c/EPA
           United States
           Environmental Protection
           Agency
           ie->on?,,ental Research
           Labor 'ory
           Duluth MN 55804
EPA 600 J-79-1/4
December 1979
           Research and Development
Environmental
Effects of Western
Coal Surface Mining

Part I—The Limnology
and Biota of Mine
Spoils  Ponds in
Northwest Colorado

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                  RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES

 Research reports of the Office of Research and Development. U.S. Environmental
 Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series These nine broad cate-
 gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
 vironmental technology.  Elimination  of  traditional grouping was consciously
 planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
 The nine series are:

       1.   Environmental Health Effects Research
       2    Environmental Protection Technology
       3.   Ecological Research
       4.   Environmental Monitoring
       5    Socioeconomic Environmental  Studies
       6.   Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
       7.   Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
       8    "Special" Reports
       9    Miscellaneous Reports

 This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
 describes  research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
 cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
 ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
 mine the fate of pollutants and their effects This work provides the technical basis
 for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
 aquatic,  terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.

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                                                           EPA-600/3-79-124
                                                           December  1979
           ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS  OF WESTERN COAL SURFACE MINING

Part I - The Limnology and Biota  of Mine  Spoils Ponds  in Northwest Colorado
                                    by

                    Steven P.  Canton and James V. Ward
                   Department  of Zoology and  Entomology
                         Colorado State University
                       Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
                             Grant No.  R803950
                              Project Officer
                              Donald I.  Mount
                     Environmental  Research Laboratory
                         Duluth, Minnesota  55804
                     ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
                    OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
                   U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                         DULUTH, MINNESOTA  55804 .

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                                 DISCLAIMER

     This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Laboratory-
Uuluth, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved  for  publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does  mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
                                      ii

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                                  FOREWORD

     This report is one of a series of reports describing the impact of
surface mining coal.  Several mine spoil ponds were compared to a control
pond.  Differences were apparent but in contrast to spoil ponds in the
eastern U.S., these ponds had a relatively rich flora and fauna and appear
to offer recreational utility.


                                      Donald I. Mount, Ph.D.
                                      Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth
                                    111

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                                  ABSTRACT

     Physico-chemical conditions, zooplankton, and benthos were investi-
gated from June 1977 to May 1978 in coal strip-mine ponds in northwestern
Colorado.  Two spoils ponds received all of their drainage from the coal
mine, but differed in age; one pond received partial drainage from the mine
spoils; a control pond was located in an adjacent drainage basin.  There
were no discernible effects of mine drainage on a variety of physico-
chemical parameters, such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, and hardness.
In stark contrast to spoils ponds in the eastern and midwestern states,
acid mine drainage was not observed.  The pH was near or greater than
neutrality and acidity was not detected in the ponds studied.  Total
dissolved solids, nitrate and sulfate values were higher in the spoils
ponds than in the control pond.  Net zooplankton abundance was lowest in
the youngest spoils pond, but the standing crop of benthos exhibited  a
progressive decrease from the youngest spoils pond to the control pond.
Zooplankton and benthos species diversity were lower in the spoils ponds.
Certain groups of zooplankters (Cladocera) and benthos (caddisflies,
amphipods, water mites, and fingernail clams) were rare or absent in  the
youngest spoils pond.  Colonization phenomena (age and distance from  a
source of colonizers) are postulated as responsible, in part, for the
fauna! differences between ponds, although higher levels of nitrate,  sulfate,
and TDS in the spoils ponds may provide adverse conditions for certain
species.  If these data are typical of the western energy region, they
suggest the potential for development of recreational lakes as a part of
reclamation practices.
                                      iv

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                                   CONTENTS
                                                                      Page
Foreword	iii
Abstract	   iv
Figures	   v1
Tables	vii
Acknowledgments 	 viii
  I.  Introduction  	    1
 II.  Conclusions 	    2
III.  Recommendations  	    4
 IV.  Description of the Study Area  	     5
  V.  Methods	     8
      A.  Physico-Chemical Parameters  	     8
      B.  Net  Zooplankton  	     8
      C.  Benthic Macroinvertebrates   	     9
 VI.  Results  and Discussion	    10
      A.  Physico-Chemical Parameters  	    10
      B.  Net  Zooplankton	    17
      C.  Benthic Macroinvertebrates   	    24
      D.  Summary	    35
References	    36

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                                   FIGURES
Number                                                                Page
1    Pond locations in relationship to Edna Mine spoils
     (crosshatched) and present mining activity.  Pond P4,
     the control pond, is in an adjacent watershed  	   6
2    Seasonal trends in water temperature 	  13
3    Seasonal trends in total dissolved solids  	  15
4    Annual mean densities of net zooplankton 	  19
5    Percentage composition of major net zooplankton groups
     using density values	20
6    Seasonal trends in net zooplankton densities 	  22
7    Annual mean density and biomass values of macrobenthos 	  27
8    Percentage composition of major invertebrate groups using
     density values (8a) and biomass values (8b)  	  29
9    Seasonal trends in the densities of macrobenthos  	  32
                                     vi

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                                   TABLES

Number                                                                Page

 1   Physico-chemical parameters from ponds associated  with
     coal mining in northwestern Colorado (June 1977-May 1978)   ...  11

 2   Selected chemical parameters of northwestern Colorado
     coal mine study ponds,  compared with coal  mine
     ponds in Missouri and Ohio 	  12

 3   Sediment particle size and percentage organic matter
     for ponds associated with coal mining in northwestern
     Colorado	16

 4   Species list and mean density (organisms/1) of net
     zooplankton from ponds associated with coal mining in
     northwestern Colorado (June 1977-May 1978) 	  18

 5   Net zooplankton species diversity, equitability,  and
     number of taxa for ponds associated with coal mining in
     northwestern Colorado  	  23

 6   Coefficient of community and percentage similarity using
     zooplankton for ponds associated with coal mining  in
     northwestern Colorado  	  23

 7   Species list and density (organisms/m2) of benthic
     macroinvertebrates from ponds associated with coal
     mining in northwestern Colorado (June 1977-May 1978) 	  25

 8   Biomass (g/m2 wet weight) of major invertebrate groups
     from ponds associated with coal mining in northwestern
     Colorado (June 1977-May 1978)  	  28

 9   Number of taxa in major invertebrate groups from ponds
     associated with coal mining in northwestern Colorado
     (June 1977-May 1978)	33

10   Macroinvertebrate species diversity, equitability, and
     number of taxa for ponds associated with coal mining in
     northwestern Colorado  	  34

11   Coefficient of Community and Percentage Similarity
     using macroinvertebrates from ponds associated with coal
     mining in northwestern Colorado  	  34

                                    vii

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                               ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

     We wish to thank Dr. R. K. Skogerboe, Department of Chemistry, Colorado
State University, for valuable suggestions regarding the manuscript and for
providing unpublished chemical data from the ponds.  Dr. E. E. Herricks,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, also reviewed the
manuscript and provided valuable comments.

