c/EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research Information [
Center
Cincinnati. Ohio 45268
Research and Development
Municipal Water
Pollution Control
Abstracts
November 1977 -
October 1978
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nsne series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5 Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6 Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and DevciopmSMi
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/9-78-036
December 1978
MUNICIPAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
ABSTRACTS
November 1977 - October 1978
by
Judith G. Kutcher
Evelyn B. Schulz
The Franklin Institute Research Laboratories
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
Grant No. R804922-01-2
Project Officer
Gilbert M. Gigliotti
Technical Information Operations Staff
Environmental Research Information Center
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Information
Center, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views
and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention
of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommenda-
tion for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
The Franklin Institute Research Laboratories, Science Information Services
Organization, prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency Volume 5 of the
Municipal Technology Bulletin, a current awareness abstracting bulletin
covering methods of municipal waste water treatment, problems of water quality,
and water pollution control. Volume 5 of the Bulletin contained abstracts
of technologically significant literature appearing in print during 1977 and
1978. Under the same grant the Science Information Services Organization, as
a center of competence on municipal waste water, provided 1320 abstracts, in-
cluding those appearing in the Bulletin, to the Water Resources Scientific
Information Center (WRSIC). The Municipal Technology Bulletin informs re-
searchers, consultants, engineers, and government officials of current devel-
opments described in more than 4000 English and non-English language scientific
and technical publications. Topics covered in the Bulletin and in the ab-
stracts submitted to WRSIC include: analytical techniques for water quality
measurements; biological, chemical, and physical methods of waste water treat-
ment, disposal, and recycling; construction and equipment for pollution con-
trol; mathematical, statistical, and simulation model studies; storm runoff;
tunnelling technology and sewer systems; and treatment plant operation and
automation. This report is a compilation of the 1320 abstracts arranged con-
secutively by accession number within subject categories. A list is provided
of the abstracts that appeared in the Municipal Technology Bulletin. The
report is completed by a journal list and subject and author indices.
Municipal Water Pollution Control Abstracts: November 1977-October 1978
is submitted in fulfillment of grant number R804922-01-2 by the Franklin In-
stitute Research Laboratories under the sponsorship of the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. Work on this project was completed as of October 31, 1978.
iii
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CONTENTS
Section Page
Abstract ±±±
Introduction 1
Municipal Technology Bulletin Abstract List 4
Municipal Water Pollution Control Abstracts 5
Storm Runoff (A001-A037) 6
Sewer Systems (B001-B115) 26
Patents (C001-C139) 82
Treatment Methods (D001-D556) 146
Analytical Techniques (E001-E205) 440
Model Studies (F001-F115) 560
Hydrologic Aspects (H001-H055) 631
Miscellaneous (J001-J098) 666
Indices 716
Author Index 717
Subject Index 725
Journal List 738
v
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INTRODUCTION
For the purpose of providing ready access to the large body of current
literature on municipal waste water collection, treatment, and disposal, the
Science Information Services Organization of the Franklin Institute Research
Laboratories has abstracted, categorized, and indexed pertinent literature ap-
pearing in print during 1977 and 1978. This service was made possible through
a grant from the Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Research and De-
velopment. Abstracts of technologically significant articles were printed in
Volume 5 of the Municipal Technology Bulletin, a monthly current awareness
abstracting publication. A total of 1320 abstracts, including the 304 appear-
ing in Volume 5, were submitted to the Water Resources Scientific Information
Center (WRSIC), Office of Water Research and Technology, Department of the In-
terior. The present report is a compilation of these 1320 abstracts and
serves as a specialized yearly bibliography on municipal waste water control.
The Municipal Technology Bulletin, Volume 5, is the outgrowth of several
preceding publications which were prepared by the Franklin Institute for the
EPA: Selected Storm Water Runoff Abstracts, 1970-1972, and the Municipal
Technology Bulletin, Volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, 1973 to 1977. These publica-
tions were designed to meet the information needs of officials, researchers,
and engineers regarding recent developments in the field while allowing them
to spend a minimum amount of time in personally scanning the literature. The
abstracts in the Municipal Technology Bulletin provide a basis for further
exploration of the relevant water resources literature.
Material for the Municipal Technology Bulletin was selected by the
regular scanning of over 4000 English and non-English language publications,
including technical journals, government reports, industrial reports, news-
letters, patent gazettes, design manuals, conference proceedings, recent dis-
sertations, and textbooks. The material was screened at the Franklin Institute
Library and several other Philadelphia libraries. Additional screening was
performed at the Franklin Institute's facilities in Munich, Germany, and Tokyo,
Japan. Each month, 25 to 30 documents pertaining to the latest waste water
technology were selected for inclusion in the Municipal Technology Bulletin.
Specific subjects covered were: (1) waste water treatment methods relating to
facilities, land application, utilization of sludge, waste water reuse, legis-
lation, plant automation, and mechanical and chemical devices; (2) sampling
and instrumentation for biological, chemical, and physical analytical tech-
niques; (3) storm water runoff, including urban runoff, runoff forecasting,
flood routing, rainfall-runoff relationships, catchment basins, and surface
runoff; (4) tunneling technology and sewer systems, including combined, sepa-
rated, outfall and interceptor sewers, storm drains, infiltration-inflow, ma-
terials, and equipment; (5) patents for methods and equipment pertaining to
waste water treatment, reuse, and disposal; (6) mathematical, statistical, and
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simulation model studies; and (7) hydrologic aspects involving parametric
hydrology, sewer hydraulics, and drainage.
In 1977 and 1978, the Municipal Technology Bulletin was distributed free
of charge on a monthly basis to 720 selected recipients whose names were sup-
plied by the EPA Project Officer, or were added to the mailing list as a re-
sult of their direct request to the Franklin Institute.
Through this EPA grant, the Franklin Institute served as a center of com-
petence for municipal waste water pollution control. Thirteen hundred and
twenty abstracts on municipal waste water treatment methods were provided to
WRSIC. These were published in Selected Water Resources Abstracts, WRSIC's
semi-monthly abstracting journal. They were also entered into the WRSIC com-
puterized data base. Literature was chosen for input to WRSIC using essen-
tially the same criteria and screening procedures as for the Municipal Tech-
nology Bulletin.
This report includes all the abstracts prepared for the Municipal Tech-
nology Bulletin and WRSIC. So that this publication may be easily used as a
specialized bibliography, an in-depth subject index is provided in a hierar-
chical, computer-generated form. A complete author index and a journal list
complement the subject index. The abstracts are ordered by consecutive acces-
sion number within each subject area. Topic headings are: Storm Runoff,
Sewer Systems, Patents, Treatment Methods, Analytical Techniques, Model
Studies, Hydrologic Aspects, and Miscellaneous. The format of each abstract
is displayed on the following page.
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ABSTRACT FORMAT
FIRL ACCESSION NUMBER
TITLE OF ARTICLE
NAME OF AUTHOR(S)
AFFILIATION OF PRIMARY AUTHOR
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA: Journal Title (source), Volume, Issue number, Pagination,
Data, Figures, Tables, References.
ABSTRACT
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MUNICIPAL TECHNOLOGY BULLETIN ABSTRACT LIST
ACCESSION NUMBERS
A002-003
A010-012
A013
A017-019
A021-024
B009-
B021-
B030-
B038-
B044-
B058-
B074-
B083-
B093-
B105-
B113-
•010
•B024
•032
•040
•047
•060
•078
•085
•098
•106
-114
C007-010
C016-019
C025-026
C037-043
C051-055
C068-072
C079-082
C093-097
Clll-114
C120-126
C128-134
C135-138
D029-034
D086-091
D156-162
D226-231
D260-263
D305-310
D369-373
D399-403
D459-462
D509-513
D544-547
D549-553
E006-010
E024-027
E052-057
E07 1-076
EO 84-089
E104-109
E125-129
E136-142
E163-167
E179-183
El 93-199
E200-205
F003-004
F008-011
F023-025
F039-040
F050-056
F059-061
F070-073
F082-087
F096-100
F106-109
Flll-115
H008-009
HOI 7-019
H027-029
H035-038
H046-048
H050-052
H054-055
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MUNICIPAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ABSTRACTS
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STORM RUNOFF
A001
SIMULATION OF NUTRIENT LOADINGS IN SURFACE RUNOFF WITH THE NFS MODEL,
Donigian, A. S., Jr., and Crawford, N. H.
Hydrocorap, Incorporated,
Palo Alto, California.
1977. 110 p, 30 fig, 8 tab, 24 ref, 3 append. Technical Report EPA-
600/3-77-065.
The Nonpoint Source Pollutant Loading (NFS) Model was evaluated for simulation
of nutrient loading in surface runoff with one urban and two small agricul-
tural watersheds. The NPS model was used to simulate total solids, total
Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and iron for storm runoff over an
18-month period. Phosphorus, total nitrogen, and iron values predicted by the
model compared favorably with observed values. Other parameters such as am-
monia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and phosphate phosphorus, which are trans-
ported in solution rather than in the sediment fraction of surface runoff,
were not predicted as accurately. The NPS model is suggested as an adequate
means of simulating nutrient loadings on the basis of sediment loss. Applica-
tion of the model may be limited if subsurface flow in the area being con-
sidered is a major portion of total runoff.
A002
ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF RELIEF SEWER DESIGN,
Graham, S.
Florida University, Gainesville,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 9, p 27-28, September, 1977. 1
fig, 7 ref.
While sewer design capacities must be adequate to handle the expansion of
urban areas, designs to accomodate the largest, most intense storms may be
prohibitively expensive. A "rational formula" is often used to compute the
maximum discharge for an arbitrary design storm, but the method may have
several drawbacks. In-system storage and surcharge can not be predicted be-
cause pipes have free surface flow. Water quality and flows in pipe networks
without steady, uniform conditions can not be measured. Problems with flood-
ing or surcharging are normally solved with pipe enlargement or twinning, al-
though these procedures are not necessarily cost-effective. Various storm
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water management models, such as SWMM and WRE, have been developed to allow
analysis of surcharge and flows through a pipe system. Although the use of
the models may require expensive data collection, actual running costs are low
and the models can be used to find the lowest cost solution to the local storm
water problem. A hypothetical example is presented to compare the cost of a
larger relief system based on the rational method and a numerical model.
A003
SOME EFFECTS OF DUSTFALL ON URBAN STORMWATER QUALITY,
Barkdoll, M. P., Overton, D. E., and Betson, R. P.
Enviro-Measure, Incorporated,
Knoxville, Tennessee.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 1976-1984,
September, 1977. 7 fig, 5 tab, 10 ref.
A watershed in the Knoxville, Tennessee, area was used to study the effects
of dustfall on urban storm water quality as predicted by two mathematical
models. The first model was a deterministic model which related the average
concentration of a constituent within a storm hydrograph to the dustfall rate-
weight/unit time, the length of time since the last storm, and the runoff vol-
ume. The second model was a parametric model which related the average con-
centration of pollutant during storm water runoff to the total available mass
of the contaminant within the watershed and to the runoff volume. Predicted
values of various storm water constituents were compared with values actually
observed at the Third Creek Watershed in Tennessee. Comparatively good pre-
diction by the models suggested that they may be useful for assessing the mag-
nitude of contaminants available and their degree of removal by runoff, for
comparing with other models based solely on street surface contaminants, and
for designing pollution control measures.
A004
SEWER PROBLEM BECOMES ASSET,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 77, October, 1977.
A storm water management program in western St. Louis County, Missouri, has
resulted in the creation of a small recreational lake in Bridgeton City Park.
The project was initiated because of problems with flooding and erosion by
storm water runoff in the park area. The 1-acre lake was created with an
earthen dam and is designed so that storm water is used to maintain an 8-ft
permanent depth. Storm water, which may increase the lake's depth to as much
as 12 ft, is slowly released in the sewer system. The storm water retention
lake and earthen dam were designed by Kenneth Balk and Associates, Inc.
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A005
INNOVATIVE SOLUTION TO STORM WATER MANAGEMENT PROBLEM,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 9, p 144, September, 1977.
Storm water detention facilities were required when the Alexandria Hospital in
Virginia decided to expand its parking facilities. WKR Partnership, an
Alexandria firm of architects and engineers, was commissioned to find a solu-
tion. The calculated required storage capacity necessary for the 5-acre site
was 6,000 cu ft at a 10-yr rainfall intensity and a release rate of 6.4 cfs.
Since detention in surface ponds, oversized pipes, concrete chambers, or
gravel interceptors was not considered feasible for the site because of prob-
lems in construction and maintenance, WKR investigated the possibility of an
underground fiberglass storage tank. Owens-Corning Fiberglass fabricated the
75-ft long, 10-ft diameter tank. The tank, which was shipped in two sections,
has a weir-containing junction box at one end to permit the desired release
rate of detained storm water. Use of the fiberglass tank resulted in savings
in cost and construction time.
A006
INTERACTION OF URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFF, CONTROL MEASURES
AND RECEIVING WATER RESPONSE,
Medina, M. A., Jr.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 861, August, 1977.
Mathematical models for the movement, decay, storage, and treatment of storm
water runoff pollutants and dry weather waste water flows through the urban
environment and receiving waters are presented. Autocorrelation analysis is
used to stochastically characterize the precipitation time and urban runoff
series produced by a continuous hydrologic simulation model. Minimum dis-
solved oxygen concentration curves are used to illustrate the effects of waste
input from wet and dry weather sources and from points upstream on receiving
waters. Frequency distributions are analyzed for input and output concentra-
tions and mass rates during single storm events and storm events recorded dur-
ing a year-long period. Flow and concentration responses of storage/treatment
systems are examined for completely-mixed systems with constant and variable
volumes, and for one-dimensional advective systems with and without disper-
sion. Detention time was found to have the greatest influence on the effect
of urban runoff on receiving waters.
A007
UNDERGROUND TANK USED FOR STORM WATER DETENTION,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 59, September, 1977.
An underground fiberglass storage tank was chosen by WKR Partnership as a
solution to storm water detention needs at the Alexandria Hospital in
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Virginia. City ordinances and existing storm water runoff problems required
the construction of storm water detention facilities when Alexandria Hospital
constructed additional parking facilities. The required storage volume for
the 5-acre site was estimated at 6,000 cu ft of water for a 10-yr rainfall in-
tensity and a release rate of 6.4 cu ft per second. Conventional methods of
storm water detention such as surface storage ponds, below-grade storage in
concrete chambers, oversized pipes, and gravel interceptors were rejected be-
cause of costs, maintenance requirements, and specific problems related to the
site. Manufactured by Owens-Corning Fiberglass, the 75-ft long, 10-ft dia
tank was shipped in two sections and was equipped with a special junction box
to control the release rate.
A008
WATER REUSE,
Chaturvedi, A. C.
Irrigation Commission,
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3 D
108-111, June, 1977. '
Because water supplies in Uttar Pradesh, India, are limited and often contami-
nated, reuse of waste water, although an expensive process, becomes attractive
because of the gain in water resources. The waste water treatment plant plans
to reclaim 17 mgd of municipal waste water for industrial cooling purposes.
Biological treatment methods are used to remove BOD; excess lime softening is
used to remove phosphates; and recarbonation is used to lower hardness. Ex-
periences with the reuse of waste water for irrigation are described. Reuse
and conservation of water used in the textile industry are suggested to lessen
the drain oh water resources of the surrounding areas. Microscreening to re-
move suspended solids from combined sewer overflows and the use of ozone to
remove color, taste, odor, and microorganisms from storm water are described.
In a pilot plant, coarse screens were used to remove large particles from waste
water before raicroscreening. Screened effluent is then fed at a controlled
rate to a continuous co-current contact chamber for ozonation. Analyses of
treated effluent indicated that ozonation resulted in reductions in all of the
contaminants except total phosphorus. The use of treated combined'sewer over-
flows is suggested for irrigation, artificial recreational lakes, and other
industrial purposes.
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A009
STORM OVERFLOW DESIGNERS NEED GREATER FEEDBACK,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4448, p 22, September, 1977.
A recent report of the Working Party on Storm Sewage (Scotland), published by
the Scottish Development Department, has suggested that although information
is sketchy, storm overflow does not appear to be a serious problem in Scot-
land. The survey by the Working Party indicated that of the 2000 storm over-
flows observed in Scotland, approximately 20% could be considered hazardous by
local authorities. The report suggested that Scottish rivers were probably
able to assimilate the storm water without adverse effects and that elimina-
tion of all storm overflows was probably not economically feasible. A series
of 10 recommendations were presented: direction of storm water to sanitary
sewers in industrial areas served by separate systems, elimination of dual
manholes, identification of existing storm and sanitary sewers, inspections
and supervision of overflows and connections to sanitary sewers, designing of
sewers and manholes to minimize blockage, and use of storage or settling
basins where feasible.
AGIO
DESIGNING RETENTION BASINS FOR SMALL LAND DEVELOPMENTS,
Kelly, H. G.
McElhanney Surveying and Engineering Limited,
Surrey, British Columbia, Canada.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 78-80, October, 1977. 3 fig, 1
tab.
An expanded model to provide design criteria for estimation of retention basin
volumes for small land development projects has been reviewed. The time of
concentration in the developed catchment basin and the attenuation of runoff
intensity with time following the instantaneous peak rate of catchment basin
discharge are incorporated. The model is recommended for use where analysis
with synthetic hydrographs is not practical and where controlled rates of dis-
charge are required. Intensity, duration, and frequency rainfall curves may
be linearized in natural or logarithmic form. An equation for the outflow
volume to the condition of peak storage in the retention basin is derived.
Equations for the volume of inflow during the period of increasing storage and
for the volume of storage are presented. The model is used in the calcula-
tion of a design for a cul-de-sac in a 7.7-acre development intended for
single family occupancy.
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A011
PLANNING FOR URBAN STORMWATER CONTROL,
Fell, W. J.
Fell Brusso Bruton and Knowles, Incorporated,
Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 90-93, October, 1977.
A method for deriving the time of concentration or the time required for water
to travel from the farthest part of a watershed to its drainage is presented
for use in calculating the shape of a storm water hydrograph. A series of
equations for expressing peak flood flows as functions of the area of the
given watershed, the slope, and the average annual precipitation is given. An
equation for the volume of flow or the area under the hydrograph is used to
derive the runoff per sq mi and the time to peak. Inches of runoff are com-
puted for recurrence intervals of 10, 25, 50, and 100 years and losses are
subtracted for depression storage, infiltration, interception, and evapotrans-
piration. The Tulsa area in Oklahoma is used to illustrate computation of
time of concentration with allowances for channel slope and length. The rela-
tionship between time of concentration, channel length, and slope is presented
graphically for 10- and 25-year storms.
A012
URBAN STORM RUNOFF MODEL,
Rovey, E. W., and Woolhiser, D. A.
CH2M Hill,
Saint Louis, Missouri.
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. HY11, p 1339-1351,
November, 1977. 8 fig, 3 tab, 12 ref.
Kinematic equations for overland flow and flow in an open channel, as well as
the derivation of an infiltration curve as a function of time from ponding and
infiltration rate, are presented. A computer model has been developed to ap-
proximate the response of a watershed to a specified rainfall event with re-
spect to overland flow on a rectangular surface, open channel flow in a trape-
zoidal channel, free surface flow in a circular conduit, and general watershed
geometry. Input required for the model includes geometric parameters esti-
mated from a topographic map of the watershed, parameters for surface resis-
tance to flow, and infiltration parameters for pervious surfaces. Overland
flow resistance coefficients are listed for various surface types. The 165-
acre Hillcrest Drain watershed in Northglenn, a suburb of Denver, Colorado, is
cited as an example of the use of the model to simulate runoff hydrographs
with input of several observed rainfall hyetographs. Simulations of three ob-
served storms were marked by underestimation of the initial peak of discharge
11
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and overestimation of the peak rate and volume, although peaking timing pre-
diction was good. For a storm which consisted of two definite pulses of rain-
fall, the first peak was underestimated while the second peak was overesti-
mated. The inability to predict the difference between actual rainfall and
all losses is suggested as contributing to the differences between actual and
computed results. Problems associated with estimation of the antecedent mois-
ture condition of the soil and with the spatial distribution of gauging sta-
tions within the watershed are discussed.
A013
EFFECTS OF STORM FREQUENCY ON POLLUTION FROM URBAN RUNOFF,
Whipple, W., Jr., Hunter, J. V., and Yu, S. L.
Water Resources Research Institute at Rutgers University,
Cook College Campus,
New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2243-2248,
November, 1977. 8 fig, 5 ref.
Since one of the basic assumptions of SWMM, the EPA's storm water management
model, is that the pollution loading from urban runoff in a given storm varies
with the length of time elapsed since the preceding rainfall, studies were
conducted to test the assumption. A highly urbanized part of the Saddle River
watershed in New Jersey was chosen as a test area for various methodologies to
evaluate pollution from urban runoff. Heavy metal concentrations were mea-
sured in samples taken at 5-minute intervals throughout storm hydrographs of a
number of events. Samples collected along three tributaries of the Saddle
River were also analyzed for BOD, total phosphates, and suspended solids. The
data suggested that there is a tendency for storm loadings of heavy metals to
increase with total runoff during the storm, although no variation was ob-
seryed^with respect to the number of days since the preceding rainfall. The
variation in phosphates with respect to the number of days elapsed since the
last storm event was significantly different for each of the tributaries,
ranging from a slightly positive correlation to a negative one. Suspended
solids concentrations tended to decrease with the time elapsed since the last
rainfall, but BOD concentrations did not exhibit comparable trends. Although
the data reported were not sufficiently exhaustive to negate SWMM's basic
assumption, serious doubt in the model's validity is expressed.
12
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A014
STORM SEWAGE OVERFLOWS,
Tottill, P. R.
Department of the City Engineer,
Liverpool City Council,
Liverpool, England.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, Vol. 104, No. 10, p 181-186, October, 1977. 6
fig, 18 ref.
Because flow in combined sewers can increase by 50 times during wet weather,
it is frequently necessary to use a storm overflow chamber to decrease the
load on sewers further downstream. Available storm overflow chambers include
the high side weir, the stilling pond, and vortex overflows. Most research
and development has been concentrated on improving conventional types of over-
flow treatment equipment. Some more recent developments show promise, but are
relatively untried. The normal choice will be either a stilling pond or a
high side weir with provisions for storage. Further research on the vortex
overflow could produce an improved, more compact overflow chamber. Because
small changes in an overflow chamber can affect performance considerably,
model tests are important in designing an overflow chamber. The re-establish-
ment of a technical committee to review research conducted since 1971 is re-
commended.
A015
WORKING PARTY ON THE HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS,
Chartered Municipal Engineer, Vol. 104, No. 10, p 189-190, October, 1977.
New procedures for designing storm sewers and a design practice manual are be-
ing developed. The Working Party on the Hydraulic Design pf Storm Sewers in
England came into existence in March 1974. A pilot study found no systematic
relationship between movement of intense rainfall and winds. Computer pro-
grams are being developed to simulate the hydraulic behavior of storm sewer
systems. The improved design methods will probably include means of choosing
appropriate values for rainfall data for calculation of the peak discharge for
a required return period. More realistic modelling of above-ground hydrology
and storm water flow in the sewer system is being developed. The design prac-
tice manual is expected to be available in 1979. The working party maintains
communication with other organizations involved in setting standards for sewer
design.
13
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A016
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE FOR URBAN STORM AND COMBINED SEWER POLLUTION CONTROL,
Murphy, C. B., Jr., Drehwing, F. J., Jordan, T. A.., and Carleo, D. J.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 81, November, 1977.
Since non-point sources are major contributors of urban water pollution, in-
terest has been directed toward the control of storm water and combined sewer
overflow discharges. The application of Best Management Practices (BMP) has
been suggested as a rational and cost-effective solution to the abatement of
both storm water and combined sewer overflow. Surface flow attenuation, por-
ous pavement, erosion control, restrictions on chemical usage, land-use plan-
ning, and improved sanitation practices are suggested as abatement measures in
source management. Collection system management alternatives include:
inflow/infiltration control', improved system regulation and control, polymer
addition for friction reduction, and collection system maintenance programs.
Conventional vacuum sweepers have been recommended for removing the light
fraction of total suspended solids from storm water. Hydraulic analyses of
the collection system are recommended for a program of collection system
management.
A017
AUTOMATIC CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR URBAN STORMWATER,
Trotta, P. D., Labadie, J. W., and Grigg, N. S.
Northern Arizona University,
Flagstaff,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. HY12, p 1442-1459,
December, 1977. 5 fig, 4 tab, 22 ref.
The efficiencies of automatic control strategies for sewage treatment plants
were compared under simulated storm conditions. The control methods were ana-
lyzed using the San Francisco Master Plan as the treatment plant case study.
Reactive control, adaptive control with limited forecast or with quadratic ob-
jective, and stochastic adaptive control with quadratic objective or with
linear objective were compared according to their ability to predict storm
water quantity and quality and to control overflow. Storm water inflows to
subbasins, calculated over 20-min intervals for 3-1/3 hrs of the simulated
storms' duration, ranged 1-1,500 cu ft/sec. The results of the simulation
showed that a certain degree of storm prediction by control strategies was
necessary for overflow control. Reactive control was the least effective sys-
tem for the prevention of overflow tested, while adaptive control with limited
forecast proved to be the safest. When the risk of forecast errors in the
other three control strategies was taken into consideration, limited forecast
provided better results because of the high degree of forecast error associ-
14
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ated with stochastic adaptive control with linear objective. Stochastic adap-
tive control with quadratic objective proved effective even with a high degree
of error in prediction. A hierarchical algorithm was designed for an auto-
matic control system.
A018
HIGH WATER DISCHARGING OR RAIN BASINS? (Hochwasserentlastungen odor
Regenbecken?),
Munz, W.
EAWAG,
Duebendorf, West Germany.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 12, p 861-868, 1977. 5 fig, 2 tab, 8 ref.
Criteria used in Switzerland for the selection of storm water storage tanks
and combined sewer overflow facilities are discussed. Although the installa-
tion of stand-by storage tanks is not required for facilities whose capacities
are only exceeded during intense storms, stand-by storage facilities are re-
commended for reducing the load on the treatment plant during wet weather.
The effects of the volume of storm water storage tanks and the maximum flow
rate towards the treatment plant are evaluated with respect to the magnitude
of the combined sewer overflow. Several storm water and treatment configura-
tions currently in use in Switzerland are reviewed. A formula which considers
the degree of protection required for receiving waters is presented for the
selection of design capacities and storage volumes for storm water treatment
facilities.
A019
EVALUATION OF STORM WATER ROUTEING MODELS,
Zaghoul, N. A.
Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers (London), Vol. 63, Part 2, p
925-933, December, 1977. 6 fig, 9 ref.
Three storm water transport routing systems were compared. The Dorsch hydro-
graph volume method (HVM), the Water Resources Engineers' model (WRE), and the
storm water management model (SWMM) were evaluated using the same runoff inlet
hydrographs. The three models were tested in simulation studies with the
Bannatyne combined sewer watershed in Winnipeg, Ontario, Canada. The 542-
acre Bannatyne watershed was divided into 41 subcatchraents, ranging in size
from 5 to 23 acres and in imperviousness from 23 to 75%. Transport routes
were compared under normal flow conditions. Outflow hydrographs predicted by
the models were compared to the outflow hydrographs recorded during a storm of
low intensity and long duration and during a storm of medium intensity and
short duration. The evaluation indicated that the SWMM model..was not as ac-
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curate under surcharge conditions and should be used primarily in studies of
storm water management and planning. The Dorsch HVM and WRE models provided
more realistic storm sewer network designs.
A020
INFILTRATION FORMULA BASED ON SCS CURVE NUMBER,
Aron, G., Miller, A. C., Jr., and Lakatos, D. F.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. IR4, p
419-427, December, 1977. 3 fig, 4 tab, 9 ref, 1 append.
An equation for determining infiltration based on rainfall, runoff, and soil
water storage capacity is presented as an alternative to Hortons Law. The in-
filtration equation utilizes United States Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
runoff equations and soil curve numbers. The SCS formula for cumulative in-
filtration is dependent upon hydrologic soil complex curve numbers, which are
based on soil permeability and land use, and soil water storage capacity. The
infiltration equation based on the SCS formula is used to determine the cumu-
lative infiltration as a function of soil characteristics and antecedent in-
filtration. The equation is reported to be adaptable to computer models and
to eliminate the need for extensive on-site field tests because of the SCS
soil properties and curve numbers used.
A021
CHARACTERIZATION AND IMPACT OF STORMWATER RUNOFF FROM VARIOUS LAND COVER TYPES,
Rimer, A. E., Nissen, J. A., and Reynolds, D. E.
Wiggins-Rimer and Associates,
Durham, North Carolina.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 252-264,
February, 1978. 7 fig, 7 tab.
On-site investigations of the effects of regional land use on storm water run-
off and surface water quality were conducted by the Triangle J Council of
Governments of the Piedmont region of North Carolina under a grant authorized
by Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Sampling stations
were erected in streams draining representative land use types, including:
low activity rural, high activity rural, low activity residential, high activ-
ity residential, low activity commercial, high activity commercial, and
urban. In addition, four total load sampling stations and 11 rainfall gauges
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were established in the region. Non-point sources of storm water runoff were
delineated by analyses of suspended solids, phosphorus, COD, lead, and dis-
solved oxygen concentrations in the water samples. A comparison of average
peak concentrations of the contaminants with the type of land use indicated
that pollution by non-point sources increased proportionally with respect to
the amount of impervious land. Sampling stations in the streams were used to
monitor temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, and pH. A sig-
nificant decrease in dissolved oxygen levels in the streams was observed after
storm events. Point sources were found to have a greater impact on dissolved
oxygen levels than non-point sources. The concentrations of suspended solids,
total phosphorus, and lead in streams after a storm event were frequently in
excess of 1983 water quality standards for the Triangle J 208 region.
A022
URBAN STORM WATER MANAGEMENT,
Moore, K. W.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 2, p 18, 20, February, 1978. 1 fig.
The integration of storm water management into land use and urban sewerage
planning is discussed. A study of a large drainage area indicated the need
for more grassland and a storm water reservoir to bring about a 50% reduction
in the quantity of runoff and a significant decrease in BOD and suspended
solids. Assessment of drainage areas can result in a reduction of peak dis-
charge and pollutant loading of receiving waters. Storm water management re-
quires the identification of problems, a review of the existing system, and
evaluation of the effects of storm drainage and runoff which might influence
the development of rural property. The control of pollution sources, erosion,
and flooding, and storm water treatment should be implemented. Data on storm
water control and economic alternatives should be collected. Storm water
treatment and flow control can be achieved by the use of ponds, settling and
storage tanks, sewer inlet controls, gate and weir controls, and swirl concen-
trators. Computer programs are also available for the prediction of storm
water levels.
A023
EFFECTS OF UNRECORDED POLLUTION FROM URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFF ON BENTHIC MACRO-
INVERTEBRATES OF THE GREEN RIVER, MASSACHUSETTS,
Pratt, J. M.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 8, p 3614, 1978.
The impact of pollutant-bearing runoff on benthic microinvertebrates was eval-
uated in a year-long investigation of the urban and non-urban areas of the
Green River in Massachusetts. General water sample analyses showed that wet
weather runoff levels were not usually biologically limiting. One sampling
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station was located above the primary urban area and five stations were estab-
lished downstream from it. Using the Brillouin species diversity index, the
urban mean diversity of collections declined from 4.4 to 3.0 in a downstream
direction, while the upstream collection averaged 4.7. Collections in the
spring were the most diverse. Diptera, Ephemeroptera, and Trichoptera were
the dominant species in the upstream samples. The downstream urban samples
showed high diversities of Diptera, Oligochaeta, and Gastropoda, with lower
densities of Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera. Pollution-sensitive taxa were re-
placed by forms more tolerant of urban runoff; species dissimilarity was ob-
served in samples obtained farther downstream. Pollution-sensitive species
indicated that urban runoff disrupted the biota, particularly during summer
periods of low flow. Urban runoff disruption appeared to be localized in the
riverbed.
A024
RAPID CITY COMBATS THE EFFECTS OF URBAN RUNOFF ON SURFACE WATER,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 48-53, February, 1978. 11 fig, 2
tab, 15 ref.
Urban runoff from a 2.70-sq mi watershed in Rapid City, South Dakota, was ex-
amined with respect to the pollutant loading on surface waters. COD, total
suspended solids, volatile suspended solids, total and soluble phosphorus, and
specific conductance were measured in samples collected during 15 urban runoff
events over a five-month period. The COD content of the samples averaged 230
rag/liter. Other mean parameter values included: 2,564 mg suspended solids/
liter; 225 mg volatile suspended solids/liter; 0.23 mg total phosphorus/liter;
0.11 mg soluble phosphorus/liter; and 365 microohms/cm specific conductance.
Maximum parameter concentrations were observed in samples collected at the be-
ginning of urban runoff events; high concentrations were found in peak flow
samples. Additional studies evaluated the pollutant loading of the test
watershed by a secondary sewage treatment plant discharging 7.5 mgd into the
groundwater. A second watershed in the Rapid City area was sampled for urban
runoff and used as a comparison to the test site watershed.
A025
LONDON'S STORMWATER PROBLEM,
Horner, R. W., Wood, L. B., and Wroe, L. R.
Department of Public Health Engineering,
Greater London Council,
England.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 146-151, 1977. 2 fig, 3 tab, 3 ref.
Methods of controlling storm water runoff into the river system in London,
England, are reviewed. The London area is divided into six river basin dis-
18
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tricts containing more than 200 storm outfalls. The average municipal sewage
flows from the six districts range 22-339 mgd with standard storm water flows
of 22-327 mgd transported to treatment centers. A maximum of 603 mgd of storm
water runoff flows into the river system in the Central London district.
Monitoring equipment has been installed in the six districts to measure the
impact of yearly storm water flows and effective oxygen loads of storm ef-
fluent on the River Thames and its tributaries. Storm water discharges into
the Thames can deplete the dissolved oxygen content of the river water, de-
pending upon the volume, quality, and discharge point of the storm water and
the oxygen content of the river at the time of the storm. The state of the
tide is a factor relative to the direction and speed of the storm water. Ef-
fective oxygen loads of the districts' water systems, during a standard storm,
range 23-294 tons. Rapid storm water removal and storm water storage for
gradual discharge are suggested for controlling storm water runoff into the
Thames. Short retention of storm overflow with sedimentation and aeration at
a sewage treatment plant is also being considered.
A026
SIMPLE METHODS FOR RAINFALL-RUNOFF-PROCESS. RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH CURVES FOR RAIN
AND MIXED WATER CANALS (Einfache Mode lie fuer Niederschlag-Abfluss-Prozesse.
Abflussganglinien fuer Regen und Mischwasserkanaele),
Schulz, H. W. P.
Wasser und Boden, Vol. 30, No. 1, p 2-5, 1978. 7 fig, 3 ref.
Runoff retention and runoff hydrograph curves were derived from rainfall cur-
curves on the basis of translation and retention of water as applied to sewer
system design. The basic models, integrated by means of hyperbolic functions,
are suitable for engineering calculations. They are also more flexible than
the summation curve and time constant methods.
A027
CALCULATION OF FLOW RESTRICTION LENGTHS FOR RAIN OVERFLOW AND BASINS
(Berechnung der Drosselstrecke von Regenueberlaeufen und Regenbecken),
Munz, W.
EAWAG,
Duebendorf, West Germany.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 12, p 869-875, 1977. 10 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
A hydraulic study of the flow of water through a pipe culvert toward a treat-
ment plant is applied to the limitation of storm water overflow conditions in
a rain basin. The relationship of the inlet level to the culvert is calcu-
lated according to the difference in water flow heights before and after the
culvert inlet. Positioning of the weir is dependent upon the upstream flow
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velocity in the incoming sewer. The height should allow an incoming velocity
high enough to prevent sedimentation in the pipe. By simulating these flow
conditions, unfavorable oscillations in the pipe can be avoided and proper
flow established. By restricting these flow conditions in the culvert, self-
priming action in the culvert may be controlled.
A028
CITY STORM SEWERS DUG IN CLOSE QUARTERS,
Highway and Heavy Construction, Vol. 121, No. 2, p 87, February, 1978.
A hydraulic backhoe was utilized in a storm sewer construction project which
required excavation in the proximity of buildings, trees and other objects.
The RH 12 backhoe, equipped with a 48-inch bucket, was employed to excavate
4-5 ft wide trenches at depths ranging 3-16 ft for the installation of storm
sewers and underdrains in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania. The hydraulic backhoe was
required to dig through alluvial deposits, hard rock, pavement, concrete, and
asphalt for the laying of 12-36 inch reinforced concrete storm conduits.
Blasting of hard rock was occasionally necessary before excavation by the RH
12 hydraulic backhoe. The excavation time logged by the backhoe for several
thousand feet of storm drain installation amounted to 450 hrs. The project
also included the construction of sidewalks, driveway aprons, concrete curbs
and gutters, asphalt paving, and landscaping.
A029
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL DEVELOPED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 1, p 20, January, 1978.
University of Toronto's Department of Civil Engineering has developed a com-
puter program to analyze storm water overflow characteristics under multi-
storm conditions. The program model, called RAFFI, simulates the conditions
of storm water runoff in a sewer system in one or more watershed areas during
one or more storms. The computer model simplifies storm runoff measurement
and also expands the capabilities of other programs. The computer analysis
has been reduced from the conventional $300-400 for a six hour event to
$15-20/computer run for a 6-month record. RAFFI monitors frequency, duration,
volume, and pollution parameters of the overflows, including those which reach
water bodies during storm runoff. Because the program's model simulates the
overall performance of a sewer system during storm conditions, potential solu-
tions to overflow problems are more readily available. The program model can
be used in conjunction with more detailed models such as the Water Resources
Engineers Model or the Hydrograph Volume Model.
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A030
NEW FACILITY HELPS CLEAN UP BOSTON HARBOR,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 62-63, April, 1978. 1 fig.
The $6.7 million Pollution Abatement and Flood Control Facility, constructed
by the Boston, Massachusetts, Redevelopment Authority, provides screening and
disinfection of storm runoff and combined waste water before discharge into
Boston Harbor. The facility contains three, 48-inch, variable speed turbine
pumps that are pneumatically controlled and rated at 65,000 gpm each. A
30-inch, electric motor-driven pump and the turbine pumps consist of vertical
centrifuge, mixed flow, single-stage, and suction, dry pit-type units. The
1200 hp rated turbines, operated at 600 hp by Saturn turbine units, can accom-
modate solids up to 7 inches in diameter; the motor-driven pump can accom-
modate diameters up to 5 inches. The 32-ft vertical shaft speeds of the tur-
bines are reduced to 1,000 rpm followed by a reduction to 395 rpm by Solar and
Philadelphia gearboxes. During storm conditions, the electric motor-driven
pump is activated when the level in the wet well increases to a specified
height, followed by the turbines in sequential order. The pumps are equipped
with manual override; the fuel oil-powered turbines are still operable in the
event of a power failure. Future additions planned for the pumping plant in-
clude six detention tanks for solids settling and removal; the water is dis-
charged through the Fort Point Channel to Boston Harbor.
A031
FLOCCULATION-FLOTATION AIDS FOR TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS,
Stanley, N. F., and Evans, P. R.
Hercules Incorporated,
Allegany Ballistics Laboratory,
Cumberland, Maryland.
1977. 92 p, 17 fig, 29 tab, 7 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-140.
Chemical flocculants and buoyant flotation aids were investigated for removing
suspended solids from combined sewer overflows. Laboratory batch tests
achieved a 70-100% suspended solids removal when 100 rag/liter of the poly-
styrene flotation aid Dylex KCD-340, 100 mg/liter of FeC13 as a coagulant, and
1 mg/liter of Hercofloc 810 as a flocculant were added. In pilot plant tests,
the flocculants and buoyancy aids lost their effectiveness when stored for
long periods of times. Suspended solids were reduced by 67-87% when problems
with the chemicals and buoyancy aids were corrected; suspended solids were re-
duced by 50-77% with air flotation in the same pilot plant. The success of
the process was considered economically dependent upon recovery and reuse of
the flotation aids. Cleaning the flotation aid surface of adhering solids for
reuse^in the flocculation-flotation process was unsuccessful. Further inves-
tigations of the process were rejected in favor of air flotation treatment of
combined storm overflows.
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A032
OXON SYSTEM USES IN AND OUT PUMPS,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4479, p 22, April, 1978.
Four electrically-powered pumps are activated automatically when combined
sewer overflow conditions occur in Carterton, Oxfordshire, England's storm
drainage system. The storm drainage system consists of 2.5 miles of sewers
servicing a town with a population of 10,000. The storm water flows to a
pumping station which transports the waste water to a balancing pond for con-
trolled discharge to a stream. Main pipes with diameters of 1.2 m drain into
a 47,000 gal sump located at the pumping station. Three of the four 9,000 gpm
pumps rechannel storm water overflows when the water level in the sump reaches
a predetermined level. The fourth reserve pump is activated automatically in
an emergency situation. The 950,000 pounds sterling storm water drainage pro-
ject includes a generator to power the pumps in the event of power failure.
A033
STORM SEWAGE: SEPARATION AND DISPOSAL,
McGillivray, R.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 6, No. 2, p 90-93, 1978.
Considerations in designing storm water disposal sewers were discussed in a
symposium sponsored by the Scottish District Center and attended by the Scot-
tish Working Party on Storm Sewage in Glasgow, Scotland, on December 14, 1977.
Increases in dry weather sewage flows, industrial discharges to municipal
sewers, water removal from rivers, paved areas, and changes in the properties
of surface runoff have mandated the Investigation of pollutants in surface
runoff and separated or combined storm sewer designs. About 20% of the storm
water overflows reported by districts in Scotland were termed unsatisfactory;
the overflows had BOD concentrations in the range of 25-50% of those found in
dry weather sewage flows. River purification boards in Scotland have adopted
regulations allowing parts of industrial complexes to be connected to sanitary
sewers, eliminating dual manholes functioning for separated sanitary and storm
sewer systems, and encouraging the use of different pipe materials, such as
fireclay and concrete, for sanitary sewers and for storm sewers to assist in
identification. Stilling ponds were recommended for overflow systems to re-
duce flow velocities, reduce turbulence, and promote settling. High side-
weirs were considered the most efficient means of overflow control. Storm
sewer installations in several Scottish municipalities, pilot plant studies of
storm water tanks, and combined sewer investigations were reviewed.
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A034
BENEVAL: HOW TO GET MORE FROM YOUR STORM DRAIN DOLLAR,
Tettemer, J. M., and Vance, H. A.
Project Planning Division,
Los Angeles County Flood Control District,
California.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 1, p 43-44, January, 1978.
The Benefit Evaluation of Urban Storm Drains (BENEVAL) process, developed by
the Los Angeles County, California, Flood Control District, utilizes a regres-
sion analysis equation for establishing priorities in voter-approved storm
water drain projects. The BENEVAL equation incorporates the impacts of storm
damage, traffic improvements, and pedestrian convenience in terms of public
opinion and values. Initially, data is collected on approved storm drain pro-
jects; drainage impact parameters are defined; and the effect of each para-
meter on storm drain values is calculated. The final project value in dollars
is then computed as a function of the flooding potential alleviated by the
drain, the slope of the flood area, the length of the flow path, the flood
plain population, the average daily traffic, and the assessed valuation along
the flow path. The analytical technique is considered superior to straight
cost-benefit and point system analyses.
A035
ESTIMATION OF DIRECT RUNOFF FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS,
Hossain, A., Ramachandra, A., and Delleur, J. W.
Indiana State Board of Health,
Indianapolis.
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. HY2, p 169-188, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 16 fig, 3 tab, 17 ref.
Linear and nonlinear direct runoff systems models were applied to 11 water-
sheds in different stages of urbanization to determine watershed response, to
develop a regional model describing the relationship between excess rainfall
and direct runoff, and to calculate the response of urbanized watersheds to a
short series of storms. A convolution integral described the linear relation-
ship between rainfall excess and direct runoff; the Fourier transform method
was utilized to calculate the instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH) or the
kernel function. A regional dimensionless IUH was formulated into a smooth
curve by combining the dimensionless unit hydrographs from 10 of the water-
sheds. The regional dimensionless linear IUH evaluated a quasi-linear model
that was developed to relate the rainfall excess with the direct runoff.
Direct runoff in watersheds with varying degrees of urbanization was predicted
by the IUH, when the estimated rainfall excess was incorporated, and also by
the quasi-linear model. The nonlinear system model, which considered the
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rainfall excess as a series of impulses, was not as accurate as the quasi-
linear model for predicting direct runoff. First and second order kernels,
planar functions of the direct runoff output, were more regenerable for two
storms than for six; the regeneration performance of the quasi-linear model
was better than that of the nonlinear model.
A036
NATIONWIDE EVALUATION OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS & URBAN STORMWATER DIS-
CHARGES. VOL. Ill: CHARACTERIZATION OF DISCHARGE,
Manning, M. J., Sullivan, R. H., and Kipp, T. M.
American Public Works Association,
Research Foundation,
Chicago, Illinois.
1977. 289 p, 77 fig, 132 tab, 111 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-
77-064c.
The characteristics of pollution originating in urban stormwater runoff and
combined sewer overflows and the impact on receiving waters were studied by
analyzing published and unpublished data. Available data was often derived
from reports which did not focus directly on urban runoff but provided pol-
lutant characteristics for other purposes; comprehensive studies of urban run-
off pollution characteristics were recommended. Other recommendations included
uniform and consistent sampling techniques and closer monitoring of flow quan-
tity during flow quality measurement. Urban storm water discharge models were
developed for utilizing census data to evaluate land use and population densi-
ties. Pollutants contributed by treated municipal sewage flows during storm
conditions were identified as less extensive than pollution loads associated
with urban runoff. Receiving water quality was affected by shock loads and
solids accumulations associated with urban runoff during storm periods.
Methods were developed for redesigning sources of urban runoff pollution such
as vacant lot erosion, street surface runoff pollution, and roof leader
drainage.
A037
ASSESSMENT OF MODELS FOR STORM AND COMBINED SEWER MANAGEMENT,
Wada, Y.
Technology Reports of the Kansai University, No. 19, p 109-114, March, 1978.
2 fig, 3 tab, 6 ref.
Five mathematical models were evaluated for accuracy in predicting storm and
combined sewer runoff and pollutant deposition in storm and combined sewer
systems. The Complete Mixing model and the Inaba model offered combined cal-
culations of surface and pipe-deposit runoff. The Energy Operation model was
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a runoff model for pipe deposited systems. Combined runoff models incorporat-
ing the conservative momentum equation for water quality and quantity included
the Deposited Pollution Load model and the Scored Pollution Load model. While
all the models were considered easy to use, the Energy Equation model and the
Deposited Pollution Load model were found to be more accurate in simulating
runoff pollutant load on application to the Osaka, Japan, drainage system.
The Energy Equation model calculated the runoff pollutant load as a function
of critical scored flow, runoff rate, and residual load. A high degree of
correlation was apparent between the observed and simulated BOD, ammonia-
nitrogen, and phosphate loads in the runoff. The Deposited Pollution Load
model calculated the surface runoff pollutant load, the flow rate, and the
quantity of deposited pollutants as functions of water depth, rainfall in-
tensity, catchment area, residual load, and travel time.
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SEWER SYSTEMS
B001
NEED TO CONTROL DISCHARGES FROM SEWERS CARRYING BOTH SEWAGE AND STORM RUNOFF
(RPT. TO THE CONGRESS),
1973. 54 p, 11 append. NTIS Technical Report B-166506.
A Congressional report by the Comptroller General of the United States is pre-
sented. Federal, state, and local efforts to abate and control discharges
from combined sewers are examined. Possible adverse effects of combined sewer
discharges are illustrated with five case histories. In general, federal and
state efforts were considered inadequate in controlling pollution related to
combined sewers. Legislative changes relating to combined sewers are pre-
sented. Federal construction programs and benefits available from phased con-
struction of projects to control combined sewer discharges are described. Re-
commendations to the Environmental Protection Agency and comments by federal,
state, and local governments are presented.
B002
METROPOLITAN SANITARY DISTRICT OF GREATER CHICAGO, DES PLAINES, O'HARE CON-
VEYANCE SYSTEM,
1975. 218 p, 19 fig, 5 tab, 17 ref, 7 append. NTIS Technical Report
PB-259-498.
An environmental impact statement is presented for a proposed project to con-
struct a system of conveyance tunnels or interceptor sewers and drop shafts to
transport waste water from a 65.2-sq mi area in the Metropolitan Sanitary Dis-
trict of Greater Chicago to the O'Hare Water Reclamation Plant. The report
includes detailed descriptions of the present environment, covering such
topics as climate, topography, geology, soils, hydrology, biology, air qual-
ity, land use, sensitive areas, population projections and economic forecasts,
and other programs in the area. Project objectives, constraints, chronology
of plans and studies, and alternatives to the proposed project are discussed.
Aspects of the proposed project which are described include the main tunnel,
branch tunnels, sequencing of tunnel construction, main shaft, drop shafts,
and access manholes. The environmental effects of the proposed project are
described. Federal/state agency comments and public participation are dis-
cussed.
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BOOS
METROPOLITAN SANITARY DISTRICT OF GREATER CHICAGO, DES PLAINES, O'HARE WATER
RECLAMATION PLANT AND SOLIDS PIPELINE, VOLUME II. APPENDICES,
1975. 339 p, 22 append. NTIS Technical Report PB-259-497.
Appendices to the final environmental impact statement for the O'Hare Water
Reclamation Plant and a solids pipeline in Chicago, Illinois, are presented.
Topics discussed in the 22 appendices include: O'Hare area flood control
activities, MSDGC TARP Program, O'Hare service area determination, health
questionnaire and responses, geology, regional water resources, water con-
servation and reuse measures, justification of ultimate size, health aspects,
odor control, process alternatives, solids handling alternatives, design
criteria, HUD guidelines, flow projections, additional site information, a
density graph and matrix for the city of Des Plaines, an aerosol literature
survey, water quality data, 10 state standards, and EPA correspondence.
B004
SEAMLESS PIPE FOR SANITARY, STORM SEWERS,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 8, p 23, August, 1977.
The Spiralene seamless pipe, available from UNX Ltd. of Orangeville, Ontario,
can be used in gravity feed sanitary and storm sewer conduit systems.
Spiralene pipe, which is produced from a high molecular weight polyethylene
manufactured by Union Carbide Canada Ltd., is available in 20-ft lengths with
inside diameters of up to 10 ft. Features of Spiralene pipe include a smooth
inner surface, reinforced walls, and bell and spigot ends. Pipes can be
joined by force fitting for storm sewers, fitted with a rubber ring gasket for
sanitary sewers, or bead welded for use with corrosive liquids.
B005
DIGGING BEFORE PILE DRIVING SPEEDS HULL SEWER JOB,
Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 90, No. 8, p 74, August, 1977.
Fedex and the Duquesne Piling Company are using partial pre-excavation before
driving piles at the Hull area sewer project in Quebec, Canada. The sewage
collection system will eventually traverse the 15 miles between Aylmer and a
planned sewage treatment plant at Templeton. To eliminate the need for frames
to line up piles before driving, the ditch is excavated to a depth of 19 ft
below the surface and the first level of whales is emplaced. Vibratory
driver/extractors are being used to drive all piles. After further excavation
a second row of whales and struts is installed. The piles are being used to
stabilize the 45-ft ditch in which the 8.5-ft diameter conduit is poured. The
success of pre-excavation is dependent on soil type, working best in cohesive
clayey soils.
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B006
ECONOMY IN CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM,
Banerjee, A. C.
Bokaro Steel Limited,
Bokaro, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3, p 83-84,
June, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab.
Design modifications to reduce costs of manhole construction are described.
The use of relief shelves is suggested as a means of eliminating the need for
thicker walls in deep manholes. The shelves are used to reduce the magnitude
of the active earth pressure thrust, the lever arm, and the moment about the
base. An equation relating the degree of pressure reduction to the height of
the wall and the depth of the relief shelf from ground level is presented.
Construction of a relief shelf involves the emplacement of a bracket or foot
step to hold a pre-cast slab or wooden plank. The use of relief shelves for a
1,500 mm x 1,500 mm manhole 4.05 m deep resulted in a 20% saving in construc-
tion costs. Total costs are compared for standard construction methods and
construction with relief shelves.
B007
PIPEWORK IN RIVER OR SEA ENVIRONMENTS,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4445, p 13, August, 1977.
The Stanton and Stavely Group of British Steel Corporation's Tubes Division
has begun producing a series of joints for ductile iron pipeline systems. A
self-anchoring joint, the Tyton Anchor, is a modified version of the Tyton
gasket in which a series of stainless steel locking teeth have been molded.
The Tyton Anchor utilizes standard pipes and fittings with diameters of 80-300
mm and can be self-anchored at working pressures up to 10 bars. The joint is
suggested for use in water and sewage pipelines for river crossings, or in
ground with poor bearing strength. Stanton and Stavely also produce a Tie-bar
joint for use with larger diameters of 350-1200 mm. The Tie-bar joint is
also self-anchoring and is a harness version of the standard push-in Tyton or
Stantyte joint. Suitable for long sea outfalls and river crossings, the joint
consists of a welded flange near the spigot which is connected to a loose
flange by means of tie bolts.
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BOOS
BLUE-CODED PIPING SOLVES WATER SERVICE PROBLEMS IN CALIF.,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 69, September, 1977.
The Alameda County Water District in California has begun using corrosion-
resistant polybutylene piping because of extremely corrosive soil conditions
in the area. The piping is color-coded, enabling easier tracing and separa-
tion of the water lines from other underground utilities. Alameda uses poly-
butylene tubing for 1, 1.5, and 2 inch water service connections in all single
and multiple dwellings, as well as commercial and industrial facilities, for
the installation of new systems and the replacement of older, corroded metal
lines. Polybutylene's design stress (1000 psi at 73 F) enables the tubing to
deliver 30% more volume than other plastic piping of the same outside dia-
meter, and the added strength also allows use of thinner pipe walls. Other
advantages of polybutylene piping are the lower costs compared with conven-
tional copper tubing and the speed of installation.
B009
CITY FIGHTS GREASE AND ODOR PROBLEMS IN SEWER SYSTEM,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 74-75, October, 1977.
Heavy loadings of grease and oil into the 88 miles of sewage collection lines
in Burlingame, California, created a need to evaluate alternative means of
cleaning lines and lift stations of grease accumulations. Grease-dissolving
agents tested included solvents, detergents, enzymes, and other chemical pro-
ducts. The studies indicated that special bacteria cultures from Bower In-
dustries, Inc., (sold under the name DBC Plus Dried Bacteria Cultures) of-
fered the most effective solution to the problem. A pilot study was initiated
at two selected pumping stations with average daily flows of 23,000 and 90,000
gal. Of the several bacteria formulas offered by Bower Industries, the type A
culture designed for use with domestic sewage was chosen for use. Seven days
of heavy-application of the culture were required in the initial treatment
phase, followed by maintenance doses of 1 Ib of culture every three days for
the 23,000-gpd station and 3 Ibs of culture every three days for the 90,000-
gpd station. The cultures, formulated for use with animal and vegetable oils
and petroleum derivatives, were added to the pumping stations as a slurry with
a water:dry culture ratio of 2:1. A 1-2 hr presoak period is required to
fully activate the lyophilized and air-dried cultures. Ammonium phosphate was
added to the slurry to insure adequate supplies of nitrogen and phosphorus for
the bacteria during the initial heavy cleanup stage. Additional beneficial
side effects of the grease removal program included easier servicing of sub-
mersible pumps and reduction of odors.
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B010
FLOWMETER MOUNTINGS SOLVE PROBLEMS IN MUNICIPAL I & I STUDY,
Daniels, P.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 94-95, September, 1977.
An inflow and infiltration study conducted in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by
Southern Line Cleaning, Inc., may become the prototype for evaluations of
other vintage municipal sewer systems. Flow is being measured at master con-
trol points, key manhole meter locations, and other selected sites to provide
information on dry and wet weather high groundwater conditions, and on the ef-
fects of rainfall. For simplification, the Philadelphia system was divided
into a series of subsystems and mini-systems with a broad range of age vari-
ance. The systems were presented on a series of 121 plats to aid in selecting
the approximately 500 meter locations used in the monitoring program. Several
types of flowmeters were tested for use in Philadelphia before the NB Instru-
ments float meter was chosen, including ultrasonics systems and dipper
meters. Offset of the manholes instead of direct positioning above the sewers
caused problems in center line mounting of the meters. A modified type of
transducer arrangement in which a roof-mounted bracket was equipped with a
float rod appropriate to the effective head depth was used. Waterproof ma-
terials were necessary since the meter element may be submerged in a combined
system's mainstream under conditions of high inflow.
BOH
LICKING OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS THE HARD WAY,
Nicolai, B.
Meriden Sewer Authority,
Meriden, Connecticut.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 51-52, 54, September, 1977.
Operating problems at the Rasted Lane pumping station resulted in an inspec-
tion of several pumping stations in the Meriden, Connecticut, sewage system.
Problems at the Rasted Lane station included an inoperative 50-hp 1500-gpm
motor with bearing failure, a jammed gate valve, and failure of the remaining
pump due to overloading of the combined thermal heater. A survey of other
pumping stations revealed similar problems. Modifications were made to the
system to allow simultaneous operation of the pumps and to provide a stand-by
system in case of power failure. Goodkind and O'Dea, Inc., were retained as
consultants to design additions to increase pumping capacities of four of the
pumping stations. As part of the sewer renovation program, "package can"
pumping systems are being phased out.
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SWAMPY SEWER JOB MOVES WITH BIG BACKHOES,
Highway and Heavy Construction, Vol. 120, No. 10, p 142, October, 1977.
Two large backhoes were used by Marvec-Allstate, Inc., of Verona, New Jersey,
for the emplacement of 7 miles of large diameter interceptor sewers in Ocean
County, New Jersey, as part of a $5.2 million project for the Ocean County
Sewer Authority. The two Koehring 1266-D backhoes, equipped with 6-cu yd dig-
ging buckets, allowed emplacement of the sewers at a rate of 500 ft/day in
spite of unfavorable hydrologic and soil conditions. In the western part of
the project, 20,000 ft of 20- and 24-inch diameter prestressed concrete gravity
flow pipe was installed in open-cut, sloped trenches equipped with steel
trench boxes. The eastern half of the project required the installation of
three side-by-side pipelines to transport raw sewage from the island communi-
ties and to carry treated effluent to an ocean outfall. A dewatering system
was necessary because of the area's high water table and special precautions
were necessary because of underground cables in the area.
B013
SLAG AND QUARRY WASTE AS PIPE BEDDING MATERIAL,
Banerjee, A. C.
Bokaro Steel Limited,
Bokaro, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3, p 89-90,
June, 1977. 4 fig, 2 tab.
External loading and internal stresses on a buried rigid sewer pipe can be in-
fluenced by a variety of factors, including the nature of the backfill, the
unit weight of the filling material, the vertical load of the soil due to
overburden, and the width of the trench. The type of bedding and the diameter
of the pipe also place constraints on the depth of overburden which can safely
be placed in the trench. The safe depth of the overburden for 600-ram diameter
pipe would be 1.75 m for ordinary bedding and 3.25 m for first-class bedding.
The use of slag and quarry wastes in a configuration with 15 mm crushed stone,
20 mm granulated blast furnace slag, and quarry dust increases the allowable
overburden depth to 5 m. Use of the slag and quarry wastes instead of con-
crete cradle bedding results in a savings of 59 rupees/m of pipe.
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B014
"PIGGY-BACK" SEWER SOLVES OVERLOAD PROBLEM,
Bieszczat, T. E.
Shafer, Kline, and Warren,
Civil Engineers,
Overland Park, Kansas.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 87-88, October, 1977. 1 fig.
Existing sewer mains were not considered adequate to handle wet weather flow
and flow anticipated for the St. Joseph's Hospital complex in Kansas City,
Missouri. Several options were considered to increase the sewage capacity
without extensive reconstruction. Pressurizing the existing main with bolt-
down manhole rings and covers on existing and proposed manholes was not con-
sidered feasible because of the age of the existing mains and the calculated
peak flow of the hospital. The construction of a supplementary line was
hindered by a solid limestone ledge through which any parallel sewer would
have to be installed. Replacement of the existing line with a new one in the
same trench would be costly and would require interim facilities to handle the
flow during construction. The installation of a "piggy-back" supplementary
line directly above the existing main was chosen and required a minimum of re-
construction. Use of the existing trench eliminated the need for rock removal
and interruption of service. Armco Steel Corporation manufactured the 12 and
15 inch pipe used for connection of the hospital complex to the existing main.
Slight modifications to the existing manholes were necessary. The application
of the piggy-back solution to alleviate sewer maintenance problems in Leawood,
Kansas, is described.
B015
SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM RELIEVES THREAT TO FLORIDA
OYSTER INDUSTRY,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 8, p 64-65, August, 1977.
An AIRVAC vacuum sewage collection system was installed at Eastpoint, Florida,
to relieve pollution of Apalachicola Bay and eliminate environmental hazards
to the area's oyster industry. Cost estimates for the vacuum system were
$375,000 or 42% less than for an equivalent gravity line collection system be-
cause of the area's low topography and water table. Because Eastpoint is in a
flood-prone area, valves will operate totally submerged with above-ground
venting. Also, several pits were installed above grade to prevent valve
flooding. Additional cost savings were realized by shallower trenching, the
use of small-diameter PVC pipe instead of large-diameter clay pipe, and the
omission of a series of expensive pumping stations. Three-inch PVC lines
brought to grade and enclosed in water boxes have replaced standard sewer man-
holes. Field experience has indicated that valves should require minimal
maintenance and should last for 50 yrs with little or no repair. Two collec-
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tion stations, 15 miles of PVC vacuum lines, and 456 individual hookups com-
prise the system which will handle 165,000 gpd of municipal waste.
B016
SEA BED INSTALLATION FOR SEWAGE PIPELINE,
Dock and Harbour Authority, Vol. 58, No. 680, p 134, July, 1977.
An underwater sewage pipeline is being constructed by the Engineering Division
of John Laing Construction at Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England. Commis-
sioned by the Northumbrian Water Authority, the contract includes the supply
and fabrication of 300 m of 1.4-m diameter pipe for the outfall site and a
marine survey of the sewage outfall area. The pipe will be fabricated, welded
into 120-tn lengths, and coated with concrete at Hudson Dock. Pipe trenches
will be dug by a grab-equipped crane which is mounted on a pontoon. Sections
of pipe will be towed to the outfall site by a tug and the trench will be
backfilled. The pipeline will lead to a concrete-coated diffuser in the Wear
River. Untreated sewage will be screened and sludge removed at the Hendon
Treatment Plant before disposal into the sea through the pipeline and outfall
system.
B017
SEWERAGE OUTFALL PROTECTED,
Corrosion Prevention and Control, Vol. 24, No. 4, p 30, August, 1977.
A sea outfall constructed in 1973 for the Southern Water Authority in England
includes a diffuser system with 50 outlets at the sea floor and a terminal
outlet. ^Winn and Coales (Dense) Ltd. supplied an anti-corrosion system to
protect joints in the diffuser outlets, diffuser pipes, the main sluice valve,
and bolted pipe couplings. A 42" diameter steel pipe 3,350 tn long will lead
from the.Mewsbrook Treatment Works near Rustington to the diffuser system.
B018
CAN THIS SEWER PROJECT HAVE RECREATIONAL BENEFITS?,
Tracy, J., and Simmons, C.
Board of Water and Sewer Commission,
Northborough, Massachusetts.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 96-98, October, 1977. /
A sewer construction project for 5 miles of interceptor sewers 15-30" in dia-
meter was designed by Camp, Dresser and McKee, Inc., of Boston for the town of
Northborough, Massachusetts. Preliminary studies were conducted to determine
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whether any recreational benefits could be derived from the project for the
Assabet River through reclamation of disturbed lands. The study concluded
that the installation of an interceptor system could be coordinated with the
construction of a recreational trail system. Studies on the physical feasi-
bility of such a system indicated that the pipeline could be located within
the undeveloped river margins without incurring high land acquisition costs or
displacing residents and businesses. Specific design recommendations for the
proposed trail system included a 250-ft separation between the trail and any
dwellings, continuation of the trail on sidewalks and streets in densely popu-
lated areas, a large number of trail access points, prohibition of recrea-
tional vehicles on the trail, and possible connection with the Wachusett aque-
duct right-of-way.
B019
AN OLD BRICK SEWER FINDS A SILVER LINING,
West, R.
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4448, p 8-10, September, 1977.
A television monitoring program of the sewer system in the town of Kidder-
minster in England revealed the deteriorated condition of a 900 x 675-mm brick
combined sewer. Conventional sewer repair processes were hindered by the
fact that 65% of the sewer ran underneath the area's carpet factories. Edmund
Nuttall's Insituform technique in which a tube of terylene needle felt,
covered with polyethylene and impregnated with polyester resin, is used to
line an existing sewer was chosen. The 12-mm thick tube is transported to the
site and emplaced while still in a liquid state so that irregularities in the
sewer contour did not pose severe problems in the lining process. Cement
grouting was forced under pressure through holes drilled in the cured lining
to backfill any cavities. Two 200-mm and one 150-mm Univac pumps were used to
eliminate any danger from storm water flow during the lining processes. A
"flow-through" inflation bag was placed inside the lining tube to accomodate
any surplus flow. The sewer was cleaned before emplacement of the lining and
the lining material was transported to the site by refrigerated truck in 35-ft
lengths. The lining ia inflated with a low-pressure air blower and cured with
a steam-air mixture at 70 C.
