91ST CONGRESS \ QTTMATW / DOCUMENT
2d Session f SENATE j No_ 9l_^
PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
THIRD REPORT
OF THE
SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,
AND WELFARE
TO THE
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
IN COMPLIANCE WITH
Public Law 90-148
THE AIR QUALITY ACT OF 1967
MARCH 1070
APRIL 27, 1970.—Ordered to he printed with illustrations
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
42-348 WASHINGTON : 1970
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 25 cents
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COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC WORKS
JENNINGS BANDOLPH, West Virginia, Chairman
STEPHEN M. YOUNG, Ohio JOHN SHERMAN COOPER, Kentucky
EDMUND 6. MUSKIE, Maine J. CALEB BOGOS, Delaware
B EVERETT JORDAN, North Carolina HOWARD II. BAKER, JR., Tennessee
BIRCH BAYH. Indiana ROBERT J. ROLE, Kansas
JOSEPH M. MONTOYA, New Mexico EDWARD J. C1URNEY, Florida
WILLIAM B. BPONG, JR., Virginia ROBERT W. PACKWOOD, Oregon
THOMAS F. EAOLETON, Missouri
MIKE GRAVEL, Alaska
RICHARD B. ROYCE, Ckitf Clirl; and Staff Director
J. B. HCYETT, JR., Atsiitant Chitj Clirk and.iuatant Staff Director
BARRT MEYER, Counsel
BAILET GUARD, Aitiitant Chief Clerk (Minority)
Toil C. JORLING, Minority Cwiutl
JOSEPH F. VAN VLADRICKEX, LEON G. BILLINGS, RICHARD D. ORVXDY,
and STEWART E. McCLCRE, Professional Staff Members,
and WALTER PLANET, Department of Cmnmetct FeUnw
SENATE RESOLUTION 370
Submitted by Mr. Randolph of West Virginia
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
Agreed to April 27, 1,970.
Resolved, That there be printed, with illustrations, ns a Senate
document the third report of the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare, entitled "Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution", submitted to the Congress in accordance with section 306,
Public Law 90-148, the Air Quality Act of 1967. and that there be
printed two thousand five hundred additional copies of such document
for the use of the Committee on Public Works.
Attest: FRANCIS R. VALEO,
Secretary.
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
THE SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE,
Washington, March 13,1970.
Hon. SPIRO T. AGNEW,
President oj the Senate,
Hon. JOHN W. MCCORMACK,
Speaker of the House,
Washington, D.C.
GENTLEMEN: In accordance with section 306 of the Clean Air Act,
as amended, we are pleased to transmit our third report to the Congress
on Progress in the Prevention and Control oj Air Pollution,
This report covers the calendar year ending December 31, 1969,
and reflects the status of our activities as of that date. It describes
our progress during 1969 in carrying out the mandate the Congress
has given the Department to provide leadership of the Nation's efforts
to acquire greater knowledge of air pollution and to bring it under
effective control.
Sincerely,
ROBERT H. FINCH, Secretary.
(HI)
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PREFACE
In accordance with section 306 of the Clean Air Act, as amended.
the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare submits an annual
report to the Congress on progress under the Act. This report is the
third such report.
Section 306 reads as follows:
SEC. 306. Not later than six months after the effective date of this section and
not later than January 10 of each calendar year beginning after such date, the
Secretary shall report to the Congress on measures taken toward implementing
the purpose and intent of this Act including but not limited to (1) the progress
and problems associated with control of automotive exhaust emissions and the
research efforts related thereto; (2) the development of air quality criteria and
recommended emission control requirements; (3) the status of enforcement actions
taken pursuant to this Act; (4) the status of State ambient air standards setting,
including such plans for implementation and enforcement as have been devel-
oped; (5) the extent of development and expansion of air pollution monitoring
systems; (6) progress and problems related to development of new and improved
control techniques; (7) the development of quantitative and qualitative instru-
mentation to monitor emissions and air quality; (8) standards set or under con-
sideration pursuant to title II of this Act; (9) the status of State, interstate, and
local pollution control programs established pursuant to and assisted by this
Act; and (10) the reports and recommendations made by the President's Air
Quality Advisory Board.
This report contains information on all of the areas of activity
mentioned in section 306, though not in the same order. The section
immediately preceding Chapter I explains how the report is organized.
(V)
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CONTENTS
Preface v
Summary ix
Organization of the report xi
I. Effects and Surveillance:
A. Air quality criteria. 1
B. Health effects research -,_ 2
C. Economic effects research 4
D. Air quality monitoring 5
E. National air data bank 9
F. Air monitoring instrumentation development 10
Ci. Meteorological, chemical, and physical research 11
H. Research grants 13
II. Control and Compliance:
A. Air quality control regions 14
B. Public information and education 20
C. Assistance to State and local control agencies — 20
D. Manpower development 23
E. Federal abatement activities 24
F. Control of air pollution at Federal facilties 25
G. Stationary source control technology research and develop-
ment 2")
H. National motor vehicle pollution control standards 30
I. Mobile source control technology research and development- . 33
J. Registration of motor vehicle fuel additives 35
K. Jet aircraft pollution control 35
III. Other Activities:
A. Technical information 37
B. International activities 37
C. Advisory groups 38
(vn>
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SUMMARY
The Clean Air Act, as amended, authorizes the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare to carry on a national program of air
pollution research, control, and training activities in concert with
State and local governments. The past year has been one of marked
progress in this intergovernmental attack on the Nation's air pollu-
tion problem. Among the accomplishments of the January 1968-
December 1969 period, the following were particularly significant:
• The machinery for regional control of air pollution was set in
motion in 25 air quality control regions. State governments have
begun to adopt sulfur oxides and participate air quality stand-
ards for these regions.
• In accordance with the intent of the Clean Air Act, there has
been a very high degree of public participation in State hearings
on air quality standards for the air quality control regions.
The quantity and quality of citizen involvement are unprece-
dented in the history of air pollution control efforts.
•With the beginning of the 1970 model year, more stringent
standards for the control of air pollution from new motor vehicles
went into effect. For the first time, smoke standards for new
diesel-powered vehicles were placed in effect.
• Research and development work on low-pollution engines for
motor vehicles was initiated. The initial projects relate to the
design of Rankine-cycle engines for passenger cars.
• There was a continued expansion of State and local air pollu-
tion control activities; there were increases in State and local
expenditures, budgeted positions, and air monitoring activities
and further progress in adoption of laws and regulations.
Figures 15 and 16 on pages 38 and 39 outline the recent budgetary
and manpower history of the program being conducted under the
Clean Air Act.
(IX)
42-348*—70 2
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ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
This report is organized in such a way as to coincide as closely as
possible with the actual structure of the National Air Pollution
Control Administration's program. For purposes of planning and budg-
eting, the program is divided into two broad categories of activities:
Effects and Surveillance, which encompasses those activities necessary
to meet the Nation's need for improved knowledge of the nature,
magnitude, and effects of the problem of air pollution; and Control
and Compliance, which encompasses those activities necessary to
insure timely development and application of techniques for pre-
venting and controlling air pollution. In this report, most activities
are reported under one of these categories.
In section 306 of the Clean Air Act, information of ten specific
areas of activity is requested. In this report, as in previous ones, all
the requested information is furnished; however, it is not arranged in
precisely the manner outlined in section 306. The following guide is
provided to assist the reader in finding information on any of the areas
of activity specifically mentioned in section 306:
SECTION 306
In this report
Chapter Section
1, Progress and problems associated with the control of automotive exhaust emissions
and the research efforts related thereto - .-- II H, I.I
2. Development of air quality criteria and recommended emission control requirements. I A
3. Status of enforcement actions taken pursuant to this act II E
4. Status of State ambient air standards setting, including such plans for implementation
and enforcement as have been developed II A, 8
5. Extent of development and expansion of air pollution monitoring systems I D, E
6. Progress and problems related to development of new and improved control tech-
niques II G, I
7. Development of quantitative and qualitative instrumentation to monitor emissions
and air quality.. I f
g. Standards set or under consideration pursuant to title 11 of this act II H
9. Status of State, interstate, and local pollution control programs established pursuant
to and assisted by this act IE C, 0
10. The reports and recommendations made by the President's Air Quality Advisory
Board.. Ill C
(XI)
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PROGRESS IN THE PREVENTION AND
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Chapter I. EFFECTS AND SURVEILLANCE
This chapter covers those activities by which the National Air
Pollution Control Administration {NAPCA) seeks to define and docu-
ment the adverse effects of air pollution on public health and welfare
and the nature and magnitude of air pollution problems affecting the
Nation's communities. Effects of air pollution are identified through
research; in this regard, NAPCA's research efforts are divided into
two principal areas—studies of the effects of air pollution on human
health and studies of economic effects, especially damage to materials
and vegetation. Knowledge derived from such research is summarized
in ah" quality criteria documents, which thereby define the health and
welfare factors that State governments must take into account in
setting air quality standards for air quality control regions. Data on
the nature and magnitude of air pollution are derived from air quality
monitoring activities, including NAPCA's own monitoring activities
and those conducted by State and local agencies, and from studies of
air pollution sources. Also covered in this chapter are NAPCA's
efforts to gain an improved understanding of the interactions between
air pollution and environmental factors. The totality of knowledge
derived from effects and surveillance activities is a vital element in
evaluating the Nation's needs for prevention and control of air pollu-
tion and in planning and carrying out programs capable of meeting
those needs.
A. To develop and publish air quality criteria documents reflecting the
latest available scientific knowledge of the health and welfare hazards
of major air pollutants
Air quality criteria documents summarize available scientific infor-
mation on the extent to which individual air pollutants or combina-
tions of pollutants are hazardous to public health and welfare. Publica-
tion of air quality criteria is an integral part of implementation of the
Clean Air Act, as amended; under the Act, issuance of criteria and the
accompanying reports on air pollution control techniques, is the signal
for State governments to begin the air quality standard-setting process
in air quality control regions.
Initial drafts of air quality criteria documents are prepared by
NAPCA staff members and/or consultants and contractors. Prior to
publication, the documents undergo an extensive review by the Na-
tional Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee, chapter authors.
consultants, NAPCA staff members, and personnel of other Federal
agencies. In addition, NAPCA has taken steps to involve both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engi-
neering in the air quality criteria development process.
On February 11, 1969, NAPCA published the first air quality
criteria documents. These documents deal with two of the most
common types of air pollutants—sulfur oxides and particulate matter.
The sulfur oxides criteria document reviews and summarizes the
results of over 300 studies and indicates that: "Under the conditions
(1)
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prevailing in areas where the studies were conducted, adverse health
effects were noticed when 24 hour average levels of sulfur dioxide
exceeded 300 micrograras per cubic meter (0.11 parts per million) for
three to four days. Adverse health effects also were noted when the
annual mean level of sulfur dioxide exceeded 115 micrograms per
cubic meter (0.04 parts per million). Visibility was reduced to about
five miles at sulfur dioxide levels of 285 micrograms per cubic meter
(0.10 parts per million); adverse effects on materials were observed
at an annual mean of 345 micrograms per cubic meter (0.12 parts
per million); and adverse effects on vegetation were observed at an
annual mean of 85 micrograms per cubic meter (0.03 parts per
million)."
The particulate matter criteria document reviews and summarizes
results of approximately 350 studies of the effects of particulate air
pollution and indicates that: "Under the conditions prevailing in areas
where the studies were conducted, adverse health effects were noted
when the annual mean level of particulate matter exceeded 80 micro-
grams per cubic meter; visibility was reduced to about five miles at
concentrations of 150 micrograms per cubic meter; and adverse
effects on materials were observed at an annual mean exceeding 60
micrograms per cubic meter."
In early 1970, NAPCA plans to publish air quality criteria for carbon
monoxide, photochemical oxidants, and hydrocarbons. Air quality
criteria for nitrogen oxides, lead, fluorides, and polynuclear organic
compounds are scheduled for publication early in 1971.
