant rats was used for con-
trol. The two groups of test rats were also exposed to
formaldehyde vapors 10 to 15 days prior to impregnation.
Significant results were subsequently found. The mean
duration of pregnancy was prolonged .by 14 to 15 percent from
exposure to both concentrations. A regular decrease in the
number of fetuses per female was found with the higher con-
centration of formaldehyde. Furthermore, the exposure to
formaldehyde appeared to cause an increase in the weight of
the thymus, heart, kidneys, and adrenals in the offspring.
This effect, the author concluded, was apparently a com-
pensatory reaction to unfavorable environmental conditions.
On the other hand, the lungs and liver, the organs which
are directly affected by formaldehyde, showed a decrease in
weight following the aldehyde exposure.
2.2.2.2 Acrolein
Acrolein, as most other unsaturated aldehydes, is
much more irritating and toxic than the aliphatic aldehydes.
-------
18
Thus, the lethal concentration (LD50) of acrolein for rats
is approximately one-third that for formaldehyde and approxi-
mately 0.005 that for propionaldehyde, its aliphatic counter-
part.
The damage to the lungs and other organs, described
for formaldehyde applies equally to acrolein.156'183 Murphy
et al.136 reported an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity
in the liver from exposure to 5,250 tag/m3 (2.1 ppm) acrolein
for 40 hours.
Murphy et al.137 exposed guinea pigs (group of 10) to
1,500 ^g/m3 (0.6 ppm) acrolein to determine respiratory
responses. The results indicate that acrolein vapors increase
the flow resistance and tidal volume, while decreasing the
respiration rate. The magnitude of these effects increases
with high concentrations of acrolein. The effects were found
to tie reversible upon return to clean air. Results from the
administration of certain drugs indicated that the acrolein-
induced increase in respiratory resistance is probably due to
bronchoconstriction mediated through reflex cholinergic
stimulation.
81
Gusev et al. continually exposed groups of 10 rats
each to 150, 510, and 1,520 ug/m3 of acrolein in air over a
period of several weeks. The rats exposed to the 1,520 )jg/m3
concentration for 24 days showed a loss of weight, changes
in conditioned reflex activity, a decrease in cholinesterase
-------
19
activity of whole blood, a fall of coproporphyrin excretion
in the urine, and an increase in the number of luminescent
leukocytes in the blood. Exposures to 150 (_ig/m3 acrolein
for 61 days caused only a rise in the number of luminescent
leukocytes in the blood.
Catilina et al.43 exposed rats to 500,000 tag/m3 (200
ppm) acrolein for 10 minutes once a week for 8 weeks. Lung
damage was still observable 6 months after the exposure
period ended.
2.2.2.3 Synergistic Effects
Several investigators have found that the effects of
aldehydes on animals can be significantly increased in the
presence of an aerosol. LaBelle et al.1^^ exposed mice to
constant concentrations of formaldehyde and acrolein (15,000
ug/m3) in the presence and absence of aerosols. Nine differ-
ent substances were used as aerosols, including solids and
liquids. The time for 50 percent survival of the mice
(minimum of 6 mice in 12 groups) was measured. The results
are shown in Table 4. Significant increases in death rates
were found for both formaldehyde and acrolein with some of the
aerosols. These investigators also noted that the active
aerosols increased the pulmonary edema caused by formaldehyde
and acrolein.
24 26
Amdur'1 f£ investigated the response of guinea pigs
to inhalation of formaldehyde in the presence and absence of
-------
TABLE 4
SURVIVAL TIME OF MICE EXPOSED TO FORMALDEHYDE AND
ACROLEIN IN PRESENCE OF AEROSOLS105
Fo rma 1 d ehy d e
Aerosol
Concentration
Aerosol (Size, u) (tig/liter)
None
Triethylene glycol (1.8)
Ethylene glycol (2.0)
Mineral oil (2-1)
Glycerin (2.0)
Sodium chloride (2.6)
Dicalite (3.3)
Celitec (2.9)
Attapulgus clayd(3.3)
Santocel CFe (2.7)
2210
2920
1420
1280
2320
420
360
960
310
ST50a
(min) Significance"
147
71 ++
168 0
72 ++
114 ++
114 +
118 +
102 -H-
157 0
145 0
Aerosol
Concentration
(ug/liter)
380
500
240
220
390
70
60
160
50
Acrolein
(min) Significance11
87
73
106
69
94
71
91
99
78
65
0
0
+
0
+
0
0
0
+
for 50 percent survival of mice.
"0 = no significance, + = significant, ++ = highly significant.
JrDiatomaceous earth.
Highly absorptive clay.
eCommercial silica gel.
NJ
o
-------
21
sodium chloride aerosols (approximately 0.04 n* in diameter).
The concentration of formaldehyde varied from approximately
84 to 56,400 ug/m3 (0.07 .to 47 ppm), with and without the
presence of 10,000 |ag/m3 of sodium chloride aerosol.
Statistically significant increases in "respiratory work" as
a result of the aerosol were found when the formaldehyde
concentration was 360 iag/m3 (0.3 ppm) or above. Moreover,
compared with the pure vapor, the formaldehyde-aerosol
mixture delayed the recovery after discontinuation of the
exposure. Further experiments indicated that as the amount
of aerosol was increased from 0 to 3,000 (ag/m3 , 10,000 |ag/m3 ,
and 30,000 ng/m3, an increase in flow resistance was also
observed. The authors concluded that sodium chloride aerosol,
which is itself inert, can cause the response to formaldehyde
to be potentiated (the higher the concentration of aerosol,
the greater the effect), and also prolong the response,
compared with the response to the pure vapor.
2.3 Effects on Plants
There is very little information available on the
effects of atmospheric aldehydes on plants. Moreover, most
of the data has been derived from studies of product mixtures
obtained from the irradiation of aldehydes, hydrocarbons, or
hydrocarbon-nitrogen oxide mixtures. While these resulting
*|j = micron.
-------
22
mixtures contain some aldehydes, they also contain other
compounds, some unidentified, which may be phytotoxicants.
Thus, in these studies, the role of aldehydes in plant damage
may well be obscured by the presence of other compounds.
Brennan ejt. al.39 reported in 1964 that the damage to
foliage of Snowstorm petunias grown in a greenhouse was
related to the high aldehyde content of the ambient air.
Leaf damage occurred when the aldehyde content exceeded 240
ug/m3 (0.2 ppm) for 2 hours or 360 ug/m3 (0.3 ppm) for 1
hour. Injury, which appeared within a day or two after the expo-
sure, was characterized by symptoms of necrotic banding
of the upper leaf surface and glazing of the lower leaf
surface. Although the damage was similar to that found with
photochemically produced pollutants or "oxidant" type phyto-
toxicants in the atmosphere,* the level of "oxidants" in the
atmosphere was below normal on the days that the aldehyde
content was sufficient to cause plant damage.
However, these data do not prove that aldehydes
directly attacked the plant tissue. Other explanations might
be that there is a synergistic effect with a high concentration
*A similar type of plant damage was shown by Taylor
et al.2QO from polluted ambient air in California and from
irradiated mixtures of nitrogen dioxide and hexene. Stephens
et. al.193 induced similar damage to petunias with irradiated
mixtures of (a) automobile exhaust, (b) olefins and nitrogen
oxide, (c) olefin and ozone, and (d) aldehydes.
-------
23
of aldehydes or that aldehydes react photochemically to yield
phytotoxicant products that may be undetected by the methods
of analysis used. Indeed, several studies have shown that
irradiation of certain aldehydes will cause formation of
phytotoxicant compounds other than the original aldehydes. u/
23,88,193,199 Stephens et. al^ 193 found that irradiated alde-
hydes yielded phytotoxicants that caused oxidant-type damage
to petunias and bean plants. Hindawi and Altshuller88
irradiated propionaldehyde and nitrogen oxide mixtures and
concluded that irradiation of propionaldehyde in air will
definitely cause appreciable plant damage to tobacco wrapper,
pinto bean leaves at various stages of development, and
petunias. In contrast, irradiated formaldehyde-nitrogen
oxide mixtures caused no observable plant damage. ^'
Recent studies indicate that irradiation of most aldehyde-
nitrogen oxide mixtures produces PAN*-type products, among
other compounds. (See further discussion under Atmospheric
Photochemical Reactions, Section 3.4.1).
2.3.1 Formaldehyde
Haagen-Smit et al. ^ found no evidence of damage to
alfalfa after 2 hours' exposure to 2,400 ug/m3 (2 ppm) of
formaldehyde, but did find atypical alfalfa damage after 5
hours at 8,400 [_ig/m3 (7 ppm) of formaldehyde. Hindawi and
*PAN: peroxyacetyl nitrates.
-------
24
op
Altshuller00 found no damage to pinto beans, tobacco wrapper,
and petunias from exposure to mixtures of formaldehyde-
nitrogen oxide that had been irradiated for 4 hours.
2.3.2 Acrolein
Data indicate that acrolein may be a phytotoxicant.
Haagen-Smit et al.82 reported oxidant-type damage to alfalfa
grown in a greenhouse and exposed to 250 i_ig/m3 (0.1 ppm) of
acrolein for 9 hours. Similar damage, along with atypical
leaf damage, was observed with spinach, endive, and beets
exposed to acrolein vapor concentrations of 3,000 ug/m3 (1.2
ppm) for 4.5 hours or 1,500 Lig/m3 (0.6 ppm) for 3 hours.
Darley et al."^ found oxidant-type damage to 14-day-old pinto
bean plants exposed to approximately 5,000 |_ig/m3 (2 ppm) of
acrolein for four successive 35-minute periods. However,
op
Hindawi and Altshuller observed that 2,500 |jg/m3 (1 ppm) of
acrolein, produced from the irradiation of 1,3-butadiene-
nitrogen oxide mixture, caused no damage to petunia, pinto
bean, or tobacco wrapper.
2.4 Effects on Materials
There are no data available to indicate the effect of
atmospheric concentration of aldehydes on materials.
2.5 Environmental Air Standards
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists has adopted 8-hour threshold limit values for
occupational exposure to several aldehydes (see Table 5).204
-------
25
TABLE 5
EIGHT-HOUR DAY THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES, AMERICAN
CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTAL INDUSTRIAL
HYGIENISTS, 1967204
Aldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Chloroacetaldehyde
Crotonaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Furfural (skin)b
ppm
200
0.1
la
2
5
5
uq/m3
360,000
250
3,000a
6,000
6,000
20,000
aThis is a "ceiling" value, which should not
be exceeded at any time.
^Cutaneous exposure can significantly contri-
bute to harmful effects.
CO
In 1968, the American Industrial Hygiene Association3^
recommended ambient air quality values for certain aldehydes
to prevent sensory irritation of any form, as follows:
Formaldehyde 120 ug/m3 0.1 ppm
Acrolein 25 |~ig/m3 0.01 ppm
Total aldehydes 240 |-ig/m3 0.2 ppm
(as formaldehyde)
West Germany and Russia have established ambient air
quality standards for acetaldehyde, acrolein, formaldehyde,
and furfural.197 These standards are summarized in Table 6.
-------
TABLE 6
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS197
Aldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Formaldehyde
Furfural
Country
West Germany
Russia
West Germany
Russia
West Germany
Russia
Czechoslovakia
West Germany
Russia
Basic Standard
ua/m3
4,000
10
100
36
14.4
18
80
50
Averaging
Time
30 min
30 min
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
24 hr
30 min
24 hr
Permissible Standarda
uq/m3
12,000
10
25
300
84
42
60
250
50
Averaging
Time
30 min
20 min
30 min
20 min
30 min
20 min
30 min
30 min
20 min
aNot more than once every 4 hours.
to
-------
27
3. SOURCES
Aldehydes that pollute the atmosphere result from
two main sources: (1) incomplete combustion of organic com-
pounds and (2) atmospheric photochemical reactions involving
mainly hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Thus, the highest
concentrations of atmospheric aldehydes are expected to be
in the populated areas where combustion of fuels and motor-
vehicle exhaust emit significant amounts of aldehydes and
compounds that form aldehydes through photooxidation.
Emission data reported for certain towns, cities,
and counties of the United States are summarized in Table 12
in the Appendix. The highest reported value for a city is
1,139 tons of aldehydes per year for the city of St. Louis.
Emission of aldehydes from various sources as reported by
certain cities and counties is shown in Table 7. These data
indicate that emission of aldehydes to the atmosphere is
primarily due to automobile exhaust, followed by burning of
wastes and combustion of fuel.
