WET SCRUBBER SYSTEM STUDY Volume II
FINAL REPORT
and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Prepared For
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Control Systems Division
July 1972
EP
APT
A'RT-> Inc Box 71 Riverside,Ca. 92502
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WET SCRUBBER SYSTEM STUDY VOLUME II
FINAL REPORT
Seymour Calvert, Project Director
Jhuda Goldshmid
David Leith
Dilip Mehta
Prepared for
CONTROL SYSTEMS DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS - ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CONTRACT NO. CPA-70-95
A.P.T., INC,
(Ambient Purification Technology)
P. 0. Box 71, Riverside, California 92502
July, 1972
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FORWARD
The Final Report and Bibliography is Vol. II of a two-
volume report submitted to the Office of Air Programs -
Environmental Protection Agency, as part of the Wet Scrubber
System Study under Contract No. CPA-70-95. The first volume
is entitled Scrubber Handbook. The two volumes are available
from NTIS.
The principal objectives of this study were: (1) To eval-
uate the current engineering technology, (2) To evaluate exist-
ing scrubber systems, (3) To investigate present usage problems,
(4) To determine potential new applications, and (5) To develop
specific research recommendations.
Mr. Dale Harmon of the Control System Division, Office of
Air Programs, served as the contract project officer through
most of the contract. He was later replaced by Dr. Leslie
Sparks of the same division.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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II
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by EPA and approved for publi
cation. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of EPA, nor
does the mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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Ill
ABSTRACT
A Wet Scrubber System Study was undertaken to achieve the
following objectives: (1) Evaluate current engineering tech-
nology, (2) Evaluate existing scrubber system's, (3) Investigate
present usage problems, (4) Determine potential new applications,
(5) Develop specific research recommendations. The products
of this study are: (1) Scrubber Handbook, (2) Final Report,
(3) Bibliography, (4) R § D Plan. The Scrubber Handbook brings
together previously scattered material and makes clear its
applicability to scrubber technology. It discusses the various
aspects of scrubber use and present engineering design methods
based on a unifying concept. Actual experience on hundreds
of scrubber installations is presented in a condensed form.
Many related topics such as auxiliaries, materials of construc-
tion, physical and chemical data, cost estimation and optimi-
zation techniques, and the disposal of liquid and solid wastes
are all covered thoroughly in the Scrubber Handbook.
The Final Report and Bibliography describes the approach
and method used to achieve the objecties listed earlier. It
presents two R 5 D plans; one at a $2 million, five-year level,
and the second at a $7 million five-year level. The Bibliography
contains about 1,700 references discussing various aspects of
wet scrubbers.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY i
OBJECTIVES 1
APPROACH AND METHODS 1
CONCLUSIONS 3
RESULTS OF THE STUDY 4
PROGRAM AND OBJECTIVES 7
INTRODUCTION 7
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 7
Scrubber Handbook 9
Research Plan 9
Bibliography 9
Final Report 9
APPROACH AND METHODS 10
GENERAL APPROACH 10
ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM 13
PERSONNEL AND SUBCONTRACT 13
Consultants on Optimization 14
SURVEYS 16
Literature Survey 16
Scrubber Manufacturers 17
Scrubber Users 18
Scrubber Researchers 21
Patents 22
DESIGN METHOD DEVELOPMENT 22
Basic Concepts 22
Design Methods for Various Scrubber Groups .... 24
Evaluation of Available Methods 25
Augmentation of Methods 26
Example Problems 26
OPTIMIZATION 28
OTHER AREAS FOR APPLICATION 29
RESEARCH NEEDS AND PLAN 30
RESULTS 32
SCRUBBERS AVAILABLE 32
HANDBOOK CONTENTS 33
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
ANALYSIS OF SCRUBBER PRACTICE 36
Unit Processes to Which Scrubbers are Applied. . . .36
Calcining Processes 36
Combustion Processes ' 36
Crushers and Mills 37
Driers 37
Gases 37
Liquid Mists 38
Smelting 38
Processes to Which Each Type of Scrubber is Applied.38
Sales of Scrubbers Compared with Other Equipment . .39
OTHER AREAS OF APPLICATION 48
Potential Applications 48
Negative Factors 49
Survey of Potential 50
Calcining Processes 53
Chemical Processes 54
Food and Feed Processes 54
Metallurgical Processes 54
Combustion Processes 55
Conclusions 55
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN 56
Basic Concepts 57
Physico-Chemical Data 58
New Equipment 59
Engineering Design and Optimization of Scrubber
Systems 61
Dynamic Behavior and Control Instrumentation
Technique 62
Criteria for the Preparation of a Five-Year
Research Plan 63
CONCLUSIONS 69
EVALUATION OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY 69
Mass Transfer 69
Particulate Collection 70
Combined Collection 71
EXISTING SCRUBBER SYSTEM EVALUATIONS 72
Particulate Collection 73
Combined Mass Transfer and Particulate Collection. !?4
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
SCRUBBER USE AND PROBLEMS 74
New Applications 76
Recommendations for R § D . . . . 78
APPENDICES 80
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VII
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of Scrubber Design 11
Table 1 Unit Mechanisms for Particle Separation 23
Table 2 Scrubbers Used to Control Particulate Emissions
from Calcining Processes 40
Table 3 Scrubbers Used to Control Particulate Emissions
from Combustion Processes 41
Table 4 Scrubbers Used to Control Particulate Emissions
from Crushers and Mills 42
Table 5 Scrubbers Used to Control Particulate Emissions
from Driers 43
Table 6 Scrubbers Used to Control Gases 44
Table 7 Scrubbers Used to Control Liquid Mists 45
Table 8 Scrubbers Used to Control Particulate Emissions
from Smelting Operations 46
Table 9 Industrial Gas Cleaning Equipment - Manufac-
turer's Shipments by Industry, 1967 47
Table 10 Use of Particulate Collectors by Industry 51
Table 11 Processes with Scrubber Application Potential. . . 53
Table 12 Research Plan A - $2 Million/5 Years 65
Table 13 Research Plan B - $7 Million/5 Years 66
Table 14 Processes to Which Each Type of Scrubber is
Applied 75
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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SUMMARY
A.P.T. conducted a Wet Scrubber System Study under Contract
CPA-70-95 with EPA/OAP. The study started on June 30, 1970, and
was active for 18 months. The objectives of the study were set
forth by EPA in the "scope of work" and aimed toward a thorough
investigation of the nature and uses of scrubbers. To achieve the
specified objectives, A.P.T. conducted a literature search and
surveys of scrubber users, manufacturers and researchers. What
was found was then augmented with much in-house modeling and
development. The products of the contract are the Scrubber Hand-
book, the Scrubber Bibliography and the Final Report.
Obj ectives
The objectives of the "Wet Scrubber System Study" were
set forth' by EPA (then NAPCA) as follows:
1. Evaluate current engineering technology.
2. Evaluate existing scrubber systems.
3. Investigate present usage problems.
4. Determine potential new applications.
5. Develop specific research recommendations.
Approach and Methods
The general approach to the project was to rationalize
scrubber performance in terms of basic principles. This is the
most powerful way to interpret experience and to extrapolate into
unexplored territory. Field experience, laboratory research, and
theoretical concepts were all used to relate the understanding
of the fundamental mechanisms of particle separation and gas ab-
sorption to the scrubber performance. Empirical relationships
were used when necessary to describe situations which have not
yet been rationalized.
Whenever possible, the Scrubber Handbook presents an engineer-
ing design method based on fundamental principles, and provides
original developments where no suitable methods were available
in the literature.
Five surveys were carried out to get a firm grasp on the
current state-of-the-art in the theory, design, and application
of wet scrubbers.
(1) Literature survey - aimed at collecting all of the theo-
retical, experimental and practical work on wet scrubbers
Over 2,000 articles were acquired and most of them are
listed in the Bibliography.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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(2) Scrubber manufacturers survey - aimed at obtaining
detailed information on the scrubbers currently manu-
factured, their performance characteristics and cost.
105 manufacturers responded with at least part of the
information.
(3) Scrubber users survey - aimed at determining actual
scrubber performance in various industries. Descriptions
were collected of 305 scrubbers.
(4) Scrubber researchers survey - aimed at obtaining an up-
to-date picture of scrubbers research and explore
future research needs. 24 positive replies were
received.
(5) Scrubber patent survey - aimed at collecting all scrubber
patents. 250 patents were acquired.
In developing new design methods and modifying existing ones,
we used what we call the unit mechanism approach. Unit mechanisms
represent the essence of the phenomena on the microscopic level
and permit the derivation of scrubber performance equations from
basic physical principles and collector geometry. The unit mechan-
ism equations then serve as building blocks in deriving a design
equation for a specific commercial scrubber. This approach is
especailly valuable for particle collection and permits the scrubber
engineer to derive a theoretical design equation for his specific
scrubber. Due to the hypotheses and the simplifying assumptions
made in the derivations it is advisable to reinforce the theore-
tical equations with experimental data.
A separate chapter is devoted to scrubber design optimization.
Due to the many parameters which are specific to a given industry,
location or design, the method has been demonstrated for only a
general case.
Existing mass transfer theories have been evaluated and
assembled. Many design parameters were plotted to facilitate
calculations and examples were worked out to illustrate ambiguous
points. The unit mechanism path was taken to derive design
equations for specific scrubber designs, especially in the more
complicated case where the absorption is followed by a chemical
reaction.
A research plan for filling in the identified deficiencies
in the state-of-the-art and meeting the need for better scrubber
performance was prepared. Priorities were assigned to research
topics based on two primary criteria: (1) Pressing air pollution
problems should have first priority, (2) Scrubbers should be
applied in their areas of strength. The framework of time and
budget for the research effort had been established in the contract
scope of work. Thus the development of a research plan became a
matter of fitting the most important research topics into the
constraints of time and money.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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Conclusions
The Wet Scrubber System Study led to the following
conclusions:
1. Scrubbers are used for the removal of gases, particu-
lates or both from a gas stream. Adequate theories, design methods
and cost information are available for most of the mass transfer
operations. No general approach to the design of scrubbers for
particle removal was available prior to this study. The unit
mechanism approach which we introduced and developed for the
derivation of design methods for particle removal has proven to
be powerful and generally applicable. There is still a pressing
need for further development and refinement of reliable engineer-
ing design methods backed by much experimental work.
2. The scrubber designs used for mass transfer operations
are those which permit long residence time and large contact area.
Removal efficiency of a mass transfer scrubber depends mainly on
the equilibrium relationships between the absorbed gas and the
absorbing liquor. By increasing column height and by introducing
a reactive substance, any desired gas removal efficiency can be
achieved.
3. Particles are collected in present day scrubbers mainly
by three mechanisms: inertial impaction, interception and
diffusion. Inertial impaction is the collection mechanism for
particles larger than *1 ym, diffusion for particles smaller than
=0.1 ym and interception for particles with diameters of the same
order of magnitude as the collector diameter. Fine particles in
the size range of .1-1 ym are the most difficult to collect. The
choice of a scrubber for particle removal depends upon economic
considerations, scrubber performance, difficulty of liquor treat-
ment, presence of other contaminants, operating conditions,
materials of construction and tradition. Low velocity and low
pressure drop scrubbers are adequate for relatively large particles,
high velocity scrubbers are required for the removal of the 1 ym
range particles.
4. Scrubbers are used to control emissions from many diver-
sified sources and are favored over other air pollution control
equipment under the following circumstances:
a. Where the removal of gaseous, or simultaneous gaseous
and particulate contaminants is required.
b. Where the treatment or disposal of the liquid efflu-
ent is simple and not expensive.
c. Where there is no water shortage.
d. Where available plant space is limited.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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e. Where there is an explosion hazard.
f. Where dust resistivity and/or gas temperature is
high.
g. Where the dust particles are larger than ^5 ym.
h. Where the gas is at or above the dew point.
i. Above all, where the economics is favorable.
5. Wet scrubbers account for 22% of the air pollution
control market in 1971 and are projected to account for 261 of
the market in 1976. Changing technology and emission regulations
may lead to the future application of scrubbers to pollution con-
trol problems where scrubbers are not widely applied now. The
most promising areas are the cleanup of submicron particles and
inorganic gases. Scrubber application for the removal of fine
particles will require the development of suitable scrubbers.
6. Scrubber research and development should be aimed at:
a. Improving scrubber performance in the fine particle
range.
b. Developing a rational basis for liquid entrainment
(carry-over) separation design and improving the
level of performance capability.
c. Developing better and more reliable engineering
design methods backed by an abundance of field
data.
d. Reducing scrubber capital and operating costs and
increasing scrubber dependability by decreasing
scrubber size, increasing efficiency without in-
creasing the energy required, improving water
treatment methods, designing scrubbers for specific
applications and developing measurement and control
instruments.
Results of the Study
The results of this study are presented in two volumes:
Volume I - "Scrubber Handbook"
Volume II - "Final Report and Bibliography"
The Scrubber Handbook brings together a lot of previously
scattered material and applies it in a unified way to scrubber
technology. The literature bearing on particulate scrubbing was
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more in need of this than that on mass transfer, due to the
historically greater importance of the latter. The relation-
ship of the material ranging from basic research to field ex-
perience to scrubber technology is embodied in a general (unit
mechanism) approach to scrubber analysis and design. The
essence and emphasis of the unit mechanisms approach is that
one should visualize and define scrubber operation in terms of
the basic microphenomena which transfer the particles or the
gas molecules from the gas to the liquid.
Many entirely new and many significantly improved design
methods have been developed through the use of this approach
and are presented in the Handbook. Thus they are useful to
the engineer who needs them for design computations and to
the one who can gain insight which will help him develop a new
method or model.
Particle separation computations will be greatly simpli-
fied and probably made more accurate by the use of a general
approach developed in this program and used in the Handbook.
This approach defines the difficulty of separation as a "separa-
tion cut diameter", analogous to the number of transfer units
required for mass transfer. Scrubber system optimization is
discussed in general and applied to the case of cyclone type
scrubbers.
Actual experience on hundreds of scrubber installations
was obtained through the survey and is presented in condensed
form in the Handbook. The information shown (when it was avail-
able) includes a brief description of the source process,scrubber
performance data, gas and liquid stream rates and properties,
costs, emission characteristics, and references. Analysis of
the data to show patterns of usage, etc. are also given.
Many related topics such as auxiliaries, materials of con-
struction, physical and chemical data, and the disposal of li-
quid and solid wastes are covered in thoroughly indexed chapters
of the Handbook. This material will provide the reader with an
overall picture of what is involved and references to additional
material. Sufficient useful data are provided so that an en-
gineer can make at least a preliminary design for a variety of
systems.
The final report describes th;e R 5 D plan and the approach
and methods used to achieve the objectives set forth in the
scope of work. It details the organization and personnel, the
various surveys, and the design method development.
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The Bibliography contains about 1,700 references and is
organized in a manner parallel to that used in the Handbook.
Each section in the Scrubber Handbook with .references has a
corresponding section in the Bibliography with the same number
and title.
In conclusion, we feel that the Scrubber Handbook is a
turning point in wet scrubber engineering and technology, es-
pecially regarding particulates. For the first time a cohesive
theory encompassing all types of scrubber design has been put
forward. This theory permits every engineer, even without
access to proprietary performance information, to design a
scrubber with a large degree of confidence. This confidence
will increase as more and more experimental information is
gathered and analyzed. Attempts can now be made to extrapolate
scrubber performance to areas where they have never been used
before and to optimize scrubber economics and performance.
It seems most likely that with this basic theory now available,
with the scrubber research and development currently being
carried out, and with the inherently favorable characteristics
of wet scrubbers, their use will increase and they will play a
growing part in air pollution control.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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PROGRAM AND OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
This is the final report for a Wet Scrubber System Study
which was performed by A.P.T. (Ambient Purification Technology)
for EPA/OAP under Contract CPA-70-95 for an 18-month period of
performance beginning June 30, 1970. Companion documents which
resulted from this study are a "Scrubber Handbook" and a "Selected
Bibliography on Wet Scrubbers". The project director is Dr. Seymour
Calvert of A.P.T. and the project officer is Mr. Dale L. Harmon of
the Environmental Protection Agency.
Wet scrubbers are defined here as devices which utilize a
scrubbing liquid in the separation of particulate or gaseous con-
taminants (or components) from a gas. They are used extensively
for the control of air pollution emissions and also in chemical
process systems. Since the term "scrubber" is rarely used to de-
scribe a dry system, we will generally refer to wet scrubbers as
simply "scrubbers". So many different scrubber configurations
have been used that there is some confusion as to whether they
are all in the same category, and in some writings there is a
restriction of the definition according to whether they are open
or packed, etc. We intend no such limitation; any device fitting
the definition of the first sentence in this paragraph is a wet
scrubber.
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the Wet Scrubber System Study were set
forth by EPA (then NAPCA) in the program scope of work as follows:
"U) Evaluate Current Engineering Technology
The selected contractor will evaluate the status
of engineering technology applicable to wet scrubbers
and currently available to the designers, manufac-
turers, and users of scrubbers... The contractor
will determine the availability and adequacy of use-
ful operational and design data, models, and equations
and the applicability of these data for prediction of
performance of the various types of scrubbers. Tech-
nology relating to the performance of scrubbers as
both particulate collectors and mass transfer contac-
tors should be considered... The results of this com-
prehensive engineering evaluation will serve as the
basis for the proposed R 5 D program and a comprehensive
authoritative handbook on scrubber technology.
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(2) Evaluate Existing Scrubber Systems
The contractor will critically review and evaluate
all major types of scrubbing devices currently avail-
able, assess the strengths and weaknesses of each type,
and identify specific operating and maintenance pro-
blems. The contractor will identify factors that tend
to limit the effectiveness of available scrubbing units
for each application. Utilizing emerging technology in
other fields, the contractor will identify modifications
and equipment additions that could improve the perfor-
mance and expand the application of wet scrubbers. The
contractor will also identify specific deficiencies in
existing equipment that if overcome by research and
development, would improve performance and reliability
and would permit expansion of the application of wet
scrubbers.
(3) Investigate Present Usage Problems
The contractor will investigate current practices in
the application of wet scrubbers and compile a listing
of specific processes or emission problems to which
scrubbers are being applied or to which application has
been attempted... The contractor will investigate and
identify all problems associated with present applica-
tions for each area of application and identify and
quantify the major factors that affect capital and
operating costs.
(4) Determine Potential New Applications
The contractor will investigate and identify major air
pollution sources that are amenable to control by the
use of wet scrubbers, including sources that are normally
controlled by other types of devices... The contractor
will estimate the magnitude of each collection problem
and identify factors currently limiting the application
of scrubbers in these areas.
(5) Develop Specific Research Recommendations
Two 5-year research and development programs, Plan A
and Plan B, are to be developed as a product of this
study... Each plan will recommend specific research and
development required to provide technology where de-
ficiencies exist and generate needed data to improve
process performance and economics to permit expansion
of wet scrubber application to the control of additional
air pollution sources."
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The major products of the study are the handbook,
research plan, bibliography and final report. The objectives
for each of these may be briefly stated as follows:
Scrubber Handbook - The handbook is to be an authori-
tative and comprehensive source on wet scrubber technology. It
includes in-depth engineering analyses and is intended for use
in design, research, and instruction.
Research Plan - The research plan is aimed at overcoming
the identified deficiencies in the state-of-the-art. The re-
search plan reflects the need for better separation of present
scrubbers, improved capabilities of future scrubbers, lower
costs, and optimum application to specific processes. It pro-
vides guidelines to both the sponsors and the performers of
research.
Bibliography - The bibliography is to serve as a guide to
the most useful items of published literature and government
reports which relate to wet scrubbing.
Final Report - The final report is to document the method,
results, and conclusions of the scrubber study. The research
plan is presented in the final report.
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10
APPROACH AND METHODS
GENERAL APPROACH
The general approach to the project was to rationalize
scrubber performance in terms of basic principles. Field exper-
ience, laboratory research, and theoretical concepts were all to
be used in relating a quantitative understanding of the funda-
mental situations, in which both particles and gases are trans-
ferred from the gas phase to the liquid, to the performance of
the scrubber.
Given sufficient understanding, one can develop an engineer-
ing design method which enables the predication of performance
with reasonable confidence. Wherever possible we would present
such a method based on fundamental principles, and would provide
original developments where there were not suitable methods avail-
able in the literature. Empirical relationships are used when
necessary to describe a situation which has not yet been ration-
alized.
As the first step in this approach, one needs an overall
concept of scrubber systems and the basic phenomena involved. Then
he can describe the overall problem in terms of a number of related
components. Having defined the problem, one next needs to estab-
lish priorities for work on the various components.
Since there is always a limit on what can be accomplished,
it was intended that this approach would ensure that the most
important things would be covered. Figure 1 is a schematic dia-
gram of a scrubber system which has nearly everything imaginable
and reasonable. It serves as a pictorial check list of what
ought to be considered. Along the same vein, a detailed outline
of all conceivable methods of gas purification by scrubbing was
prepared and used as a guide for the study. This outline is well
represented by the Tables of Contents for Chapters 4 and 5.
The Handbook is composed of material which is the result of
activity in three main areas.
1. Review and development of engineering design methods
related to scrubber performance.
2. Review and development of engineering information on
system elements other than the scrubber itself.
3. Aquisition and analysis of actual experience data
(surveys).
In the development of design methods the general approach,
and an ideal not completely realized in all cases, was to:
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2T
§
o
3
O
tr
3
O
P
n
TJ
p
CD
O
x
m
Figure 1
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SCRUBBER SYSTEM
EFFLUENT
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATOR
HEAT
EXCHANGE*
LJL
DUCTWORK
LIQUID
TREATMENT
GASEOUS
WASTE
GAS INLET
\ LABOR, /
\ PLIE7
|— CHEMICALS
BY-PRODUCTS
-te. OR
RECYCLE STREAMS
SOLID LIQUID
WASTE WASTE
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12
1. Analyze all currently known wet scrubbers of signifi-
cance and define them in terms of the elemental physical
and chemical mechanisms (unit mechanisms) which are the
components which can be assembled to describe any kind
of scrubber.
2. Develop a set of the best available design methods
(i.e., mathematical models relating design variables
to performance) for each of the unit mechanisms. Utilize
the best available design information but do not be
limited by it. Where gaps or weak points exist, develop
new or improved methods.
3. Synthesize the appropriate total design equations from
the unit mechanisms equations and use them to predict
performance of known types of scrubbers.
4. Utilize available published and unpublished design me-
thods, performance data, manufacturers' literature, etc.
to predict performance of the systems covered in point
3, above.
5. Compare the predictions of the available methods (point
3) and the available information (point 4). Reconcile
differences to firm-up the final models and to elucidate
areas for further research. Where performance data are
limited, indicate the range of possible error associated
with the recommended method. Indicate any limitations
on scale-up capability.
6. Develop charts and tables for the reader's convenience
in making design computations.
7. Present example calculations to illustrate the use of
design methods.
As Figure 1 indicates, there are a number of elements other
than the scrubber which make up the total system. Frequently
the technology or cost of one of these is more significant than
that of the scrubber itself. There are other considerations which
may limit performance or feasibility. The kind of factors studied
are as follows:
1. Equilibrium considerations and related problems such as
physical solubility, chemical reaction equilibrium, rate
of chemical use, solvent losses, and solvent selectivity.
2. Operating characteristics such as stability, reliability,
flexibility, and controllability.
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13
3. Auxiliaries such as blowers, pumps, heat exchangers,
lines, spray nozzles, controls, hooding, venting, li-
quid clarification for recycle, liquid chemical treat-
ment, crystallizers, solvent stripper, extractors, and
liquid or solid waste disposal.
4. Measurement of system performance by means of manual
or machine sampling and analysis of gas and liquid
streams.
5. Operating and maintenance labor, materials, and other
costs.
6. Health and safety considerations such as toxic gases or
liquids, explosive materials, hot surfaces, and corro-
sive or irritant materials.
7. Materials of construction problems such as corrosion,
erosion, strength, weight, ease of repair, suscepti-
bility to stress and fatigue, and cost.
8. Economic factors and their analysis such as deter-
mining costs for investment, power, chemicals, oper-
ating labor, maintenance, and depreciation.
ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM
Implementation of the general approach described above re-
quired that the program activities be organized into functional
subdivisions which could be treated as individual work assign-
ments and responsibilities. It was decided that the most ef-
ficient way to proceed would be to set up a tentative outline of
the final report-handbook combination and to assign responsibili-
ties and deadlines for various sections of the outline.
By proceeding in this way the results would be written up
in final format as soon as possible. This would provide the maxi
mum time for review, rewriting, and reorganization. It will be
recognized that the interdependences of one task on the result
of another, and the unexpected turns of events gives rise to an
incessant reordering of efforts as new needs become apparent.
PERSONNEL AND SUBCONTRACT
The program technical personnel involved the staffs of APT,
a sub-contractor, Garrett Research and Development (GRD), and
consultants. The individuals involved were as follows:
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APT
Seymour Calvert, Ph.D., Project Director
Jhuda Goldshmid, Ph.D.
David Leith, M.S.
Dilip S. Mehta, Ph.D.
Amancio Sycip, M.S.
GRD
John Ellis, B.S.
George Preston, Ph.D.
Edgar Manker, Ph.D.
Jerome Wilkenfeld, M.S. (Hooker Chemical)
Consultants on Optimization
Lucien Schmidt, M.S.
Jack Alkalay, Ph.D.
The subcontract with GRD, a subsidiary of Occidental Petroleum,
was for the period of 11 months and was mainly intended to provide
access to the various components of Occidental for data on their
scrubber experience. These included Hooker Chemical, Occidental
Chemical, Island Creek Coal, and others. Some of the GRD person-
nel contributed to the preparation of technical material for the
handbook. Dr. Preston was largely responsible for Chapter 10 and
several sections of Chapters 4 and 5. Mr. Ellis was largely res-
ponsible for Chapters 6 and 11, several sections of Chapter 9,
and the compilation of a considerable amount of survey data for
Chapter 7.
Many people and organizations contributed generously to the
scrubber system study, and their part in the preparation of this
book is gratefully acknowledged. We wish especially to point out
the important parts played by Mr. Dale L. Harmon, project officer
for the study, and Messrs Robert Lorentz and Richard Harrington
of the Environmental Protection Agency. Dr. Leslie Sparks, pro-
ject officer during the final period of the study, contributed
notably to editing the Handbook and this Report.
Some of those whose contributions were most noteworthy are
the following:
Allegheney County Health Department, Bureau of Air Pollution
Control, for providing information on the performance of
scrubbing systems.
Professor P. H. Calderbank, papers on bubble dynamics.
County of San Bernardino Air Pollution Control District, for
providing information on the performance of scrubbing
systems.
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Bureau of Air Quality and Noise Control, Department of
Environmental Resources, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Department of Environmental Control, City of Chicago, for
providing information on the performance of scrubbing
systems.
Department of Public Health and Welfare, Division of Air
Pollution Control, City of Cleveland, for providing in-
formation on the performance of scrubbing systems.
Department of Water and Power, City of Los Angeles, for
providing information on the performance of scrubbing
systems.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste
Management Program, incineration.
Harvard School of Public Health, for providing information
on the performance of scrubbing systems.
Mr. C. B. Horsley of Braxton Corporation, for his interesting
information on ultrasonic devices.
Mr. Charles S. Maneri, Chief, Federal Facilities Branch,
Environmental Protection Agency, for information on many
government scrubbers.
Mr. Charles G. Martin of Christchurch, New Zealand, for his
valuable comments.
Professor Thomas T. Mercer, for his help in jet impaction.
New Jersey State Department of Environmental Protection, for
providing information on the performance of scrubbing
systems.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, for description of scrubbers
used in their installation, and description of their work
on scrubbing of materials released due to an accident.
Tennessee Valley Authority, Division of Chemical Development.
For her tireless and careful work in the typing and reproduc-
tion of this report, we express our appreciation to Mrs. Glenna
Paschal.
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SURVEYS
Five surveys were carried out to get a firm grasp on the
current state-of-the-art in the theory, design, and application
of wet scrubbers. The purpose of the surveys was to broaden the
base of the scrubber study by studying the first hand knowledge
and experience of as many people as possible who work with
scrubbers.
Each survey was aimed at a specific goal. Results of the
surveys were used wherever possible in the writing of the Wet
Scrubber Handbook. The persons or material surveyed, and the
main use of the results obtained is given below:
2.4.1 Literature Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10,
11, 12
2.4.2 Scrubber
Manufacturers Chapters 3, 5
2.4.3 Scrubber Users Chapters 7, 8
2.4.4 Researchers Chapters 4, 5, and final report
2.4.5 Patents Chapter 3
Documentation on the method of approach and analysis of data ob-
tained in these surveys will be given for each survey.
Literature Survey
An extensive and in-depth survey of the literature was per-
formed in order to find all theoretical, experimental, and
practical work on wet scrubbers which has been reported.
Abstracting services were utilized. Computer printouts of
relevant literature references were received from APTIC , NTIS,
AEC, NASA and Midwest Research Institute. Chemical Abstracts
and British Chemical Engineering Abstracts were consulted.
A direct manual search of forty-eight technical journals
carrying articles pertinent to scrubber systems was carried out.
Twenty-five journals were searched from 1950 to present; the
balance from 1960 to present. Facilities of UCLA, California
Institute of Technology and the University of California at
Riverside were used.
Of the thousands of literature articles reviewed, about
2,000 were judged directly pertinent to the Wet Scrubber Study,
and were acquired, classified, and filed in the APT library. These
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were used throughout the writing of the handbook and are listed
in the Bibliography.
Most of the evaluation of literature came at the time that
the literature was being screened for articles relevant to the
scrubber study. If an article was judged as contributing to
the knowledge of scrubbers, it was noted and acquired. If there
was doubt as to the contribution of an article to scrubber under-
standing, it was also noted and acquired. It was deemed prudent
to select all articles which might be of use in the scrubber study,
rather than be overly selective at the outset, and reject
these articles.
Throughout the course of the work on the Wet Scrubber System
Study, articles extracted from the literature were consulted.
Evaluation of these articles continued throughout the work, and
comments on them are at appropriate places in the Wet Scrubber
Handbook.
Scrubber Manufacturers
To obtain detailed and up-to-date information on the scrub-
bers currently manufactured, their performance characteristics,
costs, and makers, a survey of scrubber manufacturers was made.
Similar surveys were made of manufacturers of mist elminators,
gas absorption equipment, and fan manufacturers.
The names and addresses of manufacturers were taken from
three sources: Chemical Engineering Magazine - "Environmental
Engineering Deskbook Issue", 77, 9, (April 27, 1969); Environ-
mental Science and Technology'1!' "1969-1970 Pollution Control
Directory", !5, 10 (Oct. 1969); and the "1970-71 APCA Directory",
published by the Air Pollution Control Association.
A letter requesting information describing the scrubbing
equipment made, cost data, and case studies was sent to 250
manufacturers. A copy of the letter sent to scrubber manufac-
turers and the enclosed sheet describing the scrubber study are
given in Appendices A and B. Similar letters were sent to
manufacturers of mist, eliminators and gas absorption equipment.
A letter and data sheet for return to APT was sent to an addi-
tional ninety-six fabricators of scrubbers, to get information
on the availability and price of the scrubbers and auxiliaries
they make. More detailed information was requested from nine
of the largest manufacturers.
Of the 250 letters to manufacturers sent out requesting in-
formation, 105 manufacturers responded with at least some of the
information requested. A total of 26 declined to send infor-
mation, most because they were no longer in the scrubber business
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Several large companies, members of the Industrial Gas Cleaning
Institute, (IGCI), referred us to the IGCI for information on
their scrubbers. Most IGCI members responded directly to our
requests without referral to the IGCI. The IGCI was contacted
by letter and telephone, but did not supply information on the
scrubbers of its member companies. The balance of the companies
contacted were either duplicates, or else chose not to respond
to our requests.
Most scrubber manufacturers either did not have, or else
did not wish to disclose detailed information on the performance
of their products. It was decided that the fairest way to de-
scribe all manufacturers' products would be to classify them
according to the types of scrubbers supplied, and then list the
names of the manufacturers of each type of scrubber alphabetically.
This is done in Chapter Three of the Handbook. Additional infor-
mation on the performance of certain manufacturers' products was
used in writing Chapter Five, "Design Methods".
Surveying a group of manufacturers is treacherous on two
accounts: (1) Some manufacturers may be listed who do not or
no longer manufacture the products they are listed for, and
(2) manufacturers who do manufacture applicable equipment may
not be included. With regard to the first point, all the manu-
facturers listed in Chapter Three of the Handbook informed APT
that they were currently selling the equipment listed as of the
time of writing Chapter 3, Spring 1971. A sincere effort was made
to contact all scrubber manufacturers. Still, some manufacturers
are undoubtably not listed in Chapter Three. This may be be-
cause they were not listed in our manufacturers sources, or be-
cause they did not respond to our inquiries.
Scrubber Users
To find out how well scrubbers perform in controlling the
emissions from industrial processes, a survey of industrial
scrubber users was carried out. The objective was to determine
liquid rate, gas temperature, pressure drop, collection efficiency,
capital and operating costs, maintenance problems, characteristics
of gas and scrubbing liquid, size distribution of dust, power
consumption, and characteristics of product collection for speci-
fic processes to which scrubbers are applied. To develop this
information, three methods of approach were used: direct solici-
tation of data through firms managed by the sub-contractor,
Occidental Petroleum Corporation; inspection of appropriate files
of cooperative air pollution control agencies; and a mail survey
of scrubber users. Each of these methods of approach will be
briefly described.
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Occidental Petroleum has a number of subsidiaries operating
in fields where scrubbers are frequently used for the control of
air pollution. The appropriate facilities were identified and
contacted by the subcontractor. Data were obtained on a four-
page questionnaire, specifically designed to extract all pertin-
ent information while retaining sufficient generality to apply to
any conceivable scrubber. The form used is given here as Appendix
D. In all, data on sixty scrubber systems were obtained by the
subcontractor.
In conjunction with the mail survey (to be described later)
seventy-five municipal and state air pollution control agencies
were contacted. A number of the agencies were willing to pro-
vide performance data on scrubbing systems operating in their
areas of jurisdiction. All together, fairly extensive perfor-
mance data on one hundred thirty-one scrubbing systems were ob-
tained from control agencies. In all cases it was necessary
to visit the agency and spend several days there, to obtain in-
formation of sufficient detail to be useful.
A survey by mail was conducted to develop performance data
for additional scrubbers. The main tasks in the mail survey
were to: (1) identify by name and address known and potential
scrubber users, (2) find out if these users had information on
the performance of their scrubbers which might be used, (3) if
so, obtain this information.
Names and addresses of scrubber users were requested in
seventy-five letters to state and local air pollution control
officials listed in "1970-71 Directory, Governmental Air Pol-
lution Agencies", published by the Air Pollution Control Asso-
ciation. Of the seventy-five contacted, twenty-four provided
lists of scrubber users, seventeen either declined or were un-
able to provide lists, and thirty-four made no reply.
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) local chap-
ter presidents were contacted. Of the thirty approached, two
gave lists of users, seven chose not to provide lists, and
twenty-one made no reply.
Fifteen likely trade organizations were asked to provide
lists of their members using scrubbers. Three did so, five
did not, and seven did not reply.
In addition, likely scrubber users were identified in the
"California Manufacturers Index, 1970-71".
In all, 1,518 names and addresses of companies using scrub-
bers throughout the United States on a wide variety of indus-
trial processes were identified. Each of these was sent a
letter explaining the objectives of the scrubber study, and re-
questing their participation in the task of gathering performance
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data by filing in and returning an enclosed post card. This
letter is given in Appendix C. Two hundred sixteen replies
were received; one hundred thirty-two said they chose not to
participate in the survey, while eighty-four said they would.
The eighty-four users willing to participate in the survey
were next sent as many copies of the complete, four-page ques-
tionnaire in Appendix D as they had scrubbers. A covering
letter was enclosed. Meanwhile, the Federal Facilities
Branch of EPA had identified seventy-five government scrubber
installations. Scrubber manufacturers also provided names
and addresses of scrubber users. Because manv of the users had
more than one scrubber, about five hundred of the four-page
questionnaires were sent out.
If after about two months no reply to the questionnaire had
been received, a reminder was sent. Enclosed was a condensed
version of the four-page questionnaire, the thought being that
lack of response might be due to the detail in the four-page ver-
sion. See condensed questionnaire, Appendix E. About this time,
the subcontractor provided the names and addresses of twenty-
six large companies who were thought to be using scrubbers. Most
had already been contacted, but had not responded. They were
sent another letter, with copies of the condensed questionnaire
enclosed. One hundred fourteen completed questionnaires were
received as the result of the mail survey.
The total response to the scrubber users survey was, then:
sixty from the subcontractor, one hundred thirty-one from visits
to cooperative control agencies, and one hundred fourteen from
the mail survey for a grand total of three hundred five scrubber
systems described. This material was used to write Chapter Seven,
"Scrubber Performance on Industrial Emissions"and part of Section
8.4.
The information obtained in the scrubber users survey was
almost always fragmented, and was reported in any one of a number
of systems of units. To make the results useful, it was nec-
essary to convert the data reported into a consistent system
of units, and then condense the data into a useful, working for-
mat. To remain consistent with the Handbook, cgs units were used
in reporting the data obtained. Chapter 7, where the user's
data is presented, also has a brief table of conversion factors,
to enable conversion from cgs to engineering units and vice versa.
Only in a few cases was there information reported on the
properties of the gas and/or particles going into the scrubbing
system. This is because most scrubber performance tests from
which the users' data came had been performed on the scrubber's
outlet side only, to see if the scrubber passed an emission
code. As inlet gas and particle properties are important, typical
inlet characteristics for each process discussed in Chapter seven
were found in the literature and reported.
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Some of the survey results were so sketchy as to be of
questionable worth. These results were discarded, and are not
reported. On the other hand, some worthwhile scrubber perfor-
mance data were found in the literature. These data were included
in the data analysis given in Chapter Seven.
Scrubber Researchers
Our literature survey accounted for past work and accom-
plishments in the field of wet scrubbers. To get the present
day picture we conducted a scrubber researchers survey. The pur-
pose of this survey was threefold: (1) Obtain an up-to-date pic-
ture of wet scrubber research, so that present day work would not
be duplicated in our proposed research plan. (2) Explore future
research needs by asking the various investigators in the field.
(3) Complete the wet scrubber bibliography study by requesting
copies of pertinent articles.
We requested the information through a letter mailed to the
various investigators involved in the study of wet scrubber systems
and/or technology, together with researchers found to be studying
the topic. A list of addressees was obtained from the following
sources: (1) Chemical Engineering Department heads in most of the
U.S. Universities and many in Western Europe. (2) Researchers
listed in the APCA directory. (3) Participants in APCA, A.I.H.A.,
A.I.Ch.E. and other scientific meetings held during 1970-71 where
topics related to wet scrubbers was discussed. (4) "Air Pollution
Titles", published annually by the "Center for Air Environment
Studies", Pennsylvania State University. (5) Authors of pertin-
ent literature articles. (6) Consulting engineering firms active
in the field of wet scrubbers.
All together 194 letters were sent. We got back 44 replies
out of which 24 were positive, discussing present and past re-
search in fields related to wet scrubbers. Twenty replies were
negative and provided no information. Most of the suggestions
for future work were found important and are included in the
five-year research plan presented later in this report.
We did not request and did not get information on present
research and development work carried out by the various wet
scrubber manufacturers. We met with several of the larger manu-
facturer's engineers and always found that this kind of informa-
tion was classified.
To summarize, we think that between the literature study
and the researchers survey, despite the low response, we got a
good picture of present day knowledge and future research re-
quirements .
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Patents
A survey of patents related to scrubbers as listed in the
U.S. Patent Office was carried out, mainly in the Patent Office
Search Room in Washington, B.C. About two hundred fifty patents
on scrubbers were identified, noted, and acquired. The patents
were classified according to the type of device patented, and
used in the preparation of the "Scrubber Patents" section of
Chapter Three.
DESIGN METHOD DEVELOPMENT
In developing new design methods and modifying existing ones,
we used the unit mechanisms approach. Unit mechanisms are de-
fined in Chapter Four of the Handbook as follows: "Unit mechan-
isms for mass transfer and particle collection are the basic phy-
sical and chemical situations in which contaminants are taken out
of the gas." Each unit mechanism describes an interaction be-
tween a force or a gradient, a physical configuration of the col-
lector and a gaseous or particulate contaminant. Once unit mech-
anisms for various couples - of force and collector configuration -
have been quantitatively described, and their arrangement in the
collecting equipment defined, an equation predicting the collec-
tion efficiency of this particular equipment can be derived. Fur-
thermore, after an equation describing the behavior of a control
device is available, the effect of the change in various para-
meters on it's performance can be analyzed. This approach yielded
many of the design equations given in the Handbook and with further
development and refinement promises even better results. In the
following pages the methods of how this approach was utilized will
be described in some detail.
Basic Concepts
As defined above, a unit mechanism is a function of the force
acting on the particles, or the gradient in the case of mass trans-
fer, and the collector geometry only. It is assumed that variation in
the properties of the gaseous contaminant, particulates and scrub-
bing liquid can be neglected. Table 1 shows all the important
combinations of force and geometry. Not all of the important
combinations are significant; for example, gravitation is expected
to be insignificant in liquid and gas jets due to the very high
inertial effects.
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TABLE 1
UNIT MECHANISMS FOR PARTICLE SEPARATION
1. Drops
2. Cylinders
3. Bubbles
4. Sheets
5. Liquid Jets
6. Impacting Gas Jets
.
>
rt
SH
U
S
N.S.
N.S.
S
N.S.
N.S.
rt
H
•P
IH
rt
4->
in
o
JH
•P
U
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Sometimes several forces act simultaneously on the particles.
They either act all in one direction, or oppose each other. In
these cases the combined effect was obtained by summing the in-
dividual fluxes, which is the same as summing the individual
forces.
Unit mechanisms are affected by changes in the operating
conditions of the scrubber. Variation in gas flow rate are ac-
counted for in the unit mechanism equations. Changes in liquid
flow rate usually affect the concentration of available collec-
ting bodies or the aerosol residence time and are accounted for
in the integrated design equations. Changes in particle and
liquid properties, except for particle diameter and density, were
not considered in deriving the design equations, though they
should be, due to lack of adequate theories and experimental
data. However, their importance was always emphasized.
Effects of changes in operating pressure and temperature
on the different unit mechanism were analyzed and discussed in
Chapter 4. Opposing views found in the literature regarding
the effect of particle concentration on collection efficiency and
on the unit mechanism equations were quoted. However, it is our
opinion that so long as particle concentration is below the level
where particles hinder the movement of one another, their concen-
tration does not effect collection efficiency.
Design Methods for Various Scrubber Groups
The unit mechanisms equations can be used as building blocks
to obtain design equations for various scrubber designs. The
first step is to analyze the scrubber in question; find out how
the gas flows, what serves as particle or gas collector, and what
shape the collector takes. Are there several different collec-
tion stages and are they arranged in series or parallel to one
another? What is the total collecting surface area, what percen-
tage of the theoretically available collecting area is actually
used, and what percentage is wasted? Is there an appreciable
change in particle properties when passing through the collector,
what forces are responsible for collection, and what is their
magnitude? In most cases the force magnitude is a direct func-
tion of another quantity, such as relative velocity between par-
ticle and collector, temperature gradient, humidity, etc.
When analyzing the various collecting devices available in
the market, we found out that they can all be grouped in ten basic
groups. The same unit mechanisms, namely the same force and
collector geometry, is responsible for all, or the major part
of the collection in all the devices which belong to one group.
The various devices within one group usually differ in flow
rates, percentage active collecting surface area, and the changes
in particle and liquid properties which take place within the
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device. A commercial scrubber may include more than one collec-
tion device in one unit. For example, in the "mobile bed" scrub-
ber the gas passes first through a liquid spray, then through a
sieve plate, a packed bed, a foam region, and finally exits
through a baffled entrainment separator.
When only one unit mechanism applies, or when one mechanism
is responsible for most of the collection, integration over all
the collecting bodies yields the collection efficiency equation
for the device. Collection equations so derived were then tested
against experimental results. In some cases the agreement with
theory was good, in others, curve fitting yielded the experimental
coefficients required for closer description and prediction of
the efficiency. In the "mobile bed" example given earlier, it
was felt that the packed bed section contributes the major part
of the collection. Thus the packed bed unit mechanism equation
was compared with experimental results for mobile beds and the
experimental coefficients determined.
The major difficulty encountered when using this procedure
for deriving the design equations in the Handbook, was the lack
of good and reliable collection efficiency data.
Evaluation of Available Methods
When conducting the literature survey various design methods
for different scrubbers were found. Several of these methods
are empirical while others are based on a theoretical approach.
However, we did not find any attempt to unify the field of par-
ticle collection through one approach as we did through the unit
mechanism. No existing design method claimed to be an overall
wet scrubber theory for particle collection. The literature on
mass transfer in more extensive and several theories which cover
the field from different angles are available.
A few of the particle collection equations found in the
literature were adequate for our unit mechanism approach and
were included in the Handbook. These included: Langmuir and
Blodget approach and solution to the collection by spheres and
cylinders, Davies equations for impacting jets and deposition
on ducts and pipes, Calvert's equations for Venturi and packed
column, and several others.
In other design methods found in the literature, an empirical
approach was taken and empirical equations or rules resulted.
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The major disadvantage of these empirical methods is that they
could not be applied outside the domain that they describe and
they can not make predictions. An example is the power law,
which is a good rule of thumb if applied within its range of
application. However, as shown in the Handbook through the
venturi equations, this rule gives only a partial picture and
can only correlate data already at hand.
Whenever existing equations, that were not derived through
the unit mechanism approach, were available, these equations were
compared together with our derived equations to available experi-
mental results. All the design methods are usually listed in the
Handbook and the one that agreed best with experimental results
is recommended.