B020
DEVELOPMENT AND LAYING OF PIPES,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 473-474, August, 1977. 1 ref.
Various aspects of pipeline technology and pipeline design are discussed.
Future developments in the use of flexible-type conduits are expected with in-
creased interest in the use of glass fiber reinforced plastics, the use of
pipe materials with thinner walls, and the use of larger-diameter bulk trans-
mission mains. The use of a wide variety of pipe materials also requires the
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development of appropriate pipeline installation practices. Site evaluations
are suggested to insure the most cost-effective method of installation. The
development of equipment for backfilling and excavation and of other products
such as self-anchoring joints is suggested tc> speed up installation and there-
by significantly reduce total costs. Specialized construction materials or
pipe linings to repair existing mains and to ^protect pipelines from corrosive
soils, effluents, and soluble sulfates may reduce future maintenance and con-
struction costs.
B021
SEWER REHABILITATION CUTS INFILTRATION,
Li. 9 E t C • C •
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 86-87, November, 1977. 2 fig, 1
tab.
An infiltration/inflow study was conducted by East: Texas Engineering and Con-
struction Company for Rayburn Country, a developmemt in East Texas with 21
subdivisions and 204,294 ft of sewer line. Exfiltration and smoke tests in-
dicated that much of the in filtration/ in flow came .from 40,470 ft of sewer
lines and 195 manholes in 5 of the 21 subdivisions,. The system, constructed
in 1966 of concrete pipe with rubber gaskets, was checked by a three-man test-
ing crew and three workers with a backhoe loader tr.actor. An air-loc ball was
used to plug a water-filled section of sewer and the; amount of water loss over
a given time was used as a measure of exfiltration rate. Smoke tests with a
portable 1,500-cfm blower and smoke bombs were used \vhere exfiltration testing
was difficult. Causes of the 217 sources of extraneous flow found in the
testing program included: leaks in precast concrete manholes; inflow through
low or perforated manhole covers; leakage through cracked, offset or open
joints; deterioration of the concrete encasements which connected cast iron
and concrete pipes; root intrusion; faulty house latefals; and pipe breakage,
joint offsets, and cracked bells caused by reverse grade and improper bedding
and backfilling. Shear pipe breaks were more commonly observed than beam
breaks and no longitudinal breaks were found. The rehabilitation project has
repaired 126 line leaks and 91 manhole perforations so far, as well as replac-
ing 1,204 ft of sewer line, to reduce infiltration by 6iO%.
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B022
I/I STUDY TURNS TO T. V.,
Lamberton, R.
Larkin and Associates,
Kansas City, Missouri.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 30-32, October, 1977.
A sewer infiltration/inflow studly was conducted by Ace Pipe Cleaning, Inc.,
and Larkin and Associates of Kat\sas City, Missouri, for the city of Warrens-
burg at an estimated cost of $45,000. The study was required by the EPA and
state agencies in Missouri as part of a proposed sewer system renovation pro-
ject. A complete inventory and mapping of the sewer system was carried out to
identify manholes subject to inflow because of top elevation, location, and
condition. Smoke testing loceited point sources of direct entrance of storm
water inflow and all sewer li'nes were cleaned and inspected by television.
The program located 60 defect ive manholes and 160 inflow points which were de-
signated for correction.
B023
BENEFITS FROM GROUTING AN EN/TIRE SEWER SYSTEM,
Wass, V. C., and Bush, C. M..
Lower Allen Township Autho-rity,
Camp Hill, Pennsylvania.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 11, p 55-57, November, 1977. 1 tab.
An extensive 2-year program for sewer renovation in Camp Hill, Pennsylvania,
was conducted in response; to waste water flow measurements which indicated
that actual flow was 3.2--6.0 mgd when it should have been in the range 1.6-2.0
mgd based on the populat ion size serviced by the sewer system. Video Pipe
Grouting, Inc., was contracted by the Lower Allen Township Authority for the
project, which included cleaning and chemical grouting with closed circuit
television inspection o.f the area's 76 miles of sewer lines. An initial in-
spection by Video Pipe revealed roots from fast-growing pin oak, maple, and
sycamore trees in the 2:0-year-old system and associated infiltration/ inflow.
Rehabilitation of the £jystem included removal of root growths, sealing of
leaking joints with grout which contained a root inhibitor, cleaning of all
lines, and cementing o." manhole walls where infiltration was particularly
heavy. Average flow van reduced by the rehabilitation program to 1.5 mgd, re-
sulting in lower waste water treatment costs for chemicals, electrical power,
general operating cost.s, and collection system repairs.
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B024
BEAM BEHAVIOR OF BURIED RIGID PIPELINES,
Pearson, F. H.
California University,
Berkeley,
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
767-783, October, 1977. 7 fig, 9 ref, 3 append.
Buried rigid pipelines or sewer lines can behave longitudinally as beams, de-
veloping shear forces and bending moments if subjected to nonuniformly distri-
buted loads or reactions. Since current pipeline design criteria only con-
sider minimum depth of cover and pipe length with respect to beam behavior,
theories and applications of elastic beam behavior are discussed with respect
to pipelines. Equations are presented defining the two categories of charac-
teristic pipe length on which the elastic foundations of beam behavior are
based. For short pipes the bedding reactions as well as the shear forces and
bending moments induced in the pipe can be described by static analysis. For
a longer pipe static analysis would, however, give higher than actual values
for shear and moments due to a concentrated load. Bedding reactions and
moments and shears in short pipes are discussed with respect to the effects of
a concentrated surface load and of a nonuniformly distributed earth load.
Dimensionless parameters of deflection, slope, moment, and shear are discussed
for point loading and a concentrated surface load with respect to pipe of in-
finite length. Shears and moments are discussed with respect to medium-length
pipes in which the maximum bending moment occurs at the point of application
of the load. Practical applications are presented with equations to estimate
the shear forces in spigot- and be 11-jointed buried rigid pipelines and in
0-ring jointed pipelines under anticipated normal conditions of construction
and control; and to calculate the maximum bending moment in a buried pipe due
to a surface load such as a truck wheel.
B025
BEACH, HIGHWAY AND SEWER PLAN ROLLED INTO ONE,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 14, p 44, October, 1977. 1 fig.
The $17-19.5 million Great Highway-Ocean Beach project was initiated as a
multi-purpose project, since construction of a large consolidation sewer line
was expected to remove or damage most of the existing upper Great Highway in
San Francisco. The program included reconstruction and redesign of the high-
way for a distance of 3.6 miles, restoration of sand dunes, and creation of a
linear park, along with construction of the sewer line. The plan was designed
by Michael Painter and Associates of Sausalito, and Tudor Engineering Company
and Chin and Hensolt of San Francisco, California. The plan recommended
lowering the profile of both the highway and beach, extending the beach 200 ft
west to add 48 acres of recreational area. The dunes would be revegetated and
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beach access would be improved. A curving four-lane highway with bicycle
paths would replace the existing stretch of highway, which had been partially
blocked by encroaching sand dunes.
B026
SEWERS VERSUS SEWERLESS METHODS—A REPORT BY A CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE,
Leich, H. H.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 26, August, 1977.
The advantages and disadvantages of centralized waste water treatment and home
disposal systems were evaluated in a congressional report by the Subcomittee
on the Environment and the Atmosphere, a division of the House Committee on
Science and Technology. Conservative attitudes in sanitary engineering are
cited as a stumbling block in the use of innovative technology in municipal
waste water treatment. The need for consideration and development of viable
alternatives to costly sewage treatment facilities which require a great deal
of land is discussed. Self-contained household waste water treatment and dis-
posal systems have been suggested as reasonable alternatives to regional col-
lection and treatment systems. Current trends, however, are against the con-
tinuing use of septic tanks and the acceptance of sewer less toilet systems.
Studies which define current individual and small unit technology, as well as
costs, are recommended.
B027
R7-M JOHANNESBURG SEWER TUNNEL,
The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol. 19, No. 7, p 163, July, 1977.
The 7-km long Bushkoppie outfall sewer is being built as part of a sewer con-
struction program being conducted by the city of Johannesburg in South
Africa. During the second phase of the program a second, 9-km long sewer tun-
nel will be constructed to join the Bushkoppie sewer at about 3.5 km from the
proposed Bushkoppie sewage treatment plant slated for operation by 1981. The
upstream portion of the tunnel will have a D-shaped cross-section and will be
2 x 2 m. The section below the confluences will be enlarged to a height of
2.5 m and a width of 2.75 m. The tunnel, which runs through residual lava of
the Vertersdorp system with a depth below ground level of 5-60 m, will be
lined with 300 m of dolomitic concrete. Steel arches at 1-tn spacing with wire
mesh and shotcrete are being used to reinforce the tunnel in unstable sec-
tions. The use of dolomitic aggregates and a 75-mm concrete cover are ex-
pected to alleviate the effects of corrosion in the tunnel, which will only
have two vent shafts and a maximum slope of 1:1200. LTA Construction and
Bomat Civil Engineering were contracted for construction and tunnelling in the
7 million rand project.
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B028
A GUIDE TO SPECIFICATION OF GLASS LINED PIPE,
Williams, L. M.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 76-77, October, 1977.
Since the use of glass-lined pipe in sewage treatment plants has been increas-
ing, a series of guidelines or specifications for glass linings is presented
to aid the potential user in selecting a product which will provide years of
service and trouble-free installation. Although there are no measurement re-
ferences for lubricity or resistance to friction, the lining should have a
vitreous appearance equivalent to that of opaque window glass. A hardness of
5.5 or higher on the MOHS hardness scale is required. In addition, the glass
lining-to-metal bond should be able to withstand a strain of 0.001 in/in. The
glass lining should also be free of pinholes, crazing, and fish scale and be
able to withstand thermal shock of 350 F. Additional specifications which are
related to the quality of casting and are not contained in any current speci-
fications are recommended. Cast pipes with obvious flaws or roughness should
not be lined and cast iron is recommended over ductile iron for glass lining.
In terms of warpage, the finished glass lined pipe should not deviate more
than 0.0125 inch/foot of length from a centerline perpendicular to the flange
face or square end of the pipe.
B029
FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR A SEWAGE SYSTEM IN THE CITY OF BLANTYRE IN MALAWI
(Feasibility-Studie fuer das Abwassersystem der Stadt Blantyre in Malawi),
Bucksteeg, K.
Wasser und Abwasser Bau-intern, No. 8, p 158-160, 1977. 2 fig.
Results are presented on a fact-finding mission in connection with a feasi-
bility study concerning a modern sewage system in Blantyre, Malawi, a rapidly
growing city with 165,000 inhabitants and expanding industry. Due to the oro-
graphic conditions, the city has three independent sewage systems with waste
water treatment facilities for some 75,000 inhabitants. The existing biologi-
cal waste water treatment plants are overloaded and poisoned by industrial ef-
fluents. A considerable and increasing portion of the inhabitants live in
huts in areas unsuitable for canalization. The construction of a new sewage
system was rejected in view of the high cost (10,000,000 DM). Training of the
operating personnel and installation of a waste water laboratory were recom-
mended.
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B030
CAST-IN-PLACE PIPE USES TRENCH AS FORM,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 11, p 59-60, November, 1977.
Cast-in-place concrete pipes have been recommended for fast construction at
low cost in large diameter pipeline projects. The method is particularly sug-
gested for situations where the soils are stable, no groundwater flows into
the trench, a steady supply of ready-mix concrete is available, and where con-
struction of several hundred feet of large diameter pipe is required. Current
cast-in-place methods utilize both the sides and bottom of the pipe trench as
the exterior form for the pipe to provide a strong bond between the pipe walls
and trench. The Fullerform system, patented by Lomar Corporation of Santa
Ana, California, has been used in the construction of low-pressure piping for
irrigation and storm sewer lines. The continuous, jointless structure elimi-
nates problems associated with joint leaks and reduces the chance of clog-
ging. Cast-in-place pipe projects have generally been bid below the engineer-
ing estimates for reinforced concrete or metal pipe. Installation crews as
small as four people have been used and backfill can be completed after 72
hours curing time. Cylindrical steel forms are used for the exterior of the
pipe and a variation of the slipforming technique which requires a heavy
fabric inflatable tube is used for the interior walls. An anchor truck
equipped with a compressor and generator is used to emplace and inflate the
slipformer while ready-mix concrete trucks feed concrete to the trench.
Circular or square forms are used in pouring of the cast-in-place manholes.
B031
PIPEWORK FLEXIBILITY,
Bryce, R.
Chartered Mechanical Engineer, Vol. 24, No. 11, p 47-50, December, 1977. 1 flg.
A technique of structural analysis is presented for the examination of pipe-
line flexibility where deflections due to shear can be neglected. The pipe is
aligned with respect to a system of right-hand coordinates and the displace-
ments which occur when the pipe is subjected to external moments are ex-
amined. When the pipe is constrained to lie in a single plane, all deflec-
tions must lie in that plane and there is no torsional moment acting on the
system. One end of the pipe is assumed fixed while the other is free to move
under the action of external moments. Equations are presented for the dis-
placement of the unfixed end due to the moment. Rotational parameters are in-
corporated into equations which describe the deflection of the complete pipe
length. A three-plane system which allows for torsional effects is de-
scribed. Components of displacement occurring at the unfixed end due to
twisting and bending moments in the three-place system are defined for a
three-section pipe. Angular rotations in the three-plane system are defined.
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B032
THE TWIN-TUNNEL CONCEPT,
Civil Engineering, p 45, 47, November, 1977.
England's National Water Council Stand.ing Committee on Sewers and Water Mains
has examined several methods of sewer design and installation with respect to
costs for operation and maintenance. The twin-tunnel design concept has been
recommended for alleviating problems associated with inspection, cleaning, and
renovation of larger-diameter sewers. Although twin tunnels provide hydraulic
capacities equivalent to a single, Larger diameter sewer, self-cleansing char-
acteristics are increased by the overall reduced radius of the smaller line.
Gates can be used to divert waste water flows to a single tunnel if demands
are not exceptional, creating a flushing effect in the single tunnel. The
ability to divert flows also aids in general maintenance operations. A lower
ground cover and gradient are generally possible with the smaller, twin-tunnel
design. Disposable linings can be. incorporated into twin-tunnel designs to
insure water-tightness and inhibit; corrosion. Although capital costs may be
higher than for a conventional large diameter system, a net overall savings
can be realized through reduced maintenance and replacement requirements.
B033
GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPES,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 26, August, 1977.
"Slimline" glass reinforced concrete pipes are being produced commercially by
ARC Concrete's factory at: St.. Ives, Cambridgeshire, in England. The pipes are
reinforced with Pilkington's Cem-Fil glass fiber instead of the traditional
steel and are useful in «ewage treatment and surface water conveyance. The
initial capacity of the factory was set at 10,000 tons/yr with allowances for
later expansion via modular unit additions to increase the capacity to 50,000
tons/yr. The glass reinforced pipes are currently available in diameters of
600-1,200 mm. Current research at ARC Concrete is directed toward developing
piping material which is resistant to attack by hydrogen sulfide or corrosive
soils such as those which occur in the Middle East and other hot regions.
B034
$4.7 BILLION FOR SAO PAUL/) SEWERS MARKS INVESTMENT SHIFT BY BRAZIL,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 25, p 44, December, 1977. 1 fig.
Sao Paulo, Brazil, will soon begin to build its first comprehensive sewage
collection and treatment; system. Construction of the system will take place
in stages and continue through the year 2000. Today, only 38% of Sao Paulo is
served by sewers; and only 5% of the sewage receives primary treatment. The
new system, when completed, will collect 90% of the sewage and subject it to
secondary treatment. The 3300 mi collection system will be built by local
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contractors. The treatment equipment is to be purchased abroad. The state of
Sao Paulo allocates over 40% of its toital capital budget to public health and
sanitation projects. Sewage comprises 25% of the flow of the River Tiete
which ultimately empties into a reservoir providing part of Sao Paulo's drink-
ing water supply. Treated water will enter the Tiete after 1983, when the
first waste treatment plant is scheduled' to begin operation. Activated sludge
will be used, but new treatment technology will be incorporated wherever pos-
sible. Engenharia de Projetos, Ltda., a local firm, prepared the master
plan. Technical advice was provided by: Metcalf and Eddy, Incorporated,
Boston; experts from Capetown University an South Africa; the Thames Water
Authority in England; and the Ruhr Valley Pollution Control agency in West
Germany.
B035
INTERNATIONAL PIPE PROTECTION CONFERENCE,
Corrosion Prevention and Control, Vol. 24, Nc«. 5, p 2-4, October, 1977.
Highlights of the International Pipe Protection Conference held in 1977 at the
University of Kent in Canterbury, England, are presented. Coating materials,
pipe linings, sewer protection, erosion control'., and electrochemical aspects
of corrosion were discussed. The development of a new sewer material, sulfur-
concrete, prefaced a discussion of methods of protecting concrete pipes in hot
climates from attack by sulfuric acid formed in septic sewage. Solutions pro-
posed include epoxy or coal tar-epoxy linings and glass-reinforced cement.
Structural and non-structural lining of water maAns was considered. At pre-
sent, structural renovation techniques are limited to polyethylene pipe inser-
tions and spray application of fiber-reinforced cement:. Various techniques of
corrosion control for water treatment systems were presented.
B036
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE ON PLASTIC PIPE,
Demergian, H.
I. A. Naman and Associates,
Los Angeles, California.
Plumbing Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 27, 48-50, November-December, 1977. 3
fig, 1 tab, 6 ref.
Properties of expansion and contraction of plastic pipe are compared with
those of metal pipe under variations in temperature. When polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe is subjected to the. same change in temperature as an equal length
of steel pipe, the PVC pipe is five times more flexible than ttu> steel under
unobstructed conditions. Under rigid installation conditions, the PVC pipe is
subject to less stress under thermal variations than the steel pipe. Piping
installation should allow for combined stresses related to internal and ex-
42
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ternal pressure, temperature changes, and the pipes' weight. Thermal contrac-
tion can be compensated for by snaking the pipe during installation. For
rigid pipe, expansion joints or loops and changes in direction can be used.
When expansion is anticipated, straight installation of plastic pipe can com-
pensate for the thermal increase and consequent expansion. Thermal expansion
coefficients are calculated for a number of other metal and plastic pipes.
B037
CAN TRENCH CAVE-IN DEATHS BE CUT?,
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 7, p. 82-86, 1977. 1 ref.
Approximately 100 construction workers die annually because of trench cave-
ins, primarily in sewer lines 5 to 20 feet deep. Most of these occur in ex-
cavations which are unshored. Careful study of the soils through which the
trench will be cut and adequate engineering design are recommended. The major
factor contributing to the high number of cave-ins is the lack of adequate en-
gineering design and preplanning. Engineers should determine the nature of
the soils to be encountered and design and specify the temporary support sys-
tems. Jurisdictions requiring that trench shoring be engineer-designed are
noted. Thoughts from the insurance industry on trench cave-ins are pre-
sented. It is suggested that post-cave-in analyses of trench soil be con-
ducted in efforts to learn as much as possible from actual accident scenes.
B038
FIXED-GRID CHARACTERISTIC FOR PIPELINE TRANSIENTS,
Wiggert, D. C., and Sundquist, M. J.
Michigan State University,
East Lansing,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. HY12, p 1403-1416,
December, 1977. 8 fig, 8 ref, 1 append.
A method for the prediction of pipeline transients in closed waste water lines
which involves the use of a general linear interpolation in conjunction with
the method of characteristics technique and a rectangular grid has been devel-
oped. The variations of numerical attenuation and- dispersion with respect to
interpolation, spacing, and grid size were calculated through error analysis.
The error analysis indicated that maximization of both the interpolation para-
meters and the number of spacial intervals for interpolation effectively re-
duced the numerical attenuation and dispersion. Results also showed that
interpolation parameters should be maintained near unity and the number of
spatial intervals for interpolation increased to more than one when applied to
systems with constant wave speed and no friction factors. The method of char-
acteristics interpolation technique was used to predict pipeline transients in
43
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hypothetical systems under conditions of constant wave speed, variable wave
speed, and severe wave speed fluctuations.
B039
SEWERAGE IN RURAL AREAS,
Bishop, G., and Kir by, T. H.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 4, p
423-436, 1977. 5 fig, 2 tab, 7 ref.
Guidelines for the selection and installation of sewage systems in rural areas
are presented. The study emphasizes the need to consider the geographical
location and the type of usage a sewage system will encounter. Sewers are
usually installed to accomodate both the natural fall of the land and the best
route to an outfall or treatment plant. The study suggests that, in rural
areas, lines should also be placed beneath the roads whenever possible. Con-
sideration of depth of sewer lines and the number of pumping stations is re-
commended in flat areas. In order to prevent the growth of bacterial slime in
the pipe, it is suggested that pipe size be selected to provide a minimum flow
velocity of 0.75 m/sec. Automatic and reliable pumping stations are recom-
mended for fewer repairs and lower maintenance requirements. A submersible
pumping plant, where feasible, can be economically attractive. Rising mains
with a minimum velocity of 0.75 m/sec are recommended for pumping sewage.
Methods to prevent hydrogen sulfide production in rising mains are also dis-
cussed.
B040
NEW PORTOBELLO OUTFALL, BRIGHTON,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 764-766, December, 1977. 2 fig.
A new outfall tunnel for the discharge of sewage effluents into the ocean has
been constructed for the boroughs of Brighton and Hove in England. The out-
fall, whose construction began in 1971, was commissioned as a replacement for
an outfall constructed in 1928 that had an average daily flow of 680 liters/
sec. The new system has a daily flow capacity of 6800 liters/sec with an in-
ternal diameter of 2.13 meters. The outfall tunnel, which is 1830 meters
long, is fitted with a diffuser system containing nine shafts, each with a
four-part diffuser head. A new pumping station was completed in 1975 to treat
the influent. Solids are removed from the influent by coarse raked bar
screens and fine mesh cup screens. Grit is removed before the effluent passes
to the automatically controlled pump sets. Screened solids are dewatered,
checked for magnetic content, and processed by a twin-screw press where the
moisture content is reduced to 50-55%. The pumping system is capable of dis-
charging effluent during all tidal stages, with the outfall designed to act as
a pressure main. The treatment and outflow plant was built near chalk cliffs
which were below the water table. Construction problems were overcome by the
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installation of a system of sand/cement grout curtain walls and a base plug to
solidify the fissured chalk and control the water inflow.
B041
GROUND PROBLEMS OVERCOME ON CRAWLEY SEWER JOB,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4452, p 15, October, 1977.
A support system for excavation site walls has been developed by Shorco Trench
Systems Ltd of Leeds, England. The Escon box system has been used in sewer
construction projects where the ground is unstable or saturated and where the
soil lacks cohesion. The Escon box consists of steel side supports connected
with braces and shock absorbing equipment. The modular assembly has sharp
bottom edges for ease of installation. The supports are 3.4-m long by 2.6-tn
high and the system has an expandable width from 0.9-4.5 m. The support sys-
tem prevents erosion of the trench walls where seepage pressures or soil pro-
perties cause unstable conditions. Additional supports can be added to the
shoring system in 1.3-m sections where excavation depths exceed the height of
the support walls. The system has been used for a sewer installation project
in Crawley, England.
B042
TOXIC WASTE DUMPING INCIDENT DEMONSTRATES SURVEILLANCE NEEDS,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 12, p 58-60, 82, 83, December, 1977. 1 fig, 1
tab.
Unauthorized dumping of highly toxic waste into a combined sewer by a Memphis,
Tennessee, chemical manufacturing plant created serious problems for govern-
ment entities in six states during March 1976. The chemical wastes, which had
entered the collection system of the Louisville and Jefferson County Metropol-
itan Sewer District in Kentucky, resulted in the need for total by-passing to
the Ohio River of sewage normally treated at the Morris Forman waste water
treatment plant. The toxic compounds were identified as hexachlorocyclopenta-
diene and octachlorocyclopentadiene. Water treatment plants downstream at
Evansville, Indiana, and at Henderson, Kentucky, were able to remove the
toxins using Aqua Nuchar activated carbon obtained from the Chemical Division
of Westvaco. Mount Vernon, Indiana, was forced, however, to ban usage of all
drinking water. As a result of the dumping incident, some 24,000 ft of sewers
in the northwestern Louisville area contained contaminated sludge. Prelim-
inary tests had indicated that the wet air oxidation process developed by
Zimpro Inc of Rothschild, Wisconsin, could effectively degrade the compounds
into less toxic substances. Full-scale processing of the six million gallons
of contaminated sludge was then initiated. Daily monitoring at waste water
treatment plants with the use of on-site gas chromatograph scans to detect
volatile organics was recommended to prevent reoccurrence of the dumping in-
cident.
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B043
PROTECTION OF UNDERGROUND WATER MAINS AGAINST CORROSION,
Shidhaye, V. M.
Municipal Corporation,
Bombay, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part CH 3, p
127-133, June, 1977. 4 tab, 6 ref.
Various aspects of the protection of underground pipelines against corrosion
are discussed. The collection of preliminary data on soil properties, the be-
havior of existing pipelines, and soil resistivity is recommended before large
diameter pipelines are emplaced. Various coating materials have been used to
segregate the pipe surface from corrosive soils or water. The chemical re-
sistance, resistance to water absorption, electrical resistance, mechanical
strength, ease of application, durability, and curing time are compared for
various coating materials, including: gunite, coal tar enamel, fiberglass
wrap, blown asphalt, plastic tape, and impregnated hessian. Coal tar coatings
are recommended for areas characterized by a high water table or saturated
soil conditions. Polyethylene sleeving is recommended for use in aggressive
soils.
B044
ACCUMULATION OF SLIME IN DRAINAGE PIPES AND THEIR EFFECT ON FLOW RESISTANCE,
Bland, C. E. G., Bayley, R. W., and Thomas, E. V.
Clay Pipe Development Association Limited,
London, England.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 134-143,
January, 1978. 4 fig, 8 tab, 10 ref.
The effects of microbiological slime accumulation in drainage pipes on hydrau-
lic roughness and flow resistance were analyzed in laboratory experiments with
three types of pipe interior surface finishes and six pipe materials. In a
previous experiment, the hydraulic roughness of 100 mm unglazed, salt-glazed,
and ceramic-glazed pipes was 0.023, 0.030, and 0.006, respectively. The six
pipes used in the experiment with waste water had a 100 mm bore and were 0.30
meters long. They were constructed of unplasticized polyvinyl chloride, as-
bestos cement, pitch fiber, unglazed clay, ceramic-glazed clay, or salt-glazed
clay. Slime accumulation was found to be partially dependent upon inclination
of the pipe and contact time with waste water. Tests conducted under free
flow conditions running at half capacity of the pipes demonstrated that slime
accumulation was independent of the pipe construction material but highly in-
fluenced by waste water velocity. Dry material accumulations up to 0.7 kg/
square meter were observed for velocities of 0.5 meter/second, whereas ac-
46
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cumulations of 0.05 kg/meter resulted for velocities of 2.4 meters/second.
Waste water velocity was also found to be a function of hydraulic resistance
under pressurized flow conditions. Hydraulic roughnesses of more than 14.0 mm
were observed for velocities of 0.76 meter/second. Again, pipe construction
material was not an important factor in slime accumulation and hydraulic re-
sistance under pressurized flow.
B045
DESIGN OF AN OUTFALL,
Grant, F. A., Chao, J. L., and Hennessy, P. V.
James M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Incorporated,
Pasadena, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 347-361,
February, 1978. 10 fig, 3 tab, 18 ref.
An ocean outfall was designed for the cities near Humboldt Bay, California,
with specific attention to wave forces, ocean bottom velocities, ocean floor
sediment composition and topography, seasonal irregularities, and outfall con-
struction materials. The pipeline design was a compromise between a fully
articulated pipe with ball joints and a totally static buried or pile-sup-
ported pipe. The pipeline was constructed of flexible, coated steel and sup-
ported by sheet piling within the first 2,000 ft from shore with ball joints
joining the sheet piling to the diffuser. The diffuser, maintained above the
ocean floor in a wave breaking zone, was anchored with ballast rock ranging
1.5-2.0 ft in diameter. Protection against cathodic corrosion was provided by
a sacrificial zinc anode system. The outfall, which was located between two
pulp mill outfalls discharging log-bearing debris, was protected from physical
damage by minimum burial. The final outfall pipe design included five ball
joints at 200-ft intervals, two joints near the trunk line rock foundation, and
a diffuser wall thickness of 1.5 inches to resist corrosion. The outfall was
designed to last at least 50 years.
B046
USE OF MIXING PIPES TO IMPROVE THE FLOW OF WASTE WATER INTO LAKES (Einsatz von
Mischrohren zur Verbesserung der Einleitung von Abwasser in Seen),
Hofer, K., Hutter, K., and Vischer, D.
Versuchanstalt fuer Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie an der ETHZ,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 12, p 846-852, 1977. 9 fig, 1 tab, 11 ref.
Methods of reducing the height of rise and increasing the overall dilution of
purified waste water discharged into lakes are evaluated. The reduction in
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the height of rise is considered necessary to prevent the acceleration of bio-
synthetic processes by the high levels of phosphorus in the waste water. Dif-
fusers based on the water jet pump principle are considered suitable, depend-
ing on the degree of stratification of the lake water. For a nonstratified
lake, diffusers having a diffuser diameter to nozzle diameter ratio greater
than 1.86 are required to improve the degree of mixing. Advantages afforded
by premixing are greater with lower Froude numbers and stratification para-
meters and with an increase in the diffuser to nozzle diameter ratio. Modifi-
cations in the nozzle design can be used to economically and efficiently ad-
just the discharge cross-section and the Froude number with respect to varia-
tions in the waste water discharge.
B047
FLOW ATTENUATION IN SEWERS,
Stephenson, D,
Witwatersrand University,
Pretoria, South Africa,
Department of Hydraulic Engineering.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 157-159, 1977. 1 fig, 8 ref.
A mathematical model was developed for the cost-effective estimation of flow
attenuation in storm water and sewage drains and for the calculation of water
quality and velocity required to flush these drains. Flow attenuation studies
are often designed for steady state conditions. Steady state friction equa-
tions developed by Mannings, Chezy, and Darcy were employed. Short duration
inflow waves were found to decrease in depth, elongation and flattening as
they move down the conduit. Equations are presented to explain the mechanics
of irregular flow in a partially full, circular conduit. Velocities, inflow
rate, duration, conduit length, bed slope, diameter, friction factor, and base
flow are considered as variables in the equations. A graph depicting the at-
tenuation in depth of the surge was developed for calculating minimum drain
diameters for storm routeing, end capacities after routeing, and the flow re-
quired to scour deposits accumulated on the interior sewer walls. Flow rates
in conduits were maximized by the addition of storm water inflows along the
length of the pipe.
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B048
NEW SHALLOW SEWER BEATS HIGH COST OF DEEP GRAVITY SYSTEM,
Hancock, N.
Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 91, No. 1, p 20-21, January, 1978.
1 fig.
A shallow depth sewage system which includes polyethylene pipes and grinder
pumps has been installed in the Canadian Toronto Islands. Special construc-
tion techniques were required because of the area's high water table, flat
terrain, and permafrost. Polyethylene pipe sections, up to 300 feet in
length, were joined with a butt fuser machine and insulated with 2 inches of
water repellant styrofoam. The pipes were buried beneath three feet of cover-
ing to guard against frost. The manholes were also insulated with 2 inches of
styrofoam; chamber valves and piping were wrapped with styrofoam half-shells
and polyethylene tape. The 28,000 feet of pipe serves the year-round system
and the summer recreational facilities. The system contains 30 pumping sta-
tions with 125 gal/min centrifugal grinder pumps serving the larger usage
areas. Three pumps, one 75 hp for summer use, one 10 hp for winter months,
and one backup pump, are employed in the system. Sewage is eventually dis-
charged into the Toronto interceptor sewer.
B049
SEWER STRATEGIES FOR THE DALES AND THE FENS,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4465, p 14, January, 1978.
Sewage system overloads in West Yorkshire and Spalding, England, have been
eliminated through the construction of new sewage treatment facilities. Sew-
age overflows in the Denby Dale area of Yorkshire had caused flooding of a
gummed paper manufacturing plant several times a year. The Clayton West
treatment works, with a design capacity of 1022 cu m/day and an actual flow of
2200 cu m/day, will be enlarged to a capacity of 5500 cu m/day. Sewers will
be re laid to prevent infiltration and flooding. The overloaded treatment
works at Spalding will be replaced by a new sewage treatment facility. Flood-
ing was primarily caused by the unreliable storm water pumping system of the
old works. The new treatment facility will provide partial sewage treatment
before effluent is discharged into the River Welland. The new pumping system
will include individual rising mains in each pumping station; all uncontrolled
storm flows are now being handled by two storm drains.
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B050
UPDATING AND COMPLETING SEWER RECORDS COULD COST LESS THAN YOU THINK,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4465, p Cl, January, 1978. 1 fig.
A survey of all manholes, sewer lines, and outfalls in the London Borough of
Waltham Forest in England was completed within two years at a substantial sav-
ings. The first phase of the project involved visual inspection of all man-
holes, conduits, and outfalls in the three divisions of the borough. The sec-
ond phase of the survey required a study of existing sewer records which out-
lined some of the routes of old sewer lines not located along public high-
ways. Each manhole was examined for pipe size, depths, and structural de-
fects; precise locations of sewer lines were identified with electroprobe
equipment. The electroprobe survey detailed the location of old sewer lines
constructed on curves or sharp bends. A total of 10,786 manholes, 372 lamp-
holes, and 213 outfalls were investigated in the survey. The final cost of
the project, which was estimated at 50,000 pounds sterling, wa.j 29,000 pounds
sterling after the collation of the survey data.
B051
A DYNAMIC STUDY OF WATERWORKS PIPING UNDER EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS,
Otsuki, H., Nakamichi, Y., and Kawasaki, K.
Journal of Japan Water Works Association, No. 517, p 2-18, October, 1977.
30 fig, 6 tab, 28 ref.
The impact of earthquake tremors on various types of underground pipe conduits
for water transport was examined within the context of theoretical pipe dynam-
ics. Subsurface conduits extend along the ground surface and are encased in
sand and soil. The seismic force of an earthquake acting on basement causes
shearing as surface waves move over the superficial base. The resulting
ground deformation causes similar deformation and stress in the conduit body.
The stress resulting from the seismic force and ground deformation is distri-
buted over various parts of the pipe. The earthquake tremor causes the ground
to vibrate, initiating a parallel vibration of the underground conduit. This
sympathetic response to the seismic vibration of the ground occurs in all
underground conduits.
B052
MEASURING PRESSURE SURGES IN PIPELINES,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 10, p 26, October, 1977. 2 fig.
Transducers (CEL) of Reading, England, has developed a bonded strain gauge
pressure transducer for the measurement of pressure surges in pipelines. The
Water Research Center in Medmenhara, Bucks, England, used the transducer to
measure pipeline surges in an attempt to prevent pressure-related pipeline
50
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damages. The DataSense 1000, capable of optimizing pump switching timing or
measuring static or dynamic pressures in pipes, was modified from 0-500 Ibs/sq
in to 0-1.5 Ibs/sq in and 0-375 Ibs/sq in. The transducer was used in con-
junction with a portable pressure indicator and a chart recorder. An isolat-
ing valve with an integral bleed value was positioned in the pipeline to be
tested. Air trapped in the pipeline was released by the bleed valve which was
then shut. The isolating valve was then opened and the pressure was mea-
sured. Positioning of the transducer is dependent upon the type of pipeline
being measured.
B053
PIPELINE FLOATED ACROSS RIVER,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 1, p 32, January, 1978.
A prestressed concrete sewer main, connecting the York County, Virginia,
treatment facility with a large southern treatment plant, was settled into
posdtion in Virginia's Poquoson River. The sewer line, with a diameter of 42
inches, is part of a sewer force main encompassing over 30,000 ft of 42 and 30
inch pipes. The main was constructed with movable ball joints, allowing
flexible conformity of up to 15 degrees to the river bed. As the pipe sec-
tions were joined, they were floated across the river by a cable from the op-
posite shore. A wooden pile bridge was constructed parallel to the line to
provide a support structure for seven cranes which aided in the installation.
Filling in of the trench, excavated on the river bottom for the sewer main,
was prevented in a marshy portion of the shore by steel sheet pilings. Once
the pipe was floated across the river, it was settled by pumping of water
through the line.
B054
DIRTY "OLE MAN RIVER" GETTING CLEANED UP,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 1, p 44, January, 1978.
A $2.8 million interceptor sewer and pumping station for the President's
Island section of Memphis, Tennessee, has a maximum daily flow capacity of 21
million gallons of municipal and industrial wastes. The interceptor sewer
consists of four miles of gravity sewer line and two miles of force main, 2000
linear feet of which was submerged into place in a channel of the Mississippi
River. The larger concrete gravity sewer lines, with diameters ranging 12-42
inches, were lined with coal tar epoxy to prevent hydrochloric acid corro-
sion. The force main lines, with diameters of 4-30 inches, are supplemented
by four lift stations in areas of deep pipe excavation. The President's
Island pumping station is equipped with two variable speed and two constant
speed pumps with capacities of 4,900 gal/min. The pumping station wet wells
are designed to transform stress into compression, reducing the need for thick
walls. The pumping station will ultimately discharge the effluent into a
waste water treatment facility in Memphis.
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B055
NEW PORTOBELLO OUTFALL,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 28-31, December, 1977. 3 fig.
A new outfall constructed at the Portobello cliffs in England has a dry
weather flow capacity of 6,800 liters/sec, a discharge rate 10 times that of
the 1928 outfall is replaces. The outfall tunnel has a diameter of 3.4 m and
a length of 1,830 m and will discharge treated effluent through a diffuser at
a low tide ocean depth of 14.4 m. The shaft from the pumping station to the
outfall tunnel was laid in water-bearing chalk which required manual excava-
tion and peripheral ring grouting around the outside of the shaft for sup-
port. A nine shaft diffuser system with four port diffuser heads mounted on
each shaft was installed on the last 347 m of the outfall. Waste water is
treated at the pumping station which combines mesh cup screens, grit dredging,
and solids dewatering and pressing. Preparation of the pumping station site
in the chalk cliff was required before construction of the foundation. The
final cost of the project was estimated at 3.7 million pounds sterling.
B056
PIPEFREEZING A SEWER,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 778, December, 1977.
Liquid nitrogen was used by BCB Pipefreezing Services Ltd of Croydon, England,
to freeze a section of a sewer main that had to be rerouted. The 250 mm dia-
meter pipeline, which carries sewage from the town of Brookend to a pumping
station, was rerouted for the installation of a 4 by 8 ft concrete culvert at
the same depth as that of the sewage main. A section of the pipe, constructed
of spun cast iron, was isolated with insulated freezing jackets into which
liquid nitrogen was injected. Freezing of the pipeline eliminated the neces-
sity of draining the several mile long sewage main and shutting down the pump-
ing station while the pipe was rerouted. Once the main was adequately frozen,
the section of pipe was removed and the modifications were completed.
B057
A TOUGH CONTENDER FOR PIPEWORK? SIMPLE AS ABS,
Ma it land, J.
Process Engineering, p 107, 109, 111, October, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic is replacing lead, copper, cast
iron, and steel as the preferred material for drain, waste, and vent pipes.
The ABS plastic has superior heat resistance and greater ductility at low tem-
peratures than polyvinyl chloride pipes. The absence of noxious combustion
products is an additional advantage of ABS pipes. Industrial uses of ABS ma-
terial include the transport of chemicals, slurries, effluents, and compressed
52
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air, as well as mine and quarry applications. Food and water supplies can be
transported through this material because of its nontoxicity. A newer use of
ABS is for pipe castings; installations to a depth of 600 ft have been
achieved. ABS offers light weight, a high modulus, abuse resistance, heat re-
sistance, and suitability for potable water. The quality of ABS is dependent
upon the processing and the use of high molecular weight ABS resin. ABS
pipes, with solvent welded or rubber joints, are resistant to low levels of
radiation in nuclear power stations.
B058
THE DEVELOPMENT, MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATIONS OF GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC
PIPES,
Cooper, L. T.
Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials, Vol. 25, No. 2, p 3, 5, 7, 10, February,
1978. 1 tab, 6 ref.
The development, manufacture, applications, and costs of glass reinforced
plastic pipes are reviewed. The longitudinal and circumferential strengths of
pipes are reinforced with biaxial or helical winding of resin-impregnated
glass fiber. In the Redland Pipes Ltd plant in Parkstone, England, a biaxial
winding machine is employed for the pipes with diameters of 300-2,000 mm, and
a combined helical and biaxial machine for pipes having diameters of 300-4,800
mm. Glass reinforced plastic pipe has a strength to weight ratio seven times
that of steel; it is light weight, corrosion resistant, abrasion resistant,
and non-toxic and not resistant to flow. The ability of glass reinforced
plastic pipe to withstand heavy loads and corrosives makes it suitable for
sewage and drainage installations. The plastic pipes are capable of resisting
the high and low internal pressures experienced in rising mains and pressure
pipelines; its resistance to tainting, toxins, and microbial growth makes it
suitable for potable water conveyance. The cost of glass-reinforced plastic
pipe is less than that of polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and stainless
steel pipe. Plastic pipe is cost competitive with mild steel pipes in the
larger diameter ranges.
B059
MODIFYING MANNING'S EQUATION FOR FLOW RATE ESTIMATES,
Lanfear, K. J., and Coll, J. J.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 68-69, March, 1978. 3 fig, 2 tab.
A modification of Manning's equation is developed to reduce the error of flow
calculation in municipal sewage pipes and manholes and to eliminate the need
for measuring slope. Estimation of the Manning's coefficient can lead to a
15% error in the calculated flow rates. The measurement of slope in old,
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deteriorated, or defective pipes is not always accurate enough to provide ac-
curate flow data. Manning's equation also does not take into account the
variation of the Manning's coefficient with the depth of flow. The modifica-
tion of Manning's equation involves determining the function of slope with a
single flow measurement. The slope function is calculated according to mea-
sured values of velocity, area, hydraulic radius, pipe diameter, and depth of
flow. Flow rates in several manholes are measured with a velocity meter used
in conjunction with depth of flow, the modified Manning's equations, and the
conventional Manning's equation. Flow rates calculated by the modified Man-
ning's equation agreed with measured values obtained in three manhole tests.
Flow rates calculated according to the conventional Manning's equation agreed
with the measured flow rate in only one instance, overestimating or under-
estimating flow rate in the other two tests.
B060
BURIED FLEXIBLE PIPE PERFORMANCE IN THE PROXIMITY OF NEW EXCAVATIONS,
Nesbeitt, W. D.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No, 3, p 80-81, March, 1978. 2 fig.
Precautions for excavating in the vicinity of buried flexible pipe are re-
viewed and equations for calculating critical trench depth and safe separation
distance are presented. The safe separation distance is a function of pipe
diameter, depth of soil cover over the pipe, and the critical trench depth in
a vertical excavation. The minimum safe separation for a highly flexible pipe
is equal to the least amount of horizontal soil cover required between the
pipe and the open trench to prevent shift or collapse of the trench wall. The
critical trench depth is calculated with estimated values for soil cohesion,
unit weight of the soil, and the friction angle of the trench wall soil. When
the minimum safe horizontal separation is not established, a soil wedge may
form by deterioration of the flexible pipe support, pushing into the open
trench. The effect of soil failure upon the flexible pipe is related to the
weight of the soil wedge, the stiffness of the pipe ring, and the failure arc
of the soil shear plane. Pipe flexibility is considered a minor factor in
estimating the response of buried pipe to adjacent excavation.
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B061
OPTIMIZATION IN DESIGN OF PUMPING SYSTEMS,
Deb, A. K.
Roy F. Weston, Incorporated,
West Chester, Pennsylvania.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE1, p
127-136, February, 1978. 2 fig, 1 tab, 6 ref, 1 append.
A mathematical model for pipe diameter optimization in a pumping system incor-
porated capital costs, inflation factors, operation and maintenance expenses,
and energy costs. Parameters considered for optimum pumping system planning
included demand rate, installation timing, locality of use, salvage value,
equipment life, head loss, viscosity, and liquid density. Energy requirements
were higher for small diameter pipes which caused large friction heads and re-
quired for larger pumps. Large diameter pipes reduced energy costs but in-
creased pipeline cost factors. The capital cost of a pipeline system was ex-
pressed as a function of pipe diameter or as a function of flow and total
head. For systems where population growth and resulting increased demands on
a pumping system could be anticipated, a formula was presented for selecting
the optimum year for pumping system expansion on the basis of an inflation
factor, a demand factor, and the length of the planning period.
B062
STANDBY POWER,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 770, December, 1977.
Standby power generators, produced by Auto Diesels Braby Ltd of Uxbridge,
Middlesex, England, supply backup power during electrical failures to pumping
stations within England's Regional Water Authorities. The compact generators,
both installed and mobile, provide power outputs of 20-480 kilovolts-ampere.
The units can be set for either manual or automatic control, the latter
especially important in unmanned pumping stations where power failure could
mean immediate flooding. The automatically controlled generators supply power
to the pumping station within 20 sec of the main power failure. In pumping
stations where power loss does not pose an immediate threat of flooding,
mobile generators are transported to the pumping site. The mobile units pro-
vide the highest expected initial current required at the serviced pumping
stations; the installed standby generators are programmed to provide the
specific starting current required by the individual pumping station. The
static generator is hooked into the main distribution switchboard at the sta-
tion; the mobile generator is equipped with a control panel mounted on its own
trailer.
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B063
PIPING MATERIALS: LITTLE FUROR; SOME CHANGE,
Domestic Engineering, Vol. 231, No. 3, p 64-67, March, 1978. 2 tab.
Results of the 1978 Domestic Engineering Plumbing Code Survey on the permitted
uses of various pipe types and materials were discussed. The survey was con-
ducted for polyvinyl chloride pipe, polybutylene and polypropylene pipe,
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene pipe, bituminous fiber, and cast iron pipe.
The percentage of surveyed municipalities allowing plastic house sewer lines
were: 59% for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, 58% for schedule 40 polyvinyl
chloride, 54% for D-3034 polyvinyl chloride, and 47% for bituminous fiber.
Other uses allowed for the pipes surveyed included: house-street water lines,
hot-cold water lines, single family homes, apartments, and commercial build-
ings. Of the 42 municipalities responding to the survey, 30 prohibited the
use of polybutylene for hot-cold water lines. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
was not allowed for hot-cold water lines by 23 of the cities; 27 prohibited
the use of bituminous fiber pipes. Of the pipes surveyed, polyvinyl chloride
and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene were allowed for above ground use by 21
and 20 of those responding, respectively. Cast iron soil pipe was sanctioned
for all uses by all those responding except four.
B064
COTTAGE FARM COMBINED SEWER DETENTION AND CHLORINATION STATION, CAMBRIDGE,
MASSACHUSETTS,
1977. 115 p, 24 fig, 22 tab, 5 ref, 5 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-
046.
The performance of the Cottage Farm Detention and Chlorination Station, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, was evaluated during its initial 3 yrs of operation
during periods of combined sewer overflows from the Charles River Valley sewer
systems. The station, with a peak flow capacity of 233.1 mgd, diverts and
treats combined sewer flows that exceed the capacity of the Deer Island Treat-
ment Plant. Six detention tanks with a capacity of 1.2 million gal and a wet
well holding up to 0.1 million gal contain the overflows; waste water flows up
to the 5 yr design storm capacity are screened, skimmed, settled, chlorinated,
and discharged to the Deer Island treatment facility when downstream flows
subside. The Cottage Farm Station removed 45% of the suspended solids, 99.9%
of the coliform bacteria, 69% of the settleable solids, and 42% of the BOD
load. During the first three years of operation, the station completely con-
tained 32 of the 114 overflows; overflows not completely detained by the Cot-
tage Farm station were treated with a sodium hypochlorite solution before dis-
charge to the Charles River Basin. Based on an estimated 33 overflows each
year, the Cottage Farm station would be available 300 days of the year for
other purposes, such as treatment of the Charles River water.
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B065
DEMONSTRATION OF VOID SPACE STORAGE WITH TREATMENT AND FLOW REGULATION,
1976. 125 p, 30 fig, 11 tab, 22 ref, 4 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-
76-272.
An underground void space storage tank constructed in Akron, Ohio, was evalu-
ated for collecting combined sewer flows during storm water overflows. The
storage tank was an excavated basin lined with an impermeable membrane. The
tank was filled with stones and had a capacity of 1 million gal in the void
space of the inert media. Flows in excess of the tank storage capacity were
chlorinated before they were discharged to the receiving waters. The retained
waste water was discharged to the treatment facility during nonpeak hours of
low flow. The storage tank received waste water by gravity flow from a 188.5
acre sewer drainage area. Chlorination of the stored waste water, containing
primarily inorganic suspended solids, prevented the effluent from becoming'
septic. Assuming 10 capacity flows per year and retention of all suspended
solids, it was estimated that 65% of the original void space volume would re-
main after 25 years of operation. The top layer of the storage tank could be
developed for recreational purposes, providing a dual function of the system.
B066
ASBESTOS-CEMENT PIPES FOR OUTFALL SEWER,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 22, No. 5, p 33, October, 1977.
The installation of an outfall sewer constructed of asbestos-cement pipes,
manufactured by TAG Construction Materials Ltd is described. The final out-
fall sewer designed for Peterborough Eastern, included four miles of Turnall
and Everite asbestos-cement pipes. Pipe diameters ranged 500-900 mm; trans-
portation of the pipes to the outfall sewer site was completed within a seven
day period so that pipes could be joined before installation. The location of
the rising main was calculated by a laser beam which was directed over the
pipe crowns. The rising main was constructed of 500 ran diameter pipe which
did not require a jointing tackle for connection. A trench safety shield was
employed during installation of the 5 m long, 900 ran diameter pipes rather
than shuttering because of excessive groundwater below the A m excavation
depth.
B067
GRP PIPE FOR SEWAGE DISCHARGE AT SEA,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 22, No. 5, p 31-32, October, 1977.
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipes were used to construct a 1,507 m under-
water municipal sewage outfall pipeline in La Pointe Simon, Martinique. The 9
mm thick pipes were reinforced with filament wound fiberglass. One hundred
meter sections, each with a 609 m diameter, were connected on shore with glued
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bell and spigot joints and towed into position. The sections of pipe were
tested at hydrostatic pressures of 2-3 bars before and after installation.
The complete project required 10 workers, 7 months, and half the estimated
cost for steel pipelines. Steel pipelines for the sewer outfall were rejected
because of prohibitive installation costs, including: towing, welding, and
protective linings. Cast iron pipe was rejected for its excessive weight and
inflexibility. The fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipes are as strong and im-
pervious as metal pipes.
B068
DUG TILE-IRON PIPE GALLERY,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 22, No. 2, p 10-11, April, 1977.
A waste water treatment plant, under the jurisdiction of England's Yorkshire
Water Authority, utilizes ductile iron pipe protected beneath a gallery for
the inlets and outlets to the sedimentation tanks. The horizontality of the
area allowed the sedimentation tanks as well as other treatment units to be
constructed above ground. The 3 m height of the water surface in the sedi-
mentation tank allowed for the construction of a covered gallery to protect
the ductile pipe sludge removal, effluent feed, and surface water pipes. The
gallery also created a protected working area for the plant operators. The
corrosion-resistant pipes included: flanged, flanged tapers, tee-junctions,
and 90 degree bends. Specially-designed fiberglass-reinforced plastic ports
to the sedimentation tanks diffuse the influent to enhance solids settling. A
control station contains a porthole for sludge monitoring; electro-hydraulic
actuators for desludging valves are push-button controlled from the gallery.
The treatment facility is designed to treat wastes from a population of 58,000.
B069
LOCATING UNDERGROUND PIPES AT SEWAGE WORKS,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 22, No. 5, p 32, October, 1977.
Electrolocation Ltd has designed a GPR 404 sub-surface survey instrument for
locating underground sewage pipes, cables, and drains. The device was used by
England's Thames Water Authority to locate underground structures as part of a
program to update records at the Hogsmill Sewage Treatment Works. The survey
unit detects, traces, and plots the courses and depths of the sub-surface
pipes and equipment. The instrument is equipped with aerials for detecting
equipment in areas of high interference and locating manhole covers that have
become buried. Plots of individual cables can be isolated from other cables
that run alongside. The survey unit can be adapted to pick up the electric
signals from underground cables, to induce a signal in dead cables or metal
pipes, and to follow a probe that is fed through non-metallic conduits. The
survey of the Hogsmill treatment plant was conducted as a prelude to future
expansion of the 11.5 mgd facility.
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B070
HISTORY OF SEWAGE PUMPING IN BRITAIN,
Stanbridge, H. H.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, p 517-523, 1977. 67 ref.
The history of sewage pumping in England, from gravity flow to Archimedean
screw pumps, was presented. Where gravity flow was not feasible, turbine-
driven reciprocating pumps were used. Steam-driven beam engines to operate
the pumps came into widespread use in the 1880's, followed by the smaller
steam-driven reciprocating pumps in 1890. These were eventually powered by
steam generated from refuse incinerator heat. Ram or plunger pumps were em-
ployed for transporting sewage at pumping stations, followed by pneumatic
ejectors. Various sewage lift pumps were developed around the turn of the
century, including: the Adams' sewage lift, patented in 1892; air-lift pumps;
pulsometers; the patented Humphrey pumps; and a windmill-driven lifting pump.
Internal combustion engines were replaced by e.lectrically-powered pumps at the
beginning of the century. Early centrifugal pumps were modified and improved
to create the electrically-driven vertical-spindle centrifugal pumps.
Electrically-powered axial-flow pumps, patented in 1927, and mixed-flow pumps
were suitable for pumping large volumes of sewage against a low head. Archi-
medean screw pumps have been popular in this decade.
B071
HOSCAR'S EXTENSION SHOULD DEODORIZE THE DOUGLAS,
Appleton, B.
New Civil Engineer, p 18-19, January 12, 1978. 1 fig.
An 11.6 km-long trunk sewer was constructed to transport sewage from Pember-
ton, England, to the Hoscar biological filtration plant. The 1.85 m-diam con-
crete pipe required a steel shield for trench support and 5 km of wellpoints
for soil dewatering during installation. The flow capacity of the trunk line
was increased to 4.8 cu m/sec. Improvements at the Hoscar treatment plant are
expected to increase the capacity to 1.8 cu m/sec by 1981 and improve the
plant's treatment of industrial waste water. Activated sludge was unsuccess-
ful in treating the filamentous bacteria in the effluent. Five hectares of
biological filter beds were designed to incorporate vibroflotation and blast
furnace slag. The Hoscar plant also contained circular humus tanks and pump-
ing stations equipped with Archimedean screw pumps built on piled .founda-
tions. Because the sludge was unsuitable for land application, a 13.5 ra-high
multi-hearth incinerator equipped with stack gas scrubbers was selected for
sludge disposal.
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B072
PVC PIPE PASSES PERFORMANCE AND COST TESTS,
Lawless, E. J.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 12, p 52-53, December, 1977.
The methods of installing flexible polyvinyl chloride pipe and pipe perfor-
mance under stress and use are reviewed. For sewer conduit installations,
polyvinyl chloride pipe requires proper bedding and backfill compaction. The
pipe must be installed in a flat-bottomed, stable trench. For class 1 bedding
materials, stone or gravel, the flexible pipe receives adequate side support
without additional compaction; class 2 bedding, or sand, requires thorough
tamping of the sides when backfill material from the trench excavation is
used. Mandril testing for pipe deflection is required for trench excavations
of 20-30 ft, where trench conditions are unstable, or where installation has
been difficult. Deflection of the pipe after installation occurs within the
first month, after which the pipe and soil conditions stabilize. Polyvinyl
chloride pipe allows on-site cutting with a handsaw, easy tie-ins, and uncom-
plicated saddles for subsequent cut-ins. Although cleaning of the pipe is
rarely necessary, hydraulic equipment or electric augers are efficient and do
not damage the pipe.
B073
SEWER JET CLEANER THAWS WATER MAINS,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 12, p 61, December, 1977.
Frozen water mains in Janesville, Wisconsin, were thawed by jetting water at
42 F through the frozen pipe sections at a hydraulic pressure of 1,000 psi. A
total of 8,000 feet of water main was cleared with the sewer cleaning equip-
ment, supplied by Donahue and Associates of Sheboygan, Wisconsin. In sections
where pipes, were completely frozen, excavation and cutting of the water main
were required to introduce the water nozzle and hose. The nozzle, modified
with a three-eighths inch hole in the tip, and the hose were driven through the
pipes by the backward pressure of the jets. The pressure from the water jets
forced the freed ice in the main back to the excavation areas. A total of 300
feet of water main had to be replaced because of freezing-related damage. The
water jetting technique cleared an average of 16 ft of ice/hr as opposed to an
estimated 1 ft/hr with steam melting. The entire thawing operation required
62 days and 20 employees.
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B074
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT LINE SERVES DUAL PURPOSE,
Fowler, H., and MacLennan, R. G.
City Public Utilities Board,
Brownville, Texas.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 4, p 58-60, April, 1978. 2 fig.
A 2.7 mile-long pipeline transports treated effluent from the Brownville,
Texas, waste water treatment plant and provides irrigation water for sorghum
and cotton crops. The 36-inch diameter, low-pressure reinforced concrete pipe
has a design capacity of 20 mgd and is capable of withstanding a pressure head
of 60 ft of water. The treated effluent, with a BOD and suspended solids con-
centration of 20 rag/liter, is discharged through the pipeline to the Rio
Grande River. The discharge point in the Rio Grande, which was moved 2.8
miles downstream from the original outfall to prevent contamination at a raw
water intake station, contains a riprap system and a cofferdam. Three irriga-
tion taps located along the pipeline supply more than 50% of the 1,000 gpm of
effluent as supplementary irrigation water during dry periods. Due to the in-
stability of the soil in which the pipeline was laid, cement-stabilized sand
was used to backfill the installation site. The project cost $616,800 and was
completed in 8 months.
B075
SEWERS . . . THE CLEANER, THE BETTER,
American City and County, Vol. 93, No. 4, p 43-44, 46, 48, April, 1978.
An evaluation of sewer cleaning techniques includes bucket machines, rodding
equipment, high velocity water jets, hydraulic balls and hinged discs, plain
flushing, chemicals, and bacteria. Bucket machines for removing all types of
heavy debris require cables to connect the manholes. While the bucket units
and porcupine brushes restore the hydraulic capacity of the sewer pipes, mis-
alignment, broken pipe, or intruding laterals interfere with the cleaning
operation. Flexible spring steel rotating rods provide adjustable driving
speed and a variety of specialized attachments, but flexibility can provide a
significant margin of inefficiency. The plastic or rubber hydraulic balls and
hinged disc cleaning units operate on the hydraulic pressure of the waste
water which is built up by blocking the downstream flow. The high velocity
water jet which supplies a water source at 60 gpm at a pressure of 100 psi is
a modification of this method. Inhibiting root growth in sewers is accom-
plished by introducing chemicals as fumigants or foams into a blocked sewer to
retard root growth for several years. Plain flushing with fire hydrant hoses
is effective primarily in flat areas and near the ends of sewer lines. Bac-
teria have been used more for cleaning of lift stations, filters, sludge
digestors, and grease in treatment plants than in sewer lines.
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B076
GROUTING PROVIDES ECONOMICAL AND EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE IN KANSAS,
Penner, I. L.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 66-67, March, 1978.
A program of chemical grouting and television inspection of leaks and defects
in sewage pipes has been implemented in Wichita, Kansas. The 1,100 miles of
sanitary sewers and 180 miles of storm sewers in Wichita are subject to damage
by the extremes in temperature, precipitation, and soil conditions. Infiltra-
tion of the pipes, which were originally sealed with tar at the joints, was
encountered in approximately 67% of the sewer system due to the dissolution of
air bubbles in the tar seals after heavy precipitation. AM-9 chemical grout,
manufactured by American Cyanamid Co, is applied to the interior of the leak-
ing pipe joint with a pressure sleeve. The chemical grout forms a gel which
seals the leak and stabilizes the surrounding soil. The setting time of the
gel is controlled by the amount of catalyst added to the grout solution; the
amount of grout required to repair a joint leak is calculated in a number of
gallons equivalent to half the pipe diameter in inches. Once the grouting is
accomplished, a four-person crew feeds the television into the sewer line to
inspect the pipe repair. The grouted joints have been reported to withstand a
variety of soil conditions, including quicksand. The total cost of grouting
and inspecting a sewer joint is estimated to be $11.
B077
NATIONAL NEEDS FOR COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW CONTROL,
Giggey, M. D., and Smith, W. G.
Metcalf and Eddy, Incorporated,
Boston, Massachusetts.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE2, p
351-366, April, 1978. 4 fig, 8 tab, 10 ref.
Costs and design efficiencies of eight hypothetical combined sewer overflow
systems were analyzed according to American Public Works Association and EPA
Needs Survey standards. Basic control and treatment objectives of combined
sewer overflow with rainfall data as a factor were applied to characteristics
of existing systems. Six of the hypothetical control systems treat combined
sewer overflow and swirl concentrator underflow separately. The other two op-
tions store the overflow until the storm subsides and the waste water can be
handled within the dry-weather capacity of the treatment facility. The first
option provides disinfection without storage at a total cost of $13.046 bil-
lion. The second $54.360 billion option offers primary clarification and dis-
infection with in- and off-line storage. The third option, costing $68.400
billion, employs secondary treatment and disinfection with in- and off-line
storage. Depending on the receiving water standards, the fourth option incor-
porates disinfection with or without primary treatment with in- and off-line
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storage at a cost of $34.200 billion. Similarly, the $62.380 billion fifth
control option employs disinfection with primary or secondary treatment. The
$25.073 billion sixth system, with off-line storage of underflow, uses swirl
concentration with disinfection of overflow and discharge of underflow to
existing treatment plants. The seventh system, costing $1.320 billion, pro-
vides in-line treatment of stored runoff at a treatment facility. The $6 bil-
lion option 8 provides the same treatment as system 7 with off-line storage of
the 'first flush.1 Total BOD and suspended solids capacities range over
310-660 and 450-2260 thousand tons/yr, respectively, for the eight combined
sewer overflow control strategies.
B078
BORING MACHINES PICK UP SPEED ON DEEP CHICAGO SEWER TUNNELS,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 17, p 28-30, April, 1978. 1 fig.
Rotary moles up to 35 ft in diameter are being used to bore the 131 miles of
deep tunnels and reservoirs to control storm and waste water overflows in
Chicago, Illinois. The $2.8 billion tunnel and reservoir project for divert-
ing and retaining overflows is part of a $5.6 billion plan to upgrade the
sewers and waste water treatment facilities in Chicago. The rotary moles bore
through limestone with compressive strengths up to 40,000 psi at depths to 240
ft. Grout is injected into the borings to control groundwater influx; the
tunnels will be lined with 10-12 inches of concrete. The maximum capacity of
the completed tunnels is estimated as 6 mgd. Rotary moles in the diameter
range of 18-22 ft have maximum boring rates of 10 ft/hr with single disk cut-
ters. Methods of removing the excavated rock from the tunnels, used by the
various contractors, include: crane-lifted hoppers, conveyor bridge assem-
blies, and a 900 ton/hr conveyor in an inclined shaft. Problems have been
posed in excavation by clay deposits which clog the mole cutters and curves.
The electrical demands of the power head motors and the thrusting cylinders
have been monitored as a means of effecting operation efficiency.
B079
BRIGHTON'S SEWAGE GOES TO SEA,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4456, p 8, November, 1977.
The 1,830 m long Portobello outfall has a design discharge capacity of 6,800
liters/sec for disposal of wastes from Brighton and Hove, England. The waste
disposing tunnel, with an internal diameter of 2.13 m, discharges effluent to
the English Channel through a diffuser located 14.4 m below the water sur-
face. Waste water is transported from a pumping station to the outfall tunnel
through a 3.4 m diameter shaft laid 44 m deep. The bolted segments of the
shaft required peripheral ring grouting around the outside of the shaft to
prepare the chalk cliff before installation. Influent reaching the pumping
station is treated with coarse raked bar screens and fine mesh cup screens
before discharge to the outfall. Screened solids and grit are passed through
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a pre-breaker, followed by dewatering to 50-55% moisture content in twin-screw
presses. The outfall was assembled above water to eliminate the expense of
compensating for high pressures at the 44 m water depth; air tools were re-
quired for excavating the chalk face of the cliff. The construction site was
initially grouted until increasing deterioration was abated by lining the
chalk with bolted cast iron rings. The outfall replaces a former structure
that had a capacity of 680 liters/sec.
B080
DETERIORATING SEWER LINE RE-LINED IN ARIZONA,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 27, February, 1978.