3.1 Natural Occurrence
Natural sources of aldehydes do not appear to be
important contributors to air pollution. Acetaldehyde is
found in apples and as a by-product of alcoholic fermentation
TO
processes. J Other lower aliphatic aldehydes are not found
in significant quantities in natural products. Olefin and
aromatic aldehydes are present in some of the essential oils
-------
TABLE 7. SUMMARY OF EMISSIONS OF ALDEHYDES, 1963
(tons/year)
97
Source
Road vehicles (gasoline)
( diesel)
Railroads and vessels
Fuel use (residential)
(industrial)
Fossil fuel steam electric plants
Other fuel use
Municipal incineration
Residential incineration
Industrial and commercial
incineration
Open burning (dumps)
(on -site)
Aircraft (jet piston, turboprop)
Total
•
•P •
in o
s:
M-l
0 *
M
>1-H
-P 3
•H O
U J
610
45
55
117
23
b
13
39
16
63
158
L,139
(0
•
0
w S
•H
3 *
q >,
J -P
C
• 3
-P O
w u
525
10
8
148
19
7
10
9
8
81
28
853
IQ •
i
U -P
c
• 3
-P 0
w u
i9
14
10
b
b
b
26
89
•
Q
G S
o
to -
M >(
0) -P
iW C
M-l 3
0) O
h) U
44
b
9
11
10
b
6
110
16
206
H
H
^ H
•M
(0 *
•H >i
U -P
C
• 3
•P 0
to u
146
3
75
36
20
1
2
7
371
150
811
•
H
•H
H
C *
0 >,
w -P
•H C
T3 5
tg o
s u
134
2
23
34
135
8
3
2
53
140
534
•
H
H
H
^
t
O -P
^1 C
C 3
5 o
S U
10
b
12
2
b
b
30
9
63
Total
1,508
60
196
358
207
16
28
39
25
86
546
580
28
3,695
Percent
40.8
1.6
5.3
9.7
-' • '
5.6
0.4
0.8
1.0
0.7
2.3
15.3
1507
008
100.0
^Excluding city of St. Louis
"Less than 005 tons/year.
to
00
-------
29
in fruits and plants. These include citronellal, in rose
oil; citral, in oil of lemongrass; bensaldehyde, in oil of
bitter almonds; cinnamaldehyde, in oil of cinnamon; anisalde-
hyde, in anise; and vanillin, in the vanilla bean.
3.2 Production Sources
Aldehydes are commercially manufactured by various
processes, depending on the particular aldehyde. In general,
they are prepared via oxidation reactions of hydrocarbons,
hydroformylation of alkenes, dehydrogenation of alcohols,
and addition reactions between aldehydes and other compounds.
The commercial manufacture of formaldehyde and acrolein
is discussed in the following sections. Formaldehyde is a
very important chemical and is produced in the largest quan-
tities by far of all the aldehydes.
3.2.1 Formaldehyde Manufacture
Formaldehyde production in the United States has
generally shown a steady growth since manufacture was first
910 911
begun."6 The United States production figures for
formaldehyde for 1958 through 1968 (see Table 13 , Appendix)
illustrate this general growth to over 4 billion pounds in
1968. The data also indicate that most of the formaldehyde
is consumed by the manufacturer. A list of the major manu-
facturers of aldehydes in the United States is given in
Table 14 in the Appendix.
-------
30
Industrial plants producing formaldehyde may be
local sources of atmospheric pollution. Levaggi and
Feldstein113 found that approximately 3,000,000 |ag/ma
(2,580 ppm) of formaldehyde and 290,000 lag/m"* (162 ppm) of
acetaldehyde were in the effluent from a formaldehyde plant.
Most formaldehyde is manufactured from oxidation of
methanol.^H However, a small amount (14 percent of total
production in the United States in 1960) is produced by the
partial oxidation of gaseous hydrocarbons.
The methanol process involves passing a methanol
vapor air mixture over a catalyst. Some manufacturers use
a silver or copper catalyst at 450° to 650°C, while others
use an iron-molybdenum oxide catalyst at 300° to 400°C. With
the metallic catalyst, the alcohol-air mixture is rich in
methanol and yields a methanol solution of formaldehyde.
With the oxide as catalyst, an alcohol-lean mixture is used
which produces a substantially methanol-free solution.
Generally, two main reactions can occur—dehydrogenation
and oxidation, which are represented by Equations 1 and 2,
respectively:
cat.
CH3OH > HCHO + H2 (Equation 1)
cat.
CH3OH + ^02 >HCHO + H20 (Equation 2)
-------
31
In the metal-catalyzed process, the main reaction is
dehydrogenation (Equation 1), with little if any formalde-
hyde formed via oxidation. The oxide-catalyzed process, in
contrast, proceeds mainly via the oxidation reaction. Product
vapors are passed from the converter to a series of contra-
current water scrubbers to cool the gases and dissolve the
formaldehyde. Excess methanol is removed by fractional
distillation.
In the hydrocarbon oxidation process, the reaction
can occur with or without a catalyst in the presence of air
or oxygen. The main disadvantage of this process is the
formation of numerous oxidation products, including other
aldehydes, alcohols, and organic acids. Thus, the recovery
of the important products requires specific and complicated
separation procedures. In fact, this process is used
primarily for manufacture of other products, with formalde-
hyde recovered as a by-product.
3.2.2 Acrolein Manufacture
Aerolein is produced by two manufacturers in the
United States (see Table 14 in the Appendix). Data on the
production and sales of acrolein are not available. The
commercial methods of preparation are discussed below. No
data were found on the emission of acrolein or other alde-
hydes from these processes.
-------
32
Acrolein is generally commercially produced either
by the direct oxidation of propylene or by the cross-
on 185
condensation of acetaldehyde with formaldehyde. '
In the oxidation of propylene the hydrocarbon vapor
is passed over a catalyst at 300° to 350°C in the presence
of air or oxygen. The catalysts are generally metallic
oxides such as cuprous oxide, oxide mixtures of bismuth
and molybdenum, oxide mixtures of cobalt and molybdenum,
oxides of antimony plus other metals, and various other
combinations. The general reaction is given in Equation 3.
cat.
CHS=CH-CH3 + 03 > CH2=CH-CHO + Hs0 (Equation 3)
The principal by-products are water and carbon dioxide from
the undesired complete oxidation of the propylene. Excess
propylene is used to avoid complete combustion. Other
products that are formed in minor amounts include formalde-
hyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and acetone. The
formed acrolein passes along with the other by-product gases
through a cooler and then through an aqueous scrubber.
Fractional distillation is used to separate the acrolein
from the water and other water-soluble products.
The second method, cross-condensation of acetaldehyde
with formaldehyde, is also.a vapor phase reaction in which
the two reactants are passed over a catalyst at 300° to 350°C.
-------
33
The catalysts used are generally associated with promotion
of dehydration reactions and include lithium phosphate on
activated alumina and sodium silicate on silica gel. The
reaction is represented in Equation 4.
cat.
CH20 + CHgCHO > CHS=CH-CHO + HS0 (Equation 4)
Acetaldehyde is most frequently used in excess since formal-
dehyde is the more difficult component to recover of the
two unreacted components. The by-products of the reaction
include crotonaldehydet methanol, propionaldehyde, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and tar. The tar remains
on the catalyst and thus decreases the efficiency of the
conversion. The catalyst is reactivated with air and steam
at 400°C. The effluent gas containing acrolein leaves the
converter, passes through a cooler, and subsequently through
a water scrubber to remove the noncondensables. The acrolein
is separated from the aqueous mixture by fractional distilla-
tion.
3.3 Product Sources
Aldehydes have a wide variety of uses in numerous
industries, such as the chemical, rubber, tanning, paper,
perfume, and food industries. The major use is as an inter-
mediate in the synthesis of organic compounds, including
alcohols, carboxylic acids, dyes, and medicinals. Uses of
-------
34
formaldehyde and acrolein are discussed in further detail in
the following sections.
3.3.1 Formaldehyde Products
Formaldehyde is commercially marketed chiefly in the
form of an aqueous solution containing 36 to 50 percent by
weight of formaldehyde. Dilution is necessary since pure
formaldehyde will polymerize readily on standing. Formalde-
hyde is also sold in other forms, including paraformaldehyde
(polymeric hydrate), trioxane (a cyclic polymer), hexameth-
ylenetetramine, and various alcoholic solutions.
Its chemical and physical properties, as well as its
low price, have made formaldehyde a widely used chemical.
Formaldehyde has immense utility as illustrated by its use
as a resinifying agent, synthetic agent, hardening agent,
stiffening agent, tanning agent, disinfectant, bactericide,
and preservative.210'211 The consumption of formaldehyde by
uses is shown in Table 15 in the Appendix. Synthetic resins
account for over half of the consumption.
Formaldehyde has numerous applications in a variety
of fields; these include:210'211
Resins. In addition to the resins listed in Table 15
in the Appendix, formaldehyde is used to make resins from
aniline, aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, urethane, and other
compounds. These resins find widespread applications in the
electrical, automotive, building, chemical, and petroleum
industries.
-------
35
Agricultural Uses. The urea-formaldehyde concen-
trates are used for preparing slow-releasing nitrogen
fertilizers and for preventing plant diseases by destruction
or control of microorganisms.
Analysis. Small quantities of formaldehyde are used
in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of chemical
compounds.
Catalvst.5. Formaldehyde and its derivatives are used
as catalysts and in the preparation of catalysts for the
manufacture of hydrocarbons, alcohols, and resins.
Concrete, Plaster, and Related Products. Formalde-
hyde is employed as one of the addition agents to maXe con-
crete, plaster, and related products impermeable to liquids
and grease.
Cosmetics. It is useful as an antiperspirant and as
an antiseptic in dentifrices, mouthwashes, and germicidal
and detergent soaps.
Deodorants. It is used as an air deodorant in public
places and the home and for deodorizing numerous products.
Disinfectants and Fumiqants. Formaldehyde can destroy
bacteria, fungi, molds, and yeasts and is therefore used in
disinfectant applications.
Dyes and Dyehouse Chemicals. It is employed in the
synthesis of dyes, stripping agents, and various specialty
chemicals of the dye industry.
-------
36
Embalming Fluids and Preservatives. It is an ingre-
dient in embalming fluids and in preservatives for waxes,
polishes, adhesives, fats, oils, starches, ferns, flowers,
textiles, anatomical specimens, etc.
Explosives. Formaldehyde is used in synthesis of
explosives such as pentaerythritol tetranitrate.
Fireproofing Material. It is an ingredient in
manufacturing several fireproofing compositions applied to
fabrics.
Fuels. Numerous solid fuels contain formaldehyde
polymers.
Hvdrocarfrnn Products. Formaldehyde is used in oil-
well operations, in refining of hydrocarbons, and for
stabilization in gasoline fuels.
Insecticides. Certain insecticidal solutions for
killing flies, mosquitoes, moths, and other insects contain
formaldehyde.
Leather. Formaldehyde is used as tanning agent of
white washable leather, hides, and hairs; also used as a
preservative and disinfectant of leather products.
Medicinals. It is used in synthesis of numerous
medicinal preparations, including vitamins and vaccines, and
as a detoxifying agent.
Metals. Formaldehyde and its derivatives are used
as pickling addition agents, for control of corrosion
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37
of metals by hydrogen sulfide, in preparation of mirrors, in
electroplating, and as metal sequestering agents.
Paper, Formaldehyde is used for improving the wet-
strength, water-resistance, shrink-resistance, and grease-
resistance of paper, coated papers, and paper products.
Photographic Materials. It is used to harden and
insolubilize film and in reducing silver salts.
Proteins. It is employed in production of protein
fibers.
Rubber. It is used in vulcanization and modifica-
tion of natural and synthetic rubber, and in the synthesis
of rubber accelerators and antioxidants.
Solvents and Plasticizers. Formaldehyde is used in
synthesis of polyhydroxy compounds, formals, and other
methylene derivatives for solvents and plasticizers.
Starch. It is used to modify properties of starches.
Surface-Active Agents. It is employed in synthesis
of several surface-active compounds.
Textiles. It is used to make natural and synthetic
fibers crease-resistant, crush-proof, flame-resistant, shrink-
proof, etc.
Wood. Formaldehyde is an ingredient in wood preserv-
atives.
3.3.2 Acrolein Products
Acrolein is consumed in large quantities in the
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38
manufacture of several derivatives, including 1,2,6-hexane-
QQ
triol, hydroxy adipaldehyde, and glutaraldehyde. w One of
the largest single uses of acrolein is in the synthesis of
niethionine, an amino acid used to fortify chicken and dog
foods. Acrolein is also an ingredient in synthetic resins.
3.4 Other Sources
Significant amounts of atmospheric aldehydes,
particularly formaldehyde, are a result of photooxidation
of unsaturated hydrocarbon pollutants. In addition, some
important contributing sources of aldehyde air pollution
are the burning or heating of organic compounds. These
sources include mobile combustion (automobiles, diesel
vehicles, and aircraft), stationary combustion (units that
burn coal, oil, natural gas, or waste materials), and non-
combustion sources (e.g., chemical oxidation processes, and
drying and baking in ovens).
3.4.1 Atmospheric Photochemical Reactions
Atmospheric photochemical reactions may be major
contributors to aldehyde air pollution in some areas. The
importance of this source does, of course, depend upon such
factors as concentration of atmospheric reactants and amount
of sunlight. Furthermore, the presence of atmospheric
aldehydes may also contribute to production of other photo-
chemical pollutants by (1) photochemical reactions of the
aldehydes to form new products, and (2) interaction of an
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39
aldehyde or its photochemical products with other atmos-
pheric pollutants to yield additional products. Thus, the
photochemical aspects of air pollution are quite complicated
and not yet thoroughly understood. Reviews on the subject
have been prepared by Stern,19 Altshuller and Bufalini,
Wayne,213 and Leighton.110
3.4.1.1 Phojto chemical Formation of Aldehydes
Aldehydes are major products in the photooxidation
of reactive hydrocarbons. This includes such systems as
olefin-nitrogen oxides,12,23,169,170,181,191,192,193,205
aromatic-nitrogen oxides,23'103'169'192 clefin-ozone,11'13'175
olefin-molecular oxygen, '' and aldehyde-nitrogen
oxides.23 Formaldehyde is produced in substantial amounts by
the photooxidation of almost all olefins and aromatic hydro-
carbons,8'23'57'169 and is found as a product of photooxidation
Q O "3
of higher aldehydes. '" Acrolein is derived mainly from
photooxidation of diolefins, such as 1,3-butadiene.169'180f193
A summary of some of the reported yields of formaldehyde,
acrolein, and "total" aldehydes from photooxidation of hydro-
carbon-nitrogen oxide mixtures is given in Table 16 in the
Appendix.
