NUTRIENT, BACTERIAL, AND VIRUS CONTROL AS
RELATED TO GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION
onmental Research Laboratory
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the "SPECIAL" REPORTS series. This series is
reserved for reports targeted to meet the technical information needs of specific
user groups. The series includes problem-oriented reports, research application
reports, and executive summary documents. Examples include state-of-the-art
analyses, technology assessments, design manuals, user manuals, and reports
on the results of major research and development efforts.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/8-77-010
July 1977
NUTRIENT, BACTERIAL, AND VIRUS CONTROL
AS RELATED TO GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION
by
James F. McNabb, William J. Dunlap, and Jack W. Keeley
Ground Water Research Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
ROBERT S KERR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ADA, OKLAHOMA 74820
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was established to coordinate
administration of the major Federal programs designed to protect the
quality of our environment.
An important part of the Agency's effort involves the search for
information about environmental problems, management techniques, and new
technologies through which optimum use of the Nation's land and water
resources can be assured and the threat pollution poses to the welfare
of the American people can be minimized.
EPA's Office of Research and Development conducts this search through
a nationwide network of research facilities.
As one of these facilities, the Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory is responsible for the management of programs to: (a) investi-
gate the nature, transport, fate, and management of pollutants in ground
water; (b) develop and demonstrate methods for treating wastewaters with
soil and other natural systems; (c) develop and demonstrate pollution con-
trol technologies for irrigation return flows; (d) develop and demonstrate
pollution control technologies for animal production wastes; (e) develop
and demonstrate technologies to prevent, control or abate pollution from
the petroleum refining and petrochemical industries; and (f) develop and
demonstrate technologies to manage pollution resulting from combinations
of industrial wastewaters or industrial/municipal wastewaters.
This report contributes to the knowledge essential if the EPA is to
meet the requirements of environmental laws that it establish and enforce
pollution control standards which are reasonable, cost effective, and
provide adequate protection for the American public.
William C. Galegar
Director
iii
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ABSTRACT
A general introduction provides something of the history of ground-
water, its present use, and the means by which it can become contaminated.
A priority listing of sources of ground-water contamination is presented
for four geographical areas of the United States.
Phosphorus is discussed in terms of its fate in soil systems. The fate
of organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds is also discussed giving consid-
eration to sorption and biological utilization and degradation. Criteria
important to the survival and transport of bacteria and viruses is presented
along with information concerning indicator organisms in the subsurface
environment.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword j^-
Abstract ......'........ iv
Acknowledgment '.'.'. vi
INTRODUCTION 1
General .'!!!!!! 1
Ground-Water Use !!!.'!!!! 1
Ground Water Pollution ...... 1
NUTRIENTS IN GROUND WATER 4
Phosphorus !!!.'." 4
Nitrogen ' ' ] 5
Bacteria and Viruses ......... 7
SOURCES OF EXPERTISE 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY 13
REFERENCES 17
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The need for this report was conceived by Mr. Edmond P. Lomasney,
Regional Representative, Office of Research & Development, EPA Region IV,
Atlanta, Georgia. He guided its development to conform with the needs of
that Region.
Since its original preparation in December 1974, this report has been
widely accepted and acclaimed, as can be shown by the continued and increasing
requests for copies. The Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
acknowledges with appreciation such favorable response which has resulted in
this publication of "Nutrient, Bacterial, and Virus Control as Related to
Ground-Water Contamination."
VI
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INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
For those associated with the development and protection of ground water,
the most worrisome problem has traditionally been a lack of knowledge on the
part of those outside their fraternity. This is exemplified in understanding
the movement and fate of nutrients, bacteria, and viruses in the subsurface
environment.
As early as the 17th century, John Ray, the English naturalist, and Renef
Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher, made astoundingly accurate
observations concerning the mysterious movement of underground water. In 1856
Henry Darcy established a mathematical base for the laminar flow of ground
water in its porous environment.
Yet, in 1861 an Ohio court ruled, "Because the existence, origin, move-
ment and course of such waters> and the causes which govern and direct their
movement are so secret, occult and concealed that an attempt to administer
any set of legal rules in respect to them would be, therefore, practically
impossible."
