91ST CONGRESS \ QPNATF /DOCUMENT
1st Session I SiiNAr*, | Na gi_n
PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND
CONTROL OP AIR POLLUTION
SECOND REPORT
OF THE
SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,
AND WELFARE
TO THE
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
IN COMPLIANCE WITH
Public Law 90-148
THE AIR QUALITY ACT OF 1967
JANUARY 1969
MARCH 4,1969.—Ordered to be printed with illustrations
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
26-139 O WASHINGTON : 1969
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SENATE RESOLUTION 87
Submitted by Mr. Randolph of West Virginia
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
Agreed to March h 1969.
Resolved, That there be printed with illustrations as a Senate docu-
ment the second report of the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare, entitled "Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution", submitted to *he Congress in accordance with section 306,
Public Law 90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, and that there be
printed two thousand five hundred additional copies of such document
for the use of the Committee on Public Works.
Attest:
FRANCIS, K. VALEO,
Secretary,
n
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
SECRETARY or HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE,
Washington, D.C., January 17, 1969,
Hon. HUBERT H. HUMPHREY,
President of the Senate,
Washington, D.C.
DEAR MR. PRESIDENT: In accordance with the provisions of section
306 of Public Law 90-148 (the Air Quality Act of 1967), I am pleased
to transmit the second report describing progress in the national effort
to prevent and control air pollution.
The intent of this report is to describe recent progress in the field of
air pollution in its total context, outlining the evolution of control
activities up to the present day.
A brief discussion of salient highlights since the passage of Public
Law 88-206, the Clean Air Act ofl963, is enclosed.
Sincerely,
WILBUR J. COHEN, Secretary.
ENCLOSURE
Based on my experience and knowledge spanning the past 8 years,
with emphasis on the period since the amended Clean Air Act of 1963
(Public Law 88-206), the observations below are offered.
Industry has spent approximately $900 million on various aspects
of air pollution control since 1963. This expenditure includes Iboth
research and development moneys as well as capital improvements for
specific control devices. Starting with an outlay of $60 million in 1963
this figure is projected to reach $140 million in 1968.
Under the leadership of Secretary Gardner, the Clean Air Act of
1963 (Public Law 88-206) was amended twice, once in 1965 (Public
Law 89-272) and again in 1966 (Public Law 89-675). These amend-
ments resulted in an expansion of State and local control programs
through the mechanisms of Federal grants. Abatement activities on
the Federal level were strengthened and as a result enforcement became
a new weapon of pollution control. Under specific amendments enacted
in 1965, national standards for the control of motor vehicle pollution
have been promulgated for initial application during 1968. The Air
(HI)
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IV
Quality Act of 1967 (Public Law 90^-148) is a continuation of the
effort to abate and control air pollution: its main distinction from
previous legislation is the placement of emphasis on regional activities.
The DHEW has already designated air quality control regions in
several large metropolitan areas and is nearing publication of air
quality criteria for particulate matter and sulfur oxides, indicating
the extent to which these pollutants are harmful to health and damag-
ing to property. Detailed information on the cost and effectiveness of
techniques for preventing and controlling these two pollutants will
be published simultaneously with the criteria. The Air Quality Act
of 1967 places emphasis on the implementation by State and local
officials with DHEW assuming a guidance role.
The Air Quality Act of 1967 does not delineate in detail the private
sector's responsibilities but the specifics of the legislation can only be
interpreted as a clear invitation for industry and other private organi-
zations to join all levels of government in taking constructive action
to cope with the threat of air pollution. In accordance with provisions
of the Air Quality Act, National Advisory Committees (composed
of representatives from the private sector) have been established for
air quality criteria as well as for control techniques.
The recent (Nov. 1,1968) Court decision, Civil No. 19274, involving
the Bishop Processing Co., Bishop, Md., has added strength to the Fed-
eral enforcement provisions of the Air Quality Act of 1967. The Court
decree states that the Bishop Processing Co., Bishop, Md.. "cease all
manufacturing and processing operations" in their rendering and
annual reduction plant upon the U.S. Government filing an affidavit
with the Court by the director, Air Pollution Control Division, State
of Delaware Water and Air Resources Commission, stating that the
Bishop Processing Co. is discharging malodorous air pollution reach-
ing the State of Delaware. This decision could serve as a model for
future actions under the provisions of the act. .,
The authority for bringing about cleaner air is exemplified in the
Bishop Processing Co. case above. The future urgencies are not in
granting additional authority, rather they are in establishing more
local authority based on established criteria and increasing Federal
grants for the specific purposes of air resources management and
strengthening methods for prevention of air pollution.
The priorities of new research and development presently structured
are as follows: behavioral toxicological studies; quantitative pathology
of the respiratory system; basic biochemistry of oxidative effect; new
physical concepts for instruments for monitoring pollution levels; and
study of the relationship between air pollution damage and market
parameters.
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PREFACE
This is the second of a series of reports which will describe the
progress being made in this country to prevent and control air pollu-
tion. The report covers a period from May 1968 to January 1969. It
is respectfully submitted in accordance with section 306 of Public Law
90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967, which states as follows:
SEC. 306. Not later than six months after the effective date of this section and
not later than January 10 of each calendar year beginning after such date, the
Secretary shall report to the Congress on measures taken toward implementing
the purpose and Intent of this Act including but not limited to (1) the progress
and problems associated with control of automotive exhaust emissions and the
research efforts related thereto; (2) the development of air quality criteria and
recommended emission control requirements; (3) the status of enforcement
actions taken pursuant to this Act; (4) the status of State ambient air stand-
ards setting, including such plans for implementation and enforcement as have
been developed; (5) the extent of development and expansion of air pollution
monitoring systems; (6) progress and problems related to development of new
and improved control techniques; (7) the development of quantitative and quali-
tative instrumentation to monitor emissions and air quality; (8) standards set
or under consideration pursuant to title II of this Act; (9) the status of State,
interstate, and local pollution control programs established pursuant to and as-
sisted by this Act; and (10) the reports and recommendations made by the
President's Air Quality Advisory Board.
(V)
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CONTENTS
Page
Preface
I. Introduction
*
. __________________________
II . Control technology research and development ------------------- *
A. Stationary sources ------------------------------------ *
1 . Control of sulfur oxides pollution ----------------- »
(a) Removal of sulfur from coal ------------- 3
(fc) Removal of sulfur from fuel oil ----------- 4
(c) Removal of sulfur oxides from flue gas ---- 4
(d) New process development ---------------- 7
2. Control of nitrogen oxides pollution --------------- 8
3. Control of particulate pollution. ..... ------------ 9
4. Control of pollution from specific industries -------- 1U
5. Control of pollution from waste disposal ----------- 11
6. Device improvement studies. . .......... --------- 12
B. Meteorological research -------------------------------- 1*
1. Air pollution potential forecasting ________________ 1>>
2. Large powerplant effluent study ------------------ 13
3. Boundary layer dynamics. ...... ---------------- 13
4. Climatology ______________________ ...... ------- 1*
C. Health effects research ---------------------- ..... ---- - **
1. Nitrogen dioxide ----- ...... ------- ....... - ..... J*
2. Nitrogen dioxide and ozone ------------ ..... ----- fo
3. Oxidants ______________________________________ }%
4. Particulate matter ------------------------------ |°
5. Carbon monoxide ---------------------- ...... --- }?
6. Behavioral toxicology --------------------------- |<
7. Epidemiologic studies --------------------------- J»
D. Economic studies of air pollution ......... --------------- *»
1. Vegetation effects ------------------------------- *»
2. Effects on materials ------------------- ...... ---- *"
3. Socioeconomic effects ......... ------------------ *"
4. Emission control cost --------------------------- *«
5. Economic impact of standards ------------------- *i
III. Control program support-— ..... ------------------------------ £*
A. Control agency development program ----------- r ------- *;»
1. Federal grant support -------------- ..... -------- £*
2. Maintenance grants.. .......... ----------------- *•*
3. Technical assistance ---------------------------- **
4. Survey and demonstration grants ----------------- **
B. Research grants program ------------------------------ *5
1. Research grant projects --------- ..... ----------- *o
2. Operational aspects ---- ......... ---------------- *•>
C. Relationships with State and local officials --------------- ^o
IV. Progress toward a regional approach to air pollution -------------- &
A. Definition of atmospheric areas ------------------------- ^
B. Designation of air quality control regions ..... ----------- *<
C. Development of air quality criteria ---------------------- *°
1. Particulate matter ------------------------------ ^»
2. Sulfur oxides _____________________________ -. ----- *°
D. Development of information on available control techniques. ^y
1. Particulate matter ------------------------------ ^J-
2. Sulfur oxides ___________________________________ I*"
3. Other pollutants ________________________________ S(}
(VII)
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VIII
Page
V. Federal abatement activities -. -_ 31
A. Abatement actions 31
B. Pollution from single sources 31
C. Metropolitan-industrial pollution 32
D. International Joint Commission studies 32
E. Emergency abatement measures 32
VI. Relationships with other Federal programs 34
A. Control of air pollution from Federal facilities 36
VII. Automotive air pollution, emission standards, and related activities. 38
A. Automotive air pollution control 38
1. National emission standards 38
2. Automotive emission control research and develop-
ment 41
(a) Conventional engines 41
(6) Alternate low-emission powerplants 42
3. Certification 43
4. Surveillance - - 43
5. Inspection programs ~. 44
6. Emission control system evaluation (gasoline en-
gines) 45
(a) Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon con-
trol 45
(b) Nitrogen oxide control 45
7. Emission test procedures 45
8. California emission control standards 46
9. Uncontrolled foreign automobiles 47
10. Registration and evaluation of fuel additives 48
(a) Information gathering 48
(6) Design of registration procedures 48
VIII. Air pollution monitoring, data acquisition, measuring, instrumenta-
tion, and related activities 49
A. Air monitoring systems— - 49
B. Inventories of pollutant emissions, 51
C. National data bank , 53
D. Measuring instrumentation _ 54
1. Instrumentation for vehicular emissions 54
2. Instrumentation for stationary sources 54
(a) Remote stack monitoring 54
(6) In-stack monitoring 55
3. Instrumentation for air quality 55
(o) Single-point sampling 55
(6) Long-path sampling 56
IX. Advisory groups.. - 57
A. President's Air Quality Advisory Board 57
B. Advisory committees 57
X. Miscellaneous activities 59
A. Government-industry meetings 59
B. International affairs 59
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PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
OF AIR POLLUTION
I. INTRODUCTION
It is the intent of this report to update such information as was re-
ported in the first progress report to the Congress on the prevention and
control of air pollution in May 1968. The report introduces new ac-
tivities which have been initiated during the reporting period, as well
as provides an overview of the Federal program aimed at restoring
and maintaining the quality of the Nation's air resources.
The Federal responsibility for pursuing the problems of preventing
and controlling air pollution is that of the Department of Health, Ed-
ucation, and Welfare, through provisions of the Air Quality Act of
1967. Under the act, the Department seeks a regional approach to air
pollution control. To carry out the operating requirements of the act,
the Department has established the National Air Pollution Control
Administration under the Consumer Protection and Environmental
Health Service. The Administration, formerly the National Center for
Air Pollution Control, conducts a comprehensive program of research
and training, financial and technical assistance to State and local
agencies, and abatement and control activities to help protect the Na-
tion from the harmful effects of air pollution. The Administration's
specific aims are to optimally increase knowledge of the nature,
sources, effects, and control of air pollution and to achieve maximum
application of that knowledge. Organizational elements of the Ad-
ministration reflect the support of these aims.
(l)
26-130 O—68
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II. CONTROL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
A. STATIONARY SOURCES
The programs to develop effective methods for control of stationary
sources were expanded from $9 million in fiscal year 1968 to anticipated
expenditures of over $14.0 million during fiscal year 1969. Programs
to develop the large-scale equipment studies necessary to firmly evalu-
ate first-generation processes for control of pollution from combustion
were given continued high priority, and programs to develop new
processes were expanded to give increased attention to pollutants other
than sulfur oxides originating from combustion of fuels. The most
significant change in emphasis during the past year was an increase
in the resources being devoted to a series of systems studies instituted
to provide better definition of the nature of the research and develop-
ment needed to cope with the diversity and complexity associated with
any major segment of the air polution problem presented by stationary
sources in their totality.
These studies include: (1) Industrywide surveys of basic industries
such as primary smelters, pulp and paper, iron and steel, etc. In all
these surveys, combustion processes will oe given special attention. (2)
Device oriented studies to assess problems that must be solved to permit
wider application of electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers,
and afterburners. (3) Pollutant oriented studies to provide better
definition of the relative contributions of and control problems associ-
ated with important pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, particulates,
and odors on a nationwide basis.
All of the systems studies involved have certain common character-
istics, whether they are pollutant oriented, device oriented, or industry
oriented. In all, the intent will be to accumulate the best possible data,
even where doing so will be a difficult job. Most studies are expected
to provide a broad base of information that can be used by any groups
interested in analysis of any segment of the problems. The availability
of such information is expected to eliminate the need for considerable
duplication of effort by those with potential to contribute to the
solution of existing problems.
Efforts to continue expansion of the base of technical competence
supporting the program have resulted in an increase in the number of
participating groups so that NAPCA is either conducting such projects
or is directly utilizing competence available in over 70 groups in in-
dustry, universities and the National Academy of Engineering, and
other Government agencies. Particular emphasis has been given to
increasing the degree of involvement with groups outside of the United
States. Foreign activities have resulted in enlargement of our interna-
tional activities in England, Germany, and Japan to include coopera-
tion and/or probably joint research with groups in Yugoslavia, Czech-
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oslovakia, and Canada. Through the mechanisms available for
conducting research with funds available under Public Law 480 for
expenditure overseas, projects in Poland and India are expected to be
developed in the coming year.
1. CONTROL OP SULFUR OXIDES POLLUTION
The previously formulated program to develop control methods for
the various sources of sulfur oxides pollution has progressed along
anticipated lines set down in past years; however, overall funding was
lower than anticipated so that some processes that are candidates for
scale up are being given more detailed study on small systems. Al-
though this may slow down the rate at which processes become avail-
able, it is likely to increase the probability that they will be
economically acceptable.
(a) Removal of sulfur from coal
Because many small combustion units are not amenable to control by
processes now being developed, burning of low sulfur fuels is probably
the most practical immediate answer to the problem created by these
sources. The known reserves of low sulfur coals are limited, however;
and therefore, the National Air Pollution Control Administration has
a program underway to develop an inventory of cleanable coals and
economical techniques for removing sulfur from coal. In addition to
the inventory, the coal survey studies are producing comprehensive
information on the amounts of sulfur that potentially can be removed
from, high-sulfur steam coals.
(1) Coal-washing studies.—As part of its evaluation of commercial
methods for separating pyritic sulfur from coal, NAPCA is develop-
ing information on the operational characteristics of these methods
when applied to various representative coals through a private con-
tractor. In addition, NAPCA is supporting two equipment studies by
the Bureau of Mines. The Bureau is evaluating modifications that could
improve the separation capabilities of available equipment.
Two other private contractors have completed their evaluation of
fluid bed roasting of pyrite-cpal mixtures and subsequent conversion
of the sulfur dioxide released into sulfuric acid. This study has denned
the economics and technical limitations of increasing amounts of coal
with the pyrite feed material. As a result of an investigation of other
related technology, another contractor has developed approximate
costs for a process that would burn pyrite-coal rejects in a specialized
boiler for generating electrical power and recovering sulfuric acid
from flue gases. This process would produce a low-sulfur coal and a
reject material that could be burned in a power-generating plant with-
out emitting polluted flue gases. Further study of this method will
define in detail the technical and economic factors involved.
Competitive designs of iprototype coal-cleaning plants and associated
cost analyses are being done through a contractual arrangement. Fol-
lowing completion of these studies in the latter part of fiscal year 1969,
construction and operation of a prototype coal-cleaning plant is
planned, as well as design selection and construction of one or more
reject utilization processes.
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(6) Removal of sulfur from fuel oil
NAPCA is maintaining its awareness of progress in residual oil
desulfurization. Several direct and indirect desulrurization units have
been installed at refineries, and more are planned for the future. The
success of these units is being followed with interest to determine
whether support of research and development could help increase the
effectiveness of the units or reduce desulfurization costs. One area of
technology that appears to require further research is development of
a hydrodesulf urization catalyst that would not be deactivated oy heavy
metal contaminants in residual fuel oil.
(c) Removal of sulfur oxides from fuel gas
Even though developments in fuel desulfurization, fuel conversion,
and modified power cycles may provide a more practical long-term
solution to the sulfur oxides pollution problem, the best available esti-
mates of process economics and the more advanced stage of develop-
ment of various processes for flue gas desulfurization make it likely
that short-term processes for removal of sulfur from effluent gases
will make the greatest contribution to control of sulfur pollution.