During the past year, NAPCA examined a number of other pollut-
ants with respect to their occurrence, effects, measurement methods,
sources, and control technology. After reviewing the findings, NAPCA
established a tentative schedule for development of air quality criteria
from 1972 to 1975. Although recognizing that significant scientific
evidence may become available which would make it necessary to
change the schedule NAPCA currently intends to publish criteria
for odors (including toxological and corrosion aspects of hydrogen
sulfide), asbestos, hydrogen chlorides, beryllium, and chlorine gas
in 1972. Scheduled for publication in 1973 are criteria documents on
arsenic, nickel, and vanadium and their compounds. Criteria scheduled
for issuance in 1974 will cover barium, boron, chromium (including
chromic acid), mercury, and selenium and then* compounds. Air
quality criteria for pesticides and radioactive substances are scheduled
for publication in 1975.
B. To identify and interpret the risk to fwalth resulting from exposure to
the major air pollutants, singly or in combination
Comprehensive knowledge of the effects of air pollution on public
health is a prerequisite to the development of air quality criteria and
their use in establishment of meaningful air quality standards. NAPCA
conducts and supports a broad spectrum of health research activities.
including laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological studies to expand
the quantity and improve the quality of the knowledge available.
In the area of epidemiology, NAPCA has initiated a major new effort
to observe and measure, on a continuing basis, the health of the Na-
tion's population in relation to air pollution exposure. For this purpose,
a health effects surveillance network is being set up. Currently, the
network is in operation in Birmingham, Alabama, and Charlotte and
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Greensboro, North Carolina. Before the end of Fiscal 1970, operations
are scheduled to begin in three midwestern cities; selection of the cities
has not been made, as yet. Additional cities will be added to the net-
work in future years. The network will cover not just cities with
chronically high levels of air pollution but also cities with intermediate
and low levels; this will permit comparison of the state of persons'
health in relation to varying degrees of exposure to air pollution.
Initially, cities are being selected on the basis of relative levels of
particulate matter and sulfur dioxide. Subsequent cities will represent
various geographic areas, as well as different climatological conditions,
and will also be selected on the basis of relative levels of photochemical
oxidants, trace metals, hydrocarbons, and other significant pollutants.
Within each area, monitoring will be conducted in various sections of
both the central city and suburbs. This monitoring will consist of
regular measurements of the levels of air pollutants plus continuous
observation of fluctuations in selected health characteristics.
Laboratory studies, in which animals are exposed to pollutants
under controlled conditions are an extremely useful and necessary
mechanism for determining dose-response relationships. Knowledge
derived from such studies often leads to more refined laboratory work
with animals, to clinical studies on humans, and eventually to numan
epidemiological studies designed to show the effects of air pollution
on a segment of the general population. Epidemiological studies often
are focused on groups such as elderly people and infants and children
because they may be especially sensitive to air pollution. Studies of
children are particularly useful because complicating variables, such
as smoking and occupational exposure, are not involved.
There are, of course, some persistent difficulties associated with
research on the health effects of air pollution. For example, researchers
have been unable to quantify the total human body burden of numer-
ous trace metals in relation to the manner in which they gain access
to the body. Trace metals may enter the body not only from air but
also in foods and drinking water; moreover, metals present in food
and water may come from polluted air. Air uptake may or may not
be significant in relation to the quantities assimilated from the other
sources. Determining the adverse effects of exposure to very low levels
of pollutants over long periods remains an urgent but difficult task, as
does the problem of measuring the subtle initial effects of such
exposure. Gaps in the arsenal of biological and medical research tools
pose still other difficulties.
Nevertheless, during the past few years, there has been steady
progress in demonstrating that levels of air pollutants that occur in
many of the Nation's urban areas may be having adverse effects on
human health and that these effects may not be limited to the
respiratory tract but may involve other body systems, as well. Over
the past year, NAPCA has been engaged in more than 60 health
effects studies. A summary of some of the more important projects
follows:
Associations between nitrogen dioxide exposure and respiratory dis-
ease incidence were studied in two groups of elementary school children
living in areas of differing average nitrogen dioxide concentrations.
During the six-month period of the study, significantly more respira-
tory disease incidents were reported among children living in the area
of higher nitrogen dioxide levels. Although these data suggest an asso-
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cialion between exposure to nitrogen dioxide and increased occurrence
of respiratory diseases, additional supporting data are needed to con-
firm the observations before they can be accepted as completely
authentic. For this purpose, additional studies are being undertaken
in the same area to compare the incidence and severity of respiratory
illness in children from an area of high exposure with similar illness
in children receiving less exposure. Similar studies are being planned
in other locations, as well.
In cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute and the
International Lead and Zinc Research Organization, NAPCA is study-
ing levels of lead in the blood of individuals who live adjacent to
heavily traveled highways and whose exposure to lead in motor vehicle
exhaust therefore is greater than that of other segments of the popula-
tion. The purpose of this study is to determine whether such people
have significantly higher levels of lead in their blood. The first phase
of the study involved the collection of blood specimens from selected
individuals, as well as air quality data, in three cities. Laboratory
testing and analysis of these specimens are proceeding. In the second
phase, the study will be expanded to include collection of samples in
seven cities representing a wider range of climatic conditions and
traffic situations.
Studies of the effects of atmospheric levels of trace metals have
suggested that there is a relationship between lead dustfall in residen-
tial areas of 77 cities and cardiovascular mortality. This observation
is based on preliminary data analysis; additional confirming data must
Btill be collected. The same analysis showed that, contrary to previous
indication, there appears to be no significant association oetween
cardiovascular disease and atmospheric levels of either cadmium or
zinc.
Ozone is a toxic material which produces severe tissue damage when
inhaled in relatively small quantities. The types of damage produced
arc being determined by studies in animals. One of these studies has
shown that in rabbits, cell division of specific lung tissue is inhibited
for up to two days following six hours' exposure to 1100 micrograms
per cubic meter. Another study has provided evidence that exposure to
215 micrograms per cubic meter of ozone or 1000 micrograms per
cubic, meter of nitrogen dioxide increases an animal's susceptibility
to infection with respiratory bacteria.
Other research pursued during the year included further studies of
the effects of exposure to Nitrogen dioxide on pulmonary tissue, the
effects of exposure to carbon monoxide on behavior and learning
ability in primates, and the carcinogcnicity of specific hydrocarbons
found in the atmosphere, as well as continued efforts to develop new
or increasingly sensitive techniques for detecting and measuring
Ihe effects of air pollution on biological systems.
C. To identify and quantify the economic and esthetic effects of air
pollution
In establishing goals for the prevention and control of air pollution,
it generally is desirable to consider not just the health hazards of
polluted air but also its economic and esthetic hazards, including
damage to man-made materials, injury to vegetation, occurrence of
odors, and so on. Insofar as possible, data on these kinds of effects
aro included, along with data on health effects, in air quality criteria
documents. There are, however, many gaps in currently available
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information on the quantitative relationship between air pollution
levels and specific economic and esthetic effects. NAPCA conducts
and supports research aimed at filling these informational gaps.
Though it generally is assumed that air pollution tends to depress
property values, there are few data to substantiate this assumption.
NAPCA now has completed an analysis of property values in relation
to air pollution in various neighborhoods in Washington, D.C,,
Kansas City, and St. Louis. In each community, a comparison was
made of the selling prices of homes in neighborhoods with different
levels of sulfur oxides and participate pollution. Even after allowance
was made for other relevant factors, such as size of homes, proximity
to schools, and character of the neighborhood, it was found that homes
in the areas of higher air pollution levels generally sold for $300 to $500
less. Further studies of this type are underway to determine whether
these initial results are realistic.
Odors pose a peculiarly difficult problem. They often are hard to
tolerate, but their total effect is difficult to measure. NAPCA cur-
rently is conducting and supporting various efforts to define odor prob-
lems in a more precise way. One project initiated during the past year
is a national evaluation of odor problems and an intensive study of
such problems in areas selected on the basis of the national survey.
This project is being conducted under a NAPCA contract. In a subse-
quent phase of the project, effort will be focused on the development
of methods that air pollution control agencies can use in measuring
and evaluating odor problems.
NAPCA is also working on the development of new and im-
proved methods of conducting research on the economic effects of air
pollution. As an example, in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service,
an assessment is being made of aerial photography techniques as a
means of determining the extent to which forests are damaged by air
pollution. Aerial photography would reduce the time required for
damage assessment and increase the size of areas that could be
covered. Preliminary results of this study have been encouraging;
estimates based on aerial photography have correlated well with
ground survey results.
D. To maintain surveillance of air qualify through an integrated Federal-
Stale-local air monitoring and emission data gathering system
To determine the extent of people's exposure to air pollution and to
assess the impact of air pollution control measures, it is necessary to
have a continuum of data on air pollutant emissions and air quality.
Gathering and evaluating these data are tasks that require a joint
Federal-Statc-local effort. Accordingly, NAPCA is engaged not only
in operating its own air monitoring network but also in supporting
State and local monitoring activities,
NAPCA's own air monitoring activities include operation of more
than a thousand air sampling devices at stations scattered across the
entire Nation. Figure 1 shows the types and numbers of devices
involved in this operation. Over the past year, a cutback has been
made in operation of some of the relatively unsophisticated sampling
devices, particularly with respect to measurement of sulfation rate
(a crude index of sulfur oxides pollution), dustfall, and windblown
particulate matter; this cutback will continue. Also during the past
year, mechanized devices for measuring various gaseous pollutants
were placed in operation at 145 sites around the country. This expan-
42-348"—70 3
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6
sion of NAFCA's network reflects the increasing emphasis being
placed on gathering data on air pollutants which have been or will be
the subjects of air quality criteria documents.
State and local governments have the primary responsibility for
maintaining surveillance of air quality in their areas of jurisdiction.
Establishment and operation of air monitoring networks are among
tho purposes for which program grant funds provided by NAPCA
(as discussed in 110 of this report) can be used by State and local
ngencies. As indicated in Figure 1, there was a continuing expansion
of State and locnl air monitoring activities during the past year;
this trend is expected to continue. NAPCA is placing increasing em-
phasis on making use of air quality data from State and local networks
and on showing State and local agencies how to make maximum use
of their own data.
Figures 2 and 3 provide additional information on the scope of
Federnl-Stji to-local air monitoring activities. Figure 2 shows the
numbers of high-volume (Hi-Vol) participate sampling stations in
operation on a State-by-State basis. Figure 3 provides corresponding
information on automatic instruments for sampling and analyzing
jrnseous pollutants.
EMISSION STUDIES
NAPCA's air pollutant emission studies range from those relating
to specific industrial processes to assessments of total emissions of
one or more air pollutants in a single urban area or throughout the
Nation.
FIGURE l.-TOTAL NUMBER OF POLLUTION COLLECTION DEVICES IN ROUTINE OPERATION
State end local
(fancies
A.II.lnthiJ
Static:
Gases: Sulfation rate..
Pailtculales:
Settleable (dustfall)
Wi ndblown (sticky tap*)
Mechtnized:'
Gases:
Aldehydes
Nitrogen dioxide
Gxidants
Sulfur dioxide
Participates:
Suspended (Hi-vol) --
Membrsna filter
SoiFirt£ (spot tope)
Automatic: •
Gaits:
Aldehyde
NitricGXide
Oxidauts ......
Sulfur dioxide . . -
June
1968
1,764
2,548
• 467
1,459
93
45
48
83
151
June by June
1969 1970
2,065
2,017
2*8
121
63
255
167
305
37
1,474
290
6
93
19
49
M
60
179
216
2,933
3,220
£97
271 ...
262 ...
362
395 ...
515 ...
153 ...
2,074
461
16 ...
218
10...
83 ...
117
189
122
235
367 ...
NAPCA
--.. - - •
June
1968
593
434
253
ne
383
10
16
17
17
18
30
June
1969
280
270
270
145
145
145
US
145
293
55
10
10
28
18
18
15
37
mticipated
by June
1970
214
160
160
145
145
145
145
145
293
105
15
10
10
17
17
14
44
1
* Powered collection devices that accumulate simples consecutively or Intermittently for subsequent laboratory
analysis. . . ,
> Total of all gas mechanized measuring devices.