In more recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the value
of underground water in terms of the Nation's water resources and the importance
of protecting these waters from contamination.
GROUND-WATER USE
Estimates vary but it is certain that this Country's recoverable ground
water exceeds all surface sources by something in the neighborhood of one
order of magnitude. Approximately 20 percent of the total national water
demands are met by ground water. It accounts for more than 85 percent of the
public water supply in several States and furnishes the total or partial water
supply for over 30 of the Nation's 100 largest cities. It is estimated that
more than 50 percent of the national population and more than 95 percent of
the rural population receive their drinking water from ground-water resources.
GROUND-WATER POLLUTION
The implication of allowing ground-water resources to become polluted
cannot be overstated. Air poWution has a residence time usually measured in
hours, while in streams and rivers it is considered in terms of days. Even in
surface reservoirs where pollution residence is measured in months, the impli-
cations fall far short of ground-water reservoirs where pollutants are likely
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to remain for decades or perhaps centuries. Consequently, the restoration of
a contaminated ground-water resource is lengthy and expensive at best and
difficult, if not impossible, at worst.
The very core of understanding the fate of pollutants in the sursurface
environment is a complete understanding of the subsurface environment as a
pollution receptor. This environment is a horrendously complex area in which
the geologic matrix varies greatly in both the vertical and horizontal direc-
tions. In this zone there exists tremendous surface areas available for the
sorption of pollutional parameters. These surfaces provide long retention
periods during which time many physical, chemical, and biochemical alterations
may take place in an environment where nutrients, moisture, temperature, pH,
oxidation-reduction potential, and the numbers and species of biological life
vary markedly within only short distances. The dilemma is compounded with
the realization that the parent pollutant as well as its myriad of degrada-
tion products must be accounted for in their movement through this complex
environment.
Contamination of ground water rarely occurs in a dramatic fashion. There-
fore, continuous monitoring near a suspected source of contamination can pro-
duce a false sense of security while, in fact, the clandestine movement of
pollutants is relentlessly proceeding. The diffuse and diverse nature of
ground-water pollution further compounds the problems of control and
abatement.
There are three basic mechanisms by which ground water can become con-
taminated. The first occurs only after pollutants have traversed the soil-
vegetation matrix overlying and providing a measure of protection for
subsurface waters. The second can occur when pollutants are directly intro-
duced to ground water, as through well disposal or construction of waste
disposal facilities (landfills, septic tank laterals, lagoons, etc.), within
the water table itself. The third results from hydraulic or chemical alter-
ations which allow polluting substances to move within or between aquifers.
Four reports have been completed (1, 2, 3, 4) which, among other things,
presented by priority the major ground-water pollution problems within those
parts of the Country covered. Table 1 presents the ten most prevalent
problems as excerpted from those reports.
It can be seen from Table 1 that many of the most prevalent ground-water
pollution problems portend the addition of nutrients, bacteria, and viruses
to ground-water supplies. These are the pollutional parameters with which
this report will specifically deal.
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Table 1. PRIORITY SOURCES OF GROUND-WATER POLLUTION
Southwest
South Central
Northeast
Northwest
1. Natural Leaching Natural Pollution
2. Irrigation Return Flow Oil Field Brine
3. Sea Water Encroachment Well Construction
4. Solid Wastes
5. Disposal of Oil Field
Brines
6. Animal Wastes
7. Accidental Spills--
Hazardous Materials
8. Water from Fault Zones
and Volcanic Origin
9. Evapotranspiration
from Native Vegetation
10. Injection Wells for
Waste Disposal
Overpumping
Irrigation Return
Flow
Land Application of
Wastes
Solid Wastes
Septic Tanks and Cesspools Septic Systems
Buried Pipelines and
Storage Tanks
Highway Deicing Salts
Landfills
Surface Impoundments
Spills and Surface
Discharges
Mining Activity
Evapotranspiration from Petroleum Exploration and
Native Vegetation Development
Animal Wastes
Waste Lagoons
Salt Water Intrusion
River Infiltration
Sewage Treatment
Plant Discharges
Irrigation Return
Flow
Dry Land Farming
Abandoned Oil Wells
and Test Wells
Brine Injection
Disposal Wells
Surface Impoundments
Mine Drainage and
Mine Tailings
Urban and Industrial
Landfi11s
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NUTRIENTS IN GROUND WATER
For purposes of this report, phosphorus and the compounds of nitrogen
will be used to describe categorically the potential of ground-water contami-
nation by nutrients. A dissertation covering all of the materials that might
serve as a nutrient to all forms of life would be quite beyond the scope of
this writing. Nevertheless, phosphorus and nitrogen serve well to describe
the fate of such substances in the subsurface due to their diverse behavior
in this environment.
