91ST CONGRESS \         QPNATF            /DOCUMENT
 1st Session I         SiiNAr*,            | Na gi_n
   PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND
       CONTROL OP AIR POLLUTION
             SECOND REPORT
                   OF THE
   SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,
              AND WELFARE
                   TO THE
    CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
               IN COMPLIANCE WITH
              Public Law 90-148
        THE AIR QUALITY ACT OF 1967
                JANUARY 1969
     MARCH 4,1969.—Ordered to be printed with illustrations

           U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
 26-139 O           WASHINGTON : 1969

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                 SENATE RESOLUTION 87

        Submitted by Mr. Randolph of West Virginia

                    IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
                                     Agreed to March h 1969.
  Resolved, That there be printed with illustrations as a Senate docu-
ment the second report of the Secretary of Health,  Education, and
Welfare, entitled "Progress in  the Prevention and  Control of Air
Pollution", submitted to *he Congress in accordance with section 306,
Public Law 90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, and that there be
printed two thousand five hundred additional copies of such document
for the use of the Committee on Public Works.
  Attest:
                                      FRANCIS, K. VALEO,
                                                  Secretary,
     n

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                LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
            SECRETARY or HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE,
                           Washington, D.C., January 17, 1969,
Hon. HUBERT  H. HUMPHREY,
President of the Senate,
Washington, D.C.
  DEAR MR. PRESIDENT: In accordance with the provisions of section
306 of Public Law 90-148 (the Air Quality Act of 1967), I am pleased
to transmit the second report describing progress in the national effort
to prevent and control air pollution.
  The intent of this report is to describe recent progress in the field of
air  pollution in its total context, outlining the evolution of control
activities up to the present day.
  A brief discussion of salient highlights since the passage of Public
Law 88-206, the Clean Air Act ofl963, is enclosed.
      Sincerely,
                                 WILBUR J. COHEN, Secretary.

                           ENCLOSURE

  Based on  my experience and knowledge spanning the past 8 years,
with emphasis on the period  since the amended Clean Air Act of 1963
(Public Law 88-206), the observations below are offered.
  Industry has spent  approximately $900 million on  various aspects
of air  pollution control since 1963. This expenditure includes Iboth
research and development moneys as well as capital  improvements for
specific control devices. Starting with an outlay of $60 million in 1963
this figure is projected to reach $140 million in 1968.
  Under the leadership of Secretary Gardner, the  Clean Air Act of
1963 (Public Law  88-206) was amended twice, once in 1965 (Public
Law 89-272) and again in 1966 (Public Law 89-675). These amend-
ments resulted in an expansion of State and local  control programs
through the mechanisms of  Federal grants. Abatement activities on
the Federal level were strengthened and as a result enforcement became
a new weapon of pollution control. Under specific amendments enacted
in 1965, national standards for the control of motor vehicle pollution
have been promulgated for initial  application during 1968. The Air
                              (HI)

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                               IV
Quality Act of 1967  (Public Law 90^-148)  is a continuation of the
effort to abate and control air pollution: its main distinction from
previous legislation is the placement of emphasis on regional activities.
The DHEW has  already designated air quality  control regions in
several  large metropolitan areas and is nearing  publication of air
quality  criteria for particulate matter and sulfur oxides, indicating
the extent to which these pollutants are harmful to health and damag-
ing to property. Detailed information on the cost and effectiveness of
techniques for preventing and controlling these two pollutants will
be published simultaneously with the criteria. The Air Quality Act
of 1967 places emphasis on the implementation by State and local
officials with DHEW assuming a guidance role.
  The Air Quality Act of 1967 does not delineate in detail the private
sector's responsibilities but the specifics of the legislation can only be
interpreted as a clear invitation for industry and other private organi-
zations to join all levels of government in taking constructive action
to cope with the threat of air pollution. In accordance with provisions
of the Air Quality Act, National Advisory Committees (composed
of representatives from the private sector) have been established for
air quality criteria as well as for control techniques.
  The recent (Nov. 1,1968) Court decision, Civil No. 19274, involving
the Bishop Processing Co., Bishop, Md., has added strength to the Fed-
eral enforcement provisions of the Air Quality Act of 1967. The Court
decree states that the Bishop Processing Co., Bishop, Md.. "cease all
manufacturing and  processing operations"  in their rendering and
annual reduction plant  upon the U.S. Government filing an affidavit
with the Court by the director, Air Pollution Control Division, State
of Delaware Water and Air Resources Commission, stating that the
Bishop Processing Co. is discharging malodorous air pollution reach-
ing the  State of Delaware. This decision could serve as a  model for
future actions under the provisions of  the act.   .,
  The authority for bringing about cleaner air is exemplified in the
Bishop  Processing Co.  case above. The  future urgencies are not in
granting additional authority, rather they  are in establishing more
local  authority based on established criteria and increasing Federal
grants for the specific  purposes of air resources management  and
strengthening methods for prevention of air pollution.
  The priorities of new research and development presently structured
are as follows: behavioral toxicological studies; quantitative pathology
of the respiratory system; basic biochemistry of oxidative effect; new
physical concepts for instruments for monitoring pollution levels; and
study of the relationship between air pollution damage and market
parameters.

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                             PREFACE

  This is the second of a series of reports which will describe the
progress being made in this country to prevent and control air pollu-
tion. The report covers a period from May  1968 to January 1969. It
is respectfully submitted in accordance with section 306 of Public Law
90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, which states as follows:

  SEC. 306. Not later than six months after the effective date of this section and
not later than January 10 of each calendar year beginning after such date, the
Secretary shall report to the Congress on measures taken toward implementing
the purpose  and Intent of this Act including but not limited to (1) the progress
and problems associated with control  of automotive exhaust emissions and the
research efforts related thereto;  (2) the development of air quality criteria and
recommended  emission control requirements; (3) the  status of enforcement
actions taken pursuant to this Act; (4) the status of  State ambient air stand-
ards setting, including such plans for  implementation and enforcement as  have
been developed;  (5)  the extent of development and expansion of air pollution
monitoring systems; (6) progress and problems related to development of new
and improved control techniques;  (7) the development of quantitative and quali-
tative instrumentation to monitor emissions and air quality; (8) standards set
or under consideration pursuant to title II of this Act; (9) the status of State,
interstate, and local pollution control programs established pursuant to and as-
sisted by  this Act; and  (10) the reports and recommendations made  by the
President's Air Quality Advisory Board.

                                   (V)

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                           CONTENTS

                                                                        Page
Preface
   I. Introduction
                                                                           *
    .             __________________________
  II . Control technology research and development -------------------      *
          A.  Stationary sources ------------------------------------      *
                  1 . Control of sulfur oxides pollution -----------------      »
                         (a) Removal of sulfur from coal -------------      3
                         (fc) Removal of sulfur from fuel oil -----------      4
                         (c) Removal of sulfur oxides from flue gas ----      4
                         (d) New process development ----------------      7
                  2. Control of nitrogen oxides pollution ---------------      8
                  3. Control of particulate pollution. ..... ------------      9
                  4. Control of pollution from specific industries --------     1U
                  5. Control of pollution from waste disposal -----------     11
                  6. Device improvement studies. . .......... ---------     12
          B.  Meteorological research --------------------------------     1*
                  1. Air pollution potential forecasting ________________     1>>
                  2. Large powerplant effluent study ------------------     13
                  3. Boundary layer dynamics. ...... ----------------     13
                  4. Climatology ______________________ ...... -------     1*
          C.  Health effects research ---------------------- ..... ---- -     **
                  1. Nitrogen dioxide ----- ...... ------- ....... - .....     J*
                  2. Nitrogen dioxide and ozone ------------ ..... -----     fo
                  3. Oxidants ______________________________________     }%
                  4.  Particulate matter ------------------------------     |°
                  5.  Carbon monoxide ---------------------- ...... ---     }?
                  6.  Behavioral toxicology ---------------------------     |<
                  7.  Epidemiologic studies ---------------------------     J»
          D. Economic studies of air pollution ......... ---------------     *»
                   1.  Vegetation effects -------------------------------     *»
                   2.  Effects on materials ------------------- ...... ----     *"
                   3.  Socioeconomic effects ......... ------------------     *"
                   4.  Emission control cost ---------------------------     *«
                   5.  Economic impact of standards -------------------     *i
  III. Control program support-— ..... ------------------------------     £*
           A. Control agency development  program ----------- r -------      *;»
                   1.  Federal grant support -------------- ..... --------     £*
                   2.  Maintenance grants.. .......... -----------------     *•*
                   3. Technical assistance ----------------------------     **
                   4. Survey and demonstration grants -----------------     **
           B. Research grants program ------------------------------     *5
                   1. Research grant projects --------- ..... -----------     *o
                   2. Operational aspects ---- ......... ----------------     *•>
           C. Relationships with State and local officials ---------------     ^o
   IV. Progress  toward a regional approach to  air pollution --------------     &
           A. Definition of atmospheric areas -------------------------     ^
           B. Designation of air quality control regions ..... -----------     *<
           C. Development of air quality criteria ----------------------     *°
                   1. Particulate matter ------------------------------     ^»
                   2. Sulfur oxides _____________________________ -. -----     *°
           D. Development of information on available control techniques.     ^y
                   1. Particulate matter ------------------------------     ^J-
                   2. Sulfur oxides ___________________________________     I*"
                   3. Other pollutants ________________________________     S(}
                                     (VII)

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                                    VIII

                                                                        Page
   V. Federal abatement activities		-.	-_    31
           A. Abatement actions				    31
           B. Pollution from single sources	    31
           C. Metropolitan-industrial pollution		    32
           D. International Joint Commission studies			    32
           E. Emergency abatement measures		    32
  VI. Relationships with other Federal programs	    34
           A. Control of air pollution from Federal facilities	    36
 VII. Automotive air pollution, emission standards, and related activities.    38
           A. Automotive air pollution control	    38
                   1. National emission standards			    38
                   2. Automotive emission control research and develop-
                        ment				    41
                          (a) Conventional engines		    41
                          (6) Alternate low-emission powerplants	    42
                   3. Certification	    43
                   4. Surveillance		-	-    43
                   5. Inspection programs	~.			    44
                   6. Emission control system  evaluation (gasoline  en-
                        gines)		    45
                          (a) Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon con-
                               trol		    45
                          (b) Nitrogen oxide control		    45
                   7. Emission test procedures	    45
                   8. California emission control standards	    46
                   9. Uncontrolled foreign automobiles	    47
                  10. Registration and evaluation of fuel additives	    48
                          (a) Information gathering	    48
                          (6) Design of registration procedures	    48
VIII. Air pollution monitoring, data acquisition, measuring, instrumenta-
        tion, and related activities	    49
          A. Air monitoring systems—	-	    49
          B. Inventories of pollutant emissions,	    51
          C. National data bank	,	    53
          D. Measuring instrumentation		_		    54
                  1. Instrumentation for vehicular emissions	    54
                  2. Instrumentation for stationary sources		    54
                        (a) Remote stack monitoring		    54
                        (6) In-stack monitoring		    55
                  3. Instrumentation for air quality			    55
                        (o) Single-point sampling		    55
                        (6) Long-path sampling		    56
 IX.  Advisory groups..		-		    57
          A. President's Air Quality Advisory Board	    57
          B. Advisory committees					    57
  X.  Miscellaneous activities				    59
          A. Government-industry meetings	    59
          B. International affairs		    59

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PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
                 OF AIR POLLUTION
                     I. INTRODUCTION

  It is the intent of this report to update such information as was re-
ported in the first progress report to the Congress on the prevention and
control of air pollution in May 1968. The report introduces new ac-
tivities which have been initiated during the reporting period, as well
as provides an overview  of the Federal program aimed at restoring
and maintaining the quality of the Nation's air resources.
  The Federal responsibility for pursuing the problems of preventing
and controlling air pollution is that of the Department of Health, Ed-
ucation, and Welfare, through provisions of the Air Quality Act of
1967. Under the act, the Department seeks a regional approach to air
pollution control. To carry out the operating requirements of the act,
the Department has established the National Air Pollution Control
Administration under the Consumer Protection and Environmental
Health Service. The Administration, formerly the National Center for
Air Pollution Control, conducts a comprehensive program of research
and training, financial and technical assistance to State and local
agencies, and abatement and control activities to help protect the Na-
tion from the harmful effects of air pollution. The Administration's
specific aims are to  optimally  increase knowledge of the nature,
sources, effects, and control of air pollution and to achieve maximum
application of that knowledge. Organizational elements of the Ad-
ministration reflect the support of these aims.
                              (l)
     26-130 O—68

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         II. CONTROL TECHNOLOGY  RESEARCH
                    AND DEVELOPMENT

                     A. STATIONARY SOURCES

  The programs to develop effective methods for control of stationary
sources were expanded from $9 million in fiscal year 1968 to anticipated
expenditures of over $14.0 million during fiscal year 1969. Programs
to develop the large-scale equipment studies necessary to firmly evalu-
ate first-generation processes for control of pollution from combustion
were  given continued high priority, and programs to develop new
processes were expanded to give increased attention to pollutants other
than  sulfur oxides originating from combustion of fuels. The most
significant change in emphasis  during the past year was an increase
in the resources being devoted to a series of systems  studies instituted
to provide better definition of the nature of the research and develop-
ment needed to cope with the diversity and complexity associated with
any major segment of the air polution problem presented by stationary
sources in their totality.
  These studies include:  (1) Industrywide surveys of basic industries
such  as primary smelters, pulp and paper, iron and steel, etc. In all
these surveys, combustion processes will oe given special attention. (2)
Device oriented studies to assess problems that must be solved to permit
wider application of electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers,
and  afterburners. (3) Pollutant oriented studies  to provide better
definition of the relative contributions of and control problems associ-
ated with important pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, particulates,
and odors on a nationwide basis.
  All of the systems studies involved have certain common character-
istics, whether they are pollutant oriented, device oriented, or industry
oriented. In all, the intent will be to accumulate the best possible data,
even where doing so will be a difficult job. Most studies  are expected
to provide a broad base of information that can be used by any groups
interested in analysis of any segment of the problems. The availability
of such information is expected to eliminate the need for considerable
duplication of effort by those with potential to  contribute to the
solution of existing problems.
  Efforts to continue expansion of the base of technical competence
supporting the program have resulted in an increase in the number of
participating groups so that NAPCA is either conducting such projects
or is  directly utilizing competence available in over 70 groups in in-
dustry, universities and the National Academy of Engineering, and
other Government agencies. Particular emphasis has been given to
increasing the degree of involvement with groups outside of the United
States. Foreign activities have resulted in enlargement of our interna-
tional activities  in England, Germany, and Japan to include coopera-
tion and/or probably joint research with groups in Yugoslavia, Czech-

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oslovakia,  and  Canada.  Through the  mechanisms available  for
conducting research with  funds available under Public Law 480 for
expenditure overseas, projects in Poland and India are expected to be
developed in the coming year.

             1. CONTROL OP SULFUR OXIDES POLLUTION

  The previously formulated program to develop control methods for
the various sources of sulfur oxides pollution has progressed along
anticipated lines set down in past years; however, overall funding was
lower than anticipated so that some processes that are candidates for
scale up are being given more detailed study on small systems. Al-
though this may slow down the rate at which processes become avail-
able,  it  is  likely to  increase  the probability that they  will  be
economically acceptable.
(a) Removal of sulfur from coal
  Because many small combustion units are not amenable to control by
processes now being developed, burning of low sulfur fuels is probably
the most practical immediate answer to the problem created by these
sources. The known reserves of low sulfur coals  are limited, however;
and therefore, the National Air Pollution Control Administration has
a program underway to develop an inventory of cleanable coals and
economical techniques  for removing sulfur from coal. In addition to
the inventory, the coal survey studies are producing comprehensive
information on the amounts of sulfur that potentially can be removed
from, high-sulfur steam coals.
  (1) Coal-washing studies.—As part of its evaluation of commercial
methods for separating pyritic sulfur from coal, NAPCA is develop-
ing information on the operational characteristics of these methods
when applied to various representative coals through a private con-
tractor. In addition, NAPCA is supporting two equipment studies by
the Bureau of Mines. The Bureau is evaluating modifications that could
improve the separation capabilities of available equipment.
  Two other private contractors have completed their evaluation of
fluid bed roasting of pyrite-cpal mixtures and subsequent conversion
of the sulfur dioxide released into sulfuric acid. This study has denned
the economics and technical limitations of increasing amounts of coal
with the pyrite feed material. As a result of an  investigation of other
related  technology, another contractor has  developed approximate
costs for a process that would burn pyrite-coal rejects in a specialized
boiler for generating  electrical power and recovering sulfuric acid
from  flue gases. This process would produce  a low-sulfur coal and  a
reject material that could be burned in a power-generating plant with-
out emitting polluted  flue gases.  Further study of this method will
define in  detail the technical and economic factors involved.
  Competitive designs of iprototype coal-cleaning plants and associated
cost analyses are being done through a contractual arrangement. Fol-
lowing completion of these studies in the latter part of fiscal year 1969,
construction and operation of  a prototype coal-cleaning  plant is
planned, as well as design selection and  construction of one or more
reject utilization processes.