3 Contiguously optulmj sam|ilci-analy«r devices that produce results directly in numerical and/or visual form.
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Figure 2. HI-VOL MONITORING STATIONS FOR PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS, JUNE 1969
' • —™ ^"•—••—.._,. __jx
(MINNESOTA *"s>'^
* 14 i « 9 i
L. \ *4 j
••-. 'SOUTH DA mT~°~'7 o At \ WISCONSIN
**ou~c 1 'I !
j * 2 V - * 7
o n IT'""*^'^ ,'OWA
0 0 JNEBHASKA *—-A
A * 4
.. *» •
-r V ° 0
/COLORADO"""^ 1 ° 7
J-
*3
"86
KANSAS
Mlssoufl'
---- 4 -----
J«wBSo5S ----
^3
'8
'
T3
/ J *4\°27/ -
71
*2
0 10
^T€XAs"'"l°~L*H°^ ! AS J .^EHNESSeE * x/*" *
* 3 \ / T---f'T''TcABO^^'
I °65 ! „;, /" '•T^>*M*..,,rnMi.A. *3
^—-^ I -^
Xl .. <• *
ILOUISIAN'A'. o
* 5
Puerto Ric» 0 t
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Figures. AUTOMATIC SAMPLER-ANALYZERS FOR GASEOUS POLLUTANTS, JUNE 1969
j (MINNESOTA "
2 I 8 \
i \
•^_x ;-•—, __t JS°UT~DJ^OTA
V J j
'7^-.^. / o * jis.
/ ;•-£*£?£
^^Miabuu"' ; *•" '. ^g 1 .^V/.VA ^ Dc
, 27* s Nv ) /•*"""• V20 /r
\ k* / ' ! 13* x fefc 39 >--'• v.«H21t
\ H^* -f^=BS— Ti ' Vj;i.-.-^;r^-
v / TT«AS—i°K'-'HOMA fesBsaiirT/fe**-7 Xl— . 44
.--•-^*"*7' """
0 j j^ "TU'L'BAM*",
I 2 /
-~.-^.—-sj
*™\fe
^ -x'N^voR'i-. ^r
yfegfeas* >.- 'N
Puerto Rico 0
* Figure does not include 6 Federal
(CAMP) Automatic gas monitoring
instruments.
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9
An industrial source study indicates abatement needs, provides
information to guide the development of control technology, and
supplies basic data for estimating interrelationships between air pol-
lutant emissions and air quality. During the past year NAPCA com-
pleted a study on the chlorine emission from the chlor-alkali industry.
Studies on sulfur emissions from the pulp and paper industry, and
fluoride emissions from phosphate fertilizer industry are underway.
Emission surveys of specific areas provide basic information needed
in planning and conducting air pollution control programs. By the
end of 1969, NAPCA had completed emission inventories for 46 of
the first 57 metropolitan areas identified for designation as air quality
control regions. In many of these areas, there had been no previous
emission inventory.
Estimates of total national emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and total particulates are
made annually. The most recent estimates are presented in Figure 4.
Estimates for 1967-68 will be available early in 1970. There is an
inevitable time lag in development of such estimates because of the
necessity of compiling and analyzing a great deal of data from a
variety of sources.
FIG. 4.-ESTIMATES, NATIONWIDE EMISSIONS. 1966
(Millions of tons pir year]
Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen Sulfur
Source monoxide Participates carbons oxides oxides1 Total
Transportation
Fuel combustion in stationary sources.
Industrial processes
Solid waste disposal
Miscellaneous
Total
Forest fires
Total
64.5
1.9
10.7
7,6
9.7
94.4
7.2
101.6
1.2
9.2
7.6
1.0
2.9
21.9
6.7
28.6
17.6
.7
3.5
1.5
6.0
29.3
2.2
31.5
7.6
6.7
.2
.5
.5
15.5
1.2
16.7
0.4
22.9
7.2
.1
.6
31.2
(i)
31.2
91.3
41.4
29.2
10.7
19.7
192.3
17.3
209.6
t For the year 1967.
* Negligible.
Note: Nitrogen oxides expressed as nitrogen dioxide and sulfur oxides expressed as sulfur dioxide.
E. To facilitate access to, and the me of, air quality data through the
development and operation of a national air data bank
In the mid-1960's, NAPCA began setting up a national air data
bank and, for this purpose, developed the SAROAD (Storage and
Retrieval of Air Data) System. SAROAD is designed to store data
from NAPCA's and State and local air monitoring networks in a
standard format so that data from all these sources can be readily
compared.
Approximately 20 percent of all the air quality data from Federal,
State, and local monitoring stations currently is stored in the bank.
NAPCA is working toward having all current and past air quality
data incorporated into the bank. To help those State and local
agencies which do not already have a data handling system, NAPCA
is providing technical assistance in implementing the SAROAD
format.
Data from SAROAD are used: to appraise ambient air quality
thereby delineating the need for air quality criteria, to assist in the
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10
evaluation of air quality standards and implementation plans, to
assess control strategies and to aid in basic air pollution reserach. Once
the data have been validated and processed in the bank, they can be
made available in a number of statistical forms not only to NAPCA
components and other Federal agencies, but also to State, local, and
regional agencies, universities, research organizations, and private
industry.
/'. To develop and evaluate new and improved techniques and instrumen-
tation for sampling and analysis of pollutants in the ambient air
and in effluent streams from air pollution sources
NAPCA conducts and supports research to help needs for the
development and use of more accurate and less costly instrumentation
for measuring pollutants in the ambient air and in effluent streams
from air pollution sources. In addition NAPCA is engaged in efforts
to promote the standardization of analytical techniques, so that data
from one community can be readily compared with that from another.
During the past year, NAPCA made significant progress in this work
area. A discussion of some of the more important developments
follows.
Sulfur compounds.—A prototype instrument has been assembled
which has the capability of identifying and measuring malodorous
sulfur compounds in the parts-per-billion range; such compounds are
characteristic of kraft pulp mill emissions. The collateral ability of
this same instrument to measure low levels of hydrogen sulfide and
sulfur tlioxide with absolute specificity is significant, especially in
areas where these two pollutants coexist. Field testing of the device
will be undertaken in 1970 under a joint government-industry
arrangement.
Extremely sensitive devices, such as the one described above, are
a necessary tool in air pollution control. But reliable, less expensive
devices for the measurement of sulfur dioxide also are needed. One
such device, an electrochemical sensor, is being tested for stack
sampling use. Plans are underway to modify the device slightly so
that it would have the capability of measuring ambient sulfur oxides
pollution levels. If produced commercially, this device would be in a
price range which would make it attractive for general use.
Nitrogen oxides.—Existing methods for measuring the oxides of
nitrogen are among the least satisfactory in the air pollution control
field. During the past year, NAPCA identified two unique approaches
to measuring nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. These approaches will
be further explored in 1970; construction and testing of prototype
models are planned.
Ozone.—A prototype instrument designed to monitor ozone more
accurately currently is undergoing rigorous field testing. In addition,
laboratory work is progressing on more sophisticated ozone monitoring
devices which would be of particular benefit to large control agencies
and researchers investigating the effects of this air pollutant.
Hydrocarbons.—A prototype instrument is being constructed that
will have the capability of simultaneously measuring carbon mon-
oxide, total hydrocarbons, and methane. Such an instrument would
be extremely valuable to control agencies operating continuous air
monitoring stations.
Particulates.—Construction of a measuring device capable of provid-
ing informfttion on the ambient levels of particulates within a few
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11
minutes after the sample is taken is nearing completion. Currently,
there is no particulate measuring device capable of supplying real-
time data within such a short time. A device such as this one would
be of particular value during air pollution emergency conditions.
Standard methods of analysis.—There are more than 200 laboratories
throughout the country involved in analyzing air samples; they include
facilities operated by governmental agencies, universities, and private
firms. The methods employed in analyzing air samples generally vary
from one laboratory to another. Although the degree of accuracy
achieved by these laboratories is high, data generated by differing
methods of analysis cannot be readily compared. To help solve this
problem, NAPCA, with assistance from the Jntersociety Committee
on Manual of Methods of Ambient Sampling and Analysis, represent-
ing seven well known scientific organizations, is promoting the stand-
ardization of laboratory methods of analysis. Particular emphasis is
being placed on analytical methods applicable to those pollutants
which are or will be the subjects of air quality criteria.
It is expected that standard methods of analysis for sulfur oxides,
particulates and oxidants will be proposed by mid-1970. Over 90
percent of the Nation's laboratories performing routine analysis of
air samples have indicated their intent to test the proposed standard
methods.
G. To define the important atmospheric processes, including meteoro-
logical and chemical processes, that alter or are altered by air
pollutants.
Detailed knowledge of the ways in which pollutants alter and are
altered by atmospheric process is a vital element in any rational effort
to deal with the problem of air pollution. Over the past several years,
there has been a substantial growth of such knowledge; nevertheless,
much remains to be learned. NAPCA's activities in this area include a
continuing research for missing pieces of knowledge, as well as efforts
to make practical use of the knowledge already available.
METEOROLOGY
In NAPCA's meteorology program, which is conducted by personnel
on assignment from the Environmental Science Services Administra-
tion of the Department of Commerce, great emphasis is placed on the
development and evaluation of techniques for predicting the air
Eollutant concentrations likely to occur as a result of various meteoro-
)gical conditions and emission rates and patterns. The basic mechanism
for making such prediction is a diffusion model, which mathematically
simulates the diffusion and transport of pollutants in the air. Such a
model can be used, for example, to predict the impact of new sources
of air pollution in an area, or of reductions in emissions from the sources
already in existence. Thus, diffusion modeling is extremely useful in
the development of plans for implementation of air quality standards
in air quality control regions.
Though a single diffusion model may be applicable and useful in
more than one community, no single model is applicable to all sets
of circumstances. For example, different models are needed to pre-
dict short-term and long-term pollutant concentrations. For this
reason, NAPCA and other organizations engaged in meteorological
research and development are continually working with a variety of
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12
diffusion models. Over the past year NAPCA has made continued
progress in refining and validating such models and in fostering their
application by air pollution control agencies.
To help meet the need for means of predicting pollutant concentra-
tions over periods as long as seasons and years, NAPCA is developing
what is termed a "climatological model." Such a model would have a
variety of uses. It could, for example, permit comparison of the air
pollution potential of various communities. Of more practical im-
portance, it would permit forecasting of the extent to which future
growth of a community or the application of air pollution control
measures could be expected to alter long-term average pollutant
concentrations. An air pollution climatology atlas is being completed
which will describe, among other things, the frequency of meteorologi-
cal conditions conducive to the occurrence of episodes of high air
pollution levels in the 48 contiguous States.
In addition to work on diffusion models and their application,
NAPCA's meteorology program includes efforts to develop new and
improved tools for measuring meteorological factors. There is a par-
ticular need for improved means of measuring vertical differences in
wind and temperature patterns. NAPCA is developing a variety of
new techniques and is employing and testing approaches such as
instrumented helicopter soundings and lidar (laser-radar). Work now
in progress includes field testing of a device (a radiometric thermo-
sonde) for making remote measurements of vertical temperature
profiles and an acoustical echo-sounding instrument to provide vertical
profiles of wind speed and direction and atmospheric turbulence.
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
In addition to being subject to the influence of meteorological
factors, air pollutants also are affected by chemical and physical
processes that take place in the atmosphere. One of the most significant
of these processes is the photochemical reaction, in which hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides interact in the presence of sunlight and form
oxidants, otherwise known as photochemical smog.
The photochemical reaction is quite complex, involving interactions
among a rather large number of chemical compounds. Through labora-
tory and field studies, NAPCA scientists are engaged in a continuing
effort to gain an improved understanding of the photochemical
process, so that means of reducing photochemical smog can be devised
and evaluated. As an example, it is known that some hydrocarbons
arc more reactive than others; that is, they are more likely to get
involved in the photochemical process. This information is of great
value in determining, for example, whether, and to what extent, fuel
modification would contribute to reduction of photochemical smog
levels. An investigation currently in progress on another aspect of the
photochemical process has indicated that consideration must be given
to the ratio of hydrocarbons to nitrogen oxides in the air in formulating
schemes for the control of photochemical smog.