Augmentation of Methods
The major obejctive of the "Basic Concepts" and "Design
Methods" chapters in the Handbook is to present a unified approach
to the field of particulate scrubbing. Wherever design methods
are not available for existing devices, or when a designer has a
new wet scrubber in mind, the equations or the approach presented
in the Handbook should be used to obtain a suitable design method.
Many of the design equations are plotted in the Handbook
to help the design engineer see the trend resulting from changes
in the equipment geometry or the operating variables. These plots
also reduce the calculation time required for the prediction of
equipment performance. Design examples are presented in Chapter
9 to clarify the calculation methods when employing these charts.
Simple approximate estimation methods based mainly on the
particle aerodynamic diameter as a measure of the difficulty of
separation are also presented. With the help of this estimation
method one can obtain a fast approximation of the type and size
of equipment that will give the desired collection efficiency.
Example Problems
Example problems are used where necessary in the book to
illustrate a concept or an approach to solving a problem. In those
sections dealing with the theory of scrubber design and performance,
primarily Chapters 4 and 5, example problems are intertwined with
the text, and serve to point out how a particular point or equa-
tion discussed can be used. Chapter 9 is entirely devoted to ex-
ample problems and shows how the design methods discussed earlier
in the Handbook for calculating the design of various components
of a scrubber design can be used to engineer a complete scrubbing
system.
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The example problems, or design examples, illustrating a
particular point are as follows:
4.2.6.4 Instantaneous Reaction Criteria
4.2.7.5 Reactive Solids Slurry
4.5.1 Unit Mechanisms for Mass Transfer: Drops
(2 Examples)
4.5.2 Unit Mechanisms for Mass Transfer: Bubbles
(2 Examples)
4.7 Effect of Pressure § Temperature on Collection of
Particles in Wet Scrubbers
5.2.2.2 Column Diameter (Plate Columns)
5.2.2.3 Pressure Drop (Plate Columns)(2 Examples)
5.2.2.4 Column Height (Plate Columns)
5.2.3.2 Column Diameter (Packed Column)
5.3.3.2 Particle Collection Efficiency (Packed Column)
5.3.4.7 Fiber Packing: Particle Collection Efficiency
5.3.10 Mechanically Aided Scrubber: Particle Collection
(2 Examples)
The example problems listed in Chapter 9 are more extensive
and serve to bring together the approaches to designing a scrub-
ber system and its components described in earlier chapters of
the Handbook. Chapter 9 is for the purpose of clarifying the
design methods, enabling the reader to check his calculation
method for computational errors, and for tying a few loose ends.
Most of the examples center on the scrubber performance itself
and a few are fairly extensive. Mass transfer examples are pre-
sented in Chapter 5 in many instances, for more effective rela-
tionship to the text, but they are listed under 9.3.2 to ensure
that the reader can find them.
Some discussion of "trouble shooting',' (i.e. the solution
of operating problems) is given in Section 9.4. Recognition of
the sorts of possible difficulties one may encounter has an ob-
vious beneficial effect on the design of scrubbers. Thus the
last part of this chapter serves as a reminder of the many fac-
tors besides scrubber efficiency to consider in system design,
selection, operation, and maintenance.
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The example calculations presented in Chapter 9 are listed
below:
9.3.1 Particle Separation Calculations
9.3.1.1 Plates
9.3.1.2 Packed Beds
9.3.1.3 Fiber Bed
9.3.1.4 Preformed Sprays
9.3.1.5 Gas Atomized Spray
9.3.1.6 Centrifugal
9.3.1.7 Secondary Flow
9.3.1.8 Impingement and Entrainment
9.3.2 Mass Transfer Calculations
9.3.3 Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction Calculations
9.3.4 Example Problem: Coal Dryer Exhaust
9.3.5 Example Problem: Application of Diffusiophoresis
and Particle Growth to a Rock Wool Cupola
9.3.6 Example Problem: Phosphoric Acid Plant Fluoride
Scrubbing
9.4 Trouble Shooting
OPTIMIZATION
Optimization is a procedure used in the design of a process,
such as a scrubbing system, which helps make the process design
"best" in some regard. Two criteria frequently encountered in
the design of scrubbers are cost of the scrubber system (to be
minimized), and performance or efficiency of the system (to be
maximized). Other measures might be ease of maintenance, low
space requirement, reliability, or any other factor which contri-
butes to the scrubbing systems relationship with the job it has
to do.
Frequently, optimizations from more than one standpoint are
carried out simultaneously. For example, it might be desired to
design a scrubber to achieve maximum efficiency at minimum an-
nualized cost. The data inputs with which optimization is carried
out will vary depending upon the situation of the designer. For
example, water and power costs can vary widely according to local
rates, and the quantity the user consumes. An economic optimi-
zation based upon one set of economic data would show different
results from a similar optimization based upon different economic
inputs. It is difficult if not impossible to give meaningful re-
sults from an optimization procedure for the design of wet scrub-
ber system from any standpoint, without making a number of crucial
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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assumptions which may or may not reflect the situation a practi-
cal designer faces. Optimization results based on incorrect
assumptions can be highly misleading.
The methods and techniques used in an optimization procedure
and examples of how these techniques might be used in a realistic
optimization problem are presented in Section 8.5 of the Handbook.
In Section 8.5, first the general approach to optimization is
discussed. The application of these principles to scrubber design
is illustrated by the optimization of a venturi scrubber for maxi-
mum efficiency at a fixed pressure drop. A more complex optimi-
zation procedure is illustrated for the performance of a cyclone
collector.
Another possibility for optimization may lie in using several
collectors in series or in parallel. An example of devices in
series might be a cyclone precleaner before a venturi or centri-
fugal scrubber controlling the emissions from an asphalt plant
drier, or several impingement plates in series in a single impinge-
ment plate scrubber. Section 8.5 discusses the manner in which
the efficiency of collectors in series or in parallel can be cal-
culated, and the subsequent pressure drop.
OTHER AREAS FOR APPLICATION
The search for potential new applications for scrubbers is
essentially a matter of reviewing the control technology for
specific air pollution sources and identifying those areas which
report no use or limited use of scrubbers. There are usually some
reasons given for not using scrubbers and one must examine them
and then speculate first as to whether they are valid. In some
cases, for instance, it is stated that scrubbers are not used be-
cause they are incapable of providing high enough collection ef-
ficiency, while in reality this judgment is based on outdated or
incorrect information. We can readily determine or predict
whether a desired level of performance is attainable.
In other cases the reason that scrubbers are not used is
that they are too expensive. Dealing with this question is more
difficult than predicting performance. So many factors enter
into the economics of a process that they must be dealt with
pretty much on an individual case basis. Thus, we can generalize
that scrubbing would be worthy of consideration for a certain
type of application, but one would have to check it out in detail
to get realistic costs.
Some applications would be rather far-fetched, although we
would hesitate to say impossible. Space limitations, the unde-
sirability of a system which requires any attention, corrosion
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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problems, liquid supply or disposal limitations, and other con-
straints may rule out scrubbers; at least as now available.
The "check lists" of potential applications were obtained
from various publications and reports dealing with either source
control or device applications, from our survey of users and manu-
facturers, and from speculation and analysis by staff members.
Judgments of potentiality were made in the light of the scrubber
system study.
RESEARCH NEEDS AND PLAN
Paragraph (5) in the "Scope of Work" described the objec-
tives and scope of the research plan as follows:
"(5) Develop Specific Research Recommendations
Plan A
Two 5-year research and development programs, .--.. ..
and Plan B, are to be developed as a product of this study. Plan
A should be based on an assumed total expenditure of two million
dollars. Plan B should be based on an assumed total expenditure
of seven million dollars. In each plan, priorities should be as-
signed to the various component projects to allow for program
flexibility. "
"Each plan will recommend specific research and development
required to provide technology where deficiencies exist and gen-
erate needed data to improve process performance and economics
to permit expansion of wet scrubber application to the control of
additional air pollution sources. Each recommendation for re-
search should include an indication of priority and a detailed
description of the research proposed, including the purpose,
goals, proposed work statements, recommended approach, and esti-
mated time and cost schedules."
The approach taken was to analyze and review each research
subject, determine if it provides technology where deficiency
exists and if it improves process performance and economics of
wet scrubber application - in line with the requirements set for-
ward in the "Scope of Work". Priorities were determined by eval-
uation of pressing industry needs in relation to wet scrubber areas
of strength (a more detailed discussion is given in the "Research
Plan" Chapter).
To prepare the two research plans called for in the "Scope
of Work" we followed this 7 point procedure:
1. All the members of the Wet Scrubber Project staff were
requested to write down the research needs and ideas which occurred
to them during the work.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
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2. Research needs were also obtained through the researchers
survey.
3. The research ideas were collected once a month and cir-
culated to the project staff.
4. The ideas were reviewed and analyzed periodically to
determine their relevance, need and priority.
5. When preparing the final report all the ideas were again
screened and had their final priority rating determined.
6. The cost, time and manpower required to achieve the es-
tablished goals of the various ideas were estimated.
7. Two final research plans were determined. The various
projects were arranged according to their priority, logical time
order and reduced load in the first and last years to allow
phasing in and out.
The two research plans are submitted in the chapter on the
"Research Plan". The research subjects were chosen and written
in accordance with the guide lines established in the "Scope of
Work." Priorities were assigned following the reasoning estab-
lished in the "Research Plan" Chapter.
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RESULTS
SCRUBBERS AVAILABLE
Many different scrubbers are offered for sale by many
companies. Still more scrubbers have been patented, but are
not currently being manufactured. Due to the diversity in
scrubber design, performance, and cost, statements broad enough
to apply to all scrubbers are so general that they are seldom
useful. However, it is possible to divide the various types of
scrubbers into ten groups based largely on their operating prin-
ciples. The characteristics of each group can then be discus-
sed in more specific terms than would otherwise be the case.
These groups provide the framework for discussing scrub-
ber design (Chapter 5) and experience (Chapter 7) in the Hand-
book. The ten scrubber groups are defined by us as follows:
plate, massive packing, fibrous packing, preformed spray, gas-
atomized spray, centrifugal, baffle, impingement and entrain-
ment, mechanically aided, moving bed, and combination. These
groups are described and illustrated in detail.
The manufacturers and the trade names of scrubbers in
each of the ten categories are tabulated in Chapter 3 of the
Handbook. Likewise, patents are tabulated according to the
same organization and identified by numer, date, assignee,
and a brief comment on the nature of the concept.
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HANDBOOK CONTENTS
The Wet Scrubber Handbook contains a wide variety of
material pertaining to wet scrubbers. The material covers
all aspects of solving a wet scrubber problem, from determin-
ing what information is necessary to design a scrubber, through
the treatment of liquid and solid wastes coming from the scrubber
To provide insight into the depth and scope of the material
covered in the Handbook, the chapter and major section titles are
listed below.
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Scope
1.2 Approach
1.3 Handbook Format
1.4 Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 2 - GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Define the Problem
2.2 Explore Alternate Solutions
2.3 Decide How to Control the Problem
2.4 General Approach to Scrubbers
2.5 Detailed Considerations
2.6 Operate the System Properly
CHAPTER 3 - SCRUBBERS AVAILABLE
3.1 Types of Scrubbers
3.2 Commercially Available Scrubbers
3.3 Scrubber Patents
CHAPTER 4 - BASIC CONCEPTS
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1 Introduction
2 General Concepts of Mass Transfer
3 General Concepts of Particle Collection
4 Gas-Liquid Contacting
5 Unit Mechanisms for Mass Transfer
6 Unit Mechanisms for Particle Separation
7 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Collection
of Particles in Wet Scrubbers
CHAPTER 5 - DESIGN METHODS
5.1 Introduction
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
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5.2 Mass Transfer
5.3 Particle Separation
5.4 Scrubbed Liquid Entrainment Separators
CHAPTER 6 - AUXILIARIES
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Gas Moving
6.3 Liquid Moving
6.4 Entrainment Separators
6.5 Solvent Recycle
6.6 Sampling and Analysis
6.7 Controls
6.8 Health and Safety
CHAPTER 7 - SCRUBBER PERFORMANCE ON INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Process Utilizing Scrubbers
7.3 Generalizations Regarding Scrubber Use
CHAPTER 8 - SYSTEM ANALYSIS, COSTS, AND OPTIMIZATION
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Design Analysis
8.3 Scrubber Cost Estimation Methods
8.4 Cost Analysis
8.5 Optimization
CHAPTER 9 - DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General Approach
9.3 Example Calculations
9.4 Trouble Shooting
CHAPTER 10 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Estimation Methods
10.3 Explanatory Notes
10.4 Physical and Chemical Data
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CHAPTER 11 - MATERIALS DATA
11.1 Introduction
11.2 General Conditions
11.3 Plastics
11.4 Chemicals
11.5 Miscellaneous Solutions and Gases
CHAPTER 12 - LIQUID AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Industry Survey
12.3 Sedimentation
12.4 Coagulation and Flocculation
12.5 Filtration
12.6 Neutralization and Chemical Precipitation
12.7 Ion Exchange
12.8 Desalting
12.9 Disposal of Liquid
12.10 Disposal of Solids
12.11 Economics
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ANALYSIS OF SCRUBBER PRACTICE
As discussed previously, a survey of scrubber users was
carried out to define current practice in the application of wet
scrubbers to the control of industrial emissions. The results of
this survey are presented industry by industry in Chapter Seven
of the Handbook.
In the material presented here, generalizations and conclu-
sions based on the data in Chapter Seven are presented. Trends
in scrubber application and performance will be pointed out.
Unit Processes to Which Scrubbers are Applied
A unit process is a processing step which is common to se-
veral industries. Seven unit processes to which scrubbers are
frequently applied are: calciners, fuel burners, crushers, driers,
gases, liquid mists and smelters. For example, the scrubbers ap-
plied to the calciners used in the lime, cement, and wood pulp
industries, can be considered as a group. Similarly, the liquid
mist scrubbers used in the sulfuric acid and electroplating in-
dustries can also be considered as a group.
The sections below are devoted to the scrubbers applied to
the seven unit processes identified above. In the tables, note
that the entries in parentheses refer to the number of scrubbers
which were available from the survey (Chapter 7) and were analyzed
to obtain a datum entry.
Calcining Processes
The industrial processes from which data were extracted and
developed for the calcining processes section include: limestone
calcining, lime sludge calcining, kraft pulp process recovery
furnaces, and cement kilns. All utilize a high temperature gas
to chemically alter the material being processed. Only particu-
late emissions are considered here. The scrubbers used to con-
trol calcining processes are described in Table 2,
Venturi scrubbers are most commonly applied to calcining
operations, and comprise 70 percent of the scrubbers installed
according to the present survey. Simple sprays are also used.
The average venturi installation processes less gas, but is more
efficient than the average spray. However, venturi systems can
also be made to handle large gas flows. Self-induced spray
scrubbers are also used. As only three scrubbers of this type
were found in the survey, firm conclusions can not be hastily
drawn as to their performance.
Combustion Processes
Data for combustion processes were distilled from informa-
tion on steam boilers used for power generation, and on waste
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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incinerators. Both processes exhaust products of combustion.
Table 3 gives this data.
No clear trends emerge. Many different types of scrubbers
have been tried - no single type emerges as the definite favor-
ite. An insufficient number of scrubbers have been examined to
make definite statements as to efficiency capabilities of various
types of scrubbers. It may be noteworthy, however, that the
single spray scrubber for which data is available, performed
relatively poorly.
Crushers and Mills
Crushers are used to reduce the size of many kinds of ore,
stone, as well as finished mineral products. Data on this unit
process is given in Table 4 .
Information on the application of scrubbers to crushing pro-
cesses is spotty. Centrifugal scrubbers were employed in the pre-
ponderence of applications surveyed. However, efficiency data
are lacking. Any judgments as to typical efficiencies based on
the data in Table 4 would be rash.
Driers
Data on fluidized bed, rotary and spray driers are included
in Table 5. These devices are used to drive the moisture from
minerals, manufactured chemicals and foodstuffs.
Several types of scrubbers have been applied. The most pop-
ular is the centrifugal, followed by the venturi and the moving
bed. Centrifugal scrubbers are apparently applied to smaller
installations than those to which venturi scrubbers are applied.
Average efficiency for centrifugal and venturi scrubbers is about
equal, as is the highest efficiency encountered. Average and
highest efficiencies for the moving bed scrubber are slightly
less.
Gases
A wide range of polluting gases can be captured through the
application of a suitable scrubber. The data presented in Table
6 reflects the application of scrubbers to the fifteen gases noted
on that table.
Almost half of all gas scrubbers are packed towers. Better
than a quarter are spray towers. The remaining applications in-
volve every other type of scrubber listed, except for baffle type
scrubbers. Packed towers are shown to be capable of high effi-
ciencies. For very large gas flow rates, spray towers and ven-
turi scrubbers have been used.
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Liquid Mists
Data on scrubbers used to capture liquid mists come from
the acid manufacturing and electroplating industries. These
data are given on Table 7.
Packed towers are most frequently used to control liquid
mist emissions. They are also apparently the most effective
at so doing. Fiber beds and sprays are used for larger instal-
lations, and perform with somewhat inferior efficiency.
Smelting
Pyrometallurgical processes supply the data presented in
Table 8.
The venturi scrubber is by far the most popular type for
the control of pyrometallurgical emissions. It is applied to
both very small and very large installations. Efficiency is
variable, but has reached high values.
Spray scrubbers have been applied, but are decidedly infer-
ior to other types of scrubber in efficiency in this application
Moving bed scrubbers have displayed good efficiency.
Processes to Which Each Type of Scrubber is Applied
Ten types of scrubbers are used. They differ in layout,
efficiency and performance. Their distinguishing layouts are
discussed in Chapter 3 of the Handbook, while efficiency and
performance are described in Chapter 5 of the Handbook.
Scrubbers are frequently applied to the seven unit proces-
ses discussed in the preceeding sections. This section points
out those processes to which each type of scrubber is applied,
the relative number of scrubbers used in each process, and the
overall popularity of each type of scrubber.
The processes to which each type of scrubber is applied are
given in Table 14, The data were taken from the survey of scrub-
ber users performed in conjunction with this study, and des-
cribed in Section 7.2 of the Handbook.
Plate type scrubbers are most frequently applied to drying
processes, although they are also applied to combustion and
smelting processes, and for pollutant gas removal.
Fiber bed scrubbers, like packed towers, are used to cap-
ture pollutant gases and liquid mists.
Spray chambers are used to capture gases. They are also
applied to smelting operations (wet caps) and very occasionally
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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to calcining, combustion, drying processes, and for the collec-
tion of liquid mists.
Venturi scrubbers are used most frequently on smelting oper-
ations. They are also used on calcining and drying processes, and
occasionally for pollutant gas collection and for control of com-
bustion processes.
Most centrifugal scrubbers are applied to driers. Some are
applied to crushing. Centrifugal scrubbers are seldom used to
control processes other than these.
Baffle scrubbers have rarely been used. The only application
uncovered in the users survey was to a drying process.
Self-induced spray scrubbers are applied to calcining, com-
bustion and crushing processes, and for pollutant gas collection.
Few applications of mechanically aided scrubbers were un-
covered in the users survey. Those applications noted were to
drying and smelting processes, and for pollutant gas removal.
Moving bed scrubbers are applied most frequently to drying
processes. They are also used to control smelting and combustion
processes, and for the control of crushers and polluting gases.
Sales of Scrubbers Compared With Other Equipment
Other types of control equipment than scrubbers are often
used on the processes which have been discussed in the preceeding
sections. Table 9 lists the sales in 1967 of all types of air
pollution control equipment. This table is adapted from "Indust-
trial Gas Cleaning Equipment Shipments and End Use - 1967", pre-
pared by the U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, B.C. 20230
(10$) . The figures given are for uninstalled equipment.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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TABLE 2
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM CALCINING PROCESSES*
(D
3
C
3.
^Ji
a
**•
o
-3
(D
n
ET
3
O
3
O
% each
type used
Low
Through-
put , Avg .
(m3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg.
(%) High
Plate
(D
3
(D
1700
(1J
55
-
Packec
Tower
CD
3
(1)
1700
-
UJ
70
-
1 Fiber
Bed
CO)
0
_
-
_
-
-
Spray
(S)
15
270
C5)
103.600
220,000
85
(
in
o
*>.
o
-------
3
er
5'
8
*-•
o
3
TABLE 3
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION PROCESSES*
1 each
type used
Low
Through-
put, Avg.
Cm3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg.
m High
Plate
(3)
25
255
(3)
2390
5400
27.8
(3)
72.5
99
Packec
Tower
CO)
0
-
_
_
_
-
Fiber
Bed
CO)
0
_
_
_
.
-
Spray
(2)
17
_
CD
327, OOC
_
mm
CD
29
-
Venturi
(2)
17
3400
(2)
1,265,000
2,530,000
95
(2)
97.3
99.7
Centri-
fugal
CD
8
_
(D
51,300
.
(D
99
-
Baffle
CO)
0
_
_
_
—
-
Impg.§
Entr.
(2)
17
1800
(*")
2000
2200
.
CD
90
Mech .
Aided
CO)
0
_
_
_
.
-
Moving
Bed
C2)
17
1340
C^)
425,000
850,000
99
(2)
99.3
99.6
Total
(12)
101
0)
o
X
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highest values found in the scrubber survey
^Includes:
Power generation boilers
Waste incinerators
-------
TABLE 4
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM CRUSHERS AND MILLS*
2:
5'
c . ,
5. % each
•£ type used
5'
3 Low
J^ Through -
g. put, Avg.
3 ,
£- CmVhr)High
3* Low
o Effic-
iency Avg .
CD High
Plate
CD
7
-
CD
30.000
-
-
-
Packed
Power
CO)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Fiber
Bed
CO)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Spray
CO)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Venturi
CO)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Centri-
fugal
(ID
79
8500
(ID
43,000
110,000
-
CD
99 9
-
Baffle
(0)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Entr.
CD
7
-
CD
16,100
-
-
CD
95
-
Mech .
Aided
CO)
0
-
-
-
-
~
-
Moving
Bed
CD
7
-
U)
4250
-
-
(1)
98.7
-
Total
(14)
100
Tl
b
m
o
x
m
a
m
o
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highest values found in the scrubber
survey.
+Includes:
Ore crushing
Stone crushing
Phosphate rock crushing
ID
f\J
s
N)
-------
TABLE 5
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM DRIERS+
n
Q
% each
type used
Low
Through-
put, Avg.
Cm3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg.
f%) High
Plate
(7)
9
71,500
(7)
02,000
540,000
_
-
'acked
Tower
(0)
0
_
_
_
m
_
-
Fiber
Bed
CO)
0
.
_
_
.
_
-
Spray
(4)
5
21,800
(4)
32,000
42,500
85
(3)
94
99
Venturi
(19)
25
37,400
(13)
150,000
344,000
91
(8)
97.8
99.7
Centri-
fugal
(30)
40
8500
129)
54,100
119,000
81
(17)
97.4
99.7
Baffle
CD
1
-
(1)
102, OOC
.
_
-
-
Impg.§
Entr.
(0)
0
-
-
_
_
-
-
Mech.
Aided
(1)
1
-
U)
17,000
-
_
(1)
99
-
Moving
Bed
(14)
19
4250
(14)
37,100
100,000
89.7
(1ZJ
96.5
98.8
Total
(75)
100
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highest values found in the scrubber survey
+Includes:
Fluidized Bed Driers
Rotary Driers
Spray Driers
-------
TABLE 6
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL GASES+
3
2!
(D
o
Q
i—••
O
3
H
(D
O
3*
3
o
T)
O
ID
O
X
3)
m
o
m
o
% each
type used
Low
Through-
put, Avg.
(m3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg .
(%) High
Plate
(3)
4
2230
(3)
31.40C
48,000
71
(3)
87
96.7
Packed
Tower
(33)
46
17
(32)
8600
51,000
70
(26)
94.6
99.9
Fiber
Bed
(2)
3
4250
(2)
87.000
170.000
92
(2)
94.3
96.7
Spray
(18)
30
42
(17)
34.500
170,000
89
(12)
93.7
99.8
Venturi
(10)
14
142
C9)
36,600
170,000
70
(8)
90
99.7
Centri-
fugal
CD
1
(D
42 .500
_
_
CD
99.8
-
Baffle
CO)
0
.
.
_
.
-
Impg.§
Entr.
CD
1
CD
6800
.
CD
36
-
Mech .
Aided
(2)
3
CD
1450
57
(2)
73
90
Moving
Bed
CD
1
CD
1340
CD
82
-
Total
(71)
102
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highest values found in the scrubber survey
+Includes;
H^O
Acrylic monomers
Formaldehyde
HF
HC1
odors
H2S
NH4OH
NH7
SiF4
S0y
ClJ
-------
TABLE 7
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL LIQUID MISTS"
o
Q
5'
H
0>
n
3
O
3
O
TJ
b
OD
O
X
m
% each
type used
Low
Through-
put, Avg.
(m3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg.
CD High
Plate
CO)
0
.
_
-
.
_
Packed
Tower
(11)
65
2040
(10)
35,600
85,000
50
(8)
86.6
99.3
Fiber
Bed
(3)
18
3400
(3)
54,200
156,000
78
(3)
83.3
88
Spray
(3)
18
25,200
(3)
45,000
85,000
51
(2)
70
90
Venturi
(0)
0
.
-
—
Centri-
fugal
(0)
0
.
-
_
Baffle
(0)
0
_
<—
Impg . §
Entr.
(0)
0
_
Mech.
Aided
(0)
0
_
Moving
Bed
(0)
0
_
Total
(17)
101
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highes-t values found in the scrubber survey
•••Includes:
Chromic acid
Sulfuric acid
Nitric acid
Hydrochloric acid
-u
tn
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TABLE 8
SCRUBBERS USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM SMELTING OPERATIONS*
3
CP
5'
3
3
i^-
o
3
H
0>
n
3-
3
O
3
O
T]
O
OJ
O
X
% each
type used
Low
Through-
put, Avg.
(m3/hr)High
Low
Effic-
iency Avg .
CD High
Plate
(3)
4
52,400
(2)
98.00C
143,000
91
C2)
93
95
Packed
Tower
CD
1
-
CD
8150
-
-
-
-
Fiber
Bed
(0)
0
-
-
-
-
-
-
Spray
(8)
11
68
(3)
20,400
41,300
68
(2)
83
97.5
Venturi
(54)
76
500
(51)
73,700
400,000
72.5
(41)
95.5
99.7
Centri-
fugal
CO)
0
-
-
_
_
-
-
Baffle
CO)
0
-
-
»
_
-
-
tmpg.S
Entr .
CO)
0
-
-
_
^
-
-
Mech.
Aided
CD
1
-
(D
8500
_
_
CD
95
-
Moving
Bed
(4)
6
34,000
C4)
54,500
85,000
95
(3)
98.7
99
Total
(71)
99
Notes: Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers analysed to obtain
data entry.
Low and High values are lowest and highest values found in the scrubber survey
m
D
m
n
to
M
g
+Includes:
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
Iron Foundries
Ferroalloy Furnaces
Copper Smelting
Aluminum Smelting
Nonferrous Reclaimation Smelting
-------
if
a
a
N-«
o
3
0>
n
3
o
3
n
TJ
0
CD
O
X
(/I
TABLE 9
INDUSTRIAL GAS CLEANING EQUIPMENT - MANUFACTURER'S SHIPMENTS BY INDUSTRY, 1967
(Purchase Price in Thousands of Dollars)
Industry
Iron § Steel
Utilities
Chemicals
Rock Products
Pulp § Paper
Mining § Metal-
lurgical
Refinery
All Clear(4;)
Exports
Totals
Total
Shipments
24,317
18,481
15,870
8,966
6,753
6,160
4,098
20,206
5,744
110,595
Adsorbers
§
Incinerators
(2)
CD
1,001
(1)
CD
CD
282
2,137
79
3,976
Electrost.
Precip .
5,783
15,506
1,207
2,760
CD
CD
CD
687
CD
36,509
Fabric
Filters
4,536
CD
5,344
3,602
122
1,855
CD
4,959
1,081
21,730
Mech .
CCyclone)
Collec.
2,300
2,476
3,130
1,038
802
389
CD
8,408
CD
22,381
Sen
Gases
4,275
CD
1,479
CD
193
394
CD
114
72
6,770
bbers
Particles
7,423
CD
3,704
1,142
989
825
CD
3,901
651
19,229
Notes:
CD
(2)
(3)
Not published to avoid disclosure.
Gas incinerators and absorbers purchased by iron $ steel companies are included
in "all others" category to avoid disclosure.
"Rock Products" includes cement § asbestos.
"ALL other" includes shipments to distributors where end use cannot be
identified. .&.
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48
OTHER AREAS OF APPLICATION
Scrubbers are used in a wide variety of applications, as
the preceeding section shows. Yet there are many situations
in which they are not used or are little used, and the question
comes to mind; whether this is as it should be.
The choice of any air pollution control device depends on
a number of factors. Obviously, the performance must be adequate
to the needs and the system must fit within any other constraints
that exist. Given that the system can do the job, the big ques-
tion is: "What will it cost, both for investment and operation?"
Ideally, the questions of performance and cost are correctly
dealt with. Actually, there are many instances in which the
correct decision was not made. Sometimes the problem itself
is not properly defined so that the particulate loading or size,
or gas composition, or flow rate, or other factors are not
known with adequate accuracy. Additionally, there are cases
where the control device performance and cost characteristics
were not known or where a suitable alternative was not considered.
In an effort to ensure that worth-while opportunities for
the further exploitation of scrubbers are not overlooked, some
effort has been directed to the search for such prospects.
Potential Applications
As we search for potential applications there are some ge-
neral ideas about which situations would be positive and negative
in terms of possibilities. First, to list the conditions under
which new or increased application is possible, we can identify
them as where:
1. Performance requirements change so that alternatives
should be re-evaluated. Often this occurs when A.P.C.
(air pollution control) laws become more restrictive
and require greater efficiency of control or the con-
trol of gases as well as particulates. Sometimes the
source process or materials change so as to change
the nature of the effluent.
2. Scrubbers improve. The decision to use one type of
A.P.C. equipment may have been made a number of years
ago and it has not been re-examined in the light of
new developments.
3. Scrubber systems get cheaper. Compared to capital and/
or operating costs for other systems scrubber costs may
be competitive in applications where this was not pre-
viously the case.
4. Accessory problems can now be solved satisfactorily. A
number of auxiliary equipment or process problems such
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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as fan corrosion or cost, liquid treatment, stack cor-
rosion, entrainment separation, and waste disposal
might now be economically resolved.
5. Scrubbers never were that bad. People have a tendency
to remember only a few simple "facts" and have, in
some cases, been misinformed about scrubbers.
6. They never thought of using one. Decisions to install
A.P.C. equipment are sometimes made by non-technical
people, or even technical people, who simply never con-
sidered the possibility of using a scrubber and perhaps
never heard of them.
Negative Factors
While we are reluctant to state that anything is impossible,
there are situations where it is quite unlikely that a scrubber
would be a good choice. Some factors which would exert a nega-
tive influence on the choice of a scrubber are where:
1. Liquid is not economically available. For mass trans-
fer this means that a suitable solvent either is not
known or is too expensive. For particle collection it
may simply mean that even water is not available.
2. Liquid recycle or waste disposal are not economical
or possible. If cleanup of the scrubber effluent li-
quid is not possible or worth doing, there comes a
point where a liquid effluent must be discharged and
this may not be possible.
3. Space not available. Scrubbers do require a signifi-
cant amount of space (although not as much as some
other devices) and for some applications the total re-
quirements on performance-space-power may make another
device clearly superior.
4. High efficiency on about O.Sym diameter particles is
required. This is the "low spot" in scrubber perfor-
mance within present technology, although possibilities
exist for overcoming it in some cases.
5. Low or moderate efficiency will suffice. If the par-
ticle size is large, a mechanical collector may be the
much simpler and cheaper way to get the necessary per-
formance .
6. Corrosion is severe for wet scrubbers. In some cases,
the dry gas is much less corrosive than when water is
present.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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7. High temperature must be maintained. Although molten
salts and high-boiling organic liquids have been used
for some applications, it may be that a suitable li-
quid and liquid handling system are not known or econo-
mical for others.
8. Collected dust or gas is re-used and is deteriorated
by liquid contact. In cases where the effluent can
be returned to the process or sold as product, it
might be prohibitively expensive to recover it from
scrubber liquid as compared to a dry A.P.C. system.
9. Complexity can not be tolerated. When the time or op-
portunity for maintenance is severely limited or when
the operating labor is not competent, a scrubber might
require too much attention.
10. Operating cost is more important than investment. De-
pending on the capital position, management policy, and
complexities such as taxes, it might be more desirable
for a company to spend more on the initial investment
and less on operating cost than a scrubber would require.
Survey of Potential
The major method of finding new applications for scrubbers
is to look for situations in which they have not been used and
where "the competition" has been selling equipment. Surveys by
APT and others (MRI, "Particulate Systems Handbook", 1970; SRI,
"Electrostatic Precipitation Handbook", 1970; GCA, "Fabric Filter
Handbook", 1970; and NAPCA, "Control Techniques for Particulate
Air Pollutants", 1969) are good sources of this kind of infor-
mation.
The NAPCA (1969) document presents a tabulation of data on
the use of particulate collectors by industry, which is repro-
duced in Table 10. We have added the column labeled "More W.S." to
indicate possible new applications for wet scrubbers. They are
generally those for which scrubbers are not now used to any signi-
ficant extent. While we have considered the question of whether
required performance could be obtained, we have not computed costs
to establish economic feasibility. The economics are so complex as
to preclude any broad generalization and must be evaluated for each
specific case.
The APT surveys of scrubber users and manufacturers have
yielded some generalizations on scrubber use as shown in the pre-
vious section of this report. Some leads as to potential appli-
cations have been extracted from that material.
The processes covered are calcining, chemical, food and feed,
metallurgical, and combustion. Table 11 lists processes where
scrubber application potential exists, and the characteristics of
the emissions these scrubbers will have to control.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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TABLE 10
USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY
Industrial Classification
Utilities § industrial
power plants
Pulp and Paper
Rock Products
Steel
Mining and Metallurgical
Process
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
Lignite
Wood and Bark
Bagasse
Fluid Coke
Kraft
Soda
Lime Kiln
Chemical
Dissolver tank
vents
Cement
Phosphate
Gypsum
Alumina
Lime
Bauxite
Magnes . Oxide
Blast Furnace
Open hearth
Basic oxygen
furnace
Electric . Furnace
Sintering
Coke Ovens
Ore Roasters
Cupola
Pyrites roaster
Taconite
Hot scarfing
Zinc roaster
Zinc smelter
Copper roaster
Copper reverb
Copper converter
Lead furnace
Aluminum
Elemental Phos.
Ilmenite
Titanium dioxide
Molybdenum
EP
0
0
0
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
0
0
0
+
0
0
0
+
0
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
MC FF
0
0
0
0
0
+
_ -
- -
_ _
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 +
0
+
- -
- -
-- o
0
— —
0
+
0
0
- -
0
_ _
0
_ _
— —
-- 0
_ _
— —
0
-- 0
ws
—
+
—
—
0
0
0
0
+
0
0
+
—
0
+
0
0
+
0
0
—
+
—
—
0
0
—
_ _
—
Other More
w.s.
X
X
- - - -
X
X
+ X
— —
_ _
+ X
X
X
X
X
X
+
+ X
+ ?
X
— —
— - -
X
X
?
X
X
X
— —
— —
+
— —
X
X
X
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc.
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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TABLE 10 (cont'd)
USE OF PARTICULATE COLLECTORS BY INDUSTRY
Industrial Classification
Process
. EP MC FF WS Other
More
W.S.
Mining § Metallurgical
(continued)
Miscellaneous
Sulfuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Nitric acid
Ore benef iciation
Refinery catalyst
Coal drying
Coal mill vents
Municipal incin.
Carbon black
Apartment incin.
Spray drying
Machining operation
Hot coating
Precious metal
Feed and Flour
milling
Lumber mills
Wood working
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
-- 0
X
X
X
0 -- 0
--00
0 -- 0
--00
-- 0 -•
--00
X
X
X
Key
0=Most Common
+=Not normally used
EP=Electrostatic Predipitator
MC=Mechanical Collector
FF=Fabric filter
WS=Wet scrubber
Other=Packed towers
Mist pads
Slag filter
Centrifugal exhausters
Flame incineration
Settling chamber
X = likely
? = possibly
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc.
P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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TABLE 11
PROCESSES WITH SCRUBBER APPLICATION POTENTIAL
Process
Emission
Small Inorganic
Particles Gases
Odors
Calcining Processes
Cement manufacturing x
Frit manufacturing x
Glass manufacturing x
Rock wool manufacturing x
Chemical Processes
Calcium carbide mfg. x
Starch manufacturing x
Soap $ detergent mfg. x
Resin manufacturing x
Food § Feed Processes
Coffee roasting
Fish meal processing
Meat § fish packing
Combustion Processes x
Metallurgical Processes
Copper smelting x
Lead smelting x
Zinc smelting x
Metal melting in x
cupolas
X
X
X
X
X
X
Calcining Processes
Calcining processes use high temperatures to fuse or chemi-
cally alter a mineral feed material into a finished product.
Usually calcining produces significant quantities of sub-micron
particles. These particles are usually collected in an electro-
static precipitator or fabric filter system. The relatively high
concentration and submicron size of the dust emission from calcining
processes make scrubber applications economically unattractive due
to the high energy requirements necessary for efficient particle
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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removal. However, scrubbers would find significant application
if a way is found to reduce the energy requirements of suitably
efficient scrubbers.
Specific calcining processes which would have expanded use
for scrubbers include: cement, frit, glass, and rock wool manu-
facturing .
Chemical Processes
Chemical processes convert feed materials into product
through one or more chemical reactions. Particles, (or mists),
polluting gases, or sometimes both, are emitted.
Scrubbers can find additional use on chemical processes
where legislation forces the control of presently uncontrolled
gaseous emissions. Mist and particle emissions may also be con-
trolled with scrubbers.
Chemical processes which may provide additional applications
for scrubbers include: calcium carbide, starch, soap and deter-
gent, and resin manufacturing facilities.
Food and Feed Processes
The processing of edible materials often produces odors and/
or dusts. Odors arise whether the process material is vegetable
or animal in nature. Dusts come primarily from grain handling
facilities.
To eliminate nuisance or to satisfy odor emission laws,
scrubbers can be used. Tightening laws and increased citizen
complaints will necessitate controlling odorous emissions from
food and feed processes which are presently uncontrolled.
Processes to which additional scrubbers may be applied in
the food and feed industry include: coffee roasting, fish meal
processing, and fish canning industries among others.
Metallurgical Processes
Scrubbers are already widely used for the control of emissions
from metallurgical processes. Additional scrubber applications
will be necessary to control the copious gaseous emissions evolved
in smelting operations, particularly in the smelting of nonferrous
sulfide ores such as copper, lead and zinc sulfides. The sulfides
are driven off as SC^, and are for the most part presently un-
controlled .
In some plants, the concentration of SC^ in the smelter ex-
haust gases may be sufficiently high to serve as a feed stream to
a contact sulfuric acid plant. In many cases, however, it is more
economical to scrub the sulfur oxides from the emitted gases, without
attempting further process stages to convert them to a salable product
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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Combustion Processes
Stationary combustion processes have used scrubbers to a
limited extent for the control of particulate matter. More com-
mon control techniques have involved multi-cyclones, often fol-
lowed by electrostatic precipitators.
Tightened control regulations on the emission of polluting
gases will widely extend the application of scrubbers to the con-
trol of these gases. The only viable alternative to the use of
scrubbers for the removal of sulfur oxides is the use of a low
sulfur fuel. In many cases, unavailability or high prices of low
sulfur fuels will force scrubbers to be used, as they are then
the only available way to achieve the required levels of air
pollutant control.
Conclusions
Changing technology and emission regulations may lead to
the future application of scrubbers to pollution control pro-
blems where scrubbers are not widely applied now. The most
promising areas are for the cleanup of submicron particles
and for inorganic gases. Additional scrubber applications
for the removal of submicron particles will require the deve-
lopment of scrubbers capable of removing these particles with
good efficiency without developing the high operating costs (due
to high energy comsumption) presently needed. Additional ap-
plications for inorganic gas scrubbing will require tightened
and enforced regulations on the emissions of these gases.
Despite increased competition from rival means of pollution
control, trends in scrubber technology development and emission
standards indicate that the application of scrubbers will most
likely increase in the future.
Three possible methods for increasing scrubber performance
on submicron particles, particle growth, hydrophilizing, and util-
izing flux (-phoresis) forces, show promise but need to be proven.
Proving one or more of these methods may increase scrubber appli-
cations in this area. Regulations on the emission of inorganic
gases are tightening and more scrubbers will be used to meet
these regulations.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN
Wet scrubbers are simple devices demanding relatively low
capital cost and able to remove particulate and gaseous contamin-
ants simultaneously. This is the reason for their growing role
in air pollution control. However, like most simple devices, wet
scrubbers require good understanding of the principles and pro-
cesses involved, for best performance. In many cases we have found
that scrubbers do not perform to capacity because of lack of under-
standing of the basic operating mechanisms and that much improve-
ment in efficiency can be achieved through simple and relatively
inexpensive changes.
A major disadvantage of scrubbers as presently used is their
poor performance in collecting small particles in the size range
of 0.1-2ym in diameter. This weakness is due on one hand to the
decrease in the inertial collection mechanism, which is the major
collection mechanism for particles larger than =lym in diameter.
On the other hand, the diffusional mechanism, which is responsible
for the collection of smaller particles, is not significant for
particles larger than =0.1ym. The 0.1-2ym range of particle sizes
is an important one, because these particles have the highest de-
gree of respiratory system penetration and retention, and thus
have the largest effect on human health. Particles in this size
range also have a high light scattering coefficient. Accordingly,
this class of particles is mainly responsible for the degradation
of visibility in the atmosphere. Furthermore, heat absorption
by small particles is closely related to scattering, so that
fine particles will have an important effect on the earth's heat
balance and climate.
When one studies the available literature relevant to wet
scrubbers, one always finds the need for more experimental work
to support much of the theoretical studies already carried out.
There is need for research to verify and further develop theories
and basic concepts, as well as equipment and better engineering
methods for equipment design. The need exists for more basic data
on scrubbing systems and for trial of new systems. One finds that
many empirical equations which are used successfully in equipment
design, cover only a short range of operating conditions and thus
undermine any effort to change traditional designs and optimize
equipment performance. In general, there is a need for a large
and comprehensive research program in all phases of scrubber
science and technology, to better avail this simple and versatile
class of air pollution control equipment for general and efficient
use.
In this chapter we have compiled and classified research needs
under the following sub-headings:
1. Basic concepts.
2. Physico chemical data.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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3. New equipment.
4. Engineering design and optimization.
5. Dynamic behavior, and control equipment and techniques.
Two five-years research plans are suggested following the
discussion of the various needs.
Basic Concepts
Collection efficiency by many unit mechanisms, based on collec-
tion element crossectional area, can be increased above 100% (for
the individual collection element), if forces, in addition to iner-
tia and diffusion, are applied. Such effects due to diffusiophore-
tic, thermophoretic, electrostatic and magnetic forces has been
known for years. Theories and equations describing these forces
are found in the literature, but good reliable experimental data,
to verify these theories, are meager. The thermophoretic and
diffusiophoretic forces have further advantage in that they are
independent of particle size in the important range of particle
diameters 0.1-2ym. To break the 1001 efficiency limit, and to
increase collection of fine particles, further study of these
basic phenomena and their incorporation in air pollution control
devices is needed.
As noted earlier, the combination of diffusion and inertia
mechanisms shows a minimum collection efficiency in the O.lym-2ym
diameter range. By increaseing particle size, one can get away
from this range and increase collection. More studies are needed
of the basic phenomena leading to fast particle growth due to
condensation and chemical reaction, and in the presence of various
force fields such as: sonic, electrostatic, thermal and aero-
dynamic .
A special case of aerodynamic force which received much
attention lately is turbulent agglomeration. The rate of turbu-
lent agglomeration increases in proportion to the radius cubed of
the larger particles involved. Calculations based on theoretical
equations failed to show the importance of this mechanism for
particles smaller than 4ym in diameter. However, experimental evi-
dence to support the theoretical equations are missing. A basic
study to determine the actual relationship, range of application
and magnitude of turbulent agglomeration is required.
Another promising collection mechanism, is the inertial col-
lection of small particles (dp
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58
other flow conditions are missing. Studies should be carried out
to determine collection efficiency of particles by different
shape collectors at various Reynolds numbers.
An assumption usually made in theoretical calculations is
that every particle which hits the collecting body sticks to
it. There is enough experimental evidence to weaken this
assumption, especially in the case of particles which are not
wetted by the collector's liquid. There is a need to study what
happens to a particle after it hits the drop surface and what
are the conditions which most effect its capture. Such studies
may lead to increased collection efficiencies by preconditioning
the collecting liquid and the aerosol particles. Examples are
the addition of surfactants to change liquid surface properties
or the dispersal of NaCl aerosol to make the collected aerosol
more hygroscopic.
A corollary study would be the study of reentrainment. How
are collected particles reentrained? What is the magnitude of
particle reentrainment and how can reentrainment be reduced?
Mass transfer to slurries with chemical reaction, such as
limestone slurry for SC>2 scrubbing, requires more study. The
inclusion of particulate matter in slurries permits more reacting
material to be included in the scrubbing solution than is attain-
able when pure solution is used. However, the rate of solution
of the particulate matter may become controlling, eliminating
some of the advantage gained by the larger reservoir of reactant.
From the available literature it is clear that more basic research
is needed to understand the various aspects of mass transfer to
slurries.
There is a need for a thorough study of the effect of liquid
phase turbulence on the overall mass transfer coefficients, in a
dispersed gas in a liquid system. Available work is relatively
limited in scope and additional experimental work of broader scope,
more fundamental nature and with a unified approach is needed.
