90TH CONGRESS 1 QFMATF / DOCUMENT
Sd Session } SENATE | No_ g2
PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
FIRST REPORT
OF THE
SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,
AND WELFARE
TO THE
UNITED STATES CONGRESS
PURSUANT TO
Public Law 9
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SENATE RESOLUTION 305
Submitted by Mr. Randolph of West Virginia
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
June 28,1968.
Resolved, That there be printed as a Senate document the first report
of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, entitled "Progress
in the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution", in accordance with
section 306, Public Law 90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, together
with illustrations; and that there be printed two thousand five hundred
additional copies of such document for the use of the Committee on
Public Works.
FBANCIS R. VALEO,
Secretary.
TO)
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PREFACE
This is the first of a series of reports which will describe the
being made in this country to prevent and control air pollution. It is
respectfully submitted hi accordance with section 306 of Public Law
90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, which states as follows:
SEC. 306. Not later than six months after the effective
date of this section and not later than January 10 of each
calendar year beginning after such date, the Secretary shall
report to the Congress on measures taken toward implement-
ing the purpose and intent of this Act including but not
limited to (1) the progress and problems associated with
control of automotive exhaust emissions and the research
efforts related thereto; (2) the development of air quality
criteria and recommended emission control requirements;
(3) the status of enforcement actions taken pursuant to this
Act; (4) the status of State ambient air standards setting,
including such plans for implementation and enforcement as
have been developed; (5) the extent of development and
expansion of air pollution monitoring systems; (6) progress
and problems related to development of new and unproved
control techniques; (7) the development of quantitative and
qualitative instrumentation to monitor emissions and air
quality; (8) standards set or under consideration pursuant to
title II of this Act; (9) the status of State, interstate, and local
pollution control programs established pursuant to and
assisted by this Act; and (10) the reports and recommenda-
tions made by the President's Ah- Quality Advisory Board.
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CONTENTS
Introduction:
Historical background 1
Air Quality Act of 1967_ 2
National Center for Air Pollution Control - 3
Chapter I. Progress toward a regional approach to air pollution control.. 5
Definition of atmospheric areas 5
Designation of air quality control regions 7
Development of air quality criteria 9
Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee .. 9
Status of the criteria documents . 10
Development of information on available control techniques 11
State action to control air pollution. 12
Chapter II. Progress toward effective control of air pollution.. 15
Part A. Automotive air pollution 15
Federal emission standards 17
Control technology research and development 19
Gasoline engines - — - 21
Diesel engines -- 23
Unconventional propulsion systems— 25
Compliance and inspection 28
Part B. Stationary sources -- 28
State, interstate, and local air pollution control programs 28
Federal control agency development program 29
Status of State and local control agencies 31
Federal abatement activities 36
Air pollution abatement actions 36
Emergency abatement measures.. 38
Control of Federal facilities 39
ControJ.technology research and development 40
Toward effective control of stationary sources. 41
Control of sulfur oxides pollution 42
Control of nitrogen oxides pollution. - - 48
Control of particulate pollution 48
Control of pollution from specific industries. 49
Control of pollution from waste disposal - 50
Part C. Surveillance. 51
Air pollution monitoring and data acquisition 51
Air monitoring systems 51
Emission studies --- - 56
The national data bank 56
Special studies of vehicular pollution 58
Registration and evaluation of fuel additives 59
Air pollution measuring instrumentation 60
Chapter III. Additional research - - 65
Air pollution and meteorology 65
Urban diffusion modeling --- - 65
Forecasting air pollution potential 67
Additional research areas - - 68
Research on the health effects of air pollution 68
Economic studies of air pollution 73
Chapter IV. Supporting activities - 77
Formation of advisory committees - J7
President's Air Quality Advisory Board 78
Advisory Committees - Jjj
Government-industry meetings 79
Technical information services 81
Special studies §2
References — 84
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PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
AIR POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this first progress report is to describe recent activi-
ties initiated under the Air Quality Act of 1967, which was signed into
law on November 21, and to place in historical perspective the air pol-
lution problem as a whole, summarizing the continuing efforts being
made to cope with it.
Historical background
Over the last two decades, the Nation has begun to realize that the
trends of urbanization, economic growth, and technological change
were having a serious adverse effect on the quality of the air. In July
1955, Congress responded to this growing public concern with legisla-
tion authorizing a Federal program of research in air pollution and
technical assistance to State and local governments. This legislation
established the policy, which continues in effect, that State and local
governments have a fundamental responsibility for dealing with com-
munity air pollution problems, and further, that the Federal Govern-
ment has an obligation to provide leadership and support. Between
1955 and 1963, great strides were made toward improved scientific
knowledge of the nature and national extent of the air pollution prob-
lem, its impact on public health and welfare, the existence of techniques
for controlling many important sources of air pollution, and the need
for new and better techniques in many cases.
But by 1963 it was becoming clear that progress toward a better un-
derstanding of the problem was not being matched by real progress
toward better control, primarily because most State and local govern-
ments Were still not equipped to cope effectively with community air
pollution problems. In December 1963, Congress passed the Clean Air
Act, which enabled State and local governments to join the Federal
Government in a more vigorous attack on air pollution. The Clean Air
Act authorized two major new Federal activities—awarding of grants
directly to State and local agencies to assist them in developing, es-
tablishing, or improving control programs and Federal action to abate
interstate pollution problems, which are essentially beyond the reach
of individual States and cities. The Clean Air Act also called for an
expanded Federal research and development program, and it placed
special emphasis on investigating two of the most important aspects
of the national air pollution problem—motor vehicle pollution and
sulfur oxides pollution arising from the burning of coal and fuel oil.
In addition, it required the development of criteria on the effects of
air pollution on health and property. Finally, it emphasized the role
of the Federal Government in controlling air pollution from its own
facilities, and it authorized accelerated training and technical
assistance activities.
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In the 4 years that followed enactment of the Clean Air Act, there
was an unprecedented expansion of State and local control programs.
Federal abatement actions were initiated in areas ultimately benefiting
millions of people. Expanded research efforts helped to demonstrate
the need for, and have hastened the development of, new and improved
control technology. Under amendments enacted in 1965, national
standards for the control of motor vehicle pollution were promulgated
for initial application in the 1968 model year. But in spite of these
efforts, the problem of air pollution has continued to grow and worsen,
and control activities are still weak in comparison to the magnitude of
the problem. This fact led to the adoption of the Air Quality Act of
1967, which calls for a coordinated attack on air pollution on a re-
gional basis. It provides a blueprint for action by all levels of govern-
ment and among all segments of industry.
Air Quality Act of 1967
In addition to providing for significantly expanded Federal re-
search and development activities, the Air Qualify Act of 1967 calls
for a systematic, regional effort to combat air pollution.
Under the act, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
must first delineate broad atmospheric areas of the Nation, a task now
completed. Next, the Department must designate air quality control
regions based on meteorological and other technical factors, as well as
social and political factors. Concurrently, the Department must de-
velop and publish air quality criteria indicating the extent to which
air pollution is harmful to health and damaging to property, as well
as detailed information on techniques for preventing and controlling
air pollution. Provided with this information, States are then expected
to develop ambient air quality standards and plans for implementing
these standards in air quality control regions. The Department wifl
review and evaluate these standards and plans, and once they are ap-
proved, the States will be expected to take action to control pollution
sources in the manner outlined in their plans. If a State's efforts prove
inadequate, the Secretary is empowered to initiate abatement action.
The act continues the'Department's authority to provide grants to
assist State and local control agencies, and it broadens this authority
to include grants for planning of control activities and regional air
quality control programs. It retains the Secretary's authority to abate
interstate air pollution problems and, on request from a State, intra-
state problems, and it provides for Federal measures to abate air pollu-
tion when episodes threaten. It continues the authority for setting of
national standards for control of motor vehicle pollution and adds
authority for grants to assist States in developing suitable inspection
programs. It provides for the registration of fuel additives and for
continued efforts to control "air pollution from Federal facilities. It
calls for the establishment of advisory groups to assist the Depart-
ment in carrying out its activities, and it also requires a number of
special studies in specific problem areas, including jet aircraft emis-
sions, the need for national emission standards, and manpower and
training needs in the field of air pollution. Finally, it cal'ls for the
establishment of a 15-member Presidential Air Quality Advisory
Board.
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National Center for Air Pollution Control
The Federal responsibility for assuming leadership in the preven-
tion and control of air pollution rests with the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare. In order to carry out the operating responsi-
bility, the Department established the National Center for Air Pollu-
tion Control in January 1967, formerly known as the Division of Air
Pollution of the Public Health Service. In its present form, it is com-
prised of three major organizational units: (a) Criteria and standards,
(6) control technology research and development, and (c) abatement
and control. Each of these units administers various programs that fit
into the Center's overall mission of restoring the Nation's air quality
through a coordinated attack on air pollution.
96-421 O—68-
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Chapter I. PROGRESS TOWARD A REGIONAL APPROACH
TO AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
The problem of air pollution is basically regional in nature for two
primary reasons: First, air pollution knows no boundaries because pre-
vailing air currents can transport pollutants long distances from their
sources; and second, the continued growth of American metropolitan
areas means that pollution sources will be spread over ever-expanding
geographical areas. Because air pollution is essentially a regional prob-
lem, the most effective way to attack it is on a regional basis.
The Air Quality Act of 1967 sets up a system which hinges on the
designation of regions where two or more communities—either in the
same or different States—have a common air pollution problem. The
National Center for Air Pollution Control is now in the process of
designating these air quality control regions in cooperation with the
States and local communities. As a preliminary step under the act
[sec. 107 (a) (1)], the National Center has defined the broad atmos-
pheric areas of the Nation. These provide a clearer understanding of
the relative impact of meteorological processes on the buildup of air
pollution in various section of the country and they are one of many
factors that will serve as a basis for designating air quality control
regions.
DEFINITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AREAS
Meteorological factors play a primary role in determining air pol-
lution levels; for a given pollutant emission, the resulting ground
level concentration of the pollutant can vary widely depending on the
meteorological conditions that prevail at the time. For long time pe-
riods (for example, several years), there are large areas of the country
over which the average meteorological conditions affecting the trans-
port and diffusion of air pollution are quite similar. The National Cen-
ter has defined these large-scale areas of similar meteorological pat-
terns, or atmospheric areas, as required under the act. This step was
completed and announced in the Federal Register in January 1968 (1).
The map in figure 1 shows the eight atmospheric areas for the 48
contiguous States; these areas were delineated on the basis of long-
term values for the important meteorological factors—the frequency
of occurrence, persistence, and height variations of the stable [inver-
sion] layers of air and the frequency of various wind speeds. Also con-
sidered were large-scale topography and the frequency of occurrence
of unfavorable meteorological conditions over large portions of the
country, as indicated by the Center's high air pollution potential^fore-
cast service, which provides a warning of meteorological conditions
that favor high air pollution levels.1
Since the above factors affect the transport and diffusion of pol-
lutants released into the atmosphere and thereby influence the geo-
graphical extent of urban air pollution problems, atmospheric areas
are one of the factors considered in the designation of air quality
control regions.
1 ThU ijBtem IB discussed In greater detail In chapter III.
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WASHINGTON
COASTAL
AREA
ATMOSPHERIC AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES
(Section 10? (a) (1), Clean Air Act, as amended)
CALIFORNIA
OREGON
COASTAL
AREA
ATLANTIC
COASTAL
AREA as
SOUTH FLORIDA
AREA
Figure 1
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DESIGNATION OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS
Air quality control regions are very different from atmospheric
areas in that they are chosen not only on the basis of meteorology, but
also in light of the location and quantity of pollution emissions, social
and governmental factors, existing and projected future patterns of
urban growth, and other factors that influence the extent of the prob-
lem. Air quality control regions differ also in that they are intended
to serve as the basis of administrative and enforcement procedures
designed to cope with the regional aspects of the problem. The Air
Quality Act stipulates, for example, that air quality standards and
plans for implementing the standards developed by States are to be
applied in air quality control regions. The diagram in figure 2 illus-
trates the procedure employed by the National Center for Air Pollu-
tion Control in designating air quality control regions, and the major
steps in the process are described below.
The National Center is now carrying out the initial steps prior to
the designation of the first regions this summer. It is anticipated that
the majority of the Nation's urban population will be covered by air
quality control regions by July 1969.
i. Engineering evaluation
For air pollution control that is truly regional in scope, air quality
control regions must be defined so as to include the majority of the
pollution sources contributing to the problem in an urban area and
must be extensive enough to encompass the majority of the population
and property affected by pollution emanating from the sources within
the area. This requirement could be satisfied generally by a static
evaluation of the major factors—the location of pollutant sources and
the nature and quantity of their emissions, the pattern of urban de-
velopment, and prevailing meteorology—to the extent that such a
static evaluation is possible. The more desirable approach, and the one
on which the National Center is placing its major emphasis, employs
a constantly evolving technique referred to as diffusion modeling. Dif-
fusion modeling is a semidynamic process in which the air quality
levels at selected locations are estimated by calculating and adding
together the weighted contribution from each of the sources, or group
of sources, within the area under consideration. As with most mathe-
matical simulation approaches, the calculations are repetitive and
time consuming, and so they are routinely carried out with the aid of
a computer.
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ENGINEERING EVALUATION
URBAN FACTORS
• Jurisdtctfenil Boundaries
• Urban-Industrial Concentrations
• Cooperative Regional Arrangements
• Pattern and Rate of Growth
• Existing State and Local Air
Pollution Control Legislation & Programs
Consultation
with State
and Local
Officials
Formal
Designation
by
Secretary-HEW
• Figure 2. Flow diagram for the designation of air quality control regions.
These steps are outlined under "engineering evaluation" in figure 2
and the box labeled "input" describes the information required to
apply the diffusion model. This information consists of data on the
nature and quantity of the pollutants being released and the physical
location of the sources, the average depth of air available for mixing
and dilution* the frequency of various wind velocities, and the physical
dimensions of the urban area under study. The necessary calculations
are made with this information in the next step, labeled "computer."
The result or output of the diffusion model approach is the estimated
pattern of air quality levels caused by the sources of a given pollutant
within the area. Based on this information, isointensity lines (which
will usually be closed by irregularly shaped contours of equal con-
centrations) can be developed and presented in graphic or map form.
Validation of the isointensity graphs with available ambient air qual-
ity data completes the engineering evaluation process. These graphs
help establish geographical limits for the extent of influence ofpollu-
tion sources in a given area.
U. Urban factors
The term "urban factors" encompasses all considerations of a non-
engineering or nonquantitative nature. Several examples are listed in
figure 2, but many other factors will be included. Tne existence and
extent of standard, metropolitan statistical areas and planning areas of
the Department of Housing and Urban Development are examples of
some of the additional factors that will influence the final result.
m. Preliminary delineation of regions
As indicated above, the appropriate choice of an isointensity contour
will suggest that at least the area within the contour should be in-
cluded in the region. Subsequent consideration of the urban factors
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may serve to expand the region beyond the chosen isointensity line
to include the most reasonable combination of existing jurisdictions.
The preliminary region boundaries and necessary background infor-
mation will be forwarded to appropriate State and local officials in
preparation for the consultation phase.
w. Consultation and formal designation
The consultation will afford an opportunity for departmental offi-
cials to explain the methodology used to arrive at tne preliminary
region boundaries and for the State and local authorities to comment
on the region and make any suggestions they feel are appropriate.
After necessary revisions, the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare will formally announce the designation of the region by pub-
lication in the Federal Register and by direct notification to the Gov-
ernor or Governors affected by such designation.
v. Alternate procedures
The procedure just described will be followed wherever applicable,
but the Center will maintain the flexibility to adopt alternate proce-
dures when desirable or necessary. The diffusion model provides a
unique way to predict ground-level air quality resulting from pollu-
tion sources; however, the science of diffusion modeling is incomplete
in some ways and is the subject of continuing research. In urban
areas with hilly terrain, for example, an alternate engineering pro-
cedure may be used since the diffusion model as presently constituted
is not fully capable of reflecting variations in topography. Modifica-
tions may also be incorporated in those instances where States have
previously defined regional areas.
DEVELOPMENT OF AIR QUALITY CRITERIA
Air quality criteria represents a scientific evaluation of the extent to
which individual pollutants or combinations of pollutants are harm-
ful to health and damaging to property. By providing an indication
of the predictable effects of various levels of pollutant concentrations
on public health and welfare, the criteria provide guidelines for the
establishment of air quality standards. They are thus an integral part
of the information that the States will need to set meaningful air
quality standards for various pollutants.
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA ADVISORY COMMITTEE
The National Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee, whose
formation is discussed in chapter IV, will play an important role in
developing air quality criteria. It will advise the Director of the Na-
tional Center on (1) the development of policies and the philosophical
approach -to be used in the preparation of air quality criteria, (2) the
selection of the pollutants for which criteria will be issued, and (3)
the evaluation of final documents. It will also provide advice on the
selection of individuals who will be invited to review and contribute
to specific criteria documents. The Committee has formed individual
task groups which will concentrate on specific criteria publications,
advising the Center's staff and the scientific and technical consultants
on their preparation.
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A very early task of the Committee will be to advise the National
Center's staff in the development of a paper outlining the philosophy
and policy which will govern the preparation of air quality criteria
documents. It is anticipated that the paper will discuss the definition,
purpose, and scope of air quality criteria; the policies for the selection
of pollutants which are the subject of criteria; the manner of present-
ing the data; the policies for the involvement of non-Center personnel
in the review of the documents; the relationship of criteria to air
quality standards; and the system to be employed in updating the
criteria documents. This paper should be completed during the sum-
mer of 1968.
STATUS OF THE CRITERIA DOCUMENTS
The following briefly describes the plans and progress in the prepa-
ration of air quality criteria documents for each of the major air
pollutants.
1. Participate matter.—The development of an air quality criteria
document for atmospheric particulotes began in the summer of 1967.
The draft was prepared jointly by the staff of the Center and by uni-
versity consultants working under contract. The report focuses on
total particulate matter of the kind normally measured oy high-volume
sampling methods, by paper-tape, and by dustf all approaches, without
detailed attention given to specific components. Individual compo-
nents such as aeroaflergens, bacteria, heavy metals, and pesticides will
be the subject of future reports. The draft has been studied by a panel
of technical reviewers and has been revised as necessary. It is antici-
pated that a task group of the National Air Quality Criteria Advisory
Committee will review the document in detail and the full Committee
will then review the document for policy considerations. Present plans
call for the completed document to be ready by tthe middle of summer,
1968.
2. Sulfur oxides.—The original air quality criteria for sulfur oxides
were published in March 1967. This document was prepared by staff
members of the National Center with advice and consultation from
scientists outside of the Center, largely from universities. The Air
Quality Act of 1967 requires that any air quality criteria issued prior
to enactment of the act be reevaluated in accordance with the proce-
dures and provisions of the act (sec. 107 (b) (1). Work is now under-
way to meet these requirements. Persons from outside the Center who
provided consultation on the original document will be joined by an
additional eroup of technical experts—also from outside the Center—
to review the document and recommend such changes, additions, and
deletions as may be necessary. Literature published since the original
document will be examined and appropriate findings added. A task
group will advise and consult with the staff and other experts in tihe
preparation of the document before it is submitted to the full Com-
mittee for final review and approval. The work on this document
should be completed by the end of summer 1968.
3. Photochemical oxidant*.—A draft of the air quality criteria docu-
ment for photochemical oxidants had been prepared by staff of the
National Center—with consultation from any scientists outside the
Center—and was in preliminary form in the spring of 1967. Under the
terms of a contract, the California State Department of Public Health
has carried out further work on the document and the revised draft
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has been reviewed by a number of consultants. A final document was
ready in April 1968 and awaits review by the advisory committee
prior to its publication in fiscal 1969.
4. Carbon monoxide.—Work on the development of an air quality
criteria document for carbon monoxide has been progressing at a steady
pace. Some of the work is being carried out by the staff of the National
Center, while the remainder is being done under contract by the Cali-
fornia State Department of Public Health. A task group of the ad-
visory committee, the committee itself, and various consultants will
make recommendations and review the draft material at various stages.
The current schedule calls for a completion date in the late fall of 1968.
5. Atmospheric -fluorides.—At present, an agreement is being nego-
tiated with the agricultural research service of the Department of Ag-
riculture to do much of the work on the preparation of an air quality
criteria document for atmospheric fluorides. The preparation of this
report and the draft material will be subject to a continuing review
by the National Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee, a special
task group of the committee, and various consultants. According to
present estimates,.this report should be completed in the spring of 1969.
FIjANS FOR ADDITIONAL AIR QUALITY CRITERIA
Some preliminary work has been done on an air quality criteria
document for nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. It will be a com-
panion document to the one on photochemical oxidants. Other pollu-
tants for which the development of criteria are under consideration
include lead, beryllium, hydrogen sulfide, odors, certain heavy metals,
asbestos, organic carcinogens, aldehydes, ethylene, pesticides, and
rocket fuel components and their combustion products. The sequence
in which these additional criteria will be developed will depend on
several factors, including the magnitude and seriousness of the prob-
lem associated with the pollutant or category of pollutants, the extent
and seriousness of their damaging effects on health and property, and
the degree to which criteria are needed for air pollution prevention
and abatement activities. The National Center is now making pre-
liminary surveys of available information to provide a basis for the
selection of additional pollutants for which air quality criteria will
be published. The advisory committee will assist in making this selec-
tion.
DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION ON AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
To develop meaningful air quality standards and plans for imple-
menting these standards, the States will need information on the
economic and technical feasibility of various methods for controlling
pollutant emissions. In accord with the act [sec. 107(e)], the National
Center is developing up-to-date information on control techniques
and cost-effectiveness analyses. This information, which will accom-
pany the air quality criteria documents, will be derived from scientific
and technical resources both inside and outside the Center, including
those of other Federal agencies, private consulting engineers, and re-
search and development organizations.
The control of pollutant emissions is a complex problem, due largely
to the great variety of sources and source characteristics. Technical
06-521 O—68 3
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factors usually make necessary the use of different control procedures
for different types of sources. In many cases, control processes that
are economically feasible in one situation have prohibitive costs in
others. In other instances, the control techniques are still in the devel-
opment stage, and a prudent control strategy calls for the use of in-
terim approaches until these techniques are perfected.
The information to be published will consist of a comprehensive
review of the latest approaches for controlling the emissions of indi-
vidual pollutants. At present, reports on two of the major pollutants,
particulate matter and sulfur oxides, are nearing final review stages
and are briefly described below.
The report on particulate air pollutants will set forth control sys-
tems and techniques for a wide variety of mobile and stationary
sources. It will contain an assessment of existing particulate removal
devices in terms of design, performance, cost, and other related fac-
tors. It will include an evaluation of gravitational and dry centrifugal
devices, wet collectors, high- and low-voltage electrostatic precipita-
tors, afterburners, and thermal and sonic precipitation processes.