During the past year, the Monsanto Chemical Co. announced the
successful operation and availability of its catalytic oxidation process,
which converts sulfur oxides to 70-percent sulfuric acid. Comoustion
Engineering, Inc., sold two lime scrubbing processes, which are now
operable. Several proprietary processes have been declared successful
by their developers on the basis of limited small-scale tests. These in-
clude the Wellman-Lord process, now being scaled up to a 25-mega-
watt prototype unit on a Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. plant, and
Stone & Webster's process, which has been operated successfully on a
small-scale pilot plant.
Foreign processes have also been evaluated on a prototype scale.
These include the Mitsubishi heavy-industry process, which employs
manganese oxide as a sorbent, and the Hitachi Manufacturing Co.'s
wet char process which produces dilute sulfuric acid as a byproduct.
Conditions in the foreijSpi power industry and byproduct markets
make these processes uniquely applicable to control the problems for
which they were developed. As a result, they have limited or little
potential for application to the U.S. problem.
New process development sponsored by NAPCA resulted in paper
and bench-scale research of promising new processes. Among the
leading candidates for this work are several regenerable wet scrub-
bing processes. Negotiations are underway to move these studies to the
pilot-land stage within the next few months.
The NAPCA sulfur oxides control research and development pro-
gram continues to give careful attention to developments being made
by the U.S. industrial community and in foreign countries to avoid
duplication of effort and to concentrate effort on processes that appear
to nave maximum potential for providing immediate relief from the
sulfur oxides pollution problem. Considerable attention continues to
be given to the limestone-based processes, with increased emphasis on
wet limestone scrubbing research and development to identify and
solve engineering and process problems that currently limit the utility
of this control method. Sorbent problems in the alkalized alumina
process have tended to restrict progress on this process.
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(1) Limestone-injection process.—Recognition by government and
industry of the immediate need for air pollution control systems, spe-
cifically for control of sulfur oxides, has led to rapid advances in the
development of two variations of limestone-based processes: Dry lime-
stone injection and limestone injection combined with wet scrubbing.
It is believed that both the acceptance and potential of the dry injec-
tion process will be established upon completion of the full-scale trial
of the process by TVA under NAPCA sponsorship. Installation of
equipment for the multimillion-dollar trial is underway at TVA's
Shawnee Power Station, near Paducah, Ky.
Preparatory to the full-scale trial, Babcock & Wilcox, Inc., has
constructed a 1:6.5-scale model of TVA's Shawnee No. 10 unit, the
unit in which the full-scale dry limestone injection trial will be con-
ducted. Cold tests of the additive injection system are underway and
dispersion of the dust in the simulated furnace and convection passes
of the boiler are being studied. NAPCA, in cooperation with the
Florida Power Co., this year conducted short-term injection tests to
study the effect of high-temperature injection on the sorption proper-
ties of calcined limestone and dolomite. In its program of funda-
mental and applied research, under contract and in-house, NAPCA is
developing data to assist in optimizing the limestone process and
achieving maximum performance in the prototype injection trials by
TVA. In addition to the five fundamental and applied research con-
tracts negotiated in 1967, which were described in the first report, sev-
eral additional contracts were initiated during 1968. A full-scale test
program is being sponsored by NAPCA at a facility of the Peabody
Coal Co. in Columbia, Tenn. The company is using a special chain
grate stoker to study the efficiency of various alkaline earth additives
in removing sulfur dioxide from flue gas. The results of this test pro-
gram may have considerable application for control of sulfur oxides
pollution from industrial combustion units.
The city of Chicago recently completed trials of limestone injection
processes for limestone and a waste material called red mud, a waste
product from the processing of aluminum ores. NAPCA is evaluating
this material in-house in bench-scale experiments. The General Mo-
tors Co., Chevrolet Division, St. Louis plant is progressing with a
full-scale industrial test of the dry injection process. NAPCA is co-
operating with both the city of Chicago and General Motors by pro-
viding information available on boiler injection processes from its
bench-scale tests. The contract with Esso Research & Engineering Co.
has been extended to include investigations of the technical and eco-
nomic aspects of regenerating reacted limestone and sulfur oxides
products to permit recycling of the sorbent material.
TVA completed a conceptual design and economic evaluation of
the dry injection process and will shortly complete a similar study
of the wet scrubbing process. Other investigators studied the min-
eralogical, physical, and chemical properties of a wide range of lime-
stones and dolomites and evaluated their reactivity with sulfur oxides
in various experimental reactors, in some cases under conditions
closely simulating those in powerplant boilers.
TVA's economic study of the dry process estimates a total operating
cost of approximately $1.05 per ton of coal in a 200-megawatt coal-
fired boiler. The above cost is based on a coal containing 3.5 percent
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sulfur, a limestone cost of $2.05 per ton delivered, and addition of
two times the theoretical amount of limestone required to absorb all
the sulfur in the coal. Economic utilization of the limestone-modified
fly ash product could lead to lower costs. Work at the coal research
bureau at West Virginia University has shown that mineral wools
having acceptable properties can be made from this product. The coal
research bureau is also investigating the possibility of recovering
the unreacted quicklime portion for possible recycling in the process.
Work to date with the dry injection process indicates the need for a
better understanding of the chemistry of the process and factors
important to achieving maximum performance. Further research and
development is needed specifically (1) to define the fundamental
kinetics of the sulfur oxide reaction with calcined limestone, (2) to
explain the effects of overcalcination on the reactivity of limestone,
(3) to develop criteria for selecting the most reactive limestones or
dolomites for use in the process, and (4) to develop ways of utilizing
limestone-modified fly asn and thus make the process more attractive
economically and at the same time reduce the waste disposal problem.
Continuing emphasis is being placed on development of the wet
limestone process not only because of the potential of the aqueous
lime scrubbing process for the control of sulful oxides but also because
of the need to solve engineering and process problems that may limit
its application. In the lime scrubbing process, dry limestone injection
into a powerplant boiler is followed by wet scrubbing of the flue gas
for removal of both fly ash and calcined lime. While in the scrubber
the milk-of-lime reacts with the sulfur dioxide in the flue gas to form
a disposable solid waste product. This process has potential for appli-
cation to large and small, new and existing powerplants.
Unsolved problems that may limit effectiveness of the wet limestone
process include corrosion and erosion of process equipment, localized
air pollution resulting from inadequate plume buoyancy, potential for
water pollution resulting from disposal of solid and liquid waste
products, and lack of reliable data for scale-up of the scrubbers to
sizes that will be necessary for powerplant usage. To define these
potential problems and solve them, NAPCA has negotiated a contract
for a premnmary design of a large-scale prototype test facility. The
facility will consist of three parallel prototype scrubber units, each
capable of processing flue gas approximately equivalent to that from
a 26-megawatt power boiler. The units will be designed to permit a
comparison of at least three process variations, including scrubber
types. Emphasis will be placed on the development of process kinetics
and economics and generation of data needed for optimum process
scale-up. These test facilities are expected to be constructed and in
operation by the end of calendar year 1969.
(2) Alkatiaed alumina process. Planning and activities directed
toward the two large-scale studies of alkalized alumina in the United
States and England are being continued. NAPCA and the Electric
Research Council have obtained many of the clearances required for
joint support of the British prototype-scale studies. Similar progress
on the British side by the Central Electricity Generating Board is not
evident; CEGB has been asked to clarify its position with respect to
continued interest and the financial capability to support the work.
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Projects aimed at developing the U.S. version of the alkalized
alumina process are being continued at a high level of priority. Both
British and U.S. workers have recently encountered difficulties with
sorbent deterioration, however, and believe that this problem must be
overcome before a prototype plant is designed and built. Intensive
efforts are underway to provide and evaluate a satisfactory alkalized
alumina sorbent, identify the most economic process consistent with
the characteristics of the best available sorbent, and assess the technical
and economic feasibility of the process as a basis for making a decision
on scale-up of the prototype. While these critical factors are being
evaluated, NAPCA is continuing the work and negotiations required
for scale-up of the process to prototype if sorbent problems are over-
come and process evaluation is favorable.
Most of the work aimed at producing a stable sorbent is being done
by W. R. Grace & Co.; this activity represents a shift of emphasis from
process scale-up for production of larger quantities of sorbent. NAP-
CA is also funding an effort by the Bureau of Mines to produce a
large handmade batch of the original sorbent produced by the Bureau,
apparently the only sorbent that has withstood simulated process
conditions.
M. W. Kellog & Co. has a program well under way to evaluate
existing information on the alkalized alumina process, define tech-
nology deficiencies, and perform a comprehensive design study and
economic evaluation directed toward large pilot plant demonstration
(studies. Kellogg has developed preliminary flow sheets for three
versions of the process: fixed bed, dispersed bed, and fluid bed. The
company has indicated that data on sorption kinetics are now well
enough developed, but has reemphasized the need for additional data
on regeneration. Two projects at the Bureau of Mines are being re-
shaped to provide specific data required. Bench scale studies on fluid-
bed sorption and regeneration have been started at the Bureau of
Mines. Kinetics, modeling, alternative sorbent, and panel contractor
work are largely completed. A copper oxide alumina sorbent has shown
some promise, and an analogous proprietary material has been re-
ceived from a catalyst manufacturer tor evaluation.
(d) New process development
New process development activities are receiving broad coverage in
nine areas of technology: (1) aqueous scrubbing, (2) solid metal
oxides, (3) inorganic liquids, (4) organic liquids, (5) inorganic solids
excluding metal oxides, (6) organic solids, (7) catalytic oxidation to
sulfuric acid, (8) reduction to surfur, and (9) physical methods of
separation. These nine areas a,re being surveyed to obtain sufficient
information for assessment of the potential of all new processes.
Battelle Northwest is continuing its technology review of organic
liquids, and in the field of molten inorganic materials the team of
MSA Research and Singmaster-Breyer is continuing a state-of-the-
art survey. Since mid-1967, Atomics International Division of North
American Rockwell has been investigating an approach known as the
molten carbonate process. The company has completed the design of
a small pilot plant; and if the present rate of development continues,
a prototype system for a 50-mega\vatt powerplant could be in opera-
tion by 1972. The process uses molten salts to remove sulfur dioxide
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8
from flue gases and produces elemental sulfur as a byproduct. A
major problem in this development is corrosion; however, data gene-
rated over the past several months indicate that this problem may
have been solved.
Monsanto Research Corp., is investigating new, improved catalysts
for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to concentrated sulfuric acid.
Tyco Laboratories is adapting chamber-process chemistry to the de-
velopment of a gas-phase catalytic process that, if successful, would
control sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides simultaneously. Tyco has
demonstrated all reactions in the laboratory and is constructing a
bench-scale plant for continuous operation. Gallery Chemical Co.,
is investigating a process for concentrating sulfur trioxide that could
be used in conjunction with a catalytic oxidation process.
Allied Chemical Corp., is surveying the state of the art of reduction
of sulfur dioxide to sulfur. Princeton Chemical Research is investi-
gating a specific direct reduction process in which part of the
sulfur produced is catalytically converted into the reducing agent.
Princeton is also designing a small pilot plant including a pulverized-
coal-fed furnace that should be in operation this year.
Tracor, Inc., is studying dry metal oxides and providing thermo-
dynamic data to other contractors. Aerojet General is investigating
aqueous scrubbing processes.
TRW, Inc., is conducting the state-of-the-art review of solid or-
ganic materials for surfur oxides control, and FMC Corp., is well
along in the survey of inorganic materials other than metal oxides,
including char. The survey incorporates reviews of the several char
processes under development in Europe (mainly Germany) and
Japan. Westinghouse Electric Corp., is exploring the entire field of
physical methods of separation for removing sulfur dioxide from
flue gases. General Electric Co., is trying to develop a process based
on the use of selectively permeable membranes for separating or con-
centrating sulfur dioxide.
Most of the nine area surveys should near completion by the end of
fiscal year 1969. At that time, in addition to the specific processes now
being developed, the surveys will have resulted in the selection of
other promising new processes for development. The contractors will
have provided theoretical analyses, preliminary engineering designs,
and economic evaluations for specific applications of these new pro-
cesses. These results will coincide with progress in problem definition
studies of specific industries and equipment.
As work on new processes has developed, two processes have shown
potential for control of nitrogen oxides as well as sulfur oxides. The
following section gives some specific details on these processes with
discussion of additional support and consideration being given over-
all programs for control of nitrogen oxides.
2. CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES POLLUTION
The comprehensive systems study to define nitrogen oxides pollu-
tion problems and to develop a research and development program
for control of the problem was started near the end of fiscal 1968
Esso Research & Engineering has gathered considerable information
on the nature and magnitude of the control problem and on tech-
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nology that has potential applicability to control of nitrogen oxides
emissions. Identification of the type, number, magnitude, and loca-
tion of sources will be followed by detailed recommendations for
formulation of a research and development program.
Fundamental studies at the Bureau of Mines on the kinetics of
nitrogen oxides formation in flames have been completed and the final
report is in preparation. NAPCA research on fuel additives and
residential heating equipment is being continued. A commercially
available combustion-improving device for residential oil furnaces
has shown promise for reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides and
other pollutants.
Investigation of the potential of fluid bed combustion of coal as a
means for controlling nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides is being con-
tinued in pilot studies by Pope, Evans, and Bobbins as part of a
NAPCA cooperative study with the Office of Coal Research. At Ar-
gonne National Laboratory, NAPCA launched a broad-based theoreti-
cal and bench-scale evaluation of additive materials and of combustor
design and operating variables for control of nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides in fluid 'bed combustion. A week-long symposium on
fluid bed combustion sponsored by NAPCA included participation
by representatives from four foreign countries as well as those from
the United States working in the field.
NAPCA is evaluating new and improved sulfur oxides control
processes for their potential in controlling nitrogen oxides. Develop-
ment of the molten carbonate process for sulfur oxides control at
Atomics International has been extended to include an evaluation of
the process as a means for control of nitrogen oxides. An extension
of the metal oxides thermodynamics work on sulfur oxides reactions
to include nitrogen oxides reactions is under consideration. Further
development of a macroscopic-scale model of nitrogen oxides forma-
tion during combustion is also being considered to complement the
systems study being done by Esso Research & Engineering.
3. CONTHOL Or PAHTICULATE POLLUTION
A contract research program directed toward the particulate pol-
lution problem was initiated in the second quarter of fiscal year 1969.
Emphasis is being -given to defining the total national problem,
identifying major sources of particulate pollution, determining the
present degree of control, defining the body of available technology
regarding important properties and characteristics of particulates,
and formulating research and development programs necessary to
generate information required for adequate control of particulates.
In addition to the survey of the national particulate pollution
problem, NAPCA is continuing its in-house studies of equipment for
control of particulates and other pollutants. NAPCA is studying five
basic types of scrubbers to relate scrubber efficiency to economics of
operation, to improve the effectiveness of scrubbers for control of
incinerator emissions, and to develop new and improved scrubbing
techniques such as condensation of water vapor on very small par-
ticles to facilitate removal. NAPCA is also continuing its in-house
studies of fabric filtration, which is probably the most advanced tech-
nique for removal of very small particles. These in-house studies by
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NAPCA serve two purposes: (1) development of technology for solu-
tion of specific problems and (2) development of background and
experience needed to manage the contract research program.
The NAPCA in-house studies, contract studies of devices, and the
contract survey and definition of the national particulate pollution
problem complement new programs instituted to improve overall
capabilities of the important types of equipment now used in air
pollution control. (Device improvement studies are discussed in a
later section.)
4. CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM SPECIFIC INDUSTRIES
NAPCA is expanding its series of studies of basic industries to
develop a comprehensive body of information that will provide guide-
lines for all Federally sponsored research and development for con-
trol of air pollution from these sources. These studies will generate
engineering data and technical and economic feasibility analyses of
alternative modes of control and will define research needs of the
industry related to development of new and improved control
techniques.
Work was started in 1967 with initiation of a study of the primary
copper, lead, and zinc smelting industry. The series was expanded in
1968 to include systems studies for control of air pollution from the
wood pulping, integrated steel, and graphic arts industries. Al-
though primary emphasis in the smelting study was given to sulfur
oxides, later studies in the series are being broadened to include other
significant pollutants such as odor-causing compounds, particulate
fluorides, and solvents.
A diversity of private competence is being brought to bear on the
examination of industry problems. For example, the team of E. R.
Sirrine and Environmental Engineering is doing the wood pulping
problem analysis. Battelle Memorial Institute and Swindell-Dressier
are studying the integrated steel industry. Evaluation of the graphic
arts industry problem is being done by the Graphic Arts Technical
Foundation under a cost-sharing arrangement.
To the extent that it is practical, studies are being designed to
meet the coordinated information needs of several NAPCA programs.
This is being done to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort within
NAPCA and to minimize requests to industry for responses to
inquiries.
Where necessary, the active support and cooperation of operating
management in the affected industry is being sought. Meetings are
being called to explain the nature and purposes of the studies. A
more formalized mechanism for industry involvement has been in-
stituted with the creation of industry liaison committees. These com-
mittees, usually composed of 10 to 12 industry representatives, are set
up to follow progress of the studies and to offer an industry view-
point on developments. Lines of communication are kept open to as-
sociations that represent small business enterprises to encourage
cooperative support of studies designed to develop background data
on specific control problems.