For most devices used in wet scrubbing operations, the design
procedure is on much firmer grounds if the area available for
mass transfer and particle collection is known. Additional basic
research on interfacial areas in scrubbing devices would be bene-
ficial to the scrubber designer. This study should be pri-
marily experimental.
Physico-Chemical Data
The use of solutions and slurries which react with the
gaseous contaminant is often preferable to the use of pure water.
In many cases the kinetic data available are so meager that it
is difficult to evaluate or design the scrubber. More kinetic
and equilibrium data are needed for reactions common to wet
scrubbers.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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Reversible reactions which permit the recovery of the
contaminant and the absorbing liquid under different operating
conditions, should be studied. A start can be seen in the vast
research studies carried out by various institutes for better
absorbing solutions for SC>2 removal. Reactions which promise
better and faster removal of contaminants should be studied
with the ultimate being the recovery of the contaminant and
absorbing liquid.
Reliable values of diffusivities in the gas and in the
liquid phase are essential if mass transfer performance is to
be predicted and correlated from fundamental relationships rather
than completely empirically. However, experimental diffusivi-
ties are unavailable in the literature for a large proportion of
the gaseous components of interest in industrial wet scrubbing
applications. The values given in Chapter 10 of the Handbook
for both gaseous and liquid diffusivities are estimated in most
cases, and the best estimation techniques are only approxi-
mate for many of the most important compounds, particularly
polar and/or electrolytic molecules in water. High priority
should be given to measuring diffusivities of industrial gaseous
pollutants in air and in water, at least over the temperature
range of 20°C-90°C for water, and up to at least 150°C for air.
The concentration range could be limited to relatively dilute
levels for scrubbing applications.
Research should also be aimed at better understanding of
liquid phase mass transfer coefficient, especially with chemi-
cal reactions. An experimental program sould be undertaken to
fill the gap in known "k^" data, for applicable unit mechanisms,
using the actual gaseous components of interest in industrial
air pollution problems. This approach could also be employed
in particle collection by diffusion, and data from the previous
paragraph, regarding the transfer of caught particles into the
interior of the drop, could be used for determining some sort of
particulate "kL".
New Equipment
The results of the basic research projects, mentioned in
the last two sections, would lead to the design of improved,
more efficient, and more economic wet scrubbers incorporating
those ideas. Compact scrubbers with high removal efficiencies
for fine particles and gaseous contaminants, incorporating
particle growth and additional force fields, are the next
scrubber generation. Such scrubber systems will require a fresh
look since addition of flux forces, or particle growth, to exist-
ing devices will not yield optimum results. As an example,
the new scrubber generation using thermophoresis should be
designed to preserve temperature gradient rather than to
increase heat transfer.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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The new generation of scrubber systems will distinguish
itself from the present generation by:
1. Utilizing additional forces.
2. Building up particles.
3. Compactness, i.e. the whole system will operate at much
higher gas velocities.
4. Specificity, i.e. designed specifically for the purpose
of particle collecting together with increased mass
transfer. Future scrubbers may have different designs
for different industries.
5. Changing liquid and particulate properties to increase
collection efficiency.
Entrainment separators are an essential part of the wet
scrubber system. In many cases, especially when coupled with
venturi scrubbers, entrainment separators are the main cause
of the large physical dimension of the system. The design of
a compact and efficient entrainment separator is a prerequisite
for compact scrubber systems. Work should be started by re-
viewing the field of entrainment separators and developing
new and compact units.
Additional advantage could be achieved by matching scrub-
bers and sources. This study will determine what kind of
scrubber is best suited for specific emission sources, such as
power plants, cupolas, chlorine manufacturing plants, inciner-
ators, odor control, etc. Special attention should be paid to
the data obtained through reserach on topics mentioned in the
last paragraph. For example, we should seek new systems
employing different liquids or slurries which will react
rapidly with the contaminant and remove it totally from the
gas, liquids that have better equilibrium and collection
properties.
There is frequently insufficient information on the appli-
cability and suitability of newer 'plastics and composite materials
for scrubber systems. A material evaluation program to compare
the corrosion properties of various materials could lead to
significant saving in scrubber construction costs.
When improving equipment performance, clogging difficulties
should also be examined. There is a need to develop methods and
accessories to avoid plugging and clogging of spray nozzles,
packed columns, sieve plates, fibrous packing and secondary flow
scrubbers.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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The equations we have studied point out that better collection
efficiencies, especially for the critical particle size range
of O.lym - lym diameter, could be achieved by operating at a par-
tial vacuum. The economics of vacuum scrubbers should be studied.
Engineering Design and Optimization of Scrubber Systems
A standard method of evaluating and reporting wet scrubbers
performance is needed. The data in equipment manufacturer's bro-
chures are often not reliable, or do not tell the exact story.
Many manufacturers use hygroscopic particles , whch grow and
change shape in the equipment, to evaluate scrubber performance.
This kind of information, if used by a design engineer for non-
hygroscopic particles, will lead to equipment with poor actual per-
formance. In other cases, manufacturers do not specify and under-
line that the gas has to be saturated with water vapor to obtain
the claimed efficiencies. A standard method for testing and report-
ing scrubber performance data should be complimented with calcul-
ation methods showing how to predict actual collection efficiencies
for specific cases from the measured data.
It would be very advantageous to establish and maintain an
independent scrubber testing facility to determine performance
under a large variety of contaminants and operating conditions
and confirm or refute claimed efficiencies. Such a facility,
which resembles the underwriter's laboratory, would give an inde-
pendent and reliable scale for comparison of various scrubbers.
In time the facility can be enlarged to compare various methods
of air pollutants control on an even basis, thus performing a
valuable service and helping decisions in border cases. Such a
testing facility will also help in separating scrubber engineering
from scrubber manufacturing. It will permit independent engineers
to acquire operational data, which to a large extent is now held
as proprietary information by the scrubber manufacturers.
Equations or correlations are needed for predicting collec-
tion efficiency when several mechanisms contribute simultaneously
to particle collection. For example, this could be done for the
simultaneous action of inertia, thermophoresis and electrostatic
forces by numerically solving the equation of motion with all these
forces included.
Collection of hygroscopic and hydrophilic particles is easier
than hydrophobic particles. There is need for a calculation method
that will convert collection efficiency data from hygroscopic to
non-hygroscopic particles and vice versa.
During our study we found that many empirical design equations
which are used extensively by air pollution engineers are correct
only within a narrow range of operating conditions. The fact that
these equations were never questioned stems from designers attitude
not to question successful designs of already operating equipment.
If one wants to optimize collection equipment for better performance
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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and lower operating costs, more reliable collection efficiency
and pressure drop equations, covering a wider range of operating
conditions, are needed.
Optimization of not only scrubbers, but scrubber systems
would be profitable. This can be done by studying various com-
binations of different devices for particle collection, mass trans-
fer, particle growing, etc. It seems that optimum systems could
be best designed for specific sources. Thus studies should be
carried out to yield the optimum scrubber system design for a con-
taminant source.
Equations for calculating and predicting equipment performance
should be backed up by a massive field study. One should not ex-
pect it to be done by equipment users or equipment manufacturers.
This survey of actual operating conditions will include: pressure
drop, liquid and gas flow rates, collection efficiency, particle
size distribution, mass transfer, and operating conditions, and
should be carried out by an independent body, preferably the
laboratory mentioned previously, using approved measuring
techniques.
The design methods given in the "Wet Scrubber Handbook"
utilize the unit mechanism approach. We feel there must be a
thorough experimental verification of these equations. The need
is especially acute where the equations derived from basic
principles are applied to equipment like centrifugal scrubbers,
co-current spray chambers, etc., where much of the actual oper-
ating data collected are not dependable and comprehensive.
Dynamic Behavior and Control Instrumentation Technique
There is much need for on-line instruments to measure con-
tinuously the performance of wet scrubbers, such as a simple and
cheap instrument to measure continuously particle mass concen-
tration. This instrument will indicate continuously the scrubbing
efficiency and the mass of particulate discharged into the atmos-
phere. Parallel instrument or instruments that measure concen-
tration of gaseous contaminants, like NOX, SOX, etc., is also
needed.
The dynamic response of scrubber systems to upsets has not
been studied extensively. The behavior of a system during start-
up and shut-down and more particularly, the response of a scrubber
system to overload surges, is important to its proper design and
operation. Since many operating scrubbers experience upsets, a
program of theoretical models, derived from and subsequently veri-
fied by data from operating installations, could provide valuable
design data.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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Criteria for the Preparation for a Five-Year Research Plan
Wet scrubbers have definite areas of strength and weakness.
We feel that when assigning priorities, two criteria should be
used. The more important one is, that pressing air pollution
problems have first priority, and the second criteria is that
scrubbers should be applied in their areas of strength.
The pressing problems of highest priority are auto exhaust
and power plants emission. We do not now see the application of
scrubbers to combat auto exhaust, however we think along this
line. With power plants emission the story is different. There
the need exists to control gaseous and particulate contaminants
simultaneously. This is one of the strong areas of wet scrubbers
as air pollution control equipment. For successful application
of scrubbers to power plant emission control, two basic studies
are needed. One is to find the best and most economical scrubbing
process (to distinguish from equipment). The second is to in-
crease scrubber range of operation so as to obtain simultaneous
absorption of gaseous contaminants, mainly SO^, and efficient col-
lection of a wide range of particle sizes, mainly fine particles.
The development of better processes and more sophisticated hard-
ware will eventually reduce overall capital and operational costs.
Many studies are carried out now to define a process for
power plant flue gas purification, but the area of fine particles
control through scrubbers has been neglected. That is why we con-
sider the study of condensation scrubbers to be of the highest
priority.
Often scrubbing equipment for both mass transfer and particu-
late removal from gases appear to be of large physical dimensions
relative to the volume of gas treated. A step in the right direc-
tion toward compactness was the introduction of high gas velocity
equipment such as the venturi scrubber. However, the high gas
velocity equipment is usually coupled to a low velocity entrain-
ment separator. Thus, the study and development of a high gas
velocity entrainment separator that will simultaneously solve
many of the other problems which plague entrainment separators,
will contribute to the compactness and efficiency of scrubbing
systems.
Much confusion exists in defining the problem and specifying
desired equipment performance. This confusion continues through
all the stages of contract writing and later in the evaluation of
the new equipment performance. It is also reflected in brochures
of various scrubber manufacturers. The need exists for a standard
method of specifying and evaluating equipment performance.
There are very few good data on actual field performance of
various scrubbers, and its variation with time and industry. If we
would like future equipment to perform to specifications, this pro
gram should be given a high priority.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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In many cases control equipment of one type is not the optimal
answer, in other cases tradition often dictates the type of equip-
ment used. That is the reason for the high priority assigned to
the study of matching: industry and control equipment. We are
sure that many interesting results will come out of this study.
Based on the criteria mentioned earlier, two five-year re-
search plans are presented in Tables 13 § 14. Table 13 assumes
a total expenditure of two million dollars while Table 14 assumes
an expenditure of 6.3 million dollars in five years. It is recom-
mended that the additional 0.7 million dollars required to make
Plan B a seven million dollar plan be used for demonstration grants,
to demonstrate performance of the second generation scrubbers under
actual plant conditions.
Both tables list the various research topics with the esti-
mated expenditure per year, measured in man-year units. The
letter in brackets following the subject designates the place on
the priority list.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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TABLE 12
PLAN A - $2 MILLION/5 YEARS
First Year
o'
I"
£
-<
TJ
p
CD
o
x
Man
Years
Second Year
Man
Years
Third Year
Man
Years
Fourth Year
Man
Years
Fifth Year
Man
Years
Increase col-
lection effic-
ience through
application
of additional
forces (A)
Study various 3
means to in-
crease particle
size (A]
Study collec- 3
tion efficiency
on back of
collectors (A)
Increase collec-
tion efficiency
through appli-
cation of addi-
tional forces[A)
Study various
means to increase
particle size (A)
Study collection 3
efficiency on back
of collectors(A)
Study entrainment 4
separation to build
an efficienct com-
pact entrainment
separator(A)
Increase collec-
tion efficiency
through appli-
cation of addi-
tional forces(A)
Study entrainment 6
separation to
build an efficient
compact entrainment
separator (A)
Pair scrubber sys- 2
terns and pollu-
tion sources (A)
Design,build 5
study a second
generation scrub-
ber(compact, em-
ploying additional
forces and particle
growth). (A)
Pair scrubber sys-
tems and pollution
sources (A)
Design, build §
study a second
generation scrub-
ber (compact, em-
ploying additional
forces and particle
growth). (A)
Pair scrubber sys-
tems and pollu-
tion sources (A)
m
3)
c/>
O
m
o
>
ID
ro
8
Compile and pre- 3
pare standard
methods for
evaluating and
reporting scrub-
ber performance
(A)
Total
12
IS
12
1. A - high level priority
2. one man year @ $35,000
B - medium level priority
C - low level priority
-------
TABLE 13
PLAN B - $7 MILLION/5 YEARS
g
Ef
First Year
Man
Years
Second
Year
Man
Years
Third Year
Man
Years
Fourth
Year
Man
Years
Fifth Year
Man
Years
Increase col-
lection effi-
ciency through
application
of additional
forces (A)
Increase collec-
tion efficiency
through appli-
cation of addi-
tional forces(A)
Increase collec-
tion efficiency
through appli-
cation of addi-
tional forces(A)
Design,build §
study a second gen-
eration scrubber
(compact, employ-
ing additional
forces and particle
growth)(A).
Design,build ,
study a 2nd gen-
eration scrubber
(compact, employ-
ing additional
forces and particle
growth) . (A)
o
s-
D
O
s
o
Study various 3
means to in-
crease particle
size (A)
Study collec- 3
tion efficiency
on back of
collectors (A)
Study various
means to increase
particle size (A)
Study collection
efficiency on
back of collec-
tors (A) .
Study entrainment
separation to
build an efficient
compact entrain-
ment separator (A)
tu
o
X
Study entrainment 6
separation to build
an efficiency compact
entrainment
separator (A)
Pair scrubber sys- 2
terns and pollu-
tion sources(A)
Pair scrubber sys-
tems and pollution
sources (A)
Pair scrubber sys- 2
terns and pollution
sources (A)
D
m
8
Compile and
prepare stan-
dard methods
for evaluating
and reporting
scrubber per-
formance (A)
Study dynamic
response of
scrubbers (A)
Design and build
wet scrubber test
facility(A)
Study dynamic
response of
scrubbers (A)
Design and build
wet scrubber test
facility(A)
Design and build 4
wet scrubber test
facility(A)
Design,build, and 4
study scrubbers aimed
at eff. simultaneous
removal of contaminant
(gaseous and particu-
late) (A)
Design, build, § 5
study scrubbers
aimed at eff. sim-
ultaneous removal
of contaminant(gas-
eous and particulate)(A)
en
en
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TABLE 13 (cont'd)
PLAN B - $7 MILLION/S YEARS
First Year Man
Years
Second Year Man
Years
Third Year Man
Years
Fourth Year Man
Years
Fifth Year
Man
Years
I
o
Mass transfer
to slurries
(B)
Study major 3
design equations
derived in Hand-
book and others,
for agreement
with available
experimental data
and determine
limits of appli-
cability (B)
Design and de- 3
velop non-
clogging scrub-
ber parts(B)
Derive design
equations for
collection by
several mech-
anisms acting
together (C)
Obtain kinetic and
equil. data for
promising absor-
bing solutions(B)
Design and build
simple instruments
for continuous
measurement and
control of contam-
inants (B)
Study effect of
liquid phase tur-
bulence on overall
mass transfer co-
efficient (B)
Design and deve-
lop non-clogging
scrubber parts
CB)
Obtain kinetic 3
and equil.data
for promising
absorbing sol-
utions fB)
Design and build 7
simple instruments
for continuous
measurement and
control of contam-
inants (B)
Study effect of 3
liquid phase turbu-
lence on overall
mass transfer co-
efficient (B)
Study new con-
struction mater-
ials (B)
Study economics
of vacuum scrub-
bers (C)
Compile infor- 4
mation and measure
surface areas in
various scrubbers
(C)
Design and build 7
simple instruments
for continuous
measurement and
control of contam-
inants (B)
Measure diffusivi- 3
ties for important
systems (B)
Study new con- 3
struction mater-
ials (B)
Derive and test 2
experimentally
equations predict-
ing inertial col-
lection by various
collectors for in-
termittent flow
condition between
viscous and poten-
tial (C)
Compile infor- 4
mation and measure
surface areas in
various scrubbers
(C)
Measure diffusivi-
ties for important
systems (B)
Derive and test ;
experimentally
equations predict-
ing inertial col-
lection by various
collectors for in-
termittent flow con-
dition between vis-
cous and potential(C)
en
-------
t
3"
O
I"
TABLE 13 (cont'd)
PLAN B - $7 MILLION/5 YEARS
First Year
Man
Years
Second
Year
Man
Years
Third Year
Man
Years
Fourth
Year
Man
Years
Fifth Year
Man
Years
Derive theore-
tically a con-
version factor
between hygro-
scopic § non-
hygroscopic
particles, §
compare with
experimental
results (C)
Experimental
determination
of turbulent
agglomeration
(C)
Study adhesion '<
and reentrain-
ment of particles
on various col-
lectors (C)
Study adhesion and
reentrainment of
particles on var-
ious collectors(C)
Study "kL"
values for impor-
tant absorbing
solutions (B)
Study adhesion and
reentrainment of
particles on var-
ious collectors(C)
Study "kL"values
for important
absorbing sol-
utions (B)
o
m
D
O
m
TOTAL
32
39
40
4"0
27
CD
O
X
1. A - high level priority
2. one man year @ $35,000
B - Medium level priority
C - Low level priority
(O
l\>
$
Ol
00
-------
69
CONCLUSIONS
With the large number of specific objectives involved in
this program, it would be cumbersome to list detailed conclusions
regarding each one. What we can do briefly is to give an overall
sense of what was accomplished under each major heading of the
scope of work. However, there is some changing of organization
because each task required the use of information gained in other
aspects of the program. For example, determining the adequacy of
engineering design methods required the use of information also
gathered under evaluation of existing systems and the investi-
gation of usage problems. Consequently, there is some overlap
among the five tasks in the scope of work and we have exercised
editorial judgment in deciding where to report some specific
items.
The following material is organized in the same order as
the scope of work.
EVALUATION OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY
In this section of the program we are mainly concerned with
determining the adequacy of engineering design methods. It is
convenient to evaluate separately wet scrubber technology as
applied to mass transfer, particulate collection and a combin-
ation of both. Because these three scrubber applications differ
in historical backgrounds, degrees of sophistication in theoreti-
cal development, hardware complexity, and areas of usage, they
have reached different stages of development.
Mass Transfer
Scrubbers, or absorption towers, have been used for many
years, mainly in the chemical industry. Methods for their
analysis and design are quite complete and are usually straight-
forward if mass transfer coefficients are available and if no
chemical reaction is involved. Three major theories have been
advanced for the analysis of mass transfer operations and they
have been found satisfactory for a wide variety of cases. Very
good books are available and much reliable experimental data
can be found in the literature.
When a reactive or absorptive slurry is used, or when a
chemical reaction takes place between the absorbed gas and the
scrubbing liquid, the analysis is more complicated. Models and
design methods are available for these cases too. However, when
the reaction is of a high order, or when the flows of the liquid
and the gas are complicated, it is advisable to determine the
transfer efficiency experimentally. Improved design methods for
the complex cases require a better understanding of the phenomena
occurring in the absorption column.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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General data are abundantly available in the literature
on mass transfer. Additional information is needed for the
more sophisticated systems which are being considered now for
the removal of SOX and NOX from flue gases. Basic knowledge
of such reaction rates, kinetic models and equilibrium constants
are also lacking for many reacting systems. In other cases
diffusivities, solubilities and precipitation rates are missing.
There is a need for better understanding of the flow character-
istics, turbulence and the combined effects of hydro- and
aerodynamics for specific designs.
Cost information is available from three sources; chemical
engineering cost data, scrubber cost data, and detailed cost
calculations based on component and labor costs. Except for
unusual designs and exotic materials which might be difficult
to estimate, cost can be obtained for all scrubber designs
with about the same accuracy as for chemical process equipment.
Particulate Collection
Scrubbers for particulate removal have a shorter history
of widespread use than scrubbers for mass transfer, and mainly
employ inertia rather than a diffusion mechanism for the removal
of the particles from the gas stream. These differences may be
the reason that among engineers in practice there is little
general understanding of the basic physical phenomena involved
in particle removal.
Many equations and charts for the design or selection of
scrubbers can be found in the literature, but they all apply to
one device and a specific range of operating conditions. Most
scrubber manufacturers and designers use empirical graphs -
usually of the power law type - to design or select equipment.
We did not find a unified approach to all scrubber designs
similar to the unit mechanism approach or a selection method such
as the performance and separation cut size approach that we pre-
sented in the Scrubber Handbook. Neither did we discern evidence
of any superior or reliable proprietary method of design in the
cases of scrubber installations reported to our survey of scrubber
users.
Optimum use of the best available technology in the form of
scrubber equipment requires the ability to describe quantita-
tively the performance potential of that equipment. If one can
predict the collection efficiency and gas handling capacity of
a scrubber more accurately, he can achieve lower pollutant
emissions with the least amount of overdesign, and therefore,
at the lowest cost. This engineering capability is so vital to
the pollution control effort that we can not be content to merely
report the existing fragments of empirical and theoretical
scrubber design, but must take the initiative in applying the
best available basic engineering knowledge to the specific cases
of scrubber design.
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The general approach we have taken is to seek the soundest,
most generally applicable relationships which truly represent
the essential mechanisms of particle collection and gas absorp-
tion. Where gaps existed we filled them as well as possible
with new or improved design methods.
Because so many of the design equations presented in the
Scrubber Handbook are new and so few experimental studies were
available, it would be most profitable to collect more data to
test the equations and perhaps lead to revisions and extensions.
Cost estimates for particulate scrubbers are somewhat less
predictable than for gas absorbers because of the arbitrary
pricing which is possible for some proprietary designs. We have
cross-checked the available cost data from several sources
and from independent calculations based on material and fabri-
cation costs. The net result is that particulate scrubber
system costs can be estimated with useful accuracy for pre-
liminary designs and will be more accurate when one obtains
actual quotations for detailed designs and specifications. This
is the normal state of affairs in the field of process plant
design.
Combined Collection
One of the wet scrubber's strong points is its ability for
simultaneous removal of gaseous and particulate contaminants
from a gas stream. However, there is a certain incompatibility
since for particles >1 ym in diameter the major collection mech-
anism is inertial, which increases with increased gas velocities
and smaller residence time, while mass transfer is favored at
low gas velocities and high residence time. With the increasing
need for simultaneous control of particulate and gaseous contam-
inants, more and more enginers are viewing wet scrubbers as the
optimal means of control.
We did not find in the literature, and did not include in
the Scrubber Handbook, any special design methods for a combined
collection scrubber as such. However, there is generally no
difficulty in calculating separately removal efficiency for
particles and for gases, since there is practically no influence
of one on the other. This method of approach is adequate for the
design of combined scrubbers except for situations in which trace
impurity buildup may influence mass transfer, which must be studied
as special cases.
In the last few years since the control of power plant pol-
lution became important, more and more data are being published
on the simultaneous removal of SOX and particulates. Because of
the large magnitude of the problem and the economic aspects of
SOX removal, we expect that more data will become available in
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the near future. It seems also probable that new designs and
new processes will be invented to solve the power plant and
other related problems.
The present combined scrubbers are of the same design as
the particulate and gaseous removal scrubbers, and the same cost
information can serve both. However, the combined scrubber
processes are getting to be increasingly complicated, and this
is where more cost information is required.
EXISTING SCRUBBER SYSTEM EVALUATIONS
Many types of scrubbers are available in the market and
many more designs can be found in the patent office archives.
All scrubbers were classified in ten groups based on their
major gas cleaning mechanisms. The results of the users sur-
vey are given in Chapter 7 of the Scrubber Handbook as tables
of scrubber group vs. process or industry where these scrubbers
are being used.
The scrubbers used for mass transfer are those which permit
long residence time and large contact area. Among these are:
plate scrubbers, packed columns, fiber beds, preformed sprays
and mobile bed scrubbers.
Efficiency of a mass transfer scrubber depends mainly on
the equilibrium relationship between the absorbed gas and
the absorbing liquor, the absorbing area and the residence
time. Design equations are presented in Chapter 5 of the
Handbook. By increasing column height, any desired removal
efficiency can be achieved. The choice of scrubber depends
upon economic factors, absorption products, presence of other
contaminant in the gas, tradition, operating conditions, and
materials of construction. Efficiency can be increased by an
immediate removal of the absorbent from the absorbing liquid
through chemical reaction or adsorption in a slurry.
Absorption and adsorption are the two ways for the removal
of one component from a gaseous mixture. The choice of the sys-
tem depends mainly on economic considerations and on the specific
requirements of the process involved. In many cases, the absorbed
product is returned to the process or is sold. Scrubbers have
the advantage of requiring the movement of only fluid streams,
of being capable of continuous operation, and of requiring no
moving parts (for most designs).
Inherent weaknesses of the mass transfer scrubber are the
requirement for a suitable liquid and for treatment of the
liquid waste. Liquid treatment is especially costly when large
quantities of gas are being cleaned. Since most scrubbed gases
are either acidic or basic, and in many cases they are hot,
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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corrosion is usually a problem and costly materials of con-
struction are required. Plugging, the need for better liquid
distribution, and more intimate contact between the liquid and
the gas are problems one faces with scrubbers. Carry-over of
entrained scrubbing liquid can also be a major problem if a
suitable entrainment separator is not available.
Particulate Collection
Manufacturers of scrubbers showed no reluctance to provide
information describing the kind(s) of equipment they sell, and
it is clear from the results of our survey that a great variety
of scrubbers are available. Learning what these scrubbers are
capable of is a more difficult task if one requires more proof
than a simple assertion. It is reasonably certain that for
particle separation good efficiency can be attained on particle
diameters down to around 1.0 ym by the inertial mechanism.
Of the ten scrubber groups, the following are used extensively
in particulate removal: plate column, preformed spray scrubbers,
gas atomized spray scrubbers, centrifugal scrubbers, impingement
and entrainment scrubbers, mechanically aided and moving bed
scrubbers. The choice of the appropriate scrubber depends upon
particulate load, size distribution and physical properties.
While low velocity, low pressure drop scrubbers are adequate
for relatively large particles, high velocity scrubbers are re-
quired for the removal of the one micron range particles. Par-
ticles smaller than 0.1 ym in diameter are collected in diffusion
controlled scrubbers.
Particles are usually collected by one of three mechanisms:
diffusion, interception, or impaction. Since diffisivity of
particles larger than =0.1 ym is minimal, and inertia of par-
ticles smaller than =1 ym is small, one always finds that col-
lection efficiency decreases with the particle impaction parameter
to a minimum at about 0.2-0.5 ym, and then starts increasing as
diffusion takes over. Chapters 4 and 5 of the Scrubber Handbook
present general and specific collection efficiency equations for
each type of scrubber.
Except for research results, useful scrubber data are almost
unavailable. There are several reasons for this:
A. Scrubber users and control agencies are interested in
outlet concentration almost exclusively, and do not measure in-
let concentration and scrubber efficiency.
B. Scrubber manufacturers usually keep the data as pro-
prietary information since in many cases this is the advantage
they have over their competitors.
Ambient Purification Technoloav, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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C. Determination of particle size distribution is difficult,
expensive and sometimes practically impossible. Gathering of
meaningful data requires a high degree of competence.
D. Scrubber users are reluctant to release information be-
cause of possible repercussions from air pollution regulatory
agencies.
Of the three groups of particle collecting equipment presently
employed, namely wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and
fabric filters, scrubbers usually have the lowest capital costs.
They are simple, are not explosion prone, take less floor space,
and do not require conditioning of gases and particulates. They
also provide a continuous means for removal of collected material
from the device. For relatively large particles, scrubbers and
settling chambers are the only economic collectors.
Wet scrubbers' main weakness is high operating costs and low
collection efficiency for fine particles (0.1-2ym). They are
prone to clogging, corrosion and erosion, and require treatment
of the collection liquor before disposal. In some cases the gas
cooling and the increase in gas volume due to water evaporation
are objectionable.
The gathering of reliable inlet and outlet particle size
distribution is essential to the development and substantiation
of good scrubber design models and equations.
Combined Mass Transfer and Particulate Collection
Since scrubbers for combined collection are undergoing
fast development now, it is difficult to list the groups which
are used. The types being tried are: moving beds, gas atomized
sprays, and combinations of several groups, such as a venturi
followed by a packed bed. Performance is the same as for
particles with regard to the particulate matter and the same as
for the mass transfer for the gaseous part. The incompatibility
of inertia and diffusion mechanism is the main weakness of com-
bined scrubbers. One requires long residence time, and the other
short.
SCRUBBER USE AND PROBLEMS
Scrubbers are used to control emissions from many diversi-
fied sources. Table 14 shows the distribution of scrubber groups
as employed by various industries. The table representing 294
scrubbers was compiled from the information collected through
the users survey.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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TABLE 14
PROCESSES TO WHICH EACH TYPE OF SCRUBBER IS APPLIED*
Calcining
Combustion
Crushing
Drying
Gases
Liquid Mists
Smelting
Plate
CD
6
(3)
17
CD
6
(7)
39
(3)
17
(0)
0
(3)
17
Packed
Bed
CD
2
(0)
-
(0)
-
(0)
-
(33)
72
(11)
24
(1)
2
Fiber
Bed
(0)
_
(0)
-
(0)
-
(0)
-
(2)
40
(3)
60
(0)
-
Spray
(5)
13
(2)
5
(0)
-
(4)
10
(IS)
45
(3)
7
(8)
20
Venturi
(23)
21
(2)
2
(0)
-
(19)
18
CIO)
9
(0)
-
(54)
50
Centri-
Fugal
(0)
-
(1)
2
(11)
26
(30)
70
(1)
2
(0)
-
(0)
-
Baffle
(0)
-
(0)
-
(0)
-
(1)
100
(0)
-
(0)
-
(0)
-
Impg.S
Entr.
(3)
43
(2)
29
(1)
14
(0)
-
(1)
14
(0)
-
(0)
-
Mech.
Aided
(0)
-
(0)
-
(0)
-
(1)
25
(2)
50
(0)
-
(1)
25
Moving
Bed
(0)
-
(2)
9
(1)
5
(14)
64
(1)
5
(0)
-
(4)
18
3
O
+ Read vertically. Example: 39% of all plate type scrubbers are applied
to controlling drying processes.
Numbers in parentheses refer to number of scrubbers reporting the in-
formation to the scrubber study.
en
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76
The use of available knowledge in the design and specifi-
cation of scrubbers is not as effective as one would hope. Many
installations are built on the basis of some vague notions
about what is being emitted and how well the scrubber will be
able to cope with it. There is a tendency to have the most
confidence in what has been used supposedly successfully before.
The not very practical result of this variety of "practical
approach" has been that many systems have not operated up to
expectations and had to be modified or even replaced.
Particle size distributions were unavailable for the major-
ity of the scrubbers we surveyed. In some cases even concen-
trations were not known. This is due in part to the usual pre-
occupation with outlet loading only, in part to the belief that
it is unnecessary to have specific data, and in part to the in-
ability to make the measurements. There is also a tendency
to forget about the scrubber once it has passed inspection.
Consequently it is very rare that the continuing performance
of a scrubber is measured.
Auxiliaries are usually not much of a problem but there
are cases where blowers have been a source of great difficulty.
Unbalancing of blower wheels due to either dust accumulation or
corrosion is one of the common problems. These same causes,
dust buildup, errosion and corrosion, can also be responsible
for failures of other components such as entrainment separators,
flow straighteners, support plates, etc. Better knowledge of
suitable materials has a great potential for cost savings.
Liquid treatment and/or waste disposal can present diffi-
culties in some cases. Engineering knowledge and skill are
important to the economical resolution of these. There is an
area of uncertainty in the prediction of how much cleanup of
the recycle liquid is necessary to prevent plugging and erosion
problems.
All-in-all, scrubbers have been used successfully in thou-
sands of installations and will be used increasingly in the
future. They possess unique capabilities as well as limitations.
Given that they are properly applied, they can be designed with
as much confidence and success as any other type of air pollution
control equipment.
New Applications
Scrubbers account for about 22% of the air pollution control
equipment sales in 1971, scrubber sale projections indicate that
scrubbers will about equal electrostatic precipitators in 1976,
and will account for about 261 of overall sales.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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77
Despite this large market, there are many situations in
which scrubbers are not used or are little used, and the ques-
tion comes to mind; whether this is as it should be. The choice
of any air pollution control devices requires that the perfor-
mance be adequate, the system fit within any other constraints,
and that investment and operation costs be suitable. There are
many instances in which the correct decision was not made.
Sometimes the problem itself is not properly defined, the control
device performance and cost characteristics were not known, or
a suitable alternative was not considered.
Conditions under which new or increased application is
possible are as follows:
1. Performance requirements change so that alternatives
should be re-evaluated.
2. Scrubbers have improved since the decision to use
another type of control equipment has been made.
3. Scrubber systems become relatively cheaper.
4. Accessory problems can now be solved satisfactorily.
5. Scrubbers never were as bad as people may have been told.
6. The person selecting a system simply never thought of
using a scrubber.
Changing technology and emission regulations may lead to
the future application of scrubbers to pollution control problems
where scrubbers are not widely applied now. The most promising
areas are for the cleanup of aubmicron particles and for in-
organic gases. Additional scrubber applications for the removal
of submicron particles will require the development of scrubbers
capable of removing these particles with good efficiency without
developing the high operating costs (due to high energy consump-
tion) presently needed. Tightened and enforced regulations on
the emissions of inorganic gases will require increased use of
scrubbers for gas scrubbing.
Some specific industrial applications where increased scrub-
ber use seems indicated are:
1. Power plants burning coal, oil, or wood.
2. Rock products plants such as cement, alumina, lime,
bauxite, and magnesium oxide.
3. Steel plants for open hearth, ore roasters, taconite
and hot scarfing.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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78
4. Mining and metallurgical plants, including: zinc
roaster, copper roaster, copper reverberatory, ilmen-
ite, titania and molybdenum.
5. Refinery catalyst.
6. Coal cleaning and drying.
7. Feed and flour mills.
Recommendations for R § D
A recommended Research and Development Plan has been
prepared aimed at increasing scrubber use by overcoming the
scrubber limitations and shortcomings discussed earlier. Two
criteria have been used in assigning priorities to various
research topics. The first one is that pressing air pollution
problems have first priority, and the second is that scrubbers
should be applied primarily in their areas of strength.
Several approaches can lead to increasing the collection
efficiency of scrubbers in the fine particle range. One is
to apply additional collection mechanisms, preferably those
which are independent of particle size. Such mechanisms
involve the use of flux forces, such as diffusiophoresis and
thermophoresis. Another mechanism is the increased collection
of small particles by the back of spheres at high Reynolds
numbers. A different approach to the same problem would be
to grow the particles to sizes which can be collected readily.
This can be achieved through agglomeration, condensation or
chemical reaction.
In the mass transfer area, better and more economical
processes are needed. This requires the study of more complex
systems such as mass transfer to slurries, a search for react-
ing or absorbing chemicals that can be regenerated and returned
to the system and a study of the effect of liquid phase turbu-
lence on the mass transfer coefficients.
A wide range of work is still needed to establish reliable
design methods. The research plan lists a number of projects
that should be undertaken to make the available equations more
accurate, to develop new equations where none are now available,
and to gather extensive experimental coefficients and data to
support any design.
Much of the research plan is aimed at developing the second
generation scrubber. This scrubber should be designed from the
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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79
start to be a pollution control device, possibly for a definite
application, rather than an adaptation from the existing
chemical engineering state of the art. Flux forces, agglomer-
ation and condensation, either in combination or separate, can
overcome the fine particle problem. A new efficient and com-
pact entrainment separator would help in reducing the scrubber
size, cost and emission rate. An effort will be made to re-
duce waste liquid treatment costs, whether through recycle,
regeneration or more sophisticated treatment methods. After
all this is accomplished, the new scrubber generation will
capture a larger portion of the air pollution market.
The last part of the research plan looks at the scrubber
from the air pollution control authority point of view. To
meet emission criteria constantly and not only during the ini-
tial test, pollutant monitoring equipment and knowledge of the
dynamic behavior of the scrubber are required.
Based on the criteria mentioned earlier, the list of re-
search topics has been arranged in two five-year research plans.
One is a two million dollar research plan, and the second is
a 7 million dollar plan. Both plans list the various research
topics with the estimated expenditure per year, measured in
man-year units and their place on the priority list.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.o. BOX 71, R.VERS.DE, CA. 92502
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Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
APPENDICES
Letter to Scrubber Manufacturers
Brief Description of "Wet Scrubber System Study"
Letter to Scrubber Users
Scrubber Questionnaire - Long Form
Scrubber Questionnaire - Short Form
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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APPENDIX A
81
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
November 17, 1970
Dear Sir:
We are engaged in a study of Wet Scrubber Systems
for gas absorption and particle removal under a con-
tract from the National Air Pollution Control Admin-
istration, as the enclosed sheet describes.
An important part of the study is the survey of
wet scrubbers currently available. To insure the
completeness of our survey, would you please send us
information describing the scrubbers you make. We
would especially appreciate data on scrubber costs,
and any specific case studies you could provide.
Thank you very much.
Yours truly,
DAVID LETTH
Engineer
P.O. BOX 71
RIVERSIDE
C A . 92502
(714) 682-6211
DL:lm
encl.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
Air & Water Purification
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
82
APPENDIX B
Brief Description of
"WET SCRUBBER SYSTEM STUDY"
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. has contracted
with the Air Pollution Control Office of the Environmental
Protection Agency (formerly the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration) to perform a "Wet Scrubber System
Study", Contract No. CPA 70-95.
The general scope of work is to: (1) review and assess
the status of wet scrubber technology; (2) prepare a critical
review and evaluation of existing scrubber systems and define
current practices in the application of scrubbers for air
pollution control; (3) define usage problems and the research
and development needed to improve the performance of scrubbers
as now applied; (4) identify potential new applications of wet
scrubbers to additional air pollution control problems, and
(5) develop specific research recommendations.
The final results of this contract will include a research
program plan and a handbook on wet scrubbers. The handbook
will be completed in the fall of 1971 and should be available to
the public shortly after.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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83
APPENDIX C
.. P .O. BOX 7 I
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. A5T * AV ^Vs o I
(714) 682-621 I
We have contracted with the National Air Pollution
Control Administration to perform a study of wet
scrubber systems for gas absorption and particle col-
lection. A sheet describing the study is enclosed.
As part of the study, we are gathering information
on the performance of various types of scrubbers on the
job. We hope to determine the types of scrubbers most
applicable to each industrial process, and point out
scrubber strengths and weaknesses so that better, less
expensive systems can be developed. Results will be
published in a handbook which will be available to you.
We would appreciate your indicating a willingness
to participate in the study by filling out and mailing
the enclosed postcard. Your company name will not be
mentioned if this is your preference.
Sincerely yours,
David Leith
Engineer
DL:lm
encls: postcard
description
Air & Water Purification
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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84
APPENDIX D B.O.B. #OMB 85-S 70033
Expires 12/51/71
"WET SCRUBBER SYSTEMS SURVEY OF USE AND PERFORMANCE"
Section I. COMPANY IDENTIFICATION Date:
1. Name § location of company:
a. Name : ^
b. No., Street:
c. City: State: Zip Code:
2. Location of plant if different from above:
a. Plant/Division:__
b. No., Street:
c. City: State: Zip Code:
3. Person to contact regarding information contained in this
report:
a. Name:
b. Department/Division:
c. Telephone:(Area code)
4. Principal products manufactured at this plant:
Standard Industrial Classification, if known:
Note:
This survey of wet scrubber systems is being performed for
the National Air Pollution Control Administration. It will point
out the strengths and weaknesses of scrubbers so that better,
less expensive systems can be developed. A "Scrubber Handbook"
will be written and will be available to you.
Your participation will be helpful even if you can only
provide a small part of the information requested, or if you
must estimate quantities. Please fill out a separate copy
of pages 2, 3 and 4 for each scrubber application. Hither make
additional copies or write us for more, whichever is most conven-
ient for you.
If you have any questions, please call us collect at:
(714) 682-6211.
Page 1
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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APPENDIX D (CONT'D) 8S
"WET SCRUBBER SYSTEMS SURVEY OF USE AND PERFORMANCE"
Scrubber name and type:
(Please indicate units when numerical replies are provided, for
example: pounds per hour; tons per day.)
1. a. Process operation
b. Pollutant recovered
c. Process Type (circle one) Continuous/Batch/Batch(timing )
2. a. Process capacity
( /hour) Scrubber feed temperature
b. Pollutant concentration ,weight per hour
particle size or distribution
3. Approximate costs: Scrubber ; Fans § duct
Auxiliaries ; Total Date installed
4. Collection efficiency How determined^
5. Please indicate:
a. Any major difficulties with your system:
% on stream time: No. of failures/year:
b. What aspects of performance or operation could be improved,
based on your field experience:
c. Suggestions for improvements in design or manufacture:
d. Research suggestions:
e. Please estimate accuracy of data
Page 2
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.o. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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APPENDIX D CCONT'D)
WET SCRUBBER SYSTEMS STUDY
Company . Scrubber —
Address Respondent
Date.
86
/
1
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~N
*
f
A
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1
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_-<
^
/$
le.
\
\
7~
^^^m
^
•••••
Q«
1
^~7
PC
IT
UK
(§\
^
V
^
TSr5
%£
(fy
> i
©
A
©
±
A
t
1-
^*-
^
i/
)
^^M
ri
^
^
JO.
r
(J
(f
•^,
{
2.
L
I
1,
4
»
f
?
5
^|
i
1,
1
M
_i
17)
1
•oj
s /
*
ITEM DESCRIPTION-Such as;
Name, Model, Size, Capacity, Flow
Rate, Temperature, Cost .
T) GAS OUT | ^SCFM)
Temp. (°F)Comp.
Contaminant .
i /A ^^ • 1 1 / h r
v A / \ *
[2)DUCT + STACK |
Cost. Purch. | Inst. $
r3"iFAN (Push or Pull) | HP
Mfg.
Model
Capacity (XCFM) "W.G.
Purch. £ Inst. fl
"4)ENTRAINMENT SEPARATOR |
Purch. $ Inst. $
5)SCRUBBER|Mtg,
Model
Size (ft)Cap. (ACFM)
Description
Purch. $ Inst. %
Purch. $ Inst. $
[7)HOOD4 DUCT|
Purch. $ Inst. $
ffljGAS IN | ffCFM)
Temp. (°F)Comp.
Contaminant
flr/|cF («b/hr)
COMMENTS Such as ;
Performance, Material of Con-
st ruction, Reliability, Corrosion.
Particle Dia. (Micron)
Mtl.Constr.
Mtl.
Mtl.
Mtl.
Corrosion Rate
Any Changes Req'd.?
Temp. In
Temp. Out
Mtl.
source
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
Page 3.
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA.
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APPENDIX D (CONT'D)
WET SCRUBBER SYSTEMS STUDY
Company______ Scrubber.
87
Date.
COMMENTS
ITEM DESCRIPTION
SUPPORTS + FOUNDATION
Purch. 8
CHEMICALS
Cost (8/moQ
.nLlQUlD PIPING I Contaminant
Cap. (GPM)
TREATMENT I rnp
Changes Rea'd?
Contaminant
(GPM) Make Up
QvLlQUlD WASTE I contaminant
"^^^^^^^^^^^^
ppm. Disposal Method
Cost (8/mo.)
SOLID WASTE
Disposal Method
Cost (8/mo.)
WATER lEauip. cost (I)
Equip. Cost (8)
Op. Cost (8/mo.)
Op. Cost (8/mo.)
LABOR
(Man-Hr./mo.)
(Man-Hr./mo.)
OTHER NOTES (please number)
Draw flowsheet on back, detailing equipment, capacity and manufacturer. Page 4
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA 92502
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APPENDIX E SCRUBBER OPERATION
NUMBER
CATEGORY
process name
SCRUBBER: name
type
packing, if appl .
size
mat'ls of const.
CARRIER GAS: name
composition
temp., °C
humidity. Tsat . . °C
flow rate, m3/hr
particle
CONTAMINANTS: name
particle density, g/cm
" size, microns
loading
g/m3
gas , name
" ppm
SCRUBBING SOLUTION: name
total flow rate,m3/hr
composition
PH
makeup, m-Vhr
EFFICIENCY: particles
eas
COSTS: A P, cm of H20
installed cost, $
operating cost. $/mo
COMMENTS:
including maintenance
problems, health and
safety problems,
waste disposal, sug-
gestions for future,
etc.
£xo.M-i»f*-
Qfai [ riv\t#*
W*\d to/* d*Wr
•
.
% VVnJtUtS, C*£k u/tJl*
A 2. pf1. WIA. -U*rcta-f
3/fc 5^.
•
0
°C in/ ^ out
- _
ioo. oao eft**.
CooJ tlufi-
DATA
°C in/ °C out
~
bin 16% ,i)
under « /under '
*£££$ 0'^To7t
• —
ppm in /ppm out
50% ,16%
under /under
in/ out
nnm in /nnm out
«700 tfllOM ^
— -
pH in /pH out bH in /nH out
2.0 <\ynt\
<\°( 7
—
40 * UA6 .
9
160,000
88
°C in/ °r oill
504 16%
under /under
in/ out
ppm in /opm 9,,^
pH in /pH nut
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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WET SCRUBBER SYSTEM STUDY VOLUME II
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Seymour Calvert, Project Director
Jhuda Goldshmid
David Leith
Dilip Mehta
Prepared for
CONTROL SYSTEMS DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS - ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CONTRACT NO. CPA-70-95
A.P.L, INC,
(Ambient Purification Technology)
P. 0. Box 71, Riverside, California 92502
July, 1972
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I
INTRODUCTION
A search of the literature was made as part of the Wet Scrubber Systems Study
for information on the design and application of wet scrubbers. The purpose was
to find all theoretical, experimental, and practical work on wet scrubbers which
has been reported.