A clay tile sewer pipeline in Holbrook, Arizona, transporting municipal wastes
to a treatment plant was relined with Phillips Products Co., Inc., 18-inch
diam plastic pipe. The highly saturated clay and sandy soil beneath the
21-inch clay tile sewer connector had caused the pipe to sink. Initial at-
tempts to stabilize the pipe bed with 5-ft of rock and concrete encasement
were unsuccessful due to the high saturation of the former swamp drainage
field. The 21-inch pipe was relined with 18-inch plastic pipe in 38-ft sec-
tions. The corrosion-resistant pipe lengths were butt fused and inserted into
the existing sewer line. The joints prevent infiltration and exfiltration;
the plastic pipe is resistant to mineral accumulation and retains its flow
properties. The 710 ft of plastic pipe was assembled in two sections, 298 and
412 ft long, which were emplaced by a Caterpiller loader. The entire relining
project was completed in two days by M. M. Sundt Construction.
8081
INTERCEPTOR NORTH COMPLETED AHEAD OF SCHEDULE,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 1, p 17, January, 1978.
A 25,000 ft portion of the 5-mile sewer interceptor for Montreal, Canada, has
been completed by the contractor, Beaver Foundations Ltd., 6 mos ahead of
schedule and about $3 million under the original bid. Completion of the 90
city block stretch of sewer is expected by 1980. The tunnel was constructed
100 ft below the surface through four shafts sunk along the 25,000 ft length.
Rock blasting was required and the tunnel was excavated from each shaft in the
direction of the neighboring shaft. The 16-ft diameter horseshoe-shaped tun-
nel will intercept all municipal wastes from collector sewers and transport
the sewage to a proposed treatment facility at the eastern tip of Montreal
Island. The tunnel, which will circle Montreal Island, required 128,000 cu
yds of concrete for the initial 25,000 ft section.
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BOS 2
A REVIEW OF THE HYDRAULICS OF GRAVITY DRAINAGE, WASTE AND VENT SYSTEMS,
Konen, T. P.
Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, New Jersey,
Building Technology Research Division, Davidson Laboratory.
Plumbing Engineer, Vol. 6, No. 2, p 11-15, March-April, 1978. 4 fig, 3 tab, 5
ref.
The hydraulic characteristics of drainage, waste, and vent systems in domestic
sewerage are described. Water closets operate with an average daily water
consumption of 100 gal, reaching a peak flow of 30 gpm; lavatories achieve a
peak flow of 10 gpm over a discharge period of 12 seconds; and bathtubs
rapidly reach a peak discharge of 12 gpm. Water flowing through a horizontal
pipe, with constantly varying velocity and depth of flow, occupies half the
pipe's capacity. Vertical drains or stacks maintain a rapid annular flow
within a short distance from discharge. When the flow in a vertical pipe is
transferred into a horizontal pipe, the decrease in velocity from 15 ft/sec^to
2 ft/sec causes a hydraulic jump or an increase in depth of flow in the hori-
zontal pipe. Relief vents and vent stacks alleviate the pressure at the base
of the vertical stack. A comparison of surge durations in conventional and
water saving toilets, as calculated by the ratio of volume and peak flow, in-
dicates that a one-second difference in duration results in a 2% velocity dif-
ference between the systems. Velocity of discharge from a water closet is
considered in calculating the depth of flow and velocity in primary and
secondary branch pipes.
B083
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FOR SUBSOIL IRRIGATION (Ochistka stochnykh vod
pri podpochvennom orochenii),
Shevtsov, N. M.
Gidrotekhnika i Melioratsiia, No. 2, p 44-48, 1978. 1 fig, 2 tab, 6 ref.
Treated waste water from a Russian village is used for subsurface irrigation
of farmland by means of a gravitational distribution network of perforated ir-
rigation pipes laid at a depth of 50-55 cm. After refuse, sand, and coarse
suspended matter are separated mechanically, the sewage is settled for 2 hrs
in two horizontal clarifiers. The treated sewage has a pH of 7.5-8.5, a dis-
solved solids content of 600-1,500 mg/liter, a suspended solids content of
200-300 mg/liter, a permanganate oxidizability of 274 mg/liter, and a bichro-
mate oxidizability of 480 mg/liter. The waste water is then distributed
through the irrigation network at a rate of 1-3 tons/ha/yr. Previous investi-
gations have revealed that silting can reduce the free cross-section of the
underground irrigation pipes by as much as 20-25% during the irrigation
period. The organic matter is almost completely mineralized by the next ir-
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rigation period and the soluble components are washed out. This has resulted
in a 4% net reduction in the free cross-section of the irrigation pipes over 8
yrs. These findings suggest that underground irrigation networks may have a
lifespan as long as 50 yrs.
B084
RAINFALL ANALYSIS FOR THE DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS IN BOMBAY,
Chawathe, S. D., Shinde, U. R., Fadanvis, S. S., and Goel, V. V.
Associated Industrial Consultants,
Bombay, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 58, Part EN1, p 14-20,
October, 1977. 1 fig, 9 tab, 5 ref.
Rainfall intensity, duration, and frequency relationships were examined for
two sections of Bombay, India, over 24-33 yrs as a preliminary to designing
and upgrading storm sewers. Rainfall data over 24 yrs in Colaba represented
1,349 storms; 33 yrs of rainfall records for Santa Cruz encompassed 2,708
storms. A rational method of storm sewer system design was used in conjunc-
tion with the least squares method of rainfall analysis to calculate the de-
sign discharge from the product of the runoff coefficient, the area serviced
by the designed storm sewer, and the storm intensity over a specific duration
and frequency. Rainfall intensity was derived as a function of storm duration
and storm frequency. A computer program was developed to correlate data on
storm frequencies of various durations and intensities with intensity-dura-
tion-frequency relationships for specific storm frequencies. The relation-
ships were then used to estimate runoff in storm sewers by the rational
formula. Calculated rainfall and runoff data were in close agreement with
observed values. The information from the study was to be used in designing
storm water sewers for the city of Bombay.
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BOS 5
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DISCHARGE SIPHONS OF PUMPS IN THE PROJECT OF THE URBAN
SEWER SYSTEM OF MONTREAL (Etude experi mentale des siphons de decharge des
pompes dans le cadre du projet d'assainissement de la communaute urbaine de
Montreal),
Mitci, C.
Conmunaure urbaine de Montreal,
Service d'Assainissement des Eaux,
Montreal, Canada.
Tribune du CEBEDEAU, Vol. 31, No. 410, p 41-52, January, 1978. 13 fig, 5 tab,
6 ref.
Experiments were used to test two different discharge siphon designs for a
pumping system planned to deliver municipal wastes and surface runoff from two
interceptors in the Montreal sewer system to a sewage treatment plant. Para-
meters used to compare design performance included: charge loss, flow condi-
tions in the siphon, and flow conditions in the sewer (water level, sediment
transport, and pressure). Hydraulic characteristics and costs for operating
pumping stations were also compared. Tests had disclosed that the presence of
a stationary air pocket in the siphon of a variable speed pump necessitated
the use of a vacuum pump not required under constant speed operation. For
both constant and variable speed pumping, the siphon required a vent and a
valve to prevent intake of air during priming; addition of a certain volume of
air was necessary to unprime the siphon when pumping stopped.
808 6
COMBINATION TANKER FOR SEWER JETTING AND GULLY EMPTYING,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4469, p 22, February, 1978.
Whale Tankers Ltd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, has manufactured a 2,600
gal tanker truck for municipal and industrial sewer jetting, washing, and
gully emptying. The tank is divided into three compartments: the front for
carrying clean water, the center for oily sludges, and the third for sludge
and the gully arm. An air-cooled exhauster with a capacity of 60 cu ft/min is
used to clear the tanks. A volume up to 75 gal/min is delivered by the high
pressure piston pump at a pressure output of at least 700 bars. The tanker is
used for sewer jetting and descaling in sewers up to 6 ft in diameter. The
high pressure system is also capable of powering turbine rock-cutting heads
for clearing blocked or collapsed sewers.
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808 7
TAKE THE PICK AND SHOVEL WORK OUT OF COMPUTATION,
Hablett, T. H.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 52-54, April, 1978. 3 tab.
A computer program can adapt Manning's equation to calculate the diameter of
gravity pipes when the pipe flow velocity and slope are known. Program 096,
readily adaptable to programmable calculators, calculates the diameter and
depth of the pipe as a function of water quantity discharged (Q(f)) and the
velocity (V(f)) at a given friction. A chart relating diameter and depth to
these calculated values is reproduced for a round corrugated-steel pipe having
a Manning's coefficient for pipe interior roughness of 0.021. When Program
096 is used in conjunction with the chart, information on a specific gravity
main is input in the following order: point number for beginning of gravity
flow; gpm; difference between entry and discharge; horizontal length of pipe;
slope; and Manning's coefficient. At this point, the nearest value correlat-
ing Q(f) to diameter and depth of flow is chosen from the chart and fed to the
computer as follows: velocity; Q(f) from the chart; diameter; and water
depth. The effectiveness of different pipe diameters can be compared by
manual return to a specific stage within the program.
B088
NEW SEWER CLEANING SERVICE,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 985, p 184, March, 1978.
The Vactor 810 jet rodder for cleaning sewers is manufactured by a subsidiary
of Vactor Industrial Pollution Ltd. of Winkleigh, Devon, England. The Vactor
vacuum cleaning unit is mounted on a 16-ton two-axle truck and and employs a
centrifugal pump which can handle both solids and liquids for filling its 6 cu
m tank. The jet rodding system provides pressures up to 140 kg/sq cm for
cleaning sewers from 100-1,000 mm in diameter at a rate of 150 m/hr. Liquids
are drained from the full tank and solids remain so that the system can con-
tinue to operate. The number of trips required for the disposal of solids is
reduced because the solids are allowed to accumulate during the cleaning pro-
cess until the tank is full.
BOS 9
BARGES CUT OUTFALL IN HALF,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 9, p 15, March, 1978.
A 38,000 ft outfall sewer in San Francisco Bay, California, was constructed
with barge-mounted equipment at a substantial savings. The $15.8 million out-
fall, which is part of a $162 million project to upgrade sewage treatment in 7
Alameda County municipalities, cost less than half of the estimated expense of
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constructing an outfall to discharge wastes into 25 ft tidal waters. A chan-
nel was dredged instead of shoring a trench and all pipe was transported by
barge from Santa Fe rather than by truck. Original plans called for trans-
porting the pipes for the outfall on a hydraulically-operated apparatus that
would walk to the site of the outfall. The pipe is constructed of 96-inch
diameter reinforced concrete with 9-inch walls and is stabilized with a 4-ft
cover within the trench. The outfall can accommodate a 75 mgd dry weather
flow with a peak capacity of 185 mgd. Included in the entire project are a 20
mgd treatment plant, 6 pumping plants, 31 miles of interceptor sewers, and up-
grading of 3 treatment plants.
B090
PLASTIC PIPE FOR DEEP SEWER,
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 5, p 22, May, 1978.
Johns-Manvilie 14 inch polyvinyl chloride pipe was used for a gravity main
sewer laid 42 feet beneath two Rocky Mountain foothills. Installing the gra-
vity sewers over the hills would have required a pumping station. Construct-
ing the gravity sewer through the hills required maintenance free and corro-
sion resistant pipe that could withstand heavy loads without deflection. The
plastic pipe was laid in a 42-ft deep trench constructed with the proper bed-
ding and width to control deflection. After the pipe was installed, it had a
deflection of less than 4%. The sewerage project was designed by the engi-
neering firm of Serafini and Meurer, Inc. of Denver, Colorado.
B091
REPAIRING DAMAGED SEWERS AND WATER MAINS,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4471, p 22, 24, February, 1978. 1 fig.
A terylene fiber-reinforced polyester resin lining for repairing damaged
sewers and water mains has been developed by Edmund Nuttall Ltd. and Insitu-
form Ltd. and distributed by Drainalay Ltd., a subsidiary of Power Rod Ltd.,
London, England. The lining procedure is accomplished via an access manhole
and is suitable for pipes with diameters of 4-48 inches; pipes with diameters
of 4-6 inches have been repaired with linings up to 100 m in length. Linings,
in thicknesses ranging over 3-19 mm, are sheathed in polyurethane and vacuum-
impregnated with Isophthalic resin for added structural strength and chemical
resistance. The lining is fed into the opening of the pipe through a vertical
steel inversion pipe with a perpendicular end. The lining is clamped to the
end of the inversion pipe; water pumped through the inversion pipe builds up a
pressure head, forcing the liner to turn inside out into the damaged pipe. A
flexible hose is drawn through, the pipe; the water pumping through the pipe is
heated to 75 C; and the lining resin is cured. The -resin curing requires about
2 hrs, after which the ends of the liner are trimmed and sealed onto the chan-
nel. The lined pipes can be used within 2-3 hrs; the flow characteristics of
the liner reportedly compensate for the pipe's smaller diameter.
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B092
SEWER PIPE SYSTEM PROTECTS SUBURB'S WATER SUPPLY,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 59, May, 1978.
Johns-Manville polyvinyl chloride gravity sewer pipe, 'Transite1 asbestos
cement force mains, and polyvinyl chloride water pressure pipe were used in
the sewerage project at Little Elm, Texas. The sewers transport municipal
wastes to a sewage treatment plant utilizing contact stabilization and ter-
tiary filtration. The Johns-Manville pipes were selected because of their
corrosion resistance, ease of handling, and rapid installation. The clay
soils of the 10 sq mile area necessitated the selection of non-metallic pipes
with lightweight handling properties. The polyvinyl chloride gravity sewer
pipes in 20 ft lengths were installed in about half the expected time because
of less jointing and ease of handling. The asbestos cement force mains con-
necting the gravity sewers were installed at elevations of 12-27 ft and re-
quired less and lighter equipment during construction. The force mains were
equipped with factory-belled couplings with rubber rings built into the pipe
during manufacture; the rings were lubricated and joined with a bush-motion to
connect pipe sections. The joint had an exfiltration rate of less than 250
gal/inch diameter/mi/day. Polyvinyl chloride water pressure pipes provided
zero exfiltration when installed within 75 ft of a reservoir's high water
elevation. The sewerage and treatment plant project alleviated pollution of
the area's water supply via seepage from septic tanks in the area.
B093
POLYMER HELPS 'OVERFLOWS' GO DOWN THE DRAIN,
Hull, D. H.
Clinton Bogert Associates,
Fort Lee, New Jersey.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 5, p 55-56, May, 1978. 1 fig.
Anionic polyaerylamide polymer injection into the sewage stream at the Tena-
fly, New Jersey, pumping station increased the plant's pumping capacity by 20%
during overflow conditions. The 5.9 mgd maximum capacity of the pumping sta-
tion had been exceeded by 1.2 mgd due to infiltration during periods of wet
weather; by-passing of overflows was attributed to the empirical peak-to-
average ratios employed in designing the pumping station. Infiltration/inflow
analysis of the gravity sewer system identified inaccurate ratios of domestic
and extraneous flows during peak conditions. The injection of an anionic
polymer into the sewer system during overflow conditions included laminar flow
conditions and increased flow velocity. Parallel operation of the pumping
plant's centrifugal variable speed pump with a 4.8 mgd capacity and the gas-
powered 75 hp pump increased the plant's capacity by 29% with the addition of
100 ppm of dry polymer powder, supplied by Hercules Powder Co. of Wilmington,
Delaware. During overflow conditions, about $150-400 polymer/hr are required;
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the polymer treatment is not yet amenable to automation. The Tenafly plant has
employed polymer injection about once a year during severe storm conditions.
B094
COST-MINDED COMMUNITY CHOOSES SMALL DIAMETER GRAVITY SYSTEM,
Fey, R. T.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 6, p 58-61, June, 1978.
Septic tank effluent from residences and businesses in Westboro, Wisconsin, is
transported through small diameter gravity sewers to a tri-celled absorption
field composed of sand and gravel. Existing septic tanks, the primary form of
waste water treatment in Westboro, were replaced with circular or rectangular
septic tanks; the ownership was transferred to the sewer district to insure
regular pumping of sludges, scum, and other accumulations. Waste waters from
these tanks are transported to two lift stations through polyvinyl chloride
gravity sewers and force mains with diameters ranging over 1.5-3.0 inches.
Effluent is then pumped to a 9,500 gal siphon chamber which periodically dis-
charges waste water through one of three siphons leading to the absorption
cells. The siphon chamber is designed to discharge about 8,400 gal four times
each day through 12-inch diameter pipes to one of the absorption cells at an
application rate of 1.25 gpd/sq ft. Effluent is uniformly distributed through
perforated, manifold, and header pipes. The soil absorption field has a ca-
pacity of 30,000 gpd, sufficient for effluent from 120 homes. Seventy-nine
homes, 5 businesses, and one school are currently connected to the system.
B095
AN ANALYSIS OF DESIGN LIFE STANDARDS FOR INTERCEPTOR SEWERS,
Binkley, C.
Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Incorporated,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Water Resources Research, Vol. 14, No. 2, p 365-368, April, 1978. 6 tab, 21
ref.
A capacity expansion model relating scale economies and inflation was devel-
oped to optimize the design life of interceptor sewers. The capacity expan-
sion model is derived from a power function of costs, incorporating inflow ca-
pacity, a scale factor, and additional units of capacity. The cost of error
resulting from incorrect scaling is described as the ratio of the incorrect
design cost to the minimum design cost; error costs do not exceed 12%. Optimal
design life and minimum costs without inflation are jcalculated by differenti-
ating the cost equation. Cost equations for predicting economies of scale are
developed from cross-sectional information on interceptor capacity and project
costs or from simulation techniques incorporating the cost of materials,
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interceptor velocity, excavation costs, and other parameters. Cross-sectional
information is usually considered to be more accurate. Inflationary costs of
interceptor sewer construction are outlined for the period covering 1961-1974.
The optimal design life, minimum cost, and costs of errors are then calculated
with respect to relative inflation. The design standard for interceptors is
calculated to be 20-30 years, considerably lower than the federal design stan-
dard of 50 yrs.
BO 96
HYDRAULIC DESIGN FOR COMBINED SEWER DIVERSION,
Pennine, B. J., and Perkins, R. A.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Holden, Massachusetts,
Alden Research Laboratory.
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. HY5, p 595-606, May,
1978. 8 fig, 3 ref.
A 1:18 hydraulic scale model of a storm water retention basin, incorporated
into an existing combined sewer system in Richmond, Virginia, maximized the
design efficiency of conduits, distributors, and retention basin flows. The
existing combined sewer system, which discharged an estimated 1,450,000 Ib
BOD/yr and 4,350,000 Ib suspended solids/yr to the James River, maintained
arch and box sewer tunnels which overflowed to the river during wet weather.
Upgrading of the system to divert and store storm water overflows and to cap-
ture the initial pollutant load at the treatment plant included the construc-
tion of a 30,000 gal retention basin to store 60-70% of the overflow volume
for treatment. The hydraulic scale model was designed to simulate flow char-
acteristics and the impact of the level in the James River, the overflow weir
head discharge, the retention basin level, and the performance of the arch and
box diversion structures. The model studies concluded that streamlining out-
lets and crest gate sills and modifying the entrance roofs in the diversion
structures would reduce water levels during maximum sewer flows and high river
levels. The flow to the retention basin was maximized by streamlining and ex-
panding connection and diversion conduits, and by flaring the diversion conduit
outlet at the retention basin. Flow velocities at the arch sewer trash screen
inlet were reduced by installation of columns extending over the entire flow
depth. The model study minimized flow-through and diversion head losses in
the system.
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B097
CHICAGO PIONEERS IN CORRECTING WATER POLLUTION, CONTROLLING FLOODS,
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 7, p 58-62, July, 1978. 5 fig, 1 tab.
A $2.8 billion Tunnel and Reservoir Plan under construction in Chicago,
Illinois, will intercept combined sewer overflows and store the waste water
for subsequent treatment when the storm subsides. The first phase of the pro-
ject includes the excavation with a tunnel boring machine of 13-35 ft or 4.0-
10.7 m diameter tunnels in the limestone strata 200 ft below the surface. The
tunnel will receive an unreinforced surface coating to reduce rock breakage
within the tunnel and to prevent exfiltration of sewage into aquifers which
have a higher water table than the tunnels. Overflows will be retained in the
tunnels and in a series of five reservoirs during storms and will be pumped to
the treatment plants when dry weather flow resumes. As a cost-effective al-
ternative to upgrading waste water treatment plants to tertiary treatment, in-
stream aeration was chosen to maintain dissolved oxygen levels in receiving
streams. Ten aeration units will supply an average of 165,300 Ib 02/day to
streams; instream aeration has the advantage of reducing non-point source pol-
lutants that would not reach treatment plants. Districts lying outside
Chicago's combined sewer system will be protected from flood damage by channel
improvements and the construction of six reservoirs in the Upper Salt Creek
Watershed.
B098
PROGRAM THE MANNING EQUATION,
Hart, E. C.
Camp Dresser and McKee Incorporated,
Boston, Massachusetts.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 5, p 72, 74, 76, May, 1978. 2 tab.
The Texas Instruments SR-52 calculator can be programmed with the Mannings
Equation for rapid calculation of pipeline discharge, area, wetted perimeter,
and velocity. The SR-52 calculator, which costs less than $200, is programmed
on the Algebraic Operating System, permitting direct entry of the program from
left to right, with the addition of parentheses as written. The calculator
has an established hierarchy in which functions, powers and roots, multiplica-
tion and division, and addition and subtraction are solved sequentially. Two
programs are available for solving the Mannings Equation when the depth of
flow in the pipe is in the range of 0.5-1.0 and 0-0.5. The SR-52 retains all
input parameters, which may also be easily changed, and is attachable to the
PC-100 for printout copies of solved programs.
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B099
KNOW-HOW IMPORTANT IN REHABILITATING FLOODED SEWER LINES,
Malysko, R. W.
Department of Public Works,
Johnstown, Pennsylvania.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 5, p 62-64, May, 1978.
Water jetting, bucket machines, rodding, and scrapers were utilized by Robin-
son Pipe Cleaning Co., of Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, to remove debris from
sewer lines in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, after the July 1977 flood. Water and
debris were cleared from basements and elevator shafts by trash pumps and water
jetting; water was discharged to open sewer lines or transported by 3,000 gal
tank trucks to the Conemaugh River. Main sewer lines leading to the 25 mgd
sewage treatment plant were initially cleared to restore the flow in 145 miles
of municipal sewers. The concrete or terra cotta pipes, with diameters rang-
ing over 8-60 inches, were cleaned with bucket machines and high-velocity water
jetting, in sections averaging the distance between 2-3 manholes. More than
80 miles of brick, stone or concrete storm sewers with diameters ranging from
18-96 inches were cleared by rodding scrapers attached to bucket winches. De-
removed from the lines such as tree limbs, mud, rock, road base materials,
telephone poles, railroad ties, and auto parts, were deposited in dump trucks
by clamshell equipment or tractor shovels for subsequent disposal.
B100
SURFACE WATER AND FOWL SEWER SCHEMES,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 987, p 313-314, May, 1978.
England's Thames Water Authority has contracted P. Trant Ltd. to construct
surface water sewers in Old Poole town and waste water sewers in the Newbury.
Both sewerage systems will pass under railway lines through small tunnels that
will be driven without disrupting rail service. The Old Poole storm sewer
project will include manholes and 1.4 km of sewer lines with diameters ranging
225-975 mm. The project also Includes the construction of two pumping sta-
tions, equipped with twin screw Archimedean pumps with maximum capacities of
330 gal/sec. The line beneath the railroad bed will be passed through a bore
thrust, 900 mm in diameter. The Newbury project will include 2.25 km of 300-
600 mm diameter sewers laid up to 6 m deep due to ground conditions, and 1 km
of 350 mm polyvinyl chloride pipe pumping main. The tunnel beneath the rail
tracks will be 1000 ram in diameter; a pumping station near the tracks will be
constructed at a depth of 8 m. Steel sheet-piled cofferdams will be required
to shore up the side of the excavation during construction because of the
trains' vibrations.
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B101
DESIGN PROLONGS SERVICE LIFE OF CORRUGATED STEEL PIPES,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 60-61, April, 1978.
Coatings and linings increase the performance and durability of corrugated
steel pipes. The steel pipes are manufactured with a 2 oz/sq ft zinc coating
and often an 0.05 inch hot-dip compound asphalt internal and external coating
which can extend the pipes' durability by 25 yrs. Asphalt pavement poured in
the critical flow or invert section areas can further increase pipe durability.
Coating the pipe interior with centrifugally spun asphalt during pipe rotation
improves the hydraulic performance. Polymer coatings applied to steel coil
stock in thicknesses of 0.010 inches to 10 mils provide resistance to corro-
sive acids, alkalis, brackish water, and industrial solvents. Asbestos-bonded
fibers applied to molten zinc during galvanizing, followed by asphalt-based
saturant coating, also protect pipe materials against corrosives. Coatings of
anodic iron-zinc and aluminum-zinc alloys and cement mortar protect underlying
metal. Installation recommendations include: gradients steep enough to pre-
vent solids accumulations, sand and gravel as backfill to reduce external cor-
rosion, and proper coupling materials for bituminous-coated corrugated pipes.
B102
EVALUATION OF FLUID1C COMBINED SEWER REGULATORS UNDER MUNICIPAL SERVICE CONDI-
TIONS,
Freeman, P. A.
Peter A. Freeman Associates, Incorporated,
Berlin, Maryland.
1977. 104 p, 34 fig, 4 ref, 3 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-071.
The performance of two fluidic regulators, installed under a grant by the
USEPA Demonstration Program in a section of combined sewers in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, is compared to the performance of static regulators. The fluidic
regulators are evaluated as a means of overcoming the hydraulic problems of
static regulators that are controlled by only the flows in combined sewers.
Dynamic regulators can respond to both combined and interceptor sewer flows,
but are more expensive and less reliable than fluidic regulators. The fluidic
unit is controlled by tube sensors located in combined and/or interceptor
sewers. The design and construction details of the project are described; a
detailed comparison is made of the hydraulic performance, maintenance, and
costs associated with static and fluidic regulators. One regulator has been
operating adequately for 36 mos under combined flows of 2 cu ft/sec; the second
fluidic regulator has accommodated flows of 25 cu ft/sec for 30 mos with few
problems. Specific design modifications to the fluidic regulators, including
corrosion-resistant construction materials, rerouting of connecting air lines,
and inlet nozzle expansion, were formulated to improve the operation of the
fluidic regulators. Routine surveillance practices and maintenance operations
were simpler and faster than with static regulators.
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B103
SEWER RESTORED BY THERMOSET RESIN CURED IN PLACE,
Jacobson, A. R.
Illinois State University,
Normal,
College of Applied Science and Technology.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 7, p 94, July, 1978.
A brick sewer in Kidderminster, England, was repaired by the Insituform pro-
cess which utilizes a resin-saturated polyester tubing liner. A polyester
needle felt tube of the same dimensions as the sewer was saturated with a
thermosetting resin and inserted into the sewer line. The tube was filled
with cold water to maintain pliability and to push it through the pipe; the
water in the tube was then heated to cure and set the resin-saturated liner.
The Kidderminster pipe, located beneath a factory, was 1,800 ft long and had a
30-inch diameter. Underground Surveys Corporation of Fresno, California, are
North American suppliers of the Insituform process.
B104
THE PORTOBELLO OUTFALL AT BRIGHTON,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 988, p 356-357, June, 1978. 2 fig.
A 2.13 m internal diameter, 1,830 m long tunnel discharges waste water from
the Portobello, England, treatment plant and pumping station into the ocean at
a depth between 14.4-20.2 m. A 44 m vertical shaft leading to the tunnel was
supported in the area's water-bearing chalk by peripheral ring grouting. The
diffuser system, located along the last 347 m of the tunnel, consists of 9
vertical shafts connecting the four-port diffuser heads to the tunnel to pro-
vide 36 outlets. Grouting and cast iron rings were required during excavation
below 1080 m because of chalk deterioration. The chalk face was excavated by
hand with air tools and a Markham shield. Pumps were required to remove water
during excavation of the diffuser shafts. The completed outfall tunnel has a
capacity of 1,495 gal/sec.
BIOS
MONTREAL SEWER CONTRACTOR IS FORCED TO USE HIGH AIR PRESSURE IN TREACHEROUS
CLAY,
Brown, J.
Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 91, No. 6, p 40-41, June, 1978.
Compressed air at pressures up to 124 kiloPascals was used where unstable
ground conditions existed in the tunneling areas of Montreal Urban Community's
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sewerage project. The compressed air stabilization was required after a cave-
in trapped the tunneling machine in one of the sewerage construction sections
and also because of unstable clay and silt in three other sections 42, 43, and
78 m in length. Manual excavation within the compressed air lock areas was
completed prior to tunneling with the mole. Air was supplied through 152 mm
diameter lines at a rate of 276 cu m/min and pressures of 96-124 kiloPascals.
Deep wells with 22 kilowatt submersible pumps were required in one section to
reduce water inflow from 5,455 to 2,273 liters/min. Heading and bench methods
of excavation were employed in areas which had been drilled and blasted; 1.2
m-long, 19 mm-diameter rock bolts prevented rock spalling. Strict schedules
were required for employees working under the compressed air; at 96 kilo-
Pascals, continuous working time was limited to 3.75 hrs. A medical lock
similar to a decompression chamber was required for treating employees with
the bends; medical personnel were maintained on-site. The use of compressed
air also limited the equipment to air or electric power and influenced the
selection of explosives. The 8,473 m sewer tunnel will be lined with concrete
when completed.
B106
SWANSEA'S SEA OUTFALL IS TAILOR-MADE,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4486, p 7-9, June, 1978.
The design and construction of the major outfalls along the South Wales coast,
discharging municipal sewage and industrial wastes into the Bristol Channel
and Severn Estuary, are described. A 1,100 m-long storm water outfall into
Swansea Bay was part of the sewerage project in the Sand fieIds and Swansea
area. The 1,675 mm external diameter pipe has walls 12.7 mm thick, a flow
rate of more than 1,651 liters/sec, and is constructed of spirally-welded
steel sections; the sections were joined in strings seven units long and towed
into position. The Swansea sewerage project also included construction of 725
m of sewers, 215 m of precast concrete pipelines and manholes, 360 m of spun
iron rising main, a pumping plant, and associated sewers and pipelines. Out-
falls still in the planning stages include sludge and sewage disposal lines;
the nine sewage and industrial outfalls located along the cost of South Wales
range in length over 1,100-3,500 m.
B107
HYDRAULIC SHEET PILE DRIVER HAMMERS DOWN SEWER TRENCH COSTS,
Hancock, N.
Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 91, No. 6, p 74-75, June, 1978.
The Hydraulic Trench Master, manufactured in West Germany, drives sheet piles
for sewer construction in unstable ground conditions or in narrow trenches
from 2-18 ft wide. The hydraulic unit, which can simultaneously drive piles
on both sides of the trench to be excavated, reduces shoring costs by 50% and
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eliminates the need for dewatering of narrow trenches in saturated soils. The
700 mm wide, 3.5 m long interlocking sheet sections can be driven to depths up
to 40 ft by the continuous pressure, medium weight impact of the hydraulic
hammer unit; the driving technique allows reuse of sheet piles which are re-
moved by an air-operated extractor mounted on a crane. The hydraulic unit is
equipped with a 125 hp diesel motor and usable within one foot of a trench
wall.
B108
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL WITH INTERCEPTORS,
Blenderman, L.
Domestic Engineering, Vol. 232, No. 1, p 38-40, 80, July, 1978. 6 fig, 1 tab.
The county of Monroe, New York, adopted a sewage use law to control the size,
installation, and servicing of grease, oil, and solids interceptor sewers.
Failure to empty sewers or improper cleaning practices by interceptor sewer
owners, such as restaurants, gas stations, and food processing plants, led to
the adoption of inspection and fining regulations. The county inspects the
number of hook-ups, the flow volume, and the type and size of the interceptor
to be installed before a building permit is issued. The contractor or plumber
must comply with regulations for flow restriction units and baffles and inter-
ceptor location; he must also instruct the owner in the use and maintenance of
the interceptor. When an interceptor becomes plugged due to an owner's fail-
ure to empty it, the county cleans the sewer and a violation citation is is-
sued. The occurrence of a second plugging subjects the owner to a warning,
followed by a fine and a cleaning charge for the third plugging incident.
Cleveland, Ohio, has similar sewage use laws.
B109
SMALL CONTRACTORS TAKE ON TOUGH PIPE PLACEMENT,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 201, No. 4, p 28, July, 1978.
A 15 ft steel elbow was used to connect an 84-inch diameter interceptor sewer
to a new 72-inch diameter line that directs sewage to grit and screening oper-
ations in Newark, New Jersey. The 72-inch pipe consists of prefabricated con-
crete sections that were embedded in concrete to line an abandoned interceptor.
The 2.5-ton elbow, which connects the refurbished line with Newark's city and
airport interceptors, was bolted and braced in place within 6 hrs. Work was
hastened when sewage behind the blocked-off construction site threatened to
overflow into city streets. The elbow had one round flanged end and one
square end connecting to a concrete sluice; the pieces were bolted in place,
thrust braced, and connected to the lines with vertical supports. The new
line is part of a waste water treatment project currently under construction
for Newark. Vacar Construction Corp., of Williston Park, New York, was the
subcontractor for the elbow installation.
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B110
ANSWERING MECCA'S SEWERAGE PRAYERS,
World Water, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 42-43, 45, May, 1978.
Sewage treatment facilities and sewer systems in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, must ac-
commodate flows during pilgrimage periods that are double the normal flows.
The English engineering consulting firm of J. D. and D. M. Watson has designed
and supervised the construction of 65 km of trunk sewers, up to 1.02 m in dia-
meter, and 200 km of smaller sewers. To prevent corrosion of sewer pipes by
thiobacillus concretivorus, the sewers have been installed with adequate gra-
dients to prevent siltation and septicity; the trunk pipes are constructed of
clayware and the minor sewers are asbestos cement lined with epoxy to resist
sulfide corrosion. Periodic floods are controlled by a network of trapezoidal
concrete-lined sand channels surrounding the city to divert surface runoff
from flowing into the dry river beds that comprise the city's main streets.
One network of channels is 2 m deep, 2 m wide at the base, and 10 m wide at
the top; the other network has channels with depths of 2.5 m and a bottora-to-
top width range of 1.5-6.5 m. The only operational sewage treatment plant em-
ploys primary treatment, filter beds, humus tanks, primary digestion tanks,
and sludge drying beds. Treated effluent may eventually irrigate green belts
around the city; effluent is currently discharged into the dry river beds.
The Watson engineering firm also supplied the designs for upgrading Mecca's
9th century vintage aqueduct water supply system.
Bill
LASER MADE FOR PIPE-LAYING,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4484, p 26, May, 1978.
The 1055 Dialgrade laser, developed by Spectra-Physics Ltd. of St. Albans,
Hertsfordshire, England, is equipped with two axis level compensation for
rapid, automatic levelling in pipe emplacement. During set-up, the laser is
rough-levelled; after the initial set up, the laser automatically levels ±5
degrees within one minute. The laser moves right or left over a ±4 degree
range and over ±3 degrees in a perpendicular direction. Push button level
controls are located on the back of the unit which has a viewing telescope for
following the beam. The laser automatically levels in a 6-inch diameter pipe
with a grade of 9% when the unit's rubber bumpers are removed; the laser is
centrally aligned with the rubber bumpers in 8-inch diameter pipes. One in-
vert mounting plate is required when the unit is operated in pipes with dia-
meters of 10-15 inches; in larger pipes or flat-bottomed manholes, a trivet
mounting is used. The laser is equipped with a signal light and a warning
system to inform the operator of adjustment requirements.
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B112
COMBINED SEWER CLEANER,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 7, p 27, July, 1978.
General Descaling Co. has designed a sewer cleaning vehicle for simultaneous
high-pressure water jetting and suction removal of manhole deposits. The
unit, designed for single crew operation, contains a 700 gal sludge tank and a
1000 gal water tank, both constructed of 0.25 inch mild steel and internally
coated for corrosion resistance. The two tanks are mounted on a two-axle 16
ton chassis. A valve between the two tanks may be opened to allow a larger
sludge or water capacity. The triple-ram positive displacement pumps for
water jetting are available with capacities of 22 gal/min at 1,500 Ibs/sq inch
or 45 gal/min at 1,250 Ibs/sq inch. The water jet is supplied through 300 ft
of braided-rubber hose; controls and monitoring equipment are mounted on a
panel adjacent to the hose reel. A rotary vane air exhauster with an output
of 26,500 cu ft/hr and 4-inch diameter hoses comprise the suction equipment.
The vehicle and its operations are powered by a Perkins turbo-charged diesel
engine with a five-speed gearbox.
B113
SOME THOUGHTS ON PIPELINES PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE,
Andrews, E. N.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 6, No. 3, p 151-157, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab, 6 ref.
The properties and applications of iron, steel, plastic, concrete, clay, and
pitch fiber pipes are reviewed for use in sewerage, water supply, gas and oil
transport, drainage, and industrial structures. High-speed spun concrete
pipes provide a high crushing strength, high density, corrosion resistance,
smooth concentric bores with abrasion resistance, and accurately-formed joint-
ing surfaces. Fiberglass is often used in place of steel for reinforcing con-
crete pipes. Gas lines are typically constructed of cast or ductile iron,
polyethylene, or steel; water supply pipes can be constructed of a variety of
materials such as iron, concrete, asbestos, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene,
and reinforced plastics. Rigid pipes, such as asbestos cement, gray cast
iron, clay, and concrete, support the entire trench and the superimposed ma-
terial or traffic load; flexible pipes transfer the vertical load of the soil
to a horizontal plane which is supported by the trench walls. Pipeline manu-
facturing faults, design errors, environmental conditions, and installation
and operational problems contribute to pipeline failure; soil surveys, ground-
water sampling, water monitoring, and stress testing are recommended to pre-
vent pipe failures.
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B114
TflE LAYING OF UNDERWATER POLYETHYLENE PIPELINES USING THE ATMOSPHERIC COUNTER-
PRESSURE METHOD (Das Verlegen von Seeleitungen aus Polyathylenrohren im
Luftgegendruckverfahren),
Ursprung, H. G.
Gas- und Wasserfach, Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 119, No. 5, p 262-266, May, 1978.
5 fig.
An atmospheric counterpressure method was developed for emplacement of tubular
polyethylene pipes in deep water or in unstable ground without subjecting the
pipe to bending stresses or tension. Conditions affecting polyethylene pipe-
lines in deep water or in unstable ground cannot be adequately controlled by
calculating the unit stress of the material. Consideration of all internal
and external pressures on the pipe material at the moment of sinking is recom-
mended to prevent unnecessary stress. The counterpressure technique of sink-
ing the pipe was developed mathematically and graphically from the parameters:
horizontal and vertical water resistance, work of pipe weight, buoyancy, ener-
gies of the air and flooded water columns, the length of the flooded water
column, the allowable impact, and the sinking velocity. Input of these fac-
tors into an atmospheric counterpressure model permits control of the flooded
pipe's movement during sinking operations.
B115
DISPATCHER SIGNALIZATION OF OPERATIONAL DISTURBANCES IN SEWER SYSTEM PUMP STA-
TIONS (AID FOR DESIGNERS) (Dispetcherskaya signalieatsiya o naru shenii
normal'nogo rezhima raboty kanalizatsionnykh nasosnykh stantsii) (v pomoshch'
proektirovshchiku),
Ivashkov, A. S.
Vodosnabzhenie i Sanitarnaia Tekhnika, No. 3, p 34-35, 1978. 2 fig.
A relay-type sighalization network using telephone cable has been developed
for transmitting data on operational disturbances in sewer system pumping sta-
tions. The distance over which the signal can be transmitted ranges from 5 to
15 km, depending on the diameter of telephone wire employed (0.5-1.2 mm). The
system can notify operators of a variety of conditions, encompassing flooding
of the pumping station, power losses, and other pumping plant defects.
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PATENTS
C001
TREATMENT OF SEWAGE
Smith, K. C., and Garrett, M. E.
BOG Limited,
London, England. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,039,437. Issued August 2, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 961, No. 1, p 253, August, 1977.
A sewage treatment process which reduces the biochemical oxygen demand of sew-
age while it is entrained in a sewer has been patented. Pressurized oxygen-
ated gas is injected into the sewer to provide aerobic conditions suitable for
the growth of microorganisms. A longitudinal biological contactor which is
attached to the upper surface of the sewer pipe is designed to provide a suit-
able matrix for microorganism growth without obstructing sewage flow. The
matrix, which contains a bed of solid material to increase surface area avail-
able for microorganism growth, extends longitudinally for a significant dis-
tance through the sewer but does not extend below the central axis. Sewage
flows through the matrix via a series of longitudinal passages created by
separated pieces of sheet material.
C002
SYSTEM FOR POLLUTION SUPPRESSION,
Armstrong, E. T.
Til Corporation,
Lindenhurst, New York. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,045,347. Issued August 30, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 961, No. 5, p 2227, August, 1977.
A disinfectant mixing system for use with influent in waste water treatment
has been patented. The system uses a contact tank which includes: an in-
fluent inlet port which feeds a manifold, a pipe bundle with flat-plate
orifice; high momentum exchange mixing members; and influent and effluent
wells. A disinfecting fluid is injected into each pipe of the bundle at the
point of highest momentum exchange. Effluent from the pipe bundle is de-
livered to a contact tank via a hyperbolic transformed diffuser. After the
effluent is contacted with the disinfectant, it flows to an effluent trough.
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C003
WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Bowen, J. H.
BDH, Incorporated,
Rome, Georgia. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,042,509. Issued August 16, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 961, No. 3, p 1278-1279, August, 1977.
A waste water treatment system which employs ozone for oxidation of effluent
has been patented. The system includes: a conduit to supply effluent, a
self-cleaning filter assembly to remove solids from the effluent, and an ozone
and oxidation assembly for treating effluent. Filtered effluent which has
been subjected to oxidation and ozonation passes through an ultrasonic sound-
generating assembly to break down particles in the effluent. The effluent
then passes through a casing in which ozone is generated with an electric
arc. A germicidal chamber and a chlorinator are provided for disinfection of
the effluent.
C004
SEWAGE SYSTEM,
United States Patent 4,049,013. Issued September 20, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 3, p 1063-1064, September,
1977. 1 fig.
An improved design for a sewage pumping station has been patented. The sta-
tion is circular and has a drywall which is surrounded by an annular series of
wells. Sewage can be distributed sequentially among portions of the series
of wells without the need for an additional power source. Sewage can also be
delivered selectively to the pumping system in a predetermined sequence.
COOS
CHEMICAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT METHOD,
Horvath, P. J.
Rocky Carvalho,
Salem, Oregon, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,049,545. Issued September 20, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 3, p 1235-1236, September,
1977. 1 fig.
A chemical method of treating waste water which has a pH below 9.0, contains
nitrifying bacteria, and has in excess of 200 mg total solids per liter has
83
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been patented. The process is suggested for use with municipal, industrial,
commercial, and agricultural waste waters which contain organic wastes. The
pH of the waste water is first raised to 9-11 to kill any nitrifying bac-
teria. This is accomplished with the addition of an alkaline coagulant such
as portland cement, lime, or sodium silicate. An acidifying agent such as
copper sulfate, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, aluminum salts, or ferric
iron salts is then added to lower the pH by one unit and cause the precipita-
tion of suspended solids. After the aggregated suspended solids are removed
from the mixture, the pH is lowered again to 6-8.5 to further precipitate any
suspended solids. Once these solids are removed, an oxidizing and disinfect-
ing agent is added to render the remaining solids filterable. After the mix-
ture is filtered, a second oxidizing and disinfecting agent is added to lower
the BOD level to less than 20 mg/liter.
C006
WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Borchardt, J. A.
Environmental Filtration Products, Incorporated,
Orlando, Florida, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,051,032. Issued September 27, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 4, p 1723, September, 1977.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a waste water treatment system composed of a
closed tank with an effluent inlet and outlet at opposite ends of the tank to
provide a horizontal flow of waste water through the system. A number of
septa are provided to divide the tank serially into subchambers along the ef-
fluent flow path. The septa are filled with a particulate media so that ef-
fluent first passes through a coarse particulate medium and then through a
fine particulate medium. The coarse medium can be horizontally backwashed,
and the chamber containing the fine medium can be expanded and vertically
backwashed.
C007
ANAEROBIC PROCESSING OF BIOCHEMICAL WASTE - FORMING LOW MOLECULAR WT. MATERIAL
AND VOLATILE ACIDS, THEN DIGESTING RESIDUE FORMING METHANE,
French Patent FR 2324-581. Issued May 20, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 25, p D6, August, 1977.
An anaerobic treatment process which breaks down high molecular weight or-
ganic compounds into low molecular weight compounds, and low molecular weight
organic compounds into volatile organic acids, has been patented. Biochemical
wastes are initially processed in the presence of acid. After treatment and
separation, methane and carbon dioxide are produced in a digester from the
84
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non-decomposed sludge fraction. The remainder is recycled through the initial
treatment stage. Processing, separation, and digestion are then repeated.
COOS
SUSPENSIONS SLUDGE GRAVITY SEPARATOR-WITH STABILITY INCREASED BY VERTICAL
MOVEMENT MECHANISM OF FILTER ELEMENTS,
Soviet Patent SU-391-837. Issued November 14, 1973. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. Y, No. 3, p Dl, August, 1977.
A cylindrical-control device for the gravity separation of suspensions, in-
cluding sludge, has been patented. The gravity separator, with pipes and
filter elements on top of its casing, is vertically moveable by means of a
pair of screw elements. The casing is filled with a mixture of coagulant,
flocculator, and waste water and is equipped with a filtration pipe, a tur-
bidity gauge, and a sludge level control device. The sludge level is main-
tained so that the optimum high suspension zone is in the region of the filter
elements. The turbidity gauge activates the reversing drive of the vertical
movement mechanism via a signal amplifier.
C009
ORGANIC WASTE TREATING AND CONVERSION SYSTEM,
United States Patent 4,050,907. Issued September 27, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 4, p 1686, September, 1977.
1 fig.
A system for the treatment and conversion of organic wastes has been pat-
ented. The system includes a waste treatment tank equipped with a heating
fluid conduit circuit. The portion of the heating conduit which passes through
the waste treatment tank can be vibrated; and a pump is provided to circulate
the fluid-within the circuit. The fluid is heated by a furnace outside of the
tank and supplemental heating in the external portion of the conduit circuit.
Gas generated in the waste treatment tank is used for combustion in the fur-
nace. The tank itself is a vertical well which has a depth substantially
greater than its width. The heating fluid conduit circuit is a wire loop
which passes through the well. Radiation diffusers are located at the top of
the well and means for recovery of waste-generated gases are provided.
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C010
SEWAGE PURIFICATION PROCESS,
German Patent DS-1642-509. Issued August 11, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 33, p 47, September, 1977.
A waste water purification process to reduce the COD of sludge by wet oxida-
tion has been patented. Partial wet oxidation with excess gaseous oxygen re-
duces the COD by 10-45%. The solids are separated from the mixed liquor,
which contains ammonia nitrogen, and cooled to 75-108 C. A portion of the ef-
fluent is then returned to the sludge tank to create temperature conditions of
30-60 C and an ammonia nitrogen content of less than 1.0 g/liter. The treat-
ment equipment should be arranged so that the sludge tank is connected to a
settling tank and to a heat exchanger-wet combustion reactor unit. Provisions
should be made to maintain anaerobic conditions in the sludge tank in spite of
the influent waste water characteristics.
C011
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF PHOSPHATE- CONTG. AQ. EFFLUENT - WITH PRIM.
ANAEROBIC STAGE AND SEC. AEROBIC STAGE TO PREVENT FORMATION OF THREAD-LIKE
MICROORGANISMS,
Belgian Patent BE-853-318. Issued August 1, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 32, p 97, September, 1977.
A process for inhibiting the growth of filamentous microorganisms during the
activated sludge process has been patented. The circulating activated sludge
is mixed with a BOD-containing aqueous effluent. Anaerobic conditions with
less than 0.7 ppm dissolved oxygen and virtually no nitrogen oxides are main-
tained to promote absorption of BOD by non-filamentous microorganisms. The
mixed liquor is then aerated in an oxygenation zone with a dissolved oxygen
concentration of greater than 1 ppm to remove the BOD. A settling zone is era-
ployed to separate the purified supernatant from the oxygenated mixed liquor.
Part of the settled sludge is returned to the mixing zone for further treat-
ment. The treatment process is reported to result in improved sludge settling
characteristics and the elimination of bound phosphates in the effluent water.
86
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C012
PHOSPHATE REMOVAL FROM BOD-CONTAINING WASTEWATER,
Matsch, L. C., and Drnevich, R. F.
Union Carbide Corporation,
New York, New York, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,042,493. Issued August 16, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 961, No. 3, p 1273, August, 1977.
A method of phosphate removal from waste water during the activated sludge
process has been patented. The phosphate-containing waste water is mixed with
activated sludge and oxygen-containing gas in an aeration zone. While the
fluid is circulated, microorganisms take up the phosphate and reduce the BOD
content of the waste water. The phosphate-rich sludge is separated from the
mixed liquor and passes through a phosphate stripping zone. Anaerobic condi-
tions are maintained for part of the sludge, resulting in a phosphate-rich
liquid and a phosphate-poor sludge fraction. The phosphate-rich liquid is re-
moved and a portion of the sludge is recycled to the aeration zone. Phosphate
stripping is enhanced by retaining sludge in the stripping zone for 2-10 hrs,
introducing a stripping medium which has a low suspended solids and phosphate
concentration, and maintaining a flow rate through the stripping zone of
0.7-2.0 times the rate of removal of phosphate-enriched liquid.
C013
METHOD OF TREATING SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Kara, S., and Kato, T.
NKG Insulators, Limited,
Nagoya, Japan, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,050,390. Issued September 27, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 4, p 1511, September, 1977.
1 fig.
A method of sewage sludge dewatering in a multiple hearth furnace has been
patented. The sludge is dried in the upper part of the multiple hearth fur-
nace and reduced to ashes by pyrolysis in the lower portion of the furnace.
Exhaust gases produced during both operations are collected independently.
The exhaust gas produced during the drying stage is dehumidified and then
mixed with gas resulting from pyrolysis. Preheated gas is added to this mix-
ture and the total mixture is burned in an after-burner. The combustion gas
is discharged into the atmosphere and the heat generated in the after-burner
is used to produce the preheated gas.
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C014
APPARATUS FOR THE AEROBIC TREATMENT OF LIQUID WASTE,
Boschen, W. 0., Annichiarico, A. V., and Johnson, A. L.
Ralph B. Carter Company,
Hackensack, New Jersey, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,051,035. Issued September 27, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 4, p 1724, September, 1977.
1 fig.
A system for the aerobic treatment of liquid wastes has been patented. The
system includes a liquid basin which is equipped with an array of continuous
gas distribution lines with orifices for the release of a gas such as air. A
mixing-aerator device can be placed above any of the orifices to enhance mix-
ing and aeration of the liquid waste and gas. The system is improved by the
addition of a number of brackets to correspond and connect to the array of gas
distribution lines. The mixer-aerator can be selectively attached to the
brackets. At least two rigid legs extend between the mixer-aerator and the
bracket and are equipped with a foot at the end of each leg. The foot is
manually fastened to a receptor when the mixer-aerator is in place upon the
selected bracket, and can be disengaged without dislodging the gas distribu-
tion line.
C015
ACTIVATED SEWAGE PLANT AND PROCESS,
Heaney, D. F.
Dravo Corporation,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,051,039. Issued September 27, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 962, No. 4, p 1725, September, 1977.
1 fig.
A filter design for use with settled activated sludge process effluent prior
to chlorination has been patented. The filter has a perforated false bottom
on which a filter bed of not less than 6 ft is supported. A headspace at the
top of the filter is provided for influent, unfiltered water. Gravel-like,
rounded quartz particles ranging in size from 1-3 mm comprise the filter
media. The particles should be reasonably well sorted, having an average size
difference not greater than 1 mm. A valved discharge outlet is located below
the false bottom for removal of filtered water. When the filter is being
backwashed, the value outlet is closed and air is forced into the space below
the false bottom. The filter is equipped with an overflow weir for receipt of
backwash water.
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C016
FEEDSTUFF FROM SLUDGE WASTE,
German Patent DS 1937-580. Issued September 22, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 39, p 2, November, 1977.
A process for preparing feedstuff from sewage sludge derived from mechanical,
biological, or mechanical-biological breakdown processes has been patented.
The sludge is preferably mixed with fresh or partially matured compost in a
ratio of 10:1 to 1:2 based on dry weight. The mixture, which should have a
moisture content of at least 25%, is then heated continuously or in batches at
a temperature of 105- 160 C, preferably in the range 110-130 C, for up to 5
min. The mixture should be heated for a time period sufficient to insure
sterility of the product.
C017
PLASTIC LINED CONCRETE CHANNEL FOR WASTE WATER PURIFICN. PLANT - ASSEMBLED
FROM PREFABRICATED MODULAR ELEMENTS WITH SEALED PLASTIC JOINTS,
Belgian Patent BE 852-803. Issued September 23, 1977. Derwent Belgian Pat-
ents Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 39, p 2, November, 1977.
A plastic lined channel has been patented for use in oxidation during waste
water treatment. The elongated channel is constructed of a series of tubular
parallelpiped elements, each of which is equipped with inlet and outlet open-
ings of the same size and lined with a sheet of thermoplastic material which
extends through the openings to form flaps. During assembly of two elements
for continuous flow, the outlet of one element and the inlet of the other ele-
ment are superimposed and the corresponding flaps and lining of thermoplastic
material are seam-welded together. A manhole aperture can be placed at the
top of an element which has two open ends for straight-through flow. In this
instance, the thermoplastic sheeting is secured during casting of the concrete
by protruding studs on one side of the sheeting. The prefabricated modular
elements are designed to allow rapid construction of channel oxidation zones
of any size and shape in waste water treatment plants.
C018
BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC WASTE WATER - BY PERIODIC
FLOODING OF FILTRATION BEDS TO A SPECIFIED DEPTH,
Soviet Patent SU 529-128. Issued December 14, 1976. Derwent Soviet Inven-
tions Illustrated, Vol. Y, No. 37, p 5, October, 1977.
A waste water treatment process which involves periodic flooding of filtration
beds for municipal and industrial wastes has been patented. During the flood-
ing period waste water is applied to a depth of 0.5-1.0 m relative to the
depth of the filter bed, to increase treatment efficiency and equalize winter
and summer performance. In later stages waste water is applied at a rate of
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0.2-0.3 m until the initial depth of 0.5-1.0 m is reached on a daily loading
basis of 300-500 cu m/hectare. The periodic nature of the flooding preserves
aerobic conditions, inhibits the growth of microorganisms and other aquatic
life, and insures the presence of algae in the water. Oxidation and self-
purification in the bed is continuous through summer and winter.
C019
WASTE WATER FILTRATION PROCESS - WHICH DOES NOT BLOCK THE FILTER, EFFECTED BY
SEQUENTIAL ADDN OF ALUMINATE, SILICATE AND AMMONIUM/POLYVALENT CATION SOURCE,
French Patent FR 2334-632. Issued August 12, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 39, p 5, November, 1977.
In a recently patented waste water filtration process, 0.004-0.04 moles/liter
of an alkali aluminate are added to the waste water, followed by 0.006-0.2
moles/liter of an alkali silicate, 0.001-0.2 moles of a soluble ammonium
source and/or a source of soluble Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Ba, Co, Cd, Sr, and/or Cu.
The waste water should have a pH of more then 5.5 before any chemicals are
added. The treatment process, which uses readily available chemicals, does
not block the filter and produces a highly dewatered complex of recovered
solids for safe storage, handling, and benefical use. The filtrate which is
produced is free from particulate matter, many dissolved substances, and
mic roorganisms.
C020
PHOSPHATE STRIPPING OF SEWAGE,
Australian Patent 485,436. Issued August 11, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 29, p 2674, August,
1977.
A phosphate stripping process has been patented by the Union Carbide Corpora-
tion for use in conjunction with activated sludge treatment. Mixed liquor
which includes phosphate-containing influent sewage and activated sludge
passes through an aeration zone, where the BOD is reduced and microorganisms
take up phosphate. The phosphate-enriched sludge is separated from the sub-
stantially phosphate-free supernatant and passed to a phosphate stripping
zone, where anaerobic conditions are maintained to cause the release of the
phosphate to the liquid phase of the settled sludge. The sludge containing
the phosphate-enriched liquid is contacted with a lower phosphate content
medium to remove the phosphate from the anaerobic sludge liquid phase. A por-
tion of the sludge is returned to the phosphate stripping zone.
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C021
GRAVITY DRAINAGE FILTER FOR SEWAGE SLUDGE ETC.—HAS SIMPLE UNBLOCKABLE OUTLET
FOR DISCHARGING DEHYDRATED SLUDGE,
Belgian Patent BE 854-385. Issued September 1, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 36, p 3, October, 1977.
The gravity drainage filter which has been patented consists of a vertically
suspended, flexible tube of porous material such as textile fabric. The bot-
tom of the fabric sleeve can be closed to form a container into which the
sludge is poured, and is equipped with a dehydrated sludge outlet which can be
opened to a diameter equal to the full width of the sleeve. The sleeve ex-
tends below the container bottom which is created by the clamping of internal
and external rigid reinforcing rings. The sleeve extension is folded back
onto itself to form an annular pocket, with the outer edge of the pocket form-
ing a border which is attached to a mobile support ring. Opening and closing
of the container bottom is accomplished by rotation of the mobile support ring
relative to the reinforcing rings.
C022
SCUM REMOVAL SYSTEM FOR A SEWAGE SETTLING TANK,
McGivern, R. F.
Sybron Corporation,
Rochester, New York, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,054,520. Issued October 18, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 963, No. 3, p 993-994, October, 1977. 1
fig.
Details of a patent for a scum removal system for sewage settling basins are
presented. The system includes a scum trough along the end wall of the basin,
a floating beach, and a skimmer assembly. The floating beach extends along
the full length of the scum trough and is connected to the trough by a hinge
at the upper edge, so that part of the beach extends into the settling tank
liquid. The beach has a raised area between the settling basin side and the
hinge side to prevent flow into the scum trough. The skimmer assembly moves
back and forth across the settling tank, pushing scum towards the trough, and
can pivot to push the floating material over the beach into the trough. The
depth and distance over which the skimmer assembly travels is adjustable. A
modified system includes a time-delay mechanism which can delay the motion of
the skimmer back and forth across the tank.
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C023
HEAT EXCHANGE METHOD FOR WET OXIDATION SYSTEMS,
Van Kirk, J. W.
Whirlpool Corporation,
Benton Harbor, Michigan. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,053,404. Issued October 11, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 963, No. 2, p 623, October, 1977. 1 fig.
A continuous wet oxidation process has been patented for use with organic
waste sewage. The process includes treatment of the sewage in a reactor at
550-560 F and pumping of the waste sewage through two heat exchangers. The
treated liquid is passed from the reactor through the second heat exchanger,
through a throttling device, and then through the first heat exchanger in the
series. The pressure of the effluent upstream from the throttling device
maintains the pressure in the second heat exchanger at about 1500-1600 psi and
the temperature at about 560 F. The pressure downstream from the throttling
device and in the first heat exchanger is maintained at less than 500 psi and
the temperature at no more than 400 F. The influent waste sewage is thus pre-
heated in two stages before entering the reactor. The first stage is carried
out at a lower temperature and pressure in the first heat exchanger, and the
second at a higher temperature and pressure in the second heat exchanger.
C024
METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR WASTE TREATMENT,
Donnelly, L. A., Flocke, L. C., Himel, V. H., Mikals, J. J., and Munier, A. E.
Grumman Aerospace Corporation,
Bethpage, New York, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,053,399. Issued October 11, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 963, No. 2, p 621-622, October, 1977. 1
In a process which has been patented for treating raw sewage, the influent is
first screened to separate out the solid materials. The screenings are then
incinerated. The screened waste fluid passes through a centrifuge system for
separation into sludge and clarified liquid. The sludge is incinerated and
the clarified liquid passes to a contact zone where ozone bubbles produce
foam-entrapped solids, solids which adhere to ozone bubbles, and a disinfected
liquid. The disinfected liquid is removed from the system and the foam-
entrapped solids and bubble-held solids are incinerated.
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C025
SEWAGE CHANNEL BAR SCREEN RAKE--RAI SABLE BY CHAIN ALONG REARWARD SWIVELLING
CARRIER ON CANTILEVER WITH POWER CYLINDER DRIVE,
German Patent DS 2524-776. Issued October, 20, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 43, p 4, December, 1977.
A patent has been issued for a channel bar screen rake which includes a col-
lecting rake mounted at the influent end of a waste water treatment plant. A
comb is placed parallel to the rectilinear rake and on its downstream side so
that the teeth of the comb extend upstream through the rake. The direction of
the comb teeth can be reversed to allow cleaning of the mechanism. The rake
structure is equipped with a comb support which allows sliding and pivoting of
the rake in a downstream direction as well as vertical motion of the comb
within its support plane. A cantilever arm with a length equal to the pro-
truding length of the comb teeth from the support is mounted on the downstream
side of the support to allow pivoting.
C026
REMOVING PHOSPHATES FROM EFFLUENT BY THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS—WITH
COUNTERCURRENT EXTN. OF THE PHOSPHATE CONTG. SLUDGE,
French Patent ZA 7605-966. Issued August 2, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 43, p 3, December, 1977.
A patent has been issued for an activated sludge process to remove phosphate
from BOD-containing waste water. The phosphate-containing influent is mixed
with activated sludge and oxygen-containing gas in an aeration zone. Mixing
facilitates the reduction of the BOD content of the influent and the removal
of phosphate by microorganisms present in the activated sludge. The phos-
phate-enriched sludge is separated from the phosphate-free liquid in the mixed
liquor and passed to an anaerobic stripping zone for release of the phosphate
into the remaining liquid. The phosphate-enriched liquid is withdrawn from
the upper section of the stripping zone while the phosphate-depleted sludge is
recycled to the aeration zone. The process has been improved through the ad-
dition of counter-current stripping of the sludge phosphate by maintaining the
sludge in the stripping zone for a period of 2-10 hours. A low phosphate, low
solids stripping medium which is added to the lower section of the stripping
zone flows up through the settling solids. Phosphate from the settling solids
is then transferred to the stripping medium. The stripping medium should have
a suspended solids concentration of less than 200 rag/liter and should be in-
troduced at a flow rate of 0.7-2.0 times the rate that the phosphate-enriched
liquid is withdrawn.
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C027
AERATION TANK FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER— IS SMALLER AND
REQUIRES LESS POWER FOR A GIVEN TREATMENT CAPACITY,
French Patent ZA 7605-207. Issued August 31, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 43, p 1-2, December, 1977.
A basin for aerating mixed liquor in an activated sludge system has been pat-
ented. The basin consists of an elongated, rectangular tank equipped with in-
let and outlet ends. Means for supplying waste water and recycled sludge to the
tank are provided. Aerator units are located at various intervals along the
length of the basin to aerate the mixed liquor as it flows through the tank to
the outlet end. Staggered partitions extend from alternate side walls across
at least part of the width of the tank to form liquid passes with a length to
width ratio of 0.59-1.70. The liquid flow paths created by the partitions em-
compass 30-80% of the wetted cross-sectional area of the basin. The aerator
units should have mixing factors within the range of 20-450. The partitioning
creates an effect of liquid staging with more than one liquid stage per actual
liquid pass.
C028
ELIMINATION OF NITROGEN CPDS. FROM WASTE WATER—BY DOWNWARDS PASSAGE THROUGH
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT UNITS IN A SUITABLE ATMOS.,
French Patent FR 2336-354. Issued August 26, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 43, p 5, December, 1977.
A biological treatment process has been patented for the removal of organic
nitrogen compounds, nitrates, nitrites, and ammonium compounds from waste
water. A pipe conducts the waste water into a distribution chamber and then
through a series of superimposed units for the removal of oxygen and the bio-
logical reduction of nitrates. The waste water then passes into an evacuated
gas distribution chamber where nitrogen is introduced through a tube in a re-
verse direction to that of the waste water flow. The superimposed units are
filled with innoculated porous media which have been treated with a nutrient
suitable for supporting nitrifying bacteria. Overflow tubes conduct waste
water from one unit to the next in the column.
C029
VERTICAL AXIS AERATING ROTOR FOR WASTE WATER—CAN BE OPERATED AT HIGHER SPEEDS
THAN PREVIOUS INVERTED CONE TURBINE ROTORS,
French Patent FR 2337-580. Issued September 9, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 45, p 3, December, 1977.
A patent has been issued for a high-speed rotor for waste water aeration. The
rotor consists of a flat, preferably circular, plate which rotates in a hori-
zontal plane about a vertical axis. The underside of the rotor is equipped
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with several, angularly spaced blades which extend radially toward the periph-
ery of the rotor. The blade depth is shallowest at the blade's ends, yielding
a crescent shape. Each blade is fitted with a wing-like plate which extends
from both sides of the blade's crest to its outer edge. The blade itself ex-
tends beyond the perimeter of the circular rotor. Four right-angle vertical
plates which coincide with the central axis of the rotor act as baffles to
prevent turbulence in the lower section of the tank. The rotor can reportedly
be operated at higher speeds than conventional inverted cone turbine rotors.