The sulfur oxides report will include a comprehensive evaluation of
control systems for fuel combustion processes, examining in detail
subjects such as (1) the availability, costs, and locations of low-sulfur
fuels; ('2) the economics of fuel substitution and fuel-switching; (3)
the processes, feasibility, and costs of coal and oil desulfurization; and
(4) the state of development and costs of flue-gas desulfurization. It
will also contain information on control systems for a large variety of
industrial processes, including primary smelting, petroleum refining,
sulfuric acid production, incineration, steel manufacturing, pulp and
paper production, sewage treatment, and chemical manufacturing. In
addition, it will include data on the effectiveness and cost limitations
of tall stacks as a means of lowering ground level concentrations and
an assessment of tihe economics and local impact of locating a plant so
as to take advantage of the dispersion of air pollutants and thus mini-
mize the exposure of populated areas.
Work is also underway on additional control technology reports
that will accompany air quality criteria documents as they are issued
for other pollutants.
STATE ACTION To CONTROL AIR POLLTJTION
The progression of steps that ultimately culminates in action by
the States to control air pollution is shown in figure 3. As discussed
above, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare will first
designate specific air quality control regions. The Department will also
develop and publish data on air quality criteria and information on
available control techniques, including cost-effectiveness data for
specific pollutants. Armed with this information, the States will be
expected to begin developing air quality standards and plans for im-
plementation of the standards in air quality control regions. They
will have 90 days to submit a letter indicating that they intend to set
standards, 180 days in which to set the standards, and 180 days in which
to develop plans for implementing them. Both air quality standards
and the plans for their implementation are subject to review by the
Secretary, and if he finds mem consistent with the provisions of the
Air Quality Act, the standards and plans will take effect. If a State
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fails to establish standards, or if the Secretary finds that the stand-
ards are not consistent with the act, he can initiate action to insure
that appropriate standards are set. States may request a hearing on any
standards developed by the Secretary, and the hearing board's deci-
sion will be binding.
HEW
revitw*
Stata
standards.
Statas tstiblish. plans for impltmantation,
considartng factors tuch »:
• Exlttinf pollutant Itvtli in th« region-
•Numbar, location, and lyptt of taurets
•Maboroloay
•Control tachnoleiy
•Mr pollution growth u*ndt
Implamtritation plans would sat forth
abatament procadurei, outlining factors
such n:
•Emission ttandardt for tha cataaoriif of
sourcai in tha rtf Ion.
•How inforcamint will b* amploytd to
inuira unilorm and coordinatad control
action involving Stat«, local, and rational
authori»t».
• Abattmant Khtdulat for tha uurcat to
intura that air quality itandirdt will bt
achlavad within • raawnabta tlma.
I
HEW rtvfnrs I
State imptemtntation plans. 1
Statas act to control air
pollution In accordance with
•ir quality atandards «nd plan*
for lmpl*m«ntatlon.
Figurt 3. Flow diigrtm for State action to control air pollution on a itgional basil.
In establishing plans for implementing air quality standards, the
States will set forth their strategies for controlling air pollution, out-
lining factors such as emission standards for the various sources and
categories of sources, the means of enforcing the standards including
the roles of the respective governmental authorities, and the schedule
of control activities to insure that air quality standards are achieved
in an orderly fashion and within a reasonable time. To develop effec-
tive plans, the States will consider factors such as existing levels of
pollution, the types of pollutants, the location of sources, meteorologi-
cal conditions, control technology, etc. The goal will be to develop an
optimum strategy for controlling pollution sources to meet the air
quality standards. The Department will provide to the States available
data and engineering approaches, such as diffusion modeling, which
will be of aid in determining the degree of control required on specific
sources and groups of sources. Projection of air pollution trends will
be of use in determining a schedule for control activities that will in-
sure that the standards continue to be maintained.
Once the plans are developed and reviewed, the States will be ex-
pected to assume the primary responsibility for implementing the
plans. If a State's efforts prove inadequate, the Secretary is empowered
to initiate necessary abatement action.
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Chapter II. PROGRESS TOWARD EFFECTIVE CONTROL
OF AIR POLLUTION
This chapter covers three major areas of activity in which progress
is being made toward effective air pollution control. Part A describes
the problem of automotive air pollution and the efforts that are being
made to cope with it. It discusses the Federal emission standards that
have been adopted and the ones that are proposed; it outlines current
research and development efforts directed toward improved control
technology; and it describes the efforts being made to assure compli-
ance with the Federal standards. Part B emphasizes the control of air
pollution from stationary sources, a broad category including all
sources except motor vehicles. It includes a description of State, inter-
state, and local air pollution control programs, their history of de-
velopment and current status, as well as Federal abatement activities
authorized under the act, and it also describes much of the current
research and development work aimed at developing the technology
to control these sources. Finally, part C describes the surveillance and
data gathering activities that are essential to. provide a sound basis
for regulatory efforts. It includes a summary and review of air moni-
toring systems nationwide, a description of activities underway to
collect emission data and information on fuel additives, and a brief dis-
cussion of measuring techniques.
PART A. AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION
As required by the Clean Air^Act of 1963, the Secretary has sub-
mitted semiannual reports to Congress describing the continuing ef-
forts being made to cope with the problem of air pollution from motor
vehicles. This series of reports, entitled "Automotive Air Pollution,"
provides a detailed summary of progress over the last 4 years, and the
final report in the series was submitted in August 1967.
This chapter is intended as an overview of the problem of automo-
tive air pollution as it exists today, rather than a description of the
details of specific studies undertaken since the August report. The
emphasis is on the dimensions and current status of the problem, the
progress that is being made, and the prospects for the future.
In terms of the total quantity of pollutants, the automobile repre-
sents the most important single source of air pollution in the United
States today.1 The nationwide contribution of the motor vehicle to
five major air contaminants is shown in figure 4. It is the prime source
of two of these pollutants, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, and
it produces nearly half the total nitrogen oxides released. Carbon
monoxide, which impairs the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood,
can reduce visual acuity and motor ability in small concentrations and
is fatal in large doses. Many of the hydrocarbons react with nitrogen
oxides in the presence of sunlight to form secondary products which
1 It should be pointed out, however, that the total quantity of pollutant emissions does
not tell the whole story; some pollutants (for example, sulfur dioxide) are chemically
more active than others and hence more harmful at lower atmospheric concentrations.
(15)
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«* 25-
u-
O
M
s
= 20-
Tofal FederaJ
Funds
66 67
FISCAL YEAR
68
(est.)
69
(est.)
FEDERAL
FINANCIAL
ASSISTANCE
TO
CONTROL
AGENCIES
Survey Demonstration ||J Stimulation g§| Maintenance [OH Planning
Figure 5
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17
irritate the eyes and throat and can alter physical function and en-
hance respiratory disease.
The Federal program has sought to cope with automotive air pollu-
tion by establishing nationwide standards limiting the emissions of
various pollutants, based on the technical and economic feasibility of
their control and on considerations of public health and welfare. It
has sought to advance the state of the art of automotive control tech-
nology through a research and development program aimed both at
complementing and stimulating industry's efforts. Finally, it has initi-
ated an active program to certify the compliance by manufacturers
with the Federal standards and to examine the effectiveness of emis-
sion control devices as the vehicles acquire mileage.
FEDERAL EMISSION STANDARDS
In October of 1965, when it became apparent that national control
of motor vehicle pollution was technically feasible, the Clean Air Act
was amended to enable the Secretary to prescribe emission standards
for new motor vehicles sold in the United States. Two months later
the Secretary published proposed standards in the Federal Register,
giving interested parties 30 days to suggest changes. The standards,
which were adopted in March 1966, apply to new gasoline-powered
passenger cars and light trucks, beginning with the 1968 model year,
and cover both American-made and imported vehicles.
These standards are derived from considerations of what is tech-
nologically feasible and economically realistic as well as from con-
siderations of benefit to health and welfare. The limits they set on
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from the exhaust system tailpipe,
which is the major source of motor vehicle pollution, are shown in
table 1. In addition, they require 100-percent control of hydrocarbons
emitted from the crankcase.8 Separate exhaust emission categories are
provided for smaller engines since they emit less total volume of ex-
haust. These standards represent average reductions of about 50 per-
cent for carbon monoxide and 70 percent for hydrocarbons when
compared with uncontrolled vehicles.
TABLE 1.-1968 MOTOR VEHICLE EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS
Carbon Hydrocarbons
Engine displacement (cubic inches) monoxide (parts per
(percent) million)
Below 50
50 to 100
101 to 140
Above UO
0)
2.3
2.0
1.5
0)
410
350
275
i Unrestricted.
The manufacturers of motor vehicles are not required to use any
particular techniques or devices for complying with the standards;
they may use any approach capable of reducing emissions to the pre-
scribed levels. They are required, however, to test representative models
before offering them for sale and to make the test results available for
»In an uncontrolled vehicle, about 30 percent of the hydrocarbon emissions come from the
crankcase and about 10 percent are evaporative losses from the fuel tank and carburetor.
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18
inspection by officials of the National Center. They are also required
to furnish representative motor vehicles for testing and certification
by the Center.
The Air Quality Act of 1967 (sec. 208) recognizes that "com-
pelling and extraordinary conditions" might warrant State vehicular
emission standards that are more stringent than the Federal standards.
Therefore, the act provides that Federal regulations will be waived in
any State which has adopted vehicle emission standards (other than
crankcase emission standards) prior to March 30,1966, unless the Sec-
retary finds that the State does not require stricter standards or that
the State standards and accompanying enforcement procedures are not
consistent with the act. California is the only State that has applied for
a waiver, and on January 15,1968, the Secretary opened a public hear-
ing in San Francisco to provide an opportunity for all views to be
expressed. Presentations were made by members of the State of Cali-
fornia, the automotive industry, and other interested parties. At the
request of the State, the hearing record is being kept open until May
16,1968, to allow the submittal of additional information.
Although the Federal standards calling for reduced pollutant emis-
sions beginning with 1968 vehicles constitute a substantial step forward
in controlling air pollution, their impact on pollution levels will be
gradual. This is because the new, controlled vehicles sold each year are
only a portion of the total vehicles in use, which presently number
about 90 million, and it will take time for the new vehicles to comprise
a substantial proportion of the total population of vehicles. The in-
creasing dependence upon the motor vehicle as a way of life and the
anticipated increases in traffic, combined with the delay in the replace-
ment of old vehicles with new ones, will tend to offset somewhat the
gains from such standards. Consequently, the standards will be revised
as the technology permits to make further progress toward the goal
of improved air quality.
In January 1968 the Secretary proposed revised standards for ap-
plication to 1970 model-year vehicles. The newer standards would limit
emissions on a total mass basis (grams per vehicle-mile), whereas the
standards for 1968 vehicles express emissions as a fraction of total
exhaust. Table 2 shows the proposed 1970 exhaust standards that
would apply to new automobiles and light trucks, along with the 1968
standards expressed in the same units for comparison. Specifying
pollutant emissions on a mass basis would provide for a more equitable
distribution of the degree of control required on individual vehicles,
and it would eliminate the need for separate categories for smaller
cars. The proposed 1970 standards also would require 90 percent con-
trol of hydrocarbons evaporating from gas tanks and carburetors and
would cover exhaust emissions from heavy duty trucks and buses, re-
quiring 35 percent control of hydrocarbons ancl 37 percent control of
carbon monoxide from such vehicles. In addition, the proposed stand-
ards place limitations on visible smoke emissions from diesel-powered
trucks and buses.
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19
TABLE 2.-PROPOSED 1970 MOTOR VEHICLE EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS
[Grams per vehicle mile)
Pollutant
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Typical
uncontrolled
vehicle
71 0
9 7
1968
standard '
33.0
3 2
Proposed
1970
standard
23 0
2 2
i Approximate equivalent of the 1968 standard when expressed in terms of mass emissions per mile.
It should be pointed out that if more stringent national control is
not imposed after 1970, vehicular pollution levels will reach a minimum
during the late 1970's and then begin to rise in response to the ever-
expanding numbers of motor vehicles. Consequently, the current and
proposed standards do more to keep the problem from getting worse
than to solve it. More effective standards can be established only as
the technology is developed to adequately cope with automotive emis-
sions. Consequently, the Center has underway an active research and
development program to seek out new control approaches and to help
industry continue its aggressive role in developing improved control
technology.
Some recent estimates suggest that in future years substantial re-
ductions in emissions from internal combustion engines can be
achieved. (2) It is probable, however, that ultimately a limit will be
reached beyond which further reductions are technically or economi-
cally out of the question. If so, the current use of control systems to
meet specified standards is only an intermediate step, and it may be
necessary to look to some innovative vehicle to replace today's gasoline-
powered automobile. Such approaches as the turbine, the steam-pow-
ered vehicle, the electric car, and other combinations of various energy
and power sources may hold much promise but are in need of further
study. Major changes in the planning of cities, including greater use of
mass transit and other substitutes for the automobile as a mode of
transportation, may warrant consideration as the need increases to find
a truly long-run solution to the problem.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The responsibility for developing control systems and methods for
meeting the Federal emission standards lies with the vehicle manufac-
turers and fuel suppliers. The private sector has the means, the capa-
bility, and the practical knowledge to develop usable control devices
and systems, and this effort is closely tied to a number of manufac-
turing, marketing, and maintenance factors.
The Federal program in automotive research and development has
three primary objectives: (1) to stimulate optimum activity by the
private sector in developing control technology, (2) to fill the research
gap areas that are not receiving attention elsewhere, and (3) to develop
the technical base for establishing future Federal emission standards.
To achieve these objectives, the National Center plans to conduct or
is conducting a variety of research and development activities:
Conceptual studies to determine the feasibility of new and more
advanced control approaches.
98-521 O—«8 t
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20
Developmental studies to produce practical prototype devices.
Fundamental research to obtain the information needed to de-
velop and evaluate new approaches.
Laboratory tests to determine the effectiveness of various con-
trol systems.
Studies to provide uniform procedures for evaluating the effec-
tiveness of control systems.
Development of improved measuring and testing techniques.
Development of test instruments for simple, inexpensive meas-
urement of exhaust emissions.
Detailed chemical analyses of the composition of emissions
from various categories of vehicles (such as diesel-powered trucks,
unconventional vehicles).
Studies of the feasibility of controlling pollutants not already
covered by Federal standards.
Studies of the feasibility of new propulsion systems with low
pollution potential.
Projects to stimulate new ideas and to generate new concepts
for control approaches.
Studies to determine the maximum hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide control that can be economically attained with present
internal combustion engines.
Individual projects, of course, may overlap into more than one of
these study areas and may satisfy several objectives. Work supported
by the Center at the Petroleum Research Center of the Bureau of
Mines, for example, is studying the manner in which selected design
parameters, engine operating variables, emission control techniques,
and fuel factors influence the quantity and composition of automotive
exhaust emissions. Such work, which is being complemented by efforts
within the Center's own laboratories, provides basic knowledge that
is useful in developing new control approaches, establishing the feasi-
bility of controlling various pollutants, and determining the maximum
degree to which certain pollutants can be controlled. Thus it provides
basic information to help industry develop and improve control sys-
tems and it provides knowledge that is of use in establishing future
standards.
The Federal Government's research and development program on
automotive air pollution includes (1) projects conducted within the
National Center's laboratories, (2) Federal contracts with private
engineering and consulting organizations, and (3) interagency efforts
within the Federal Government. Most of the projects carried out by
other Federal agencies are funded by the Center; some are not, how-
ever, such as research by the Department of Housing and Urban De-
velopment on vehicles having low pollution potential. By far the
greatest share of the National Center's work is done on a contract basis.
Cooperative research programs jointly funded by the Federal Gov-
ernment and private industry groups are another way in which con-
trol technology is being developed. The National Center has joined
with the Automobile Manufacturers Association and the American
Petroleum Institute in a 3-year, $10 million research program aimed
at gaming more knowledge on the control of automotive air pollution.
The program will be directed by the Coordinating Research Council,
an independent, nonprofit organization devoted to improving engines
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21
and petroleum products. The Center will support those research proj-
ects that meet its specific needs, and generally will contribute one-
third of their cost. The 30 projects currently planned are in five cate-
gories: (1) interactions between petroleum products and vehicle con-
trol systems; (2) instrumentation and test procedures for exhaust
emission measurement; (3) atmospheric chemistry studies, which in-
clude the measurement of photochemical reactivity of hydrocarbons
and nitric oxide, the evaluation of plant damage caused by pollutants,
the development of a mathematical model of the diffusion of pollut-
ants in urban areas, and the study of the ultimate fate of carbon
monoxide in the atmosphere; (4) surveillance, inspection, and mainte-
nance of automotive equipment to insure the most effective and eco-
nomical control of exhaust emissions; and (5) studies on the health
effects of selected automotive air pollutants.
The research activities underway in the private sector are of con-
siderable magnitude. The automobile and petroleum industries are
spending large sums to privately develop improved control techniques.
In addition to these individual corporate research programs, six pe-
troleum firms and one automobile manufacturer have joined forces in
establishing the interindustry emissions control program. The goal
of this $7 million program is to achieve a low-pollution, gasoline-
powered vehicle which can be sold at a reasonable price. Within 2%
years, the group seeks to achieve the following exhaust emission control
levels in the laboratory: (1) carbon monoxide emissions at 0.3 per-
cent; (2) hydrocarbon emissions at 65 parts per million (p.p.m.), and
(3) emissions of nitrogen oxides at 175 parts per million. These values
represent sizable reductions over the Federal standards that currently
apply to 1968 model-year vehicles (see table 1). Another research pro-
gram is underway between several firms to achieve similar goals.
The following discussion provides an outline of some of the re-
search areas that are receiving attention, and it describes briefly the
control systems and approaches under study, indicating the problems
involved and the efforts being made to solve them. It is divided into
three major sections: gasoline engines, diesel engines, and unconven-
tional propulsion systems.
Gasoline engines
Although diesel-powered trucks and buses are noted for their un-
pleasant smoke and odor, gasoline-powered vehicles are far more nu-
merous than any other kind of vehicle and emit more types and quan-
tities of pollutants. Therefore, they deserve the highest research and
development priority.
i. Control of eaohaust emissions
In a gasoline-powered vehicle, virtually all of the carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and about 60 percent of the hydrocarbons come from
the engine exhaust; most of the remaining hydrocarbons come from
the crankcase and about 10 percent evaporate from the fuel tank and
the carburetor.
Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.—The motor vehicle manufac-
turers have attempted to meet the exhaust emission standards for car-
bon monoxide and hydrocarbons by using two basically different con-
trol approaches: (1) air is injected into the exhaust manifold near
the exhaust valves at the point of peak exhaust temperatures, thus
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22
producing further combustion of the pollutants remaining in the gas
mixture, and (2) various modifications are carried out on the engine
ignition system and carburetor. These methods have proved reason-
ably successful and are constantly undergoing further development
and improvement.
To stimulate the development of advanced control methods, the
National Center is funding various projects to provide a more compre-
hensive understanding of engine combustion. One such project is the
evaluation of induction system variables such as fuel atomization,
fuel vaporization, air-fuel mixing, and carburetor temperature.
Nitrogen oxides.—Federal standards do not yet require the control
of nitrogen oxides emissions. However, there is increasing interest in
approaches that will reduce nitrogen oxides emissions without sacri-
ficing the control of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
One approach under study is the exhaust gas recirculating system,
which requires a controlled amount of the exhaust gas stream to re-
circulate Sack through the engine intake system. This dilutes the com-
bustible mixture admitted to the engine cylinders and reduces the peak
temperature, resulting in reduced formation of nitrogen oxides. This
is usually accompanied, however, by some reduction in engine per-
formance. The National Center is studying this approach in its own
laboratories and by contract with ESSO Resesarch & Engineering
Corp. The work in the Center's laboratories has produced an exhaust
gas recirculafcion system which reduces introgen oxides emissions by
75 percent, although there is some impairment in acceleration, decel-
eration, and other drivability characteristics. The work at ESSO has
established the relationships between nitrogen oxide emissions, odor,
air-fuel ratios, and spark advance—all of which are influenced by the
rate at which the gas is recycled for various engine speeds and engine
loads. Also receiving careful attention is the effect of nitrogen oxides
control on overall performance and economy. During the later phases
of this contract investigation, an automatic recircu'lation system will
be installed on different passenger cars for road evaluation.
The information generated by this research, along with parallel
developments in private industrial laboratories, will Tielp determine
the technical and economic feasibility of meeting any needed Federal
standards for the control of nitrogen oxides emissions.
iL Control of evaporative losses
Systems for the control of hydrocarbons that evaporate from the
fuel tank and carburetor have been developed independently by ESSO
Research & Engineering Corp. and by the Atlantic Richfield Corp. The
ESSO system employs a small charcoal canister which is attached to
the fuel system vents and which selectively absorbs hydrocarbon emis-
sions during the critical portions of the driving cycle. During other
periods, a control allows these vapors to be readmitted into the engine.
The system developed by Atlantic Richfield represents a similar ap-
proach ; instead of a charcoal filter, however, the engine crankcase is
used as a storage reservoir for the fuel vapors. Other approaches under
study by the motor vehicle industry include pressurized fuel tanks, as
well as variations of the charcoal canister and crankcase storage
systems.
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23
Progress in this field of technology has enabled the Secretary to pro-
pose Federal standards limiting evaporative losses on 1970 model-year
vehicles.
Hi. Development of measuring techniques
To achieve an effective reduction in vehicle emissions, it is necessary
to have meaningful ways to measure these emissions under realistic
operating conditions. The promulgation of Federal vehicular emission
standards makes necessary a continuing review and updating of com-
pliance and inspection test procedures. Thus, the Center seeks to im-
prove compliance and inspection procedures to better assess vehicle
emission levels, vehicle operation, and the control systems themselves.
Currently, there are three major areas in which the engineering activi-
ties are concentrated: (1) the development of simple dynamometer test
cycles which better simulate urban driving conditions, (2) the develop-
ment of inexpensive but effective instrumentation for State inspection
stations, and (3) the simplification and improvement of certification
procedures.
In its research to improve the measuring approaches that are used
during testing, the Center's primary emphasis is on (1) increasing the
speed of response of measuring instruments, particularly those using
chromatographic methods (for example, for hydrocarbons), to permit
immediate recognition of the effects of engine parameter variations;
(2) developing chromatographic methods that will have the ability
to classify hydrocarbon emissions in terms of their photochemical reac-
tivity; (3) developing measuring techniques for hydrocarbon oxy-
genates; and (4) evaluating substitutes for wet-chemical methods for
measuring nitrogen oxides.
An important recent advance has been the development of a sim-
plified sampling system which gives an accurate indication of the total
mass of pollutant emissions from all sizes and types of vehicles and
engines. The development of this system paved the way for the cur-
rently proposed 1970 Federal standards, which express emissions on a
total mass basis.
Diesel engines
i. Control of exhaust emissions
Diesel-powered vehicles account for only a small share of the total
pollution contributed for motor vehicles in urban areas. However, the
extensive complaints by private citizens about diesel vehicles result
from the characteristic smoke and odor. Consequently, much of the
research in Federal and private laboratories is directed toward better
control of smoke and odor and the concomitant need to measure these
pollutants. Under the sponsorship of the National Center and the Co-
ordinating Research Council, Scott Research Laboratories in 1961
began to examine the relationship between diesel exhaust odors and
the chemical composition of the emissions. This was followed in 1962
by Center-sponsored studies at the U.S. Bureau of Mines to define
more broadly the nature of diesel emissions and by contract work at
Southwest Research Institute in 1966 to evaluate existing methods for
the control of diesel smoke and odor.