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 (6) Removal of sulfur from fuel oil
   NAPCA is  maintaining its awareness of progress in residual oil
 desulfurization. Several direct and indirect desulrurization units have
 been installed  at refineries, and more are planned for the future. The
 success of these units is being followed with interest to determine
 whether support of research and development could help increase the
 effectiveness of the units or reduce desulfurization costs. One area of
 technology that appears to require further research is development of
 a hydrodesulf urization catalyst that would not be deactivated oy heavy
 metal contaminants in residual fuel oil.
 (c)  Removal of sulfur  oxides from  fuel gas
   Even though developments in fuel  desulfurization, fuel conversion,
 and modified power  cycles may  provide a more practical long-term
 solution to the sulfur oxides pollution problem, the best available esti-
 mates of process economics and the more advanced stage of develop-
 ment of various processes  for flue gas desulfurization make  it likely
 that short-term processes  for removal of sulfur from  effluent gases
 will make the greatest contribution to control of sulfur pollution.
  During the past year, the Monsanto Chemical Co. announced the
 successful operation and availability of its catalytic oxidation process,
 which converts sulfur oxides to 70-percent sulfuric acid. Comoustion
 Engineering, Inc., sold two lime scrubbing processes, which  are now
 operable. Several proprietary processes have been declared successful
 by their developers on the basis of limited small-scale tests. These in-
 clude the Wellman-Lord process, now being scaled up to  a 25-mega-
 watt prototype unit  on  a Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. plant, and
 Stone & Webster's process, which has been operated successfully on a
 small-scale pilot plant.
  Foreign processes have  also been evaluated on a prototype scale.
 These include the Mitsubishi heavy-industry process, which employs
 manganese oxide as a sorbent, and the Hitachi Manufacturing Co.'s
 wet char process which produces dilute sulfuric acid as a byproduct.
 Conditions in  the  foreijSpi  power industry and byproduct markets
 make these processes  uniquely applicable to control the  problems for
 which they were developed. As a result, they have limited or little
 potential for  application to the U.S. problem.
  New process  development sponsored by NAPCA resulted in paper
 and  bench-scale research of promising new processes. Among the
 leading candidates  for this work are several regenerable  wet scrub-
 bing processes.  Negotiations are underway to move these studies to the
 pilot-land stage within the next few months.
  The NAPCA sulfur oxides control  research and development  pro-
gram continues to give careful attention to developments being made
 by the U.S. industrial community and in foreign countries to avoid
duplication of effort and to concentrate effort on processes that appear
to nave maximum potential for providing immediate relief from the
sulfur oxides pollution problem. Considerable attention continues to
be given to the limestone-based processes, with increased emphasis on
wet limestone scrubbing research and development to  identify  and
solve engineering and  process problems that currently limit the utility
of this control method.  Sorbent  problems in the  alkalized alumina
process have tended to restrict progress on this process.

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   (1) Limestone-injection process.—Recognition by government and
industry of the immediate need for air pollution control systems, spe-
cifically for control of sulfur oxides, has led to rapid advances in the
development of two variations of limestone-based processes: Dry lime-
stone injection and limestone injection combined with wet scrubbing.
It is believed that both the acceptance and potential of the dry injec-
tion process will be established upon completion of the full-scale trial
of the process by TVA under NAPCA sponsorship. Installation of
equipment for the multimillion-dollar trial  is  underway  at TVA's
Shawnee Power Station, near Paducah, Ky.
  Preparatory to the full-scale trial, Babcock & Wilcox, Inc.,  has
constructed a  1:6.5-scale model of TVA's Shawnee No. 10 unit, the
unit in which the full-scale dry limestone injection trial will be con-
ducted. Cold tests of the additive injection system are underway and
dispersion of the dust in the simulated furnace and convection passes
of the boiler  are being  studied.  NAPCA, in cooperation with  the
Florida Power Co., this  year conducted short-term injection tests to
study the effect of high-temperature injection on the sorption proper-
ties of calcined limestone and dolomite. In  its program of funda-
mental and applied research, under contract and in-house, NAPCA is
developing data  to assist in optimizing the  limestone process and
achieving maximum performance in  the prototype injection trials by
TVA. In  addition to the five fundamental and applied research con-
tracts negotiated in 1967, which were described in the first report, sev-
eral additional contracts were initiated during 1968. A full-scale test
program is being sponsored by NAPCA at a facility of the Peabody
Coal Co.  in Columbia, Tenn. The company is using  a  special chain
grate stoker to study the efficiency of various alkaline earth additives
in removing sulfur dioxide from flue gas. The  results of this test pro-
gram may have considerable application for control of sulfur oxides
pollution from industrial combustion units.
  The city of Chicago recently completed trials of limestone injection
processes  for limestone and a waste material called red mud, a waste
product from the processing of aluminum ores. NAPCA is evaluating
this material in-house in bench-scale experiments. The General Mo-
tors  Co.,  Chevrolet Division, St. Louis plant is progressing with a
full-scale  industrial test of the dry injection process. NAPCA is co-
operating with both the city of Chicago and General Motors by pro-
viding information available on  boiler injection processes from  its
bench-scale tests. The contract with Esso Research & Engineering Co.
has been extended to include investigations of the technical and eco-
nomic aspects of  regenerating reacted limestone and sulfur oxides
products to permit recycling of the sorbent material.
  TVA completed a  conceptual design and  economic evaluation of
the dry injection  process and will shortly complete a similar study
of the wet scrubbing  process. Other investigators studied the min-
eralogical, physical, and chemical properties of a wide range of lime-
stones and dolomites and evaluated their reactivity with sulfur oxides
in various experimental  reactors, in some  cases  under conditions
closely simulating those in powerplant boilers.
  TVA's economic study of the dry process estimates a total operating
cost of approximately $1.05 per ton  of coal in a 200-megawatt coal-
fired boiler. The above cost is based  on a coal containing 3.5 percent

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sulfur, a limestone cost of $2.05 per ton delivered, and addition of
two times the theoretical amount of limestone required to absorb all
the sulfur in the coal. Economic utilization of the limestone-modified
fly ash product could lead to lower costs. Work at the coal research
bureau at West Virginia University has shown  that  mineral wools
having acceptable properties can be made from this product. The coal
research  bureau is also investigating the possibility  of recovering
the unreacted quicklime portion for possible recycling  in the process.
  Work to date with the dry injection process indicates the need for a
better  understanding of the chemistry  of  the  process and factors
important to achieving maximum performance. Further research  and
development is  needed specifically  (1)  to define  the fundamental
kinetics of the sulfur oxide reaction with calcined limestone, (2) to
explain the  effects of overcalcination on the reactivity of limestone,
(3) to develop criteria for selecting the most reactive limestones or
dolomites for use in the process, and (4)  to develop ways of utilizing
limestone-modified fly asn and thus make the process more attractive
economically and at the same time reduce the waste disposal problem.
  Continuing emphasis is being placed  on development of the  wet
limestone process not only because  of the potential of the aqueous
lime scrubbing process for the control of sulful oxides but also because
of the need to solve engineering and process problems that may limit
its application. In the lime scrubbing process, dry limestone injection
into a powerplant boiler is followed  by wet scrubbing  of the flue gas
for removal of both fly ash and calcined lime. While in the scrubber
the milk-of-lime reacts with the sulfur dioxide in the flue gas to form
a disposable solid waste product. This process has potential for appli-
cation to large and small, new and existing powerplants.
  Unsolved problems that may limit effectiveness of the wet limestone
process include corrosion and erosion of  process equipment, localized
air pollution resulting from inadequate plume buoyancy, potential for
water pollution resulting from disposal of solid  and liquid waste
products, and lack of reliable data for scale-up  of the scrubbers to
sizes that will be necessary  for powerplant usage. To define these
potential problems and solve them, NAPCA has negotiated a contract
for a premnmary design of a large-scale prototype test facility. The
facility will consist of three parallel prototype scrubber units, each
capable of processing flue gas approximately equivalent to that from
a 26-megawatt power boiler. The units will be designed to permit a
comparison  of at least three process variations, including scrubber
types. Emphasis will be placed on the development of process kinetics
and economics and generation  of data needed for optimum process
scale-up. These test facilities are  expected to be constructed and in
operation by the end of calendar year 1969.
  (2) Alkatiaed alumina process. Planning and activities directed
toward the two large-scale studies of alkalized alumina in the United
States  and England are being continued. NAPCA  and the Electric
Research Council have obtained many of the clearances required for
joint support of the British prototype-scale studies. Similar progress
on the British side by the Central Electricity Generating Board is not
evident; CEGB has been asked to clarify its position with respect to
continued interest and the financial  capability to support the work.

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  Projects aimed  at  developing the U.S. version of the alkalized
alumina process are being continued at a high level of priority. Both
British and U.S. workers have recently encountered difficulties with
sorbent deterioration, however, and believe that this problem must be
overcome  before a  prototype  plant is designed  and built. Intensive
efforts are underway to provide and evaluate a satisfactory alkalized
alumina sorbent, identify the  most economic process consistent with
the characteristics of the best available sorbent, and assess the technical
and economic feasibility of the process as a basis for making a decision
on scale-up of the  prototype.  While these critical factors are being
evaluated, NAPCA is continuing the work and negotiations required
for scale-up of the process to prototype if sorbent problems are over-
come and  process evaluation is favorable.
  Most of the work aimed at producing a stable sorbent is being done
by W. R. Grace & Co.; this activity represents a shift of emphasis from
process scale-up for production of larger quantities of sorbent. NAP-
CA is also funding an effort  by the Bureau of Mines to produce a
large handmade batch of the original sorbent produced by the Bureau,
apparently the  only  sorbent  that has withstood  simulated  process
conditions.
  M. W.  Kellog & Co. has a program well under way to evaluate
existing information  on  the alkalized alumina  process,  define tech-
nology  deficiencies, and perform a comprehensive design study and
economic  evaluation directed toward large pilot  plant demonstration
(studies. Kellogg has developed  preliminary flow sheets  for three
versions of the process: fixed  bed, dispersed  bed, and fluid bed. The
company  has indicated that data on sorption kinetics are now  well
enough developed, but has reemphasized the need for additional  data
on regeneration. Two projects at the Bureau of Mines are being re-
shaped to provide specific data required. Bench scale studies on fluid-
bed sorption and regeneration have been started at the Bureau of
Mines. Kinetics, modeling, alternative sorbent, and panel contractor
work are largely completed. A copper oxide alumina sorbent has shown
some promise,  and an analogous proprietary material  has been re-
ceived from a catalyst manufacturer tor evaluation.
(d) New process development
  New process development activities are receiving broad coverage in
nine areas of technology: (1)  aqueous  scrubbing, (2)  solid metal
oxides, (3) inorganic  liquids, (4) organic liquids, (5) inorganic solids
excluding metal oxides, (6)  organic solids, (7) catalytic oxidation to
sulfuric acid,  (8) reduction to surfur, and (9)  physical methods of
separation. These nine areas a,re being  surveyed to obtain sufficient
information for assessment of the potential of all new processes.
  Battelle Northwest is continuing its technology review of organic
liquids, and in the field  of  molten inorganic materials the team of
MSA Research and Singmaster-Breyer is continuing a state-of-the-
art survey. Since mid-1967, Atomics International  Division of North
American Rockwell has been investigating an approach known as the
molten  carbonate process. The company has completed the design of
a small pilot plant; and if the present rate of development continues,
a prototype system for a 50-mega\vatt powerplant could be in opera-
tion by 1972. The process uses molten salts to remove sulfur dioxide

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                                  8

  from flue gases and  produces elemental sulfur as a  byproduct.  A
  major problem in this development is corrosion; however, data gene-
  rated over the past several months indicate that  this problem may
  have been solved.
    Monsanto Research Corp., is investigating new, improved catalysts
  for the oxidation  of sulfur dioxide  to concentrated  sulfuric acid.
  Tyco  Laboratories is adapting chamber-process chemistry to the de-
  velopment of a gas-phase catalytic  process that, if successful, would
  control sulfur oxides  and nitrogen  oxides simultaneously. Tyco has
  demonstrated all reactions in the laboratory and is  constructing a
  bench-scale plant for continuous operation.  Gallery  Chemical Co.,
  is investigating a process for concentrating sulfur trioxide that could
  be used in conjunction with a catalytic oxidation process.
    Allied Chemical Corp., is surveying the state of the art of reduction
  of sulfur dioxide to sulfur. Princeton Chemical Research is investi-
  gating a specific direct reduction  process in which part  of the
  sulfur produced is catalytically  converted into the reducing  agent.
  Princeton is also designing a small pilot plant including a pulverized-
  coal-fed furnace that should be in operation this year.
    Tracor, Inc.,  is studying dry metal  oxides and providing thermo-
  dynamic  data to other contractors.  Aerojet General is investigating
  aqueous scrubbing processes.
    TRW,  Inc., is conducting the state-of-the-art review of solid or-
  ganic materials for surfur oxides control, and FMC  Corp., is well
  along in the survey of inorganic  materials other than metal oxides,
  including char.  The survey incorporates reviews of the several char
  processes  under development  in  Europe  (mainly Germany) and
  Japan. Westinghouse Electric  Corp., is exploring the  entire field of
 physical methods of  separation  for removing sulfur  dioxide from
 flue gases. General Electric Co., is trying to develop a process based
 on the use of selectively permeable membranes for separating or con-
 centrating sulfur dioxide.
   Most of the nine area surveys should near completion by the end of
 fiscal year 1969. At that time, in addition to the specific processes now
 being developed, the surveys will have resulted in the selection of
 other promising new processes for development. The contractors will
 have provided theoretical analyses, preliminary engineering designs,
 and economic evaluations for specific applications of these new pro-
 cesses. These results will coincide with progress in problem definition
 studies of specific industries and equipment.
   As work on new processes has developed, two processes have shown
 potential for control of nitrogen oxides as well as sulfur oxides. The
 following  section gives some specific details on these processes with
 discussion of additional support and consideration being given  over-
 all programs for control of nitrogen oxides.

             2. CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES POLLUTION

  The comprehensive systems study to  define nitrogen  oxides pollu-
tion problems and to develop a research and development program
for control of the problem was started near the end of fiscal  1968
Esso Research & Engineering has gathered considerable information
on  the  nature and magnitude of  the control problem  and on  tech-

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                                9

nology that has potential applicability to control of nitrogen oxides
emissions. Identification of the type, number, magnitude, and loca-
tion of sources will be followed by detailed recommendations for
formulation of a research and development program.
  Fundamental studies at the Bureau of Mines on the kinetics of
nitrogen oxides formation in flames have been completed and the final
report is in preparation.  NAPCA  research on fuel additives and
residential heating equipment is being continued. A commercially
available combustion-improving  device for residential oil furnaces
has  shown promise for reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides and
other pollutants.
  Investigation of the potential of fluid bed combustion of coal as a
means for controlling nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides is being con-
tinued in pilot studies by Pope, Evans, and Bobbins  as part of a
NAPCA cooperative study with the Office of Coal Research. At Ar-
gonne National Laboratory, NAPCA launched a broad-based theoreti-
cal and bench-scale evaluation of additive materials and of combustor
design and  operating  variables for  control of nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides in fluid  'bed combustion. A week-long symposium on
fluid bed combustion sponsored by NAPCA included participation
by representatives from four foreign countries as well as those from
the United States working in the field.
  NAPCA is evaluating new  and improved sulfur oxides control
processes for their potential in controlling nitrogen oxides. Develop-
ment of the molten carbonate process for sulfur oxides control at
Atomics International has been extended to include an evaluation of
the process as a means for control of nitrogen oxides. An extension
of the metal oxides thermodynamics work on sulfur oxides reactions
to include nitrogen oxides reactions is under consideration. Further
development of a macroscopic-scale model of nitrogen oxides forma-
tion  during combustion is also being considered to  complement the
systems study being done by Esso Research & Engineering.

               3. CONTHOL Or PAHTICULATE POLLUTION

  A  contract research  program directed toward the particulate pol-
lution problem was initiated in the second quarter of fiscal year 1969.
Emphasis is being -given to defining the total national  problem,
identifying major sources of particulate pollution, determining the
present  degree of control, defining the body of available technology
regarding important  properties and characteristics of particulates,
and  formulating research and development  programs necessary to
generate information required  for adequate control of particulates.
  In addition  to the  survey  of  the national particulate  pollution
problem, NAPCA is continuing its in-house studies of equipment for
control of particulates and other pollutants. NAPCA is studying five
basic types of scrubbers to relate scrubber efficiency to economics of
operation, to improve the effectiveness of scrubbers for control of
incinerator emissions,  and to develop new and improved scrubbing
techniques such as condensation of water vapor on very small par-
ticles to  facilitate removal. NAPCA is also  continuing its in-house
studies of fabric filtration, which is probably the most advanced tech-
nique for removal of very small particles. These in-house studies by
     28-189 O—69	S

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                               10

 NAPCA serve two purposes: (1) development of technology for solu-
 tion of specific problems and  (2) development of background and
 experience needed to manage the contract research program.
   The NAPCA in-house studies, contract studies of devices, and the
 contract survey and definition of the national particulate pollution
 problem complement new programs instituted to improve  overall
 capabilities of the important types of equipment now used in air
 pollution control. (Device improvement studies are  discussed in a
 later section.)

         4. CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM SPECIFIC INDUSTRIES

   NAPCA is expanding  its series of studies of basic industries to
 develop a comprehensive body of information that will provide guide-
 lines for all Federally sponsored research and development for con-
 trol of air pollution from these sources. These studies will generate
 engineering data and technical and economic feasibility analyses of
 alternative modes of control and will define research needs of the
 industry  related  to  development of  new and  improved  control
 techniques.
   Work was started in 1967 with initiation of a study  of the primary
 copper, lead, and zinc smelting industry. The series was expanded in
 1968 to include systems studies for control of air pollution from the
 wood  pulping,  integrated steel, and  graphic arts  industries. Al-
 though primary emphasis in the smelting study was given to sulfur
 oxides, later studies in the series are being broadened to include other
 significant pollutants such as odor-causing compounds, particulate
 fluorides, and solvents.
   A diversity of private competence is being brought to bear on the
 examination of industry problems. For example, the  team of E. R.
 Sirrine and Environmental Engineering is doing the wood pulping
 problem  analysis. Battelle Memorial Institute and Swindell-Dressier
 are studying the integrated steel industry. Evaluation of the graphic
 arts industry problem is being done by the Graphic Arts Technical
 Foundation under a cost-sharing arrangement.
  To the extent that it is practical, studies are being designed to
 meet the  coordinated information needs of several NAPCA programs.
 This is being done to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort within
 NAPCA  and to  minimize requests to  industry for responses to
 inquiries.
  Where necessary, the active support  and cooperation of operating
management in the affected industry is  being sought. Meetings are
being called to  explain the nature and  purposes of  the  studies. A
more formalized mechanism for industry  involvement has been in-
stituted with the creation of industry liaison committees. These com-
mittees, usually composed of 10 to 12 industry representatives, are set
 up to follow progress of  the studies and to offer an  industry view-
point on  developments. Lines of communication are kept open to as-
sociations  that  represent small business  enterprises to  encourage
cooperative support of studies designed to develop background data
on specific control problems.
  Future efforts by NAPCA wil include a broad area study of air
pollution controls  for stationary fossil fuel  combustion equipment.