A study of the ultimate fate of nitric oxide in the atmosphere has
suggested that there may be other reasons for controlling nitrogen
oxides emissions, quite apart from their role in photochemical smog
formation. Recent work in NAPCA laboratories has shown that nitric
oxide in the air is rapidly transformed to nitric acid, at least some
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13
of which probably ends up in the form of nitrate aerosol (find par-
ticles) ; thus, nitrogen oxides can be converted to a form in which they
can be brought down to the earth's surface by rain or snow. The use
of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers also introduces nitrates into soil and
surface waters. There is some scientific evidence that this increasing
entry of nitrates into the environment could have long-term adverse
effects on ecological systems and human health. Though the occurrence
and significance of such effects remain to be documented, the knowl-
edge already available underscores the need for close attention to the
total impact of air pollutants on the environment.
NAPCA also is supporting research on the fate of carbon monoxide
in the atmosphere, Jt is apparent that some mechanism, probably
natural, is operating to remove this noxious gas from the biosphere;
otherwise, the enormous quantities discharged into the air, mainly
from motor vehicles, would have far-reaching effects on man. Never-
theless, almost no information on what actually happens to carbon
monoxide is now available. The research NAPCA is now supporting
is intended to fill this gap.
H. To provide grant support of research projects related to the National
Air Pollution Control Administration's program objectives
Through awarding of research grants, primarily for research work
at colleges anil universities, NAPCA supports efforts to expand the
frontiers of scientific knowledge relating to various aspects of air
pollution. Most research grant projects are in the Effects and Sur-
veillance category of NAPCA's program; i.e., they contribute mainly
to defining the nature, magnitude, and effects of air pollution.
In Fiscal 1969, there were 221 active research grant projects
supported by NAPCA through awards amounting to some $7.3
million. A breakdown of these projects by subject matter area follows:
1. Air pollution effects on human health 27
2. Agricultural effects of air pollution _ 28
3. Analysis and physicochemical studies 58
4. Development of analytical techniques 28
5. Meteorology 16
6. Identification and control of pollution sources 50
7. Other 14
More specifically, projects active in Fiscal 1069 included efforts
to characterize atmospheric processes affecting diffusion of air pollutants
and to gain improved knowledge of the chemical and physical processes
involved in the production and/or decay or removal of pollutants in the
atmosphere; epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory studies of the
relationship of air pollution to morbidity and mortality associated
with diseases such as emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and
lung cancer; studies of the effects of air pollution on plants at the
macroscopic, cellular, and molecular level and of effects on plastics,
metals, textiles, rubber, and other materials; basic studies on com-
bustion processes and their emissions; efforts to develop more precise
estimates of the economic impact of air pollution; studies of urban
planning and land use patterns in relation to air quality management;
and studies of organizational aspects of air pollution control programs.
42-348'—70-
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Chapter II. CONTROL AND COMPLIANCE
Tliis chapter covers NAPCA's research and development and
regulatory activities. These activities have two basic purposes: First,
to insure the application of available techniques, where necessary, to
prevent and control air pollution, and, second, to identify and help
meet needs for new or improved techniques. Under the Clean Air Act,
as amended, control of air pollution from stationary sources is primarily
a responsibility of State and local governments; the Federal Govern-
ment, specifically the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
has a corresponding responsibility with respect to mobile sources. In
addition, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare conducts
and supports research and development on control techniques for
stationary and mobile sources and provides financial and technical
assistance to help State and local agencies meet their responsibilities.
The private sector also is expected to assume a substantial share of
the responsibility for dealing with both of the broad classes of air
pollution sources.
A. To insure that air pollution problems are attacked on a regional basis
through the adoption and implementation of air quality standards
for quality control regions.
The Clean Air Act, as amended in November 1967, set up an inter-
governmental system for dealing with air pollution problems on a
regional basis. Over the past year, there has been marked progress in
putting the system into operation and thus taking important steps
toward attainment of wholesome air in some of the Nation's largest
metropolitan areas.
To provide a geographic basis for regional control of air pollution.
the Clean Air Act calls on the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare to designate air quality control regions and calls on State
governments to adopt and implement air quality standards for the
regions. States are expected to take such steps with respect to each
type of air pollutant for which the Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare issues an air quality criteria document and a report on
control techniques.
As of December 31, 1969, a total of 25 air quality control regions
had been officially designated, and consultations with State and local
officials, required prior to official designation, had been held with
respect to seven other areas. Evaluation of technical information
relating to designation of regions in 18 other areas was either under-
way or completed. At least 57 air quality control regions are scheduled
to be designated by the end of Fiscal 1970. Figure 5 shows the status
of activities in these 57 areas as of December 31, 1969.
(14)
-------
INITIAL S7
STUDY INITIATED
CONSULTATION HELD
S. STATUS OF AQCR DESlGKTATIOBr - DECEMBER 31, 1969
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16
In all likelihood, additional air quality control regions will be
designated either during Fiscal 1970 or afterward. Governors of all
States have been invited to request designation of regions in any areas
which were not included among the first 57. NAPCA is preparing and
will soon publish a Manual for the Development of Proposals for Air
Quality Control Regions to assist States in preparing such requests.
On February 11, 1969, air quality criteria documents and reports
on .control techniques for sulfur oxides and particulatc air pollutants
were issued. Thus, the signal was given for States to begin the air
quality standard-setting process in the six air quality control regions
that had been designated by that time. In regions designated after
February 11, the standard-setting timetable runs from the date of
designation. Figure 6 shows the schedule for standard-setting and
development of implementation plans for those regions already desig-
nated. Schedules for adoption of air quality standards for sulfur
oxides and participate matter for other air quality control regions
will depend, of course, on designation dates. From the date of designa-
tion, the State or States involved have 90 days to signify their intent
to set standards, 180 days to adopt the standards, and another 180
days to adopt a plan for implementation of the standards.
As shown in Figure 6 sulfur oxides and participate air quality
standards for all or parts of seven air quality control regions had been
received as of December 31. In those instances where such standards
were overdue, the States involved have officially indicated that certain
technical-legal problems would have to be resolved before the stand-
ards could be submitted. It is expected that these problems will be
resolved in the very near future.
-------
FIGURE 6.—STATUS OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS
Region
Boundaries
proposed
Letter or intent
Consultation Designation State
Due
Public hearings
Dated scheduled/held
Standards
Due Submitted
Washington, D.C July 31,1968 Aug. 22,1968 Oct 1,1968
Sept. 30,1968 Nov. 20,1968
New York City _ Aug. 30,1958
Chicago Sept.28,1968 Oct. 21,1968 Dee. 4,1968
Philadelphia Oct. 4,1968 Oct. 23,1968 Dec. 17,1968
Penv**r-f - .---Nov. 9,1968 Nov. 26,1969 Jan. 15,1969
LosAngeles Nov. 23,1968 Dec. 10,1968 Jan 291969
StLouis Dec. 21,1968 Jan. 14,1969 Apr 11,1969
Boston "Dec! "24," 1963"
Cincinnati jan. 10,1969
Jan. 17,1969
Jan. 27,1969
Apr. 12,1969
May 2,1969
San Francisco Jan. 10,1969 Jan. 31.1969 May 1,1969
Cleveland Feb. 12,1969 Feb. 26,19S9 May 23,1969
Pittsburgh do Feb. 27,1969 May 1,1969
Buffalo do Feb. 28,1959 . do
KansasCity Mar. 26,1969 Apr. 11,1969 July 19,1969
Detroit Oct. 16,1969 Nov. 3,1969 Dec. 17,1969
lirc----«--,V-- May 7'1969 May 23,1959 Aug. 16,1969
d-Springfield Apr. 16,1969 Apr. 29,1959 Oct 31969
Indianapolis May 23,1969 June 10,1969 Sept 18,1969
Minneapolis-Si Paul May 7,1969 May 21,1969 Aug. 16,1969
Milwaukee July 8,1969 July 21.1969 Sept.18.1969
Providence July 12,1969 July 29.1969 Dec. 6,1969
Seattle-Tacoma July 23,1969 Au& 5,1969 OcL 25,1969
Louisville Oct 7,1969 OcL 17,1969 Dec. 6,1969
Dayton Oct 2,1969 Oct 16,1969 Dec. 17,1969
Phoenix Oct 11,1969 Oct 21,1969
Virginia May 12,1969
Maryland do
District of Columbia. do_
New York do
New Jersey do
Connecticut ..do__
Illinois do
Indiana _ do
Pennsylvania do..
New Jersey do
Delaware do
Colorado do
California do
Missouri July 10,1969
Illinois do
Massachusetts.. July 11,1969
Ohio July 31,1969
Indiana do
Kentucky do,
California July 30,1969
Ohio ...- Aug. 21,1969
Pennsylvania . July 30,1969
New York . . do
Missouri Oct. 17,1969
Kansas >.do ,.
Michigan Mar. 17,1970
Maryland Nov. 14,1959
Connecticut Jan. 2,1970
Massachusetts _ do
Indiana Dec. 17,1969
Minnesota Nov. 14,1969
Wisconsin Dec. 17,1969
Rhode Island.. Mar. 6,1970
Massachusetts do
Washington ....Jan. 23,1970 Nov. 17,1969
Kentucky Mar. 6,1970 Dec. 15,1969
Indiana.. do Dec. 12,1969 _
Ohio M»r. 17,1970
Arizona
May 8,1969
. May 12,1969
do..
. Mar. 11,1969
. May 10,1969
Apr. 11,1969
. May 9,1969
do. _
Mar. 12,1969
May 10,1969
Mar. 21,1969
May 7,1969
do
May 6,1969
June 17,1969
May 20,1969
28,1969
14,1969
7,1969
9,1969
Aug. 21,1969
June 10,1969
May 13,1969
July 29,1969
Sept. 30,1969.
July
July
May
May
July 14,1969
Oct. 1, 1969
Oct. 24. 1969
May 13, 14, 15, 1969 .
Sept. 22, 1969
Aug. 12, 19,1969
Aug. 5, 1969.
July 21; Sept. 26,1969
Sept. 10,1969 .
Sept. 2,1969.
Sept. 26, 1969...
Oct. 15, 1969...
Sept. 17; Nov. 19. 1969.
Nov. 12, 1969
Aug. 12. 1969 .
Nov. 25, 1969
Dec. 17,1969
Oct. 28,1969..
Dec. 2.I969-.
Sept. 17; Nov. 19,1969_.
Jan. 20, 1970 ,
Sept. 9,1969
Aug. 19,20, 1969
Jan. 21, 1970....
Oct. 10,1969
Oct. 3.1969
Nov. 24,1969
Oct. 21.1969
Sept. 9,1969
Oct 17,1969
Mar. 12.1970..-.
Feb. 9, 16, 1970.
Jan. 27, 1970
Dec. 12, 1969.
-.-. Nov. 10,1969
do_
do
_.do
do
.-. do..
do
do
-.- do
do
do
do
....do
....Jan. 6,1970
do.. ..
Jan. 7,1970
.... Jan. 27,1970
do
do ,.
.... Jan. 26,1970
.... Feb. 17,1970
.... Jan. 26, 1970
de
... Apr. 15,1970
-do
.... Sept. 14,1970
... May 13,1970
... June 30,19/0
do... _..
... June 15,1970
... May 13,1970
... June 15,1970
... Sept 2,1970
do
...July 22,1970
._. Sept 2,1970
Ill'Sept. li.'lW
OcL 13,1969
Nov. 7,1969
Nov. 19,1969
Oct. 30,1959
Nov. 7,1969
Nov. 3,1969
Nov. 10,1969
Nov. 3,1969
Oct. 30,1969
Oct. 23,1969
Nov. 3,1969
Do.
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FIGURE 6.—STATUS OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS—Continued
Region
Houston
Dallas-Ft Worth
San Antonio.
Birmingham .. ..
Toledo
Stcubenville
Chattanooga
Boundaries
proposed
Oct 28,1969
Oct 29,1969
Oct 30,1969
Dec. 9,1969
do
Aug. 13,1969
Dec. 9.1969
Consultation
Nov. 10, 1969
Nov. 12,1969
Nov. 14, 1969
Dec. 17,1969 .
Dec. 19,1969
Aug. 27, 1969
Dec. 18,1969
Designation State
Texas
do
do. .
Alabama
Ohio .