C030
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Hasegawa, T., and Hasegawa, S.
Seisuikogyo Company, Limited,
Osaka, Japan. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,055,490. Issued October 25, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 963, No. 4, p 1323, October, 1977. 1
fig.
A patent has been issued for an activated sludge process which employs an aer-
ation tank having a narrowed, discharge conduit at its upper end. Waste water
is introduced into the tank; and an oxygen-containing gas is added at the bot-
tom of the tank. The gas flows up through the tank to the discharge conduit
and in the process agitates and aerates the waste water. The activated sludge
adheres to a number of free-floating, spongy particles in the tank. An air
lift effect causes the particles to be lifted toward the discharge conduit.
The spongy particles are periodically allowed to exit the tank via the dis-
charge conduit. The spongy pieces then pass to a head tank equipped with
pressing rolls. The sludge is extracted and the spongy pieces are prepared
for recycling to the aeration tank.
C031
METHOD OF DEWATERING MATERIAL CONTAINING SOLID MATTER AND BOUND AND UNBOUND
WATER,
Peters, H. H.
Resources Conservation Company,
Renton, Washington. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,056,466. Issued November 1, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 1, p 212, November, 1977. 1
fig-
A chemical process for dewatering sludge has been patented. The dewatering
process is based on the mixture of an amine with the sludge. The amine con-
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sists of nitrogen, hydrogen or alkyl, and two alkyl radicals having from one
to six carbon radicals or alkenyl radicals which have from two to six carbon
atoms, yielding a total of three to seven carbon atoms in the molecule. The
amine should also have an inverse critical solution temperature in a two phase
system with water. The temperature of the mixture is adjusted to below the
critical solution temperature to yield a liquid and a solid phase. The solid
material can then be separated from the liquid phase, with improved results if
the inverse critical temperature is maintained until the separation is com-
plete.
C032
PRODUCTION OF NON-BULKING ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Spector, M. L.
Air Products and Chemical Products, Incorporated,
Allentown, Pennsylvania, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,056,465. Issued November 1, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 1, p 212, November, 1977. 1
fig.
A patent has been issued for a process which inhibits the proliferation of
filamentous biomass in the activated sludge process. Recycled activated
sludge is mixed with BOD-containing influent in an initial contact zone.
Anaerobic conditions are maintained in the contact zone to provide an environ-
ment which is essentially free of nitrogen oxides and contains less than 0.7
ppm dissolved oxygen. The growth of nonfilamentous organisms which sorb BOD
is thus favored. The mixed liquor then passes to an oxygenated zone where the
dissolved oxygen content is at least 1 ppm to facilitate oxidation and removal
of the BOD. The waste water then passes to a settling zone where the purified
supernatant liquid is separated from the settled sludge. A portion of the
settled sludge is returned to the initial contact zone for mixing with the
BOD-containing influent.
C033
WASTE WATER VALVE,
United States Patent 4,057, 076. Issued November 8, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 2, p 428, November, 1977. 1
A patent has been issued for a waste water valve arrangement to be used in
conjunction with a vacuum sewage disposal system. The valve arrangement in-
cludes a waste water collection chamber having: a waste water inlet; a clo-
sure member, to close the outlet passage and connect the collection chamber
and the vacuum system; and a pressure-controlled device for operation of the
closure system. A float, which is displaced by liquid level variations in the
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collection chamber, controls a pilot valve. The pilot valve is then used to
control the vacuum in the sewage disposal system.
C034
SLUDGE CONCENTRATOR AND CONDITIONER,
United States Patent 4,062,776. Issued December 13, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 965, No. 2, p 638-639, December,
1977. 1 fig.
A device for sludge concentration and conditioning has been patented. Sludge
and a flocculating polymer are introduced into the large inlet of a conical
contact chamber. The contact chamber includes baffles mounted lengthwise on
the inside of the chamber and weirs set end-to-end around the inside wall of
the cone. The chamber rotates to mix the sludge and polymer, producing floe
and filtrate. The mixture passes through a small outlet and into a conical
screen drum through a large inlet. The conical screen drum, or concentrator
chamber, rotates on a slightly inclined vertical support. The mixture's move-
ment through the concentrator is slowed by a helical vane mounted on the in-
side of the drum. As the mixture moves toward the restricted outlet, the fil-
trate escapes through the screen of the chamber and floe is conveyed to the
outlet by the drum's rotation and angle. A conduit connects the outlet of the
contact chamber to the inlet of the concentrator.
C035
APPARATUS FOR TREATING SEWAGE SLUDGE,
O'Donnell, J. M.
Orgonics, Incorporated,
Slatersville, Rhode Island, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,057,392. Issued November 8, 1977. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 2, p 536, November, 1977. 1
fig.
A patent has been issued for a sludge treatment apparatus designed to produce
a granular, high nitrogen product for use as animal feed or fertilizer. The
particle size of the sludge filter cake is reduced on a continuous moving
bed. A rotating raking reel shreds the filter cake; a rotating levelling reel
evens out the bed of shredded sludge material; and the sludge is transported
to a mixing area. A rotating shaft within an elongated vessel is used to
agitate and homogenize the shredded sludge material. The vessel has inlet and
outlet sections and the shaft is equipped with a number of paddles. Acidic
material can be introduced into the reaction chamber of "the mixing vessel and
the temperature can be controlled within the range 30-80 C. An aqueous con-
densable methylol-prepolymer solution can also be added to the reaction ves-
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sel. The moisture content of the discharged reaction product is reduced to
less than 10%. The mixture can be screened to the desired particle size.
C036
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER,
Australian Patent 485,192. Issued August 4, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trademarks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 28, p 2569, August,
1977.
A patent has been issued for a separation technique to be used with waste
water containing a water-insoluble liquid with a specific gravity lower than
water and a water-insoluble liquid with a specific gravity higher than water.
The method utilizes a gravity separator with a tilted-plate, laminated as-
sembly. Waste water in the form of a colloid or finely dispensed state is in-
troduced into the separator. Warm water is added to the waste water to pro-
vide sufficient heat to compensate for the temperature loss in the waste water
while in the separation assembly. Floe precipitation is thereby prevented at
least until the waste water leaves the assembly.
C037
DEEP SHAFT BIOLOGICAL PURIFICN. OF WASTE WATER—WITH CIRCULATORY DRIVING FORCE
GAS TAILORED TO POLLUTION INTENSITY,
Netherlands Patent NL 7705-308. Issued November 16, 1977. Derwent Nether-
lands Patents Report, Vol. Y, No. 48, p 4, January, 1978.
A method of deep shaft waste water treatment using forced air or gas circula-
tion has been patented. The liquid is circulated by air that is driven
through a riser passage which is larger in diameter at its lower end than at
its upper end. The velocity of the liquid through the upper area of the riser
passage should be about 1.2-1.5 m/sec. In the lower section of the downflow
passage, oxygen-bearing gas is forced into waste water which moves at about
1.3-2.0 m/sec. The liquid passes through the lower part of the riser passage
at a rate of at least 0.6 m/sec. The rate of oxygenation can be adjusted ac-
cording to the waste strength. The addition of more oxygen to control the BOD
in waste water with low pollutant levels is unnecessary because of the greater
degree of circulation achieved by the design of the passage cross-sections.
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C038
SEWAGE WASTE BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT DEVICE—HAS HORIZONTAL ROTOR WITH SPOKED
ARMS TO CONTROL DISCHARGE OF SOLID WASTE,
German Patent DS 2500-031. Issued November 17, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 47, p 4, January, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a device to control solid waste discharge during
biological sewage treatment by composting. Waste material enters the vertical
compartment of a compost preparation tank through an inlet at the top. The
discharge system, located at the bottom of the composter, contains one or more
radial shafts mounted on a pivot. Radial discharge bolts which are located
along the length of the shaft's periphery extend into the discharge mecha-
nism. Support struts, which form the sides of the discharge hole, are located
between the shafts, with the inner ends secured to the shaft butt. A bearing
ring which joins the outer ends of the support struts is attached to a gear
rim. A hydraulic drive ratchet, connected to the gear rim, operates the frame.
C039
DIFFUSING GAS INTO LIQ., ESP. AERATING WASTE WATER—WITH SYNERGISTIC REDUCTION
IN ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MASS TRANSFER OPERATION,
Belgian Patent BE 854-872. Issued November 21, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 47, p 4, January, 1978.
A waste water aeration system displaying a synergistic reduction in the quan-
tity of energy required for mass transfer has been patented. The system in-
cludes a hollow bell which rotates on a vertical axis at the lower end of a
coaxial shaft attached at the apex of the bell. The angle of the bell's apex
is at least 130 degrees; the symmetrical base angles are at least 60 degrees.
Outlets located around the circumference of the bell's base discharge gas.
Waste water is pumped along the axis over the top of the bell. The liquid is
aerated as it passes over the gas outlets along the sides, creating a shearing
effect through interfacial turbulence between the gas and liquid. This
shearing action reduces the contacting resistance of the interfacial films.
The process is effective in aeration during biological waste water treatment,
especially for the activated sludge process.
C040
ELECTROLYTIC FLOCCULATION PLANT—ESP. FOR ACTIVATED SEWAGE SLUDGE PROCESSING,
German Patent DS 2259-020. Issued November 17, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 47, p 2-3, January, 1978.
A process for the treatment of sludge using electrolysis has been patented.
Sludge is fed into a flotation cell which has inlets for sludge and outlets
for the treated water. A uniform surface scum layer and more efficient water
drainage are created by the homogeneous flow conditions within the cell. The
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sludge inlet and clarified water drain are located along the full length of
the gas bubble-producing electrode apparatus. Anodes and cathodes are super-
imposed on the bottom of the cone-shaped container. The anodes form a grid
with the cathode plate placed beneath them. Sludge is passed along the entire
length of this arrangement to bring about electrolytic flocculation. The pro-
cess is especially effective in activated sludge treatment.
C041
PURIFICATION AND CLARIFICATION OF SEWAGE—USING A FINELY DIVIDED COAGULATION-
ADSORPTION MATERIAL HAVING A THIN HYDROXYLATED SURFACE,
Netherlands Patent NL 7704-854. Issued November 7, 1977. Derwent Netherlands
Patents Report, Vol. Y, No. 47, p 6, January, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a waste water treatment process which involves
the use of a coagulating-adsorbing agent for clarification. Suspended solids,
colored matter, and microorganisms are removed by the addition of a finely
divided material which has the capacity for both coagulation and adsorption.
The material has a thin hydroxylated layer which is derived from the finely
divided material or from other materials. This coagulating and adsorbing ma-
terial has individual particles with thin hydroxylated surfaces having posi-
tive zeta potentials. The zeta potential is determined by pH absorption. The
coagulating agent with a hydroxylated layer in the form of finely divided ma-
terial is preferably derived from oxides or silicates.
C042
PLANT FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT—OF COMPACT DESIGN AND CON-
STRUCTION,
Belgian Patent BE 855-140, Issued November 28, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 48, p 3-4, January, 1978.
A compact plant for the treatment of waste water by the activated sludge pro-
cess has been patented. Screening of large solids from the effluent is con-
ducted in an excavated earthen basin formed by a dam. The resulting solids
are pulverized with a comminuting pump. The waste water is aerated and
stirred in a circular motion by gas jets in the aeration basin. Waste ma-
terial is constantly removed from the center of the basin. A channel runs
horizontally from the top of the aerator to a distributor in the center of the
settling basin. A scraper continuously removes sludge from the settling
basin. The sludge is stored in a lagoon. One side of the unit corresponds in
length to the largest dimension of the largest piece of equipment. The paral-
lel remaining side is equal in length to the summation of the smallest dimen-
sion of the largest unit and the largest dimension of another unit.
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C043
TREATING WASTE WATER, ESP. FROM CESS PITS, WITH FLOCCULANTS—THEN GRAVITY
FILTRATION THROUGH TEXTILE TO REDUCE SOLIDS AND BOD,
Belgian Patent BE 854-634. Issued November 14, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 47, p 2, January, 1978.
A waste water treatment process utilizing flocculation followed by filtration
through a support material has been patented. Flocculants are applied to the
effluent in the first stage of treatment. The waste water is then passed
through a gravity filter for the removal of suspended solids. The gravity
filter consists of an apparatus containing a textile support and the separated
solids. The process has proven effective in reducing the BOD and removing up
to 20,000 mg/liter of COD from the effluent. The treatment has been shown to
be an effective initial separation step in the processing of cesspool and
sludge collector effluents. This preliminary separation process is purported
to be less expensive, more adaptable, and less time consuming than conven-
tional separation techniques.
C044
BAFFLE FOR WATER OR SEWAGE SETTLING TANKS,
McGivem, R. F.
Sybron Corporation,
Rochester, New York, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,059,529. Issued November 22, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 4, p 1266, November, 1977.
1 fig.
A baffle unit for waste water or sewage settling tanks has been patented. The
baffle consists of an upright panel with a spacer extension installed on the
wall of the settling tank where the waste inlet is located. One or more de-
flectors, affixed to the upright panel below the spacer, extend out from the
panel toward the spacer. The deflector or deflectors direct the flow of waste
upwards in the direction of the spacer. The upright panel is solid between
the spacer and the deflector. Below the deflector, the upright panel contains
a series of horizontal and vertical openings which allow the waste liquid to
flow through the upright panel for settling treatment.
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C045
AEROBIC SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Australian Patent 487,544. Issued October 27, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 40, p 3642,
October, 1977.
A patent has been issued for a divided aeration tank which provides automatic
sewage treatment with low maintenance for individual domestic use. The unit
employs an aeration tank with a perforated divider forming two aeration cham-
bers. Raw sewage enters the first aeration chamber through an inlet and
passes into the second aeration chamber. An airlift pump in the second cham-
ber continuously pumps sewage and waste water into a separate tank for settl-
ing and maintains a constant level of fluid just below the sewage inlet.
Liquid level maintenance by the airlift pump enables the aeration tank to
withstand shock hydraulic loads. The separate settling tank is equipped with
several settling acceleration plates, slanted in the direction of the aeration
tank, which transfer effluent to a filter bed.
C046
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT,
United States Patent 4,064,047. Issued December 20, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 965, No. 3, p 1050-1051, December,
1977.
A patent has been issued for an ozone absorption chamber and process for the
treatment of waste water. The closed ozonization tank is equipped with a
spray nozzle and outlet which connects the interior of the chamber with the
exterior. The nozzle is installed in an electrically grounded interior wall
with a conductive surface. A waste water inlet attached to the spray nozzle
conveys waste water to the chamber under controlled pressure. Before the
waste water is released into the chamber, it receives an electrical charge.
The water is distributed over the grounded inner wall in the form of a non-
atomized spray which transfers its electrical charge to the electrically
grounded wall upon contact. Pressurized ozone is then pumped through an inlet
from the exterior of the chamber into the waste water for thorough mixing.
After ozonization is completed, waste water is removed from the chamber
through an outlet.
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C047
SEWAGE PURIFICATION SYSTEM,
United States Patent 4,059,521. Issued November 22, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 4, p 1263, November, 1977.
1 fig.
A waste treatment system which combines aeration, digestion, and settling has
been patented. Untreated liquid waste is passed through a series of closed,
elongated tanks having horizontal axes placed end-to-end. Digestion of sludge
in the first tank is accomplished through agitation of the waste and a sepa-
rate aeration device. The treated sewage then passes into the second tank
where solids are settled. A third closed collection tank is positioned at the
lower portion of the second tank to receive the settled sludge. Suspended
solid waste materials are further removed from the settled sewage in the third
tank and are returned with the suspension component to the first tank for
reagitation, reaeration, and continued digestion. The purified liquid sepa-
rated from the settled sludge in the third tank is collected in another elon-
gated tank from which the liquid is discharged into the ground.
C048
DEVICE FOR THE PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER,
United States Patent 4,062,911. Issued December 13, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 965, No. 2, p 671, December, 1977. 1
fig.
A patent has been issued for a waste water aeration device using the activated
sludge method. The aeration device consists of a rectangular tank which has a
partition placed parallel to and equidistant from the two longer walls of the
tank. The partition should be shorter than the two long walls, thus forming a
loop through which the waste liquid is moved. One or more surface aerators
are installed near one of the longer walls. The body of the aerator rotates
on a vertical axis, causing the waste water to flow around the loop formed by
the tank walls and the partition. Baffles upstream of the aerator are posi-
tioned perpendicular to the longer walls. The baffles are of a length that
will not obstruct the flow of the waste liquid when the baffles are in posi-
tion.
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C049
AUTOMATIC SLUDGE EXTRACTION AND WASHING DEVICE FOR USE IN A WATER TREATMENT
SETTLING APPARATUS,
Tardivel, J.
Societe Degremont,
Rueil-Malmaison, France, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,059,531. Issued November 22, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 964, No. 4, p 1266-1267, November,
1977. 1 fig.
An automatic method for the washing and extraction of sludge during settling
treatment has been patented. The washing and extracting device is installed
in a sludge settling bed contained in a decanter which has a sludge concen-
trator for removing settled sludge. One end of a siphon is introduced into
the concentrator of the tank; the other end is connected to a manifold conduit
which transports fluid to a sludge removal station. A valve connecting the
siphon with a vacuum source controls the opening and closing of this channel.
A second valve connects the siphon to the atmosphere; a third valve controls
the opening and closing of the channel between the manifold conduit and the
fluid source; a fourth valve opens or closes the channel between the manifold
and the sludge removal station. When the first and fourth valves are in the
open position and the second and third are in the closed position, a vacuum is
used to extract the sludge from the concentrator into the siphon. The sludge
is then transported through the manifold conduit to the sludge removal sta-
tion. The washing process is achieved by reversing the extraction process.
The first and third valves are set in the open position while the other two
valves are closed. Fluid is introduced into the manifold conduit where it is
drawn by the vacuum into the siphon. The fluid passes through the siphon into
the concentrator where the fluid washes the concentrator and overflows, wash-
ing the bottom of the decanter.
C050
METHOD OF AND APPARATUS FOR DIGESTING ORGANIC WASTE AND/OR SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Kneer, F. X.
Gebruder, Weiss K. G.,
Dillenburg, Germany, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,062,770. Issued December 13, 1977. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 965, No. 2, p 636-637, December,
1977. 1 fig.
An aeration unit for the continuous digestion of organic waste has been pat-
ented. The organic waste or sewage sludge is fed through an inlet to the
upper portion of a vertically-positioned closed tank. The waste moves through
the digestion tank in a continuous, single mass toward the outlet at the lower
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end of the tank. It is aerated along the entire cross-section of its mass as
it passes toward the lower end of the tank. Sensors in the tank compare the
moisture content, temperature, and air pressure in the waste with a predeter-
mined set of desired values. The air, which moves in the opposite direction
of the downflowing waste mass, is removed by a vacuum from the upper end of
the tank and analyzed for carbon dioxide and oxygen content. The air removal
system also controls the pressure of the air released into the waste mass.
Monitors in the upper and lower portions of the tank compare the moisture con-
tent of the air with a predetermined set of values. The air moisture is con-
trolled by the injection of a fine spray of water; the air temperature is
maintained between 30 and 50 C. A distributor, controlled by a blower, regu-
lates the flow of air through the lower portion of the closed reactor tank.
C051
HORIZONTAL AXIS AERATING ROTOR FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT—USES POLYGONAL ROTOR
NODULES WITH ANGLED BEATER BLADES,
French Patent FR 2344-503. Issued November 18, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 2, p 3-4, February, 1978.
A waste water aeration system with modular polygonal rotors and angled beater
blades has been patented. Polygonal end plates forming coaxial modules are
attached to a horizontal rotary shaft. The corresponding end plates are con-
nected by flat stringer plates equipped with beater blades along the outer
edges. The beater blades are all positioned at the same angle with respect to
the rotary shaft's axis. Subsequent modules are fitted with increasingly
angled beater blades, with increments of 15 degrees for each successive
module. The maximum angle of the beater blades should be no more than 60 de-
grees. The hexagonal side plates are bent toward the center of the module.
As the rotary shaft turns the module, the beater blades along the stringer
plates mix the waste water. The water is oxygenated by the rotating beater
blades as it passes through the biological treatment tank. It is suggested
that beater blades are more easily installed on the flat surface of a poly-
gonal rotor.
C052
SEWAGE SETTLING TANK WITH FLOATING SIPHON SYSTEM—HAS BAFFLES FORMING CLEAR
WATER ZONE ABOVE TUBE SETTLERS,
French Patent FR 2344-502. Issued November 18, 1977. Derwent French Patent
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 2, p 3, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a waste water settling system which produces
clarified water and siphons off settled sludge. The settling tank contains
two or more banks of tube settlers located on a horizontal plane near the
tank's bottom. Baffles, containing sealed floating carriage openings at one
end, extend vertically from the settler banks to form a clarified water area.
Water levels are maintained by outlets in the clear water zone. A siphon,
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supported by the floating carriage, extends horizontally between the settlers
and removes sludge through inlets located on lateral branches. Untreated
liquid is prevented by a seal from flowing through the carriage inlet in the
baffle and into the clarified water zone. The clear liquid is removed through
outlets located near the settling banks.
C053
ACTIVATED SLUDGE EFFLUENT TREATMENT—WITH EJECTOR AERATING/EFFLUENT CIRCULAT-
ING SYSTEM IN A TREATMENT TRENCH,
German Patent DS 2404-289. Issued December, 29, 1977. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 2, p 3, February, 1978.
An effluent aeration and circulation tank to be used during activated sludge
treatment of waste water has been patented. Gas-injecting aeration nozzles
are mounted near the bottom of the activated sludge tank. A gas-fluid mixture
is injected into the sewage sludge at an impulse density of 3-5 kilopascals to
produce a sludge impulse density of 90-500 pascals. The gas-liquid injection
nozzles are positioned asymmetrically with respect to the tank's cross sec-
tion. This causes the activated sewage sludge to flow in a closed horizontal
circuit within the tank. The columns of rising bubbles are rotated by the in-
jected gas-fluid mixture. This motion prevents the settling of the activated
sludge within the system during treatment.
C054
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL PURIFICN. OF POLLUTED EFFLUENT—BY DISSOLVING OXYGEN AT
PROGRESSIVELY INCREASING LIQ. PRESSURE,
Netherlands Patent NL 7706-126. Issued December 12, 1977. Derwent Nether-
lands Patents Report, Vol. A, No. 1, p 2, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a compact waste water aeration process using com-
pression and decompression coils for increased oxygenation during biological
treatment. The compression coil is a flat, spiral pipe which rotates about a
vertical axis. Waste water is introduced into the center of the coil and the
force of rotation draws the liquid towards the periphery of the coil. The
pressure of the liquid increases to a maximum at the periphery of the coil;
oxygen-bearing air is injected into the liquid as it passes through the coil
At the periphery the effluent is passed to the outside of a decompression
coil. This coil also rotates around a vertical axis, preferably attached to
the same drive shaft and rotating coaxially with the compression coil. The
liquid passes from the outside of the decompression coil. The liquid passes
from the outside of the decompression coil towards its interior axis, decreas-
ing in pressure as it approaches the central outlet. A portion of liquid-
entrained sludge is removed from the decompression coil before it passes
through the outlet and is returned to the compression coil. The purified
liquid from the decompression coil is passed through a degassing device before
discharge.
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C055
BAND PRESSURE FILTER FOR DEHYDRATING WASTE WATER SLUDGE ETC.—HAS POWER
CYLINDER BAND TENSIONING TO COMPENSATE FOR CAKE THICKNESS VARIATION,
Netherlands Patent NL 7705-632. Issued December 13, 1977. Derwent Nether-
lands Patents Report, Vol. A, No. 1, p 2, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a pressurized sludge filtration and dewatering
system. A set of filter bands is positioned on a series of rollers which
rotate in alternate directions. The sequential rollers have diminishing dia-
meters; the first roller has a diameter five times greater than that of the
next two rollers and twice that of the fourth and fifth rollers. The rollers,
which are positioned to hold the filter bands in tension, are mounted on
pivoting arms whose axes are rotated by power cylinders. The cylinders are
provided with actuating liquid at a pressure equal to the pressure of the ten-
sion rollers. The sludge is dewatered as it is pressed between the bands and
the rollers. As the bands rotate around the rollers, one band acts as a fil-
tering device while the other applies pressure. Since the bands remain taut,
sludges of differing thicknesses are allowed to pass between the bands for
dewatering.
C056
BIOLOGICAL EFFLUENT PURIFICATION AND CLARIFICATION EQUIPMENT—WITH AERATORS,
FLOTATORS AND SCRAPER CONVEYOR TO REMOVE ACTIVATED SLUDGE WHICH IS THICKENED,
Soviet Patent SU 548-574. Issued March 14, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. 8, No. 1, p 3, February, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent for a biological treatment unit with an activated sludge removal and
thickening system is presented. Effluent is drawn through an intake pipe into
the activated sludge tank where it is mixed by automatic intake aerators.
Flotators, located in the bottom of the tank, separate the activated sludge by
injecting it with air bubbles which rise to the surface as the liquid passes
through the distribution system. The clarified liquid is transferred to a
trough where it overflows into an intermediate collection tank. Partial re-
circulation of the clarified liquid is accomplished by a pump; the remainder
of the water passes through outlets for further processing. A scraper mecha-
nism removes the excess activated sludge and thickens it before transferring
the sludge into gulleys for removal to additional treatment processes. The
activated sludge is thickened by hollow, cylindrical elements located above
the flotators.
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C057
WASTE WATER FLAME DECONTAMINATION—BY DIVIDING HIGH TEMP. COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
INTO NUMBER OF STREAMS CORRESP. TO NUMBER OF CONTROL STAGES,
Soviet Patent SU 548-749. Issued March 30, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol A, No. 1, p 3, February, 1978. 1 fig.
A combustion system for the decontamination of organic and mineral-bearing
waste water using steam, gas, and high-temperature combustion products of the
treatment process has been patented. After incineration in a furnace, high
temperature combustion products are separated into a number of streams equal
to the number of control treatment stages. These high temperature streams are
used in combustion chambers to oxidize steam and gas mixtures produced in the
previous control stage. Thus, one stream of high temperature combustion ma-
terial is combined with waste water in one control stage to produce a steam/
gas mixture. This steam/gas mixture flows into a combustion chamber where it
is oxidized by another stream of high temperature combustion products. The
hot gases produced in this stage are passed onto the second stage which re-
peats the process. The process is repeated a total of three times, producing
a final effluent containing non-volatile organic material and mineral impuri-
ties. This effluent is returned to the initial furnace for incineration and
repetition of the entire process cycle.
C058
DEWATERING OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT WASTES,
Rami re z, E. R.
Swift and Company,
Chicago, Illinois, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,071,447. Issued January 31, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 966, No. 5, p 1873-1874, January, 1978.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a process to dewater effluent treatment wastes,
such as sludges or skimmings, using aeration and a vertical column. Coagu-
lated waste resulting from primary treatment or precipitation is introduced
into the lower inlet of a vertical chimney. An aerator, located below the
waste inlet, supplies air bubbles to the dispersed wastes. A polymer floc-
culant is added, below the waste inlet and above the aeration source, to
bring about the formation of buoyant composites with the coagulated materials
in the waste. These buoyant composites are confined within the vertical col-
umn by the limitation of horizontal movement. The waste-bearing air bubbles
move upwardly through the vertical chimney, forming an upper stratum of im-
purities. The lower stratum within the vertical column, containing clarified
water, is separated from the waste-bearing upper stratum.
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C059
DEWATERING SLUDGE CONTAINING SOLID MATTER AND BOUND AND UNBOUND WATER,
Australian Patent 488,609. Issued December 8, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trademarks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 46, p 4168,
December, 1977.
A process using an amine to dewater sludge consisting of solid materials and
water has been patented. The technique involves mixing an amine containing an
alkyl or hydrogen, an alkyl radical with one to six or two to six carbon
atoms, and a total number of carbon atoms from three to seven, with the sewage
sludge. The temperature is maintained below the inverse critical solution
temperature of the amine. The reduced temperature causes the formation of a
solid and a liquid which contains the amine and the water. After separation
of the liquid and solid phases, the temperature of liquid phase is raised to
above the critical solution temperature, thereby separating into an amine and
a liquid. The amine is removed from the water and mixed with an alkaline sol-
ution containing lithium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
calcium hydroxide, and a lithium, sodium, or potassium salt of a weak acid
solution. The addition of a hydroxide solution reduces the residual amine in
the solid.
C060
WASTE TREATMENT PLANT,
Australian Patent 488,148. Issued November 17, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 43, p 3920,
November, 1977.
A waste water treatment tank that utilizes an aeration process and a settling
basin has been patented. The tank is divided into two parts by an interior,
centrally-located baffle. One side of the tank contains an aeration unit
which aerates the waste water and maintains a continuous state of turbulence.
The waste water passes into the aeration chamber of the tank through an
inlet. After aeration, it is transferred by the interior baffle into the
adjacent settling chamber containing an outlet. The waste water undergoes
settling in this chamber; scum is recovered from the waste and recirculated to
the aeration chamber via a recirculation device.
C061
METHOD AND DEVICE FOR THE WET COMPOSTING OF ORGANIC SLUDGE,
United States Patent 4,072,494. Issued February 7, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 1, p 207-208, February, 1978.
A continuous flow, wet composting method for organic sludge treatment has been
patented. Oxygen-bearing gas is introduced into sludge contained in an air-
tight mixing tank. A composting reaction is promoted as the oxygen is passed
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through the sludge flowing through an air-tight container. Static pressure is
built up by the composting reaction and maintained at 1-6 atmospheres. A tem-
perature of more than 55 C and less than 75 C is maintained within the air-
tight tank as the composting reaction occurs.
C062
WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Australian Patent 488,263. Issued November 24, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 44, p 3990,
November, 1977.
A raw waste water treatment process which reduces BOD levels through partial
recycling of the denitrified effluent has been patented. The BOD content of
the sewage effluent is reduced by aeration in an aeration chamber. Nitrogen
compounds are oxidized to nitrates by biodegradation with aerobic micro-
organisms. The nitrates are conveyed to a denitrification zone where the
nitrate-bearing waste water is denitrified. A part of the waste water con-
taining nitrates which has been partially treated is returned and mixed with
the raw influent in a facultative zone. This recycling of a portion of the
waste water effects a BOD reduction in the raw effluent and a nitrate reduc-
tion in the recycled waste water.
C063
REGULATING OXYGEN INPUT IN TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT,
Gorski, T., Heinem, A., and Mack, K.
Bayer Aktiengesellschaft,
Leverkusen, West Germany, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,071,443. Issued January 31, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 966, No. 5, p 1872-1873, January, 1978.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a waste water aeration treatment system which
improves oxygen use and diminishes activated sludge particle size. Sewage
effluent containing activated sludge is mixed in a double tank aeration
chamber and oxygenated with a gas containing 20% oxygen. Gas bearing 40-80%
oxygen by volume is introduced into the gas space within the first vessel
containing the waste water. Gas is applied until the effluent has an oxygen
content of 1-4 mg/liter. The aerated effluent is passed from the first tank
into the second tank where the gas in the air space has an oxygen content of
30-60% by volume. The effluent is again sprayed with gas and oxygen until the
oxygen content reaches 4-8 mg/liter. Effluent in the second tank is returned
to the first treatment stage where it is mixed with fresh effluent in the
amount of 10-300% by volume. Activated sludge solids are reduced to between
one-third and one-twentieth of their original size by the shear force.
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C064
CLEANING APPARATUS FOR SEWER PIPES AND THE LIKE,
United States Patent 4,073,302. Issued February 15, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 2, p 473, February, 1978. 1 fig.
An apparatus for cleaning the interiors of sewage pipes and other conduits
with compressed cleaning fluid has been patented. The cleaning apparatus
consists of a tubular body containing a cylindrical bore with a nozzle at one
end and an inlet conduit on the other. The conduit is connected to a supply
of pressurized cleaning fluid which is sprayed into the pipes through the
nozzle at the other end of the bore. The nozzle is divided into two chambers,
the first having a larger diameter than the second. A wall separates the
second chamber from the first chamber, equipped with a number of jets through
which the cleaning fluid is discharged under pressure. The entire apparatus
is mounted on two sets of hubs, each containing three legs. The legs have
rotating wheels and pivotal skids which engage with the interior of the
pipes. The skids may be rotated perpendicular to the tubular body of the
apparatus.
C065
PROCESS AND APPARATUS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF EFFLUENT,
Australian Patent 488,242. Issued November 24, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trademarks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 44, p 3985,
November, 1977.
A biological treatment system using two interchangeable basins to aerate and
settle waste water has been patented. The two connected basins have air-tight
sealed inlets. Sewage effluent is introduced into the first basin, where it
is injected with pure oxygen or oxygen-enriched air. Activated sludge is
administered and the mixture is retained in the basin for a predetermined
period. The aerated effluent is then passed into the second basin, where
sedimentation of solids occurs. Clarified water is removed from the tank
until the activated sludge level in the first basin decreases to a
predetermined level. At this point, the process is reversed and the second
basin is transformed into an aeration tank while the first basin operates as a
sedimentation basin.
C066
TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT,
United States Patent 4,075,095. Issued February 21, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 2, p 1064-1065, February,
1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a settling tank containing a sand filter bed and
scum trough for the separation of sludge from clarified water. The settling
*»
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tank is divided into a scum tank and a ballast chamber. The scum tank con-
tains a filter bed and medium on a perforated support at the top. Effluent is
introduced into the tank through a feed valve located below the perforated
filter. The effluent is fed into the filter and sludge settles to the lower
portion of the scum tank. The filtered liquor is pumped through a scum
trough. Scum is removed by the perforated support before effluent is dis-
charged via a weir. The ballast chamber, located below the support, contains
an outlet and a back pressure monitor. A valved gas outlet releases gas when
a predetermined back pressure is attained. The filter is backwashed when re-
quired by dropping the level of effluent in the tank.
C067
SETTLING TANK SLUDGE COLLECTOR,
United States Patent 4,075,109. Issued February 12, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 3, p 1069, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a flat bottomed tank which provides settling and
scraping of treated sewage sludge. The tank is equipped with a bracket moun-
ted, electric motor-driven bridge which traverses the length of the chamber.
A wheel containing a pneumatic tire rotates around a vertical axis attached to
the bridge and parallel to the tank wall and operates by the bridge motor.
The tire is maintained in contact with the adjacent wall by a gravitational
force established by a rotating plate connecting the support bracket to the
wheel and motor. A sludge scraper frame equipped with a transverse center bar
and a scraper blade is mounted on one of the longitudinal side members of the
frame; it is supported in a horizontal position by the bridge. During sludge
scraping, the sludge scraper rotates about an inclined axis as it moves toward
a sump at one end of the tank. The scraper returns to an idle position as it
moves away from the sump. An elongated, curved cam plate, projecting out from
the end wall to the side of the scraper frame, controls the angle of the
sludge scraper frame.
C068
RESIDUES DEWATERING DURING WATER AND SEWAGE TREATMENT—BY FREEZING WITH COOL-
ING AGENT LAYERWISE AND MELTING TO DEPOSIT RESIDUES,
Soviet Patent SU-546-566. Issued March 3, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 1, p 1, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a dewatering process in which residues from waste
water treatment plants are frozen in a column with a cooling agent, such as
n-butane; liquids are melted and decanted in the same column. The residues
are introduced into the top of a column in which the cooling agent flows up-
wards. The n-butane has a density of 0.5-0.85 g/cu cm and a specific gravity
of 0.605 g/cu cm at -5 C. Depending upon column height, the temperature
varies from -10 to 4 C over 0.1-3 min in the cooling zone and from 0-4 C over
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0.1-6 min in the melting zone. For residues containing hydroxides, aluminum
salts, organics, and mineral materials, 250 liters of the cooling agent is
added to the column for 14 liters of de-aerated liquid. The liquid effluent
sinks to the bottom of the column where the temperature is 1.5 C; vapor forms
in the top layer where the temperature is -9 C. Ice particles formed in the
upper layer drop through the liquid levels, carrying residue particles to the
bottom layer where they melt. Vacuum filtration removes the residue parti-
cles; the liquids are separated according to their specific gravities. The
cooling agent is condensed and reused. Dewatering is increased by performing
freezing, melting, and decanting in the same column.
C069
PRESSING LIQ. FROM SLUDGE ESP. SEWAGE SLUDGE—IN DECREASING GAP BETWEEN TWO
RISING SURFACES E. G. DRUM AND BELT,
French Patent FR-2343-701. Issued November 10, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 1, p 3, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a sludge dewatering device consisting of imperme-
able membranes or filter screens mounted on a drum and a conveyor belt. The
device provides lateral water removal as well as screen filtration. The im-
permeable pressing surface is mounted on the circumference of a rotary drum.
The second surface is a perforated, continuous conveyor belt which is driven
by a motorized pulley. Increasing contact between the drum and belt as the
sludge moves from the inlet to the outlet provides increasing pressure. As
the pressure increases, the water in the sludge is expelled laterally from the
press surfaces and is blown into a collection tank by compressed air jets.
The press reduces filter screen clogging by allowing more water to escape
laterally from the sludge.
C070
PACKAGED .PLANT FOR PHYSICOCHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER—WITH GRAVITY
EVACUATION OF SLUDGE FROM FLOCCULATING AND DECANTING ZONES,
Belgian Patent BE-858-720. Issued January 2, 1978. Derwent Belgian Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 3, p 4, February, 1978.
A physicochemical waste water treatment plant that separates liquids and
solids and discharges settled sludge by gravity flow has been patented. The
packaged treatment plant is contained in a three compartment steel tank. An
upper rectangular compartment coagulates and neutralizes the incoming waste
water. The liquid is passed beneath partitions into a flocculation and sepa-
ration chamber having walls inclined toward the third compartment. Baffles
mounted on the inclined walls of both the second and third chambers reduce the
velocity of the inflowing waste water. Solids separated in the flocculation
compartment are evacuated by gravity flow to the third decantation and sludge
disposal chamber. The plastic baffles mounted in the lower chambers are in-
clined at an angle of 55-60 degrees to the walls. The treatment plant has a
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flow capacity of 1-50 cu m/hr and provides economical installation and opera-
tion.
C071
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF FLUID WASTES—BY INTENSIVE CIRCULATION IN
TANK CONTG. HIGH CONG. OF MICROORGANISMS,
French Patent FR-2342-254. Issued October 28, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 50, p 4, January, 1978.
A patent has been issued for an activated sludge aeration process which em-
ploys intensive circulation and high microbial concentrations to treat organic
waste water. Waste water is introduced through an overspill into an aeration
tank containing a bacteria count of 10,000-100,000 mg/liter. Air is mixed
with the liquid as it is pumped through a distributor into the tank. The
aerated waste water is fed into the tank at a rate rapid enough to promote in-
tensive circulation. Constant circulation in the tank is maintained by
sprinklers, connected to the pump, which spiral the waste water back into the
tank. The liquid is delivered to a flotation tank where a centrifugal de-
canter removes sludge from the waste water for recycling. The clarified water
is removed via an outlet at the bottom of the tank. The process does not re-
quire compressors or filters, reduces operating and capital costs, and pro-
duces a dewatered sludge.
C072
FILTRATION MEDIUM FOR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER—SUPPORT ESP. OF
PLASTIC COATED WITH GRANULAR MATERIAL,
Belgian Patent BE-855-426. Issued December 6, 1977. Derwent Belgian Patents
Abstracts, Vol. Y, No. 50, p 1, January, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a plastic-supported biological filtration system
having a granular coating which effectively increases the surface area avail-
able for microorganism growth. The waste water is treated in an aerated fil-
ter coated with a granular material, such as activated carbon and sand. The
surface area of the roughened activated carbon coating is increased by a fac-
tor of 30,000. The granular surface of the biological filter provides a more
conducive environment for microorganism attachment. The filtration medium is
mounted on a plastic or ceramic material, such as polyvinyl chloride, poly-
styrene, or polypropylene. The granular activated carbon coating on the fil-
ter media is also more effective in the treatment of chemical contaminants in
the waste water.
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C073
SEWAGE SLUDGE TREATMENT BY STEAM—USING COMPRESSED AIR TO PREVENT BUBBLE
ESCAPE,
French Patent FR-2343-703. Issued November 10, 1977. Derwent French Patent
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 1, p 3, February, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a heat treatment process for sewage sludge clari-
fication. Steam and compressed air are introduced simultaneously into a
sludge reactor. The escape of air bubbles from the reactor is prevented by
the flow of compressed air distributed evenly over the surface of the sludge.
After heat treatment, clarified water is separated from the sludge and de-
canted from the reactor for treatment in an activated sludge tank. Noxious
gases produced during heat treatment of the sewage sludge are deodorized. The
unit is self-contained and does not require high temperatures.
C074
SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL,
Wagner, W. F.
Thiokol Corporation,
Newtown, Pennsylvania, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,073,242. Issued February 14, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 2, p 454, February, 1978. 1
fig-
A patent has been issued for a sludge disposal system in which dewatered
sludge is incinerated in small, regulated amounts. The effluent is passed
through a sieve for liquid-solids separation; the sludge is pulverized. The
dewatered and ground sludge, with a uniform density and consistency maintained
by agitation, is pumped at a high velocity from the sludge collection tank
through a pipe back into the collection tank. The velocity of the agitated
sludge in the pipe is great enough to prevent clogging. Small amounts of
sludge are occasionally diverted to a second pipe at the same velocity but a
smaller volumetric flow. Sludge in the second pipe is conveyed to an inciner-
ator where compressed air sprays the sludge into the combustion chamber. The
volume of sludge sprayed into the incinerator is less than the volume of
sludge flowing through the first pipe. The smaller volume of sludge that is
periodically combusted allows for a smaller incineration unit than would be
necessary were the entire volume of sludge in the first pipe incinerated.
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C075
SONIC CAVITATION AND OZONATION OF WASTE MATERIAL,
Bybel, D., Bellmore, N., Furey, R. F., and Stahl, D. P.
Til Corporation,
Lindenhurst, New York.
United States Patent 4,076,617. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1569, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a waste water treatment process which employs
acoustic energy and ozone. The liquid waste is introduced into a vessel
equipped with diffusers for emitting a gas stream containing 0.5-1.0% ozone.
The bubbles cover at least 90% of the cross-sectional area of the vessel and
act as a barrier to divide the vessel into a lower treatment section and an
upper ozone contact region. Acoustic energy is applied to the waste water in
the lower section at a level sufficient to cavitate and emulsify the waste ma-
terial. The material is then transferred to the upper section where it is
contacted with the ozone-bearing gas stream.
C076
METHOD FOR TREATMENT OF DIGESTOR SUPERNATANT AND OTHER STREAMS IN WASTEWATER
TREATMENT FACILITIES,
United States Patent 4,076,515. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1541, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A waste water treatment process to remove ammonia from the supernatant of
anaerobically digested sludge has been patented. The waste water sludge is
thickened and placed in an anaerobic digester where the organic materials are
converted to methane and carbon dioxide; the nitrogen in the sludge is con-
verted to ammonia. The digester supernatant is decanted from the tank; the
digested sludge is dewatered by vacuum filtration. The dewatering liquor,
containing water soluble amnonia, is mixed with the supernatant. The mixture
is then reacted with a stoichiometric excess of lime. The ammonia salts con-
tained in the supernatant and dewatering liquor are converted to aqueous or
free ammonia which is contacted in a reactor with steam under low pressure.
The amnonia is thus reduced to a less soluble form. The digested sludge is
dried for use as fertilizer. i
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C077
PROCESS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE,
United States Patent 4,076,616. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1569, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a biological treatment process using activated
carbon and oxygenation. Sewage percolates through an activated carbon bed
submerged in a tank. The activated carbon particles have a size range of
1.5-8.0 mm. Oxygen-bearing air is injected into an intermediate layer of the
activated sludge bed, aerating only that portion of the activated carbon above
that layer. The waste water percolates through the activated carbon bed at a
rate less than 2 m/hr, providing a contact time in the layer above the inter-
mediate level of 30 min or more. The lower levels of the activated carbon bed
are free of bacterial colonies. Bacteria are retained within the intermediate
layer as the waste water percolates through.
C078
PROCESS AND SYSTEM FOR TREATING WASTE WATER,
Olesen, D. E., and Shuckrow, A. J.
Battelle Pacific North West Laboratories,
Richland, Washington. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,076,615. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1568-1569, February,
1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a combined powdered activated carbon-aerated bio-
logical treatment process to remove dissolved organic substances from waste
water. Waste water is introduced into an oxygen aeration chamber containing
50 mg/liter powdered activated carbon and 100 mg/liter alum. The organic par-
ticles are adsorbed onto the carbon which is coagulated by the alum. Alum is
precipitated as aluminum hydroxide by pH adjustment. Sludge and supernatant
are produced with the addition of a polyelectrolyte flocculant; the sludge is
aerated to enhance microbial degradation of the organic substances. Thermal
regeneration of the sludge reactivates the carbon and converts the aluminum
hydroxide to alumina. A portion of the activated sludge is returned to the
initial aeration chamber for mixing with influent; the remainder is acidified
with sulfuric acid to convert the alumina to alum. The sludge containing the
reactivated carbon and alum is recycled to the aeration chamber for contact
with the incoming waste water.
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C079
WARM SLUDGE DIGESTION WITH OXYGEN—USING OFF-GAS FOR TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER,
German Patent DS 2528-800. Issued February 2, 1978. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 6, p 4, March, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a temperature-controlled sludge digestion process
with off-gas aeration. A mixture of effluent and activated sludge is aerated
with gas containing at least 40% 02 to yield a dissolved oxygen concentration
of 0.5 rag/liter in the mixture. The temperature of the covered aeration tank
is maintained above 15 C during mixing; activated sludge, clarified liquid,
and unused O2 are then decanted from the tank. The excess activated sludge is
aerated in an enclosed degradation chamber with a gas containing at least 80%
02 at a temperature of 25-75 C. The total solids In the slurry are maintained
above 1,500 mg/liter and the temperature 10 C higher than the temperature in
the aeration chamber. Dissolved oxygen is maintained at 2 mg/liter to degrade
at least 60% of the volatile suspended solids. Stabilized sludge residue and
depleted 02 gas are drawn off after the desired decomposition level is
achieved. The depleted gas with an 02 content of at least 40% is recycled to
the initial aeration stage. This feed gas is withdrawn at a rate that reduces
the 02 concentration to at least 35%. Similarly, the gas from the aeration
tank contains less than 40% 02 by volume, controlled by the withdrawal rate.
The process, which effectively reduces BOD, conserves energy via oxygen reuse.
C080
SEWAGE PURIFICN. PLANT FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES—OPERATING BY EXTENDED AERATION
WITH GLASS WOOL MAT TO IMPROVE OXIDN.,
French Patent FR 2347-313. Issued December 9, 1978. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 5, p 4-5, March, 1978.
An extended aeration sewage treatment plant which uses a glass wool layer to
diffuse air bubbles for small waste loads has been patented. The sewage
treatment plant is a conical tank divided into a decantation zone containing a
layer of glass wool coated with a polyester resin and an oxidation zone near
the inside of the tank. Waste water is introduced into the base of the oxida-
tion zone where air bubbles are supplied by a compressor. The waste passes
into the decantation zone which is partitioned into four cells with walls
bearing alternating top and bottom holes. Activated sludge and other heavy
matter is separated and recirculated through the holes and is retained on the
glass wool. Bulked sludge floats with the air bubbles to the surface of the
tank through the upper cell of the decantation tank. The clarified liquid is
free of suspended solids; the oxidation yield is high.
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C081
BIOLOGICAL MICROORGANISM ACTIVITY CONTROL—IN SEWAGE TREATMENT BY COMPUTER FED
WITH OXYGEN CONC., TEMP., PH AND TURBIDITY READINGS,
German Patent DS 2532-199. Issued February 23, 1978. Derwent German Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 9, p 3, April, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a computerized method to control the biological
treatment of waste water with respect to the quality of the effluent. The
treatment process utilizes an aeration reactor, a clarification tank, and a
secondary sludge aeration chamber. Oxygen concentration, turbidity, pH, tem-
perature, and flow rate of the waste water into the aeration reactor are moni-
tored by a computer. The biological activity of the microorganisms in the
waste water is measured according to the temperature-dependent oxygen demand
value obtained automatically from oxygen and turbidity data. The pH in both
reactors is maintained at the desired value via additions of alkaline or
acidic solutions. Variations in the specific oxygen demand, which directly
relates to the microbial activity, are automatically controlled by adjustments
in the inflow rate, aeration rate, and composition of added nutrients in the
waste solution in one or both reactors.
C082
MOBILE SLUDGE TRAILER AND METHOD OF FILLING AND EMPTYING SAME,
Petroski, A.
Liquid Removal Service Company, Incorporated,
Broomall, Pennsylvania. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,082,672. Issued April 4, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 969, No. 1, p 272, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a mobile sludge trailer designed to transport
partially biodegradable sludge. A double-frusto conical tank, divided into
two bilateral symmetric sections by a vertical plane, is mounted on a trailer
frame. The floor of the tank slopes down towards the bottom of the bisecting
vertical plane and contains a sludge discharge apparatus. The inside of the
tank contains circular baffles which are mounted parallel to one another and
extend from the top peripheral edge of the tank parallel to the tank's floor.
The baffles are positioned to form a sludge discharge chute. Discharge of the
sludge from the trailer is assisted by pressurization of the head space in the
tank to increase the pneumatic and hydraulic pressure at the sludge discharge
apparatus. Fluid is injected under pressure into the tank near the discharge
point. The fluid mixes with the sludge to facilitate sludge discharge. The
trailer also has means for loading sludge into the trailer.
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C083
INFILTRATION-INFLOW SEWER LINE ANALYZER,
United States Patent 4,070,563. Issued January 24, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 966, No. 4, p 1566-1567, January, 1978.
1 fig.
A patented infiltration-inflow sewer line analyzer with computer monitoring is
described. Adjustable liquid pressure sensors are mounted at both ends of the
sewer pipe. The sensors periodically monitor the sample liquid pressure
between the sensors within the pipe and record the values. The recorded pres-
sure values over a selected period of time are converted into liquid flow
rates and fed to a computer. The computer is programmed with dry weather and
rain flows within the pipe section as supplied by the monitors. Dry and wet
weather flow rates monitored at one end of the pipe are compared by the com-
puter with the same timed measurements at the other end of the sewer pipe.
Rainfall inflow and infiltration rates in the pipe are measured and compared
by the computer with previously collected rainfall and dry weather values.
C084
SANITARY WASTE TREATMENT PLANT,
Australian Patent 487,761. Issued November 3, 1977. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 47, No. 41, p 3738, Novem-
ber, 1977.
A patent has been issued for a biological treatment system which incorporates
sanitary waste delivery and water recovery. Sanitary waste is transported to
the treatment facility by the delivery system. Water used by the delivery
system for the transport of wastes to the biological treatment unit is sup-
plied by the water recovery system. The sanitary wastes are degraded in a
biological treatment apparatus and treated effluent is transported to the
water recovery system. The effluent is passed through a semi-permeable mem-
brane for solids separation. A portion of the solids is returned to the bio-
logical treatment for further degradation. The liquid fraction and the re-
maining effluent concentrate are refiltered through the membrane for further
clarification. The permeate is returned to the delivery system for the trans-
port of sanitary wastes to the biological treatment plant.
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COS 5
WASTE WATER TREATMENT WITH OXYGEN,
Abrams, E., and Masella, A. J.
Cheraetron Corporation,
Chicago, Illinois, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,069,147. Issued January 17, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 966, No. 3, p 1114, January, 1978.
A biological waste treatment process which effectively reduces the oxygen re-
quirements during microbial degradation has been patented. Waste water with a
high BOD concentration is mixed with a biologically active mass which metabo-
lizes BOD. The BOD of the influent is reduced by the activated mass without
the need for extensive oxygenation. The BOD-rich biological activated mass
and liquid are clarified and separated into the BOD-rich mass and clarified
liquid. A portion of the activated mass is discharged and the remainder is
transferred to an oxygenation tank where it is contacted with a gas containing
30% oxygen by volume. The oxygenation of the biological mass reactivates it
before transfer back to the initial waste water mixing tank.
C086
APPARATUS FOR TREATING SEWAGE,
Adams, L. R.
American Water Recycling Company,
Apache Junction, Arizona, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,070,292. Issued January 24, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 966, No. 4, p 1494, January, 1978. 1
fig.
An extended aeration system providing continuous waste water treatment has
been patented. A treatment tank with a curved end wall has a perforated
transverse baffle which divides the tank into a primary chamber and a mixing
chamber. The waste water is introduced into the primary chamber where it is
aerated and pumped into the mixing chamber through the perforated baffle. The
mixing chamber contains an inlet, an outlet, and an ejector mounted in a con-
duit for decanting liquid from the mixing chamber. The withdrawn liquid is
discharged through the outlet towards the curved wall of the tank, establish-
ing circular flow between the mixing tank and the primary tank. During the
circular flow, the larger particles are retained within the primary tank where
they are organically degraded. The clarified liquid from the mixing tank is
removed by a separate pumping apparatus which transports the liquid to a
storage tank for chemical disinfection.
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COS 7
SYMBIOTIC MEMBRANE SYSTEMS,
United States Patent 4,080,288. Issued March 21, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 3, p 1092-1093, March, 1978. 1
fig.
A patent has been issued for a symbiotic membrane treatment system to remove
liquid organic and inorganic waste from sewage effluent. Biological treatment
of the waste water is enhanced by the presence of nitrogen and oxygen. Waste
water introduced into the biomass in the reactor is maintained in an ambient
atmosphere by the permeation of selected gases through a membrane which is
located between the biomass and the gaseous phase in the reactor. The semi-
permeable membrane, which allows the ambient gases for biological treatment to
reach the biomass, maintains contact between the gaseous phase and the biomass
for a period of time adequate for biological degradation of the organic and
inorganic wastes. The treated biomass is then removed from the reactor.
C088
APPARATUS FOR TREATING WASTE WATER OR SOLUTION,
Kabara, K., Ogawa, T., Takahashi, S., Nishimura, S., and Kikawa, S.
Hitachi, Limited,
Tokyo, Japan, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,080,289. Issued March 21, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 3, p 1093, March, 1978. 1 fig.
A membrane separation apparatus for removing calcium and fluoride from a waste
water stream has been patented. The waste water bearing the fluoride and cal-
cium is initially pretreated before introduction into the membrane separation
apparatus. An additive containing aluminum ions is mixed with the waste
water. The aluminum ions cause the formation of water soluble fluoride com-
plexes. The pretreated waste water bearing the soluble fluoride complexes is
introduced into the membrane separation apparatus where the waste is separated
into two fractions. The membrane separates the pretreated waste water into a
permeated liquid fraction and a concentrated liquid fraction. Means are pro-
vided in the apparatus for introducing the waste water and the aluminum ion
additive.
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C089
METHOD FOR REMOVING PHOSPHATES FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS,
Klantschi, K., and Aregger, A.
Chemische Fabrik Uetikon,
Uetikon am See, Switzerland. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,080,290. Issued March 21, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 3, p 1093, March, 1978.
A technique to selectively remove phosphorus from aqueous solutions and waste
water has been patented. The phosphorus-bearing solution is initially con-
tacted with a water insoluble complex of multivalent metal cations. The metal
cations are complexed with organic ligands coordinated by treating the ligands
with a salt solution of the multivalent metal cations. The organic ligand
coordinated complex is then washed with water until the wash water no longer
contains traces of the salt solution and has been neutralized. Phosphorus in
the waste water or aqueous solution is adsorbed onto the coordination complex
of multivalent metal cations.
C090
TANK FOR AGITATION AND AERATION OF SEWAGES,
Przybylowicz, R., and Zabierzewski, C.
Biuro Projektowo-Konstrulcyjne Centralnego Zwiazku
Spoldzielni Mleczarskich,
Warsaw, Poland, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,080,292. Issued March 21, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 3, p 1094, March, 1978. 1 fig.
A waste water aeration basin that provides both horizontal and vertical agita-
tion has been patented. The basin consists of a rectangular tank equipped
with turbine aerators which rotate around a vertical axis. The aerators are
spaced around the interior of the tank, separated by vertical partitions. The
partitions divide the aeration tank into two sections which are connected by
adjacent ditches. The method of aeration uses a brush which rotates around a
horizontal axis transversing the two ditches. Vertical and horizontal turbul-
ence is generated by the aerators and brush in the waste water. The activated
sludge in the treatment tank is thus maintained in suspension throughout the
tank during aeration, ensuring even distribution of the microorganisms.
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C091
LIQUID WASTE TREATMENT APPARATUS,
United States Patent 4,082,662. Issued April 4, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 969, No. 1, p 269, April, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a waste water pretreatment process employing
aeration. The waste water is pumped horizontally through a nozzle with a re-
duced diameter into an aeration tank which has an equilateral, elongated cross
section. The organic solids in the waste water are broken up by the shearing
action of the influent as entrained gas is released. Air is aspirated into
the aeration chamber through the area around the influent nozzle and mixed
with the liquid waste by the turbulent action in the aeration chamber. Fur-
ther mixing of the air and waste water to release the entrained air and break
down the organic solids is accomplished by passing the wastes into a mixing
chamber with a larger cross section maintained at ambient pressure.
C092
SLUDGE THICKENING APPARATUS,
Kelly, E. M.
Envirotech Corporation,
Menlo Park, California, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,082,671. Issued April 4, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 969, No. 1, p 272, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for an apparatus which thickens primary and secondary
sewage sludge. An open top tank is equipped with a vertical, tubular upper
inlet for the introduction of aerated secondary sludge into the thickener.
Below the inlet, a second feedwell passes primary sludge into the tank below
the secondary sludge. The upper inlet has a closed bottom and an open top,
while the reverse is true for the lower, adjacent inlet. Mounted within the
tank and extending radially from the upper feedwell is a circular partition
which divides the tank into concentric portions. A liquid extraction appara-
tus mounted on the tank wall withdraws liquid from the outer ring of the tank
to maintain a constant fluid level. Within the center ring area, floating
solids on the surface of the confined liquid sludge are removed. A valve at
the bottom of the tank collects and removes solids which settle from the
liquid.
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C093
FILTER FOR REMOVING RESIDUES FROM DOMESTIC SEWAGE—COMPRISES MULTILAYER FILTER
BEDS IN WHICH THE PARTICLES OF CHARGE DIMINISH,
Soviet Patent SU 552-096. Issued April 15, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 6, p 1, March, 1978. 1 fig.
A multilayer, charged particle filtration system with a variable velocity
gradient for removing suspended solids from domestic wastes has been pat-
ented. The system consists of a conical shaped body with internal horizontal
gratings for supporting the charged filtration medium and an externally-
mounted centrifugal pump at the base. Each layer of charged particles in the
filter has the same hydraulic size. The particle size in each ascending fil-
tration layer diminishes as the upward flow of liquid approaches the top of
the unit. Waste water is introduced through a pipe at the base of the system
by the centrifugal pump. The effluent passes upward through a distribution
system into the layers of charged filter particles. The rate of filtration
with respect to the hydraulic particle size within each layer is calculated as
the critical flow rate multiplied by a coefficient in the range of 1.02-2.8.
The flow rate of the waste water through the layers is adjusted so that the
relative mobility of the charged particles is equivalent to the maximum ab-
sorption capacity of the particles in each layer; minimum relative mobility of
the particles is maintained. The filter is regenerated when the layers con-
tain the capacity load of residue from the waste water by pumping wash water
upwards through the layers in the direction of waste water flow during filtra-
tion.
C094
BACK FLUSHING FILTER FOR SEWAGE ANALYSER—WITH SEMICIRCULAR DEFLECTOR IN
CENTRAL SECTION FLANKED BY SINTER FILTER DISCS,
Netherlands Patent NL 7707-801. Issued January 17, 1978. Derwent Netherlands
Patents Report, Vol. A, No. 5, p 7, March, 1978.
A back-flushing filter system employing sintered filter discs to clear sewage
upstream of a water quality meter in a waste water flow has been patented.
The system contains sintered filter discs on either side of a central section;
the discs are positioned beneath covers to clarified water outlets. The cen-
tral section is equipped with a peripheral inlet for introducing raw waste
water. The influent strikes a semicircular, perforated deflector plate
located in the central section. The filter discs are backwashed by blocking
one of the clarified water outlets with compressed air. As the other .filter
disc becomes operational, the filter cake formed on the first filter disc is
washed away by a back flow of clarified water. The system reduces the need
for frequent replacement of the filters and extends the filters' functional
life span.
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C095
DISEASE GERM TREATMENT FOR SEWAGE SLUDGE—BY PURE OXYGEN CONVERTED BY ELECTRON
BEAM TO OZONE BUBBLING THROUGH SEWAGE LAYER,
German Patent DS 2546-756. Issued March 9, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 11, p 3, April, 1978.
A patent was issued to Werner and Pfleiderer for a continuous process to dis-
infect sewage sludge. A thin layer of sludge is transported on a conveyor
channel which is equipped with a device to maintain an even sludge layer
thickness. Oxygen-bearing gas is bubbled through the sludge layer via the
nozzle base formed by the flat bottom of the sludge conveyor channel. The
sludge layer, agitated by the gas, is subjected to an electron beam source
which produces ozone. The gas is immediately drawn off and reapplied to the
sludge on the conveyor via a suction nozzle connected to the nozzle base.
C096
LIQUID ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT—IN TANK WITH ELECTRODE SYSTEM PRODUCING GAS
BUBBLES SAVES POWER BY SULPHURIC ACID ADDITION,
French Patent FR 2348-891. Issued December 23, 1977. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 6, p 9, March, 1978.
An activated sludge treatment process which incorporates sulfuric acid condi-
tioning, flocculation, and electrode-generated bubbling has been patented.
The activated sludge is first adjusted to pH 2.5 with additions of sulfuric
acid; acidity is monitored with a pH meter. The sludge flows through a pipe
into a treatment tank containing two cathodes, mounted above the bottom
plates, and anodes, formed by parallel rods. These electrodes generate bub-
bles which float suspended solids in the form of scum to the surface of the
tank. The sulfuric acid addition permits a higher sludge throughput, thereby
reducing the electrical power costs of the treatment system.
C097
LOW-PRESSURE SEWAGE SYSTEM FOR BUILDINGS—USES LARGE VENTILATED BACK-PRESSURE
TANK, TO PREVENT FLOODING,
German Patent DS 2653-713. Issued March 2, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 10, p 8, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a ventilated back-pressure tank system connected
to a low-pressure sewage system designed for individual buildings. Waste
water from the fixtures within the building flows through gravity pipes to a
collection tank which adjoins a low-pressure sewage conduit. When the waste
water level in the tank reaches a maximum, a blocking valve automatically
opens to release the effluent into the sewage conduit. A back-pressure tank,
located below the building fixtures and above the maximum level of the collec-
tion tank, is connected by a conduit to the gravity pipe from the building.
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The back-pressure tank has an open blocking element at its base where the con-
duit enters for ventilation from the surface to prevent flooding.
C098
SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM,
Australian Patent 490,208. Issued February 16, 1978. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 48, No. 5, p 406, February,
1978.
A sewage disposal system has been patented for water closets designed to in-
corporate a reusable non-aqueous flush medium with a specific gravity lower
than water. The medium bearing the wastes is flushed to a separating tank
equipped with a sewage inlet at the top. In the separating tank, the flushing
medium floats to the top because of its lower specific gravity while the sew-
age settles to the bottom of the tank. Attached to the separating tank is a
transfer apparatus for removing the settled sewage from the tank. A sewage
level sensor is mounted in a branch conduit located outside the separating
tank. When a specified sewage level is detected in the separating tank by the
sensor, the sewage transport system is activated to remove the sewage. Mini-
mum loss of the flushing medium is achieved with this process.
C099
PROCESS FOR THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE,
Opferkuch, R. E., Jr., and Wong-Chong, G. M.
Monsanto Research Corporation,
Saint, Louis, Missouri. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,076,620. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1570, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A sewage treatment system employing lime and carbon dioxide additions has been
patented. Trash and other objects in the sewage are removed by a degritter
before lime is added at a 1:1 ratio with COD to the effluent. At least 500
ppm lime is added to the sewage to assist in carbonation and in separation of
the solids from the liquid effluent. Lime coagulation is maintained for 30
min or less to promote a Jackson Turbidity Unit of less than 50 in the sepa-
rated sewage. The effluent is treated with carbon dioxide to adjust the pH to
10.6-11.2 and the solids are allowed to settle for 30 min. The solids are
separated from the liquid fraction and concentrated for further dewatering.
The concentrated solids and the settled solids are adjusted to pH 6-8 with
carbon dioxide and discharged.
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C100
ACTIVATED CARBON TREATMENT OF OXYGENATED WASTEWATER,
Conway, R. A., Lawson, C. T., and Stankewich, M. J., Jr.