Thus, atmospheric photochemical reactions may be a
major contributor to formation of aldehydes in the atmos-
phere when it is contaminated with large amounts of nitrogen
oxides and reactive hydrocarbons. Altshuller10 found that an
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40
air sample taken in Los Angeles, Calif., between 7 and 8 a.m.
contained approximately 120 ug/m3 (0.1 ppm) of formaldehyde.
Upon irradiating this sample in sunlight for several hours,
the formaldehyde increased over threefold to 420 (jg/m3 (0.35
ppm). The final concentration of "aldehydes" (calculated as
formaldehyde) was approximately 600 ug/m3 (0.5 ppm). In a
similar experiment, Sigsby &t al.180 found that irradiation
of diluted automobile exhaust (which contained approximately
120 Lig/m3 (0.1 ppm) of aldehydes) caused the aldehyde level
to increase by a factor of five. Formaldehyde accounted
for approximately 60 percent of the total aldehydes in the
irradiated mixture.
3.4.1.2 Products from Photooxidation of Aldehydes
The concentration of aldehydes in photochemical
reactions appears to be important in determining the products.
Thus, while peroxyacids and diacetyl peroxides are the major
products from photooxidation of high concentrations of
aldehydes, ^'123,124,125 these products have not been produced
from photooxidation of atmospheric concentrations of aldehydes.
In general, the products of photooxidation at low
partial pressures of aldehydes in the presence of nitrogen
oxides are carbon monoxide, lower aldehydes, nitrates, and
oxidants.8'10'14'15'18'145'146 The oxidants produced include
ozone and alky! hydroperoxide (hydrogen peroxide in the case
of formaldehyde). In addition, peroxyacyl nitrate compounds
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41
10
are found in small amounts. Hence, the products in
some cases are reactive species that contribute to eye
irritation and plant damage.
Furthermore, the photochemical products from alde-
hydes can react with olefins and aromatic hydrocarbons. ^
Although the rates of these reactions are less than the
photochemical olefin-nitrogen oxide reactions, the rates are
significant when considering photochemical atmospheric
reactions.
The reactivity of aldehydes appears to be slightly
greater than that of ethylene, similar to the reactivity of
substituted aromatic hydrocarbons, but less than that of
olefins and diolefins.^|2^
3.4.2 Mobile Combustion Sources
A major source of aldehyde pollution may be the
emissions from motor vehicles. Conlee et al.53 determined
the contribution of motor vehicle emissions to air pollution
by comparing the concentration of pollutants at the entrance
and exit of the Sumner Tunnel, a one-way, 1.1-mile-long tunnel
in Boston, Mass. Their results indicate that approximately
83 percent of the atmospheric aldehydes in that area were
due to motor vehicles. Furthermore, motor vehicles emit
reactive hydrocarbons that can undergo photochemical oxida-
tion to produce additional amounts of aldehydes (see discus-
sion in Section 3.4.1).
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42
3.4.2.1 AiijTimnhi 1 t^s
The automobile is probably a major source of aldehyde
air pollution. Estimations of aldehyde emission rates vary
considerably, from 3.4 to 18.7 lb/1,000 gal of gasoline.45'50'
93,119,217 Tne reported emission data are summarized in Table
I7 in the Appendix. From these data, it appears that the
concentration of aldehydes emitted varies during the different
engine modes in the following order: deceleration » acceler-
ation > cruise > idle. Other important factors in the amount
of aldehydes emitted are type of gasoline and type of engine.
The condition of the engine may also be a very important factor.19?
Sigsby _et al.180 reported that aldehydes are present
in diluted automobile exhaust to the extent of approximately
120 ug/m" (0.1 ppm) at atmospheric levels. Other studies on
the irradiation of automobile exhaust indicate that approxi-
mately 10 to 20 percent of the atmospheric aldehydes may be
due to the exhaust.10'109
Formaldehyde is the major aldehyde in automobile
exhaust, accounting for 50 to 70 percent of the total alde-
hydes.77'95'96 Acrolein accounts for approximately 3 to 10
percent (on mole basis) of the total aldehydes. ^, 77
Several other aldehydes have been identified in auto-
mobile exhaust; these include acetaldehyde,31'68'77 propionalde-
hyde,6'31'68 n-butyraldehyde,68 iso-butyraldehyde,6'68 tri-
methylacetaldehyde,6 iso-valeraldehyde,77 crotonaldehyde,6'31'77
and benzaldehyde.32'77
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43
3.4.2.2 Diesel Vehicles
Reported aldehyde emissions from diesel engines are
given in Table 18 in the Appendix. The estimated emission
rates are given as 10 to 16 lb/1,000 gal of fuel.45'93 This
is similar to that reported for automobiles (see Section
3.4.2.1). From these data it appears that the aldehyde emis-
sions are usually lower at part loads and higher at no load
or full load. RecXner et al. determined the amount of
formaldehyde, acrolein, and aldehydes in emissions from diesel
engines. These data indicate that formaldehyde generally
constitutes 50 to 70 percent of the total aldehydes, and
acrolein 5 to 10 percent of them.
3.4.2.3 Aircraft
Studies reporting aldehyde emissions from aircraft
are summarized in Table 19 in the Appendix. The emission
rate ranges from 0.2 to 2 pounds of aldehydes per hour for
a four-engine jet aircraft; the total emissions per flight
(including arrival and departure) range from 0.3 to over 4
pounds of aldehydes.78'117'122'197 The principal aldehyde
present in the jet-engine emissions was formaldehyde, generally
accounting for greater than 60 percent of the total aldehydes.117
It was estimated that 0.1 tons of aldehydes from aircraft were
emitted per day in Los Angeles County in 1960. This figure
was predicted to increase sixfold by 1965.78
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44
3.4.3 Stationary Combustion Sources
Stationary combustion sources contribute to aldehyde
air pollution. Although they are considered to be minor
sources of aldehydes compared with automobile emissions and
atmospheric photochemical reactions, these stationary com-
bustion sources may contribute significantly if the equip-
ment is not operating correctly or the control methods are
inadequate.197 Only the principal sources for which emission
data were available are discussed in the following sections.
3.4.3.1 Combustion of Coal
Aldehydes and formaldehyde have been found in small
amounts from sources that burn coal. ' ' ' Wohlers
and Bell218 estimated the amount of aldehydes produced from
the combustion of bituminous coal at 2 Ib/ton of coal.
Emission of aldehydes from anthracite coal was assumed to be
1 Ib/ton of coal, based on the more complete combustion from
higher flame temperatures. More recent data give the value
at less than 0.01 Ib/ton of coal.122'140
Formaldehyde emissions from different types of coal-
burning power plants range from 0.06 to 0.25 ppm before the
ash collector and 0.07 to 0.12 ppm after the ash collector.56'187
Data of emissions from combustion of coal are
summarized in Table 20 in the Appendix.
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45
3.4.3.2 Fuel Oil Combustion
Emission rates of aldehydes from sources using fuel
oil range from nearly 0 to 14.8 Ib/gal of oil, according to
Hovey, Risman, and Cunnan.93 The average for distillate oil
(density of 7 Ib/gal) was given as 2 pounds of aldehydes per
1,000 gallons of oil, while emission from residual oil (density
of 8 Ib/gal), which is used by the large consumers, was
estimated at half that amount. Chass and George summarized
the results from various industrial and commercial oil-fired
equipment. The data ranged from 3 to 52 ppm aldehydes in
stack effluent or 0.02 to 1.8 pounds of aldehydes per hour.
These results and others are summarized in Table 21 in the
Appendix. The aldehyde emission rates vary with the type,
size,and condition of the equipment. In fact, it is common
to judge the operating condition of oil-fired equipment by the
odor produced by aldehydes in the effluent gas.
3.4.3.3 Natural Gas Combust-ion
A summary of reported aldehyde emission data from
the burning of natural gas in various home appliances and
industrial equipment is shown in Table 22 in the Appendix.
The aldehyde emissions vary from 2 to 49 ppm, depending on
the source. Hovey, Risman, and Cunnan93 reported a range of
0 to 60 pounds of aldehydes per million cubic feet of gas
consumed, with an average of 10 lb/106 ft3 of gas. They gave
fi O
the average for propane and butane as 26 and 34 lb/10 ft
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46
of gas, respectively. Weisburd,214 on the other hand,
reported aldehyde emissions from power plants as approximately
1 lb/106 ft3 (0.02 lb/1/000 it of gas) and for industrial
use as 2 lb/106 ft3 (0.1 lb/1,000 Ib of gas). Vandaveer and
Segeler208 found formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in the emissions
from burning natural, coke-oven, or butane gas. The aldehyde
emissions may be much greater when no afterburners are used
or when the correct air-to-fuel ratio is not maintained.
3.4.3.4 Incinerator Emissions
Table 23 in the Appendix summarizes the data on alde-
hyde emissions from different types of incinerators. Reported
aldehyde emissions from multistage municipal incinerators
average about 1.1 Ib/ton of refuse (49 ppm),93'122'197 How-
ever, emissions from small domestic incinerators vary from
0.1 to nearly 16 Ib/ton of refuse (1 to 67 ppm).93'197 Back-
yard incinerators have been reported to have emissions as
high as 29 Ib/ton (760 ppm).197 Formaldehyde and acrolein
OQ
are probably the principal aldehydes in the emissions. °
1 QQ
Stenburg et al. reported that formaldehyde content in the
emissions increases with (1) a decrease in gas temperature,
(2) an increase in excess air, and (3) a decrease in refuse
feed rate.
Alpiser reported that aldehyde emission from a
small-batch automobile incinerator (primary chamber holds
one automobile) was 3 ppm with an afterburner or 16 ppm
without an afterburner.
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47
As a comparison, open-dump burning has been estimated
at .1.0 to 4.0 pounds of aldehydes per ton of refuse,93'122
or 6,000 pounds per day per million people.64 Aldehyde
emissions from open burning of paper and garden trimmings
were estimated at 2.1 and 5.7 Ib/ton of material, respectively.93
3.4.3.5 Emissions from Petroleum Refineries
Petroleum refineries are local sources of aldehyde
emissions. A Los Angeles survey29 indicated that catalytic
cracking units emit 19 pounds of aldehydes per 1,000 barrels
of feed (3 to 130 ppm) in the fluid unit and 12 lb/1,000 bl
of feed in the thermofor units. Smaller amounts of aldehyde
emissions also originate from the refineries' boilers,
processor heaters, and compressor engines. Total aldehyde
emissions from oil refineries for the Los Angeles area amount
to approximately 2.4 tons/day. A summary of the emission
factors is given in Table 24 in the Appendix.
3.4.4 Noncombustion Sources
When organic compounds are heated in the presence of
air or an oxygen source, aldehydes and other oxygenated hydro-
carbons may be produced. This is particularly true of the
more reactive organic compounds such as olefins and aromatic
compounds. Sources of this type of emission include
industries manufacturing oxygenated organic compounds (e.g.,
aldehydes, alcohols, carboxylic acids) and processes in which
solvents are removed by use of drying or baking ovens. Very
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48
little information is available on the aldehyde emissions
from these sources. Some emission data from these sources
can be found in Tables 25 and 26 in the Appendix.
3.4.4.1 Thermal Decomposition
In addition to the industrial sources of aldehydes
via thermal decomposition of organic compounds mentioned
above, the following examples illustrate other sources that
may yield aldehydes in this manner. Babies placed in
incubators following surgery were found to have respiratory
problems caused by formaldehyde that had been formed by
thermal decomposition of exhaled ether when it came in con-
129
tact with the heating elements of the incubators. " Occu-
pational and community exposure to acrolein may result from
the thermal decomposition of glycerine from fats and oils.141
Henson87 suggested that acrolein is the important cause of
the irritant effects from exposure to vapors from the cooking
of fatty food over intense heat.
3.4.4.2 Drying or Baking Ovens
Processes in which organic solvents are heated may
be local aldehyde emission sources which contribute to the
overall aldehyde air pollution. A major process of this type
is the coating of materials. The coating substance (dissolved
in an organic solvent) is applied to the material, which is
subsequently dried or baked in an oven to remove the solvent.
Examples of operations using such procedures are automobile
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49
painting, coating of paper with resins or adhesives, and
application of protective coatings to metals. Brunelle,
Dickinson, and Hamming'* determined the aldehyde, formalde-
hyde, and acrolein content of the effluent gases from
several of these processes (see Table 26, Appendix). The
solvents used included alkanes, aromatics, alcohols, and
ketones. In each case, measurable amounts of aldehydes were
produced with some values over 120,000 pg/m3 (100 ppm)
aldehydes (as formaldehyde). Maximum values for formaldehyde
and acrolein were 62,400 \ig/m3 (52 ppm) and 25,000 ng/m3 (10
ppm), respectively. The aldehyde concentration appeared to
be higher in the samples taken after passing through the after-
burner than in the samples taken at the oven before the after-
burner. Similarly, data reported by Danielson showed that
the use of afterburners with paint-baking ovens may increase
the aldehyde concentration up to tenfold, although almost
complete removal of aldehydes is possible in some cases.
Wallach212 analyzed the effluents from the baking of
lithograph coatings in which mixtures of aliphatic and
aromatic solvents were used. Total aldehydes ranged from
14,000 to 224,000 |jg/m3 (12 to 186 ppm) before passing through
afterburners. Samples taken after the effluent passed through
a high-temperature burner showed both an increase and a
decrease in aldehyde concentration with no apparent pattern or
reason. Samples taken after catalytic combustion treatment
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50
showed that aldehyde concentration increased up to 250 percent
after treatment.