Abstracting services were utilized. Computer printouts of relevant liter-
ature references were received from APTIC, NTIS, AEG, NASA, and Midwest Research
Institute. Chemical Abstracts, Air Pollution Abstracts, and British Chemical
Engineering Abstracts were consulted.
A direct manual search of forty-eight technical journals carrying articles
pertinent to scrubber systems was carried out. Twenty-five journals were searched
from 1950 to present. Library facilities at UCLA, California Institute of Tech-
nology, and University of California at Riverside were used.
Most of the evaluation of literature came at the time the literature was ini-
tially screened. If an article was judged as contributing to the knowledge of
scrubbers, it was noted and acquired. If there was doubt as to the contribution
of an article to scrubber understanding, it was also noted and acquired. It was
deemed prudent to select all articles which might be of use, rather than to be
overly selective at the outset and reject these articles. Of the thousands of
literature articles reviewed, about 2,000 were judged pertinent, were acquired,
classified, and filed in the APT library.
Many of the references found are cited as references in the Wet Scrubber Hand-
book. However, other references which are not cited, may be of use. The Wet Scrubber
Bibliography contains all references cited in the Wet Scrubber Handbook, plus the ad-
ditional references found in the literature search, but not cited in the Handbook.
The Handbook cites about 750 references; the Bibliography about 1,700.
The Wet Scrubber Bibliography is organized in a manner parallel to that used in
the Wet Scrubber Handbook. Each section in the Wet Scrubber Handbook with refer-
ences has a corresponding section in the Bibliography with the same number and title.
For example, Section 4.6 in the Handbook, "Unit Mechanisms for Particle Separation",
has a corresponding Section 4.6 in the Bibliography with the same title. All re-
ferences cited in the Bibliography are pertinent to the subject matter in the cor-
responding Handbook section. If a reference is pertinent to more than one Handbook
section, its Bibliography listing is duplicated. Within each section of the Biblio-
graphy the organization of references is alphabetical by author.
By organizing the Bibliography in a manner parallel to that used in the Handbook,
it is hoped that the references listed here will be of most use in supplementing
Handbook material. Note that not all sections in the Handbook have corresponding
sections in the Bibliography. This is because some Handbook sections are introductory,
organizational, or descriptive in nature, and do not have pertinent references.
For this reason, the Bibliography starts with Section 4.2, "Basic Principles: Mass
Transfer", rather than with Section 1.0, "Introduction".
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 Basic Principles: Mass Transfer 1
4.3 Basic Principles: Particle Collection 4
4.4 Gas Liquid Contacting 8
4.5 Unit Mechanisms: Mass Transfer 12
4.6 Unit Mechanisms: Particle Collection 16
4.7 Effects of Temperature and Pressure 21
5.2.1 Mass Transfer Design Methods: General 21
5.2.2 Mass Transfer: Plate Scrubbers 23
5.2.3 Mass Transfer: Packed Scrubbers 28
5.2.4 Mass Transfer: Fiber Packed Scrubbers. . 36
5.2.5 Mass Transfer: Preformed Spray Scrubbers 37
5.2.6 Mass Transfer: Gas Atomized Spray Scrubbers 38
5.2.7 Mass Transfer: Centrifugal Scrubbers 39
5.2.8 Mass Transfer: Moving Bed Scrubbers 39
5.3.1 Particle Collection: General 40
5.3.2 Particle Collection: Plate Scrubbers 43
5.3.3 Particle Collection: Packed Scrubbers 44
5.3.4 Particle Collection: Fiber Packed Scrubbers 45
5.3.5 Particle Collection: Preformed Spray Scrubbers 47
5.3.6 Particle Collection: Gas Atomized Spray Scrubbers 48
5.3.7 Particle Collection: Centrifugal Scrubbers 50
5.3.8 Baffle and Secondary Flow Scrubbers 52
5.3.9 Impingement and Entrainment Scrubbers 52
5.3.10 Particle Collection: Mechanically Aided Scrubbers 52
5.3.11 Particle Collection: Moving Bed Scrubbers 53
5.4 Entrainment Separators 53
6 Auxiliaries 54
7 • Industrial Processes Utilizing Scrubbers 56
7.1 Calcining Processes 57
7.2 Combustion Processes 59
7.3 Crushing and Grinding Processes 65
7.4 Drying Processes 65
7.5 Gas Producing Processes 66
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE,
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Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D)
7.6 Liquid Mist Producing Processes 68
7.7 Metallurgical Processes 69
8 Systems Analysis: Costs and Optimization 73
9 Design Examples 5
10 Physical and Chemical Data 75
11 Materials Data 78
li Liquid and Solid Wastes Disposal 78
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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4,2 BASIC PRINCIPLES: MASS TRANSFER
Astarita, Giovanni (1966)
"Regimes of Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction", ind.Eng.chem., 58, (8), 18-26, (Aug.).
Astarita, Giovanni (1967)
Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction, Elsevier Pub. Co., New York.
AVCO Corporation
"A Survey of Metal Oxides as Sorbents for Oxides of Sulfur", NTIS No. PB 185 190.
\vdonin, Yu. A. (1967)
"Investigation of Mass Transfer in Tubes with Irrigated Walls with Counterfow of
Gas", Intern.Chem.Eng. , 7_, (2), 258-263, (April).
Battelle Memorial Inrtitute (1966)
"Fundamental Study of Sulfur Fixation by Lime and Magnesia, NTIS No. PB 176 843, (June).
Calvert, S. and G. Kapo (1963)
"Penetration Theory Enables Estimation of Transfer Coefficients", Chem.Eng., (Feb. 4,
Mar. 4).
Calvert, S., D. M. Mehta, and R. R. Russell (1969)
"Gas Scrubbing with Suspensions of Adsorptive or Chemically Reactive Particles", Am.ind.
Hyg.Assoc.J., 30, 57.
Coutant, R. W., et al. (1969)
"Investigation of the Reactivity of Limestone and Dolomite for Capturing S02 from
Flue Gas", NTIS No. PB 184 945 (June).
Danckwerts, P. V. (1970)
Gas Liquid Reactions, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1951)
"Significance of Liquid-Film Coefficients in Gas Absorption", ind.Bng.chem> , 43, (6),
1460-1467 (June).
Danckwerts, P. V.
"Temperature Effects Accompanying the Absorption of Gases in Liquids", Appl.Sci.Res.,
3_, 385-391.
Danckwerts, P. V., et al. (1959)
"Symposium on Mass Transfer", Trans.inst.chem.Engr., 57, 47-154.
Danckwerts, P. V. and A. M. Kennedy (1954)
"Kinetics of Liquid-Film Processes in Gas Absorption. Part II, Measurements of Transient
Absorption", Trans .Inst .Chem.Engr . f 3_2_, S49 .
Denbigh, K. G. (1955)
"The Principals of Chemical Equilibrium", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
England.
Dedrick, R. L. and R. B. Beckmann (1966)
"Kinetics of Adsorption by Activated Carbon from Dilute Solution", Presented at 59th
Annual Meeting, Am.inst.chem.Engrs., (December).
Dent, J. C. (1970)
"Interpretation of the Surface Renewal Model Through the Prandtl Mixing Length Theory",
Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs. J. , 1^6, (3), 499 (May).
Emmert, R. E., R. L. Pigford (1962)
"Gas Absorption Accompanied by Chemical Reaction" , Am .Inst. chem. Engrs .J. , 8_, 171.
Estrin, J., et al. (1968)
"Penetration Theory Applied to Unsteady Gas Absorption with Irreversible First-Order
Reaction", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 14, (4), 678-681 (July).
Ford, F. E., et al. (1963)
"Mass Transfer Effects in Surface Catalysts", Am.Inst.chem.Engrs .J., 9, (3), 371-373
(May) .
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
-------
4,2 BASIC PRINCIPLES: MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Gessner, Adolf W. (1968)
"Mass Transfer Effects on Liquid-Phase Chemical Reaction Rates", American chemical
Society Publication, 35-53.
Gill, William N. (1962)
"Transport Phenomena in Mass Transfer", chem.Eng., 167-170, (April).
Goodgame, T.H. (1954)
"The Additivity of Resistances in Mass Transfer Between Phases", Chem.Eng.Sci., 3_,
(2), 37-42, (April) .
Gose, Earl E. (1967)
"Model for Dropwise Condensation on Randomly Distributed Sites", intern.j.of Heat and
Mass Trans., 10, 15-22.
Hanratty, Thomas J. (1956)
"Turbulent Exchange of Mass and Momentum With a Boundary", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.j., 2,
(3), 359-362 (Sept.).
Hanya, Takahisa (1964)
"Factors Influencing Gas Exchange Between Fresh Water and Air", J.water Poll.Control
Federation, 36, 284 (March).
Harriot, P. (1962)
"Random Eddy Modification of the Penetration Theory", chem.Eng.Sci., 17, 149.
Hassett, N. J. (1963)
"Mass Transfer: The Resistance Concept in Counter Current Flow", Brit.Chem.Eng.,
8_, (2), 86-93, (February).
Hatta, S. (1928-9)
"Absorption Velocity of Gases by Liquids".Technol.Reports, Tohoku Imp. Univ. 10, 119.
Hatta, S. (1932)
Technol. Reports, Tohoku Imp. Univ. 10, 119.
Higbie, R. (1935)
"The Rate of Adsorption of a Pure Gas Into A Still Liquid During Short Periods of Expo-
sure", Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 31 , 365.
Hikita, H. and S. Asai (1964)
In tern.Chem.Eng. , 4, 5.
Himmelblau, U. M. 11963)
"New Developments in Mass Transfer", ind.Eng.chem., 55, (10), 50-57 (Oct.).
Hobler, T. (1966)
Mass Transfer and Absorbers, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Hsu, N. T. (1954)
"Material Transfer in Turbulent Gas Streams", ind.Eng.chem., 46, (5), 870-876.
Hughes, R. R., et al. (1953)
"Flash Vaporization - Analysis of Fluid Mechanical and Mass-Transfer Problems",
Chem.Eng.Progr., 78-87, (Feb.).
Kholpanov, L. P. (1965)
"The Theory of Two-Phase Film Mass Transfer in the Absence of Body Forces", int.chem
Eng. , 5_, (4) , 720-723, (Oct.) .
Kuo, C., et al. (1970)
"Liquid Phase Mass Transfer with Complex Chemical Reaction", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs ,j
1^, (3) , 493-496, (May) .
Maminov, 0. V. (1969)
"Mass Transfer Behavior in Foam Layers", intern .Chem.Eng., 9_, (4), 642-644, (Oct.).
Manning, W. P. (1960)
and Mass Transfer to Decelerating Finely Atomized Sprays", Am. Inst .Chem.Engrs . j
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 93502
-------
4,2 BASIC PRINCIPLES: MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Marangozis, J. and A. I. Johnson (1962)
Can.J.Chem.Eng., 231, (Dec.).
Marsh, B. D., et al. (1965)
"Marangoni Instability with Time-Dependent Undisturbed State", Presented at Am.inst.
Chem.Engrs. Meeting, 1-31, (Dec.).
Marshall, R. W. and R. L. Pigford (1947)
"Applications of Differential Equations to Chemical Engineering", Univ. of Delaware.
Meh"GasDSorption by Suspicion!6 o}f Activated Carbon in Water", Environ .Sci . s Tech.,1,325.
Mehta, D. M. and S. Calvert (1969)
"Calculating Actual Plates in Continuous Sorptions", Brit.cheat.Eng., 14, 1563.
Mehta, D. M. and S. Calvert (1970) •„,,.. IA 7Ri
"Performance of a Porous Plate Column", Bnt.chem.Eng., 16, 781.
"Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer", (Part 1), Cheat. Process .Eng. , 20-27 (Jan.).
Molyneux, F. (1961)
"Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer", (Part 2), chem.Process.Eng., 66-70,
(Feb.).
''Rectifying Column Calculations", ind.Eng.Ghent. , 17 , 747.
^"Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Towers", University Press, Aberdeen, England.
01a"Simultaneous Mass Transfer and Equilibrium Chemical Reaction", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.j.,
6, 233.
Pearson, R. S. (1966)
"Free Convective Effects on Stokes Flow Mass Transfer", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 14,
(6) , 903-908, (Nov.).
Pechkovskii, V. V. (1964) .
"The Interaction Between Calcium Oxide and Sulfur Dioxide Under Reducing Conditions ,
2h. Prikl.Khim., 37, (2), 240-246, (Feb.).
Perlmutter, D. D. (1961)
"Surface-Renewal Models in Mass Transfer", chem.Eng.Sci., ID, ^s/-^yo,
Per"£as Adsorption and Solvent Extraction", Chemical Engineers Handbook, 4th ed., Chapter
14, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Plit, I. G. (1969)
"Theory of Mass Transfer in Nonsteady-State Flows of Gas and Dispersed Liquids",
Zh.Analit.Khim., 4, (12), 2595-2600, (Dec.).
Ponter, A. B. and P. G. Thornley (1964)
"Effect of Absorption on Minimum Wetting Rate", Chem.Process.Eng., 402-405, (Aug).
Porter, K. E. (1963)
"Gas Absorption with Pseudo First Order Chemical Reaction", Trans.inst.Chem.Engr. ,
41, 320-325.
Porter, K. E. (1966)
"The Effect of Contact-Time Distribution on Gas Absorption with Chemical Reaction",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 44, T25-T36.
Rose, J. W. (1967)
"The Mechanism of Dropwise Condensation", Intern.J.of Heat and Mass Trans., 10,
755-762.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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4,2 BASIC PRINCIPLES: MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Ross, S.(1969)
"Bubbles and Foam - New General Law", ind.Eng.Chem., 6_1, (10), 48-57 (Oct.).
Rozen, A. M., et al. (1966)
"Problems of Mass-Transfer Theory", intern.chem.Eng., 6_, (3), 429-437, (July).
Rukenshtein, E. (1965)
"The Influence of the Marangoni Effect on Mass Transfer in Flowing Films", intern.
Chem.Eng., 5_, (1), 88-90, (Jan.).
Sastry, Dalanadh, V.S. and Douglas W. Fuerstenau (1970
"Size Distribution of Agglomerates in Coalescing Dispersed Phase Systems", ind.Eng.
Chem.Fundamentals, 9_, (1), 145-149 (Feb.).
Schechter, R.S., and R. W. Farley (1963)
"Mass Transfer and Interfacial Phenomena", Brit.chem.Eng., 8^ (1), 37-42, (Jan.).
Secor, R. M., et al. (1967)
"Penetration Theory for Diffusion Accompanied by a Reversible Chemical Reaction with
General Kinetics", Am.inst .chem.Engrs. j. , 1_3_ (2), 365-373, (Mar.).
Sherwood, Thomas K. (1950)
"Heat Transfer, Mass Transfer, and Fluid Friction, ind.Eng.Chem., 42, (10), 2077-2084.
Sherwood, T. K., and R. L. Pigford (1952)
Absorption and Extraction, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Shirtsuka, T. (1969)
"Dependence of the Mass-Transfer Coefficient on Surface Reaction Plates", Jntern.chem
Eng., 9_, (1), 155-163, (Jan.).
Sidorova, L. S. et al. (1969)
"Influence of Solubility of the Gas on the Coefficient of Mass Transfer Under Foam
Conditions", zh .Prikl .Khim. , 4_2_, (9), 1925-1929, (Sept.).
Solomakha, G. P. (1963)
"The Relationship Between Mass Transfer in the Gas Phase and Bubble Hydraulic
Parameters", in tern .Chem.Eng. , 3_, (2), 264-268, (April).
Toor, H. L., and J. M. Marchello (1958)
Film-Penetration Model for Mass and Heat Transfer", Am.inst.Chem.Eng.J., £, 97.
Treybal, R. E. ,(1955)
Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Van Krevelen, D. W. and P. J. Hoftijzer (1948)
Rec.Trav.Chim., 67, 563.
Whitman. W. G. (1923)
'Preliminary Experimental Confirmation of the Two-Film Theory of Gas Absorption"
Chem. and Met. Eng., 29, 147. '
4,3 BASIC PRINCIPLES: PARTICLE COLLECTION
Anonymous (1967)
"Tables of Aerosol Physics Functions: Mobility and Falling Speed of Spheres", Atmos.
Environ., 1_, 327-340.
Bak-innv, S. p. and Deryagin, B. V. (I960)
"The Motion of a Small Particle in a Non-Uniform Gas Mixture", ciscuss fsradau
-------
4,3 BASIC PRINCIPLES: PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Boothroyd, R. G. (1967)
"Turbulence Characteristics of the Gaseous Phase in Duct Flow of a Suspension of Fine
Particles", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 45, T297-T310.
Brandt, 0. and E. Hiedemann (1936)
"The aggregation of Suspended Particles in Gases by Sonic and Supersonic Waves, Trans.
Faraday soc. , 3_2, 1101.
Brenner, H. (1963)
"The Stokes Resistance of an Arbitrary Particle", chem.Eng.Sci., 18, 1-25.
Brock, J. R. (1962)
"The Theory of Thermal Forces Acting on Aerosol Particles", J.Colloid Interface Sci.,
Brock, J. R. (1967)
"Highly Nonequilibrium Evaporation of Moving Particles in the Transition Region of
Knudsen Number", j.colloid.interface Sci . , 24, 344-351.
Brown, D. J. (1960)
"Particle Trajectories, Collision and Attachment in Froth Flotation", intern.J. of
Air and Water Poll., 3_, (1/3), 35-43.
Buzzard, J, L. and R. M. Nedderman (1967)
"The Drag Coefficients of Liquid Droplets Accelerating Through Air", chem.Eng.sd . ,
2_2, 1577-1586.
Christiansen, E. B. and D. H. Barker (1965)
"The Effect of Shape and Density on the Free Settling of Particles at High Reynolds
Number", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 11, (1), 145-151, (Jan.).
Davies, C. N. (1966)
Aerosol Science, Academic Press, Inc., New York.
Deryagin, B. V. and S. P. Bakanov (1962)
Doke.Akad.Nauk. SSSR(Phys.Chem.), 147, 139.
Devir, Shlomo E. (1966)
"On the Coagulation of Aerosols. II. Size Distribution", J.Colloid Interface Sci.,
21_, 9-23.
Epstein, P. S. (1929)
"Zur Theorie des Radiometers", z. phys., 54, 537.
Fahnoe, F.. A. L. Lindroos, and R. J. Abelson (1951)
"Aerosol Build-up Techniques", ind.Bng. chem., 43, 1336.
Fletcher, N. H. (1958)
"Size Effect in Heterogeneous Nucleation", j.chain.Phys. , 29, 572.
Friedlander, S. K. (1957)
"Behavior of Suspended Particles in a Turbulent Fluid", Am.inst.Chem Engrs.j.. 3, (3)
381-385, (Sept.).
Fuchs, N. A. (1959)
Evaporation, and Droplet Growth in Gaseous Media, Pergamon Press, New York.
Fuchs, N. A. (1964)
The Mechanics of Aerosols, Pergamon Press, New York.
Fuchs, N. A. (1965)
"The Effect of Condensation of a Vapour on the Grains and of Evaporation From Their
Surface on the Deposit of Aeronols in Granular Beds", chem.Eng.Sci 20, 181-185.
Fuchs, N. A., (1968)
Advances in the Mechanics of Aerosols, NTIS No. AD 682 062.
Fuchs, N. A. and A. G. Sutugin (1965)
"Coagulation Rate of Highly Dispersed Aerosols", J.colloid.Interface Sci., 20, 492-500
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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4,3 BASIC PRINCIPLES: PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Gillespie, G. R. and H. F. Johnstone (1955)
"Particle-Size Distribution in Some Hygroscopic Aerosols", Chem.Eng.Progr., 51, (2),
74F-80F, (Feb.).
Goldshmid, Yhuda (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am. inst.Chem.Engrs.j., 352-358,
(May).
Goldsmith, P. and F. G. May (1966)
Aerosol Science, C. N. Davies, Editor, Academic Press, New York.
Green, H. L. and W. R. Lane (1964)
Particles Clouds: Dusts,Smokes, and Mists, Second Ed., D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton,
New Jersey.
Hatch, T. F. (1933)
"Determination of'Average Particle Size'from Screen Analysis of Non-Uniform Particulate
Substances", J. Franklin inst., 215, 27.
Hatch, T. F. and S. P. Choate (1929)
"Statistical Description of the Size Properties of Non-Uniform Particulate Substances"
J. Franklin Inst., 207, 371. •
Hazen, A. (1914)
Trans.Am.Soc.Civ.Eng., 77, 1539.
Hidy, G. M. and J. R. Brock (1970)
The Dynamics of Aerocolloidal Systems, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.
Howell, J. (1949) .
"The Growth of Cloud Drops in Uniformly Lifted Air", j.Meteorol., 6_, 134.
Huang, Chao-Ming, M. Kerker and E. Matijevic (1970)
"The Effect of Brownian Coagulation, Gradient Coagulation, Turbulent Coagulation,
and Wall Losses", APTIC No. 22651.
Iribarne, J. V. and M. Klemes (1970)
"Electrification Associated with Breakup of Drops at Terminal Velocity in Air",
APTIC No. 23806.
Isaacs, Jack L. (1967)
"The Free-Settling of Solid Cylindrical Particles in the Turbulent Regime", Can.J.
Chem.Eng., 4_5_, 150-155 (June).
Kudo, Akira and Kanji Takahashi (1969)
Numerical Calculation for Electrical Charge on Aerosol Particles", APTIC No. 22548.
Levich V. (1962)
Physiochemical Hydrodynamics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Neumann, Ernest P.
"Application of Sonic Energy to Commercial Aerosol Collection Problems", Chem.Eng.
Progr., 47, 4-10.
Oakes, B. (1960)
"Laboratory Experiments Relating to the Wash-Out of Particles by Rain", intern.j. Of
Air and Water Poll., 3_, (1/3), 179-193.
Oglesby, S. Jr., and G. B. Nichols (1970)
"A Manual of Electrostatic Precipitator Technology", Part 1. Contract CPA 22-69-73 EPA
Pemberton, C. S. (1960)
"Scavenging Action of Rain on Non-Wettable Particulate Matter Suspended in the
Atmosphere", Intern. J. of Air and Hater Poll., 3_, (1/3), 168-178.
Pich, J. (1970)
"The Self-Preserving Particle Size Distribution for Coagulation by Brownian Motion
III, APTIC No. 22164. '
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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4,3 BASIC PRINCIPLES: PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Peskin, Richard L. (1970)
"Basic Studies in Gas Solid Suspension", NTIS No. NYO 2930-15.
Putnam, A. A., R. I. Mitchell, and R. E. Thomas (1964)
"Transport of Aerosols Through Ducts", APTIC No. 23243.
Ranz, W. E. (1960)
"Mechanics of Particle Bounce", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 6_ (1), 124-127, (March).
Richardson, J. F. and E. R. Wooding (1957)
"Concentration Changes in an Aerosol", Chem.Eng.Sci ., 7_, 51-59.
Saffman, P. and J. Turner (1956)
"On the Collision of Drops in Turbulent Clouds", J.Fluid Mech., £, 16.
Schaefer, K. E. and J. H. Dougherty (1961)
"Interaction of Aerosols and Air Ions", Presented American Inst. of Medical Climatology,
Philadelphia, Pa., APTIC No. 23694.
Schumann, T. (1940) . ..
"Theoretical Aspects of the Size Distribution of Fog Particles, Quart.J.Roy.Meteorol.Soc.,
6£, 195.
Soo, S. L. (1964)
"Effect of Electrification on the Dynamics of A Particulate System", APTIC No. 23636.
Soo, S. L., et.al. (1964)
"Concentration and Mass Flow Distributions in a Gas-Solid Suspension", ind.Eng.chem.
Fundamentals, _3, (2), 98-106, (May).
Soo, S. L. (1967)
Fluid Dynamics of Multiphase Systems, Blaisdell Publishing Co., Waltham, Mass.
Sparks, Leslie E. and M. J. Pilat (1969)
"Diffusion Forces and Particulate Scrubber Efficiencies", Paper No. 69-82 Presented
at APCA Meeting, New York.
Sparks, Leslie E. and M. J. Pilat (1970)
"Effect of Duffusiophoresis on Particle Collection by Wet Scrubbers", Atmos.Environ.,
4, 1-10.
St. Clair, H. W. (1968)
U. S. Bureau of Mines, R. 1, 4218.
Volmer, M. (1939)
Kinetic der Phasenbildung, Steinkopff, Leipzig.
Von Smoluchowski, M. (1916)
"Drei Vortrage uber Diffusion. Brownsche Molekularbewegung, und Koagulation von
Kolloidteilchen", z.Physics, 17, 557, 585.
Von SmoluchoA^ski, M. (1917)
"Versuch einer Mathematischen Theorie der Koagulation skinetik Kolloidaler Lasungen,"
Z.Phys.Chem., 92, 129.
Waldmann, L. (1959)
"Uber die Krafteines Inhomogenen Gases auf Kleine Suspendierte Kugeln", z.Naturforsch,
14A, 589.
Waldmann, L. and K. Schmitt (1960)
"Untersuchunger an Schwebstoffteilchen in Diffundierenden Gasen", z.Naturforsch,ISA,843.
Whitby, K. T. and B. Y. H. Liu (1966)
Aerosol Science, C. N. Davies, Editor, Academic Press, New York.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O. BOX 71 RH/FRQinc I-A
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8
4,4 GAS LIQUID CONTACTING
Anderson, G. H. (1960)
"Two-Phase (Gas/Liquid)Flow Phenomena - II", Chem.Eng.Sci ., 12, Z33-24Z.
Anonymous (1961)
"Sound Waves Form Uniform Drops in Spray Nozzle", Chem.Eng., 84-88, (Sept.).
Azbel, D. S. (1963)
"The Hydrodynamics of Bubbler Processes", intern .Chem.Eng. , 3_, (3), 319-323.
Baird, M. H. (1962)
"Annular Jets - I, Fluid Dynamics", Chem.Eng.Sci ,, 17, 467-472.
Balakirev, A. A. (1969)
"Apparatus for Studying Breakdown of Films in Foam", zh.Prikl.Khim., 42 (1), 193-195,
(Jan.) .
Bennet, C. D. and J. E. Myers (1962)
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Benton, D. P. (1958)
"Coalescence of Droplets in Aqueous-Disperse Aerosols", intern.J. of Air and Hater
Poll., 1_, 44-50.
Bitron, Moshe D. (1955)
"Atomization of Liquids by Supersonic Air Jets", ind.Eng.Chem., 47, 24-28, (Jan.).
Boll, R. H. (1971)
"Particle Collection and Pressure Drop in Venturi Scrubbers", Presented 69th National
Am. Ins t .Cheat. Engrs . Meeting, Cincinnati, Ohio, (May).
Calderbank, P. H. (1956) -. 7Q qn
"Gas Liquid Contacting on Plates", Trans . inst .chem.Engr. , 3_4_, 79-9U.
Cal"Theaphysicai Properties of Foams and Froths Formed on Sieve-Plates", Trans.inst.
Chem.Engr., 40, 3-12.
Calderbank, P.H. (1967) n»-ri ti chi rp ?na rv
"Review Series No. 3, Gas Absorption from Bubbles", chem.Engr., (British), ct ZU9-CE
233, (Oct).
Cal"Sourc|'con?r?} by Liquid Scrubbing", Air Pollution, Ch. 46, 3, A.C. Stern, Ed.,
Academic Press.
Consiglio, J. A. (1957)
"Effect of Liquid Physical Properties and Flow Rates on the Surface Area of Sprays
from a Pressure Atomizer", Am. inst.Chem. Engrs .J., 3_, (2), 413-427, (Sept.).
"Mass Transfer in Drops Under Conditions That Promote Oscillation and Internal Circul-
ation", Ph.D. Thesis, Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio.
Constan, G.L. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Mass Transfer in Drops Under Conditions That Promote Oscillation and Internal Circul-
ation", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs .J. , 9_(1) , 109-115.
Crowe, C. T. (1961)
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
de Nie, L. H. (1968)
"Practical Application of Drops", Chem. & Process Eng., 133-142 (April).
Dombrowski, N. (1960)
"Some Aspects of Liquid Flow Through Fan Spray Nozzles", Chem.Eng.sd. , 12, 35-50.
Dombrowski, N. (1962)
"Effect of Ambient Density on Drop Formation in Sprays", Chem.Eng .Sci. , 1_7_, 291-304.
DuBois, P.E. (1967)
"Wet Scrubber with Atomization of the Cleaning Liquid", staui, 2_7_, (3), 18-20, (March)
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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H,H GAS LIQUID CONTACTING (CONT'D)
Duda, J. L. (1969)
"Mathematical Analysis of Bubble Dissolution", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs .J ., 15, (3),
351-356, (May).
Efremov, G. I. (1969)
"Investigation of the Hydrodynamics of a Bubbled Bed", in tern .chem.Eng. , 9_, (4), (Oct.).
Finlay, B. A. (1957)
"Liquid Drops in an Air Stream", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, England,
Eraser, R. P. (1956)
"Liquid Atomization and the Drop Size of Sprays", Trans.inst.Ghent .Engr., 34, 294-319.
Eraser, R. P. (1957)
"Liquid Atomization in Chemical Engineering", Part 1, Brit. chem.Eng., 414-417, (Aug.).
Fraser, R. P. (1957)
"Liquid Atomization in Chemical Engineering", Part 2, Brit.Chem.Eng., 496-501, (Sept.).
Fraser, R. P. (1957)
"Liquid Atomization in Chemical Engineering", Part 3, Brit.Chem.Eng. , 536-543, (Oct.)1.
Fraser, R. P. (1957)
"Liquid Atomization in Chemical Engineering", Part 4, Brit.Chem.Eng., 610-613, (Sept.).
Fraser, R. P. (1963)
"The Atomization of a Liquid Sheet by an Impinging Air Stream", chem.Eng.sd., 18,
339-353. ~
Garner, F. K. and J. J. Lane (1959)
"Mass Transfer to Drops of Liquid Suspended in a Gas Stream", Trans.inst.Chem.Engr.,
(London) , 37_, 162.
Gieseke, J. A. (1964)
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Gieseke, J. A. (1965)
"Size Measurement of Collected Drops", j. of chem. & Engr. Data, 10, (4), 350-351,(Oct.)
Goldshmid, J. and S. Calvert (1963).
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am.inst.chem.Engrs. J., 9_, 352.
Hadamard, J. (1913)
"Mouvement Permanent lent d'une sphere Liquide et Visqueuse dans une Liquid Visqueuse ,
Compt.Rend., 152, 1735 (1911); 154, 107 (1913).
Harmathy, T. Z. (1960)
"Velocity of Large Drop and Bubbles in Media of Infinite or Restricted Extent", Am.inst.
Chem .Engrs . J . , 6_, 281.
Hartland, S. (1967)
"The Coalescence of a Liquid Drop at a Liquid-Liquid Interface. Part I: Drop Shape",
Chem.Eng.Progr., 45, T-97-T-114.
Hartland, S. (1968)
"The Coalescence of a Liquid Drop at a Liquid-Liquid Interface. Part IV: The Effect
of Surface Active Agent", Trans.inst.chem.Engr., 46, T275-T282.
Hasson, D. and J. Mizrahi (1961)
"The Drop Size of Fan Spray Nozzles: Measurements by the Solidifying Wax Method
Compared with Those Obtained by Other Sizing Techniques", Trans.inst.chem.Engrs ,
39^, 415-422.
Hesketh, Howard E. (1968)
"Cloud-Type Atomization of a Liquid Stream by a Gas Stream in a Venturi Scrubber"
Ph.D. Thesis, Penn.State University. '
Hesketh, H. E., A. J. Engel, and S. Calvert (1970)
"Atomization -"A New Type for Better Gas Scrubbing", Atmos.Environ., 4, 639.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE CA. 92502
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10
HA GAS LIQUID CONTACTING (CONT'D)
Hoffman, T. W. (1961)
"An Analysis of Spray Evaporation in a High-Temperature Environment. Part 1. Radiant
Heat Transfer", can.j.chem.Eng., 179-188, (Oct).
Hoffman, T. W. (1962)
"An Analysis of Spray Evaporation in a High-Temperature Environment. Part 11.,"
Can.J.chem.Eng., 110-112, (June).
Hoffman, T. W. (1965)
"An Analysis of Spray Evaporation in a High-Temperature Environment. Part 111. Calcul-
ation of Heat Flux", Can .J.chem.Eng., 325-333, (Dec.).
Howkins, J. E. (1958)
"Countercurrent Gas-Liquid Flow", Chem.Eng.sd., 1_, 235-240.
Hughes, R. R. (1952)
"The Mechanics of Drops", Chem.Eng.Progr. , £8, (10), 497-504, (Oct.).
Hughes, W. F. (1967)
Theory and Problems of Fluid Dynamics, Schaum's Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hughmark, Gordon A. (1962)
"Holdup in Gas-Liquid Flow", Chem.Eng.Progr., 58, (4), 62-65, (April).
ng"Drag Coefficients for Droplets and Solid Spheres in Clouds Accelerating in Airstreams",
NASA Technical Note 3762, (Sept.).
Jackson, R. (1964)
"Industrial Research Fellow Report No. 1. The Formation and Coalescence of Drops
and Bubbles", Chem.Eng., (178), CE-107, (May).
Karam, H. J. (1968)
"Deformation and Breakup of Liquid Droplets in a Simple Shear Field", ind.Eng.chem.
Fundamentals, 7_, (4), 576-581, (Nov.).
Kim, K. Y. and W. R. Marshall (1971)
"Drop-Size Distributions from Pneumatic Atomizers", Am. inst.chem.Engrs. J. , 1_7_, (3),
575-584.
Kirillov, V. A. (1966)
"Calculation of the Direction of the Axis of the Resultant Flow in Mixing of Turbulent
Jets", Intern .Chem.Eng. , 6_, (3), 509-510, (July).
Kumar, R. and N. R. Kuloor (1970)
Advances in Chemical Engineering, £, Academic Press, New York.
Kuznetskii, R. S. (1969)
"Two Cases of Evaporation of a Drop in a Stream of Hot Gas", zh.Prikl.Khim., 42, (2)
411-413 (Feb.). —
Lamb, H. L. (1932)
Hydrodynamics, 6th Edition, Cambridge University Press, London, England.
Lane, W. R. (1951)
"Shatter of Drops in Streams of Ail", Ind.Eng.chem., 43, 1511.
Leibson, Irving, et al. (1956)
"Rate of Flow and Mechanics of Bubble Formation from Single Submerged Orifices",
Am. Inst. Chem.Engrs . J. , 2_, 296-306 , (Sept.).
>
Leonard, Ralph A. (1965)
"A Study of Interstitial Liquid Flow in Foam, Part 1", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.j., 2 (1)
18-29 (Jan.) . -<-.«.
Levich, V. G. (1962)
"Movement of Drops and Bubbles in Liquid Media", intern. chem. Eng. , 2_, (1), 78-89,
(Jan.). ~
Levich, V. G. (1962)
"Physiochemical Hydrodynamics", Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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H.H GAS LIQUID CONTACTING (CONT'D) n
Mancri, C. C. (1968)
"The Rise Velocity of Bubbles in Tubes in Rectangular Channels as Predicted by Wave
Theory", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 14, (2), 295-300, (Mar.).
Meldelson, H. D. (1967)
"The Prediction of Bubble Terminal Velocities From Wave Theory", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J.,
]_3, (2) , 250-253, (Mar.) .
Moo-Young, Murray (1971)
"Bubble Motion Studies in a Countercurrent Flow Apparatus", ind.Eng.chem.Fundamentals,
1£, (1), 157-160.
Nelson, Paul A. (1961)
"Size Distribution of Droplets from Centrifugal Spray", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 7_,
(1), 80-86, (March).
Nevers, N. D. (1968)
"Bubble Driven Field Circulations", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 14, (2), 222-226 (March).
Nukiyama, S. and Y. Tanasawa (1938-1940)
"Experiments on the Atomization of Liquids in an Air Stream", Trans.soc.Mech.Engrs.,
4, I, 6.
Ranz, W. E. (1957)
"Determining Drop Size Distribution of a Nozzle Spray", ind.Fng.chem., 49, (2),
288-293.
Ranz, W. E. (1958)
"Some Experiments on Orifice Sprays", Can.j.chem.Eng., 175-181, (Aug.).
Resnick, W. and B. Gal-Or (1968)
Advances in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 7, Academic Press, New York.
Schaftlein, R. W. and T. W. F. Russell (1968)
"Two-Phase Reactor Design. Tank-Type Reactor", ind.Eng.Chem., 60, (12).
Schlichting, K. (1960)
Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Schroeder, R. R. (1965)
"Oscillations of Drops Falling in a Liquid Field", Am.inst.chem.Engrs .J., 11, (1),
5-8, (Jan.).
Shih, Fang-Shung (1967)
"A Study of Interstitial Liquid Flow in Foam. Ill", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 15, (4),
751-754, (July).
Shulman, H. L. (1967)
"Performance of Packed Columns: Part VIII:. Liquid Flow Patterns and Velocities in
Packed Beds", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 13, (6), 1137-1140, (Nov.).
Sjenitzer, F. (1962)
"The Evaporation of a Liquid Spray Injected into a Stream of Gas", chem.Eng.sd .,
17_, 309-322.
Sweeney, D. E. (1967)
"A Correlation for Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Cocurrent Flow in Packed Beds", Am.inst.
Chem.Engrs . J., 13, (4), 663-669, (July).
Torobin, L. B. and W. H. Gauvin (1960)
"Fundamental Aspects of Solids - Gas Flow. IV. The Effects of Particle Rotation, Rough-
ness", Can.J.Chem.Eng., 58, 142.
Volynskii, M. S. (1948)
"On the Break-up of Droplets in an Air-Stream", Doklady Akad. Nauk (SSSR), 62, 301.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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12
H.5 UNIT MECHANISMS - MASS TRANSFER
Angelo, Jacob B. et al. (1966)
"Generalization of the Penetration Theory for Surface Stretch: Application to Form-
ing a Oscillating Drops", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.j., 12, (4), 751-760, (July).
Astarita, Giovanni (1967)
Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction, Elsevier Pub. Co., New York.
Baird, M. H. and J. F. Davidson (1962)
"Annular Jets - II, Gas Absorption", chem.Eng.sd. , 1_7, 473-480.
Bonilla, C. F., J. R. Mottes and M. Wold (1951)
"Air Humidification Coefficients in Spray Towers, Gas-Film Transfer Coefficients at
Low Air Velocities", ind.Eng.chem., 43, (1), 41-46,'(Jan.) .
Braulick, W. J., J. R. Fair, and B. J. Lerner (1965) ,
"Mass Transfer in Sparged Contactor. I. Physical Mechanisms and Controlling Parameters",
Am.Inst.Chem.Enqrs.J., 11, 73.
Bromley, L. A. (1960)
"Falling Liquid Sheets - A New Mass Transfer Device", ind .Eng.Chem., j_2, (4), 311-312,
(Apr.).
Brunner, C. A. (1965)
"Foam Fractionation", Ind.Eng.chem., 57, (5), 40-48, (MayJ.
Byers, C. H. et al. (1967)
"Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer with a Tangentially Moving Interface. Part 1: Theory",
Am. Inst. Chem.Engrs. J. , ]_3_ (4), 628-636, (July).
"PSysical Rate Processes in Industrial Fermentation", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 37, 173.
Calderbank, P. II. (1967)
Chem.Engr.(London), 212, 209.
Calderbank, P. H. (1967
"Review Series No. 3, Gas Absorption from Bubbles", chem.Engr.(London), CE209-CE233,
(Oct.).
Calderbank, P. H., M. B. Moo-Young, and R. Biddy (1964)
Chetn.Eng.Sci . , 91, Supplement.
Calvert, Seymour and Walter Workman (1960)
"Estimation of Efficiency for Bubbler-Type Gas Absorbers", Talanta, 4_, 89-100.
Calvert, Seymour, and G. Kapo (1963)
"Penetration Theory Enables Estimation of Transfer Coefficients", chem.Eng.,(Feb. 4
and Mar. 4).
Chen, D. H. (1969)
"Correlation of Interphase Mass Transfer Coefficients for Transport of Gases Through
Insoluble Monolayers", Am.Inst.chem.Engrs.J., 15, (4), 617-619, (July).
Constan, G. (1961)
"Mass Transfer in Drops Under Conditions that Promote Oscillation and Internal Cir-
culation", Ph.D.Thesis, Case Institute of Technology.
Constan, G. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Mass Transfer in Drops Under Conditions that Promote Oscillation and Internal Cir-
culation", Am. Inst.Chem.Engrs . J., 9_, (1), 109-115, (Jan.).
Crank, J. (1956)
Mathematics of Diffusion, Oxford Univ. Press, London.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1951)
"Absorption by Simultaneous Diffusion and Chemical Reaction into Particles of Various
Shapes", Trans.Faraday Soc., 1014-1023, (Jan.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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/1,5 UNIT MECHANISMS - MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D) 13
Davies, J. T. (1948)
"Mass Transfer into Turbulent Jets", chem.Eng.sd., 11, 1539-1548.
Dawson, D. A. (1966)
"Mass Transfer in a Turbulent Radial Wall Jet", can.j.chem.Eng., 121-129, (June).
Deindoerfer, F. H. (1961)
"Mass Transfer from Individual Gas Bubbles", ind.Eng.chem., 53^ (9), 755-759, (Sept.).
Galloway, T. R. (1964)
"Thermal and Material Transfer in Turbulent Gas Stream - A Method of Prediction for
Spheres", Int.J.Heat and Mass Trans., 7_, 283-291.
Galor, B. (1969)
"Bubble and Drop Phenomena", ind.Eng.chem., 61, (2), 21-34, (Feb.).
Garner, F. H. and P. Kendrick (1959)
"Mass Transfer to Drops of Liquid Suspended in a Gas Stream. Part I.", Trans.inst.chem.
Engr., £7, 155-161.
Garner, F. H. and J. J. Lane (1959)
"Mass Transfer to Drops of Liquid Suspended in a Gas Stream. Part II," Trans.Inst.Chem.
Engr., l]_, 162-172.
Goodridge, F. (1965)
"Mass Transfer into Near-Horizontal Liquid Films, Part I: Hydrodynamic Studies",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 43, T62-T67.
Goodridge, F. (1965)
"Mass Transfer into Near-Horizontal Liquid Films, Part II: The Measurement of Rates
of Gas Absorption", Trans.inst.chem.Engr., 43, T74-T77.
Goren, S. L., and R. V. S. Mani (1968)
"Mass Transfer Through Horizontal Liquid Films in Wavy Motion", Am.Inst.chem.Engrs.J.,
1£, 57-61 (Jan.).
Groothuis, H. and H. Kramers (1955)
"Gas Absorption by Single Drops During Formation", chem.Eng.sd ., 4_, 17-25.
Handles, A. E. and T. Baron (1957)
"Mass and Heat Transfer From Drops in Liquid-Liquid Extraction", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J.,
3_, 127.
Harmathy, T. Z. (1960)
"Velocity of Large Drops and Bubbles in Media of Infinite or Restricted Extent", Am.
Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 6^ 281.
Harriott, Peter (1962)
"Mass Transfer to Particles: Part 1. Suspended in Agitated Tanks", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.
J., 8_, (D, 93-102 (March).
Hobler, T. (1966)
Mass Transfer and Absorbers, Pergamon Press, New York.
Hobler, T. (1967)
"Analysis of the Equations of Mass Transfer in the Liquid Phase in the Flow of Liquid
Down a Wall", int .chem.Eng., 1_, (4), 654-666, (Oct.).
Howard, D. W. (1968)
"Mass Transfer to Falling Films: Part I.Application of the Surface Stretch Model of
Uniform Wave", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 14, (3), 458-467, (May).
Howkins, J. E. (1958)
"Countercurrent Gas-Liquid Flow", Chem.Eng.sd. , 7_, 235-240.
Huang, W. S. et al. (1969)
"Effects of Surfactants on Mass Transfer Inside Drops", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J , 15
(S), 735-744, (Sept.). —
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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4,5 UNIT MECHANISMS - MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Hughes, R. R. and E. R. Gilliland
"Mass Transfer Inside Drops in a Gas", Chem.Eng.Progr. Symposium Series, 51, (16),
101-117.
Hughmark, G. A. (1967)
"Mass and Heat Transfer from Rigid Spheres", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.j., 13, (6), 1219-
1221, (Nov.).
Hughmark, G. A. (1967)
"Liquid-Liquid Spray Column Drop Size, Holdup, and Continuous Phase Mass Transfer" ind
Eng.Chem.Fundamentals , 6_, 408; Ind. Eng . Chem. Proces s Design Develop., 6, 218. '
Jackson, M. L. (1950)
"Distillation, Vaporization, and Gas Absorption in Wetted-Wall Column", ind.Eng.chem
4_2_, (6), 1188-1198.
Jarrett, E. L. et al. (1967)
"Mass Transfer in Rectangular Cavities", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.j., 13, (4), 797-800,
(July). —
Jepsen, J. C., 0. K. Grosser, and R. H. Perry (1966)
"The Effect of Wave Induced Turbulence on the Rate of Absorption of Gases in Falling
Liquid Films",Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J. , 12, 186.
Johnson, A. I. (1960)
"Mass Transfer Inside Drops", Am . inst. Chem.Engrs .J ., 6_, 145-149, (March).
Johnson, A. I. et al. (1967)
"Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction From Single Gas Bubbles", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs j
1_3, (2) , 379-383, (March) . "
Johnstone, H. F. (1958)
"Absorption of Sulfur Dioxide from Air. Oxidation in Drops Containing Dissolved
Catalysts", ind .Eng.chem., 5£, (8), 1169-1172, (Aug.).