Union Carbide Corporation,
New York, New York. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,080,287. Issued March 21, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 3, p 1092, March, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a waste water oxygenation process utilizing acti-
vated sludge and carbon. Effluent bearing biodegradable organics is intro-
duced into an enclosed oxygenation zone and mixed with activated sludge and a
feed gas containing 50% oxygen. Carbonaceous materials are biochemically
oxidized, reducing the BOD of the oxygenated supernatant. Vent gas, contain-
ing 20-70% oxygen, is withdrawn from the tank; the oxygenated liquor is sepa-
rated from the activated sludge and residual contaminants. A portion of the
activated sludge is returned to the oxygenation zone; the effluent is passed
upward through an activated carbon absorption zone where the depleted vent gas
is added to provide a dissolved oxygen level of 2 ppm to maintain aerobic bio-
logical conditions within the activated carbon column. Residual organic con-
taminants in the effluent are absorbed or biologically oxidized within the
activated carbon absorption zone.
C101
CENTRIFUGAL SEWAGE PUMP,
Tsukube, S.
Kabushlki Kaisha Sogo Pump Seisakusho,
Osaka, Japan, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,076,179. Issued February 28, 1978. Official Gazette
of the United States Patent Office, Vol. 967, No. 4, p 1427, February, 1978.
1 fig.
A centrifugal sewage pump consisting of a semi-open impeller with a disk-like
impeller shroud has been patented. The shroud has multiple impeller vanes and
is mounted on a pump shaft. The front face of the impeller shroud contains
depressions forming annular inner and outer edges. The outer edge of the
shroud is covered with a shroud ring of a pump casing. Each impeller vane on
the front face of the shroud disk extends out from the shroud and has a smooth
front edge. An inner face casing, located in front of the impeller, surrounds
a suction valve for removing solid wastes. The height of the impeller's outer
periphery is 30-70% of the water passage clearance between the inner face cas-
ings. Two portions of the shroud front face are located in symmetrical posi-
tions without backward depressions.
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C102
METHOD OF TRANSFORMING SLUDGE INTO ECOLOGICALLY ACCEPTABLE SOLID MATERIAL,
United States Patent 4,079,003. Issued March 14, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 2, p 654, March, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a process to convert liquid sludge which contains
bacteria, viruses, and toxic soluble compounds into a solid, friable, odorless
material. The sludge is introduced into one end of an elongated tank at a
specific rate; calcium oxide is introduced at another rate. The sludge reacts
with the calcium oxide in an exothermic manner as the materials move toward
one end of the tank. The exothermic reaction generates steam and forms a
solid, friable, odorless sludge cake with a pH of 12. The alkaline conditions
and the heat produced by the reaction inactivate the bacterial and viral
organisms and transform the water soluble compounds into insoluble form. The
steam is removed from the tank and the solids reaction product is withdrawn
from the end of the tank.
C103
COMPOSITION AND METHOD FOR DISPERSING FLOCCULANT POLYMERS,
Chambers, B. C.
Chemed Corporation,
Cincinnati, Ohio, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,089,831. Issued May 16, 1978. Official Gazette of the
United States Patent Office, Vol. 970, No. 3, p 1039, May, 1978.
A process for dispersing high molecular weight flocculant polymers or copoly-
mers to prevent agglomeration in waste water has been patented. The floccu-
lant polymers or copolymers are mixed with a free flowing powdered inert ma-
terial and water. The inert substance is added as 10-80% of the weight of the
flocculant polymer; water is added to 0.10-20% of the weight. When the poly-
mer solution, containing the inert powder, is introduced into water, the solu-
bility of the flocculant is decreased. As the solution rate slows, the solids
disperse and separate. Dispersion of the solid particles in the flocculant
polymers prevents the agglomeration of the polymers or copolymers.
C104
METHOD FOR TREATING SEWAGE,
United States Patent 4,089,761. Issued May 16, 1978. Official Gazette of the
United States Patent Office, Vol. 970, No. 3, p 1022, May, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a biological waste water treatment process in
which oxygen and hydrogen are generated by electrolysis. Influent raw sewage
is comminuted to an aqueous slurry and introduced into a digester containing
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aerobic bacteria. Oxygen for degradation of the sewage slurry by the aerobic
bacteria is generated by electrolysis which simultaneously generates hydrogen.
The digester is enclosed to prevent the escape of oxygen; hydrogen is main-
tained separate from the oxygen in the digester. The bacteria are sustained
in the presence of oxygen while the hydrogen is vented from the waste water
treatment unit.
C105
PROCESS FOR DEWATERING ORGANIC WASTE PRODUCT,
0'Donne 11, J. M.
Orgonics, Incorporated,
Slatersville, Rhode Island, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,081,366. Issued March 28, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 4, p 1456, March, 1978.
A dewatering process for treating sewage sludge in the presence of urea-
formaldehyde has been patented. A urea-formaldehyde solution is reacted under
alkaline pH to form water soluble, monomeric mono- and'dimethylol ureas and ex-
cess urea. Waste activated sludge in an aqueous solution is reacted with the
excess urea and water soluble, monomeric, methylol ureas at pH 7.0-9.0. An
inorganic acid or acid salt is added to the mixture to lower the pH to 3.0-5.0
to condense the methylol ureas. The resulting water insoluble polyurea con-
densate has a molecular weight of < 800. The methylene bridged reaction
product contains solid organic wastes and has linear, low molecular weight
properties. An alkali is added to the solution for neutralization and the
solid fraction is filtered from the solution.
C106
ADSORBENT FOR THE TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER,
Takegami, S., Korenaga, T., and Yoshinaga, C.
Japan Exlan Company Limited,
Osaka, Japan, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,081,403. Issued March 28, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 4, p 1468, March, 1978.
A granular adsorption medium containing activated sludge and a condensate of a
formaldehyde resin or dialdehyde compound has been patented. The adsorbent is
prepared with 100 dry weight parts activated sludge-treated organic wastes
which are mixed with 5 weight parts of a water soluble condensate of either or
both formaldehyde resin and dialdehyde compound. The dialdehyde compound is
chosen from a group containing glyoxal, malonidialdehyde, succindialdehyde, and
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phthaldialdehyde. The 100:5 ratio mixture is cured by heating at 60-200 C and
granulated. The medium is to be used for waste water treatment.
C107
ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM WITH STAGGERED PARTITION BASIN,
Block, C. S., Chen, M. S., Noichl, 0. J., and Hong, S.
Air Products and Chemicals, Incorporated,
Allentown, Pennsylvania, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,081,368. Issued March 28, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 4, p 1456-1457, March, 1978.
An activated sludge tank with staggered partitions for moving mixed liquor
through the aeration cycle in a serpentine manner has been patented. The
staggered partitions project toward the center of the tank's width and extend
the entire depth of the waste water. Mixed liquor is introduced into the tank
through an inlet and is aerated as it passes in a cross-sectional flowpath.
The open flowpath is maintained adjacent to the liquid passes in a range of
30-80% of the tank's wetted cross section. Complete mixing of the liquid
passes is prevented to maintain an unequal oxygen demand through the effluent.
Backflow is maintained between and within the liquid passes; the mixing factor
of each aerator is within the range of 20-450.
C108
METHODS FOR USE IN WATER PURIFICATION PARTICULARLY SEWAGE TREATMENTS,
White, E. B., and Sharma, M. N.
Filters International Incorporated,
Chicago, Illinois, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,081,365. Issued March 28, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 968, No. 4, p 1455, March, 1978. 1 fig.
A continuous, automatic waste water treatment process providing cyclical bio-
chemical oxidation and flocculation-agglomeration of organic solids has been
patented. Effluent containing more than 25 mg/liter BOD and suspended solids
is introduced into an aeration chamber where the wastes are biochemically
oxidized during periods of maximum sewage accumulation. During cycles of
minimum sewage accumulation, following maximum accumulation periods, a pre-
aerated flocculant is introduced into the chamber before the termination of
biochemical oxidation to produce an instantaneous floe-agglomeration reaction
in the sewage. The pH is maintained at a level suitable to the floe-
agglomeration process; the zeta potential is stabilized 'at -5 to +5 ZP. Ef-
fluent is removed from the chamber during minimum accumulation periods and re-
treated with preaerated flocculant for further agglomeration of suspended
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solids which are then filtered from the effluent. Dissolved organic solids
are removed from the filtered effluent by adsorption.
C109
CENTRIFUGE FOR DRAINING OFF SEWAGE SLUDGE,
United States Patent 4,085,887. Issued April 25, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 969, No. 4, p 1344, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A centrifuge has been patented for removing sewage sludge and suspended solids
from waste water. The centrifuge incorporates an inner rotary drum with a
scraper mechanism; an outer rotary drum and scraper coaxially surround the in-
ner drum. Sewage sludge is introduced through an inlet into the inner drum
for preliminary separation. The outer drum for final separation has separate
outlets for sewage sludge and liquid effluent at opposing ends. A passage in
the inner drum, opposite from the waste water inlet, moves the waste water
through the initial separating stage into the outer drum for final separation
of the liquid fraction.
C110
BIOFILTER,
Tapola, E., Sten, M., and Koistinen, 0.
Enso-Gutzeit Osakeyhtio,
Helsinki, Finland, (assignee)
United States Patent 4,086,167. Issued April 25, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 969, No. 4, p 1433, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A biological filter design incorporating beds of porous media laid in a cup-
shaped pit in the ground and a waste water spray distribution apparatus has
been patented. The plastic fabric-lined pit is filled with a bottom layer of
gas- and liquid-permeable gravel, followed by a bed of coniferous tree barking
wastes extending above the top perimeter of the pit in a mound. The bark
layer contains microorganisms and articles such as plastic, pine cones, tree
limb sections, and tubular paper roll cores for maintaining the permeability
of the filter bed and preventing compaction. The heap is covered with a roof
equipped with a vertically mounted, rotating spray pipe for distribution of
the waste water in a horizontal plane over the heap. The spray pipe contains
a number of nozzles, each equipped with a deflector plate, and a feed tube
supplying the waste water. Mounted within the gravel layer at the bottom of
the pit is a radially extending pipe system which blows oxygen-bearing gas up-
ward through the bark layer for aeration of the down flowing waste water.
Below the aeration system, underdrains are embedded in the gravel for the col-
lection and discharge of treated effluent. The roof is equipped with valves
for exhausting the gas from the system.
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cm
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER—CONTG. ORGANIC WASTE INCLUDES TREATMENT WITH
MIXT. OF A SILICA GEL AND CELLULOSE,
Soviet Patent SU-290-694. Issued April 28, 1978. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 7, p 2-3, 1978.
A patented process to reduce oxygen demand and pathogenic bacteria in waste
water employs Cellogel paste, a mixture of silica gel and cellulose. The Cel-
logel is mixed with 20 ml of water and added to waste water containing organic
wastes such as fatty acids, urea, and ammonia. About 58 g of Cellogel is
added for each liter of waste water containing an oxygen demand of 2,175-4,360
mg/liter. After the paste is added, the effluent mixture is clarified and
filtered. The final effluent has an average oxygen demand of 150-112
mg/liter; staphylococcus bacterial counts of 680,000 may be reduced by 100%
after 45 min of contact with Cellogel. The Cellogel treatment process is
especially suitable for closed cycle life support systems.
C112
CENTRIFUGE BASKET FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT SCREENS - HAS ALL-PLASTICS SEMI-
CYLINDRICAL FRAME ELEMENTS WITH EMBEDDED SCREEN CLOTH AND GROOVE/TONGUE JOINTS
AT FACE ENDS,
German Patent DS 2265-092. Issued April 13, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 16, p 3, May, 1978.
A water-tight, plastic centrifuge basket to support waste water treatment fil-
ters has been patented. The plastic cage apparatus consists of a frame per-
manently connected to a filter grid which supports the embedded screen cloth
filter medium. The frame is attached to the centrifuge unit. Plastic semi-
cylindrical frame elements are mounted along the length of the cage; two or
more elements are mounted in each filter cage. The elements are intercon-
nected at both ends of the frame by tongue and groove joints that form sealed
connections when in the locked position. The filter elements are disposable
and prevent leakage when in use.
C113
BIOLOGICAL PURIFICN. PLANT FOR WASTE WATER AND SEWAGE—WITH CIRCULAR TANK
DIVIDED INTO COMPARTMENTS BY VERTICAL WALLS,
French Patent FR 2354-973. Issued February 17, 1978. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 13, p 4, May, 1978.
A patent has been issued a for circular biological waste water treatment tank
which is divided into an oxidation chamber, a decantation zone, and a sludge
thickening chamber. Half of the tank provides oxidation'while the other half
is divided into concentric zones for decantation and sludge thickening. A
bridge, spanning the top of the circular tank, provides forward and backward
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movement about a central axis. The bridge supports a surface aeration tur-
bine, a porticullis-type thickener equipped with a scraper, and a rake which
extends to the bottom of one of the concentric areas. Debris is initially re-
moved from the waste water by coarse screening; grease and oil are separated
out. The effluent then flows by gravity to an oxidation chamber which con-
tains activated sludge. The oxidation chamber is connected to the decantation
zone by a perforated pipe. Effluent passes through this pipe into the decan-
tation chamber for clarification. The treated waste water is discharged to
another chamber and sludge is passed to the second concentric zone for thick-
ening. Sludge is pumped from this zone by a unit mounted on the bridge. The
system simplifies shuttering construction and reduces potential blockage by
reducing the need for pipe systems.
C114
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TRANSPORT-IN COMPACT BIOLOGICAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS,
German Patent DS 2232-477. Issued April 6, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 15, p 2, May, 1978.
An activated sludge conveyance device has been designed for compact treatment
plants to minimize interference with sludge settling during operation.
Scrapers mounted within the secondary sedimentation tank convey the sludge
toward a suction outlet. The suction device is connected to a pump carriage
which moves back and forth above a secondary sedimentation tank located near
the activated sludge tank. The partition between the activated sludge tank
and secondary sedimentation tank supports and guides the movement of the pump
carriage. The suction pipe transports the sludge into a stabilizing chamber
located in the secondary sedimentation tank.
C115
TREATING BADLY POLLUTED WATER BY DISINFECTION AND FLOCCULATION - ESP. USING
CHLORINE, WITH SEPN. OF SOLIDS OILS AND GREASE,
French Patent ZA 7701-432. Issued January 11, 1978. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 12, p 2, May, 1978.
A disinfection and flocculation process for separating solids, oils, and
grease has been patented for municipal, hospital, farm, and starch manufactur-
ing waste water treatment. "The solids in the waste water are initially re-
duced to fine particles, homogenized, and adjusted to pH 7. Air or oxygen is
then injected while the wastes are agitated, followed by disinfection with
active chlorine. The waste water is transferred to a reactor where it is neu-
tralized with aluminum sulfate and flocculated with an optional additive. The
water is separated from the solids fraction and may be reused or subjected to
additional thermal disinfection; sludge is removed for composting. Coarser
solids are reduced to a sludge and homogenized with agitation, followed by
disinfection with Ca(OH)2 and flocculation. The liquid fraction is neu-
tralized with A1C13 or A12(S03)3 to promote flocculation.
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C116
VACUUM SEWER SYSTEM,
Australian Patent 493,453. Issued June 15, 1978. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 48, No. 21, p 1925, June,
1978.
A patent has been issued for a sewage collection plant which operates with a
vacuum. A vacuum is formed at the inlet to the sewage collection tank by a
venturi ejector pump. A circulating pump operates the venturi ejector pump by
circulating the collected waste water from the collection tank through the
venturi pump. The waste water is partially treated as it circulates through
the pump. As the contents of the collection tank are passed through the
venturi ejector pump, the wastes are agitated, comminuted, and aerated.
C117
TREATMENT OF WASTE MATERIAL,
Australian Patent 493,562. Issued June 15, 1978. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 48, No. 21, p 1954, June,
1978.
Commonwealth Industrial Gases Ltd. has received a patent for a solid waste
treatment process using cryogenic conditioning. Solid waste in sewage enter-
ing the treatment plant is separated from the inflowing waste water. The
separated solids are first compressed and then cooled by exposure to a cry-
ogenic liquid or a cold vapor generated from the liquid. The low temperature
solid wastes become brittle and are comminuted.
C118
PROCESS FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT WITH COUNTERCURRENT HEAT TRANSFER MEANS,
United States Patent 4,094,773. Issued June 13, 1978. Official Gazette of the
United States Patent Office, Vol. 971, No. 2, p 688-689, June, 1978. 1 fig.
A sewage digester which contains psychrophilie, mesophilic, and thermophilic
zones and a sterilization stage with heat exchange has been patented. Sewage
is introduced into a deep, narrow psychrophilic compartment and heated at
20-45 C. This is accomplished by mesophilic sludge flowing transversely into
the compartment from an adjoining mesophilic zone. The upward conversion cur-
rents formed by the mesophilic layer of sludge form stratified layers of psy-
chrophilic sludge and supernatant. The supernatant is then introduced into
the deep, narrow mesophilic zone where it is further digested at 35-55 C by a
thermophilic bacterial slime introduced from the adjacent thermophilic zone.-
The mesophilic supernatant flows into the thermophilic entrapment compartment
where it is passed through a 50-100 micron filter. The filtered suspended
solids are hydrolized at 45-70 C and digested by the bacterial slime. The
treated effluent is heated as it flows to a sterilization compartment contain-
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ing a heat transfer surface and heating elements. The effluent is heated to
above 75 C and transferred to a storage compartment lying beneath the other
compartments. Heat from the treated effluent is transferred sequentially to
the sterilization, thennophilic, mesophilic, and psychrophilic compartments.
C119
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR OXYGENATING AEROBICALLY DECOMPOSABLE LIQUORS,
United States Patent 4,094,774. Issued June 13, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 971, No. 2, p 689, June, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for an oxygenation system to treat aerobically de-
gradable waste water and sewage effluent. An oxygenation tank, separated into
a gas head section and a receiving section, is equipped with an inlet to main-
tain a constant volume of raw effluent or mixed liquor in the tank. The gas
head section is connected to a supply of cooled, high purity oxygen by a con-
duit containing heating elements. The waste water or liquor is transferred
under pressure to the gas head section where it is oxygenated. The oxygen-
bearing effluent then passes to the receiving tank located below the gas head
section. .The liquor is then passed through a channel located near the oxygen
supply conduit and over heat exchangers. Dissolved oxygen is removed from the
liquor and transferred back to the gas head section in a gaseous state. The
cooled effluent is then returned to the gas head section for reaeration.
C120
WATER-INSOLUBLE BIO-POLYMER FLOCCULATING AGENT SEPN. - FROM ACTIVATED SLUDGE
USING ETHYLENE-DIAMINE TETRA:ACETATE, SODIUM CHLORIDE, ISOPROPANOL AND POLY-
VALENT METAL IONS,
Soviet Patent SU-563-423. Issued October 20, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 21, p 5, July, 1978.
A method to prepare a water insoluble biopolymer flocculant from activated
sludge has been patented. The activated sludge is initially centrifuged and
extracted with a 2% disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid solution for 4-5
hrs at 0-4 C. The extracted residue is centrifuged for 20 min at 0-4 C and
treated with 2% NaCl in a volume of propanol or isopropanol equal to the
sludge volume. The resulting biopolymer precipitate is redissolved in water
and mixed with a magnesium or calcium ion-bearing aqueous solution. Poly-
valent metal ions are added in the range of 0.05-0.125 mg/eq per mg of pre-
cipitate at 4-20 C to yield a 30% biopolymer flocculant. The flocculating
agent can accelerate clarification rate by a factor of 2-8.
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C121
EFFLUENT PURIFICATION - BY CONTROLLING MICROBIAL CONCENTRATION AND FLOW IN THE
AERATION TANK,
French Patent FR 2362-794. Issued April 28, 1978. Derwent French Patents
Abstracts, Vol. A, No. 21, p 4, July, 1978.
Aeration basin retention time may be reduced and nutrient removal improved
when a 3-25 ratio of total organic carbon treated/day to microbial concentra-
tion based on weight is maintained in the aeration basin. The weight of the
microbial concentration comprises 20-200 percent of the total organic content
of the aeration tank effluent. This patented technique eliminates removal of
activated sludge for recycle and prevents microbial inactivation under anaero-
bic conditions. The reduced microbial population of 50-400 ppm reduces the
effluent residence time in the aeration tank to 1.5-6.0 hrs. The prolifera-
tion of active microorganisms improves nutrient removal; nitrogen is reduced
by 70-90%, phosphorus by 50-70%, and BOD by 90-96%.
C122
SLUDGE DREDGER - FOR ELONGATED SETTLING TANKS ETC,
German Patent DS 2203-865. Issued May 24, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 22, p 2, July, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a sludge scraping apparatus to be used with
elongated clarifiers. A sludge scraper bridge is equipped with the scraper
blade, a loading device, and a blade lifting unit. The scraper blade pivots
up and down within the tank. The loading device is vertically mobile and is
equipped with a connection rod assembly containing the blade lifter. The lif-
ter, provided with a traction and pressure drive system, removes the blade
from the clarifier. The loading device, which becomes operational after the
sludge blade is lifted from the tank, has a release force that counteracts the
load force. The release force is activated by a spring or weight assembly
which supplies slightly less force than that of the loading system. The lif-
ter size required for removing the scraper blade determines the size of the
sludge scraping apparatus.
C123
CENTRIFUGAL LIQUID/SLUDGE SEPARATOR - WITH AXIALLY ACTUATED VALVE FOR SUPPLE-
MENTARY OUTLETS,
Soviet Patent SU-566-509. Issued August 19, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 23, p 8, July, 1978. 1 fig.
A patent has been issued for a centrifugal waste water/sewage sludge separator
which automatically evacuates accumulated sludge without interrupting opera-
tion. The centrifuge is equipped with a rotor containing a piston; located
along the walls of the rotor and piston are channels which operate as jets and
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rim outlets. Waste water is conveyed along the hollow rotor shaft to a sepa-
rator having insert vanes. As the waste water is passed into the separator,
sludge is drawn through the channels along the rotor and piston. Sludge ac-
cumulates on a deposit pad located beneath the separator inserts. When suffi-
cient sludge accumulates to reach the inserts, the piston is automatically
activated. The piston descends, forcing the sludge from the deposit pad
through an outlet.
C124
PURIFYING WASTE WATER OF HIGH ORGANIC CONTENT - FIRST ACID ANAEROBIC, THEN
AEROBIC, THEN ANAEROBIC METHANE FERMENTATIONS,
French Patent FR 2364-184. Issued May 12, 1978. Derwent French Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 23, p 4, July, 1978.
A patented process reduces the organic content of waste water with combined
anaerobic and aerobic digestion. The highly organic waste water is anaero-
bically digested in an acid medium which supports a microbial culture to con-
vert contained oxygen to an organic acid mixture; fermentation occurs at a
temperature of 20-50 C over a residence time of 0.1-0.8 days/kg/cu m. The
acidity of the waste water during anaerobic digestion inhibits methane fermen-
tation. The waste water is then treated by aerobic fermentation for a resi-
dence period of 0.2-0.3 days/kg/cu m, followed by anaerobic methane digestion
for 6-15 days. Neutralization with an alkali is not required because acid is
converted to C02 and H20 by the process. The treated effluent may be further
aerobically digested after the anaerobic methane digestion stage.
C125
APPARATUS FOR USE IN WATER PURIFICATION PARTICULARLY SEWAGE TREATMENTS,
White, E. B., and Sharma, M. N.
Filters International, Incorporated,
Chicago, Illinois. Cassignee)
United States Patent 4,100,070. Issued July 11, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 972, No. 2, p 717, July, 1978. 1 fig.
A unit incorporating primary, secondary, and tertiary filtration/adsorption
treatment of municipal sewage has been patented. The unit contains a primary
aeration tank with a secondary settling zone. Secondary effluent is contained
in a receiving tank connected by a conduit to an inlet at the base of the ter-
tiary treatment unit. Tertiary treatment is accomplished by upflow filtration
through a mixed bed of particles decreasing in size toward the upper layers.
Filtration is followed by adsorption on an activated carbon bed located above
the mixed b'ed filter. An oxygen-bearing gas, introduced under pressure at the
base of the tertiary unit, aerates the effluent as it is forced upwards through
the filtration/adsorption beds. An outlet at the top of the tertiary unit
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conveys excess renovated effluent to a storage tank and returns the remainder
to the receiving tank. Valves, mounted in the conduits leading to and from
the receiving and storage tanks, control the flow of effluent to the tertiary
system. Effluents from the receiving and storage tanks are redirected through
the tertiary system to regenerate the mixed bed and the activated carbon.
C126
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL CLEANSING OF WASTE WATER,
Hartmann, L.
Maschinenfabrik Hellmut Geiger,
Karlsruhe-West, West Germany. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,100,063. Issued July 11, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 972, No. 2, p 715, July, 1978. 1 fig.
A patented trickling filter unit maintains a preset level of municipal waste
water sprayed into the apparatus for biological treatment. Waste water is
sprayed through the top of the trickling filter housing over a biological mass
suspended on vertical supports; the biomass is located above the preset waste
water level to prevent immersion. Outlets located between the vertical sup-
ports continuously remove a portion of the biomass as sludge. Below the sludge
outlet is mounted a second discharge duct to remove the treated waste water.
The water level in the unit is maintained between these two outlets. The
treated effluent is continuously discharged from the system through the second
discharge duct.
C127
PROCESS FOR CONDITIONING SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Australian Patent 492,957. Issued May 25, 1978. The Australian Official
Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs, Vol. 48, No. 18, p 1672, May,
1978.
A process has been patented for sterilizing sludge at high temperatures to
condition it for land disposal. The sludge is initially heated within a tem-
perature range of 65-150 C for a period between 30 sec and 60 min. When the
sludge is treated in the higher temperature ranges, the shorter time periods
are used. After the sewage sludge has been thermally sterilized, it is bio-
logically treated by digestion at a temperature of 32-60 C. This conditioning
process, which prepares the sludge for land disposal, is suitable for domestic
as well as farm wastes.
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C128
SEWAGE BIOCHEMICAL PURIFICATION APPTS. - HAS MAIN TANK FILLED WITH PERFORATED
PLASTIC FILM ON WHICH THE BIOMASS FORMS,
Soviet Patent SU-567-675. Issued August 26, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A. No. 24, p 10-11, July, 1978. 1 fig.
A patented biochemical waste water treatment system supports an excess of bio-
mass on a perforated plastic film mounted on vertical screens. Raw waste
water flows through a pipe into a storage tank containing recirculated efflu-
ent. The mixed liquor is pumped into the treatment tank through a pipe ter-
minating in a sprinkler distribution system. As the waste water flows down
through the perforated plastic film, it becomes saturated with air. The air-
saturated effluent and biomass collect in a chamber below the vertical screens
for further treatment. Treated effluent collects in channels located around
the periphery of the treatment tank; it is allowed to settle before it is
drawn off through another pipe. Unoxidized biomass and a portion of the ef-
fluent are returned to the storage tank for mixing with raw influent.
C129
CLEANING RAKE ARRANGEMENT FOR A DRAIN CHANNEL GRID - IS OF LOW, STABLE CON-
STRUCTION AND SUITABLE FOR GRIDS WITH STRAIGHT BARS,
German Patent DS 2608-774. Issued May 24, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 22, p 3, July, 1978.
A cleaning rake for clearing sewer gratings is suitable for sewer grids with
straight bars. The rake apparatus has teeth which slant about a horizontal
axis and are attached to a rake arm unit which also pivots about a horizontal
axis. Vertical motion of the rake arm is provided by a drive mechanism on the
underwater side of the sewer grate. The arm assembly is mounted with its
pivot shaft located along a curved guide track, forming a two-armed lever.
The apparatus is driven by a continuous chain containing fixed sprockets which
are located along the guide track and connected to the rake arm. The arm is
attached to the side of the pivot shaft by a swinging bearing and to the free
end of a swinging support. The cleaning rake apparatus can be moved to an in-
operative position, a cleaning mode, and a horizontal discharge position for
disposing of the materials to a collection system.
C130
FLOCCULATING AND DRAINING SLUDGE FROM EFFLUENT PURIFICN. PLANT - IN LOW COST
LOW ENERGY POTENTIALLY MOBILE FILTER PLANT,
French Patent FR 2363-524. Issued May 5, 1978. Derwent French Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 22, p 4, July, 1978.
A rotating drum apparatus flocculates and filters sewage sludge, producing a
homogeneous, dewatered product. The sewage sludge is flocculated in a rotat-
140
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ing drum with a central inlet and outlet. Surrounding the flocculation drum
and sharing the same axis is a counter-rotating filter drum. As the inner
drum rotates, filtrate passes through perforations in the drum wall and is
distributed laterally by a series of paddles and deflectors attached to the
drum walls. The filter drum contains a continuous filter band pressed against
the drum's periphery by an outer driving filter band; successive filter band
configurations are zig-zagged between pressure rollers. The system is amen-
able to packaged, mobile operation at several sites and provides simple opera-
tion with minimum maintenance and supervision.
C131
SEPARATOR OF ACTIVE SLUDGE FROM TREATED EFFLUENT - HAS FILTERING ELEMENTS WITH
POSITIVE CONALITY SET VERTICALLY DIRECTLY ABOVE DISTRIBUTOR,
Soviet Patent SU-565-885. Issued July 21, 1977. Derwent Soviet Inventions
Illustrated, Vol. A, No. 23, p 4, July, 1978. 1 fig.
An aeration and filtration system to separate activated sludge from treated
effluent has been patented. The separation unit consists of a reservoir tank
containing vertical filter elements located above a water-air distribution
system. Influent is introduced along a pipeline at the tank base into the
distributor, along with previously treated effluent bearing dissolved air at
3-4 atmospheres. The waste water is evenly distributed over the bottom of the
reservoir tank and passed upwards through filter elements which have positive
slopes in the range of 1:20-25. As the effluent rises, suspended particles
are entrapped in air bubbles and compacted on the filters. Concentrated sludge
is scraped from the filters and discharged through a trough. Treated effluent
is removed through an annular outlet for partial recirculation with influent.
The surfaces of the filter elements are continuously regenerated by the upward
movement of the air bubbles.
C132
APPARATUS FOR PURIFYING SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT,
United States Patent 4,104,166. Issued August 1, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 973, No. 1, p 278, August, 1978. 1 fig.
A septic tank waste treatment system which purifies filtered effluent in a
series of ozonation tanks has been patented. A large tank, laid adjacent to
the septic tank, contains a smaller filter through which septic tank effluent
passes at atmospheric pressure for solids removal. The filter tank inlet is
connected to a septic tank effluent conduit; the effluent passes through a
filter towards an outlet at the opposite end of the filter tank. Connected to
the outlet are multiple ozonation tanks arranged in series within the large
tank. The ozonation tanks, connected to an external gas supply system, are
arranged to form a 16-ft long configuration. Effluent passing through the
last tank in the series is discharged into the storage area formed by the
unoccupied space between the large exterior tank and the filter and ozone
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tanks. Excess treated effluent is discharged from the storage space through
an outlet leading from the last ozonation tank to a soil disposal field.
C133
REACTION WHEEL WASTE WATER SPRAY FOR PERCOLATING FILTER BED - SPRAYS TWO CON-
CENTRIC BEDS FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES OF LIQ.,
French Patent FR 2364-066. Issued May 12, 1978. Derwent French Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A. No. 23, p 3, July, 1978.
A patented reaction wheel sprayer system permits simultaneous spraying of
liquids from two separate sources onto concentric trickling filter beds. Two
coaxial sets of radial spray arms, mounted on the reaction wheel, rotate the
wheel horizontally to distribute the effluent. A vertical central pipe sup-
plies liquid to one set of spray arms connected to a rotating hollow hub with
sleeves. An annular rotary jacket, coaxially encasing the hollow hub, pro-
vides a channel for the liquid supplied to the second set of radial arms. The
reaction wheel assembly is rotary seal-mounted on a fixed support box which
conveys the liquid effluent to the rotary jacket. The reaction wheel system
permits the space-saving concentric filter bed configuration via its ability
to simultaneously or separately distribute two different effluents. The spray
arms are designed to rotate independently or integrally, depending upon the
fixed or rotating attachment of the rotary jacket to the hollow hub.
C134
TRAVELLING SLUDGE SCRAPER BRIDGE FOR - EFFLUENT TANKS,
German Patent DS 1957-685. Issued May 24, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 22, p 1, July, 1978.
A sludge scraper bridge apparatus has been patented for dual waste water tanks.
One end of the sludge scraper mechanism is supported on a winch-driven trolley
located on the central partition between the tanks. The winch is directed by
a circular guide pipe. The sludge scrapers are mounted on two webs attached
to either side of the trolley. The other end of the scraper bridge assembly
is supported by three radial guide rollers on the outer treatment tank wall;
one guide roller is mounted on a horizontal axis. The free ends of the two
scraper webs have free-moving castors which roll along the tank wall. The
simple design of the scraper bridge provides efficient operation, even under
heavy snow conditions.
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C135
ELIMINATION OF ODORS FROM ORGANIC WASTES,
Weiss, J.
Weiss and Company,
Stockholm, Sweden. (assignee)
United States Patent 4,108,771. Issued August 22, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 973, No. 4, p 1820, August, 1978.
A process for eliminating odor-producing organic compounds from domestic
wastes, organic industrial wastes, and sewage sludge by means of an aqueous
acid solution and an oxidizing agent has been patented. The wastes are mixed
with a sufficient volume of an aqueous solution containing alkali metals,
3-25% by weight sulfuric acid, 3-20% by weight of an oxidizing agent, and
10-40% of a sulfur precipitating agent. The oxidizing agent is selected from
a group of water soluble compounds including persulfates, nitrates, and chlo-
rates; permanganates of ammonium and alkali metals are added to oxidize and
deodorize the wastes. The sulfur precipitating agent is selected from the
water soluble ferrous or ferric compound groups. The waste water is main-
tained at a pH of 6.5 or less during deodorization.
C136
APPTS. FOR FORMING SEWAGE TREATMENT SILICATE PRODS. - INCLUDES MIXING TUBE
WITH STATIC HIGH SHEAR DEVICE,
Netherlands Patent NL 7614-162. Issued June 22, 1978. Derwent Netherlands
Patents Report, Vol. A, No. 27, p 1, August, 1978.
A high-shear mixing tube apparatus has been patented for the production of a
complex aluminum silicate compound used for coagulating waste water. The mix-
ing tube is equipped with two or more inlets, one outlet, and stationary shear
devices located along the internal channel. Water is fed into the second in-
let and a soluble aluminum salt is introduced into the tube through one of the
other inlets. The inner baffles cause the two feed streams to spiral through
the tube and mix to form a stable aqueous dispersion which is recovered at the
outlet. The outlet solution pressure is about 40 Ibs/sq inch less than the
initial inlet pressure. The static shear mixing of the solutions produces a
material containing up to 5% silicate as Si02 with a pH ranging 3.0-7.5,
determined by the silicate content; the dispersion product, used as a coagulant
in waste water treatment, is soluble in hydrochloric acid. The static con-
figuration of the mixing apparatus provides high shear mixing with low control
requirements.
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C137
REMOVING ORGANIC MATERIAL, NITROGEN CPDS. AND PHOSPHATE(S) FROM WATER - BY
COMBINED USE OF MICROORGANISMS AND POWDERED MINERAL,
French Patent FR 2364-859. Issued May 19, 1978. Derwent French Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 24, p 3, July, 1978.
A patented process to remove organic compounds and nutrients from waste water
with a powdered mineral and microorganisms requires fewer stages and smaller
treatment equipment than conventional methods. From 1-200 g/liter of finely
powdered calcite, hematite, or gibbsite with particle sizes of <0.297 mm is
sustained as a microbial growth medium. The microorganism-bearing mineral is
mixed with waste water in an oxidation zone where the dissolved oxygen concen-
tration is maintained at 1-2 mg/liter. Biodegradable solids are oxidized to
C02 and nitrogen compounds are oxidized to nitrates and nitrites; the powdered
metal ions simultaneously precipitate phosphorus from the effluent. The 02
concentration of the waste water is <1 mg/liter when it is transferred to
the settling zone. Phosphate precipitation and denitrification continue in
the settling area where the dissolved 02 concentration diminishes to <0.5
mg/liter. The biomass and solids are allowed to settle; effluent, bearing
residual biomass, is then transferred to the clarifying zone where an 02 con-
centration of <1 mg/ml is maintained. Clarified effluent is decanted from
the tank and the activated sludge is either returned to the initial oxidation
tank or aerated and recycled to the clarifier.
C138
LIQUOR REMOVAL FROM LAGOON SURFACES - USING FLOATING TAKE OFF LINE WITH COM-
PENSATION FOR LEVEL CHANGES,
German Patent DS 2406-857. Issued June 29, 1978. Derwent German Patents Ab-
stracts, Vol. A, No. 27, p 3, August, 1978.
A floating decantation apparatus which automatically adjusts to the liquid
level in a waste water treatment lagoon has been patented. Floats mounted on
an intake pipe maintain the liquid decantation orifice just below the surface
of the liquid. The edge of the intake pipe lies behind a plane which is per-
pendicular to the influent source; this perpendicular plane also intersects
the axis about which the intake orifice turns. As the level of liquid in the
tank changes, the intake pipe inclines to compensate for the new level and
maintains the inlet mouth below the surface as it turns. A constant volume of
effluent is withdrawn from the lagoon by the apparatus, even in the presence
of large liquid level fluctuations.
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C139
APPARATUS FOR PURIFYING WASTE WATERS,
United States Patent 4,104,167. Issued August 1, 1978. Official Gazette of
the United States Patent Office, Vol. 973, No. 1, p 278, August, 1978.
A patent has been issued for a waste water treatment apparatus containing
equalization, aeration and sludge separation, and clarification zones. Waste
water in the equalization zone is transferred into the top of a second tank
which is divided into aeration and sludge separation zones by an inclined
plate. Spaced apart from the tank floor and sides, the plate defines an upper,
triangular aeration zone and the lower sludge settling area; an intake aera-
tion channel is located in the lower corner of the tank and an outlet is posi-
tioned in the upper regions of the tank. Waste water bearing activated sludge
is circulated up through the aeration channel and down through the aeration
zone; the lower end of the slanted plate inhibits the circulation of the
aerated water and increases the velocity along the bottom of the tank. A por-
tion of the rapidly moving water enters the sludge separation zone where a
fluidized bed of active media is formed. Effluent moving up through the
fluidized bed is drawn into the clarification tank from the top of the sludge
separation zone.
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TREATMENT METHODS
D001
APPLICATION OF OXYGEN TO TREAT WASTE FROM MILITARY FIELD INSTALLATIONS,
Malina, J. F., Jr.
Texas University,
Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
1973. 77 p, 9 fig, 14 tab, 45 ref, 1 append. NTIS Technical Report AD-A027-
033.
Objectives of this program were to study the survival of enteric viruses and
bacteria in stabilization ponds with high purity oxygen systems, and to ex-
amine the feasibility of using high purity oxygen in military installation
field treatment facilities. The four laboratory-scale pond systems used in
the study included a stabilization pond which was preceded by a mixed oxygen-
ated lagoon, one which was preceded by an oxygen contact chamber, one in which
oxygen was added to the first bay of the four-bay basin, and one to which oxy-
gen was not introduced. Measurements of BOD, COD, total organic carbon (TOG),
total oxygen demand (TOD), suspended solids, total coliform, fecal streptococ-
cus, bacteriophage, and enteric animal viruses were used to evaluate pond per-
formance. The system containing the oxygenated lagoon achieved the best re-
sults on the basis of virus and bacteria inactivation. Performance data for
each of the systems is presented. At a loading rate of 250 Ib BOD/acre per
day, the simple stabilization pond was capable of removing 97.7% of BOD, 92.6%
of COD, 84.2% of TOD, and 80% of TOG. Enteric virus and bacteria inactivation
ranged from 88% to 94%, and bacteria reduction was in excess of 98%. When
high purity oxygen was added, BOD, COD, TOD, and TOC removals were 98.6%,
94.6%, 89%, and 90%, respectively.
D002
UPGRADING EXISTING WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS. PRE-PLANT CONSIDERATIONS,
Meenahan, J. G.
Johnson and Anderson, Incorporated,
Pontiac, Michigan.
1972. 11 p, 6 fig. NTIS Technical Report PB-258-811.
Because changing federal and state water quality standards may require waste
water treatment plant operators to modify facilities to produce higher quality
effluents, a discussion of pre-plant options in upgrading a facility is pre-
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sented. Topics examined include: reasons for upgrading, collection systems,
waste water flow measurement, definitions of waste water flows, flow equaliza-
tion as a means of extending plant capacity, and necessary steps in the evalu-
ation of existing facilities. Appendices to the report include an illustra-
tion of diurnal flow variation, population and flow projections, and process
diagrams for an existing and a proposed plant.
D003
ALASKAN INDUSTRY EXPERIENCE IN ARCTIC SEWAGE TREATMENT,
Clark, S. E., Alter, A. J., Scribner, J. W.,
Coutts, H. J., and Christiansen, C. D.
Environmental Protection Agency,
College, Alaska,
Alaska Water Laboratory.
1971. 32 p, 17 fig, 7 tab, 6 ref. Working Paper-13. NTIS Technical Report
PB-257-585.
Limitations on water supply and waste disposal practices on Alaska's North
Slope have prefaced this examination of two advanced physical-chemical treat-
ment systems, extended aeration facilities, and other types of waste treatment
facilities. Constructed to provide sewage treatment for Alaskan pipeline con-
struction camps, the physical-chemical plants include alum flocculation, up-
flow clarification, first-stage downflow carbon adsorption-filtration, second
stage upflow carbon adsorption, and chlorination. Provisions are made for
separation and treatment of waste water according to origin (toilet versus
other sources). Raw sewage characteristics are provided for five North Slope
facilities, and effluent characteristics are provided for seven North Slope
facilities. Average water usage and household sewage distribution tables are
presented.
D004
CHEMICAL/BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING CHLORINE AND OZONE FOR DISINFECTION,
Carlson, R. M., and Caple, R.
Minnesota University,
Duluth,
Department of Chemistry.
1977. 88 p, 7 fig, 17 tab, 151 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-600/3-77-
066.
Chemical and biological studies were conducted to determine the fate, distri-
bution, speciation, and effects of chlorine, ozone and associated byproducts
in waste water disinfection. The product distribution and individual com-
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ponents were examined for chlorinated or ozonated waste water containing the
following: aromatics, alpha-terpineol, oleic acid, fatty acids, resin acids,
cholesterol, and phenols. The toxicological effects of disinfection bypro-
ducts were examined for Daphnia magna. Hansch "structure-activity" relation-
ships are suggested as useful in predicting phenol toxicities. The observed
toxicity of phenols to Daphnia magna was attributed to the compound's lipo-
philic nature. A method for determining the partition coefficient with a
"reverse-phase" high liquid chromatography column was devised to predict the
effects of a compound on the environment. Laboratory studies were conducted
to determine the effect of chlorination on the biochemical oxygen demand of
effluents containing phenols, benzoic acid, and anilines. Lower BOD values
and higher toxicities were associated with chlorination byproducts than with
parent compounds.
D005
SEWAGE PLANT BUILT IN STAGES,
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (Australia), Vol. 49, No. 17, p 5,
July, 1977.
A five-module sewage treatment plant planned for Townsville, Australia, is de-
scribed. With an estimated cost of $14-17 million, the facility will be
located several kilometers south of the Ross River. Preliminary designs, con-
struction schedules, and estimates for the treatment plant have been ac-
cepted. The plant, scheduled for completion by 1985, will provide treatment
for city sewage, 75% of which is currently discharged directly into Cleveland
Bay through two outfalls. Sludge gas will be used to generate power for the
plant. Mclntyre and Associates, consulting engineers, have been commissioned
for the project.
D006
REPORT ON EVALUATION OF WASTE SOURCES IN THE MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE AREA,
1975. 190 p, 20 fig, 25 tab, 3 append. Technical Report EPA-330/2-72-011.
The purposes of this study were to analyze waste water discharges from major
industries in the Memphis, Tennessee, metropolitan area and to evaluate water
quality of the Mississippi River upstream and downstream from the Nonconnah
and Wolf interceptor sewers. Background information, waste sources and treat-
ment, and a discussion of in-plant evaluations and results are presented.
Average daily loads discharged by the 19 industries recognized as waste water
sources are given. Effluents of one military installation and one municipal
waste water treatment plant were also evaluated. Treatment recommendations
for each source of pollution are given. Industries which now discharge or
plan to discharge wastes to the Memphis sewer system and do not meet pretreat-
ment requirements were identified.
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D007
REPORT ON WATER QUALITY AND WASTE-SOURCE INVESTIGATIONS-MISSOURI RIVER AND
PAPILLION CREEK, OMAHA, NEBRASKA,
1973. 242 p, 4 fig, 9 tab, 12 ref, 8 append. Technical Report EPA-330/2-73-
001.
Studies of municipal and industrial waste water treatment facilities, as well
as limited stream surveys of the Missouri River and Papillion Creek, were con-
ducted in Omaha, Nebraska, to evaluate water pollution control practices, ex-
amine the adequacy of Omaha's sewer system, and evaluate pollution abatement
progress. Surveys indicated that municipal and industrial waste water sources
discharged daily loads of 135,000 Ib BOD and 170,000 Ib suspended solids. Re-
moval of BOD and suspended solids by primary treatment at the Missouri River
plant was 13% and 22%, respectively. Secondary treatment for all waste waters
discharged to the Missouri River was recommended by 1975. An investigation of
the sewage system indicated that raw waste water was often by-passed directly
to the river. Replacement of the deteriorating combined sewers with separate
storm and sanitary sewers was recommended. Principal municipal and indus-
trial waste sources are described. Aspects of the sewerage system which are
discussed include diversion structures, grit removal facilities, and lift sta-
tions. Results of stream surveys, recommended standards for effluent quality,
and the status of water pollution abatement measures in the area are discussed.
D008
HIGH PURITY WATER TREATMENT PERFORMS WELL AT EUROPE'S FIRST PLANT,
Materials Handling News, No. 236, p 3, July, 1977.
A high purity oxygenation system, the Union Carbide Wimpey UNOX Pressure Swing
Adsorption Unit, has been installed at a waste water treatment plant in
Palmersford, England. The system is being used to treat sewage and organic
industrial sludges for a population of up to 24,000 while taking up only half
the space of a conventional filtration plant. Pure oxygen is fed to the sys-
tem at the first stage. Compressed, cooled, dewatered air is passed to mole-
cular sieves. BOD is reduced to 20 ppra in the first stage and to a final con-
centration of 10 ppm after ammonia is removed in the second stage. Constant
pressure monitoring and a standby liquid oxygen supply are provided for the
aeration tanks. The 90% oxygen supplied to the tank results in higher treat-
ment efficiency and shorter required retention times. The UNOX system is sug-
gested for use in any facility in which organic wastes are treated.
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D009
CENTRAL KITSAP COUNTY WASTEWATER FACILITIES,
1976. 466 p, 22 fig, 37 tab, 72 ref, 10 append. Technical Report EPA-910/9-
75-012.
The final environmental impact statement for a proposed $18 million project to
construct interceptor sewer lines, a waste water treatment facility, and a
waste water disposal facility in Kitsap County, Washington, is presented.
Eleven alternatives developed for the facilities plan are described. Detailed
descriptions of the environmental setting and of the environmental impacts of
the proposed project are given. Adverse impacts and mitigative measures are
described. Design flows and other data are presented for the project. Major
recommendations for the project include: revegetation and tunnelling to pre-
vent erosion of shoreline bluffs at outfall sites; porous backfilling for the
sewerage system; and a comprehensive metering study for outfall diffuser
design.
D010
SAFER, CLEANER HANDLING OF SEWAGE PUMPS,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4443, p 23, August, 1977.
Missing Links, a series of submersible sewage pump transport units, are being
produced by Treatment Contracts Limited of Andover, England. The Missing Link
is capable of lifting and transporting pumps by means of a trailer-mounted
framework which can extend the slide rail system above ground. The pump can
be drawn up into a cage for cleaning and servicing. A service unit for ladder
racks, inspection lamps, tools, and replacement pumps is also available. Two
models of the pump handling systems are marketed for pumps of 2-5 hp and for
pumps in the 7.5-30 hp range.
D011
SEWAGE WORKS FOR TEL AVIV,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 7, p 11, July, 1977.
An IL 1,042 million sewage treatment plant has been planned for the greater
Tel Aviv area in Israel as an alternative to the current practice of ocean
dumping. Cooperative settlements in the southern desert area will use the ef-
fluent produced by the proposed facility, located at Rishon le Zion, for agri-
cultural purposes. Mechanical aeration will be used at the facility to pro-
vide an effluent which will be applied to non-food crops. The facility will
serve a population of 1 million, and will treat 100 million cu m of water per
year, or about 10% of Israel's annual water consumption.
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D012
THE RECLAMATION OF DRINKING WATER FROM SEWAGE,
McGarry, M. G.
Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand.
1975. 75 p, 20 ref, 16 fig, 5 tab. NTIS Technical Report FE-472-2.
Various aspects related to the direct reclamation of waste water for drinking
are discussed. Practices in Thailand which involve the photosynthetic re-
covery and harvest of nitrogen in the form of algal protein and the removal of
low level organics by burnt rice husk media filtration are described. Varie-
ties of roughing filtration are examined. Pilot studies on photosynthetic
stripping of nitrogen from clarified high rate pond effluent are described.
Experiments dealing with powdered activated carbon adsorption were conducted
to examine starting material, chemical treatment methods, and particle size.
Dual media and semi-rapid filtration are discussed for application to local
filter media materials in Thailand. Results of experiments on organic and am-
monia nitrogen removal by breakpoint chlorination are given. Design configu-
rations to integrate unit processes into continuous flow systems for renova-
tion of domestic waste water are evaluated.
D013
A TURN FOR THE BETTER,
Electrical Review, Vol. 201, No. 5, p 31, July, 1977.
Automatic operation of eight penstocks which control the flow of sewage to
aeration tanks at the Beckton waste water treatment plant in North London,
England, has been supplied by the Retrofit Division of Rotork Controls
Limited. Commissioned by the Thames Water Authority, motorization of the
penstocks has reduced from 40 to 6 minutes the time required for closing from
a fully open position. The more rapid response has produced a better flow
balance through the tanks, as well as easier cleaning and maintenance.
Push-button control is currently being used for startup, but provisions for
future remote control of the system are being made. The Beckton sewage
treatment plant is capable of handling a dry weather flow of 250 mgd and a wet
weather flow of up to 600 ragd.
D014
SELF-CLEANING FILTER/SCREEN,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 7, p 46-47, July, 1977.
A continuous, self-cleaning filter screen, the Japanese-designed Aqua-Guard,
is described. A filter element-rake combination is used to remove suspended
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and entrained materials from 3-300 mm in size. Collected solids are ejected
to a collector to provide continuous filtering with minimal supervision and
maintenance. Designed as an alternative to conventional bar or rotary
screens, the Aqua-Guard contains an endless belt of interconnected filter ele-
ments which move around an upper sprocket. Aqua-Guard is suggested for use in
industrial water and waste treatment, and for removal of trash from sewage in-
fluent. The filters are capable of handling up to 465,000 gal/min to remove
up to 560 tons of trash/hr, and are available in a variety of screen sizes.
D015
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT INCLUDES REVERSE OSMOSIS,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 9, p 166, September, 1977.
A water reclamation and groundwater injection project of the Orange County
Water District in California is described. Water Factory 21, an advanced
waste water treatment plant, provides injection water to prevent intrusion of
sea water into the area's groundwater supply. The facility includes chemical
clarification, amnonia stripping, recarbonation, multi-media filtration, car-
bon adsorption, chlorination, and a reverse-osmosis demineralization plant.
The reverse osmosis system treats effluent from either the activated carbon
columns or the mixed-media filter beds, to provide 85 gal of permeate for
underground injection for every 100 gal of effluent treated. Treated effluent
is pumped to a series of 23 multi-casing injection wells to prevent sea water
intrusion and augment Orange County's groundwater supply.
D016
PRODUCES HIGH SOLIDS CAKE FROM DILUTE SLUDGE,
Chemical Processing, Vol. 40, No. 10, p 53, September, 1977.
The Magnum dewatering press, which is produced by Parkson Corporation of Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, is used to reduce the water content of sludges from waste
water treatment. The dewatering process includes a draining stage, a low
pressure stage, and a high pressure stage. Sludge which has been prefloccu-
lated with a polyelectrolyte is drained on a screen by light rolling and plow-
ing. In the second stage, drained sludge on the screen is forced against a
pressing screen by a series of decreasing diameter rollers, which gradually
increase the pressure on the sludge. Very high pressure, created by 1" wide
flat belts which press the sludge against a perforated roller, is used in the
final stage of dewatering. The press is available in four widths, from 20" to
40", and produces a filter cake with a much lower water content than that in
cakes from a conventional belt filter press.
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D017
MICROSCREEN INNOVATION,
Filtration and Separation, Vol. 14, No. 4, p 412, July/August, 1977. 1 fig.
A series of rotary drum microscreens for water and sewage tertiary treatment
is being produced by Paterson Candy International Ltd. of London, England.
The micros ereens may be used for storm water overflow treatment, final efflu-
ent polishing, BOD and turbidity removal, algae and plankton removal, and raw
water straining. Available in standard diameter sizes of 1800, 2500, 3000,
and 3700 mm and in lengths up to 5000 mm, the microscreen consists of a rotat-
ing open-ended horizontal drum supported on an A-frame. Raw waste water en-
tering the drum's open end is filtered by the replaceable filter panels which
are covered with screen mesh. Continuous spray, timed-sequenced, and headloss
monitoring systems optimize water usage for backwashing.
D018
WET AIR OXIDATION WORKS IN LOUISVILLE, KY.,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 54, September, 1977.
Four 250-gpm sludge oxidation units have been installed at the Morris Forman
waste water treatment plant in Louisville, Kentucky. Tests conducted at
Zimpro, Inc., in Rothschild, Wisconsin, for the EPA and Louisville Metropoli-
tan Sewer District officials showed that low pressure wet air oxidation was
capable of reducing concentrations of hexachlorocyclopentadiene and octa-
chlorocyclopentadiene by 93%. Dewatering and incineration of the oxidized
sludge in a multiple hearth furnace substantially reduced concentrations of
hexachlorobenzene, another toxic chemical. Results of the studies were
verified with 3500 gal of sludge shipped to Zimpro. Temperature, pressure,
and aeration conditions employed in wet air oxidation destroy the two penta-
dienes in the first stage of treatment. A vacuum filter is then used to de-
water the oxidized sludge to a solids content of 40%. Analyses of ash and
stack gas produced during incineration of the dewatered sludge indicated that
all three toxic chemicals were effectively destroyed during the processes.
D019
CENTRIFUGES CONCENTRATE SLUDGES,
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p. 110, October, 1977.
The United Sewerage Agency has installed three Dorr-Oliver Merco centrifuges
at its waste water treatment facilities in Durham, Oregon. The centrifuges
are used to thicken waste activated sludge and lime sludge. Centrifuge-
thickened waste activated sludge and gravity-thickened primary sludge are com-
bined prior to heat treating, dewatering, and incineration. The lime sludge
which contains about 80% calcium carbonate is thickened before it is recal-
cined for recovery of the lime for reuse in the treatment process. In the
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operation of the disc-nozzle centrifuges, sludge enters the feedwell of a high
speed rotor and passes to the impeller where it is brought up to rotor speed.
Heavier particles are discharged to the underflow collector through nozzles at
the periphery of the rotor. Clarified liquid travels up through the unit and
is collected through an overflow discharge.
D020
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN FILTRATION,
Fox, G. T., and Lekkas, T. D.
Imperial College,
London, England,
Department of Public Health Engineering.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 460, 462, August, 1977. 1 fig.
Recent research on the dynamics of rapid sand filtration is described.
Studies were initiated to develop filtration technology which would allow
waste water facilities to eliminate sedimentation before filtration. In order
to provide efficient filtration, sand grains in the filter must be arranged so
that larger particles are positioned at the top of the filter to remove large
debris and smaller particles are at the bottom of the filter to remove smaller
debris. However, when the filter bed is fluidized in operation, smaller
grains migrate to the top and the efficiency of the filter is reduced. The
mechanics of size grading in a sand filter are described and related to sur-
face friction and particle size. Upflow filtration was developed to eliminate
problems associated with gravity settling of larger particles. The multilayer
filter, containing anthracite/sand in a two-layer filter and polystyrene/
anthracite/sand in a three-layer filter, incorporates the use of larger media
which have a lower specific gravity than the smaller media. Head loss pro-
files are compared for the two types of filters. Proper orientations of the
media in a multi-layer filter are maintained because of the density differ-
ences. Although more costly than sand filters, multi-layer filters can run
up to 10 times longer than rapid sand filters. Research on the use of flexi-
ble plastic baffles or plastic sponge mesh for filtration is described.
D021
SYSTEM CONTROLS TREATMENT PLANT,
Instrumentation Technology, Vol. 24, No. 6, p 21, June, 1977.
The Franklin, Ohio, waste water treatment plant of the Miami Conservancy Dis-
trict has incorporated a digital control system into its facilities. Two MOD-
COMP computers produced by Systems Control Inc. of Palo Alto, California, are
used to monitor pH, chlorine residual, dissolved oxygen, mixed liquor sus-
pended solids, and primary sludge density. One of the computers is located at
the Franklin plant to handle on-site control and monitoring while the second
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is located at headquarters in Dayton to coordinate operations of up to eight
treatment plants. The Franklin plant, with a design capacity of 4.5 mgd and
an average loading capacity of 3 mgd, treats combined municipal and industrial
wastes for a population equivalent of 200,000. The average daily loading of
COD ranges from 70,000 to 100,000 Ibs/day. Storing industrial wastes, pri-
marily from four paper mills, the Franklin solid waste recovery plant, and a
liquid industrial waste recycling system, are separated from municipal wastes
during primary treatment.
D022
PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL FOR UPGRADING EXISTING WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS,
1974. 358 p, 78 fig, 105 tab, 360 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-
625/l-71/004a.
Procedures to upgrade existing waste water treatment plants in order to meet
more stringent treatment requirements, increase hydraulic and/or organic load-
ing capacity, or improve poor performance due to improper plant design and/or
operation are examined by Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., of Boston, Massachusetts.
Investigative approaches for the identification of problem areas and the
establishment of plant requirements are presented. Aspects of flow equaliza-
tion which are discussed include benefits of dry weather equalization, deter-
mination of equalization requirements, costs, performance, and case his-
tories. Considerations in upgrading trickling filter plants are examined.
Techniques for upgrading activated sludge plants are described. Advantages
and process design are discussed for clarification and chemical treatment.
Effluent polishing techniques which are discussed include polishing lagoons,
microscreening, filtration, and activated carbon adsorption. Preaeration and
postaeration practices, disinfection methods, and odor control are examined.
Sludge thickening methods are evaluated, including gravity thickening, air
flotation, and centrifugation. Sludge stabilization methods using anaerobic
digestion, aerobic digestion, heat treatment, or lime addition are evaluated.
Methods of sludge dewatering which are described include vacuum filtration,
drying beds, centrifugation, and filter presses. Nine case histories of
treatment plant upgrading are described.
D023
RETIRED MAYOR SPARKPLUGS SEWAGE TREATMENT CHANGE,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 9, p 77, September, 1977.
The city of Winter Haven, Florida, has begun using spray irrigation for ter-
tiary waste water treatment and waste water disposal. A central-pivot spray
system developed by Valmont Industries of Valley, Nebraska, is being used to
apply treated effluent to 1500 acres of city-owned farmland. The treated ef-
fluent is used to fertilize chop feed crops with yields of 70 tons/acre/yr.
The crops are expected to remove 475-500 Ibs nitrogen/acre/yr from the efflu-
ent. Possible contamination from waste water irrigation is monitored by 36
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wells at depths of 10-120 ft. Spray irrigation replaces discharge of treated
effluent into the city's lake system by the 2.75-mgd South plant and the
1.7-mgd North plant. Two new 5.0-mgd facilities, one in operation and one in
the planning stage, will eventually replace existing facilities. Irrigation
is accomplished by spray arms which are supported on triangular carriages.
D024
STUDIES ON NITROGEN REMOVAL IN SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS (Gesuishori shisetsu ni
okeru chissojokyo ni kansuru kenkyu),
Saito, K., Kobori, K., Ochi, S., and Yagihashi, I.
Kankocho Kogai Sermon Shiryo, Vol. 12, No. 3, p 49-61, 1977. 21 fig, 6 tab, 8
ref.
Laboratory and field investigations examined the operating conditions for ni-
trification in the activated sludge process, defined operating parameters for
effective nitrification and organic removal with existing treatment facili-
ties, and evaluated recovery of organic carbon from anaerobic digester super-
natant for use in denitrification. Laboratory-scale plug flow aerators were
used to examine the effects of pH on nitrification with different substrates.
The effects of salinity on nitrifying bacteria were examined at activated
sludge plants. Field studies were conducted to examine seasonal variations of
nitrifiers and to evaluate general performance of sewage treatment plants in
Japan. The studies indicated that the optimum operating parameters for nit-
rification were a pH of 7-9 and an SRT of more than 10 days. Organic loadings
less than 0.24 kg BOD/kg SS/day did not affect nitrification. The addition of
alkalinity was necessary to oxidize TKN completely to nitrite or nitrate nit-
rogen. Growth of fresh water nitrifiers was inhibited under conditions of
more than 40% seawater and was maximum when no seawater was added. With com-
bined cultures of freshwater and seawater nitrifiers, maximum growth was ob-
served with a total seawater media. It was suggested that seawater acted as a
buffering agent. Field studies on Japanese sewage treatment plants indicated
that nitrifiers were present at an average concentration of 1000-10,000 N/ml
with Nitrobacter being more abundant than Nitrosomonas. Effective nitrifica-
tion was observed at temperatures of 18-23 C and at dissolved oxygen levels
greater than 28% of saturation.
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D025
EFFECTS OF SEVERAL OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS ON THE REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF THE
TOWER-TYPE PACKED BIOFILTER (Juten toshikiro sho ho ni okeru sekkei, unten
parameta no joka koritsu ni oyobosu eikyo),
Yoshihara, K., Sambuichi, M., Fujio, Y., and Ueda, S.
Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan,
Department of Food Science and Technology.
Hakko Kogaku, Vol. 55, No. 3, p 122-128, 1977. 8 fig, 1 tab, 25 ref.
The tower-type packed bio filter, a modified trickling filter filled with small
rounded stones, was evaluated for COD removal in the treatment of organic
waste water. The 1.5-m high biofilter was used to treat synthetic waste water
which contained 0.17 kg COD/cu m/day. Waste water was recirculated through
the filter at a rate of 600 ml/min to insure adequate maintenance of the bio-
logical film on the filter media. The tower-type filter was capable of remov-
ing 1.2-1.4 kg COD/cu m/day. Factors affecting COD removal efficiency for the
tower-type filter were quantitatively similar to those affecting conventional
trickling filters, including hydraulic loading, organic loading, filter depth,
and forced ventilation of some gases. COD removal was inadequate at high hy-
draulic loading rates (36 cu m/sq m/day). Odor problems, attributed to inade-
quate aeration by natural-draft ventilation during the use of the filter, were
alleviated when air or oxygen was supplied to the biofilter at 90 cu m/sq
m/day. COD removal was not influenced by the dissolved oxygen concentration
in the filter.
D026
LAB TO TEST BULRUSHES AS FILTERS FOR SEWAGE,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 16, September, 1977.
Environmental Quality Laboratory, Inc., a subsidiary of General Development
Corporation, is investigating the use of bulrushes to create a low-cost,
natural means of tertiary sewage treatment. In experiments at Port Charlotte,
Florida, 6" bulrush plants were planted in plastic-lined troughs which were
filled with water to create a half-acre artificial marsh. A 12-month testing
program is being used to evaluate phosphorus and nitrogen removal from primary
'and secondary treated effluents by bulrushes in the waste water flooded
artificial marsh. Since advanced waste water treatment is required for the
future, the marshland filtration system may provide tertiary treatment at
lower construction and maintenance costs than conventional systems would.
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D027
CARBON-CHLORINE-CARBON SEWAGE TREATMENT,
Green, R. H., Howland, R. G., and Wallace, C. J.
Caltech/JPL,
Pasadena, California.
NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 2, No. 2, p 200, Summer, 1977. 1 fig.
Potential hazards posed by toxic and carcinogenic compounds produced by the
reaction of chlorine with organics and other chemicals present in waste water
treated by chlorination have led to the reevaluation of the use of chlorine as
a disinfectant. An activated carbon treatment system was developed by
Caltech/JPE and NASA with the cooperation of Orange County, California, to
reduce potentially hazardous chlorinated substances in a combination carbon-
chlorine-carbon treatment scheme. Activated carbon is generated at the treat-
ment site through processing of sewage solids. Carbon is added to the primary
sedimentation basin before chlorination and to the secondary clarifier after
chlorination. The initial contact with carbon reduces the concentration of
potentially hazardous substances which might react with chlorine, and the
second carbon contact removes residual chlorine and chlorinated substances.
Laboratory experiments were used to examine the ability of the proposed treat-
ment scheme to remove phenols, aliphatic amines, aromatic amines, and poly-
chlorinated biphenyls. Studies with final effluent from the waste water
treatment plant in Orange County were used to verify the results.
D028
THE TREATABILITY OF LEACHATES FROM SANITARY LANDFILLS,
Buchanan, R. J., Jr.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 4, p 1631-1632,
October, 1977.