     This research was funded in part by research grant No. R803950, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth,
Minnesota; and by a National Science Foundation Energy Traineeship awarded
to S. P. Canton.  The Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory also provided
support and coordination of this research.
                                   vi ii

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                                  SECTION I

                                INTRODUCTION

     The deleterious effects of drainage from coal  strip-mines on  aquatic
biota have been well documented in the eastern and  midwestern United  States
(e.g., Appalachian Regional Commission 1969, Roback and Richardson 1969,
Warner 1973).  Strip-mine lakes receiving drainage  from the high sulfur
coal mines of those regions contain acidic waters which require extended
recovery periods before supporting anything approaching a normal aquatic
biota (Parsons 1964, 1977; Campbell and Lind 1969;  Smith and Frey 1971;
King et aJL 1974; Riley 1977).

     Remarkably little work has been done to assess the effects on aquatic
systems of drainage from the low sulfur coal mines  of the western United
States (Reed 1975).  Surface mining activity has been conducted for over  30
years at the Edna Mine in northwestern Colorado. Although low in sulfur
compared to eastern coal, the 2.4% sulfur content and 30.8% iron oxide in
the ash of Edna Mine coal are the highest values for coals studied in
Colorado (Deurbrouck 1970).  Yet a two-year study failed to indicate any
distinctly deleterious effects of the Edna Mine on  the adjacent stream (Canton
and Ward 1978).  The apparent lack of adverse effects was attributed to the
presence of a buffer strip between the mine spoils  and the stream and to
climatic, hydrologic, and geochemical conditions (Ward £t al_. 1978).

     Strip mining at the Edna Mine leaves the overburden in large spoil
piles which are presently being regraded.  Drainage from the spoils form
ponds at the base of the coal seam against the highwall of the pit.  In
June 1977 research was undertaken on these spoils ponds which receive
drainage directly from the mine.  The purpose of the research reported
herein was to investigate the limnological conditions, zooplankton and
benthic communities of spoils ponds of different ages which were differ-
entially influenced by mine drainage.  Despite some differences in other
variables such as morphometry, the ponds were similar enough to provide
comparative data previously unavailable for spoils  ponds of the western
energy region.

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                                 SECTION II

                                 CONCLUSIONS

     The following conclusions are based upon a one-year study of two
spoils ponds which received all of their drainage from a coal  mine,  but
differed in age; one pond which received partial drainage from mine  spoils,
and a control pond in an adjacent drainage basin.

1.   There were no apparent effects of mine drainage on temperature,
     dissolved oxygen, hardness, pH, acidity, alkalinity, calcium, iron,
     orthophosphate, or the organic content of the substrate.

2.   Acid mine drainage was not observed in any of the ponds,  in stark
     contrast to eastern mine spoils ponds where pH may remain below 4.0  50
     years after cessation of mining activities.

3.   Total dissolved solids and nitrate levels were higher in  the spoils
     ponds than the control pond.   The youngest spoils pond exhibited the
     highest values.

4.   Sulfate levels were much higher in ponds receiving mine drainage, but
     this was due to gypsum (CaSO^ • H20) rather than the oxidized sulfides
     associated with acid mine drainage.

5.   Net zooplankton densities were lowest in the youngest spoils pond and
     greatest in the control pond.  Cladocerans appeared to be the group
     most adversely affected by conditions in spoils ponds. There was a
     progressive increase in the number of zooplankton taxa from the
     youngest spoils pond to the control pond.  Shannon-Weaver diversity
     index values were lower in the two spoils ponds; highest  values
     occurred in the control pond.

6.   There was a progressive decrease in macroinvertebrate density and
     biomass from the youngest spoils pond to the control pond.   Chironomids
     and tubificid worms were responsible for the high standing  crop in
     the youngest spoils pond.  The predominant groups in the  control  pond
     were amphipods, mayflies, leeches, and odonates.  The following major
     taxa were not collected from the youngest spoils pond: Amphipoda,
     Hydracarina, Trichoptera, and Sphaeriidae.  The fewest species  occurred
     in the youngest spoils pond;  the other three ponds had a  larger number
     of species and were similar to each other in the total number of taxa.
     Shannon-Weaver index values showed similar trends.

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7.   Coefficient of Community and Percentage Similarity indices  suggest
     that colonization phenomena (age and proximity to a source  of colonizers)
     may be responsible, in part, for the zooplankton  and macroinvertebrate
     communities of the ponds.   The higher levels of nitrate,  sulfate, and
     IDS in the spoils ponds may, however, provide adverse environmental
     conditions for some species.

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                                 SECTION III

                               RECOMMENDATIONS

1.   Additional studies of physico-chemical conditions and biota are needed
     to determine whether or not the results contained herein are typical
     of spoils ponds in the western energy region.

2.   These data suggest that spoils ponds in the western energy region have
     potential as recreational lakes.

3.   These ponds may provide environmental conditions suitable for a
     variety of aquatic organisms.  The feasibility of transplanting
     macrophytes, plankton, benthos, and fishes from local lentic habitats
     as a mechanism of speeding natural colonization processes, should be
     investigated.

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                                 SECTION IV

                        DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

     Edna Mine coal is mined from the Wadge seam in the Williams  Fork  Unit
of the Mesa Verde group.  The Williams Fork formation overburden  consists
primarily of shale, sandy shale, and thin beds of sand (McWhorter et al_.
1975).

     Four pond study sites were established to correspond to a gradient of
mining effects (Figure 1).  Two of the ponds received all of their drainage
from the mine, but differed in age; one pond received only partial  drainage
from mine spoils, and the control pond received no drainage from  mining
activity.

     Pond PI:  2164 m elevation.  This pond, approximately 10 years old,
formed where water accumulates against a highwall.  The area of the pond  is
approximately 0.02 ha; the maximum depth is 1.0 m.  The bottom of the  pond
was covered with the alga Chava globularis throughout the summer  and  fall.
Ice covered the pond from November through early March.

     Pond P2:  2170 m elevation.  This pond, approximately 30 years old,  is
located at the base of a highwall where drainage from the area of oldest
mining activity accumulates.  This is the largest pond with an area of
approximately 0.39 ha and a maximum depth of 3.8 m.  Aquatic macrophytes
were generally sparse, although Carex, Junaus, and Typha grew along the
edge.  Potamogeton became abundant in late summer-early autumn, but was
limited to the shallow areas.  Ice cover occurred from November through
late March.

     Pond P3:  2164 m elevation.  This is an old stock pond formed by
damming an intermittent drainage.  Although not located directly in the
mine, it receives some drainage from the mine spoils.  This pond is similar
in size to PI with an area of 0.02 ha and a maximum depth of about 1.0 m.
Throughout the summer, over 90% of the pond surface was covered with  a
floating mat of filamentous alga (Spirogyra).  Due to the input of ground-
water and the insulating effect of the algal mat, the water under the mat
was at times 5-10°C cooler than the surface water.  Ice covered the pond
from November through early March.