Future efforts by NAPCA wil include a broad area study of air
pollution controls for stationary fossil fuel combustion equipment.
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This project will be designed to investigate the problems of the great
number of combustion units in residential^ commercial, and industrial
installations, exclusive of the large utilities. Together these installa-
tions burn more than 30 percent of the fossil fuels consumed. A broad
attack on these sources is necessary because emissions from them often
occur at low levels in or near populated areas.
5. CONTROL OP POLLUTION FROM WASTE DISPOSAL
Recent studies have shown that solid wastes from residential, com-
mercial, and industrial sources exceed 200 million tons per year and
are increasing at a compounded annual rate of 3 percent. Agricultural,
forestry, ana animal wastes greatly exceed this amount. The munici-
pal disposal problem has already become critical because uncontrolled
dumping and burning are unacceptable. With the trend toward more
concentrated commercial operations and greater restrictions on levels
of land and water pollution, similar problems are becoming evident
in the disposal of agricultural, forestry, and animal wastes. The ther-
mal destruction of wastes of all types will be increasingly employed
despite the resulting air pollution. Consequently, efficient incineration
processes and associated air pollution control methods must be devel-
oped suitable to the types, quantities, and locations of the wastes
generated.
Broad systems studies are being designed to define the overall air
pollution problem associated with refuse disposal. The first such study
is now being performed by Arthur D. Little, Inc. This contractor is
assessing present and projected emissions resulting from incineration
of municipal refuse and analyzing all technically and economically
feasible methods for reducing emissions by available technology. The
contractor will recommend detailed research and development pro-
grams that will lead to control device systems and new air-pollution-
free processes for thermal destruction of conversion of refuse. Much
operating, engineering, control, and cost information on incineration
of immediate value to municipal officials will also be assembled and
cataloged.
Aerojet-General Corp. and subcontractor specialists are assessing
present and projected quantity, composition, and combustion charac-
teristics of municipal refuse and evaluating applicable boiler and
power-generating technology to determine the technical and economic
feasibility of utuizing refuse as a low-sulfur fuel for central power
stations. Aerojet will intensively analyze the performance ana costs
of advanced European installations that emit very little air pollution
and will prepare preliminary engineering design of several types of
installations. This study will provide detailed plans optimizing future
resource allocation for development and demonstration of new and
improved processes.
Another systems study now being developed will be directed toward
analysis and control of air pollution resulting from thermal destruc-
tion of industrial and agricultural wastes. Disposal of these wastes
involves consideration of many different requirements related to phys-
ical form, composition, point of origin, and economic factors. Meth-
ods suitable to various capacities, locations, and types of waste must be
developed, along with associated control systems. Another study will
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evaluate the application of all gas-phase incineration methods to odor
and pollution control.
In-house work is continuing on emission sampling techniques and
equipment, evaluation of low-cost pit incinerators, and potential
emissions that will result from the rapidly increasing plastic con-
tent of refuse. NAPCA incineration control studies are coordinated
with related studies conducted by other Federal units to insure in-
formation exchange and optimum solution to the problem of air pollu-
tion from refuse disposal.
6. DEVICE IMPROVEMENT STUDIES
Typically, problems of air pollution control have been approached
by modifying and adapting existing processes and control devices for
the control of specific air pollution problems. In many other cases,
however, this approach is inadequate because of the inherent limita-
tions of some processes and control equipment. An example is the in-
ability of cyclones and scrubbers to collect the fraction of particulate
pollution made up of very small particles. Contracts to study the capa-
bilities and limitations of each major type of existing control equip-
ment, including fabric filters, scrubbers, precipitators, and afterburn-
ers, are being negotiated. In addition to present usage practices, the
degree of control in terms of properties of particular pollutants will
be characterized. The body of knowledge relating to each control de-
vice will be assembled, and the capability of the device for controlling
specific air pollution problems will be defined. Against the background
of this information, a research and development program in each
problem area will be developed to expand the capabilities of each con-
trol device and permit its extension to the control of new air pollution
problems.
Of the available particulate control methods, fabric filtration seems
to have the greatest potential for controlling small-particle-size emis-
sions. Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. is doing pilot studies and Air
Preheater with Public Health Service of New Jersey is doing field
studies to investigate the potential of fabric filters as chemical con-
tractors for reacting gaseous pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and
fluorides with solid reactants. In-house research of fabric filters has
been accelerated as part of a program to develop this control
technology.
B. METEOROrXXJICAL RESEARCH
The atmosphere's dilution capacity is enormous; however, when
man overloads the air at the wrong time, in the wrong place, or with
the wrong material, air pollution problems arise. Since the movement
and dilution of airborne particles and gases are governed in large part
by the motions of the atmosphere, the answers to questions of what
constitutes the wrong time, the wrong place, or the wrong materials
often require the assessment of an atmospheric scientist.
To help answer these questions, a better understanding is required
of atmospheric transport, diffusion, and deposition processes which
define an air pollution potential condition. The studies of these proc-
esses and of the effects of atmospheric motions on airborne .pollutants
are frequently categorized as air pollution meteorology or atmos-
pheric diffusion.
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Basic goals of the National Air Pollution Control Administration's
meteorology program determine two distinct types of activities in air
pollution meteorology: (1) research, to define and describe meteoro-
logical factors pertinent to air pollution control activities; and (2)
application of meteorological principles to the conduct of air pollu-
tion control programs.
1. AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL FORECASTING
The transfer of the air pollution potential forecasting program to
the Weather Bureau's National Meteorological Center (NMC), En-
vironmental Science Services Administration, in the summer of 1967,
marked the culmination of a successful 7-year research and develop-
ment effort to forecast air pollution potential. Following this transfer
of operational forecast responsibility to ESSA, NAPCA's meteorol-
ogists have maintained a close liaison with NMC in their efforts to
quantify the air pollution potential forecast. Initial attempts to em-
ploy a simple box model are based on mixing depth (the height of the
air layer above the ground in which pollutants effectively mix) and
the average wind speed through the mixing depth, to yield an average
normalized pollutant concentration. The mixing depth concept is most
applicable in regions of light winds (stagnation) and, fortunately, it
is on such regions that forecasts of mixing depth and wind speed are
best verified.
2. LARGE POWERPLANT EFFLUENT STUDY
A comprehensive investigation of the transport and dispersion of
. plumes from tall stacks was initiated at a coal burning power station
complex in western Pennsylvania. Each of three power stations hav-
ing tall stacks over 800 feet high located on a line essentially 25 miles
long, will emit daily more than 2,000 tons of sulfur dioxide gas into the
atmosphere. To assess the potential effects of the airborne effluents from
these plants on the surrounding environment, measurements of plume
rise, plume geometry, dispersion, and SOa concentrations have been
obtained, using instrumented helicopters and a mobile lidar (laser-
radar), both under contract. These studies are providing information
that is being analyzed (a) to develop and validate transport and dif-
fusion models which give calculations of expected ground-level con-
centrations of effluents from large powerplants, (b) to observe the
magnitude, frequency, and spatial distribution of ground-level pollut-
ant concentrations from large powerplants and tall stacks, and (c)
to evaluate .the deleterious effects on vegetation of sulfur compounds
arid other effluents from a large powerplant complex in the region of
the installations. A similar study of tall stack diffusion at a coastal
site is being considered.
3. BOUNDARY LATTER DYNAMICS
The effort to develop and improve urban diffusion models has con-
tinued by attempting to describe in more detail urban diffusion
processes and to understand the structure of the atmosphere over urban
areas. Field investigations of the urban heat island, conducted during
nocturnal stable periods in Cincinnati, have shown a pronounced
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modification of the vertical temperature and wind structure by the
underlying urban complex. To study the atmospheric structure over
a city located in less complicated terrain, a series of field investigations
were recently carried out in Columbus, Ohio; similar investigations
will be carried out under selected meteorological conditions. Measure-
ments in Cincinnati of atmospheric turbidity (degree of transparency
of a cloud-free atmosphere), an indicator of the aerosol content of
the atmosphere, have indicated that the total number of particles
suspended in the atmosphere is less in winter, with a higher propor-
tion of large particles, than in summer. Measurements of ultraviolet
(uv) radiation in Cincinnati show a marked reduction of ultraviolet
received at the ground on days of heavy air pollution. The radiation and
turbidity measurements at other locations in the country constitute a
continuing program to assess the long-term effects of air pollution on
the weather; for each respective location, such measurements provide
useful data for assessing local air quality and its relationship to
meteorological processes.
4. CLIMATOLOGY
Tabulations by the National Weather Records Center, ESSA, of
morning and afternoon mixing depths and average wind speed through
each corresponding depth, have been prepared for 62 Weather Bureau
radiosonde stations; these data are being analyzed to prepare an air
pollution potential climatology of the contiguous States, including
a frequency of episodes of hign air pollution potential, or "stagnation
episodes," when shallow mixing depths and light wind speeds persist
for at least 2 days. A geographical delineation and climatological
description of areas for the States of Alaska and Hawaii, as well as the
islands of Guam, Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands has been
provided; these areas represent a region of dilution climate homo-
geneity based on professional judgment and documented meteorologi-
cal statistics. Meteorological descriptions of four air quality control
regions provided estimates of the geographical distribution of mean
summer, winter, and annual groundlevel concentrations of SO,, CO,
and suspended particulates, based on pollutant source inventories pro-
vided by NAPCA's air quality and emission data program.
C. HEALTH EFFECTS RESBABOH
A summary of the most recent findings from health effects studies
is presented with additional comments concerning the present research
endeavors that serve as extensions of these findings and which are
designed to produce information which may be directly applied toward
the development of meaningful air quality criteria.
1. NITROGEN DIOXIDE
One important area of research relates to the definition of nitrogen
dioxide as an environmental factor in the etiology of emphysema. It
has been shown that cigarette smoking and/or the breathing of polluted
air or smog appeared to predispose susceptible individuals to emphy-
sema. Hign concentrations of NOa have been shown to cause severe
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acute diseases of the lungs. Through the efforts of a number of labora-
tories, emphysema has been produced experimentally in a variety of
animals (dog, monkey, rabbit, rat, and mouse). Initial experiments
utilized acutely toxic concentrations of NO2 to. induce subsequent
pathology but recent studies have employed a low enough range of
concentrations so that the experimental animals survived their natural
lifespans with minimal evidence of exposure to NO2. Concentrations as
low as 2 parts per million of NO2 administered over the natural life-
span of the rat (2 to 3 years) have revealed evidence of lung pathology
similar to the early stages of emphysema. Such levels approximate the
ambient concentrations observed during air pollution episodes. The
primate is now being utilized by investigators due to its much longer
life expectancy than the rat so that the influence of environmental
factors may be prolonged as is most likely the case in man.
2. NITROGEN DIOXIDE AND OZONE
Significant findings relating to nitrogen dioxide and ozone exposures
concern the increased susceptibility to pulmonary infections. Earlier
studies revealed that 0.5 parts per million NO2 and 0.08 parts per
million of ozone enhanced the susceptibility of mice to a respiratory
infectiyity challenge. Recent work indicates that the enhanced infec-
tivity is not due merely to an impairment of the lung clearance
mechanisms (cilia, mucus, phagocytosis), but also due to alterations of
the lung parenchyma, per se. These laboratory studies are highly
significant since they have implicated a possible relationship between
air pollutants and changes in resistance to respiratory infection. These
biological parameters can now be tested under ambient situations using
epidemiological techniques and utilizing human population groups.
Future laboratory studies will concern secondary factors which play
a role in the causation of infectious disease. Exposure to cold, extreme
fatigue, disturbance hi the nutritional state, existence of previous
diseases, and many other conditions are frequently significant in the
establishment of the disease state. Such predisposing causes com-
prise the factors in the multiple causality principle and although
their importance is well established, their relative contributions m
the presence of air pollutants has yet to be quantitatively defined.
3. OX1DANT8
Increased importance has been .given the problem concerning re-
search into the biochemical effects ofoxidant air pollutants. Previously,
a number of studies have demonstrated short-term effects of ambient
levels of bxidant pollutants on biological parameters such as pulmo-
nary mechanics, oxygen consumption, athletic ability, and others.
Recent biochemical investigations of the cellular effects of oxidant air
pollutants have produced information which may prove pertinent in
the determination of long-term human health effects. Lipid peroxida-
tion- is being considered as a mechanism of biological damage from
the exposure to oxidant air pollutants. Recent evidence has indicated
lipid peroxidation in the lung lipids of rats exposed to 1 part per mil-
lion NO2 for 4 hours. The peroxidative changes did not occur imme-
diately but appeared to reach a maximum levelbetween 24 and 48 hours
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postexposure. This effect could be partially prevented 'by the prior
administration to the animals of large doses or the antioxidant, alpha-
tocopherol. Pulmonary surfactant obtained from rats exposed con-
tinuously to 1 part per million NO2 for 2 weeks contained increased
quantities of phosphotidylclholine with a concomitant decrease in
phosphotidylethanokmine, an important precursor for phosphotidyl-
choline. Corresponding increases were observed in palmitic acid con-
tent with decreases in the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. These
changes reflect the observed increase in phosphotidylcholme and the
peroxidation of the normally present unsaturated fatty acids. These
findings are considered significant since they rep resent basic changes at
the cellular level and result from exposures of biological systems to low
levels of air pollution. Additional studies, presently in progress, and
concerning the biochemistry of the lipid portion of pulmonary sur-
factant will allow conclusions to be drawn as to the effect on the metab-
olism of surfactant lipids by these air pollutants and the mechanism
-by which such changes may contribute to the subsequent development
of physiological abberrations.
4. PABTICUIATE MATTER
It has been known for many years that chemical substances of a
carcinogenic nature are present in participate air pollutants. These
substances have been shown to be cancer inducing when painted onto
the backs or injected into the skin of mice. However, when these same
substances were injected into the lungs of experimental animals the
results did not indicate the production of cancers with any regularity.
The interaction of carcinogens with other particulate agents nas been
studied toxicologically utilizing laboratory animals. Experiments have
shown that the addition of seemingly inert particulates to carcinogens
results in the production of malignant neoplasms in the lung. Various
experiments have produced a variety of malignant tumors in the lungs
of experimental animals by intratracheal instillation of saline sus-
pensions of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in the presence of particulate sub-
stance serving as a carrier dust. It has been inferred that there is a re-
duction in the speed in which BaP is removed from the respiratory
tract -brought about by the particulate dust. Recently, researchers have
demonstrated the interaction of a known carcinogen with the gaseous
air pollutant, sulfur dioxide. Inhalation exposures of rats indicated
that SO2, alone, produced proliferative and metaplastic changes in
the bronchial epithelium; BaP, alone, failed to cause the development
of tumors; but the inhalation of BaP in the presence of SO2 caused
the development of bronchogenic squamous cell carcinoma. Other stud-
ies have employed the injection of crude benzene-soluble extracts of
atmospheric particulate into suckling mice.
At 50 weeks postinoculation, a variety of tumors were evident, the
most significant being lymphomas, hepatomas, and multiple pulmo-
nary adenomas. It should be noted also that measurable concentrations
of inorganic substances, such as metal dusts and asbestos, demonstrated
to be associated with increased liability to lung cancer development,
are also emitted into the atmosphere. Additional laboratory experimen-
tation is needed to verify such carcinogenic potential relative to inter-
acting effects and respective ambient atmospheric concentrations.
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When linked with urban-rural differences in lung cancer frequency
revealed from epidemiologic investigations, this evidence indicates
that such substances in urban polluted atmospheres are potential car-
cinogens for the exposed human population,
5. CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is highly suspected as one of the environmental
predisposers to myocardial infarcts and a potentiator of morbidity
and mortality from this phenomena. Experiments have demonstrated
that dogs exposed to CO had decreased arterial-veneous oxygen differ-
ences in spite of an increased coronary blood flow. Additional studies,
utilizing humans with coronary heart disease, have shown that OOHb
levels between 5 and 12 percent resulted in a decreased oxygen myo-
cardial extraction, which was related inversely to the COHb levels,
despite an increased coronary flow and heart output. Such observations
have shed light on the observed higher incidence of coronary thrombo-
sis in smokers versus nonsmokers.
0. BEHAVIORAL TOXIOOIjOGT
There has been increased interest and support for behavioral toxi-
cology which is an area of research for determining how toxic com-
pounds affect systems and alter the normal response of an individual
ot experimental animal. Very low dosages of certain compounds can
meaningfully alter the behavior of people without causing any con-
scious or apparent physiological distress or tissue damage. Studies are
in progress to determine how information is processed in the brains
of rats and monkeys and how certain pollutants change this processing.