Smoke control.—There are several well-recognized approaches for
controlling the smoke emissions from diesel engines; these include
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24
(1) careful maintenance of engines, (2) operation of engines below
rated power capabilities, and (3) the use of certain fuel additives. To
permit careful study of these methods and other pertinent factors, the
National Center developed operating cycles using chassis dynomome-
ters which simulate the normal driving conditions of diesel-powered
trucks and buses in highway service. The information generated from
the use of this technique helped provide the basis for the proposed
1970 Federal standard limiting smoke emissions from diesel-powered
vehicles.
Odor control.—Research on the control of diesel exhaust odor is
at a much earlier stage of development. Recently, research sponsored
by the National Center has reaffirmed the ability of certain catalytic
reactors, when substituted for the muffler, to reduce both exhaust odor
and some gaseous pollutants. Fuel additives designed to suppress or
eliminate odors have produced somewhat less encouraging results. By
contract, the National Center will continue to examine the relation-
ship between various pollution levels and human responses to odor, a
necessary step if Federal odor standards are to be established. The
Center is also studying the technical and economic factors associated
with odor control approaches.
Carbon monoaside and hydrocarbons.—The emission of gaseous pol-
lutants from diesel engines is much less than that emitted from gaso-
line engines. For example, carbon monoxide emissions from diesel
engines of both the two-cycle and four-cycle types are roughly one-
tenth of those emitted from gasoline engines of equivalent power.
Studies supported by the Center at the Bureau of Mines suggest that
hydrocarbon emissions from four-cycle diesel engines are much lower
tnan that from comparable gasoline engines, although emissions from
two-cycle engines may approach those of gasoline engines. When one
adds to these findings the fact that diesel-powered vehicles are much
less numerous than other vehicles, accounting for only about 3 to 5
percent of the total automotive fuel consumed nationwide, it is clear
that they account for an extremely small share of the total gaseous
pollutants in most cities. Therefore, Federal standards for carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons emitted from diesel engines are of second-
ary importance at this time.
U. Development of measuring techniques
As in the case of gasoline-powered vehicles, improved measuring
techniques for diesels are essential for establishing meaningful Fed-
eral standards.
Odor measurement.—Since odors are extremely difficult to measure
by normal quantitative procedures, research of the National Center is
attempting to establish the relationship between human perception
of diesel exhaust odor and its chemical composition. At present, the
human nose is the only detector which is sufficiently discriminating to
be used as a basis for measurement. To make this evaluation as quanti-
tative as possible, a Center-supported project has developed an odor-
rating technique using a trained judging panel. The panel compares
odors generated by test engines with 28 chemical standards of known
composition. The odors are rated both in terms of intensity and chosen
qualities. All Center contracts on diesel emission control use the same
basic sensory system to evaluate odor control effectiveness.
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26
Smoke measurement.—To make the necessary measurement of smoke
emissions from diesel engines, the National Center has developed a
suitable smoke meter in its own laboratories. This meter passes light
from a controlled source through the smoke plume emitted by the diesel
engine, and the degree of light obscuration is measured directly. This
meter passes light from a controlled source through the smoke plume
emitted by the diesel engine, and the degree of Tight obscuration is
measured directly. This provides an exact and quantitative way of
measuring smoke emissions that are visible to the eye and constitute a
public nuisance. The meter was a prerequisite to the promulgation of
the 1970 Federal standard limiting diesel smoke emissions.
Hydrocarbons measurement.—Hydrocarbon emissions from diesels
are measured by various techniques, but these are usually complicated
by the tendency of hydrocarbons of high molecular weignt to condense
in the sampling system before they can reach the analyzer. The Na-
tional Center is now studying various techniques involving high sys-
tem temperatures and gaseous dilution to assure that a representative
sample of the exhaust gets to the analyzer. Investigators at the Bureau
of Mines, working under the Center's sponsorship, have developed
techniques to analyze the nature of gaseous emissions from diesels by
the use of gas-liquid chromatography.
Unconventional propulsion systems
Although it is possible to obtain further reductions in pollutant
emissions from internal combustion engines, the ever-increasing popu-
lation of motor vehicles dictates that work must also be directed to-
ward alternative low-pollution propulsion systems. The National
Center has supported several studies to examine the state of the art
and future potential for low-emission unconventional vehicles. Under
contracts with the Center, Battelle Memorial Institute has been look-
ing at various chemical, thermal, and mechanical propulsion systems,
and Arthur D. Little has been conducting an extensive evaluation of
electrically powered vehicles. The purpose of this work, which is near-
ing completion, is to define gap areas of knowledge, research, and tech-
nical development for power systems that have promise. These efforts
will provide guidelines for the optimum allocation of Federal and
private research and development resources in this new field.
Gas turbine,—In one study, the National Center examined the emis-
sion characteristics of a gas turbine made available by the Chrysler
Corp. The analysis indicated that emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons were much lower than from conventional, uncontrolled
gasoline engines. However, high manufacturing costs and poor fuel
economy represent problems that must be overcome before gas turbines
can be used effectively in vehicles other than heavy-duty trucks and
buses.
Steam engine.—Recently, steam engines using the latest technology
have been built and tested and have shown hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide levels even lower than those measured with gas turbines.
These modern cars appear to have overcome most of the drawbacks
of the early Stanley Steamer type of vehicle, which was plagued by
slow warmup time, high water consumption, and explosion hazards.
However, there are still significant cost and engineering problems to
be solved.
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36
Of all the systems that the Center has studied, preliminary esti-
mates indicates that systems using continuous-flow combustion, such
as steam engines and gas turbines, may hold the greatest promise for
achieving the low pollutant emission levels that will be necessary in
theperiod from mid-1970 to the mid-1980's.
Electric vehicle.—In the late 1980's and beyond, the electric vehicle
may be the most promising candidate. Even now, electric propulsion
is practical for limited applications and, with further advancements
in the technology of batteries, controls, and small motors, the family
car could one day be battery powered. During this future period, the
fuel cell, with its obvious attractiveness in terms of ease of reener-
gizing and inherent high efficiency, also may be successfully adapted
for vehicle propulsion.
COMPLIANCE AND INSPECTION
To actually achieve improved air quality, it is not enough to estab-
lish standards and conduct research on control techniques. T'here must
be a workable plan to insure implementation of motor vehicle control
systems which meet the designated emission standards. The National
Center conducts three major activities in this area: (1) It tests proto-
types of new motor vehicles and certifies that they are in compliance
with the standards, (2) it surveys groups of vehicles in normal service
to determine the effectiveness of control systems under actual operating
conditions, and (3) it assists in the development of methods and tech-
niques for State inspection programs.
i. Certification
To certify new motor vehicles which meet the Federal emission
standards, the National Center has established an emission compliance
laboratory near Detroit, Mich. Here tests are conducted on new vehicles
submitted by manufacturers prior to production. These tests, which
include exhaust gas sampling and analysis, are conducted in accord
with procedures established by the National Center to enable the Fed-
eral emission standards to be effectively implemented. The laboratory,
which became operative on November 1, 1966, confirms test measure-
ments made by the manufacturers and collects the necessary data to
establish the eligibility of the vehicle manufacturers' products for
certification in advance of production. The laboratory is equipped to
perform 16 certification tests per day.
The program for certification of 1968 model passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles required the review of applications from 44 com-
panies located in seven countries. The laboratory performed 730 emis-
sion tests to establish eligibility for certification. Test scheduling was
somewhat irregular to allow time for the vehicles to acquire mileage
and to enable the manufacturers to conduct their own emission test
programs. Scheduling was a particular problem during the spring and
early summer of 1967, when an extremely large number of prototype
models were submitted by domestic manufacturers for certification.
The certification of prototypes of foreign vehicles, on the other hand,
was carried out at a relatively constant level, and some certification
testing for 1968 sales was done as late as this spring. On the whole, the
laboratory facilities proved generally adequate for the certification of
1968 model vehicles.
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27
At present, certification activities are involved with changes in cur-
rent models, the introduction of any new midyear models, and new
applications from foreign manufacturers. In addition, testing is in-
creasing for the certification of 1969 models that have different engines
or control systems from those currently in use.
L Surveillance
The certification testing of prototype vehicles under conditions
where they must rapidly accumulate mileage may or may not accu-
rately reflect the emission levels of vehicles in normal use. Disparities
may develop when the vehicles go into mass production; also, varia-
tions in the driving habits of motorists and differences in vehicle
maintenance may have a major effect on emissions. The Center is at-
tempting to determine the relationships between the test results of
prototype vehicles and the emission characteristics of vehicles under
normal use. Studies include the continued testing of the prototype
vehicles which were part of the 1968 certification fleets. Unlike the
original testing, which used accelerated mileage schedules, these stud-
ies make use of a typical driving schedule.
The center is also studying the changes, with age and use, of emis-
sion characteristics of motor vehicles operated in actual service. Since
1965, the center has supported a California-based surveillance pro-
gram of vehicles equipped with emission control systems and owned
and operated by the public. Because the 1966 California standards are
equivalent to the 1968 Federal standards, this study has provided
valuable information on the performance of emission control systems.
The control systems used on the 1967 model automobiles showed a
marked improvement over the 1966 models in controlling exhaust
emissions over long-term use. The control systems of both model years,
however, tended to decrease in effectiveness as mileage accumulated.
Since the control technology employed on the 1967 California vehicles
does not differ substantially from the systems currently in use, data on
these vehicles provide some indication of the levels of emission control
that can be expected for 1968 model vehicles under the present stand-
ards.
A second study by the Center examined 300 passenger cars in five
cities. Each of the cities was selected to represent different climatic
and driving conditions. The pollutant emission characteristics of ve-
hicles with and without control systems were compared as the vehicles
accumulated mileage. The results indicated that the controlled vehicles
emitted roughly half as much hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide as
the uncontrolled vehicles. Emission levels for both types increased with
increasing mileage.
Another study, initiated in March 1968, is examining the emissions
of vehicles from rental agencies in the Detroit and Los Angeles areas.
The vehicles under study were selected from the rental vehicle fleets
so as to be representative of the projected 1968 sales of the major do-
mestic manufacturers. To allow accurate comparisons with the manu-
facturers' test results, careful adjustments of idle speed, idle mixture,
and basic ignition timing will be made during each emission test.
Hi. Inspection programs
One possible way to achieve and maintain effective emission control
is through periodic inspections. Under the Air Quality Act sec. 209,
Federal grants may be made to appropriate State air pollution control
96-521
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agencies in an amount up to two-thirds of the cost of developing mean-
ingful uniform inspection and testing programs for motor vehicle
emissions and emission control devices. The National Center has under-
way several projects to aid in the development of inspection procedures
and test instrumentation for State programs.
Thus far, two schemes have been proposed for periodic emission in-
spections undertaken at the State level. One of these, developed under a
Federal grant to the State of New Jersey, involves the operation and
testing of vehicles according to an abbreviated test cycle. The second,
offered for consideration by an industrial firm, comprises three dif-
ferent modes capable of showing consistent results upon repetition.
Within the limitations imposed oy time and facilities, the National
Center is examining these two techniques with the use of prototype
emission-controlled vehicles. The tests attempt to determine if the
cycles accurately indicate control system malfunction and if they cor-
relate with Federal test procedure. The Center also is evaluating a
number of experimental analytical instruments which have been sub-
mitted by private sources. In addition, several systems studies are un-
derway to analyze the cost effectiveness of a variety of possible
inspection and maintenance schemes.
At this early date, thd evaluations being conducted by the Center
have not progressed far enough to recommend the adoption of any one
test instrument or inspection procedure.
PART B. STATIONARY SOURCES
Stationary sources of pollution—such as powerplants, incinerators,
industrial operations, and residential and commercial heating—vary
greatly from place to place. Even within a given locality, different
sources and categories of sources will vary enormously in size, physical
location, stack height, pollutant emissions, and so forth. Since appro-
priate techniques for controlling each source depend on these and
other characteristics, effective control is a very complex and difficult
problem.
State and local agencies, because they are closest to the air pollution
problem, are often in the best position for dealing with 'stationary
sources. This section first reviews the current status of State, interstate,
and local air pollution control programs, and the steady progress that
has been made since the 1963 Clean Air Act. While the control of sta-
tionary sources is primarily a State and local responsibility, Congress
has recognized that Federal authority is needed to abate certain air
pollution problems, and this is the topic discussed next. Finally, this
section describes current efforts to improve and develop control tech-
nology and to advance the State of the art for controlling various pol-
lutants and categories of sources.
STATE, INTERSTATE, AND LOCAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS
The Clean Air Act established the important policy, which remains
in effect, "that the prevention and control of air pollution at its source
is the primary responsibility of States and local governments; and
* * * that Federal financial assistance and leadership is essential for
the development of cooperative Federal, State, regional, and local
programs to prevent and control air pollution." The Department of
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Health, Education, and Welfare is authorized to undertake activities
in support of State and local efforts. This Federal assistance was not—
and still is not—intended to be a substitute for State and local activity;
rather its purpose, like that of the entire Federal program, is to en-
courage and support such activity.
The Federal control agency development program
When the 1963 Clean Air Act became law, State and local efforts
to deal with air pollution were, with rare exception, generally inade-
quate. Many existing State and local programs still are not prepared
to effectively enforce regulations for the prevention and control of air
pollution. However, encouraging progress has been made.
One of the major objectives of the National Center for Air Pollution
Control is to assist in the development and strengthening of State,
regional, and local air pollution control programs by (1) providing
financial grant-in-aid assistance; and (2) providing program guidance
and technical assistance to official control agencies. Federal assistance
may be provided in support of a wide variety of control program ac-
tivities, so long as these activities are for the purpose of protecting or
improving the quality of the air resource of the community, region,
or State.
A recent organizational change brought together the National Cen-
ter's financial and technical assistance activities under a single pro-
gram—the control agency development program. This step will assure
more effective and broader based Federal support to control agencies.
The following describes the kinds of support available.
*. Financial assistance
One of the most important ways the Federal Government helps State
and local governments equip themselves to prevent and control air
pollution is by awarding Federal grants directly to air pollution con-
trol agencies. The Air Quality Act authorizes such awards and pro-
vides for a number of grant-in-aid mechanisms, including grants for
surveys and demonstrations (sec. 103), as well as for planning, devel-
oping, estafolishmg, improving, and maintaining air pollution control
programs (sec. 105). In addition, grants are authorized to support
program planning activities in the air quality control regions desig-
nated by the Secretary (sec. 106) as part of a regional approach to air
pollution control. The steps that make up this regional approach
are described in chapter I.
Survey and denijnstration grants.-^Survey and demonstration
grants provide a base for innovation in air pollution control methods—
both in technical and administrative means of control and in orga-
nizational arrangements for the implementation of control programs.
The flexibility of the program of survey and demonstration grants
allows for the participation of a wide variety of agencies and institu-
tions in projects directed toward solution of specific air pollution
control problems.
During the past 3 fiscal years, more than $2.5 million has been
awarded in support of 24 survey projects. In most cases, these projects
have assessed the nature and extent of air pollution problems in order
to determine the need for and method of developing a control pro-
gram. Of the 11 completed projects to survey air pollution problems
in a specific area, four have already resulted in active air pollution
control programs.
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The problem of coal mine waste-pile fires, including their contribu-
tion to air pollution, was considered during development of the Appa-
lachia Act. As a consequence, appropriations totaling $1.5 million
were received specifically for grants to demonstrate methods for pre-
venting and controlling fires in coal mine waste piles in the Appa-
lachia region. Fifteen such projects have been supported to test a
variety of control methods and techniques to determine their effective-
ness and relative cost. Five other projects, designed to demonstrate
new or improved methods for abatement and control of specific air
pollution problems, have been supported witih nearly $0.8 million dur-
ing the past 2 fiscal years.
Control program grants.—Since 1965, when the first grants-in-aid to
States and municipalities were awarded for air pollution control, sig-
nificant progress has been made. The 1963 Clean Air Act authorized
grants to State and local governments for any of three purposes: the
development of new air pollution control programs, the establishment
of programs already authorized by State or local law, or the improve-
ment of existing programs. This program of grants is continued under
the Air Quality Act of 1967.
The objective of these grants is to stimulate new or increased con-
trol effort at the State, regional, and local levels of government.
Project grants are made on the basis of workable programs which
provide for the enactment and enforcement of effective control laws
and regulations.
These grants have resulted in a significant expansion of State and
local control activity. Financial resources available to the control agen-
cies have more than tripled from the initial level of approximately
$12.7 million available annually prior to passage of the Clean Air Act
in 1963. Federally supported State control programs now total 37,
while regional and local programs number 136. More than 100 of these
control programs were begun with Federal support provided under
the Clean Air Act.
In October 1966, the Clean Air Act was amended to authorize a new
type of Federal assistance to State and local control agencies—grants
to help them maintain effective air pollution control programs. Pro-
gram maintenance grants assure State and local governments of con-
tinuing Federal support in their efforts to meet the challenge of air
pollution in the years to come. Air pollution control agencies can plan
on continuing support so long as satisfactory progress is being made in
the operation of effective, workable programs which are capable of
accomplishing appropriate air quality objectives within reasonable
time schedules.
As control agencies develop their programs so that they become more
and more effective in the prevention and control of air pollution, it is
expected that there will be a gradual transition from stimulatory
(development, establishment, and improvement) grants to program
maintenance grants. Now that funds are available and the necessary
administrative regulations and procedures have been developed and
implemented, applications for such maintenance grants are being re-
ceived. It is anticipated that some awards will be made during the
fourth quarter of fiscal year 1968, with the number increasing sub-
stantially in 1969 and 1970.
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The Air Quality Act of 1967 authorizes, for the first time, planning
grants to air pollution control agencies (sees. 105 and 106). Such sup-
port will be used chiefly to develop plans for implementing air quality
standards in the regions designated by the Secretary, in accordance
with the steps outlined in chapter I. The National Center expects to
receive requests for these implementation grants shortly after the air
quality control regions are designated.
The growth in Federal financial assistance—both past and pro-
jected—to the control agencies for various types of grants is shown in
figure 5.
ii. Program assistance
Providing technical assistance to State and local air pollution con-
trol agencies has always been a significant part of the Federal pro-
gram, but it is now receiving even greater attention. The form of this
assistance ranges from short-term consultation on specific problems to
extensive guidance and help it developing comprehensive air pollution
control programs, including the technical, legal, and administrative
activities.
The National Center provides consultation on a variety of subjects,
including emissions from industrial and combustion processes and
suitable means for their control; equipment and methods which can be
used in ambient air sampling and source sampling; the establishment
and improvement of air pollution control laboratory facilities; the
reduction and interpretation of meteorological data; procedures for
conducting emission inventories, odor surveys, and smoke observer
training schools; and the development of emission reduction plans.
Detailed reviews and comments on proposed air pollution control
reduction and interpretation of meteorological data; procedures for
which there is a very great demand.
In recent years, the scope of control agency programs has broadened,
accompanied by an increase in the complexity of operations; the Na-
tional Center has met these changing requirements with an organiza-
tion that is more flexible than before. Whatever the circumstances,
however, the objective always remains the same: to promote a more
effective attack on air pollution by helping States and municipalities
assess their air pollution problems and undertake appropriate control
actions.
Status of State and local control agencies
Encouraging progress is being made in the development of control
agency programs. State and local governments are increasingly at-
tempting to meet their responsibility for the prevention and control
of air pollution. The effort put forth thus far, however, constitute only
a beginning; a much greater effort will be required to catch up with
the rapidly accelerating problems if we are to restore and maintain
the quality of the Nation's air.
Although an increasing number of political jurisdictions are adopt-
ing legislation to control air pollution, there is need to improve the
quality of such legislation. With passage of the Air Quality Act of
1967, there will be a concerted effort toward the control of air pollution
on a regional basis. The initiative still remains with the State and
local governments, and suitable mechanisms are needed to extend con-
trol activities now confined to central cities to wider urban and regional
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£ 25
*o
M
g
= 20-
« 15-
Total Federal
Funds
65
66 67
FISCAL YEAR
68
(est.)
69
(est.)
FEDERAL
FINANCIAL
ASSISTANCE
TO
CONTROL
AGENCIES
Survey Demonstration ^ Stimulation ggj Maintenance gi Planning
Figure 5
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areas. Staffing of the control agencies will also continue to be a problem
until the pool of trained manpower can be expanded and salary sched-
ules improved.
The extent and accuracy of air quality measurements and gen-
eralized pollutant emission inventories by control agencies have pro-
gressed substantially in the past 2 or 3 years. Measurements in many
localities, however, should include a wider range of pollutants and
specific information on pollutant sources should be more generally
obtained and organized. Effective control actions are difficult without
detailed knowledge on the nature of sources, source emissions, and
prevailing air quality levels.
In the past, far too few control agencies have implemented their
control authority by adopting meaningful air quality or emission
standards and regulations. Where such standards nave been adopted,
many are top lenient to insure satisfactory air quality levels. Gen-
erally, positive actions to enforce existing codes, regulations, and
ordinances fall short of needs.
In short, individual control agency programs are improving, and
while more and more agencies are gradually moving toward effective
control programs, the process is far from complete.
i. State programs
Prior to the adoption of the Clean Air Act in 1963,14 States had
enacted legislation providing for air pollution control on a statewide
basis, and two more had laws providing for limited coverage. During
the 4 years which have elapsed since the act went into effect, 31 addi-
tional State legislatures have passed laws providing mechanisms for
control by State action, and existing legislation in a number of States
has been strengthened.
The 1967 State legislative sessions were undoutbedly the most pro-
ductive yet in terms of action to prevent and control air pollution. Of
the 48 States in which legislatures met in regular sessions last year, 39
legislatures considered major air pollution control bills. Twenty legis-
latures enacted comprehensive air pollution control lawSj and six other
States adopted amendments to strengthen earlier legislation.
With minor variations, the procedures for developing and promul-
gating regulations for air pollution control are fairly similar in most
States. Usually, the control agency staff drafts the proposed regula-
tions, with either formal or informal assistance or review by outside
technical experts and affected interests. Then formal hearings are
held, followed by official action by a State board or commission.
Some States have not been vigorous in implementing their control
authority. They have failed to adopt emission standards or ambient
air quality standards as part of their regulatory activities. However,
there is some recent evidence of improvement in this regard, especially
among the newer State programs. Twenty States have now adopted
such standards, as compared with 14,1 year ago and seven in 1963, and
a number of other States are currently formulating standards.
The State resources devoted to the control of air pollution have
greatly increased in a relatively short period. Before the Clean Air
Act became law, the total annual budgets for State air pollution con-
trol programs amounted to a little over $3 million. The State of Cali-
fornia accounted for more than half of this total, with New York and
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34
New Jersey the only other programs reporting budgets in excess of
$100,000. Now, 4 years later, total annual budgets have more than
tripled and 22 State budgets exceed $100,000.