     Pond P4:  2133 m elevation.  The control pond is located 5 km northeast
of PI.  This pond  is also an old stock pond formed by damming a small
drainage, but it is not affected by mining activity.  The pond has an area
of 0.05 ha and a maximum depth of  1.5 m.  Dense growths of Myriaphyllum

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                                                               P-4
                                                             (control)
                kilometers

Figure 1.  Pond locations in relationship to Edna Mine spoils  (crosshatched)
           and present mining activity, Pond P4,  the control pond  is  in  an
           adjacent watershed.

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occurred during summer.  The emergents, Carex and Junaus,  and the floating
plant Lernna were present along the edges.   Ice covered the pond from
November through late March.

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                                  SECTION V

                                   METHODS

      The four ponds were  sampled monthly from June 1977 through May 1978
 except December  and February.   Ice conditions prevented the sampling of
 pond  P4 in  January.


 A.    PHYSICO-CHEMICAL  PARAMETERS

      Water  temperature was measured with a thermister at 10 cm depth
 intervals.  Dissolved  oxygen levels were measured in the field using the
 azide modification of  the Winkler titration method.  The pH was determined
 in  the field  using comparator discs.  One-liter water samples were trans-
 ported to the laboratory  in an  ice chest.  Bound C02 (methyl orange alka-
 linity)  was measured by titration with HC1 using methyl orange as an
 indicator (Pennak 1977) and was recorded as nig/liter CaC03.  Orthophosphate
 and nitrate levels were determined bimonthly using the colorimetric method
 of Lind (1974).

      Total dissolved solids were determined bimonthly by filtration of
 0.5 1  water samples through cellulose discs (0.45 ym apertures) and subse-
 quent evaporation of the filtrate in a sand bath at 60CC (Ward 1974).   The
 residue was fired at 600°C in a muffle furnace to obtain loss on ignition
 values.  In addition,  water samples collected before and after spring
 runoff were subjected  to more detailed analyses by the Colorado State
 University Chemistry Department.

      Substrate samples were collected with an Ekman grab in June 1977  from
 the 0.5 m depth  contour.  Organic content was determined using wet digestion
 with  dichromic acid; the hydrometer method was used for particle size
 analysis.  The Colorado State University Soil Testing Laboratory performed
 the analyses.


 B.    NET ZOOPLANKTON

      Net zooplankton samples were taken by filtering 20 1  of pond water
from  a depth of  10-20 cm through the bucket of a Juday plankton trap.
Samples were preserved with 80% EtOH.   In the laboratory 1 ml  aliquots were
transferred to a Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell  with a Hensen-Stempel pi pet
and the zooplankters were enumerated at 100 X.   Identifications to the
generic (and in  some cases specific)  level  were based on the keys of Brooks
 (1957), Edmondson (1959),  and Pennak (1978).
                                      8

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     The Shannon-Weaver index was used to calculate  zooplankton  species
diversity using the computational formula in Weber (1973).   Equitability, a
component of species diversity,  was calculated using the  tables  of  Lloyd
and Ghelardi (1964).  Faunal  similarity was calculated  using two methods
outlined by Whittaker (1975).  Coefficient of Community is  based solely on
the presence or absence of species.  Percentage Similarity  also  considers
the quantitative representation of each taxon.


C.   BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES

     Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected by taking  three Ekman  grab
samples from each pond.  The samples were combined,  stored  on ice,  and
returned to the laboratory.  The samples were washed through a 250  v.m mesh
sieve and preserved in 5% formalin.  The organisms were sorted from the
debris and placed in 80% ethyl alcohol for later identification  and enumera-
tion.  Identifications to the generic (and in some cases  specific)  level
were based on the keys of Edmondson (1959), Anderson (1962), Musser (1962),
Hilsenhoff (1970), Mason (1973), Wiggins (1977), Zalom (1977), and  Wu
(1978).

     Species diversity, equitability, and similarity coefficients were
calculated in the same manner as for zooplankton.

     Statistical analysis of variance was calculated for certain physico-
chemical, zooplankton, and benthic invertebrate data.

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                                  SECTION VI

                            RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 A.   PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

      Mean values and ranges for the physico-chemical  parameters which were
 sampled monthly or bimonthly are shown in Table  1.  Additional chemical
 parameters are presented in Table 2 in relationship to  strip-mine lakes of
 the midwest.

      The temperatures of the ponds were generally similar.  Most differences
 were attributable to differences in the time  readings were taken.  The
 ponds were well  exposed  to  wind action and thermal stratification was
 normally not  apparent.   Some stratification was  observed at P3 in the
 summer when the algal  mat formed a nearly opaque layer  just below the
 surface.   All  ponds  exhibited similar  seasonal patterns (Figure 2).

      Dissolved oxygen values were also similar between  ponds; variations in
 mean values were primarily  a function  of the  degree of  supersaturation
 encountered.   At P3  samples  were taken under  the algal  mat when present.

      The highest mean  value  for bound  C02  was recorded  from P3 (108 mg/1
 CaC03),  a  pond not directly  associated with mining activity.  The control
 pond,  P4,  also had a  relatively high value of 77 mg/1  CaC03.  The ponds
 receiving  drainage directly  from the mine, PI and P2,  had the lowest values
 for  bound  C02  (57  and  37 mg/1 CaC03, respectively).

      According  to  Pennak  (1971),  the waters of P2 would be classified as
 "medium,"  PI and  P4 as "hard,"  and  P3  as "very hard."    It is not possible
 to account for  the large seasonal variations observed, which appear unrelated
 to the  influence  of mine drainage.  The control  pond (P4)  exhibited autumn
 values  nearly seven times greater than  those encountered during spring.

     Acid mine drainage was  not  evident in any of the ponds.  Median pH
 values  ranged from 7.4 to 7.6;  the  lowest value was 6.8 (Table 1).   The
youngest spoils pond (PI), which  receives all drainage directly from the
mine, exhibited pH values from  7.1  to  8.1.  This is in stark contrast to
eastern mine spoils ponds where  pH may  remain below 4.0 fifty years after
 the cessation of mining (Campbell and  Lind 1969).  In  the ponds in  Colorado
 there was  no relationship between pH levels and either age or extent of
mining  influence.