Jury. S. H. (1967)
'An Improved Version of the Rate Equation for Molecular Diffusion in a Dispersed
Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 15, 1124. »
Keey, R. B. (1965)
"Heat and Mass Transfer from a Single Sphere in an Extensive Flowing Fluid", Trans.
Inst.Chem.Engr. , 4_3, T221-T223.
Kishinevskii, M. K. (1964)
"Investigation of Mass Exchange in the Motion of Drops by a Dynamic Method", zurn
Prikl.Khim., 3_7,(4), 844-851, (April).
Kramers, H. et al. (1961)
"Absorption of Nitrogen Tetroxide by Water Jets", chem.Eng.Sci., (14), 115-123.
Kronig, R. et al.
"On the Theory of Extraction from Falling Droplets", Appl.Sci.Res., A2, 142, Part 1
and 2 .
Lament, John C. (1970)
"An Eddy Cell Model of Mass Transfer into the Surface of a Turbulent Liquid", Am.
Inst.Chem.Engrs,J., 16, (4), 513 -519,(July).
Li, P. S., F. B. West, W. H. Vance, and R. W. Moulton (1965)
"Unsteady State Mass Transfer from Gas-Bubbles - Liquid Phase Resistance", Am.inst Ch
Engrs.J., 11 , 581. ' ' ne">.
Marsh, Duane B. (1965)
"Mass Transfer from Free Drops", ind .Eng .chem.Fundamentals, 4_, (2), 129-133, (May).
Mehta, D. S., and S. Calvert (1970)
"Performance of a Porous Plate Column", Brit.chem.Eng., 15, 781.
Metzner, A. B. (1956)
"Mass Transfer in Foams", ind.Eng.chem., £8,(11), 2040-2045.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE CA. 92502
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15
4,5 UNIT MECHANISMS - MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Morgan, R. P. (1967)
"Heat and Mass Transfer Between an Evaporative Interface in a Porous Medium and an
External Gas System", Am.inst.chem.Engrs .J., 13, (1), 132-140, (Jan.).
Nate, T., et al. (1967)
"Mass Transfer from Large Single Bubbles at High Reynolds Numbers", Am.inst.chem.
Engrs.J., 13, (4), 697-702, (July).
Norman, W. S. (1961)
Absorption, Distillation, and Cooling Towers, University Press, Aberdeen, England.
Panno, A., S. Calvert (1965)
"Mass Transfer in Drops with Forced Internal Circulation", Developments in Mechanics,
2_, 776.
Perry, R. H., Editor f!963)
"Gas Absorbtion and Solvent Extraction", Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th Edition,
Chapter 14, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Plit, I. G. (1964)
"Theory of Mass Transfer in Concentrated Currents of Large Drops", 2h.Piikl.Khim.,
3J7_, (6) , 1301-1309, (June) .
Plit, I. G. (1965)
"Theory of Chemisorption in Direct-Flow Gas Currents with "Large-Diameter" Drops",
2h.Prikl.Khim., 38_, (7), 1495-1501, (July).
Plit, I. G. (1965)
"Theory of Mass Transfer in Drops of Small Diameter in Contact with a Gas of Constant
Concentration", zh.Prikl.Khim ., 58, 125-132, (January).
Plit, I. G. (1967)
"Theory of Mass Transfer in Concentrated Streams of Small Drops", Zh .Prikl.Khim.,
40_, (6), 1282-1286, (June).
Plit, I. G. (1967)
"Theory of Mass Transfer in Nonsteady Streams of Large Drops.", zh .Prikl.Khim., 40,
(7), 1440-1446, (July).
Plit, I. G. (1967)
"Chemical Absorption of Gases by Small Drops", zh .Prikl ,Khim., 4_0_, (6), 1287-1290,
(June).
Popovich, A. T. (1964)
"Mass Transfer During Single Drop Formation", chcm .En
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16
4,5 UNIT MECHANISMS - MASS TRANSFER (CONT'D)
Ruckenstein, E. (1967)
"Physical Models for Mass or Heat Transfer Processes", intern .chem.Eng. , 7_, (3),
490, (July).
Rutland, L., et al. (1967)
"Mass Transfer from a Single Sphere in Stokes Flow with a Homogeneous Chemical
Reaction", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 13, (1), 182-186, (Jan.).
Schaftlein, R. W., and T. W. F. Russell (1968)
"Two Phase Reactor Design. Tank-Type Reactor", ind .Eng.chem. , 6_0, (5), 12.
Sherwood, T. K., and R. L. Pigford (1952)
Absorption and Extraction, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Sideman, S., 0. Hortascu, and J. W. Fulton (1966)
"Mass Transfer in Gas-Liquid Contacting Systems", Ind.Eng.chew., 58, (7), 32-47,
(July).
Sin, Ping Iluei (1967)
"Mass Transfer to the Rear of a Sphere in Stokes Flow", Atmos.Environ., 10, 1749-
1756.
Smith, J. L. (1967)
"Film-Penetration Models for Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction", /an.inst.chem.
Engrs.J., 1_3, (6), 1207-1211, (Nov.).
Sy, F. and E. N. Lightfoot (1968)
"The Effect of Distortion on Mass Transfer to Spheroidal Drops", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.j.,
J. Q | O -J J •
Wellek, R. M. and A. II. P. Skelland (1965)
"Extraction with Single Turbulent Droplets", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 11, 557.
Workman, W. and S. Calvert (1966)
"Mass Transfer in Supported Froths", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 12, 867.
Yoshida, F. and Y. Miura (1963)
"Gas Absorption in Agitated Gas-Liquid Contactors", ind.Eng.chem.Proc.Des.Development,
2_, (4) , 263.
Zieminsky, S. A., M. M. Caron and R. B. Blackmore (1967)
"Behavior of Air Bubbles in Dilute Aqueous Solutions", ind.Eng.Chem.Fundamentals,
6, (2), 233.
4,6 UNIT MECHANISMS - PARTICLE COLLECTION
Aiba, Shuichi and Takeo Yasuda (1962)
"A Correlation Between Single Fiber Efficiencies of Fibrous Filters and Operating
Variables", Am .Inst .Chem.Engrs .J ., 8_, (5), 704-708, (Nov.).
Axelrud, G. A. (1953)
zh.Fiz.Khim., 27, 1445.
Albrecht, F. (1931)
"Theoretische Untersuchungen uber die Ablagerung von Staub aus Stromender Luft und
ihre Anwendung auf die Theorie der Staubfilter',' z.Physik, 32, 48.
Anonymous (1960)
"Discussion -Third Session. Collection of Small Particles by Drop", intern.j.Air and
water Poll., 3, (1/3) , 194-197.
Best, A. (1950)
"The Size Distribution of Raindrops", Quart.J.Roy.Meteorol.Soc., 76 , 16.
Bosanquet, C. II., (1950)
Trans.inst.chem.Engr., (LONDON), 28, 130. Appendix to paper by C. J. Stairmand.
Bycrs, R. Lee (1967)
"Particle Deposition from Turbulent Streams by Means of Thermal Force", Ph.D. Thesis,
Penn. State University.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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17
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18
4,6 UNIT MECHANISMS - PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Gaunter, J. W., et al. (1970)
"Survey of Literature on Flow Characteristics of a Single Turbulent Jet Impinging on
a Flat Plate," CFSTI No. N70-18963.
Glanert, M.
Aeronautical Research Comm. Report No. 2025 (London), H.M.S.-O.
Goldshmid, Y. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am.inst .chem.Engra. J. , 9_, 352.
Goldsmith, P. and F. G. May (1966)
"Diffusiophoresis and Thermophoresis in Water Vapour Systems", Aerosol Sci., lt>3-194,
Golovin, M. N. and A. A. Putnam (1962)
"Inertial Impaction on Single Elements", ind.Eng.chem.Fundamentals, 1_, 264-273.
Gottschlish, Chad F. (1961)
"Removal of Particulate Matter from Gaseous Wastes, Gravity, Inertial, Sonic and
Thermal Collection", APTIC No. 22746.
Gunn, R. and G. D. Kinzer (1949)
"The Terminal Velocity of Fall for Water Droplets in Stagnant Air", J.Meteorol.,6, 243.
Hampl, V.
"Scavenging of Aerosol Particles by a Falling Water Droplet", Department of Chem. 5
Inst. of Colloid $ Surface Science, Clarkson College of Technology, Potsdam, New York.
Herne, H. (1960)
"The Classical Computation of the Aerodynamic Capture of Particle by Spheres", intern.
J.Air and Water Poll., 3_, (1/3), 26-34.
Higbie, R. W. (1935)
"The Rate of Absorbtion of a Pure Gas into a Still Liquid During Short Periods of Exposure"
Trans.Am.Inat.Chem.Engrs.J., 31, 365. *
Hocking, L. M. (1959)
"The Collision Efficiency of Small Drops", Quart.J.Roy.Meteorol.Soc., 8J[, 44.
Hocking, L.M. (I960)
"The Theoretical Collision Efficiency of Small Drops", intern.J.Air and Water Poll..
3, (1/3), 154-159.
Johnstone, H. F. and M. H. Roberts (1949)
"Deposition of Aerosol Particles from Moving Gas Streams", ind.Chem.Eng., 41, 2417.
Kraemer, H. F. and H. F. Johnstone (1955)
"Collection of Aerosol Particles in Presence of Electrostatic Fields", ind.Chem.Enq..
47, 2426.
Landt, E. (1956)
Gasundheits ing., 77, 139.
Langmuir, I. (1942)
O.S.R.P. Report No. 865.
Langmuir, I. (1948)
"The Production of Rain by a Chain Reaction in Cumulus Clouds at Temperatures Above
Freezing", J.Meteorol., 5_, 175.
Langmuir, I. and K. Blodgett (1946)
"A Mathematical Investigation of Water Droplet Trajectories", Amer.A.F.Tech.Report 54ia
Laufer, J. (1954)
"The Structure of Turbulence in Fully Developed Pipe Flow", National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics Research, Report 1174, National Bureau of Standards.
Levich, V. (1952)
Physico-Chem. Hydrodyn. Acad. Sci., USSR, Moscow.
Liljenzin, Jan-Olov (1970)
"Theoretical Model for Behavior of Drops in a Centrifuge", ind.Eng.chem. Fundamentals
9, (2), 248-250.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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4,6 UNIT MECHANISMS - PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Litvinov, A. T. (1967)
"Influence of Condensation on the Effectiveness of Capture of Fine Particles During
Cleaning of Gases by the Wet Method", zh.Prikl.Khim., 4_0, (2), 335-342, (Feb.).
Lundgren, D. A.(1962)
Masters Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minn., (March).
Melandri, C., V. Prodi, 0. Rimondi, and G. Tarroni (1968)
"A Submicron Particle Precipitator Based on Water Vapour Condensation", APTIC No. 23855.
Mercer, T. T. and H. Y. Chow (1968)
"Impaction from Rectangular Jets", J.Colloid interface Sci ., 27, 75-83.
Mercer, T. T. and R. G. Stafford (1969)
"Impaction from Round Jets", Ann.Occup. Hyg., 12, 41-48.
Miller, Carl (1967)
"The Impaction of Airborne Particles on Plate Collectors", NTIS NO. 663 800.
Natanson, G. L. (1957)
"Diffusion Precipitation of Aerosols on a Streamlined Cylinder for Small Capture Coef-
ficients", Dok.Akad.Nauk., USSR Phys.Chem.Sec., 112, 100; English Ed., 112, (21).
Nutt, C. W. (1960)
"Froth Flotation: The Adhesion of Solid Particles to Flat Interfaces and Bubbles",
Chem.Eng.Sci ., 12, 133-141.
Oglesby, S., Jr. (1970)
A Manual of Electrostatic Precipitator Technology, Part 1. Southern Research Insti-
tute, p. 75.
Owen, P. R. (I960)
"Dust Deposition from a Turbulent Airstream", intern, j. Air Pollution, 3_, (8), 8-25.
Owen, P. R. (I960)
"Discussion-First Session. Deposition From a Turbulent Boundary Layer", intern.j.Air
and water Poll., 3_, (1/3), 50-59.
Pearcy. T. and G. W. Hill (19571
"A Theoretical Estimate of the Collection Efficiencies of Small Droplets", Quart.J.Roy.
Meteorol.Soc. , 83 , 77.
Pemberton, C.S. (1960)
"Scavenging Action of Rain on Non-Wettable Particulate Matter Suspended in the Atmos-
phere", Intern. J.Air Poll., 3_, 168.
p rrv R H.. Editor (1963)
"Tluid and Particle Mechanics", Chapter 5, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th Ed., McGra*
Hill, New York.
Picknett, R. G. (1960)
"Collection Efficiencies for Water Drops in Air", intern.J. Air Poll., 3_, 160-167.
Pritchard, C. L. (1967)
"Mass Transfer from Drops in Forced Convection", Brit.chem.Eng., 12, (6), 879-885,
(June) .
Ranz, W. E. (1953)
Technical Report No. 8, University of Illinois, Eng. Exptl. Sta. (January).
Ranz, W. E. (1959)
"Determining Impaction Efficiencies of Mist Collection Equipment", J .Air Poll.cont.
ASSOC., 8, (4), 328, (Feb.).
Ranz, W. E. and J. B. Wong (1952)
"Impaction of Dust and Smoke Particles on Surface and Body Collectors", ind.Eng.chem..
44, (6), 1371-1380, (June).
Ratcliff, G. A. (1961)
"Gas Absorption with First-Order Chemical Reaction in a Spherical Liquid Film" chem
Eng.Sci., 15., 100-110.
Remy, H. and II. Finnern (1926)
"Fogs Resulting from Chemical Reactions. IV. Adsorption of a Chemical Foe bv a Liauid
and Solid Materials" ,z. inorganic Chem., 159, 241. iicmiucii rog oy a Liquid
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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20
4,6 UNIT MECHANISMS - PARTICLE COLLECTION (CONT'D)
Rober, R. (1957)
Staub, 48, 41.
Rozen, A. M. and V. M. Kostin (1967)
"Collection of Finely Dispersed Aerosols in Plate Columns by Condensation Enlargement",
Int.Chem.Eng. , 7_, (3), 464-467, (July).
Schlinger, W. G. and B. H. Sage (1953)
"Material Transfer in Turbulent Gas Streams", ind.Eng.Chem., 45, 657.
Sehmel, G. A. and L. C. Schwendiman (1963)
HW-SA-3183, Hanford Atomic Products Operations, Richland, Washington, (Sept. 18).
Sell, W. (1931)
"The Precipitation of Dust on Simple Bodies and in Air Filters", Ver.Deut.ing.Forschung-
sheft, 347.
Singh, Bhuminder (1970)
"Particle Deposition Due to Thermal Force in the Transition and Near Continuum Regime",
Paper submitted to Ind.Eng.Chem.Fundamentals, 30 pp., (July).
Smith, T. N. (1966)
"The Sedimentation of Particles Having a Dispersion of Sizes", Trans .Inst.chem.Eng.,
£4_, T153-157.
Soo, S. L. (1967)
"Fluid Dynamics of Multiphase Systems", Blaisdell Publishing Company.
Sparks, L. E. and M. J. Pilat (1970)
"Effect of Diffusiophoresis on Particle Collection by Wet Scrubbers", Atmos.Environ.
4_, 1-10.
Sparrow, E. M., C. W. Hixion, and G. Shavit (1967)
Basic Bng., 89, 116.
Stairmand, C. J. (1950)
"Dust Collection by Impingement and Diffusion", Trans .inst.chem.Eng. , 28, 14-26.
Stairmand, C. J. (1956)
"The Design and Performance of Modern Gas-Cleaning Equipment", J.inst.Fuel, 29, 58.
Taheri, M. (1967)
"Separation of Small Particles from Air in a Sieve Plate Column", Ph.D. Thesis, Penn-
sylvania State University.
Taheri, M. and S. Calvert (1968)
"Removal of Small Particles From Air by Foam in a Sieve-Plate Column",J.Air Poll.cont
ASSOC. , 18, 240 .
Tietjens, 0. G. (1957)
Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics, p. 22, Dover Publications, New York.
Torgeson, W. L.
"The Theoretical Collection Efficiency of Fibrous Filters due to the Combined Effects n-F
Inertia. Diffusion, and Interception", Paper J-1057, Appl.Sci.Div., Litton Systems. Inn
St. Paul, Minnesota. >•»«..
Walton, H. W. and A. Woolcock (1960)
"The Suppression of Airborne Dust by Water Spray", intern.J.Air Poll, ^, 129.
Whitby, K. T. (1965)
"Calculation of the Clean Fractional Efficiency of Low Media Density Filters", ASHRAE
(Sept.). °-»
Whitby, K. T. and D. A. Lundgren (1964)
"Mechanics of Air Cleaning", Presented 1964 Annual Meeting Amer. Soc. of Agricultural
Engrs., Ft. Collins, Colo., (June 21-24).
Wong, J. B. and H. F. Johnstone (1953)
"Collection of Aerosols by Fiber Mats", Illinois Tech. Report No. 11, Eng. Exptl. Sta.
University of Illinois. ''
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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21
4,7 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AMD PRESSURE
Strauss, W. (1960)
"Studies in High-Temperature Gas Cleaning", J.lron Steel Inst,, 62-65, (Sept.).
Strauss, W. (1967)
"Prediction of Effectiveness of Gas Cleaning Methods at High Temperatures and Pres-
sures", Atmos .Environ., 2_, 135-144, (Oct.).
5,2,1 MASS TRANSFER DESIGN METHODS - GENERAL
Anderson, Fred J.
"Permanganate Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds; Application to Air Scrubbing", Carus
Chemical Company, LaSalle, Illinois.
Andrew, S. P. (1961)
"The Dynamics of Nitrous Gas Absorption", chem.Eng.sd., 14, 105-113.
Anonymous (1963)
"Gas Cleaning by the Foam Method", flri t .Chem. Engrg. , 8_, (5), 319-321, (May).
Astarita, Giovanni (1967)
Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction, Elsevier Pub. Co., New York.
AVCO Space Systems Division (1967)
"Removal of S02 From Flue Gas", NTIS No. PB 177 492.
83 ""rAstill'ation and Absorption in Packed Columns", ind.Eng .chem., 27, 977.
Bartok, William et al., (1969)
"Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for Stationary Sources", NTIS No.
PB 184 479, Vol. I.
Bartok, William et al. (1959)
"Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for Stationary Sources," NTIS No. PB
192 789.
Battelle Memorial Institute (1969)
"Applicability of Organic Liquids to the Development of New Processes for Removing
Sulfur Dioxide from Flue Gas", NTIS No. PB 183 513, (March).
Bennett, C. 0. and J. E. Myers (1962)
Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill, New York.
Gergen, J. V. (1958)
"Industrial Odor Control", j.Air Poll.Contol ASSOC., £, (2), 101-111, (Aug.).
Beskin, L. Z. (1959)
"Investigation of Mass Transfer in an Absorber with Hydrodynamic Mixing", intern.chem.
Eng., 9, (1), 88-91, (Jan.).
Beutner, Heinz. P., et al. (1968)
"Feasibility of a Regenerative High Temperature Amine Absorption Process for the Control
of Sulfur, etc.", NTIS No. PB 180 233.
Bienstock, D. (1960)
"Bench-Scale Investigation on Removing Sulfur Dioxide from Flue Gases", j.Air Poll.
Cont.ASSOC., 10., (2), 121-125, (Apr.).
Bienstock, D. (1967)
"Process Development in Removing Sulfur Dioxide from Hot Flue Gases. Part 3", NTIS
No. PB 192 544, (July) .
Bloomfield, B. D. (1967)
"Costs, Efficiencies, and Unsolved Problems of Air Pollution Control Equipment", J.Air
Poll. Cont.ASSOC.f 17, (1), 28-32, (Jan).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.0. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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22
5,2,1 MASS TRANSFER DESIGN METHODS - GENERAL (CONT'D)
Bonn, D. E. (1963)
"Wet-type Dust Collectors", chem.Eng.Progr., 59_, (10), 69-74, (Oct.).
Bostrom, Carl-Elis (1966)
"The Absorption of Low Concentrations (pphm) of Hydrogen Sulfide in a Cd(OH) 2-Suspen-
sion as Studied by Isotope Tracer", 10, 435-441.
Bourke, P. J. (1963)
"Gas Absorption Performance of a Bubble Column", Trans.inst.chem.Eng., 41, 40-50.
Calvert, Seymour (1968)
Source Control by Liquid Scrubbing, Air Pollution III, edited A. C. Stern, Academic
Press, New York, 457-493.
Calvert, Seymour and Walter Workman (1961)
"The Efficiency of Small Gas Absorbers", Am.ind.Hyg.ASSOC.J., 22, (4), 318-324, (Aug.).
Carey, W. F. and G. J. Williamson (1963)
Proc.Inst.Mech.Eng., 41.
Chernyshcv, V. N. (1966)
"The Dynamics of Mass Transfer in Countercurrent Extraction Equipment", in tern.chem.Enq
6, (4), 608, (Oct.).
Chilton, T. H. and A. P. Colburn (1935)
"Distillation and Absorption in Packed Columns", ind.Eng. Chem., 27, 255.
Chistii, Vozduh (1968)
"Control Methods", N.T.O. U.S.S.R, 1_0, (12), 17-18.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U.S.P.H.S. publication, 999-AP-40, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Ermenc, E. D. (1970)
"Controlling Nitric Oxide Emission", chem.Eng., 193-195, (June).
Fair, James R. (1969)
"Sorption Processes", chem.Eng., 90-109, (July).
Gainer, F. H., S. Ellis, D. Freshwater (1957)
"The Comparison of Vapour-Liquid Contacting Apparatus", rrans.inst.chem.Eng., 35, (l)t
Gaw, R. G. (1960)
"Gas Cleaning", iron steel Engr., 81-85, (Oct).
Hall, G. D. (1960)
"Ethanolamine Gas Scrubbing Systems", Chem.Eng.Progr., S^, (10), 52-58, (Oct).
Hobler, T. (1966)
Mass Transfer and Absorbers, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Hubbard, D. W. (1968)
"Correlation of Mass Transfer. Data: Comments on an Article by Son and Nanvatty",
Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 1_4_, (2), 354-355, (March).
Kishinevskii, M. Kh. (1963)
"Investigation of the Mechanism of Mass Transfer Between a Gas and a Liquid in a
Vessel with Mechanical Stirring", zh.Prikl.Khim., 56, (2) 308-315, (Feb.).
Kolbel, Dr. H. (1959)
"Properties of Bubble-Column Reaction Vessels; The Sojourn-Time Spectrum of the Gas-
eous Phase", Chem.Eng.Technician, 224-243.
Lawler, Clayton (1957)
"Air Pollution Control by a Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing System", j .Air Poll, control ASSO
I, (D.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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23
5,2,1 MASS TRANSFER DESIGN METHODS - GENERAL (CONT'D)
Lebels, E. H. (1961)
"Rate of a Transfer Unit - - A New Correlating Factor for Heat and Mass Transfer",
ind.Eng.Chem., 53_, (5), 349-356, (May).
Miller, D. N. (1964)
"Liquid Film Controlled Mass Transfer in Agitated Vessels", ind.Eng.Chem., 56, (10),
18-27, (Oct.).
Morgan, William D. (1970)
"The Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide in a Cycled Column: A Comparison Study", APTIC No.
19855.
NAPCA (1969)
"Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants", USPHS Publication AP-51, Washing-
ton D. C.
Norman, W. S. (1961)
Absorption, Distillation, and Cooling Towers, University Press, Abderdeen, England.
Owens, W. R. (1968)
"Short-Cut Absorber Calculations", ind.Eng.Chem., 60, (12), 18-28, (Dec.).
Perry, Edmond S., Editor (1968)
Progress in Separation and Purification, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Pigford, Robert L. (1951)
"Absorption and Uumidification", ind.Eng.Chem., 45, (1), 41-46.
Sheppard, Stanton V. (1967)
"Control of Noxious Gaseous Emissions", Proc.MECAR symposium, 21-28, (Oct).
Sherwood, T. K. and R. L. Pigford (1952)
Absorption and Extraction, McGraw Hill, New York.
Shulman, H. L. and M. C. Molstad (1950)
"Gas-Bubble Columns for Gas-Liquid Contacting", Ind.Eng.Chem., 42, (6), 1058-1070,
(June).
Skelland, A. H. P.
"Mass Transfer", in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd Ed., Wiley,
New York.
Smiley, S. H. and C. R. S. Schmitt (1954)
"Continuous Disposal of Fluorine Reaction with Superheated Steam", ind.Eng.Chem.,
4£, (2), 244-247, (Feb).
Souders, M. (1964)
"The Countercurrent Separation Process", chem.Eng.Prog., 60, (2), 76-82, (Feb.).
Sproull, Wayne E. (1970)
Air Pollution and Its Control, Exposition Press, New York.
Sweeney, Thomas and S. Calvert (1965)
"Gas Absorption in a Fin-Wall Conduit", Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.j., 11, (5), 785-789,
(Sept).
5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS
Acrivos, Andrew, et al. (1953)
"Solution of Transient Stagewise Operations on an Analog Computer", ind Enq.chem
467-471, (Feb).
Aerov, M. E. (1967)
"Investigation of the Hydraulics of Sieve Trays at High Liquid Loadings", Intern.Chem,
Eng. , 1_, (2), 235-238, (April).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, c A. 93502
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5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
American Institute of Chemical Engineering (1955)
3rd Annual Progress Report - "Tray Efficiencies in Distillation Columns",
American Institute of Chemical Engineering (1956)
4th Annual Report - "Tray Efficiencies in Distillation Columns".
Arkenbout, G. J. (1967)
"A Mathematical Description of the Concepts of Theoretical Plate and Transfer Unit",
Separation Science, 2_, (5), 575-596, (Nov) .
Bennet, C. 0. and J. E. Myers (1962)
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill, New York.
Bergman, Donald J. (1963)
"Bubble Caps Revisited", chem.Eng,, 91-92, (March).
Berly, Edward M. (1954)
"Recovery of Soluble Gas and Aerosols from Air Streams", ind. Eng. Cnem.,
4£, 1769-1777.
Bernard, J. D. T. (1966)
"The Hydrodynamic Performance of a Sieve-Plate Distillation Column",
Trans . Inst .Chetn. Engr ., (44) 314-327.
Calderbank, P.H. (1956)
"Gas-Liquid Contacting on Plates", Trans.Inst.chem.Engr., 34 , 79-90.
Calderbank, P. H. (1962)
"The Physical Properties of Foams and Froths Formed on Sieve-Plates",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 40, 1-12.
Calvert, Seymour and G. A. Coulman (1963)
'Experimental and Analytical Study of Plate-Type Gas Absorber Dynamics'1',
Chem.Eng.Prog.Symposium, 59, (46) 9-20.
Chaiyavech, Pramote, et.al. (1961)
"Effect of System Properties on Small Distillation Column Efficiency",
Ind. Eng. Chem., 53_, (3) 187-190 (March).
Chase, J. David (1967)
"Sieve-Tray Design - Part I", Chem.Eng., 105-116, (July).
Chase, J, David (1967)
"Sieve-Tray Design - Part II, chem.Eng., 139-146 (August).
Chen, Ning Hsing, (1964)
"Calculating Theoretical Plates in Absorbers or Strippers", Chem.Eng.,
159-160 (May).
Chu, J. C., et.al. , (1951)
"Plate Efficiency Correlation in Distilling Columns and Gas Absorbers, J.Appl.chem.,1
Coggan, G. C. (1969)
"The Design of Gas Absorbers with Heat Effects. Part I: A General Program for
Adiabatic Plate Absorbtion", Trans.inst.chem.Engr., 47, T96-T106,
Coggan, G. C. (1969)
"The Design of Gas Absorbers with Heat Effects. Part II: Methods for Improving
Separation", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 47, T160-T165.
Coughlin, R. W. (1969)
"Effect of Liquid-Packing Surface Interaction on Gas Absorption and Flooding in a
Packed Column", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 15, (5), 654-659 (Sept).
Danilychev, I. A. (1966)
"Investigation of Mass Transfer in the Liquid Phase on Sieve Trays with
Consideration of the Degree of Long", intern .Chem. Eng., (>_, (2) 272-275 (April).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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25
5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Dhanak, A. M. (1958)
"Momentum and Mass Transfer by Eddy Diffusion in a Wetted-wall Channel",
Am. Inst.Chem.Engrs.J. , 190-196 (June).
Dytnerskii, Yu, I. (1964)
"Determination of the Driving Force of Mass Transfer on Contact Plates",
zh.Prikl.Khim. , 3_7, (10) 2228-2233 (Oct) .
Dytnerskii, Yu, I. (1965)
"Calculating the Hydraulics and Mass Transfer on Valve Plates", intern .Chem.Eng.,
5, (1) 95-101 (January).
Dytnerskii, Yu, I. (1966)
"The Theory and Calculation of Heat and Mass Transfer in Tray Towers",
Intern.Chem.Eng. , 6^, (2) 204-217 (April).
Eckert, J. S. (1961)
"Design Techniques for Sizing Packed Towers", Chem.Eng.Progr., 57, (9), 54.
Foss, Alan S. and J. A. Gerster (1956)
"Liquid-Film Efficiencies on Sieve Trays", Chem.Eng.Progr., 52, (1), 28-34 (Jan).
Franklin, N. L. (1953)
"The Interpretation of Minimum Reflux Conditions in Multi-Component Distillation' ,
Trans.Jnst.Chem.Engr., 31, 363-388.
Fryback, M. G. (I960)
"Distillation Equipment Design", Ind.Eng.Chem., 52, (8) 654-661 (August).
Galor, B., et.al. (1967)
"A Theoretical Analysis of Some Interrelationships and Mechanisms of Heat and Mass
Transfer in Dispersions", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.J., 13, (4) 6SO-657 (July).
Garner, F. H. (1955)
"Pressure Drop, Hold-up, and Efficiency of a Large Bubble Cap Plate' ,
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 55, 280-288.
Gautreaux, M. F., et.al. (1955)
"Effect of Length of Liquid Path on Plate Efficiency", Chem.Eng.Progr.,
51_, 232-237 (May).
Gerster, J. A., et.al. (1949)
"Plate Efficiences Related to Separate Vapor and Liquid Resistances",
Chem.Eng.Progr., 45, 716-724 (Dec).
Gerster, J. A. (1960)
"Distillation Theory and Fundamentals", ind.Eng.Chem., 52, (8) 645-653 (Aug).
Gerster, J. A. (1970)
"Performance of Tray Columns Operated in the Cycling Mode", Am.inst.chem.Engrs . j.,
1^, (1) 108-111 (Jan).
Grohse, F. W. (1963)
"Grid-type Plates - Mass Transfer Characteristics", Chem.Eng.Progr.,
j^, (11) 72-78 (Nov).
Haines, H. W. (1960)
"Distillation The Practical Aspects", ind.Eng.Chem., 52, (8) 662-670 (Aug.).
Harada, M. (1964)
"Studies of Fluid Mixing on Sieve Plates", intern.Chem.Eng., 165-173 (Jan).
Hausch, D. C. (1964)
''How Flooding Can Affect Tower Operation", Chem.Eng .Progr. e 60, QO) 55-58 (Oct).
Huang, C. J. and J. R. Hodson, (1958)
Petrol.Rev., 37, 103.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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26
5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Hughmark, G. A. and H. E. O'Connell (1957)
"Design of Perforated Plate Fractioning Towers", Chem.Eng.Progr., 53, (3), 127M.
Hunt, C. A., D. N. Hanson, and C. R. Wilke (1955)
"Capacity Factors in the Performance of Perforated-Plate Columns", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.
j., I, 441.
Hutchinson, M. H. (1956)
"Ripple Trays- A New Tool for Vapor-Liquid Contacting'1, Chem.Eng.Progr.,
52, (12) 503-508 (Dec).
Jeffreys, G. V. (1968)
"Extraction Column Design", chem.Process.Eng., 111-122 (Nov).
Jones, P. D. (1957)
"Effect of Plate Thickness and System Properties", ind.Eng.chem. ,
£9, (2) 232-238 (Feb).
Kafarov, V. V. (1964)
"Hydrodynamics of Grid Plates", zh. Prikl . Khim. , 37_, (12) 2678-2686 (Dec).
Kafarov, V. V. (1969)
"Structure of the Liquid Flow on Sieve Bubble Plates", zh.Prikl.Khim.,
£2, (2) 334-339 (Feb).
Kagan, S. Z. (1965)
"Some Hydrodynamic and Mass-Transfer Problems in Pulsed Sieve-plate Extractors",
Intern. Chem. Eng., j>, (4) 656-661 (Oct).
Kan, S. V. (1966)
"Investigation of Mass Transfer and Liquid Distribution in a Column with Flat-
Parallel Packing", in tern .Chem. Eng. , 6_, (2) 260-264 (April).
Karpacheva, S. M. (1965)
"Investigation of the Operation of a Pulsating Sieve-plate Extraction Column' ,
Intern.Chem.Eng. , 5_, (3) 508-511 (July).
Kastanek, F. (1967)
"Studies on Distillation. XX. Efficiency of Selected Types of Large Distillation
Trays at Total Reflux", separation Science, 2_, (4) 439-486.
Kim, S. K. (1966)
"Theoretical Study of Vapor-Liquid Hold-up on a Perforated Plate",
Intern.Chem.Eng., 6_, (4) 634-638 (Oct).
Kohara, S. (1969)
"Performance of Pipe Trays", intern.chem.Eng., 9_, (1) 172-176 (Jan).
Kopita, Robert (1955)
"The Use of an Impingement Baffle Scrubber in Gas Cleaning and Absorption",
Air Repair, £, (4) 219-222 and 232 (Feb).
Lapidus, Leon, et.al. (1950)
"Stagewise Absorption and Extraction Equipment Transient and Unsteady State
Operation", Ind.Eng .chem. , 2_, (6) 1071-1078 (June).
Leva, Max (1962)
"Some Performance Data of a New Plate Column", Trans.inst.chem.Engr.,
£0, 105-113.
Lowry, R. P., et.al. (1969)
"Foaming and Frothing Related to System Physical Properties in a Small
Perforated Plate Distillation", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.J., 15, (5) 665-670 (Sept).
McAllister, R. A., et.al. (1958)
"Perforated-plate Performance", Chem.Eng. sd., £, 25-35.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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27
5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Manning, E. (1964)
"High Capacity Distillation Trays", Ind.Eng.Chem., 56, (4) 14-19 (April).
Mapstone, G. E. (1963)
"Effect of Entrainment on Tray Efficiency", Chem.Process.Eng. , 535 (Sept).
Martin, J. J. (1952)
"Wetted-Wall Tube-Plate Column, A Gas-Liquid Contactor", ind.Eng.Chem. ,
44_, (4) , 920-924 (April) .
Molokanov, Yu. K. (1963)
"Hydraulic Resistance of Grid and Perforated Trays of the Downfall Type",
Intern .Chem. Eng. , 3_, (2) 157-160.
Mullin, J. W. (1959)
"Liquid Distribution in Grid Packings. Part II", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
5_7, 97-107.
Narsimhan, G. (1962)
"Determination of Economic Gas Velocity for Plate Absorbers", Chem.Process.Eng.,
620-621 (December).
Norman, W. S. (1961)
Absorption, Distillation, and Cooling Towers, University Press, Aberdeen, England.
Norman W. S. (1961)
"Factors Affecting the Performance of Valve Plates", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
59, 20-, and 312.
Piterskich, D. G. (1968)
"Liquid Mixing on Sieve Plates", zh.Prikl.Khim., 41, (5) 980-984 (May).
Planovskii, A. N. (1963)
"Analytical Calculation of the Number of Effective Plates of Columnar Mass
Transfer Equipment", intern. Chem. Eng., 3_, (1) 138-143.
Pollard, B. (1957)
"The Kittle Plate", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 55, (1) 69-75.
Popov, V. V. (1967)
"The Design of Tray-Type Mass-Transfer Equipment", Intern.Chem.Eng.,
I, (2), 197-199 (April).
Porter, K. E. (1966)
"Interfacial Areas and Liquid-Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients for a 3 ft. Diameter
Bubble-Cap Plate", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 44, T274-283.
Ragimov, P.M., et.al. (1965)
"On the Use of Foam Equipment for Sulfur Dioxide Removal", APTIC No. 22096.
Rodionov, A. I. (1964)
"Calculating Grid Plates in the Presence of Surface-Active Substances",
zh.Prikl.Khim., 37, (6), 1580-1585 (June).
Rodionov, A. I. (1964)
"The Effect of a Liquid on the Mass-Transfer Coefficients at a Screen Grid Plate",
Zh.Prikl.Khim., 37, (8), 1757-1761 (August).
Rodionov, A. I. (1965)
"Determination of Phase Contact Area on Sieve Plates", zh.Prikl.Khim 38 (1)
133-136 (January). — '
Rodionov, A. I. (1966)
"Determination of the Gas Content of the Foam Layer on a Grid Plate-Soviet Union"
Intern.Chem.Eng., £, (4), 639-642 (October). '
Rodionov, A. I. (1968)
"Influence of the Height of the Foam Layer on Sieve Plates on Mass Transfer
in the Gas Phase", zh.Prikl.Khim., 41, (1), 74-77 (January).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA: 92502
-------
28
5,2,2 MASS TRANSFER - PLATE SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Rodionov, A. I., et.al. (1970)
"The Effect of Liquid Phase Viscosity on the Hydrodynamic Operating Behavior of
Grid Trays", intern .chew. Eng. , 1_0, (2) 166-168 (April).
Rylek, M. (1964)
"The Hydraulics of Sieve Trays", intern.chem.Eng., 4_, (4) 711-747 (October).
Selix, M. (1962)
"Pressure Drops on Turbogrid Trays", intern.chem.Eng., Z_, (3), 395-399.
Shakhov, Yu. A. (1964)
"The Upper Limit of Foaming on Sieve Plates", zh.Prikl.Khim., 37, (9), 2055-2058 (Mar)
Sharma, M. M. (1967)
"Mass Transfer Characteristics of Plate Columns Without Downcomer1',
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 45, T169-T175.
Teller, A. J. (1963)
Liquid-Gas Systems, in Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill,
San Francisco.
Treybal, R. E. (1955)
Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, New York.
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS
Adams, F. W. (1933)
"Absorption of S
ulfer Dioxide in Water", ind.Eng.chem. , 25, 424.
Advanced Chemical Process Section (1969)
"Evaluation of Granular Bed Devices", NTIS No. PB 185 561, (June).
Bennett, C. 0. and J. E. Myers (1962)
Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill, New York.
Benson, H. E., J. H. Field, and R. M. Jimeson (1954)
"Gas Absorption", Chem.Eng.Progr., 50, (7), 356.
Benson, H. E., J. H. Field, and W. P. Haynes (1956)
"CC>2 Absorption", Chem.Eng.Progr., 5_2, (10), 433.
Berkau, E. E., et.al. (1966)
"The Influence of Axial Disperson on the Fixed Bed Adsorption of the Hydrogen
Chloride-Chromium Oxinate", Paper presented at the Am. Inst .Chem. Engrs .Meeting (Dec),'
Billet, R. (1967)
"Recent Investigations of Metal Pall Rings", Chem.Eng.Progr., 63, (9) 53-65 (Sept).
Blum, H. A., L. F. Stutzman, and W. S. Dodds (1952)
"Gas Absorption", Ind.Eng.Chem., 44, 2969.
Bond, J. (1957)
"The Effect of Absorption on the Wetted Area of Absorption Towers",
Chem. Eng. Sci ., 6^, (6), 237-244.
Bragg, L. B. (1957)
"Goodloe Column Packing - A New Knit Packing Material for Vapor-Liquid Contracting
Operations", ind.Eng.chem., 49, (7) 1062-1066 (July).
Brestznajder, S. (1964)
"Absorption in a Pulse Column", intern .chem. Eng., 4_, (1) 61-66 (Jan).
Briggs, S. W. (1961)
"Rigorous Application of Absorption Transfer Unit", ind.Eng.Chem. ,
53, (12) 988-990 (Dec).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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29
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Britton, M. I. (1965)
"The Influence of Axial Dispersion on CO? Absorption-Tower Performance", Paper
presented at the Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs. Meeting, 1-30 (December).
Cabibbo, S. V. (1969)
"The Cross-Flow Scrubber a Digital Model for Absorption", Paper presented at the
Air Poll. Control Assoc. Annual Meeting, New York, Paper 69-186, (June).
Cantelo, R. C., et.al. (1927)
Ind.Eng.Chem. , 19, 989.
Carley-Macauly, K. W. (1967)
"Continuous Dissolution in a Packed Bed", chem.Process.Eng., 83-90 (Sept).
Chen, N. H. (1961)
"Equations for Flooding Rate in Packed Towers", ind.Eng.chem., S3, (1) 6 (Jan).
Chen, Ning Hsing (1962)
"New Equation Gives Tower Diameter", chem.Eng., 109-112 (Feb).
Cogan, J. D. and J. P. Cogan (1932)
Thesis in Chemical Engineering, MIT.
Comstock, C. S., and B. F. Dodge (1937)
"Rate of Carbon Dioxide Absorption by Carbonate Solutions in a Packed Tower1,' Ind.Eng.
chera. , 29_, 520.
Cooper, C. M., et al. (1941)
"Packed Tower Performance at High Liquor Rates. Effect of Gas and Liquor Rates Upon Per-
formance in a Tower Packed with 2-Inch Rings", Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 37, 979.
Cornell, D. (1960)
"Mass Transfer Efficiency-Packed Columns - Part 1", chem.Eng.Progr.,
56, (7) 68-74 (July).
Cryder, D. S. and J. 0. Maloney (1941)
"The Rate of Absorption of Carbon Dioxide in Diethanolamine Solutions", Trans.Am.Inst.
Chem.Engrs., 37, 827.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1955)
"Gas Absorption Accompanied by Chemical Reaction", Am.Inst.Chem. Engrs. J.,
l_t 456.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1962)
"Mass Transfer from a Grid Packing to an Air Stream", Trans.Am,Inst.chem.Engrs.,
4_0, 203-213.
Danckwerts, P.V. (1966)
"The Design of Gas Absorbers I-Methods for Predicting Rates of Absorption with
Chemical Reaction in Packed Columns", Trans.Am.Inst.chem.Engrs., 44, T42-T54.
Davidson, J. F. (1959)
"The Hold-up and Liquid Film Coefficient of Packed Towers. Part IV
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 37, 122,130.
Davidson, J. F. (1959)
"The Hold-up and Liquid Film Coefficient of Packed Towers. Part II",
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 37, 131-136.
Davis, D. S. (1960)
"Pressure Drops Across Wet Drained Columns", Chem.Process.Eng., 113 (March).
Deed, D. W., et al. (1947)
"Comparison of Rectification and Desorption in Packed Columns", Ind.Eng.Chem., 39, 766.
Dil'Man, V. V. (1968)
"Investigation of Longitudinal Liquid Mixing in Packed Scrubbers",
41, (11) 2347-2351 (Nov).
Dwyer, 0. E. and B. F. Dodge (1941)
"Rate of Absorption of Ammonia by Water in a Packed Tower", ind.Fng.chem. , 33 , 485.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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30
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Eckert, J. S., et.al. (1958)
"Pall Rings - New Type of Tower", chem.Eng.Progr., 54, (1) 70-75.
"A New'Look at Distillation - 4 Tower Packings..Comparative Performance", Chem.Eng.Progr. ,
59, (5), 76.
Eckert, J. S. (1965)
"Problems of a Packed Column", chem.Eng.Progr., 61_, (9) 89-90 (Sept).
Eckert, J. S. (1966)
"What Affects Packing Performance", chew. Eng. Progr., 62_, (1) 59-67 (Jan).
Eckert, J. S. (1967)
"Absorption Process Utilizing Packed Towers", ind. F.ng .r.heir.. , 59, (2) 41-47 (Feb).
Ellis, J. E. (1960)
"The Correlation of Absorption Rates of Carbon Dioxide by Alkaline, and Amine
Solutions in Packed Columns", Trans.Am.inst.chem.Engrs., 38 , 216-224.
Ellis, S. R. M. (1960)
"Performance Characteristics of Spraypak", Trans .Am. inst .chem. Engrs., 5_8_, 19 and 272.
Ellis, S. R. M. (1963)
"A High Efficiency, Low Pressure-Drop Distillation Packing'1, Trans.Am.inst.Chem.Engrs .,
41_, 212-216.
Emmert, R. E. and R. L. Pigford (1963)
"Gas Absorption", in Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th ed. , McGraw-Hill,
San Francisco
Fair, James R. (1960)
"Mass Transfer Efficiency-Packed Columns - Part 2", chem.Eng.Progr.,
.56, (8) 48-53 (Aug) .
Fellinger, L. (1941)
Sc.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, MIT,
Fujita, S. and T. Hayakawa (1956)
"Liquid-Film Mass-transfer Coefficients in Packed Towers and Rod-Like Irrigation Towers",
Chem.Eng. (Japan), 20 , 113.
Furnas, C C., and G.Bellinger (1938)
'Operating Characteristics of Packed Columns, Trans.Am.Inst.chem.Engrs., 54, 251.
Ganz, S. N. et.al. (1968)
"Removal of Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, Mist, and Sulfuric Acid Spray from
Exhaust Gas by Peat-Alkali Sorbents under Production Conditions' ,Zh.Prikl.Khim.,
4_1, (4) 700-704 (April).
Gil'Denblat, I. A. et.al. (1967)
"The Effect of Wetting Distribution and Packed Column Height on the Absorption
Efficiency in Columns with Various Ring Packings", intern.chem.Eng.,
1_, (1) 149-153 (Jan).
Greenewalt, C. H. (1926)
"Absorption of Water Vapor by Sulfuric Acid Solutions, ind.Eng.Chem., 18, 1291.
Greenwood. K. and M. Pearce (1953)
"The Removal of Carbon Dioxide from Atmospheric Air by Scrubbing With Caustic Soda in
Packed Towers", Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 31, 201.