It would be erroneous to conclude that merely increased expenditures
will guarantee the solution of State control agency problems. To be
successful, programs to prevent and control air pollution require a
clear definition of the problem, authority and operational procedures
which are soundly conceived, and proper administration, together with
sincere and clearly expressed support of the executive, legislative, and
judicial arms of government.
ii. Interstate programs
At the present time, no formal interstate air pollution control pro-
grams are in operation. The need for cooperation among States is
obvious. Air pollution is inherently a regional problem; the air—
polluted or not—flows freely across manmade jurisdictional boun-
daries. There are innumerable places in the country where two or more
communities, either in the same or different States, are affected by a
common air pollution problem.
Three interstate air pollution control compacts have been proposed
to date: The Illinois-Indiana compact; the Ohio-West Virginia com-
pact; and the Mid-Atlantic States compact. The latter has been rati-
fied by the States of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut, and in
addition, would permit Pennsylvania and Eteleware to join. That three
compacts are now before the Congress is indeed encouraging; it attests
to the growing recognition by State governments that they must work
with one another if they are to succeed in deal with a problem as com-
plex and serious as air pollution.
As described in Chapter I, the Air Quality Act of 1967 provides for
a systematic attack upon air pollution on a regional basis. In this sys-
tem, State governments will be called upon to adopt and implement
ambient air quality standards in air quality control regions desig-
nated by the Secretary. Each region will consist of a group of com-
munities sharing a common air pollution problem. In any region en-
compassing two or more States, each one will be expected to adopt and
implement air quality standards for its portion of the region.
Interstate compacts are not mandatory under the Air Quality Act
of 1967, but they are one potentially useful means of providing for
cooperation among States in meeting responsibilities placed on them.
Since they provide a statutory basis for interstate cooperation and
since they can also be the foundation for a single comprehensive ap-
proach to an air pollution problem involving a number of jurisdic-
tions, they have many advantages over other possible arrangements
for cooperative action.
Interstate compacts must be fully consistent with the provisions of
the Air Quality Act of 1967. They should be designed to avoid confu-
sion and complication of Federal-State relationships and to minimize
the many legal, political, and administrative problems inherent in de-
veloping and carrying out coordinated plans for attacking air pollu-
tion in interstate areas.
During the coming year, considerable activity is anticipated in the
development of cooperative interstate programs for the prevention and
control of air pollution. While action toward the development of inter-
state control programs might have taken place in response to the mag-
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35
nibude and growth of interstate air pollution problems, such action is
now assured with the Air Quality Act of 1967.
Hi. Local and regional programs
In the past, local and regional governments have shown the most
activity in air pollution control, simply because police, nuisance^ and
public nealth powers were traditionally delegated to local and regional
governments. In more recent years, States and the Federal Govern-
ment have entered this field; but in many ways, local and regional gov-
ernments are, and will probably always remain, the most important
entities for the regulation of air pollution.
Significant progress has been made since the enactment of the Clean
Air Act of 1963 in developing new programs for air pollution control
and strengthening existing ones. Eighty-five new local or regional pro-
grams have been initiated with Federal support during the past 4
years. Total annual budgets of local and regional control programs
have increased to a level more than twice the nearly $10 million
budgeted in 1963.
The trend toward development of regionally oriented control pro-
grams is encouraging, but much more needs to be done. Nearly 70 per-
cent of the new programs initiated with Federal support serve more
than one jurisdiction, and several programs have expanded or merged
with other local programs to serve larger areas. But in many cases, the
multijurisdictional approach alone is not enough; regional programs
must cover a large enough area to effectively combat the shared air
pollution problem.
For local programs, as for State control agencies, 1967 was a tre-
mendously productive year in terms of action designed to adopt or
improve ordinances, rules, and regulations. More than 100 local and
regional programs now are operating with implemented control
authority.
Although the sizable increases in both program expenditures and
control legislation indicate a widespread public desire to control air
pollution in local and regional jurisdictions, nearly two-thirds of the
231 standard metropolitan statistical areas (as defined in 1967 by the
U.S. Bureau of Census) are not served by significant air pollution con-
trol programs. These areas without programs represent nearly 20 per-
cent of uie Nation's population. Clearly, a great deal more is yet to be
accomplished in developing new control programs in these and other
areas of the country.
i
FEDERAL ABATEMENT ACTIVITIES
Although State and local air pollution programs have the primary
responsibility for controlling pollutant emissions from stationary
sources, there are several problem areas where direct Federal regula-
tory action is necessary. In the 1963 Clean Air Act, Congress recog-
nized the need for Federal abatement authority in the case where air
pollution from sources in one State is endangering the health and
welfare of residents in another State. The Air Quality Act of 1967
retains the authority for Federal action to abate interstate air pollu-
tion problems, and, on request from a State, continues to provide for
intrastate action. It provides the Secretary with new legal powers for
99-621 0—68 6
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96
prompt action in emergency situations threatening imminent endan-
gqrment to the public health. Finally, it restates the need for continued
efforts to control pollution at Federal installations.
Air pollution abatement actions
The Secretary may initiate abatement procedures in interstate pollu-
tion situations, and he is empowered to act when requested by a State
in either interstate or intrastate air pollution problems (sec. 108 of
the Air Quality Act of 1967).
The vehicle provided for the initial stage of an abatement action is
a conference which brings together representatives from the Depart-
ment and representatives from appropriate State and local air pollu-
tion control agencies. The goal of the conference is to analyze tihe
sources, the extent, and the effects of pollution in the area where the
problem exists. Other interested parties, including industry represent-
atives, have an opportunity to be heard. If, at the conclusion of a
conference, the Secretary determines that effective progress toward
abatement is not being made and that the health or welfare of citizens
is being endangered, he may recommend specific remedial action. The
To date, the Secretary has convened one intrastate and seven inter-
state conferences, and two additional interstate abatement actions are
in intermediate stages. Three of the interstate conferences were ini-
tiated at the request of Governors of States affected 'by air pollution
from out-of-State sources, and four were initiated by the Secretary
after consultation with State officials. The one intrastate conference,
in Montana, was requested by local officials with the concurrence of
the Governor.
The eight abatement actions cover areas in which more than 20
million people reside. Pollution problems range from air contamina-
tion stemming from a single local industrial plant to the atmospheric
complexities of Metropolitan New York.
i. Pollution from single sources
The four conferences called in response to pollution from single
sources were in small communities, thus illustrating that air pollution
is not confined to the big city but may occur anywhere that man lives.
In November 1965, the first conference was held in the rural com-
munity of Sett>yville, Del., to alleviate noxious and offensive odor
arising from a rendering plant producing chdckenfeed and fertilizer
in nearby Bishop, Md. This abatement action produced not only the
first conference, but, because the plant owner did not adequately com-
ply with the Secretary's recommendations for a vigorous cleanup pro-
gram and installation of equipment to prevent and control odors, the
first and only hearing to date.
The hearing is the second stage of the abatement procedure. All
interested parties are permitted to present evidence to a hearing board.
The board then presents its findings to the Secretary and recommends
suitable abatement measures. In the Selbyville case, the board found
that the Bishop Processing Co. had not made effective progress and
that reasonable control measures were available. At the end of the 6-
month period allowed by the board for compliance with its recom-
mendations, the company had still failed to comply, and the next
abatement step was taken. The Attorney General brought suit against
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37
the company at the request of the Secretary. If this case goes to trial,
it will furnish an important precedent for Federal abatement action.
At the next conference, held in November 1965 in Burlington, Vt,
the Secretary recommended the abatement of odorous gases from a
paper company's pulp mill in Ticonderoga, N.Y., which were harmful
to the health and business interests of residents of Shoreham, Vt. The
extent of compliance is now being verified.
Air pollution in the Far West created a need for two additional
conferences primarily concerned with emissions from individual
sources. The subject of the first, in March 1967, was malodorous sul-
furous gases and particulate pollutants emanating from a kraft pulp
mill in Lewiston, Idaho, and traveling across the State boundary to
Clarkston, Wash. The company has since employed effective control
equipment.
Since there were foreseeable delays in implmenting State enforce-
ment capabilities, an acute fluoride pollution problem—the byproduct
of a phosphate rock processing plant—prompted the governing body
of Powell County, Mont., to seek Federal assistance. The conference,
held in Garrison in August 1967, was the only one conducted thus far
on an intrastate problem. The processing plant has installed control
equipment and improved operating and maintenance procedures as
recommended.
ii. Metropolitan-industrial pollution
While pollution from individual sources can present an extremely
serious problemj the control measures required to alleviate it are hardly
comparble to those sometimes needed in the large industrial metro-
politan areas.
Emissions from powerplants, industrial facilities, incineration of
refuse, commercial and residential heating, and numerous other sources
unit in varying combination from city to city to form deadly um-
brellas of pollution. To attack this growing menace to metropolitan
areas which span State lines, but share common air masses, abatement
conferences have studied the problems of Metropolitan New York-New
Jersey; Kansas City, Kans.-Kansas City, Mo.; Parkersburg, W. Va.-
Marietta, Ohio; and the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area.
Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide pollution were the concern of
the -first phase of the New York-New Jersey conference in January
1967. Since then, both States have promulgated stringent regulations
to control emissions of sulfur dioxide, and New Jersey became the first
State in the Nation to limit the sulfur content of fuel oil and coal
burned within its borders. Public utilities, working in concert with the
fuel industries, have moved more expeditiously than scheduled to ac-
quire and use low-sulfur fuels. Substantial quantities of low-sulfur
fuel oil also have been made available by suppliers for commercial,
industrial, and residental space heating, with assurances of increasing
supplies. The prompt action of these industries is recognized as a
significant contribution to the common goal of cleaner air. (Carbon
monoxide is largely an automobile exhaust problem and is discussed
in pt. A of this chapter.)
The second phase of the New York-New Jersey conference focused
on particulate matter. The recommendations agreed to by conference
participants could reduce soot and dust by as much as 55 to 60 percent.
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36
Severely reduced visibility at airports in the Kansas City area
prompted the Federal Aviation Administration to urge Federal action
there. Since the January 1967 conference, the Kansas Legislature en-
acted the State's first air pollution control law. The second phase con-
vened in April 1968 to consider the totality of the air pollution prob-
lems of the seven-county Kansas City area.
A conference was initiated in March 1967 to examine the industrial
air pollution problem in the Parkersburg, W. Va.-Marietta, Ohio, area.
Surveillance is continuing.
At the request of the President, a conference was called in December
1967 to consider the common air mass of the National Capital metro-
politan area, which includes portions of Maryland and Virginia. The
Secretary's principal recommendation is the creation of a regional
mechanism to coordinate the development of a comprehensive air
quality control plan, to prepare emergency procedures, and to promote
uniform regulations and enforcement. Also, rapid action has been
taken by some of the local governments to institute control regulations
for which the conference demonstrated a definite need.
Hi. Conclusion—An assessment
The near unanimity and accord with which conference partici-
pants—Federal, State, and local—have achieved recommendations for
proposed remedial action is noteworthy. The high degree of coopera-
tion has resulted in a good record of compliance with workable and
realistic recommendations. In several instances individual facilities
have complied with the decisions ahead of recommended schedules and
in others the polluters have taken corrective measures exceeding recom-
mended action.
The general public and responsible officials have demonstrated their
mutual dissatisfaction with polluted air by their interest and willing
participation. Nearly 400 persons, in addition to representatives of the
Department, have stated their views at the conferences.
The full story of the impact of these conferences cannot, of course,
be told in this report. In those areas where formal action is completed,
the public will benefit from improved air for generations. Throughout
the country, the National Center maintains its surveillance activities to
complement the work of State and local agencies and will react with
abatement actions as the need and the law dictate.
Emergency abatement measures
Perhaps the most dramatic and convincing evidence of the deleteri-
ous effects of air pollution on humans has come from the air pollution
disasters which have occurred in recent times. Episodes such as those
that occurred in Donora, Pa., in 1948; Pozo Rica, Mexico, in 1950;
London, England, in 1952; and New York City, in 1966, indicate that
plans to abate emergency situations must be an integral part of any
air pollution control program. Although vigorous movement toward
control on a regional basis will decrease the likelihood of an air pollu-
tion disaster in most cases, certain topographical and meteorological
situations will continue to stagnate tne air and force precautionary
measures. The National Center is now developing plans to alleviate
air pollution situations presenting imminent endangerment to the pub-
lic health, in accord with the Air Quality Act of 1967 (sec, 108(k)).
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Under the act, the Secretary is empowered to enjoin any air pollution
source from contributing to a potentially hazardous situation.
The National Center has established a task force consisting of lead-
ing experts in several pertinent disciplines to develop emergency
abatement measures that can be used by local, State, and regional
agencies. This effort will include examination of the most effective
utilization of Federal capabilities to provide consultation and tech-
nical assistance. To formulate emergency measures, the group will
draw on meteorological information, health criteria, emission data,
air Quality intelligence, and mathematical methods for modeling urban
profiles. The task force will also take into account the social and eco-
nomic implications of appropriate measures and will study communi-
cation problems and ways to give medical advice to susceptible popu-
lations. Although the short-term emphasis of the Center is on estab-
lishing plans of action for immediate use, if needed, in the areas of
greatest potential hazard, the longrun goal is to assist State and local
agencies in developing their own emergency alert systems. Critical fac-
tors such as local industrial operations, energy usage and production,
source locations, population distributions, traffic patterns, and meteor-
ological and topographical features of consequence can be most effec-
tively analyzed at the local level. Using this information the local
agency will best be able to determine which pollutant sources should
be abated and to what degree. The Center will continue to provide
guidelines, consultation, and technical assistance. Reliance on a local
alert system to implement the necessary measures is consistent with
the Air Quality Act (sec. 105). The review and approval mechanism
of awarding Federal grants will serve to evaluate and validate the
adequacy of these State and local systems.
Control of Federal facilities
Across the country, Federal agencies carry on many activities that
contribute to community air pollution problems. In some cases, these
activities are unique, such as the testing of rocket engines, but, for the
most part, the pollutant sources are similar to those found in the
private sector.
Congress recognized the need to control emissions from Federal
facilities when it passed the Clean Air Act in 1963. The act called upon
Federal agencies to cooperate with the Department of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare and with State and local air pollution control
agencies in controlling emissions from Federal installations. To help
provide for effective action, the President issued an Executive order
in May 1966 directing all Federal agencies to take steps to prevent and
control air pollution in accordance with standards setlby the Secretary.
The order requires that plans for new Federal facilities include pro-
visions for whatever air pollution control measures may be necessary
to comply with the standards. With respect to existing facilities, Fed-
eral agencies were given until July 1967 to submit plans for controlling
air pollution.
The responsibility for providing the necessary technical guidance
for establishing the desired control lies with the National Center
for Air Pollution Control. The Center maintains surveillance of air
pollution problems arising from Federal activities, provides technical
assistance to other agencies and departments, and conducts studies to
aid implementation of the necessary control practices and systems at
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Federal installations. As authorized by the Air Quality Act of 1967
(sec. 211 (b)), the Secretary submitted to Congress on February 1,
1968, the annual report on air pollution abatement at Federal facili-
ties. A brief summary of progress, plans, and activities during 1967
follows; the reader should consult the annual report for a more com-
prehensive description.
In accordance with the 1966 Executive order, a 5-year phased and
orderly plan, outlining 435 air pollution control improvement projects.
was prepared by 14 Federal agencies and submitted to the Bureau 01
the Budget on July 1,1967. After further review by the National Cen-
ter, the plan, with minor changes, received final approval from the
Bureau of the Budget The plan, covering facilities in 49 States, the
District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, includes examples of all the
usual air pollution problems (for example, fuel combustion, incinera-
tion, and solid waste disposal), as well as special problems associated
with the production of munitions and hardware for national defense.
Cost estimates for the projects are preliminary and will be modified
when final decisions on controls are made. Meeting the target dates
in the plans will depend to a large extent on the rate at which the
program is funded.
Regulations calling for the control of sulfur oxides in the New
York, Philadelphia, and Chicago metropolitan areas were prepared
and published in the Federal Register on March 23, 1967, to take
effect October 1,1968.
During 1967, a number of studies have been undertaken of special
Federal problems in air pollution and its control. The General Serv-
ices Administration and the Department of Defense initiated studies
associated with fuel supply problems and issued directives to their
area offices to begin procurement of low-sulfur fuels. The Department
of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
took steps to prevent uncontrolled release of beryllium to the atmos-
phere during rocket fuel testing activities. The Tennessee Valley
Authority, with assistance from the National Center, continued its
efforts to reduce particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions from its
powerplants.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
It is possible to mount an effective attack on air pollution only if
the technology exists for controlling the sources of pollution. In many
cases, the presently available technology is not adequate. Greatly im-
proved techniques must be developed to control emissions in an efficient
and economical manner. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Center
began an extensive research and development program on processes
to control pollution from stationary sources. Although significant
progress has been made, many scientific and technical problems are
far from solved. Where knowledge is insufficient, the Air Quality Act
of 1967 provides for a vastly expanded research and development pro-
gram. The act authorized a considerable increase in appropriations for
flie development of methods "having industrywide application, for
the prevention and control of air pollution resulting from combustion
of fuels" (sec. 104). This should greatly accelerate the development
of suitable control technology for a wide variety of important pol-
lutants.
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Toward effective control of stationary sources
Control of pollutant emissions from stationary sources is an espe-
cially difficult problem for two reasons: (1) the quantities of pollution
emitted each year are steadily increasing, and (2) the great diversity
and variety of sources to be controlled pose an extremely complex
engineering problem.
Sulfur oxides pollution, for example, is rapidly becoming worse. The
amount of sulfur oxides emitted to the atmosphere from various
sources is currently increasing at a rate of about 6 to 7 percent per year.
By 1976, sulfur oxides emissions from the combustion of fuels could
climb from its present level of 23 million tons per year to more than 40
million tons per year. The many sources of sulfur oxides, such as smelt-
ing, sulfuric acid manufacturing, and combustion processes, are vastly
different. There is diversity, too, in such factors as the volume of the
gas to be treated, its composition, temperature, and other variables.
Even in the case of a single class of polluters, such as coal-burning
powerplants, there are many differences in terms of size and geograph-
ical location that have critical implications for the feasibility of vari-
ous control processes. For example, some processes suitable for large,
new powerplants are far too costly for use with small, existing plants.
The availability of nearby markets for possible byproducts from con-
trol processes has an important role in determining the economic feasi-
bility of various processes. The complexity of the problems suggests
the need for developing not just a few but many possible routes to air
pollution control. It is clear that greatly improved techniques must be
developed—both in terms of effectiveness of control and the variety of
sources to which they can be applied. Although the problems are diffi-
cult, the solutions can and must be found.
The National Center's research and development program for deal-
ing with stationary sources consists of a three-pronged attack:
1. The development of systems and processes to control specific
pollutants; for example, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and par-
ticulates.
2. Systems surveys to define the pollution problems of specific
industries and to cooperatively develop control approaches for
these industries; for example, primary smelters, pulp and paper
manufacturers, and waste disposal plants.
3. The continuous development of new and improved control
devices for use in the various control systems.
In achieving these goals, the Center's program follows one prevail-
ing theme: it utilizes the best available facilities and technical com-
petence to perform fundamental and pilot-scale studies aimed at dem-
onstration of practical prototype and full-scale processes. This de-
mands close-working relationships with both industry and other Fed-
eral agencies.
In carrying forward this research and development program, the
Center has established contact with almost all known technical re-
sources in the United States and foreign countries. It has participated
in in-depth exchanges of program information with all working groups
in Japan, Germany, and England: and, in addition to its many outside
contacts, the Center is making use of the Federal facilities and per-
sonnel of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the Bureau of
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Mines, and the Office of Coal Research. State agencies such as the
Illinois Geological Survey and the West Virginia Coal Research Bu-
reau are also making important contributions to the current program.
Through notices in the Commerce Business Daily, bidders' conferences,
and technical symposia, the Center has established contact with several
hundred companies in the United States who have the capability and
are interested in working on some facet of the problem. The Center
has on file the qualifications and evaluations of more than 200 com-
panies.
Control of sulfur oseides pollution
At present, the largest single research and development effort being
carried out by the Center is in the area of sulfur oxides control. Sulfur
oxides pollution, some of which combines with atmosphere moisture
to form sulfuric acid, is largely a result of the use of coal and heavy
fuels for heating and power generation. In 1966, for example, the
combustion of fossil fuel for power generation accounted for 46 per-
cent of the sulfur dioxide emitted to the atmosphere in the United
States. The combustion of coal and petroleum for other purposes con-
tributed 32 percent of the total, while the remaining portion came
from the smelting of ores, 12 percent; petroleum refinery operations,
5 percent; and miscellaneous sources, 5 percent; which include coke
processing plants, sulfuric acid plants, paper mills, coal refuse banks,
incinerators, and so forth. Classified another way, roughly 58 percent
of the total pollution resulted from the combustion of coal, 20 percent
from the combustion of petroleum producte,particularly residual fuel
oil, and 22 percent from other processes. While powerplants account
for the major share of sulfur oxides emissions, smaller combustion
sources and industrial processes are especially significant because they
discharge at low altitudes, frequently in residential areas.
The emissions of sulfur oxides from combustion sources can be re-
duced either by removing the sulfur present in the fuels prior to burn-
ing or by removing the sulfur compounds from the flue gases during
or after combustion. The Center is carrying out extensive studies in
these areas primarily directed at (1) developing large-scale prototype
processes based on present-day technology and (2) applying evolving
irea or noncombustion
technology to develop new processes. In the area
sources, the Center is developing processes for the control of sulfur
oxides from specific industry groups.
i. Removal of sulfur from coal
The sulfur in coal occurs chiefly in two forms: (1) organic sulfur,
which is chemically combined in the molecular structure of coal, and
(2) pyritic sulfur, which consists 'of discrete particles of pyrites dis-
tributed throughout the coal. Because of the differences in the physical
characteristics of pyrites and coal, the pyrite particles are potentially
separable from the coal. The degree of separation that is feasible de-
pends on the nature of the coal, the size of the pyrite particles, the
process used, and economic factors.
Goal surveys.—The remove! of the pyritic sulfur from coal could
result in a significant reduction in the overall sulfur content, but the
degree of removal that is possible varies from coalbed to coalbed. Since
coal washing can remove only the pyritic sulfur, leaving the organic
sulfur untouched, it is desirable to work with coals that (1) have very
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low organic sulfur content and (2) are easily washed of their pyritic
sulfur. To obtain better information on the location, quantity, and
characteristics of various coals in the United States, the Center is
sponsoring several surveys: (1) an evaluation by the Illinois Geologi-
cal Survey of coals mined in Illinois; (2) an evaluation by Commer-
cial Testing & Engineering Co. of selected coals believed to be wash-
able; (3) and an evaluation by the Bureau of Mines of steam coals
from major sources. The National Center will draw on these studies
to develop a comprehensive national inventory of cleanable coals.