     Nitrate levels were higher  in  ponds receiving mine drainage than in
 the control pond.  In the semi-arid climate of this region, surface mining


                                     10

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      TABLE 1.  PHYSICO-CHEMICAL  PARAMETERS  FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING
                       IN  NORTHWESTERN COLORADO  (JUNE 1977-MAY 1978)

Ponds
Parameter
Temperature (°C) 10 cm
Range
Dissolved 02 (mg/1)
Range
Bound C02 (mg/1 CaC03J
Range
pH (median)
Range
Nitrate (mg/1)
Range
Orthophosphate (mg/1)
Range
Total dissolved solids (mg/1)
Range
Loss on ignition (mg/1)
Range
PI
11.0
0.0-20.0
15.6
8.2-29.4
56.6
27.5-94.0
7.4
7.1-8.1
16.34
6.38-26.3
0.15
0.0-0.34
3811
2504-5626
1079
662-1725
P2
12.6
0.0-23.0
11.1
7.6-16.2
36.6
11.5-52.0
7.4
6.8-7.7
0.55
0.0-2.63
0.07
0.0-0.11
1770
1429-2561
412
204-604
P3
11.2
0.0-17.5
12.7
8.5-17.5
108.2
50.0-145.5
7.4
7.0-7.5
0.89
0.03-4.0
0.17
0.13-0.21
2632
2422-2963
749 •
645-1001
P4
14.7
2.0-24.0
15.0
6.4-29.6
77.0
18.5-124.0
7.6
7.0-8.1
0.14
0.0-0.48
0.30
0.0-0.89
547
254-758
193
116-758
Percentage of TDS                28               23               28              35

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                 TABLE 2.   SELECTED CHEMICAL  PARAMETERS OF NORTHWESTERN COLORADO COAL MINE STUDY PONDS
                                  COMPARED WITH COAL  MINE PONDS IN MISSOURI AND OHIO

Parameter
Acidity (mg/1 CaC03)
Alkalinity (mg/1 CaC03)
Sulfate (mg/1)
Calcium (mg/1)
Total Iron (mg/1)
Manganese (mg/1)
Magnesium (mg/1)
Sodium (mg/1)
Potassium
Z1nc (mg/1)

P1a/
0
66-189
2500-3180
350-360
0.03
<0.001
400-550
98-160
14.4-19
<0.01

PZ8/
0
98-143
940-1260
57-364
0.13
0.001-0.21
82-140
19-36
3-6.6
<0.01

P3*/
0
283-316
1360-1500
330-340
0.09
0.002-0.009
226-340
20-21
4.6-5.4
<0.01
Ponds
P4i»/
0
167-282
168-290
200-300
0.14
0.001-0.011
56-118
19-23
2.5-4
<0.01

A!*/
227-4920
0
1620-5030
82-253
74-272
27-95
65-175
8.9-23.3
0.2-1.6
24.8-86

A3^ 01^
27-55 14
0 2
108-324 560
29-79
0.44-1.88 <1.0
0.79-3.18
6.3-17
1.3-4.6
3.35-9.2
0.58-1.56

oia/
0
80
580
127
0.81
0.02
38.9
—
—
—
^Colorado State University Chemistry Department, 29 April 1977 and 29 July 1977.   P4 1s  a  control  pond.
^34-year-old mine pond 1n Missouri (Campbell and L1nd 1969).
^50-year-old mine pond 1n Missouri (Campbell and Lind 1969).
-'Ohio pond at 40 years (Rlley  1977).
5/Oh1o pond at 55 years (Rlley  1977).

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              xr  is   GO   in  co  E*
                               1977-78
Figure  2.  Seasonal trends  in water temperature.
                                  13

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 increases leaching of soluble salts (Ward £tal_.  1978).   It appears  that
 nitrate levels remain high for a number of years.   The youngest mine spoils
 pond (PI) exhibited consistently high values for  nitrate (mean  = 16.34
 rog/1).  Nitrate levels in the mine spoils, as measured by saturated  paste
 analysis, were similar throughout the mined area  (McWhorter et_ al_. 1975)
 and cannot explain the high levels at PI.   Orthophosphate values, however,
 did not exhibit any discernible relationship with  age or degree of mining
 effects.  The highest levels were found in the control pond.

      Mean values of total  dissolved solids (TDS) were 3-7 times greater in
 the spoils ponds than the control  pond (Table 1).   The highest  value
 (3811 mg/1)  occurred in the youngest spoils pond.   TDS thus appears  to be
 influenced by watershed disturbance from mining in a  manner similar  to
 nitrate.  Statistical  analysis of variance was run on the TDS values for
 the year's data to determine the strength  of the relationship seen in
 Table 1 and  Figure 3.   The results indicate a significant difference between
 the ponds (P < 0.01).   TDS exhibited little seasonality  except  in the
 youngest spoils pond (PI)  which showed much lower  values during late summer
 and autumn (Figure 3).   Loss on ignition averaged  23-35% of the total
 dissolved solids.

      To provide comparative data,  selected chemical parameters  from  the
 Colorado ponds are related to mine ponds in regions of acid mine drainage
 (Table 2).   The Missouri  ponds studied by  Campbell  and Lind  (1969) were 34
 years  old (Al) and 50 years old (A3).   Riley (1977) studied a pond in Ohio
 (01),  which  was formed  in  1918,  when it was  40 years  old  and when it
 was 55 years old.   There  is a striking difference  between  the Colorado
 ponds  and those in areas  of acid mine  drainage (AMD).  Acidity  was never
 detected in  the Colorado  ponds,  but was  still  measurable  (27-55 mg/1  CaC03)
 50  years after mining in A3.   Alkalinity was  high  in  all   the Colorado
 ponds,  but was not detected in Al  or A3.   Only in  the Ohio  pond, 55 years
 after  mining,  did  alkalinity  values  approach  those of the youngest pond in
 Colorado (80 mg/1  CaC03 in  Ohio; 66-189  mg/1  CaC03 at PI).  Sulfate  levels
 were very  high in  the Colorado ponds associated with  the mining activity
 (PI, P2,  and P3) ranging from 940-3180 mg/1, which was comparable to levels
 observed in  pond Al  (1620-5030 mg/1).  However, the high  levels of sulfates
 in  the  Colorado ponds are due to the gypsum  (CaSO^  • H20) found in the
 overburden rather  than the  oxidized sulfides associated with the high
 pyritic  content of the overburden  in areas of AMD  (McWhorter et al.  1975).
 The gypsum and  the shale content of the  overburden accounted Tor the
 generally high  levels of calcium in the  Colorado ponds (57-364 mg/1)  compared
 to  pond A3 (29-79 mg/1).  Unlike areas of AMD where total iron  levels can
 be quite high  (74-272 mg/1  at Al),  the Colorado ponds had extremely low
 levels of iron  (0.03-0.14 mg/1) comparable to mine ponds  50-55 years  old.
Other differences  in the ionic  composition between the ponds in Colorado
and those in areas of AMD generally reflected differences in regional
geology.

     Table 3 summarizes the particle size distribution and organic content
of the sediment in the four ponds.  The particle size distribution at PI
was fairly evenly divided among the sand, silt, and clay  fractions.   The
substrate at P2 was predominately sand (49%).  The two ponds not directly

                                      14

-------
    o»
    E
                                               GO
                                                        —  in  to
                                   1977-78
Figure  3.  Seasonal  trends in total  dissolved solids,
                                    15

-------
TABLE 3.  SEDIMENT PARTICLE SIZE AND PERCENTAGE
   ORGANIC MATTER FOR PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH
     COAL MINING IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO

Ponds

% sand (0.0625-2.0 mm)
% silt (0.0039-0.0625 mm)
% clay (<0.0039 mm)
% organic matter
PI
34
38
28
6.7
P2
49
25
26
11.4
P3
22
57
21
8.4
P4
36
41
23
9.2
                       16

-------
associated with the mining, P3 and P4,  had predominantly silt sediments
(57% and 41%, respectively).  The relative contribution  of organic matter
was similar at all ponds, ranging from 6.7% at PI to 11.4% at P2.