Three general areas are concerned : (1) neuorochemistry, for determin-
ing how pollutants interfere with chemicals such as serotonin, acetyl-
choline, and noradrenline, which are responsible for transmission of
electrical signals in the brain; (2) neurophysiology, or more precisely
electrophy siology, which is being studied in relation to electrical activ-
ity in the visual cortex and in the superior colliculus. which controls
the visual motor system; and (3) behavior— this is being investigated
in relation to timing sense, problem solving, and deeisionmaking. The
final integrated effort concerns how air pollutants affect the whole
animal organism. This will involve the recording of «. variety of physi-
ological responses^-body temperature, EEG, EKG, and respiratory
gases — while simultaneously controlling and evaluating how the ani-
mal copes with increasingly complex decisions and performance tasks.
To date, the effect of carbon monoxide on the electrical activity of the
brain has been investigated through studies of the brain's response to
a visual stimulus. The visual stimulus evokes a characteristic electrical
response in the visual area of the brain. The wave form of this response
is changed following the inhalation of carbon monoxide (100 ppm GO
for 2 hours) . In general, both the amplitude and the harmonic content
of the brain's response to a visual stimulus are decreased with GO
exposures. Other studies have concerned the effects of chronic lead
absorption on the spontaneous EEG sleep records of rats and the rela-
tionship of such responses to behavior changes. Since sleep tends to
follow orderly patterns, related changes are relatively easy to detect.
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This research has indicated that lead changes the period of deep, or
dream, sleep, shortening the period and making it less stable. Treated
animals showed more dream sleep in the early sleep period as compared
to baseline data: in addition, the patterns of deep sleep became less
regular. These changes in dream sleep are considered to directly, or
indirectly, reflect the impairment of a neurocontrol system. Altered
functions of the central nervous system may be evident before clinical
signs and symptoms have been induced by exposure to toxic materials.
In particular, the changes in dream sleep may involve the mechanism
responsible for controlling transitions between the various levels of
consciousness. This may be related to the sluggishness associated with
exposure to lead and other toxic metals. The underlying importance of
this program is to discover what stressors in the environment may
make it more difficult for people to perform efficiently at given tasks.
7. EPIDBMIOLOGIC STUDIES
In an epidemiologic study of 450 second-grade elementary school-
children in the Cincinnati area, the pulmonary function of the children
living in the more polluted sectors of the city was persistently below the
pulmonary function of children, matched for social economic level
and race, living in a "clean" sector of the city. This difference was
consistent during weekly measurements obtained in November 1967
and February and May 1968, and was present in the face of only a
20 percent difference in average exposure of the two groups to partic-
ulate air pollutants.
One thousand second-grade schoolchildren from Greater Chatta-
nooga have been enrolled in a similar epidemiologic study designed to
ascertain the effects of exposure to oxides of nitrogen on pulmonary
function and on the frequency and severity of acute respiratory
disease. Weekly pulmonary function tests were obtained during Novem-
ber 1968 and wiU again be obtained in March 1969. The households of
the children are being questioned at biweekly intervals regarding the
presence and severity of acute respiratory diseases.
The city of Saratoga Springs. N.Y., was intensively sampled by
means of 40 intermittent roto-bar samplers during the August-
September 1968 ragweed season, in order to determine the distri-
bution of pollen concentration in a community. These data are being
used to plan a subsequent six-city epidemiologic study in New York
State of the effect of ragweed control on hay fever prevalence.
Outbreaks of asthma in epidemic proportions have occurred annually
during the months of September, October, and November in New
Orleans for the past 15-20 years. These outbreaks have been analyzed
for the 1960-67 period and have been found to be associated with low
temperature and humidity recordings during those months, but do
not appear to be related to increases in specific chemical pollutants.
Studies are continuing to determine the additional relationship of the
asthma outbreaks to concentrations of aeroallergens.
A preliminary study of the effect of riding in taxioabs on breath
concentrations of carbon monoxide revealed that both smokers and
nonsmokers have elevated breath carbon monoxide concentrations
after riding through a normal traffic pattern in taxicabs for 3 to 5
hours. Although cigarette smokers have the highest persistent carbon
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monoxide levels, the percentage increase of carbon monoxide was
greatest in the nonsmokers exposure to carbon monoxide by normal
taxicab riding.
Oadmium concentrations in dustfall, water, and milk were measured
in 70 metropolitan areas in midcontinental States during the months
of September and October 1968. These data will be related to variations
in cardiovascular disease mortality in 70 cities.
Initial contacts have been made to establish an air pollution health
effects surveillance network in selected cities of the United States.
Through this network, the effect on selected indices of health will
be related to the changing air quality within each city and to differences
in air quality between the cities. The effect of differences in air quality
on school and industrial absences, hospital admissions for selected
diseases, severity of respiratory disease epidemics such as influenza,
and on other measures of health will be analysed in this surveillance
study.
D. ECONOMIC STUDIES OF Ant POLLUTION
Until recently, the economic effects of air pollution and the cost
of its control were largely unexplored areas, virtually all that has
been done in studying and analyzing the economic aspects of air pol-
lution has been initated since the passage of the Clean Air Act of
1963. At first, these efforts were viewed as only an incidental part of the
NAPCA's responsibility. However, economic studies are now recog-
nized as a strategic part of the overall effort to develop and dissem-
inate information on the effects of air pollution and its control. Infor-
mation on costs and benefits will be important to both public and
private decisionmakers in upcoming periods.
Several studies of the benefits associated with air pollution con-
trol^have been undertaken and completed. They include estimates of
additional expenditures to avoid soifing, reductions in property value,
damages to commercial vegetation, and costs of human mortality and
morbidity. For the most part, these studies have been specific to
particular times and particular geographic locations and, therefore, are
not readily generalized to other times and places. Moreover, the methods
by which most havebeen conducted are open to some question.
To meet the need for reliable, useful economic information, NAPOA
is presently conducting studies to (a) secure basic data, on the damage
air pollution causes to vegetation, livestock, and materials; (&) deter-
mine the cost of .controlling air pollution emissions; and (c) analyze
the overall economic impact of air pollution control in order to
appraise the State, local, regional, and national economic burdens.
Brief, summaries of some of the major studies underway or planned
in these areas are presented.
1, VEGETATION EFFECTS
Several species of economically important plants are being exposed
to gaseous pollutants such as ozone and sulphur dioxide in order to
determine the senesitivities of different species and varieties and
to eventually develop dose-response curves which will be useful in
the setting of air quality criteria. In addition, laboratory studies are
being conducted to determine how variations in environmental factors
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such as light, humidity, temperature, and a variety of soil, variables
affect the sensitivity of various plant species to specific pollutants.
In the summer of 1968, experimental field studies were begun to deter-
mine the effects of ambient air pollutants an the growth and yield
of several common species and varieties of field and garden crops.
These studies will be expanded to include additional species during
fiscal year 1970. In cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service, a field
study was begun in 1968 to determine the feasibilty of using color
and color-infrared aerial photography for the detection of oxidant
damage to ponderosa pine in California. This study will be expanded
to include other multispectural sensing devices in the spring of 1969.
To assess the agricultural effects of air pollutants, the administration
works closely with the U.S. Department of Agrculture as part of a
coordinated and cooperative program.
2. EFFECTS ON MATERIALS
Chamber studies are being conducted in order to quantitatively
establish cause-effect relationships between the fading of 20 selected
fabric-dye combinations and controlled parameters—gaseous pollu-
tants, relative humidity, and temperature. Studies are going on at
five sites in the area of Birmingham, Alabama, to relate the con-
centration of participate matter and other pollutants to the soiling
of windows, painted panels, and other building materials. The Na-
tional Bureau of Standards in cooperation with NAPCA is study-
ing the effects of sulfur dioxide and photochemical oxidants on a
variety of building materials. In addition, a contract has been nego-
tiated to identify air pollution problems of economic significance
in the damage to electrical contacts such as connections and switches
used in industrial electronic and electrical systems. A similar con-
tract has been made to identify air pollution problem areas in the
entire field of textiles including fabric and fiber deterioration, dye-
fading, and soiling.
3. SOCIOECONOMIC EFFECTS
Results of a recently completed cross-sectional study of the effects
of air pollution on residential real estate values indicates an inverse
relationship between air pollutant concentration and property
values. This study will be extended to cover other metropolitan areas
in the near future. In January 1969 a study will be initiated to deter-
mine the nature and magnitude of odor problems on a national scale
and to study specific community odor situations in order to develop
air quality criteria for various categories of odorants. Further field
studies to assess soiling damage costs and socio-economic impact of
visibility reduction will also be initiated in fiscal year 1969.
4. EMISSION CONTROL COST
The cost of reducing air pollutant source emissions is being evalu-
ated through detailed industrial surveys, by general pollutant cate-
gories, and by generic types of control equipment. Each of these
investigations is designed to compliment and refine the others. Where
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possible, cooperative studies are being undertaken with industrial
groups and other Government agencies to develop accurate cost-
effectiveness relationships and to predict future air pollution con-
trol costs. These cooperative efforts have been quite productive in
developing interest, knowledge, and concern through involvement
of the participants. Data collection has been completed on three
industries—the steam-electric power generating industry (in coopera-
tion with the Federal Power Commission), the gray and ductile iron
foundry industry (with the Department of Commerce), and the
asphaltic concrete industry. The data are being analyzed and separate
reports on the findings of each study are in preparation.
Systems studies which include the assessment of air pollution con-
trol costs are being conducted by contract in the integrated iron and
steel industry and the wood pulping industry. Similar studies are being
developed in the acid manufacturing and the petroleum refining
industry.
A cooperative study of control cost with the cement industry is
under development. This study will include projection of control
costs into the future by each industrial firm.
Research is underway to improve cost estimates for controlling emis-
sions of specific pollutant categories by generic types of control equip-
ment or oy fuel and material substitutions. Such cost-effectiveness
analyses have been completed for paifrculates and oxides of sulfur
a'nd nave been included in the control technology documents discussed
elsewhere in this report. Similar investigations are underway for car-
bon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and nydrocarbon compounds.
Procedures and techniques for making regional and national assess-
ments of control costs are being developed. These techniques are to
be implemented in air quality control region analyses as authorized
in the Air Quality Act of 1967. Such techniques are being designed,
evaluated, and refined in a Philadelphia metropolitan area study.
The methodology for these urban analyses shall employ and expand
the computerized techniques of determining the least cost methods of
meeting air quality standards that have been developed in simulation
studies within NAPCA.
5. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF STANDARDS
Progress is being made in economic analysis of National Emission
Standards as required by the Air Quality Act, section 211 (a). The
industrial categories to be considered have tentatively been selected
and the analysis procedure has been outlined. The necessary industry
statistics and related costs information for other studies are being
assembled for such economic evaluations.
The NAPCA is continuing to sponsor comprehensive cost-benefit
studies and systems-type regional and national analyses which take
into consideration both the cost of reducing pollution emissions and
the resulting receptor effects of these emissions. Present cost studies are
designed to refine the data inputs to these large, more comprehensive
cost studies.
35-139 O—«9 6
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A comprehensive study has been completed of the national impact
of implementing the act. A report on this study has been prepared
which contains a detailed estimate of such costs for the 5-year period
beginning July 1,1969, and shall be updated annually thereafter.
In addition to its own studies, NAPOA is actively encouraging
independent investigations by industry, universities, and other public
and private groups through participation in conferences, seminars,
and other special meetings.
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III. CONTROL PROGRAM SUPPORT
A. CONTROL AGHNOT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
The rising national concern with air pollution is evidenced by the
increased control activity of State and local governmental agencies.
In part, this growth can be attributed to the financial incentives and
technical assistance provided by the Clean Air Act. State and local
governments are now spending approximately $50 million a year,
including Federal funds, for control programs as contrasted with
approximately $12 million prior to enactment of the act in 1963.
1. FEDERAL GRANT SUPPORT
Grant support is currently going to an estimated 175 State, regional,
and local agencies. While a number of new agencies quality for
assistance each year, others which have formerly received assistance
fail to qualify for continued support, largely because of failure to
enact the necessary control legislation or for lack of non-Federal
matching funds.
It is expected that the number of agencies operating control pro-
grams will not increase as rapidly in the future as they have in the
past 4 years. This can be attributed to a consolidation of agencies
serving adjacent jurisdictions, such as the joint Wayne County-
Detroitj Mich, program, and to the current existence of control pro-
grams m the bulk of the populated areas.
The establishment of air-quality-control regions will also influence
the organization of multijurisdictional agencies, but the degree to
which this will occur cannot be foreseen at this time. At present, 58
municipal or regional agencies in 28 of the 32 regions to be designated
are receiving Federal grant support. Regions not now receiving such
support are Providence, R. L; JBaltimore, Md.; Birmingham, Ala,;
and Chattanooga. Tenn. In addition to local programs, State agencies
provide varying levels of services to the local areas, and, in the case
of Providence, B. L, the State agency is the exclusive control-agency
under provisions of State law. At present, 22 State agencies involved
in 28 of the air quality control regions are receiving Federal air-
pollution-control program grants.
2. MAINTENANCE GRANTS
The first report indicated that maintenance grants were expected
to be awarded during 1968 fiscal year. Since that time 10 agencies
have qualified for and have received maintenance grant support.
Equally significant is the fact that more than half of the applica-
tions received have been disapproved, pointing up the very serious
gaps in some of the operating programs considered among the better
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ones in the country. In the course of the application review process,
consultation with the agencies has resulted in program redirection
on the part of the applicant agencies in order to bring their individual
programs up to the standards set forth in the regulations.
3. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Consultation provided in the course of grant application review is
only one facet of the broad technical assistance provided to State,
regional, and local agencies by NAPCA. Visits by teams of technical
staff members for the purpose of program review are also provided.
A recent example is the city of Cleveland, Ohio, where, at the request
of the mayor, the city's control program .was evaluated and recom-
mendations were made for strengthening it.
Members of the diversified technical staff also provide assistance on
specific problems such as review of proposed ordinances, laboratory
and monitoring methods, and control methods for specific pollutants.
An estimated 120 requests were serviced in the past year, and signifi-
cantly, 12 were from the core cities in the first 20 air-quality-control
regions planned to be designated.
4. SURVEY AN1> DEMONSTRATION GRANTS
Survey and demonstration projects supported within the past year
give some indication of the broad range of problems for which solu-
tions are being sought through the grants program. A listing of the
projects follows:
Illinois Air Pollution Commission.—A survey of the availability of
low sulfur coal in the Midwest coalfields and development of economic
data on its production and distribution.
Computer Graphics Laboratory^ Harvard University.—A demon-
stration of computer mapping techniques for producing graphical
displays of various types of information utilized in the prevention
and control of air pollution.
Ohio Department of Natural Resources.—A survey pf the avail-
ability of low-sulfur coal in the deeper portions of the Ohio coal seams,
with data obtained from analyses of drill cores.
Chicago Department of Air Pollution Control.—To develop an
SO2 incident-forecasting system and control policy and strategy, and
to produce and publish an operations manual which would enable
other communities to employ similar principles.
Philadelphia Health Department (in cooperation with Pennsyl-
vania State Health Department).—To develop information on steps
which can be taken, by industry classes, to reduce pollution during
emergency alerts and to evaluate the effects of such steps on the atmos-
phere and their impact on the community.
California Air Resources Board.—A study of the feasibility of
control of NOX emissions performed on a test fleet of 120 State-oper-
ated motor vehicles.
California Air Resources Board.—Continued support for diesel
smoke measurement on a dynamometer installation at a highway
truck inspection station.
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New Jersey Health Department.—A continuation of the project for
developing rapid-emission test procedures for use in State inspection
lanes. Involves equipping pilot lanes and testing the prototype system
under actual operating conditions, and determining effectiveness of
maintenance performed by private garages servicing oars which fail
hypothetical State standards.
All of these activities—financial support^ technical assistance, and
the search for new or better solutions—axe directed toward strengthen-
ing State, local, and especially regional, control programs.
B. RESEARCH GRANTS PROGRAM
The research grants program of NAPCA offers a continuing source
of basic research knowledge needed to implement the purpose and
intent of the Air Quality Act of 1967. It provides basic, developmental,
and applied research information which supplements in-house and
contract research in the areas of cause, effect, prevention, and control
of air pollution with respect to human health, welfare, and produc-
tivity. The purpose of the program is to promote and encourage re-
search and development of basic theories, new concepts, methods, and
equipment for the establishment of air pollution standards and more
effective air pollution control.
1. RESEARCH GRANT PROJECTS
In fiscal year 1968 there were 207 active research grant projects
totaling $7,431,000. These projects contributed needed basic knowledge
to the following areas of research:
Grontt
(a) Air pollution effects on human health 80
(*) Agricultural effects of air pollution 28
(o) Economic and political studies 9
(d) Analysis and phyfriochemlcal investigatlona 48
(e) Development of analytic methods and equipment 21
(/) Meteorology 20
(g) Identification of air pollution sources and control 42
(A) Communication 8
2. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
The research grants program is guided by the recommendations of
extramural advisory groups and the opinions of intramural re-
searchers. Decisions are made to select and fund only the best, program-
relevant research grant projects. Also by this method, certain areas
of fundamental research which need additional emphasis and which
lend themselves to support by research grants have been identified.