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                                11

This project will be designed to investigate the problems of the great
number of combustion units in residential^ commercial, and industrial
installations, exclusive of the large utilities. Together these installa-
tions burn more than 30 percent of the fossil fuels consumed. A broad
attack on these sources is necessary because emissions from them often
occur at low levels in or near populated areas.

           5. CONTROL OP POLLUTION FROM WASTE DISPOSAL

  Recent studies have shown that solid wastes from residential, com-
mercial,  and industrial sources exceed 200 million tons per year  and
are increasing at a compounded annual rate of 3 percent. Agricultural,
forestry, ana animal  wastes greatly exceed this amount. The munici-
pal disposal problem  has already become critical because uncontrolled
dumping and burning are unacceptable. With the trend toward more
concentrated commercial operations and greater restrictions on levels
of land and  water pollution, similar problems are becoming evident
in the disposal of agricultural, forestry, and animal wastes. The ther-
mal destruction of wastes of all types will be increasingly employed
despite the resulting air pollution. Consequently, efficient incineration
processes and associated  air pollution control methods must be devel-
oped suitable to the types, quantities,  and locations of  the  wastes
generated.
  Broad systems studies are being designed to define the overall air
pollution problem associated with refuse disposal. The first such study
is now being performed by Arthur D. Little, Inc. This contractor is
assessing present and projected emissions resulting from incineration
of municipal refuse and analyzing all technically and economically
feasible methods for reducing emissions by available technology.  The
contractor will  recommend detailed research and development pro-
grams that will  lead to control device systems and new air-pollution-
free processes for thermal destruction of conversion of refuse. Much
operating, engineering, control, and cost information on incineration
of immediate value to municipal officials will also be assembled  and
cataloged.
  Aerojet-General Corp. and subcontractor specialists  are  assessing
present and projected quantity,  composition, and combustion charac-
teristics  of municipal refuse and  evaluating applicable boiler  and
power-generating technology to determine the technical  and economic
feasibility of utuizing refuse as a low-sulfur fuel for central power
stations.  Aerojet will intensively analyze the performance  ana costs
of advanced European installations that emit very little air pollution
and will prepare preliminary engineering design of several types of
installations. This study will provide detailed plans optimizing future
resource  allocation for development and demonstration of new  and
improved processes.
  Another systems study now being developed will be directed toward
analysis and control of air pollution resulting from thermal destruc-
tion of industrial and agricultural wastes. Disposal of these wastes
involves consideration of many different requirements related to phys-
ical form, composition, point of origin, and economic factors.  Meth-
ods suitable to various capacities, locations, and types of waste must be
developed, along with associated control systems. Another study  will

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                                 12

  evaluate the application of all gas-phase incineration methods to odor
  and pollution control.
    In-house work is continuing on emission sampling techniques and
  equipment, evaluation  of low-cost pit incinerators, and potential
  emissions that will result from the rapidly increasing plastic con-
  tent of refuse. NAPCA incineration control  studies are coordinated
  with related studies conducted by other Federal units  to insure in-
  formation exchange and optimum solution to the problem of air pollu-
  tion from refuse disposal.

                    6. DEVICE IMPROVEMENT STUDIES

    Typically, problems of air pollution control have been approached
  by modifying and adapting existing processes and control devices for
  the control of specific air pollution problems.  In many other cases,
  however, this approach is inadequate because of the inherent limita-
  tions of some processes and control equipment. An example is the in-
  ability of cyclones and scrubbers to collect the fraction of particulate
  pollution made up of very small particles. Contracts to study the capa-
  bilities and limitations of each major type of existing control  equip-
  ment, including fabric filters,  scrubbers, precipitators, and afterburn-
  ers, are being negotiated. In addition  to present usage practices, the
  degree of control in terms of properties  of particular pollutants will
  be characterized. The body of knowledge relating to each control de-
 vice will be assembled, and the capability of the device for controlling
 specific air pollution problems will be defined. Against the background
 of this  information, a research  and  development program in each
 problem area will be developed to expand the capabilities of each con-
 trol device and permit its extension to the control of new  air pollution
 problems.
   Of the available particulate control methods, fabric filtration seems
 to have the greatest potential for controlling small-particle-size emis-
 sions. Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. is doing pilot studies and Air
 Preheater with Public Health Service of New  Jersey is doing field
 studies to  investigate the potential  of  fabric  filters  as chemical con-
 tractors for reacting gaseous  pollutants such as sulfur  dioxide and
 fluorides with solid reactants.  In-house research of fabric filters has
 been  accelerated  as  part of  a  program to  develop  this control
 technology.
                   B. METEOROrXXJICAL RESEARCH

   The atmosphere's  dilution  capacity  is enormous; however,  when
 man overloads the air at the wrong time, in the wrong place, or with
 the wrong material, air pollution problems arise. Since the movement
 and dilution of airborne particles and gases are governed in large part
 by the motions of the atmosphere, the answers to questions of what
 constitutes the wrong time, the wrong place, or the wrong materials
 often require the assessment of an atmospheric scientist.
   To help  answer these questions, a better understanding is required
of atmospheric transport, diffusion, and deposition  processes which
define an air pollution potential condition. The studies of these proc-
esses and of the effects of atmospheric motions  on airborne .pollutants
are frequently categorized as air pollution meteorology or atmos-
pheric diffusion.

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                                13

   Basic goals of the National Air Pollution Control Administration's
 meteorology program determine two distinct types of activities in air
 pollution meteorology: (1) research, to define and describe meteoro-
 logical factors pertinent to air pollution control activities; and (2)
 application of meteorological principles to the conduct of air pollu-
 tion control programs.

              1. AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL FORECASTING

   The transfer of the air  pollution potential forecasting program to
 the Weather Bureau's National Meteorological Center (NMC), En-
 vironmental Science  Services Administration, in the summer of 1967,
 marked the culmination of a successful 7-year research and develop-
 ment effort to forecast air pollution potential. Following this transfer
 of operational forecast responsibility to ESSA, NAPCA's meteorol-
 ogists have maintained a  close liaison with NMC in their efforts to
 quantify the air pollution potential forecast. Initial attempts to em-
 ploy a simple box model are based on mixing depth (the height of the
 air layer above the ground in which pollutants effectively mix) and
 the average wind speed through the mixing depth, to yield an average
 normalized pollutant concentration. The mixing depth concept is most
 applicable in regions of light winds (stagnation)  and, fortunately, it
 is on such regions that forecasts of mixing depth and wind speed are
 best verified.
               2. LARGE POWERPLANT EFFLUENT STUDY

   A comprehensive investigation of the  transport and dispersion of
. plumes from tall stacks was initiated at a coal burning power station
 complex  in western Pennsylvania. Each  of three power stations hav-
 ing tall stacks over 800 feet high located on a line essentially 25 miles
 long, will emit daily more than 2,000 tons of sulfur dioxide gas into the
 atmosphere. To assess the potential effects of the airborne effluents from
 these  plants on the surrounding environment, measurements of plume
 rise, plume geometry, dispersion,  and SOa concentrations have been
 obtained, using instrumented helicopters and a mobile lidar (laser-
 radar), both under contract. These studies are providing information
 that is being analyzed (a) to develop and validate transport and dif-
 fusion models which give calculations of expected ground-level con-
 centrations of  effluents from  large powerplants, (b) to observe the
 magnitude, frequency, and spatial  distribution of ground-level pollut-
 ant concentrations from large powerplants and tall stacks,  and (c)
 to evaluate .the deleterious effects  on vegetation of sulfur compounds
 arid other  effluents from a large powerplant complex in the region of
 the installations. A  similar study of tall stack diffusion at  a coastal
 site is being considered.
                     3. BOUNDARY LATTER DYNAMICS
    The effort to develop and improve urban diffusion models has con-
  tinued  by attempting to describe  in  more  detail urban diffusion
  processes and to understand the structure of the atmosphere over urban
  areas. Field investigations of the urban heat island, conducted during
  nocturnal  stable periods in Cincinnati, have shown a  pronounced

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                                14

 modification of the vertical temperature and wind structure by the
 underlying urban complex. To study the atmospheric structure over
 a city located in less complicated terrain, a series of field investigations
 were recently carried out in Columbus, Ohio; similar investigations
 will be carried out under selected meteorological conditions. Measure-
 ments in Cincinnati of atmospheric turbidity  (degree of transparency
 of a cloud-free atmosphere), an  indicator of the aerosol content of
 the  atmosphere,  have  indicated that the total  number  of  particles
 suspended in the atmosphere is less in winter, with a higher propor-
 tion of large particles, than in summer. Measurements of ultraviolet
 (uv) radiation in Cincinnati show a marked reduction of ultraviolet
 received at the ground on days of heavy air pollution. The radiation and
 turbidity measurements at other locations in  the country constitute a
 continuing program to assess the long-term effects of air pollution on
 the weather; for each respective location, such measurements provide
 useful data  for  assessing  local air quality  and its  relationship to
 meteorological processes.

                          4. CLIMATOLOGY

  Tabulations by the National Weather Records Center, ESSA, of
 morning and afternoon mixing depths and average wind speed through
 each corresponding depth, have been prepared for 62 Weather Bureau
 radiosonde stations; these data are being analyzed to prepare an air
 pollution potential climatology of the contiguous States, including
 a frequency of episodes of hign air pollution potential, or "stagnation
 episodes," when shallow mixing depths and light wind speeds persist
 for at least  2  days. A geographical delineation and climatological
 description of areas for the States of Alaska and Hawaii, as well as the
 islands of Guam, Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands has been
 provided;  these areas represent a region  of dilution climate homo-
 geneity based on professional judgment and documented meteorologi-
 cal statistics. Meteorological descriptions of four air  quality control
 regions provided estimates of the geographical distribution  of  mean
 summer,  winter, and annual groundlevel concentrations of SO,, CO,
 and suspended particulates, based on pollutant source inventories pro-
 vided by NAPCA's air quality and emission data program.

                  C. HEALTH EFFECTS RESBABOH

  A  summary of the most recent  findings from health effects studies
 is presented with additional comments concerning the present research
 endeavors that serve as extensions of these findings  and which are
 designed to produce information which may be directly applied toward
the development of meaningful air quality criteria.

                       1.  NITROGEN DIOXIDE

  One important area of research relates to the definition of  nitrogen
dioxide as an environmental factor in the etiology of  emphysema. It
has been shown that cigarette smoking and/or the breathing of polluted
air or smog appeared to predispose susceptible individuals to emphy-
sema. Hign concentrations of NOa have been shown to cause severe

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                               15

acute diseases of the lungs. Through the efforts of a number of labora-
tories, emphysema has been produced experimentally in a variety of
animals (dog, monkey, rabbit, rat, and mouse). Initial experiments
utilized acutely toxic  concentrations of NO2 to. induce  subsequent
pathology but recent studies have employed a low enough range of
concentrations so that the experimental animals survived their natural
lifespans with minimal evidence of exposure to NO2. Concentrations as
low as 2 parts per million of NO2 administered over the natural life-
span of the rat (2 to 3 years) have revealed evidence of lung pathology
similar to the early stages of emphysema. Such levels approximate the
ambient concentrations observed during air pollution  episodes. The
primate is now being utilized by investigators due to its much longer
life expectancy than the rat so that the influence of environmental
factors may be prolonged as is most likely the case in man.

                  2. NITROGEN DIOXIDE AND OZONE

  Significant findings relating to nitrogen dioxide and ozone exposures
concern the increased susceptibility to pulmonary infections. Earlier
studies revealed that 0.5 parts per million NO2 and 0.08 parts per
million of ozone enhanced the susceptibility of mice to a respiratory
infectiyity challenge. Recent work indicates that the enhanced infec-
tivity is not due  merely to an  impairment of the lung clearance
mechanisms (cilia, mucus, phagocytosis), but also due to alterations of
the lung parenchyma, per se. These laboratory studies  are highly
significant since they have implicated a possible relationship between
air pollutants and changes in resistance to respiratory infection. These
biological parameters can now be tested under ambient situations using
epidemiological techniques and utilizing human population groups.
Future laboratory studies will concern secondary factors which play
a role in the causation of infectious disease. Exposure to cold, extreme
fatigue, disturbance hi the nutritional state, existence  of  previous
diseases, and many other conditions are frequently significant in the
establishment of the disease state.  Such  predisposing causes com-
prise the factors  in the multiple causality  principle and  although
their importance is well  established, their relative contributions m
the presence of air pollutants has yet to be quantitatively defined.
                           3. OX1DANT8
  Increased importance has been .given the problem concerning re-
search into the biochemical effects ofoxidant air pollutants. Previously,
a number of studies have demonstrated short-term effects of ambient
levels of bxidant pollutants on biological parameters such  as pulmo-
nary mechanics, oxygen consumption, athletic ability, and  others.
Recent biochemical investigations of the cellular effects of oxidant air
pollutants have produced information which may prove pertinent in
the determination of long-term human health effects. Lipid peroxida-
tion- is being considered as a mechanism of biological damage from
the exposure to oxidant air pollutants. Recent evidence has indicated
lipid peroxidation in the lung lipids of rats exposed to 1 part per mil-
lion NO2 for 4 hours. The peroxidative changes did not  occur imme-
diately but appeared to reach a maximum levelbetween 24 and 48 hours

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                                16

 postexposure.  This effect could be partially prevented 'by the prior
 administration to the animals of large doses or the antioxidant, alpha-
 tocopherol. Pulmonary surfactant obtained from rats exposed con-
 tinuously to 1 part per million NO2  for 2 weeks contained increased
 quantities of  phosphotidylclholine with  a concomitant decrease in
 phosphotidylethanokmine, an important precursor for phosphotidyl-
 choline. Corresponding increases were observed in palmitic acid con-
 tent with decreases in the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. These
 changes reflect the observed increase in phosphotidylcholme and the
 peroxidation of the normally present unsaturated fatty acids. These
 findings are considered significant since they rep resent basic changes at
 the cellular level and result from exposures of biological systems to low
 levels of air pollution. Additional studies, presently in progress, and
 concerning the biochemistry of the lipid portion of pulmonary sur-
 factant will allow conclusions to be drawn as to the effect on the metab-
 olism of surfactant lipids by these air pollutants and the mechanism
 -by which such changes may contribute to the subsequent development
 of physiological abberrations.
                      4. PABTICUIATE MATTER
   It has been known for many years that chemical substances of a
 carcinogenic nature are present in participate air pollutants. These
 substances have been shown to be cancer inducing when painted onto
 the backs or injected into the skin of mice. However, when these same
 substances were injected into the lungs of experimental animals the
 results did not indicate the production of cancers with any regularity.
 The interaction of carcinogens with other particulate agents nas been
 studied toxicologically utilizing laboratory animals. Experiments have
 shown that the addition of seemingly inert particulates to carcinogens
 results in the production of malignant neoplasms in the lung. Various
 experiments have produced a variety of malignant tumors in the lungs
 of experimental animals by intratracheal instillation of saline sus-
 pensions of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in the presence of particulate sub-
 stance serving as a carrier dust. It has been inferred that there  is a re-
 duction in the speed in which BaP is removed from the respiratory
 tract -brought about by the particulate dust. Recently, researchers have
 demonstrated the interaction of a known carcinogen with the gaseous
 air pollutant,  sulfur dioxide.  Inhalation exposures of rats indicated
 that SO2, alone, produced proliferative and metaplastic changes  in
 the bronchial epithelium; BaP, alone, failed to cause the development
 of tumors; but the inhalation of BaP in the presence of SO2  caused
 the development of bronchogenic squamous cell carcinoma. Other stud-
 ies have employed the injection of crude  benzene-soluble extracts  of
 atmospheric particulate into suckling mice.
  At 50 weeks postinoculation, a variety of tumors were evident, the
most significant being lymphomas, hepatomas, and multiple pulmo-
nary adenomas. It should be noted also that measurable concentrations
of inorganic substances, such as metal dusts and asbestos, demonstrated
to be associated with increased liability to lung cancer development,
are also emitted into the atmosphere. Additional laboratory experimen-
tation is needed to verify such carcinogenic potential relative to inter-
acting effects  and  respective ambient  atmospheric  concentrations.