B.   NET ZOOPLANKTON

     During the study 21 zooplankton taxa were identified (Table  4).
Annual mean density ranged from 39 organisms/1 at PI to  283 organisms/1  at
P4.  Despite great differences in mean density values (Figure 4), no
statistically significant difference (P > 0.05) between  the ponds was
indicated.  The great temporal variations in density of  individual species
obscured between-pond differences when analyses were run on the raw numbers
of zooplanters for the entire year's data.

     Protozoa were present in all ponds, but abundant only at P2  (Table  4).
Protozoans accounted for 33% of the zooplankton density  at PI (Figure  5),
with Difflugia being the only representative.  Difflugia and CeraUum
accounted for 88% of the total density at P2.  Protozoans were less important
at the other ponds accounting for 17% of the density at  P3 and only 8% at
P4, with Difflugia the main representative.  Difflugia was also an abundant
zooplankter in a strip-mine lake in Kansas (Burner and Leist 1953).

     Rotifers were collected in all ponds, but were abundant only at P4.
Rotifer density was low at PI, but they accounted for 20% of the  zooplankton
density (Figure 5), with Branehionus and Epiphanes being most abundant.  At
pond P2, rotifers accounted for only 9% of the density;  Asplanohna was the
most abundant taxon.  Although rotifers increased in absolute abundance  at
P3 (especially Branchionus* Epiphanes,  Notholca, and Lepadella),  they
accounted for only 17% of the total density.  The density of rotifers  was
much greater at P4, accounting for 29% of the total zooplankton density.
Keratella quadrata and Filinia longiseta were abundant in P4.

     Cladocerans were important only at P3 and P4, the ponds not  directly
associated with mining activity.  A single specimen of Bosmina longirostris
was the only Cladoceran collected from PI during the year of study.  At
P2, Cladocerans made up only 2% of the zooplankton density; Daphnia pulex
was the main representative.  The greater Cladoceran abundance at P3 was
due to Chydorus sphaeriaus, which accounted for 28% of the zooplankton
density.  Although Cladocerans were most abundant at P4, they accounted  for
only 17% of the zooplankton density at this pond.  Ceriodaphnia retiaulata
was the most abundant species.

     Limnetic copepods were represented by a single species, Cyolops
biauspidatus thomasi.  This species was important in all the ponds, except
P2, accounting for 46% of the density at PI, 38% at P3,  and 46% at P4.  In
all cases, the nauplius stage accounted for most of the  copepod abundance.
Cyolops was also found to be abundant in a strip-mine lake in Kansas
(Burner and Leist 1953).
                                     17

-------
TABLE 4.  SPECIES LIST AND MEAN DENSITY (ORGANISMS/L)  OF NET
     ZOOPLANKTON FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING
        IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO (JUNE 1977-MAY 1978)

Ponds

Protozoa
Diff lug-La sp.
Ceratium sp.
Rota tori a
Monostyla sp.
Lecane s p .
Keratella quadrata (0. F. Muller)
Bfanohionus sp.
Asplanehna sp.
Ep-Lphanes sp.
Testudinella sp.
Ascomorpha sp.
Filinia longiseta (Ehrenburg)
Notholoa sp.
Lepadella sp.
Ph-Llodina sp.
Polyarthpa sp.
Cladocera
Bosmina longirostris (0. F. Muller)
Daphnia pulex (DeGeer)
Ceriodaphnia reticulata (Jurine)
Alona guttata Sars
Chydorus sphaeriaus (0. F. Muller)
Copepoda
Cyclops biauspidatus thomasi Forbes
nauplii
Total
PI
13
13
--
8
1
1
--
3
a/
2
--
a/
--
a/
--
--
--
a/
a/
--
--
--
--
18
6
13
39
P2
96
51
45
10
1
1
1
1
3
2
--
--
--
1
i/

--
2
a/
2
--
—
§./
1
--
1
109
P3
15
14
1
15
1
a/

4
1
4
1
a/

2
2
--
—
25
--
a/

a/
25
34
8
26
89
P4
22
17
5
83
2
5
30
4
7
5
—
a/
27
a/
--
1
1
47
--
4
38
2
3
131
26
105
283

Present but less than 1 organism/1.
                            18

-------
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      '^  200
      CO
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o
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          100
                  P I
                    P2
P3
P4
Figure 4.  Annual mean densities of net zooplankton
                           19

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                 PI
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P4
Figure  5.  Percentage composition of major net zooplankton  groups using
          density values.
                                   20

-------
      Net zooplankton  density exhibited various degrees of seasonality in
 the ponds  (Figure  6).   Pond PI  showed little seasonality with small peaks
 in density in  late summer due to  increased abundance of Cyclops bicuspidatus
 thomasi  and Branahionus, and in January resulting from an increase in
 Difflugia.  Greater seasonal trends were observed at P2, with a late summer
 peak of  Ceratium and  an early spring peak in the density of Chydorus
 sphaericus and Cyclops  bicuspidatus thomasit pond P3 exhibited little
 temporal  variation.   Pond P4 had  the greatest zooplankton density in late
 summer,  with a small  peak in November.  The high density in late summer-
 early fall was due to great abundance of Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi from
 July through September, and August peaks in the density of Keratella
 quadrata and Ceriodaphnia reticulata.  The peak in November was due to the
 occurrence of great numbers of Filinia longiseta.

      The seasonal  pattern in protozoan density, with late winter peaks at
 PI  and P2, was similar  to the pattern for protozoans observed by Pennak
 (1949) in  Gaynor Lake,  Colorado.  The August peak in the density of Keratella
 quadvata was also  similar to late summer pulses observed by Pennak (1949).
 Filinia  longiseta  is  considered dicyclic, with summer and autumn peaks
 (Pennak  1949), although it may exhibit only one of these peaks as in the
 fall  peak  at P4.   The late summer peak density of Ceriodaphnia reticulata
 contrasted with early summer peaks for this species reported from a Kansas
 pond (Armitage and Smith 1968).  Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi had peak
 densities  in late  summer-early fall at PI, P3, and P4.  This pattern was
 similar  to seasonal trends for this genus observed by Pennak (1949) in
 Colorado and Young (1974b) in England, as well as Armitage and Smith (1968)
 for other  cyclopoid copepods in a Kansas pond.

      The ponds also differed in the number of taxa collected (Table 5).
 The fewest number  of taxa (10) was found at the youngest spoils pond (PI).
 The control pond,  P4, had the greatest number of taxa with 18.  The trend
 was statistically  significant (P < 0.01).  Species diversity index values
 were lower in the  ponds in the mine spoils (PI, P2) than the other two
 ponds  (Table 5).   The highest value was calculated for P4.  Equitability
 did not  exhibit a  clear pattern.