These areas are: behavioral toxicology, quantitative pathology of
respiratory systems, biochemistry of the toxicity of oxidative pollut-
ants, new physical concepts for air pollution instrumentation, life
cycles of important pollutants, public attitudes and acceptance of
esthetic insults, and the relationship between air pollution damage and
market parameters. Programing activities are being directed toward
increasing the number of projects in these research categories.
Recently a program of exploratory grants to encourage new in-
vestigators to enter the air pollution field and to provide a way to
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increase research in areas neglected by regular research grants has
been initiated. These grants provide limited support for feasibility
studies by young investigators who have stimulating ideas but limited
background of research experience. It is anticipated that approxi-
mately 150 applications for exploratory grants will be received in,
fiscal year 1969; however, because of the dearth of funds, only a few
will be awarded.
During the past year activity has increased in program analysis to
bring together and make readily available the information gained
through research under the grants program. A "highlights" booklet
listing abstracts of recent research findings has been prepared for pub-
lication. Another booklet, being readied for publication, will list the
scientific and technical papers and reports which have resulted from
research grant projects so that investigators will have, in one publi-
cation, a complete reference to the research carried on by other in-
vestigators in the grants program.
C. RELATIONSHIPS WITH STATE AND LOCAL OFFICIALS
NAPCA has developed a variety of relationships with associations
of elected and appointed officials at all levels of government in an
effort to insure the most effective coordination of governmentarrespon-
sibilities and authorities. Among the organizations with which
NAPCA has developed strong worKing relationships are the National
Association of Counties, the National League of Cities, their Service
to Regional Councils, the Association of State and Territorial Health
Officers, the Governors' conference, and the Council of State
Governments.
These relationships serve a very valuable communications function
in the effort to improve the quality of the Nation's air. NAPCA ad-
vises these organizations of matters within their areas of responsi-
bilities and of likely effects of specific NAPCA programs on each
particular level of government. The associations of governmental
officials respond by advising NAPCA of problems they see, of alterna-
tive methods of implementing programs and of the perspectives .with
which their constituents view specific NAPCA policies. As implemen-
tation of the Air Quality Act of 1967 continues, this communications
function should prove to be increasingly valuable.
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IV. PROGRESS TOWARD A REGIONAL APPROACH
TO AIR POLLUTION
A. DEFINITION or ATMOSPHERIC AREAS
On January 16, 1968, the definition of atmospheric areas for the
contiguous United States was announced in the Federal Kegister. The
basis for the definition was discussed in the first progress report. Those
areas not included in the initial notice were completed and announced
in the Federal Register on November 13,1968. Atmospheric areas were
defined for Alaska, Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa? Puerto Rico,
and the Virgin Islands. This completes the action required under sec-
tion 107 (a) (1). Atmospheric areas have now been defined for all
portions of the United States.
B. DESIGNATION OF Ant QUAUTY CONTROL REGIONS
The process of developing and designating air quality control
regions nas followed closely the procedure outlined in the first progress
report. Attempts have been made, however, to improve on the proce-
dure through extensive communication with affected State and local
authorities. Such extensive communication is designed to make the
consultation with these authorities, prior to designation, a meaning-
ful exchange of views within the framework of cooperative federalism.
Thus, the evaluation of engineering and urban factors, which
NAPCA considers in the preliminary determination of tentative
boundaries, is made available in report form prior to the consultation.
These reports are available to the general public, but their primary
purpose is to provide the affected State and local officials with a de-
tailed outline of NAPCA's view of the problem area. Reports are
prepared in such a manner as to highlight the approach of the Air
Quality Act—an assessment of both technical and jurisdictional as-
pects, recognizing the dynamic nature of the problem and the attempts
to control present and future air pollution.
Much effort is expended to inform State and local officials of
NAPCA's position, both before and after the formation of the report.
Several meetings with State officials are held to discuss the responsibi-
lities of State action under the Air Quality Act. Local control officials
are consulted to contribute their expertise. Once the report is com-
pleted, letters are sent to appropriate State and local officials, a cross
section of Federal officials, and members of other executive depart-
ments. These letters inform the officials of the consultation^ and pro-
vide them with a copy of the report for their perusal. A notice of pro-
posed rulemaking is published in the Federal Register^ giving the time,
date, and place of the formal consultation, along with the proposed
boundaries of the air quality control region. The formal consultation
is open to the public, but since the act specifies that this is to be con-
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sultation with "appropriate State and local authorities," participation
in the consultation is limited to such officials. Written comments from
the general public are accepted within a 30-day period after publica-
tion in the Federal Register, and receive close scrutiny prior to the
final recommendation. A press release is timed to coincide with the
Federal Register announcement, so as to provide increased publicity
of the proceedings.
The consultation is conducted under the direction of a chairman
designated in the Federal Register announcement. The proceedings
are transcribed, and use is made of these records in preparing the final
proposal. The formal consultation held in this manner has proven to
be useful in achieving public understanding and governmental co-
operation. While the views expressed at such consultations may not
always be expected to give unanimous approval of NAPCA's action,
a high degree of consensus on region boundaries has been achieved.
The formal consultations have indicated that full and adequate co-
operation is possible, as envisioned in the Air Quality Act, among
State, local, and Federal authorities.
Activities in this field have begun to culminate in the designation of
regions. Air quality control regions are designated through republica-
tion in the Federal Register, by the Secretary of the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, of the proposed boundaries, allow-
ing for any changes that may have taken place during the period of
consultation. Regions have been designated in the metropolitan areas
surrounding Washington, D.C., New York City, Chicago, and Phila-
delphia. Consultations have been held in Denver and Los Angeles.
Air quality control regions proposed by NAPCA do not become
official until the Secretary's republication in the Federal Register.
Technical assistance is to be provided to the designated air-quality-
control regions by appropriate NAPCA staff personnel assigned to
the regions. This assistance will be available to States and local agen-
cies for technical guidance as well as for the acquisition of necessary
information for proposing standards and implementation plans.
Actual evaluation of proposed standards and implementation plans
will also be provided by NAPCA staff.
C. DEVELOPMENT OF AIR QUALTTT CRITERIA
During the reporting period, air quality criteria documents on two*
major pollutants, particulate matter, and the oxides of sulfur, were
prepared in preliminary form. These documents are to be published
and issued to the States in early 1969. Progress was made in the devel-
opment of several other major pollutants, namely, photochemical oxi-
dants, carbon monoxide, atmospheric fluorides, hydrocarbons, and the
oxides of nitrogen. Other pollutants for which the development of
criteria is under consideration include aldehydes, asbestos, beryllium,
certain heavy metals, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, lead, odors, organic
carcinogens, pesticides, and rocket fuel components and their combus-
tion products. Priority of development of criteria for these pollutants
will depend on several factors, the main factor being the results of a
study presently underway to exhaustively survey available informa-
tion on the pollutants involved. This study is expected to define the
magnitude and seriousness of the problems associated with each of
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these pollutants or category of pollutants, as well as with others not
listed here. The establishment of a priority list for development of
criteria will then be undertaken. Assistance in this effort will be pro-
vided by the National Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee. Sum-
mary discussions of the two criteria documents soon to be issued follow.
1. PARTICIPATE MATTER
Work began in the summer of 1967 on the preparation of a document
on air quality criteria for atmospheric particulate matter and ex-
tended to December 1968. A working draft was produced in October
1968. This draft reflected the efforts of several NAPCA staff members
and university consultants working under contract. The draft was sub-
jected to an elaborate and intensive review by the Air Quality Ad-
visory Committee's Subcommittee on Particulate Matter, the full ad-
visory committee, chapter authors, special consultants, NAPCA staff,
and seventeen other Federal agencies. Incorporation of review com-
ments resulted in several subsequent drafts prior to finalization of the
preliminary statement issued in December 1868.
The document focuses on background information and effects at
various particulate concentrations. Effects on vegetation, materials,
animals, and human health are stressed, along with effects on visi-
bility. Certain effects are observed at concentrations ranging from
about 80/ig/m8 to 200/ig/m3. Both sensitivity to the presence of par-
ticulate matter by the population and effects appear to vary in direct
proportion to concentration.
2. SULFUR OXIDES
The document on air quality criteria for sulfur oxides supercedes a
similarly entitled document published in March 1967. The later docu-
ment, also to be published in early 1969, represents a re-evaluation and
interpretation of information contained in the earlier version plus a
consideration of pertinent material published after the first document
was prepared. Primary authorship of both documents rests with
NAPCA staff members, although advice and consultation were ob-
tained from consultants and others outside of NAPCA. The final pub-
lished document will reflect an intensive review by many of the same
reviewers for the document on particulate matter.
As is the cage with the particulate matter document, the sulfur ox-
ides criteria document focuses on background information and effects
at various concentrations.
D. DEVELOPMENT or INFORMATION ON AVAILABLE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
As companions to the air quality criteria documents on particulate
matter and sulfur oxides, documents on control technology for the
same pollutants will be published as part of the overall coordinated
program of NAPCA. Scheduling was arranged so that the criteria
and control technology documents for these two pollutants would fol-
low closely to the dates of the declaration of the first air quality con-
trol regions. The currently best known means for controlling the
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sources of these two pollutants within an air quality region are
offered.
The control technology documents are comprehensive state-of-the-
art reports which combine the techniques of control with appropriate
cost-effectiveness studies. Critical review by the National Air Pollution
Control Techniques Advisory Committee, Federal agency represent-
ativeSj and representatives of industry enabled a vast amount of
experience and knowledge to be incorporated into these documents.
1. PARTICULATE MATTER
In the participate report, the major sources and the various types
of pollutants emitted from them are listed, together with descriptions
of the applicable but different control systems and techniques. A large
portion of the report is devoted to the description of various gas clean-
ing devices and the technical considerations involved in selecting one
for a given process. Among the devices evaluated are gravitational
settling chambers, dry centrifugal cyclones, low- and high-pressure
wet collectors, low- and high-voltage electrostatic precipitators, bag-
houses, and afterburners. A concluding section reviews the current
research programs. Both stationary ana mobile sources are discussed.
2. SULFUR OXIDES
The sulfur oxides document considers both process changes and
emission controls. The techniques for controlling sulfurous gases gen-
erally involve the combustion of various materials, although separa-
tion of sulfur oxides from other products of reaction is often compli-
cated. In the report, sections on locations, costs, and availability of low-
sulfur fuels, as well as the economics of fuel substitutions and fuel
switches, are included. A survey of fuel and flue gas desulfurization
techniques in various stages of development is included, presenting
full-scale installation feasibility and cost-effectiveness data. Control
processes for numerous other industrial processes are described. Tall
stack design information is included for use where adequate disper-
sion of pollutants by this method is acceptable. Current research is
reviewed and source test methods, as well as process emission factor,
are given.
3. OTHER POLLUTANTS
Currently, first draft reports on three additional pollutants—carbon
monoxide, nitrogen, oxides, and hydrocarbons—are in preparation.
Each of the three reports discusses emission sources, describes and
evaluates control techniques for mobile and stationary sources and
for specific industrial processes, arid presents the economics of dif-
ferent control techniques. Proposed future reports on fluorides and
odors are in the early stages of planning.
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V. FEDERAL ABATEMENT ACTIVITIES
A. ABATEMENT ACTIONS
The Federal abatement authority authorized in the 1963 Clean Air
Act is retained in the Air,Quality Act of 1967 (section 108).
To date, the Secretary has convened one intrastate and eight inter-
state conferences. Three of the interstate conferences were initiated at
the request of Governors of States affected by air pollution from out-
of-State sources, and five were initiated by the Secretary after consul-
tation with State officials. The one intrastate* conference, in Montana,
was requested by local officials with the concurrence of the Governor.
Since the first progress report, one interstate abatement conference
was held in the Ironton, Ohio-Huntington, West Virginia-Ashland,
Ky., area. Consultation and preconference investigations in the Steu-
benville, Ohio-Weirton, Wheeling, W. Va. region are now complete.
Since this area is expected to be designated as an air quality control
region in the near future, the results of abatement investigations will
provide a basis on which the State can act under tlhe new regional
provisions of the Air Quality Act of 1967.
B. POLLUTION FROM SINGLE SOURCES
Surveillance continued on progress toward meeting recommenda-
tions of the Secretary, HEW, in the four smaller areas in which past
conferences were held:
Selbyville, Del.-Bishop, Md.
Shoreham, Vermont-Ticonderoga, N.Y.
Lewiston, Idaho-Clarkston, Wash.
Garrison, Mont.
In each case, pollution problems stemmed primarily from single
sources. With the exception of the rendering plant in Bishop, Md.,
adequate progress has oeen made, although assessment of improve-
ments is not yet final.
At the request of the Secretary, the U.S. Attorney General brought
suit against the Bishop Processing Co. plant. The suit was settled with
the Bishop Processing Co. agreeing to a consent decree after the TJ.S,
District Court Judge upheld the constitutionality of the Clean Air Act
in denying the defendant's motion to dismiss. Terms of the consent
decree provide that if Delaware health officials declared that pollutants
from the Bishop plant reach Delaware a court order may be issued to
close the processing plant immediately. The successful conclusion of
this case provides an important precedent for Federal abatement
action.
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C. METROPOLITAN-INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
As previously noted, an abatement conference was held in the Iron-
ton, Ohio-Huntington, W. Va.-Ashland, Ky. area. The problem was
found to be essentially one of a high level of particulate pollution from
industrial sources. The problem is aggravated by the location of sources
and receptors in a rather narrow valley. Conference participants
agreed to several recommendations for remedial action which have
been forwarded to the Secretary, HEW.
A second phase of the Kansas City, Kans.-Kansas City, Mo. abate-
ment conference found that particulate pollution was the central
problem with a borderline sulfur oxide problem. Conference partici-
pants adopted remedial recommendations for controlling sources of
particulate pollution and for surveillance of sulfur oxide levels. These
recommendations were issued by the Secretary in October 1968.
In Parkersburg, W. Va.-Marietta, Ohio, it is planned to reconvene
the abatement conference to review additional data.
Surveillance activities in cooperation with State and local agencies
continued in Metropolitan New York-New Jersey and Washington,
D.C. metropolitan area.
D. INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION STUDIES
NAPCA provides staff support to the International Joint Commis-
sion (IJC) in studies of air pollution in the international areas of
Detroit, Mich.-Windsor, Ontario and Port Huron, Mich.-Sarnia,
Ontario.
This effort is directed by representatives of Canada and the United
States sitting on the St. Glair-Detroit Air Pollution Board of the IJC.
NAPCA provides staff and support to the U.S. sector of this board.
Field work on both sides of the border has been completed. A report to
the board will be completed by mid-1969.
At the request of the Air Pollution Advisory Board, IJC, three point
sources of air pollution on the U.S.-Canada border were inspected by
NAPCA representatives on behalf of the U.S. section of this board.
A report to the board on these sources is in preparation. Further inspec-
tions of border air pollution problems will be undertaken as requested
by the IJC.
E. EMERGENCY ABATEMENT MEASURES
The fundamental approach of NAPCA in the implementation of
provisions of section 108 (k) of the Air Quality Act is to assist State
and local agencies in developing plans for action in the event of high
concentrations of air pollutants; i.e., emergency episode planning.
To supplement the work of the NAPCA task group considering this
problem, a contractor was hired to develop a state-of-the-art report
suitable for use as a planning/action guide for State and local agencies.
This work has been completed and after review by NAPCA staff will
be published and distributed. This manual identifies those deficiencies
in present knowledge and capabilities to respond to emergency situ-
ations. Some of these deficiencies will be remedied by ongoing investi-
gations in Chicago and Philadelphia which are supported by NAPCA
demonstration grant funds.
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Additional contract work being negotiated includes improvement of
the planning manual recently produced, development of a planning/
action guide for accidental air pollutant release, and development of
model legislation.
Work was completed on an assessment of those areas of the country
most susceptible to air pollution episodes and the status of emergency
action plans in the 10 highest potential areas.
This report will enable NAPCA to key its technical support in
developing emergency plans to the most critical areas. While support
is given through technical and financial assistance to all those areas,
a special effort will be made to stimulate and assist emergency planning
in those cities with the highest air pollution potential.
The review and approval mechanism of awarding Federal grants
of money continues to assist in stimulating emergency plan develop-
ment in many control agency programs.
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VI. RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER FEDERAL
PROGRAMS
The National Air Pollution Control Administration conducts and
supports most of the Federal Government's research and development
work relating to the causes and effects of air pollution and its pre-
vention and control. A number of other departments and agencies
are involved in research and development relating directly or indi-
rectly to air pollution. Support for a major part of the work relating
directly to air pollution is furnished by NAPCA through transfer
of funds. The total Federal effort includes research and/or develop-
ment in the biological and medical sciences, economics, engineering,
and the physical sciences (including meteorology), and in such areas
as public health, agriculture, transportation, conservation of natural
resources, fuel use? electric power and urban design. Coordination of
such diverse activities is achieved through a .variety of mechanisms.