Michigan
Dec. 6.1969 Ohio
West Virginia
Tennessee
Georgia
Letter of intent Standards
Due Dated scheduled/held Due Submitted
Mar. 6, 1970 Sept 2 1970
„ do_ do
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19
No later than 180 days after the due date of air quality standards,
States are expected to have developed and adopted plans for imple-
mentation of the standards. An implementation plan ordinarily
will include emission control regulations and a timetable for achieving
compliance with the regulations, provisions for surveillance of air
quality and emissions, and, among other things, plans for curtailing
pollutant emissions, when necessary, to prevent imminent and sub-
stantial endangerment of public health. Like the air quality standards,
the implementation plans must be submitted to the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare for review.
This entire process will be repeated each time that air quality
criteria documents are issued. The current schedule for issuance of
such documents is described in section IA of this report. Together
with the air quality criteria document for a pollutant or group of
pollutants, a report on control techniques applicable to sources of
that pollutant is issued. Then the standard-setting timetable, as
outlined above, will begin to run. Figure 7 depicts the entire process.
•ASEDON SCIENTIFIC
fVIDENCEOf AIR
POLLUTION EFFECTS.
HEW PREPARES
ANOrUILISHEf
REPORTS ON
AVAILAILt CONTROL
TECMNI
tTATESSET.
Ain QUALITY
STANDARDS
FOR THE AIM
OJALITY CONTROL
REGIONS.
ITATtS ACT TO CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION IN ACCORDANCE
WITH AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION.
FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ACTION TO CONfROt. AIR POLLUTION ON A REGIONAL
BASIS, UNDER THE AIR QUALITY ACT
To assist States in taking the steps expected of them, NAPCA
issued Guidelines for the Development of Air Quality Standards and
Implementation Plans in May 1969. The Guidelines document ex-
plained the intent of the Clean Air Act, with respect to regional
control efforts, and suggested how States could most effectively play
their role in carrying out the Act. To provide further assistance,
NAPCA has planned a series of workshops on the development of
implementation plans. The first such worksnop was held in December
1969.
-------
20
B. To furnish the public information on the nature and effects oj air
pollution and to encourage public involvement in air pollution
control efforts
The Clean Air Act, as amended, specifically requires that States
hold public hearings prior to adopting air quality standards for air
quality control regions. The purpose of such hearings is to insure that
citizens and organizations who will be affected by the air quality
standards have an opportunity to participate in the standard-setting
process. To help insure broad and well informed participation in such
hearings, NAPCA furnishes all interested parties its analyses of
proposed air quality standards in exactly the same way that such
analyses are given to State or local agencies. NAPCA also assists
groups such as the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease
Association and other health-oriented groups, the League of Women
Voters, labor unions, the Conservation Foundation, and other orga-
nizations involved in promoting informed participation in air pollution
control efforts. In addition, NAPCA has produced a variety of audio-
visual and printed materials aimed at encouraging public involvement
in decisions on air quality standards.
In hearings held thus far, there has been a high degree of construc-
tive citizen participation; indeed, the quantity and quality of citizen
involvement have been unprecedented in the history of the Nation's
air pollution control activities. In a number of instances, expressions
of public interest have resulted in reconsideration of proposed air
quality standards and adoption of improved standards.
In addition to those activities directed specifically at encouraging
informed participation in public hearings, NAPCA has continued its
national program of air pollution information and education activities.
This program involves publication and distribution of materials
prepared by NAPCA personnel and reprints of articles from other
sources, responses to inquiries, preparation and distribution of radio
and television public-service announcements, assistance to news
media, and speeches and other presentations before technical and
general audiences. The volume of public inquiries received by NAPCA
has doubled in the past year. During this same period, NAPCA
has assisted numerous writers and editors in preparing articles for
publication in magazines ranging from Life to the Mining Congress
Journal and has assisted in the preparation of motion picture docu-
mentaries by groups such as the National Tuberculosis and Respira-
tory Disease Association, and WKYC-TV in Cleveland.
C. To assist State, local, and regional agencies in preventing and con-
trolling air pollution by furnishing them financial and technical
support
Over the past six years, more than 200 State, local, and regional
agencies have received Federal grants to assist them in developing
or establishing new air pollution control programs or improving or
maintaining existing programs. Budgets of the 191 agencies receiving
Federal grant support at the beginning of Fiscal 1970 amounted to
slightly more than $51 million, of which $30 million were non-Federal
funds. The amount of non-Federal funds was almost $7 million above
the preceding year's total, reflecting the stimulatory effect of Federal
matching grants. The 191 agencies receiving support at the beginning
of Fiscal ia70 included 24 that had not previously received grants.
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21
In keeping with the provisions of the Clean Air Act, as amended,
increasing emphasis is being placed on support of air pollution control
agencies serving areas that already are or are likely to be included in
air quality control regions. Approximately half of the program grant
funds made available during the past year went to local and regional
agencies serving such areas; this does not indlude funds awarded to
State agencies, whose activities will, of course, have a direct relation-
ship to control of air pollution in air quality control regions.
Figure 8 shows the growth of State, local, and regional control
agency budgets since 1961; it should be noted that Federal grant funds
first became available in Fiscal 1965. There has been parallel growth
in staffing of air pollution control agencies, as indicated in section
IID of this report, and in State and local air monitoring activities,
as indicated in section ID. There has been a significant increase in
adoption of State air pollution control laws and regulations during
the past three years, as indicated in Figure 9; during 1969, at least
18 States either adopted new air pollution control laws or made signifi-
cant changes in existing laws. Though precise data on adoption of
local laws and regulations are not available, it is clear that such
activity also is accelerating. Another index of progress at the State
and local levels is the creation of neAv air pollution control programs.
Of the first 83 control agency development projects supported by
NAPCA, 85 percent resulted in adoption of legal authority for the
grantee agencies to prevent and control air pollution, thus enabling
the agencies to proceed with establishment of control programs.
Figure 8. Budgets of State, local, end Regional Air Pollution
•Control Agencies
I
o
•o
c
o
090*
fl70)*
war*
_ »«)*
NOW-
FED€RAL
u
FEDERAL
4.1
NOW-
FEDERAL
M
15.6
MOM.
FEDERAL
23.1
FEDERAL•
21.1
NOU-
FEDERAL
30.0
1961
W5
1968
YEAR
* Humber of agencies. Total for 1961 represents all agencies ia
existence at that time. Totals for subsequent years represent
•11 agencies receiving Federal grant support*
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22
FIG. 9.-STATE LAWS AND REGULATIONS
[Number of States enacting laws and regulations in specified years)
1951-62 1963-64 1965-66 1967-68 Total
Initial law enacted.
First regulation adopted
Type of regulation:
Administrative
Fuel burning
Open burning
Ambient standards..
Visible emissions
Incinerator
Industrial process
Vehicle
Sulfur oxides
11
9
9
2
4
2
5
1
1
3 9
4
4
3
3
1 1
3
1 2
1 4
1
23
17
13
11
n
11
14
13
9
5
5
46
30
26
IS
19
15
22
17
14
6
6
Total 24 3 21 93 141
While there has been great growth in air pollution control programs,
there are still large gaps to be filled. Of the 55 State and territorial
programs being supported under the grants program, only six (Dela-
ware, Maryland, hew Jersey, Washington, District of Columbia, and
the Virgin Islands) have reached an annual per capita expenditure
of 25 cents. Only 23, including the six above, are spending as much
as 10 cents per capita. These figures include Federal and State funds.
The situation with respect to local and regional programs is somewhat
better. Sixty-four of the 144 grantee agencies, or 44 percent, are spend-
ing 40 cents or more per capita. The median per capita expenditure
for local and regional agencies is 35.7 cents. Forty-one are spending
more than 50 cents, while 13 are spending more than 75 cents per
capita for their air pollution control programs.
In addition to providing financial support, NAPCA can and does
provide technical assistance to air pollution control agencies. Over
the past year, NAPCA assisted 60 State, regional, and local agencies
by providing detailed reviews of, and comments on, the technical and
legal aspects of proposed air pollution control laws and emission con-
trol regulations. Testimony was given by NAPCA staff members at
public hearings on 12 agencies' proposed air pollution control codes
and emission regulations. NAPCA also can and does make detailed
evaluations of existing control programs and provide assistance in
evaluating specific air pollution problems and working out ways of
dealing with them.
In 1969, NAPCA began decentralizing its program assistance
activities, so that personnel assisting State, local, and regional agen-
cies will be more accessible to the agencies and more familiar with
the problems the agencies have. Many of the NAPCA staff members
engaged in program assistance activities already are stationed in the
various regional offices of the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. This Decentralization process will continue and be completed
in 1970.
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23
D. To assist State, local, and regional agencies in recruiting and training
personnel for work in air pollution control programs
As of mid-1969, State and local air pollution control agencies had
a total of approximately 2,840 full-time positions on their staff rosters.
This total represents an almost three-fold increase over the preceding
seven years. Figure 10 depicts this growth trend—a trend which will
have to continue if State and local governments are to be able to cope
with air pollution in all the places where it threatens public health and
welfare.
Figure .10. Growth in Budgeted Position for State and Local Agencies,
3.000
§ J.CC9
H
91
o
s
1.CW
STATE MANPOWER
LOCAL MANPOWER
COMBINED STATE AND LOCAL U»Nf OWEH
-:
'.'
45 M
FIJC»LYEAR
NAPCA seeks to enlarge the pool of professional personnel qualified
for positions in air pollution control agencies by supporting graduate
level programs at academic institutions. Programs at 30 institutions
currently are receiving NAPCA support; while most of them are in
engineering, there also are programs in the biological and medical
sciences. In addition, students who are candidates for graduate degrees
in air pollution-related fields can be supported through NAPCA's
fellowship program.
NAPCA also is supporting specialist training programs at six insti-
tutions. These include both graduate and undergraduate programs.
They range from training for administrators of air pollution control
programs to training of technicians; increasing emphasis is being
placed on technician training.
Figure 11 shows the number of individuals who have received train-
ing during the past seven years through NAPCA's support of academic
programs and fellowships.
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24
FIGURE 11.-STUDENTS SUPPORTED BY NAPCA TRAINING GRANTS AND FELLOWSHIPS
Fiscal year
1963... .
1964...
1965
1966
1967...
1968
1969...
Total
Graduate
training
programs
21
84
112
113
168
.... 204
234
936
Specialist
training
programs
52
82
108
136
378
Fellowships
9
19
28
54
59
65
77
311
To help meet the training needs of personnel already employed by
Federal, State, and local agencies, NAPCA conducts short courses in
various administrative and technical aspects of air pollution control.
Courses are conducted both at NAPCA's Technical Center in the
Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and at other places around
the country. The courses are designed and presented by NAPCA
staff members in collaboration with State and local air pollution
control officials, college and university faculty members, aim experts
from the private sector. Of the more than 8,000 registrants in such
courses during the past seven years, about 80 percent have been from
governmental agencies. The number of courses offered and annual
enrollment in them have been rising. Nearly 30 courses currently are
offered; they cover air pollution control engineering, air monitoring
enforcement, emission measurement, legal and administrative aspects
of air pollution control, and other areas. Enrollment reached about
2,100 during Fiscal 1969.
E. To take Federal action, where appropriate, for the purpose of abating
interstate and in tractate air pollution, problems
The Clean Air Act, as amended, authorizes the Secretary of Health,
Education, and Welfare to take action to abate interstate air pollution
problems either on his o\vn initiative or on official request from a State.
Abatement action also may be undertaken to deal with intrastate
problems, but only on request.
Abatement activities during the past year have included two inter-
state air pollution abatement conferences. Court action to resolve one
case, and follow-up on recommendations made in several other cases.
The first interstate abatement proceeding initiated under the Clean
Air Act concerned odors from a rendering plant in Bishop, Maryland.
This proceeding was initiated at the request of the State of Delaware.
Because the problem could not be resolved by other means, the Depart-
ment of Justice was asked to bring suit against the Bishop Processing
Company, operator of the rendering plant. To settle the suit, the com-
pany signed a consent decree providing for shutdown of the plant if
odors were again detected in Delaware. In March 1969, the court was
asked to order closing of the plant. The court held that additional evi-
dence of the occurrence of odors would have to be submitted. Finally,
after such evidence had been submitted, the court issued an injunction
due to take effect February 16, 1970. This decision is being contested
by the company.