Coal washing studies.—When pyritic sulfur is separated from the
coal, a certain amount of coal is separated with it. This waste material,
if it cannot be utilized, represents an economic loss and thus places an
economic limitation on the amount of sulfur that can be removed by
available methods. If this refuse material can be used as feed to a proc-
ess that will recover heat, metal oxides, or acid products, the economic
barrier would be lowered, thus increasing the incentive to produce
more low-sulfur coal (for example, in the 1 percent range) through
coal washing processes. The utilization of this waste product could
also reduce the air and water pollution in the vicinity of the cleaning
plant by reducing the amount of coal and sulfur in the refuse material.
Two studies are currently underway to determine the technical
feasibility and economics of commercial processes capable of convert-
ing pyrite-coal refuse material into salable byproducts. The Arthur D.
Little Co. and the Dorr-Oliver Co. are jointly studying the fluid-bed
roasting process, including the limitations of different pyrite-to-coal
ratios on process costs. Under another contract, the Bechtel Corp. is
conducting a broad investigation of available processes that can
economically treat 'both concentrated pyrite mixtures and dilute pyrite
mixtures.
Based on encouraging results from economic studies of processes
that will produce useful byproducts and hopeful signs in locating sig-
nificant quantities of washable coals, the National Center is sponsoring
competitive studies for the design of a prototype coal-cleaning plant.
As part of the plant design, these studies will include (1) analysis of
wasnability data to help select coal sources most appropriate for test-
ing in the plant; (2) selection of a plant site based on factors such as
costs of transporting the raw coal, cleaned coal, and byproducts; and
(3) detailed costs of the construction and operation of the plant.
The future program calls both for the construction and operation of
a prototype coal cleaning plant and for the design, construction, and
operation of a refuse material processing unit. The entire operation
would produce low sulfur coal and a salable byproduct. Data from the
initial prototype operation will be used to determine the design and
economic factors of a plant for commercial operation.
U. Removal of sulfur from, fuel oil
Crude oils contain various types and amounts of sulfur compounds.
Over the years, chemical treatments were used to remove sulfur from
the distillate oils produced from crudes. With the advent of catalytic
reforming, large quantities of hydrogen, a byproduct, became avail-
able, and catalytic nydrodesulfunzation processes are now widely used
for removing sulfur from distillate oils.
Residual fuel oils can also be desulfurized, but there are many more
problems due to the higher levels of sulfur and heavy-metal contami-
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nants; these deactivate the catalyst, becoming more severe as the de-
gree of desulfurization is increased. An economic limitation is the
large quantity of hydrogen necessary for the desulfurization of resid-
ual fuel oils. Removal of 80 to 90 percent of the sulfur requires over
1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen per barrel of oil.
In 1964, the Bechtel Corp., under the Center's sponsorship, inves-
tigated the economics of residual fuel oil desulfurization. A cost of 40
to 60 cents per barrel was estimated for producing a residual fuel oil
containing 0.5 percent sulfur. This study was based on California and
Kuwait crudes which contain low concentrations of heavy-metal con-
taminants. In 1967, under a contract with the American Petroleum
Institute, Bechtel investigated the cost of producing a residual fuel oil
from Venezuelan high-sulfur crudes in a Caribbean refinery. The Ven-
ezuelan crudes also contain high concentrations of heavy-metal con-
taminants, which tend to deactivate the catalyst. This report showed
that the cost of producing a residual fuel oil containing 0.5 percent
sulfur would be about 80 cents per barrel. On the basis of equivalent
heating value, the cost would be about 97 cents per barrel. Desulfuri-
zation of residuals to the 1 percent sulfur level would cost somewhat
less.
The National Center maintains awareness of worldwide progress in
the desulfurization of residual fuel oils. The Center's program is de-
signed to support research that, for proprietary or other reasons, is
neither practical nor economical for industry to undertake. Much of
the work concentrates on broad-based studies aimed at filling the gap
areas of knowledge.
iii. Removal of sulfur oxides from flue gases
Processes for cleaning the sulfur oxides from flue gases are under
development throughout the world. In 1967, several of these were dem-
onstrated through the construction and qperation of prototype units.
Although many problems remain, flue gas desulfurization systems have
the potential for removing a greater proportion of the sulfur oxides
emissions than other control processes.
Most of the processes developed in other countries are tailored to
their own technical problems and economic situation and have limited
applicability in the United States. The Japanese efforts, for example
(the manganese oxide process, the wet char sorption process, and the
catalytic oxidation-ammonium sulfate process), are designed for oil-
fired powerplants, a relatively small part of the problem in the United
States. Furthermore, the byproducts of these processes—ammonium
sulfate and dilute sulfuric acid—have a limited market in this country.
Prototype processes under development by private industry in the
United States are better suited to the air pollution problems in this
country and prevailing economic considerations. Perhaps the most
significant of these are (1) the catalytic oxidation process developed
by the Monsanto Co., which is now at the stage of construction and
operation of a 20-megawatt prototyp unit, and (2) the limestone
injection process of Combustion Engineering Co., in which test work
was completed on a 1-megawatt prototype unit and a guaranteed
process for full-plant scale is being offered.
The National Center gives careful attention to the progress being
made by industry, and its research and development program is de-
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signed to avoid any duplication of industry's efforts. The Center's
program fills gap areas by responding to the problems that industry
is not attacking. For example, the program places considerable
emphasis on limestone-based processes, since these have potential for
controlling existing powerplants, whereas most other processes are
best suited to new powerplants. A second process under development
by the Center, the alkalized alumina process, is primarily applicable
to new powerplants, but also offers potential for economically con-
trolling sulfur oxides from industry sources such as ore smelting.
These two processes are described below.
Limestone injection process.—Limestone-based processes have the
unique advantage of being applicable to a wide variety of existing
powerplants. There are two principal versions of this system: (1) a
dry process in which pulverized limestone is injected into the boiler
wfiere it calcines and reacts in the gas phase to absorb sulful oxides,
and (2) a process combining dry limestone injection with wet scrub-
bing in which the calcinated limestone is removed by a scrubber and be-
comes the reactant for cleaning the sulfur oxides from the flue gas.
The National Center is supporting large-scale studies of both the
wet and dry processes. Design work is underway for the installation
of a prototype dry process on two TVA powerplants. These units are
scheduled to begin operation in mid-1969 and will be operated under
testing for about 18 months. The Center is also negotiating a con-
tract to study the process kinetics of scrubbing tolielp define and
solve a variety of engineering problems such as corrosion and scaling,
potential water pollution, the cooling of the plume, and waste disposal.
The Center negotiated five fundamental and applied research con-
tracts in 1967 to generate the data needed to optimize the limestone
process. These studies include industrial contracts with Babcock &
Wilcox and with Esso Research & Engineering to study process ki-
netics and to screen limestone reactants; a contract with the Coal Re-
search Bureau of the University of West Virginia to explore the po-
tential of utilizing limestone-modified flyash; a contract with Battelle
Memorial Institute to investigate both reaction and process kinetics
of the limestone-sulfur dioxide reaction; and an exchange of funds
with TVA to investigate the effect of physical properties of limestone
on its reactivity with sulfur dioxide. In addition, TVA has been en-
gaged for conceptual design studies of both the wet and dry limestone
process designs to be installed and operated on the two TVA coal-fired
powerplants.
In "addition to the above contract work, the research and develop-
ment program on limestone-based processes includes a cooperative
study with Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., the research affiliate of the
National Coal Association, and an extensive program within the Cen-
ter's own laboratories. These research contracts, cooperative projects,
and in-house efforts will reach fruition in late 1968 and will provide
much of the needed information for the large-scale prototype studies.
To maximize the yield from research on the limestone processes
being done in the United States and abroad, the National Center has
sponsored three symposia to bring together representatives from all
major research programs. The last of these, which was held in Decem-
ber 1967, included presentations and discussions by researchers from
Japan and Germany.
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Alkalized alumina, process.—The alkalized alumina process is con-
sidered a good candidate because it is one of the few sulfur-producing
processes that is readily adaptable to the control of large, new fossil-
fueled power stations. The Center has underway two plans for large-
scale studies. Extensive early efforts in Britain on this process have
put the British in a position where they are ready to design and con-
struct a prototype plant, and the National Center, along with the
Electric Research Council, is negotiating with the British for joint
support of their prototype study. Such an agreement would mean a
savings of 12 to 13 months and approximately $5 million in the de-
velopment of the process. Basic data for construction of a U.S. version
of the process are being generated at a number of laboratories in this
country.
Work on alkalized alumina began as early as 1957 when the Divi-
sion of Air Pollution—the predecessor to the National Center—by an
interagency transfer of funds, utilized available laboratory facilities
and personnel at the Bureau of Mines to screen and evaluate sub-
stances that sorb sulfur dioxide. Alkalized alumina appeared to be the
most promising sorbent that could be regenerated, yielding a sulfur-
rich gas convertible to elemental sulfur. The feasibility of the process
was ascertained, and the Bureau of Mines began construction of a pilot
plant in 1964.
At the same time, researches in England and this country recog-
nized that a large amount of basic information necessary to optimize
the process was still lacking. The Central Electricity Generating Board
(CEGB) in England began an accelerated program to obtain the
necessary data on process kinetics. When additional funds became
available in 1966, the Center called upon industrial researchers to
gather the additional data needed to establish the process chemistry.
Since then, the National Center has maintained a cooperative inter-
change with the CEGB at the highest possible level. In September
1967, the Center held a week-long meeting on alkalized alumina proc-
ess development, which was attended by the British and by all Center
contractors.
The National Center, in conjunction with representatives of the
Bureau of Mines, provides the technical direction for the major thrust
of development work on the alkalized alumina process. Industrial
contractors are also participating in the research effort. AVCO Space
Systems Division, for example, is working to obtain greatly needed
kinetic data on sorption and regeneration and will use this informa-
tion in process modeling studies to determine the effects of design and
operating variables on process economics. W. R. Grace is examining
tne preparation of improved sorbents and sorbent lifetimes to help
determine the overall process costs. The Center is also providing in-
creased support to the Bureau of Mines for sorbent development and
further regeneration studies.
Because these projects are now generating large amounts of design
data, the Center has retained M. W. Kellogg as prime contractor to
evaluate existing information, determine what data are still required,
and perform a comprehensive design study and economic evaluation
directed toward large pilot pknt demonstration studies.
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iv. New process development
Recognizing the complexity, variety, and ubiquity of the sulfur
oxides pollution problem, the National Center has attempted to in-
volve the whole spectrum of industrial and technological resources in
the search for completely new and original solutions. The new proc-
esses being developed are designed to overcome the deficiencies, mainly
economic, of the systems presently undergoing prototype development.
Consequently, there is considerable emphasis on processes that incor-
porate regenerable reagents and recover salable byproducts. This is
particularly important in view of the growing market for sulfur.
The new process development activities give broad coverage to nine
areas of technology: (1) aqueous scrubbing, (2) solid metal oxides,
(3) inorganic liquids, (4) organic liquids, (5) inorganic solids exclud-
ing metal oxides, (6) organic solids, (7) catalytic oxidation to sulfuric
acid, (8) reduction to sulfur, and (9) physical methods of separation.
These nine areas are being surveyed to obtain sufficient information to
permit a complete assessment of the potential of all new processes. In
each area, two basic types of information are being sought:
1. A theoretical analysis of promising new processes.
2. Preliminary engineering design and economic evaluation of
such processes for specific applications, such as powerplants or
nonferrous metal smelters.
The following briefly describes some of the work underway in
specific areas.
Battelle Northwest is performing a technology review of organic
liquids. The history of such processes dates back to the late 1920's, such
as the ASARCO process, the Sulfidine process, and the Weststem
process. Most of these processes are economically viable only with
fairly high concentrations of sulfur oxides, but advances in organic
chemistry in the past 40 years suggest that they should not be over-
looked. Arthur D. Little is investigating, in depth, specific liquid com-
pounds that are theoretically promising.
In the field of molten inorganic materials, the team of MSA Re-
search and Singmaster-Breyer are performing a state-of-the-art sur-
vey. Since mid-1967, Atomics International Division of North Ameri-
can Rockwell has been investigating an approach known as the molten
carbonate process. The company is just beginning the design of a small
pilot plant; and, if the present rate of development continues, a pro-
totype system for a 50-megawatt powerplant could be in operation by
1972. The process uses molten salts to remove sulfur dioxide from flue
gases, producing elemental sulfur as a byproduct. . .
In the area of catalytic oxidation, Monsanto Chemical Corp. is in-
vestigating new, improved catalysts for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide
to concentrated sulfuric acid. Tyco Laboratories is looking into the
possibility of adapting chamber-process chemistry to the development
of a gas-phase catalytic process that, if successful, would control sulfur
oxides and nitrogen oxides simultaneously. Gallery Chemical Corp. is
about to investigate catalystic poisoning problems encountered in
chemical processing of flue gases.
Allied Chemical will survey the state of the art of reduction of sulfur
dioxide to sulfur. Since many processes, especially those using aqueous
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alkali scrubbing, will remove concentrated sulfur dioxide from flue
gases, it is possible to use fairly economical reduction techniques in
conjunction with such processes. Princeton Chemical Research is in-
vestigating a specific direct reduction process in which part of the
sulfur produced is catalytically converted into the reducing agent.
These are only a few of the projects being carried out in the nine
study areas. Preliminary information on the various areas and on the
theories involved in specific processes is anticipated before the end
of 1968. By the end of 1969, this information will be updated to include
data obtained in the contractors' laboratories, and the processes that
look promising will be identified and available for further develop-
ment.
Control of nitrogen, oxides pollution
The National Center has launched an accelerated nitrogen oxides
control program, made possible by the availability of increased funds.
It includes a comprehensive systems study on stationary sources of
nitrogen oxides—now and through the year 2000—to evaluate factors
such as number, size, location, and type of sources, as well as the eco-
nomics of control. This systems study will serve as the basis for recom-
mending the research and development needed to provide the tech-
nology for controlling nitrogen oxides now and in the future.
To date, industry's attack on nitrogen oxides from stationary sources
has been limited primarily to studies on the modification of combustion
processes. Babcock & Wilcox has developed two-stage combustion as a
means of partial control for some designs of oil-fired and gas-fired
boilers. Combustion Engineering has done work showing that boilers
of certain designs have less tendency to form nitrogen oxides than do
others. Esso Research & Engineering has shown in the laboratory that
a partial reduction of nitrogen oxides emissions is possible in oil-fired
units where excess oil is kept at low levels. A number of organizations,
including the Franklin Institute, the Illinois Institute of Technology,
the University of California, and Chevron Research, have investigated
catalytic decomposition as a possible control approach? but most of
these studies were directed toward control of automotive emissions.
At present, the National Center is supporting a study by the Bureau
of Mines aimed at obtaining fundamental kinetic data on the forma-
tion of nitrogen oxides in gas flames. The Center's work on fuel addi-
tives and on residential furnaces also will have importance for the
control of nitrogen oxides. Pope, Evans, & Robbins, as part of a co-
operative study with the Office of Coal Research, is developing n fluid-
bed coal combustion system that has potential for controlling nitrogen
oxides and other pollutants. The Center also intends to evaluate new
and improved sulfur oxides control processeSj such as the molten car-
bonate process, for their potential in controlling nitrogen oxides.
Control of particulate pollution
In research efforts to develop improved controls for air pollution,
the problem of particulate control has not received the attention it re-
quires probably reflecting a general feeling that control equipment now
available can satisfactorily remove particulate matter from gases. The
fact remains, however, that small particles (less than 2 microns) elude
most equipment designed to control air pollution, and it is this portion
of particulate pollution that produces the greatest potential hazard to
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health. The collection of the very small particles is expensive, but they
must be collected or they will remain airborne and be inhaled deeply
into the lungs.
For several years, the National Center—almost entirely within its
own laboratories—has been doing research and development on fabric
nitration, one of the most effective means of removing small particu-
late matter from effluent gases. This work was expanded in 1967 to
• include a field investigation of the feasibility of using baghouse niters
to control fly ash emissions from powerplants, a cooperative effort with
Air Preheater Co. and Public Service Gas & Electric Co. of New Jer-
sey. This cooperative study will serve as a basis for a future contract
with Air Preheater Co. to evaluate the potential of the fabric filter as
a chemical contactor for controlling sulfur oxides and nitrogen
oxides.
. Also in 1967, the National Center began an in-house scrubber study
to develop improved wet scrubbing techniques and to evaluate the
potential of condensing moisture on very small particles, thus facil-
itating their removal from gases. In a cooperative study with the city
of Chicago, the Center is evaluating a variety of devices for removing
particulates from emissions that result from the incineration of solid
wastes.
In addition to the in-house and contract research projects now un-
derway, there is need for a survey of the total national problem of
particul&te pollution. The National Center is planning a broad systems
study that will identify all important sources of particulate pollution,
locate these sources, and characterize the emissions with respect to the
control capabilities of existing equipment. This systems study will
define research needs and serve as a basis for in-house and contract re-
search and development work.
Control of pollution from specific industries
The National Center is negotiating contracts for systems studies of
emission controls for a number of basic industries. Primary attention
is directed at those that emit sulfur oxides. These studies will generate
the necessary engineering data to evaluate the technical and economic
feasibility of existing control processes and equipment and will define
the additional research and development that is needed for effective
control in each industry.
In late 1967, the Center sponsored a contract with Arthur G. McKee
to study the primary copper, lead, and zinc smelting industries; this
study is targeted for completion in 1968. Two other studies, one a
systems analysis of the wood pulping industry and the other an eco-
nomic analysis of control in the integrated steel industry, are sched-
uled for a later date.
To be truly effective, these studies will need positive participation
from industry. There are many ways to achieve this cooperation. To
aid in carrying out the smelting industry study, the National Center
held a meeting with management personnel from various smelting
companies. The aims of the program were discussed, and the industrial
leaders were asked for their support; the next step will be the forma-
tion of a technical consulting panel of experts.
Concurrent with the systems studies of the basic industries, the
Center has contacted several trade associations, most of which repre-
sent small independent enterprises. The objective of these contacts
was to encourage support for jointly sponsored research to develop
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50
background data on the specific control problems faced by each indus-
try. Meetings have been held with the following groups: the National
Association of Secondary Materials Institute, the Industrial Gas
Cleaning Institute, the American Foundrymen's Society, the Lead
Industries Association, the Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, the
Soap & Detergent Association, and the Grain & Feed Dealers National
Association.
Later efforts by the Center will examine industries whose chief
emission problems involve pollutants other than sulfur oxides. For
example, the production of aluminum and the manufacturing of phos-
phate fertilizer-phosphoric acid represent two industries that emit
large quantities of fluorides to the air. The Center will continue to
undertake needed studies of basic industries to provide a comprehen-
sive 'body of information that will aid all future research and develop-
ment efforts.
Control of pollution from waste disposal
The control of air pollution resulting from the destruction and dis-
posal of solid waste material produced by domestic, commercial, in-
dustrial, and agricultural operations is a complex problem. The volume
of solid wastes from these sources will increase from 170 million tons
in 1966 to 230 million tons per year by 1976, but more important, the
percentage of these wastes that will be burned will increase at a much
greater rate as the population increases and land areas now available
for landfill operations must be used for other purposes. The control of
pollution from burning these wastes is an especially difficult problem
because there are great variations in the physical and chemical prop-
erties of the gaseous, liquid, and solid combustion products.
The National Center has studied the air pollution problems of mu-
nicipal incineration, open-pit incineration, and open burning; and
other investigators have explored the disposal of bulky refuse, wood
wastes, and municipal refuse, seeking to characterize the occurrence
and composition of the waste materials. These studies have greatly
helped to define the problem and have provided a basis for the Center's
program to develop technology for the control of air pollution from
the disposal of wastes. Other Federal units—through in-house re-
search, demonstration grants, and research contracts—are developing
new processes for the destruction and disposal of refuse.
The main thrust of the Center's program is directed toward munic-
ipal waste disposal, the most critical problem at present. One study
looks at the optimum design of municipal incinerators and evaluates
the application of suitable control devices. Another project investi-
gates the potential of central stations that would combine refuse in-
cineration with the generation of electrical power. Such an approach
would permit power generation by recovery of the heat content of
low-sulfur-content refuse substituted for higher sulfur content fossil
fuel. Also, particulate pollution from incineration of the refuse in the
central station would be removed by collection equipment now used
on power boilers.
The National Center is planning a series of systems studies of the
overall problem of air pollution from waste disposal. This effort will
aid in determining the optimum allocation of research and develop-
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51
ment resources to move further toward a solution of this critical
problem.
PART C. SURVEILLANCE
Comprehensive surveillance of the Nation's air and of the factors
that are responsible for its pollution is a necessary step to provide a
firm base of knowledge on which to mount needed control efforts. In-
deed, the final measure of air pollution control is the degree of im-
provement in the quality of the Nation's -air. This final section of bhe
chapter reviews the current status and growth of Federal, State, and
local air monitoring programs; it mentions efforts to gather emission
data and to develop a national data bank; it describes work underway
to register and evaluate fuel additives and briefly discusses air pol-
lution measuring instrumentation.
AIR POLLUTION MONITORING AND DATA ACQUISITION
The air pollution monitoring and data acquisition activities of the
National Center for Air Pollution Control have two primary objec-
tives: (1) to provide an adequate nationwide baseline of air quality
and emission data so as to define present population exposures at vary-
ing levels of risk, and (2) to provide an adequate ongoing means for
the appraisal of the effectiveness of nationwide control of air
pollution.
The effectiveness of a national program of air pollution control is
reflected in the quality of the Nation's air. To assess the effectiveness
of any pollution control program, the following activities are
necessary:
1. Continuous operation of an adequate air monitoring pro-
gram to provide data on improvement in ambient air quality
under the impact of air pollution control programs.
2. Continuous assessment of source emissions to define the re-
ductions in the quantities of pollutants discharged into the
atmosphere.
3. Systematic storage and retrieval of the data on air quality
and source emissions to facilitate necessary analysis and evalu-
ation.
Air monitoring systems
A properly designed air monitoring system should be capable of
measuring both gaseous and particulate pollutants and providing data
to show trends in pollution levels with time, seasonal variations, and
meteorological changes, as well as the influence of topography, popu-
lation density, fuel use, industrial activities, et cetera. Such a system is
absolutely necessary to permit the intelligent planning of air conserva-
tion programs and to determine the interrelationships between source
emissions and air quality levels. ,
Air monitoring systems are of two basic kinds: (1) manual systems
which collect samples of either gaseous or particulate pollutants for
subsequent laboratory analysis, and (2) continuous automatic systems
which sample and analyze simultaneously for a variety of gaseous'
pollutants and yield data as the end product.
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i. Manual monitoring systems
A Federal network of 15 stations for monitoring particulate matter*
was established in 1953 as the National Air Sampling Network
(NASN). It has gradually expanded during the intervening years
until in 1968 the network consisted of 165 urban stations and 30 non-
urban stations. These stations are operated cooperatively by Federal.
State, and local agencies, and the samples are mailed to the National
Center's laboratories in Cincinnati for analysis. The data from these
analyses form the basis of formal reports published at regular inter-
vals. Currently, there is at least one urban station in each State and in
each of the major standard metropolitan statistical areas. Nonurban
stations are distributed among the coastal, mountain; desert, farm, and
forest areas of the continental United States to provide intelligence on
trends of background pollution levels.