     The Coefficient of Community was used to test the similarity of the
 ponds with respect to the presence or absence of zooplankton taxa (Table 6)
 Using  this index,  ponds P2 and P3 exhibited the highest similarity (0.83);
 however, the index values were high for all combinations, which reflected
 the  similar taxa found at the ponds.  Percentage Similarity considers
 relative abundance  as well as taxa present.  Using this index (Table 6),
ponds PI and P3 exhibited the greatest similarity (0.66).  This could be
explained in the context of island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson
 1967).  Pond PI, the youngest pond, would receive the greatest number of
colonizers from the nearest source, which is P3.   The similarity was greatest
for  the quantitative representation of the protozoans and rotifers in these
ponds.  Both of these groups (especially protozoans) have been shown to be
dispersed passively with the action of the wind,  flying insects, and birds
 (Maguire 1963, Stewart £t aj_.  1970, Milliger et al. 1971, Solon and Stewart
1972).                                       	
                                      21

-------
         1000 r
      «  800 -
                                                    —   10  to
                               1977-78
Figure 6.   Seasonal trends  in net zooplankton densities,
                                 22

-------
 TABLE 5.  NET ZOOPLANKTON SPECIES DIVERSITY,
  EQUITABILITY, AND NUMBER OF TAXA FOR PONDS
        ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING IN
             NORTHWESTERN COLORADO
Ponds
PI
P2 P3 P4
.Shannon-Weaver Index    1.95    1.78    2.49    2.68

Equitability            0.54    0.33    0.52    0.49

Number of taxa         10      14      15      18
     TABLE 6.  COEFFICIENT OF COMMUNITY AND
   PERCENTAGE SIMILARITY USING ZOOPLANKTON FOR
      PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING IN
              NORTHWESTERN COLORADO

Coefficient of Community

5
s-

-------
 C.   BENTHIC MACRO INVERTEBRATES

      During the study,  52 taxa of benthic  macroiinvertebrates were  identified
 from the four ponds,  although  only 14  were considered  numerically  abundant
 (Table 7).

      Standing crop (density  and biomass) of the  benthic  invertebrates
 exhibited a marked pattern (Figure 7),  with the  greatest standing  crop at
 PI, the youngest spoils  pond,  and the  lowest standing  crop at the  control
 pond,  P4.  The large  standing  crop at  PI was due  to  the  large numbers of
 tubificid worms and chironomids (Table  7).   The density  (5222 organisms/m2)
 and biomass (28.7 g/m )  at P2  was dominated by sphaeriid clams, with
 chironomids being less abundant (Tables 7  and 8).  The lower standing crop
 at P3  was due to decreased abundance and biomass  of  tubificid worms and
 chironomids.   The control  ponds had the lowest standing  crop (3160 organ-
 isms/m  and 24.7 g/m  ) due to  low numbers  of worms and midges.  The standing
 crop at P4  was dominated by  the density of amphipods and mayflies, and the
 biomass of  amphipods, mayflies,  leeches, and odonates.   Statistical analysis
 of variance run on density and biomass  values for the year's data  failed to
 show a significant difference  between the  ponds  (P > 0.05) due to  the great
 temporal  variations in the abundance of individual taxa.

     Oligochaeta were present  in  all ponds,  but abundant only in PI and P3.
 At pond PI,  oligochaetes comprised  44% of  the invertebrate density (Figure
 8a)  and 65%  of the invertebrate  biomass (Figure 8b), with Lirmodrilus
 hoffmeisteri  the predominant species.  Tubificid worms were less abundant
 at P2,  accounting for only 11%  of the density and 14% of  the biomass.  At
 P3,  oligochaetes comprised 45%  of the invertebrate density and 52% of the
 biomass,  with Lirmodrilus  hoffmeistevi predominating.  Oligochaetes were
 less abundant at P4, accounting  for only 7%  of the density and 8% of the
 biomass.  In  all  ponds,  Lirmodrilus hoffmeisteri was more abundant than
 Tubifex tubifex,  a relationship also observed by Young (1974a) in a small
 English pond.

     Hirudinea  were collected  from all  ponds, although only rarely in PI.
 Leeches were  more  abundant in  the other ponds, accounting for approximately
 5% of  the density  and 10% of the  biomass,  with Helobdella stagnalis the
 predominant species in all cases.

     Molluscs  varied in  abundance in the ponds.   At PI, molluscs accounted
 for  only  4% of  the density, but 14% of the biomass (shells removed) due to
 the  abundance of Physa.   Molluscs accounted  for 43% of the density and 40%
of the  invertebrates biomass at P2, due primarily to large numbers of
Pisidiim variabile.  Molluscs were relatively unimportant at P3, comprising
only 1% of the density and 5% of the biomass.  At P4, the molluscs were
slightly more abundant,  accounting for 12% of the density and 9% of the
biomass.  Pisidiwn variabile and Gyraulus  were the predominant taxa.

     Amphipods were represented by a single species, Hyalella azteaa.   This
species was never collected at PI, the  youngest spoils pond.   At P2,  amphi-
pods accounted for 5%  of the density and 3% of the bioinass,  while at  P3
                                     24

-------
TABLE 7.  SPECIES LIST AND DENSITY (ORGANISMS/M2)  OF BENTHIC
     MACROINVERTEBRATES FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL
    MINING IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO (JUNE 1977-MAY 1978)
Ponds

Oligochaeta
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri Claparede
Tubifex tubifex (0. F. Miiller)
Eiseniella tetraedr>a (Savigny)
Hirudinea
He lobde 1 la stagna Us (Linn.)
Maorobdella sp.
Erpobdella punotata (Leidy)
Glossiphonia oomplanata (Linn.)
Mollusca
Physa sp.
Lymnaea sp.
Gyraulus sp.
Pisidittm variabile Prime
Amphipoda
Hyalella azteoa (Saussere)
Hydracarina
Hydrachna sp.
Plecoptera
Malenka sp.
Ephemeroptera
Callibaetis sp.
Baetis sp.
Caenis sp.
Henri ptera
Hesperooorixa laevigata (Uhler)
Notonecta lobata Hungerford
N. unifasoiata Guerin
Odonata
Neoneura sp.
Ampkiagrion sp.
Enallagma sp.
Anax sp.
Sympetrum corruption (Hagen)
PI
3425
3223
202
1
1
1
	
M _
--
296
260
32
4
--

--

--

--
20
9
M _
11
10
6
4

65
23
17
24
__
—
P2
591
532
59

360
359
1

--
2261
78
23
50
2110

286

--

--
44
10

34
6
6

--
92
20
4
66
1
1
P3
2176
1817
356
3
252
251

	
1
49
14
6

29

342

1

1
50
49

1
17
13
3
1
14
4
3
6

1
P4
209
204
5
w
164
134
6
\j
19
5
375
3

153
218

660

5

—
1192
3
2
1188
16
5

11
35
11

16
2
6
                                 25

-------
TABLE 7.  Continued

Ponds

Trichoptera
Agraylea sp.
Ochrotriohia sp.
Limnephilus sp.
Phryganea ainerea Wai ker
Oeoetis sp.
Neatopsyohe sp.
Indet. larva
Megaloptera
Sialis sp.
Coleoptera
Hydroporus tenebrosus LeConte
Agdbus disintegratus (Crotch)
Hydatiaus sp.
Tvop-iste'xmus sp.
Haliplus spp.
Diptera
Tdbanus sp.
Paralimna sp.
Euparyphus sp.
Tipula sp.
Eexatoma sp.
Bezz-ia sp.
Pvobezzia sp.
Palpomyia. sp.
Chironomus sp.
Procladius sp.
Tany tarsus sp.
Orthocladius sp.
Phaenopseotra sp.
Ablabeemyia sp.
PI
— _
--
--
--
--
--
--
— ~