These range from informal and formal working relationships between
NAPCA and other Federal agencies to interdepartmental committees
and ad hoc groups organized for specific purposes.
Approximately $6 million is currently being transferred to other
agencies in support of R. & D. work related to air pollution control.
Typical of the agencies with which NAPCA has established working
relationships are: Bureau of Mines and Office of Coal Research in
the Department of the Interior; Environmental Science Services Ad-
ministration and National Bureau of Standards in the Department of
Commerce; Department of Agriculture; Tennessee Valley Authority;
and the Atomic Energy Commission.
There is a special working relationship between NAPCA and the
Environmental Science Services Administration. This agency's re^
search on meteorological factors having a direct influence on air
pollution levels is conducted in part by meteorologists assigned to
NAPCA. Their work is planned jointly with NAPCA staff members.
Additional means of coordinating meteorological research and ex-
changing scientific and program information are provided by various
interdepartmental committees operating under the aegis of the Fed-
eral Council for Science and Technology and of the Federal Coordi-
nator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research (the Ad-
ministrator of the Environmental Science Services Administration).
The principal committees dealing with matters relatingto air pollution
are the Interdepartmental Committee on Atmospheric Sciences and the
Interdepartmental Committee on Applied Meteorological Research.
In the area of research and development on control of sulfur-oxide
pollution, the Stanford Research Institute developed a planning and
programing document, under contract with NAPCA. This document,
after review by the Office of Science and Technology, the Bureau of
the Budget, and various Federal departments and agencies engaged
(84)
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35
in sulfur-oxide>research, has been made available to Congress and all
concerned parties. It is designed to provide not only a comprehensive
plan for. Federal activities in this area during the next 5 years, but
also a mechanism for systematic coordination of these activities.
The development of advanced power systems concepts is an area
of interest to several other Federal agencies. To exchange technical
information on this subject and make research and development needs
known to other agencies, NAPCA is a member of the Interageney
Advanced Power Group. Other members are the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, various components of the Department of
Defense, and the Atomic Energy Commission.
The development of propulsion systems for automobiles is an area
in which air pollution factors are of paramount importance, but in
which consideration must be given to many other aspects of the
relationship between transportation systems and the quality of the
urban environment. An interdepartmental group established under
the joint auspices of the Bureau of the Budget and the Office of
Science and Technology has been considering needs and plans for
Federal research and development in this area. NAPCA is a member
of this committee, along with constituent agencies of the Departments
of Transportation, Commerce, Housing and Urban Development, and
Interior. Also, an interagency powerplant siting committee is pre-
paring a report under the leadership of OST. Members of this com-
mittee are HEW (NAPCA), FPC, AEC, Interior, USDA (EEA),
and BOB.
Additional examples of interagency working relations are: (a)
encouragement of the Federal Power Commission (FPC) to ade-
quately weigh the air pollution control factor in its determination of
natural gas transmission and use cases, (&) enlistment of the man-
power and other resources of the FPC in developing appropriate serv-
ices and studies of the electric power generating industry and the
natural ,gas production and distnbution industries in order to gather
information on control technology, clean fuels, and data on the cost
thereof for the purpose of implementing the policies and procedures
required by the Clean Air Act as amended and the Air Quality Act
of 1967, (c) working with the Departments of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) and Transportation (DOT) to utilize air pol-
lution control knowledge and technology in the design and construction
of Federal housing and urban renewal projects and the interstate
highway and public roads systems, (d) involving DOT's Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) in NAPCA's study of the feasibility
and practicability of controlling emissions from jet and piston air-
craft engines and of establishing national emission standards for this
purpose in order to report to the Congress as required by the Air
Quality Act of 1967, and (e) consulting with the Department of the
Interior pursuant to Presidential Proclamation 3794 of July 17,1967,
with regard to the issuance or modification of oil import regulations
for the purpose of encouraging the availability of low sulfur residual
fuel oil in areas requiring such fuels in order to meet State and local
air pollution control emissions standards.
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36
As a further means of communicating NAPCA's research and devel-
opment activities, a summary of every project (including in-house,
grant, contract, and interagency work) related to air pollution is
transmitted to the Science Information Exchange of the Smithsonian
Institution. Through this system, up-to-date information on HEWs
air pollution R. & D. activities is available to Federal agencies and
non-Federal organizations.
Problems relating to air pollution research and control are among
the concerns of the Environmental Quality Committee of the Federal
Council on Science and Technology, Office of Science and Technology.
Representatives of the Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare have participated in the work of various subcommittees, including
those pertaining to research and development, environmental monitor-
ing and surveillance, solid waste disposal, noise, standards, and
information-education-manpower.
A. CONTROL or Ant POLLUTION FROM FEDERAL FACILITIES
The program for abatement of air pollution from Federal facilities
is governed by the Air Quality Act of 1967, Executive Order 11282,
and Bureau of the Budget Circular A-78. Each department and
agency must comply with the regulations accompanying the Executive
order. The Federal Facilities Section of NAPCA provides technical
assistance as required, to the agencies as well as an administrative and
technical review of the 5-year phased and orderly plan for the Bureau
of the Budget.
On July 1, 1968, the first reports of progress under the plan were
reviewed, A total of 387 installations reported 442 remedial actions
located in 45 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
For the most part these actions reflect conditions on April 1, 1968, as
called for in the plan, and represent efforts of the agencies to abate
air pollution by using their normal appropriations. The first year of
planned funded activity will be fiscal year 1969 because of the length
of the Federal budget cycle and the fact that all reported activity
occurred prior to that time. The actions represent relatively small ex-
penditures for small projects. Generally, the projects included elimi-
nation of open burning, modification of incinerators or boilers, changes
to lower sulfur fuel, control of gasoline and solvent vapors, and engi-
neering design work to complete similar and more difficult projects
in future years. A summary of remedial actions is shown in table 1.
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TABLE 1.—SUMMARY OF REMEDIAL ACTIONS BY FEDERAL DEPARTMENTS OR AGENCIES, FISCAL YEAR 1968
Stopped Existing New or Smoke or Using lower Converted Reduced
open burn- New or New heating heating improved other moni- sulfur con- heating chemical or
Progress Remedial ing or poor upgraded plants con- plants im- partkulate tor systems tent coal or plant to Converted to vapor
Department or agency reports actions incineration incinerators strutted proved collectors installed fuel oil burn gas electricity emissions Other
Grand total .
Defense:
Army
Navy.
Air Force
Suoolv Aeencv
Corps of Engineers
Atomic Energy Commission
Commerce '
General Services
Health Education, Welfare
interior .. .. .
Justice
National Aeronautics and Space...
Smithsonian Institution
Tennessee Valley Authority
Transportation
Veterans' Administration
387
88
67
39
1
2
15
3
13
11
11
20
3
69
1
6
4
34
442
115
94
43
1
5
20
4
14
11
12
2
3
69
2
7
4
36
126 9 14 7
25 3 1 1
7 21
13 2 1 3
1
31 1
1 2
2
68
1
2
3 1 10
8 16 103
3 4 56
8 22
2 1 5
j
1 3 1 ....
2
2
7
4
1 ....
2
2 ....
37
3
3
2
1
8
1 ....
2
1 . ..
17
1 31 90
7 12
15 36
6 8
.. „ 3
2 8
1
4
1
4'
1
3
1
1 1 3
5
i "Other actions" include studies, designs, and project cost estimates completed or underway. It also includes contracts awarded or advertised for bid.
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VII. AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION, EMISSION
STANDARDS AND RELATED ACTIVITIES
A. AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
This section covers progress in three areas: The setting of national
emission standards, the research and development of improved emis-
sion controls, and the assurance of compliance with Federal standards.
Automotive sources continue to emit more pollutants than all sta-
tionary sources combined. The automobile is responsible for over 90
percent of all carbon monoxide, 60 percent of the hydrocarbons, 50
percent of the oxides of nitrogen, and virtually all of the lead emitted
into the Nation's air.
The Federal program has sought to cope with automotive air pollu-
tion by establishing nationwide standards that limit the emissions of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, based on the technical and eco-
nomic feasibility of their control. It has sought to advance the state-of-
the-art of automotive control technology through a research and devel-
opment program aimed both at complementing and stimulating in-
dustry's efforts. Finally, it has initiated an active program to examine
the effectiveness of emission control devices as the vehicles acquire
mileage.
1. NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS
The Federal automotive emission standards, adopted in March 1966,
apply to new gasoline-powered passenger ears and light trucks begin-
ning with the 1968 model vear. These standards were set on the basis
of the maximum degree of control possible consistent with considera-
tions of technological feasibility and economic costs, as well as on
evaluation of the need for control from the standpoint of protection
of public health and welfare.
(88)
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Although the national emission standards for 1968 and 1969 model
year vehicles were expressed in terms of concentrations, i.e., p.p.m. of
hydrocarbons and percent of carbon monoxide, an improved and more
informative expression of the standard is in grams per vehicle mile.
The 1968 and 1969 national standards are equivalent to 33 grams per
vehicle mile of carbon monoxide and 3.2 grams of hydrocarbons for
the average vehicle.
In June of 1968 the Secretary issued revised standards applicable
to 1970 and 1971 model year vehicles. These standards represent the
second step in the battle with the ubiquitous automobile for clean air.
Although the 1968 and 1969 models are lower emitters, pollution is not
expected to be reduced because the total vehicle population continues
to grow.
The new standards are expressed in terms of grams per vehicle
mile. Table 2 shows the effect of both standards on typical vehicles. It
shows the reduction in allowable emissions permitted from new
gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Not shown in the table, but also of
significance, is that the 1970 regulations for the first time set perform-
ance standards for smoke emissions from diesel-powered trucks and
buses.
The expected achievements of control measures now required can be
seen in table 3, also the estimated effectiveness of these standards on
th total national pollution burden from motor vehicles. The estimated
results of controls called for by both the initial and revised national
emission standards are shown.
It should be noted that due to the increasing use of motor vehicles
there is a timelag before any noticeable change occurs in total na-
tional automotive emissions. Thus in table 3, the 1968 and 1970 stand-
ards do not reduce total emissions from all motor vehicles to below
1966 levels until 1971.
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TABLE Z.-FRESENT AND FUTURE AUTOMOTIVE POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Pre-1968
Exhaust:
Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide
Cnnkcasa talowby: Hydrocarbons. .
Evaporation: Hydrocarbons
Total:
Hydrocarbons..
Carbon monoxide
'None.
I Fimnnratinn Rnntml i« nntinnal nnH«r tmA
Typical
emissions,
1963 car,
gnmsper
vehicle-
mile
9.7
71.0
4.8
3.9
18.4
71.0
•r»l iMiiMinm in 1Q1A
Estimated
•UitlMtfa>»
ponuuon,
par ear
per year
215
1,575
105
85
405
1,575
1968
National standards
•minions.
1968 car,
grams per
vehicle-
mile
3.2
33.0
0
3.9
7.1
33.0
Estimated
pollution,
pounds
per car Percent
per year reduction
70
725
155
725
facturars
67
S3
100
0
62
53
will MOV*
_<. fain.
1970
National standards
emissions,
1970 car,
grams per
vehicle-
mite
2.2
23.0
0
'3.9
6.1
23.0
tie evaporation
\ *f *L_ r»i»_ t
Estimated
pOUUtaODf
pounds
per car
per year
50
500
135
500
Percent
reduction
78
68
100
• 0
67
68
control nationwide since
1971
National standards
emissions,
1971 car,
grams par
vehicle-
mile
2.2
23.0
0
.4
2.6
23.0
it is required
Estimated
pollution,
pounds
per car
per year
50
500
60
500
in California
Percent
reduction
78
68
100
90
85
68
under HEW
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41
TABLE 3.-NATIONAL CONTROL OF MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS
1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971
Total emissions prevented by controls (millions of tons) (cumula-
tive reductions):
Hydrocarbons 1.3 1.8 2.8 3.9 >5.2 ifi.9
Carbon monoxide 4 .9 5.8 11.2 18.1 25.0
Total national auto emissions (millions of tons per year):
Hydrocarbons _,__.. 10.3 10.5 10.7 10.7 U0.1 19.6
Carbon monoxide 61.9 65.3 66.5 67.2 66.4 58.8
i The effect of California's 1970 evaporative control standard is not Included.
In the years after 1971 the 1968 and 1970 standards will achieve a
sharp downturn iii national emissions. This downturn, however, will
unfortunately be short lived. The increases in vehicle population and
vehicle usage, will again begin a rise in pollution levels by the
mid-seventies.
Consequently the current standards will only improve the situation
in the short run. To solve the problem will require improved emission
control systems and more restrictive standards. To this end, NAPCA
is expanding its research and development efforts.
2. AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL—RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Although the primary responsibility for developing emission con-
trol systems lies with the vehicle manufacturers and fuel producers,
the purpose of the Federal program is to stimulate, complement, and
assist in furthering the development of improved control systems.
NAPCA has undertaken a variety of research and development
projects to carry out its responsibilities. Projects are conducted (1)
within NAPCA laboratories, (2) in other Government agencies at the
Federal and State levels, (3) under contract with corporations and
universities, and (4) by cooperative research jointly funded by the
Federal Government and private industry groups.
(a) Conventional engines
Plans have been'set to organize a study on the control of particulate
emissions from motor vehicle engines. This research and development
will be directed toward gap areas in the control technology for particu-
late emissions, with the goals of developing a simple, long-lived,
exhaust system device for eliminating a substantial portion of the lead
participates which otherwise are emitted to the atmosphere. Considera-
tion will also be given in this study to the control of diesel exhaust
smoke.
The first national symposium on heterogeneous catalysis for control
of air pollution, cosponsored by NAPCA and the Franklin Institute,
was held during the reporting period. A synopsis of the proceedings
of this symposium will be published early in 1969. The symposium
served to bring forth considerable information concerning ^ research
activities in this field with application to motor vehcle emissions con-
trol. This information will serve to guide NAPCA in planning re-
search which will complement the efforts presently going on hi
industry and continue to stimulate such efforts.
In a continuing study on human responses to diesel exhaust odor,
Southwest Research Institute is designing and constructing mobile
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42
odor presentation facilities suitable for use by selected human sub-
jects, utilizing a nigh production diesel engine. A suitable question-
naire will be designed to elicit responses denoting the reactions, adverse
or otherwse, of these subjects to odors. This information will assist in
establishing a basis for Federal odor standards. Additional NAPCA
sponsored research involving odor and other aspects of diesel emissions
is in progress at the Bureau of Mines Petroleum Research Center,
and Arthur D. Little Laboratories. The latter project is cosponsored
with private industry through the Coordinating Research Council.
In addition, increasing evidence of research by private industry on
odorant identification has appeared through press releases and tech-
nical papers. Through all these means, it is pelieved that identification
of certain classes of odorous materials in diesel exhaust will be made
during the coming year. The information generated by these parallel
studies should prove applicable to characterization of odors generated
by turbine engines and other continuous flow combustion systems as
well.
A project is now in progress with Battelle Memorial Institute to con-
duct analytical studies of fuel atomization, vaporization and mixing,
and to evaluate the applicability of different fuel atomization methods
to motor vehicle ppwerplants. The results of this work will be applied to
decisions concerning future research aimed at emissions reductions by
means of fuel induction system changes.
Plans have also been formulated for initiation of research directed
toward materials of construction having suitable high temperature
properties for exhaust manifold reactors designed to thermally oxidize
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. This work will be done through
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Flight
Propulsion Center.
As was noted in the first report die Automobile Manufacturers As-
sociation and the American Petroleum Institute are funding through
the Coordinating Research Council a 3-year research program to
generate knowledge on factors influencing automotive air pollution.
Many of these projects are cosponsored by NAPCA. Some of these
which relate to emissions control research are: (1) a study on the
influence of gasoline volatility on exhaust and evaporative emissions in
which NAPCA is cooperating in funding the part which considers
the influence of gasoline volatility on vehicle driveability j (2) a study
on the relationship between sensory measurements of diesel exhaust
odor and exhaust composition, referred to earlier; and (3) a study on
the kinetics of oxidation and quenching of combustibles in gasoline
engines, the objective of which is to improve knowledge of the burn-
ing processes which lead to pollutant origins and disappearance under
conditions typical of gasoline engine combustion and exhaust systems.
(J) Alternate tow-emission power plants
A study by Arthur D. Little has been completed in which various
types of electric propulsion systems were evaluated. It was determined
that a propulsion system with sufficient power to weight ratio and
energy storage capacity for family car use could be developed within
10 years under a properly organized research program.
A project was completed under contract to gather information on
emissions from aircraft. The work served as the basis for the report to
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43
Congress required by section 211 (b) of the Air Quality Act of 1967.
The report is to be published in early 1969.