Prior to 1961, only six States—California, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Texas, New York, and Washington—had conducted manual air moni-
toring programs. Since that date, there has been a tremendous expan-
sion of air monitoring activities at the State and local level, largely
due to the support provided under the National Center's programs of
financial grants, technical guidance and assistance, demonstration pro-
jects, and training activities. This growth is reflected by the map in
figure 6j which gives a current picture of the number of particulate
monitoring stations operated by State and local agencies compared
with those operated directly by the Federal program. Sampling equip-
ment and procedures as well as laboratory analytical methods used by
State and local agencies are fully comparable to those used by the
Federal network; consequently, air quality data from those agencies
can be accepted for direct incorporation into a national data bank.
Figure 6 also shows the number of stations in various States that now
contribute data to the National Center's data bank.
In 1959, the National Air Sampling Network was expanded to in-
clude the manual monitoring of two gaseous pollutants, sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide, and now 100 of the stations routinely measure
five gaseous pollutants—sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia,
oxidant, and aldehydes. A sulfation rate-yor "lead candle"— technique
that provides a rough index of sulfur oxides pollution was introduced
into the network in 1966, and 95 stations now use this approach. A
monitoring program to obtain information relating to certain economic
effects of air pollution is also in operation, including 240 stations lo-
cated for the most part in interstate metropolitan areas. In addition to
these networks, intensive studies of air quality have been or are being
conducted in eight major standard metropolitan statistical areas to
provide required information for interstate abatement conferences con-
ducted by the National Center.
In order to provide a reasonable definition of the air quality over
urban areas as well as background pollutant levels in less-affected por-
tions of the country, the National Center estimates that approximately
10,000 sampling stations would be needed, of which 8,000 would be
employed in the 231 standard metropolitan statistical areas—account-
ing for a population of 120 million. An air monitoring program of this
•The particulate samples collected on glass fiber filters over 24-hour periods are analyzed
for total paniculate weight, ammonium, fluorides, nitrates, sulfates, antimony, arsenic
beryllium, bismuth, cadlnm, chromium, cobalt, copper, Iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum'
nickel, tin, titanium, vanadium, cine, and organic matter Including beneo-a-pyrene '
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Manual Monitoring Stations for Particulate Air Pollutants -1967
* Federal Stations
• State and Local Stations
() jndteates State aid Local Stations
RouuliiK to National Data Bank
PUERTO RICO
*4
•Includes station* that art part of regular networks-as well as those engaged In special investigations.
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54
magnitude would require the combined efforts of Federal, State, and
local control agencies, with about one-tenth to one-fifth of the stations
directly operated by the Federal Government and the remainder op-
erated by State and local agencies supported in part by Federal grants.
The Federal network will be expanded to approximately 1,000 sta-
tions over the next 5 years to provide coverage of all urban areas with
a population in excess of 25,000 as well as additional coverage of non-
urban and fringe areas. Although tfhis expansion will not provide
data on the in-depth variations in a given community, such informa-
tion is anticipated from State and local coverage. Existing State and
local networks will be expanded and new ones established as increased
support through Federal grants becomes available.
it. Continuous monitoring systems
In 1961, the National Center established a continuous monitoring
network known as the continuous air monitoring program (CAMP)
as a research and demonstration project. When initiated, Che program
consisted of six complete stations, with approximately 10 similar sta-
tions operated by State and local agencies, primarily in California.
The success of this approach and the importance of the information
oibtained has been a major factor in the enormous growth in the num-
ber of State and local continuous monitoring programs.
Before 1960, there were only about 50 continuous monitoring instru-
ments in use by State and local agencies, but by 1967 the total instru-
ments in use numbered over 400. The distribution of these instruments
is illustrated by the map in figure 7. The most recent development in
continuous monitoring is Che telemetering of data acquired at a num-
ber of monitoring stations to a central control center, in which com-
puters can continuously analyze or display the results, indicating the
need for appropriate action before air pollution emergencies threaten
to occur.
Chicago, with support provided by the National Center's grants
program, has established an eight-station sulful dioxide monitoring
system with real-time data telemetered to a central point where action
can be taken in the event of an air pollution emergency. New Jersey
•has established and is operating a seven-station State network for
monitoring carbon monoxide andsuHur dioxide with data telemetered
to a central point. New York City is in the process of activating a 10-
station alert network for monitoring carbon monoxide and sulfur
dioxide. New York and Pennsylvania have started development of
multistation telemetered warning networks to provide coverage for the
major urban areas in each of these States.
The number of continuous monitoring instruments in use will in-
crease rapidly in the future as the National Center continues to pro-
vide ever-increasing technical and financial assistance. State and local
agencies will expand current activities in some instances and initiate
new programs in others. The trend will be toward the establishment
of alert warning networks as integral parts of regional air quality
control programs. The National Center will endeavor to make use of
these capabilities, in conjunction with its own monitoring stations, to
establish comprehensive, real-time intelligence systems to deal with
emergency situations.
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Continuous Automatic Instruments for Monitoring Gaseous Pollutant-1967
HAWAII 3
'includes one Federal (CAMP) monitoring station using automatic instruments for six gases.
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56
Emission studies
The primary goal of air pollutant emission studies is to maintain
continuing surveillance of the multitude of sources responsible for the
emission of -air pollutants to the atmosphere. The sources need to be
identified, pollution-causing processes understood, the emissions
quantified, and the effectiveness of control appraised.
Air pollutant emission studies may range from evaluation of a single
industrial process to the assessment of total emissions of one or more
air pollutants in a single urban area or throughout the Nation. An
industry source study provides understanding of pollution-causing
processes and information on the types and quantities of air pollutants
emitted. The information derived from such studies provides direction
for development of control technology, indicates potential abatement
needs, and supplies basic data for estimating interrelationships be-
tween air pollutant emissions and air quality. At present, adequate
technical information is available for only a small portion of the multi-
tude of pollution-producing processes. Studies of a number of indus-
trial and combustion processes are presently underway. In these efforts,
cooperation from individual industries and industrial associations is
essential.
Emission surveys of metropolitan areas, regions, or the Nation fur-
nish information regarding the quantity of each air pollutant emitted,
identify the major emitters, pinpoint areas of high potential risk, and
provide a geographical pattern of air pollutant emissions. These sur-
veys serve to direct abatement and monitoring strategies, assist in in-
terpreting air sampling data, and are an important input to meteoro-
logical diffusion modeling.
Truly comprehensive emission data are available for only a small
portion of the 231 standard metropolitan statistical areas in the United
States. To be successful, a local air pollution control program must
have at its disposal detailed emission inventory data. The National
Center's goal in this field is to obtain up-to-date emission data for all
urban areas nationwide and to provide financial assistance to aid local
programs in developing inventories adequate to meet their needs. Work
is also underway on improved methods for making these inventories.
One immediate use being; made of emission data compiled by the
National Center is to aid in the designation of air quality control
regions, a topic which is discussed in chapter I. Until now, the ap-
praisal of air pollutant emissions on a national scale has been limited
to a few major air pollutants. One of these is sulfur dioxide, and the
map in figure 8 shows estimates of sulfur dioxide emissions in 91
standard metropolitan statistical areas. Increasingly, similar studies
will be undertaken to quantify the emissions of other major air pollu-
tants such as carbon monoxide and particulate matter as well as trace
contaminants of health significance such as lead and cadmium.
The national data bank
In the past, reporting of air quality and source emissions data col-
lected by State and local agencies has been, in most instances, sporadic.
Even when the data have been published, the receiving audience was
quite small. Much information collected during the past 10 years has
been irretrievably lost because of a lack of suitable data storage facili-
ties.
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FIGURE 8 ESTIMATED ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FOR 9V
STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS
ESTIMATED EMISSIONS
OF SO 2 INS MS Vs IN
TONS/Ml'PER YEAR
•i GREATER THAN 200
OB 10-200
ED LESS THAN 10
tS1 SHSA'l NOT SURVEYED
*$MSA'f with population in excess of 90 miAm.
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58
The rapid increase in air monitoring during the past few years and
the anticipated expansion of air monitoring programs in the future
will result in the production of vast amounts of air quality data. A
•substantial portion of the cost of producing air quality data will be
borne by the National Center's grants program. Much of this invest-
ment may be wasted unless there is a Federal program to operate a
centralized storage system for all Federal, State, and local air qualify
data thus providing standard routines for the retrieval and statistical
analysis of the stored data.
i. SAROAD
To answer the need for a centralized air quality data bank, the
National Center has developed SAROAD, the storage and retrieval
of air data system. The SAROAD system was designed to function as
a national air quality data bank which will permit the storage, retriev-
al, and analysis of data covering a vast number of pollutants, in
order to meet all present and anticipated future needs. Air quality
data submitted for storage in the data bank are required to meet
established criteria relating to methods and techniques.
In 1963, 28 State and local particulate monitoring stations con-
tributed air quality data to an embryonic national data bank; in 1966,
contributions of data were received from 174 State and local stations,
and approximately 250 stations submitted data in 1967.
The data bank presently contains air quality data from 630 Fed-
eral, State, and local monitoring stations representing approximately
400 urban, 50 nonunban and 50 fringe areas. It is anticipated that in
1970, data will be acquired from 1,000 stations representing 600 urban,
100 npnurban and 100 fringe areas; and by 1971, data from all exist-
ing air monitoring systems will be stored in the bank. Data on fuel
additives will also be included in the system in 1970.
It is estimated that the cost of maintaining such a centralized data
bank will be on the order of 2 or 3 percent of the total nationwide
expenditures (Federal, State, and local) for the acquisition of the
data, and an expenditure of an additional 5 percent would cover in-
terpretive analysis and publication of the data.
The development of a centralized air quality data bank is not
thought of as a relatively static operation. It is an essential first step
in the intelligent use of the data for the purpose of evaluating the
effectiveness of nationwide air pollution control efforts. The bank
should bring together for appropriate analysis and interpretation in-
formation not only on air quality and source emissions, but data on
pertinent meteorological factors and effects in such a way that causa-
tive interrelationships between emissions, intermediary parameters,
and resulting air quality can be thoroughly evaluated. One important
use of the bank would be to predict the effect of proposed air pollu-
tion control alternatives on the resulting air quality of an area, thus
aiding in the development of optimum air quality control plans.
Special studies of vehicular pollution
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and lead are
the chief pollutants emitted by motor vehicles. When establishing mon-
itoring programs, practically all State and local agencies have given
top priority to the measurement of vehicular pollutants. In addition,
many agencies have acquired mobile monitoring equipment which can
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be operated either on streets and highways or at fixed locations in the
city. Information obtained by such techniques provides a measure of
the magnitude of exposure of the average commuter and an index of
the effectiveness of exhaust emission control efforts. Detailed infor-
mation on the exposure of the average commuter to motor vehicle
pollutants was obtained in a 1966-67 study conducted by the National
Center in 15 major American cities.1
There is a need to gain further knowledge of air quality levels in
the immediate vicinity of traffic and to obtain measurement of motor
vehicle pollutant concentration profiles in the vertical and horizontal
directions, relating these to traffic volumes on highways. The effect
upon air quality of walls, buildings, and other structures over and ad-
jacent to 'highways also warrants attention. With a .better understand-
ing of the cause-effect relationships 'between these parameters and air
quality levels, it should be possible to provide guidelines that would
be of help to urban planners and highway engineers in minimizing
the exposures of commuters, pedestrians, and persons that live or work
next to or over highways.
Registration and evaluation of fuel additives
During the last few years, there has been increased attention given
to the air pollution 'problems that can arise from lead emissions due
to the antiknock agents used in motor fuels. In addition to lead com-
pounds, 'however, many other new and exotic chemical compounds
are increasingly being added to the wide variety of fuels used for
transportation and for heating purposes. It is in the best interests of
both industry and the public to thoroughly evaluate the effects of
those additives already in widespread use, as well as proposed new
additives prior to marketing. The Air Quality Act responds to this
need need by requiring the registration of additives in fuels delivered
in interstate commerce (sec. 210).
The full import of fuel additives as contributors, or potential con-
tributors, to air pollution 'has not yet been clearly delienated. On one
hand, it has been suggested that they are used in such minute quantities
that their contribution to air pollution is of no consequence. On the
other hand, many additives contain elements known to be potentially
toxic, and a mounting body of evidence suggests that the presence of
such contaminants cannot be ignored. The nature, purpose, and utili-
zation of these materials could generate effects far more serious than
their relative quantities may suggest.
The use of chemical additives in petroleum products is widespread
and expanding almost daily. Such materials are introduced into a wide
variety of fuels, ranging from natural gas (where they are used as
odorants to warn of gas escapage), to heating oils, to the heaviest
residual oils. Additives are found in the fuels used in automobiles, air-
craft, gas turibnes, and diesel engines; additives are also used in lubri-
cating oils and greases.
To develop a policy for dealing with any problems associated with
the use of fuel additives, it is necessary to evaluate their significance
as contributors to air pollution. The initial phase of the Center's effort
in this area will be to register the kinds and concentrations of addi-
tives found in various fuels, in accordance with the act. In addition,
A Program for Progress, pt. II,
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60
the Center is developing an integrated program to define the harmful
effects of emission products resulting from the use of fuel additives.
The Center has examined the administrative details of registration
and is now gathering information on the number of companies and
products involved to provide a sound basis for a registration procedure
that will take into account the types and quantities of fuel additives
in the various fuels. As the registration steps are being prepared, the
fuel and additive manufacturing industries are being kept abreast of
developments that may have an effect on their operations. Actual regis-
tration ds expected to begin by late fall of 1968.
A significant effort is being directed toward developing methods for
determining the composition of toxic pollutants emanating from facil-
ities which use fuels containing additive materials. Calculations will
be made of the quantities of materials emitted into the atmosphere,
based on the information collected in the registration phase. Also, in
addition to the current monitoring activities of the Center, special
monitoring procedures are being investigated and will be used if in-
creased concentrations of unusual or exotic substances are found in the
atmosphere.
A strategic part of the Center's effort is the determination of the
effects on health and welfare of the emission products resulting from
the use of fuel additives. To obtain the additional data that is needed,
the Center is organizing a research program to delineate the dose-
response relationships of the known harmful compounds.
Any new legislation to authorize Federal control of the use of fuel
additives will be shaped by the information collected, with consider-
able weight given to data secured from atmospheric monitoring and
research on health effects. In the instance where motor vehicle emission
standards might be needed to reduce or eliminate a toxic exhaust prod-
uct resulting from the use of a fuel additive, existing legislation would
permit the Secretary to set appropriate emission standards.
AIB POLLUTION MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION
Measuring instruments play an important role in a large number of
air pollution control activities. The need for improved measuring
techniques exists in abatement, control, and inspection of vehicular
emissions; in determining emissions from stationary sources; and in
the evaluation of air quality. The Air Quality Act of 1967 (sec. 104
(b)) calls for accelerated research and development of low-cost tech-
niques for measuring air pollutant emissions, and a number of the
activities authorized by the act make heavy demands on existing in-
strumentation. Many of the measuring instruments now available are
expensive, cumbersome, and unreliable.
Measuring techniques may involve either sampling directly from
vehicular emissions^ stack gases, or community atmosphere (point
sampling), or may involve long-path remote stack monitors, or long-
path ambient air instrumentation. Compact airborne instruments are
needed for sampling within plumes or remote monitoring of stack
gases, plumes, and the ambient atmosphere. Lightweight, compact,
personal dosimeters would greatly extend the capability to do studies
of the biological effects of varying dosages of pollutants on people
engaged in their normal activities. In many of these applications, new
and improved instruments capable of measuring only a single pollu-
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61
tant will prove very useful. However, for routine monitoring for air
quality, the long-range objective would be compact instrument sys-
tems capable of monitoring for two, three, or more pollutants con-
currently (multicomponent instrument systems). Many of these
instruments also would provide important new tools to facilitate en-
forcement of regulations by local and State air pollution personnel.
i. Instrumentation for vehicular emissions
Effective measurement of motor vehicle emissions calls for a special-
ized skill involving factors not encountered in other pollutant analyses.
Source mobility, high concentration, high humidity and temperature,
and rapid changes of exhaust composition with engine speed, impose
special problems that require motor vehicle emission instrumentation
to be a separate segment of the total analytical effort. This situation is
further complicated 'by the emerging need for three differing types of
instruments to satisfy three divergent uses: research on control de-
vices, certification of new vehicles, and inspection of on-the-road ve-
hicles.
Present instruments in the hands of highly skilled technical person-
nel, though certainly not ideal, are capable of handling the current
needs of the National Center's programs. However, known future needs
of these programs will require much improvement in this area. The
Center is currently exerting a major effort toward this goal.
Some of the Center's work in developing improved measuring tech-
niques for emissions from gasoline and diesel engines are described in
an earlier section of this chapter (pt. A, "Automotive Air Pollution").
In addition to instrumentation to aid in the development of improved
automotive control devices, a constant effort is going into the search
for instruments that can be rendered sufficiently portable, inexpensive,
and simple in operation to fit the needs of inspection facilities.
ii. Instrumentation for stationary sources
There is considerable need for improved instrumentation to measure
pollutant emissions from stationary sources in order to aid in the con-
trol of these sources.
Remote stack monitoring.—The Federal water pollution program
has learned through bitter experience that mere presence of a pollu-
tant downstream from an offending plant canot be assumed to be con-
clusive evidence of that plant's misdeed. It follows from this that air
pollution abatement authorities should, ideally, have the ability to
identify and quantitate stack emissions from an observation post re-
mote from the source. The development of instrumentation capable of
performing such a task requires real ingenuity, and may well prove
impossible. Yet the potential benefit is so great that the Center is
evaluating a number of approaches to the problem. Promising candi-
dates will be subjected to feasibility study, with future action being
guided accordingly.
In-stock momtoring.—It is unlikely that working models of any
remote stack monitors will emerge in the near future. Even if efforts
in that field should meet with success, there will still remain a very
real need for instruments which can measure pollutant concentrations
within a stack. Accordingly, the Center is devoting a sizable effort to
the development of such devices.
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62
Existing instruments are rendered inoperative or inaccurate by the
effects of the high temperatures to which they are exposed and by the
clogging of sampling probes with fly ash or condensed water vapor.
Encouraging preliminary results have been obtained in attempting
to overcome these drawbacks by the development of optical systems
that scan the stack stream through windows set into the stack walls.
In-stack monitoring of fly ash and other particulate materials can be
accomplished by either optical or physical methods. Optical methods
have the advantage of eliminating sampling problems and the disad-
vantage that the results depend greatly on the constancy of particle-
size distribution. Physical methods, on the other hand, have the ad-
vantage of being direct and the disadvantage that it is difficult to ob-
tain samples truly representative of the stream. Several devices of each
type are presently under intensive study.
in. Instrumentation for air quality
Improved air monitoring instruments are essential to achieve and
maintain desired air quality levels, since they help provide the com-
prehensive surveillance that is needed to guide control efforts.
Single-point sampling.—The continuous air-monitoring network
represents the National Center's most sophisticated activity at present
in the field of air monitoring for gaseous pollutants. Yet the current
array of instruments is essentially the same package provided by in-
dustry 10 years ago for monitoring at a single, fixed point. The instru-
ments require an air-conditioned building, a supply of wet chemicals,
and an operator. There is a need for instruments that are small, inex-
pensive, easy to maintain, and equipped with telemetering capacity.
The National Center's research and development activities in this area
are directed toward new analytical systems which will meet this need.
Work is underway to develop improved methods for monitoring the
ambient concentrations of such gaseous pollutants as carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone.
Odor measurement represents a unique problem, and a complete sys-
tem to classify the noxious odors related to the paper and chemical
industries is presently unavailable. However, a combination of existing
analytical methods can be assembled to aid abatement and surveillance
activities.
The Center's current work includes the search for a correlation be-
tween aerosol particle size and chemical composition. This relationship
is of paramount importance in assessing the physiological impact of
particulate pollutants. Progress in this effort demands the full use of
such newly developed methods as electron microprobe analysis, scan-
ning electron microscopy, and ion microprobe mass spectrometry.
Numerous laboratory techniques have been developed for identifica-
tion and determination of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the
air. The time has come to apply these techniques to available methods
for automation, perhaps akin to those being used so successfully in bio-
chemistry for the quantification of amino acids. Such automated in-
strumentation has the potential to greatly expand our knowledge of the
true exposure of the population to 'biologically active organic par-
ticulates.
Judicious selection of applicable analytical techniques, followed by
a specialized effort toward their miniaturization, promises the develop-
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63
ment of a family of highly portable instruments which can delineate
the average person's long-term exposure to important pollutants.
Long-path sampling.—There exists a strong need both in control
activities and in meteorological research to determine vertical and hori-
zontal concentrations in urban environments of a variety of pollutants,
including sulfur dioxides, carbon monoxide, and the oxides of nitrogen.
Work in this area includes the use of new long-path spectrophotometric
analytical systems located at ground sites as well as in aircraft. Unlike
the single-point techniques of the continuous air-monitoring program,
this approach to air pollution monitoring yields integrated pollutant
concentration values over heavily populated urban areas. Ix»ng-path
pollutant concentration data can assist meteorologists in the develop-
ment of urban models for air pollution, and such information is help-
ful in abatement and control efforts.
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Chapter III. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH
This chapter describes several additional areas of research which
are part of the national effort to prevent and control air pollution.
Meteorological' research provides a better understanding of the role
that meteorological conditions play in determining air quality levels
and provides a firmer 'basis for forecasting the likelihood of elevated
pollution levels. Research on both the health and the economic effects
of air pollution is essential for developing air quality criteria which
will aid the States in establishing air quality standards. Additional
economic studies are necessary to provide information on the costs
of controlling air pollution and the benefits derived from its control.
Such information will aid decisionmakers in private industry and at
all levels of government.
In addition to the research work described in this chapter, the Cen-
ter conducts a variety of other activities, including basic studies on
the chemical and physical reactions of pollutants in the atmosphere,
systems studies of various air pollution problems, and grants to non-
profit organizations for research on selected subjects.
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
The ground-level concentrations of air pollutants reflect not only
the emissions from specific sources but also the ability of the atmos-
phere to mix and consequently dilute any material emitted into it.
Thus, meteorological conditions play a very large role in determining
air quality levels. In a metropolitan area, many thousands of sources
contribute to the resulting air quality levels, and the degree of con-
tribution from each is determined botn by the prevailing meteorologi-
cal conditions and by such factors as the source height, nature, and
amount of source emissions, and source location. To establish and
maintain a given air quality standard, it is necessary to know which
sources to abate, and the degree of abatement necessary; this can be
determined only with a thorough understanding of the role of meteor-
ological processes in determining air quality levels.
Tne basic goal of the National Center's program of meteorological
research in air pollution is to provide air pollution control agencies
with a logical basis for initiating control measures to achieve desired
air quality standards. This research effort encompasses two broad
study areas: (1) urban diffusion modeling and (2) forecasting air
pollution potential.