3.5 Environmental Air Concentrations
In 1967, the National Air Sampling Network began the
monitoring of aldehydes.126 The data for 1967, the latest
available, are presented in Table 27 (Appendix). The averages ranged
from 3 to 79 ug/m3 of aldehyde (calculated as formaldehyde);
the maximum values ranged from 5 to 161 |jg/m3 .
Other areas reported aldehyde air concentrations
before establishment of the National Air Sampling Network
program. The data reported from 1951 to 1967 are given in
Tables 28 and 29 in the Appendix. Until the early 1960's,
the analysis method used was the sodium bisulfite method,
which is not specific for aldehydes and is sensitive to some
ketone as well (see discussion in Section 6.3.1).
Table 30 in the Appendix gives the aldehyde concentration
in the air of different metropolitan areas (by population) in 1958
as reported by Wohlers and Bell and cited by Stern.19^
49
Cholak reported that the aldehyde (calculated as
formaldehyde) concentrations for the ambient air in several
cities sampled in 1946 to 1951 ranged from 0 to 324 |ag/m3
(0 to 0.27 ppm), with the averages ranging from 48 to 216
(ig/m3 (0.04 to 0.18 ppm).
It is generally reported that of the aldehydes
present in the atmosphere, 50 percent is accounted for as
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51
formaldehyde and 5 percent as acrolein.17'109'147'167
Recent measurements have been made in El Monte and Huntington
Park, Calif., for aliphatic aldehydes, formaldehyde, and
acrolein.174 The data, shown in Table 8, are for two high-
oxidant days.
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52
TABLE 8
CONCENTRATIONS OF ALDEHYDES IN ATMDSPHERE AT
EL MONTE AND HUNTINGTON PARK, CALIF.174
(ug/nr3)
Date
1968
Time
P.S.T.
Aliphatic
Aldehydes
Formal-
dehyde
Acrolein
10/22
10/23
0738
0850
0956
1130
1235
1338
1442
0745
0850
1000
1130
1235
1340
1445
EL MONTE, CALIF.
81.6 30.0
108.0 42.0
88.8 39.6
66.0 58.8
144.0 106.8
177.6 108.0
100.8
114.0 48.0
92.4 57.6
58.8 37.2
49.2 22.8
51.6 33.6
5.0
7.5
7.5
10.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
7.5
10.0
2.5
5.0
12.5
15.0
10/22
10/23
0555
0658
0815
0921
1115
1240
0545
0647
0904
1010
1208
1330
HUNTINGTON PARK, CALIF.
51.6
70.8
96.0
166.8
196.8
105.6
46.8
207.6
146.4
27.6
31.2
68.4
120.0
163.2
97.2
32.4
28.8
91.2
116.4
109.2
60.0
7.5
7.5
12.5
15.0
27.5
17.5
10.0
7.5
20,0
25.0
20.0
15.0
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53
4. ABATEMENT
Aldehydes are only some of the oxygenated hydro-
carbons that are present in vehicle exhausts, incinerator
effluents, and industrial emissions. Other compounds
classified as oxygenated hydrocarbons are alcohols, ethers,
Ketones, carboxylic acids, and organic esters. Control
methods for these oxygenated compounds, as well as for
aldehydes, are considered under the hydrocarbon control
programs. Control methods being currently studied include
more effective combustion methods and the use of direct-
flame and catalytic afterburners.
Although these methods generally decrease the
amount of hydrocarbon emissions, they may actually produce
greater amounts of aldehydes and other oxygenated hydro-
carbons. Evidence for this can be seen from some of the data
on aldehyde emissions from various sources given in Table 25
in the Appendix. In some cases, the amount of aldehydes
increases tenfold by the use of afterburners in drying-
oven processes.
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54
5. ECONOMICS
No information has been found on the economic costs
of aldehyde air pollution or on the costs of its abatement.
Data on the production and consumption of formalde-
hyde and acrolein are presented in Section 3.
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55
6. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
There are numerous methods of analysis for aldehydes—
too many to be covered thoroughly in this report. Only
those methods that have been used for or appear applicable to
determining formaldehyde, acrolein, or the "aliphatic"
aldehydes in air samples or emission source samples will be
discussed. Other methods of analysis for aldehydes can be
found in the reviews of Altshuller, Sawicki, Altshuller
et al..,22 Farr,69 and Reynolds and Irwin.151
6.1 Sampling Methods
Generally/ common sampling methods employ bubblers
or impingers containing a reactive reagent. In some cases
the reactive reagent may result in a color product that may
be used in the analysis procedure. Examples of the
commonly used reagents are 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolone hydra-
zone (MBTH),16'17'131'177 sodium bisulfite,63'68'78 and a
mixture of sodium bisulfite and sodium tetrachloromercurate-
(II)106'221 for "aldehydes"; chromotropic acid17'22'114'177
17 177
for formaldehyde; and 4-hexylresorcinol ' for acrolein.
These reagents are preferred because they have high collection
efficiencies (generally two bubblers in series yield 95
percent or better collection efficiencies) and produce
fairly stable nonvolatile products, thus avoiding excess loss
of aldehydes via evaporation or formation of undesirable
by-products.
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56
In some cases, water is used as the collection
medium,67'77'118 reportedly with high efficiency.
6.2 Qualitative Methods
The presence of aldehydes can be determined by
infrared spectroscopy. The carbon-hydrogen stretch vibra-
tion of the aldehydic group adsorbs as a doublet in the 3.5
to 3.7 (j. region. Furthermore, the carbonyl of an aldehydic
group has an adsorption band in the 5.7 to 6.0 u region,
which, unlike the carbonyl bands of ketones and carboxylic
acids, disappears when a chloroform solution is treated with
phosphorus pentachloride.161
Many colorimetric methods applicable to formaldehyde,
acrolein, and "aldehydes" have been used for spot tests
or detector tube methods. Some of the more common methods
are summarized in Table 9»
6«3 Quantitative Methods
6.3.1 Aldehydes
Recently one method has been used extensively to
determine total water-soluble "aliphatic" aldehydes in
atmospheric sampling.17'34'35'90'91 Since 1967 this method
has been used by the National Air Sampling Network of the
196
National Air Pollution Control Administration ^ according to
the procedure described by Morgan et_ al.. This method
was first proposed by Sawicki et^ al_. and refined by
Hauser and Cummins.86'177 The latter method uses 3-methyl-
2-benzothiazolone hydrazone (MBTH), with sulfuric acid added
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TABLE 9
SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE COLORIMETR1C DETERMINATION METHODS
Reagent
In dole
Fuchsin (Schiff method)
4-Phenylazo-phenyl-
hydrazine sulfonic acid
2-Hydrazino-benzothiazole
+ p-nitrobenzenediazonium
fluoborate
2-Hydrazino-benzothiazole
(HBT)
3-Methyl-2-tienzothiazolone
hydra zone (MBTH)
(J-acid) 6-amino-l-
naphthol-3-sulfonic acid
Color
Orange to red
Violet to blue
Red to blue
Blue to green
Blue
Blue
Blue
Limits of Identification in Microqrams
Aldehydes
~0.05-1
~1-30
0.2-0.4
0.2-200
0.01-3.0
0.1-80
0.01-11
Fo rma 1 d ehy d e
0.2
1
0.25
0.2
0.01
0.1
0.03
Acrolein
0.2
0.3
Ref.
28
71
71
71,
163
162
167
164
UI
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58
to avoid the dilution necessary in the earlier procedures.
The sensitivity is approximately 2.4 ug/W (2 ppb), measured
as formaldehyde. Aldehydes react with the MBTH to form a
very stable product, which, upon oxidation with ferric
chloride, produces a blue cationic dye that is measured
at 628 mi~i. Compounds which interfere with the analysis
include aromatic amines, imino heterocyclics, carbazoles, azo
dyes, stilbenes, Schiff bases, dinitrohydrazone (DNP) aldehyde
derivatives, and compounds containing the p-hydroxy styryl
group. Since most of these compounds are not gaseous or
water soluble, they will not generally interfere in analysis
of atmospheric samples. Formaldehyde reacts in this proce-
dure about 25 percent greater than the other aliphatic
aldehydes and about 300 percent greater than branched-chained
and unsaturated aldehydes. Altshuller and Leng have
suggested that a correction factor of 1.25 be used to take
into account the various aldehyde responses to the method.
Most other colorimetric procedures that have been
described in the literature show even larger response to
formaldehyde in comparison with other aldehydes, and there-
fore, should not be used for quantitative determination of
aldehydes.9 Such methods include chromotropic acid, J-acid,
phenyl J-acid, Schiff's reagent, and phenylhydrazine reagent
(Schryver's method).
A continuous monitor method for "aldehydes,"^21
IIP
based on the method of Lyles _e_t a^l. , is a modified Schiff
procedure using rosaniline and dichlorosulfulomercurate.
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59
The sensitivity is reported as 12 ug/m3 (0.01 ppm), with a
collection efficiency of greater than 90 percent. Nitrogen
dioxide can cause interference in concentrations of 0.5 ppm
or more and its response to formaldehyde is greater than to
other aldehydes.
Infrared spectroscopy has been used to determine
aldehydes in irradiation chamber studies. ' The carbon-
hydrogen stretch vibration in the range of 3.5 to 3.7 u
was used.
The bisulfite method has been widely used for
147 149
analysis of "aldehydes" in atmospheric samples, '
automobile exhaust, 107 Diesel exhaust, 36,173 an(j incinerator
oon
effluents. ^ However, this method measures both aldehydes
and ketones and thus really measures carbonyls.9 Further-
more, the sensitivity is not high, and the limit of applica-
bility is approached with air sampling analysis. Therefore,
this method is not very satisfactory for aldehyde analysis
in air pollution.
Numerous methods have been reported for the separation
and identification of specific aldehydes by use of derivatives
such as 2,4-dinitrohydrazone (2,4-DNP).9' 9 Recently, gas
chromatographic methods have been used for the separation
and analysis of aldehydes that are collected as sodium
bisulfite68'112'113 or as 2,4-DNP derivatives.77
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60
6.3.2 Formaldehyde
The colorimetric method of determining formaldehyde
with chromotropic acid ( l,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3, 6-disul-
fonic acid) has had widespread use. Several variations have
been described in the literature. 21f 22'40' 147' 215 The
20 , 21
method proposed by Altshuller et al . ' appears to be
simple, rapid, and suitable for the analysis of effluents
and air samples. The sensitivity of this method is approxi-
mately 12 |_ig/m3 (0.01 ppm).16 Nitrogen dioxide, most
aldehydes and ketones, and straight-chain alcohols do not
*?i o i ^
interfere significantly. ' ^ Aromatic hydrocarbons and
olefins can cause serious interference, but the use of
aqueous sodium bisulfite as the collection medium can reduce
this interference. Furthermore, compounds that are easily
converted via hydrolysis or oxidation to formaldehyde in
strong, warm sulfuric acid may also interfere. Compounds
of this type, which include sugars, formaldehyde polymers,
glyoxal, piperonal, and related compounds, have been dis-
cussed by Sawicki.^^^ The chromotropic acid method has been
17 PI
used in the analysis of air samples, '^ incinerator
18*3
effluents, ' automobile exhaust, ^ and diesel ex-
haust.36'114'115'146
Many other colorimetric methods have been used or
appear applicable to analysis of air samples. Sawicki
et al.. 164,166 found that 6-amino-l-naphthol-3-sulfonic acid
-------
61
(J-acid) and 6-anilino-l-naphthol-3-sulfonic acid (phenyl
J-acid) have greater sensitivity than the chromotropic acid.
However, these methods have not been used in analysis of
effluents or air samples. A comparison of these methods and
other spectrometric methods for determining formaldehyde
166
has been made by Sawicki et al. The results are shown in
Table 31 in the Appendix.
A continuous method for determining formaldehyde with
a sensitivity of 12 iag/m3 (0.01 ppm) has been reported.1-^, 221
The method is a modified Schiff method using para-rosaniline
in sodium tetrachloromercurate(II) and sodium bisulfite. This
method has been used for analysis of air samples. Only two
aldehydes, acetaldehyde and propionaldehyde, gave positive
reactions.11^
Polarographic methods33,54 may a]_so t,e applicable to
analysis of air samples, but at present they need further
study.
6.3.3 Aerolein
A highly sensitive spectrophotometric method for
acrolein has been developed by Cohen and Altshuller, who
based their method on a reagent first proposed by Rosenthaler
and Vegezzi. 5^ Acrolein reacts with 4-hexylresorcinol in
an ethanol-trichloroacetic acid solution to yield a blue-
colored product with an absorption maximum at 605 mu- The
sensitivity is approximately 12.5 ug/m3 (0.005 ppm). The
method appears selective; no significant interferences were
-------
62
found from sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, aromatic
compounds, Acetones, olefins, and other unsaturated alde-
hydes. ' Slight interferences are found with some
dienes177 and with malonaldehyde, which appears to form a
similar blue product. This method has been used in analysis
of automobile exhaust,22'51 diesel exhaust,36'114'146 and
atmospheric samples. '
Because colorimetric methods using tryptophan '
and phloroglucinol142'207 lack sufficient sensitivity and
have appreciable interferences, they are not useful for
analysis of air samples. A J-acid method can be used to
determine acrolein with a sensitivity of 0.01 ug, but
serious interference results with equal or higher amounts
of formaldehyde.166
Polarographic,54 gas chromatographic, 68,94,134 ancj
paper chromatographic methods have been used in the analysis
of acrolein from vehicle exhaust and air samples. However,
these methods have not been generally applied because of the
complexity of the techniques.