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                               17

When linked with urban-rural differences in lung cancer frequency
revealed from epidemiologic investigations, this evidence indicates
that such substances in urban polluted atmospheres are potential car-
cinogens for the exposed human population,

                       5. CARBON MONOXIDE

  Carbon monoxide is highly suspected as one of the environmental
predisposers to myocardial infarcts and a potentiator of morbidity
and mortality from this phenomena. Experiments have demonstrated
that dogs exposed to CO had decreased arterial-veneous oxygen differ-
ences in spite of an increased coronary blood flow. Additional studies,
utilizing humans with coronary heart disease, have shown that OOHb
levels between 5 and 12 percent resulted in a decreased oxygen myo-
cardial  extraction, which was related inversely to the COHb levels,
despite an increased coronary flow and heart output. Such observations
have shed light on the observed higher incidence of coronary thrombo-
sis in smokers versus nonsmokers.
                    0. BEHAVIORAL TOXIOOIjOGT
  There has been increased interest and support for behavioral toxi-
cology which is an area of research for determining how toxic com-
pounds affect systems and alter the normal response of an individual
ot experimental animal. Very low dosages of certain compounds can
meaningfully alter the behavior of people without causing any con-
scious or apparent physiological distress or tissue damage. Studies are
in progress to determine how information is processed in the brains
of rats and monkeys and how certain pollutants change this processing.
Three general areas are concerned : (1) neuorochemistry, for determin-
ing how pollutants interfere with chemicals such as serotonin, acetyl-
choline, and noradrenline, which are responsible for transmission of
electrical signals in the brain; (2) neurophysiology, or more precisely
electrophy siology, which is being studied in relation to electrical activ-
ity in the visual cortex and in the superior colliculus. which controls
the visual motor system; and (3) behavior— this is being investigated
in relation to timing sense, problem solving, and deeisionmaking. The
final  integrated effort concerns how air pollutants affect the whole
animal organism. This will involve the recording of «. variety of physi-
ological responses^-body temperature, EEG, EKG, and respiratory
gases — while simultaneously controlling and evaluating how the ani-
mal copes with increasingly complex decisions and performance tasks.
To date, the effect of carbon monoxide on the electrical activity of the
brain has been investigated through studies of the brain's response to
a visual stimulus. The visual stimulus evokes a characteristic electrical
response in the visual area of the brain. The wave form of this response
is changed following the inhalation of carbon monoxide (100 ppm GO
for 2 hours) . In general, both the amplitude and the harmonic content
of the brain's response to a  visual stimulus  are decreased with GO
exposures. Other studies have concerned  the effects of chronic lead
absorption on the spontaneous EEG sleep records of rats and the rela-
tionship of such responses to behavior changes. Since  sleep tends to
follow orderly patterns, related changes are relatively easy to detect.
     28-189

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                                18

 This research has indicated that lead changes the period of deep, or
 dream, sleep, shortening the period and making it less stable. Treated
 animals showed more dream sleep in the early sleep period as compared
 to baseline data: in addition, the patterns of deep sleep became less
 regular. These changes in dream sleep are considered to directly, or
 indirectly, reflect the impairment of a neurocontrol system. Altered
 functions of the central nervous system may be evident before clinical
 signs and symptoms have been induced by exposure to toxic materials.
 In particular, the changes in dream sleep may involve the mechanism
 responsible for controlling transitions between the  various levels of
 consciousness. This may be related to the sluggishness associated with
 exposure to lead and other toxic metals. The underlying importance of
 this program is to discover  what stressors in the environment may
 make it more difficult for people to perform efficiently at given tasks.

                     7. EPIDBMIOLOGIC STUDIES

  In an epidemiologic study of 450 second-grade elementary school-
 children in the Cincinnati area, the pulmonary function of the children
 living in the more polluted sectors of the city was persistently below the
 pulmonary function of children, matched for social economic level
 and race, living in a "clean" sector of the city. This difference was
 consistent during weekly  measurements obtained in November 1967
 and February and  May 1968, and was present in the face of only a
 20 percent difference in average exposure of the two groups to partic-
 ulate air pollutants.
  One thousand second-grade schoolchildren from Greater Chatta-
 nooga have been enrolled in a similar epidemiologic study designed to
 ascertain the effects of exposure to oxides of nitrogen on pulmonary
 function and on the  frequency and severity of acute respiratory
 disease. Weekly pulmonary function tests were obtained during Novem-
 ber 1968 and wiU again be obtained in March 1969. The households of
 the children are being questioned at biweekly intervals regarding  the
 presence and severity of acute respiratory diseases.
  The city of  Saratoga Springs. N.Y., was intensively sampled by
 means of  40  intermittent roto-bar samplers during the August-
 September 1968 ragweed  season,  in order to determine  the distri-
 bution of pollen concentration in a community. These data are being
 used to plan a subsequent six-city epidemiologic study in New York
 State of the effect of ragweed control on hay fever prevalence.
  Outbreaks of asthma in epidemic proportions have occurred annually
 during  the months of September,  October, and  November in New
 Orleans for the past 15-20 years. These outbreaks have been analyzed
 for the 1960-67 period and have been found to be associated with low
 temperature and humidity recordings during  those  months, but do
 not appear to be related to increases in specific chemical pollutants.
Studies are continuing to determine the additional relationship of the
 asthma outbreaks to concentrations of aeroallergens.
  A  preliminary study of the effect of riding in taxioabs on breath
concentrations  of carbon monoxide revealed that both smokers and
nonsmokers have elevated breath carbon  monoxide concentrations
after riding through a normal traffic pattern in taxicabs for 3 to 5
hours. Although cigarette  smokers have the highest persistent carbon

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                                19

monoxide levels, the percentage increase  of carbon monoxide was
greatest in the nonsmokers exposure to carbon monoxide by normal
taxicab riding.
  Oadmium concentrations in dustfall, water, and milk were measured
in 70 metropolitan areas in midcontinental States during the months
of September and October 1968. These data will be related to variations
in cardiovascular disease mortality in 70 cities.
  Initial contacts have been made to establish an air pollution health
effects surveillance network in selected cities of the United States.
Through this network, the effect on selected indices of health will
be related to the changing air quality within each city and to differences
in air quality between the cities. The effect of differences in air quality
on school and industrial absences, hospital admissions for selected
diseases, severity of respiratory disease epidemics such as influenza,
and on other measures of health will be analysed in this surveillance
study.
             D. ECONOMIC STUDIES OF Ant POLLUTION

  Until recently, the economic effects of air pollution and the cost
of its control were largely unexplored areas, virtually all that has
been done in studying and  analyzing the economic aspects of air pol-
lution has been initated since the passage of the Clean Air Act  of
1963. At first, these efforts were viewed as only an incidental part of the
NAPCA's responsibility. However, economic studies are now recog-
nized as a strategic part of the overall effort to develop and dissem-
inate information on the effects of air pollution and its control. Infor-
mation on costs and benefits will be important to both public and
private decisionmakers in upcoming periods.
  Several studies of the benefits associated with  air pollution con-
trol^have been undertaken  and completed.  They include estimates of
additional expenditures to avoid soifing, reductions in property value,
damages to commercial vegetation, and costs of human mortality and
morbidity.  For the most  part, these studies have been specific  to
particular times and particular geographic locations and, therefore, are
not readily generalized to other times and places. Moreover, the methods
by which most havebeen conducted are open to some question.
  To meet the need for reliable, useful economic information, NAPOA
is presently conducting studies to (a) secure basic data, on the damage
air pollution causes to vegetation, livestock, and materials; (&) deter-
mine the cost  of .controlling air pollution emissions; and (c)  analyze
the  overall economic impact of air pollution  control  in order  to
appraise the State, local, regional, and  national  economic burdens.
Brief, summaries of some of the major studies underway or planned
in these areas are presented.
                      1, VEGETATION EFFECTS
  Several species of economically important plants are being exposed
to gaseous pollutants such as ozone and sulphur dioxide in order to
determine  the senesitivities  of different species  and varieties and
to eventually  develop dose-response curves which will be useful in
the setting of  air quality criteria. In addition, laboratory studies are
being conducted to determine how variations in environmental factors

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                               20

such as light, humidity, temperature, and a variety of soil, variables
affect the sensitivity of various plant species to specific pollutants.
  In the summer of 1968, experimental field studies were begun to deter-
mine  the effects of ambient air pollutants an the growth and  yield
of several  common species and varieties of field and garden crops.
These studies will be expanded to include additional species during
fiscal year  1970. In cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service, a field
study was  begun in 1968 to determine the feasibilty of using color
and color-infrared aerial photography for the detection of oxidant
damage to ponderosa pine in California. This study will be expanded
to include other multispectural sensing devices in the spring of 1969.
  To assess the agricultural effects of air pollutants, the administration
works closely with the U.S. Department of Agrculture as part of a
coordinated and cooperative program.

                     2. EFFECTS ON MATERIALS

  Chamber studies are being  conducted in order to quantitatively
establish cause-effect relationships between the fading of 20 selected
fabric-dye  combinations and controlled  parameters—gaseous pollu-
tants, relative humidity, and temperature. Studies are going  on at
five sites in  the area of Birmingham, Alabama, to relate the con-
centration  of participate matter and other pollutants to the soiling
of windows,  painted panels, and other building materials. The Na-
tional Bureau of Standards in cooperation with NAPCA is study-
ing the effects of sulfur dioxide and photochemical oxidants on a
variety  of building materials. In addition, a contract has been  nego-
tiated to identify  air pollution problems of economic significance
in the damage to electrical contacts such as connections and switches
used in industrial  electronic and electrical systems. A similar con-
tract  has been made to identify air pollution problem areas in the
entire field of textiles including fabric and fiber deterioration, dye-
fading,  and soiling.

                    3.  SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS

  Results of  a recently completed cross-sectional study of the effects
of air pollution on residential real estate values indicates an inverse
relationship  between  air pollutant  concentration  and  property
values. This study will be extended to cover other metropolitan  areas
in the near future. In January 1969 a study will be initiated to deter-
mine the nature and magnitude of odor problems on a national scale
and to study specific community odor situations in order to develop
air  quality criteria for various categories of odorants. Further field
studies to assess soiling damage costs  and socio-economic impact of
visibility reduction will also be initiated in fiscal year 1969.

                    4.  EMISSION CONTROL COST

  The cost of reducing air pollutant source emissions is being evalu-
ated through  detailed industrial surveys, by general pollutant cate-
gories, and by generic  types of control equipment. Each of  these
investigations is designed to compliment and refine the others. Where

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                               21

possible, cooperative studies are being undertaken  with industrial
groups  and other Government agencies to  develop accurate  cost-
effectiveness relationships and to  predict future air pollution con-
trol  costs. These cooperative  efforts have been  quite productive in
developing interest, knowledge, and concern through  involvement
of the  participants. Data collection has been  completed  on three
industries—the steam-electric power generating industry (in coopera-
tion with the Federal Power Commission), the gray and ductile iron
foundry industry (with  the  Department  of Commerce), and the
asphaltic concrete industry. The data are being analyzed and separate
reports on the findings of each study are in preparation.
  Systems studies which include the assessment of air pollution con-
trol  costs are being conducted by contract in  the integrated iron and
steel industry and the wood pulping industry. Similar studies are being
developed in the acid  manufacturing and  the petroleum refining
industry.
  A cooperative study  of control cost with  the cement industry  is
under development. This study will  include projection of  control
costs into the future by each industrial firm.
  Research is underway to improve cost estimates for controlling emis-
sions of specific pollutant categories by generic types of control equip-
ment or oy fuel and material substitutions. Such cost-effectiveness
analyses have been completed for paifrculates and oxides of sulfur
a'nd nave been included in the control technology documents discussed
elsewhere in this report. Similar investigations are underway for car-
bon  monoxide,  oxides of nitrogen, and nydrocarbon  compounds.
  Procedures and techniques for making regional and national assess-
ments of control costs are being developed. These techniques are  to
be implemented in air quality control region analyses as authorized
in the Air Quality Act of 1967. Such  techniques are being designed,
evaluated, and  refined  in a Philadelphia  metropolitan area study.
The methodology for these  urban analyses shall employ and expand
the computerized techniques of determining the least cost methods  of
meeting air quality standards that have been  developed in simulation
studies within NAPCA.

                 5. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF STANDARDS

  Progress is being made in economic analysis of  National Emission
Standards as required by the Air Quality Act, section 211 (a). The
industrial categories to be considered  have tentatively  been selected
and the analysis procedure has been outlined. The necessary industry
statistics and related costs  information for  other studies  are  being
assembled for  such economic evaluations.
  The NAPCA is continuing to sponsor comprehensive cost-benefit
studies and systems-type regional and national analyses which take
into consideration both the  cost of reducing  pollution emissions and
the resulting receptor effects of these emissions. Present cost studies are
designed to refine the data inputs to these large, more comprehensive
cost studies.

   35-139 O—«9	6

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                               22

  A comprehensive study has been completed of the national impact
of implementing the act. A report on this study has been prepared
which contains a detailed estimate of such costs for the 5-year period
beginning July 1,1969, and shall be updated annually thereafter.
  In addition to its own studies, NAPOA is  actively encouraging
independent investigations by industry, universities, and other public
and private groups through participation in conferences, seminars,
and other special meetings.

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            III. CONTROL PROGRAM  SUPPORT

           A. CONTROL AGHNOT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

  The rising national concern with air pollution is evidenced by the
increased control activity of State and local governmental agencies.
In part, this growth can be attributed to the financial incentives and
technical assistance provided by the Clean  Air Act.  State and  local
governments are now  spending approximately $50  million a year,
including Federal funds,  for  control programs as contrasted  with
approximately $12 million prior to enactment of the act in 1963.

                    1. FEDERAL GRANT SUPPORT

  Grant support is currently going to an estimated 175 State, regional,
and local  agencies.  While a number  of new agencies quality for
assistance each year, others which have formerly received assistance
fail to qualify for continued support, largely because of failure to
enact the necessary control legislation or  for  lack  of non-Federal
matching funds.
  It is expected that the number of agencies operating control pro-
grams will not increase as rapidly in  the future as they have in the
past 4 years. This can be  attributed  to a  consolidation of agencies
serving adjacent jurisdictions, such  as the joint Wayne  County-
Detroitj Mich, program, and to the current existence of control pro-
grams m the bulk of the  populated  areas.
  The establishment of air-quality-control  regions will also influence
the organization of multijurisdictional agencies, but the degree to
which this will occur cannot be foreseen at this time. At present, 58
municipal or regional agencies in 28 of the 32 regions to be designated
are receiving Federal grant support. Regions not now receiving such
support are Providence, R. L; JBaltimore, Md.; Birmingham,  Ala,;
and Chattanooga. Tenn. In addition to local programs, State agencies
provide varying levels of services to the local areas, and, in the case
of  Providence, B. L, the State agency is the exclusive control-agency
under provisions of State law.  At present, 22 State agencies involved
in  28 of the air quality control regions are receiving Federal air-
pollution-control program grants.

                      2. MAINTENANCE GRANTS

   The first report indicated that maintenance grants were expected
to  be awarded during 1968 fiscal year. Since that time 10 agencies
have qualified for  and have  received maintenance grant support.
Equally significant is the fact that more  than  half of the applica-
tions received have been  disapproved, pointing up  the very serious
 gaps in some of the operating  programs considered among the better
                               (28)

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                               24

 ones in the country. In the course of the application review process,
 consultation  with the agencies has resulted in program redirection
 on the part of the applicant agencies in order to bring their individual
 programs up to the standards set forth in the regulations.
                     3. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
   Consultation provided in the course of grant application review is
 only  one facet of the broad technical assistance provided to State,
 regional, and local agencies by NAPCA. Visits by teams of technical
 staff members for the purpose of program review are also provided.
 A recent example is the city of Cleveland, Ohio, where, at the request
 of the mayor, the city's control program .was evaluated and recom-
 mendations were made for strengthening it.
   Members of the diversified technical staff also provide assistance on
 specific problems such as review of proposed ordinances, laboratory
 and monitoring methods, and  control methods for specific pollutants.
 An estimated 120 requests were serviced in the past year, and signifi-
 cantly, 12 were from the core  cities in the first 20 air-quality-control
 regions planned to be designated.

               4. SURVEY AN1> DEMONSTRATION GRANTS

   Survey and demonstration projects supported within the past year
 give some indication of the broad  range of problems for which solu-
 tions are being sought through the grants program. A listing of the
 projects  follows:
   Illinois Air Pollution Commission.—A survey of the availability of
 low sulfur coal in the Midwest coalfields and development of economic
 data on its production and distribution.
   Computer Graphics Laboratory^ Harvard  University.—A  demon-
 stration  of  computer mapping techniques for producing graphical
 displays  of various types of information  utilized in the prevention
 and control of air pollution.
   Ohio Department of Natural Resources.—A survey pf the avail-
 ability of low-sulfur coal in the deeper portions of the Ohio coal seams,
 with data obtained from analyses of drill cores.
   Chicago Department of Air  Pollution Control.—To develop an
 SO2 incident-forecasting system and control policy and strategy, and
 to produce  and publish an operations manual which would enable
 other communities to employ similar principles.
  Philadelphia Health Department (in cooperation with Pennsyl-
 vania State Health Department).—To develop information on steps
 which can be taken, by industry classes, to reduce pollution during
 emergency alerts and to evaluate the effects of such steps on the atmos-
 phere and their impact on the community.
  California Air Resources Board.—A study  of the feasibility of
control of NOX emissions performed on a test fleet of 120 State-oper-
ated motor vehicles.
  California Air Resources Board.—Continued  support for diesel
 smoke measurement on  a  dynamometer installation at a highway
truck inspection station.

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                               25

  New Jersey Health Department.—A continuation of the project for
developing rapid-emission test procedures for use in State inspection
lanes. Involves equipping pilot lanes and testing the prototype system
under actual operating conditions, and  determining effectiveness of
maintenance performed by private garages servicing oars which fail
hypothetical State standards.
  All of these activities—financial support^ technical assistance, and
the search for new or better solutions—axe directed toward strengthen-
ing State, local, and especially regional, control programs.

                  B. RESEARCH GRANTS PROGRAM

  The research grants program of NAPCA offers a continuing source
of basic research knowledge  needed  to  implement the purpose and
intent of the Air Quality Act of 1967. It provides basic, developmental,
and  applied research information which supplements in-house and
contract research in the areas  of cause, effect, prevention, and control
of air pollution with respect  to human health, welfare, and produc-
tivity. The purpose of the program is to promote and encourage  re-
search and development of basic theories, new concepts, methods, and
equipment for the establishment of air pollution standards and more
effective air pollution control.