On request from the State of West Virginia, an abatement conference
was held in July 1969 to consider ways of dealing with air pollution
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25
arising from the Ohio Edison Company's electric generating plant in
Knox IWnship, Ohio, and affecting the area of New Cumberland,
West Virginia, fho conference recommendations call for abatement of
the problem no Inter than December 31, 1970. In addition, the State
officials who participated in the conference recommended that designa-
tion of an air quality control region in the area be expedited. In
response to this recommendation, the Stoubenville-Weirton-Wheeling
air quality control region was designated on December 6, 1969.
An abatement conference dealing with interstate air pollution in
the area of Parkersburg, West Virginia-Marietta, Ohio, was reconvened
in October 1969. The conference was first convened in March 1967
and was reconvened to permit the participants to present new data
relating to air pollution in the area. It is anticipated that abatement
recommendations will be •made early in 1970.
NAPCA is monitoring the progress being made toward compliance
with recommendations made for dealing with the other air pollution
problems that have been the subject of abatement conferences. The
areas involved are the National Capital area, New York-northern
New Jersey, Kansas City (Missouri and Kansas), Shoreham-Ticon-
deroga (Vermont-New York), Ix>wiston-Clarkston (Idaho-Washing-
ton), Garrison, Montana (intrustate), and Ironton-Ashland-Hunt-
ington (Ohio-Kentucky-West Virginia). In all areas, some progress
has been made. In the National Capital, New York-northern New
Jersey, and Kansas City areas, air quality control regions have been
designated.
F. To assist Federal departments and ayencies in preventing and
controlling air pollution arising jrom their activities and to
monitor the progress of their ejjoris
Each of the departments and agencies of the Executive Branch of
the Federal Government is responsible for preventing and controlling
air pollution arising from its facilities. In accordance with Executive
Order 11282 and Bureau of the Budget Circular A-78, each one has
prepared a five-year plan for carrying out this responsibility. Five-
year plans for this activity were first submitted to the Bureau of the
Budget in July 1967 and have been revised, as necessary, each
subsequent year, NAPCA provides technical assistance to the Bureau
of the Budget and to the various departments and agencies.
Over the past year, there has been continued progress in reducing
air pollution from Federal facilities, particularly in the National
Capital area. Progress reports submitted by the various departments
and agencies in July 1969 indicated that 528 remedial actions had been
taken at 425 installations during the preceding 12 months. An analysis
of data furnished by the departments and agencies indicated that
abatement projects underway or completed involve an expenditure of
approximately $36 million. A much more detailed report on this
activity is furnished the Congress annually under section lll(b) of
the Clean Air Act, as amended.
G. To define needs for new or improved control techniques for stationary
sources of air pollution and to participate in developing and demon-
strating such techniques.
Stationary sources of air pollution include electric generating plants,
space heating systems, industrial operations, incinerators, and so on.
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26
Techniques are available for dealing with many of the air pollution
problems arising from such sources, but for some of the most significant
of these problems, adequate technology is lacking, NAPCA's research
and development activities are intended to pinpoint the gaps in
technology and to help the Nation fill them. But NAPCA cannot and
does not expect to accomplish this solely through its own efforts.
Substantial emphasis is placed on encouraging the private sector to
expand its own research and development activities and to participate
in NAPCA's program, particularly by sharing the cost of demonstrat-
ing promising new air pollution control techniques. In addition, the
fullest possible use is being made of the expertise of several other
Federal agencies, including the Bureau of Mines of the Department of
the Interior, the Environmental Science Services Administration of
the Department of Commerce, the Atomic Energy Commission, the
Federal Power Commission, and others.
SULFUK OXIDES
A major share of NAPCA's effort has been devoted to promoting the
development and demonstration of techniques for preventing and
controlling sulfur oxides pollution. NAPCA's most recent projections
of future sulfur oxides emissions, based on the most comprehensive
appraisal made thus far, indicate that this problem is growing faster
than was indicated by previous estimates. There is a widening gap
between the rising trend of sulfur oxides emissions and the Nation's
technological capability for bringing the problem under control, partly
because the total national investment in research and development on
this problem has not been sufficient to support all the potentially
fruitful work that could have been undertaken in the past few years.
Of particular importance is the need for practical techniques appli-
cable to electric generating plants, which accounted for about 18
million of the 31.2 million tons of sulfur oxides emitted in 1967.
Electric generating plants are expected to emit about 43 million tons
of sulfur oxides by 1980 if no control measures are taken. Even with
rapid application of the control techniques now under development
in NAPCA and industry programs, it is unlikely that sulfur dioxide
emissions in 1980 will be reduced even to the 1968 level. The rapid
growth of the electric utility industry (from 300,000 megawatts in 1969
to an anticipated 600,000 megawatts by 1980) and slower-than-pre-
dicted growth of nuclear electric generating capacity are compounding
the problem. Processes must be developed that can be applied not
only to electric plants already in existence but also to the many large
(more than 500 megawatts) new plants now being planned or built.
There are two general approaches to the control of sulfur oxides
pollution arising from fviel combustion—removal of sulfur oxides from
stack gas before the effluent escapes into the air and use of low-
sulfur fuels. Stack gas cleaning processes may involve recovery of a
by-product, such as elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid, or of material
that can only be discarded. Fuels may be naturally low in sulfur or
treated to remove a portion of their sulfur content.
STACK GAS DESULFURIZATION
Processes involving the use of limestone to react with sulfur oxides
are the most likely to be ready for application to electric generating
-------
27
plants in the near future. There are two types of limestone processes-
dry and wet. In the dry limestone process, injection of limestone into
the boiler results in the formation of sulfurous particles that can be
removed from the stack gas by electrostatic precipitators or other
particulate control equipment. This process is expected to remove
about 50 to 60 percent of the sulfur oxides. In the wet limestone process,
limestone is injected either into the boiler or into stack gas scrubbers,
and the scrubbers remove the sulfurous material. This process is
expected to remove about 90 percent of the sulfur oxidos; in addition,
it would remove virtually all the particulate matter, thereby making
the use of precipitators unnecessary. The limestone processes would be
applicable to existing, as well as new, electric generating plants.
NAPCA has been conducting and supporting research and develop-
ment work on limestone processes for the past five years. Equipment
to demonstrate and evaluate the dry limestone process has been in-
stalled at a Tennessee Valley Authority plant in Kentucky and testing
has begun. Experience thus far suggests that this process will prove
commercially feasible and involve only moderate cost. The testing
program will not be completed until mid-1971. At that time, NAPCA
intends to begin tests of the wet limestone process at the same plant.
Both of the limestone processes yield a non-usable waste product: for
this reason, they are referred to as throw-away processes.
A wide variety of stack gas desulfurization processes that would
permit recovery of a sulfur-containing by-product is being developed,
either under NAPCA's auspices or in the private sector. These proc-
esses generally are expected to be more efficient than the throw-away
processes, insofar as sulfur oxides control is concerned, and less costly.
NAPCA's most advanced work in this area involves development of
the molten carbonate process, in which treatment of stack gases
results in recovery of elemental sulfur. Data from work done thus
far on this process are being evaluated to provide a basis for a decision
on whether to proceed to pilot-scale testing. NAPCA also is actively
exploring the possibility of participating, together with private firms,
in demonstrations of privately developed stack gas desulfurization
processes that have reached or are approaching advanced stages of
development.
FUEL DESULFUUIZATION
Removal of sulfur from fuels before they arc burned can make only
a limited contribution to solving the Nation's sulfur oxides pollution
problem. Techniques have been developed for removing sulfur from
residual fuel oil, a low-grade fuel used by electric utilities. Very little
residual fuel oil is produced in the United States; most of what is
used in this country is imported. A number of companies are building
fuel oil desulfurization plants to process imported fuel and thus supply
low-sulfur oil to electric utilities, but the high cost of transporting
residual fuel oil by land limits its economical use to areas accessible
by water. Electric utilities currently use only about one-tenth as
much fuel oil as coal.
Much of the Nation's coal has a relatively high sulfur content.
Through coal-cleaning techniques, some of the sulfur can be removed
from coal, but generally not enough can be removed to produce
coal which, from the standpoint of abatement of sulfur oxides pollu-
tion, would be of sufficiently low sulfur content. Nevertheless, coal-
-------
28
cleaning techniques can remove enough sulfur to enhance the use-
fulness of the dry limestone process discussed above, and for this
reason, NAPCA is supporting research in this area.
Over the past three years, NAPCA has been supporting surveys
conducted by the Bureau of Mines, the Illinois Geological Survey and
private firms to obtain detailed information on the forms of sulfur in
coal and the degree of sulfur removal that can be achieved through
conventional coal-cleaning techniques. Thus far, tests have been made
of coals from 250 mines that supply coal to electric utilities. The
testing has indicated that coal from 17 percent of the mines can be
easily cleaned to a level of one percent sulfur and that coal from an
additional 35 percent of the mines can be easily cleaned to a level of
1.5 percent sulfur. Thus, these tests have indicated that the best
available coal cleaning techniques have the potential of cleaning more
than 50 percent of the coal samples tested to a level of 1.5 percent or
less sulfur.
NAPCA also is supporting work that could lead to construction of
a prototype coal-cleaning plant. The plant would be sufficiently
flexible to permit testing of various coal-cleaning techniques and
evaluation of their effect on coal from various sources. A contract has
been awarded for the development of a design of such a plant; the
design is due to be completed by mid-1970.
NEW COMBUSTION PROCESSES
NAPCA's interest in new combustion processes stems from the
possibility that some of them may provide improved opportunities for
control of sulfur oxides pollution. One such process is fluidized-bed
combustion, which involves burning coal or oil in a dense fluidized-
bed of inert material. Combustion takes place within a temperature
range that is quite suitable for reacting limestone with sulfur dioxide,
thus enhancing the usefulness of limestone processes for sulfur oxides
control. Fluidized-bed combustion also offers a variety of other
benefits, including higher heat transfer rates, lower capital costs, and,
possibly, lower nitrogen oxides emissions.
NAPCA's research and development program relating to fluidized
bed combustion includes laboratory and pilot-scale studies being
conducted by the Argonne National Laboratory, the Bureau of Mines,
and private contractors. In addition, NAPCA has entered into a
US/Great Britain State Agreement to exchange technical information
on fluidized-bed combustion. If fluidized-bed combustion is proved
technically feasible and its potential for control of sulfur oxides
pollution can be verified, NAPCA efforts in this area are likely to be
intensified.
NITROGEN OXIDES CONTROL
Nitrogen oxides emissions from stationary sources, mainly electric
generating and space heating plants, amounted to 7.9 million tons in
1966. Formation of nitrogen oxides is highly dependent on flame tem-
perature and oxygen concentration. Efforts to deal with the problem
are centered on developing combustion processes which minimize the
formation of nitrogen oxides and techniques for removal of the pol-
lutant after it has been formed. Combustion process modifications
may prove relatively easy to achieve, but they may also reduce
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29
combustion efficiency. Removal of nitrogen oxides poses a much more
difficult problem. Some basic approaches for removal of nitrogen
oxides from stack gas have been identified, but none has been developed
sufficiently to apply to a pilot-scale or commercial-scale operation.
These approaches include catalytic decompostion, catalytic reduction,
absorption on solids, and caustic scrubbing.
NAPCA currently is supporting a comprehensive study of the nitro-
gen oxides problem. The immediate objectives of this study are to
define the nature and extent of nitrogen oxides emissions from station-
ary sources in the United States, assess current technology for control
of nitrogen oxides, with emphasis on combustion process modifica-
tions, and pave the way for preparation of a research and development
plan. This study is due to be completed early in 1970.
INDUSTRY STUDIES
NAPCA has initiated a series of studies on air pollution problems in
various industries. These studies are designed to identify gaps in cur-
rent technology for controlling air pollution and thus indicate needs
for research and development. A secondary, but very important, ob-
jective is to encourage the industries involved to join NAPCA in
undertaking and supporting the needed research and development.