In addition, participation in aircraft industry committee groups
sponsored both by the Society of Automotive Engineers and the Co-
ordinating Research Council has produced the impression that inten-
sive efforts are in progress to eliminate visible smoke emitted by all
new powerplants (and certain existing powerplants as well) by com-
bustor design. Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions from
aircraft gas turbines are a problem at idle and taxi power settings,
which may constitute local problems in certain terminal areas. Control
of these emissions by combustion system design is also believed feasible.
3. CERTTnCATIOlC
NAPCA maintains an emission compliance" laboratory near Detroit,
Mich., to certify new motor vehicles which meet the Federal emission
standards. Here tests are conducted on prototype vehicles submitted by
manufacturers prior to production. These tests which include exhaust
gas sampling and analysis, are conducted in accordance with pro-
cedures established by NAPCA to determine compliance with the
Federal emission standards.
The program for certification of 1968 and 1969 model passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles required the review of applications
from approximately 50 companies located in seven countries. The labo-
ratory performed 730 and 1,083 emission tests for 1968 and 1969
vehicles, respectively, to establish eligibility for certification. Test
scheduling was somewhat irregular to allow time for the vehicles to
acquire mileage and to enable the manufacturers to conduct their own
emission test programs. Scheduling was a particular problem during
the spring and early summer of 1967, and again in 1968, when an
extremely large number of prototype models were submitted by domes-
tic manufacturers for certification. The certification of prototypes of
foreign vehicles, on the other hand, was carried out at a relatively
constant level. Some certification testing for 1969 sales was done as
late as the summer of 1968. On the whole, the laboratory facilities
proved generally adequate for the certification of 1969 model vehicles.
At present, certification activities are involved with changes in cur-
rent models, the introduction of new midyear models, and new appli-
cations from manufacturers. Test requirements are greater, however,
for the certification of 1970 models that have different engines and
control systems from those currently in use. Enlarged facilities will
be necessary to carry out the more complicated tests required by the
1970 regulations.
4. SURVEILLANCE
NAPCA is attempting to determine the relationships between the
test results of protoype vehicles and the emission characteristics of
vehicles under normal use. Studies include testing of representative
mass production vehicles. NAPCA is also studying the changes, with
age and use, of emission characteristics of motor vehicles operated
in actual service.
A national surveillance study has been initiated to determine
whether vehicles actually comply with the Federal regulations. The
study will provide statistically gathered information to evaluate the
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44
air pollution emission control performance of certified production
model vehicles. Motor vehicle exhaust missions may vary in different
parts of the country due to such factors as climate, topography, or
urban development, so it is necessary to determine whether previously
certified vehicles are conforming to the Federal standards in all areas
of the country. The United States has been divided into eight atmos-
pheric areas. Ultimately, it is desired to obtain motor vehicle emission
exhaust data from each area. The purpose of the first portion of the
national surveillance study is to obtain exhaust emission data from
that geographic region designated as "Great Plains Area." One-hun-
dred ana sixty statistically selected vehicles will be tested, three times
each, for a total of 480 tests.
Surveillance studies are being conducted in the Los Angeles area
by the west coast laboratory, and in the Detroit area by the laboratory
at Willow Run Airport. In each area, vehicles are procured through
commercial rental agencies. Approximately 1,900 vehicles from these
gourdes are being tested. Tests are also being conducted on approxi-
mately 60 vehicles provided by car manufacturers for the Willow Run
surveillance fleet.
5. INSPECTION PROGRAMS
One possible way to assure that vehicles in the hands of the public
continue to effectively control emissions over the years is through
periodic inspections. Under the Air Quality Act (sec. 209), Federal
grants may be made to appropriate State air pollution control agencies
in an amount up to two-thirds of the cost of developing meaningful
uniform inspection and testing programs for motor vehicle emissions
and emission control devices. No such grants have been funded to
date. NAPCA has underway several projects to aid in the develop-
ment of inspection procedures and test instrumentation for State
programs.
Thus far, two schemes have been proposed for periodic emission in-
spections to be undertaken at the State level. One of these, developed
under a Federal grant to the State of New Jersey, involves the opera-
tion and testing of vehicles according to an abbreviated test cycle.
The second, offered for consideration by an industrial firm, comprises
three different models capable of showing consistent results upon
repetition. Within the limitations imposed by time, personnel,'and
facilities, NAPCA is examining these two techniques with the use of
prototype emission-controlled vehicles. The tests attempt to deter-
mine if the cycles accurately indicate control system malfunction and
if they correlate with Federal test procedures. A number of experi-
mental analytical instruments which have been submitted by private
sources are also being evaluated. In addition, several systems studies
are underway to analyze the cost-effectiveness of a variety of possible
inspection and maintenance schemes.
At this early date, the evaluations being conducted by the NAPCA
have not progressed far enough to recommend to the States the
adoption of any one test instrument or inspection procedure.
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45
6. EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION (GASOLINE ENGINES)
(a) Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon control
Efforts are continuing to achieve greater control of these two pol-
lutants which are presently regulated to levels approximately one-
third of the average of uncontrolled vehicles. Fuel injection and high
efficiency carburetipn systems show promise for improved distribu-
tion and cleaner air-fuel mixtures resulting in further emission re-
duction. Some improvements are also obtainable from modifications
of engine design features such as combustion chamber geometry, piston
ring configuration, and valve timing. These emission control tech-
niques are under study either in-house or by contract.
(b) Nitrogen oxide control
Studies of various control techniques are in progress. A study by
Esso Research and Engineering Corp. has progressed from an engine
dynamometer optimization phase to fully automated vehicle instal-
lations of exhaust gas recirculation systems. These systems, achieving
80 percent reduction of oxides of nitrogen, are compatible with com-
mercially available hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide control. A fol-
lowup study is being negotiated to evaluate durability of the system.
A parallel evaluation of another oxides of nitrogen control system
design is being supported in California by a NAPCA grant. In that
too, emphasis is on durability and compatibility with hydrocarbon
and carbon monoxide control systems.
7. EMISSION TEST PROCEDURES
To achieve an effective reduction in vehicle emissions, it is neces-
sary to have accurate methods of measuring emissions under realistic
operating conditions. Improved measurement systems are actively
being sought.
Currently, there are five major areas in which engineering activities
are concentrated: (1) development of simple dynamometer test cycles
which better simulate urban driving conditions for light duty vehicles
(less than 6,000 Ibs.) and three classes of heavy duty vehicles; (2)
development of a simplified sampling system which gives an accurate
measure of the total mass of pollutant emissions from the exhaust of
all sizes and types of vehicles and engines; (3) development of a
simplified fuel evaporative loss measuring system which measures all
fuel losses from a nonoperating vehicle including those due to ambient
temperature changes and those due to residual engine heat when turned
off; (4) development of inexpensive but effective instrumentation and
test cycles for State inspection stations; and (5) evaluation of meas-
uring techniques for exhaust pollutants not currently regulated, such
as oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbon oxygenates.
mi_ * i*ii*ji * * » i
development of a variable dilution proportional sampling system which
measures the mass of emissions; (3) development of a simplified eat-
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46
haust sampling collection method which allows for greatly reduced
instrumentation requirements for multiple dynamometer test facilities;
and (4) demonstration that complex dynamometer cycles may be used
with the simplified sampling system without appreciable increases in
test cost or manpower requirements.
In addition, accomplishments by others, either under contract or
by encouragement, include development of; (1) nondispersive infrared
analyzers for the measurement of nitric oxide; (2) an ultraviolet in-
strument for the detection of nitrogen dioxide; (3) inexpensive instru-
ments for the measurement of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons;
(4) inexpensive engine adjustment procedures; (5) a short dyna-
mometer cycle for inspect! on procedures; (6) a key-mode dynamometer
procedure which determines if the vehicle engine is operating as it was
intended; and (7) dynamometer test cycle for heavy-duty trucks.
8. CALIFORNIA EMISSION CONTROL STANDARDS
The Clean Air Act as amended (sec. 208), recognizes that com-
pelling and extraordinary conditions might warrant State vehicular
emission standards that are more stringent than the Federal standards.
Therefore, the act provides that Federal regulations will be waived
in any State which had adopted vehicle emission standards (other than
crankcase emission standards) prior to March 30, 1966, unless the
Secretary finds that the State does not require stricter standards, or
that the State standards and accompanying enforcement procedures
are not consistent with the act. California is the only State thus far
that has applied for a waiver. On January 15-17.1968, and on June
5,1968, the Secretary held public hearings in California to provide an
opportunity for all views to be expressed. Presentations were made by
members of the State of California, the automotive industry, and
other interested parties.
On July 16, 1968, the Secretary found that: (1) California had,
prior to March 30, 1966, adopted standards (other than crankcase
emission standards) for the control of emissions from new motor
vehicles and new motor vehicle engines; (2) California requires stand-
ards more stringent than applicable Federal standards to meet com-
pelling and extraordinary conditions; (3) California State standards
and related enforcement procedures are more stringent than the appli-
cable Federal standards, and are required to meet such compelling
and extraordinary conditions; and (4) such State standards and pro-
cedures are consistent with section 208(a) of the Clean Air Act, as
amended.
Based on these findings the Secretary waived the application of sec-
tion 208 (a) to the State of California with respect to the following
identified State standards and test procedures: (1) California exhaust
emission standards and test procedures for 1969 model heavy-duty
vehicles; (2) California exhaust emission standards and test pro-
cedures for 1969 model passenger cars (light duty vehicles); and
(3) California fuel evaporative emission standards and test pro-
cedures for 1970 model light duty vehicles.
The waiver is applicable only with respect to the model years
specified above.
On September 27,1968, the Secretary received another request for a
waiver from the State of California. This second request was prompted
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47
by the enactment of the California Legislature of the Pure Air Act
of 1968. This act establishes a number or increasingly stringent motor
vehicle emission standards applicable to 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, and
1974 model years vehicles as shown in table 4.
Emission standards and test procedures to implement the law were
adopted on November 20,1968, by the California Air Resources Board.
Public hearings will be scheduled promptly to provide the Secretary
with information on which to base a decision on whether this waiver
may be granted.
TABLE 4. California vehicle emission standards
I. Gasoline-powered motor vehicles under 6,001 pounds manufacturer's maximum
gross vehicle weight having an engine displacement of 50 cubic inches or
greater—
A. Exhaust emissions:
1. 1970 model year 2.2 grams per mile hydrocarbons.
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide,
2. 1971 model year 2.2 grams per mile hydrocarbons
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
4.0 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen
3. 1972 and 1973 model
years 1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbon
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
3.0 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen
4. 1974 and later model
years 1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbons
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide
1.3 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen
B. Evaporative loss:
1970 and later model
years 6 grams hydrocarbons per test
//. Gasoline-powered trucfo-tractor or bus over 6,001 pounds, manufacturer's
gross vehicle weight—
A. Exhaust emissions:
1. 1970 and 1971 model years 275 ppm of hydrocarbons
1.5 per cent carbon monoxide
2. 1972 and later model years.. 180 ppm of hydrocarbons
1 percent carbon monoxide
9. DNCONTROLI.ED FOREIGN AUTOMOBILES
NAPCA is increasingly concerned about the importation of for-
eign-built motor vehicles not equipped to control emissions in accord-
ance with the national emission standards applicable to new vehicles
sold in this country. The entry of such vehicles is legal under the pro-
visions of the Clean Air Act if the vehicles are not "new" as denned
by the act. Thus, slightly used, uncontrolled 1968 and 1969 model
year foreign-built vehicles may legally be imported for resale in large
numbers. The extent of this activity is presently being investigated
by NAPCA. No accurate figures have been obtained yet, but it is esti-
mated that thousands of sucn vehicles are entering each year.
Furthermore, any individual who presently wishes to, may import
an uncontrolled vehicle for his own personal use or in the words of
the act, for purposes other than sale or resale. No accurate figures are
available on this type of importation either. It is believed, however,
that thousands of uncontrolled vehicles are also entering each year
under this provision of the Clean Air Act.
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48
Although an individual vehicle may not create an air pollution
problem, the combined emissions from large numbers of uncontrolled
vehicles will add a significant burden to the air quality of major
metropolitan areas.
10. REGISTRATION AND EVALUATION OF FUEL ADDITIVES
Progress in fuel additives registration has taken place on two broad
fronts: the gathering of information and the design of procedures.
The two activities have usually been carried out simultaneously.
(a) Information gathering
Information on fuel additive usage has been accumulated from both
public and private sources. A survey of fuel and fuel additive manu-
facturers has been completed by an outside contractor. The summary
report for this survey provides the following listings: (1) all domestic
fuel producers; (2) all domestic fuel additive producers; (3) all fuel
or fuel additive importers; (4) State by State fuel and fuel additive
procedures; and (5) generic types of fuels and fuel additives being
produced domestically, and the companies which produce each type.
NAPCA personnel gathered additional • information in meetings
with industrial representatives. The first meeting of the National
Fuel Additives Advisory Committee was held in October. A large
part of this meeting was devoted to a discussion of industry practices.
In November administrative representatives attended a meeting of the
American Petroleum Institute's Subcommittee on Environmental
Standards. Fuel and additive company representatives at this meeting
presented summary reports on each of the generic types of additives
presently used in petroleum fuels. Both of these meetings provided
NAPCA with a better understanding of the fuel additives problem.
(b) Design of registration procedures
The design of registration procedures and regulations has pro-
ceeded well since the first report. Formal definitions have been drawn
up for various terms used in the act. Registration forms are being
designed to handle the flow of information between NAPCA and the
companies involved. A computerized system is being devised to handle
the vast amount of information which will be gathered during the
registration process.
Regulations describing the registration procedures are presently
being drafted. The notice of proposed rulemaking should be published
early in 1969. The first fuel to be designated will be motor vehicle
gasoline.
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VIII. AIR POLLUTION MONITORING, DATA ACQUISITION,
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, AND RELATED ACTIVI-
TIES
An essential part of an environmental management program is the
continuing appraisal of the quality of the environment. The "'"
* , 1 -»-r I * "^ *•!• A ffl It * i It T
of the Nation's air is being monitored by agencies at the Federal,
State, and local level. At the Federal level NAPCA has as its primary
objectives (1) providing an adequate nationwide baseline of air qual-
ity and source emission data, and (2) providing a continuing means
for judging, on a nationwide scale, the effectiveness of air pollution
control efforts.
These are three essential activities in an air pollution control agency
that deal with air pollution monitoring and data acquisiton:
(1) Continuous operation of a system for air monitoring adequate
to measure the important pollutants in the ambient air, and sensitive
enough to detect improvements resulting from control efforts.
(2) Continuous assessment of source emissions to define the reduc-
tions in quantities of discharged pollutants that will produce the de-
sired air quality.
(3) Systematic storage and retrieval of the data on air quality and
source emissions to facilitate the necessary analysis and evaluation.
These activities are, in turn, essential to providing firm support to a
sound abatement and enforcement policy.
A. AIR MONITORING SYSTEMS
There are two basic types of air-monitor ing systems. The automatic,
or continuous, sampler-analyzer systems produce numerical and/or
graphical information directly. The nonautomatic or intermittent sys-
tems employ collection devices and separate laboratory facilities for
subsequent analysis of the sample. The automatic system has the ad-
vantage of providing immediate information during air pollution
episodes but usually does not retain the sample for future examina-
tion. The nonautomatic system is necessarily slower in yielding in-
formation, but with the principal exception of bubblers for gas
sampling, it usually produces a sample that can be stored for future
verification and additional analyses.
NAPCA operates systems of both types. Approximate totals for the
various major types of monitoring instruments operated by NAPCA
are shown in table 5.
By means of agency development and maintenance grants NAPCA
is actively stimulating the assumption of air pollution control re-
sponsibility at the State and local level. Table 6 indicates the growth
trends in these agencies as reflected in the number of various air moni-
toring instruments in use. The first column presents an inventory of
instruments in use as of June 1967. The middle column shows instru-
(49)
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50
merits in use as of June 1968, and the third column shows rough esti-
mates of the sampling activity anticipated by June 1969. The data for
columns 2 and 3 are derived from a recent Federal survey question-
naire which was sent to 293 State and local agencies involved in air
pollution control. Replies were received from 221 State and local
agencies in time for inclusion in this summary. Some agencies were
not in a position to estimate their level of activity for the next fiscal
year; therefore, the 1969 projections are approximate only.
TABLE 5.—NAPCA AIR MONITORING EQUIPMENT
Device
Nonautomitie:
Dustfalljar
Lead peroxide "candle"
Hi-vol.
Tape sampler (all)...
Bubbler.
Sequential bubbler.
Automatic:
Sampler-analyzer
Do
Do
• Do
Do
Do
Pollutant
Settleable particles
Oxidizable sulfur compounds
Suspended particles
Suspended particles, HjS
. Gases
do
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitric oxide.
Nitrogen dioxide
Oxidants . .
Sulfur dioxide
1967
281
373
259
13
56
6
7
7
10
10
7
19
1968 (June)
434
593
383
24
104
12
16
15
17
17
18
30
Estimated
June 1969
575
601
539
45
190
20
22
22
22
22
24
36
TABLE 6.—STATE AND LOCAL AIR MONITORING EQUIPMENT
Device
Nonautomatic:
Oustfall jar
Lead peroxide "candle"
Hi-vof.