1
149
59
9
--
82
3872
9
--
--
—
--
--
--
120
13
1682
808
1210
30
—
P2
26
--
--
17
3
3
1
1

6
17
1
3
1
11
1531
56
1
--
—
--
--
--
75
29
771
527
21
52
10
P3
12
1
3
7
--
--
--
•• ~

— ~
66
10
—
56
1846
1
--
13
6
1
20
12
102
528
21
423
684
22
12
P4
2
--
--
2
--
--
--
"" ~

~ —
185
24
5
3
13
140
317
22
2
3
— —
--
21
44
54
--
8
16
43
104
~ ~
Total
7840
5222    4826
3160
                                     26

-------
    8000
    6000
CM
 E

1  4000
O)
z
    2000
                         Density


                         3iomass
                PI
P2
P3
                                                        -i50
                               40
                                                          30
                                                              CM
                                    
-------
    TABLE 8.  BIOMASS  (G/M2) WET WEIGHT OF MAJOR
      INVERTEBRATE GROUPS FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED
      WITH  COAL MINING  IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO
               (JUNE 1977-MAY 1978)

Ponds

Oligochaeta
Hirudinea
Mollusca
Amphipoda
Hydracarina
Plecoptera
Ephemeroptera
Hemiptera
Odonata
Trichoptera
Megaloptera
Coleoptera
Diptera
Total
PI
27.4
+a/
6.1
--
--
--
0.4
0.8
0.5
--
0.1
1.8
5.0
42.1
P2
4.0
3.7
11.6
1.0
--
--
0.2
0.1
1.8
3.2
0.3
0.4
2.5
28.7
P3
14.6
2.6
1.4
2.0
+
+
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.2
—
0.3
5.8
28.2
P4
1.9
3.2
2.2
3.4
+
—
6.0
0.8
3.8
0.3
—
1.8
1.2
24.7

- + = present but less than 0.05 g/m2.
                        28

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 they  comprised  7% of  the  invertebrate density and biomass.  Amphipods were
 most  abundant in the  control pond, P4, accounting for 21% of the density
 and 14% of  the  biomass.

      Hydracarina were collected infrequently at P3 and P4, the ponds not
 directly  associated with  mining activity.  Water mites were never collected
 at PI  or  P2.

      Plecoptera are generally not found in ponds.  A single specimen of
 Malenka. was  collected at  P3.

      Ephemeropterans  were collected at all ponds, but were abundant only at
 P4 where  they accounted for 38% of the density and 24% of the invertebrate
 biomass due  to  large  numbers of Caenis.

      Henriptera  accounted  for less than 1% of the invertebrate density at
 all ponds.   This was  partly due to the sampling method which is not designed
 to collect  strong swimmers.  Hesperooorixa laevigata was the most abundant
 species in  all  ponds.

      Odonata were collected in all ponds with damsel flies being the most
 abundant  suborder.  Odonates were unimportant at PI and P3, accounting for
 approximately 1% of the invertebrate density and biomass.  While the
 odonates  accounted for only 2% of the density at P2 and 1% at P4, they
 accounted for 6% of the biomass at P2 and 15% at P4, due to the abundance
 of the damsel flies, Neoneura and Enallagma.

     Trichoptera occurred infrequently except at P2, where they accounted
 for 11% of  the  invertebrate biomass, due to the presence of the large
 caddisfly larvae Phryganea einerea and Limnephilus.  Caddisflies were never
 collected at PI, the  youngest pond in the mine, and only rarely at P3 and
 P4.

     The megalopteran sialis was collected infrequently only at PI and P2,
 the ponds in the mine spoils, where they accounted for less than 1% of the
 density and  biomass.

     Aquatic beetles  (Coleoptera)  were present in all ponds, but abundant
 only at PI and  P4.   Coleopterans comprised 2% of the invertebrate density
 and 4% of the invertebrate biomass at PI, due to the abundance of Haliplus
 spp.  and Hydroporus tenebrosus.   Beetles were less important at P2 and P3,
 accounting for  only 1% of the invertebrate density and biomass.  Coleoptera
were most important at P4, accounting for 6% of the density and 7% of the
biomass due  to  the greater abundance of Haliplus spp.  Species of Haliplus
are often found in strip-mine ponds (Brigham and Sanderson 1974), which are
used as refugia in areas with little standing water.

     Dipterans were abundant at all ponds.  They comprised 49% of the
density, and 12% of the biomass at PI, due to the abundance of the midge
larvae Procladius,  Tanytarsus,  and Orthoeladius.  Chironomids were also
shown to be major members of the benthos in strip-mine lakes in Indiana
 (Smith and Frey 1971).  At P2,  the dipterans comprised 29% of the density

                                     30

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and 9% of the biomass due to high numbers of the chironomids Proeladius and
Tanytarsus, as well as Tabanus and Palpomyia,  Ceratopogonids (e.g.,
Palpomyia) were also abundant in a strip-mine lake in Kansas (Burner and
Leist 1953).  At P3, dipterans accounted for 38% of the density and 20% of
the biomass, due to the abundance of Chironomus, Tanytarsus, Orfhoaladius,
and Palpomyia.  The control pond (P4) had the lowest density of dipterans,
which comprised only 10% of the density and 5% of the biomass, primarily
due to decreased abundance of chironomids.

     Benthic macroinvertebrate density exhibited marked seasonal trends at
the ponds (Figure 9), ranging from 15,326 organisms/m2 at PI in January to
474 organisms/m2 at P4 in October.  The seasonal pattern at PI exhibited
little fluctuation in summer and early fall, with major peaks in January
and May.  The peak in density in January was due to a large increase in
Ovthoaladius and oligochaetes.  The increased density in May was due to
increased numbers of L-Lmnodrllus hoffmeisteri and Tanytarsus.  A spring
maximum for Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri was also observed by Young (1974a) in
a small pond in England.

     The seasonal pattern at P2 exhibited marked peaks in density in summer
and late fall.  The peak in June was due to high numbers of Pisidium
variabile and the chironomids Pvoolad-ius and Tanytarsus.  The increase in
density in fall was due to Pisidium variabile* Proeladius3  Tanytavsus,
Hyalella azteoa, and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri.

     The pattern at P3 was similar to that observed at P2.   Peak density in
June was due to large numbers of Chironomus, Tanytarsus, Orthoaladius,
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri3 and Tubifex tubifex.  The increase in fall was
due to tubificid worms in October and Hyalella azteca in November.  Increased
density of Tanytarsus and Orthooladius in January offset decreases in the
density of tubificid worms and amphipods.