Studies were begun in Fiscal 1968 in the primary non-ferrous (cop-
per, lead, and zinc) smelting industry and the integrated iron and steel
industry. They were completed in mid-1969, except for a modification
of the iron-and-steel-industry study to include an in-depth study of
the coking industry. NAPCA is currently reviewing the results of
these studies.
In Fiscal 1969, studies were initiated in five industries, three by
contract (the pulp and paper, iron foundry, and sulfuric acid manu-
facturing) , one by cost sharing with an industrial trade association (the
graphic arts industry), and one by NAPCA internally (the secondary
metals industry).
A study in the primary aluminum industry will be initiated in Fiscal
1970, and studies of the phosphate fertilizer, cement, and petroleum
industries are planned for initiation in Fiscal 1971.
COMBUSTION STUDIES
NAPCA has undertaken a study of intermediate-size combustion
units, including boilers, space heaters, and other units used in indus-
trial and commercial operations, which usually emit their effluents
near ground level in or near densely populated areas. Their study will
define the air pollution potential of such intermediate-size sources,
the applicability of existing control methods, and needs for new
technology. Also included in the study will be cost-effectiveness
evaluations of existing control methods, such as fuel substitution,
combustion zone modifications, and limestone injection. A research
and development program then will be formulated for providing
needed new technology to improve or replace methods that are not
economical or effective.
NAPCA's work on control of air pollution from small and inter-
mediate-size combustion units also include evaluation of possible
emissions control by chemical additions to, and changes in the com-
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30
position of, distillate and residual fuel oils and by modification of
burner designs and combustion processes. At the completion of the
present phase of the study, more than 200 patented additives and
100 known compounds will have been tested for their effect on air
pollution emissions. Tests so far indicate that additives produce both
positive and negative effects on emissions of hydrocarbons. In recog-
nition of the fact that the additives, themselves, represent a possible
source of pollutants, the participate combustion products are being
analyzed for metals such as lead, barium and manganese.
Results of tests on residential oil-fired furnaces have indicated
that emissions can be reduced by adjustment to the optimum air-fuel
ratio and that design criteria used by oil furnace manufacturers in
production of combustion chambers should be revised to provide
sufficient combustion residence time in the furnace to complete
oxidation of the fuel. Tests on a number of inexpensive, commercially
manufactured combustion-improving devices for oil-fired furnaces
have identified one flame-retention device that produces extremely
low air pollutant emissions and high furnace operating efficiency.
INCINERATION
Residential, commercial, and industrial waste generation, which
now exceeds 350 million tons per year, is increasing at an annual rate
of four percent. An increasing portion, already more than half, of this
total is collected by local agencies for disposal. As these trends con-
tinue upward, and as available landfill areas decrease, local authorities
are faced with critical waste disposal problems. To the limited extent
that municipal incinerators now exist, inadequate basic design and
lack of pollutant emission controls often result in serious air pollution
problems.
To define present and future municipal incineration air pollution
problems, causes, and feasible solutions, two broad studies are now
in their final stages. One study is assessing the extent of present and
future air pollution emissions from municipal incineration and all
technically and economically feasible means of emission reduction.
The other study is assessing present and future refuse quantities,
compositions, and combustion factors and the potential of combining
boiler and nower generation technology with incineration to utilize
refuse as a low-sulfur fuel for central power stations.
NAPCA is continuing work on incinerator emission sampling tech-
niques, evaluation of low-cost pit incinerators, and evaluation of
potential emissions resulting from the rapidly increasing plastic content
of municipal refuse. All of NAPCA's work relating to incineration is
coordinated with that of the Bureau of Solid Waste Management of
the Environmental Control Administration.
//. To establish and, as necessary, to revise national standards jor the
control of air pollution from new motor vehicles and to insure com-
pliance with existing standards
Automobiles, primarily passenger cars, are by far the Nation's
largest source of carbon monoxide, and they are a major source of
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, the two types of air pollutants
most involved in the formation of photochemical smog. To deal with
the motor vehicle pollution problem, the Department of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare is authorized to establish and enforce national
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31
standards applicable to new motor vehicles at the time of their original
sale.
National standards applicable to carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
emissions from new passenger cars and light trucks first went into
effect in the 1968 model year. Tighter restrictions went into effect
at the beginning of the 1970 model yenr. Figure 12 compares the
revised standards with those that had been in effect in the 1968-69
model years. As shown in Figure 12, an additional reduction ol hydro-
carbon emissions will be required in the 1971 model year as a result
of the application of standards providing for limitations on hydro-
carbon evaporation from automobile fuel tanks and carburetors.
FIGURE 12.-LIGHT DUTY VEHICLE (LDV)i EMISSIONS
Eihaust:
Hydrocarbons .
Carbon monoxide..,
Crankcasa Hydrocarbons.
Evaporat on Hydrocar-
bons .
Total:
Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide...
1963
model
Grams per
vehicle
mile
12.2
79.0
3.7
2.8
18.7
79.0
1968 national standards
Grams per
vehtcl*
mile
3.4
35.1
0
•2.8
6.2
35.1
Percent
reduction «
71.8
55.6
100.0
0
66.9
55.6
1970 national standards
Grams per
vehicle
mile
2.2
23.0
0
>2.8
5.0
23.0
Percent
reduction <
«1.9
70.9
100.0
0
73.5
70.9
1971 national standards
Grams per
vehicle
mile
2.2
23.0
0
.5
2.7
23.0
Percent
reduction '
81.5
70.9
u».s
82.3
85. «
70.9
> Vehicles with a gross weight ot 6,000 pounds or less.
> Tested according to Federal LDV lest procedures.
» At 2,600 mill*.
4 Percent reduction below 1963 emissions.
* No standard in eft eel; number represents uncontrolled envisions.
On January 1, 1970, national standards applicable to heavy-duty
motor vehicles will go into effect for the first time. Figure 13 shows the
standards that will be applicable to new, gasoline-fueled, heavy-duty
vehicles. New diesel-powered, heavy-duty vehicles also ^yill be affected.
They will have to be equipped to comply with limitations on smoke
emissions.
FIGURE 13.— HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLE (HDV)> POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Exhaust:
Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide
CiMkcastblowby: Hydrocarbons
1963 model*
grams per
vehicle mile
6, 5
79.2
3.2
1970 national standards
grams per
vehicle mile
5.4
50.0
0
Percent
reduction
119
36.9
100.0
i Vehicle with a gross vehicle weight greater lh*n 6.0CO pounds.
> Tested accord ng to Federal HDV test procedures.
Though the standards already established will reverse the upward
trend in total emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from
motor vehicles, this effect will be relatively short-lived. The number of
motor vehicles in use in the Nation is increasing; so is the use made of
each one. In another decade, these trends will more than offset the
effect of the national standards established thus far. Then, total
emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons will again begin to
rise.
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32
To prevent this from happening, further tightening of the standards
will be necessary; in addition, standards will have to be set for motor
vehicle pollutants not already covered, such as nitrogen oxides and
particulate matter. Accordingly, NAPCA is in the process of establish-
ing long-term emission reduction goals, as well as intermediate goals to
be reached by the mid-1970's.
In regard to compliance with the motor vehicle emission standards,
two significant problem areas have been identified on the basis of
experience to date:
First, the current program for determining whether new motor
vehicles will comply with applicable standards rests mainly on testing
of phototype vehicles in advance of actual production. Typically, the
prototypes meet the standards, often by a substantial margin. On the
basis of prototype testing, manufacturers are entitled to receive certifi-
cates which are valid for at least one year and which carry with them a
presumption that production vehicles which are of substantially the
same construction as prototypes will perform like the prototypes,
insofar as air pollution control is concerned. There is evidence, however,
that this is not entirely true, but rather, that air pollution control
systems installed in mass-produced vehicles often lose some of their
effectiveness more rapidly than prototype systems do. Evidence of
such deterioration has come from testing of more than 4,000 cars by
the California Air Resources Board and limited testing conducted by
NAPCA in the Los Angeles and Detroit areas. NAPCA has initiated
additional testing in other urban areas. In the meantime, consideration
is being given to various ways of obtaining greater assurance that the
air pollution control capabilities demonstrated by prototype systems
will be matched by assemblyline products.
The second significant problem involves importation of motor
vehicles not equipped to meet applicable national standards for air
pollution control. The national standards established under the Clean
Air Act can be and are applied to imported, as well as American-made,
vehicles. For the most part, imported cars are equipped to comply
with the standards. Under the law, however, cars are not subject to
the standards if they are not being imported for sale or resale or if
they are not new, i.e., title to them was transferred to the ultimate
purchaser before their entry into the country. These exemptions permit
returning tourists and military personnel to import non-conforming
cars legally. In addition, an unknown, but undoubtedly significant,
number of cars is brought in illegally. Though it is difficult to identify
such violations, some were identified during the past year and prose-
cution was initiated. A massive enforcement program would be
necessary, however, to stop all illegal entries; even then, non-con-
forming cars still could be imported legally under existing law. An
amendment to the Clean Air Act will be necessary to deal with this
problem.
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
The Clean Air Act prohibits State governments from adopting or
enforcing air pollution control standards applicable to new motor
vehicles, but it permits the Secretary of Health, Education, and
Welfare to waive this prohibition under certain circumstances. A
State may obtain such a waiver if it had adopted motor vehicle
emission standards (other than crankcase standards) prior to March
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30, 1966, and if compelling and extraordinary conditions in the State
require standards more stringent than the national standards. Cali-
fornia is the only State which meets both criteria.
In September 1968, California requested a waiver to permit enforce-
ment of a series of increasingly stringent emission standards in the
1970-74 and later model years. A waiver applicable to 1968-69 model
year standards had been granted previously. Public hearings on the
request were held March 4-6, 1969. Testimony was presented by
State officials, representatives of automobile manufacturers, and other
interested parties. Following examination of the hearing record, the
Secretary granted a waiver applicable to the omission standards shown
in Figure 14.
FIGURE 14.—Ca1ifornia vehicle emission standards
I. Gasoline-powered motor vehicles under 6,001 pounds manufacturer's maxi-
mum gross vehicle weight having an engine displacement of 50 cubic inches or
greater:
Exhaust emissions:
1. 1971 model year 2.2 grams per mile hydrocarbons.
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide.
4 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen.
2. 1972 and 1973 model years. 1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbons.
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide.
3 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen,
3. 1974 and later model years, 1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbons.
23 grams per mile carbon monoxide.
1.3 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen.
II. Gasoline-powered truck-tractor or bus over C,001 pounds, manufacturer's
gross vehicle weight:
Exhaust emissions:
1972 and later model years 180 p.p.m. of hydrocarbons.
1 percent carbon monoxide.
/. To insure the development and demonstration oj new or improved
techniques for reducing motor vehicle pollution, including the
development and demonstration of low-pollution engines
NAPCA conducts and supports research and development relating
to the prevention and control of air pollution from motor vehicles.
This activity includes research on fuels, investigation of emission
control techniques applicable to the internal combustion engine, and
developmental studies of other types of engines suitable for use in
motor vein les. NAPCAJs work in tnese areas is intended to stimulate
and supplement research and development by organizations in the
private sector. In addition, it provides knowledge needed to comply
with the statutory requirement that "technological feasibility and
economic costs" be taken into account in the establishment of
national standards for motor vehicle pollution control.
In collaboration with the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA), NAPCA is investigating high temperature resistant
materials and coating for application in the development of an
exhaust manifold reactor that would permit high-temperature
oxidation of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Various metallic
and ceramic materials are to be tested for their ability to withstand
the high temperatures necessary for such oxidation; testing is scheduled
to begin in mid-1970.
Two projects are underway to test the feasibility of exhaust gas
recirculation systems for controlling nitrogen oxides emissions. In
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one of the projects, the performance of the system is being tested
under normal driving conditions. In the other, its durability is being
evaluated at NAPCA's laboratory facilities.
The feasibility of three techniques for controlling particulate emis-
sions, including lead, from motor vehicles is being investigated. One
of the techniques is sonic agglomeration; a small sound generator
induces particles in the exhaust gas stream to form clumps which can
be trapped and thus prevented from escaping into the air. The second
is thermal precipitation, by which hot particles are attracted to a cool
surface. The third is molten carbonate scrubbing; a chemical reaction
removes particles from the exhaust gas stream. The scrubbing tech-
niques may also reduce nitrogen oxides emissions. If the studies now
in progress suggest that such techniques are practical, development
and demonstration of the necessary hardware would follow.