                   1. RESEARCH GRANT PROJECTS

  In fiscal year  1968 there were  207 active research grant projects
totaling $7,431,000. These projects contributed needed basic knowledge
to the following areas of research:
                                                             Grontt
(a) Air pollution effects on human health	    80
(*) Agricultural effects of air pollution	    28
(o) Economic and  political  studies	    9
(d) Analysis and phyfriochemlcal  investigatlona	    48
(e) Development of analytic methods  and equipment	    21
(/) Meteorology	    20
(g) Identification of air pollution sources  and control		    42
(A) Communication	    8

                      2. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

  The research grants program is guided by the recommendations of
extramural advisory groups and the  opinions of intramural  re-
searchers. Decisions are made to select and fund only the best, program-
relevant research grant projects. Also by this method, certain areas
of fundamental research which need additional  emphasis and which
lend themselves to support by research grants have been identified.
These areas are: behavioral toxicology, quantitative pathology  of
respiratory systems, biochemistry of  the toxicity of oxidative pollut-
ants, new physical concepts  for air pollution instrumentation, life
cycles of important  pollutants, public  attitudes and acceptance  of
esthetic insults, and the relationship between air pollution damage and
market parameters. Programing activities are being directed toward
increasing the number of projects in these research categories.
   Recently a program of exploratory grants to encourage new in-
vestigators to enter the air pollution field and  to provide a way to

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                               26

increase research in areas neglected by regular research grants has
been initiated. These grants provide limited support for feasibility
studies by young investigators who have stimulating ideas but limited
background of research experience. It  is anticipated that approxi-
mately 150 applications for exploratory grants will be received in,
fiscal year  1969; however, because of the dearth of funds, only a few
will be awarded.
  During the past year activity has increased in program analysis to
bring together and make readily  available the information gained
through research under the grants program. A "highlights" booklet
listing abstracts of recent research findings has been prepared for pub-
lication. Another booklet, being readied for publication, will list the
scientific and technical papers and reports which have resulted from
research grant projects so that investigators will have, in one publi-
cation, a complete reference to the research carried on by other in-
vestigators in the grants program.

      C. RELATIONSHIPS WITH  STATE AND LOCAL OFFICIALS

  NAPCA has developed a variety of relationships with associations
of elected  and appointed officials at all levels  of  government in an
effort to insure the most effective coordination of governmentarrespon-
sibilities and  authorities. Among  the organizations  with  which
NAPCA has developed strong worKing relationships are the National
Association of Counties, the National League of Cities,  their Service
to Regional Councils, the Association of State and Territorial Health
Officers,  the  Governors' conference,  and the  Council  of  State
Governments.
  These relationships serve a very valuable communications function
in the effort to improve the quality of the Nation's air.  NAPCA ad-
vises these organizations of matters within their areas of responsi-
bilities and of likely effects of specific NAPCA programs on each
particular  level  of government.  The associations of governmental
officials respond by advising NAPCA of problems they see, of alterna-
tive methods of implementing programs and of the perspectives .with
which their constituents view specific NAPCA policies. As implemen-
tation of the Air Quality Act of 1967 continues, this communications
function should prove to be increasingly valuable.

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    IV. PROGRESS TOWARD A REGIONAL APPROACH
                    TO AIR POLLUTION

             A. DEFINITION or ATMOSPHERIC AREAS

  On January 16, 1968, the definition of atmospheric areas for the
contiguous United States was announced in the Federal Kegister. The
basis for the definition was discussed in the first progress report. Those
areas not included in the initial notice were completed and announced
in the Federal Register on November 13,1968. Atmospheric areas were
defined for Alaska, Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa? Puerto Rico,
and the Virgin Islands. This completes the action required under sec-
tion 107 (a) (1). Atmospheric areas have now been defined for  all
portions of the United States.

         B.  DESIGNATION OF Ant QUAUTY CONTROL REGIONS

  The process of  developing and  designating air quality control
regions nas followed closely the procedure outlined in the first progress
report. Attempts have been made, however, to improve on the proce-
dure through extensive communication with affected State and local
authorities.  Such extensive communication is designed to make the
consultation with these authorities, prior to designation, a meaning-
ful exchange of views within the framework of cooperative federalism.
  Thus,  the  evaluation of  engineering  and urban  factors,  which
NAPCA  considers in the preliminary determination of  tentative
boundaries, is made available in report form prior to the consultation.
These reports are available to the general public, but their primary
purpose is to provide the affected State and local officials with a  de-
tailed outline of  NAPCA's view of the problem area.  Reports  are
prepared  in such a manner as to highlight the approach of the Air
Quality Act—an assessment of both technical and jurisdictional as-
pects, recognizing the dynamic nature of the problem and the attempts
to control present and future air pollution.
  Much  effort is  expended to inform State  and local officials of
NAPCA's position, both before and after the formation of the report.
Several meetings with State officials are held to discuss the responsibi-
lities of State action under the Air Quality Act. Local control officials
are consulted to contribute their expertise. Once the report is com-
pleted, letters are sent to appropriate State and local officials, a cross
section of Federal officials, and members of other executive depart-
ments. These letters inform the officials of the consultation^ and pro-
vide them with a copy of the report for their perusal. A notice of pro-
posed rulemaking is published in the Federal Register^ giving the time,
date, and place of the formal consultation, along with the proposed
boundaries of the air quality control region. The formal consultation
is open to the public, but since the act specifies that this is to be con-
                              (27)

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                               28

 sultation with "appropriate State and local authorities," participation
 in the consultation is limited to such officials. Written comments from
 the general public are accepted within a 30-day period after publica-
 tion in the Federal  Register, and  receive close scrutiny prior to the
 final  recommendation. A press release is timed to coincide with the
 Federal Register announcement, so as to provide increased publicity
 of the proceedings.
  The consultation is conducted under the direction  of  a chairman
 designated  in the Federal Register  announcement. The proceedings
 are transcribed, and use is made of  these records in preparing the final
 proposal. The formal consultation  held in this manner has proven to
 be useful in achieving public understanding and governmental co-
 operation.  While the views expressed at such consultations may not
 always  be expected to give unanimous approval of NAPCA's action,
 a high  degree of consensus on region boundaries has been achieved.
 The formal consultations have indicated that full and adequate co-
 operation is possible, as envisioned  in the Air Quality Act, among
 State, local, and Federal authorities.
  Activities in this field have begun to culminate in the designation of
 regions. Air quality control regions are designated through republica-
 tion in  the Federal Register, by the Secretary of the  Department of
 Health, Education, and Welfare, of the proposed boundaries, allow-
 ing for any changes that may have taken place during the period of
 consultation. Regions have been designated in the metropolitan areas
 surrounding Washington, D.C., New York City, Chicago, and Phila-
 delphia. Consultations have been  held in Denver and Los Angeles.
  Air quality control regions proposed by NAPCA  do  not become
 official until the  Secretary's republication in the Federal Register.
  Technical assistance is to be provided to the designated air-quality-
 control  regions by appropriate NAPCA staff personnel  assigned to
 the regions. This assistance will be available to States and local agen-
 cies for technical guidance as well  as for the acquisition of necessary
 information for  proposing  standards and  implementation  plans.
 Actual  evaluation of proposed standards and implementation plans
 will also be provided by NAPCA staff.

            C. DEVELOPMENT OF AIR QUALTTT CRITERIA

  During the reporting period, air quality criteria documents on two*
 major pollutants, particulate matter, and the oxides of sulfur, were
 prepared in preliminary form. These documents are to be published
 and issued to the States in early 1969. Progress was made in the devel-
 opment of several other major pollutants, namely, photochemical oxi-
 dants, carbon monoxide, atmospheric fluorides, hydrocarbons, and the
 oxides of nitrogen. Other pollutants for which the development of
 criteria is under consideration include aldehydes, asbestos, beryllium,
 certain heavy metals, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, lead, odors, organic
 carcinogens, pesticides, and rocket fuel components and their combus-
 tion products. Priority of development of criteria for these pollutants
 will depend on several factors, the main factor being the results of a
 study presently underway to exhaustively survey available informa-
 tion on  the pollutants involved. This study is expected to define the
magnitude  and seriousness of the  problems associated with each of

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                               29
these pollutants or category of pollutants, as well as with others not
listed here. The establishment of a priority list  for development of
criteria will then be undertaken. Assistance in this effort will be pro-
vided by the National Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee. Sum-
mary discussions of the two criteria documents soon to be issued follow.
                      1. PARTICIPATE MATTER
  Work began in the summer of 1967 on the preparation of a document
on  air  quality criteria  for  atmospheric particulate matter and ex-
tended to December 1968. A working draft was produced in October
1968. This draft reflected the efforts of several NAPCA staff members
and university consultants working under contract. The draft was sub-
jected to an elaborate and intensive review by the Air Quality Ad-
visory Committee's Subcommittee on Particulate Matter, the full ad-
visory committee, chapter authors, special consultants, NAPCA staff,
and seventeen other Federal agencies. Incorporation of review com-
ments resulted in several subsequent drafts prior to finalization of the
preliminary statement issued in December 1868.
  The document focuses on background information and effects at
various particulate concentrations. Effects on vegetation, materials,
animals, and human  health are stressed, along with effects on visi-
bility. Certain effects are observed at concentrations ranging from
about 80/ig/m8 to 200/ig/m3. Both  sensitivity  to the presence of par-
ticulate matter by the population and  effects appear to vary in direct
proportion to concentration.

                         2. SULFUR OXIDES

  The document on air  quality criteria for sulfur oxides supercedes a
similarly entitled document published in March 1967. The later docu-
ment, also to be published in early 1969, represents a re-evaluation and
interpretation of information contained in the earlier version plus a
consideration of pertinent material published after the first document
was prepared.  Primary  authorship  of both documents  rests with
NAPCA staff members,  although advice and consultation were ob-
tained from consultants and others outside of NAPCA. The final pub-
lished document will reflect an intensive review by many of the same
reviewers for the document on particulate matter.
   As is the cage with the particulate matter document, the sulfur ox-
ides criteria document focuses on background information and effects
 at various concentrations.

     D. DEVELOPMENT  or INFORMATION ON AVAILABLE CONTROL
                           TECHNIQUES

   As companions to the air quality criteria documents on particulate
 matter and sulfur oxides, documents on  control technology  for the
same pollutants will  be published as  part of the overall coordinated
 program of  NAPCA. Scheduling was arranged so that the  criteria
 and control technology  documents for these two pollutants would fol-
 low closely to the dates of the declaration of the first air quality con-
 trol regions. The  currently best  known  means  for controlling the

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                               30

sources of these two pollutants  within an air quality region are
offered.
  The control technology documents are comprehensive state-of-the-
art reports which combine the techniques of control with appropriate
cost-effectiveness studies. Critical review by the National Air Pollution
Control Techniques Advisory Committee,  Federal agency represent-
ativeSj and representatives of industry enabled a  vast amount of
experience and knowledge to be incorporated into these documents.

                      1. PARTICULATE MATTER

  In the participate report, the major sources and the various types
of pollutants emitted  from them are listed, together with descriptions
of the applicable but different control systems and techniques. A large
portion of the report is devoted to the description of various gas clean-
ing devices and the technical considerations involved in selecting one
for a given process. Among the devices evaluated are  gravitational
settling chambers, dry centrifugal cyclones, low- and high-pressure
wet collectors, low- and high-voltage electrostatic precipitators,  bag-
houses, and afterburners. A concluding section reviews the current
research programs. Both stationary ana mobile sources are discussed.

                         2.  SULFUR OXIDES

  The sulfur oxides document considers  both process changes and
emission controls. The techniques for controlling sulfurous gases gen-
erally involve the combustion of various materials, although separa-
tion of sulfur oxides from other products of reaction is often compli-
cated. In the report, sections on locations, costs, and availability of low-
sulfur fuels, as well  as  the economics of  fuel substitutions  and fuel
switches, are included. A survey of fuel and flue gas desulfurization
techniques in various stages of development is included, presenting
full-scale installation  feasibility and cost-effectiveness data. Control
processes for numerous other industrial processes are described. Tall
stack design information is  included for use where adequate disper-
sion of pollutants by this method is acceptable. Current research is
reviewed and source test methods, as well as process emission factor,
are given.
                       3. OTHER POLLUTANTS

  Currently, first draft reports on  three additional pollutants—carbon
monoxide, nitrogen, oxides,  and hydrocarbons—are in preparation.
Each  of the three reports discusses emission sources, describes and
evaluates control  techniques for mobile and stationary sources and
for specific industrial processes, arid presents the economics of dif-
ferent control techniques. Proposed future  reports on fluorides and
odors are in the early stages of planning.

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          V. FEDERAL ABATEMENT ACTIVITIES

                    A.  ABATEMENT ACTIONS

  The Federal abatement authority authorized in the 1963 Clean Air
Act is retained in the Air,Quality Act of 1967 (section 108).
  To date, the Secretary  has convened one intrastate and eight inter-
state conferences. Three of the interstate conferences were initiated at
the request of Governors  of States affected by air pollution from out-
of-State sources, and five  were initiated by the Secretary after consul-
tation with State officials. The one  intrastate* conference, in Montana,
was requested by local officials with the concurrence of the Governor.
  Since the first progress report, one interstate abatement conference
was held in the Ironton, Ohio-Huntington, West Virginia-Ashland,
Ky., area. Consultation and preconference investigations in the Steu-
benville, Ohio-Weirton, Wheeling, W. Va. region are now complete.
Since this area is expected to be designated as an air quality control
region in the near future, the results of abatement investigations will
provide a basis on which the State can act under tlhe new regional
provisions of the Air Quality Act of 1967.

               B. POLLUTION FROM SINGLE SOURCES

  Surveillance continued on  progress toward meeting recommenda-
tions of the Secretary, HEW, in the four smaller areas in which past
conferences were held:
    Selbyville, Del.-Bishop, Md.
    Shoreham, Vermont-Ticonderoga, N.Y.
    Lewiston, Idaho-Clarkston, Wash.
    Garrison, Mont.
  In each case, pollution problems stemmed primarily from single
sources. With the exception  of the rendering plant in Bishop, Md.,
adequate  progress has oeen made, although assessment of improve-
ments is not yet final.
  At the request of the Secretary, the U.S. Attorney General brought
suit against the Bishop Processing  Co. plant. The suit was settled with
the Bishop Processing Co. agreeing to a consent decree after the TJ.S,
District Court Judge upheld the constitutionality of the Clean Air Act
in denying the defendant's motion to dismiss. Terms of the consent
decree provide that if Delaware health officials declared that pollutants
from the Bishop plant reach  Delaware a court order may be issued to
close the  processing plant immediately. The successful conclusion of
this  case provides  an important  precedent for Federal abatement
action.
                               (31)

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                              32

             C.  METROPOLITAN-INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

  As previously noted, an abatement conference was held in the Iron-
ton, Ohio-Huntington, W. Va.-Ashland, Ky. area. The problem was
found to be essentially one of a high level of particulate pollution from
industrial sources. The problem is aggravated by the location of sources
and receptors in a rather narrow valley. Conference participants
agreed to several recommendations for remedial action which have
been forwarded to the Secretary, HEW.
  A second phase of the Kansas City, Kans.-Kansas City, Mo. abate-
ment  conference found that  particulate pollution  was the central
problem with a borderline sulfur oxide problem. Conference partici-
pants adopted remedial recommendations  for controlling sources of
particulate pollution and for surveillance of sulfur oxide levels. These
recommendations were issued by the Secretary in October 1968.
  In Parkersburg, W. Va.-Marietta, Ohio, it is planned to reconvene
the abatement conference to review additional data.
  Surveillance activities in cooperation with State and local agencies
continued in  Metropolitan New York-New Jersey  and Washington,
D.C. metropolitan area.

          D. INTERNATIONAL JOINT  COMMISSION STUDIES

  NAPCA provides staff support to the International Joint Commis-
sion (IJC) in studies of air  pollution in the international areas of
Detroit,  Mich.-Windsor, Ontario  and Port Huron,  Mich.-Sarnia,
Ontario.
  This effort is directed by representatives of Canada and the United
States sitting on the St. Glair-Detroit Air Pollution Board of the IJC.
NAPCA provides staff and support to the U.S. sector of this board.
Field work on both sides of the border has been completed.  A report to
the board will be completed by mid-1969.
  At the request of the Air Pollution Advisory Board, IJC, three point
sources of air pollution on the U.S.-Canada border were inspected by
NAPCA representatives on behalf of the U.S. section of this board.
A report to the board on these sources is in preparation. Further inspec-
tions of border air pollution problems will be undertaken as requested
by the IJC.
              E. EMERGENCY ABATEMENT MEASURES

  The fundamental approach  of NAPCA in the implementation of
provisions of section 108 (k) of the Air Quality  Act is to assist State
and local agencies in developing plans for action in the event of high
concentrations of air pollutants; i.e., emergency episode planning.
  To supplement the work of the NAPCA task group considering this
problem, a contractor was hired to develop a state-of-the-art report
suitable for use as a planning/action guide for State and local agencies.
This work  has been  completed and after review by NAPCA staff will
be published and distributed. This manual identifies those deficiencies
in present  knowledge and capabilities to respond to emergency situ-
ations. Some of these deficiencies will be remedied by ongoing investi-
gations in Chicago and Philadelphia which are supported by NAPCA
demonstration grant funds.

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  Additional contract work being negotiated includes improvement of
the planning manual recently produced, development of a planning/
action guide for accidental air pollutant release, and development of
model legislation.
  Work was completed on an assessment of those areas of the country
most susceptible to air pollution episodes and the status of emergency
action plans in the 10 highest potential areas.
  This report will  enable NAPCA to  key its technical support in
developing emergency plans to the most critical areas. While support
is given through technical and financial assistance to all those areas,
a special effort will be made to stimulate and assist emergency planning
in those cities with the highest air pollution potential.
  The review and approval mechanism of awarding Federal grants
of money continues to assist in stimulating emergency plan develop-
ment in many control agency programs.