PHOSPHORUS
The fate of phosphorus in the subsurface environment is dependent upon
two factors. The first is concerned with the residual phosphorus concentra-
tion in the soil solution which is controlled by the solubility of naturally-
occurring phosphate minerals. The second factor is the soil's capacity to
sorb phosphorus and the kinetics of this reaction. Generally, phosphorus
compounds entering the subsurface environment do not present a great threat
to ground-water quality. At least this could not be considered a high
priority in the protection of ground-water quality.
In the presence of iron, aluminum, manganese, and calcium cations phos-
phorus compounds become relatively insoluble mineral components of the soil
matrix. These reactions are dependent upon a number of factors among which
pH is one of the most important in the subsurface environment. Figure 1 (5)
provides a qualitative description of the fate of phosphorus compounds in soils
versus pH. With some knowledge of the type of soil encountered and pH, it is
possible to make some judgment as to the fate of phosphorus in this environment.
Two additional factors must be considered when phosphorus compounds are intro-
duced to the soils. There must be adequate time for these reactions to take
place, and care must be taken that the sorptive capacity of the soil is not
exceeded. In a great many cases these limitations should not present particu-
lar difficulties with respect to ground-water contamination. There are, how-
ever, circumstances where consideration should be given to assure that adequate
soil types and depths are available to provide sufficient time and sorptive
capacity.
There are cases where impermeable rocks lie near the surface with very
thin soil cover. The application of phosphorus-containing wastes in these
types of geology could result in the contamination of nearby streams. Frac-
tured rocks under similar conditions could allow phosphorus compounds to
travel considerable distances in the ground water to discharge to surface
waters or to reach water supply wells.
The ability of soils to sorb phosphorus is often measured in terms of the
equilibrium isotherms of Langmuir or Freundlich (6). Although these equations
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Soluble Forms
Z
o
h-
0_
or
o
to
>
I-
LJ
a:
Sorption
By Hydrous
Oxides of Iron
Aluminum S Mongonese
Sorption
By Calcium
Reaction
With
Silicate
Minerals
Sorption
By Soluble
Fe, Al, a Mn
I
pH
Figure 1; Fate of phosphorus compounds in soils
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assume that equilibrium is reached instantaneously, they can be helpful for
many purposes. Non-equilibrium models (7) may be necessary when considering
the long-term sorptive capacity of soils in large projects such as the
application of wastes to the soil by spray irrigation or soil infiltration.
NITROGEN
Many sources of potential ground-water contamination contain organic and
inorganic forms of nitrogen. It is generally believed that the organic frac-
tion is bound either by sorption on the soil matrix or is incorporated in the
cellular material of the resident biological community. Of course, these are
kinetic reactions wherein microbial utilization, sorption, and degradation
are continuing processes until eventual stabilization is reached.
These are extremely complex reactions which are further complicated by
being in an environment which is itself complex. The subsurface environment
changes radically within only short distances either vertically or horizontally.
These changes in the soil matrix, its moisture content, the availability of
nutrient material, oxygen, and the numbers and species of biological life
probably keep organic compounds and their degradation products in a continual
and lethargic state of flux.
There has been little research concerning the movement of organic nitro-
gen compounds in the subsurface environment. It can only be postulated that
if these compounds or their products of degradation do move to great extents
through the unsaturated zone such movement would likely be very slow. Once
they have reached the saturated zone or water table their potential to
contaminate wells or other points of discharge would be entirely speculative.