Tape sampler (all).
Bubbler
Sequential bubbler
Automatic:
Sampler-analyzer
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Pollutant
Settleable particles .
Oxidizable sulfur compounds
Suspended particles.
Suspended particles, HjS
Gases -
do
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons.
Nitric oxide ...
Nitrogen dioxide
Oxtdants . .
Sulfur dioxide.. .. .
1967!
1,651
1,100
975
297
226
33
59
36
41
43
80
85
1968 (June)
2,548
1,764
1,459
585
393
74
93
63
45
48
83
435
Estimated
June 1969
3,131
2,469
1,997
841
646
141
186
110
91
101
137
511
> Based on a midyear telephone inquiry.
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51
Figure 1 shows the geographic distribution of State and local auto-
matic monitoring instruments. The number of automatic instruments
in use by State and local agencies has risen from approximately 400
in 1967 to 624 in 1968 (based on 75 percent response to the question-
naire) . In 1967 there were 23 States with agencies operating automatic
instruments; in 1968 there were 34.
B. INVENTORIES OF POLLTTTANT EMISSIONS
An inventory of emission sources is essential to executing an effec-
tive air pollution control effort. On the balance sheet of an urban
area's intake of goods, raw materials, and foodstuffs, as against its
output of products and waste material, most of the quantities are well
known, even to the solid wastes and sewage because they are collected
and dealt with. One important term in the equation of mass flow
through an urban area's economy, the quantity of waste substances
discarded into the atmosphere, has until recently been largely ignored
or estimated indirectly. In the last 4 to 5 years more detailed inven-
tories have been initiated by Federal, State, and local agencies, so
that by June 1968 some kinds of data on quantities of emissions had
been collected for 75 of the 231 standard metropolitan statistical areas
(SMSA) 1 in the United States. The emphasis is being placed on ob-
taining this information is evidenced in the fact that 6 months later,
by the end of December 1968, the number had grown to 91. Most of
the larger cities have been inventoried, as the following table 7 shows:
TABLE /.-COMPLETED INVENTORIES BY POPULATION CLASS, DECEMBER 1968
...... . . Number of Number
SMSA population SMSA's inventoried
1,000,000 or more
500,000 to 1 000 000
100,000 to 500,000... ""
Less thin 100,000.
Total
24
33
142
32
231
23
20
45
3
91
1 The standard metropolitan statistical areas are defined by the Bureau of the Budget a*
a county or group of counties that contain at least one central city of 00,000 Iflhobltanta,
or twin cities with a combined population of at least 60,000. It also includes any con-
tiguous counties of metroipolltaji nature that are socially economically Integrated with the
center city.
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N.J.-34
l.-O
Md.-35
D.C.-10
FIGDBE 1. State and local automatic instruments
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53
Elements of NAPCA have conducted or participated in 42 of these
inventories, with the State or local personnel often providing a ma-
jority of the effort. Of the other 49, about half were conducted by
State agencies; the remaining half by city, county, or regional con-
trol districts.
A major project of current urgency, the definition of air quality
control regions, requires a comprehensive inventory of emissions in
each area. Much of the data collected in the inventories conducted by
State or local agencies is a valuable addition to the accumulating in-
formation. On the other hand, some early inventories are not being
kept current, and 23 of the State or locally conducted inventories
concentrate on the center city or areas that do not include the entire
SMSA, This is understandable since locally conducted inventories are
usually directed to immediate tasks such as identification of specific
sources in problem neighborhoods, documenting the need for control
and enforcement statutes, and allocating money and manpower to the
control efforts that will yield the greatest benefit to air quality.
Inventories conducted by the Federal agencies cover an entire stand-
ard metropolitan statistical area, at least, and are designed to be kept
current. TTie principal emphasis in these inventories is to assemble an
areawide picture 01 how types of emission sources are distributed and
data on total quantities of emitted substances. In addition to providing
one facet of the information needed to define the air quality control
regions, the data are also to be used in longtenn research on such
problems as source-receptor relationships, testing of meteorological
models, and in zoning and transportation planning.
The principal pollutants covered in an inventory are suspended par-
ticulate matter, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur,
and hydrocarbons.
C. NATIONAL DATA BANK
The "Storage and Retrieval of Air Data" (SAROAD) System,
which functions as a national air quality data bank, received contri-
butions of data from approximately 250 State and local air monitoring
stations in 1967; in 1968 the figure rose to 310.
Including Federal, State, and local monitoring stations, the data
bank presently contains air quality information from 761 stations,
representing approximately 410 urban and 55 nonurban areas, and
60 sites in fringe areas. It is anticipated that by 1971 data will be ac-
quired from over 1,000 stations representing over 600 urban, 100 non-
urban, and 100 fringe areas; and by 1972, data from all existing air
monitoring systems will be stored in a bank.
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54
It is estimated that the cost of maintaining such a centralized data
bank will be on the order of 3 percent of the total nationwide expen-
ditures (Federal, State, and local) for the acquisition of the data, and
an expenditure of an additional 5 percent would cover interpretive
analysis and publication of the data.
D. MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION
Excellent progress has been made since the first reports in both in-
tramural and contract work on development of instruments, partic-
ularly for stack measurements and air quality.
1. INSTRUMENTATION FOR VEHICULAR EMISSIONS
The most efficient control of air pollution resulting from vehicular
hydrocarbon emissions requires the ability to remove those hydro-
carbons which are effective in causing eye irritation, visibility, plant
damage, and health effects. Schemes for such an "atmospheric reac-
tivity" assessment have been proposed by several investigators includ-
ing those at NAPCA.5
Scales for such reactive hydrocarbons have been compared and
found to produce similar results for current control systems. Since the
results or simple scales may well provide adequate assessment for hy-
drocarbon control, NAPCA has developed and published instrumen-
tal techniques for reactive hydrocarbons.6 These techniques allow re-
active hydrocarbons to be measured with a minimum of expense and
time. Sume techniques also provide the opportunity to compare the
performance of vehicle fleets on a more descriptive basis than by the
previous research techniques.
A demonstration grant to the State of New Jersey, managed by
Scott Laboratories, provided information about the degree of instru-
mentation needed and available to conduct individual car inspection.
This program has provided considerable impetus to research on sim-
plified instrumentation by the private sector and is expected to pro-
vide more in the immediate future.
2. INSTRUMENTATION FOR STATIONARY SOURCES
More rapid progress has been made in preliminary work on devel-
opment of remote stack monitoring equipment than was anticipated in
the first report.
(a) Remote stack monitoring
Contractual work has been initiated to evaluate the performance
of a continuous monitor that is commercially available and that has
been developed to remotely monitor SOZ and NO2 in plumes from
stack sources using correlation masking spectroscopy.
A prototype monitor has been developed on contract to continu-
ously measure SO2 remotely by emission spectroscopy. Performance
evaluation in field operation is underway and preliminary results in-
dicate that aerosols can be a significant interference.
A feasibility study will be undertaken by contract to investigate the
application of Raman spectroscopy for remote monitoring of NO in
. • Refers to references, p. 60.
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55
plume emissions. A prototype lidar instrument will be developed for
remote monitoring of particulate emissions from stack sources by
measurement of optical transmittance.
(b) In-stock monitoring
A fly ash prototype monitor for incinerator emissions has been de-
veloped by contract and evaluated in the field. Eesults of tests done
with automatic isokinetic sampling versus fixed flow sampling indi-
cated that a relatively simple device without automatic isokinetic
sampling can be used to adequately monitor particulate loading in
the stack for air pollution control. The method is based on a beta-
gage technique applied to particulates collected on paper tape and is
applicable to particulates emitted by various sources. A commercial
instrument is presently available for iron oxide emissions from steel
mills.
A contract for a field study has been initiated to evaluate the per-
formance of a continuous monitor developed to measure SO2 concen-
trations in a stack by an optical technique using correlation masking
spectroscopy.
3. INSTRUMENTATION FOR AIR QUALITY
Major progress has been made toward providing monitoring in-
struments for several of the most important pollutants.
(a) Single-point sampling
A new commercially available detector for SO? has been evaluated
in the laboratory, and shown to have the desired sensitivity and
ability to operate in unattended stations. Techniques are available for
increasing specificity of this instrument for SO2, and will be applied
should field studies show a need for them. An added benefit or these
techniques is that they can be applied to the separation, characteri-
zation, and quantitation of sulfurous compounds contributing to
kraft mill odor problems,
A prototype semicontinuous gas chromatographic instrument has
been assembled, having the capability for determining carbon monox-
ide and methane in air with a sensitivity far exceeding that of earlier
devices. This device is presently being used in the laboratory for the
analysis of air samples collected in the field. Its further evolution,
either as a field instrument or as a central laboratory device, will be
determined in the light of the present study.
An earlier ozone-sonde device has been modified to permit the con-
tinuous, sensitive, real-time determination of ozone in air. Discrepan-
cies between results obtained with this device and those from existing
"oxidant" instrumentation are believed to be traceable to serious gaps
in our knowledge of the chemistry of the ozone-"oxidant" family of
pollutants. Studies now underway are expected to resolve the
differences.
A laboratory method has been developed representing great im-
provement over previous techniques in both the sensitivity and spec-
ificity with which it can measure sulfuric acid mist. Invaluable data
regarding the occurrence of this noxious aerosol should result from
this development.
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56
Research and development contracts have been let for feasibility
studies of proposed instrumentation that holds great promise of
being able to perform field monitoring of two or more pollutants
simultaneously. The advantages of such a device are self-evident.
Nephelometers have been developed and are now commercially
available to measure optical light/scatter by suspended particulates
and research is currently underway to relate these measurements
to mass loading and to visibility in the atmosphere. Preliminary
results indicate that such lightscatter measurements can be a good
indirect method of continuous monitoring of mass concentration of
suspended atmospheric aerosols without the need of sample collection
and weighing.
The correlation masking spectroscopy technique has been adapted
to point-sampling instrumentation in a prototype development for
concentration measurements of SO2 and NO2 in ambient air. A field
study has been initiated by contract to evaluate its performance in
an urban atmosphere and to compare its measurements to those of
another prototype development using the same analytical technique
applied to long-path sampling.
(b) Long-path sampling
A prototype instrument will be developed to measure ozone con-
centration over a long path in urban atmospheres using an IR
absorption spectroscopy technique. The methoa will have the po-
tential to be adapted to the measurement of several other pollu-
tant gases having IR absorption bands in the adjacent spectral
regions.
A long-path IR absorption spectrophotometer will be developed
to provide data on the effect of pollutant gases on the spectral trans-
mission properties of the urban atmosphere and relate this information
to the design, calibration, and performance evaluation of optical-type
instrument developments.
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IX. ADVISORY GROUPS
A. PRESIDENT'S AIB QUALITY ADVISORY BOARD
The role of the President's Air Quality Advisory Board is to ad-
vise and consult with the Secretary on matters of policy relating
to the activities and functions authorized under the Air Quality Act
of 1967 and to make such recommendations as are deemed necessary
to the President. The Board is composed of the Secretary or his desig-
nee as Chairman and 15 members appointed by the President, none
of whom are permitted to be Federal officers or employees. The mem-
bers represent various State, interstate, and local governmental agen-
cies, public or private interests contributing to, affected by, or con-
cerned with air pollution, and other public and private agencies,
organizations, and groups interested in the field of air pollution pre-
vention and control, as well as other individuals expert in the field.
The 15 members of the Board were appointed by the President on
July 25, 1968, with one-third of these members appointed to serve,
respectively, terms of 1,2, and 3 years. The first meeting of the Board,
on September 16,1968, was devoted to the discussion of progress made
in implementing the provisions of the Air Quality Act and to the
exploration of ways in which the Board could assist the Department
in achieving the goals of the act. The second meeting of the Board
will be at a date set by the Chairman early in 1969.
B. ADVISORY COMMITTEES
During the reporting period each of the fallowing advisory com-
mittees Has 'been extensively involved in activities peculiar to that
committee: Research and development, fuel additives, air quality
criteria, control techniques, control agency development, and research
grants.
Two new advisory committees were established and staffed during
the reporting period. These were the iron and steel industry liaison
committee and the primary smelter industry liaison committee. The
purpose for their establishment is as follows:
The iron and steel industry liaison committee is established to
(a) review the scope of the systems engineering study of the air pol-
lution problems relating to the industry, (&) provide pertinent data
inputs from industrial sources as applicable, (
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58
odic contract progress reviews, and.(rf) evaluate a final study report.
Several other committees have been established but not staffed.
These committees and their purposes are:
Air pollution economics advisory committee.—The committee is to
assist in the development and implementation of the purposes of the
Air Quality Act including the development of economic models for
the study of the impact of alternate air pollution control methods.
both technical and social.
Air pollution chemistry and physics advisory committee.—This com-
mittee is responsible for consultation regarding chemical, physical,
and instrumental research and development activities directed toward
improvement of air quality.
Air pollution process control engineering advisory committee.—
This committee is responsible for consultation regarding engineering
research and development activities directed toward the control of air
pollutants from stationary sources (i.e., industrial, commercial, and
domestic processes).
Meteorology advisot'y committee.—The committee is responsible for
consultation and advice regarding all research and development activi-
ties in the field of air pollution meteorology undertaken by the meteor-
ology program of the National Air Pollution Control Administration.
Motor vehicle research and development advisory committee.—This
committee is responsible for consultation regarding the national
research and development activities of the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration directed toward the control of air pollutants from
all vehicular sources, i.e., onroad vehicles, offroad vehicles, aircraft,
railroad, and ship.
Organic solvents advisory committee.—The committee is responsible
for consultation and advice regarding: Amounts and types of solvents
used nationally and regionally; general techniques for assessing
organic solvent contributions to air pollution in an area; research cur-
rently underway and additional studies needed to determine the rela-
tive importance of various solvents and mixtures of solvents; methods
of classifying solvents as air pollutants; methods of evaluating effects
and smog-forming tendencies, and the role of sunlight and meteor-
ology; and the advisability and feasibility of national criteria for sol-
vent use and regulation, as a guide to control agencies and industry.
Pulp industry liaison committee.—The committee is established to
(a) review the scope of the systems engineering study of the air pollu-
tion problems relating to the industry, (&) provide pertinent data
inputs from industrial sources, as applicable, (c) participate in peri-
odic contract progress reviews, and (a) evaluate the final study report.
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X. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES
A. GOVERNMENT-INDUSTRY MEETINGS
NAPCA has long recognized the important role that industry has
to play in the prevention and control of air pollution. Since its incep-
tion in 1955, the Federal air pollution program has worked to involve
industry in air pollution control, and one of the ways it has done this is
through a variety of joint industry-Government meetings.
During 1967 and 1968 a number of meetings were held bringing
together representatives of industries with pollution problems; and
responsible staff of HEW/NAPCA and other concerned Federal de-
partments and agencies. In accordance with the authority and mandate
of the Air Quality Act of 1967 and the new departmental organiza-
tional structure, there is under development a variety or meetings,
seminars, and symposia for the exchange of information and ideas by
experts and managers from industry and Government.
B. INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
An international affairs program has been established with the
objective of promotion and cpordmatio-n of international Iprograms.
NAPCA engages in various international activities with the World
Health Organization (WHO), the World Meteorological Organiza-
tion (WMO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), the Economic Commission of Europe (ECE),
the Council of Europe (COE), and the International Joint Com-
mission (IJC); sponsors translation and research projects in Israel,
Poland, and Yugoslavia under Public Law 480; represents the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) in coop-
erative programs concerning air pollution control with Germany and
Japan; and maintains liaison with the Office of International Health
(OIH), Public Health Service (PHS), DHEW and with scientific
attaches of foreign embassies. NAPCA awards research grants to
foreign recipients. At the present time grants have been awarded to
scientists in Austria, Canada, England, and Sweden.
An agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics on exchanges in the scientific, technical, education,
cultural, and other fields in 1968-69, which contains for the first time
air pollution, was signed in Moscow, July 15,1968, by the U.S. Am-
bassador and the Director, Cultural Relations Department, Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, U.S.S.R. This agreement is valid until the end of
December 1969.
(59)
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REFERENCES
1. "Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, First
Report of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to the
United States Congress," June 28,1968.
2. Federal Register 33(10) : 548, January 16,1968.
3. Federal Register33(221): 16537-16538, November 13,1968.
4. "Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides." U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Na-
tional Center for Air Pollution Control, March 1967.
5. Altshuller, A. P. "An Evaluation of Techniques for the Determina-
tion of Photochemical Reactivity of Organic Emission." J. Air
Pollution Control Asoc. 16(5) : 257-260, May 1966.
6. Klosterman, D. L., and Sigsby, J. E., Jr. "Application of Subtrac-
tive Techniques to the Analysis of Automotive Exhaust." Envi-
ron. Sci. Technol. 1:309-314,1967.
(60)
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