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      VI. RELATIONSHIPS WITH  OTHER FEDERAL
                         PROGRAMS

  The National Air Pollution Control Administration conducts and
supports most of the Federal Government's research and development
work relating to the causes and effects  of air pollution and its pre-
vention  and control. A number of other departments and agencies
are involved in research and development relating directly or indi-
rectly to air pollution. Support for a major part of the work relating
directly to air pollution is furnished by NAPCA through transfer
of funds. The total Federal effort includes research and/or develop-
ment in the biological and medical sciences, economics, engineering,
and the physical sciences (including meteorology), and in such areas
as public health, agriculture, transportation, conservation of natural
resources, fuel use? electric power and urban design. Coordination of
such diverse activities is achieved through a .variety of mechanisms.
These range from informal and formal working relationships between
NAPCA and other Federal agencies to interdepartmental committees
and ad hoc groups organized for specific purposes.
  Approximately $6 million is currently being transferred to other
agencies in support of R. & D. work related to air pollution control.
Typical of the agencies with which NAPCA has established working
relationships  are: Bureau of Mines and Office of Coal Research in
the Department of the Interior; Environmental Science Services Ad-
ministration and National Bureau of Standards in the Department of
Commerce; Department of Agriculture; Tennessee Valley Authority;
and the Atomic Energy Commission.
  There is a special working relationship between NAPCA and the
Environmental  Science Services  Administration. This agency's re^
search on  meteorological  factors having a direct influence on air
pollution levels is conducted in  part by meteorologists assigned to
NAPCA. Their work is planned jointly with NAPCA staff members.
Additional means  of coordinating meteorological research  and ex-
changing scientific and program information are provided by various
interdepartmental committees operating under the aegis of the Fed-
eral  Council for Science and Technology and of the Federal Coordi-
nator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (the Ad-
ministrator of the Environmental Science Services Administration).
The principal committees dealing with matters relatingto air pollution
are the Interdepartmental Committee on Atmospheric Sciences and the
Interdepartmental Committee on Applied Meteorological Research.
  In the area of research and development on control of sulfur-oxide
pollution, the Stanford Research Institute developed a planning and
programing document, under contract with NAPCA. This document,
after review by the Office of Science and Technology, the Bureau of
the Budget, and various Federal departments and agencies engaged
                             (84)

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                              35

in sulfur-oxide>research, has been made available to Congress and all
concerned parties. It is designed to provide not only a comprehensive
plan for. Federal activities  in this area during the next 5 years, but
also a mechanism for systematic coordination of these activities.
  The  development of advanced power systems concepts is an area
of interest to several other Federal agencies. To exchange  technical
information on this subject and make research and development needs
known to other agencies, NAPCA is a member of the Interageney
Advanced Power Group. Other members are the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, various components of the Department of
Defense, and the Atomic Energy Commission.
  The  development of propulsion systems for  automobiles is an area
in which air pollution factors are of paramount importance, but in
which  consideration must  be  given to many other aspects  of the
relationship between transportation systems and the quality of the
urban  environment. An interdepartmental group  established  under
the joint auspices of the Bureau of the Budget  and the  Office of
Science and Technology has been considering needs and plans for
Federal research and development in this area. NAPCA is a member
of this committee, along with constituent agencies of the Departments
of Transportation, Commerce, Housing and Urban Development, and
Interior. Also, an interagency powerplant siting  committee is pre-
paring a report under the leadership of OST. Members of this com-
mittee are HEW (NAPCA), FPC, AEC, Interior, USDA (EEA),
and BOB.
  Additional examples  of  interagency working relations  are: (a)
encouragement of the Federal Power Commission  (FPC) to ade-
quately weigh the air pollution control factor  in its determination of
natural gas transmission and use cases, (&) enlistment of  the man-
power  and other resources of the FPC in developing appropriate serv-
ices and studies of the  electric power generating industry and the
natural ,gas production and distnbution industries in order to gather
information on control technology, clean fuels, and data on the cost
thereof for the purpose of  implementing the policies and procedures
required by the Clean Air Act as amended and the Air Quality Act
of 1967, (c) working with the Departments of  Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) and Transportation (DOT) to utilize air pol-
lution control knowledge and technology in the design and construction
of Federal housing and urban renewal projects  and  the  interstate
highway and  public roads systems,  (d) involving DOT's Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) in NAPCA's study of the feasibility
and practicability of controlling emissions from jet and piston air-
craft engines and of establishing national emission standards for this
purpose in order to report to the Congress as  required by the Air
Quality Act of 1967, and (e) consulting with  the Department of the
Interior pursuant to Presidential Proclamation 3794 of July 17,1967,
with regard to the issuance or modification of oil import regulations
for the purpose of encouraging the availability of low sulfur residual
fuel oil in areas requiring such fuels in order to meet State and local
air pollution control emissions standards.

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                               36

  As a further means of communicating NAPCA's research and devel-
opment activities, a summary of every project (including  in-house,
grant, contract, and interagency work) related to air pollution is
transmitted to the Science Information Exchange of the Smithsonian
Institution. Through this  system, up-to-date information on HEWs
air pollution R. & D. activities is available to Federal agencies and
non-Federal organizations.
  Problems relating to air pollution research and control are among
the concerns of the Environmental Quality Committee of the Federal
Council on Science and Technology, Office of Science and Technology.
Representatives of the Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare have participated in the work of various subcommittees, including
those pertaining to research and development, environmental monitor-
ing and surveillance, solid  waste disposal, noise,  standards, and
information-education-manpower.

      A. CONTROL or Ant POLLUTION FROM FEDERAL FACILITIES

  The program for abatement of air pollution from Federal facilities
is governed by the Air Quality Act of 1967, Executive Order 11282,
and Bureau of the  Budget  Circular  A-78. Each department and
agency must comply with the regulations accompanying the Executive
order. The Federal Facilities Section  of NAPCA provides technical
assistance as required, to the agencies as well as an administrative and
technical review of the 5-year phased and orderly plan for the Bureau
of the Budget.
  On July 1, 1968, the first reports of progress under the plan were
reviewed, A total of 387 installations reported 442 remedial actions
located in 45 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
For the most part these actions reflect conditions on April 1, 1968, as
called for in the plan, and represent efforts of the agencies to abate
air pollution by using their normal appropriations. The first year of
planned funded activity will be fiscal year 1969 because of the length
of the Federal budget cycle  and the  fact that all reported activity
occurred prior to that time. The actions represent relatively small ex-
penditures  for small projects. Generally, the projects included elimi-
nation of open burning, modification of incinerators or boilers, changes
to lower sulfur fuel, control of gasoline and solvent vapors, and engi-
neering design work to complete similar and more difficult projects
in future years. A summary of remedial actions is shown in table 1.

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                                 TABLE 1.—SUMMARY OF REMEDIAL ACTIONS BY FEDERAL DEPARTMENTS OR AGENCIES, FISCAL YEAR 1968
Stopped Existing New or Smoke or Using lower Converted Reduced
open burn- New or New heating heating improved other moni- sulfur con- heating chemical or
Progress Remedial ing or poor upgraded plants con- plants im- partkulate tor systems tent coal or plant to Converted to vapor
Department or agency reports actions incineration incinerators strutted proved collectors installed fuel oil burn gas electricity emissions Other
Grand total 	 . 	

Defense:
Army
Navy. 	
Air Force
Suoolv Aeencv
Corps of Engineers
Atomic Energy Commission
Commerce '
General Services
Health Education, Welfare
interior .. .. 	 	 .
Justice
National Aeronautics and Space...
Smithsonian Institution
Tennessee Valley Authority
Transportation
Veterans' Administration

387
88
67
39
1
2
15
3
13
11
11
20
3
69
1
6
4
34
442
115
94
43
1
5
20
4
14
11
12
2
3
69
2
7
4
36
126 9 14 7
25 3 1 1
7 21
13 2 1 3
1
31 1


1 2
2 	


68
1

2 	
3 1 10 	

8 16 103
3 4 56
8 22
2 1 5
j
1 3 1 ....
	 2
2
	 	 7
	 4
	 1 ....



2
	 2 ....


37
3 	
3 	
2 	



1 	
8
1 ....
2 	


1 . ..



17 	

1 31 90
	 7 12
	 15 36
	 6 8

	 .. „ 3
	 2 8
	 1
	 4
	 	 	 	 1
	 4'
	 1
	 3

	 1
1 1 3
	 5

i "Other actions" include studies, designs, and project cost estimates completed or underway. It also includes contracts awarded or advertised for bid.

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     VII. AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION, EMISSION
        STANDARDS AND RELATED ACTIVITIES

             A. AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

  This section covers progress in three areas: The setting of national
emission standards, the research and development of improved emis-
sion controls, and the assurance of compliance with Federal standards.
  Automotive sources continue to emit more pollutants than all sta-
tionary sources combined. The automobile is responsible  for over 90
percent of all carbon monoxide, 60 percent of the hydrocarbons, 50
percent of the oxides of nitrogen, and virtually all of the lead emitted
into the Nation's air.
  The Federal program has sought to cope with automotive air pollu-
tion by establishing nationwide standards that limit the emissions of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, based on the technical and eco-
nomic feasibility of their control. It has sought to advance the state-of-
the-art of automotive control technology through a research and devel-
opment program aimed both at complementing and stimulating in-
dustry's efforts. Finally, it has initiated an active program to examine
the effectiveness of emission control devices as the vehicles acquire
mileage.
                  1. NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS

  The Federal automotive emission standards, adopted in March 1966,
apply to new gasoline-powered passenger ears and light trucks begin-
ning with the 1968 model vear. These standards were set  on the basis
of the maximum degree of control possible consistent with considera-
tions  of technological feasibility and  economic costs,  as well as on
evaluation of the need for control from the standpoint of protection
of public health and welfare.
                              (88)

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                               39

  Although the national emission standards for 1968 and 1969 model
year vehicles were expressed in terms of concentrations, i.e., p.p.m. of
hydrocarbons and percent of carbon monoxide, an improved and more
informative expression of the standard  is in grams per vehicle mile.
The 1968 and 1969 national standards are equivalent to 33 grams per
vehicle mile of carbon monoxide and  3.2 grams of hydrocarbons for
the average vehicle.
  In June of 1968 the Secretary issued revised standards applicable
to 1970 and 1971 model year vehicles. These standards represent the
second step in the battle with the ubiquitous automobile for clean air.
Although the 1968 and 1969 models are lower emitters, pollution is not
expected to be reduced because the total vehicle population continues
to grow.
  The new standards are  expressed in terms of grams per vehicle
mile. Table 2 shows the effect of both standards on typical vehicles. It
shows the  reduction  in allowable emissions permitted from new
gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Not shown in the table, but also of
significance, is that the 1970 regulations for the first time set perform-
ance standards for smoke  emissions from diesel-powered trucks and
buses.
  The expected achievements of control measures now required can be
seen in table 3, also the estimated effectiveness of these standards on
th total national pollution  burden from motor vehicles. The estimated
results of controls called for by both the initial and revised national
emission standards are shown.
   It should be noted that due to the increasing use of motor vehicles
there is a timelag  before  any noticeable change occurs in total  na-
tional automotive emissions. Thus in table 3, the 1968 and 1970 stand-
ards do not reduce total emissions from all  motor vehicles to below
1966 levels until 1971.

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TABLE Z.-FRESENT AND FUTURE AUTOMOTIVE POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Pre-1968

Exhaust:
Hydrocarbons 	
Carbon monoxide 	
Cnnkcasa talowby: Hydrocarbons. .
Evaporation: Hydrocarbons
Total:
Hydrocarbons..
Carbon monoxide 	

'None.
I Fimnnratinn Rnntml i« nntinnal nnH«r tmA
Typical
emissions,
1963 car,
gnmsper
vehicle-
mile
9.7
	 71.0
4.8
3.9

18.4
	 71.0

•r»l iMiiMinm in 1Q1A
Estimated
•UitlMtfa>»
ponuuon,
par ear
per year
215
1,575
105
85
405
1,575

1968
National standards
•minions.
1968 car,
grams per
vehicle-
mile
3.2
33.0
0
3.9
7.1
33.0

Estimated
pollution,
pounds
per car Percent
per year reduction
70
725
155
725
facturars
67
S3
100
0
62
53
will MOV*
_<. fain.
1970
National standards
emissions,
1970 car,
grams per
vehicle-
mite
2.2
23.0
0
'3.9
6.1
23.0
tie evaporation
\ *f *L_ r»i»_ t
Estimated
pOUUtaODf
pounds
per car
per year
50
500
135
500
Percent
reduction
78
68
100
• 0
67
68
control nationwide since
1971
National standards
emissions,
1971 car,
grams par
vehicle-
mile
2.2
23.0
0
.4
2.6
23.0
it is required
Estimated
pollution,
pounds
per car
per year
50
500
60
500
in California
Percent
reduction
78
68
100
90
85
68
under HEW

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                                41

              TABLE 3.-NATIONAL CONTROL OF MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS
                                      1966  1967  1968  1969  1970  1971
Total emissions prevented by controls (millions of tons) (cumula-
 tive reductions):
   Hydrocarbons	  1.3   1.8   2.8   3.9   >5.2    ifi.9
   Carbon monoxide		4    .9   5.8   11.2   18.1    25.0
Total national auto emissions (millions of tons per year):
   Hydrocarbons	_,__..	  10.3   10.5   10.7   10.7  U0.1    19.6
   Carbon monoxide	  61.9   65.3   66.5   67.2   66.4    58.8

 i The effect of California's 1970 evaporative control standard is not Included.

   In the years after 1971 the 1968 and 1970 standards will achieve a
sharp downturn iii national emissions.  This downturn, however, will
unfortunately be short lived. The increases in vehicle population and
vehicle usage,  will  again begin a rise in pollution levels by the
mid-seventies.
   Consequently the current standards will only improve the situation
in the short run. To solve the problem will require improved emission
control systems and more restrictive standards. To this end, NAPCA
is expanding its research and development efforts.

   2.  AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL—RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT

   Although the primary responsibility for developing emission con-
trol systems lies with the vehicle manufacturers and fuel producers,
the purpose of the Federal program is to stimulate, complement, and
assist in furthering the  development  of  improved  control systems.
 NAPCA has undertaken a variety of research and  development
 projects to carry out its responsibilities. Projects are conducted  (1)
 within NAPCA laboratories, (2) in other Government agencies at the
 Federal and  State levels, (3)  under contract with corporations and
 universities, and (4) by cooperative research jointly funded by  the
 Federal Government and private industry groups.
 (a)  Conventional engines
   Plans have been'set to organize a study on the control of particulate
 emissions from motor vehicle engines. This research  and development
 will be directed toward gap areas in the control technology for particu-
 late  emissions, with the goals of developing  a simple, long-lived,
 exhaust system device for eliminating a substantial portion of the lead
 participates which otherwise are emitted to the atmosphere. Considera-
 tion will also be given in this study to the control of diesel exhaust
 smoke.
   The first national symposium on heterogeneous catalysis for control
 of air pollution, cosponsored by NAPCA  and the Franklin Institute,
 was  held during the reporting period. A synopsis of the proceedings
 of this symposium will be published early in 1969.  The symposium
 served to bring  forth considerable information concerning ^ research
 activities in this field with application to motor vehcle emissions con-
 trol. This  information will serve to guide NAPCA in  planning re-
 search  which  will  complement the efforts presently  going on hi
 industry and continue to stimulate such efforts.
   In a continuing study on human responses to diesel exhaust odor,
 Southwest Research Institute is designing and constructing mobile

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                               42

odor presentation facilities suitable  for use by selected human sub-
jects, utilizing a nigh production diesel engine. A suitable question-
naire will be designed to elicit responses denoting the reactions, adverse
or otherwse, of these subjects to odors. This information will assist in
establishing a basis for Federal odor standards. Additional NAPCA
sponsored research involving odor and other aspects of diesel emissions
is in progress at the Bureau of Mines Petroleum Research Center,
and Arthur D. Little Laboratories. The latter project is cosponsored
with private industry through the Coordinating Research Council.
In addition, increasing evidence of research  by private industry on
odorant identification has appeared through press releases and tech-
nical papers. Through all these means, it is pelieved that identification
of certain classes of odorous materials in diesel exhaust will be made
during the coming year. The information generated by these parallel
studies should prove applicable to characterization of odors generated
by turbine engines and other continuous flow combustion systems as
well.
  A project is now in progress with Battelle Memorial Institute to con-
duct analytical studies of fuel atomization, vaporization and mixing,
and to evaluate the applicability of different fuel atomization methods
to motor vehicle ppwerplants. The results of this work will be applied to
decisions concerning future research aimed at emissions reductions by
means of fuel induction system changes.
  Plans have also been formulated for initiation of research directed
toward materials of construction having suitable high temperature
properties for exhaust manifold reactors designed to thermally oxidize
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.  This work will be done through
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Flight
Propulsion Center.
  As was noted in the first report die Automobile Manufacturers As-
sociation and the American Petroleum Institute are funding through
the Coordinating  Research Council a 3-year research program to
generate knowledge on factors influencing automotive air pollution.
Many  of these projects are cosponsored by NAPCA. Some of these
which relate to emissions control  research are: (1) a study on  the
influence of gasoline volatility on exhaust and evaporative emissions in
which  NAPCA is cooperating in funding the part which considers
the influence of gasoline volatility on vehicle driveability j (2) a study
on the relationship between sensory  measurements of diesel exhaust
odor and exhaust composition, referred to earlier; and (3) a study on
the kinetics of oxidation and quenching  of combustibles in gasoline
engines, the objective of which is  to improve knowledge of the burn-
ing processes which lead to pollutant origins and disappearance under
conditions typical of gasoline engine combustion and exhaust systems.
(J) Alternate tow-emission power plants
  A study  by Arthur D. Little has been  completed in which various
types of electric propulsion systems were evaluated. It was determined
that a propulsion system  with sufficient  power to weight ratio and
energy storage capacity for family car use could be developed within
10 years under a properly organized research program.
  A project was completed under contract to  gather information on
emissions from aircraft. The work served as the basis for the report to

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                               43

Congress required by section 211 (b) of the Air Quality Act of 1967.
The report is to be published in early 1969.
  In addition, participation in aircraft industry committee groups
sponsored both by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the Co-
ordinating Research Council has produced the impression that inten-
sive efforts are in progress to eliminate visible smoke emitted by all
new powerplants (and certain existing powerplants as well) by com-
bustor design. Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions from
aircraft gas turbines are a problem at idle and taxi power settings,
which may constitute local problems in certain terminal areas. Control
of these emissions by combustion system design is also believed feasible.