Physicochemical and biological treatment processes applicable to leachates
from sanitary landfills were investigated in bench-scale and full-scale ex-
periments. Laboratory experiments examined the effects of precipitants, coag-
ulants, activated carbon, low pH biological treatment, and conventional acti-
vated sludge processes on landfill leachates. Treatment with the ferrous
oxidizing bacterium, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, in the low pH treatment scheme
was demonstrated as feasible for leachates.
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D029
DESIGNING MORE ENERGY-EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS,
Banerji, S. K., and O'Conner, J. T.
Missouri University, Columbia,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 7, p. 76-81, September, 1977. 4 fig, 6
tab, 19 ref.
Rising energy costs have made designs for energy-efficient waste water treat-
ment systems attractive to plant operators and design engineers. Energy costs
and typical energy requirements for waste water treatment processes are de-
scribed. Power requirements are compared for secondary waste water treatment
processes, including conventional activated sludge, rotating biological con-
tactor, activated bio-filtration, and high rate trickling filtration. Energy
consumption for tertiary and advanced waste water treatment processes is de-
scribed. Energy requirements of land treatment of waste water with irriga-
tion, infiltration/percolation, or overland flow are compared with those of
advanced waste water treatment. Gravity thickening and anaerobic digestion,
which use less energy than flotation thickening and aerobic digestion, are
suggested as means of sludge treatment. Performance data for various modes of
sludge dewatering are compared. Refuse-derived fuel is discussed as an alter-
nate fuel for sludge incineration. Waste water pump type and operating para-
meters are discussed with respect to power requirements.
DO 30
NITRIFICATION IN OXYGEN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS,
Gyger, R. F., and Braunscheidel, D. E.
Union Carbide Corporation, Linde Division,
Tonawanda, New York.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 243-249, 1977. 5 fig, 2 tab, 29
ref.
A model for the design of oxygen activated sludge systems for nitrification is
presented. The Monod model which was used to describe ammonia substrate re-
moval and growth of nitrifying bacteria is based on the relationship between
growth and endogenous decay of the organisms. Required parameter determina-
tions include the yield and endogenous decay coefficients, the saturation con-
stant, and system oxygen requirements. Previous studies on the effects of en-
vironmental factors such as temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, pH,
available substrate, and toxic compounds on biological treatment processes are
described. Pilot plant studies on one- and two-step carbonaceous removal and
nitrification systems such as the Union Carbide-manufactured UNOX system are
described. The validity of the nitrification model was tested by comparisons
of the theoretical amount of SRT required to achieve the observed ammonia con-
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centration under a certain set of environmental conditions with the actual SRT
observed in the operation of various nitrification systems. The analyses in-
dicated that the Monod model was acceptable for the design of nitrification
systems and that large increases in the SRT above the minimum critical SRT
values necessary for nitrification did not significantly improve system per-
formance. Design considerations for the one- and two-step systems are dis-
cussed with respect to sludge retention time, oxygenation tank volume, and the
food:microorganism ratio.
D031
REVIEW PAPER: POTENTIAL FOR PARASITIC DISEASE TRANSMISSION WITH LAND APPLICA-
TION OF SEWAGE PLANT EFFLUENTS AND SLUDGES,
Hays, B. D.
Pittsburgh University, Pennsylvania,
Department of Life Sciences.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 7, p 583-595, 1977. 1 tab, 114 ref.
Historical background information and a literature review are presented for
waste disposal of sewage treatment plant products by land application. Ad-
vantages and disadvantages of land application are discussed, including: pos-
sible environmental and health hazards, groundwater recharge, protection of
surface waters, disease transmission, and soil conditioning. Previous studies
on the fate and distribution of toxic substances and pathological organisms
are cited. Literature is reviewed on the fate of parasitic forms during vari-
ous phases of sewage treatment, including sedimentation, flocculation, sec-
ondary treatment, anaerobic digestion, drying and survival in soil, composting
or aerobic digestion, temperature and survival in the soil, and chemicals and
other types of disinfection. Information and evidence on disease transmission
related to land application of sewage plant products are presented. Investi-
gations on the fate of parasitic cysts and eggs in conventional sewage treat-
ment processes are discussed. A summary of infective parasites likely to be
found in sludge is presented. Since land application of sludge may be an ef-
ficient method of soil enrichment as well as a method of waste disposal, tech-
nology and management control to reduce or eliminate parasitic disease trans-
mission is stressed.
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D032
NEW 'PHILADELPHIA STORY1 BEING WRITTEN BY POLLUTION CONTROL DIVISION,
Nelson, M. D., and Guarino, C. F.
Water Pollution Control Division,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 22-26, 28, 38, September, 1977.
4 fig, 1 tab.
Additions in 1977 to the Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant, one of three
which service Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, are described. The plant had been
providing primary treatment for a waste water flow of 136 mgd with bar
screens, grit channels, flocculation tanks, primary sedimentation tanks, and
separate sludge treatment facilities. The expanded facility will provide
treatment for an average flow of 210 mgd with provisions for expansion to 285
mgd. Additions to the plant include expanded and remodeled primary treatment
facilities, oxygen activated sludge process facilities, and separate sludge
treatment facilities to provide screening, grit removal, settling, biological
treatment, and disinfection before treated effluent is discharged to the Dela-
ware River. SURFACT, a rotating biological contactor which is submerged in a
diffused air aeration tank, is being examined as a means of improving operat-
ing efficiency. Advantages of the fixed film contactor include process flex-
ibility, lower susceptibility to upset, potential for both carbonaceous and
nitrogenous removals in the same tank, the ability to use energy derived from
the activated sludge system, and low capital and operating costs. Design
criteria and costs for the prototype, a 20-mgd pilot-scale SURFACT system in
operation at Philadelphia's Northeast treatment plant, are presented.
D033
PUTTING POWDERED CARBON IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 9, p 854-855, September,
1977. 1 fig, 1 tab.
A carbon/wet oxidation system, produced by Zimpro Inc. of Rothschild, Wis-
consin, is described. Treatment with the Zimpro system includes adsorption on
powdered activated carbon, conventional biological treatment, and regeneration
of the spent carbon by wet air oxidation. The system is being used to upgrade
the Liverpool Sewage Treatment Plant in Medina County, Ohio, from a conven-
tional activated sludge facility to a 10-mgd advanced waste water treatment
facility. The treatment is suggested as highly effective for industrial
wastes or combined municipal-industrial wastes. Results of pilot studies to
compare performance of the carbon/wet oxidation system with the conventional
two-stage activated sludge system and to determine system nitrification,
denitrification, oxygen transfer, and sludge characteristics are presented.
Advantages of the system include: simultaneous adsorption of biodegradable
and non-biodegradable wastes, high levels of nitrification due to long sludge
age, and simultaneous destruction of biological solids and regeneration of
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spent carbon during wet air oxidation. Municipal and industrial waste treat-
ment facilities currently using the Zimpro system of carbon/wet oxidation are
listed.
D034
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION WITH DEPTH IN MULTILAYER GRANULAR BED WATER FILTERS,
Lekkas, T. D., and Fox, G. T. J.
Imperial College, London, England,
Department of Public Health Engineering.
Filtration and Separation, Vol. 14, No. 5, p 461-462, 464, 466, 470,
September-October, 1977. 10 fig, 11 tab, 6 ref.
Stratification during backwashing of granular filter beds reduces filter ef-
ficiency by producing beds with a smaller grain size at the top and a larger
grain size at the bottom of the filter. The use of upflow filters and the use
of larger but lighter grains have partially alleviated the problem of strati-
fication. Pilot studies using a two-layer filter (anthracite and sand) and a
three-layer filter (polystyrene, anthracite, and sand) were conducted to
determine the distribution in grain size with depth. Stratification was not
significant for sand, but was significant for anthracite in the two-layer
filter and for polystyrene and anthracite in the three-layer filter. For the
anthracite layer the grain size distribution is mathematically derived as a
function of depth. Grain sphericity was measured according to mean sieve
size, and according to count and weight equivalent grain size, to determine if
shape stratification occurred within the anthracite layer in the two-layer
filter. The studies indicated that some stratification did occur since
sphericity increased with depth. Increasing the number of layers in a multi-
layer filter reduced the effects of size stratification on filter performance.
D035
SEWAGE SLUDGE ANSWERS ARE STILL NEEDED,
Farm Chemicals, Vol. 140, No. 6, p 40, 42, June, 1977.
Various aspects related to the environmental effects of the application of
sewage sludge to cropland are discussed. Although only 1% of the total 1970
cropland would be required for disposal of all of the sludge produced annually
in the United States, one of the problems associated with land application as
a means of sludge disposal is that the highest quantities of sludge are pro-
duced in highly populated areas where the amount of land available for agri-
cultural purposes is limited. Studies on the long-term environmental impact
of sludge application have indicated that the uptake of metals in sludges by
plants is greater during the initial application than during subsequent
periods. Criteria for the feasibility of land application programs are based
on the nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metal contents of the sludges. Various
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studies on the uptake by plants and adverse effects of heavy metals are dis-
cussed. Elements which are considered to pose relatively little hazard to
crop production include Mn, Fe, Al, Cr, As, Se, Sb, Pb, and Hg. Elements
which are discussed as posing hazards under certain conditions include Cd, Cu,
Mo, Ni, and Zn.
D036
COMPOST LATRINES IN TANZANIA: A PRELIMINARY REPORT,
Gurak, R., Kilama, W., and Winblad, U.
Dar es Salaam University, Tanzania,
Department of Parasitology and Entomology.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 20-23, July-August, 1977. 3 fig, 17 ref.
Diseases and parasites associated with the disposal of human wastes in
Tanzania include enteric fevers such as typhoid and paratyphoid, bacillary
dysentery, poliomyelitis, cholera, intestinal parasites, hookworm, ascaris
lumbricoides, intestinal schistosomiasis, urinary schistosomiasis, and amoe-
biasis. A program for research and development of latrines for villages and
low-income residential areas was initiated in 1975 to outline performance
criteria for domestic waste disposal systems, to examine shortcomings of
existing waste disposal systems, and to evaluate and recomnend various methods
of domestic waste treatment. General performance criteria were based on
ecological, health, nuisance, operational, and cost considerations. Catego-
ries of compost latrine systems which were examined include discontinuous,
alternating, continuous, and compact with heating systems. Results of a pilot
program with the construction of latrines in three villages in eastern
Tanzania and in one squatter area on the outskirts of Dar es Salaam are pre-
sented. Problems associated with use of the latrines were related to the ad-
dition of excess liquid to the essentially dry systems.
D037
COMPOSTING INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL WASTES PAPER MILL AND CITY TREATMENT PLANT,
Weir, D. R., Jr.
"208" Water Quality Planning Program,
Montachusett Regional Planning Commission,
Fitchburg, Massachusetts.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 27, July-August, 1977. 1 tab, 1 ref.
Environmental Research and Technology and the Montachusett Regional Planning
Commission were called upon to develop a proposal for the production of com-
post from a combination of paper mill and municipal waste water treatment
sludges. The project was initiated as an energy and cost conservation measure
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and for compliance with objectives set out in the 1972 amendments to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Existing advanced waste water treatment
plants in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, included an activated carbon absorption
plant for the paper industry and a two-stage activated sludge and chemical
precipitation plant for municipal wastes. Analyses of the sludges indicated
that except for high cadmium levels, the 3 ton/day of sludge produced by the
activated sludge plant and the 10 ton/day produced by the activated carbon
plant would be safe for use as a fertilizer and humus soil conditioner. Pre-
vious annual expenses for sludge disposal included $50,000 in fuel costs for
incineration of the municipal sludge and $25,000 for landfilling of the paper
mill sludge. The proposed composting operation is expected to cost $20,000/yr
or about $20/ton with a land requirement of about 3 acres for the full-scale
operation. The project is also expected to eliminate possible nonpoint water
pollution from landfilling and air pollution from incineration.
D038
MAKE PURE WATER OUT OF WASTE,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 9, p 50, September, 1977.
PureCycle, a computer-controlled module to recycle household waste water, is
described. The system does not require water and sewer hookups and is com-
posed of two 440-gal tanks and the processing system. The average treatment
capacity of the'system is 440 gpd with peak loading capacities of 800-1000
gpd. The processing system includes a biological reactor which uses disc
rotation and a combination of aerobic and anaerobic digestion to oxidize or-
ganics. A pressurized filtration stage removes bacteria, viruses, and sus-
pended particulates. Color, odors, and organic contaminants are removed by a
carbon adsorption bed. Demineralization removes heavy metals and inorganic
salts. Ultraviolet radiation is used to sterilize the recycled water. Pro-
cessing is continuously monitored by a microcomputer. PureCycle of Boulder,
Colorado, provides a service center to periodically remove solid organics and
provide the initial 500 gal of water to start up the system. At current costs
the break-even point is 200 PureCycle units per service center. Use of the
system is suggested for areas with limited natural water supplies.
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D039
REMOVAL OF ESCHERICHIA COLI IN WASTEWATER BY ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Van Der Drift, C., Van Seggelen, E., Stuirra, C. , Hoi, W., and Tuinte, J.
Nijmegen University, The Netherlands,
Department of Microbiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 3, p 315-319, September,
1977. 3 fig, 10 ref.
A streptomycin-resistant strain of Escherichia coli was used in laboratory
studies on the removal mechanisms of bacteria from waste water treated with
activated sludge obtained at a municipal waste water treatment plant in Val-
burg, The Netherlands. The removal of E. coli by activated sludge is reported
as a two-phase process with initial rapid removal and subsequent slower re-
moval. The rapid decrease during the first hour after the addition of E. coli
cells to mixed liquor was observed as following a Langmuir adsorption iso-
therm. Although the number of free E. coli decreased rapidly in the first
hour, the total number of E. coli decreased at a much slower rate. Subsequent
slower removal of E. coli was attributed to predation by ciliated protozoa as
evidenced by the presence of fluorescent food vacuoles of ciliates when fluo-
rescent E. coli cells were added to mixed liquor, by the inhibition of preda-
tion in the presence of cycloheximide or under anaerobic conditions, and by
the absence of predation in bulking and washed sludge.
D040
SLUDGE EXTRACTION WITH PNEUMATIC ASSISTANCE,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 506, 509, August, 1977.
The Sewpas unit was designed as a mechanical aid for sludge withdrawal from a
hydrostatic valve with an operating range of approximately 1 m hydraulic dif-
ferential head. The Sewpas unit was tested over a 12-month period at the
Upper Stour Main Drainage Board works in England and reduced the sludge volume
by 20% over the volume achieved with manual control of desludging operations.
Installation requirements include the connection of an air pipe to the exist-
ing sludge pipe via a flange adaptor, and the installation of a vertical up-
stand pipe to contain discharge from the airlift. The Sewpas system is de-
signed to handle sludges with solids concentrations of 8-10%. Unlike a con-
ventional air lift system which alters the specific gravity of the sludge, the
Sewpas unit utilizes a large air bubble as a piston to eject the sludge.
Semi-automatic process control is provided to regulate the on-off periods of
the unit. The use of ultrasonics to measure sludge solids concentrations is
discussed as a future method of controlling the cut-off of the air pump.
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D041
WHY NOT INCINERATE YOUR SCREENINGS?,
Aldridge, A. P., and Day, D. C.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 486-488, August, 1977. 1 tab.
Screenings at a sewage treatment plant are normally pulverized to a pumpable
size or removed completely by screens before sewage enters the main treatment
system. Conventional methods of screenings disposal include on-site land-
fills, on-site sludge incineration, private hauling, local refuse dumping, and
local refuse incineration. The use of specially designed, on-site sludge in-
cinerators is suggested as the most cost-effective, least objectionable method
of screenings disposal. The Nichols Screenings Incinerator has a positive
raking system to insure constant agitation of the screenings and a specially
designed combustion system. The Nichols incinerator operates autothermally if
the screenings are previously dewatered to a water content of approximately
65%, with supplemental fuel required only for incinerator warm-up and periods
of low dewatering performance. Automatic controls for start-up and operation
regulate the incinerator with monitoring of the temperature and amount of ex-
cess air in the combustion chamber. The Nichols incinerator produces a
sterile, low volume ash residue which can be collected for disposal at a local
dump or discharged to the sewage works for removal with the primary sludge.
D042
A FUTURE FOR AUTOMATIC SLUDGE WITHDRAWAL,
Ching, C. W.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 505-506, August, 1977. 3 fig.
Ham, Baker, and Company Ltd., in conjunction with the Thames Water Authority
of England, has produced a system for automatic sludge withdrawal from primary
sedimentation tanks. The system can be automatically adjusted to initiate the
desludging cycle at a preset time and to terminate sludge removal when the
moisture content of the sludge being removed increases to a preset level.
Sludge is removed from the sedimentation tank to an adjacent operating cham-
ber. The viscosity of the sludge controls the velocity and level at which the
sludge enters the operating chamber. Since the level in the control chamber
will be related to the sludge moisture content, the inlet valve can be readily
adjusted to close at a predetermined level. The automatic system eliminates
the need for manual control and operator decisions.
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D043
FLOW EQUALIZATION IS ON THE LEVEL,
Foess, G. W., Meenahan, J. G., and Harju, J. M.
Johnson and Anderson, Incorporated,
Pontiac, Michigan.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 96, 98, 100, 105-107, 134-135,
September, 1977. 1 fig, 1 tab.
Flow equalization as a means of leveling influent flow and concentration vari-
ations was evaluated at the 2.1-mgd Walled Lake/Novi waste water treatment
plant in Michigan. Treatment at the tertiary facility uses the activated
sludge process followed by multi-media tertiary filtration. Parameters mea-
sured during the 12-month evaluation period included BOD, total suspended
solids, and total phosphorus under conditions of equalized and non-equalized
flow. Influent waste water, primarily of domestic origin, is bar screened and
then pumped from a wet well to the plant. The equalization basin used in the
study received raw water from the wet well. During periods of low flow, the
waste water flowed by gravity back to the wet well and an automatic valve con-
trolled the discharge from the equalization basin. Further treatment at the
plant included grit removal, aeration, final settling, chlorination, filtra-
tion, chemical treatment, and aerobic digestion. Design data for the facility
are presented. The equalization basin at Walled Lake/Novi is a 337,000-gal
basin provided with a sludge scraping mechanism and aeration equipment for an
air input of 2 cfm of air per 1000 gal of storage. Operation of the plant
under flow-equalized conditions resulted in higher total suspended solids
levels in secondary clarifier effluent, but effluent quality was better with
respect to the other parameters than under non-equalized flow conditions.
D044
INNOVATION IN STORM WATER MANAGEMENT,
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 7, p 20, September, 1977.
In construction of additional parking facilities at the Alexandria Hospital,
the city of Alexandria, Virginia, also required construction of storm water
detention facilities to alleviate runoff problems. The WKR Partnership of
Alexandria was contracted by the hospital to design storage facilities. Cal-
culations indicated that a storage volume of 6000 sq ft would be necessary for
the 5-acre site. Conventional methods of storm water detention used in the
Washington metropolitan area include surface storage ponds and below-grade
storage in concrete chambers, over-sized pipes, or gravel interceptors. These
methods were rejected for the site because of costs, maintenance requirements,
and the site topography. A fiberglass tank system was chosen because of its
lower costs and construction requirements. Provided by Owens-Corning Fiber-
glass, the 75-ft diameter tank was shipped in two sections and installed by
the Arlington Asphalt Company of Arlington, Virginia.
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D045
APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO CROPLAND: APPRAISAL OF POTENTIAL HAZARDS OF
THE HEAVY METALS TO PLANTS AND ANIMALS,
1976. 69 p, 23 tab, 87 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA 430/9-76-013.
A state-of-the-art survey on the potential effects of heavy metals in land-
applied sewage sludges on agricultural crops, animals, and groundwater is pre-
sented. Quantitative and qualitative data are given for sludge production,
cropland requirements, and the metal content of crops. Limiting factors on
the application of municipal sludges to cropland are examined, including the
rate of application, nitrogen content, heavy metal concentrations, phosphorus,
boron, and soluble salts. Accessory criteria are described, including soil
properties, reclamation of disturbed lands, groundwater protection, surface
water protection, crop selection, and monitoring needs. Aspects of monitoring
which are considered include sampling methods, sample preservation, and analy-
tical procedures. Heavy metals and other elements which may be present in
sewage sludge but do not pose a significant hazard to plants and animals are
examined, including: manganese, iron, aluminum, chromium, arsenic, selenic,
antimony, lead, and mercury. Elements which pose a potentially serious hazard
because of their toxicities or concentrations include cadmium, copper, molyb-
denum, nickel, and zinc.
D046
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES FOR INCINERATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES,
DeMarco, J.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, District of Columbia,
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.
1972. 15 p, 3 fig. Technical Report EPA-SW-38d.
A three-phase pyrolysis project in New York State is described. Sponsored by
Erie County, New York, Torrax Corporation, Carborundum Company, A. E. Anderson
Construction Corporation, America Gas Association, and other state and federal
agencies, the project was designed to demonstrate the use of a 75-tpd pyroly-
sis system to convert municipal waste into an inert residue. Major subsystem
components were designed, installed, and operated as a part of the first
phase. System testing and installation of the remaining equipment for exhaust
control comprised the second phase. Economic and technical data will be
gathered during 24-hr operation of the system during the third phase. Major
subsystems in the system include a super blast heater, a gasifier, a secondary
combustion chamber, a gas cooler, and an air pollution control device.
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D047
EVALUATION OF SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA,
SEPTEMBER 1975,
1975. 135 p, 18 fig, 28 tab, 13 ref, 3 append. Technical Report EPA-330/2-
75-008.
Sewage treatment facilities in San Francisco, California, were evaluated in
1975 to determine discharge limitations of the North Point, Richmond-Sunset,
and Southeast waste water treatment plants. Additional objectives were to
determine whether waste discharges posed hazards to San Francisco Bay and the
Pacific Ocean, and to evaluate interim water pollution control measures. The
studies included in-plant and receiving-water surveys at each of the facili-
ties. Design data for each of the three facilities is presented. Physical-
chemical characteristics, bacteriological characteristics, and toxicity re-
sponse of the threespine stickleback were measured for plant effluent and re-
ceiving waters. Operation and efficiency of each plant was examined. Studies
were conducted at outfall locations to determine the'effect of effluents on
oyster survival and propagation and to examine benthic conditions. Appendices
to the report include presentations of survey results, methods used in the
survey, and chain of custody procedures.
D048
HIGH-PRESSURE, THIN-CAKE, STAGED FILTRATION,
Bagdasarian, A., Tiller, F. M., and Donovan, J.
Artisan Industries,
Waltham, Massachusetts.
Filtration and Separation, Vol. 14, No. 5, p 455-458, 460, September-October,
1977. 8 fig, 16 ref.
Continuous, high pressure, thin-cake, staged filtration can be used in the
post-treatment phase to dewater sludge. Alternate rotating and stationary
filter elements are included in staged filters with rotating turbines. Sludge
cake formation is inhibited by an induced drag on the stationary elements
while the slurry is dewatered. Torque on the rotating turbine shaft during
the last stage of filtration produces a shearing action which maintains the
fluidity of the filtered solids. The final cake is continuously extruded.
Higher filtration rates and lower porosities (higher sludge solids content)
are produced with continuous staged filtration than with conventional pressure
or vacuum filtration. The mechanism of thin cake filtration, the effects of
flow rate per unit area, and washing methods are described.
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D049
COST-EFFECTIVE COMPARISON OF LAND APPLICATION AND ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREAT-
MENT,
Pound, C. E., Crites, R. W., and Smith, R. G.
1975. 25 p, 4 fig, 13 tab, 4 ref. Technical Report EPA-430/9-75-016.
Land application system costs were compared with those of advanced waste water
treatment systems, and the cost sensitivities of design variations in land ap-
plication systems were examined. Four advanced treatment systems were devel-
oped: a system designed to remove NH3-N, one designed to remove total N, one
designed to remove phosphorus and suspended solids, and one designed to remove
total N, P, and suspended solids. Quality of effluents produced by these four
systems is compared to that produced by aerated lagoon, activated sludge, ir-
rigation, overland flow, and infiltration-percolation treatment processes.
Cost bases and implications are given for overall costs, variable site condi-
tions, land price, federal and local share of total present worth costs, and
components. Two hypothetical situations are presented to illustrate the use
of comparative cost curves and cost tables in treatment method and design
choice.
DO 50
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE WITH WASTEWATERS,
Russell, L. L.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 862, August, 1977.
Studies on waste water-soil systems and recharge water quality indicated that
nitrification in the soil rather than in a waste water treatment plant could
substantially reduce percolant water quality. This was attributed to low car-
bon dioxide concentrations in aerated effluents which could also dissolve cal-
careous soils, resulting in high calcium concentrations of up to 200
ing/liter. Field studies at the 14-mgd Whittier Narrows Water Reclamation
Plant and the 26-mgd San Jose Creek Water Renovation Plant indicated that
90-95% of the C02 produced during treatment was stripped during aeration. A
systematic, mathematical model for the chemistry of a waste water-soil system
is presented. The effects of minor buffering systems, complex ion formation,
temperature, and ionic strength are incorporated into the model. The model is
useful in simulating the effects of waste water treatment on effluent quality
and the effects of land application on percolant quality, mixing, di.1-ir.i.nn,
and subsequent chemical reactions during percolation.
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D051
WASTEWATER REUSE BY THE TRUCKLOAD,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 9, p 40, September, 1977.
The East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) of Oakland, California, has
implemented a waste water reclamation project in an effort to preserve exist-
ing water supplies. Secondary treated waste water is trucked to approved cus-
tomers and designated for limited use in non-residential irrigation, sewer
flushing, compaction of building sites, and dust control at landfills. Waste
water reclamation is currently being practiced by the San Pablo Sanitary Dis-
trict, Central Contra Costa Sanitary District, Ora Loma Sanitary District, and
the city of San Leandro. Costs for transportation, administration, and con-
struction will eventually be apportioned to users. Initial costs to install
pumps, hook up lines or hoses to the effluent pond, and discharge effluent to
trucks are $2000-3000. Current costs for reclaimed waste water are about
$20/1000 gal, as compared to $0.50/1000 gal for water from conventional
sources.
DOS 2
DESIGNING TO REMOVE PHOSPHORUS BY USING METAL SALTS AND POLYMERS IN CONVEN-
TIONAL PLANTS,
Laughlin, J. E.
Shimek, Homing, Jacobs, and Finklea,
Dallas, Texas.
1971. 12 fig, 35 ref. NTIS Technical Report PB-256 376.
A report on treatment design to remove phosphorus from waste water was pre-
sented as part of the EPA-sponsored "Design Seminar for Wastewater Treatment
Facilities" which was held in Seattle, Washington, on December 1-2, 1971.
Metal salts and polymers used in conventional waste water treatment plants,
including FeC13, pickle liquor, alum, and sodium aluminate, are evaluated.
Topics discussed include: phosphorus removal needs, process variations, pilot
studies, chemicals, hardware, dosage selection and control, polymers, coagu-
lants, sludge harvesting and disposal, supernatant characteristics, and
costs. Flash mixing, flocculation, chemical injection, feeding equipment,
piping, and storage tanks are discussed with respect to design data, use, and
efficiency. Chemical and capital investment costs are presented.
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D053
STUDY ON SLUDGE TREATMENT—2ND REPORT,
Kawahara, H., Tsuchida, M., Koido, Y., Endo, I., and Sago, M.
1973. 67 p, 17 fig, 9 tab, 3 ref. Technical Report EPA-TR74-38D.
An English translation of the Japanese Annual Report of the Tokyo Metropolitan
Research Institute for Environmental Protection, March, 1973, is presented. A
method of sludge treatment and disposal which involves combining sewage sludge
with cement for solidification is described. Results of investigations on the
relationship between sludge-cement strength and the amount of organic sub-
stances in the sludge are presented. Various proportions of digested sludge
and Portland cement were mixed and then hardened in molds. Results indicated
that the effects of the amount of organic substances were much greater at low
cement:sludge ratios. Relationships between composite strength, sludge
organic content, composite water content, and cementrsludge ratio are illus-
trated. The leaching of heavy metals from solidified sludge composites was
also examined. The studies indicated that heavy metals were leached and
exuded from sludge ash and cement blocks which contained sludge ash, but were
not appreciably leached or exuded from conventional sewage sludge or sewage
sludge-containing blocks. This was attributed to the fact that sludge ash
generally contains higher concentrations of heavy metals than other sludge
types. The recommended quantity of cement to produce sludge solidification
was 5-7.5 kg cement/kg dried sludge.
D054
SEWAGE PLANT BENEFITS FROM ADJUSTABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES,
Control Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 12, p 22, December, 1977.
A Georgia sewage treatment plant has installed adjustable speed raw sewage
pumps. General Electric's Speed Variator Products in Erie, Pennsylvania, pro-
duces the inverter drives used in the 10 mgd system. Incoming power is con-
verted from AC to DC with a silicon diode rectifier and then inverted to ad-
justable AC voltage and frequency. This is accomplished by an SCR inverter
with pulsewide modulation. The invertors provide four operable modes: two
automatic and two manual. The lead pump operates at speeds adjusted according
to flow measurements by the automatic bubbler sensor system. The lead pump
operates at a constant speed controlled by the power bus when the lead pump is
inadequate for the rate of flow. The lag pump starts automatically and main-
tains a desirable influent level with adjustible speed. Increased flow at
this point causes the lag pump, controlled by the power bus, to increase to
constant speed. When flow decreases, each pump reverts in sequential order to
original drive. The system shuts down sequentially when a power failure oc-
curs and starts in a prescribed order when power returns. The system was de-
signed by Robert and Co Associates of Atlanta, Georgia.
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D055
OXYGEN TRANSFER TESTS PROVE EFFICIENCY OF FINE BUBBLE DIFFUSER,
Bacon, V. W., Balmer, R. T., and Griskey, R. G.
Wisconsin University, Milwaukee,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 121-124, September, 1977. 10 fig, 1
tab, 18 ref.
A 31,000-gal test facility in Glendale, Wisconsin, was used to evaluate the
Air-Aqua fine bubble diffuser system manufactured by Hinde Engineering Com-
pany. Design data for the oxygenation tank, which contained seven lengths of
Air-Aqua tubing and 11 samplers, are presented. Data were collected on dis-
solved oxygen saturation of the tank with coarse bubble diffusers and deoxy-
genation. An equation to represent mass transfer in a gas-liquid contacting
process is presented. The overall oxygen mass transfer coefficient is related
to the oxygen deficit, temperature, and depth. Data collected at the Glendale
facility indicate that the overall oxygen mass transfer coefficient increases
with decreasing depth at constant aeration rates and with increasing aeration
at constant depth. The effects were attributed to increased aeration which
resulted in greater mixing and gas throughput, and greater mixing at lower
depths caused by a concentration gradient. A quotient for the amount of oxy-
gen transferred to the test water at standard conditions is derived. The ef-
ficiency of the aeration system is calculated on the basis of the transfer
coefficient and the amount of oxygen added to the system. Efficiencies at the
test site ranged from 16.2% to 25%. Oxygen transfer efficiency is related to
blower horsepower. The effects of depths, air flow rate, and aeration time on
the oxygen deficit, oxygen transfer rate, and oxygenation efficiency are
illustrated. Tests at the Glendale facility suggested that the Air-Aqua sys-
tem was competitive in terms of efficiency and oxygen transfer rates.
D056
ENERGY USES AND RECOVERY IN SLUDGE DISPOSAL, PART 3,
Jones, J. L., Bomberger, D. C., Jr., and Lewis, F. M.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 106-108, September, 1977. 3 fig, 2
tab, 3 re f.
Sludge disposal and treatment options, relative energy requirements, and pro-
cess cost sensitivities to recovered energy value are discussed with regard to
municipal waste water treatment. Land application costs are controlled by
land costs, application rates, and the quantity of sludge produced. Sludge
handling costs for incinerating a 40% solids cake produced by chemical condi-
tioning and dewatering by filter press are compared to-the total operating
costs for 10-, 100- and 500-mgd plants. Specific components of the direct
operating cost for sludge disposal are represented as a percentage of total
plant operating cost, including electric power, fuel, chemicals, and hauling
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and disposal. The control of air pollution resulting from sludge incineration
is discussed. Relative flue gas volumes are compared for multiple hearth and
fluidized bed incinerators, and are used to calculate electric power require-
ments for scrubber operations on the basis of feed solids, excess air, sludge
solids content, and exhaust gas temperature.
D057
CONVERSION OF SLUDGES INTO "TOPSOILS" BY EARTHWORMS,
Mitchell, M. J., Mulligan, R. M., Hartenstein, R., and Neuhauser, E. F.
New York State University, Syracuse,
College of Environmental Science and Forestry.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 28-32, July/August, 1977. 2 fig, 4 tab, 9
ref.
Laboratory studies were used to evaluate the potential role of two varieties
of earthworms, the redworm Eisenia foetida and the nightcrawler Lumbricus ter-
restris, in the conversion of odorous, chemically unstable sludges into rich
organic soils. Chemical characteristics of the anaerobically and aerobically
digested secondary sludges used in the study are presented. The sludges, ob-
tained from four waste water treatment plants in Onondaga County, New York,
contained appreciably larger amounts of organic matter and nitrogenous com-
pounds than those in mineral soils. The anaerobic sludges collected at the
Metropolitan and Morgan Road plants were extremely toxic to the earthworms and
sowbugs, and the Ley Creek anaerobic sludge was moderately toxic. Aerobic
sludges were avidly consumed and did not cause earthworm mortality. The rate
at which sludge passes through the gut of redworms was examined as a function
of sludge type, moisture, and temperature. Data on the bioacceleration of
sludge decomposition in earthworm and terrestrial isopod excreta are pre-
sented. Changes in humic acid content of sludges as a function of worm activ-
ity were examined. Studies on the rate of total combustion of organic matter
in sludges indicated that the ash content of the Meadowbrook sludge increases
from 2.15% to 3.52% over a 4-wk period in the presence of nightcrawlers and
redworms at concentrations of 24.1 and 14.5 g worm/100 g sludge, respectively.
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D058
ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORTING WASTEWATER SLUDGE,
Hillmer, T. J., Jr.
Grants Administration, Region Eight,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Denver, Colorado.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 9, p 110-111, September, 1977. 2 fig, 1 tab.
Land application of treated domestic sludge as a means of soil conditioning
and waste disposal has prefaced this article on the economics of transporting
waste water. Costs incurred in sewage sludge utilization systems at 15 sites
in various parts of the United States are discussed. Cost factors for sepa-
rate sectors of the process were used to develop a "model" community for use
in estimating costs and determining economic feasibility of land application.
The model community is based on a system that treats an average flow of 10 mgd
and produces 800 tons/yr of stabilized sludge as dry solids. Annual costs for
land application in such a system are estimated at $27,400 or $35/ton. The
total annual operating cost is divided according to labor, fringe benefits,
vehicle operation and maintenance, and miscellaneous expenses. The total an-
nual cost of land disposal of sludge is also plotted against average daily raw
waste water flow from a linear regression of data obtained during the survey.
D059
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIURNAL VARIATIONS IN FECAL COLIFORM DIE-OFF RATES IN THE
DESIGN OF OCEAN OUTFALLS,
Bellair, J. T., Parr-Smith, G. A., and Wallis, I. G.
Caldwell Connell Engineers,
Melbourne, Australia.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 2022-2030,
September, 1977. 5 fig, 3 tab, 10 ref.
The rate of die-off of fecal coliform bacteria was investigated as part of the
design study for three deepwater ocean outfalls near Sydney, Australia.
Plastic bags at the water surface and clear glass bottles suspended at various
depths were used to examine the effects of initial dilution, ambient water
conditions, and light attenuation on die-off rates. T-90 values for both
types of sample containers were similar during hours of darkness. Largest
die-off rates during hours of greatest light intensity were attributed to the
effects of solar radiation. T-90 values exhibited strong diurnal variations
ranging from a maximum of 40 hrs during the night to a minimum of 1.9 hrs just
before noon. A strong inverse relationship between T-90 values and depth was
attributed to decreasing solar radiation with depth by light attenuation. The
diurnal variation in T-90 values was also reflected in fecal coliform densi-
ties on beaches adjacent to ocean outfalls. Equations representing the resul-
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tant fecal coliform density in bathing waters, the initial dilution, a diffu-
sion factor, and a die-off factor are presented. Implications of the diurnal
variation and rate of coliform die-off for ocean outfalls are discussed. The
location of outfalls in areas of high turbulence to create high initial dilu-
tions is suggested, since fecal coliform densities may not be sufficiently re-
duced by other factors during the night.
D060
INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF VERTICAL TURBINE PUMPS,
Hodgins, B.
International Water Supply Limited,
Barrie, Ontario, Canada.
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 8, p 19-20, August, 1977.
The functions of the basic parts of a vertical turbine pump, including driver,
pump head, discharge column, and bowl assembly, are described. Operation and
maintenance are considered for various pump types (one-stage, two-stage, sub-
mersible, and turbine). Water and/or oil lubrication of the line shaft is de-
scribed. Care and maintenance of a vertical turbine pump is considered to
prolong pump life. Proper installation is discussed as the first step in care
and maintenance. Pump performance should be checked with the factory perfor-
mance curve. Other aspects of pump monitoring include measurement of dis-
charge pressure and flow and recording of startup time. Routine observations
useful in reconstructing a pump performance curve are described. Various
causes of pump failure are discussed, including corrosion, abrasion, erosion,
cavitation, graphitization, and impingement.
D061
INVENTORY OF ENERGY USE IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL,
Smith, J. E.
Industrial Water Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, p 20-26, July/August, 1977. 12
fig, 10 tab.
Costs for sludge treatment and disposal are dependent on a wide variety of
factors, including method, location, climate, scale of operation, and effluent
quality desired. Fuel use and energy requirements for various types of muni-
cipal waste water treatment and disposal are discussed. The distributions of
capital, operating, and maintenance costs for a 30-mgd conventional activated
sludge plant are presented. Costs for sludge handling processes, including
thickening, stabilization, conditioning, dewatering, and incineration, are
discussed and related to plant size. Electrical energy requirements for vari-
ous phases of sewage treatment, including preliminary treatment, influent
pumping, primary sedimentation, trickling filters, activated sludge process-
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ing, chlorination, sludge handling and disposal, and miscellaneous operating
needs, are described and compared for different plant sizes. The utilization
of anaerobic digester gas for power generation is examined. Sludge dewatering
and disposal options are examined relative to construction costs, energy con-
sumption and production, and sludge water content.
D062
CARBON AND NITROGEN TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOILS AMENDED WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Terry, R. E.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 452-453, August,
1977.
The effects of soil characteristics, sludge management procedures, and en-
vironmental conditions on the decomposition rate of sludge in soils and on
transformations in sludge-amended soils were investigated in laboratory ex-
periments with synthetically-prepared sludges. Studies indicated that sludge
decomposed rapidly during the first 28 days of incubation and slowly for the
remainder of the incubation period. With synthetic sludges, 44% of the or-
ganic carbon was evolved as C02 after 224 days of incubation as compared with
26-42% after 130 days for soil-applied municipal sludges. Although increased
temperatures accelerated sludge decomposition, little effect was produced by
soil pH, texture, and moisture content. Nitrification rates and the breakdown
of native soil organic matter were increased in sludge-amended soils. Ammonia
losses by volatilization in sludge-amended soils were greater in samples re-
ceiving multiple sludge applications and under conditions of high soil pH,
rapid drying, and low clay content. Sludge addition resulted in higher con-
centrations of all nitrogen forms.
D063
FILTER SYSTEM SUCCESSFUL,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 7, p 9-10, July, 1977.
A Delavan-Watson fixed distributor nozzle system is being used on a nitrifying
plant at the 20-mgd Wanlip Water Reclamation Works in England. The distri-
butor nozzle system is being used to provide a constant spray of effluent over
the filter bed. Standards for the system required Delevan-Watson to design a
unit which was capable of giving an even distribution of 20.5 mgd of effluent
at a nozzle pressure of 5 psi, and which could be adapted to a distribution of
36 mgd at 7 psi. Effluent from an activated sludge tank is pumped to a 300- x
150-m nitrifying filter. The fixed distributor nozzle system includes sec-
tioned laterals which run the width of the filter bed and are spaced at 3-m
intervals along the length of the bed. Cast iron pipes, with puddle flanges
and cast iron mono-flange butterfly valves comprise the initial sections of
the laterals. PVC pipes are used for the remainder' of the lateral. Detach-
able PVC spray nozzles are fitted on the six pipes.
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D064
OXYGEN AERATION ADDS TREATMENT CAPACITY, UPS EFFICIENCY,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 8, p 55-56, August, 1977.
Applications of the Arico F(3)0 (Forced Free Fall Oxygen) system to sewage
aeration are described. An Airco Model 1000 is being used at the Sheffield
Hills waste water treatment plant in Wayne, New Jersey, to provide 1000 Ibs of
oxygen to two aeration basins. A gas-tight concrete module containing an
axial flow pump, a system of weirs, and a nozzle is submerged in the covered
aeration basin with the pump intake below the surface. Sewage is drawn down-
ward into a distribution well and through a zone of oxygen-rich gas. Oxygen-
ated mixed liquor is then returned to the aeration basin via a nozzle-like
orifice at the base of the module, and unabsorbed oxygen is recycled through
the module. High dissolved oxygen levels in the basin are maintained by con-
tinuous cycling through the module. A high-purity oxygen treatment system
produced by the FMC Corporation for use in uncovered aeration basins is de-
scribed. Oxygen is transferred to waste water by a horizontal rotating dif-
fuser. Diffuser impellers maintain mixing and solids suspension and a dis-
solved oxygen probe monitors mixed liquor oxygenation in the FMC system.
D065
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT FOR MUKOGAWA RIVER SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT,
Yokomichi, K., Nagata, Y., Hatada, H., and Tomita, T.
Hanshin City Improvement Bureau,
Hyogo, Japan.
Toshiba Review, No. 109, p 5-12, May-June, 1977. 8 fig, 2 tab.
Operation of the Mukogawa River Sewage Treatment Plant is controlled and
supervised by a large process computer, a TOSBAC-7000/25. The Mukogawa plant
is designed to treat an average volume of combined municipal and industrial
waste water of 570,000 cu m/day. Treatment facilities will include a pumping
well, pre-aeration tank, primary settling tank, final settling tank, storm
water settling tank, chlorination, sludge treatment, and sludge thickening.
Pump well water level, aeration, return sludge volume, excess sludge volume,
and power supplies will be controlled from a central supervisory control
panel. Nine industrial television cameras will be used to observe various
activities in the plant. Diagrams of apparatus layout in the control room,
computer hardware system, supervisory control system, sewage treatment plant
flow, and the control system for return sludge are provided. Vertical water
flow meters and level meters will trigger changes in power intake and distri-
bution, operation of the main facilities, treatment mode, and chlorine dos-
age. The computerized control system is designed for expansion to accomodate
any future plant expansions.
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D066
BASIC CONCEPTS IN DISINFECTION WITH OZONE,
Farooq, S., Chi.an, E. S. K., and Engelbrecht, R. S.
Miami University,
Coral Gables, Florida,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 8, p 1818-1831,
August, 1977. 14 fig, 1 tab, 24 ref.
Inactivation studies with Candida parapsilosis and Mycobacterium fortuitum
were conducted to examine the various parameters which might affect the disin-
fection efficiency of ozone in continuous flow systems. Parameters examined
include pH, mixing, density of organisms, and organic matter. Results of
laboratory studies indicated that the ozone residual in waste water controlled
the degree of inactivation of microorganisms and that the presence of ozone
bubbles enhanced disinfection. Greater ozone stability at low pH aided in-
activation. Decreases in inactivation with more intense mixing were attrib-
uted to lower ozone residuals. Ozone demand and organism survival were
greater at a high initial density of organisms, with more efficient disinfec-
tion at low densities. Studies on secondary waste water effluent with dif-
ferent fractions of organic material indicated that secondary effluents ex-
erted much higher ozone demands than the deionized-buffered water which had
been seeded with microorganisms for the laboratory studies. Greater ozone de-
mands were observed for waste water which contained organic compounds with
molecular weights in the fulvic acid range (150-18,000) than in the huraic acid
range (less than 150 or greater than 18,000). Low foodtmicroorganisra ratio in
an activated sludge unit resulted in more efficient ozone disinfection.
D067
REDUCTION OF SALMONELLA, E. COLI, COLIFORMS AND FECAL STREPTOCOCCI BY
CHLORINATION OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT EFFLUENTS,
Kampelmacher, E. H., Fonds, A. W., and Van Noorle Jansen, L. M.
National Institute of Public Health,
Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 7, p 545-550, 1977. 9 tab, 5 ref.
The reduction in bacteria during chlorination and phosphate removal was in-
vestigated for three sewage treatment plants in the Netherlands (Harderwijk,
Elburg, and Bunschoten-Spakenburg). Influent samples from the facilities were
monitored for Salmonella; effluent samples were measured for Salmonella,
Escherichia coli, coliforms, and fecal streptococci. Concentrations of vari-
ous Salmonella serotypes found in influent at the three facilities are
listed. Concentrations of the serotypes in effluent before and after chlori-
nation and in the receiving lake are presented. Disinfection efficiencies
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for Salmonella varied for the three plants, with the plant at Bunschoten-
Spakenburg having the highest reduction (2.22 logs). The reductions in E.
coli, coliforms, and fecal coliforms at the three plants were similar, and
were dependent on the total residual chlorine content of the effluent. MPN's
of E. coli, coliforms, and fecal streptococci in effluent before and after
chlorination are presented for the three facilities.
D068
BATCH AEROBIC TREATMENT OF A COLLOIDAL WASTEWATER,
Khararjian, H. A., and Sherrard, J. H.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Massachusetts,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 1985-1992,
September, 1977. 6 fig, 2 tab, 9 ref.
Treatment with contact stabilization, a modification of the activated sludge
process, is normally indicated for waste water containing a large percentage
of colloidal organic matter. Since the percentage of colloids may indicate
that contact stabilization processes are necessary for a given facility,
studies were conducted to determine whether there was a substantial release of
substrate after an initial rapid uptake. Batch experiments were used to ex-
amine the biodegradation of waste water as a function of its percentage of
colloidal material, based on a test for chemical oxygen demand. Colloid con-
centrations of 0, 23, 43 and 54% were prepared by adding beef extract and
yogurt to synthetic sludge. Initial loading conditions were 0.158-1.083
mg/liter COD per mg/liter MLSS. Samples collected at various time intervals
were analyzed for COD, MLSS, and oxygen uptake. No immediate uptake and sub-
stantial organic material were noted with concentrations under 54%. Biodegra-
dation was similar to that of the soluble substrate.
D069
THE OHIO FARM BUREAU'S APPROACH TO LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Musselman, N. M.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 24-25, July-August, 1977.
Opinions of the Ohio Farm Bureau Federation on practices involving the land
application of sewage sludge as a means of sludge disposal and soil condition-
ing are presented. A particular incident in which a municipality of approxi-
mately 60,000 people sought to create a 1,000-acre sludge farm is discussed.
Actions by the Ohio Farm Bureau were directed toward stopping the project in
response to pressure applied by a suburb located between the city and the pro-
posed sludge disposal site. General ill feeling on the part of farmers and
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consumers toward land application of sewage sludge is a major stumbling block
to this category of waste disposal. The Ohio Farm Bureau has not chosen to
endorse the concept totally, in light of potential problems associated with
sewage bacteria and pathogens, the question of liability should any incident
occur, and objections by its constituents.
D070
WOONSOCKET, RHODE ISLAND SEEKS SOLUTION TO ALUM SLUDGE DISPOSAL PROBLEM,
Goss, J.
Metcalf and Eddy, Incorporated, Consulting Engineers,
Boston, Massachusetts.
Journal of the New England Water Works Association, Vol. 30, No. 3, p 191-198,
September, 1976. 4 fig.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., of Boston, Massachusetts, was contracted by the city
of Woonsocket, Rhode Island, to design a method of disposal for the alum
sludge produced by the 11.25-mgd Woonsocket water treatment plant. Previ-
ously, settled sludge from the upflow clarifiers (4,600 mg/liter suspended
solids) and spent water used to backwash the filters (170 mg/liter suspended
solids) had been discharged directly to the Blackstone River. One of the pro-
blems encountered in design of a disposal method was that the wastes, in the
form of a small volume of concentrated waste and a large volume of dilute
waste, were produced intermittently and for very short periods. The wastes
also had markedly different settling characteristics. An equalization tank to
hold the clarifier sludge flow and the settled sludge from a filter backwash
water presettling basin was chosen to even out waste concentrations and flow.
Variable physical and mechanical processes, including lagooning, sand bed dry-
ing, freezing, centrifugation, vacuum filtration, and pressure filtration,
were evaluated with respect to producing a sludge cake with 20% or more solids
suitable for land disposal. Climatological considerations, land requirements
and other, factors led to the choice of construction of facilities to discharge
the sludge to Woonsocket's sewage treatment plant for treatment and disposal.
A schematic diagram of the recommended $1.61 million alum sludge disposal
facility is presented.
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D071
DALLAS PAYS THE PRICE OF CLEANER EFFLUENT,
Rice, I. M., and Mauck, C. A.
Dallas Water Utilities,
Dallas, Texas.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 42-45, September, 1977.
The 1-mgd Dallas Wastewater Reclamation Research Center was constructed to
provide design data for an advanced waste water treatment plant needed by the
city of Dallas. Data obtained during the first year of operation of the Re-
search Center indicated that treatment with the completely-mixed activated
sludge process, followed by filtration before discharge into the Trinity
River, was probably the most economical and efficient method of treatment for
the proposed expanded facilities at the Dallas Central Wastewater Treatment
Plant. In the expansion of the Central plant from a capacity of 100 mgd with
secondary treatment to a capacity of 150 mgd with tertiary treatment, the ad-
dition of the completely-mixed activated sludge process followed by mixed
media filters resulted in an effluent with less than 10 rag/liter BOD and 10
rag/liter total suspended solids. A 180-mgd capacity pumping station pumps ef-
fluent from the secondary treatment facility to a series of splitter boxes
which divert the flow to 12 aeration basins. Each 70 x 70 x 26-ft aeration
basin is equipped with four 75-hp mechanical surface aerators. Twelve associ-
ated sedimentation basins which remove the suspended solids are equipped with
scum and sludge removal equipment. A 4.5-million-gal aerobic digester treats
waste activated sludge and scum from the sedimentation basins. An emergency
settling basin was constructed to provide 5 hrs of additional settling time
under high flow conditions. Chemically treated effluent is filtered with 14
mixed media filters before discharge to the Trinity River at the White Rock
pump station.
D072
FOREWORD OZONE SYMPOSIUM,
Tao, J. C., and McDowell, C. S.
Air Products and Chemicals, Incorporated,
Allentown, Pennsylvania.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 186-187, 1977. 10 ref.
Various aspects of the use of ozone for disinfection of municipal and indus-
trial waste water are discussed. The possible toxicity and carcinogenicity of
compounds produced during chlorination have led to research into alternative
means of disinfection. Studies on chemical reactions occurring between waste
water constituents and ozone and on the environmental effects of ozonated ef-
fluents are described. The effects of pH, temperature, and the presence of
ammonia in the waste water on ozone disinfection efficiency are discussed.
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The use of ultraviolet light or ultrasound in conjunction with ozone to de-
grade organic materials is described for waste waters which contain particu-
larly toxic or resistant substances. Design criteria, cost-effectiveness, and
disinfection efficiency requirements which may influence the application of
ozone as a disinfectant are discussed.
D073
EFFECT OF SEWAGE TREATMENT BY STABILIZATION POND METHOD ON THE SURVIVAL OF IN-
TESTINAL PARASITES,
Veerannan, K. M.
Water Analysis Department,
King Institute,
Guindy, Madras, India.
Indian Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 19, No. 2, p 100-106, April,
1977. 1 tab, 24 ref.
The survival of pathogenic intestinal parasitic protozoans and helminths in
sewage stabilization ponds was evaluated in a sampling program at three stabi-
lization pond sites near Madras, India. Each pond held waste water from a
different source: a tuberculosis sanatorium, the Indian Institute of Tech-
nology, and the Kodungaiyur sewage farm. Composite samples of sewage before
and after treatment were collected bi-weekly throughout the study. Concentra-
tions of Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lambia, Ascaris lura-
bricoides, and Enterobius vermicularis were measured in samples of pond influ-
ent and effluent. The study results indicated that the concentration of pro-
tozoan cysts and ova varied up to 844/liter and that removal efficiencies
ranged from 38.5% at the Indian Institute of Technology to 100% at the sanito-
rium. A comparison of relative removal efficiencies for various organisms in-
dicated the stabilization pond at the sanitorium in Tambaram was more effi-
cient at removing protozoan cysts, while the pond at Kodungaiyur was more ef-
ficient at removing helminthic ova.
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D074
PROCESS ARRANGEMENTS FOR ION EXCHANGE AND ADSORPTION,
Vermuelen, T.
California University,
Berkeley,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 73, No. 10, p 57-61, October, 1977. 7
fig, 5 ref.
The use of various resin types and process arrangements can maximize perfor-
mance and minimize operating costs of ion exchange and adsorption in water and
waste water treatment. The use of ion retardation materials, ion-exclusion
agents, electron-exchange resins, and polymeric resin membranes to enhance ion
exchange processes is discussed. Several process arrangements are described,
including large-scale "swimming-pool" systems for water treatment, mixed bed
deionization, cyclic multi-bed systems, continuous ion exchange, reverse-flow
regeneration, combination fixed-bed and fluidized-bed systems for water
softening, and the Sirotherm or thermal-cycling process for desalination.
Schematic flow diagrams are provided for each of the process configurations.
D075
JET FLUID GAS/LIQUID CONTACTING AND MIXING,
Mandt, M. G., and Bathija, P. R.
Penberthy Division,
Houdaille Industries, Incorporated,
Cedar Falls, Iowa.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 15-22, 1977. 9 fig, 8 ref.
The use of jet gas/liquid contactors in tank mixing systems to enhance the
gas-liquid interface was investigated in a testing program with the Eddy Mix
Jet System. The system consists of a series of gas jets mounted in a radial
pattern or cluster on the unit. A plume in which small bubbles have been
entrained is injected into the mixing tank. The plume momentum produces eddy
currents which force tank turnover and increase mass transfer. The Eddy Mix
Jet System was evaluated in a testing facility equipped with 12-, 30-, and
55-ft diameter tanks. Flow velocity was measured at various jet submergence
depths and air flow rates. A series of equations to describe flow character-
istics in the basin with respect to basin design, jet position, and operating
parameters are presented. An example in which the expected turn time, total
pumpage, and average velocity are calculated is presented for a 50-ft dia
basin with a 22-ft side water depth and a 12-jet cluster. The directional mix
jet system in which jet gas/liquid contactors are arranged longitudinally
along the axis of a closed loop flow channel is described. A series of equa-
tions to estimate channel velocity at given operating parameters and design
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data is presented. A method for calculating the total loss coefficient is
presented.
D076
EPA RELAXES ITS STANDARDS ON SEWAGE SETTLING PONDS,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 16, p 15, October, 1977.
Since compliance with secondary waste water treatment standards set by the
1972 Federal Water Pollution Act may require small communities to build elabo-
rate sewage treatment plants and abandon existing settling ponds, the EPA has
modified its effluent quality standards. Under the new regulations, communi-
ties which meet the BOD standard of 30 ppm over a 30-day average will not be
required to comply with the equally strict standard for suspended solids. The
relaxed standards will be adjusted to accomodate variations in climate and
geography. Lagoon treatment of sewage or decomposition in an artificial pond
exposed to air and sunlight is considered by the EPA as a viable alternative
to more expensive means of secondary treatment.
D077
THE PROMISES OF ION EXCHANGE,
Helfferich, F. G.
Shell Development Company,
Houston, Texas.
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 73, No. 10, p 53-55, October, 1977.
The historical background and development of ion exchange technology are de-
scribed. Prior to 1935, most of the interest in ion exchange was directed
toward developing a theory to explain the process. From 1935 into the 1950s
research was directed toward developing ion exchange materials, leading to the
introduction of more stable styrene polymers and the strong base anion ex-
change resins. Around 1955 commercial ion exchange membranes were introduced
and the separation technique of ligand exchange was developed. Developments
led to practical applications of ion exchange technology with emphasis on
water treatment. Theoretical studies examined alkali metal equilibria on
strong acid ion exchangers. Current research emphasizes conservation of the
environment, energy, and raw materials. The need for research into the use of
ion exchange in situations where other physical phenomena such as adsorption,
ionic association, neutralization, or complex formation complicate treatment
processes is emphasized.
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D078
SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION: AN OVERVIEW,
Tiller, F. M., and Crump, J. R.
Houston University,
Texas,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 73, No. 10, p 65-75, October, 1977. 14
fig, 2 tab, 15 ref.
Solid-liquid separation techniques have been used in a wide variety of situa-
tions, including mining, waste, and water treatment operations. Solids sepa-
ration involves pretreatment to increase particle size, thickening, clarifica-
tion, filtration, centrifugation, and post-treatment to remove soluble ma-
terials and reduce average porosity. Product specifications in terms of fil-
trate clarity, permissible solubles content of the cake, and average porosity
or liquor content of the cake are discussed as criteria for equipment selec-
tion. Pretreatment methods used in so lid-liquid separation include chemical
pretreatment to enhance flocculation or coagulation; pH control; surface
charge neutralization; and physical pretreatment with filter aids such as
diatomaceous earth, fly ash, expanded perlite, and other filter aids. Filtra-
tion theory related to the flow within the cake and the external conditions
imposed upon the cake by pumping and by filter design are discussed. Porosity
variation and flow resistance are examined with respect to filtration mecha-
nisms. Mathematical equations for the calculation of resistances and the de-
finition of flow through porous media are presented. Material-balance and
rate equations are derived for filtration at constant pressure and rate and at
variable pressure and rate. Various techniques for cake washing are described.
D079
UV-OX(TM) PROCESS FOR THE EFFECTIVE REMOVAL OF ORGANICS IN WASTEWATERS,
Zeff, J. D.
Westgate Research Corporation,
Marina del Key, California.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 206-220, 1977. 8 fig, 5 tab, 7
ref.
The UV-OX(tm) process was developed for the oxidation of dissolved organics,
particularly refractory organic compounds in waste water. The process is
based on a combined ozonation-irradiation process. The water is agitated at
high speed and irradiated by 253.7-nm UV light which is also used to produce
ozone. Background information 'is presented for various methods of decomposi-
tion and oxidation, including photochemical decomposition, ozone oxidation,
ionic oxidation, free radical oxidation, and ultraviolet-ozone oxidation.
Laboratory tests are used to evaluate the system for the degradation of
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selected organic compounds, including hydroquinone, pyrogallol, xylenol,
sodium acetate, and urea. Batch and continuous tests are conducted with a
modified reactor and synthetic waste water. The process efficiency was mea-
sured in terms of the amount of energy required to completely oxidize each mg
of carbon per liter. Process variables which may affect performance include
residence time, ozone concentration, ozone mass flow, ultraviolet intensity,
and total organic carbon concentration. A simulated, two-stage continuous
system was used to determine the maximum total organic carbon efficiency:ozone
efficiency with minimum expenditures of ultraviolet energy. The effects of
ultraviolet intensity and the reactor diameter were also examined. An evalua-
tion of process scale-up requirements indicated that to treat 100,000 gal/day,
210 reactor units with six 43-watt lamps per unit would be required and daily
operating costs would be approximately $72.33.
D080
BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE FILTER COMBINED WITH ENZYME TREATMENT,
Refaat, M. E.
MicroChem Development Laboratory,
Stockholm, Sweden.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 166-171, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 8
ref.
A waste water treatment process in which anaerobic treatment is improved by
the addition of a rapid enzyme-enhanced filter is described. The process is
based on the anaerobic fiber bundle filter, a packed bed of individual fibers
supported at the top of the filter. The low-weight fiber bundle material can
be used in beds up to 120 cm in height without the need for supporting inter-
mediate partitions. In comparison to the conventional stone media used in
trickling filters, the fibrous material has a surface area 2-3 times greater,
and due to the large free volume can handle high organic loadings. Extra-
cellular enzymes added to the filter act as catalysts during the anaerobic
processes. Municipal wastes, waste activated sludge, and waste water from a
polyvinyl acetate manufacturing plant were used in an evaluation of the anaer-
obic filter system. The construction of the filter reactor, fiber pretreat-
ment, enzyme production, operating parameters, cleaning, and analyses of fil-
trate are described. COD, BOD, and turbidity in the filtrate were used to
evaluate filter performance. Tests with the enzyme-anaerobic filter system
indicated that flow resistance did not increase during filter operation and
that the stabilization capacity of the system was 9.1 g COD/sq m per hr. The
addition of extracellular enzymes increased both the BOD and COD removal
rates. The BOD in the filter bed decreased with depth and the COD fluctuated,
indicating continuous biologic activity through the filter.
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D081
DEWATERING MACHINE SOLVES SLUDGE DRYING PROBLEMS,
Eichmann, B. W.
Water Pollution Control Department,
Medford, New Jersey.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 99-100, October, 1977. 1 tab.
Medford Township, New Jersey, has installed a belt filter press to dewater
aerobically digested sludge resulting from contact stabilization. The waste
water treatment plant in Medford includes two 500,000-gpd contact stabiliza-
tion units to handle a flow of 0.9 mgd. The belt filter press, Flocpress,
manufactured by Infilco Degremont Inc. of Richmond, Virginia, is used in addi-
tion to an existing coil spring vacuum filter which was left in place for
emergency situations. The installation of the Flocpress allowed dewatering of
sludge in one shift 3-4 days per week. The belt filter press results in 98%
solids capture with a filtrate suspended solids of less than 100 ppm as com-
pared to 1000-2000 ppm produced with the coil filter. Flocpress also requires
a smaller dosage and horsepower for operation than the coil filter. In the
dewatering process, polymer conditioned sludge is fed to the flocculator and
is then spread across a slow-moving, woven synthetic fiber belt. After com-
pression, a flexible scraper or doctor blade removes the sludge from the con-
veyor belt. Schematic diagrams for the Flocpress sludge dewatering unit and
the sludge handling system are presented. An operating log for 1976 is pre-
sented for sludge quantities handled, costs, and polymer dosages.
DOS 2
SOLAR ENERGY USED TO CONVERT WASTEWATER TO PROTEIN,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 37, October, 1977.
Brown and Caldwell has developed a system in which a waste water substrate and
solar energy 'are used to produce a high-quality single cell protein harvested
in the form of algae and a usable liquid effluent. Primary treated waste
water is subjected to secondary treatment in shallow, high-rate oxidation
ponds and the resulting algae is harvested with a device which uses a paper-
precoated filter to entrap the dense algae product. In a year-long study in
Melbourne, Australia, the initial objective was to use waste paper for the
harvester belt fabric; used belts were then recycled as a composite feed for
ruminant livestock, the paper providing roughage and energy and the algae pro-
viding protein. The algae-laden paper product was reported as having a pro-
tein content of 15% by weight. Problems associated with the smaller size of
individual algae cells produced in winter and with the high cost of waste
paper in Australia led to the development of a two-stage vacuum and rinsing
cycle for the separation of algae from pond effluent. In this case a con-
centrated algae slurry is produced rather than a dried, algae-laden paper.
The algae recovery system is recommended for situations where feed supplies
are in demand and high-quality sewage treatment is indicated.
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D083
RADIATION TREATMENT OF SLUDGE TO BE EXPLORED,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 50, October, 1977.
The economic and scientific aspects of the use of gamma radiation for disin-
fection of dried or composted sludge will be investigated in pilot-scale
studies at Sandia Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Gough and Company,
Ltd., of Staffordshire, England, have manufactured the 28,000-lb, 22-ft high
irradiation system which is capable of handling several tons of dry sludge
daily on a continuous basis. The irradiation facility consists of a conveyor
system in which 30-60 Ib of sludge is loaded into each of a series of rectan-
gular 10" x 12" x 24" buckets. The sludge-filled buckets are conveyed to a
high radiation zone where they receive one megacurie of cesium-137 by passing
over and under a gamma radiation source. The system is designed so that the
conveyor speed can be adjusted to vary the radiation dosage and so that 20
buckets can occupy the irradiation zone at any given time. The system was
developed to use cesium-137, a waste product of nuclear reactors, to disinfect
sludge for use as a fertilizer or soil conditioner in the propagation of food
crops.
D084
ORE. PLANT WILL MEET REQUIREMENTS,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 77, October, 1977.
The Corvallis municipal waste water treatment plant in the Willamette Valley
in Oregon has been designed by Brown and Caldwell to meet effluent discharge
requirements which call for not more than 10 rag/liter of BOD or suspended
solids in treated effluents. In the treatment process at Corvallis a
diffused-air activated sludge process is designed for operation in three
modes: sludge reaeration, stepfeed, and conventional activated sludge.