Most concern and, therefore, most research on the fate of nitrogen com-
pounds in the subsurface environment is directed toward nitrate and nitrite
ions. Usually this concern is associated with methemoglobinemia in infants
and ruminants. In addition, there is evidence that high nitrate water can
cause chemical diarrhea in humans and a number of maladies in livestock,
including thyroid problems, rickets, enteritis, arthritis, and general poor
health. That nitrate and particularly nitrite might react in the human
stomach with secondary amines (from cooked food) to form nitrosamines, some
of which are highly carcinogenic, is a possibility currently under investi-
gation by various research groups.
An abundance of recent literature suggests that the nitrate problem in
ground water is more widespread than was previously noted. As might be
expected, many reports of local contamination have been related to septic
tanks, irrigation practices, animal feedlots, and the land disposal of wastes,
only to name a few. There have also been reports of nitrate contamination
well over 100 mg/1 in remote pasture areas where they could not be attributed
to the activities of man. The most probable source of this natural nitrate is
the degradation of vegetation accompanied by climatic and land use patterns
which allow its concentration below the normal root zone.
In many instances the presence or absence of ground-water nitrates is
paradoxical. Nitrates can be found where least expected and be in IQW con-
centrations or missing in areas where they would seem most likely to exist in
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high quantities. As mentioned above, very high natural concentrations can be
found if the correct combination of climatic and land use patterns exists (8).
Organic nitrogen may be converted by microbial processes to ammonia, which can
be lost to the atmosphere by vaporization, retained by the soil, or oxidized,
principally by chemoautotrophic bacteria, to nitrite and finally nitrate. The
oxidative process may be essentially reversed under anaerobic conditions by
facultative and obligately anaerobic chemoorganotrophic bacteria, provided
nutrients and organic matter sufficient for the matabolic activities of these
microbes are present. This is called denitrification and results in the con-
version of nitrate to nitrogen gas which usually finds its way to the
atmosphere.
Although denitrification provides a means for nitrate removal and has
been used as such for surface waters, it is not presently known if this is a
feasible technique for in situ ground water. Those cases where nitrate has
been reduced in ground water have resulted more from good fortune rather than
a planned control program.
Control measures are associated in operations where waste is applied to
the land. Spray irrigation, for example, is based on the premise that the
nutrient uptake by plants will be efficient under a proper hydraulic and
nutrient loading, generally in the neighborhood of two inches per week during
the growing season. Soil infiltration systems count on denitrification by
loadings sufficient to create an anaerobic environment within the soil matrix.
These loadings are about 2-3 feet per week with proper rest periods between
applications to prevent biological growths from plugging the soil. The proper
use of septic tank systems must rely on an installation density low enough to
limit the amount of nitrates entering ground water. Work is under way now at
Texas A&M to determine the allowable septic tank density for various geologic
conditions.
Once an aquifer is contaminated only dilution, proper aquifer selection,
or well construction can be used with assurance to control the concentration of
nitrates in drinking water. Although nitrates can be removed from wastewater
by algae ponds, ion exchange, ammonia stripping, microbial denitrification, and
electrodialysis, these techniques are generally not feasible in many instances.
The prevention of ground-water contamination would seem to be the most economi-
cal course. The most interesting and promising new technology for identifying
"the source of nitrate contamination makes use of the stable isotope ratios of
nitrogen. The technique has been used to differentiate between natural and
several man-made sources of nitrate contamination in ground water.
BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
The pollutional potential of bacteria and viruses in ground water is
essentially equatable to their time of survival and the distances they might
traverse during this time. The time of survival and the distance traveled is
dependent on the organisms' abilities to overcome various environmental
obstacles.
Some factors affecting the survival of bacteria and viruses in surface
aquatic environments are relatively unimportant in soil and ground waters.
-------
Bacteria and viruses are generally tolerate of the pH, temperature, and
osmotic conditions existing in soil and non-saline ground-water aquifers.
Other factors are important, however. The survival of bacteria is en-
hanced by increased soil moisture and organic matter which can serve as a
food source.
The survival of bacteria can be altered by predators such as protozoa.
Some soil organisms produce antibiotics such as actinomycin and streptomycin
which kill susceptible bacteria. The action of bacteriophages on bacteria in
water and soil reduce the survival time of susceptible bacteria.