                         3. CERTTnCATIOlC

  NAPCA maintains an emission compliance" laboratory near Detroit,
Mich., to certify new motor vehicles which meet the Federal emission
standards. Here tests are conducted on prototype vehicles submitted by
manufacturers prior to production. These tests which include exhaust
gas sampling and analysis, are conducted in  accordance with pro-
cedures established by  NAPCA to determine compliance  with the
Federal emission standards.
  The program  for certification of 1968 and 1969 model  passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles required the review of applications
from approximately 50 companies located in seven countries. The labo-
ratory performed 730  and  1,083  emission  tests for  1968  and 1969
vehicles, respectively, to  establish eligibility for  certification. Test
scheduling was somewhat irregular to allow time  for the vehicles to
acquire mileage and to enable the manufacturers to conduct their own
emission test programs. Scheduling was a particular problem during
the spring and  early summer of  1967, and again in 1968, when an
extremely large number of prototype models were submitted by domes-
tic  manufacturers for certification. The certification of prototypes of
foreign vehicles, on the other hand, was carried out at a relatively
constant level. Some certification  testing for  1969 sales was done as
late as the  summer of  1968. On the whole, the laboratory facilities
proved generally adequate for the certification of 1969 model vehicles.
  At present, certification activities are involved with changes in cur-
rent models, the introduction of new midyear models, and new appli-
cations from manufacturers. Test requirements are greater, however,
for the certification of 1970 models that have different engines and
control systems from those currently in use. Enlarged facilities will
be  necessary to  carry out the more complicated tests required by the
1970 regulations.
                         4. SURVEILLANCE

  NAPCA is attempting to determine the relationships between the
test results of protoype vehicles and the emission characteristics of
vehicles  under normal  use. Studies include testing of representative
mass production vehicles. NAPCA is also studying the changes, with
age and  use, of emission characteristics of motor vehicles operated
in actual service.
  A  national surveillance study  has  been  initiated  to  determine
whether vehicles actually comply with the Federal regulations. The
study will provide statistically  gathered information to evaluate the

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                               44

air pollution emission control performance of certified production
model vehicles. Motor vehicle exhaust missions may vary in different
parts of the country due to such factors as climate, topography, or
urban development, so it is necessary to determine whether previously
certified vehicles are conforming to the Federal standards in all  areas
of the country. The United States has been divided into eight atmos-
pheric areas. Ultimately, it is desired to obtain motor vehicle emission
exhaust data from each area. The purpose of the first portion of the
national surveillance study is to obtain  exhaust emission data from
that geographic region designated as "Great Plains Area." One-hun-
dred ana sixty statistically selected vehicles will be tested, three times
each, for a total of 480 tests.
  Surveillance  studies are being conducted  in the Los Angeles area
by the west coast laboratory, and in the Detroit area by the laboratory
at Willow Run Airport. In each area, vehicles  are procured through
commercial rental agencies. Approximately  1,900 vehicles from these
gourdes  are being tested. Tests are also being conducted on approxi-
mately 60 vehicles provided by car manufacturers for the Willow Run
surveillance fleet.
                     5.  INSPECTION  PROGRAMS

  One possible way to assure that vehicles in the hands of the public
continue to effectively control emissions over  the years is through
periodic inspections. Under the Air  Quality Act (sec. 209), Federal
grants may be made to appropriate State air pollution control agencies
in an amount up to  two-thirds of the cost of developing meaningful
uniform inspection and testing programs for motor vehicle emissions
and emission control devices. No such  grants  have been funded to
date. NAPCA has underway several projects to aid in the develop-
ment of inspection  procedures and test instrumentation  for  State
programs.
  Thus far, two schemes have been proposed for periodic emission in-
spections to be undertaken at the State level. One of these, developed
under a Federal grant to the State of New Jersey, involves the opera-
tion and testing of vehicles according to an abbreviated test cycle.
The second, offered for consideration by an industrial firm, comprises
three different models capable of showing consistent  results upon
repetition. Within the limitations imposed by time, personnel,'and
facilities,  NAPCA is examining these two techniques with the use of
prototype  emission-controlled vehicles.  The tests attempt to deter-
mine if  the cycles accurately indicate control system malfunction and
if they  correlate with Federal test procedures. A number of experi-
mental analytical instruments which have been submitted by private
sources  are also being evaluated. In addition, several systems studies
are underway to analyze the cost-effectiveness of a variety of possible
inspection and maintenance schemes.
  At this early date, the evaluations being conducted by the NAPCA
have not  progressed far enough to recommend  to the States the
adoption of any one test instrument or inspection procedure.

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                               45

    6. EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION (GASOLINE ENGINES)

(a) Carbon monoxide  and hydrocarbon control
  Efforts are continuing to achieve greater control of these two pol-
lutants which are presently regulated to  levels approximately one-
third  of the average of uncontrolled vehicles. Fuel injection and high
efficiency carburetipn systems show promise for improved distribu-
tion and cleaner air-fuel mixtures resulting in further emission re-
duction.  Some improvements are also obtainable from modifications
of engine design features such as combustion chamber geometry, piston
ring configuration, and valve timing. These emission control tech-
niques are under study  either in-house or by contract.
(b) Nitrogen oxide control
  Studies of various control techniques are in progress. A study by
Esso Research and Engineering Corp. has progressed from an engine
dynamometer optimization phase to fully automated vehicle instal-
lations of exhaust gas recirculation systems. These systems, achieving
80 percent reduction of oxides of nitrogen, are compatible with com-
mercially available hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide control. A fol-
lowup study is being negotiated to evaluate durability of the system.
  A parallel evaluation of another oxides of nitrogen control system
design is being supported in California by a NAPCA grant.  In that
too, emphasis is on  durability  and compatibility with hydrocarbon
and carbon monoxide control systems.
                   7. EMISSION TEST PROCEDURES
  To achieve an effective reduction in vehicle emissions, it is neces-
sary to have accurate methods of measuring emissions under realistic
operating conditions. Improved measurement  systems are actively
being sought.
  Currently, there are five major areas in which engineering activities
are concentrated: (1) development of simple dynamometer test cycles
which better simulate urban driving conditions for light duty vehicles
(less than 6,000 Ibs.) and three classes of heavy duty vehicles; (2)
development of a simplified sampling system which gives an accurate
measure of the total mass of pollutant emissions from the exhaust of
all  sizes and types of vehicles and engines;  (3)  development of a
simplified fuel evaporative loss measuring system which measures all
fuel losses from a nonoperating vehicle including those due to ambient
temperature changes and those due to residual engine heat when turned
off;  (4) development of inexpensive but effective instrumentation and
test cycles for State inspection stations; and (5) evaluation of meas-
uring techniques for exhaust pollutants not currently regulated, such
as oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbon oxygenates.
  mi_     *         i*ii*ji       *  *  »  i
development of a variable dilution proportional sampling system which
measures the mass of emissions; (3) development of a simplified eat-

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                               46

 haust sampling collection method which allows for greatly reduced
 instrumentation requirements for multiple dynamometer test facilities;
 and (4) demonstration that complex dynamometer cycles may be used
 with the simplified sampling system without appreciable increases in
 test cost or manpower requirements.
   In addition, accomplishments by others,  either under contract or
 by encouragement, include development of; (1) nondispersive infrared
 analyzers for the measurement of nitric oxide; (2) an ultraviolet in-
 strument for the detection of nitrogen dioxide;  (3) inexpensive instru-
 ments for the  measurement of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons;
 (4) inexpensive engine adjustment  procedures; (5) a short dyna-
 mometer cycle for inspect! on procedures; (6)  a key-mode dynamometer
 procedure which determines if the vehicle engine is operating as it was
 intended; and  (7) dynamometer test cycle for  heavy-duty trucks.

            8.  CALIFORNIA EMISSION CONTROL STANDARDS

   The Clean Air Act as amended (sec. 208), recognizes that com-
 pelling and extraordinary conditions might warrant State vehicular
 emission standards that are more stringent than the Federal standards.
 Therefore, the act provides that Federal regulations will be waived
 in any State which had adopted vehicle emission standards (other than
 crankcase emission standards) prior to March 30, 1966, unless the
 Secretary finds that the State does not require stricter standards, or
 that the State  standards and  accompanying enforcement procedures
 are not consistent with the act. California is the only State thus far
 that has applied for a waiver. On January 15-17.1968, and on June
 5,1968, the Secretary held public hearings in California to provide an
 opportunity for all views to be expressed. Presentations were made by
 members of  the  State of California, the automotive industry,  and
 other interested parties.
   On July 16,  1968, the Secretary found  that:  (1)  California had,
 prior to March 30, 1966, adopted standards  (other than crankcase
 emission standards) for the  control of emissions from new  motor
 vehicles and new motor vehicle engines; (2) California requires stand-
 ards more stringent than applicable Federal standards to meet com-
 pelling and extraordinary conditions; (3) California State standards
 and related enforcement procedures are  more stringent than the appli-
 cable Federal standards, and  are required to  meet such compelling
 and extraordinary conditions; and (4) such State standards and pro-
 cedures  are consistent with section 208(a) of  the Clean Air Act, as
 amended.
   Based on these findings the  Secretary waived the application of sec-
 tion 208 (a) to  the State of California  with respect to the following
 identified State standards and test procedures:  (1) California exhaust
emission standards  and test procedures for 1969 model heavy-duty
vehicles; (2) California exhaust emission standards and test pro-
cedures  for 1969 model  passenger cars (light duty vehicles);  and
 (3)  California fuel evaporative  emission  standards and  test pro-
cedures for 1970 model light duty vehicles.
   The  waiver  is applicable only  with respect  to the  model years
specified above.
   On September 27,1968, the Secretary received another request for a
 waiver from the State of California. This second request was prompted

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                                47

by the enactment of the California Legislature of the Pure Air Act
of 1968. This act establishes a number or increasingly stringent motor
vehicle emission standards applicable to 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, and
1974 model years vehicles as shown in table 4.
  Emission standards and test procedures to implement the law were
adopted on November 20,1968, by the California Air Resources Board.
Public hearings will be scheduled promptly to provide the Secretary
with information on which to base a decision on whether this waiver
may be granted.

             TABLE 4. California vehicle emission standards
I. Gasoline-powered motor vehicles under 6,001 pounds manufacturer's maximum
  gross vehicle weight having an engine displacement of 50 cubic inches  or
  greater—
A. Exhaust emissions:
    1. 1970 model year	  2.2 grams per mile  hydrocarbons.
                           23 grams per mile carbon monoxide,
    2. 1971 model year	  2.2 grams per mile hydrocarbons
                           23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
                           4.0 grams per mile  oxides of nitrogen
    3. 1972 and  1973 model
        years	  1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbon
                           23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
                           3.0 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen
    4. 1974 and later model
        years	  1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbons
                           23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
                           1.3 grams per mile  oxides of nitrogen
B. Evaporative loss:
    1970 and later model
        years	  6 grams hydrocarbons per test

//.  Gasoline-powered trucfo-tractor or bus  over 6,001  pounds, manufacturer's
     gross vehicle weight—
A. Exhaust emissions:
      1. 1970 and 1971 model years	275 ppm of hydrocarbons
                                  1.5 per cent carbon monoxide
      2. 1972 and later model years.. 180 ppm of hydrocarbons
                                  1 percent carbon monoxide

               9. DNCONTROLI.ED  FOREIGN AUTOMOBILES

   NAPCA is increasingly concerned about the importation of for-
eign-built motor vehicles not equipped to control emissions in accord-
ance with the national emission  standards applicable to new vehicles
sold in this country. The entry of such vehicles is legal under the pro-
visions of the Clean Air Act if the vehicles are not "new" as denned
by the act.  Thus, slightly  used, uncontrolled 1968  and 1969  model
year foreign-built vehicles may legally be imported for resale in large
numbers. The  extent of this  activity  is presently being investigated
by NAPCA. No accurate figures have been obtained yet, but it is esti-
mated that thousands of sucn vehicles are entering each year.
   Furthermore, any individual who presently wishes to, may import
 an uncontrolled vehicle for his own personal use or in the words of
 the act, for purposes other than sale or resale. No accurate figures are
 available on this type of importation  either. It is believed, however,
 that thousands of  uncontrolled  vehicles are also entering each year
 under this provision of the Clean Air Act.

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                               48

  Although  an individual vehicle may not create an  air pollution
 problem, the combined emissions from large numbers of uncontrolled
 vehicles will add a significant burden to the air quality of major
 metropolitan areas.

        10. REGISTRATION AND EVALUATION OF FUEL ADDITIVES

  Progress in fuel additives registration has taken place on two broad
 fronts: the gathering of information and the  design of procedures.
 The two activities have usually been carried out simultaneously.
 (a) Information gathering
  Information on fuel additive usage has been accumulated from both
 public and private sources. A survey of fuel and fuel additive manu-
 facturers has been completed by an outside contractor. The summary
 report for this survey provides the following listings: (1) all domestic
 fuel producers; (2) all  domestic fuel additive producers; (3)  all fuel
 or fuel additive importers;  (4) State by State  fuel and fuel additive
 procedures; and (5)  generic types of fuels and fuel additives being
 produced domestically,  and the companies which produce each type.
  NAPCA personnel gathered  additional • information in meetings
 with  industrial representatives. The first meeting of  the National
 Fuel  Additives Advisory Committee was held in October. A large
 part of this meeting was devoted to a discussion of industry practices.
 In November administrative representatives attended a meeting of the
 American  Petroleum Institute's  Subcommittee  on Environmental
 Standards. Fuel and additive company representatives at this meeting
 presented summary reports on each  of the generic types of additives
 presently used  in petroleum fuels. Both of these  meetings provided
 NAPCA with a better understanding of the fuel additives problem.
 (b) Design of registration procedures
  The design of registration procedures and  regulations has pro-
 ceeded well since the first report. Formal definitions have been drawn
 up for various terms used in the  act. Registration forms are being
 designed to handle the flow of information between NAPCA and the
 companies involved. A computerized system is being devised to handle
 the vast amount of information which will be gathered during  the
 registration process.
  Regulations describing the registration procedures  are presently
 being drafted. The notice of proposed rulemaking should be published
early  in 1969. The first fuel to be designated will be motor vehicle
gasoline.

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VIII. AIR POLLUTION MONITORING, DATA ACQUISITION,
  MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, AND  RELATED  ACTIVI-
  TIES

  An essential part of an environmental management program is the
continuing appraisal of the quality of the environment. The    "'"
 * , 1   -»-r  I *   "^   *•!•   A    ffl   It        *     i  It   T
of the Nation's air is being monitored by agencies at the Federal,
State, and local level. At the Federal level NAPCA has as its primary
objectives (1) providing an adequate nationwide baseline of air qual-
ity and source emission data, and (2) providing a continuing means
for judging, on a nationwide scale, the effectiveness of air pollution
control efforts.
  These are three essential activities in an air pollution control agency
that deal with air pollution monitoring and data acquisiton:
  (1) Continuous operation of a system for air monitoring adequate
to measure the important pollutants in the ambient air, and sensitive
enough to detect improvements resulting from control efforts.
  (2) Continuous assessment of source emissions to define  the reduc-
tions in quantities of discharged pollutants that will produce the de-
sired air quality.
  (3) Systematic storage and retrieval of the data on air quality and
source emissions to  facilitate the necessary analysis and evaluation.
These activities are, in turn, essential to providing firm support to a
sound abatement and enforcement policy.

                  A. AIR MONITORING SYSTEMS

  There are two basic types of air-monitor ing systems. The  automatic,
or continuous, sampler-analyzer systems  produce numerical and/or
graphical information directly. The nonautomatic or intermittent sys-
tems employ collection devices and separate laboratory facilities for
subsequent analysis of the sample. The automatic system has the ad-
vantage of providing immediate  information  during air pollution
episodes but usually does not retain the sample for future examina-
tion. The nonautomatic system is  necessarily slower in yielding in-
formation, but with  the principal  exception  of bubblers  for  gas
sampling, it usually produces a sample that can be stored  for future
verification and additional analyses.
  NAPCA operates systems of both types. Approximate totals for the
various major types of monitoring instruments  operated by NAPCA
are shown in table 5.
  By means of agency development and maintenance grants NAPCA
is actively stimulating the assumption of air  pollution control re-
sponsibility at the State and local level. Table 6 indicates the growth
trends in these agencies as reflected in the number of various air moni-
toring instruments in use. The first column presents an inventory of
instruments in use as of June 1967. The middle column shows instru-
                              (49)

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                                 50

merits in use as of June 1968, and the third column shows rough esti-
mates of the sampling activity anticipated by June 1969. The data for
columns 2 and 3 are derived from  a recent Federal survey question-
naire which was sent to 293 State and local agencies involved in air
pollution control.  Replies were  received  from  221 State and local
agencies in time for inclusion in this  summary. Some agencies were
not in a position to estimate their level of activity for the next fiscal
year; therefore, the 1969 projections are approximate only.

                   TABLE 5.—NAPCA AIR MONITORING EQUIPMENT
Device
Nonautomitie:
Dustfalljar 	
Lead peroxide "candle"
Hi-vol. 	
Tape sampler (all)...
Bubbler. 	
Sequential bubbler.
Automatic:
Sampler-analyzer
Do 	
Do 	
• Do
Do 	
Do 	

Pollutant
Settleable particles 	
Oxidizable sulfur compounds 	
Suspended particles 	
Suspended particles, HjS 	
. Gases 	 	
do 	
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitric oxide.
Nitrogen dioxide
Oxidants . . 	
Sulfur dioxide

1967
281
373
259
13
56
6
7
7
10
10
7
19

1968 (June)
434
593
383
24
104
12
16
15
17
17
18
30

Estimated
June 1969
575
601
539
45
190
20
22
22
22
22
24
36

              TABLE 6.—STATE AND LOCAL AIR MONITORING EQUIPMENT
Device
Nonautomatic:
Oustfall jar 	
Lead peroxide "candle"
Hi-vof. 	
Tape sampler (all).
Bubbler
Sequential bubbler
Automatic:
Sampler-analyzer
Do 	
Do
Do
Do
Do

Pollutant
Settleable particles 	 . 	
Oxidizable sulfur compounds 	
Suspended particles. 	
Suspended particles, HjS 	 	
Gases 	 - 	
do 	
Carbon monoxide 	 	
Hydrocarbons. 	
Nitric oxide 	 ... 	
Nitrogen dioxide 	 	
Oxtdants . . 	
Sulfur dioxide.. .. .