Urban diffusion modeling
Since 1960, the National Center has been developing mathematical
models for urban areas that relate pollutant sources to atmospheric
concentrations by simulating meteorological processes. The primary
application of these models is to assess the impact of various control
alternatives on air quality levels. When used in conjunction with other
analyses, they can nelp determine the cost-benefit relationships for
(66)
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66
various control measures and can predict future air pollution levels
based on metropolitan patterns of growth. By evaluating the impact
of various urban configurations on air pollution levels, they can be of
aid in determining desirable locations for industrial sources and can
provide helpful information for planning and zoning. They also
provide a useful basis for locating air sampling equipment and
interpreting air quality data.
TM>an diffusion models of varying degrees of sophistication have
been developed and applied to a variety of air pollution problems,
ranging from the interpretation of air quality data to experimental
programs for forecasting pollutant concentrations in urban areas. The
National Center is now working with a model for the St. Louis area
which is the most sophisticated yet developed. This computerized
model calculates sulfur dioxide concentrations at 2-hour intervals over
an area of 310 square miles. The model uses an extensive source emis-
sions inventory comprised of data on 62 individual sources (point
sources) and 1,200 groups of sources (area sources). Meteorological
data on wind speeds, wind directions, atmospheric stability, et cetera,
are entered into the computer, and the contribution of each source to
the ground level concentration is calculated and added. The results
depict the pattern of urban concentrations throughout the St. Louis
metropolitan area.
-Concentrations calculated with such urban diffusion models show
relatively good comparison with measured values, indicating that the
relationships in the models are a reasonable approximation of actual
meteorological processes. The continued development and improve-
ment of urban diffusion models require continued effort on two fronts:
(1) better definition of urban diffusion processes, and (2) improved
understanding of the structure of the atmosphere over urban areas.
Urban diffusion processes.—In 1963, the National Center began a 2-
year study in St. Louis to better define urban diffusion processes. A
fluorescent tracer material (that is, a material not normally present
in the atmosphere but readily detectable in extremely small amounts)
was emitted into the atmosphere at a controlled rate and sampled at
various locations downwind. Based on the resulting concentrations, it
was possible to deduce the dispersion rates in the Tower layers of the
atmosphere over the city. The results of this study indicate that under
the same general meteorological conditions the dispersion of air pollu-
tants from sources near the ground is greater in urban areas than in
rural areas. The increased dispersion presumably is due to greater mix-
ing induced by the highly irregular surface of the city and by the heat
released from urban areas. The findings suggest that these differences
in rates of dispersion are greatest at night. The Center is performing
more detailed analysis of results of the tracer experiments to determine
how accurately dispersion over urban areas can be described and
predicted.
Urban atmospheric structure.—The second area of study necessary
to continue the development of urban diffusion models is to define and
mathematically simulate the distribution of wind and temperature
throughout the urban environment over time. In the spring of 1967,
the National Center 'began studies to describe the meteorological struc-
ture of the metropolitan area of Cincinnati, Ohio. The program con-
sists of field studies covering these areas: (1) temperature measure-
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ments across the city obtained by sensors mounted on automobiles,
(2) temperature measurements in the vertical direction, based on co-
ordinated helicopter soundings obtained along the automobile routes,
and (3) observations of the vertical distribution of wind in both the
urban and nearby rural areas. The results from 15 such studies indi-
cate tihat the large roughness elements (for example, buildings) and
artificial heat sources (for example, combustion of fossil fuels) in
the city create thermal and turbulent environments quite different
from those in rural areas. Near sunrise, on typically high air pollu-
tion days, a relatively unstable regime exists 200 to 300 leet above the
ground with a very stable stratum immediately •above. This suggests
that 'pollutants released at lower levels would tend to be trapped in
an envelope over the city, while pollution emitted from tall stacks
probably would not contribute to nearby ground-level concentrations,
and possibly not anywhere over the urban area until after the inver-
sion breakup period that typically occurs near mid-morning.
Forecasting air pollution potential
The National Center has initiated two programs designed to fore-
cast the meteorological potential for high air pollution levels to occur.
These programs provide a service to air pollution control agencies by
warning of impending adverse conditions so that appropriate emis-
sion control measures can be taken.
Large-scale forecasts,—When certain large-scale meteorological
conditions occur over the United States, air pollutants emitted tend
to accumulate instead of being dissipated by dispersion or transport.
This relationship between meteorological parameters and high pol-
lution buildup is embodied in the high air pollution potential forecast-
ing service initiated by the National Center for the Eastern United
States in 1960 and for the Western United States in 1963. (3) Since
inception of the program, 92 cases of high air pollution potential have
been forecast. In July 1967, routine operation of this service was trans-
ferred to the Weather Bureau, although the National Center main-
tains the responsibility for research and continued development of
the program. Current research aims at making these forecasts more
quantitative in nature. The Center is exploring new forecasting tech-
niques that make use of simple urban diffusion models. If successful,
the quantitative forecasts under development will constitute a sig-
nificant step forward.
Local forecasts.—Because the high air pollution potential forecast
service is based on large-scale meteorological conditions, the forecasts
are limited to areas of at least 70,000 square miles (roughly the size of
Oklahoma) and conditions of high air pollution potential lasting 36
hours or more. For smaller areas, a second public service program was
established—the local forecast program. The objectives of the pro-
gram are to forecast the variation of pollutant concentration with
time throughout the urban area and the meteorological potential for
excessive levels to occur. The approach makes use of urban diffusion
models to determine the spatial distribution of concentrations based
on the source emissions within the urban area. The Center has con-
ducted experimental local forecast programs in Cincinnati, St. Louis,
Philadelphia, and New York City.
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Additional research areas
The National Center's meteorological research program is also ex-
ploring a number of other important areas, many of which will help
advance the state of the art of urban diffusion modeling and air pollu-
tion potential forecasting.
Air pollution potential climatology.—Air pollution potential clima-
tologies represent records of long-term average weather conditions for
specific locations. These climatologies may include a variety of mete-
orological elements (for example, wind speed, cloud cover, inversion
frequency, and so forth) that can be used to indicate the air pollution
potential for a given area. Air pollution potential climatology was one
of the many factors used to define atmospheric areas as required under
the Air Quality Act of 1967 (see ch. I).
The Center is currently developing a climatology based on two pri-
mary weather parameters used in the high air pollution potential fore-
cast service: the height of the air layer above the ground in which
pollutants effectively mix (for example, the mixing depth), and the
average wind speed through the mixing depth. The index is being
evaluated quantitatively, using TO stations throughout the United
States. (4)
The Center is also constructing a climatology of atmospheric tur-
bidity (degree of transparency of a cloud-free atmosphere), a quanti-
tative indicator of the aerosol content of the atmosphere. This provides
an indication of the long-term effects of air pollution on the weather.
Such measurements made at Washington, D.C., and at Davos, Switzer-
land, suggest that observed increases in turbidity over the past several
decades may be responsible for the decreases in worldwide temperature
since 1940. (5)
Large powerplant effluent atudy.—Another area of work concen-
trates on the development, testing, and application of theoretical for-
mulations that describe the behavior of a plume after it leaves the
stack. These formulations deal with the height that a plume rises and
its subsequent dispersion and are important for determining ground-
level concentrations of sulfur dioxide from large powerplants. The
Center began a 5-year program in fiscal 1968 aimed at empirically
deriving and validating formulations for plume rise and plume dis-
persion from tall stacks for a variety of meteorological and topograph-
ical conditions.
Extended-range diffusion studies.—At present, relatively little is
known about the transport of pollutants over long distances, as from
city to city. To provide increased understanding of this phenomenon,
the Center is conducting various long-range tracer experiments. The
objectives of these studies are (1) to perfect gaseous tracer systems,
and (2) to obtain quantitative diffusion data over extended distances.
The Center is developing and testing sampling and analytical tech-
niques for three inert-gas tracers in the Cincinnati area. During fiscal
1967, five extended-range experiments were carried out to distances of
72 miles.
RESEARCH ON THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLTJTION
Comprehensive knowledge of the effects of air pollution on the pub-
lic health is essential to the establishment of meaningful air quality
goals. Air quality criteria, which will provide the States with guide-
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lines for setting air quality standards (see chap. I), represent a scien-
tific evaluation of the extent to which various pollutants and combina-
tions of pollutants are harmful to health and damaging to property.
The National Center, in its continuing effort to discover and evalu-
ate the effects of air pollution, stimulates needed research through a
diversified program which includes: (1) studies in its own laboratories,
(2) contracts to both private research corporations and nonprofit in-
stitutions, (3) interagency transfers supporting research in other Fed-
eral agencies, and (4) research grants to nonprofit institutions.
The need for air quality criteria places a critical demand on biologi-
cal research. The stock of information acquired during the last decade
on the effects of air pollution on human health is impressive. (6,7)
However, this accumulation of knowledge has not obviated the need
for additional studies of man both in his natural environment and
under controlled conditions. Earlier studies were designed to demon-
strate simply the presence or absence of air pollution effects on health,
and emphasis was placed on those chronic respiratory diseases caused
by a small number of pollutants. Research tended to focus on those
effects which were easiest to measure, often at the expense of the more
delicate and less detectable changes. The investigation of respiratory
function, for example, has probably been overemphasized in compari-
son to other physiological and biochemical parameters.
The current orientation of health effects research is to measure the
more subtle changes and to study selected population groups (for ex-
ample, children), and it is certain that the emphasis will shift increas-
ingly to long-term studies of the exposure to low concentrations of
many different pollutants. Accordingly, research must be undertaken
into the effects of accumulation and storage in the body of pollutants
which may present continuous or intermittent dangers to health. For
example, can changes due to low-level exposure, where they do occur,
be correlated with chronic respiratory diseases ? Industrial exposures
may provide a clue for potentially hazardous substances, but one can-
not extrapolate results from the industrial setting because, among
other factors, the population groups in industry differ selectively
from the total population, and the exposure situation is not the same
as the long-term, low-level exposures encountered outside. To date,
most studies of the effects of pollutants on health have been carried
out under industrial or laboratory conditions. These must be supple-
mented by intensive studies under the real-world conditions of com-
munity air pollution. The harmful role of asbestos, for example, in
the industrial environment may be quite different from its role in the
ambient atmosphere, where many other pollutants are also present.
Understandably, public health activity has focused on a few pollu-
tants—those that are commonly known—but the atmosphere contains
a large number of other substances, some quite exotic.
Recent studies suggest that certain pollutants require more exten-
sive research. According to epidemiologic observations, certain emis-
sions from coal burning, such as sulfur dioxide and others, now appear
more toxic than past research has suggested. Nitrogen oxides, when
combined with other substances, may have a chronic pathogenic po-
tential which has not been recognized. Accumulating evidence sug-
gests that photochemical smog contains yet unidentified reaction chains
which may result in agents with toxic potential. Carbon monoxide may
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have chronic disease potential which has not yet been completely re-
vealed despite the many studies on its short-term effects.
i. Research investigations
Rather than documenting all the research underway on health ef-
fects, the following discussion is limited to (1) a description of the
trends taking place in research investigations, and (2) a brief summary
of some of the recent approaches and findings in health effects studies,
with references to the original publication to allow in-depth reading.
BehavoriaH effects.—From time to time new methods of exploring
the injurious effects of air pollutants are found that are more delicate
or precise than those previously employed. These methods may also
allow study of types of injury differing from those customarily exam-
ined. One such method developed in recent years permits estimates of
injury to the integrated activities of the central nervous system. The
group of activities includes learning, performance, judgment, and dis-
crimination by external examination, and the method employs ence-
phalograms to measure certain electrical impulses in the brain. A re-
cent study performed at Stanford University with such methods has
shown behavorial effects with quite low levels of carbon monoxide. (8)
The National Center is developing further studies of this type with
human subjects. Studies with animals permit a much wider range of
doses and substances to be used, and the Center is undertaking a num-
ber of studies using laboratory animals such as monkeys to examine the
effects of carbon monoxide and other pollutants. The effect of lead ex-
posure on monkeys may also be included, since this metal is known to
affect the nervous system.
Studies of twins.—A new approach which offers considerable sensi-
tivity in studying the effects of environmental factors on human ill-
ness was developed recently in Sweden. These investigations made use
of large groups of identical twins. Comparisons were made between
fraternal and identical pairs, and between pairs who were very similar
and very different with respect to living habits and environment. The
original studies showed a definite influence of the urban environment
in chronic respiratory disease. (9) The Swedish investigators are now
cooperating with American workers in a study of a panel of Ameri-
can twins formed by a research arm of the National Academy of Sci-
ences. One goal of the current study will be to examine the urban in-
fluence in greater detail to determine its relationship to air pollution.
Studies of children.—Studies of the effects of air pollution on chil-
dren were first undertaken in Russia and Japan. Several of these ap-
peared promising and have inspired a number of comparable studies
in Europe and North America. Those recently completed have pro-
vided valuable information; others are still in process. A major ad-
vantage of studying children is the absence of confusing factors such
as the influence of smoking and occupational variables.
Two of the recent studies on children were carried out in England.
One of these compared the frequency of acute upper-respiratory and
lower-respiratory illness in young children in communities with differ-
ing air pollution levels. (10) No relationship was found between the
degree of pollution and upper-respiratory diseases,.such as colds. How-
ever, lower-respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, increased in
frequency with greater pollution exposure. The second study was car-
ried out in the city of Sheffield, comparing respiratory illness and lung
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function of children in various parts of the city. (11) In this case, both
upper- and lower-respiratory infections increased in frequency with
increasing air pollution, ana respiratory functions was round to be
poorer in the most polluted parts of the city. At present, the difference
with regard to upper-respiratory illness in the results of these two
studies is not clearly understood. It may result from differing pollu-
tion levels or different ages of the children. A preliminary report on a
child study being carried out in western Canada also shows poorer
pulmonary function in children living in a polluted atmosphere as
compared to children in a clean environment. (12) This study closely
resembles those done in Japan. Other similar studies are now under-
way in Los Angeles and Cincinnati in selected groups of schoolchil-
dren. A British study is investigating air pollution effects in children
and their families. (13)
One important study done on high school athletes showed a marked
correlation between high oxidant levels and poorer running times in
cross-country races. (14) Such studies are especially valuable for the
quantitative work necessary in developing criteria, and similar studies
are underway or planned. Some current studies examine t^e relation-
ship between increased oxidant or ozone levels and the combined stress
and fatigue from exercise.
If air pollution affects mortality for the more suscepitable popula-
tion groups, such as children, it may have an influence during the first
few months after birth. Thus a special area for needed research is the
relationship between neonatal mortality and air pollution. One study
in this area is currently in progress in Nashville.
Infectious diseases.—Both the National Center and other research
institutions are carrying out experiments with animals on the relation-
ship between air pollution exposure and infections, particularly re-
spiratory infections. These studies, which have been in progress sev-
eral years and will continue, have provided interesting results that
show enhancement of the infectious process by some pollutants (15,
16) This enhancement has been found for both bacterial and virus
infections and for several pollutants, including nitrogen dioxide and
ozone. Present work is examining the mechanisms of action by which
the pollutants bring about enhanced infection and the effects of differ-
ent pollutant levels and different conditions of exposure. The previ-
ously mentioned British studies, showing a relationship between air
pollution levels and acute infectious disease in children, have increased
the need for laboratory studies on pollution and infection. This need
is reinforced by recently published results from a mortality study in
Nashville which show that death rates from acute respiratory disease
tend to increase with higher levels of community air pollution. (17)
Similiar results were reported recently in Chicago.
Effects of pollutants in combination.—In general, the effects of air
pollutants acting in combination may be classified into four broad
categories:
(a) Potentiation: a nonirritant increases the effect of an irritant.
This is amply documented in Amdur's work with sulfur dioxide and
an inert aerosol, sodium chloride. (18) Particulate matter, which in
itself may have no demonstrable effect on airway resistance, does en-
hance the effect of sulfur dioxide when the two are inhaled together.
(b) Qualitative change: a combination of pollutants produces a
qualitative change in the nature of the health effects. In the case of
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pulmonary function, for example, one irritant gas by itself will cause
an increase in respiratory flow resistance and a concimitant decrease
in respiratory frequency response. The addition of another gas will
change the frequency response but not the resistance response. This is
illustrated by Murphy's work on acrolein alone and acrolein plus
ozone. (19)
(c) Diminution: a reduction in the potency of an irritant due to
the presence of one or more other agents. A preliminary study of the
effect of atmospheric mixtures of nitrogen dioxide and carbon mon-
oxide among emphysematous rats (the emphysema was caused by ni-
trogen dioxide—suggest that these rats had a higher tolerance to
carbon monoxide than did normal rats.
(d) Independence: the effects of one irritant are unchanged by the
presence of another irritant; both act as if the other were not present.
For example, in the presence of each other, nickel carbpnyl and benzo
(a)pyrene, both carcinogens, will simply hit their typical, but differ-
ent, target sites.
The interaction of pollutants with disease factors such as micro-
organisms is an area of considerable public health significance. The
evidence of the potentiation of the influenza virus due to exposure to
an air contaminant makes clear the need for more study on the com-
bined effects of pollutant exposure and infectious agents. Specific pol-
lutants may aid and abet pathogenic mechanisms.
These illustrations of the interaction between different pollutants,
and between pollutants and carriers, merely skim the surface. Much
more knowledge is needed. For example, Amdur's work on the role of
particles in enhancing sulfur dioxide effects makes it clear that more
study is needed on the physical characteristics of particle agents—
their size, mass, and other properties.
The interplay of pollutants has serious consequences for the develop-
ment and implementation of control devices and methods. The elimina-
tion of one chemical agent or class of chemical agents may greatly alter
the physiological effects produced by the agent or class of agents still
remaining.
Synergistic effects, like the effects of individual pollutants, may be
quite different for different population groups. The harmful effect
of pollutants on persons in a weakened state greatly increases the po-
tential health damage attributable to air pollution. To obtain further
insight into these areas, broad attention is being given to the ability
of pollution exposure to initiate or accelerate stress reactions in condi-
tioned animals. Other studies are measuring the effects of pollutant
exposure on animals impaired because of age, specific organ damage, or
general debility, in some cases simulating the actual situation that
many elderly people face.
Body Iwrden of specific compounds.—A major area of research ac-
tivity is directed toward estimating the body burden of selected pol-
lutants, which is an assessment of the degree to which pollutants can
accumulate without injuring health. Estimates of the level of metals
and organic compounds in the blood, urine, and other human tissue
are needed to evaluate the trend of accumulation of these toxic sub-
stances in the organs of the human body. Obviously, the body burden
must be examined in light of the exposure of the subjects to toxicants
from all sources, including activities such as eating, drinking, smok-
ing, work, recreation, etc.
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Trends in the storage and accumulation of organic and inorganic
pollutants and their metalobites in body tissues and fluids may be
determined by spectrochemical or chemical methods. Information on
the normal accumulation of metals in man already exists in some
countries, and it can serve as a baseline from which to judge changes
in pollutant storage and accumulation.
ECONOMIC STUDIES OF AIR POLLUTION
Until recently, the economic effects of aid pollution and the cost of
its control were^largely unexplored areas. Virtually all that has been
done in studying and analyzing the economic aspects of air pollution
has been initiated since the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1963. The
National Center and its predecessor, the Division of Air Pollution,
have been primarily responsible for the studies done to date. At first,
these efforts were viewed as only an incidental part of the Center's
responsibility. However, economic studies are now recognized as a
strategic part of the Center's effort to develop and disseminate in-
formation on the overall effects of air pollution and its control. Infor-
mation on costs and benefits will be important to both public and
private decisionmakers in upcoming periods.
Several studies of the benefits associated with air pollution control
have been undertaken and completed. They include estimates of addi-
tional expenditures to avoid soiling, reductions in property value,
damages to commercial vegetation, and costs of human mortality and
morbidity. (20 For the most part, these studies have been specific to
particular times and particular geographic locations, and therefore, are
not readily generalized to other times and places. Moreover, the meth-
ods by which most have been conducted are open to some question.
To meet the need for reliable, useful economic information, the
National Center is presently conducting studies to (1) secure basic
data on the damage air pollution causes to vegetation, livestock, and
materials; (2) determine the cost of controlling air pollution emis-
sions; and (3) analyze the overall economic impact of air pollution
control in order to appraise the State, local, regional, and national
economic burdens. A brief summary of some of the major studies
underway or planned in these areas is included below.
i. Economic damage
The Center's activities in determining the economic damage attrib-
utable to air pollution cover a variety of areas.
Vegetation effects.—Several species of economically important
plants are being exposed to gaseous pollutants such as ozone and sulfur
dioxide in order to determine the sensitivities of different species and
varieties and to eventually develop dose-response curves which will be
useful in the setting of air quality criteria. In addition, laboratory
studies are being conducted to determine how variations in environ-
mental factors such as light, humidity, temperature, and a variety of
soil variables affect the sensitivity of various plant species to specific
pollutants.
During fiscal 1969, field studies are planned to determine the effects
of pollutants on actual farm crops, forest trees, and ornamental plants
in an effort to arrive at economic damage functions for the most im-
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portant pollutants. Also, to improve damage surveillance, the Center
will-.test methods to sense damage remotely, such as infrared color
photography.
To assess the agricultural effects of air pollutants, the Center works
closely with the U.S. Department of Agriculture as part of a coordi-
nated and cooperative program.
Effects on materials,—-Chamber studies are being conducted in order
to quantitatively establish cause-effect relationships between the fad-
ing of 20 selected fabric-dye combinations and controlled param-
eters—gaseous pollutants, relative humidity, and temperature. The
Center is conducting studies at five sites in the area of Birmingham,
Ala., to relate the concentration of particulate matter and other air
pollutants to the soiling of windows, painted panels, and other build-
ing materials. The National Bureau of Standards, in cooperation with
the Center, is studying the effects of sulfur dioxide and photochemical
oxidants on a variety of building materials. In addition, the Center
has negotiated a contract to identify air pollution problems of eco-
nomic significance in the damage to electrical contacts such as connec-
tions and switches used in industrial electronic and electrical systems.
Other effects.—Studies are also planned to investigate various socio-
economic effects of air pollution. For example, the sources of unde-
sirable odors and the extent of their impact on communities will be
investigated.
ii. Emission control cost
Industrial surveys are underway to acquire comprehensive data on
the costs of air pollution control. These surveys include the sulfuric
acid, asphalt batching, electric power, cement, and integrated steel
industries. Cooperative studies are being planned with industrial
groups and other Government agencies to develop accurate cost-effec-
tiveness relationships and to predict future costs of air pollution con-
trol. Some research into the costs of controlling emissions of pollutants,
particularly emissions of particulates and oxides of sulfur, is compara-
tively advanced. As discussed in chapter I, cost-effectiveness analyses
will be included in the information published on available control tech-
niques which will accompany the air quality criteria documents. In
addition, the Center has prepared preliminary estimates, by industry,
of the national cost of the control of emissions of particulates and
oxides of sulfur. Projects are now underway to refine these cost esti-
mates for the integrated steel industry, the steam-electric power gen-
erating industry (in cooperation with the Federal Power Commis-
sion), the grey iron foundry industry (with the Department of Com-
merce) , and the asphaltic concrete industry; these studies will include
identification of the burden of air pollution control expenditures.
in. Economic impact of standards
Progress is also being made in assessing the overall cost of attaining
alternative air quality standards. The Center has developed a com-
puterized method of determining the least cost method of meeting an
air quality standard in an urban area, and will shortly begin work on
methods to generalize such estimates to the national cost of achieving
air quality standards by alternative control strategies.