     The seasonal trends at P4 were less distinct.  There was a peak in
density in June due to the great abundance of the mayfly Caenis.  The
emergence of this mayfly resulted in lower density in July.  Little change
in density occurred through late fall.  The higher density in March was due
primarily to increased abundance of Hyalella azteca and to a lesser extent
Limnodrilus hofftneisteri.  A more detailed analysis of seasonal trends in
fauna! abundance would require detailed examinations of life cycles of
individual taxa which is beyond the scope of this study.

     The fewest number of macroinvertebrate taxa were collected at PI, the
youngest spoils pond, with only 25 taxa represented (Table 10).  The other
ponds had approximately the same number of species (36-38).  This trend was
not statistically significant (P > 0.05) due to the seasonal occurrence of
the benthic taxa in the ponds.  The increased number of species at the
other ponds was due to more species of Hirudinea, Amphipoda, Odonata,
Trichoptera, and Diptera (Table 9); organisms that may not have colonized
PI yet due to low dispersal ability (e.g., Amphipoda) or lack of adequate
time to reach the pond.  Species diversity values exhibited similar trends
(Table 10), with the lowest value at PI, the youngest pond in the mine, and
higher, more similar values at the other ponds, although equitability

                                    31

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 CJ
      16,000
      14,000
      I2t000
      10,000
  w
 'E
  o
      8,000
CO


o
      6,000
      4,000
      2,000
                   —   o>
                       
°-  K   o
o>  u   «
(/)  O   z

in  co   12
                              1977-78
                                          o
                                          -3

                                          00
                                                    &  f
                                                    <  2
                                                    in  to
Figure 9.  Seasonal trends in the densities of macrobenthos.
                               32

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    TABLE 9.  NUMBER OF TAXA IN MAJOR
INVERTEBRATE GROUPS FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED
WITH COAL MINING IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO
          (JUNE 1977-MAY 1978)
Ponds

Oligochaeta
Hirudinea
Mollusca
Amphipoda
Hydracari na
Plecoptera
Ephemeroptera
Henri ptera
Odonata
Trichoptera
Megaloptera
Coleoptera
Di ptera
PI
3
1
3
0
0
0
2
2
3
0
1
3
7
P2
2
2
4
1
0
0
2
1
5
5
1
4
9
P3
3
2
3
1
1
1
2
3
4
3
0
2
13
P4
2
4
3
1
1
0
3
2
4
1
0
5
10
                  33

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 TABLE 10.  MACROINVERTEBRATE SPECIES DIVERSITY,
   EQUITABILITY, AND NUMBER OF TAXA FOR PONDS
         ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING IN
              NORTHWESTERN COLORADO
                                  Ponds
                          PI     P2     P3     P4
Shannon-Weaver Index     2.49   2.95   3.03   3.13

Equitability             0.31   0.30   0.30   0.34

Number of taxa          25     36     38     36
         TABLE 11.  COEFFICIENT OF COMMUNITY AND
     PERCENTAGE SIMILARITY USING MACROINVERTEBRATES
        FROM PONDS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL MINING IN
                  NORTHWESTERN COLORADO
Coefficient of Community

>,
•r—
S-
^y^trm
*O tz
•M-r-
C 00
0)

PI
P2
P3
P4
PI
--
0.42
0.68
0.14
P2
0.75
—
0.36
0.31
P3
0.70
0.68
0.26
P4
0.62
0.75
0.73
                        34

-------
values exhibited no difference between ponds.  It is felt that the less
diverse benthic community at PI is largely a function of colonization
phenomena, although higher levels of nitrate, sulfate, and IDS may provide
an adverse environment for some species.

     Coefficient of Community was calculated to test the similarity of the
ponds with respect to the presence or absence of benthic macroinvertebrate
taxa (Table 11).  As with the zooplankton, the values were high for all
combinations.  Using the Percentage Similarity index, which also takes
relative abundance into account, ponds PI and P3 were most similar (0.68),
as was true for zooplankters.  Pond P3 was the nearest source of colonizers
for the younger pond.  Pi and P4, the control pond, were the most dissimilar
(0.14), as expected, since the control pond is in a watershed adjacent to
the mine spoils.


D.   SUMMARY

     Mine drainage appeared to have no effect on a variety of physico-
chemical parameters measured in spoils ponds in Colorado.  Acid mine
drainage was not observed.  Total dissolved solids, nitrate and sulfate
levels, however, were higher in the spoils ponds than the control pond.

     Zooplankton density was greatest in the control pond and lowest in
the youngest spoils pond.  Macroinvertebrate standing crop exhibited an
opposite trend with the highest value in the youngest spoils pond.

     Certain zooplankters (e.g., Cladocera) and benthic invertebrates
(e.g., Amphipoda,  Trichoptera) were rare or absent in the youngest spoils
pond which also contained the fewest species of zooplankton and benthos.

     Biological differences between ponds may be attributed to colonization
phenomena and higher levels of nitrate, sulfate and TDS in the spoils
ponds.
                                     35

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                                     38

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-600/3-79-124
                             2.
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
 Environmental  Effects  of Western Coal Surface Mining.
 Part I - The Limnology and Biota of Mine Spoils  Ponds
 in Northwest Colorado
             5. REPORT DATE
              December 1979  issuing date
             6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)

 Steven P. Canton  and James V. Ward
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

 Department of  Zoology  and Entomology
 Colorado  State University
 Fort Collins,  Colorado  80523
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                1NE625
             11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.


               R803950
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 Environmental  Research Laboratory-Duluth, MN
 Office of Research  and Development
 U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
 Duluth, Minnesota  55804	
                                                            13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                                              Final
             14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                  EPA/600/03
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
 Physico-chemical  conditions, zooplankton,  and benthos were investigated in coal strip-
 mine ponds  in northwestern Colorado.   There were no discernible  effects of mine drain-
 age on a  variety  of physico-chemical  parameters.  In stark contrast to spoils ponds in
 the eastern and midwestern states, acid  mine drainage was not observed.  Total
 dissolved solids, nitrate and sulfate values were higher in  the  spoils ponds than in
 the control  pond.  Net zooplankton abundance was lowest in the youngest spoils pond,
 but the standing  crop of benthos exhibited a progressive decrease from the youngest
 spoils pond to the control pond.  Zooplankton and benthos species diversity were lower
 in the spoils ponds.  Certain groups  of  zooplankters and benthos were rare or absent
 in the youngest spoils pond.  Colonization phenomena (age and distance from a source
 of colonizers) are postulated as responsible, in part, for the faunal differences
 between ponds.  If these data are typical  of the western energy  region, they suggest
 the potential for development of recreational lakes as a part of reclamation practices.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                                                                          c.  COSATI Field/Group
 Spoil  ponds
 Invertebrates
 Zooplankton
 Macrobenthos
 Effects  of mining
 Energy development
 Coal mining
 Water quality
     06/F
     68/D
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