-------
63
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-------
APPENDIX
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES130
Aldehyde
Properties
Toxicity
Uses
ALIPHATIC
ALDEHYDES
Formaldehyde
HCHO
mp-92°C
bp-19.5°C
Irritating to mucous membranes
Acetaldehyde
CH3CHO
mp-123.50C
bp 21°C
Irritating to mucous membranes
General narcotic action. Large
doses may cause death by re-
spiratory paralysis. Symptoms
of chronic intoxication resem-
ble those of chronic alcohol-
ism. LD5Q orally in rats:
1.9
In manufacture of paral-
dehyde, acetic acid, bu-
tanol, perfumes, flavors,
c.nilinc,dycs, plastics,
synthetic rubber; for
silvering mirrors, hard-
ening gelatin fibers
Propionaldehyde
mp-81°C
bp 49°C
May cause respiratory irrita-
tion. See acetaldehyde. LD,-Q
orally in rats: 1.4 g/"kg ;
lethal concentration for rats
in air: 8,000 ppm
(continued)
oo
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Butyraldehyde
CH3(CH2)2CHO
Isobutyraldehyde
(CH3)2CHCHO
n-Valeraldehyde
CH3(CH2)3CHO
Isovaleraldehyde
(CH3)2CHCH2CHO
Pivalaldehyde
(CH3)3CCHO
Properties
mp-99°C
bp 74.8°C
mp-65.9°C
bp 64°C
bp 102-3°C
mp-51°C
bp 92-93°C
mp 6°C
bp 75°C
Toxicity
May act as irritant, narcotic
Single dose LD50 orally in
rats: 5.89 gAg body wt
LD
50
orally in rats: 3.7 g/kg
Lethal concentration for rats
in air: 16,000 ppm
Has narcotic properties
common to most aldehydes;
is also a mild irritant
Uses
Chiefly in the manufacture
of rubber accelerators,
synthetic resins, solvents,
plasticizers
In the synthesis of panto-
thenic acid, valine, leu-
cine, cellulose esters,
perfumes, flavors, plasti-
cizers, resins, gasoline
additives
In flavoring compounds,
resin chemistry, rubber
accelerators
In artificial flavors and
perfumes
(continued)
oo
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Aldehyde
Caproaldehyde
CH3(CH2)4CHO
Enanthaldehyde
CH3(CH2)5CHO
Caprylaldehyde
CH3(CH2)6CHO
Pelargonaldehyde
CH3(CH2)7CHO
Capraldehyde
CH3(CH2)8CHO
Undecylaldehyde
CH3(CH2)9CHO
Properties
mp-56°C
bp-128°C
mp-43°C
bp 155°C
bp 163. 4°C
bp 185°C
bp 208°C
mp -4
To xi city
Uses
( continued)
CD
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Aldehyde
yc
El
Properties
Toxicity
Uses
[JNSATURATED
ALDEHYDES
Acrolein
CH2=CHCHD
mp-88°C
bp 52.5°C
Irritates skin, mucous mem-
branes. Vapors cause lacrima-
tion. Sensitization, asthma
have been reported. 1^50
30,000 fag/kg sc in mice
In manufacture of colloidal
forms of metals; in making
plastics, perfumes; as
warning agent in methyl
chloride refrigerant. Has
been used in military poi-
son gas mixtures. Used in
organic syntheses
Crotonaldehyde
CH3CH=CHCHO
mp-76.5°C
bp 104.0°C
Highly irritating to eyes,
skin, and mucous membranes.
Lethal concentrations for
guinea pigs in air, 2,000 ppm
In manufacture of butyl al-
cohol, cutyraldehyde, quin-
aldine. As warning agent in
fuel gases in locating
breaks and leaks in pipes.
Minor amounts are used in
the manufacture of maleic
acid, crotyl alcohol, butyl
chloral hydrate, and in
rubber accelerators. In
organic syntheses; as sol-
vent in purification of
mineral oils; in manufac-
ture of resins, rubber anti
oxidants, insecticides. In
chemical warfare
00
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Aldehyde
Tiglaldehyde
CH3CH=C(CH3)CHO
AROMATIC
ALDEHYDES
Benzaldehyde
C7H60
3-Tolualdehyde
C8H80
n-Tolualdehyde
C8H80
p-Tolualdehyde
C8H80
Cinnamaldehyde
C6H5CH=CHCHO
Properties
bp 102°C
bp 179°C
top 200-202°C
bp 199°C
bp 204-205°C
bp 246. 0°C
Toxicitv
Narcotic in high concentra-
tions. May cause contact
dermatitis. LD sc in rats,
5g/kg
Uses
In manufacture of dyes,
perfumery , cinnamic and
mandelic acids; as solvent;
in flavors
In the flavor and perfume
industry
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Aldehyde
Properties
Toxicity
Uses
HETEROCYCLIC
ALDEHYDES
Furfural
C5H4°2
bp 161.8°C
Irritates mucous membranes
and acts on central nervous
system. About one-third as
toxic as formaldehyde. Causes
lacrimation, inflammation of
eyes, irritation of throat,
headache. Chronic toxicity
causes nervous disturbances/
inflammation of eyes, photo-
sensitivity, disturbance of
vision. LD5Q orally in dogs,
2.3 gAg
In manufacture of furfural-
phenol plastics such as
Durite; in solvent refining
of petroleum oils; in the
preparation of pyromucic
acid. As a solvent for ni-
trated cotton, cellulose
acetate, and gums; in the
manufacture of varnish;
for accelerating vulcani-
zation; as insecticide,
fungicide, germacide; as
reagent in analytical
chemistry. In the syntheses
of furan derivatives
POLYFUNCTIONAL
ALDEHYDES
Slyoxal
C2H202
mp 15°C
bp 51°C
Moderately irritating to skin,
mucous membranes.
in rats, 2.0 g/kg
LD50 orally
oo
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 10 (Continued)
PROPERTIES, TOXICITY, AND USES OF SOME ALDEHYDES
Aldehyde
Properties
Toxicity
Uses
Pyruvaldehyde
C3H402
top 72°C
Isophthalal-
dehyde
C6H4(CHO)2
mp 89°-90°C
bp 245°-248°C
Perephthaial-
dehyde
C6H4(CHO)2
mp 116°C
top 247°C
UD
o
-------
91
APPENDIX
S
TABLE 11
TOXICITY OF ALDEHYDES TO ANIMALS VIA INHALATION70
Compound Species
ppm Time,hr
Mortality
SATURATED ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDES
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Propionaldehyde
Ethoxypropionaldehyde
o/P -D ichloroprop ion-
aldehyde
n-Butyraldehyde
I sobutyraldehyde
p-Hydroxybutyraldehyde
(aldol, acetaldol)
n-Valeraldehyde
2-Methylbutyraldehyde
n-Hexaldehyde
(hexanal)
Rat
Rat
Cat
Cat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Cat
Cat
Cat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
250
815
650
200
Sat vapb
16,000
20,000
13,600
4,100
256
8,000
60,000
26,000
500
Coned vapc
16
8,000
60,000
8,000
4,000
Sat vap
48,000
1,400
67,000
3,800
1,043
Coned vap
2,000
4
0.5
8
3.5
2 min
4
30 min
0.25
3-5
5
4
0.3
0.5
4
2 min
4
4
0.5
4
4
0.5
1.2
6
0.3
6.0
6.0
4
4
LC50a
LCso
LCso approx
All survived
LCiQO
0/6
LCso
1/1
0/1
0/1
5/6
3/3
LC50
6/6
6/6
4/6
1/6
LCso
1/6
2/6
No deaths
3/3
0/3
3/3
0/3
0/3
0/6
1/6
(continued)
-------
92
APPENDIX
TABLE 11 (Continued)
TOXICITY OF ALDEHYDES TO ANIMALS VIA INHALATION70
Compound
Species
Time, hr Mortality
SATURATED ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDES (Continued)
2-Ethylbutyraldehyde
Rat
Rat
2-Ethylhexylaldehyde Rat
(a-ethylcaproaldehyde) Rat
Rat
Rat
Coned vap
8,000
25,000
4,000
2,000
145
5 min
1
13 min
4
23 min
6
UNSATURATED ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDES
Acrolein
Methacrylaldehyde
(Methacrolein)
2-Ethyl-3-propyl
acrolein
CrotonaIdehyde
(P-methyl acrolein)
Methyl-p-ethyl acrolein
(2-methyl-2-penten-
1-al)
Rat 8
Cat 690-1,150
Cat 18-92
Cat 11
Rat 130
Rat 250
Rat Coned vap
Rat Coned vap
Rat 1,400
Rat 2,000
Succ inaldehyde
(25% in H20)
Hexa-2,4-dienal
3-Methyl glutaralde-
hyde
ALIPHATIC DIALDEHYDES
Rat Coned vap
(ca. 15,000
lag/liter)
Rat 2,000
Rat Coned vap
Rat Coned vap
4
2
3-4
3-10
30 min
8
1 min
30 min
8
6
0/6
5/6
3/3
1/6
3/3
0/3
1/6
3/3
0/2
0/2
LC50
5/6
0/6
0/6
LC50
3/6
0/3
1/6
0/6
0/3
(continued)
-------
93
APPENDIX
TABLE 11 (Continued)
TOXICITY OF ALDEHYDES TO ANIMALS VIA INHALATION70
Compound Species ppm Time, hr Mortality
ALIPHATIC DIALDEHYDES (Continued)
a-Hydroxyadipaldehyde Rat Coned vap 8 0/6
aLC = Lethal concentration.
Sat vap = Saturated vapor.
GConcd vap = Concentrated vapor.
-------
94
APPENDIX
TABLE 12
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATAa
Emissions
Community _ (tons/year)
Florida
Dade County 1,737
Idaho
Lewiston, Clarkston, and
Washington area 169
Illinois
Madison County 534
Monroe County 63
St. Glair County 811
Missouri
Jefferson County 206
St. Charles County 89
St. Louis (city) 1,139
St. Louis County ( excluding city
of St. Louis 853
New York
Town
Baldwin 1
Catl in 2
Chemung 2
Erin 1
Van Etten 2
Veteran 4
Rest of County 361
Total for Chemung County 373
Columbia County
City
Hudson 35
Town
Ancram 3
Austerlitz 3
Canaan 3
Chatham 11
Claverack 15
(continued)
-------
95
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emissions
Community (tons/year)
New York (continued)
Columbia County (continued)
Town (continued)
Clermont 2
Copake 4
Gallatin 2
Germantown 7
Ghent 13
Greenport 209
Hillsdale 4
Kinderhook 13
Livingston 4
New Lebanon 4
Stockport 6
Stuyvesant 4
Taghkanic 1
Village13
Chatham 6
Philmont 7
Kinderhook 2
Valatie 4
Total for Columbia County 343
Putchess County
City
Beacon 64
Poughkeepsie 120
Town
Amenia 37
Beekman 4
Clinton 5
Dover 30
East Fishkill 20
Fishkill 26
Hyde Park 45
La Grange 24
Milan 3
Northeast 14
Pawling 16
Pine Plains 6
Pleasant Valley 15
(continued)
-------
96
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emissions
Community (tons/year)
New York (continued)
Dutchess County (continued)
Town (continued)
Poughkeepsie 168
Red Hook 24
Rhinebeck 18
Stanford 5
Union Vale 3
Wappinger 33
Washington 15
Village13
Wappingers Falls 18
Fishkill 2
Millerton 2
Pawl ing 5
Red Hook 5
Tivoli 3
Rhinebeck 6
Millbrook 4
Total for Dutchess County 695
Erie County
City
Buffalo 7,225
Lackawanna 272
Tonawanda 138
Town
Amherst 227
Cheektowaga 351
Hamburg 205
Tonawanda 3,776
West Seneca 160
Alden 40
Aurora 36
Boston 14
Brant 11
Clarence 66
Golden 12
Collins 50
Concord 20
Eden 26
(continued)
-------
97
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emissions
Community (tons/year)
New York (cont inu ed)
Erie County (continued)
Town (continued)
Elma 28
Evans 43
Holland 13
Lancaster 34
Marilla 8
Newstead 25
North Collins 11
Orchard Park 26
Sardinia 9
Wales 8
Village13-
Blasdell 23
Depew 70
Hamburg 33
Kenmore 97
Lancaster 62
Sloan 34
Williamsville 45
Akron 35
Alden 12
Angola 13
East Aurora 34
Parnham 3
Gowanda 5
Grand Island 32
North Collins 10
Orchard Park 16
Springville 24
Greene County
Town
Ashland 1
Athens 10
Cairo 11
Catskill 472
Coxsackie 20
Durham 8
Greenville 10
Hunter 9
(continued)
-------
98
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emissions
Community (tons/year)
New York (continued)
Greene County (continued)
Town (continued)
Jewett 1
Lexington 2
New Baltimore 7
Prattsville 3
Windham 7
Village33
Athen s 6
Catskill 20
Coxsackie 8
Hunter 2
Tannersville 2
Total for Greene County 561
Rockland County
Town
Clarkstown 100
Haverstraw 78
Orangetown 156
Ramapo 120
Stoney Point 203
Village
Stoney Point 203
Spring Valley 21
Upper Nyack 5
Haverstraw 37
West Haverstraw 15
Grandview-on-Hudson 1
Nyack 18
Piermont 14
South Nyack 8
Hillburn 29
Suffern 16
Sloatsburg 8
New Square 1
Total for Rockland County 657
(continued)
-------
99
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Community
Emissions
(tons/year)
New York (continued)
Ulster County
City
Kingston
Town
Esopus
Gardiner
Hardenburgh
Hurley
Kingston
Lloyd
Mart let own
Marlborough
New Paltz
Olive
Plattekill
Rochester
Rosendale
Saugerties
Shandaken
Shawangunk
Ulster
Wawarsing
Woodstock
Village0
New Paltz
Rosendale
Saugerties
Ellenville
Total for Ulster County
WestChester County
City
White Plains
Peekskill
Mount Vernon
New Rochelle
Yonkers
Rye
280
31
5
1
14
2
21
11
15
18
5
12
9
24
37
9
14
36
36
25
10
2
10
19
605
131
98
136
164
396
37
(continued)
-------
100
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emi ss ion s
Community (tons/year)
New York (continued)
Westchester County (continued)
Town
Bedford 84
Cortlandt 135
Eastchester 128
Greenburg 207
Harrison 77
Lewisboro 37
Mamaroneck 66
Mount Pleasant 129
New Castle 70
North Salem 42
Ossining 72
Pelliam 30
Pound Ridge 24
Rye 110
Scarsdale 43
Somers 52
Yorktown 84
Village13
Ossining 42
Port Chester 75
Mamaroneck 40
Scarsdale 43
Mount Kisco 22
Croton 40
Bronxville 13
Tuckahoe 20
Ardsley 10
Dobbs Ferry 15
Hastings 26
Irvington 12
Tarrytown 25
Larchmont 12
Briarcliff Manor 17
North Tarrytown 29
Pleasantville 20
North Pelham 8
Pelham 4
(continued)"
-------
101
APPENDIX
TABLE 12 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSION DATA
Emissions
Community (tons/year)
New York (continued)
Westchester County (continued)
Village (continued)
Pelham Manor 16
Elmsford 14
Buchanan 27
Total for Westchester County -2,400
aThese data compiled from References 1-4,97,98,121,
^Village data included in appropriate towns.