Gregory, L. B. and W. G. Scharmann (1937)
"Carbon Dioxide Scrubbing by Amine Solutions", ind.Eng.Chem.,^9, 514.
Grimley, S. S. (1945)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.,23, 228.
Gunn, D. J. (1969)
"Theory of Axial and Radial Dispersion in Packed Beds', Trans.AIT.inst.chem.Engrs.,
47_, T351-T359.
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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31
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Gupta, Ashis Sen (1962)
"Effective Transfer Areas of Commercial Packings", chem.Eng.Progr.,
5_8, (10) 62 (Oct).
Gupta, Ashis Sen (1962)
"Mass and Heat Transfer Through Fixed and Fluidized Beds", Chem.Eng.Progr.,
5£, (7) 58-62 (July).
Hartland, S. (1966)
"Calculation of Numbers of Stages and Transfer Units", Trans. Inst,chem.Engr.,
£4, T116-T121.
Haslam, R. T., et al. (1923)
"Some Factors Influencing the Design of Absorption Apparatus", Trans.Am.inst.chem.
Engrs., 15, 177; Ind.Eng.Chem., 15, 1105.
Haslam, R. T. et al. (1924)
"Effect of Gas Velocity and Temperature on Rate of Absorption", ind.Eng.chem., y>, 1224.
Hatta, S. and J. Katori (1934)
"The Absorption of Carbon Dioxide by Water Flowing In a Thin Layer", J.SOG.chem.ind.
Japan, 37_, 280B.
Hensel, S. L. and R. E. Treybal (1952)
"Air-Water Contact", chem.Eng. Progr., 48, (7) 362.
Hibgie, R. (1935)
"The Rate of Absorption of a Pure Gas Into a Still Liquid During Short Periods of Ex-
posure", Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 51, 365.
Hobler, T. (1962)
"Correlation of Equations for Liquid-Phase Mass Transfer Coefficients with Wetted
Packing", Intern .Chem.Eng. , 2_, (1) 132*134 (Jan).
Hobler, T. (1965)
"Analysis of the Application of Recirculating Liquid for Mass-Transfer Processes
in Packed Towers", intern .chem.Eng., 5^, (1) 45-54 (Jan).
Hoftyzer, P. J. (1964)
"Liquid Distribution in a Column With Dumped Packing", Trans.Jnst.chem.Engr.
£2, T109-T117.
Hollings, H. and L. Silver (1934
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 12, 49.
Houston, R. W. and C. A. Walker (1950)
"Absorption in Packed Towers", ind.Eng.chem., £2, 1105.
Houston, R. W. (I960)
"Absorption in Packed Towers", ind.Eng.chem., 52, 105-113.
Hutchings. L. E. et.al. (1949)
"Gas Absorption", Chem.Engr.Progr., 45, 253.
loshpa, I.E. (1967)
"Determination of the Correction Factor in Conversion from Laboratory to
Industrial Packing Elements for Absorption', zh .Prikl .Khim., 4_0, (1) 169-170 (Jan).
Jameson, G. J. (1966)
" A Model for Liquid Distribution in Packed Columns and Trickle-Bed Reactors",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 44, T198-T205.
Jenness, L. C. and J. G. L. Caulfield (1939)
Paper Trade J., 109 (26), 37.
Jhaveri, A. S. (1968)
"Effective Interfacial Area in a Packed Column", Chem.Eng.Sci ., 2JS, 669-676.
Johnstone, H. F. and A. D. Singh (1937)
"Recovery of Sulfur Dioxide from Waste Gases", Ind.Eng.chem., 2£, 286.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.0. BOX 7,. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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32
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Jones, P. D. and M. V, Winkle U957)
"Variables in Perforated Plate Column Efficiency and Pressure Drop",
Ind.Eng.Chem., £9, C2) 232*238 (Feb).
Kafarov, V. V. C1964)
"Influence of Longitudinal Mixing of the Liquid on Mass Transfer in a Packed
Column", Zh.Prikl.Khim. , 37_, CH) 2461-2468 (Nov) .
Kan, S. V. (1966)
"Investigation of Mass Transfer and Liquid Distribution in a Column With Flat-
Parallel Packing", Intern.Chem.Eng., £, (2) 260-264 CApril).
Karpacheva, S. M. C1963)
"The Influence of Pulsation on the Operation of Packed Columns",
Intern.Chem,Eng,, 3_, (4) 455-458.
Kaufman, Donald J. (1951)
"Mass Transfer Properties of Commercial Packing", Ind.Eng.Chem., 43, 2532-2586.
King, R. W. (1960)
"A Graphical Design Method for Nitric Acid Absorption Towers",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 38, 71-83.
Knoedler, E. L. and C. F. Bonilla (1954)
"Vacuum Degasif ication in a Packed Column" ,Chem. Eng. Progr., 5_0 (3), 125.
Koch, H. A., et.al. (1949)
"Gas Absorption", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 45^ (11), 677.
Kohl, A. L. (1956)
"Plate Efficiency with Chemical Reaction-Absorption of Carbon Dioxide in Monoethanola-
mine Solutions", Am. Inst .Chem.Engrs . J. , 2_, 264.
Kohn, A. L. and F, C. Riesenfeld (1960)
"Gas Purification", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Kowalke, 0. L., et.al. (1925)
University Wisconsin Eng. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 68 (June).
Kowalke, 0. L., et.al. (1925)
Chem.Met.Eng. 32, 443, 506.
Krebs, R. W. (1938)
Thesis, University of Illinois.
Ksenzenko, V. I. (1966)
"Kinetic Study of Chlorine Absorption by Solutions of Sodium Bromide from a Bromine-
Air Mixture in a Packing Element", intern.chew.Eng., 6, (3) 530-533 (July).
Lapin, Abraham (1962)
"Pressure Drop for Gases Flowing Across Beds (Packed)", Chem.Eng.Progr.,
5_8, (7) 47-51 (July).
Lawler, Clayton (1955)
"Air Pollution Control by a Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing System", Paper 55-19
presented at the 1955 Annual Meeting of the APCA, (April).
Leibush, A. G. and A. L. Shneerson (1950)
J.Appl.Chem.(USSR) 23, 1253.
Lerner, B. J. and C. S. Grove (1951)
"Critical Conditions of Two-Phase Flow in Packed Columns", Ind.Eng.Chem.,
£3, (1) 216-225 (Jan).
Leva, M. (1954)
"Flow Through Irrigated Dumped Packings: Pressure Drop, Loading, Flooding", Chem Eno
Progr., Symposium Series No. 10, 50, 51. y-
Leva, M. (1955)
"Gas Absorption in Beds of Rings and Saddles", Am.inst.Chem.Engrs. J. , !_, 224.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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33
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Levsh, I. P. (1969)
"Hydrodynamics of Bubbling Through Liquids with Packing", zh.Prikl.Khim.,
42., (3) 584-590.
Litvinenko, M. S. (1952)
j.Appl.Chem.(USSR) 25, 775.
Lobo, W. E., et.al. C1945)
Trans .Ant. Ins t .Chem. Engrs ., 41, 693.
McAdams, W. H., et al. (1949)
"Transfer of Heat and Mass Between Air and Water in a Packed Tower",Chem.Engr.Progr.,
«, 241.
McWilliams, J. A. (1956)
"Spraypak: A New Industrial Distillation and Absorption Tower Packing",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 34 , 17-43.
Miller, E. G. (1948)
S.B. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, Univ, Delaware.
Molstad, M. C. et.al. (1942)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 38, 410,
Molstad, M. C. et.al. (1943)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 59, 605.
Molstad, M. C. and L. F. Parsly Jr. (1950)
"Performance of Drip-Point Grid Tower Packings. V., chem.Eng.Progr., 46, 20.
Morrell, C. E. et.al. (1946)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 4 2, 473,
Morton, Frank (1964)
"Operating Characteristics of Packed Columns, Part I", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
4_2, T35-T43.
Morton, F. (1964)
"Operating Characteristics of Packed Columns, Part II", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
4_2, T45-T49.
Morton, Frank (1964)
"Operating Characteristics of Packed Columns, Part III", Trans.Jnst.chem.Engr.,
42_, T49-T53.
Morton, Frank (1951)
"The Operation of Commercial and Semi-Commercial Stedman Packed Fractionating
Columns", Trans.Jnst.Chem.Engr., 29, 240-251.
Morton, F. et.al. (1964)
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 42, 35, 45, 49.
Mullin, J. W. (1959)
"Liquid Distribution in Grid Packings, Part I", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
•$]_, 89-97.
Mullin, J. W, (1964)
"Hydrodynamics of Liquid Films on Grid Packing Surfaces", Trans.Inst.chem.Engr.,
£2, T101-T108.
Newall, H. E. (1955)
"The Ammonia Process for the Removal of Sulphur Dioxide from Flue Gas",
Paper 55-3 presented at the 1955 Annual Meeting of the A.P.C.A. (April).
Nikolaev, N. A. (1965)
"An Investigation of Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Equipment With Uniflow
Contacting Devices", intern, chem. Eng., S_, (2) 347-350 (April).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
-------
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Norman, W. S. et.al. (1954)
Trans . Inst .Chem.Engr ., 52 , S.14.
Norman, W. S.
"The Performance of Grid-Packed Towers", Trans . Ins t .Chem. Engr . ,
2j), 226-239.
Norman, W. S. and B. K. Solomon (1959)
"The Effect of Ammonia Absorption on the Wetted Area of a Packed Tower1',
Trans . Ins t .Chem. Engr ., 57 , (6) 329-334.
Norman, W.S. (1963)
"Gas Absorption in a Packed Column, Part I; The Effect of Liquid Viscosity on
the Mass Transfer Coefficient", Trans . inst .Chem. Engr ., 41 , 109-116.
Norman, W. S. (1963)
"Gas Absorption in a Packed Column Part II: Effect of Mixing Between Packing
Elements on the Liquid Film", Trans .Inst .Chem . Engr ., 41 , 117-119.
Norman, W. S. (1963)
"Gas Absorption in a Packed Column Part III: Absorption of Ammonia and Acetone
Vapour by Water", Trans .inst .Chem.Engr ., 41 , 120-125.
Oldershaw, C. F., et al. (1947)
"Absorption and Purification of Hydrogen Chloride from Chlorination of Hydrocarbons"
Chem.Eng.Progr . , 43 , 371. '
Othmer, D. F. and E. G. Scheibel (1941)
Trans .Am. Inst . Chem . Engr ., 37, 211.
Parsly, L. F. Jr., et.al. (1950)
"Performance of Drin-Point Gri
Drip-Point Grid Tower Packings. IV., Chem.Eng.Progr., 4^, 17.
Pearson, D. A. et.al. (1951)
"Absorption on a Semi-Works Scale", Chem.Eng.Progr., 47, 257.
Perry, R. H. (1963)
"Gas Absorption and Solvent Extraction"(Ch. 14), Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th ed
McGraw-Hill, New York. »
Pettit, A. B. (1951)
"Fluoride Scrubbers", chem.Eng., 250-252 (August).
Platt, W. A. (1965)
"Individual and Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Overflow Packing",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 43, T92'T-97.
Ponter, A.B., and P. G. Thornley (1964)
Chem.Process.Eng., 402 (August).
Plumley, A. L. (1968)
"Removal of S02 and Dust from Stack Gases", Combustion, 16-23 (July).
Porter, K. E. (1968)
"Liquid Flow in Packed Columns Part I: The Rivulet Model", Trans.inst.Chem.Engr
46, T-69-T73.
Prahl, Walter H. (1969)
"Pressure Drop in Packed Columns", Chem.Eng., 89-96 (August).
Pratt, H. R. C. (1951)
"The Performance of Packed Absorption and Distillation Columns with Particular
Reference to Wetting", Trans.inst.Chem.Engr., 29, 195-214.
Riggle, J. W. and J. B. Tepe (1950)
"Absorption of Chlorine in Ferrous Sulfate Solutions", ind.Eng.Chem. , 42, 1036.
Rixon, F. F. (1948)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engr., 26 , 119.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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35
5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Rozen, A. M. (1967)
"Collection of Finely Dispersed Aerosols in Plate Columns by Condensation
Enlargement", Intern .Chem. Eng . ,]_, (3) 464-»467 (July).
Rubac, R. E. (1969)
"Packed Distillation Columns and Absorbers at Steady State Operation",
Am.Inst .Chem.Engrs . J, , 15 , (4) 568-<575 (July).
Sauter, William A.
"Use of Time Delays in Packed Gas Absorption Column Simulation", Am.inst .chem.Engrs. J. ,
1_3, (6) 1211-1213.
Scheibel, E. G. and D. 1- . Othmer (1944)
Trans .Am. Inst . Chem . Engr ., 40 , 611.
Scofield, R. C. (1950)
"Industrial Fractionating Tower Packing", chem. Eng .Progr . , 46, (8) 405-414 (Aug) .
Seebold, J.E. and E. R. Gilliland (1941)
"The Absorption of Olefins from Ethylene-Nitrogen and Propylene-Nitrogen Mixtures",
Ind. Eng .Chem. , 33 , 1143.
Seller, Ed (1969)
"Disparities in Gas Scrubbers - Part 3", Building Systems Design, 1517 (April).
Sherwood, T. K. et.al. (1938)
"Flooding Velocities in Packed Columns", ind.Eng.chem. , 30 , 765.
Sherwood, T. K. and F.A.L. Holloway (1940)
Trans .Am. Inst .Chem. Engr ., 36 , 21.
Sherwood, T. K. and R. L. Pigford (1952)
"Absorption and Extraction", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Shestopalov, V. V. (1964)
"Longitudinal Mixing in Packed Columns", intern. chem. Eng. , 4, (1) 17-21 (Jan).
Shulman, H. L. (1967)
"Performance of Packed Columns: Part VIIIs Liquid Flow Patterns and Velocities
in Packed Beds", Am.inst .Chem.Engrs .J. , 13, (6) 1137-1140 (Nov) .
Shulman, H. L. (1952)
"Mass Transfer Coefficients and Interfacial Areas for 1-inch Raschig Rings' ,
Ind.Eng.chem., 4_4, (3) 1915-1922 (Aug).
Sitaraman, R.
"Mass Transfer in Packed Beds", chem. Process Sng . , 115-118 (October).
Spector, N. A. and B. F. Dodge (1946)
Trans .Am.inst .Chem. Engr ., 42 , 827.
Stedman, D. F. (1937)
"Fractionating Columns of High Efficiency", Trans .Am. Soc ,Mech .Engrs ., 153-161,
Strek, F. (1969)
"Study of the Effect of Free Cross Section on the Flooding Point of Packing
on a Grid", Intern. Chem. Eng . , £, (3) 464-470 (July).
Svonava, M. (1969)
"Comparison of the Efficiency of the Removal of CO? from a Gas by Water Under
Pressure in Packed Tower", intern. chem. Eng. f £, (3) 480-485 (July).
Surosky, Alan E.
"Effect of Diffusivity on Gas-Film Absorption Coefficients in Packed Towers",
Ind. Eng. Chem., 42_, (6) 112-119.
Surowiec, A, J. (1961)
"Relating Theoretical Plates and Transfer Units", ind.Eng.chem. , 5_3, (4) 289-292 (Apr)
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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5,2,3 MASS TRANSFER - PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D) 36
Sweeney, D. E. (1967)
"A Correlation for Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Cocurrent Flow in Packed Beds",
Am.Inst.Chem.Engrs.J., 15, (4) 663-669 (July).
Sweny, John W. (1970)
"Physical Solvent Stars in Gas Treatment/Purification", chem.Eng., 54-55 (Sept).
Teller, A. J. and H. E. Ford (1958)
"Packed Column Performance of Carbon Dioxide - Monoethanolamine System", ind.Ena
5£, 1201. *
Tepe, J. B. and B. F. Dodge (1943)
Trans. Am.Inst.Chem,Engr,, 39, 255.
Treybal, R. E. (1955)
Mass Transfer Operations , McGraw-Hill, New York.
Van Krevelen, D. W. and C. M. E. Baans (1950)
"Elimination of Carbon Monoxide from Synthesis Gases by Absorption in Cuprous Salt
Solutions", J.Phys.Coll.Chem., 54 , 370.
Vivian, J. E. (1945)
Sc.D. Thesis in Chemical Engineering, MIT.
Chem.Eng.Progr., 43, 691.
Vivian, J. E. and R. P. Whitney (1947).
"Absorption of Chlorine in Water", c
Vyazovov, V. V. (1940)
J.Tech.Phys.(USSR) 10, 1519.
White, R. E. and D. F. Othmer (1942)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engr., 38, 1067.
Whitney, R. P. et.al. (1953)
TAPPI, 36, 172.
Whitney, R. P. and J. E. Vivian (1949)
"Absorption of Sulfur Dioxide in Water", chem.Eng.Progr., 45 323.
Yoshida, F. (1955)
Chem.Eng.Progr., Symposium Series No. 16, 51, 59.
Yoshida, F. and T. Koyanagi (1958)
"Liquid Phase Mass Transfer Rates and Effective Interfacial Area in Packed Absorption
Columns", Ind.Eng.Chem., 50, 365.
Yoshida, F. and T. Tanaka (1951)
Air-Water Contact Operations in a Packed Column", Ind.Eng.Chem., 43, 1467.
Zabban, W. and F. F. Dodge (1954)
"Effect of Total Pressure on the Gas-Film Absorption Coefficient in a Packed Tower",
chem.Eng. Progr., Symposium Series No. 10, SO, 61.
5,2,4 MASS TRANSFER - FIBER PACKED SCRUBBERS
Hobler, T. (1966)
"Mass Transfer and Absorbers", Pergamon, New York.
Johnstone, H. F. and G. C. Williams (1939)
"Absorption of Gases by Liquid Droplets", Ind.Eng.Chem., 31, 993.
Nichols, Jack H. (1964)
"Use of Fiber Mist Eliminators in Chlorine Plants", Arch.Environ.Health,
2 (7-8) 233-239 (July-Aug).
Nonhebel (1964)
"Gas Purification Processes", George Newnes Ltd., London
Norman, W. S. (1961)
"Absorption, Distillation, and Cooling Towers", Wiley, New York.
Mehta, K.C. and M. M. Sharma (1970)
Brit.Chem.Eng., 15, 1440, 1556.
Ambimt Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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37
5,2,5 MASS TRANSFER - PREFORMED SPRAY SCRUBBERS
Bayerlein, K. (1954)
Gas,tfasser ,Warme, 8^ (2) 25.
Bennet, C. 0. and J. E. Myers (1962)
"Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer", McGraw Hill, New York.
Bettelheim, J. (1964)
"Fundamental Correlations for the Calculation of Spray Absorbers",
Intern.Chem.Eng. ,4_ C4) 565-567.
B°n"Air'Humidification Coefficients in Spray Towers", ind.Eng.Chem., 42, 2521.
Braulick, W. J., et.al. (1965)
"Mass Transfer in Sparged Contactor: Part 1, Physical Mechanisms and
Controlling Parameters", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J,, 11, (1) 73 (Jan).
Fair, James R. (1967)
"Designing Gas-Sparged Reactors - Part I and II", chem.Eng.,67*74 - 207-214 (July).
Harris. L, S. (1966)
"Fume Scrubbing with the Ejector Venturi System", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 62, (4), 55.
Harris L. S. and G. R. Haun (1964)
"The Ejector Venturi Scrubber", Chem.Eng.Progr., 6£, (5), 100.
Haslam, R. T. et.al. (1923)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engr., 15, 177.
Haslam, R. T. et.al. (1923)
"Some Factor Influencing the Design of Absorption Apparatus", ind.Eng.Chem., 15, 1105.
Johnstone, H. F. (1958)
"Absorption of Sulfur Dioxide from Air. Oxidation Drops Containing Dissolved
Catalysts'.' Ind.Eng.Chem., 50, (8) 1169-1172, (Aug) .
Kotulski, B. (1962)
"Studies on the Efficiency of Spray-Cleaning of Effluence", intern.chem.Eng.,
2, (4) 543-545.
Kowalke, 0. L. et.al. (1925)
University Wisconsin Eng. Expt. Station Bulletin 68 (June).
Kowalke, 0. L. (1925)
Chem.Met.Eng., 32, 443, 506.
Johnstone, H. F. and G. C. Williams (1939)
"Absorption of Gases by Liquid Droplets , Ind.Eng.Chem., 51, 993.
Liimatainen, R. C. (1956)
"Removal of Halogens, Carbon Dioxide, and Aerosols from Air in a Spray Tower',
J.Air Poll.Control Assoc. , 6_, (1) 17-20-49.
"Performance of Equipment for Control of Fluoride Emissions", ind.Eng.Chem.,5£, 293.
Lunde, K. E. (1958)
"6as Absorption in Spray Contactors", Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, Calif.
Mada, J. (1964)
"Experimental Studies of Gas Absorption in a Spray Tower with Liquid Jets' ,
Intern.Chem.Eng., £, (1) 179-185.
Mehta, K. C. and M. M. Sharma (1970)
Brit .Chem.Eng. ,1_5, 1440.
Norman, W. S. (1961)
"Absorption, Distillation, and Cooling Towers", Wiley, New York.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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38
5,2,5 MASS TRANSFER - PREFORMED SPRAY SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Perry, J.H. (1963)
"Gas Absorption and Solvent Extraction", (Ch. 14), Chemical Engineer's Handbook,4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pettit, A. B. (1951)
"Fluoride Scrubbers", chem.Eng., 58, (8), 250.
Pigford, Robert L.
"Performance Characteristics of Spray-Type Absorption Equipment", ind.Eng.Chem. ,
43_, (1) 1649-1662.
Radner, Samuel (1953)
"The Use of Sprays to Reduce Stack Emission", Air Repair, 3_ (2) 67-69 (Nov) .
Ross, T. K. (1966)
"Gas Absroption in a Multiple Liquid-Jet Contactor",Trans.Inst.Cheat.Engrs .,
4±, T160-T165.
Rumford, F. and G. Edwards (1954)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engr., 3 2 , 181.
Sherwin, K. A. (1954)
Trans .Am.Inst.Chem.Engr ., 3_2_(Suppl.) 129.
Sherwood, T. K. and R. L. Pigford (1952)
"Absorption and Extraction", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Treybal, R. E. (1955)
"Mass Transfer Operations", McGraw-Hill, New York.
5,2,6 MASS TRANSFER - GAS ATOMIZED SPRAY SCRUBBERS
Barker, P. E. (1962)
"Performance of a Venturi Atomiser at Low Gas Velocities",Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.
4J3, 221-226.
Boyadzhiev, KII. (1964)
"On the Optimal Flow Rate of Liquids During Chemisorption in a Venturi Tube",
intern. Chem .Eng., 4_, (1) 22-26, (Jan).
Byrd, J. F. (1957)
"Venturi Scrubber in Odor Control", Chem.Eng.Progr., 53, (9) 447-451 (Sept).
Calvert, S. (1970)
"Venturi and Other Atomizing Scrubbers Efficiency and Pressure Drop", Am.Inst.Chem.
Engrs.J. , 16_, (3) , 392-6.
Clay, C. W., et.al. (1970)
"Wet Scrubbing of Sulfur Dioxide from Power Plant Flue Gases1', Presented at the
63rd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St.Louis, 14-18 (June).
Elenkov, D. (1967)
"Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in a Nozzleless Venturi Absorber",
Intern.Chem.Eng. , 1_ (2) 191-192 (April).
Johnstone, H. F. (1954)
"Gas Absorption and Aerosol Collection in a Venturi Atomizer", ind.Eng.Chem. ,
4^ 1601-1608.
Johnstone, H. F. and M. H. Roberts (1949)
"Deposition of Aerosol Particles from Moving Gas Streams", ind.Eng.Chem., 41, 2417.
Kuznetsov, M. D. (1962)
"Rate of Chemisorption in a Venturi-type Apparatus", intern.chew.Eng.,
2 (2) 185-188.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industry, Ltd. (1966)
"Gas Absorption Capacity of Venturi Scrubber", APTIC No. 22291
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 93502
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39
5,2,6 MASS TRANSFER - GAS ATOMIZED SPRAY SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Walker, A. B. (1970)
"Mass Transfer Characteristics of Variable Annular Throat Venturi Scrubbers",
Presented at NAPCA Symposium on Wet Limestone Scrubbing, Pensacola Florida, (March) .
5,2,7 MASS TRANSFER - CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
Bogatykh, S. A. (1964)
"Investigation of the Processes of Absorption of Water Vapor From Gases in a
Cyclone-Foam Apparatus", intern. Chem. Eng . , 4_ (3) 487-491.
Ganz, S. N. (1963)
"Absorption Rate of Nitrogen Oxides in Hollow Towers With Centrifugal Space
Atomizers", zh.Prikl .Khim. , 3j6, (8) 1686-1692 (Aug) .
Johnstone, H. F. and H. E. Silox (1947)
"Gas Absorption and Humidification in Cyclone Spray Towers", Ind. Eng. Cham. ,39^ 808.
Johnstone, H. F. and Kleinschmidt (1938)
Trans .Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. , 54 , 181.
Lawrence, E. A. (1952)
"Pressure Loss in Centrifugal Entrainment Separators Under Vacuum",
., 48_ (5) 241-246 (May).
Liljenzin, Jan-Olov (1970)
"Theoretical Model for Behavior of Drops in a Centrifuge", md. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals ,
9 (2) 240-250.
Perry, J. H. (1956)
"Gas Absorption and Solvent Extraction", (Ch. 14), Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Rumford, F. (1956)
"Performance Characteristics of a Centrifugal Gas Absorber", Trans .Inst .chem.Engr . ,
3£, 195-203.
Sherwood, T. K. and R. L. Pigford (1952).
"Absorption and Extraction", McGraw-Hill, New York.
5,2,8 MASS TRANSFER - MOVING BED SCRUBBERS
BeC"The Limestone Test Facility at TVA's Paducah Power Plant", Presented at NAPCA
Symposium on Wet Limestone Scrubbing, Pensacola, Florida (March).
Bertrand, R. R. , et.al. (1968)
"Fluid Bed Studies of the Limestone Based Flue Gas Desulfurization Process",
NTIS No. PB 186 234.
6"Axial Mixing of Liquid in a Turbulent-Bed Contactor", can .J .Chem. Eng. ,
47., 113-118.
°"The'Turbulent Contact Absorber", chem.Eng .Progr . , j>£ (12) 85-88 (Dec).
Douglas, W. J. M. (1964)
"Heat and Mass Transfer in a Turbulent Bed Contactor", chem.Eng. Progr . ,
6£, (7) 66-71 (July).
Eselev, I. M. (1964)
"Some Problems of the Conditions of Operation of a Combined Contact-Tower System",
zh.Prikl. Khim., 37^ (6) 1204-1210 (June).
Gupta, A. S. (1962)
"Mass and Heat Transfer Through Fixed and Fluidized Beds", Chem.Eng .Progr .,
5£, (7) 56-62 (July).
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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40
5,2,8 MASS TRANSFER - MOVING BED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Levesh, I. P. (1968)
"Mass Transfer in Absorbers with Fluidized Packed Beds", intern.chem.Eng.,
8_ (3) 379-380 (July).
Po.llock, W. A., et.al. (1967)
"Sulfur Dioxide and Fly Ash Removal From Coal Burning Power Plant",Air Eng., (Sept).
5,3,1 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GENERAL
Air Pollution Control Association (1956)
"Secondary Collectors", J.Mr Poll.Control ASSOC., 6_, (4) 217.
Anderson, Fred J. (1967)
"Permanganate Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds; Application to Air Scrubbing",
Paper No. 67-114 presented at the Air Pollution Control Association Annual Meeting
1-13 (June)
Anonymous (1957)
"Wet Scrubber Fits Into Duct", Chem.Eng., 64, 192-210 (Aug).
Anonymous (1956)
"Dust Collection Efficiency and Costs, Performance of Various Types of Equipment
Compared", Chem.Process Eng., 21-22 (Jan.).
Bainbridge, C. A. (1959)
"Gas Cleaning. New Approach to Wet Washing of Industrial Gases",
Chem. Process Eng., 8-10 (Jan).
Bloomfield, B. D. (1967)
"Costs, Efficiences, and Unsolved Problems of Air Pollution Control Equipment",
J.Air Poll.Control Assoc., 17 (1) 28-32 (Jan).
Bonn, D. E. (1963)
"Wet-Type Dust Collectors", Chem.Eng.Progr., 5£ (10) 69-74 (Oct).
Bralove, Allan L. (1951)
"Radioactive Dust Separation Equipment-I", Nucleonics, 8^, (4) 37-51 (April).
Bralove, Allan L. (1951)
"Radioactive Dust Separation Equipment-II", Nucleonics, 8_ (5) 60-67.
British Steel Castings Research Association (1958)
"Data Sheets on Dust Collectors", 39.
Calacato, Ralph R. (1970)
"Advances in Fly Ash Removal with Gas Scrubbing Devices", APTIC No. 24089.
Calvert, S. and K. Legatski (1970)
"A comprehensive State-of-the-Art Evaluation For All Types of Dust Collection
Equipment Applicable in Underground Coal Mines',1 Contract No. S0100231, US Bureau
of Mines, Open File Report 4-71 (Dec).
Chemical Engineering (1962)
"Waste Steam Moves and Cleans Dust-Laden Air", Chem.Eng., 88-92 (Aug).
Christii Vozduh (1968)
"Control Methods", NTO S.S.S.R., 1£ (12) 17-18.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, US Public Health Service publication No. 999-AP-40,
Cincinnati.
Engels, Lothar-Hans (1969)
"Developmental Trends for Dust Removal From Hot Gases , GiuecKauf,
105 (8) 353-359 (April).
""Scrubbing Devices for Air Pollution Control", Paint-Oil Chem.Review, 13-16 (July).
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
5,3.1 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GENERAL
Friedlander, Sheldon K., et.al. (1952)
Handbook on Air Cleaning, US Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, B.C.
Gaw, R. G. (1960)
"Gas Cleaning", iron steel Eng. , 81-85 (October).
Hall, H. J. (1966)
"The Technology of Gas Cleaning: State of the Art", Transactions of the New York
Academy of Sciences, 147-164.
Hanf, Edward B. (1970)
"A Guide to Scrubber Selection", Environ.sd .Technol., 4_ (2) 110-115 (Feb) .
Hardison, L. C. (1968)
"Air Pollution Control Equipment", Petro/Chem.Engr., 30-38 (March).
linoya, Koichi (1969)
"Selection of Various Types of Dust Collector", Clean Air (Japan) 6_ (6) 1-7.
Imperato, N. F. (1968)
"Gas Scrubbers", chem.Eng., 152-155 (Oct).
Kalika, Peter W. (1969)
"How Water and Recirculation and Steam Plumes Influence Scrubber Design",
Chem.Eng., 133-137 (July).
Lapple, C. E. (1951)
Processes Use Many Collector Types", chem.Eng. ,144-151 (May)
Lapple, C. E. (1954)
"Elements of Dust and Mist Collection", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 50 (6)283-287.
Lapple, C. E. (1955)
"Performance of Wet Dust Scrubbers", chem.Eng.Progr., 110-121 (March).
Lunde, K. E. (1957)
"Dust and Mist Collection", Chem.Eng.Progr., 53, (8) 385-391 (Aug).
McCabe, L. C. (1952)
"Atmospheric Pollution - The DEP Curtain-Type Dust Collector, Recently Introduced
in the U.S.", ind.Eng.chem. , 4_4, (11) 123A, 124A (Nov) .
Malozzi, F. (1970)
"Wet Collectors", APTIC No. 24102.
Mergenthaler, H. (1966)
"Developments in Wet Scrubbers", staufc (English Translation) 26, (6) 1-4 (June).
Morash, N. (1967)
"Removing Solid and Mist Particles", chem.Eng.Progr., 65, (3) 70-4 (March).
Mori, H. (1966)
"Hanshin Wet Type Dust Collectors", Clean Air Heat Management0, 15 (5) 5-11 (May).
NAPCA (1969)
"Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants", US Public Health Service
publication AP-51, Washington, D. C.
National Science Foundation (1967)
"Hygiene Effects and Control of Dusts, Fogs, Gases, Vapour, Radioactive Particles",
NTISNo. TT67 51408/3.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1963)
8th AEC Air Cleaning Conference, NTIS No . TID 7677.
Neumann, E. P.
"Application of Sonic Energy to Commercial Aerosol Collection Problems",
Chem.Eng.Progr., 47 4-10.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX i\, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
42
5,3,1 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GENERAL (CONT'D)
Perry, Edmond S. (1968)
"Progress in Separation and Purification, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Powers, E. D. (1944)
"Control and Collection of Industrial Dust. Part 7 and Part 8", Rock Prod.,
50-51 and 92-94 (July).
Quitter, Volker (1966)
"Deriving a Function to Predict Separation Efficiency of Dynamic Wet Scrubbers",
Staub (English Translation) 2b_ (11) 17-23 (Nov).
Schauer, P. J. (1951)
"Removal of Sub-Micron Aerosol Particles From Moving Gas Stream", ind.Eng.Chem. ,
4_3, (7) 1532-1538.
Semrau, K. T. (1963)
"Dust Scrubber Design - A Critique on the State of the Art", J.Air Poll.Control
Assoc.,1^ (12) 587-94 (June).
Semrau, Konrad T. (1963)
"Dust Scrubber Design-A Critique on the State of the Art", Paper 63-13 presented
at the 1963 Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association.
Semrau, K. T. (1958)
"Influence of Power Input on Efficiency of Dust Scrubbers", ind.Eng.chem.,
50_ (11) 1615-1620 (Nov) .
Semrau, K.T. (1960)
"Correlation of Dust Scrubber Efficiency", j.Air Poll.Control Assoc.,
1£ (3) 200-207 (June) .
Shah, I. S. (1968)
"The Two-Stage Evaporator-Scrubber and Secondary Scrubbing Systems for Efficient
Heat and Chemical Recovery", Paper Trade J. 1-12 (March).
Silverman, L. (1957)
"Cleaning Hot Gases", ind. Eng .Chem., 4_9, (7) 67A-68A (July).
Smith, J. L. (1968)
"Selecting Dust Collectors", Chem.Eng.Progr., 64, (1) 60-65 (Jan).
Sproull, Wayne E. (1970)
"Air Pollution and Its Control", Exposition Press, New York.
Stairmand, C. J. (1965)
"Removal of Grit, Dust and Fume from Exhaust Gases from Chemical Engineering
Processes", Chem.Eng., CE310-CE326 (Dec).
Stairmand, C. J. (1968)
"Some Industrial Problems of Aerosol Pollution", Proc.Roy.Soc.(London),ser.A.
20D-214.
Stairmand, C. J. (1956)
"The Design and Performance of Modern Gas-Cleaning", Eng.Boiler House Rev.,
12-17 (Jan).
Strauss, W. (1967)
"Prediction of Effectiveness of Gas Cleaning Methods at High Temperatures and
Pressures", A tmos .Environ ., 2_, 135-144 (Oct) .
Strauss, J. J. (1966)
"Operation and Maintenance of Wet Scrubbers", staub (English Translation),
26 (4) 18-20 (Apr).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
43
5,3,2 PARTICLE COLLECTION - PLATE SCRUBBERS
Aho, William 0. (1969)
"The Jenssen Exhaust Scrubber-An Effective Air Protection System", TAPPI,
S2_ (4) 620-623 (April) .
Anonymous (1957)
"Impingement Baffle-Plate Scrubbers", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 53, 78,86,88 (Sept).
American Industrial Hygiene Association (1968)
"Air Pollution Manual" Part 2.
Berley, E. M. (1954)
"Recovery of Soluble Gas and Aerosols from Air Streams", Jnd.Eng.Chem. ,
£6, 1769-1777.
Bried, R. S. and A. Oiestad (1964)
"Impingement Baffle Plate Scrubbers for Flue Gas", j.Air Poll, control Assoc.,
14_ (9) 372-377 (Sept).
Chase, J. D. (1967)
"Sieve Tray Design. Parts I and II. Chem.Eng., 74, (16), 105-116 and (18) 139-146.
Chemical Engineering (1957)
"Wet Scrubber Fits Into Duct", Chem.Eng., 192-210 (Aug).
Fuchs, N. A. (1964)
"The Mechanics of Aerosols", Pergamon Press, New York.
Fullerton, R. W. (1970)
"Impingement Baffles Reduce Emissions from Coke Quenching", J.Air Poll.Control ASSOC.,
17_, (12) 807-809 (Dec).
Gauntner, J. W., et.al. (1970)
"Survey of Literature on Flow Characteristics of a Single Turbulent Jet
Impinging on a Flat Plate", NTIS No. N70-18963
Goldshmid, Y. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am.inst.Chem.Engr. J., 9_, 352.
Kopita, R. (1968)
"Wet Scrubbers of Boiler Flue Gas", chem.Eng.Progr., 64 (1) 74-78 (Jan).
Mercer, T. T. (1968)
"Impaction from Rectangular Jets", J.Colloid interface Sci., 27 (1) 75-83 (May).
Mercer, T. T. (1969)
"Impaction from Round Jets", Ann.Occupational Hyg., 12,41-48.
Mercer, T. T. (1970)
" A Multi-Stage, Low Flow Rate Cascade Impactor", Aerosol Sci., !_, 1-7.
Smoke-X, Inc. (1966)
"Scrubber Twists Gas Flow for Higher Scrubber Efficiency", Chem.Eng.Progr.,
88 (Nov).
Solbach, Werner (1965)
"Some Results of Theoretical and Practical Tests With Wet Precipitators",
Staub (English Translation) 2_5_ (11) 49-52 (Nov).
Stairmand, C. J. (1956)
"The Design and Performance of Modern Gas-Cleaning Equipment", J.inst.Fuel. , 29 58.
Taheri, M. and S. Calvert (1968)
"Removal of Small Particles From Air by Foam in a Sieve-Plate Column" j.Air Poll
Cont.Assoc., 18, 240-245.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.0.BOX 7,, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
5,3.3 PARTICLE COLLECTION - PACKED SCRUBBERS
Avco Applied Technology Division (1969)
"Evaluation of Granular Bed Devices", NTIS $0_ pg 185 561.
Baskervill, W. H. (1940)
"The Packed-Tower Collection of Phosphoric Acid", Am.inst.chem.Engr.J,78-95.
Calvert S. (1968)
"Air Pollution", A.C. Stern ed. , 3_, Academic Press, New York.
Chen, N. H. (1961)
"Equations for Flooding Rate in Packed Towers", ind.Eng.Chem., 5_3_ (1) 6 (Jan).
Davis, D. S. (1960)
"Pressure Drop Across Wet Drained Columns", Chem.Process Eng., 113 (March).
Eckert, J. S. (1966)
"Use of Packed Beds for Separation of Entrained Particles and Fumes from an
Air Stream", J.Air Poll.Control Assoc., L6 (2) 95-8.
Fuchs, N. (1965)
"The Effect of Condensation of a Vapour on the Grains and of Evaporation from
Their Surface on the Deposition of Aerosols in Granular Beds", Chem.Eng.sd . ,
2_0, 181-185.
Engelbrecht, H. L. (1965)
"The Gravel Bed Filter-A New Approach to Gas Cleaning", J.Air Poll.Control Assoc.,
15. (2) 43-45 (Feb) .
Jackson, S. (1964)
"Entrained Particle Collection in Packed Beds", M.S. Thesis, Pennsylvania State
University.
Jackson, Stephen and S. Calvert (1966)
"Entrained Particle Collection in Packed Beds", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J. ,
12. (6) 1075-1078 (Nov) .
Kimura, N. and K. linoya (1964)
Chem. Eng. (Tokyo) 28, 39, abridged ed. in English 2_, 136.
Lapin, Abraham (1962)
"Pressure Drop for Gases Flowing Across Beds(Packed)" Chem.Eng. Progr.,
.58 (7) 47-51 (July) .
Prahl, W. H. (1969)
"Pressure Drop In Packed Columns", Chem.Eng., 89-96 (Aug).
Perry, R. H. ed. (1963)
"Fluid and Particle Mechanisms",(Ch. 5), Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th ed. ,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Shulman, H. L. (1967)
"Performance of Packed Columns: Part VIII Liquid Flow Patterns and Velocities
in Packed Beds", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., 13 (6) 1137-1140 (Nov).
Str?'USStSuaiWes ainndHNlghWteTmhprernalure9^s Cleaning", j.
Iron Steel Ind., 196, 62.
Sweeney, D. E. (1967)
"A Correlation for Pressure Drops in Two Phase CoCurrent Flow in Packed Beds",
Am.Inst.Chem.Engr.J., L3 (4) 663-669 (July)
Treybal, R. E. (1955)
"Mass Transfer Operations", McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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45
5,3,4 PARTICLE COLLECTION - FIBER PACKED SCRUBBERS
Aiba, S. and T. Yasuda (1962)
"A Correlation Between Single Fiber Efficiencies of Fibrous Filters and
Operating Variables", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., 8_ (5) 704-708 (Nov).
Albrecht, F. (1931)
"Theoretische Untersuchungen uber die Ablagerung von Staub aus Stromender Luft und ihre
Anwendung auf die Theorie der Staubfilter", Physik.z., 52, 48.
Bosanquet, C. H. (1950)
Appendix to paper by C. J. Stairmand, Trans.Am.inst.chem.Engr., (London)
28., 130.
Brink, J. A. (1966)
"Mist Removal from Compressed Gases", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 62, (4) 60-65 (April).
Brink, J. A. (1968)
"Mist Eliminators for Sulfuric Acid Plants", chem.Eng.Progr., 64, (11) 82-86 (Nov).
Brink, J. A. Jr. (1964)
"Chapter 15-Part B, Removal of Phosphoric Acid Mists", in Gas Purification
Processes, George Newnes, Ltd., London.
Brink, J. A. Jr. (1964)
"Fiber Mist Eliminators for Higher Velocities", Chem.Eng.Progr.,60^ (11) 68-73 (Nov).
Brink, J. A. Jr. (1970)
"Mist Elimination for the Future'.'Paper Presented at the 3rd Annual National
Pollution Control Conference and Exposition (April).
Brink, J. A. Jr. (1963)
"Air Pollution Control With Fibre Mist Eliminators", can.J.chem .Eng., 134-138 (June).
Chen, C. Y. (1955)
"Filtration of Aerosols by Fibrous Media", Eng.Expt.sta./University of Illinois,(March).
Chen, C.Y. (1955)
"Filtration of Aerosols by Fibrous Media", chem.Rev., 55, 595-623.
Das, P. K. (1950)
"The Growth of Cloud Droplets by Coalescence", Indian J. Met. Geophys., 1, 137.
Dorman, R. G. (1966)
"Aerosol Science", C. N. Davies, editor, Academic Press, New York.
Davies, C. N. (1952)
"The Separation of Air-Borne Dusts and Particles", Proc.inst.Mech.Eng. , 18 , 185.
Davis, R. J. (1970)
"Removal of Radioactive Aerosols on High Efficiency Fibrous Filter Media",
NTTS No. ORNL-4524 (June)
Dorman, R. G. (1960)
"The Role of Diffusion, Interception and Inertia in the Filtration of
Airborne Particles", intern.J. Air water Poll., 3_ (1/3) 112-122.
Fairs, G. Lowrie (1958)
"High Efficiency Fibre Filters for the Treatment of Fine Mists",
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr., 36, 476-485.
First, M. W. (1956)
"Field Evaluation of Wet Fiber Filters for Treatment of Air Contaminants",
J.Air Poll.Control Assoc., 6^ (1) 32-34 (May).
First, Melvin W. (1951)
"Performance of Wet Cell Washers for Aerosols", Ind.Eng.Chem., 43 (6) 1363-1370.
Friedlander, S.K. (1958)
"Theory of Aerosol Filtration", ind.Eng.chem. , 5,0 (8) 1161-1164.
Ambient Purification Technoloav. Inc. P.o. BOX 71, R,VERS,DE. CA. 92502
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46
5,3,4 PARTICLE COLLECTION - FIBER PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Friedlander, S. K. (1957)
"The Theory of Aerosol Filtration", Am.inst.chem.Engr.J., 3_, 43.
Friedlander, S. K. and R. E. Pasceri (1962)
"Aerosol Filtration by Fibrous Filters", Report Dept. Chem. Eng. Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Md. (April).
Friedlander. S. K. and R. E. Pasceri (1960)
"The Efficiency of Fibrous Aerosol Filters. Deposition by Diffusion of Particles of
Finite Diameters", Can.J.Chem.Eng., 38 , 212.
Glanert, M.
Aeronautical Research Comm. Report No. 2025 (London) H.M.S.O.
Hocking, L. M. (1959)
"The Collision Efficiency of Small Drops1,1 Quart .J.Roy .Met. Soc., 85, 44.
Jarman, R. T. (1959)
"The Deposition of Airborne Droplets on Wire Gauzes", Chem .Eng. sd .,
1£, 268-273.
Johnstone, H. F. and M. H. Roberts (1949)
"Deposition of Aerosol Particles from Moving Gas Streams',' ind.Eng.Chem. ,4_^, 2417.
Kimura, N. and K. Tinoya (1965)
Chem.Eng.(Tokyo) 29, 538.
Kraemer. H. F. and H. F. Johnstone (1955)
"Collection of Aerosol Particles in Presence of Electrostatic Fields", ind.Eng.Chem.,
4_7, 2426.
Landt, E. (1956)
Gesundh. Ingr., 77, 139.
Langmuir, I. (1942)
O.S.R.P. Report No. 865.
Langmuir, I. and K. Blodgett (1946)
"A Mathematical Investigation of Water Droplet Trajectories", Amer.A.F. Tech. Report
5418.
Lundgren, D. A. (1962)
M.S. Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (March).
Natanson, G. L. (1957)
"Diffusion Precipitation of Aerosols on a Streamlined Cylinder for Small Capture
Coefficients", Dok.Adad.Nank. SSR, Phys.Chem.Section, 112, 100, Eng.Ed. 112, 21.