Existing trickling filters were incorporated into the activated sludge system
to protect the system from shock loads. The secondary clarifiers are equipped
with centerwell flocculators. An alum feed system is provided to insure
adequate sludge settling characteristics. Energy requirements were considered
in the design of the plant, and a heat recovery coil in the aeration air
blower discharge line is used to provide heat in the operation and maintenance
building. The plant has a design capacity of 10 mgd, which was created with
hydraulic designs allowing the addition of the activated sludge process to
increase the design flow rate from 5 to 10 mgd without repumping.
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D085
DYE-SENSITIZED PHOTO-OXIDATION—A NEW APPROACH TO THE TREATMENT OF ORGANIC
MATTER IN SEWAGE EFFLUENTS,
Acher, A. J., and Rosenthal, I.
Institute of Soils and Water,
Division of Soil Residues Chemistry,
The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 7, p 557-562, 1977. 4 fig, 1 tab, 15 ref.
Sewage treatment with dye-sensitized photo-oxidation may be competitive with
other methods of oxidation in climates with a large number of sunlight hours
per day. The general mechanism of photo-oxidation by the combined action of
visible light and molecular oxygen on organic matter is described. Effluents
from circulated oxidation ponds at municipal waste treatment plants in Haifa,
Tel Aviv, and Nazareth in Israel were used in experiments on photo-oxidation
with rose bengal (RB) and methylene blue (MB) as dye sensitizers. COD, fecal
coliform counts, and suspended solids were used to evaluate oxidation ef-
ficiency. Initial experiments on the reduction of COD by the exposure of
aerated sewage to solar radiation resulted in higher COD reductions with MB.
A concentration of MB of 12 mg/liter resulted in the minimum COD values of 120
in sunlight and 112 in ultraviolet radiation. Decreases in removal efficiency
above 15 mg MB/liter were attributed to reduced light penetration in the
darker medium. Less effective removal below 10 mg MB/liter was attributed to
decreases in the dissolved MB concentration by physical adsorption and chemi-
cal reactions. Studies on the effect of radiation time indicated that COD
levels were constant after 60 min, and that coliforms were completely de-
stroyed after 30 min. MB was successfully removed from treated effluent by
adsorption onto bentonite.
DOS 6
MUNICIPAL SLUDGE DISPOSAL ECONOMICS,
Jones, J. L., Bomberger, D. C., Jr., Lewis, F. M., and Jacknow, J.
SRI International,
Menlo Park, California.
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 10, p 968-972, October,
1977. 1 fig, 4 tab.
Capital, operating, and energy costs are compared for five sludge handling
alternatives. The options for treatment and disposal include: vacuum filtra-
tion of sludge to 20% solids, or filter press dewatering of sludge to 40%
solids, prior to incineration; thermal conditioning, vacuum filtration, and
incineration; high-pressure wet air oxidation, vacuum filtration, and landfill
disposal; aerobic or anaerobic digestion prior to chemical conditioning and
landfill disposal; and chemical conditioning, filter press dewatering, and
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flash drying to produce a dry fertilizer product for sale. Estimated costs
for the five options are presented for waste water treatment plants having
average dry weather flows of 10, 100, and 500 mgd at estimated base capital
investment costs of $5, $27, and $100 million, respectively. Additional costs
for the sludge handling options, electric power consumption, and gas or oil
usage/production are presented. Cost comparisons indicated that there are
variable economies of scale for the different sludge handling options, with
aerobic digestion at the lowest capital cost for the 10-mgd plant and the two
incineration options more attractive for the larger plants. Direct operating
costs are compared with respect to energy costs; costs for chemicals, sup-
plies, and replacement parts; operating and maintenance labor costs; and costs
for landfilling of the sludge or ash. The incineration options have the
lowest operating costs for plants with capacities of 10-500 mgd. Sensitivi-
ties of sludge handling costs are discussed with respect to changes in chemi-
cal usage, hauling costs, and energy credits.
D087
USE OF OZONE IN THE DISINFECTION OF COLIPHAGE T-7 VIRUS,
Hacker, D. S., and Lockowitz, T.
Abbott Laboratories,
Crystal Lake, Illinois.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 242-251, 1977.. 6 fig, 3 tab, 16
ref.
Results of investigations on the deactivation kinetics of E. coli bacterio-
phage virus with gaseous ozone in a batch, semiflow, gas-liquid reactor are
presented. Virus models which have been used to explain the observed rates of
virus disinfection by chemical treatment are described. Descriptions of the
experimental procedures, cultures used in the study, the three-layer agar
technique used for plaque assays of the bacteriophage T-7 titer, and the
sterility tests on primary effluent are presented. The survival percentage of
virus with time is illustrated for isothermal and constant pH systems, and
compared with the pseudo-first-order decay of virus. The studies indicated
that virus deactivation was governed by two general rate processes: mass
transfer in the saturation of the solution by the disinfectant; and the ki-
netic first-order deactivation rate of the virus. The viscosity and the pre-
sence of impurities in the media did not affect the reaction rate. A mathe-
matical model to describe the trend observed in experimental reaction data for
the initial phase of deactivation and the induction period is presented.
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D088
COMPOUNDS RESISTANT TO CARBON ADSORPTION IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Chow, D. K., and David, M. M.
Weyerhauser Company,
Tacoma, Washington.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 69, No. 10, p 555-561,
October 1977. 5 fig, 8 tab, 64 ref.
Since waste water designated for reuse may undergo tertiary treatment consist-
ing only of activated carbon adsorption, studies were'conducted to identify
compounds in municipal waste water which are resistant to carbon adsorption.
Primary effluents were chemically pretreated by flocculation with FeCL or alum
and the clarified liquor was passed through a sand filter and a 0.45-micron
membrane filter. The chemically treated primary and biologically treated sec-
ondary effluents were passed through columns of granular activated carbon,
concentrated by evaporation, filtered, and recycled through the system to sim-
ulate water reuse. Resistant compounds were analyzed with TOG content mea-
surements, ultra filtration for molecular size distribution, neutron-activation
analysis for elemental distributions, atomic adsorption for metallic elements,
UV spectroscopy for organic compounds, and thermogravimetric analysis for in-
organic compounds. The elemental composition indicated that Na, N, and Cl
were most resistant, followed by C, K, Fe, Ca, Zn, and Mg. Molecular size
distributions indicated that molecules with relatively small sizes (less than
240 nra) accounted for 45-60% of the resistant compounds while large molecules
(larger than 640 nm) accounted for only 5-18% of the total carbon content.
Organic compounds identified include chlorinated hydrocarbons, aliphatic
acids, aromatic amines, phenolic compounds, and calcium salts of organic
acids. The major inorganic compounds which were identified included sodium
and calcium salts of chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates. Concen-
trations of free cyanides and metallic elements were negligible.
D089 i
PRETREATMENT AND CLEANING OF HYPERFILTRATION (REVERSE OSMOSIS) MEMBRANES IN
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER RENOVATION,
Belfort, G.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Israel,
School of Applied Science and Technology.
Desalination, Vol. 21, No. 3, p 285-300, September, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 56
ref.
Substances contained in municipal waste water such as BOD, COD, TOG, and sus-
pended solids can contribute to membrane fouling when using reverse osmosis or
hyperfiltration as a means of treating waste water for reuse. Alternative
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methods for pretreatment and cleaning of membrane surfaces used in municipal
waste water treatment to reduce effects associated with fouling or flux de-
cline in reverse osmosis are reviewed. The roles that various municipal waste
water constituents play in membrane fouling are described. Pretreatment
methods which can be used to remove hazardous constituents from the feed to
extend membrane life include pH adjustment, chemical coagulation, filtration,
activated carbon adsorption, chlorination, and ultrafiltration. Geometric
considerations which may affect membrane operations are discussed, including
brine channel dimensions, the shear rate at the membrane-brine interface, and
the ease of cleaning for the various commercially available module designs.
Criteria used in the selection of membranes for hyperfiltration are described
for various types of waste water. Product-flux decline of hyperfiltration
membranes may be caused by membrane hydrolysis, compaction, and fouling.
Physical, chemical, and other techniques for membrane cleaning are described.
D090
PHYSICOCHEMICALLY-AIDED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SEWAGE,
Jenkins, S. H., Sane, M., and Wallbank, T.
Bostock Hill and Rigby,
Birmingham, England.
Chemistry and Industry, Vol. 20, p 821-834, October, 1977. 13 fig, 9 tab, 13
ref.
A pilot plant for physicochemically-aided biological treatment at the
Davyhubne Works in Manchester, England, was constructed to handle an average
waste water flow of 382,000 cu m/day, of which 100,000 cu m/day is of indus-
trial origin. Process units in the seven modes of operation tested include
primary sedimentation with sludge extraction; activated sludge treatment;
final clarification; flash mixing and flocculation facilities for pH control
and chemical coagulation; intermediate clarification; activated carbon adsorp-
tion; automatic pH control with lime and HC1; provisions for the addition of
at least three chemical coagulants at any one time; automatic sampling of raw
and treated waste water throughout the plant; and primary and secondary sludge
holding vessels. After a viable activated sludge process was established,
studies focused on tertiary treatment of activated sludge effluent and the ef-
fects of lime and magnesium on sewage. Primary and tertiary lime sludges and
return activated sludges produced during various modes of operation were mea-
sured for dry solids content, heavy metals, capillary suction time, filtration
resistance, and volume. Tertiary treatment of the activated sludge effluent
included sand filtration and activated carbon adsorption. Results of opera-
tion of the pilot plant from August 1975 to February 1977 are presented.
Studies on lime addition indicated that addition of lime to raw sewage was
more effective at reducing BOD, COD, and suspended solids in the final efflu-
ent than addition to activated sludge effluent. Removal of heavy metals, am-
monia, and phosphorus were also investigated during various stages of treat-
ment.
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D091
CONTACT FILTRATION FOR PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL,
Kavanaugh, M., Eugster, J., Weber, A., and Boiler, M.
Swiss Federal Institute for Water Resources and Water
Pollution Control,
Duebendorf, Switzerland.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2157-2171,
October, 1977. 8 fig, 6 tab, 25 ref.
Pilot studies on the use of granular media filtration for removal of particu-
late phosphorus and organic carbon following mechanical-biological treatment
are presented. Objectives of the studies were to examine the effects of fil-
ter media design, filtration rate, and chemical addition on the performance of
granular media filters used for phosphate removal following precipitation; and
to evaluate process feasibility of contact filtration for municipal waste
water treatment. The study concluded that contact filtration was a viable
alternative to coagulation/sedimentation or flotation, but the permissible in-
fluent filter solids concentration was dependent on the individual situation.
The addition of a polyelectrolyte such as a non-ionic polymer was necessary to
increase the shear resistance of flocculant solids to produce adequate solids
retention. Solids removal with the three-layer and two dual-media filters was
greater than 95% in runs of approximately 6 hr. Removal efficiencies were in-
creased with an increase in the upper:lower medium depth ratio which produced
a decrease in the time-averaged rate of headless increase. Inverse relation-
ships were observed between filtration rate/breakthrough time and the time to
exhaust available head. Sand, anthracite, and pumice comprised the media used
in the three-layer filter, and sand-anthracite and sand-Magnofilt were used in
the dual-media filters. Of the media tested the porous granular solids,
pumice and Magnofilt, exhibited lower solids capacities than anthracite at a
given filtration rate and size fraction.
D092
FACTORS INFLUENCING ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROPERTIES,
Novak, J. T., Becker, H., and Zurow, A.
Missouri University,
Columbia,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
815-828, October, 1977. 17 fig, 30 ref.
In studies with sludge conditioners, cationic polymers greatly improved sludge
filtration rates while anionic polymers decreased rates, indicating that
activated sludge probably contained an excess of anionic polymers. An in-
crease in filtration rate with additions of kaolinite which was more apparent
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with fine clay than coarse clay suggested that the anionic polymers were of
large enough molecular weight for interparticle bridging. Aeration of the
activated sludge initially improved filtration rate and decreased the concen-
tration of extractable biopolymers. Studies conducted to develop a method for
estimating polymer concentrations in solution on the basis of electrophoretic
mobility indicated that maximum filtration rates occurred with zero colloid
charge, and that the optimal polymer dose was dependent only on the super-
natant liquor volume and not on the sludge solids concentration. Aeration of
activated sludge in a plug flow basin was used to examine the effects of
anaerobiosis on sludge characteristics. Data suggested that anaerobiosis in-
creased polymer concentrations and decreased filtration rates. The lower
optimal cationic polymer dose and filtration times observed during aeration
with oxygen instead of air verified the influence of dissolved oxygen concen-
trations in aeration basins on the natural polymer decay rate. Experiments on
sludge thickening indicated that calcium carbonate and clay were capable of
drastically increasing sludge settling velocities, and that every method of
sludge conditioning to improve filtration also improved sludge settling.
D093
NEW SLUDGE DIGESTORS AT MARITZBURG,
The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol. 19, No. 9, p 195-196, August, 1977.
International Combustion (Africa) Ltd. was contracted by the city of Pieter-
maritzburg in South Africa to design and construct facilities to increase the
capacity of the Darvill Sewage Purification Works from a dry-weather flow of
27 million liters/day to a capacity of 54 million liters/day, with provisions
for later expansion to 117 million liters/day. Since conventional sludge
digestion followed by drying beds required too much land and was ineffective
during periods of high rainfall in the area, high-rate digestion of sludge and
treatment of settled sludge by activated sludge processes were chosen. The
facility includes two 9-story high, 4500-cu m, high-rate digesters which were
developed by Messrs Oswald Schultze of Germany and constructed by Bridge and
Structures Ltd. The egg-shaped design of the digesters and the fact that they
will be completely filled at all times should minimize scum formation. Con-
struction of the digestors was accomplished in three stages: a lower conical
section below ground, a median double-curved section, and an upper conical
super structure. A six-sector shuttering system was used to pour the double-
curved section. The method designed by Messrs Oswald Schultze uses an in-
ternal curved shutter, springing from a central trunnion axis with adjustable
jacks to locate the inner curve of the surface. The digestors utilize a
sludge retention time of 26 days, injection of influent raw sludge into the
continuously circulating flow of heated sludge, and recovery of methane.
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D094
PUMP APPLICATIONS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE DEWATERING PROCESSES,
Lambert, D. J.
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 43-46, September, 1977. 6 fig.
A variety of treatment and disposal options are available for the estimated
1.5 million tons of sludge generated in the United Kingdom annually. Pumps
can be used to transport sludges having moisture contents greater than 80%.
Various sludge types, including primary, humus, seed or breeder, activated,
consolidated, and digested sludges, are discussed with respect to moisture
content and permissible pump speeds with helical rotor positive displacement
pumps. Current commonly used dewatering processes include sludge drying beds,
plate and frame filter presses, continuous or semi-continuous belt presses,
roto-plug concentrators, vacuum filters, centrifuges, and incinerators. In
sludge drying beds, positive displacement helical rotor/stator pumps are used
where head exceeds 20 m and centrifugal pumps where head is less than 20 m.
The use of helical rotor positive displacement pumps is discussed with respect
to controlling the flow rate to a filter press, incinerator, vacuum filter,
and centrifuge. A helical rotor pump speed selection chart is presented for
selection of pump speed with respect to sludge moisture content and pump port
size.
D095
AREAWIDE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT FOR METROPOLITAN DBS MOINES,
Weber, C. L.
Kirkham, Michael and Associates,
Omaha, Nebraska.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 72-74, October, 1977. 1 fig, 1 tab.
The Des Moines Areawide Waste Treatment Management Planning Program was
created in response to water quality standards imposed by Public Law 92-500
and by the Iowa Water Quality Commission. An embargo placed on all new sani-
tary connections within the Des Moines area was later suspended for 90 days,
to allow the 23 local governments to develop a framework in which to meet
sewer planning agreements. "The Central Iowa Regional Association of Local
Governments (CELAIG) in conjunction with state, local, and federal agencies
set goals for the program: to protect surface and groundwater quality; to im-
plement and carry out an areawide waste treatment planning program; to examine
current population trends in the area; to construct new and rehabilitate
existing waste water and drainage facilities; and to examine costs and land
use requirements. Specific problems addressed by the planning program were
the alleviation of combined sewer overflows and basement backups during wet
weather, and the resolution of problems associated with assessment of sewage
treatment charges to participating municipalities. The technical plant recom-
mended for a population of 400,000 included individual waste water collection
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systems for 13 communities in the planning and the construction of a regional
treatment facility adjacent to the existing Des Moines main treatment plant.
The regional treatment plant has a design capacity of 50 mgd and includes
several large equalization basins to store sanitary flows during periods of
heavy rainfall.
D096
LIQUID WASTE EFFLUENT INSTALLATION UNVEILED IN FLA.,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 133, September, 1977.
A center pivot irrigation system manufactured by Valmont Industries, Inc., is
being used at waste water treatment facilities in Winter Haven, Florida, for
spray irrigation of approximately 1500 acres of forage crops with municipal
effluents. During treatment of the 5-mgd activated sludge plant, raw waste
first passes through an aerated grit chamber for grit removal and odor con-
trol. It is then mixed with return activated sludge from the clarifiers and
aerated. After aeration and clarification, the sludge is siphoned off the
clarifier bottom for mixing with incoming raw waste water. The clarified ef-
fluent is chlorinated and pumped to a holding pond. Two aerobic digesters
handle the excess sludge, which is then sent to a gravity thickener and cen-
trifuge before disposal to farmland. The treatment process removes 95% of BOD
and suspended solids in the raw waste water; remaining organics and nutrients
are removed by spray irrigation. The 9 center pivots used to distribute the
treated effluent are equipped with 7 drive units per system. The systems
which are electrically propelled provide coverage for 70 acres each and are
capable of distributing 450 gpm. The forage crops which are expected to re-
move approximately 550 Ibs N/acre/yr will receive approximately 475-500 Ibs
N/acre/yr from irrigation with waste water effluents. The effects of effluent
application are monitored with 36 wells 10-30 ft deep located throughout the
irrigation site.
D097
EFFECTS OF ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE APPLICATION ON
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED SOILS WITH EMPHASIS ON DISTRIBUTION OF ZINC
AND CADMIUM FORMS,
Koenig, A.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 3, p 1369-1370, 1977.
Sixteen parallel experiments with a series of 10 batch reactors containing a
mixture of dried anaerobically digested municipal sewage sludge and soil in
specific proportions were used to investigate the effects of sewage sludge ap-
plication on chemical properties of soils. The study evaluated the rate and
extent of changes and degradation of sewage sludge; various zinc and cadmium
forms in soil-sludge mixtures; nitrogen in soils; and zinc and cadmium in
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leachate with respect to temperature, water regime of soil-sludge mixtures,
soil type, and sludge application rate. Zinc and cadmium in soluble, ex-
changeable, complexed, organic, and available forms were determined with an
operational extraction scheme and sequential destructive analyses. The
studies indicated that the transformation of metals in sludge-amended soils
was most affected by organic matter degradation and nitrification which were,
in turn, influenced by temperature, pH, moisture content, and organic matter
content. Zinc and cadmium were not present in leachates, although nitrates
and salts were apparent.
D098
IMPROVING SLUDGE FILTER PERFORMANCE,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 36, September, 1977. 1 fig.
Chemical conditioning has been used to reduce sludge volume so that sludge de-
watering equipment can be used to its full potential. Laporte Industries Ltd.
in Widnes, England, provides two flocculants, aluminum chlorohydrate and
Lapofloc P.A.C., for use in the water and waste water treatment industries at
15% (w/w) and 10% (w/w) A1203, respectively. Lapofloc, a polyelectrolyte, is
suggested for use with secondary sludges. Conditioning of sludge on a rotary
vacuum filter designed to use aluminum chlorohydrate with 2.6% A1203 and 10%
lime provided a yield of 1.8 Ib/sq ft/hr, while conditioning with Lapofloc at
a dose level of 1.5% A1203 produced a cake discharge of 2.5 Ib/sq ft/hr. The
addition of hydrogen peroxide, available from Interox Chemicals Ltd., a joint
Laporte-Solvay company, is suggested for alleviation of problems associated
with the production of hydrogen sulfide during sludge handling.
D099
HOSPITAL'S WASTE,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 54, 56, September, 1977.
The Tuke and Bell gravity-filled ejector system, the Electromatic Sewage
Ejector, has replaced centrifugal pumps previously used for sewage transport
at a hospital under the jurisdiction of the East Anglian Water Authority in
England. The problematic hospital sewage, which frequently clogged suction
pipework, pump casings, and delivery valve systems, had created problems with
operation and maintenance of the centrifugal pump system. To accommodate the
required design capacity of 150 gpm, special ejector bodies were designed and
22 KW compressors were used to provide the necessary flow rate. Since un-
screened refuse could not be discharged directly to the main sewer, the inlet
chamber was equipped with a roller screen on skids operated by an electric
motor. Rotary valve or electrode control units were not required with the
Electromatic ejector. Operations were controlled by the displacement of a
small amount of air through nylon transfer tubes by influent to control open-
ing and closing of the solenoid.
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D100
MAINE'S PERSPECTIVE ON COMPOSTING TOILETS AND ALTERNATE GREYWATER SYSTEMS,
Moreau, E.
Waste Water and Plumbing Control,
Department of Human Services,
Division of Health Engineering,
Augusta, Maine.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 18-19, July-August, 1977.
After review of extensive studies in Sweden and other countries, the state of
Maine in 1974 became the first in the United States to authorize the installa-
tion of compost toilets. Although current technology does not favor the re-
placement of existing household toilet facilities with compost systems, ex-
periences with more than 200 compost toilets installed in Maine have been
favorable. An exhibition was held in Augusta, Maine, in 1975 for the intro-
duction of various alternatives to conventional toilet systems. A greywater
treatment system is required by the Maine State Plumbing Code when composting
or waterless toilets are used in residences with running water under pres-
sure. The system normally includes a septic tank and a soil disposal field,
for treatment of greywater which can include grease, fats, food solids, and
bacteria in a relatively undiluted form. The drainage field for a separated
system is usually 200-1000 sq ft as compared to 300-1400 sq ft with a combined
system. Changes in Maine's exterior plumbing code to further encourage water
conservation are expected.
D101
FACTORY-BUILT PLANTS AID EXPANSION PLANS,
Schnulle, G.
Reclamation Center,
Carol Stream, Illinois.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 11, p 73-74, November, 1977. 1 fig.
Three steel factory-built units manufactured by Smith and Loveless Division of
Ecodyne Corporation were used in the construction of waste water treatment
facilities which included secondary treatment followed by tertiary treatment
with filtration. Each unit includes an activated sludge contact-stabilization
chamber and integral arrangements for sludge reaeration, settling, and aerobic
digestion. The units, which have capacities of 1.0, 1.0, and 0.5 mgd, were
designed with concentric circular shells. After aeration and retention for
4-5 hrs, waste water flows by gravity to a clarifier in the center of each
unit where it is retained for 4-5 hrs. The settled sludge is then pumped to
either the aerobic digester or reaeration section. Clarifier overflow passes
to one of three concrete settling tanks and then to one of six dual-media
filters which contain anthracite and sand. Filter backwash is recycled
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through the plant and the effluent is disinfected with chlorination before
discharge to Klein Creek. A belt filter press with an integral chemical con-
ditioning unit is used to dewater the sludge to a solids concentration of
10-12%. The sludge cake is disposed by landfilling. While the domestic
wastewater has an average BOD of 250 mg/liter and suspended soilds of 200
mg/liter, the plant also receives 0.7 mgd of waste water at a BOD of 350
mg/liter from a nearby industrial park which includes a jam and jelly manu-
facturer. BOD and suspended solids in the final effluent average 1-2
mg/liter, and ammonia about 0.4 mg/liter.
D102
KEEP YOUR DIGESTER IN GOOD SHAPE,
Barber, N. R.
Church and Dwight Company, Incorporated,
Piscataway, New Jersey.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 55, 59, September, 1977. 1
fig-
Sodium bicarbonate has been used to safeguard against chemical malfunction of
anaerobic digestion caused by the accumulation of volatile acids and carbon
dioxide. Since NaHC03 can directly shift the equilibrium to any desired value
without first reacting with soluble C02, it has been used as an alternative to
lime, which can produce undesirable side effects such as vacuum and/or pre-
cipitation. With lime addition, the removal of C02 from the digester head
room to replenish the C02 taken out of the solution can create an instantane-
ous vacuum which places stresses on tank structures. This may, in turn, allow
oxygen to enter the system with resulting toxicity to the anaerobic organisms
in the digester. Scale formation due to the precipitation of CaC03 after it
reaches its solubility limit can also present problems. An equation repre-
senting the increase in bicarbonate alkalinity caused by the reaction of lime
with soluble C02 is presented. Calculations indicated that scale formation is
likely at CaC03 concentrations greater than 500 mg/liter or at lime concentra-
tions greater than 370 mg/liter. An equation to estimate the required alka-
linity for buffering the pH at different levels of C02 partial pressure is
presented. NaHC03, a natural pH control buffer in all aqueous systems, has a
toxicity level in anaerobic digestion systems of 0.2 moles Na/liter for slug
wastes when other ions are at concentrations below 10 mg/liter. The presence
of antagonistic ions such as K and Ca may increase the tolerable level of Na
to digester organisms.
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D103
BIG SQUEEZE FOR SLUDGE KEEPS CAKE ON THE GO,
New Scientist, Vol. 76, No. 1077, p 349, November, 1977.
Edward and Jones of Stoke-on-Trent in England have developed a continuous fil-
ter press for large-scale dewatering of slurries encountered in the sewage
treatment industry. A flocculating agent is first used to create small solid
particle aggregates in the sludge to facilitate dewatering. The slurry is
then screened with a rotating drum equipped with fine mesh steel walls to pro-
duce a slurry solid enough for handling on a moving belt. The second stage of
dewatering is accomplished by sludge compression between two belts and two
sets of rollers. During the third and final stage of dewatering, the sludge
passes between two caterpillar tracks made of PVC slats. High-pressure
hydraulic jacks compress the upper track, which runs on rollers attached to a
moveable frame, against the lower track which is mounted on rollers attached
to a rigid frame. The hydraulic sludge press is reported to produce a sludge
cake of comparable consistency to that produced by a conventional filter press.
D104
ANTIGONISH CHOOSES AERATED LAGOONS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Ch is ho 1m, C. H.
Office of the Mayor,
Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 9, p 25-26, September, 1977.
A. H. Roy and Associates Ltd. have designed a 1-mgd waste water treatment
facility for the town of Antigonish in Nova Scotia, Canada. A system of three
aerated lagoons was chosen for the 18-acre available site which would provide
sewage treatment for the town's 6,000 residents, for the 4,000 residents of
St. Francis Xavier University, and for other nearby towns. Designed for a BOD
loading of 1700 Ib/day, the combined capacity of the three lagoons is 29.6
million gal with an average retention time of 29.6 days to allow for shock
conditions created by storm water flows. The 10-ft deep lagoons provide a
total surface of 9.8 acres, the first lagoon being the largest at 3.5 acres
with bottom dimensions of 250 x, 508 ft. Aeration of the system is accom-
plished by three 25-hp blowers with one of the units serving as a standby.
The town managed the $518,000 project, saving well over $100,000 in construc-
tion costs by hiring nine specialized contractors for individual phases of the
project. Problems with odor after start-up were alleviated by removal of
grease which had accumulated on the surface of the first lagoon. Blower noise
was muffled by the installation of a sound plenum in the air intake. Opera-
tion of the aerated lagoon system has improved the water quality of the West
River and Antigonish Harbor.
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D105
REACTOR CLARIFIERS,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 8, p 427, August, 1977.
Flocculation and clarification have been widely used in the water and waste
water treatment industries for removal of suspended solids, algae, and color.
High rate solids-contact reactor clarifiers have been developed by Emico. The
top diameter of a bell-shaped reactor for a 200-ft diam clarifier would be ap-
proximately 50 ft with a turbine diameter of 28 ft. Influent is fed horizon-
tally through the tank side wall and reactor well wall into the recirculation
cylinder. The unit combines flocculation, coagulation, clarification, and
positive sludge removing capability in a single tank. The unit's other func-
tions include removal of silica, suspended solids, BOD, and COD; precipita-
tion; and lime-soda or brine softening. In handling raw water from rivers and
wells, the high rate solids contacting unit is capable of reducing turbidity
from 20 ppm to 1 ppm. Additional applications of the Emico units are de-
scribed .
D106
EFFECTS OF SODIUM BENTONITE AND FERRIC CHLORIDE ON ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT
OF WASTEWATER,
Mirzadeh, A., Maeda, Y., and Fazeli, A.
Arya-Mehr University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran,
Biochemical and Bioenvironmental Research Center.
Journal of Fermentation Technology, Vol. 55, No. 3, p 258-264, 1977. 4 fig, 4
tab, 17 ref.
The enhancement of microbial flocculation in the activated sludge system by
the addition of sodium bentonite and ferric chloride was investigated in batch
and continuous tests with activated sludge and artificial sewage. Sodium ben-
tonite and ferric chloride were added to mixed liquor in an aeration tank and
the oxygen uptake rate of the activated sludge was monitored. Other para-
meters examined included specific filtration resistance, sludge volume index,
settling rate, and the specific substrate (COD) utilization rate. The addi-
tion of sodium bentonite did not significantly affect the sludge respiration
activity. The loss of sodium bentonite was reduced by the addition of ferric
chloride, enhancing the settling rate, filtration resistance, and sludge volume
index. Reductions in substrate utilization rates and activated sludge respi-
ration with the addition of ferric chloride were attributed to physiological
effects on sludge bacteria and protozoa. Although the use of bentonite and
ferric chloride did not significantly enhance microbial flocculation, the data
obtained in this study may be useful in the treatment of wastes which contain
these chemicals.
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D107
CATALYTIC OZONATION IN AQUEOUS SYSTEMS,
Chen, J. H., Hui, C., Keller, T., and Smith, G.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 206-212, 1977. 14 fig, 1 tab, 9
ref.
A steady-state packed bed reactor was used in the investigation of catalytic
ozonation with Fe203 as a catalyst for municipal and industrial waste waters.
Dilute solutions of phenol and ethyl acetoacetate were used to simulate wastes,
and TOG and COD were continuously monitored in the liquid effluent. The sys-
tem was run at various gas flow rates, ozone concentrations, liquid retention
times, and feed concentrations. Studies with aqueous phenol solutions in-
dicated that removal efficiency increased with retention time and decreased
with influent COD concentrations. Operating conditions for a percentage of COD
removal equal to the percentage of ozone consumed were an ozone concentration
of 16 mg/liter and a liquid retention time of 33 min, or at 30 mg/liter and 20
min. The stoichiometric relationship for ozonation of aqueous phenols is pre-
sented as 1 mole of C6H50H and 14 moles of 03 yielding 6 moles of C02, 3 moles
of H20, and 14 moles of 02. Experiments on catalytic ozonation of industrial
wastes supplied by Nalco Chemical Company were conducted with wastes which had
a TOG of 459 mg/liter and a pH of 6.8. Analyses of TOG in the ozonated efflu-
ent indicated that the presence of a catalyst during exposure to ozone sig-
nificantly enhanced TOG removal.
D108
CITY REAPS INCOME FROM SLUDGE PROCESSING SYSTEM,
Knapp, I. M.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 10, p 103-105, 118, October, 1977.
A sludge processing system which would produce a product that could be sold as
a soil conditioner/fertilizer has been chosen by the city of Largo, Florida,
as a means of waste disposal. Additional cost estimates indicate that the
$800,500 facility could produce a marketable soil conditioner at a cost of
$45-60/ton which could be sold at $160-250/ton. The facility is designed to
dry and package sludge resulting from the treatment of 9 mgd of municipal
wastes. Industrial wastes are excluded from the sludge, eliminating any dele-
terious effects produced by heavy metals. Nutrients can be added automati-
cally to meet requirements for different soil conditions. The plant is en-
tirely automated and only requires one operator for startup. A digester/
clarifier increases the influent sludge solids content from 1% to 3%. The
sludge is then pumped to a blender for flocculation with a polymer and com-
bined with a portion of previously dried sludge. Filter belt presses further
dewater the sludge to a cake form. The remaining water is evaporated in a
rotary, three-pass drum dryer through which an air stream at 800-900 F passes.
The dried sludge is then packaged in three-ply, piastic-lined bags. Actual
total operating costs for a 6-month test period were $140/ton and packaged
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fertilizer was sold at $100-160/ton, depending on the quantity of sludge pur-
chased. The addition of a prethickener/conditioner step to the process is ex-
pected to further reduce production costs.
D109
CHIPPING NORTON STW—INAUGURATION OF CONTRACT,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 454, August, 1977.
The Chipping Norton sewage treatment works are being constructed for the Thames
Water Authority at a cost of more than 500,000 pounds. Principal contractor
for the facility which will provide sewage treatment for a population of 13,000
is Kimbell Construction Ltd. of South Northampton, England. The facility
should produce effluent with a BOD of 15 mg/liter and suspended solids of 12
mg/liter. The plant will incorporate new sludge pressing facilities completed
earlier in 1977. The proposed Chipping Norton plant includes preliminary
treatment, an aeration ditch, circular storm and settling tanks, a storm irri-
gation area, and various pumping stations. Whitehead and Poole Ltd. is the
principal mechanical contractor for the project. Screw pumps and tank scrapers
will be provided by New Haden Pumps. The pista grit trap and clarifier are
produced by Jones and Attwood Ltd. and the sludge pump by Pegson Ltd. The
booster set to be used at the plant is manufactured by Megator Pumps and Com-
pressors Ltd. Scheduled for completion in the latter part of 1978, the new
facility will completely replace the existing works.
DUO
POLIO-VIRUS ADSORPTION FROM WATER ONTO SILICATE MINERALS,
Lo, S. H., and Sproul, 0. J.
Maine University,
Orono,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 8, p 653-658, 1977. 6 tab, 19 ref.
Batch studies and column experiments were used to investigate virus adsorption
on silicate minerals in natural water and treated domestic waste water under
controlled conditions. In the first phase of the experiments, the degree of
adsorption of poliovirus type I was examined with secondary effluent from the
University Park Sewage Plant in Orono, Maine, and six silicate minerals:
actinolite, enstatite, kyanite, microcline, olivine, and sillimanite. In batch
experiments, virus removal ranged from 51% to 78% for the different silicate
species, and only a minor part of the surface area of the granular particles
was occupied by viruses. Actual adsorption capacities ranged from 642,000 to
895,000 PFU per mg of silicate mineral. When organic material was added to the
system, virus adsorption decreased to about 15-20% as a result of competitive
adsorption. In the second series of experiments, poliovirus movement through
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a microcline-filled column was investigated with biologically treated domestic
waste water effluent applied at a rate of 0.61 cu m/day-sq m. With a natural
water system, virus started to appear in the column effluent after 6 days and
99% removal was still being achieved after 13 days. With waste water, virus
appeared in the column effluent after 1.33 days. The lower removal efficiency
with waste water was attributed to competitive adsorption in the presence of
organic materials. Comparisons of the adsorptive capacities of the individual
silicate minerals revealed that olivine adsorbed more viruses per unit weight
than the other mineral species. It was suggested that the degree of adsorp-
tion was greater for minerals with higher acidity.
Dill
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND U.V. LIGHT ON DISINFECTION WITH OZONE,
Farooq, S., Engelbrecht, R. S., and Chi an, E. S. K.
Illinois University,
Urbana,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 8, p 737-741, 1977. 6 fig, 11 ref.
Laboratory studies with the acid-fast bacteria, Mycobacterium fortuitum, were
used to examine the effects of temperature and ultraviolet light on the degree
of inactivation of microorganisms by ozone. Deionized buffered water inno-
culated with test organisms was fed to a continuous flow-type reactor. The
partial pressure of gaseous ozone was kept at 16.8 mg/liter with an ozone-air
gas flow rate of 0.51/min. The effect of temperature on the survival of M.
fortuitum was examined at a constant rate of applied ozone and at varying ozone
residuals at 9, 20, 30, and 40 C. Studies indicated that the degree of inac-
tivation increased with the ozone residual and with temperature. The second
series of experiments on the effect of temperature was conducted at constant
ozone residuals maintained by varying the partial pressure of applied ozone.
Results indicated that the disinfection efficiency increased significantly with
temperature. A value of 18.3 Real was calculated from temperature data for the
activation energy for ozone disinfection. The chemical reaction rate between
ozone and bacterial cells was suggested as the rate-limiting step in ozone
disinfection at pH 7.0. The effect of ultraviolet light on ozone disinfection
was investigated with activated sludge effluent equilibrated with M. fortuitum.
Studies indicated that although ultraviolet light did not enhance ozone effi-
ciency, ultraviolet light alone did have significant disinfecting abilities.
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D112
VARIABLE SPEED PUMPING FOR PROCESS AND MAINS WATER BOOSTING WITH ACCURATE CON-
TROL,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 488, 493, August, 1977.
Fluctuations in fluid pressure in a water or waste water system can be accom-
modated with variable-speed pumping accomplished with variable-speed motors
or multipump additive systems. Applications of variable-speed pumping in Eng-
land are described. The Peerless Hydroconstant System is used by the brewing
industry to compensate for pressure loss as filters clog. The system is also
used in water heating systems to compensate for vapor pressure when the water
is above the boiling point. Surges in flow which may upset biological treat-
ment processes in a sewage treatment plant can be controlled with the Peerless
system. Variable-speed pumping is also used to meet varying demands on water
supplies in primary pumping from reservoirs and to augment existing pressure.
Power savings resulting from the use of variable-speed pumping are propor-
tional to the amount of time the pump is running at low speeds.
D113
STUDIES ON SEPARATION OF ALGAE FROM STABILIZATION POND EFFLUENTS BY COAGULA-
TION,
Sastry, C. A., Rao, M. N., and Rao, A. V.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Zonal Laboratory,
Madras, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3, p 91-94,
June, 1977. 8 tab, 6 ref.
India's sunny climate and the economy of the process have led to the wide-
spread use of waste stabilization ponds as a means of waste water treatment in
India. Algal cell material produced in the ponds is suggested as a source of
protein for animal feed supplements. Coagulation of algae in stabilization
pond effluents with nirmali (Strychnos potatorum) seed extracts and alum was
investigated with effluents obtained from the Shahpura Oxidation Ponds in
Bhopal, India. The four 201-x 50 x 1-m ponds are each divided into two equal
primary and secondary units and are designed to treat a total of 3 mgd of
municipal wastes from Bhopal. Algal species observed in the test effluents
are listed. In studies with alum doses of 120-240 mg/liter and effluents con-
taining 250,000-267,000 algae per ml, 95-97% of the algae was coagulated with
an alum dose of 240 mg/liter. In studies with flocculation times of 5-30 min,
optimum algae removal was obtained with a flocculation time of 20-25 min and a
settling time of 30 min. Algae removal was also investigated with polyelec-
trolytes at doses of 0-10 mg/liter using Magnifloc 990, Separan NP 10, Wispro-
floc, and nirraali seed extract. While nirmali seed was more effective than
the other agents, polyelectrolytes used alone were not as effective in coagu-
lating algae as the alum. Studies on the use of nirmali seed extract in con-
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junction with alum indicated that 98-99% removal of algae could be obtained
with an alum dose of 180 nig/liter and a nirmali seed extract dose of 8
rag/liter.
D114
TREATMENT FACILITIES EXPANDED AT DENVER SEWAGE DISTRICT,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 94, September, 1977.
A $37-million expansion project for the Central Waste Water Treatment Plant
was designed by CH2M Hill and Gulp Wesner Gulp for the Metropolitan Denver
Sewage Disposal District No. 1. The project increased the total treatment ca-
pacity from 98 mgd to 170 mgd, and increased the primary capacity by 150% and
the secondary capacity by 75%. Additions to the primary treatment facility
included three continuous rake bar screens and conveyor belt; two grit washers
and clarification units; two hoppers for temporary holding of screenings and
grit; two gravity grit basins; four center-feed clarifiers with grease re-
moval; and six piston sludge pumps. Secondary treatment is provided by six
vertical propeller low lift pumps, eight three-chambered aeration basins, rim
collection clarifiers with grease removal, six pumps for return activated
sludge, two pumps for waste activated sludge, and eight aerobic digesters.
The aerobic digesters were added to reduce the volume of sludge handled and to
stabilize the product for agricultural use. The digesters include a gas mix-
ing system and a heat exchange system, so that methane produced during diges-
tion can be used to maintain a sludge temperature of 95 F. The digested/
stabilized sludge product from the sludge drying and distribution system will
be used as a soil conditioner and fertilizer.
D115
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT,
Waud, A.
Robert Hudson (Raletrux) Limited,
Leeds, Yorkshire, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 510, August, 1977.
A series of tank scrapers and screens has been manufactured by the Effluent
Division of Robert Hudson (Raletrux) Ltd. of Leeds, Yorkshire, England. The
Auto-Sludge rectangular scraper was developed for use in storm water tanks,
sludge holding tanks, primary and secondary settling tanks, and rectangular
clarifiers. The scrapers are equipped with a self-contained drive unit, can
be totally submerged during operation, and do not require routine maintenance,
The Bio-Screen range of solids removal screens and the Rpto-Sludge range of
rotating half-bridge scrapers for circular tanks are also produced by Hudson.
The Bio-Screen can be used in most shallow channels which are rectangular in
cross-section, with either a bar screening surface and rake mechanism or a
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perforated plate screen surface and brush mechanism. Special features of the
Bio-Screen include the adjustable angle of the screen surface and the
specially-designed closed circuit winch for removing and elevating screenings,
The Roto-Sludge includes a special scum removal device, a tripod central sup-
port with a universal bearing arrangement, and a box girder design for the
rotating bridge.
D116
EQUILIBRIUM OPERATION OF SUBSURFACE ABSORPTION SYSTEMS,
Kropf, F. W., Laak, R., and Healey, A. K.
Connecticut University,
Storrs,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 2007-2016,
September, 1977. 6 fig, 3 tab, 27 ref.
Land application of waste water as a means of tertiary treatment and disposal
may be hindered by reductions in waste water absorption by soils due to clog-
ging of the soil interstices and the production of a biological mat. The ob-
jectives of this study were to examine the infiltration rate through the clog-
ging mat and to develop design and operational criteria for subsurface absorp-
tion systems which could operate at equilibrium on a long-term basis. Experi-
mental aspects of the laboratory-scale studies are discussed, including: test
samples, selection of soils, preparation and packing of soil columns, flooding
schedules, improved (tall) soil columns, sidewall infiltration, and operation
of the model. The studies evaluated continuous vs. intermittent flooding,
characteristics and breakthrough of the slime layer, changes in hydraulic
gradient, the influence of soil characteristics, sidewall vs. bottom infiltra-
tion, extended continuous inundation, and long-term acceptance rate. Results
indicated that continuous inundation did not produce a higher infiltration rate
than intermittent dosing and that the infiltration rate was related to the
hydraulic gradient. Studies also indicated that infiltration surfaces were
not permanently clogged. Reductions in infiltration by the presence of a
slime layer were independent of the soil porosity. Infiltration rates of 10-20
mm/day (0.2-0.5 gpd/sq ft) are predicted for all wetted surfaces.
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D117
FERRIC CHLORIDE TREATMENT REDUCES RIVER'S PHOSPHOROUS DISCHARGE,
Garber, L. L.
Indiana University, South Bend,
Department of Chemistry.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 54-57, October, 1977. 2 fig, 5
tab, 16 ref.
The effects of the addition of a tertiary system for phosphorus removal to the
South Bend waste water treatment plant on the water quality of the St. Joseph
River in Indiana were investigated. Concentrations of ortho-phosphate P,
polyphosphate P, and organic P were measured in grab and composite samples
collected at six sites along the St. Joseph River from September 1974 to
August 1975. Phosphorus removal at the South Bend plant was accomplished by
precipitation with ferric chloride and flocculation of the produced solids
with an anionic polyelectrolyte. The 48-mgd system included two 200-ft dia
upflow clarifiers. A typical ferric chloride dosage of 5.8 mg/liter was added
to effluent from the secondary clarifiers. The anionic polyelectrolyte was
then added to the waste water as it flowed into the base of the upflow clari-
fiers. The low variation in phosphorus levels for samples obtained at various
sites throughout the city indicated that municipal wastes did not present a
significant contribution to the phosphorus levels in the river during dry
weather flow. Before the addition of phosphorus removal at the South Bend
plant, the treatment plant effluent was reported as increasing the orthophos-
phate levels in the river by 88%. After the addition of tertiary treatment,
plant effluent caused only nominal increases in orthophosphate and organic
phosphate levels and a slight decrease in polyphosphate levels.
D118
STUDY DISCLAIMS CONTACT STABILIZATION SUPERIORITY OVER SINGLE TANK AERATION,
Thirumurthi, D.
Nova Scotia Technical College,
Halifax, Canada,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 86-93, October, 1977. 4 fig, 12
tab, 16 ref.
Laboratory-scale studies compared the two-tank aeration activated sludge pro-
cess (contact stabilization) with the single-tank systems (high rate, conven-
tional, and completely mixed processes). Five tests were performed with syn-
thetic waste water and treatment plant influent under batch and continuous
conditions. In the first test, contact stabilization was compared with the
conventional process. The second and third tests compared the biosorption
process with high rate or modified activated sludge process under short-term
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aeration. The fourth and fifth tests evaluated single-tank and two-tank ac-
tivated sludge processes under constant and variable hydraulic loads, respec-
tively. Results of the various tests conducted in this study and of previous
laboratory and pilot plant investigations are presented. The study concluded
that reaeration of the return sludge in a two-tank aeration activated sludge
system did not always significantly enhance the BOD or COD removal rates. The
single-tank aeration process was better at absorbing mild shocks induced by
fluctuating hydraulic and organic loads. The positioning of aeration tanks
before and after secondary settling basins offers process flexibility with the
use of the reaeration tank as a temporary storage facility. A contact stabi-
lization unit is suggested as resulting in a higher organic load removal per
unit volume of aeration tank than a conventional activated sludge process.
D119
SLUDGE DEWATERING--A TASK THE RIGHT EQUIPMENT MAKES EASIER,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 10, p 49-52, October, 1977. 1 fig,
1 tab.
Various methods are available for dewatering sludge produced during waste water
treatment, including rotary vacuum filters, centrifuges, drying beds, lagoons,
filter presses, and horizontal belt filters. Vacuum filter performance is re-
lated to the type of covering used, the size distribution of solid particles
in the sludge, and the cake discharge mechanism employed. Operation of the
coil vacuum filter is described. The main variables which affect sludge de-
watering by centrifugation include: bowl design, length:diameter ratio, bowl
angle, flow pattern, bowl speed, pool volume, conveyor design, relative con-
veyor speed, and sludge feed rate. Various types of centrifuges are discussed,
including the solid bowl countercurrent centrifuge, continuous concurrent flow
solid bowl conveyor centrifuge, basket centrifuges, and disc centrifuges.
Design and operating criteria related to drying beds are discussed. Lagoon
drying, commonly used in areas where large areas of land are available, is
discussed. The filter press, in which sludge is dewatered by compression
between vertical plates faced with filter cloth, is discussed. Additional
types of dewatering devices which are described include moving screen concen-
trators, belt pressure filters, capillary dewatering systems, and rotating
gravity concentrators.
D120
SEWAGE SLUDGE AND HOW TO SELL IT,
Knapp, I. M.
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 10, p 63-65, October, 1977. 1 fig,
1 tab.
An $800,500 sludge processing plant capable of producing a dry palletized soil
conditioner from municipal sludge is being used by the city of Largo in
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Pinellas County, Florida. The sludge treatment/disposal system was designed
as part of a 3.0-mgd expansion project for the existing sewage treatment plant.
Experiences in the marketing and promotion of Largo's dried pelletized sludge,
sold as "LarGrow", are described. Initial production costs were $140/ton while
the expected revenues from the sale of the soil conditioner were $80-100/ton.
The addition of a sludge prethickener/conditioner process is expected to re-
duce the operating costs to the $50-80/ton range. An additional advantage
presented by the disposal system is that the sale of "LarGrow" to residents of
the surrounding area eliminates transportation and application costs for the
treatment plant. After thickening in three in-ground conical tanks, the wet
sludge cake is combined with previously dried sludge to reduce the moisture
content. A drum dryer is used to remove the remaining moisture. Some of the
dried sludge is retained for mixing with incoming thickened sludge, and the
remainder is conveyed to a dry product storage bin. The uniformly-sized pel-
letized product is packed in self-sealing, three-ply, poly-lined bags.
D121
CO-DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND SOLID WASTES—IT WORKS,
Sussman, D. 6.
Resource Recovery Division,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, District of Columbia.
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 10, p 55-58, October, 1977. 1 fig.
Since municipal sludge has a heat value of 10,000 BTU per Ib of dry solids and
is autogenous at a moisture:solids ratio of 70:30, co-disposal of solid waste
and municipal sludge is suggested so that the energy produced by the combus-
tion of solid waste can be used to dewater sludge to its autogenous point.
Basic approaches to co-disposal include the use of sludge incinerators with
the organic portion of solid waste as a fuel to dry, burn, and reduce the
volume of sludge; and the use of a solid waste incinerator, solid waste-fired
steam generator, or waterwall combustion unit to burn dewatered sludge. The
use of a fluidized bed furnace for co-disposal in an EPA-supported demonstra-
tion at Franklin, Ohio, is described. The facility at Franklin was also de-
signed to recover a low grade paper fiber, ferrous and nonferrous metals, and
glass from the solid waste stream and to use fuel derived from the non-
recoverable organic portions of the waste to operate the sludge incinerator.
The modification of an existing multiple hearth sludge incinerator to accept
refuse-derived fuel and operate in either an incineration or pyrolysis mode at
a facility in Concord, California, is described. Experiences with the use of
a solid waste incinerator as a sludge volume reduction unit are described for
Ansonia, Connecticut; Norwalk, Connecticut; Holyoke, Massachusetts; and other
municipalities. The direct use of heat from burning solid waste to dewater
and burn sludge was demonstrated in Glen Cove, New York.
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D122
KINETICS OF CELL GROWTH AND BACTERIA PROLIFERATION IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREAT-
MENT (A sejtanyag, illetve bakterium- szaporulat kinetikaja az eleveniszapos
eljarasban),
Ghobrial, F. H.
Hidrologiai Kozlony, Vol. 57, No. 5, p 193-198, May, 1977. 4 fig, 3 tab, 10
ref.
Cell growth and bacterial proliferation in completely-mixed activated sludge
systems with batch and continuous operation were examined using activated
sludge samples from the South Pest treatment plant in Hungary. A new theo-
retical approach assumes that bacteria use the energy of substrate oxidation
for microbial synthesis with only limited efficiency, and that part of this
energy leaves the system in the form of heat. The studies concluded that bac-
terial growth, the biological use efficiency of the energy produced, and the
endogenous decay factor were constant under the same physical and chemical
conditions. Measurements of mixed liquor suspended solids were considered to
be more practical and more easily obtained than measurements of live bacterial
mass.
D123
HIGHLY ADVANCED SEWAGE TREATMENT (Hochentwickelte Abwasserreinigung),
Wasser, Luft, und Betrieb, Vol. 21, No. 7, p 405-406, 1977. 3 fig.
Percolation bodies made of PLASdek blocks and their uses in municipal waste
water treatment are described. The percolation bodies consist of blocks mea-
suring 1,200 mm x 600 mm x 500 mm. They can be used for high-efficiency puri-
fication of municipal waste water, especially where chemical precipitation is
required. The bacterial flora is rapidly regenerated after chemical attack.
Two-stage percolation bodies with fixed nozzle or rotary disk water distribu-
tion systems have an efficiency of 90% and over in terms of the reduction of
BOD and phosphorus contents.
D124
CENTRIFUGAL DEWATERING OF MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE,
Asano, T., Suzuki, T., and Hayakawa, N.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 130-135, September, 1977. 9 fig, 3
tab.
Sludge dewaterability was investigated with a horizontal continuous cylindri-
cal-conical centrifuge which was manufactured by Nishihara Environmental Sani-
tation Research Corporation Limited in Tokyo, Japan. The Model SD-700P cen-
trifuge includes a sludge feed pump, chemical feed pump, chemical mixing tank,
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flow meters, atmospheric moisture control unit, effluent inspection window,
and an operation control panel. Results of the use of the centrifuge with
various types of municipal, industrial, and water treatment sludges are pre-
sented. Flonac, a cationic organic polymer, was evaluated with regard to im-
proving suspended solids recovery. With digested mixed, primary and activated
sludges, solids recovery was 48-80% without polymer addition and over 99% with
the addition of Flonac. Suspended solid capture for raw primary sludge was
73-96% without Flonac and over 98% with polymer addition. Polymer addition to
mixed raw primary and activated sludges increased solids recovery from 61% to
approximately 98%. Suspended solids capture with activated sludge was 40-97%
without polymer addition and more than 98% recovery with the polymer. Sus-
pended solids capture with aerobic digested sludge was increased from 55% to
98% with the addition of a polymer. A nonionic organic polymer (Aquafloc 30)
and an anionic polymer (Aquafloc 305) significantly improved the dewaterability
of water filtration plant sludge. Process and operational variables which may
affect sludge dewaterability, such as sludge feed rate, sludge feed concentra-
tion, solids recovery, and automatic operation, are discussed.
D125
REST AREA WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Lord, B. N., and Hughes, G. W.
Public Roads, Vol. 41, No. 2, p 53-57, September, 1977. 1 fig, 2 tab.
In light of the number of rest areas associated with the Interstate Highway
System, a study was conducted by the Federal Highway Administration to develop
recommendations and guidelines for bringing existing and new rest area sani-
tary waste water treatment systems into compliance with the Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act. In the first phase of the two part study, existing treat-
ment systems were surveyed to study types, sizes, operational characteristics,
and design parameters of rest area sewage treatment systems; to evaluate the
abilities of existing systems to comply with 1977 requirements; and to deter-
mine current state requirements for rest area waste water treatment. Dis-
charge of'rest area wastes was the preferred method of treatment by state
highway agencies. The most common methods of treatment in use at existing
rest areas were septic tanks with leach fields or sand filters, oxidation
ponds, and extended aeration activated sludge package plants. A regional
breakdown of rest area sewage treatment systems which were surveyed is pre-
sented. Since federal regulations require that publicly owned treatment fa-
cilities meet requirements for secondary treatment for all point source dis-
charges by July 1, 1977, design and operating guidelines and procedures for
new facilities, as well as upgrading procedures for existing facilities» were
developed in the second phase of the program.
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D126
THE EFFECT OF SLUDGE DIGESTION ON VIRUS INFECTIVITY,
Eisenhardt, A., Lund, E., and Nissen, B.
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Copenhagen,
Denmark,
Department of Veterinary Virology and Immunology.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 7, p 579-581, 1977. 3 fig, 12 ref.
Virus inactivation during anaerobic sludge digestion was investigated in
laboratory experiments with coxsackievirus B3. A virus suspension was added to
an experimental digester which was operated to simulate the operation of a
full-scale digester. Three control series including pasteurized sludge, Hank's
solution at 32 C, and calf serum at 32 C, were set up at the same virus con-
centration and pH (7.0). Inactivation rates determined for the four systems
over a two-week period indicated that inactivation was fastest In pasteurized
sludge. The inactivation rate for Hank's solution was lower than for pasteur-
ized sludge and higher than for calf serum. An increase in temperature from
32 C to 35 C increased the inactivation rate for all four systems. Virus
determinations for supernatants of centrifuged sludges indicated that some
virus was bound to the sludge, since solids' virus determinations were 1.0 log
units higher than supernatants1. Additional studies indicated that inactiva-
tion rates were not influenced by the initial virus concentration over a range
of 4 log units. It was suggested that virus inactivation was partially con-
trolled by biochemical factors instead of purely biological phenomena.
D127
BALL VALVES OFFER AN ALTERNATIVE FOR PUMP CHECK DUTY,
Jowers, A. B.
Harry Hendon and Associates,
Birmingham, Alabama.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 97-98, November, 1977. 1 fig.
A valve on the discharge side of the pump in a sewage treatment plant is nor-
mally provided to isolate the pump when it is not in service, to control pump-
ing during start-up and shutdown, and to provide pump-check service in case of
pump failure. Changes in fluid velocity within the system can lead to pro-
blems associated with water hammer, hydraulic shock, or reverse flow. Problems
associated with a cone, check, or metal-seat ball valve normally used for pump-
hecking have led to the use of rubber-seated ball valves. The rubber ball
valves are less costly than cone valves, can provide bubble-tight shutoff in
both directions, and are resilient for operation at lower torque. Two appli-
cations of the use of rubber-seated ball valves in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, are
described. A pump check system is used at the 15.5-mgd waste water treatment
plant to prevent primary effluent in the aeration basins from draining back
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into the wet well. A 30" rubber-seat ball valve is provided for each pump and
operated by a low-pressure, hydraulic control system which contains a cylinder
operator, a differential pressure switch, and a four-way hydraulic valve cir-
cuit. Rapid closure of the valves in the event of an emergency power failure
is accomplished by a simultaneous de-energizing of all circuits. Pump check
systems at the Love water treatment plant in Tuscaloosa are described.
D128
AWARD WINNING PLANT UTILIZES SPRAY IRRIGATION,
McCarthy, J. M.
Dufresne-Henry Engineering Corporation,
North Springfield, Vermont.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 11, p 60-61, November, 1977.
The Dufresne-Henry Engineering Corporation has designed a $2,050,000 waste
water treatment and disposal facility for the town of Dover, a small ski resort
in Vermont. A $1.3-million tributary system with 9.5 miles of sewers and two
lift stations was installed for the spray irrigation/land treatment system.
Comminutors and dual oxidation canals followed by clarification and effluent
chlorination are used to treat the waste water prior to disposal. A liquid-
solids gravity separator with polymer thickening is used to dewater the sludge
prior to disposal as fertilizer or at a landfill. Design for the facility re-
quired accommodation for large variations in flow on a seasonal basis, as well
as on a weekend-weekday basis due to the ski area patronage. Two 18.2-
million-gal earthen ponds were constructed to equalize variations in plant
volumetric loading and to hold effluent during periods when spray irrigation
is not allowed because of saturated ground conditions. Spray irrigation over
a 55-acre field is accomplished by a distribution system which consists of 4
miles of 2", 3", and 4" galvanized steel piping supported by 1500 wooden posts.
Irrigation during the winter is accomplished by fixed spray heads spaced at
25-ft intervals, while irrigation during the summer is accomplished by rotary
spray heads at 50-ft intervals. An effluent application rate of 0.25"/hr is
controlled by the pressure and flow rate of the effluent from the spray heads.
D129
TURBINE STANDBY FOR WATER AND SEWAGE PLANTS,
North American Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, Vol. 43, No. 11, p 33-34,
November, 1977.
Standby generator sets have been installed in municipal water and sewage
treatment plants to provide adequate power during emergency situations when
normal electric power service is interrupted. Solar Turbines International
manufactures a range of standby generator sets rated from 900-8600 kW, which
are in use at a wide variety of sewage and water treatment facilities in the
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United States. Four Solar Centaur-turbine-driven sets rated at 3000 kW have
been installed at sewage treatment facilities in West Palm Beach, Florida.
Provisions were made in the new facility for a fifth standby unit as the
plant's capacity increases. The Centaur turbine consists of a simple-cycle
single-shaft engine in a "cold-end-drive" configuration with an 11-stage
axial-flow compressor, single annular combustor, and three-stage rotor as-
sembly. The structural steel base of each turbine, gearbox, and generator and
of the package's operating systems allows movement of the complete unit in a
single lift. The Quincy sewage treatment plant in Illinois has begun using two
Saturn turbine-driven 800-kW sets which use low BTU sludge gas as fuel. Solar
standby units are also in operation at facilities within the Los Angeles County
Sanitation District.
D130
THE STATUS AND FUTURE OF OZONE FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Lacy, W. J., and Rice, R. G.
Office of Research and Development,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, District of Columbia.
Industrial Water Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 5, p 14-19, September, 1977.
Current and prospective applications of ozone in water and waste water treat-
ment are described. Although chlorination has been the traditional means of
disinfection in sewage treatment, the potential toxic effects of chlorine to
aquatic life have led to the consideration of ozone as an alternative. Sewage
treatment plants in the United States which have used ozone as of 1977 are
listed. The use of ozone in the oxygen-activated sludge process and in the
removal of total coliforms, viruses, and dissolved solids is described. Pilot
plant studies on the use of ozonation prior to activated carbon adsorption have
indicated that ozonation can increase removal of dissolved organic carbon com-
pounds, prolong the life of the carbon bed, and result in odor reduction.
Current research into the substitution of ozonation for chlorination in water
treatment is discussed. Current industrial applications of ozone are examined
for the destruction of cyanides and polychlorinated biphenyls and for the
treatment of photoprocessing, military hospital, and power plant cooling waste
waters. Future potentials for ozonation in the United States are evaluated.
D131
ENERGY GUZZLING SEWAGE PLANT WILL FUEL ITSELF,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 14, p 70-72, 76, October, 1977. 1 fig.
A $70-million physical-chemical-biological waste water reclamation plant has
recently been put into operation in Pacheco, California, by the Central Contra
Costa Sanitary District. The facility is designed to treat an average flow of
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30 mgd, of which 19 mgd are then recycled to five nearby industries for use as
cooling and process water. A 1000-tpd front end resource recovery facility
will produce about 605 tpd of refuse-derived fuel, as well as separate out re-
usable metals and glass. The refuse-derived fuel will be mixed with organic
sludge and used to fuel multiple-hearth furnaces which have been modified for
pyrolysis. A portion of the resulting combustible gas will be used to run the
lime recovery furnace while the rest will be burned in afterburners to produce
steam in waste heat boilers for 90-95% of the plant's energy needs. In addi-
tion, the recovery operation is expected to save $2,275 per day in lime costs.
Before passing to the multiple-hearth furnaces, the sludge is first dewatered
in two centrifuges to render a moisture content low enough for autothermic
burning of the sludge. Designed by Brown and Caldwell Consulting Engineers of
Walnut Creek, California, the plant is expected to more than pay back its high
initial cost in fuel savings.
D132
EXPANSION PROGRAM GIVEN "GO AHEAD" IN ABSENCE OF FEDERAL FUNDS,
Williams, T. C.
Williams and Works,
Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 33, 35-37, October, 1977. 1
fig-
With the discovery of oil and the construction of a multi-million-dollar re-
finery in Kalkaska, Michigan, a rapid influx of new residents had seriously
overloaded water and waste treatment facilities. Additions to the existing
waste treatment system which consisted of a stabilization lagoon with provi-
sions for seepage and semi-annual discharge to the Boardman River had been
prohibited by the State Department of Natural Resources. The ban was later
lifted after the installation of aerators, on the condition that Kalkaska
would initiate a project to alleviate the overloading. Since federal funds
were not available to Kalkaska's low priority project, the city council voted
to initiate a $1.3-million program to expand water and sewer systems without
grant assistance. The Farmers Home Administration provided funds for local
bonds to finance the project. The water system expansion included construc-
tion of a new 700-gpm well; a 250,000-gal elevated storage tank; and approxi-
mately 4 miles of distribution mains. Expansions for waste water collection
and treatment included construction of additional stabilization ponds, irriga-
tion areas to eliminate the need for a direct discharge to the Boardman River,
and approximately 4 miles of collection sewers.
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D133
WATER CONSERVATION PROBLEMS IN NORTHERN ITALY,
Cenerini, R.
Bologna Environmental Agency,
Bologna, Italy.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2118-2128,
October, 1977. 8 fig, 1 tab, 8 ref.
The decreasing availability of conventional water resources in the Emilia-
Romagna region of northern Italy and the high cost of water desalination have
led to the examination of waste water treatment and water reuse in the region.
Twelve waste water treatment plants are currently in operation in Emilia-
Romagna's tourist area along the Adriatic coast. The current treatment ca-
pacity of 700,000 inhabitants will be increased to serve a total population of
1,100,000 with expansion of existing plants and construction of new facilities.
Final disposal of municipal sludge presents a problem, since most plants are
located in densely populated areas and landfilling is limited because of ground
water pollution risks. Many of the plants have constructed solid refuse in-
cinerators for municipal garbage, and incineration is being investigated as a
means of sludge disposal. The city of Bologna has particularly serious pro-
blems with water and waste water treatment because the Reno River which serves
the city has a very low flow of 4 cu m/sec during the summer. The city's sewer
system carries combined municipal, industrial, and storm waste water to a
treatment plant which currently serves 450,000 inhabitants and will eventually
serve 900,000 inhabitants. Treatment at the plant involves primary sedimenta-
tion, activated sludge processes, final sedimentation, chlorination of the
treated effluent with C102, and centrifugation and incineration of the sludge.
Industrial waste practices used in the area are described.
D134
SLUDGE COMPOSTING PROJECTS IN U. S. CITIES,
Epstein, E.
Biological Waste Management and Soil Nitrogen Laboratory,
Agricultural Environmental Quality Institute,
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 5-7, September/October, 1977.
Recent legislative action, increased public awareness of waste recycling, im-
proved technology, and increased costs of sludge disposal by incineration have
led to increased interest in sewage sludge composting in the United States.