1967!
1,651
1,100
975
297
226
33
59
36
41
43
80
85

1968 (June)
2,548
1,764
1,459
585
393
74
93
63
45
48
83
435

Estimated
June 1969
3,131
2,469
1,997
841
646
141
186
110
91
101
137
511

 > Based on a midyear telephone inquiry.

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                                 51

  Figure 1 shows the geographic distribution of State and local auto-
matic monitoring instruments. The number of automatic instruments
in use by State and local agencies has risen from approximately 400
in 1967 to 624 in 1968  (based on 75 percent response to the question-
naire) . In 1967 there were 23 States with agencies operating automatic
instruments; in 1968 there were 34.

             B. INVENTORIES OF POLLTTTANT EMISSIONS

  An inventory of emission sources is essential to executing an effec-
tive air pollution  control effort. On the balance sheet of  an urban
area's intake of goods, raw materials, and  foodstuffs, as against its
output of products and waste material, most of the quantities are well
known, even to the solid wastes and sewage because they are collected
and dealt with. One important term in the equation of mass flow
through an urban area's economy, the quantity  of  waste substances
discarded into the atmosphere, has until recently been largely ignored
or estimated indirectly. In the last 4 to 5 years more detailed inven-
tories have been  initiated by Federal, State, and  local agencies,  so
that by June 1968 some kinds of data on quantities of emissions had
been collected for 75 of the 231 standard metropolitan statistical areas
(SMSA) 1 in the United States. The emphasis is being placed on ob-
taining this information is evidenced in the fact  that 6 months later,
by the end  of December 1968, the number had grown to  91. Most of
the larger cities have been inventoried, as the following table 7 shows:

          TABLE /.-COMPLETED INVENTORIES BY POPULATION CLASS,  DECEMBER 1968

    ......    .  .                                        Number of     Number
    SMSA population                                        SMSA's   inventoried
1,000,000 or more 	 	
500,000 to 1 000 000
100,000 to 500,000... 	 ""
Less thin 100,000. 	 	

Total 	

24
33
142
32

231

23
20
45
3

91

  1 The standard metropolitan statistical areas are defined by the Bureau of the Budget a*
a county or group of counties that contain at least one central city of 00,000 Iflhobltanta,
or twin cities with a combined population of at least 60,000. It also includes any con-
tiguous counties of metroipolltaji nature that are socially economically Integrated with the
center city.

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                                                                   N.J.-34
                                                                     l.-O
                                                                 Md.-35
                                                                 D.C.-10
FIGDBE 1. State and local automatic instruments

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                               53

  Elements of NAPCA have conducted or participated in 42 of these
inventories, with the State or local personnel often providing a ma-
jority of the effort. Of the other 49, about half were conducted by
State agencies; the remaining half by city, county, or regional con-
trol districts.
  A major project of  current urgency,  the definition of air quality
control regions, requires a comprehensive inventory of  emissions in
each area. Much of the data collected in the inventories conducted by
State or local agencies is a valuable addition to the accumulating in-
formation. On the other hand, some early inventories are not being
kept current, and 23 of the State or locally conducted inventories
concentrate on the center city or areas that do not include the entire
SMSA, This is understandable since locally conducted inventories are
usually directed to immediate tasks such as identification of specific
sources in problem neighborhoods, documenting the need for control
and enforcement statutes, and allocating money and manpower to the
control efforts that will yield the greatest benefit to air  quality.
  Inventories conducted by the Federal agencies cover an entire stand-
ard metropolitan statistical area, at least, and are designed to be kept
current. TTie principal emphasis in these inventories is to assemble an
areawide picture 01 how types of emission sources are distributed and
data on total quantities of emitted substances. In addition to providing
one facet  of  the information needed to  define the air quality control
regions, the  data  are  also to be used in longtenn research on such
problems  as  source-receptor relationships, testing of meteorological
models, and  in zoning and transportation planning.
  The principal pollutants covered in an inventory are suspended par-
ticulate matter, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur,
and hydrocarbons.
                    C. NATIONAL  DATA BANK

  The "Storage and Retrieval  of  Air  Data"  (SAROAD)  System,
which functions as a national air quality data bank, received contri-
butions of data from approximately 250  State and local air monitoring
stations in 1967; in 1968 the figure rose to 310.
  Including  Federal,  State, and local monitoring  stations, the data
bank presently contains air quality information from 761 stations,
representing approximately 410 urban  and 55 nonurban areas, and
60 sites in fringe areas. It is anticipated that by 1971 data will be ac-
quired from over 1,000 stations representing over 600 urban, 100 non-
urban, and 100 fringe areas; and by 1972, data from all existing air
monitoring systems will be stored in a bank.

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                               54

  It is estimated that the cost of maintaining such a centralized data
bank will be on the order of 3 percent of the total nationwide expen-
ditures (Federal, State, and local) for the acquisition of the data, and
an expenditure of an additional 5 percent would cover interpretive
analysis and publication of the data.

                D. MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION

  Excellent progress has been made since the first reports in both in-
tramural and contract work on development of instruments, partic-
ularly for stack measurements and air quality.

          1. INSTRUMENTATION FOR VEHICULAR EMISSIONS

  The most efficient control of air pollution resulting from vehicular
hydrocarbon emissions requires the  ability to remove those hydro-
carbons which are effective in causing eye irritation, visibility, plant
damage, and health effects. Schemes for such an "atmospheric reac-
tivity" assessment have been proposed by several investigators includ-
ing those at NAPCA.5
  Scales  for such reactive hydrocarbons have been  compared and
found to produce similar results for current control systems. Since the
results or simple scales may well provide adequate assessment for hy-
drocarbon control, NAPCA has developed and published instrumen-
tal techniques for reactive hydrocarbons.6 These techniques allow  re-
active hydrocarbons to be measured with a minimum of expense and
time. Sume techniques also provide the opportunity to compare the
performance of vehicle fleets on a more descriptive basis than by the
previous research techniques.
  A demonstration grant to the State of  New Jersey, managed by
Scott Laboratories, provided information about the degree of instru-
mentation needed and  available to conduct individual car  inspection.
This program has provided considerable impetus to research on sim-
plified instrumentation by  the  private sector and is expected to pro-
vide more in the immediate future.

           2. INSTRUMENTATION FOR STATIONARY SOURCES

  More rapid progress has been made in preliminary work on devel-
opment of remote stack monitoring equipment than was anticipated in
the first report.
(a)  Remote stack monitoring
  Contractual work  has been initiated  to  evaluate the performance
of a continuous monitor that is commercially available and that has
been developed to remotely monitor SOZ  and NO2 in  plumes from
stack sources using correlation masking spectroscopy.
  A prototype monitor has been developed  on contract to continu-
ously measure  SO2 remotely by emission  spectroscopy.  Performance
evaluation in field operation is underway and preliminary results in-
dicate that aerosols can be a significant interference.
  A feasibility study will be undertaken by contract to investigate the
application of Raman spectroscopy for remote monitoring of NO in
   . • Refers to references, p. 60.

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                               55

plume emissions. A prototype lidar instrument will be developed for
remote monitoring of particulate emissions from  stack sources by
measurement of optical transmittance.
(b) In-stock monitoring
  A fly ash prototype monitor for incinerator emissions has been de-
veloped by contract and evaluated in the field. Eesults of tests done
with automatic isokinetic sampling versus fixed flow sampling indi-
cated that a relatively simple device without automatic  isokinetic
sampling can  be used to  adequately monitor particulate loading  in
the stack for air pollution control. The method is based on a beta-
gage technique applied to particulates collected on paper tape and is
applicable to particulates emitted by various sources. A commercial
instrument is presently available for iron oxide emissions from steel
mills.
  A contract for a field study has been initiated to evaluate the per-
formance of a continuous monitor developed to measure SO2 concen-
trations in a stack by an optical technique using correlation masking
spectroscopy.

               3. INSTRUMENTATION FOR AIR QUALITY

  Major progress  has been made toward providing monitoring in-
struments for several of the most important pollutants.
(a) Single-point sampling
  A new commercially available detector for SO? has been evaluated
in the laboratory, and shown  to have the desired sensitivity and
ability to operate in unattended stations. Techniques are available for
increasing specificity  of this instrument for SO2, and will be applied
should field studies show a need for them. An added benefit or these
techniques is that  they can be applied  to the separation, characteri-
zation,  and quantitation of sulfurous  compounds  contributing to
kraft mill odor problems,
  A prototype semicontinuous gas chromatographic instrument has
been assembled, having the capability for determining carbon monox-
ide and methane in air with a sensitivity far exceeding that of earlier
devices.  This device is presently being used in the laboratory for the
analysis of air samples collected in the field. Its  further evolution,
either as a field instrument or as a central laboratory device, will be
determined in the  light of the present study.
   An earlier ozone-sonde device has been modified to permit the con-
tinuous, sensitive,  real-time determination of ozone in air. Discrepan-
cies between results obtained with this device and those from existing
"oxidant" instrumentation are believed to be traceable to serious gaps
in our knowledge of  the chemistry of the ozone-"oxidant" family of
pollutants. Studies  now underway  are  expected to resolve the
 differences.
   A  laboratory method has been  developed representing great im-
provement over previous techniques in both the sensitivity and spec-
 ificity with which it  can measure sulfuric acid mist. Invaluable data
 regarding the occurrence of this noxious aerosol should result from
this development.

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                               56

   Research and development contracts have been let for feasibility
 studies of  proposed instrumentation  that  holds great  promise of
 being able  to perform field monitoring of two or more pollutants
 simultaneously. The advantages of such a device  are self-evident.
   Nephelometers have been developed and are  now commercially
 available to measure optical light/scatter  by suspended particulates
 and research is currently underway to relate these measurements
 to  mass loading and  to  visibility in  the atmosphere.  Preliminary
 results indicate that such lightscatter measurements  can be a good
 indirect method of continuous  monitoring of mass concentration of
 suspended atmospheric aerosols without the need of sample collection
 and weighing.
  The correlation masking spectroscopy technique has been adapted
 to  point-sampling instrumentation in  a prototype development for
 concentration measurements of  SO2 and NO2 in ambient air. A field
 study has been initiated by contract to evaluate  its performance in
 an  urban atmosphere and to compare its measurements  to  those of
 another prototype development  using the same analytical technique
 applied to long-path sampling.
 (b) Long-path sampling
  A prototype instrument will be developed to measure ozone con-
 centration  over  a long  path in urban  atmospheres using an IR
 absorption  spectroscopy technique. The methoa  will have the po-
 tential  to be adapted to the measurement of several other  pollu-
 tant gases  having IR absorption bands  in  the adjacent  spectral
regions.
  A long-path IR absorption spectrophotometer will be developed
to provide data on the effect of pollutant gases on the  spectral trans-
mission properties of the urban atmosphere and relate this information
to the design, calibration, and performance evaluation  of optical-type
instrument developments.

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                   IX. ADVISORY GROUPS

           A. PRESIDENT'S AIB QUALITY ADVISORY BOARD

  The role of the President's Air Quality Advisory Board is to ad-
vise and consult with the Secretary on matters of policy  relating
to the activities  and functions authorized under the Air Quality Act
of 1967 and to make such recommendations as  are deemed necessary
to the President. The Board is composed of the Secretary or his desig-
nee as Chairman and 15 members appointed by the President,  none
of whom are permitted to be Federal officers or  employees. The mem-
bers represent various State, interstate, and local governmental agen-
cies, public or private interests contributing to, affected by, or con-
cerned with air pollution, and other public and private agencies,
organizations, and groups interested in the field of air pollution pre-
vention and control, as well as other  individuals expert in the  field.
  The 15 members of the Board were appointed by the President on
July 25, 1968, with  one-third of these members appointed to serve,
respectively, terms of 1,2, and 3 years. The first meeting of the Board,
on September 16,1968, was devoted to the discussion of progress made
in implementing the provisions of the Air  Quality Act and to the
exploration of ways  in which the Board could assist the Department
in achieving the goals of the act.  The second meeting of  the Board
will be at a date  set by the Chairman early in 1969.

                    B. ADVISORY COMMITTEES

  During the  reporting period each of the fallowing advisory  com-
mittees Has 'been extensively involved in activities peculiar to that
committee: Research and  development,  fuel additives, air quality
criteria, control techniques, control agency development, and research
grants.
  Two new advisory committees were established and staffed during
the reporting period. These were the  iron and  steel industry liaison
committee and the primary smelter industry liaison committee. The
purpose for their establishment is as follows:
  The iron  and steel  industry  liaison  committee is established to
(a) review the scope of the systems engineering study of the air pol-
lution problems  relating to the industry, (&) provide pertinent data
inputs from industrial sources as applicable,  (
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                                58

odic contract progress reviews, and.(rf) evaluate a final study report.
  Several  other  committees have  been established but not staffed.
These committees and their purposes are:
  Air pollution economics advisory committee.—The committee is to
assist in the development and implementation of the purposes of the
Air Quality Act including the development of economic models for
the study of the impact of alternate air pollution  control methods.
both technical and social.
  Air pollution chemistry and physics advisory committee.—This com-
mittee is responsible for consultation regarding chemical, physical,
and instrumental research and development activities directed toward
improvement of air quality.
  Air pollution  process control engineering advisory committee.—
This committee is responsible for consultation regarding engineering
research and development activities directed toward the control of air
pollutants from stationary sources (i.e., industrial,  commercial, and
domestic processes).
  Meteorology advisot'y committee.—The committee  is responsible for
consultation and advice regarding all research and development activi-
ties in the field of air pollution meteorology undertaken by the meteor-
ology program of the National Air Pollution Control Administration.
  Motor vehicle research and development advisory committee.—This
committee is  responsible  for  consultation  regarding the  national
research and development activities of the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration directed toward the control of air pollutants from
all vehicular sources, i.e., onroad vehicles, offroad vehicles,  aircraft,
railroad, and ship.
  Organic solvents advisory committee.—The committee is responsible
for consultation and advice regarding: Amounts and types of solvents
used  nationally  and  regionally; general techniques  for  assessing
organic solvent contributions to air pollution in an area; research cur-
rently underway  and additional studies needed to determine the rela-
tive importance of various solvents and mixtures of solvents;  methods
of classifying solvents as air pollutants; methods of evaluating effects
and smog-forming  tendencies,  and the  role of sunlight and meteor-
ology; and the advisability and feasibility of national criteria for sol-
vent use and regulation, as a guide to control agencies and industry.
  Pulp  industry  liaison committee.—The committee is established to
(a) review the scope of the systems engineering study of the air pollu-
tion problems relating to  the  industry, (&) provide pertinent data
inputs from industrial sources, as applicable, (c) participate in peri-
odic contract progress reviews, and (a) evaluate the final study report.

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             X. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

              A. GOVERNMENT-INDUSTRY MEETINGS

  NAPCA has long recognized the important role that industry has
to play in the prevention and control of air pollution. Since its incep-
tion in 1955, the Federal air pollution program has worked to involve
industry in air pollution control, and one of the ways it has done this is
through a variety of joint industry-Government meetings.
  During 1967 and 1968 a number of meetings were  held bringing
together  representatives of industries with  pollution  problems; and
responsible staff  of HEW/NAPCA and other concerned Federal de-
partments and agencies. In  accordance with the authority and mandate
of the Air Quality Act of  1967 and the new departmental organiza-
tional structure, there is under development a variety or meetings,
seminars, and symposia for the exchange of information and ideas by
experts and managers from industry and Government.

                   B. INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

  An  international affairs program  has  been  established  with the
objective of promotion and cpordmatio-n  of international Iprograms.
NAPCA engages in various international activities with the World
Health Organization (WHO), the World Meteorological Organiza-
tion  (WMO), the Organization  for  Economic  Cooperation  and
Development (OECD), the Economic Commission of Europe (ECE),
the Council  of Europe (COE), and the International Joint Com-
mission  (IJC);  sponsors translation  and  research projects in Israel,
Poland,  and Yugoslavia  under  Public  Law  480;  represents the
Department  of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW)  in coop-
erative programs concerning air pollution control with Germany and
Japan; and maintains liaison with the Office of International Health
 (OIH),  Public  Health Service (PHS), DHEW and with  scientific
attaches of foreign embassies. NAPCA  awards research  grants to
foreign  recipients. At the present time grants  have been awarded to
scientists in Austria, Canada, England, and Sweden.
   An agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet
 Socialist Republics on exchanges in the scientific, technical, education,
 cultural, and other fields in 1968-69,  which contains for the first time
 air pollution, was signed in Moscow, July 15,1968, by the U.S.  Am-
 bassador and the Director, Cultural  Relations  Department, Ministry
 of Foreign Affairs, U.S.S.R. This agreement is valid until the end of
 December 1969.
                              (59)

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                        REFERENCES

1.  "Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, First
     Report of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to the
     United States Congress," June 28,1968.
2.  Federal Register 33(10) : 548, January 16,1968.
3.  Federal Register33(221): 16537-16538, November 13,1968.
4.  "Air Quality  Criteria for  Sulfur Oxides." U.S.  Department of
     Health,  Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Na-
     tional Center for Air Pollution Control, March 1967.
5.  Altshuller, A. P. "An Evaluation of Techniques for the Determina-
     tion of Photochemical Reactivity of Organic Emission." J. Air
     Pollution Control Asoc. 16(5) : 257-260, May 1966.
6.  Klosterman, D. L., and Sigsby, J. E., Jr. "Application of Subtrac-
     tive Techniques to the Analysis of  Automotive Exhaust." Envi-
     ron. Sci. Technol. 1:309-314,1967.
                              (60)

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