Pearcy, T. and G. W. Hill (1957)
"A Theoretical Estimate of the Collection Efficiencies of Small Droplets".Quart.J.
Royal Met. Soc., 83, 77.
Pemberton, C.S. (1960)
"Scavenging Action of Rain on Non-Wettable Particulate Matter Suspended in the Atmos-
phere", Int.J.Air Pollution, 3_, 168.
Picknett, R. G. (I960)
"Collection Efficiencies for Water Drops in Air", int.J.Air Pollution ,3_, 160.
Puzyrev, S. A., et.al. (1969)
"Contemporary Filtering Materials for Purification of Fuels, Oils, Air and
Hydraulic Fluids", APTIC No. 22797.
Ranz, W. E. (1953)
Techn.Report No. 8, Univ. Illinois Engrg.Exptl.Sta. , (Jan).
Ranz, W. E. and J. B. Wong'(1952)
"Impaction of Dust and Smoke Particles on Surface and Body Collectors", ind.Eng.chem.
4_4, 1371.
Scheiman, A. D. (1964)
"Horizontal Vapor-Liquid Separators", Anal.chem. , 43, (5) 155-159 (May).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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H7
5,3,4 PARTICLE COLLECTION - FIBER PACKED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Sell, W. (1931)
"The Precipitation of Dust on Simple Bodies and in Air Filters",Deut.Ing.Forschungsheft,
347.
Spielman, Lloyd and Simon L. Goren (1968)
"Model For Predicting Pressure Drop and Filtration Efficiency in Fibrous Media",
Environmental Science Technology 2 (4) : 279-287 , (April).
Strauss, W. (1966)
"Industrial Gas Cleaning", Pergamon Press, New York.
Striplin, M. M. (1948)
"Tennessee Valley Authority Chem.Eng.Rept. No. 2, 1st ed., US Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Torgeson, W. L.
"The Theoretical Collection Efficiency of Fibrous Filters Due to the Combined
Effects of Inertia, Diffusion and Interception", Paper No. J-1057. Applied
Science Division, Litton Systems, Inc., St. Paul, Minn.
Vincent, E. J. (1967)
"Air Pollution Engineering Manual", Ch. 4, "Air Pollution Control Equipment for Particu-
late Matter", pp. 99-106, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health
Service No. 999-AP-40, Cincinnati.
Whitby, K. T. (1965)
"Calculation of the Clean Fractional Efficiency of Low Media Density Filters",
ASHRAE (Am.Soc.Heating,Re frig.Air Cond.Engr.)J. (Sept).
Whitby, K. T. and D. A. Lundgren (1964)
"The Mechanics of Air Cleaning", Presented at 1964 Annual Meeting of American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, Ft. Collins, Colo (June).
Wong, J' B. ancl J- F- Johnstone (1953)
"Collection of Aerosols by Fiber Mats", Eng.Exp.Sta., University of Illinois
Tech. Report No. 11, (Oct).
5,3,5 PARTICLE COLLECTION - PREFORMED SPRAY SCRUBBERS
Alder, C. R. and W. R. Marshall Jr. (1951)
"Performance of Spinning Disk Atomizers", Chem.Eng.Progr., 47, 515.
Bonilla, Charles F. (1950)
"Air Ilumidification Coefficients in Spray Towers", ind.Eng.Chem.,
42., (19) 2521-2525.
Eyraud, C. (1966)
"New Dust Collector Using Electrostatically Sprayed Water", intern.Clean Air
Congress, 129-30.
Fraser, R. P. and P. Eisenklam, N. Dombrowski (1957)
"Liquid Atomisation in Chemical Engineering: Centrifugal Disk Atomization", Brit.Chem.
Eng., 2, 417.
Friedman, S. J., F. A. Gluckert, and W. R. Marshall, Jr. (1952)
"Centrifugal Disk Atomization", ch.em.Eng.Progr., 48, 181.
Goldshmid, Y. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., 9, 352.
Harris, L. S. and R. Hartenbaum (1961)
"Performance Test Techniques for Ejector Venturi Scrubber", Paper 61-15,
54th Annual Meeting APCA*.
Harris, L. S. (1962)
"Performance Test Techniques for Ejector Venturi Scrubbers", j.Air Poll control
Assoc., 12, (5) 227-231 (May).
Harris, L. S. (1963)
"Energy and Efficiency Characteristics of the Ejector Venturi Scrubber",
.7. Air Poll.Control Assoc., IS, (7) 302-305 (July).
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.0. BOX 71. R.VERS.DE, CA. 92502
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48
5,3,5 PARTICLE COLLECTION - PREFORMED SPRAY SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Harris, L. S. (1963)
"Scrubbing Characteristics of the Ejector Venturi Scrubber',' Paper 63-56,
56th Annual Meeting of APCA.
Harris, L. S. (1964)
"The Ejector Venturi Scrubber", chem .Eng . Progr . ,6Q_, (5) 100-102.
Harris, L. A. (1964)
"Energy and Efficiency Characteristics of the Ejector Venturi Scrubber",
Paper 64-35, 57th Annual Meeting of APCA.
Harris, L. S. (1966)
"Fume Scrubbing With the Ejector Venturi System", ch$m.Eng.Progr.,
.62 (4) 55-59 (April) .
Ingebo, R. (1956)
"Drag Coefficients for Droplets and Solid Spheres in Clouds Accelerating in Airstream<:"
NASA Tech. Note 3762. '
Kraemer. H. F. and H. F. Johnstone (1955)
"Collection of Aerosol Particles in Presence of Electrostatic Fields", ind.Eng.chem
47, 2426.
Langmuir, I. and K. Blodgett (1946)
'A Mathematical Investigation of Water Droplet Trajectories",Amer.A.F.Tech.Rpt. 5418.
Marshall, W. R., Jr. (1954)
"Atomization and Spray Drying", chem.Eng.Progr., Monogr.Ser.No. 2.
Marshall, W. R. Jr., and E. Seltzer (1950)
"Principles of Spray Drying", chem.Eng.Progr., 46, 501.
Nukiyama, S. and Y. Tanasawa (1938)
"Experiments on the Atomization of Liquids in an Air Stream", Trans.ASME (Soc.Mech.
Engrs) (Japan) , 4_, 86.
Orr, C., Jr. (1966)
"Particulate Technology", MacMillan Company, New York.
Pemberton, C. S. (1960)
"Scavenging Action of Rain on Non-Wettable Particulate Matter Suspended in the Atmos-
phere", int.J. Air Pollution, 3_, 168.
Rosin, P. and J. Rammler (1933)
"The Laws Governing the Fineness of Powdered Coal", J.inst.Fuel, 7_, 29.
Silverman, L. (1952)
"Proceedings of the US Technical Conference on Air Pollution", ed. L. McCabe,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Takashima, Y., et.al. (1961)
"Waste Processing Off-Gas Scrubber Studies", 557-579, Proceedings of 7th
AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Brookhaven Nat. Lab.
Walton, H. W. and A. Woolcock (1960)
"The Suppression of Airborne Dust by Water Spray", int.J. Air Pollution, 3,129.
5,3.6 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GAS ATOMIZED SPRAY SCRUBBERS
Anthony, A. W. (1948)
"Two Methods of Wet Scrubbing of Gases for Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution",
Smoke Prevention Association of America, 41.
Bakke, Even (1970)
"An Economic Optimization of a Venturi Scrubber With a Cyclonic Water Separator",
Paper presented at Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St.Louis (June).
Basse, Barnard (1957)
"Venturi Scrubbers for Cleaning Cupola Gases", J.Air Poll.Control ASSOC.,
6, (4) 218-220.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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49
5,3,6 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GAS ATOMIZED SPRAY SCRUBBERS
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50
5,3,6 PARTICLE COLLECTION - GAS ATOMIZED SPRAY SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Hesketh, Howard E. (1969)
"Atomization and Acceleration of Liquid in a Venturi Scrubber", Paper 69-83
Presented at Annual Meeting of Air Pollution Control Assoc., New York (June).
Ingebo, R. (1956)
"Drag Coefficients for Droplets and Solid Spheres in Clouds Accelerating in Air
Streams", NASA Tech. Note 3762.
Johnstone, H. F., R. B. Field, and M. C. Tassler (1954)
"Gas Absorbtion and Aerosol Collection in a Venturi Atomizer", ind.Eng.Chem.,46^, 1601.
Jones, William P.
"Development of the Venturi Scrubber", ind.Eng.Chem., 41, (11) 2424-2427.
Jordan, Von W. (1966)
"Venturi and Radial Flow Scrubbers for Cooling and Cleaning of Utility and Waste
Gases", Steel and Iron (Germany) 86, (8), 399-406 (April).
Kraemer, H. F. and H. F. Johnstone (1955)
"Collection of Aerosol Particles in Presence of Electrostatic Fields", ind.Eng.Chem
47_, 2426.
Kristal, Edward (1957)
"A Study of a Multiple Venturi Wet Collector", j.Air Poll.control ASSOC., 6, (4),
204-213 (Feb).
McCabe, Louis C. (1951)
"Venturi Scrubbers Are Giving Satisfactory Service in a Variety of Fume Removal and
Recovery Operations", 45, 105A-108A.
Mellor, D. (1955)
"Use of the Venturi Scrubber on Alkalai Fume", A.P.I.T.A. Proceedings, 222-249.
Northcott, Elliot (1967)
"Dust Abatement at Bird Coal", 53^, (11) 29-34 (Nov.).
Nukiyama, S. and Y. Tanasawa (1938)
"Experiments on the Atomization of Liquids in an Air Stream", Trans.Soc.Mech.Engr.(Japan)
4_, 86.
Pallinger, J. (1962)
"A New Wet Method for Separation of Very Fine Dusts',1 staub (English translation), 22
(7) 270-5. —
Seiler, Ed (1968)
"Venturi-Type Wet Scrubbers", Air Cond. Heating & VentiHating, (July).
Storch, Otaker (1966)
"New Venturi Scrubber to Separate Dust Particles", staub (English translation), 26
(11) (Nov). —
Stuart, H. H. and R. E. Bailey (1965)
"Performance Study of a Lime Kiln and Scrubber Installation", TAPPI, 48^, (5) 104A.
5,3,7 PARTICLE COLLECTION - CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
Alexander, R. McK. (1949)
"Fundamentals of Cyclone Design and Operation", Austrailian inst. Mining & Met. Proc
[N.S.] 152-3, 202.
Earth, Walter (1956)
"Design and Layout of the Cyclone Separator on the Basis of New Investigations", Brenn-
stof f-Warme-Kraft. , 8_, 1 (Jan).
Briggs, Leo W. (1946)
Trans.Am.Inst.Chem.Engr., 42, 511 (March).
Caplan, K. J. (1968)
"Source Control by Centrifugal Force and Gravity", Air Pollution, 3_, A. C. Stern, Ed.
Academic Press, 3590366. "'
Davies, C. N. (1952)
"The Separation of Air-Borne Dusts and Particles", Proc.inst.Mech.Engr., 18 , 185.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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51
5,3,7 PARTICLE COLLECTION - CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
De Bow, C. R. (1954)
"Fumes and Complaints - Knocked Out by Know-How", Chem.Eng., 124-125 (Sept).
Deissler, R. G. (1960)
"Analysis of the Flow and Energy Separation in a Turbulent Vortex",
Intern. J. Heat S Mass Transfer, 1^, 173-191.
Ganz, S. N. (1965)
"The Design of Open Equal-Flow Towers With Centrifugal Sprayers", intern.chem.Eng.,
5 (4) 653-656 (Oct).
Gardiner, J. E.
Tech. Report N.l-CT/19, The Shell Petroleum Co., Ltd. Shell Court, London.
Johnson, Glenn A., et.al. (1955)
"Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Scrubbers", Chem.Eng.Progr. ,
51 (4) 176-188 (April).
Lapple, C. E. and C. B. Shepherd (1940).
"r-il r-nl at i cm of Particle Traiectnries"
Calculation of Particle Trajectories", ind.Eng.Chem., 32, (5), 605.
Leith, David and William Licht (1971)
"The Collection Efficiency of Cyclone Type Particle Collectors - A New Theoretical
Approach". Paper 13a presented at San Francisco Meeting of Am.Inst.Chem.Engr. (Dec).
Rosin, P., E. Rammler, and W. Intelmann (1932)
"Principle and Limits of Cyclone Dust Removal", ziet.Ver.Deut.Ing., 76, 433.
Schell, T. W. (1968)
"Cyclone Scrubber System Quickly Eliminates Dust Problem", Rock Prod.,
66-68 July).
Shepherd, C. B. and C. E. Lapple (1939)
"Flow.Pattern and Pressure Drop in Cyclone Dust Collectors", ind.Eng.Chem., 31, 972.
(Aug.) . —
Shepherd, C. B. and C. E. Lapple (1940)
"Flow Pattern and Pressure Drop in Cyclone Dust Collectors", ind.Eng.Chem., 32, 1246,
(Sept.)
Sproull, W. T. (1966)
"Effect of Dust Concentration Upon the Gas-Flow Capacity of a Cyclonic Collector",
j.Air Poll.Control Assoc., 1^6 (8) 439-441 (Aug) .
Stairmand, C. J. (1951)
"The Design and Performance of Cyclone Separators", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engr.,
2£, 356.383.
Stairmand, C. J. (1952)
"Design and Performance of Cyclone Separators", intern.chem.Eng., 89-91 (Feb).
Stern, A. C., et.al. (1955)
"Cyclone Dust Collectors", am.Petrol.Inst.,New York.
Storch, H. L. (1966)
"Product Losses Cut With a Centrifugal Gas Scrubber", Chem.Eng.Progr. ,
62_ (4) 51-55 (April)
Strauss, W. (1966)
"Industrial Gas Cleaning", Pergamon Press, New York.
VanEbbenhorst Tengbergen (1965)
"Comparative Studies With Cyclones", staub, 2_5_, (11) 44-49.
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 9250Z
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52
5,3,8 BAFFLE & SECONDARY FLOW SCRUBBERS
American Industrial Hygiene Association (1968)
"Air Pollution Manual", Part 2.
Boelter, L.M.K., et al. [1951)
National Advisory Committee Aeronaut. Tech. Note 2517.
Calvert, S., and R. Hodous (1962)
"Collection of Small Particles in Baffled Conduits", J.Air Pollution Cont. Assoc.,
12_, 326.
Calvert, S. and M. Taheri (1966)
"Design of Baffled Conduit Particle Collectors", British Chem.Eng., 11, 254.
Detrick, M. H. Company (1971)
Bulletin D-67.
Hansen, K. (19S6)
"Effectiveness and Suitability of Dust Collecting Plants for Grate-Fired Boilers from
an Operating Viewpoint", Fifth world Power Conf., Vienna, Paper 101 M/4.
Hodous, Ralph (1961)
"Particle Collection in Secondary Flow Systems", M.S. Thesis, Case Instit. of Technology,
Koch Engineering Company
Pollution Control Division, Bulletin KPC-1.
Premerlani, Richard C. (1968)
"Collection of Small Particles in Close-Packed Tube Banks", M.S. Thesis, Penn. State U.
Sweeney, T. L. and S. Calvert (1965)
"Gas Absorption in a Fin-Wall Conduit", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., 11, 785.
Sweeney, T. L. (1962)
"Gas Absorbtion in a Fin-Wall Conduit", Ph.D. Thesis, Case Institute of Technology,
Cleveland, Ohio.
5,3,9 IMPINGEMENT AND ENTRAPMENT SEPARATORS
American Air Filter Company (1969-B)
Dust Control Bulletin No. 304,3
American Air Filter Company (1969)
Dust Control Bulletin No. 320, 3
Calvert, S., (1968)
"Source Control by Liquid Scrubbing", "Air Pollution", Stern A.C., editor, 3_, Academic
Press , New York.
Doyle, Harold and Alan F. Brooks (1957)
"The Doyle Scrubber", ind.Eng.chem. , 40, (12) 57A-62A (Dec.).
Fuchs, N. A. (1964)
"The Mechanics of Aerosols", Pergamon Press, New York.
Goldshmid, Y. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am,inst.Chem.Engr.J., 9_, 352.
Hesketh, H. E., A. J. Engel, and S. Calvert (1970)
"Atomization - A New Type for Better Gas Scrubbing", Atmos .Environ., 4_, 639.
Ingebo, R. (1956)
"Drag Coefficients for Droplets and Solid Spheres in Clouds Accelerating in Air Streams"
NASA Tech. Note 3762.
5,3.10 PARTICLE COLLECTION - MECHANICALLY AIDED SCRUBBERS
Budinsky, K. (1970)
"Rotating Centrifugal Separator with Continuous Dust Removal", staub, 3J) (9) 7 (English
translation).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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53
5,3,10 PARTICLE COLLECTION - MECHANICALLY AIDED SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Pyne, H. W., R. B. Wilson, B. W. Soole (1967)
"Air Filtration by Moving Filaments", Brit.j.Appl.Phys., 18, 1177-1191.
"Tne Design of Rotary Filamentary Filters for the Continuous Removal of Particles
From Fast Flowing Gas", staub, 28, (7) 14 (English Translation).
°°"Tne Design of Rotary Impaction Filters for a Given Flow-Rate of Gas", staub, 30, (3)
18 (English translation).
"The Design ana Performance of Modern Gas-Cleaning Equipment", J.inst.Fuel, 29, 58.
Tri-Mer (1968)
Fan/Separator
Wilson, A. (1956)
"British Dust Collection Equipment, Paper to Combustion Engineering Association.
WrDynamic Dust and Fume Precipitators", Iron 5 Steel Inst. , Spec. Rcpt. No. 61, 103.
5,3,11 PARTICLE COLLECTION - MOVING BED'SCRUBBERS
Bechtel Corporation (1970)
Report to NAPCA Contract No. PH 22-68-67.
Bechtel Corporation (1971)
Report ot O.P.A. - EPA Contract No. PH 22-68-67.
Calvert, S. (1968) .
"Source Control by Liquid Scrubbing", Air Pollution, Stern, A. C., editor, 3_, Academic
Press, New York.
Chen, B. H. (1969)
"Axial Mixing of Liquid in a Turbulent-Bed Contactor", Can.J.Cheat.Eng.,
47., 113-118.
Douglas, H. R., et.al. (1963)
Chem.Eng.Progr., 59, 85-89.
16"The Development of Floating-Type Scrubbers", chem.Eng.Progr., S7_ (35) 51-54.
Lowry, R. P. and M. Van Winkle (1969)
Am.Inst.Chem.Engr.J., 15, 665.
LUd"Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants", Vol. .2,98
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
National Dust Collector Corporation (1968)
General Catalog.
Per"Fluid andCparticle Mechanics", (Ch. S), Chemical Engineering Handbook, 4th ed., 393,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pollock, W. A., et.al. (1966)
ASME Publication 66-WA/CD-4
U.O.P. Air Correction Division (1967)
Bulletin No. 608
5,4 ENTRAPMENT SEPARATORS
ACS"Mistermesh Entrainment Separator Design Manual".
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA.
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54
5,4 ENTRAPMENT SEPARATORS (CONT'D)
Calvert, S. and D. Lundgren (1970)
"Particle Collection in Close Packed Arrays", Presented at the A.I.H.A. Meeting (May).
Carpenter, C. L. and C. F. Othmer (1955)
"Entrainment Removal by a Wire-Mesh Separator", Am.inst.chem.Engr.J., !_, 549-557.
Coykendall, J. W., et.al. (1968)
"New High-Efficiency Mist Collector", J.Air Poll.control Assoc.,lS^ (5), 315-318 (May).
Cronan, C. S., Editor (1956)
"Remove Liquid Entrainment Better", chvm.Eng., 230-232 (Feb).
Fairs, G. F. (1958)
"High Efficiency Fibre Filters for the Treatment of Fine Mists", Trans.inst.chem.
Engr. , 3J>, 476-485.
Goldshmid, Y. and S. Calvert (1963)
"Small Particle Collection by Supported Liquid Drops", Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., £, 352.
Hanf, Edward B. (1971)
"Design Considerations for Venturi Entraiment Separators",
Am.inst.Chem.Engr.J., Meeting Proceedings, Cincinnati (May).
Kirk, Michael M. (1966)
"Cost of Mist Eliminators" Chem.Eng.Progr., 240 (Oct).
Lawrence, E. A. (1952)
"Pressure Loss in Centrifugal Entrainment Separators Under Vacuum",
Chem.Eng .Progr., £8_ (5) 241-246 (May).
Matthews, W. D. and 0. York (1963)
Presented at Gas Conditioning Conference, University of Oklahoma (April).
Montross, Charles F. (1953)
"Entrainment Separation", Chem.Eng., 213-236 (October).
Premerlani, Richard C. (1968)
"Collection of Small Particles in Close Packed Tube Banks", M.S. Thesis,
Penn. State University.
Reynolds, Sanford C. (1954)
"The Problem of Liquid Entrainment" Chem.Eng.Progr.,5Q_ (10) 503-510.
Scheiman, Adolph D. (1964)
"Horizontal Vapor-Liquid Separators", Anal.Chem., 43^ (5)155-159 (May).
Souders, M. and G. G. Brown (1934)
"Design of Fractioning Columns", ind .Eng.chem., 26, 98.
6 AUXILIARIES
American Petroleum Institute (1965)
"Centrifugal Pumps for Refinery Service", Spec. No. 610, 4th ed., API,
1271 Ave. of the Americas, New York, 10020.
American Voluntary Standards (AVS)
"Pump Specifications", The Hydraulic Institute, 122 E. 42 St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Beaumont, M., (1971)
j.Inst.Fuel, 4_4_, 92.
Brink, Joseph A. Jr. (1970)
"Mist Elimination for the Future", Paper Presented at the 3rd Annual
Nat.Poll.Control Conference and Exposition (April).
Bri"Fiber Mist Eliminators for Higher Velocities", Chem.Eng.Progr. , 6£ (11), 68-73 (Nov).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 93502
-------
55
6 AUXILLIARIES (CONT'D)
Byrne, E. J. (1969)
"Measuring and Controlling", chem.Eng., Deskbook Issue, 189.
Cadle, R. D. (1965)
Particle Size, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.
Chemical Engineering (1969)
Deskbook Issue, McGraw-Hill, (April 14).
Danielson, J. A., Editor (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District and
Department of HEW, Cincinnati.
Godfrey, R. S. (1970)
Building Construction Cost Data, 1970, Robert Snow Means Company, Inc., Duxbury, Mass.
Hemeon, W. C. L. (1963)
Plant and Process Ventilation, 2nd Ed., The Industrial Press, New York.
Kalika, Peter W. (1969)
"How Water and Recirculation and Steam Plumes Influence Scrubber Design", chem.Eng.,
133-137, (July).
Kirk-Othmer (1965)
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd Ed., 7_, John Wiley § Sons, New York.
Mead, W. J., Editor (1964)
The Encyclopedia of Chemical Process Equipment, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.
NEMA Standards Publication
Motors and Generators, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, New York.
Perry, R. H., Editor
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 4th Ed., Chapter 5, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.
Rase, H. F., and M. H. Barrow (1957)
Project Engineering of Process Plant, Chapter 18, John Wiley § Sons, Inc., New York.
Recommended Safe Practices and Procedures - Training of Process Operators (Safety Guide
SG 15), Published by the Manufacturing Chemists Assoc., 1825 Connecticut Avenue,N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20009.
Ruch, W. E., Editor (1967)
Chemical Detection of Gaseous Pollutants, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Standards for Electric Motors and Generators for Use in Hazardous Locations, Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., Chicago, 111.
Stern, A. E. (1968)
Air Pollution, 2nd Edition, Vol. 2, Chapter 28, Academic Press, New York.
Strauss, W. (1966)
Industrial Gas Cleaning, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
"Symposium on Stack Design", (1966)
j.Inst.Fuel, 3_9_, 21-29.
T.L.V. Tables (1957)
American Conference of Govern. Industrial Hygiene (A.C.G.I.H.) .
USA Standard Institute (1955)
Code for Pressure Piping, B.31.1, Published by A.S.M.E., United Engineering Center,
New York.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
56
7,0 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES UTILIZING SCRUBBERS
Air Pollution Control Association (1963)
Technical Manual No. 1.
Anderson, Catherine E. (1970)
"Odor Control with Potassium Permanganate", Paper presented at 9th Annual Purdue Air
Pollution Control Conference,(October).
Anderson, Catherine E. (1971)
"Odor Control in the Rendering and Food Processing Industries", Paper 71-22, Presented
at Air Pollution Control Association Meeting, Atlantic City, New Jersey (June).
Bainbridge, C. A. (1961)
"Scale-up of Dust-Removal Plant", Chem.Process.Eng., 115-116, (March).
Bralove, Allan L. (1951)
"Radioactive Dust Separation Equipment - 1", Nucleonics, 8_, (4), 37-51, (April).
Bralove, Allan L. (1951)
"Radioactive Dust Separation Equipment - II", Nucleonics, 8^, (5), 60-67.
British Steel Castings Research Association (1958)
Data Sheets on Dust Collectors.
Broman, Carl (1966)
"Scrubbing for Cleaner Air", Paper 66-99 Presented at Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association.
Byrd, J. F., et al. (1964)
"Solving a Major Odor Problem in a Chemical Process", J.Air Poll.control Assoc.,
1_4, (12), 509-516.
Crocker, Burton B. (1968)
"Water Vapor in Effluent Gases: What to do about Opacity Problems", chem.Eng., 109-
114, (July).
Danser, Harold W., Jr. (1950)
"Eliminate Stack Dusts and Mists", Chem.Eng., 57, 158-160, (May).
David, R. J. (1970)
"Removal of Radioactive Aerosols on High Efficiency Fibrous Filter Media", NTIS No
ORNL 4524, (June).
Editor (1970)
"Plant Licks Solvent Emission Problem", Environ .Sci .Technol., 4_, (2), 107-108, (Feb.).
Kellum, James (1970)
"Sewer Odor Control", Water Wastes Eng., 7_, (7), 43, (July).
Mellor, D. (1955)
"Use of the Venturi Scrubber on Alkali Fume", APPITA Proceedings, 222-245.
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources", (Nov.).
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969)
Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants, Publication AP-51, Public Health
Service, Washington, D.C.
O'Hara, R. 0. (1958)
"Engineering Design Factors in Dust and Fume Recovery Systems", j.Air Poll.control
Assoc., 8_, (1), 39-45, (May).
Smalley, George E., et al. (1955)
"Refinery Sulfur Recovery Aids Air Pollution Control", Paper 55-12, Presented at
Annual Meeting of APCA, (Apr.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
-------
57
7,0 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES UTILIZING SCRUBBERS (CONT'D)
Soderholm, Nels (1957)
"Air Pollution Control of Smoke House Emissions in the Packing Industry", j.Air Poll,
Control Assoc., 7_, (1), 36-38, (May).
Sutton, P. (1968)
"Air Pollution in Petroleum Refining", chem.Proc.Eng., 96-100, (Feb.)-
7,1 CALCINING PROCESSES
Adams, Donald F. (1968)
"Pulp and Paper Industry", in Air Pollution III, 2nd Ed., Edited by A. C. Stern,
Academic Press, New York.
Aho, William 0. (1969)
"The Jenssen Exhaust Scrubber - An Effective Air Protection System", TAPPI, 52, (4).
Blackmore, S. S. (1964)
"Dust Emission Control Program", Union Carbide Corporation, Metals Division, Presented
at 57th Annual Meeting ofAPCA, Houston, (June).
Blosser, Russell 0. (1968)
"Secondary Scrubbing of Kraft Recovery Stack Gases, APCA Paper 68-129.
Blosser, Russell O.(1968)
"Trends in Atmospheric Particulate Matter Reduction in the Kraft Industry", TAPPI,
51.. (5), 73A-77A, (May) .
Blosser, Russell 0. (1968)
"Identification of Potential Air Pollution Problems in the Pulp and Paper Industry",
TAPPI t 5_1_, (8), 73A-75A, (Aug.).
Bozsin, M. (1968)
"Air Pollution Abatement in the Ceramic Industry", j.Air Poll. Control ASSOC., 16,
(6), 332-333, (June) .
Buxton, Winslow H. (1965)
"Chemial Recovery and Odor Abatement on a Kraft Recovery Furnace", TAPPI, 48, (5),
112A-113A, (May).
Collins, T. T., Jr. (1957)
"The Scrubbing of Sulphate Recovery Furnace Stack Gases", Paper Industry s Paper
World, (Aug.).
Collins, T. T.,Jr. (1957)
"The Scrubbing of Sulphate Recovery Furnace Stack Gases- Part II", Paper industry
S Paper World.
Collins, T. T., Jr. (1957)
"The Scrubbing of Sulphate Recovery Furnace Stack Gases - Part III", Paper industry
S Paper World, (Oct.).
Collins, T. T. (1959)
"The Venturi-Scrubber on Lime Kiln Stack Gases", TAPPI, 42, (1), 9-13, (Jan.).
Collins, T. T., Jr., C. R. Seaborne, and A. W. Anthony, Jr. (1957)
Removal of Salt Cake Fume from Sulphate Recovery Furnace Stack Gases by Scrubbing.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Dept. of HEW, Public Health Service Pub No '
999-AP-40.
Duprey, R.L. (1968)
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors", U. S. Department of H.E.W. Pub No
999-AP-42. ' '
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc.
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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58
7,1 CALCINING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Environmental Engineering, Inc. (1970)
Control of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry, Final Report on Contract
No. CPA 22-69-18, Volume 1, (March).
Environmental Engineering, Inc. (1970)
Control of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry, Final Report on Contract
No. CPA 22-69-18, Volume II, (March).
Environmental Engineering, Inc. (1970)
Control of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry, Final Report on Contract
No. CPA 22-69-18, Volume III, (March).
Faith, W. L. (1968)
"Food and Feed Industries", in Air Pollution III, 2nd Ed., Editor A. C. Stern, Academic
Press , New York.
Galeano, S. F. and C. I. Harding (1966)
"S02 Removal and Recovery from Pulp Mill Power Plants", Presented at Annual Meeting
of APCA, Paper No. 66-97.
Hansen, G. A. (1962)
"Odor and Fallout Control in a Kraft Pulp Mill", J.Air Poll. Control Assoc., 12, (9),
409-413, (Sept.).
Hayes, S. C.
"Visual Clarity in Kiln Discharge Gases", J.Air Poll. Control ASSOC., S_, (1), 171-187.
Hendrickson, E. R., C. G. Walker, and V. D. Chapnerkar (1963)
"Identification of Non-Sulfur Organic Compounds in Stack Gases from Pulp Mills",
Am.Ind.Hyg.Assoc.J., 24, 121-126.
Kempe, Werner (1969)
"Investigation of Purification of Waste Gases of Vertical Lime Kilns", Weue Huette,
1£, (2), 86-89, (Feb.).
Kirk-Othmer (1967)
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd Ed., Interscience Publishers.
Kreichelt, Thomas E., et al. (1967)
"Atmospheric Emissions from the Manufacture of Portland Cement", NTIS No. PB 190 236.
Landry, J. E. (1965)
"Advances in Air Pollution Control in the Pulp and Paper Industry", TAPPI, 48, (6),
66A-70A.
Lewis, C. J. and B. B. Crocker (1964)
"The Lime Industry's Problem of Airborne Dust", J.Air Poll.control ASSOC., 19, 31.
Lewis, C. J. (1966)
"The Lime Industry'sProblem of Airborne Dust", Presented at 64th Annual Convention
of the National Lime Association, Phoenix, (April).
Loquenz, Heinz (1967)
"Experience and Results with an Instrument for Determination of Electrical Dust Resis-
tance", Staub, 27, (5), 41.
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources", NAPCA Contract CPA 22-69-104, (Nov.).
Minnick, J. L. (1970)
"Control of Particulate Emissions from Lime Plants", Presented at 63rd Annual Meeting,
APCA, St. Louis.
Murray, J. S. (1960)
"Scrubbing Kraft Recovery Furnace Gases", TAPPI, 43, (11), 899-903, (Nov.).
Shah, I.S. (1968)
"New Evaporator-Scrubber Systems Improve Kraft Recovery Process", Paper Trade J. ,
152, (12), 58-64, (March).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
-------
59
7,1 CALCINING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Shah, I.S. (1968)
"The Two-Stage Evaporator-Scrubber and Secondary Scrubbing Systems for Efficient Heat
and Chemical Recovery from Kraft Recovery Furnace Flue Gases", Paper Trade J., (March
11 and March 18).
Shreve, R. N. (1956)
The Chemical Process Industries, 2nd Ed., McGraw Hill, New York.
Stuart, H. H. (1965)
"Performance Study of a Lime Kiln § Scrubber Installation", TAPPI , 48, (5), 104A-108A,
(May).
Taylor, C. Edward
"Abatement Procedures Preently in Use or Feasible-Lime Kilns and Their Operation".
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES
Achinger, William C. (1970)
Study Report on a Pilot Plant Conical Incinerator, U. S. Dept. of HEW, Bureau of Solid
Waste Management, 5555 Ridge Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45213.
Ad Hoc Panel (1970)
"Abatement of Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Stationary Combustion Sources", Committee on
Air Quality Management, Division of Engineering, National Research Council. NTIS No.
PB 198 887.
Aentgraf, K. M. (1969)
"The Present State of Flue Gas Desulphurization", Der vereinigung Dei Grosskessel.,
4£, (1), 9-15, (Feb.).
Atomics International (1968)
"Development of a Molten Carbonate Process for Removal of Sulfur Dioxide from Power
Plant Stack Gas", NTIS No. PB 179 908.
Attig, R. C. (1968)
"Pilot Plant Investigation of the Potential of Direct Limestone-Dolomite Additive
Injection", NTIS No. PB 184 049.
AVCO Space Systems Division (1967)
"Removal of S02 from Flue Gas", NTIS No. PB 177 492.
Bartok, William (1969)
"Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for Stationary Sources, Vol. II",
Esso Research and Engineering Co., NTIS No. PB 192 789,(Nov.).
Battelle Memorial Institute (1969)
"Limestone-Based Processes for Control of Sulfur Oxide Investigation of the Reactivity
of Limestone § Dolomite for Capturing S02 From the Gas", NAPCA Contract PH-86-67-115,
(June) .
Battelle Memorial Institute (1969)
"Limestone-Based Processes for Control of Sulfur Oxides-Investigation of the Limestone-
S02 Wet Scrubbing Method", NAPCA Contract PH-86-68-84, (Nov.).
Battelle,Memorial Institute (1969)
"Applicability of Organic Liquids to the Development of New Processes for Removing Sul-
fur Dioxde from Flue Gases", NTIS No. PB 183 513, (March).
Bechtel Corporation (1969)
"Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility", NTIS No. PB 185 000. (Phase I).
Bechtel Corporation (1969)
"Alkali Scrubbing Test FAcility, Phase IB: Preliminary Engineering Installation
at TVA Shawnee Power Station", Report to NAPCA on Contract No. PH 22-68-67, (June).
Beutner, Heinz P. (1968)
"Feasibility of a Regenerative High Temperature Amine Absorption Process for Control of
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Stack Gases", NTIS No. PB 180 233.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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60
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Bienstock, D., J. H. Field and J. G. Myers (1961)
"Process Development in Removing Sulfur Dioxide from Hot Flue Gases", U. S. Bureau of
Mines Report of Investigation Number 5735.
Bienstock, D., et al. (1963)
"Removal of Sulfur Oxides from Flue Gas With Alkalized Alumina at Elevated Temperatures"
Paper No. 63-PWR-14, (Oct.).
Boll, R. H. (1970)
"A Mathematical Model of S02 Absorption by Limestone Slurry", Presented at the Int.
Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida (March 16-20).
Brocke, Werner (1968)
"Prospects for the Practical Application of Flue Gas Desulfurization", APTIC No. 11057.
Bromley, L. A. and S. M. Read (1970)
"Removal of Sulfur Dioxide from Stack Gases by Sea Water", Research Project S-15, Univ.
of Calif, at Berkeley (Sept. 1).
Cadwallader, L. W. (1952)
"Cost, Application § Performance of Series Dust Collector Installations on Large Pul-
verized Coal Boilers", Presented at 45th Annual Convention of the Air Pollution and
Smoke Prevention Association of America. Cleveland, Ohio, (June 9-21).
Calhoun, F. P. (1968)
"Avoiding Pollution From Refuse Disposal", Mining Congr.J., 78-80, (June).
Calhoun, F. P. (1968)
"Gas Scrubbing for Municipal Incinerators", Paper No. 68-163, Presented at 61st Annual
Meeting of Air Pollution Control Association.
Clay, C. W., G. G. Poe, and J. M. Craig (1970)
"Wet Scrubbing of Sulfur Dioxide from Power Plant Flue Gases", Presented at the 63rd
Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St. Louis, (June 14-18).
Coutant, R. W., B. Campbell, R. E. Barrett, and E. H. Lougher (1969)
"Investigation of the Reactivity of Limestone and Dolomite for Capturing S02 from
Flue Gas", report to NAPCA from Contract No. PH 86-67-115 (June).
Craig, John M. (1970)
"Pilot Scale Lime/Limestone Scrubbing with a Doyle-Type Scrubber", Presented at the
Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting", Pensacola, Florida,
(March 16-20) .
Daniels, Leland E. (1970)
"A Report on the Hartsfield Incinerator Study", U.S. Dept. of HEW, Bureau of Solid
Waste Management, 5555 Ridge Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45213.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Dept. HEW, Public Health Service Publication
No. 999-AP-40.
DeLange, J. E. (1968)
"Evaluating Dust Arresting Equipment on Large Coal-Fired Steam Generators", J.Air Poll
Control ASSOC., 1_8, (2), 95-97, (Feb.).
DeMarco, Jack, Daniel J. Keller, Jerold Leckman, and James L. Newton (1969)
Incinerator Guidelines - 1969, U. S. Dept. HEW, Public Health Service Publication iSio.
2012.
Downs, W. (1970)
"Magnesia Base Wet Scrubbing of Pulverized Coal Generated Flue Gas-Pilot Demonstration"
NAPCA Contract No. CPA-22-69-162, (Sept.). '
Duprey, R. I,. M968)
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, U.S. Dept. of HEW, Public Health Service
Publication No. 999-AP-42.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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61
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Eckman, Frank (1970)
"Removal of S02 with Lime(stone) Slurries", Presented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone
Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Elder, H. W. (1970)
"Economics of Limestone-Wet Scrubbing", Presented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrub-
bing for SC>2 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida (March 16-20) .
Eugdahl, Richard B. (1968)
"Stationary Combustion Sources", in Air Pollution III, 2nd ed., Editor A. C. Stern,
Academic Press, New York.
Falkenberry, H. L. and A. V. Slack (1968)
"Removal of S02 from Power Plant Stack Gases by Limestone Injection", Presented at
the Symposium on Chemical Reaction Engineering", Part II, 61st Annual Meeting,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Los Angeles, (Dec.).
Field, J. H., L. M. Brunn, W. P. Haynes and H. E. Benson (1957)
"Cost Estimates of Liquid Scrubbing Processes for Removing Sulfur Dioxide from Flue
Gases", J.of Air Poll. Control Assoc., }_, (2), 109-114.
Galeano, S. F. and C. I. Harding (1967)
"Sulfur Dioxide Removal and Recovery from Pulp Mill Power Plants", j.Alr Poll. Control
ASSOC., 1£, (8), 536-539, (Aug.).
Goldschmidt, K. (1970)
"Deposit-tests with Lime-Flyash-Slurry of the Wet Scrubbing Pilot Plant System
'Bischoff1," Presented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal
Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Gustavsson, K. A. (1970)
"Commercial Installation at Soudersjukhuset, a Swedish Hospital in Stockholm",
Presented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S(>2 Removal Meeting, Pensacola,
Florida, (March 16-20).
Gustavsson, K. A. (1970)
"Pilot Plant Connected to Bahco's Central Heating Plant", Presented at the Int. Symp.
on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida (March 16-20).
Hahn, Jeffrey L. (1970)
"Study of the Delaware Co. No. 3 Incinerator in Broomall, Pennsylvania", U. S. Dept.
of HEW, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 5555 Ridge Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45213.
Hausberg, Gerhard (1970)
"The Removal of SCb and Dust From Flue Gas - The Bischoff Process", Presented at the
Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March).
Hein, G. M. (1961)
"Scrubbing of Fume from Combustion Gases at Efficiencies up to 99.98 percent", J.Air
Poll. Control Assoc., 11, (5), 205-219, (May).
Katell, S. (1966)
"Removing Sulfur Dioxide from Flue Gases", Cham.Eng.Progr., 62, (10), 67-73, (Oct.).
Kennaway, T. (1958)
"The Fulham-Simon-Carves Process for the Recovery of Sulphur from Flue Gas", j.Air
Poll. Control Assoc., ]_, (4), 266-274).
Kittleman, Thomas A. (1970)
"NAPCA In-House Studies of the Dissolution of CaO and Ca(OH)2," Presented at the
Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March).
Kiyoura, R. (1966)
"Studies on the Removal of Sulfur Dioxide from the Hot Flue Gases to Prevent Air
Pollution", J.Air Poll.Control Assoc., 16, (9), 488-489, (Sept.).
Kleinschmidt, R. V. (1938)
"Flue Gases Laundered to Prevent Air Pollution", APTIC No. 23231.
Ambi.nl Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 7^. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
-------
CO
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Kohl, Arthur L. and Fred C. Riesenfeld (1960)
Gas Purification, McGraw Hill, New York.
Kopita, R. (1968)
"Wet Scrubbing of Boiler Flue Gas", chem.Eng.Progr., 64, (1), 74-78, (Jan.).
Lawler, Clayton (1955)
"Air Pollution Control by a Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing System", Paper No. 55-19 presented
at Annual Meeting of the APCA, (April).
Lowell, Phillip S. (1970)
"A Theoretical Description of the Limestone Injection-Wet Scrubbing Process", Presented
at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola. Florida
(March 16-20).
Lowell, Phillip S., et al. (1970)
"A Theoretical Description of the Limestone Injection-Wet Scrubbing Process", Report to
NAPCA from Contract No. CPA-22-69-138, (June 9).
McKenna, J. P. (1970)
"Evaluation of a Two-Stage Particulate Scrubber and Gas Absorber Applied to Power Plant
Flue Gas", Presented at the International Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for SC>2 Removal
Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
McLaughlin, J. F. (1969)
"Ope-ratinp Fxnoripnce with Wet-Dolomite Scrubbing", Paper presented at the APCA meeting
New York, (June).
Martin, J. R. and A. L. Plumley (1970)
"The CE Air Pollution Control System", Presented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrub-
bing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Source, Report to NAPCA from Contract No. CPA-22-69-104, (Nov. 1).
Miller, Daric M. (1969)
"Experience with Wet Scrubber for S02 Removal at the Lawrence Station of the Kansas
Power and Light Company", Paper, (Sept.).
Mitchel, J. N. and S. G. Gillette (1955)
"Control of Emissions from the Processing of Noncombustible Municipal Refuse", Air
Repair, S_, (1) .
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1960)
"Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants",2nd Edition, NAPCA Publication
No. 999-AP-51.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1968)
"Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors", NAPCA Publication No. 999-AP-42.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969)
"Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants", 2nd Ed., NAPCA Publication No.
999-AP-52.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1970)
"Control Techniques for Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Stationary Sources", NTIS No.
190 263.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1970)
"Control Techniques for Hydrocarbon and Organic Solvent Emissions from Stationary
Sources", NTIS No. 190 266, (March).
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1970)
"Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions", NAPCA Publication No. 999-AP-67.
National Research Council (1970)
"Abatement of Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Stationary Combustion Sources", NTIS No.
PB 192 887.
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
-------
63
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Newall, H. E. (1955)
"The Ammonia Process for the Removal of Sulphur Dioxide from Flue Gas", Paper 53-3,
Presented at 1955 Annual Meeting of the APCA, (Apr.).
Niessen, Walter R. (1970)
."Systems Study of Air Pollution from Municipal Incineration, Vol. I", NTIS No. PB 192 378.
Niessen, Walter R. (1970)
"Systems Study of Air Pollution from Municipal Incineration, Vol.II", NTIS No.PB 192 379.
Niessen, Walter R. (1970)
"Systems Study of Air Pollution from Municipal Incineration, Vol.Ill", NTIS No. PB 192380.
O'Connor, John R. (1969)
"An Air Pollution Control Cost Study of the Steam-electric Power-generating Industry,"
Presented at the Annual Meeting of APCA, New York.
Ongerth, Jerry E. (1970)
"Report on a Study of the Weber County Incinerator in Ogden, Utah", U. S. Dept. of HEW,
Bureau of Solid Waste Management, 5555 Ridge Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45213.
Parsons, Terry, et al. (1969)
"Applicability of Metal Oxides to the Development of New Processes for Removing SO?
from Flue Gas", NTIS No. PB 185 562.
Peters, Max S. (1955)
"Stop Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides", chem,Eng., 197-200, (May).
Phippis, J. L. (1970)
"Limestone-Wet Scrubbing Program National Air Pollution Control Administration", Pre-
sented at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola,
Florida, (March 16-20) . .
Plumley, A. L. (1968)
"Removal of S02 and Dust from Stack Gases", Combustion, 16-23, (July).
Pollock, W. A., James Tomany, and Gary Frieling (1966)
"Removal of Sulfur Dioxide and Fly Ash from Coal Burning Power Plant Flue Gases,"
Presented at ASME Winter Annual Meeting, New York, (Nov. 27 to Dec. 1) .
Pollock, W. A., J. P. Tomany and Gary Frieling (1967)
"Flue Gas Scrubber," Mech.Eng., 8£, (8), 21-25.
Pollock, W. A. (1967)
"Sulfur Dioxide and Fly Ash Removal from Coal Burning Power Plant", Air Engineering,
24-28.