NAPCA is continuing to participate in motor vehicle pollution-
related research projects sponsored by the Coordinating Research
Council. NAPCA participates in those projects which are deemed
relevant to its program objectives; currently, it is participating in
about 20 projects. Among them are studies of adverse effects of carbon
monoxide, fate of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, relationship
of fuel composition and volatility exhaust emissions, diesel odors,
urban driving patterns, and surveillance, inspection, and maintenance
procedures for minimizing motor vehicle emissions. NAPCA is inde-
pendently conducting and supporting additional studies in some of
these areas.
In the area of fuels research, NAPCA is supporting research by the
Bureau of Mines on fuel volatility in relation to hydrocarbon evapora-
tion. The objective is to identify gasoline mixtures that would have
low-evaporation characteristics but still be acceptable from the stand-
point of price and performance. The advantage of this approach—or
any other fuel change—is that it would reduce hydrocarbon emissions
from all motor vehicles, regardless of whether they were subject to
pollution control standards.
The feasibility of using liquid natural gas (LNG) as a motor vehicle
fuel also is being investigated. Through the cooperation of the General
Services Administration, 12 cars have been equipped to use LNG.
Emissions are being measured every 4,000 miles. This project will
be completed in 1970. Though LNG probably is not suitable for
routine use in family cars, it may well be practical for use in fleet
operations. In many urban areas, motor vehicle fleets account for as
much as 10 percent of the total motor vehicle population.
In the area of diesel emissions, NAPCA is conducting tests of a
privately developed catalytic reactor designed to reduce diesel odors.
Also being investigated is the reactor's effect on gaseous emissions
from diesel engines.
In addition to work on air pollution control techniques applicable
to the internal combustion engine, NAPCA has begun moving toward
the development and demonstration of unconventional, low-pollution
engines. Two projects relating to the design and development of a
Rankine-cycle engine for use in passenger cars were initiated during
the past year. One of the projects is intended to produce a conceptual
design of a Rankine-cycle engine comparable to the internal com-
bustion engine insofar as performance, weight, and price are concerned.
The other project is a study of the combustion characteristics of the
heat-generating portion of a Rankine-cycle engine. Rankine-cycle
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35
engines can be designed to operate on water vapor (steam) or vapor
arising from other fluids. The steam car is, of course, the best known
example of an automobile powered by a Rankine-cycle engine.
No matter what engines and fuels are in use, the impact of motor
vehicle pollution can be reduced through proper highway design and
traffic handling. In collaboration with the Bureau of the Public Roads
of the Department of Transportation and the City of New York,
NAPCA is engaged in an effort to identify highway configurations that
will offer the greatest possibility of minimizing exposure to air pollution
from motor vehicles.
Finally, in keeping with its role as the lead agency in the Federal
government's air pollution reseafch and development efforts, NAPCA
has been working on the development of a five-year plan for Federal
efforts relating to motor vehicle pollution control. This plan will en-
compass all Federal activities in this problem area and will serve to
place the total Federal effort in perspective with non-governmental
activities. Private sector efforts are particularly important. If the pri-
vate sector engages in productive research and development in the
area of motor vehicle pollution control, the Federal effort can be re-
duced to some extent. The five-year plan being developed by NAPCA
will include work on both the internal combustion engine and alterna-
tive systems, hardware and fuels, instrumentation, and environmental
planning.
J. To develop and implement procedures jor the registration of
additives, with initial emphasis on motor vehicle fuel additives
Many fuels used in transportation and heating contain chemical addi-
tives which improve combustion or alter the physical properties of the
fuel or other characteristics important to the fuel user. Such addi-
tives may enter the atmosphere either through evaporation or as a re-
sult of the combustion process. The Clean Air Act, as amended,
authorizes the Secretary to require registration of any additive used in
a fuel which is sold in interstate commerce. Proposed regulations
requiring registration of additives used in gasoline have been prepared
by NAPCA and reviewed by an industry liaison committee. On July
30, 1969, the proposed regulations were published in the Federal
Register.
A number of the comments received from fuel and additive manu-
facturers and trade associations included objections to some of the
requirements proposed as part of the registration procedure. The
issues raised by these parties are under consideration. Final regulations,
incorporating any changes made in response to the comments, will be
published as soon as the issues have been resolved. Gasoline additives
would have to be registered within six months of the publication of
the final regulations.
K. To encourage the application oj the best available control techniques
Jor dealing with air pollution from jet aircraft
Aircraft are not among the Nation's largest sources of air pollution,
but they are one of the most conspicious. This is particularly true of
jet aircraft, which leave trails of smoke behind them as they fly into
and out of the Nation's airports and as they warm up their engines
and taxi to and from terminals.
Like smoke from most other sources, that emitted by jet engines
can be controlled. Jet engine manufacturers have developed new,
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almost smokeless combustors. Starting in February 1970, such com-
bustors will be built into new jet engines. The new combustors also
can be installed in engines already in use. Early next spring, smokeless
combustors will be available in sufficient quantities to permit large-
scale replacement of present combustors.
In August 1969, after an investigation of this problem, NAPCA
invited the Nation's commercial airlines and major engine manufac-
turers to a meeting to discuss installation of the smokeless combustors
in existing engines. NAPCA suggested that each such engine, at the
time of its next major overhaul, be equipped with a smokeless cpm-
bustor. If such a schedule were to be followed, most JT-8D engines
(the type most commonly used in domestic planes) would be smokeless
by mid-1972.
The major commercial airlines were represented at the meeting
by the Air Transport Association. In response to the timetable pro-
posed by NAPCA, the airline representatives suggested one that would
achieve the same result, but not until 1975.
NAPCA plans to continue its efforts to persuade the airlines to
attack the problem more promptly on a voluntary basis. If these
efforts prove fruitless, statutory authority to set standards will be
sought, as indicated in the January 1969 report to the Congress,
entitled Nature and Control of Aircraft Engine Exhaust Emissions.
Smoke (particulate matter) is not the only type of air pollutants
emitted by aircraft. They also emit various types of gaseous pollutants,
including hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides. To
the extent that the new smokeless combustors burn fuel more effi-
ciently, their use may serve to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monox-
ide emissions. But further attention will have to be given to this
aspect of the problem.
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Chapter III. OTHER ACTIVITIES
This chapter covers NAPCA's involvement in compilation and dis-
semination of technical information and in cooperative activites with
other nations and with international organizations. Also covered in
this chapter are the activities of advisory groups established under
section 110 of the Clean Air Act, as amended.
A. To compile and disseminate technical information on the nature,
effects, and control of air pollution
NAPCA is a central source of technical information on all aspects
of air pollution and its prevention and control. On request, informa-
tion is made available to State and local agencies, scientists and
engineers, and others interested in air pollution control, including
NAPCA's own staff. Approximately 1,300 requests for technical in-
formation were received during the past year. NAPCA's responses
were in forms such as abstracts of published papers, references to the
scientific and technical literature, or excerpts of published materials.
To maintain an up-to-date store of technical information, NAPCA
has about 1,000 scientific and technical journals screened. About 400
are published in English, the others in various other languages. Perti-
nent articles and abstracts are microfilmed and stored in a data bank.
By the end of 1969, there were about 12,400 articles and reports in
the data bank. New items are being added at a rate of about 1,000
per month.
NAPCA also supports and participates in the preparation and
distribution of a monthly compilation of abstracts of scientific and
technical literature. This publication is mailed each month to about
1,500 individuals and organizations.
B, To encourage and participate in a continuing international exchange
of information on air pollution and, where appropriate, to support
research in foreign countries
NAPCA's international program was begun primarily as a means
of promoting and coordinating United States involvement in inter-
national activities in the field of ah* pollution control, and it has
continued to serve this purpose. To an increasing extent, NAPCA
itself is participating in the air pollution-related activities of various
international organizations. NAPCA's international program is pred-
icated on the philosophy that all Nations, whether fully indus-
trialized or just beginning to develop, can benefit from a continuing
exchange of ideas and information on ways of dealing with the problem
of air pollution, which, in a real sense, is a global problem. NAPCA's
international activities include collaboration with the World Health
Organization (WHO) on the establishment of an International Refer-
ence Center for Air Pollution; representation on the World Meteoro-
logical Organization (WMO) Working Group on Atomospheric
Pollution and Atmospheric Chemistry; cooperation with the Economic
Commission of Europe in planning a Seminar on Desulfurization of
(37)
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Fuels and Combustion Gases to be held in 1970; discussions with repre-
sentatives of the Commission of the European Communities on the
feasibility of its becoming the instrument for testing and inspecting
European-produced automobiles to determine whether they conform
with U.S. standards and regulations; and provision of staff support
to the International Joini, Commission (United States and Canada)
in air pollution studies of the Detroit, Michigan-Windsor, Ontario
and Port Huron, Michigan-Sarnia, Ontario areas.
Under Public Law 480, NAPCA is supporting the research projects
in Poland, Yugoslavia, and Israel. NAPCA also is involved in ex-
changes of information or personnel and/or collaborative research with
Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, France, and Great Britain,
C, To enlist the advice and assistance oj non-Federal experts and other
interested and informed citizens
More than a dozen advisory groups have been established under
section 110 of the Clean Air Act, as amended. Their areas of interest
range from that of the President's Air Quality Advisory Board, which
is concerned with the full spectrum of activities conducted under the
Act, to the more specialized concerns of various technical advisory
groups.
The President's Air Quality Advisory Board met three times during
the past year and gave particular attention to the problem of motor
vehicle pollution. The Board called for an accelerated effort to bring
this proolem under control. It recommended steps such as a coor-
dinated Federal research and development effort and Federal purchase
of low-emission motor vehicles and fuels with low air pollution
potential.
Technical advisory committees established in previous years con-
tinued their activities in the areas of air quality criteria development,
preparation of reports on air pollution control techniques, manpower
development, air pollution control agency development, research
grants, and fuel additives. New committees began working with
NAPCA during the past year in areas such as motor vehicle research
and development, air pollution chemistry and physics, and meteorol-
ogy*
Also in operation are a number of industry liaison committees
set up to promote exchanges of information and/or to facilitate the
conduct of NAPCA studies of industrial air pollution problems. Such
committees currently are active in regard to the paper pulp, iron found-
ry, iron-and-steel, primary smelter, and organic solvents industries.
FIGURE 1S.-NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION FUNDING HISTORY
(In millions of dollars)
Fiscal yiir—
1966 1967 1968 1961 1970
Authorization ..................... 30.4 46.0 109.0 185.0 134.3
ftSvU*::.: ......... : ...... ».o »s M2 iw.? 95.1
Appropriation ......................... 26-6 40.0 64.2 tt.7 ..............
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FIGURE 16.—NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
BUDGET AND MANPOWER INFORMATION
[Dollars in thousands)
Fiscal year—
1968
Positions >
Program subcaleooiy.
E Heels and surveillance
Control and compliance . .
Other,.
Total
Bud?el activity:
1. Abatement and control:
(a) Grants
(b) Direct operations . .
2. Research, development and
demonstration:
(b) Direct operations
3. Manpower training:
(a) Grants
(b) Direct operations
4. Program direction and manage-
men' services
Total . .
319
550
201
1,070
321
b66
73
123
1,070
1969
Amount a Positions'
$13,380
42,800
5,487
61,667
18,647
5,476
9 017
21, 557
3,158
1,444
2,368
61,667
319
549
200
1,068
317
564
63
124
1,068
1970 (estimated)
Amount: Positions '
J17.431
55, 662
7, C8!
80, 174
2?, 702 ...
8,807
20,138 ..
20, 940
3,156 ..
1,554
2,877
80,174
310
542
203
1,055
317
550
64
124
1,055
Amounts
J17.789
67, 161
9,182
94, 132
25, 175
10, 019
28,456
22,313
3,500
2.016
2,653
94,132
1 Numbers of positions authorized.
1 Amounts obligated.
* Amounts available for obligation tor the President s budget,
o
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