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 13
U.S. PRODUCTION OF FORMALDEHYDE, 1958-68206
Date
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
Production
[Thousands of Pounds)
1,358,444
1,750,218
1,872,448
1,752,395
2,398,067
2,537,236
2,839,884
3,106,572
3,712,568
3,707,093
4,099,586
Quantity of Sales
(Thousands of Pounds)
542,142
685,986
678,262
723,254
835,572
919,763
1,067,340
1,189,434
1,359,981
1,289,720
Value of Sales
(Thousands of Dnll^r-e;^
19,286
22,965
22,649
23,633
26,474
27,799
27,973
30,199
36,751
33,633
o
PO
-------
103
APPENDIX
TABLE 14
PRINCIPAL U.S. MANUFACTURERS OP ACROLEIN AND FORMALDEHYDE
Manufacturer
Location
ACROLEIN (and its derivatives)
Shell Chemical Co.
Union Carbide Corp. Chemicals Div.
New York, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
FORMALDEHYDE (and its derivatives)
Allied Chemical Corp. Nitrogen Div.
Baker, J. T., Chemical Co.
Big Ben Chemicals & Solvents, Inc.
Borden Chemical Co.
Celanese Chemical Co.
Commerce Chemical Corp.
Commercial Solvents Corp.
Degussa Inc. Cheiffical Div.
du Pont, E. I., de Nemours & Co., Inc.
General Aniline & Film Corp.
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Globe Chemical Co., Inc.
Hachik Bleach Co.
Harshaw Chemical Co.
Haviland Products Co.
Hercules Inc.
Hubbard Hall Chemical Co.
King, E. & F., & Co., Inc.
Kraft Chemical Co.
Lewis, John D., Inc.
Mallinckrodt Chemical Works
McKesson & Robbins, Inc.
Merck & Co., Inc.
Monsanto Co. Plastics Div.
Nicholson & Co.
Nitine, Inc.
Octagon Process, Inc.
Philipp Brothers Chemicals, Inc.
Reichhold Chemicals Inc.
Riverside Chemical Co., Inc.
Robinson Brothers Chemicals, Inc.
Scholle Chemical Corp.
Seaway Chemical Corp.
Siegel Chemical Corp.
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Treys, Geo. I., Co.
Union Carbide Corp. Chemicals Div.
Washing Chemical Corp.
.J.
N.Y,
N.Y,
N.Y,
New York, N.Y.
Phillipsburg, N,
Chicago, 111.
New York, N.Y.
New York,
New York,
New York,
Kearny, N.J.
Wilmington, Del.
New York, N.Y.
Portland, Ore.
C inc innat i, Oh io
Philadelphia, Pa.
Cleveland, Ohio
Grand Rapids, Mich.
Wilmington, Del.
Waterbury, Conn.
Norwood, Mass.
Chicago, 111.
Providence, R.I.
St. Louis, Mo.
New York, N.Y.
Rahway, N.J.
Springfield, Mass.
Cambridge, Mass.
Whippany, N.J.
Edgewater, N.J.
New York, N.Y.
White Plains, N.Y.
North Tonawanda, N.Y,
Brooklyn, N.Y.
Northlake, 111.
Buffalo, N.Y.
Brooklyn, N.Y.
New York, N.Y.
Cooks Falls, N,
New York, N.Y.
Lod i, N.J.
.Y.
-------
104
APPENDIX
TABLE 15
USES OF FORMALDEHYDE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1964211
Percentage of
Formaldehyde
Use Consumption
Resins
Phenolic 20.1
Urea 20.8
Melamine 6.0
Acetal 4.0
50.9
Urea-formaldehyde concentrates
Industrial
Agricultrual
Special chemicals
Hexamethylenetetramine 5.7
Pentacrythritol 8.2
Ethylene glycol 14.3
Sequestering agents 1.4
29.6
Other uses 9.1
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 16
YIELDS OF ALDEHYDES VIA PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDATION OF HYDROCARBON-NITROGEN OXIDE MIXTURES
11
Hydrocarbon
Ethylene
Propylene
1-Butene
Isobutene
Trans-2-butene
Cis-2-butene
1,3-Butadiene
1-Pentene
2-Methyl-2-butene
1 , 3-Pentadiene
2-Methyl-l , 3-pentadiene
Cis-3-hexene
2 , 3-Dimethyl-2-butene
Cyclohexene
2 , 3 -Dime thy 1-1 , 3-butadiene
3-Heptene
Toluene
p-Xylene
o-Xylene
m-Xvlene
1.3. 5-Trimethylbenzene
1,2/4 , 5-Tetramethvlbenzene
Moles/mole of initial hydrocarbon
Fo rma Id ehy d e
0.35,0.45
0.32,0.45
0 . 40 , 0 . 45
0.45,0.4
0.7,0.6
0.3-0.45,0.6
0.6,0.5-0.7
0.35,0.35
0.6,0.6,0.5
0.55
0.5,0.3
0.65
0.55
0.25
0.4
0.65
0.8
0.15
0.15
0.15
Ac eta Id ehy de
0.01
0.4,0.15-0.2
O.O1
1.40,1.5
0.9-1.2
0.9,0.8-1.0
0.01
0.75,0.4-0.5
Acrolein
0.55,0.25
0.2
0.35
0.4
Total or Other
Aldehydes
0.9,0.5
1.0,0.9
0.4
1.3
0.9
1.0,0.9-1.0,
0.9-1.0
1.3
1.2
0.11
0.26
0.22
0.25,0.3
0.6.0.3,0.4
0.45
o
en
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 17
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM AUTOMOBILE ENGINES
Source
Automobile, general
(1 gal gasoline = 6.25 Ib)
Cruise
Acceleration or deceleration
Automobile, general
Idle
Acceleration
Deceleration
Fuel
House Brand (Mid-continent
area regular grade)
Idle
40 mph cruise
50 mph cruise
60 mph cruise
40 mph 2/3 max torque
Acceleration (15 to 60 mph
in 25 sec)
Deceleration (50 to 15 mph
in 25 sec)
West Coast regular brand
(WOGA No. 3)
Idle
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(ug/m3)
3.4 lb/1,000 gal gasoline
4 lb/1, 000 gal gasoline
10 lb/1, 000 gal gasoline
17.5 lb/1,000 gal gasoline
18.7 lb/1,000 gal gasoline
3.3 lb/1,000 gal gasoline
7.1 lb/1,000 gal gasoline
18, 000
56,400
238,800
58,800
184,800
114,000
112,800
115,200
72,000-142,800
289,000-967,200
>
60,000
Formaldehyde
(ug/nn
24,000
99,600
48,000
46,800
39,600
36,000-46,800
106,800-282,000
34,800
Acrolein
(ug/m3)
Ref.
218
45
93
50
119
176
176
209
209
209
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
(continued1
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 17 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM AUTOMOBILE ENGINES
Source
40 mph cruise
60 mph cruise
40 mph 2/3 max torque
West Coast aromatic
(WOGA No. 2 A)
Idle
40 mph cruise
60 roph cruise
40 roph 2/3 max torque
West Coast paraffinic
(WOGA Ho. 2P)
Idle
40 mph cruise
60 mph cruise
40 mph 2/3 max torque
Engine mode
Idle
Cruise
Cruise, 30 raph
Cruise, 15 mph
40 mph
60 mph
Deceleration (coasting)
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(ua/m3)
140,400
114, 000
61,200
88,800
180,000
106,800
129,600
62,400
163,200
128,400
98,400
100,000
105,600
72,000
200,000
316,800
168,000
93,600
105,600
114, 000
Form aldehyde
(ua/m3)
80,400
49,200
36,000
19,200
54, 000
39,600
21,600
32,400
97,200
51,600
57,600
36,000
34,800
54, 000
52,800
Acrolein
(ua/m3)
21,250
17,500
Ref.
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95, 96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
95,96
119
139
150
119
139
150
22,51
67
67
67
22,51
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 17 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM AUTOMOBILE ENGINES
Source
Gasoline, 707 in3
(44-passenger coach)
Idle
Acceleration
Cruise, 30 mph
Deceleration
Chicago Transit Driving Pattern
Propane, 477 inj
(50-passenger coach)
Idle
Acceleration
Cruise, 30 roph
Deceleration
Chicago Transit Driving Pattern
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(ua/m3)
Form al dehyde
(ucr/m3^
36,000; 0.048 SCFH*
19,200; 0.157 SCFH
8,400; 0.048 SCFH
343,200; 0.756 SCFH
0.17 SCFH
36,000; 0.025 SCFH
21,600; 0.157 SCFH
27,600; 0.123 SCFH
206,400; 0.247 SCFH
0.11 SCFH
Acrolein
( ua/m3 )
\ uy/ JH t
Ref .
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
*Standard cubic feet per hour at 60°C and 760 mm,
o
00
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 18
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL ENGINES
Source
Diesel engine
Diesel engine
Diesel engine
Diesel, 2 cycle.
No. 2 fuel
Idle
No load
^ load
Full load
Diesel, 2-cycle,
426 in, full
load , 2 , 000 rpm
Diesel, 2 cycle.
6 cylinder, 220 hp.
supercharged,
No. 2 fuel
600 rpm, 0 hp
1,000 rpm, 50 hp
1,200 rpm, 100 hp
1,600 rpm, 150 hp
2,200 rpm, 200 hp
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(uq/m3)
2.5 lb/1,000 Ib fuel
10 lb/1,000 gal burned
16 lb/1 , 000 gal burned
114,000
Formal d ehyd e
(ucr/m3)
13,200? 192,000a
8,760; 84,240a
9,720; 40,200a
15,600; 38,400a
51,600
6,240
4,056
3,567
12,240
21,720
Aero le in
(ucr/m3)
11,175
2,100
3,500
7,425
7,800
Ref .
108
218
93
197
197
197
197
102
114
114
114
114
114
( continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 18 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL ENGINES
Source
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(ug/m3)
Formaldehyde
lug/m3)
Aerolein
(uq/rn )
Ref.
Diesel, 2 cycle,
No. 2 fuel
500 rpm, no load
1,200 rpm, % load
1,600 rpm, full
load
Diesel, 2 cycle,
426 in (45-
passenger coach):
Idle
Acceleration
Cruise, 30 mph
Deceleration
Chicato Transit
Driving Pattern
Diesel, 4 cycle.
No. 2 fuel
Idle
No load
% load
Full load
12,720; 0.027
Ib/gal fuel
5,520; 0.004
Ib/gal fuel
22,800; 0.005
Ib/gal fuel
10,800; 0.073 SCFH
20,400; 0.509 SCFH
13,200; 0.203 SCFH
34,800; 0.541 SCFH
0.24 SCFH
8,160; 130,800£
2,160;
8,160;
5,160;
26,160°
23,400a
7,200a
10,500; 0.020
Ib/gal fuel
3,500; 0.002
Ib/gal fuel
12,750; 0.003
Ib/gal fuel
146
146
146
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
66,155
197
197
197
197
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 18 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL ENGINES
Source
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(uq/m3)
Formaldehyde
(ug/m3)
Aerolein
(ucr/m3)
Ref,
Diesel, 4 cycle
673 in3
Full load
2,000 rpm
1,000 rpm
Half load
2,000 rpm
1,000 rpm
Diesel, 4 cycle,
6 cylinder, 300 hp
turbosupercharged,
No. 2 fuel, club
propeller as a load
700 rpm
800 rpm
1,050 rpm
1,300 rpm
1,520 rpm
1,685 rpm
1,780 rpm
Diesel, 4 cycle,
No. 2 fuel
740 rpm, no load
57,600
5,040
9,240
4,800
4,800
102
102
102
102
12,600
23,880
18,120
16,800
20,160
32,040
25,080
31,200; 0.036
Ib/gal fuel
22,200
40,500
42,500
33,500
43,500
13,000
114
114
114
114
114
114
114
146
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 18 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL ENGINES
Source
1,200 rpm, no load
\ load
^ load
3/4 load
Full load
1,500 rpm, no load
h load
^ load
3/4 load
Full load
1,800 rpm, no load
% load
h load
3/4 load
Full load
Diesel, 1959
Plymouth Savoy,
Perkins P4C, 4 cyl-
inder, 4 stroke
Idle
Acceleration
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
(uq/m3)
49,200
21,600
28,800
26,400
38,400
50,400
34,800
32,400
31,200
55,200
48,000
34,800
28,800
44,400
67,200
48,000
7,200
Formaldehyde
(uq/m3 )
39,600
14,400; 0.006
Ib/gal fuel
21,600
21,600
31,200; 0.005
Ib/gal fuel
33,600
21,600
20,400
22,800
37,200
39,600
24,000
18,000
36,000
48,000
Acrolein
(Uq/m3)
12,500
4,500
3,500
4,500
2,000
13,750
3,500
4,250
4,750
7,500
12,500
8,000
6,500
5,750
8,250
Ref .