Tne Center sponsored a cost-benefit study which compared the cost
of controlling particulate pollution and the benefits from reduced
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cleaning costs (dry cleaning, house painting and maintenance, and so
forth) in Washington, D.O. The results indicated that the money saved
in cleaning costs could exceed the cost of control by as much as $20
million per year. The Center will support a more detailed cost-benefit
study in a large city in fiscal 1969.
As mentioned under "Special Studies" in chapter IV, a comprehen-
sive study of the national economic impact of air quality standards will
be made public in the report to Congress early next year as required
under the act, section 305 (a). The report will also summarize the prog-
ress of research on the benefits of air pollution control.
In addition to its own studies, the Center is actively encouraging in-
dependent investigations by industry, universities, and other private
groups through participation in conferences, seminars, and other spe-
cial meetings.
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Chapter IV. SUPPORTING ACTIVITIES
The previous chapters have outlined the various goals and programs
of the Federal effort to prevent and control air pollution. The National
Center has additional areas of activity that supplement these pro-
grams in a manner consistent with the purpose and intent of the Air
Quality Act. The use of advisory committees, for example, provides an
important mechanism by which the National Center can obtain advice
and consultation from outside the Federal Government. Government-
industry conferences make possible a more coordinated national effort
by increasing the free flow of information between the private and
Federal sectors. A special arm of the National Center, the Air Pollu-
tion Technical Information Center, supports the national effort by
collecting, analyzing, and disseminating technical information on air
pollution. Finally, the National Center has underway a number of
studies in specific problem areas which will form the oasis of future
reports to Congress. The following sections describe these various areas
of activity.
FORMATION OF ADVISORY COMMITTEES
The Air Quality Act of. 1967 provides for the establishment and use
of advisory committees in all major activities of the Center (sees. 103
(a) (4), 107, and 110(d)) and requires outside consultation prior to
taking certain actions. The act also calls .for the establishment of a
President's Air Quality Advisory Board (sec. 110(a)) to advise the
President on matters relating to air pollution.
Prior to passage of the Air Quality Act of 1967, the National Center
sought advice and consultation from outside the Federal Government
in several ways. Of these, perhaps the most promising was the use of
advisory committees to provide consultation in various fields of activ-
ity. Special advisory committees, for example, helped review applica-
tions in the areas of research grants and financial support for training
and fellowships. A committee also advised the Center on the use of
matching funds to support local air pollution control programs. A
National Advisory Committee on Community Air Pollution was estab-
lished to advise the Center on policy matters relating to the entire
Federal effort of research and development and air pollution control.
Th» advisory committee approach, by drawing on intellectual re-
sources, throughout the Nation, provides a unique way to aid the
National Center in carrying out its mission. The commmittee members
can review and comment on the problems that face the Center in such
critical areas as criteria development, the setting of standards, and
regulatory activities. It thus enables the Center to carry forth its pro-
grams in a manner which best serves the total public interest without
causing irreparable damage to any particular sector of our dynamic
industrial society.
The, following provides a brief outline of the composition and func-
tion of the various advisory groups. Some of these are still in the
planning stages while others have already begun their activities.
(T7)
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President's Air Quality Advisory Board
The role of the President's Air Quality Advisory Board is to advise
and consult with the Secretary on matters of policy relating to the
activities and functions authorized under the act and to make appro-
§riate recommendations to the President. The Board consists of the
ecretary or his designee as chairman and 15 members appointed by
the President, none of whom are to be Federal officers or employees.
The members represent State and local agencies, private organizations
contributing to or affected by air pollution and other groups inter-
ested in or knowledgeable in the field of air pollution and its control,
as well as individuals who are expert in this field.
ADVISORY COMMITTEES
The role of the advisory committees is to make recommendations on
both technical and nontechnical matters to aid the Center in arriving
at extremely complex program decisions. The members of the various
committees come from universities, State, and local governments, in-
dustry, and research institutions, and they represent a large variety of
disciplines. In most instances, they are appointed for overlapping
terms of 3 years. The meetings are usually held three times a year, as
called by the chairmen of the committees.
1. Research and development.—The National Air Pollution Research
and Development Advisory Committee advises the Secretary on the
optimum allocation of the research and development resources of the
National Center, including research grants, based largely on an assess-
ment of the national picture of research and development needs in air
pollution. It is chaired by the Director of the Center and includes 15
members appointed by the Director of the Health Services and Mental
Health Administration. Its representation includes the chemical, engi-
neering, biomedical, and socioeconomic disciplines.
2. Fuel additives,—The National Fuel Additives Advisory Commit-
tee recommends to the Secretary policies for the evaluation and regis-
tration of fuel additives, based on a technical review of this subject.
The Director of the Center serves as chairman, and the Committee in-
cludes eight other members appointed by the Director of the Health
Services and Mental Health Administration. The members are selected
for their technical expertise and interest in the field of fuel additives,
and they represent such disciplines as chemistry, toxicology, econom-
ics, and law.
3. A$r quality criteria.—The National Air Quality Criteria Ad-
visory Committee reviews the information on air quality cirteria for
specific pollutants and recommends to the Secretary the publication
of various criteria documents; this subject is described in greater de-
tail in chapter I. In addition to the Director of the Center, who serves
as Chairman, this Committee consists of 15 members with technical
competence and interest in this field, representing the chemical, engi-
neering, biomedical, ecological, and socioeconomic disciplines.
4. Control techniques.—The National Air Pollution Control Tech-
niques Advisory Committee conducts a review of control technology
and recommends to the Secretary the publication of appropriate data
on the latest available technology for the control of air pollution, in-
cluding information on the economic feasibility of such methods and
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cost-effectiveness data. The publication of such information is dis-
cussed briefly in chapter I. This Committee consists of the Director of
the Center as Chairman and 12 members appointed by the Director of
the Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control. Its
composition includes representation from the chemical, engineering,
biomedical, and socioeconomic disciplines.
5. Control agency development.—The National Air Pollution Con-
trol Agency Development Advisory Committee reviews and advises
the Secretary on policies and procedures relating to grants for plan-
ning, developing, establishing, improving, or maintaining regional air
quality control programs. The Director of the Center serves as Chair-
man, and this Committee consists of seven other members from the
chemical, engineering, and socioeconomic fields. It also includes seven
additional non-Federal liaison representatives, who serve on an
indefinite basis.
6. Manpower developnient.—The National Air Pollution Man-
power Development Advisory Committee carries out a technical and
scientific review of various applications for training and fellowship
grant applications, as well as training contract proposals, and makes
recommendations to the Director on the advisability of grant, fellow-
ship, contract, or direct operation support. It also advises him on the
status of air pollution training activities to provide an indication of
where the Center should initiate, expand, or curtail such activities. It
consists of 12 members, with a Committee member as Chairman, ap-
pointed by the Director of the Bureau of Disease Prevention and En-
vironmental Control. Its members are drawn from the chemical, engi-
neering, biomedical, and socioeconomic disciplines.
7. Research grants.—The Air Pollution Research Grants Advisory
Committee carries out a scientific and technical review of air pollution
research and development grant applications, including occasionally
contract proposals, and makes recommendations to the Director on the
advisability of providing grant or contract support. The Committee
also reviews the national status of air pollution research and develop-
ment to determine the various areas in which air pollution research
and development should be initiated, expanded, or curtailed. It con-
sists of 15 members, with a Committee member appointed as Chairman,
and its representation includes the chemical, engineering, biomedical,
and socioeconomic fields.
GOVERNMENT-INDUSTRY MEETINGS
The National Center has long recognized the important role that
industry -has to play in the prevention and control of air pollution.
Since its inception in 196-5, the Federal air pollution program has
, worked to involve industry in air pollution control, and one of the
ways it has done this is through a variety of joint industry-Govern-
ment projects. Some of these are described elsewhere in this report;
for example, parts A and B of chapter II. More recently, the Center
has recognized the need for an even greater degree of cooperation and
an accelerated flow of information between inaustry and the Federal
Government. To help meet this need, a number of meetings 'have been
held in Washington between top-level Government and industry
officials to discuss the mutual problems that are faced in the control of
air pollution.
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The first of these was a seminar on air pollution research and devel-
opment, held in July 1967 and attended by 24 persons representing
various Federal agencies and 17 vice presidents and directors of re-
search of major companies. The meeting revealed that there is great
industrial interest in the national air pollution program and that in-
dustrial participation will increase greatly as Federal research and
development activities are expanded. The topics discussed included a
number of special problem areas, such as (1) the problem of distrust
on the part of industrial and governmental personnel, particularly at
the lower organizational levels; (2) the need for economic incentives
to help stimulate industrial research and development of air pollution
control technology and to help pay the cost of installing new processes;
(3) the possible obstacles presented by the Department's current pol-
icies regarding patents on new control processes; (4) the antitrust
aspects of private research activities; and (5) the problem of infor-
mation exchange between Government and industry.
The results of this first meeting were so encouraging that the Sec-
retary decided to schedule additional meetings to discuss not only re-
search and development but also all other aspects of industry's role
in the national air pollution control effort. Two such meetings were
held in 1967—one in August and the other in October.
At these meetings, the representatives from the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare have included the Secretary, the
Under Secretary, the Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific
Affairs, the Surgeon General, and the Director of the National Center
for Air Pollution Control. Other Federal representatives included the
Director of fche Bureau of Mines, the Deputy Director of the Office of
Science and Technology, an Assistant Attorney General of the De-
partment of Justice, and a Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Depart-
ment of Commerce. The industrial representation included the pres-
ident or chairman of the board of each of the following companies:
United States Steel Corp. Monsanto Co.
Ford Motor Co. Illinois Power Co.
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. Union Electric Co.
Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) Bethlehem Steel Corp.
Sinclair Oil Corp. Combustion Engineering
Westinghouse Electric Corp. Aluminum Co. of America
GeneraJ Electric Corp. International Paper Co.
Consolidated Coal Co. Kennecott Copper Corp.
Continental Oil Co. Lone Star Cement Corp.
General Motors Corp. Lehigh Portland Cement Co.
Pennsylvania Railroad Co. American Cyanamid Co.
Detroit Edison Co. Allied Chemical Corp.
Freeman Coal Mining Corp. Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Cabot Corp. Northrop Corp.
Peatoody Coal Co. Reynolds Metals Co.
These meetings led to the establishment of a number of Government-
industry task groups to explore specific problems in greater detail.
The industrial leaders were asked to designate representatives from
their organizations to examine the following areas:
1. Future activities in the area of control technology research
and development.
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2. The application of systems analysis techniques to air pollu-
tion control.
3. The role of economic incentives in the prevention and control
of airpollution.
4. The implications of the Department's patent policies for par-
ticipation by industry in the Center's research and development
program.
The task group on control technology research and development met
on March 12 and discussed a variety of problems relating to the con-
tract work of the Center and the Center's responsibilities under the Air
Quality Act. Considerable attention focused on the Center's work in
developing the documents on available control technology (see ch. I).
The representatives from industry were interested in reviewing the
drafts and providing comments and recommendations. A procedure
was developed which will enable the industrial people to offer a critique
of the documents prior to their issuance.
The task group on systems analysis techniques met on March 26, and
the National Center described current activities in this field and what
was planned for the future. It was concluded that this was a fruitful
area of research and that the Center should continue its activities. In
addition, it was discovered that many of the industrial organizations
had done some mathematical diffusion modeling, usually to assess the
air pollution implications of locating a new plant near a community.
The Center agreed to arrange a symposium at which both industrial
and governmental progress in this area could be presented.
The task group on economic incentives met on April 2, and the Na-
tional Center presented some of its previous studies in this area. The
industrial people were very interested in some of the basic assumptions
underlying these studies, several of which are computerized simulation
models. In some cases, they pointed to areas where the Center needs to
collect more data and broaden the scope of the study so as reflect the
national rather than the local picture. The one-day meeting proved in-
adequate, and an additional meeting is scheduled.
The meeting of the task group on patent policy was held on April
23, and a number of important question areas relating to the Depart-
ment's policies on patent rights were discussed. The meeting resulted in
an invitation by the Government representatives to the industry repre-
sentatives to provide suggestions on agenda for future meetings.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICES
The Clean Air Act of 1963 delegated to the Secretary of the Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare the authority to "collect and
disseminate, in cooperation with other public or welfare agencies,
institutions, and organizations having related responsibilities, basic
data on chemical, physical, and biological effects of varying air quality
and other information pertaining to air pollution and the prevention
and control thereof." To carry out this responsibility, two minimal
requirements were necessary: (I) the bibliographic control and the
dissemination of the world's technical literature pertaining to research
activities in air pollution; and (2) the establishment of anmformation
collection and evaluation center where research results would be re-
viewed, assimilated, and digested. The National Center has developed
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the Air Pollution Technical Information Center (APTIC) to meet
these needs.
As part of its task of maintaining control of the world's technical
literature on air pollution, APTICTconducts an extensive screening
program. The program consists of two phases: (1) journal coverage
and (2) report literature coverage.*More than 4,300 scientific journals
are screened by private contractors for articles relating to or produced
from air pollution technology. Both foreign and domestic journals
are examined. The most fruitful types are medical, chemical, and engi-
neering journals. The report literature phase of the screening pro-
gram is performed in-house. Bulletins from Government clearing-
houses are the primary sources. All current abstracts published by the
Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information in
U.S. Government Research and Development Reports and the Na-
tional Aeronautics and Space Administration in Scientific and Tech-
nical Aerospace Reports are screened to determine their relevance to
air pollution. Other sources providing literature or bulletins that lead
to useful reports are the Engineering Index, the America! Petroleum
Institute, the National Library of Medicine, and the Science Infor-
mation Exchange. Literature selected through this screening process
is cataloged, indexed, and abstracted. Citations, keywords, and ab-
stracts are typed and filed on record cards.
APTIC responds to outside requests for technical information by
providing citations, abstracts, or extracts from its file of literature. It
supplements these requests by searching and retrieving technical in-
formation from other resources on hand. These resources include files
of microfilm documents from the Bay Area Air Pollution Control Dis-
trict, San Francisco, and the Air Pollution Control Association
(APCA) Abstracts, a monthly bulletin published by the Air Pollution
Control Association under the National Center's sponsorship. APTIC
is also a major contributor to the APCA Abstracts.
A bulletin covering current APTIC accessions is published by the
Center on a semimonthly basis. This bulletin contains the bibliographic
citations of documents accessioned by APTIC over each 2-week period.
Manyqf these appear later in APCA Abstracts.
APTIC is presently providing technical information to a variety
of users throughout the world. Such users include industrial organiza-
tions, educational institutions, scientists, engineers, students, and
others. However, as defined in the Clean Air Act, the primary mission
is to collect and disseminate technical information to State and local
control programs throughout the United States in order to provide the
Federal leadership and assistance required under the act.
To provide the reports required under the Air Quality Act of 1967,
various programs within the National Center are making increasing
use of the APTIC services. The APTIC literature support capabili-
ties—including its searching, reviewing, and reproduction services—
are receiving especially heavy use in the development of the air quality
criteria and control technology documents (see ch. I).
SPECIAL STUDIES
As required by the Air Quality Act of 1967, detailed investigations
are being made in a number of specific problem areas. The results of
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these studies will be covered in separate reports submitted to Congress
according to dates specified in the act. These special studies, described
briefly below, cover five areas: (1) the control of air pollution from
Federal facilities, (2) the feasibility of controlling pollutant emis-
sions from aircraft, (3) the costs, nationally, of controlling air pollu-
tion in accord with the act? (4) the need for additional training and
manpower in the field of air pollution and (5) the need for national
emission standards for stationary sources.
Control of Federal facilities.—As required by the Clean Air Act of
1963, the Secretary has submitted annual reports to Congress on prog-
ress in the prevention and control of air pollution from Federal instal-
lations. The next report will be submitted in January 1969, and it will
document the progress made over the current year. A brief description
of the accomplishments that have been made in the control of air
pollution from Federal facilities is included in chapter II.
Control of aircraft emissions.—A report on the feasibility and
practicability of controlling emissions from jet and piston aircraft
will be submitted on November 21, 1968 (sec. 211 (b)). It will also
examine the feasibility of national emission standards for aircraft.
A major part of the work will be done by contract since the Center
does not possess the manpower resources to undertake all aspects of
a study of this nature and scope. The report will emphasize the nature
and quantity of emissions, both current and projected; will evaluate
the impact of these emissions on community air pollution and on those
who work in airports or reside near them; and will discuss the state
of the art of control technology for aircraft. The Center is maintaining
close liaison with the Department of Transportation's Federal Avia-
tion Administration in brjier to obtain information in relevant subject
areas such as aircraft design, the responsibility for general air safety,
the feasibility of enforcing emission standards, and so forth.
Comprehensive economic studies.—Detailed estimates of the na-
tional costs of carrying out the provisions of the Air Quality Act of
1967 will be submitted to Congress on January 10,1969, and annually
thereafter (sec. 305(a)). These reports will examine the cost, to all
levels of government of implementing air pollution control programs
and the economic impact of air quality standards on the Nation as a
whole, including the cost of controlling emissions to achieve these
standards. They will include estimates based on a comprehensive study
of the costs to the Federal Government of controlling air pollution
over the 5-year period beginning July 1,1969, and each report will up-,
date these estimates.
Manpower and training.—A report on the need for trained man-
power in various capacities of air pollution control will be submitted
to Congress on July 1,1969 (sec. 305 (b)). The goals of the study are
to determine how many trained people are needed in the relevant
disciplines to effectively carry out the provisions of the Air Quality
Act arid to determine the training programs that will be necessary.
The National Center will carry out three separate studies to collect
the necessary information for this report. The first study examines
both State and local needs for manpower and training in the field of
air pollution control. The initial phase on manpower has been com-
pleted, and the results are being updated and supplemented by addi-
tional data. As an adjunct to the first study, the Center is conducting
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an analysis of past enrollment in its intramural training program.
The second study will focus on ways of using existing programs to
train the air pollution personnel that will be needed in upcoming years.
The third study, to be handled by contract, is to determine the need
for additional trained personnel to develop, maintain, and operate air
pollution control facilities installed in private organizations.
National emission standards.—A comprehensive report on the need
for and the effect of national emission standards for stationary sources
will be submitted to Congress on November 21, 1969 (sec. 211 (a)).
Unlike motor vehicles, which are fairly uniform, stationary sources
differ greatly in a variety of important characteristics (for example,
height above the ground, proximity to populated areas, volume of pol-
lutant emissions, and so forth). This makes effective control on a na-
tional scale an especially complex problem. To determine the feasibility
and need for a national standard, or set of standards, the report will in-
clude the following: information on specific sources which constitute a
danger to public health and welfare, an analysis of the impact upon
air quality of a national emission standard in situations where there is
one source or a large number of sources, a summary of those industries
and pollutants for which a national standard is appropriate, and an
analysis of the costs of applying such a standard.
REFERENCES
1. Federal Register, Volume 33, Number 10, January 16,1968, p. 548.
2. The Automobile and Air Pollution: A Program for Progress,
Part /, U.S. Department of Commerce, October 1967, p. 22.
3. M. E. Miller and L. E. Niemeyer, "Air Pollution Potential Fore-
casts—A Year's Experience," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 13, May 1963, pp. 205-210.
4. GK C. Holzworth, "Mixing Depths, Wind Speeds, and Air Pol-
lution Potential for Selected Locations in the United States," Journal
of Applied Meteorology, 6, December 1967, pp. 1039-1044.
5. R. A. McCormick and J. H. Ludwig, ^Climate Modification by
Atmospheric Aerosols." Science, 156. June 1967, pp. 1358-1359.
6. A. C. Stern (Editor), Air Pollution, Vol. 1, 2nd Edition, Aca-
demic Press, New York, 1968, pp. 445-615.
7. H. Heimann, "Status of Air Pollution Health Research, 1966,"
Archives of Environmental Health, 14, March 1967, pp. 488-503.
8. R. R. Beard and G. A. Wertheim, "Behavorial Impairment As-
sociated with Small Doses of Carbon Monoxide," American Journal of
Public Health, 57, November 1967, pp. 2012-2022.
9. R. Cederlof, "Urban Factor and Prevalence of Respiratory
Symptoms and Angina Pectoris," Archives of Environmental Health,
13, December 1966, pp. 743-748.
10. J. W. B. Douglas and R. E. Waller, "Air Pollution and Respir-
atory Infection in Children," British Journal of Preventive and So-
cial Medicine, 20, January 1966, pp. 1-8.
11. J. E. Lunn, J. Knowelden and A. J. Handyside, "Patterns
and Respiratory Illness in Sheffield Infant School Children," British
Journals of Preventive and Social Medicine, 21, January 1967, pp.
7—16.
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12. D. O. Anderson and C. Kinnis, "An Epidemiologic Evaluation
of a Pediatric Peak Flow Meter," American Review of Respiratory
Diseases, 96, January 1967,pp. 73-80.
13. J. R. T. Colley and W. W. Holland, "Social and Environmental
Factors in Respiratory Disease; A Preliminary Report," Archives of
Environmental Health, 14, January 1967, pp. 157-160.
14. W. S. Wayne, P. F. Wehrle and R. E. Carroll, "Oxidant Air
Pollution and Athletic Performance," Journal of the American Med-
ical Association, 199, March 20,1967, pp. 901-904.
15. R. Enrlich, "Effect of Nitrogen Dioxide on Resistance to Respir-
atory Infection," Bacteriological Reviews, 30, 1966, p. 604.
16. D. L. Coffin and E. J. Blommer, "Acute Toxicity of Irradiated
Auto Exhaust; Its Indication by Enhancement of Mortality from
Streptococcal Pneumonia," Archives of Environmental Health, 15,
July 1967, pp. 36-38.
17. L. D. Zeidberg, R. J. M. Horton and E. Landau, "The Nashville
Air Pollution Study; Part V; Mortality from Diseases of the Respir-
atory System in Relation to Air Pollution," Archives of Environ-
mental Health, 15, August 1967, pp. 214-224.
18. M. O. Amdur, "The Influence of Aerosols on the Respiratory
Response of G-uidea Pigs to Sulfur Dioxide," American Industrial
Hygiene Association Quarterly, 18, June 1957, pp. 149-155.
19. S. D. Murphy, "A Review of Effects on Animals of Exi
to Auto Exhaust and Some of Its Components," Journal of tr
Pollution Control Association, vol. 14, No. 8, August 1964.
20. Ronald G. Ridker, Economic Costs of Air Pollution, Praeger,
New York, 1967; and Michelson and Tounn, "Comparative Method
for Studying Costs of Air Pollution Control," Public Health Reports,
vol. 81, No. 6, June 1966.
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