As in other environments, the ability of different organisms to survive
in ground water will vary. Coliforms were chosen as indicators of fecal
pollution in surface waters because of their ability to survive longer than
most enteric pathogens. However, some preliminary studies indicate that the
lack of demonstrable coliform levels in ground waters may not preclude the
presence of pathogens, especially viruses.
The removal of bacteria and viruses by passage through soil is now thought
to be primarily due to adsorption onto the soil particles, as well as physical
removal by filtration.
Bacteria and viruses vary greatly in size and shape. This variance ob-
viously affects their mobility in the sense of their physical filterability.
Figure 2 provides a graphical comparison of several microorganisms ranging
from an amoeba and bacterial to the poliomyelitis virus, a size differential
of over three orders of magnitude.
In highly fractured limestone or basaltic geology, it is conceivable that
many microorganisms could travel great distances provided they were in an
environment conducive to their survival. In consolidated sands only the
smaller viruses could be expected to travel any appreciable distance without
being physically filtered.
The factors affecting adsorption by soils of bacteria and viruses are not
very well understood. The type of soil is important—a soil such as clay with
a large surface area per unit of volume being best.
Bacteria and viruses may survive for long periods after being adsorbed.
This is potentially important since the adsorption may be reversible.
Generally, it has been assumed that within reasonable distances micro-
organisms will be removed from waters percolating or moving through consoli-
dated or unconsolidated media such as sands, loams, or clays, but the validity
of this assumption requires further investigation, particularly in the case of
viruses. In fractured rocks both bacteria and viruses may travel for great
distances.
Although certain speculations have been made here, there has not been a
sufficient amount of knowledge accumulated on the survival of bacteria and
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Entomoebo histolytico (Amebic
Dysentery Amoeba) 20ju x 25ju
Escherichia coli (Indicator
Bacterium) 0.5/j x I.Oju x 2.0>u
Solmonello typhoso (Typhoid
Fever Bacterium)
0.6 ju x 0.7/j x 2.5/1
—« Shigello sp. (Bacillary
Dysentery Bacterium)
0.4/1 x 0.6/j x 2.5ju
Psittacosis Virus
0.25ju
Bacteriophage Virus
O.l/i
Poliomyelitis Virus
O.OI/J
Figure 2. Size comparison of microorganisms,
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particularly viruses in ground water. Increased stresses on this environment
such as the application of wastes to the land and lagoons and landfills of
one nature or another will undoubtedly require additional knowledge now or in
the near future.
10
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SOURCES OF EXPERTISE
The following are offered as direct sources of information for the
subjects contained herein. They are not suggested as the sole source or
necessarily the world's leading authorities. They are, however, researchers
working in the areas described who possess the current state-of-knowledge on
the subjects themselves and who through their associations can provide addi-
tional references which should provide sufficient information in answer to
the most detailed questions.
NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS
P. F. Pratt
University of California
Riverside, California 92507
(714/787-5102)
Carl G. Enfield
Wastewater Management Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405/332-8800)
Herman Bouwer
U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory
Agricultural Research Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
4331 East Broadway
Phoenix, Arizona 85040
(602/261-4356)
BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
James F. McNabb
Ground Water Research Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405/332-8800)
11
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LAND TREATMENT OF WASTES
Richard E. Thomas
Wastewater Management Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405/332-8800)
SEPTIC TANKS
Kirk W. Brown
Assistant Professor of Soil Physics
Texas A&M Research Foundation
Post Office Box Faculty Exchange H
College Station, Texas 77843
(713/845-5251)
James F. Kreissl
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513/684-7614)
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
James P. Law
Source Management Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405/332-8800)
Ronald G. Menzil, Location Leader
USDA-ARS Water Quality Management Laboratory
Route #2, Box 322A
Durant, Oklahoma 74701
(405/924-5066)
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
William J. Dunlap
Ground Water Research Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405/332-8800)
12
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following references are offered as supplementary reading material
to these areas of discussion. They are taken from work accomplished by
General Electric, TEMPO (9) under contract with the Environmental Protection
Agency's Office of Monitoring Systems.
NUTRIENTS
1. Anonymous. Fertilizers and Feedlots—What Role in Groundwater Pollution?
Agricultural Research, 18(6):14-15. 1969.