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
146
102
102
ro
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 18 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL ENGINES
Source
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
C
Formaldehyde
(ucr/m3)
Aerolein
(ucr/m3)
Ref.
Diesel, 1959
Mercedes-Benz 1900
Idle
Acceleration
Diesel/ mine loco-
mot i ve
Idle
Upgrade haul
Downgrade haul
48,000
20,400
54,000
31,200
69,600
102
102
37,102
normalized to (CO+CO2) = to 15 percent to correct for dilution by excess air.
Standard cubic feet per hour at 60°C and 760 mm.
co
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 19
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Source
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde^
Formaldehyde
Ref.
Jet Aircraft (Los Angeles
County) 1960
1965 (projected)
Operations3 (1960), total
(below 3,500 ft.)
Taxiing
Take off
Climb-out
Approach
Landing
Aircraft, jet turbine
(estimated 15,000 Ib thrust)
Idle
Cruise
Tafce off
Aircraft, total operations
(below 3,500 ft.)
Jet, 4 engines
Turboprop, 2 engines
Turboprop, 4 engines
Piston engine, 2 engines
Piston engine, 4 engines
0.1 ton/day
0.6 ton/day
230 Ib/day
91 Ib/day
16 Ib/day
15 Ib/day
83 Ib/day
25 Ib/day
6,000 ng/m3, 2 lb/hr
1,200 ug/m3, 1.5 lb/hr
Trace
4 Ib/flight, 6 lb/1,000
gal fuel
0.3 Ib/flight, 5 lb/1,000
gal fuel
1.1 Ib/flight
0.2 Ib/flight, 5 lb/1,000
gal fuel
0.5 Ib/flight
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
197
197
197
97,122
97,122
97,122
97,122
97,122
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 19 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Source
Aircraft, turboprop, T-56
Departure0
Arrival0
100% power (take off)
7596 power (cruise and
approach)
65% power (idle)
Aircraft, conventional jet, J-57
Departure0
Arrival0
100% power (take off)
75% power (cruise)
65% power (idle)
Aircraft, fan- jet, TF-33
Departure0
Arrival0
100% power (take off)
75% power (approach
65% power (idle)
Aldehydes
(as Formaldehyde)
0.14 Ib
0.13 Ib
4,920 (ig/m3 , 0.5 Ib /hr
2,400 ug/m3, 0.2 lb/hr
5,760 ug/m3, 0.3 lb/hr
0.19 Ib
0.25 Ib
960 ug/m3 ,0.5 lb/hr
960 ug/m3, 0.4 lb/hr
3,000 Ug/m3, 0.4 lb/hr
2.04 Ib
2.62 Ib
720 ug/m3, 0.4 lb/hr
360 ug/m3, 0.3 IbAr
25,200 ug/m3, 0.4 IbAr
Formaldehyde
1,320 ug/m3, 0.2 IbAr
2,280 ug/m3, 0.2 IbAr
4,200 ug/m3, 0.2 IbAr
600 ug/m3, 0.4 IbAr
600 ug/m3, 0.3 IbAr
2,800 ug/m3, 0.4 IbAr
Ref.
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
117
aBased on 40 arrivals and departures per day.
^Flight defined as a combination of take off and landing.
°Based on 4 engines, taxiing time, plus take off and climb-out or approach
and landing.
en
-------
116
APPENDIX
TABLE 20
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF COAL
Source
Bituminous (27,200,000 BTU/ton)
Anthracite (25,200,000 BTU/ton)
Bituminous from pulverized fuel
of cyclone furnaces
Flue gas
Coal-burning power plants,*
full load
Before ash-collecting
Vertical boiler
Corner boiler
Front-wall boiler
Spreader- stoker boiler
Cyclone boiler
Horizontally opposed boiler
After ash-collecting
Vertical boiler
Front-wall boiler
Spreader- stoker boiler
Cyclone boiler
Horizontally opposed boiler
Power plants
Industrial
Domestic and commercial
Aldehydes (as
Formaldehyde )
2 Ib/ton
1 Ib/ton
<0.01 Ib/ton
60-300 ug/ro3
0.005 Ib/ton
0.005 Ib/ton
0.005 Ib/ton
Formaldehyde
300 ug/m3
204 ug/m3
168 ug/m3
72 ug/m3
204 ug/m3
120 ug/m3
144 ug/m3
144 ug/m3
96 ug/m3
120 ug/m3
84 Ug/mJ
Ref.
93
93
140
140
I5!;138-
«
M
II
II
122
122
122
*1,200
,_3
= 1 Ppm ^ 10~ lb/10~6 BTU.
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 21
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL
Source
Fuel Oil
Distillate (~7 lb/gal)*
Residual (~8 lb/gal)
No. 2
Small sources
(1,000 hp or less)
(-8 lb/gal)
Extreme range
Usual range
Large sources
(1,000 hp or nore)
(~8 lb/gal)
Extreme range
Kerosene burners
Fan-assisted pot
(20,000 kcal/hr output)
Good condition
Bad condition
Wall flame
(10,000 kcal/hr output)
Good condition
Bad condition
ug/m3
0-216,000
0-39,600
0-80,400
4,800
16,800
3,600
30,000
ppm
0-180
0-33
0-67
4
14
3
25
Ib/hr
lb/
1,000 lb
.28
(0-2.07)
.14
1.3
0-3.3
0-0.6
0-1.2
Ref.
93,218
93,218
93,218
186
186
186
197
197
197
197
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 21 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL
Source
Pressure atomizing
(10,500 kcal/hr output)
Good condition
Bad condition
Fuel oil, No, 1
Scotch marine boiler, 150 hp
Ceramic kiln
Ceramic kiln
Fuel oil, heavy
Fire tube boiler, 120 hp
Scotch marine boiler, 125 hp
Water tube boiler, 245 hp
Water tube boiler, 425 hp
Water tube boiler, 460 hp
Water tube boiler, 500 hp
Water tube boiler, 580 hp
Water tube boiler, 870 hp
Fuel oil, No. 2
Fire tube boiler, 60 hp
Fire tube boiler, 300 hp
Scotch marine boiler, 200 hp
Scotch marine boiler, 350 hp
Water tube boiler, 100 hp
Water tube boiler, 200 hp
Water tube boiler, 245 hp
Oil heater
uq/m3
3,600
12,000
6,000
4,200
4,080
8,400
10,800
9,600
4,800
8,400
20,400
10,200
57,600
10,800
7,200
62,400
3,600
6,000
9,600
8,400
13,200
ppm
3
10
5
3.5
3.4
7
9
8
4
7
17
8.5
48
9
6
52
3
5
8
7
11
Ib/hr
0.04
0.0037
0.020
0.05
0.08
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.12
1.8
0.017
0.08
0.50
0.06
0.013
0.04
0.04
0.015
lb/
1,000 lb
Ref .
197
197
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
00
*1,000 lb ^ 140 gal or 84 gal ~ 12 X 106 BTU.
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 22. REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION
Source
Natural gas-fired appliances and industrial
and commercial equipment
Bunsen burner
Oven range
Water heater, 100 gal
Floor furnace
Steam boiler (107 BTU/hr) (low fire)
Industrial burners
Boilers and process heaters
Scotch marine boilers
Fire tube boilers
Water tube boilers
75 gal water heater
Space heater
Bake oven
Industrial oven, indirect
Ceramic kilns, indirect
Natural gas combustion (12 X 106 BTU ^ 12,000 ft3 gas)
Natural gas combustion (1,000 Ib gas ^ 21,785 ft3
23 X 10s BTU)
Natural gas (-0.045 lb/ft3; 1,000 BTU/ft3)
Propane (-0.117 lb/ft3; 2,522 BTU/ft3)
Butane (-0.154 lb/ft3; 3,261 BTU/ft3)
Power plants
Industrial
Domestic and commercial
or
Aldehyde
2,400 ug/m
13,200
9,600
3,600
0.02 lb/10s
0.01 lb/106
BTU
BTU
3 ; 0.005 lb/10s BTU
6^000 ug/m3; o.oi ib/io6 BTU
58,800
0.0028 lb/10s BTU
2,400-8,400 ug/m3
4,800 ug/mJ
3,600-13,200
2,400
2,400
7,200
3,600-7,200
2,400-8,400 ug/m
0.7 lb/12 X 106 BTU
1 lb/1,000 Ib gas
10 lb/10s ft3 gas
26 lb/106 ft3 gas
34 lb/106 ft3 gas
i
i 0.02 lb/1,000 Ib gas;
I 1 lb/106 ft3 gas
! 0.1 lb/1,000 Ib gas;
I 2 lb/106 ft3 gas
i 0.25 lb/1,000 Ib gas
1
Ref.
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
218
50,119,
188
93
93
93
214
214
214
214
214
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 23
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM INCINERATORS
Source
Aldehydes (as Formaldehyde)
Ref.
Domestic incinerators
AGA prototype, shredded paper
AGA prototype, USASIa domestic wastes
AGA prototype, other refuse mixtures
New manufacturers' units, shredded paper
New manufacturers' units, USASI domestic
wastes
Older units, shredded paper
Older units, USASI domestic wastes
Domestic incinerator
Domestic incinerator
Domestic, single chamber
Without auxiliary gas burning
With auxiliary gas burning
Municipal incinerators
Glendale, Calif., with scrubber
Glendale, Calif., without scrubber
Alhambra, Calif., with spray chamber
Three units in Calif.with scrubber
Three units in Calif, without scrubber
Incinerator, municipal
Incinerator, large and/or multistage
Incinerator, multichamber
Other incinerators
Single chamber
Wood waste
Backyard (Battelle), paper and trimmings
Backyard, 6 ft"
Backyard, 6 ft5
paper
trimmings
9,600-25,200 t-ig/m3 ; 0.9-2.3 Ib/ton
9,600 ug/m3 ; 0.8 Ib/ton
20,400-26,400 ug/m3; 1.2-3.1 lb/ ton
4,800-80,400 ug/m3; 0.17-15.9 Ib/ton
30,000-48,000 ug/m3
28,800-57,600 ug/m3
6,000-36,000 ug/m3; 5-6 Ib/ton
4.0 Ib/ton refuse
1.4 Ib/ton refuse
6 Ib/ton refuse
2 Ib/ton refuse
1,200-12,000 ug/m3
1,200-26,400 ug/m3
58,800 ug/m3; 1.1 Ib/ton
10,800-32,400 ug/m3
1,200-56,400 ug/m3
1.4 Ib/ton refuse
1.1 Ib/ton refuse
1.1 Ib/ton refuse
0.03-2.7 Ib/ton
40,800 ug/m3; 1.8 Ib/ton
912,000 ug/m3; 29 Ib/ton
58,800 ug/m3; 2.1 Ib/ton
122,400 ug/m3; 5.7 Ib/ton
197
197
197
197
197
197
197
120
120
97,122
97,122
197
197
197
197
197
120
120
122
197
197
197
197
197
(continued)
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 23 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM INCINERATORS
Source
Aidehydes__(as^ jTormaldehyde )
Ref.
Other incinerators (continued)
Backyard/ 3 ft3, mixed rubbish
Incinerator, apartment, flue-fed
Incinerators
Commercial and domestic, small and/or
single-stage
Industrial and commercial, single chamber
Multiple chamber
Apartment, flue-fed
Multiple chamber, experimental (asphalt,
felt roofing, and newspaper)
Incinerator, automobile, afterburner on
Afterburner off
Incinerator, pathological waste
Placental tissue in newspaper
Dogs freshly killed
5.1 Ib/ton
2.5-7.8 Ib/ton refuse
129,600-984,000
3 Ib/ton refuse (0.1-4.5 Ib/ton)
5-64 Ib/ton refuse
0.3 Ib/ton refuse (0.14-0.85 Ib/ton)
5 Ib/ton refuse
0.008-0.32 Ib/ton material;
~1 2 0-1, 2 00 ug/m3b
3,600 |-ig/m3
19,200
0.985 Ib/ton, 0.013 lb/ hr
0.617 Ib/ton, 0.033 Ib/hr
197
99
98
93
97
60,97,
122
122
189
189
189
189
60
60
aUnited States of America Standards Institute.
^Figures given are range of formaldehyde.
ro
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 24
ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM OIL REFINERIES29
Equipment
Emission Factors*
Compressor internal
combustion engines
o.ir
Emission Hates
in LQS Angeles
Unit Source ucr/m"3 ppm
Catalytic cracking unit
Fluid 3,600-48,000 3-130
Thermofor 10,800-212,400 9-177
Boilers and process heaters
Fuel gas
Fuel oil
lb/1.000 bl
19
12
3.1b
25
Area, tons/dav
1.9
1.5
0.4
0.5
Calculated as formaldeliyde.
blb/l,000 ft3 fuel gas.
ro
ro
-------
123
APPENDIX
TABLE 25
REPORTED ALDEHYDE O4ISSIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
Source
Aldehyde Emissions
Cas Formaldehyde)
Ref.