Potter, Allen E. (1970)
"Preliminary Bench-Scale Scrubbing Studies at NAPCA", Presented at the Int. Symp. on
Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Rabin E., S. A. Almanula, F. V. Karlson and J. Roberts (1970)
"Process Model Development for the Shawnee Test Facility", Presented at the Int. Symp.
on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Rayson, P. R., and J. Harkins (1967)
"Studies on a New Method of Simultaneously Removing Sulfur Dioxide and Oxides of
Nitrogen from Combustion Gases," J.Air Poll. Control ASSOC., 17, (12), 796-799, (Dec.).
66"The'Removal of Sulphur Dioxide from Power-Plant Stack Gases", Paper 55-2 Presented
at Annual Meeting of the APCA, (April).
Rodeer, W. A. and D. C. Hampson (1956)
"Operating Characteristics and Economics of a 100 Ft. /Day In Incinerator for Radio-
active Wastes," J.Air Poll. Control Assoc., 6_, (1).
Rosenbaum, J. B. (1971)
"The Citrate Process for Removing S02 and Recovering Sulfur from Waste Gases", Paper
presented at AIME Environmetnal Qual. Conf., Washington, D.C. (June).
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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64
7,2 COMBUSTION PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Schiermeier, F. A. (1971)
"Study of Effluents from Large Power Plants", Paper Presented at AIHA Conference, Toronto
Canada, (May 24-28).
Shah, I. S. (1967)
"New Flue-Gas Scrubbing System Reduces Air Pollution", cheat.Eng. , 74, (7), 84-86.
Shah, I. S. and J. E. Radway (1970)
"Removal of Oxides of Sulfur from Power Plant Stack Gases by Reaction with Compounds
of Calcium", Presented at the Limestone Scrubbing for SO? Removal Meeting, Pensacola
Florida, (March 16 20).
Sherwin, R. M. and J. A. Raben (1970)
"The Limestone Test Facility at TVA's Paducah Power Plant", Presented at the Int. Symp.
on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida, (March 16-20).
Slack, A. V., (1970)
"Absorption of Sulfur Dioxide in Limestone Slurry-Small Scale Tests at TVA", Presented
at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for SO? Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida,
(March 16-20).
Slack, A. V. (1967)
"The Control of S02 From Power Stacks, Part III - Process for Recovering SO?", Cham.
Engr., 74_, 188-196, (Dec.).
Stone, Arthur F. (1968)
"Gas Scrubbers for Municipal Incinerators", Paper presented at 1968 Annual Meeting of
APCA, Paper No. 68-163, (June).
Stone and Webster Engineering Corp. (1970)
"Final Report on Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbers, Stone and Webster, Ionics Process", Report
submitted to Division of Process Control Engineering, National Air Pollution Control
Administration, U. S. Department of HEW, 5710 Wooster Pike, Cincinnati (January, 1970).
Tailor, John P. (1965)
"A Study of the CVX Wet Gas Scrubber and its Application", John P. Tailor and Company,
Davenport, Iowa.
Tennessee Valley Authority (1962)
"Sulfur Oxide Removal from Power Plant-Flue Gas", Report to NAPCA from Contract No.
TV-29233A.
Tennessee Valley Authority (1969)
"Sulfur Oxide Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas", Report to NAPCA on Project 2438, (May)
Uno, T., S. Fukui, M. Atsukawa, H. Higashi, H. Yamada and K. Kameri (1970)
"Scale-up of a S02 Control Process", chem.Eng.Progr., 66^, (1), 61-65.
Uno, T., Seigo Aramaki, and Majahiro Kishi (1970)
"Full Scale Studies of the MHI Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Process", Presented at the
Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida (March).
Verin Deutscher Ingenieure (1967)
"Restriction of Emission - Waste Incineration in Plants with Throughput of up to 1500
kg per hour", Translated from German and Published with Permission for NAPCA.
Walker, A. B. (1970)
"Mass Transfer Characteristics of Variable Annular Throat Venturi Scrubbers", Presented
at the Int. Symp. on Limestone Scrubbing for S02 Removal Meeting, Pensacola, Florida,
(March 16-20).
Walker, A. B. and R. M. Hall (1968)
"Operating Experience with a Flooded Disk Scrubber - A New Variable Throat Orifice
Contactor", J.Air Poll. Control ASSOC., 1_8_, (5), 319-323.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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65
7,3 CRUSHING AND GRINDING PROCESSES
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Dept. of HEW, Public Health Service Publi-
cation No. 999-AP-40.
Duprey, R. L. (1968)
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, U. S. Dept. of HEW, Public Health
Service Publication No. 999-AP-42.
Engleberg, F. (1967)
"Dust Generation and Removal in Shot-Blasting Chambers", Giesserei, 54, (6), 144-148.
Hanklin, M., Jr. (1967)
"Is Dust the Stone Industry's Next Major Problem?", Rock Prod., 70, (4), 80-84, (April)
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources, NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-104,(Nov.).
Rabson, S. R. (1968)
"The Development of a Wet Scrubber for Use at Crushing Plants and the Like", j.Mine
Ventillation Soc. (S. Africa), 21, (1), 1-10, (Jan.).
Singhal, R. K. (1968)
"Dust Collection and Gas Cleaning in Mineral Industries", Australian Mining, 60, (6),
(June) .
Sussman, Victor H. (1968)
"Nonmetallic Mineral Products Industries", in Air Pollution III, 2nd edition, edited
A. C. Stern, Acadenic Press, New York.
7,4 DRYING PROCESSES
Aase, Glenn D. (1961)
Dust Control of Hot Mix Asphalt Plants, Information Bulletin, Bay Area Air Pollution
Control District, San Francisco County, Calif.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Dept. of HEW, Publication No. 999-AP-40.
Ekman, Frank (1969)
"Scrubbing Coal Dryer Exhaust Gases", Presented at 1969 Annual Meeting of the APCA,
New York, Paper No. 69-85.
Friedrich, H. E. (1969)
"Air Pollution Control Practices in Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Batch Plants", J.Air Poll.
Control Assoc., 1£, (12), 924-928, (Dec.).
Gleason, T.
"Wet Scrubbing of Coal Dust from Thermal Dryers", Combustion Equipment Associates,
Inc ., New York.
Haynes, S. C., N. M. McGrave and D. B. Pertis (1955)
"Visual Clarity in Kiln Discharge Gases", J.Air Poll.
Control Assoc., 5, (3), 171.
Ingels, Ray M., Norman R. Shaffer and John A. Danielson (1960)
"Control of Asphaltic Concrete Plants in Los Angeles County", j. Air Pollution Control
ASSOC., lp_, (1), 29.
Jackson, Daniel, Jr. (1966)
"Dust Control and Sound Abatement", Coal Age, (November).
Jones, Donald W. (1969)
"Dust Collection at Moss No. 3," wining Congr.J.,(July) .
King, D. T. (1967)
"Dust Collection in Coal Preparation Plants", wining Bngr., 19^, (8), 164-169, (Aug.).
Ambient Purification Technology. Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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66
7,4 DRYING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Lundberg, G. R. (1965)
"Summary of Dust Collection Systems in Asphalt Plants", Paper presented at the 10th
Annual Convention of the National Bituminous Concrete Association, (Feb. 3).
McElrath, A., Jr. (1970)
"High-efficiency Dust Collecting for Lightweight Aggregate Production", APTIC No.
21001.
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary Pollution
Sources", NAPCA Contract No. CPA-22-69-104, (November
National Asphalt Pavement Association
"Guide for Air Pollution Control of Hot Mix Asphalt' Plants", Paper.
National Asphalt Pavement Association
"Environmental Pollution Control at Hot Mix Asphalt Plants", Information Series 27.
Northcott, Elliot (1967)
"Dust Abatement at Bird Coal", Mining Conyr.j., 53, (November).
Sussman, Victor H. (1968)
"Nonmetallic Mineral Products Industries", in Air Pollution III, 2nd Edition, editor
A. C. Stern, Academic Press, New York.
Verein Deutsche Ingeniene
"Restriction of Emission Pretreatment and Mixing Plants for Road-Surfacing Aggregates
with Bituminous Binder", VDI Richtlinie 2283, NTIS TT 68-50469/16.
Walling, J. C. (1969)
"Air Pollution Control System for Thermal Dryers", coal Age,(September).
7,5 GAS PRODUCING PROCESSES
American Petroleum Institute (1957)
Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Vol. II, 5th ed., New York.
Billings, C. E. (1958)
"Simultaneous Removal of Acid Gases Mists and Fumes", j.Air Poll Control Assoc
8, (3) , 185-202, (Nov.).
Blohm, C. L. and W. F. Chapin (1948)
Oil and Gas J., £7,(29), 75.
Bryson, H. W. (1963)
Oregon State College Eng. Expt. Sta. Circ., 29_, 147-149.
Buonanno, Eugene F. (1964)
"Fume Scrubber Catches Escaping Acid Fumes", Chen.Eng., 146 (Oct.).
Carvlin, G. M. (1938)
Refiner Natural Gasoline Af.fr., 17, 225.
Cralley, Lewis J. (1969)
"Atmospheric Pollution Control in Petroleum Refineries", Paper presented at 1969
Annual Meeting of the Air Poll. Control Assoc., New York, (June).
Danielseon, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-40
Cincinnati.
Duprey, R. L. (1968)
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Public Health Service Publication No
999-AP-42, Raleigh, N. C.
Editor (1955)
"S02 Absorber: Two Scrubs Better Than One", Chem.Eng., (Feb.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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67
7,5 GAS PRODUCING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Editor (1957)
"New Grease Process Ousts Batch Kettles", Chem.Eng., 6£, (6), 150.
Editor (1958)
Chem. Age, 80, 635-644.
Egalon, R. (1955)
"Purification of Gases for Ammonia Manufacture", ind.Eng.Chem., 47, 887-899.
Elkin, Harold F. (1968)
"Petroleum Refinery Emissions", in Air Pollution, Vol. Ill, 2nd Ed., editor, A. C.
Stern, Academic Press, New York.
Gallmar, H. A. (1934)
"Chemistry of the Thylox Gas-Purification Process", ind.Eng.chem., 26, 130.
Heller, Austin H., Stanley T. Cuffe, and Don R. Goodwin (1968)
"Inorganic Chemical Industry", in Air Pollution III, 2nd ed. editor A. C. Stern,
Academic Press, New York.
Hanway, John E. et al. (1967)
"Magnesium-Base Cooking Liquor Preparation by Absorption of Dilute Sulfur Dioxide in
Flooded-Bed Towers", APTIC No. 18262.
Harris, Robert L. (1970)
"Control Techniques for Hydrocarbon § Organic Solvent Emissions from Stationary
Sources", NAPCA Publication No. AP-68.
Lawler, G. (19 7)
"Air Pollution Control by a Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing System", j.Air Poll.Control Assoc.,
7, («.
Jewell, John P. (1965)
"Control of Fluoride Emissions", Paper presented at Sanitary and Water Resources
Eng. Convention.
Lunde, K. E. (1958)
"Performance of Equipment for Control of Fluoride Emissions", ind.Bng.chem., 40, (3),
293-298, (Mar.). —
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources, NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-104, (Nov.).
NAPCA (1970)
"Atmospheric Emissions from Wet-Process Phosphoric Acid Manufacture", APTIC No. 22913.
NAPCA (1968)
"Atmospheric Emissions from Thermal Process Phosphoric Acid Manufacture", National
Air Poll. Control Admin. Publication No. AP-48.
Pettit, A. B. (1951)
"Fluoride Scrubbers", Chem.Eng., 250-252, (Aug.).
Reed, Robert M. (1950)
"Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide from Industrial Gases", Ind.Eng.Chem., 42, (11) 2269-
2277.
Rosebaugh, T. W. (1938)
Refiner Wat. Gas Mfr., 17, 245.
Sachsel, G. F., J. E. Yocum and F. A. Retzke (1957)
"Fume Control in a Fertilizer Plant", J.Air Poll, control ASSOC., £, (4).
Sands, A. E. (1950)
"Recovery of Sulfur from Synthesis Gas", ind.Eng. Chem., 42, (11), 2277-2287.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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68
7,5 GAS PRODUCING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Specht, R. C, (1966)
"Gaseous Fluoride Air Pollutants from Stationary Sources", Paper presented at Am. Ind.
Chem. Engrs. annual meeting, (Dec.).
Sterling, M. (1961)
"Air Pollution Control and the Gas Industry", j.Air Poll.Cont.ASSOC., 11, (8) 354-361
'(Aug.). ~~
Sutter, R. C. (1957)
"Recovery of Chlorine from Air-Chlorine Mixtures", j.Air Poll.Control ASSOC., 7, (1)
(May).
Sweny, John W. (1970)
"Physical Solvent Stars in Gas Treatment/Purification", chem.Eng., 54-55, (Sept.).
Verein Deutsche Ingenieure (1960)
"The Restriction of Chlorine Gas Emissions," VDI 2103, 5, Federation of the Chemical
Industry, Frankfurt.
Verein Deutsche Ingenieure (1967)
"Restriction of Emission Mineral-Oil Refineries", NTIS No. TT-68-50469/15, (May).
Wood, W. R. and B. D. Storrs (1938)
Refiner Natural Gas. Mfr., 17, 234.
7,6 LIQUID MIST PRODUCING PROCESSES
Brink, J. A. (1964)
"Removal of Phosphoric Acid Mists", in Gas Purification Processes, Ch. 15-Part B,
by G. Nonhebel, George Newnes, Ltd., London.
Brink, J. A. (1966)
"Mist Removal from Compressed Gases", chem .Eng .Progr. , 6_2_, (4), 60-65, (Apr.).
Brink, J. A. (1968)
"Mist Eliminators for Sulfuric Acid Plants", chem.Eng.Progr., 64, (11), 82-86, (Nov.).
Burleigh, John R. (1971)
"Cost of Emission Control in the Sulfuric Acid Industry", paper presented at Am. Inst.
Chem. Engrs. meeting, Houston, Texas, (March).
Chemical Construction Corporation (1970)
"Engineering Analysis of Emissions Control Technology for Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing
Processes, NTIS No. PB 190 393.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Dept. HEW, Publication No. 999-AP-40.
Dittmer, J. C. (1947)
"Fume Scrubber, Effective on Linseed Oil Kettles", Chem.Eng., 110-113, (March).
Grant, II. 0. (1964)
"Pollution Control in a Phosphoric Acid Plant", chem.Eng.Progr., 60, (1), 53-55, (Jan.)
Heller, Austin N., Stanley T. Cuffe and Don R. Goodwin (1966)
"Inorganic Chemical Industry", in Air Pollution III, 2nd ed, editor A. C. Stern,
Academic Press, New York.
Kempner, Stanley K. (1969)
"Comparison of Commercially Available Plating Fume Scrubbers", Paper #69-81 presented
at Air Poll. Control Assoc. meeting, (June).
Midwest Research Institute (1970) .
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary Pollution
Sources, NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-104.
NAPCA (1970)
Atmospheric Emissions from Wet-Process Phosphoric Acid Manufacture," Nat. Air Poll.
Control Admin. Pub. No. AP-57.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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69
7,6 LIQUID MIST PRODUCING PROCESSES (CONT'D)
NAPCA (1968)
"Atmospheric Emissions from Thermal Process Phosphoric Acid Manufacture", Nat. Air
Poll. Control Admin. Publication No. AP-48).
Nichols, Jack H. (1964)
"Use of Fiber Mist Elminators in Chlorine Plants", Arch .Environ .Health, 2_, (7-8),
233-239, (July-Aug) .
York, Dr. H., and E. W. Poppele (1963)
"Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators", chem.Eng.Progr., 59, (6).
7,7 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
Air Pollution Control Association (1963)
Technical Manual No. 1, APCA, 4400 Sth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa.
American Coal and Chemical Company
Clean Air and the Foundry Industry, 711 14th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005.
American Foundrymen's Society
"Control of Emissions from Metal Melting Operations, American Foundrymen's Society,
Golf and Wolf Roads, Des Plaines, 111.
Barnes, Thomas M. et al. (1969)
"A Cost Analysis of Air Pollution Controls in the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry",
NTIS No. PB 184 576.
Basse, Bernard (1956)
"Gases Cleaned by the Use of Scrubbers", Blast Furnace Steel Plant, 1307-1312, (Nov.).
Basse, Bernard (1957)
"Venturi Scrubbers for Cleaning Cupola Gases", J. Air Poll. Control Assoc., 6_, (4),
218-220, (Feb.).
Baum, Dr. Ing. (1965)
"New Developments in the Wet Scrubbing of Effluent Gases from Oxygen Steel Works",
Staub, 2_5, (10), 11-20 (Oct.).
Bishop, C. A. (1961)
"Successful Cleaning of Open-Hearth Exhaust Gas", J.Air Poll.control Asoc., 11, (2),
83-87, (Feb.).
Blessing, K. E. (1963)
"Electric Furnace Fume Control", chem.Eng.Progr., 59, (3), 60-64, (March).
Boorstein, Arnold (1969)
"Developments in Gas Cleaning For the Nonferrous Foundry Industry", Paper No. 69-218
presented at annual meeting of Air Poll. Control Admin., (June).
Borenstein, Murray (1967)
"Air Pollution Control in Non-Ferrous Metallurgical Industry", industrial Heating,
1866-1870.
Brechtelsbauer, 0. J. (1955)
"Cupola Gas Scrubbers", American fbundryman, (Feb.).
Broman, Carl U. and R. R. Iseli (1968)
"The Control of Open Hearth Stack Emissions with Venturi Type Scrubber", Blast Furnace
Steel Plant, 56, (2), 143-148, (Feb.).
Celenza, G. J. (1970
"Air Pollution Problems Faced by the Iron and Steel Industry", Plant Engineering,
24., (9), (April).
Chapman, H. M. (1963)
"Experience with Selected Air Pollution Control Installations in the Bethlehem Steel
Co.", J. Air Poll. Control Assoc., 1_3, (12), 604-606, (Dec.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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70
7,7 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Chi, Mark M.S. and Frank Ekman (1970)
"Influence of Melting Method and Charge Composition on Cupola Effluent", paper for
presentation at the 1970 AFS Casting Congress § Exposition.
Colclough, T. P. (1955)
"The Role of Sulphur in Iron and Steel Making", Paper No. 55-APC-6, presented at
1955 Air Poll. Control Assoc. meeting.
Cooper, R. L., et al. (1966)
"Alleviation of Air Pollution in the Coking Industry", intern, clean Air Congr., 1_,
117-119.
Danielson, John A. (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U. S. Department H.E.W. Publication No. 999-AP-40.
Donoso, Julius J. (1947)
"Nuisance During the Chlorination of Aluminum Alloys", APTIC No. 22566.
Editor, (1963)
"Electric Furnace Fume Control", chem.Eng.Progr., 57, (3).
Editor (1963)
"Scrubbing System Removes Dust from Steel Furnace Gas for Pollution Control", chem.
Eng.News, 48, (Aug.).
Editor (1966)
"Gas Scrubber Installation Successfully Controls Foundry Cupola Emissions", Air Engrg
8, (3) , 9-11, (March).
Elliott, A. C. and A. J. Lodreniere (1964)
"The Collection of Metallurgical Fumes from an Oxygen Lanced Open Hearth Furnace",
J .Air Poll. Control Assoc., 14, (10), 401-406, (Oct.).
Ferrari, Renzo (1968)
"Experiences in Developing an Effective Polutiion Control System for Submerged Arc",
J.Metals, 20, (4), 95-104, (April).
Fullerton, R. W. (1967)
"Impingement Baffles Reduce Emissions from Coke Quenching", J.Air Poll. Control Assoc
17_, (12), 807-809, (Dec.).
Gledhill, P. K., P. J. Carnall, and K. H. Sargent (1957)
"Oxygen Lancing of Pig Iron and Subsequent Fume Treatment with a Pease-Anthony Venturi
Scrubber", J.lron and Steel inst., 188, (June).
Hammond, William F. (1967)
"Secondary Brass and Bronze Melting Process", Air Poll. Engrg. Manual, 270-284.
Hammond, William F. (1967)
"Steel Manufacturing Process", Air Poll. Engrg., 141-257.
Hardison, L.C. (1971)
"Cost and Effectiveness of Gas Cleaning Equipment in the Lime and Secondary Non-
Ferrous Metallurgical Industries", paper presented at Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. meeting,
Houston, Texas, (Feb.-Mar.).
Hargrave, J.H.D. and A. F. Snowball (1959)
"Recovery of Fume and Dust From Metallurgical Gases at Trail, B.C.", Canad.Mining s
Metallurgical Bulletin, 336-371, (June).
Harris, E. R. (1965)
"Cleaning Sinter Plant Gas with Venturi Scrubber", J.Air Poll, control ASSOC.,15,
(2), 46-49, (Feb.).
Harris, R. G. (1960)
"An Experiment in the Suppression of Grit Emission from a Coke Quenching Tower",
Air Engrg., 38, 3-9.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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7,7 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Hausberg, G., et al. (1966)
"Installations for Purification of Waste Gases Generated During Chlorine Treatment of
Light Metal", Giesserei, 5_3, (5), 137-41, (March)
Henschen, H. C. (1968)
"Wet Vs. Dry Gas Cleaning in the Steel Industry", j. Air Poll, control ASSOC 18
(5), 338. —*
Jennings, R. F. (1950)
"Blast Furnace Gas Cleaning", j.Jron steel Inst., (March).
Johnson, J. E. (1967)
"Wet Washing of Open Hearth Gases", Jron steel Engr., 44^ (2), 96-98, (Feb.).
Kearney, A. T. (1971)
"Systems Analysis of Emissions and Emissions Control in the Iron Foundry Industry
Vol. I", NTIS No. PB 198 348, (Feb.).
Kempner, Stanley K., E. N. Seiler, and Donald H. Bowman (1969)
"Comparison of Commercially Available Plating Fume Scrubbers", Paper #69-81, presented
at 62nd Annual Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc.
Lindau, Lars (1969)
"Costs of Dust Arresters on Cupolas in Sweden", Air. Eng., 20-22, (Jan.).
Mcllvaine, R. W. (1967)
"Air Pollution Equipment for Foundry Cupolas", j.Air Poll. Control ASSOC., 17, (8),
540-544, (Aug.). —
McKee, Arthur G. and Company (1969)
"Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary Non-Ferrous Smelting Industry, Vol. I",
NTIS No. PB 184 884.
McKee, Arthur G. and Company (1969)
"Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary Non-Ferrous Smelting Industry, Vol. II",
NTIS No. PB 184 885.
McKee, Arthur G. and Company (1969)
"Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary Non-Ferrous Smelting Industry,
Vol. Ill", NTIS No. PB 184 886.
Medley, Gene W. (1966)
"Controlling Foundry Dust", Foundry, 203, (June).
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices, for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources", NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-104, (Nov.).
Mitchell, R. T. (1964)
"Fume Cleaning at EBBW Vale and Spencer Steel Plants", steel rimes, 212-215, (Feb.).
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969)
Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutions, NAPCA Pub. No. AP-52.
Nelson, Kenneth W. (1968)
"Nonferrous Metallurgical Operations", in Air Pollution, Vol. Ill, 2nd ed., editor
Arthur C. Stern, Academic Press, New York.
Nicolas and Martin (1963)
"Atmospheric Pollution by Waste Gas From Cupola Furnaces, Gas Cleaning" APTIC
No. 10838. B '
Ochs, Hans-Joachim (1968)
"Problems of Dust Collection in Blast Furnaces in Steel Plants", wasSer tuft Betrieb,
12_, (9), 535, (Sept.).
Orban, A. R. (1961)
f^Emission from Bessemer Converters", j.Air Poll.control ASSOC.,
Ambient Purification Technolocrv. Inc. P.o. BOX 7,, R1VERSIDE, CA. 92502
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72
7,7 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Orlban, A. R. , et al. (1960)
"Research on Control of Emissions from Bessemer Converters", Paper No. 60-52, Presented
at Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., (May).
Ott, R. R. (1963)
"Control of Fluoride Emissions at Harvey Aluminum, Inc.", J.Air Poll. Control Assoc.,
1_3, (9) , 437-443, (Sept.) .
Parson, R. A. (1969)
"Control of Emissions from Ferroalloy Furnace Processing", Union Carbide Corporation,
Niagara Falls, New York.
Peterson, John (1953)
"Steam Jets Efficiently Remove Dust from Open Hearth Furnace Flues", J.fetals, 794-795,
(June) .
Pilpel, N. (I960)
"Industrial Gas Cloaning", Brit.chem.Eng., 542-550, (Aug.).
Pilpel, N. (1961)
"Gas Cleaning in the Iron and Steel Industry", chem.Process Eng. , (June).
Schwartz, H. E. (1955)
"Controlling Atmospheric Contaminants in the Smelting and Refining of Copper-Base
Alloys", J.Air Poll. Control Assoc., £, (1), 5-9 and 36, (May).
Sebesta, William (1968)
"Ferrous Metallurgical Processes", in Air Pollution, Vol. Ill, 2nd ed., Editor Stern,
A. C., Academic Press, New York.
Singhal, R. K. (1969)
"Fume Cleaning Systems Used in the Steel Industries", steel Times, (Aug.).
Singhal, R. K. (1969)
"Fume Cleaning Systems Used in the Steel Industries", Part 2, steel Times, 197, (9)
605-613, (Sept.).
Storch, 0. (J.969)
"Experience with the Application of Wet Collectors in the Iron and Steel Industry"
APTIC No. 23628, (Oct.).
Storch, 0. (1969)
"The Existing Experiences with Dry and Wet Separators in Metallurgical Works",
Ochrana Ovzdusi, 4_, 60-63.
Strauss, W. (1960)
"Cleaning Waste Gases from Open-Hearth Steel Processes", chem.Proc.Eng., 339-351,
(Aug.) .
Thomas, F. A. (1965)
"Venturi Gas Scrubbers", j.vetals, (March).
Thring, M. W. and R. J. Sarjant (1957)
"Dust Problems in the Iron and Steel Industry", iron and Coal Trades Rev., (March).
Tomany, James P. (1968)
"The Control of Aluminum Chloride Fumes", Paper 68-130 presented at 61st Annual
Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., (June 23-27).
Underwood, G. (1962)
"Removal of Sub-Micron Particles from Industrial Gases, Particularly in the Steel and
Electricity Industries", int. J. Air and water Poll., 6_, 229.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (1966)
"Restriction of Emission: Copper-Ore Mills", NTIS No. TT 68-50469/7.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (1966)
"Restriction of Emission: Copper-Scrap Smelting Plants and Copper Refineries",
NTIS No. TT 68-50469/9, (Oct.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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73
7,7 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES (CONT'D)
Weber, Herbert J. (1957)
"Methods of Combatting Air Pollution in Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries, J.Air Poll.
Control Assoc., ]_, (3), 178.
Wheeler, D. H. (1968)
"Fume Control in L-D Plants", J.Air Poll.Control Assoc.f 18, (2), 98.
Williamson, Donald (1968)
"Venturi Scrubber Beats Pollution Code Deadline", Foundry, 170, (March).
8 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS - COSTS AND OPTIMIZATION
Bakke, Even (1970)
"An Economic Optimization of a Venturi Scrubber with a Cyclonic Water Separator",
Paper presented at Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., St. Louis, Mo., (June).
Barnes, Thomas M., et al. (1969)
" A Cost Analysis of Air Pollution Controls in the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry",
NTIS No. PB 184 576.
Bloomfield, B. D. (1967)
"Costs, Efficiencies and Unsolved Problems of Air Pollution Control Equipment", J. Air
Poll. Control Assoc.f 17, (1), 28-32, (Jan).
Burleigh, John R. (1971)
"Cost of Emission Control in the Sulfuric Acid Industry", Paper presented at Meeting
of Am.Inst. Chem. Engrs. , Houston, Texas, (March).
Cadwallader, L. W. (1952)
"Cost, Application and Performance of Series Dust Collector Installations on Large
Pulverized Coal Boilers", APTIC No. 23220.
Calvert, S. and K. L. Legatski (1970)
"A Comprehensive State-of-the-Art Evaluation for All Types of Dust Collection Equipment
that May be Applicable in Underground Coal Mines", Contract No. Sol00231, U.S. Bureau
of Mines Open File Report 4-71, (Dec.).
Cockrell, Charles F. (1969)
"Study of the Potential for Profitable Utilization of Pulverized Coal Flyash Modified
by the Addition of Limestone-Dolomite Sulfur Dioxide Removal Additives", NTIS No.PB
185 802, (April).
Dallavalle, J. M. (1960)
"How to Estimate Dust Collector Costs", in Cost Engineering in the Process Industries,
C. H. Childen, Editor, McGraw Hill, New York,
Ekman, F. 0. and H. F. Johns tone (1951) .
"Collection of Aerosols in a Venturi Scrubber", ind.Eng.chem., 43, 1358.
Engels, G. (1966)
"Operation and Maintenance of Wet Scrubbers", staui, 26, (4), 20-22, (April).
Engels, Lothar-Hans (1970)
"Expenditure and Performance of Various Processes for Dust Control - A Cost Evaluation"
Staub, 3£, (3), 23-28, (March).
Ernst and Ernst (1968)
"A Rapid Cost Estimating Method for Air Pollution Control Equipment", APTIC No. 11115.
Field, J. H. (1957)
"Cost Estimates for Liquid-Scrubbing Processes for Removing of Sulfur Dioxide from Flue
Gases", J.Air Poll .Control Assoc., T_, (2), 109, (Aug.).
First, W. W. (1963)
"Plant Safety Features - Cost and Effectiveness of Air Cleaning Systems", ffud.Safety,
4, (1), 61-66, (Sept.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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74
8 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS - COSTS AND OPTIMIZATION (CONT'D)
Fitzgerald, J. J. (1959)
"Economic Survey of Air and Gas Cleaning Operations Within the AEC", Paper presented
at 6th AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Idaho Falls, (July 7-9).
Hardison, L. C. (1971)
"Cost and Effectiveness of Gas Cleaning Equipment in the Lime and Secondary Non-
Ferrous Metallurgical Industry", presented at American Indust. Chem. Engrs. meeting,
Houston, Texas, (Feb.).
Harris, L. S. (1964)
"Energy and Efficiency Characteristics of the Ejector Venturi Scrubber", Paper 64-35,
Presented at 57th Annual Meeting of the Air Poll Control Assoc., Houston, Texas (June).
How, Harlan (I960)
"Short-Cut Estimation of Welded Process Vessels", in Cost Engineering in the Process
Industries, C. H. Chilton, Editor, McGraw Hill, New York.
Katell, Sidney and K. D. Plants (1967)
"Here's What S02 Removal Costs", Hydrocarbon Processes, 46, 161-164, (July).
Lindau, Lars (1969)
"Costs for Dust Arrestors on Cupolas in Sweden", Air Eng., 20-22, (Jan.).
Midwest Research Institute (1970)
Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary Particulate
Pollution Sources", NAPCA Contract CPA 22-69-104, (Nov.).
Narsimhan, G. (1962)
"Determination of Economic Gas Velocity for Plate Absorbers", chem.Proc.Eng., 620-621,
(Dec.).
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1969)
"Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants", NAPCA Publication No. AP-51,
Washington, B.C.
O'Connor, J. R. (1969)
"An Air Pollution Control Cost Study of the Steam-Electric Power Generating Industry",
Paper presented at Annual Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., New York, (June).
Perry, Robert H., Editor (1963)
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
Peters, Max S. (1968)
Plant Design and Economcis for Chemical Engineers, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
Sargent, Gordon D. (1969)
"Dust Collection Equipment", Chem.Eng., 130-150, (Jan.).
Sargent, Gordon D., (1970)
Modern Cost Engineering Techniques, Herbert Popper, Editor, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Shaver, Robert G. (1970)
"Study of Cost of Sulphur Oxide and Particulate Control Using Solvent Refined Coal",
NTIS No. PB 193 420.
Shih, T. S.
"Optimization of an Absorber-Distillation Column by Geometric Programming", Tennessee
Tech. University, Cookeville, Tenn, 38501.
Stairmand, C. J. (1965)
"Removal of Grit, Dust and Fume from Exhaust Gases from Chemical Engineering Processes",
Chem.Eng.,310-326, (Dec.).
Stoop, M. L. (1959)
"Costs of Bubble Plate Towers in Europe", ind.Eng.Chem., 51, (9), 71A, (Sept.).
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA.
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75
9 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Biales, G. A. (1964)
"How Not to Pack a Packed Column", Chem.Eng.Progr . , 60, (10) , 71.
Danielson, John A., Editor (1967)
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Public Health Service Publication #999-AP-40.
Eckert, J. S., (1965)
"Problems of a Packed Column, Chem.Eng.Progr., 61 , (9), 89.
Fair, James R. (1965)
"Selecting Fractioning-Column Internals", Chem.Eng., 107, (14).
Kohl, Arthur L. and Fred C. Riesenfeid (I960)
Gas Purification Processes, McGraw Hill, New York.
McLaren, D. B. and J. C. Upchurch (1970)
., 77_, (13) 139.
Midwest Research Institute (1971)
Handbook of Emission Properties, APCO Contract CPA 22-69-104, (May).
Perry, John H., Editor (1963)
Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 4th edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
10 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA
Anderson, Fred J. (1967)
"Permanganate Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds: Application to Air Scrubbing", Paper
presented at APCA Annual Meeting, (June).
Arkhipova, G. P., K. P. Mishchenko and I. Ye. Flis (1968)
"Solubility Equilibrium of Gaseous S02 in Water at 10-35 C.", ATPIC No. 22954.
Astarita, G. (1967)
Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction, Elsevier Pub. Co., New York.
Atwood K. (1957)
"Equilibria for the System, Ethanolamines - Hydrogen Sulf ide-Water", ind.eng .chem. ,
49, (9) , 1439-1444, (Sept.) .
AVCO Corporation (1969)
"A Survey of Metal Oxides as Sorbents for Sulfur Oxide", NTIS No. PB 185 190.
Babinsky, A. D. (1965)
"Carbon Dioxide Concentration System INTERIM, Report No. 1", NTIS No. N66-13114.
Battelle Memorial Institute (1966)
"Fundamental Study of Sulfur Fixation by Lime and Magnesia", NTIS No. PB 176 843.
Betts, R. H., R. H. Voss (1970)
Canad.J.Chem. , 48, 2035.
Blair, L. M. (1968)
"Solutions of Slightly Soluble Gases, Measurement of Small Density Differences",
Rev.Sci .Instr., 39, (1), 74-75, (Sept.).
Blum, Harold A. (1952)
"Absorption of Carbon Dioxide from Air by Sodium and Potassium Hydroxides", ind.Eng.
Chem., 44, (12), 2969-2974.
Caldin, E. F. (1964)
"Fast Reactions in Solution, Wiley, New York.
Carr, N. L., J. D. Parent, and R. E. Peck (1955)
Chem.Eng.Progr .Symp.Ser. , No. 16, 51 , 91.
Carter, Neal C. (1967)
"Effects of pH and Oxidizing Agents on the Rate of Absorption of Hydrogen Sulfide into
Aqueous Media", 329-334.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.o. BOX 71, RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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76
10 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (CONT'D)
Chen, E. C. (1970)
"Vapor-Liquid Equilibria of the Hydrochloric Acid-Water System", Am.inst.chem.Engrs.j.,
686-690, (July).
Chertkov, B. A. (1964)
"Coefficients of Mass Transfer in Absorption of SC>2 from Gases by Ammonium Sulfite-
Bisulfite Solutions", zh .Prikl .Khim. , 3_7, (11), 2404-2410.
Chertkov, B. A. (1962)
"Mass-Transfer Coefficients for S02 Absorption from Gases Using Lime Suspensions",
APT 1C No. 20374.
Chertkov, B. A. and D. L. Puklina (1970)
"Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Absorption of S02 From Gases", APTIC No. 19728.
Coutant, R. W., et al. (1968)
"Investigation of the Reactivity of Limestone and Dolomite for Capturing S02 from Flue
Gas to Process", NTIS No. PB 179 907.
Coutant, R. W., et al. (1969)
"Investigation of the Reactivity of Limestone and Dolomite for Capturing S02 from Flue
Gas", NTIS No. PB 184 945.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1970)
Gas-Liquid Reactions, McGraw Hill, San Francisco.
Ellis, J. E. (1960)
"The Correlation of Absorption Rates of Carbon Dioxide by Alkaline and Amine Solutions
in Packed Columns", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engrs . , 58 , 216-224.
Ellis, S. R. M. (1969)
"Vapour-Liquid Equilibria, Review Series No. 6", chem.Eng., 289-304.
Ermenc, E. D. (1970)
"Controlled Nitric Oxide Emission", chem.Eng., 193-195, (June).
Degance, A. E. (1970)
"Phase Equilibria, Flow Regimes, Energy Loss", chem.Eng., 151-157, (April).
Fishenden, M. and 0. A. Saunders (1950)
An Introduction to Heat Transfer, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Ganz, S, N. (1956)
J.Appl .Chem. , USSR, 29 , 1107.
Ganz, S. N. (1965)
"Absorption of Oxides of Nitrogen by a Peat-Ammonia Sorbent", zh.Prikl.Khim., 38, (9)
1893-1897, (Sept.). —
Haselden, G. G. (1959)
"Heat and Mass Transfer Accompanying the Absorption of Ammonia in Water", Trans.inst.
Chem.Eng., 37, 137-146.
Hodgman, C. D., Editor (1959)
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, Cleveland.
International Critical Tables
Vol. Ill (1928), Vol. V (1929), McGraw Hill, New York.
loshpa, I. W. (1966)
"Kinetics of Absorption of Nitrogen Dioxide by Sulfuric-Nitric Acid Mixtures", zh .
Prikl.Khim., 4£, (2), 246-251, (Feb.).
Johnstone, H. F. (1935) „ „ . „ _. 77
"Recovery of Sulfur Dioxide from Waste Gases", md. Eng .chem. , £/_,
Kang, T. L. (1961)
"Thermodynamic Properties of Sulfur Dioxide", Am.inst.Chem.Engrg.J., _7, (3), 418-422.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O. BOX 71. RIVERSIDE, CA. 92502
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10 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (COMT'D) 77
Kepinski, J. (1965)
"The Kinetics of the Absorption of Chlorine Dioxide in Water", intern.chant Ena 5 f31
524-532, (July). ' -'
Kittleman, Thomas A. (1970)
"NAPCA In-House Studies of the Dissolution of CaO and Ca(OH)2", Report.
Kohl, A. L. and Riesenfeld, F. C. (1960)
Gas Purification, McGraw Hill, New York.
Ksenzenko, V. I . (1966)
"Kinetic Study of Chlorine Absorption by Solutions of Sodium Bromide From a Bromine-
Air Mixture in a Packing Element", Intern.Chem.Eng., 6_, (3), 530-533, (July).
Lowell, P. S., et al. (1970)
"Theroretical Description of Limestone Injection Wet Scrubbing Process" Contract CPA
22-69-138 Final Report, Nat. Air Poll. Control Admin, (June).
MSA Research Corporation (1969)
"Inorganic Liquids for Removing SO2 From Flue Gases - Phase I", NTIS No. PB 183 974.
Nesterenko, V. B. (1966)
"Kinetic Equations for the Chemical Reactions N204-2NO?-2NO+07 in a Flow System"
Intern. Chen,. Eng. , 6_, (4), 598, (Oct.).
Norman, W. S. (1963)
"Gas Absorption in a Packed Column, Part III, Absorption of Ammonia and Acetone Vapour
by Water", Trans.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 41, 120-125.
Pechkouskii, V. V. (1964)
"The Interaction Between Calcium Oxide and Sulfur Dioxide Under Reducing Conditions",
Zh.Prikl .Khim. , 3_7, (2), 240-246, (Feb.).
Perry, R. H., C. H. Chilton, and S. D. Kirkpatrick (1963)
Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGraw Hill, San Francisco.
Plummer, A. W. (1950)
"Thermodynamic Data For System SC^-lbO Bibliography and Critical Analysis", chem.Eng.
Progr., 4_6, 367-374, (July).
Pourbaix, M. J. N. (1966)
Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions", Pergamon Press, New York
Rafal'skii, R. P. (1969)
"Solubility of S02 in Water at Elevated Temperatures and Pressure", Zh.Prikl.Khim.,
4_2y(8), 1652-1655, (Aug.).
Raines, G. E., et al. (1966)
"The Use of the Axial Dispersion Model to Predict Conversions of First and Second
Order Reactions", Paper presented at Am. Inst. Chem.Engrs. Meeting, (December).
Ratcliff, G. A. (1963)
"Diffusivities of Gases in Aqueous Electrolyte Solution", Trans.inst.chem.Engr.,
£1, 315-319.
Rebert, C. J. (1967)
"The Gas and Liquid Solubility Relations in Hydrocarbon-Water Systems", Am.inst chem
Engrs.J., L3, (1), 118-121, (Jan.).
Reid, R. C. and T. K. Sherwood (1966)
The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw Hill, San Francisco.
Riggle, J. W. (1950)
"Absorption of Chlorine in Ferrous Sulfate Solution", ind.Eng.Chen., 1036-1041.
Roberts, D. et al. (1962)
"Kinetics of C02 Absorption in Alkaline Solutions. I - Transient Absorption Rates and
Catalysis by Arsenic", chem.Eng .sd ., ll_, 961-969.
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc.
P.O.BOX 71, RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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78
10 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA (CONT'D)
Roper, G. H. (1953)
"The Absorption of Chlorine from Air by Solutions of Olefins and Iodine in Carbon
Tetrachloride", chem .Eng .sd . , 2_, 247-253.
Safiullin, N. Sh. (1963)
"Absorption of Nitrogen Oxides by Sulfuric Acid", Zh.Prikl.Khim., 36, (3), 490-495,
(March) .
Scott, W. D. and J. L. McCarthy (1967) , , .
"The System Sulfur Dioxide-Ammonia-Water at 25°C", ind.Eng.chem.Fundamentals,6, (1) ,40 .
11 MATERIALS DATA
Arndt, F. W. (1957)
"Some Kconomic Materials of Construction for Corrosive Fume Handling", ind.Eng.chem.,
49_, (4) , 61A-62A, (Apr.) .
Binder, G. and N. Sutton (1970)
Brit.Chem.Eng., 15, 1332.
Climax Molybdenum Company
"A Guide to Corrosion Resistance, 1600 Huron Parkway, Ann Arbor, Michiga, 48105.
Cotton, J. B. (1970)
"Using Titanium in the Chemical Plant", chem.Eng.Progr. , 66, (10), 57-62.
Editor (1968)
British Chemical Engineering Equipment Suplement, 13, 119.
Engineering Materials (1970)
Chemical Engineering Deskbook Issue, 77, (22).
Fontana, M. G. and N. D. Greene (1967)
Corrosion Engineering, 249 § 268, McGraw-Hill Book Corporation, New York.
Nelson, G. A., Editor (1967)
Corrosion Data Survey, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas.
Niederberger, R. B., R. J. Ferrara, and F. A. Plummer (1970)
Materials Protection and Performance, 9_, (8), 18-22.
Materials in Design Engineering (1966)
Materials Selector Issue, 64, (5), Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York.
Reinhart, Frank W. (1966)
"Engineering Properties of Plastics Applied to Water Piping", J.Am.Water Works Assoc
447-456, (Oct.).
Shellmoller, C. M. and F. L. Laque (1961)
Factors in the Choice of Corrosion-Resisting Materials of Construction, Interscience
Publishers, Inc., New York.
Slack, V. A., Editor (1968)
Phosphoric Acid, Part II, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Uhlig, II. N. (1966)
The Corrosion Handbook, p. 401, John Wiley 5 Sons, Inc., New York.
12 LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES DISPOSAL
Amphlett, C. B. (1961)
Treatment and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes, Pergamon Press, New York.
Besselievre, E. B. (1952)
Industrial Waste Treatment, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Clark, J. W. and W. Viessman, Jr. (1965)
Water Supply and Pollution Control, International Textbook Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania,
Ambient Purification Technology, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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79
12 LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES DISPOSAL (CONT'D)
Coulson, J. M, and J. F. Richardson (1955)
Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Degremont (1965)
Water Treatment Handbook, 3rd Ed., H. K. Elliott, London.
Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr. (1966)
Industrial Water Pollution Control, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr. (1970)
Water Quality Engineering, Barnes and Noble, Inc., New York.
Fair, G. M., J. C. Geyer, and D. A. Okun (1968)
Water and Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Faust, A. S., L. A. Wenzel, C. W. dumb, L. Maus, and L. B. Anderson (1960)
Principles of Unit Operations, Wiley, New York.
Gurnham, C. F., Editor (1965)
Industrial Wastewater Control, Vol. 2, Academic Press, New York.
Hazen, A. (1904)
Trans.Am.Soc. Civil Eng., 53, (63).
Herzig, J. P., D. M. Leclerc, and P. LeGoff (1970)
"Flow of Suspensions Through Porous Media-Application to Deep Filtration", ind.Eng.
Chem., 62, (5), 8-35.
McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf (1963)
"Water Quality Criteria", State Water Quality Control Board, Resources Agency of
California, Sacramento, California.
Maystre, Y. and J. C. Geyer (1970)
J.Water Poll. Control Federation , 42_, 1277-1291.
Morrill, A. B. (1932)
J.A.W.W.A., 24, 1442.
Nemerow, N. L. (1963)
Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste Treatment, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Perry, R. 11., Editor (1963)
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Rich, L. G. (1961)
Unit Operations of Sanitary Engineering, Wiley, New York.
Rich, L. G. (1961)
Unit Processes of Sanitary Engineering, Wiley, New York.
Ross, R. D. (1968)
Industrial Waste Disposal, Reinhold Environmental Engineering Series.
Salle, A. J. (1961)
Fundamental Principals of Bacteriology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Sawyer, C. N. (1960)
Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1970)
13th Ed., American Public Health Association.
The Economics of Clean Water (1970)
Vol. 1, F.W.P.C.A., !_, U. S. Department of the Interior.
Water Quality and Treatment (1971)
American Water Works Association, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Ambient Purification Technoloqy, Inc. P.O.BOX 71. RIVERSIDE. CA. 92502
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