2. Ayers, R. S., and R. L. Branson (editors). Nitrates in the Upper Santa
Ana River Basin in Relation to Groundwater Pollution. Calif. Agric. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 861, 59 pp. May 1973.
3. Black, C. A. Behavior of Soil and Fertilizer Phosphorus in Relation to
Water Pollution. In: Agricultural Practices and Water Quality, T. L.
Willrich and G. E. Smith, eds. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, pp. 72-93.
1970.
4. Blancher, R. W., and C. VI. Kao. Effects of Recent and Past Phosphate
Fertilization on the Amount of Phosphorus Percolating Through Soil
Profiles into Subsurface Waters. Project Completion Report, Missouri
Water Resources Research Center, Columbia, 106 pp. July 1971.
5. California Bureau of Sanitary Engineering. Occurrence of Nitrate in
Ground Water Supplies in Southern California. California State Dept. of
Public Health, 7 pp. February 1963.
6. California Dept. of Water Resources. Delano Nitrate Investigation.
Bulletin 143-6, 42 pp. 1968.
7. Crabtree, J. H. Nitrate Variation in Groundwater. Supplementary Report,
Wisconsin Univ., Madison Water Resources Center, 60 pp. 1970.
8. Dawes, J. H., et al. Nitrate Pollution of Water. In: Frontiers of
Conservation, Proceedings of 24th Annual Meeting of the Soil Conserva-
tion Soc. of Amer., Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, pp. 94-102. 1970.
9. Engberg, R. A. The Nitrate Hazard in Well Water With Special Reference
to Holt County, Nebraska. Nebraska Water Survey Paper 21, Conservation
and Survey Div., Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, 18 pp. 1967.
10. Environment Staff Report. Poisoning the Wells. Environment, 11(1):
16-23, 45. 1969.
13
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11. Goldberg, M. C. Sources of Nitrogen in Water Supplies. In: Agricultural
Practices and Water Quality, T. L. Willrich and G. E. Smith (eds.), Iowa
State Univ. Press, Ames, pp. 94-124. 1970.
12. Keeny, D. R. Nitrates in Plants and Waters. Jour, of Milk and Food
Technology, 33(10):425-432. 1970.
13. Kimnel, G. E. Nitrogen Content of Ground Water in Kings County, Long
Island, NY. Geological Survey Research 1972, U.S. Geological Survey
Prof. Paper 800-D. 1972.
14. Lance, J. C. Nitrogen Removal by Soil Mechanisms. Jour, of Water
Pollution Control Fed., 44(7):1352-1361. 1972.
15. Larson, T. E., and L. M. Henley. Occurrence of Nitrate in Well Waters.
Research Report 1, Univ. of Illinois Water Resources Center, 8 pp. 1966.
16. Miller, J. C. Nitrate Contamination of the Water-Table Aquifer in
Delaware. Report of Investigations No. 20, Delaware Geological Survey,
Newark, 36 pp. May 1972.
17. Murphy, S., and J. W. Gosch. Nitrate Accumulation in Kansas Groundwater.
Project Completion Report, Kansas Water Resources Research Inst., Kansas
State Univ., Manhattan, 56 pp. March 1970.
18. Navone, R., et al. Nitrogen Content of Ground Water in Southern Cali-
fornia. Jour, of Amer. Water Works Assoc., 55:615-618. 1963.
19. Nightingale, H. I. Statistical Evaluation of Salinity and Nitrate
Content and Trends Beneath Urban and Agricultural Area—Fresno,
California. Ground Water, 8(1):22-28. 1970.
20. Nightingale, H. I. Nitrates in Soil and Groundwater Beneath Irrigated
and Fertilized Crops. Soil Science, 114(4):300-311. 1972.
21. Olsen, R. J. Effect of Various Factors on Movement of Nitrate Nitrogen
in Soil Profiles and on Transformations of Soil Nitrogen. Water Resources
Center Report 1969, Univ. of Wisconsin, 79 pp. 1969.