Airiberglass manufacture
Regenerative furnace, gas fired
BraXeshoe debonding
(single-chamber oven)
Core ovens
Direct gas-fired (phenolic resin
core binder from oven)
Direct gas-fired (linseed oil core
binder from afterburner)
Indirect electric (linseed oil
core binder from oven)
(from afterburner)
Insulated wire reclaiming
Rubber covered 5/8" o.d.
Secondary burner off
Secondary burner on
Cotton-rubber-plastic covered,
3/8" to 5/8" o.d.
Secondary burner off
Secondary burner on
Meat smokehouses
Pressure mixing burner
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Multijet burner
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Meat smokehouse effluent, gas-fired
boiler-firebox as "afterburner"
Water-tuber 426 hp
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Water-tube, 268 hp
Afterburner, inlet
Afterburner, outlet
Water-tube, 200 hp
Afterburner, inlet
Afterburner, outlet
8,400
0.10 Ib/hr
62,400 |ag/m3
<12,000
189,600 ug/m3
<22,800
126,000
6,OOO
10,800-43,200 ug/m3
4,800 ug/m3
0,04 Ib/hr
0.22 IbAr
0.49 Ib/hr
0.22
0.22
0.09 lb.hr
0.39 IbAr
0.40
0.39 IbAr
0.30
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
(continued)
-------
124
APPENDIX
TABLE 25 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
Source
Aldehyde Emissions
(as Formaldehyde)
Ref.
Locomotive, 113 hp
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
HRT, 150 hp
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Meat smokehouse exhaust
Gas-fired afterburner, inlet
Outlet
Electrical precipitation system
Inlet
Outlet
Mineral wool production
Blow chambers
Curing ovens
Catalytic afterburner, inlet
Outlet
Direct-flame afterburner, inlet
Outlet
Wool coolers
L itho o ven, in 1 et
Outlet
Outlet
Paint bake oven
Nozzle mixing burner
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Atmospheric burner
Catalytic afterburner inlet
Catalytic afterburner outlet
Premix burner
Catalytic afterburner inlet
Catalytic afterburner outlet
Phthalic acid plant
Phthalicanhydride production unit
(multijet burner)
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
0.03 lb/hr
0 . 0 lb/hr
0.03 lb/hr
0.18 lb/hr
104,400 ug/m3
40,200 ug/m3
88,800
56,400 ug/m3
109 ug/m3
1.90 lb/hr
0.90 lb/hr
2.20 lb/hr
0.94 lb/hr
32 ug/m3
120 ug/m3
32,880
4,680
0.19 lb/hr
0.03 lb/hr
0.07 IbAr
0.31 IbAr
0.3-0.4
0.2-0.5 IbAr
135,600 ug/m3
1.75 IbAr
0.43 IbAr
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
113
113
113
60
60
60
60
60
60
113
60
60
(continued)
-------
125
APPENDIX
TABLE 25 (Continued)
REPORTED ALDEHYDE EMISSIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
Source
Reclaiming of electrical windings
(single-chamber incinerator)
100 hp generator starter
14 pole pieces
Auto armatures
Auto field coils
(Multiple chamber)
Auto field coils
Afterburner
14 generator pole pieces
Varnish cooking kettles
Four-nozzle mixing burner
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Inspirator burner
Afterburner inlet
Afterburner outlet
Webb press
Aldehyde Emissions
(as Formaldehyde)
0.08 lb/hr
0.08 lb/hr
0.13-0.29 lb/hr
0.49 lb/hr
0.08 IbAr
0.08 IbAr
0.30 IbAr
0.11
0.29 IbAr
0.02 IbAr
480 ug/m3
360 ug/m3
480 ug/m3
1,920 ug/m3
Ref .
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
113
113
113
113
-------
TABLE 26 INDUSTRIAL OVEN EFFLUENTS41
Process
Adhesive
coating
Duplicate
tests
^Tube coating
Duplicate
tests
Auto body
painting
Duplicate
tests
Container
coating
Container
coating
Container
coating
Container
coating
Container
coating
Container
coating
Container
coating
Pr edominan t
Solvent Type
Low boiling
alkanes
Alcohols
Mixed ketones
High-boiling
alkanes
High-boiling
alkanes
Aromatics
High -boil ing
alkanes and
aromatic s
Aromatics
Aromatics
Aromatics
Aldehydes (as Formal-
dehyde) (ug/m3)
Averaqea
88,800(5)
3,000(6)
5,100(4)
19,800(6)
15,000(4)
27,960(4)
52,800(6)
27,000(4)
79,200(4)
22,800(4)
33,960(4)
60,600(4)
79,200(4)
490,800(4)c
82,800(4)
60,000(4)
Ranqe
73,200-
106,800
1,200-
6,000
0-12,000
1,200-
51,600
4,800-
32,400
16,800-
56,400
33,600-
102,000
12,000-
34,800
48,000-
134,400
8,400-
36,000
20,400-
45,600
39,600-
87,600
58,800-
120,000
277,200-
820,800°
45,600-
136,800
26,400-
91,200
Formaldehyde
(uq/m3)
Averaqe
600(2)
2,700(4)
9,600(4)
8,520(4)
19,200(3)
9,600(4)
37,200(4)
3,840(4)
15,000(4)
26,400(4)
7,800(4)
27,600(4)
33,600(4)
25,200(4)
Ranqe _
0-1,200
1,200-
6,000
4,800-
15,600
5,280-
10,320
14,400-
27,600
7,080-
11,880
18,000-
62,400
3,000-
4, 200
8,400-
18,000
10,800-
42,000
6,000-
10,800
24,000-
32,400
16,800-
55,200
8,400-
43,200
Acrolein
(uq/m )
Averaqe
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
3,325(2)
1,975(2)
9,300(2)
14,000(2)
19,500
1,875(2)
7,000(2)
11,000(2)
1,575(2)
8,225(2)
21,750(2)
11,500(2)
Ranqe
3,225-
3,425
1,825-
2,100
8,450-
10,125
12,500-
15,500
1,775-
1,975
5,250-
9,000
9,750'-
12,000
1,425-
1,725
5,225-
11,200
18,500-
24,750
11,000-
12,000
Samp-
ling
PointE
A
A
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
C
E
C
C
D
D
^Number in parentheses represents number of determinations made.
A: From vent near oven entrance; B: From oven; C: Near front of oven at inlet to
exhaust system; D: From stack after passing through direct-flame, gas-fired afterburner; E:
From stack after passing through catalytic afterburner.
cMay be in error due to interfering compound.
tV)
-------
127
TABLE 27
CONCENTRATION OP ALDEHYDES IN THE AIR, 1967126
Location
Alaska
Fairbanks County
Arkansas
El Dorado
Colorado
Denver
Delaware
Wilmington
District of Columbia
Washington
Illinois
Chicago
Indiana
East Chicago
Indianapolis
Iowa
Des Moines
Massachusetts
Boston
Michigan
Detroit
Minnesota
Minneapolis
Missouri
Kansas City
St. Louis*
New Jersey
Camden
Newark
New York
New York City
Ohio
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Oklahoma
Oklahoma City
Tulsa
Oregon
Portland
Min
2
4
2
7
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
4
1
1
7
1
1
1
17
1
1
ucr/m3
Max
12
20
21
67
24
25
40
35
16
78
129
19
18
92
39
91
22
35
15
161
151
5
Avg
5
13
9
30
8
9
17
13
5
31
29
8
10
21
12
22
12
11
6
79
42
3
No. of
Samples
4
7
8
11
16
18
18
17
13
12
17
12
16
36
14
16
12
22
16
14
14
5
(continued)
-------
128
TABLE 27 (Continued)
CONCENTRATION OF ALDEHYDES IN THE AIR, 1967126
Location
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Tennessee
Chattanooga
Texas
El Paso
Pasadena
Utah
Salt Lake City
Washington
Seattle
West Virginia
Charleston
Min
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
uq/m3
Max
27
36
11
30
81
19
16
85
Avq
9
9
6
9
25
9
5
28
No. of
Samples
11
9
12
9
12
9
11
16
*Pigures given are from two sites.
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 28
CONCENTRATION OF ALDEHYDES IN THE AIR, 1958-67a
Location
Alabama
Jefferson County
California
Los Angeles
County
Los Angeles
South Pasadena
Indiana
Indianapolis
Maryland
Baltimore
Massachusetts
Boston
New York
Manhattan
Roosevelt Field
Pennsylvania
Duquesne
Pittsburgh
1958
Max
.30
Avq
.10
1959
Max
.23
Avq
.10
1960
Max [Aver
.43
.32
.24
.17
.13
.06
1961
Max
.27
Avq
.08
1962
Max
.37
Avq
.11
1963
Max
1.6
.13
.22
.23
.10
Avq
.08
,07
.02
1964
Max
.23
.11
Avq
.05
.02
196
Max
.10
6
Avq
.05
1967
Max
Avq
.01
(continued)
ro
<£>
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 28(Continued)
CONCENTRATION OF ALDEHYDES IN THE AIR, 1958-67
(ug/m3)
Lioccicion
Texas
El Paso
East El Paso
Northwest
El Paso
Washington
Hanford Project,
near Richland
1958
Max
AVq
1959
Max
. ")C\
' • f- \)
-.59
. en
. 3«
Aver
•<
.06b
.06b
1960
Wax
Aver
1961
Max
Aver
1962
Max
Aver
1963
Max
Avq
Data (jwupxieu iroiu References b, 34, 3b, 58, 72, 90-92, 104 116,149,
Arrow indicates time period for sample.
1964
Max
Avq
196fi
Max
Avq
196 1
Max
.02
Avq
.02
152,202. '
CJ
o
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 29
CONCENTRATION OF ALDEHYDES IN THE AIR, 1951-573
(lag/in3)
Location
California
Los Angeles
West Los Angeles
Los Angeles County
Highland Park
Pasadena
Rivera
El Monte
Azusa
Burbank
Kentucky
Louisville
Michigan
Detroit -Windsor
New York
Manhattan
phio
Cincinnati
West Virginia
Kanawha River Valley
1 ^ — ^~
1951
Max
.40
Avq
.14
.24
.54
.04
.06
1952
Max
.32
-i.o"
Aver
.20
1953
Max
.90
Aver
.18
1954
Max
1.0
Aver
.14
1955
Max
.82
.78
Ava
.13
.16
1956
Max
1.6
1.8
.73
.92
.78
.56
.17
.IB
.14
.14
.17
.18
.06
.54
.25
\vq
.10
1957
Max
.54
Aver
.06
—
16
10
2.2
.47
.44
.56
1Q
. J
.18
.06
.05
.05
.07
.10
•^W^M^— •
compiled from References 30/116,150,201,202.
Arrow indicates time period for sample.
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132
TABLE 30
CONCENTRATION OF ALDEHYDES3 IN METROPOLITAN
AREAS BY POPULATION, 1958194
Metropolitan Area
Population
,Average Values Maximum Values^
Average Range Average Range
Greater than 2,000,000 290 240-340b l,100b 1,000-1,200
500,000 to 2,000,000 80 840b 140-2,200
Less than 500,000
50*
440
160-720
aAs formaldehyde.
3Less than three cities reported in "average."
-------
APPENDIX
TABLE 31
COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FORMALDEHYDE 166
Reagent
o-Aminoben z aldehyde
Schiff
Chromotropic acid
T-acid (dication)
HBT + NBD
J-acid (monocation)
Phenylhydrazine
max
440
550
578
468
610
612
520
e x icr3
2.5
3.5
15.7
21.0
24
34
34.2
Beer ' s Law
Rancre (^}3
12-120
2,0-40
1.5-32
0.88-15
0.88-15
Dilution
Factor13
2.5
5
10
5
10
12.5
25
Sensitivity0
,1.0
0.7
1.57
4,2
2.4
2.7
1.4
Color
Stability
Time
~30 min
>24 hr
>24 hr
10 niin
15 min
Interferences
Aliphatic aldehydes
Forma Idehyde-y ie Id ing
compounds
Formaldehyde-yielding
compounds
All aldehydes
Formaldehyde-yielding
compounds
(continued)
CO
CO
-------
TABLE 31 (Continued)
COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FORMALDEHYDES
Reagent
HBT
Phenyl J-acid
MBTH
1— Ethylquinal-
dinium iodide
J-acid fluor.
:
582
660
670
608
Excit.
A max
470
— ; 1
€ X 1 0~3
48.0
51.4
65.0
73d
Emiss.
A max
520
Beer's law
Range (ug)
0.62-12.5
0.56-13
0.5-9.2
0.40-8.2
0.01-2
Dilution
Factor13
10
20
12.5
10
20
10
Sensitivity0
4.8
2.4
4.1
6.5
3.25
7.3
Color
Stability
Time
20 rain
>24 hr
>40 min
30 min
>120 min
Interferences
Water-soluble aliphatic
aldehydes give molar
absorptivities of about
1,800
Formaldehyde-yielding
compounds
Water-soluble aliphatic
aldehydes, aromatic
amines, imino hetero-
cyclic compounds
Other aliphatic alde-
hydes give molar ab—
sorptivities of about
1, 500 to 15,000
Formaldehyde-yielding
compounds, acrolein
Beer's law is not obeyed in Schiff and 1-ethylquinaldinium procedures. The Beer's law
range is based on 10 ml final volume; lower limits for this range are taken at an absorbance of
0.1.
bDilution factor is the proportion of final volume to test solution volume.
csens.itivity = €-10'3
dilution factor
9.9 n of formaldehyde.
co
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