22. Peele, T. C., and J. T. Gillingham. Influence of Fertilization and Crops
on Nitrate Content of Groundwater and Tile Drainage Effluent. Report
No. 33, Water Resources Research Inst., Clemson Univ., Clemson, S.C.,
19 pp. 1972.
23. Pratt, P. F., et al. Nitrate in Deep Soil Profiles in Relation to
Fertilizer Rates and Leaching Volume. Jour, of Environmental Quality,
1(1):97-102. 1972.
24. Pratt, P. F. Nitrate in the Unsaturated Zone Under Agricultural Lands.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-16060-DOE-04/72, Water
Pollution Control Research Series, 45 pp. April 1972.
14
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25. Schmidt, K. D. The Use of Chemical Hydrographs in Groundwater Quality
Studies. In: Hydrology and Water Resources in Arizona and the South-
west, Proceedings of Arizona Section-Amer. Water Resources Assoc. and
Hydrology Section-Arizona Academy of Science, 1:211-223. 1971.
26. Schmidt, K. D. Nitrate in Ground Water of the Fresno-Clovis Metropolitan
Area, California. Ground Water, 10(1):50-61. 1972.
27. Sepp, E. Nitrogen Cycle in Ground Water. Bureau of Sanitary Engineering,
California Dept. of Public Health, 23 pp. 1970.
28. Shaffer, M. J., et al. Predicting Changes in Nitrogenous Compounds in
Soil-Water Systems. In: Collected Papers Regarding Nitrates in Agricul-
tural Waste Waters, Federal Water Quality Admin. Water Pollution Control
Research Series 13030 ELY 12/69, pp. 15-28. December 1969.
29. Snoeyink, Y., and V. Griffin. Nitrate and Water Supply: Source and
Control. Illinois Univ., College of Engineering Publication, 195 pp.
1970.
30. Stout, P. R., et al. A Study of the Vertical Movement of Nitrogenous
Matter from the Ground Surface to the Water Table in the Vicinity of
Grover City and Arroyo Grande, San Luis Obispo County. Research Report,
Univ. of California, Davis, Dept. of Soils and Plant Nutrition, 51 pp.
January 1965.
31. Taylor, R. G., and P. D. Bigbee. Fluctuations in Nitrate Concentrations
Utilized as an Assessment of Agricultural Contamination to an Aquifer
of a Semiarid Climatic Region. Partial Completion Report 006, Mexico
Water Resources Research Institute, Las Cruces, 12 pp. August 1972.
32. U.S. Federal Water Quality Admin. Collected Papers Regarding Nitrates
in Agricultural Waste Waters. Federal Water Quality Admin. Water
Pollution Control Research Series 13030 ELY 12/69, 186 pp. December
1969.
33. Viets, F. J., and R. H. Hageman. Factors Affecting the Accumulation of
Nitrate in Soil, Water and Plants. Agriculture Handbook 413, Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 63 pp.
1971.
34. Walker, E. H. Ground-Water Resources of the Hopkinsville Quadrangle,
Kentucky. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1328, 98 pp. 1956.
35. Walker, W. H. Ground-Water Nitrate Pollution in Rural Areas. Ground
Water, ll(5):19-22. Sept.-Oct. 1973.
36. Ward, P. C. Existing Levels of Nitrates in Water—The California
Situation. In: Proceedings of 12th Sanitary Engineering Conference
on Nitrate and Water Supply: Source and Control, Univ. of Illinois,
Urbana, College of Engineering Publication, pp. 14-26. 1970.
15
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37. Willardson, L. S., et al. Drain Installation for Nitrate Reduction.
Ground Water, 8(4):11-13. 1970.
38. Willardson, L. S., et al. Nitrate Reduction with Submerged Drains.
Trans, of Amer. Soc. of Agricultural Engineers, 15(1):84-85, 90. 1972.
39. Winton, E. F., et al. Nitrate in Drinking Water: Public Health Aspects.
Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc., 63(2):95-98. 1971.
40. Witzel, S. A., et al. Nitrogen Cycle in Surface and Subsurface Waters.
Technical Completion Report, Univ. of Wisconsin, Water Resources Center,
65 pp. December 1968.
BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
41. Bigbee, P. D., and R. G. Taylor. Pollution Studies of the Regional
Ogallala Aquifer at Portales, New Mexico. Partial Completion Report
005, New Mexico Water Resources Research Inst., Las Cruces, 30 pp.
August 1972.
42. Carlson, G. F., et al. Virus Inactivation on Clay Particles in Natural
Waters. Jour, of the Water Pollution Control Fed., 40(2):R89-R106. 1968.
43. Drewry, W. A., and R. Eliassen. Virus Movement in Groundwater. Jour.
of the Water Pollution Control Fed., 40(8)Part 2:R257-R271. 1968.
44. Drewry, W. A. Virus Movement in Groundwater Systems. Report No. Pub-4,
Water Resources Research Center, Arkansas, Univ. of Fayetteville, 85 pp.
September 1969.
45. Hori, D. H., et al. Migration of Poliovirus Type 2 in Percolating Water
Through Selected Oahu Soils. Technical Report No. 36, Hawaii Water
Resources Research Center, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, 40 pp. January
1970.
46. Ritter, C., and W. J. Hausler, Jr. Yearly Variation in Sanitary Quality
of Well Water. Amer. Jour, of Public Health, 51(9):1347-1357. 1961.
47. Tanimoto, R. M., et al. Migration of Bacteriophage T4 in Percolating
Water Through Selected Oahu Soils. Technical Report No. 20, Water
Resources Research Center, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, 45 pp. June 1968.
48. Vander Velde, T. L. Poliovirus in a Water Supply. Jour, of Amer. Water
Works Assoc., 65(5):345-346. May 1974.
16
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REFERENCES
1. Fuhriman, Barton, and Associates. Ground Water Pollution in Arizona,
California, Nevada, and Utah. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Report 16060-ERU-12/71, 259 pp. December 1971.
2. Scalf, Marion R., et al. Ground Water Pollution in the South Central
States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-R2-73-268,
181 pp. June 1973.
3. Miller, David W., et al. Ground Water Contamination in the Northeast
States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-660/2-74-056,
338 pp. June 1974.
4. Miller, David W., et al. Ground Water Pollution Problems in the
Northwestern United States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Report EPA-660/3-75-018, 361 pp. May 1975.
5. Enfield, Carl G., and Bert E. Bledsoe. Fate of Wastewater Phosphorus
in Soil. Jour. Irrig. Drainage Div., Amer. Soc. of Civil Eng.,
101(IR3):145-155. September 1975.
6. 01 sen, Sterling R., and Frank S. Watanabe. A Method to Determine a
Phosphorus Adsorption Maximum of Soil as Measured by the Langmuir
Isotherm. Soil Science Society of Amer. Proceedings, 21:144-149. 1957.
7. Enfield, Carl G. Rate of Phosphorus Sorption by Five Oklahoma Soils.
Soil Science Society of Amer. Proceedings, 38:404-407. 1974.
8. Jones, David C. An Investigation of the Nitrate Problem in Runnels
County, Texas. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA-R2-73-
267, 220 pp. June 1973.
9. Todd, D. K., and D. E. McNulty. Polluted Groundwater: A Review of
the Significant Literature. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Report EPA-600/4-74-001, 216 pp. March 1974.
17
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/8-77-010
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
NUTRIENT, BACTERIAL, AND VIRUS CONTROL AS RELATED
TO GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION
5. REPORT DATE
July 1977 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
James F. McNabb, William J. Dunlap, and
Jack W. Keeley
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO,
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Lab.
Office of Research & Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
- Ada, OK
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA609
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
N/A
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Same as above.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Special
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/15
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
A general introduction provides something of the history of ground-
water, its present use, and the means by which it can become contaminated.
A priority listing of sources of ground-water contamination is presented
for four geographical areas of the United States.
Phosphorus is discussed in terms of its fate in soil systems. The fate
of organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds is also discussed giving consid-
eration to sorption and biological utilization and degradation. Criteria
important to the survival and transport of bacteria and viruses is presented
along with information concerning indicator organisms in the subsurface
environment.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Ground Water, Pollution, Bacteria,
Phosphorus inorganic compound, Viruses
Nutrients
13B
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
24
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
18 -to If- *• GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977-757-056/6504 Region No. 5-11
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