Current sludge composting methods used in the United States include the wind-
row system and the Beltsville Aerated Pile Method. In the Beltsville process a
mixture of sewage sludge and bulking material such as wood chips is composted
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in a stationary pile for 21 days while air is drawn through the pile. Design
details of a Beltsville composting system used at the Beltsville Agricultural
Research Center in Maryland are presented. An extended modification of the
aerated pile was developed to reduce the compost area, the amount of blanket
material required, and the woodchip requirement for the pile base. Additional
studies are being conducted to examine the effects of pile height on compost-
ing processes, the feasibility of indoor composting, and possible uses for
compost. Among cities in the United States which are now using or have used
some type of composting for treatment of sludge are Durham, North Carolina;
Bangor, Maine; Camden, New Jersey; Merrimac, New Hampshire; and Chicago,
Illinois. Full-scale facilities for composting of 120 tons of wet sludge per
day are currently under construction in Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
D135
IRRADIATING DRIED SLUDGE COULD BENEFIT ENVIRONMENT, SAVE ENERGY,
Design News, Vol. 33, No. 19, p 42, October, 1977.
Sandia Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, has designed a pilot facility
to examine the economic and scientific aspects of treating dried sewage sludge
with gamma radiation as a means of disinfecting sludge for use as a fertilizer
or soil conditioner. The facility which is being built for ERDA will handle
dried sludge on a continuous, flow-through basis rather than on a batch system
operation. From 30 to 60 Ibs of dried sludge will be placed in each of a
series of conveyor-suspended buckets. The 10" high, 12" wide, and 24" long
buckets will pass over and under a gamma-radiation source of one megacurie of
cesium-137, a waste product of nuclear power reactors. Twenty sludge-filled
buckets can occupy the radiation zone at any given time, and the radiation
dosages can be varied from a few thousand rads up to several million rads by
adjustments of the conveyor belt speed. The method of treatment is suggested
as an effective means of disinfection which would also put to beneficial use
considerable amounts of cesium-137.
D136
SLUDGE DISPOSAL TO LAND 'GOOD FARMING PRACTICE1,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4447, p 22, September, 1977. 1 tab.
Details of a report by the British National Water Council's working party on
the disposal of sewage sludge to land are presented. The report concluded
that, in general, land application of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes
was advantageous because of the large quantities of nutrients, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus, present in municipal sludge. Tentative guidelines on
application rates to produce maximum agricultural benefits and minimum dele-
terious effects are presented. Accumulation of heavy metals in plants as a
result of sewage sludge application is discussed. Provisional limits for Zn,
Cu, Ni, Cr, Cd, Pb, Hg, Md, B, As, and Se in sludge and possible sources are
listed in tabular form. The effects of sludge properties on its adaptability
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to land application are discussed. Further areas of research recommended by
the working party include a literature survey, data collections on the quan-
tity and quality of sludges slated for land disposal, studies on the nutrient
value and heavy metal concentrations of sludges, analytical techniques for
rapid determinations of metals in sludges, and a cost-benefit analysis of land
application.
D137
TANK ACCESSORIES IN PLASTIC,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 66, September, 1977.
Armshire-Sherville Plastics Ltd. of Biggleswade, England, has begun using
glass reinforced polyester resin in equipment for water and sewage treatment,
including settling tank weir plates and scum boards. The glass reinforced
plastic possesses the advantages of corrosion resistance, strength, light
weight, and stability over the temperature range -50 to 90 C. Armshire-
Sherville's special press molding process gives an easily-cleaned, algae-
resistant, smooth finish to both sides of the polyester resin and also pro-
duces greater rigidity and flexural strength, which allow thinner wall sec-
tions and require less material. Air voids are also eliminated in the press
molding process. Dimensions available in Armfibre weir plates and scum boards
include thicknesses of 4 and 6 mm, a 2-m length, and depths of 200-500 mm.
D138
RECESSED IMPELLER PUMP,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 62, September, 1977.
Durco Europe has produced a new recessed impeller pump for handling solid,
stringy, or fibrous slurries or other materials with high concentrations of
suspended solids. The chemical process pump can effectively transport par-
ticles as large as 7 cm without clogging. The special design of the Mark II
pump includes a recessed impeller vane housed in a single-stage casing. The
impeller is out of the main flow of the solids, and back vanes control the
stuffing box pressure to keep solids out of the critical seal areas. Problems
with shaft deflection and radial bearing loads are eliminated and uniform
hydraulic radial loads are created by the close clearance symmetrical chamber
which houses the recessed impeller. A back pull-out design allows removal of
the entire rotating assembly without disturbing the motor, casing, and piping.
Available capacities range up to 160 cu m/hr with heads up to 100 m and opera-
tion at temperatures ranging from -30 to 250 C.
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D139
SANITATION FOR THE DEVELOPING NATIONS,
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 21, September/October, 1977.
Methods of household waste treatment and disposal which are available to de-
veloping nations where traditional methods of sewage treatment would otherwise
not be feasible are reviewed. The possibilities include bucket toilet collec-
tion systems, pit privies, communal latrines, composting toilets, septic tanks,
sewage ponds, and aqua privies. Problems with public health dangers from bac-
teria, viruses, and parasites have led to the development of a new toilet sys-
tem by the Vietnamese government. The system is actually a "double septic
tank" or a double vault toilet in which urine is separated off to soak into
the ground and feces are passed to a masonry vault. One of the two units is
used while the other is sealed off for a period of 45 days to produce a
nutrient-rich, odorless material for use as a fertilizer. A second double
vault system developed by Dr. Krisno Nimpuno of Mozambique allows the use of a
small amount of flushing water to cleanse the opening. Aerobic decomposition
is maintained by a filter of leaves, charcoal, and crushed limestone which
lets liquids as well as kitchen garbage soak through the soil. Additional
methods for waterless waste treatment and disposal are described.
DUO
INCREASE IN STANDBY GENERATION,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 14-15, September, 1977.
Since interruptions in the operation of a sewage pumping station can result in
problems at the waste water treatment plant and in possible pollution of the
surrounding waterways, standby power generators are coming into more wide-
spread use. Auto Diesels Braby Ltd. has supplied 23 standby power generators
to the Thames Water Authority in England as static and mobile sets with power
outputs ranging from 20-480 kVA. Automatic operation can be supplied to pro-
vide standby power to the pumps within 20 sec of power supply loss. The
mobile sets which are being used in situations where power loss is not so cri-
tical can be towed to the emergency area and plugged into the main control
panel. The static sets are rated to provide the high initial currents required
for pump startup, with an alternator frame size chosen for the particular load
of the station. Modifications to the existing distribution switchboard and to
the busbar connections were made to prevent inadvertent paralleling of the
standby generator sets to the main supply.
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D141
COMPARISON OF BENCH, PILOT, AND FULL SCALE CARBON ADSORPTION/FILTRATION,
Moss, W. H., and Sebesta, S. J.
Willard F. Schade and Associates, Incorporated,
Cleveland, Ohio.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 78-90, 1977. 9 fig, 6 tab, 9 ref.
The 10-mgd Rocky River waste water treatment plant in Ohio was the site of a
study to compare full scale results of a carbon adsorption/filtration process
with previous bench and pilot scale studies. Bench scale studies were con-
ducted on a scale of 0.5 gal/min and pilot scale studies on a scale of 50
gal/min. Carbon treatment performance was measured in terms of suspended
solids, 5-day BOD, COD, and total phosphorus in the carbon column effluent.
In addition to filtration and adsorption performance, hydrogen sulfide produc-
tion in the column and column pressure loss and backwashing were evaluated for
each carbon adsorption/filtration system. Results indicated that bench-scale
studies are not a reliable measure of performance on a larger scale and that
the carbon adsorption/filtration process was a solids limited process when ap-
plied to the treatment of chemically clarified domestic waste water. Surface
filtration was the main result of treatment with an 8 x 30 mesh carbon. Ad-
sorption efficiency was reduced by diurnal variations in flow. Hydrogen sul-
fide formation was effectively suppressed with the addition of sodium nitrate
to the carbon filters. Biological activity was cited as the primary cause of
high column headless.
D142
UPFLOW-DOWNFLOW CARBON ADSORPTION,
Strudgeon, G. E.
Zurn Industries, Incorporated,
Enviro-System Division,
Erie, Pennsylvania.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 43-53, 1977. 10 fig, 1 tab, 4 ref.
An upflow-downflow carbon adsorption system developed by the Enviro-Systems
Division of Zurn Industries, Inc., of Erie, Pennsylvania, has been chosen by
the city of Garland, Texas, for the treatment of combined municipal and indus-
trial wastes. The system includes series-connected columns of activated car-
bon which were designed to reduce the number of times the carbon must be re-
generated by extending the column service cycle. The counter-current, two-bed
system is arranged so that one of the beds acts as a roughing upflow primary
contactor, while the other acts as a secondary downflow polishing contactor.
When the effluent quality has deteriorated to a predetermined level, the spent
carbon from the secondary unit replaces the carbon in the primary unit to
maximize carbon utilization. In the series operation, loadings of 0.6-0.7 Ibs
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COD/lb carbon are possible as compared to loading rates of 0.3-0.4 Ibs COD/lb
carbon under parallel conditions. Costs and expected treatment efficiency are
presented for a 30-mgd plant which uses lime clarification prior to activated
carbon adsorption. Carbon adsorption facilities at the 30-mgd Duck Creek
sewage treatment plant in Garland, Texas, will include twenty 25-ft diam
columns. Carbon replacement will be required approximately every 2-4 days
with regeneration in a multiple hearth furnace.
D143
GREYWATER FOR THE GREENHOUSE,
Rockefeller, A., and Lindstrom, C.
Clivus Multrum,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 22-25, September/October, 1977.
Kitchen and toilet wastes can be separated from other household wastes to
yield "greywater," which is easier to treat than combined wastes and can be
used for other purposes. A closed cycle of organic waste conversion/water
purification/food production consisting of a Clivus Multrum, a Lindstrom
roughing filter, and a lean-to greenhouse is described. Kitchen and toilet
wastes in the Clivus are converted to a humus soil for the greenhouse growing
beds. The stone roughing filter is used to treat household waste water for
pumping into the 4- x 2-ft greenhouse soil boxes. The relatively stable and
warm temperature in the greenhouse, along with the nutrient uptake by the
plants, affords favorable conditions for the activity of decomposing organisms
and for the purification of household waste waters. Since the amount of water
introduced to the greenhouse beds is considerably more than the amount that
the plants can transpirate, waste water application is actually more of a
hybrid between standard subsurface irrigation and hydroponics. At the test
site in Cambridge, Massachusetts, waste heat from a central gas furnace is
used as a back-up heat source for the greenhouse. Crushed rock under the con-
crete slab floor and the warm greywater also help maintain constant tempera-
tures in the greenhouse.
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D144
WASTEWATER RENOVATION AND SLUDGE UTILIZATION ON LAND INCLUDING QUESTIONS OF
OWNERSHIP,
Walker, J. M.
Office of Research and Development,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Chicago, Illinois.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 8-15, September/October, 1977. 3 fig, 6
tab, 16 ref.
Land application of municipal waste water as a means of treatment and disposal
has been cited as a cost-effective, environmentally sound alternative to the
construction of new or improved waste water treatment facilities. Various
aspects of land renovation of waste water and application of sludge are dis-
cussed, and the feasibilities of public vs. private ownership are examined.
Sludge and waste water characteristics are discussed with respect to land re-
quirements. Advantages and disadvantages of public vs. private ownership of
land and operation are presented. The Muskegon County, Michigan, waste water
treatment system is presented as an example of a publicly owned and operated
treatment system which uses land application for the treatment of waste water.
The Cooperative Sewage Utilization Association for the treatment and land ap-
plication of municipal waste water from the city of Braunschweig, Germany, is
described as a joint publie-private interest. The Fulton County, Illinois,
public operation for the treatment of liquid sludges from the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Chicago is described. The public-private land applica-
tion of sludge in West Hertfordshire, England, is discussed. Research on land
application and uses of sludge and waste water are described.
D145
ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANES,
Noble, E. R.
Dunlop Limited,
GRG Division,
Skelmersdale, Lancastershire, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 481-483, August, 1977.
Applications of elastomeric membranes to water and waste treatment are de-
scribed. Membranes have been used in effluent management to contain waste
water for subsequent treatment or removal, as well as to line dumping sites or
landfills for prevention of underground contamination by surface seepage. One
use in India involved the lining of an irrigation canal. Natural rubber mem-
branes have been used to reduce water loss from cracked concrete reservoirs.
Common elastomeric membrane materials include Butyl, EPDM, chlorosulfonated
polyethylene, and nitrile PVC. Butyl, the first synthetic rubber material of-
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fered commercially, is highly impermeable and offers a great deal of chemical
resistance. EPDM (Ethylene propylene diene monomer) has a slightly higher
resistance to high temperatures and ultraviolet radiation. Chlorosulfonated
polyethylene (TM Hypalon) is coming into more widespread use because of its
lower temperature tolerance and ease of fabrication. Nitrile PVC offers
resistance to prolonged contact with hydrocarbon solvents.
D146
WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE,
English, J. N.
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 6, p 1078-1087, June,
1977. 128 ref.
Various literature pertaining to waste water reclamation and reuse is reviewed.
Water resources planning and management practices which incorporate reuse are
described. Experiences with the use of municipal waste water and organic
wastes for irrigation, fertilization, and groundwater recharge are discussed
with respect to costs and effects. Models to assess the reuse of waste water
for artificial recharge and to prevent salt water intrusion into coastal aqui-
fers are described. The use of municipal waste water for industrial purposes
is examined. In-plant recycling and closed-loop systems for process waste
water are reviewed for various industrial applications. Renovation of waste
water to augment potable water supplies and the associated health effects are
discussed. Recent technology developments in waste water reclamation are
described.
D147
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT, GENERATION, AND DISPOSAL,
Dick, R. I.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 66-77, 1977. 2 fig, 61 ref.
Various aspects of the activated sludge process in waste water treatment are
reviewed. Mathematical expressions for the amount of excess activated sludge
produced at a waste water treatment plant are presented. The chemical, bio-
logical, and physical properties of waste activated sludge which may influ-
ence selection of treatment and disposal techniques are discussed. Previous
studies on the treatment of waste activated sludge in combination with other
sludges at a waste water treatment plant are reviewed. Reclamation of valu-
able substances in sludge is discussed with respect to food processing wastes,
the production of animal feed supplements from municipal wastes, and the use
of processed activated sludge for various agricultural purposes. Since sludge
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constituents which are not recycled must be returned to some sector of the en-
vironment, the effects of sludge disposal on water, air, and land are dis-
cussed. Legislation and technology related to sludge disposal practices are
described. Sludge thickening, stabilization, conditioning, and dewatering
methods are reviewed.
D148
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES AT COLESHILL,
Clough, F.
Howard Humphreys and Sons, Consulting Engineers,
Leatherhead, Surrey, England.
Chemistry and Industry, Vol. 20, p 811-816, 1977. 2 ref.
The advanced waste water treatment facilities in Coleshill, England, contain
two complete treatment streams, each capable of handling average flows of 450
cu m/day with peaks of 1350 cu m/day for a total population equivalent of
5,000. One of the treatment streams was used in an evaluation of conventional
physicochemical treatment with lime addition, settling, first stage recarbona-
tion, settling, second stage recarbonation, media filtration, and activated
carbon treatment. The evaluation was conducted to provide information on costs
for individual and combination processes. A major advantage of lime addition
is greater removal of suspended solids and BOD to reduce settling costs, al-
though the quantity of sludge is increased and costs are incurred by the need
for chemical storage and dosing facilities. When lime has been added, two-
stage recarbonation is required to adjust the pH prior to activated carbon
treatment. Because of its regenerating capacities, granular instead of
powdered carbon is used in the activated carbon stage at Coleshill. Proper-
ties of activated carbon and operation and maintenance of the adsorption
columns are described. The media filtration plant at Coleshill includes three
anthracite-sand-gravel filters which can be used singly or in combination.
The activated carbon plant includes three pairs of adsorption columns, sewage
pumping and backwash equipment, and carbon storage facilities.
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D149
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER WITH ACTIVATED CARBON AFTER WEAKLY
LOADED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT AND FILTRATION (Reinigung von kommunalem Abwasser
mittels Aktivokhle nach schwach belasteter biologischer Reinigung und Filtra-
tion),
Roberts, P., Gujer, W., and Eugster, J.
Eidgoenossische Anstalt fuer Wasserversorgung Abwasser-reinigung und
Gewaesserschutz, Duebendorf, West Germany.
Vom Wasser, Vol. 48, p 47-70, 1977. 13 fig, 9 tab, 9 ref.
Advanced treatment of municipal waste water is often required in Switzerland
for compliance with water quality standards on dissolved organic carbon levels
in effluents. The effects of operating parameters, including the brand of
activated carbon, grain size, and filtration rate, on the fixed bed adsorption
were investigated in pilot-scale studies. Additional parameters observed dur-
ing the studies included activated carbon capacity, concentration profiles,
and adsorption performance. The degree of biodegradation of organic compounds
during activated carbon treatment was evaluated with respect to the oxygen
consumption in the carbon bed. Gas chromatography was used to examine the re-
moval of specific organic substances by adsorption onto activated carbon.
D150
OXIDATION PROCESSES IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE AT HIGH DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRA-
TIONS,
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 340-354,
1977. 4 fig, 4 tab, 18 ref, 1 append.
Pilot plant studies at the Davyhulme sewage treatment plant in England were
used to examine the mechanisms of oxidation in the activated sludge process at
high dissolved oxygen concentrations (up to 15 mg/liter). The objective of
the study, conducted by the North West Water Authority, was to evaluate the
oxygen-activated sludge system for nitrification, process variants, and per-
formance. Operational and design data for the pilot facilities are discussed,
including: pilot-plant equipment and operation procedures; staged oxygenation
system; completely-mixed activated sludge system; final settling tanks and re-
turn activated sludge system; surplus sludge disposal; oxygen/air comparative
tests; and monitoring equipment and testing procedures. Studies with munici-
pal and combined municipal/industrial wastes indicated that the performance of
the completely mixed reactor with gas stripping pretreatment at uniform mixed
liquor DO concentrations of 10 mg/liter was comparable to the liquid staged
reactor. Nitrification was achieved with the use of the oxygenation system,
with best results occurring when sodium hydroxide was used to maintain the
PH/alkalinity within a 7.3-8.0 range. Better overall performance in the
treatment of combined wastes was observed during use of the reactor at DO con-
centrations of 10 mg/liter than with conventional air concentrations of 1-2
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mg/liter. Surplus sludge production was reduced by as much as 40% by the high
dissolved oxygen concentrations the reactor.
D151
RECENT ADVANCES IN SEWAGE EFFLUENT DENITRIFICATION: PART I,
Cooper, P. F., Drew, E. A., Bailey, D. A., and Thomas, E. V.
Water Research Centre, Stevenage Laboratory,
Stevenage, United Kingdom.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 287-300,
1977. 8 fig, 6 tab, 17 ref.
Results of an investigation by the Water Research Centre in England on deni-
trification in sewage treatment are presented. A modified activated sludge
system with four compartments connected in series was used in studies to com-
pare nitrogen removal by conventional activated sludge processes and by a
modified activated sludge unit. The differences in removal of BOD, COD, and
organic carbon between the two systems were insignificant. Nitrogen removal
for the modified unit was 58-88% as compared with 35-45% for the conventional
unit. Large-scale testing of the modified process was conducted at the Rye
Meads sewage treatment works. An anaerobic zone was created in the first of
four units with a four-pass plug-flow diffused-air activated sludge treatment
unit. Total nitrogen was successfully reduced from 40.4 mg/liter to 21.2
mg/liter. Three additional units were connected in series. Performance of
the individual units is compared in terms of reductions in ammonia and
oxidized nitrogen. The percentage reduction of oxidized nitrogen was 47.7%
for the first unit, 48.5% for the second unit, 52.9% for the third, and 53.7%
for the fourth.
D152
LISNASKEA SEWAGE-TREATMENT WORKS,
Sanderson, W. I. D.
Kirk, McClure and Morton, Consulting Engineers,
Belfast, Ireland.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 332-339,
1977. 1 fig, 3 tab, 2 ref, 1 append.
The Lisnaskea sewage treatment facility in County Fermanagh in Ireland is
described. The system treats combined municipal and industrial wastes for a
design population equivalent of 8,000. Treatment at the Lisnaskea plant in-
cludes a double stage pretreatment system with interstage sedimentation with
Flocor towers to reduce the influent BOD concentration from a maximum of 1,500
mg/liter to a maximum of 300 mg/liter. Treatment of domestic sewage which may
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contain storm water Includes grLt removal with a Pista grit trap. The pre-
treated combined industrial and municipal wastes are pumped to the activated
sludge plant by means of three centrifugal pumps. Pre-aeration mixing tanks
are used to minimize the effect of shock loadings from dairy effluent. The
main aeration tanks for combined wastes are serviced by a fine-bubble diffused-
air system. Aerated effluent is transferred to secondary sedimentation tanks
and then to tertiary upflow clarifiers. Aerobic digestion tanks are used to
treat surplus sludge from the activated sludge plant. Sludge from the aerobic
digestion tanks is settled in sludge consolidation tanks and piped to one of
four drying beds. The BOD of domestic sewage is reduced in the final effluent
from 254.9 mg/liter to 9.7 mg/liter, and the suspended solids from 222.4
mg/liter to 11.9 mg/liter. The industrial effluent pretreatment plant reduces
influent BOD from 1,116 mg/liter to a concentration of 286 mg/liter in the
effuent. Suspended solids are reduced from 439 mg/liter to 63 mg/liter.
D153
LOAD BALANCING AT SEWAGE-TREATMENT WORKS: THE SOUTHAMPTON UNIVERSITY PILOT
PLANT AT MILLBROOK,
Helliwell, P. R., and Reed, R. J. R.
Southampton University,
United Kingdom,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 355-372,
1977. 14 fig, 2 tab, 10 ref.
Load balancing in sewage treatment was investigated with a 45.4-cu-m/day pilot
plant at Southampton University in Millbrook, England. The design of the
pilot plant follows that of a conventional treatment plant with a diffused-air
activated sludge system with the addition of an off-line balancing tank.
Design data is presented for the primary sedimentation tank, activated sludge
thickening tank, off-line balancing tank, aeration tank, and construction and
materials. Control systems which are described include: load balancing con-
trol, influent flow control, level control, instrumentation, fail-safe ar-
rangements, and the reactivated sludge rate. Measurements for organic strength
are described. Aspects of process kinetics which are discussed include:
steady and variable flow rates, steady and variable concentration, steady and
variable load, the plug flow reactor, and the continuous stirred tank reactor.
The effects of load balancing on flow, BOD, and load variations in primary and
final effluents are discussed. A flow diagram for a computer program to
regulate operations of a load balancing system is presented.
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D154
BIOLOGICAL DECOMPOSITION OF REFRACTIVE COMPOUNDS AFTER CHEMICAL OXIDATION
(Biologischer Abbau refraktaerer Verbindung nach chemischer Oxidation),
Janicke, W.
Institut fure Wasser-, Boden- und Lufthygiene des
Bundes ges undhei ts amtes Barli n-Dahlem,
Berlin, West Germany.
Gesundheits-Ingenieur, Vol. 98, No. 7/8, p 208-212, 1977. 2 fig, 71 ref.
The chemical oxidation of stable tensides, such as tetrapropylenebenzene-
sulfonate (TBS) and nonylphenolethoxylate (NPE) by chlorination and ozonation,
and its effect on the efficiency of the subsequent biological waste water
treatment were studied under laboratory conditions. The tenside concentration
in the water was about 4.8 g/liter for ozonation for 2.5 or 8 hrs. The flow
rate of the ozone-containing oxygen was about 200 liters/hr for TBS, and
80-100 liters/hr for NPE. The pH was maintained at the neutral point. Chlo-
rination was performed at 10 C with a weak chlorine gas current for 5 hr, or
with chlorinated water for 30 min. Ozone had only slight effect on TBS and on
the subsequent biological treatment, while it oxidized NPE effectively and in-
creased the efficiency of the biological treatment by about 100%. Chlorine
oxidized NPE more effectively than TBS, but it also increased the efficiency
of the biological degradation of the latter.
D155
THE PURIFICATION OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER BY MEANS OF ACTIVATED CARBON AFTER
LOW LOADING BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT AND FILTRATION (Reinigung von kommunalem
Abwasser mittels Aktivkohle nach schwach belasteter bioligischer Reinigung und
Filtration),
Roberts, P., Gujer, W., and Eugster, J.
Eidgenoessische Anstalt fuer Wasserversorgung Abwasserreinigung
und Gewaesserschutz (EAWAG),
Duebendorf, West Germany.
Vom Wasser, Vol. 48, p 47-70,. 1977. 13 fig, 9 tab, 9 ref.
In some instances, Switzerland's strict effluent standards necessitate advanced
treatment to remove dissolved organic carbon from municipal waste water.
Pilot-scale studies were used to examine the effect of operating parameters,
including the brand of activated carbon, grain size, and filtration rate, on
fixed bed adsorption processes. The experiments examined adsorption perfor-
mance, concentration profiles, and activated carbon capacity. Data for oxygen
consumption in the activated carbon bed were used to estimate the degree of
biological degradation of organic compounds. Gas chromatography was used to
study the removal of specific organic compounds.
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D156
REMOVAL OF UNCOMMON TRACE METALS BY PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES,
Hannah, S. A., Jelus, M., §nd Cohen, J. M.
Chemical Treatment Section, Wastewater Research Division,
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2297-2309,
November, 1977. 3 fig, 9 tab, 36 ref.
Measurable concentrations of various trace metals which are toxic at even low
concentrations can be found in domestic waste waters. Studies have been con-
ducted to evaluate the capability of physical-chemical processes in municipal
waste water treatment for removing these metals. A research project at the
EPA Environmental Research Center in Cincinnati, Ohio, utilized a 4 gpm
continuous-flow pilot plant which received raw waste water from a residential
suburb of the city. The plant included a rapid mix flocculator, settler with
sludge storage tank, dual-media filter with backwash collection tank, and two
parallel carbon adsorption systems. The raw waste water was dosed with salts
of 11 uncommon trace elements, including: Ag, Be, Bi, Co, Mo, Sb, Se, Sn, Ti,
Tl, and V. Metal removals by each unit process were calculated. The system
was operated to provide optimum removals of suspended solids and organics
rather than metals. The system was tested with three different coagulants,
including lime, ferric chloride, and alum, and the metal removal efficiencies
were compared. The data indicated that, with the exception of Sb and Mo, one
or more of the coagulants were capable of achieving metal removals of more
than 90%. For the lime system 90% removals were not achieved for Mo, Sb, and
Se. In the ferric chloride system 90% removal did not occur for Co, Tl, Mo,
Sb, and Se. Chemical clarification with alum removed less than 90% of Mo, Tl,
Zn, Mn, Ni, Co, Cd, Sb, and Se.
D157
QUARTERNARY AMMONIUM THICKENING OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD,
Wang, L. K., Wang, M. H., Ziegler, R. C., and Strier, M. P.
Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, New Jersey,
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development, Vol.
16, No. 4, p 311-315, December, 1977. 3 tab, 24 ref.
Since sludge handling and disposal costs comprise approximately 40% of the
total cost of the activated sludge process of waste treatment, much research
has been conducted in the fields of sludge thickening and volume reduction. A
sludge dewatering method, involving simultaneous settling and thickening of
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nonmagnetic sludge by magnetic fields, is described. The technique involves
chemical addition, flocculation, polarization, sedimentation, and disinfection.
The process is based on the addition of finely divided iron oxide particles to
the sewage sludge as both the weighing agent and the polarization-inducing
agent prior to the addition of a coagulant and floe formation. The agglomer-
ates which contain sludge solids, iron oxide, and a quarternary ammonium com-
pound are then flocculated and passed through a magnetic field for further
polarization to yield very high weight-to-surface-area floe particles. The
high specific gravity of the condensed floes results in rapid settling without
the need for secondary flocculation. The addition of a quarternary ammonium
compound also disinfects the settled sludge and supernatant.
D158
APPLICATION OF PHOTODYNAMIC OXIDATION TO THE DISINFECTION OF TAPWATER, SEA-
WATER, AND SEWAGE CONTAMINATED WITH POLIOVIRUS,
Gerba, C. P., Wallis, C., and Melnick, J. L.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Photochemistry and Photobiology, Vol. 26, No. 5, p 499-504, 1977. 5 fig, 2
tab, 20 ref.
The prevalence of enteroviruses in chlorinated waste water effluents presents
a major obstacle to waste water reuse. Photoreactive dyes have already been
used to inactivate microorganisms in a variety of medical applications. Labo-
ratory studies have indicated that exposure to methylene blue dye and visible
light can result in photoinactivation of poliovirus in tapwater, sewage, and
seawater. Exposure of poliovirus type 2 to 670 nm light in solutions contain-
ing 5 ppm methylene blue at pH 10.0 resulted in an average virus reduction of
2.5 logs. A multi-hit inactivation event was suggested by the biphasic inac-
tivation curve produced regardless of dye concentration, pH, temperature, sen-
sitization time, nature of suspending solution, or sequence of light exposure.
The rate of virus photoinactivation was increased by pre-incubation of the
dye-virus mixture at 24 C. Increasing dye concentrations above 10 ppm did not
significantly enhance photoinactivation. In the absence of visible light, high
dye concentrations in the range of 20-45 ppm did result in significant inac-
tivation of poliovirus. Alternating light and dark periods did not signifi-
cantly affect inactivation. The use of natural light sources for dye-
sensitized photoinactivation is suggested as a means of reducing disinfection
costs.
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D159
MAKING OPTIMUM USE OF FILTER MEDIA IN WASTEWATER FILTRATION,
Maxwell, M. J., Work, S. W., Linstedt, K. D., and Bennett, E. R.
Black and Veatch Consulting Engineers,
Denver, Colorado.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 12, p 56-61, December, 1977. 9 fig, 3
tab, 19 ref.
A two-phase pilot plant investigation was used to examine the effects of
chemical pretreatment and the depth and composition of the filter media on
filter performance in waste water treatment. Activated sludge effluent was
obtained from the Metropolitan Denver waste water treatment plant and used in
studies on filtration of secondary effluent and alum-coagulated secondary ef-
fluent with and without settling prior to filtration. Components of the pilot
system included: a head tank, rate control valves, pre-sedimentation tank for
minimizing influent solids variations, on-line alum injection, flocculation
tank, clarifier, polymer feed, filters, and an on-line turbidimeter. Various
bed depths of coal, sand, and garnet were employed in the study. The filters
were operated in three modes: standard clarification, high rate clarifica-
tion, and plain filtration. Filtrates were analyzed for BOD, COD, suspended
solids, total phosphorus, and total and fecal coliforms. Plain filtration was
capable of reducing suspended solids levels in the effluent to 1-2 mg/liter
over filter runs in excess of 20 hr at 6 gpm/sq ft. Although coagulation with
alum and polymer addition produced a high quality effluent, rapid head loss
developed because of the high solids loading and relatively weak chemical floe.
In mixed media filters, the coarser coal layer was responsible for removal of
most of the floe solids. The finer sand and sand-garnet media were responsi-
ble for solids retention in the high rate system. Mixed media filters were
more effective than dual media filters in the high rate and standard clarifi-
cation systems, although this difference was not apparent during plain filtra-
tion.
D160
BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN CONTROL IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT (Gesuishori shisetsu
ni okeru chisso jokyo ni kansuru kenkyu),
Ando, S., Kobrio, K., and Yagibashi, I.
Showa 51 nendo kankyo hozen kenkyu seika shu, No. II, Vol. I., No. 97, p 1-28,
1977. 37 fig, 9 tab, 18 ref.
Studies were conducted to determine the physical, chemical and biological con-
ditions required for effective nitrification in the conventional activated
sludge process. Other objectives of the studies included the definition of
optimum operating conditions for nitrification and organic removal at existing
sewage treatment plants and the development of recovery techniques for organic
carbon as a source of carbon for the denitrification process from anaerobic
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digester supernatant. Studies on the effects of sludge retention time (SRT)
on nitrification revealed that the distribution of organisms in activated
sludge was controlled by the SRT. At a temperature of 20 C in a mixed culture
system, an SRT of 7.4 hr was required for generation of ammonium oxidizers,
11.6 hr for nitrite oxidizers, 2.5 days for activated sludge ciliates, 3.5 days
for Rotifera, and 13.6 days for Sarcodina. The optimum pH for nitrification
was 8.0, with shock to the system due to organic loading becoming severe at
lower pH values. A nitrifier concentration of 10,000 N/ml was required to
maintain nitrates in the effluent. SRT's of 11, 6, and 3 days are required
for effective nitrification at pH's of 6, 7, and 8, respectively. Studies on
the effects of trace inorganics indicated that the presence of magnesium and
phosphates accelerated nitrification. High dosages of nitrate, fluoride, sul-
fate, iodide, bromide, and chloride ions slowed nitrification rates in the
presence of phosphate.
D161
AEROBIC DIGESTION OF SEWAGE LIME SLUDGE,
Tsai, K-C.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2323, 1977.
Laboratory studies were conducted to establish design and operational criteria
for aerobic digestion of lime sewage sludge generated during phosphorus pre-
cipitation in a primary clarifier. Batch and semi-continuous flow reactors
were operated at temperatures of 10, 20, and 30 C. Parameters used in the
evaluation of optimal process design and control included: detention time,
oxygen uptake rate, volatile suspended solids destruction, liquid sludge COD
reduction, supernatant COD and phosphorus contents, sludge settleability and
dewaterability, and potential phosphorus release. The studies indicated that
lime sludges having an initial pH as high as 11.0 are aerobically digestible
in the presence of appropriate microorganisms. An optimal sludge retention
time of 10 days and an air flow of 60 scfm/1000 cu ft of digester volume were
suggested for a semi-continuous flow unit operating at 20 C. A dissolved oxy-
gen concentration of 1-2 mg/liter and a pH above 7.0 are recommended to mini-
mize potential phosphorus release from the sludge to the liquid phase. The
sludge was easily settled and dewaterability was improved significantly by
digestion.
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D162
A LOOK AT NEWER METHODS FOR DEWATERING SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Villiers, R. V., and Farrell, J. B.
Ultimate Disposal Section, Municipal Environmental Research Lab,
Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 12, p 66-71, December, 1977. 9 fig, 4
tab, 11 ref.
Although incineration has been widely used as a sludge disposal technique, high
fuel costs have begun to render the process uneconomical unless the sludge can
first be dewatered to a solids concentration of greater than 30%. This value
is critical, since the sludge will burn autogenously above a solids concentra-
tion of 30%. Although vacuum filtration and centrifugation can dewater sludge
to about 20% solids, the amount of auxiliary fuel required for incineration is
still considerable. The Klein belt filter press was developed in Europe in
the early 1960's and first introduced into the United States in 1971. Pilot
studies at the Allegheny County waste water treatment plant in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, have indicated that the belt filter press is capable of produc-
ing a sludge cake of 30% solids or greater, 5-12% higher than expected with a
vacuum filter. Other filter presses which have achieved solids concentrations
as high as 44% include a twin roller press, a high-solids filter, screw pres-
ses, and diaphragm filter presses. Design data and operating experiences are
presented for various commercially available filter presses.
D163
FIBRE MATS FOR LANDSCAPE ENGINEERING,
Waste and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 24, August, 1977.
Enka Glanzstoff of Germany has developed a series nylon fiber mats for use in
erosion control, riverbed linings, and sewage system canals, and for a variety
of landscaping applications. The Enkamat technical mats consist of several
layers of looped, nylon-6 threads in a bulky three-dimensional mat that can be
filled with soil, sand or gravel. The mats exert a braking effect on surface
water and winds and stabilize the loose or granular material which they con-
tain. Water permeability is increased and root growth promoted to enhance the
load-bearing capacity of the soil. Enkamat is available in 10- and 20-mm
thicknesses in rolls of 1-m width and 100-150-m length.
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D164
CONCRETE STAVE TANKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 44, August, 1977.
The "Prestave" line of circular tanks, filter barrels and silos are manu-
factured by Tower Silos Ltd. for use in liquid storage, biological filters,
and chemical storage. The units are constructed of hydraulically-formed high
density concrete staves which are prestressed with external high strength
steel hoops during erection. The 760-mm long by 320-mm wide staves are avail-
able in thicknesses of 64 and 76 mm. Filter barrel capacities range up to
4,000 cu m with diameters of 3.04-26 m. Silo capacities range up to 1,500 cu
m with diameters of 3-30 m and heights up to 30 m. Storage tank capacities
range up to 1,400 cu m with heights up to 9.15 m and diameters of 3.04-18.3 m.
Specialized linings which are suitable to various applications are available.
Auxiliary equipment can be supported on the top of the tank or along the walls
of the tank itself, presenting an advantage in biological filtration with con-
ventional stone or plastic media.
D165
COMPLETE SERVICE FOR SLURRY RECYCLING,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 44, August, 1977.
Molex Limited produces a complete system for land disposal of digested sludge
as a fertilizer and soil conditioner. Used in England, the method has pro-
vided a viable method of sludge disposal which also returns essential nutri-
ents to the land. Much of the sludge transportation is accomplished by Molex
road tankers with capacities ranging 1,500-4,600 gallons. A Molex HD 130/100
screw pump is used to convey the load to a 4,600 GRP Molex transfer vessel.
For distribution over farm land, the sludge is pumped to agricultural slurry
tankers of the 900-gal fiberglass or 1,200-gal single axle type. The tankers
are equipped with flotation tires to minimize soil compaction and maximize the
travel range of the road tanker. The screw pump has an output of 22,000 gph
at 130 psi and 300 ft head and can be used during foul weather to pump the
slurry into irrigation lines with multiple spreaders. The HD 130/100 can also
be used as a diesel-driven mobile irrigation unit.
D166
SUBMARINE PIPELINE FOR RIVER WEAR,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 42, August, 1977.
The Northumbrian Water Authority in England has contracted the Engineering
Division of John Laing Construction to install a sewage pipeline on the sea
floor at Sunderland, Tyne and Wear. The project was initiated in an effort to
improve the water quality of the River Wear. It includes an evaluation of the
sewage outfall area about one mile south of Hudson Dock and fabrication and
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installation of 300 m of 1.4 m-diam piping at a total cost of 552,000 Ibs. The
pipe will be fabricated and joined in lengths of up to 120 m at Hudson Dock.
The concrete-coated pipe will be transported to the sea on a steel slide and
towed to the outfall site by tug. A pontoon-mounted crane equipped with a me-
chanical excavating grab will be used to excavate and backfill the pipe trench.
The pipeline will be connected to an existing outfall pipe at one end and
fitted with a concrete-coated diffuser at the other. Before disposal through
the new pipeline, sewage will be screened at the Hendon waste water treatment
plant.
D167
GLASS LINED TANKS GAIN POPULARITY,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 20, August, 1977.
Glass-lined tanks have come into use in the water and waste treatment indus-
tries and in a variety of industrial applications, including storage facili-
ties for fertilizer, fuel oils, fruit pulp, salt solutions, adhesives, sludge,
and chemicals. Tristorage Ltd. of Maidstone, Kent, England, produces a wide
range of tanks constructed from pre-drilled and radiused sheets to allow easy
transport and construction. A strong glass-to-steel bond and a smooth glass
surface are created by a process which involves firing at 845 C. The tanks
are resistant to corrosion, designed for storing liquids of a wide pH range,
and are available in sizes of 800-373,000 gal. They can be set on steel sup-
ports, installed at ground level, or submerged. The prefabricated sheets are
manufactured in 4'6" standard heights which are then bolted together. Flat
steel roofs, cast aluminum roof hatches, steel ladders, platforms, cages, and
handrails are also available as tank accessories from Tristorage. All seams
are sealed with a bituminous or polyurethane compound.
D168
REHABILITATION OF FILTER BED WALLS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 18, August, 1977.
The cracked and collapsing walls of the biological filter at Wessex Water
Authority's Bruton sewage works in England were repaired in three days using a
patented pre-cast concrete wall unit developed by Jan Brobowski and Partners
in conjunction with ECC Quarries Limited. Temperature variations in the area
had resulted in expansion of the wall, settling of the media, and cracking of
the filter walls as construction was resisted by passive pressure. Posf
tensioned cables had been initially wrapped around the walls, but they were
not effective in preventing further expansion of the cracks. The number of
additional cables required to alleviate the problem was prohibitive and back-
filling to minimize temperature fluctuations would have been difficult. The
last option under consideration was reconstruction of the filter. The ECC
units which were finally installed did not require removal of the existing
wall. Cooling contraction within the bolted joints of the ECC units prevents
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passive resistance failure via thin neoprene washers which absorb temperature
movements and transmit ring forces. Steel dowels are grouted into the filter
base slab to limit outward movement of the base of the filter wall. At Bruton
the new wall was constructed as closely as possible to the existing wall. The
remaining space between the two concentric walls was filled with pea-sized
gravel to transmit expansion forces.
D169
SEA OUTFALL FOR DORSET,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 38, 42, August, 1977.
Plans for a drainage system and sea outfall have been recently adopted by the
Wessex Water Authority in England as a solution to problems associated with
seven existing outfalls in the Weymouth and Portland areas. Extensive inves-
tigations prior to the development of a final design will evaluate environ-
mental conditions before and after the construction of the proposed outfall.
Studies will be conducted to select the most appropriate location and design.
The length of the outfall has been tentatively set at 1,200 m. The fate and
distribution of sewage bacteria from the outfall site will be assessed. Pre-
treatment requirements will also be evaluated. The discharge of ground and
screened domestic effluents via an outfall was chosen over the more costly op-
tion of construction of inland waste water treatment facilities. Concern has
been voiced over possible damage to Chesil Beach by the 140-ft deep outfall
tunnel. The total cost for sewers, pumping stations, headworks, and the sea
outfall is projected at 8,800,000 pounds.
D170
SOIL'S NATURAL PROCESSES CAN CLEAN WASTES FROM SEWAGE WATER,
Crops and Soils Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 2, p 23, November, 1977.
Naturally occurring chemical and biological processes in soils have been re-
commended for waste water treatment by Clarence Lance of the United States
Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona. The method is suggested,
in particular, for the removal of nitrogen and phosphate from waste water with
possible applications in the removal of organic material and fecal bacteria
from secondary sewage effluent. Studies at the Water Conservation Laboratory
used soil-filled pipes as models of a land filtration system. Waste water ap-
plication rates 20-30 times higher than those used for crop irrigation are
considered feasible in renovation of waste water with a high-rate land filtra-
tion system.
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D171
THE BANGOR PROJECT,
Building Systems Design, Vol. 74, No. 6, p 10-14, October/November, 1977. 1
fig-
Details of a sludge composting project being conducted in Bangor, Maine, by
the Office of Solid Waste Management Programs of the United States EPA are
presented. Objectives of the Bangor project were to evaluate the effects of
bulking agents on sludge, to examine the use of suction aeration for control
of odors and pathogens in sludge composting, to survey public opinion on sludge
composting, and to identify potential uses for the final product. The ap-
proximately 50 cu yds of sludge generated each week in Bangor is hauled to the
composting site and mixed with bark waste at a ratio of 3 parts bark to one
part sludge. The four 200-cu yd, active aerated compost piles which receive
the sludge/bark mixture are equipped with a piping network for suction aera-
tion to provide the necessary oxygen for microbial degradation and stabiliza-
tion of the sludge. The compost piles are monitored daily for temperature and
oxygen content to insure that microorganism requirements are met. Heavy
metals, primary nutrients, fecal coliform, Salmonella, and pH are measured
quarterly in the sludge and compost. Application of the screened compost is
currently limited to non-food chain crops.
D172
COMPOSTING RAW SLUDGE,
Epstein, E., and Willson, G. B.
Agricultural Environmental Quality Institute,
Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Building Systems Design, Vol. 74, No. 6, p 14-19, October/November, 1977. 3
fig, 2 tab, 8 ref.
The Agricultural Research Service in Beltsville, Maryland, has developed a
composting system for primary and secondary undigested sludge. Earlier un-
satisfactory experiences with windrow composting led to the development
of the forced aeration system. The raw sludge is first mixed with bark or
woodchips to provide bulk. Air is vacuum drawn through the pile while a cover
of finely screened compost from previous compost operations prevents odorifer-
ous gases from escaping into the atmosphere. Air suction is applied for a
period of 10-14 days and then the cycle is reversed to conduct air into the
pile for a period of 7-10 days. The compost is removed from the pile after 21
days and then moved to a stockpile for a 4-week curing period. The woodchips
are recovered for reuse when the cured compost is screened. The compost pile
is monitored to maintain temperatures of more than 45 C and oxygen levels of
5-15%. Equipment requirements for the forced aeration system are detailed.
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Pilot studies on composting of sludge obtained at the Blue Plains Waste Water
Treatment Plant in Washington, District of Columbia, are described.
D173
CENTRIFUGE FOR CONCENTRATING ACTIVATED SLUDGE (Concentration centrifuge des
boues activees),
La Technique Moderne, Vol. 69, No. 1, p 34, January, 1977. 2 fig.
Advantages of centrifugal thickening of activated sludges include no surcharg-
ing of primary clarifiers, reduced water recycling between anaerobic digesters
and the treatment plant, better gas production during digestion, and lower
energy needs. Screening devices in mechanical thickeners have presented prob-
lems. The Celleco Microsorter solves these problems by eliminating all solid
particulates at the pre-screening stage. The main components of the system
are a self-cleaning screen, the Microsorter, and the FESX 412/512 disk separa-
tor, which continuously discharges the concentrate through the nozzles. Grav-
ity separation removes the solids from the apparatus after collection. The
system can handle 20-30 cu m/hr of a feed solution containing up to 2% dry
solids.
D174
NEW WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 49, No. 4, p 122, 124, October, 1977.
Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. of Seattle, Washington, have designed a $2,220,000
waste water treatment system for the city of Monroe, Washington. The pro-
ject's objectives were to increase Monroe's sewage disposal capacity and
quality while providing for anticipated population increases and annexations.
The rotating biological contactor system which was supplied by Autotrol Cor-
poration of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, provides both primary and secondary treat-
ment. Three fine screens eliminate settleable solids during primary treat-
ment. In the secondary treatment phase, the screened waste water passes to
four ll"-diam biological contactors. Hundreds of polyethylene discs are at-
tached to the steel shaft of each contactor to provide a suitable medium for
bacterial growth. The shaft rotates to provide continuous contact between the
bacterial growth and waste water nutrients for conversion of the organic mat-
ter into carbon dioxide and water.
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D175
SLUDGE TOXICITY REDUCED,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 49, No. 4, p 146, 148, October, 1977.
Zimpro Inc. of Rothschild, Wisconsin, was contracted by the United States EPA
and the City of Louisville, Kentucky, for detoxification of a municipal sewer
system which had been accidentally contaminated with hexachlorocyclopentadiene
and octachlorocyclopentadiene. Preliminary tests by Zimpro indicated that
low-pressure wet-air oxidation was capable of producing a 93% reduction in the
chemicals. The oxidized sludge was then dewatered and incinerated in a
multiple-hearth furnace. Concentrations of hexachlorobenzene, a more stable
toxicant, were also reduced substantially by the Zimpro treatment process.
Approximately 6 million gallons of contaminated sludge has already been
treated in trial runs with Zimpro equipment at the Morris Forman waste water
treatment plant in Louisville.
D176
SEWAGE TREATMENT IN THE 1980s,
Stuart, W. J.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 483, 486, August, 1977.
The Spiral "S" aeration system has been developed by the Inka Division of A
Johnson Construction Ltd. The system includes a series of internal concentric
tanks which are arranged to provide plug flow conditions through the aeration
zone. The concentric channels also eliminate problems associated with surface
screw and short circuiting of inlet plug flows. Inlet screening, grit re-
moval, aerobic waste sludge treatment, internal settling tanks, and floccula-
tion tanks can be incorporated into the system. The precast concrete tank
construction and the process design result in a low overall cost for the sys-
tem. Spiral "S" aeration tanks are available in sizes for a population range
of 4,000-40,000 and can be arranged in parallel according to desired size and
loading capacity. The tank elements can be equipped with automatic monitoring
devices and can be constructed at the site.
D177
WASTEWATER TREATMENT FOR TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION CAMPS IN REMOTE LOCATIONS,
Eggener, C. L., and Tomlinson, B. G.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 81-83, November, 1977.
Stricter regulations on waste water treatment for temporary construction camps,
resorts, and other seasonal facilities have led to the design of a variety of
"packaged" physical-chemical waste water treatment systems. The operation,
modification, and maintenance of 36 of these systems are reviewed. Waste water
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treatment needs for construction camps are largely dependent upon the size of
the resident population and the work schedule. Typical waste water flows and
characteristics are presented. Waste water normally passes via gravity sewers
to rotary screens or comminutors and then to an aerated equalization tank where
coarse bubble aeration provides complete mixing. Packaged physical-chemical
treatment plants generally employ either powdered or granular activated carbon.
Waste water flows are usually coagulated with alum and flocculated with an
anionic polymer. Rough clarification, multi-media filtration, and chlorination
are used to further treat the waste water before it passes to an effluent per-
colation lagoon. Gravity thickeners and basket centrifuges are used to dewater
the remaining sludge prior to incineration. Various modifications which have
been made to packaged waste water treatment systems since their inception are
described.
D178
CHEMICAL TREATMENT AS A COST-EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT:
OPERATING VS. CAPITAL COSTS,
Daniels, S. L., Carmouche, L. N., and Driscoll, E. D.
Dow Chemical U. S. A.,
Midland, Michigan.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 333-343, 1977. 4 fig, 6 tab, 22
ref.
A summary of the technology, availability, environmental impact, and costs of
chemical treatment as an alternative to capital expansion is presented for four
secondary treatment configurations. The alternatives include: clarification
(25% hydraulic overload); clarification and aeration (25% hydraulic overload
and 20% organic overload); chemical treatment (flocculation); and chemical
treatment (coagulation and flocculation). Since chemical treatment can be in-
tegrated with existing facilities to increase plant capacities, it has been
suggested as a less costly alternative to the construction of new facilities
for compliance with Public Law 92-500. Chemical treatment can also be imple-
mented in 3-12 mos as opposed to the 36-60 mos normally required for capital
expansion. However, since most costs associated with chemical treatment are
incurred with daily operation and are not covered under federal funds, plant
expansion has generally been'favored by municipalities. Environmental impact,
sludge handling, economics, capital costs, and operating costs are discussed
with respect to benefits derived from chemical treatment. Chemical treatment
is also described as a means of "interim treatment" for those plants which must
go to capital expansion.
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D179
POST TREATMENT OF MOST HOSPITAL WASTEWATERS BY OZONATION FOR REUSE,
McNulty, K. J., Goldsmith, R. L., and Gollan, A. Z.
Walden Research Division,
Abcor, Incorporated,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 252-264, 1977. 10 fig, 2 tab, 18
ref.
Laboratory and pilot studies are being used to develop an advanced waste water
treatment system for a mobile army field hospital. Design criteria outlined
by the U. S. Army Medical Research and Development Command specified that the
output capacity of the system be 4,000 gpd. Additional criteria included a
waste water recovery capacity in excess of 85%, equipment which fit into two
11.5' x 6.5' x 6.75' containers, a weight not in excess of 6,000 Ibs per con-
tainer, power consumption not in excess of 30 kw, and the capability of treat-
ing all types of hospital wastes. A three-step treatment process which in-
cluded ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and ozonation was chosen. Ozonation
studies were conducted on reverse osmosis permeates of hospital composite and
laboratory wastes. The studies concluded that ozonation of reverse osmosis
permeates was required to insure compliance with water quality standards of 5
mg/liter TOC and 10 mg/liter COD. The ozonation reaction rate was at its
maximum at intermediate temperatures of 40-50 C for both hospital composite
and laboratory waste. The rate of reaction was also more rapid at high pH's.
The rate of reaction of ozone with dissolved organics was increased by ir-
radiation with ultraviolet light. The free radical mechanism of ozonation was
cited as the cause of these reaction rate effects.
D180
PYROLYZING SEWAGE SLUDGE ALONE MOVES SLOWLY TOWARD MARKET,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 14, p 76, 80, 83, October, 1977.
The pyrolysis of sewage sludge, alone or in combination with refuse-derived
fuel, has been investigated because of greater energy recovery and less air
pollution than from conventional systems. Nichols Engineering and Research
Corporation of Belle Mead, New Jersey, has proposed a plan for the pyrolysis
of some 7,500 tons per day of wet sludge from New York City and the adjacent
northern New Jersey area. The operation should produce an energy equivalent
of $22 million per year of fuel oil at current prices. The need for alterna-
tive means of sludge disposal other than off-shore dumping and the prohibitive
costs of land disposal led to the selection of on-site disposal. Pyrolysis was
chosen over conventional incineration because it would produce less air pollu-
tion and could be carried out on a smaller, decentralized, basis. Various test
programs were conducted on sludges from several New York City plants. A small
pyrolysis plant has been installed in Deep Water, New Jersey, for the pyroly-
sis of 21 tons per day of wet sludge in a partial mode. The Deep Water fa-
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cility was also designed to regenerate activated carbon for use in the treat-
ment process.
D181
OZONE DISINFECTION AND OXIDATION IN A MODEL OZONE CONTACTING REACTOR,
Perrich, J., McCammon, J., Cronholm, L., Fleishman, M., and Pavoni, J.
Olin Corporation,
Brandenburg, Kentucky.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 225-229, 1977. 5 fig, 5 tab.
A semiflow batch reactor was used in laboratory studies to investigate ozona-
tion mechanisms and rates and to evaluate the use of ozone for the inactiva-
tion of poliovirus and E. coli in waste water. Pseudo first-order kinetics
were observed during the inactivation studies. The data suggested that there
is no threshold ozone dose for viral or bacterial inactivation. Extremely low
dose rates of ozone in buffered deionized water, 0.009 and 0.0008 mg 03/liter/
min, produced significant inactivation of poliovirus and E. coli. The experi-
mental data also suggested that standard laboratory frits and diffusers may
catalytically decompose ozone in the gas phase. The addition of a non-nitro-
genous carbonaceous compound in the form of dextrose enhanced virus inactiva-
tion. The addition of a nitrogenous carbonaceous compound in the form of
alanine had no effect on inactivation. In general, poliovirus was not as sus-
ceptible to inactivation by ozone as E. coli. Studies on inactivation me-
chanisms were inconclusive, although the data suggested that cell wall lysis
did not occur in E. coli inactivation by ozonation.
D182
NEW SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT INSTALLED,
World Dredging and Marine Construction, Vol. 13, No. 12, p 41, November, 1977.
1 fig.
The new physical-chemical sewage treatment system at the Nippon Kokan Tsurumi
shipyard in Japan was developed by Zurn Industries, Inc., of Houston, Texas.
The system is designed for the treatment of domestic sewage and is available
in standard capacities of 200, 400, and 600 cu m/day. When the sewage in a wet
well reaches a certain level, it is pumped to a contact chamber where acti-
vated carbon is added to adsorb the organic wastes. Flocculation with sul-
furic acid and polymer and separation of the solid material in a settling tank
comprise the next stage of treatment. The supernatant water is chlorinated and
then passed through an upflow filter before recirculation or discharge. The
BOD and COD at this point in the treatment process are both less than 10
mg/liter. Although operating costs are approximately 20% higher than those of
the conventional activated sludge systems, construction costs are about one-
third lower and the system is not dependent upon the needs of microorganisms.
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D183
LAGOONS GET SECONDARY TREATMENT OK,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 12, p 41-42, December, 1977. 1 fig,
1 tab.
The two main problems encountered in operating waste water treatment lagoons
are short-circuiting and hydraulic or organic overloading. Insufficient sun-
light will kill the oxygen-producing algae, thus limiting the growth of aero-
bic bacteria that degrade the organic wastes. The lower part of the ponds
should be sealed to prevent water from leaking out through the surrounding
soil. Covering the earth berras around the lagoons with asphalt is the pre-
ferred method of preventing erosion; vegetation is usually unsuitable. The
piping system should allow the operator to control flow and depth in each pond.
Such a system makes it possible to rest an overloaded pond, switch between
parallel and series operation, recirculate part of the effluent, control weeds,
and retain all effluent during the winter.
D184
STATE OF THE ART IN WATER TREATMENT DESIGN, INSTRUMENTATION, AND ANALYSIS,
Ryder, R. A.
Kennedy Engineers Incorporated,
San Francisco, California.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 69, No. 11, p 612-620,
November, 1977. 14 tab, 17 ref.
Sampling and analysis is recommended for the identification of water quality
variations which may influence treatment choice. Water treatment methods in-
clude chemical addition, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, taste and
odor removal, corrosion and scale control, and disinfection. Waste water re-
covery has been practiced for many years in California. Waste water recovery
ponds usually contain two basins. Pumps convey the waste water back into the
treatment plant's rapid-mixing chamber. Alum-coagulant and iron-coagulant
sludges are often very compressible, but only thicken naturally to about 10%
solids. Precoats or chemical additives are often required to filter or cen-
trifuge the sludge efficiently. Polyelectrolyte coagulants produce much
smaller quantities of sludge, reducing sludge handling five to 10 times com-
pared with alum sludge requirements. Sludge-disposal methods include: air
drying followed by burial, spraying on land, and mechanical dewatering. Me-
chanical dewatering is often the only method available for concentrating sludge
if the treatment plant site is restricted or too wet for air drying. Despite
the availability of improved centrifuges and automated press-leaf filters, me-
chanical dewatering is still costly. Water treatment plants frequently moni-
tor turbidity with a pilot filter to protect against coagulant chemical
inadequacy.
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D185
HEAVY METALS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE MAY MAKE IT UNSAFE FERTILIZER,
Farm Chemicals, Vol. 140, No. 11, p 98, November, 1977.
Sewage sludge may contain too much cadmium, zinc, and copper to allow safe,
application of the sludge as fertilizer on farm lands. Although crop growth
can be enhanced by nutrients in sewage sludge, the levels of heavy metals in
the edible parts of corn, potatoes, soybeans, wheat, and sorghum crops should
be monitored. During recent tests in which 20 tons of sewage sludge per acre
were applied to the soil, a significant increase in cadmium and other heavy
metals was observed in corn, potatoes, and wheat planted the following year.
Levels of cadmium were increased by 22 times in corn, 27 times in wheat grain,
and 4.3 times in potatoes. The average diet presently contains about 80% of
the safe level of cadmium. Therefore it is suggested that cadmium levels not
be increased in soil through the application of heavy metal-rich sludges.
D186
BREATHING NEW LIFE INTO POLLUTED WATERS,
Chemical Week, Vol. 121, No. 20, p 47-48, November, 1977.
A new plan has emerged for on-site clean-up of polluted rivers and lakes. The
process employs ships equipped with liquid oxygen aeration units. Two
Oxynautes have been built and tested successfully on the Seine and Deulle
Rivers in France. The larger of the two ships, the Poseidone C 1000 can treat
5,800 liters of waste water/sec. The Poseidonie C 500 treats 2,900 liters/
sea. The process can be applied to municipal wastes as well as industrial
wastes containing hydrocarbons. In the continuous treatment process on board
ship, turbine-propelled blades mix liquid oxygen with waste waters pumped into
a shipboard mixing chamber. Mixing is done under pressure to create high dis-
solved oxygen levels in the water. The oxygenated water returned to the
waterway provides an environment suitable for the bacterial consumption of
organic wastes. Dissolved oxygen levels in the range of 0.3-10.0 mg 02/liter
of waste water are required for the process.
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D187
DECOMPOSITION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE COMPOST IN SOIL: I. CARBON AND NITROGEN TRANS-
FORMATION,
Tester, C. F., Sikora, L. J., Taylor, J. M., and Parr, J. F.
Beltsvtlle Agricultural Research Center,
United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 459-463, October-December,
1977. 3 fig, 2 tab, 32 ref.
The rate and extent of decomposition of sewage sludge compost in soil was
studied in laboratory-scale incubation experiments. Freeze-dried compost made
from undigested sewage sludge was added to a loamy sand, a silt loam, a silty
clay, and a sand at rates of 0, 2, 4, and 6% of the dry weight. The soil-
compost mixtures were incubated at 22 C in a constant C02 atmosphere under
NH3-free conditions. Mineralization and decomposition rates were measured ac-
cording to C02 and NH3 evolution and changes in the organic and inorganic
fractions of C and N with time. The cumulative C02 evaluation was linearly
related to the sludge compost application rate. About 16% of the compost C
evolved in 54 days of incubation. N mineralization was lowest in the silt-
loam compost mixture. In the sand-compost mixture, mineral N was immobilized
during incubation. Evolution of NH3 from all mixtures was minimal. About 6%
of the compost N in the loamy sand-compost mixture had mineralized after 54
days of incubation. Interlattice fixation of NH3 may have occurred in the
silt loam and silty clay soils. The study demonstrated that the application
of sewage compost to different soils can result in different degrees of
mineralization, despite the linear relationship between decomposition and
sludge application rate.
D188
ALTERNATIVES TO DISINFECTION,
Budde, P. E., Nehm, P., and Boyle, W. C.
Wisconsin University,
Madison,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2144-2156,
October, 1977. 11 fig, 6 tab, 22 ref.
A continuous-flow pilot study was conducted for the City of Madison, Wisconsin,
to compare the bactericidal effectiveness of three alternate disinfectants on
secondary and more highly polished waste water effluents. The dose required
to reach a target level kill of 200 fecal coliforms/100 ml was used to assess
the bactericidal efficiencies of chlorine, ozone, and iodine. Cost data were
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prepared with respect to target level and effluent waste water quality. The
waste streams tested included nitrified activated sludge, nitrified rotating
film effluents, non-nitrified activated sludge, and non-nitrified dual-media
filter effluents. Disinfectant sensitivities based on changes in turbidity
were 03>I2>C12 for nitrified effluents and 03>C12>I2 for non-nitrified
effluents. Chiorination was less expensive than ozonation as long as dechlo-
rination was not required. Chlorination was adversely affected by the absence
of ammonia when the turbidity exceeded 1 JTU.
D189
PILOT PLANT STUDY OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT,
Directo, L. S., Chen, C-L., and Kugelman, I. J.
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts,
Los Angeles, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2081-2098,
October, 1977. 12 fig, 11 tab, 11 ref.
Pilot plant studies were used to evaluate the large-scale regeneration of
granular activated carbon exhausted on chemically clarified waste water. The
performance of a chemical clarification system using alum and polymer was ex-
amined. Granular activated carbon was evaluated for the removal of soluble
organic matter from chemically treated waste water. Techniques of hydrogen
sulfide control and thermal regeneration of activated carbon were also tested.
The pilot plant included a chemical clarification system followed by a single-
stage, packed bed, downflow granular activated carbon column. Carbon-treated
effluents during the 27-month study averaged 13.5 mg/liter COD, 6.7 mg/liter
suspended solids, 6.3 JTU turbidity, and 7.8 color units. Losses during car-
bon regeneration ranged 2.5-6.0%. Continuous sodium nitrate addition to the
column was more effective than oxygen addition, chlorination, or air-water
backwash for hydrogen sulfide control. Costs for a 10 mgd physical-chemical
treatment system, designed to produce an effluent with an average total COD of
25 mg/liter, dissolved COD of 16 mg/liter, and suspended solids of 8 mg/liter,
were projected at $0.07/cu m with the use of alum and polymer.
D190
EFFECT OF EXOCELLULAR POLYMER PRODUCTION ON THICKENING AND DEWATERING CHARAC-
TERISTICS OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Gulas, V., Bond, M., and Benefield, L.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 83, November, 1977.
The bioflocculation of bacterial cells in activated sludge can affect sludge
thickening and dewatering characteristics which ultimately control sludge
handling requirements. The agglutination of cellular organic material pro-
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duces readily settleable aggregates and also aids in overcoming biomass shear-
ing during sludge pumping and processing. This phenomenon allows removal of
the organic matter which has been oxidized by the bacterial cells. Investiga-
tions were conducted to describe the quantitative production of exocellular
polymers in activated sludge during continuous operation. The mode of release
of this polymeric material was also examined. Exocellular polymer concentra-
tions were compared with the degree of thickening observed during dissolved
air flotation of the sludge. The influence of naturally produced polymers on
the dewatering behavior of activated sludge was evaluated.
D191
UTILIZATION OF WASTEWATER RESIDUES TO RECLAIM DREDGED EMBANKMENTS,
Go, T. L., Vasuki, N. C., and Canzano, P. S.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 83-84, November, 1977.
Problems associated with the disposal of municipal waste water sludge contain-
ing higher than normal heavy metal concentrations have resulted in a study by
the City of Wilmington, Delaware, on the utilization of wastewater residues for
the reclamation of dredged embankments. The federally owned land along the
banks of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal was selected as the sludge disposal
test site. Advantages afforded by the site included: protection of the water
table aquifer by the mound of dredged materials, little potential for harvest-
ing of food crops, and the need for stabilization of the dredge spoils.
Studies were conducted to compare dredge spoil reclamation with digested sludge
and commercial fertilizer. Digested sludge from the Wilmington sewage treat-
ment plant was applied to the 16-acre test site at a rate of 45 tons per acre.
The area was then seeded with a K-31 tall fescue. Soil core samples taken be-
fore and after sludge application were analyzed for metals and anions. The pH
of the soil water extract was also measured. Experiences with the sludge ap-
plication were favorable, as the low pH of the dredge spoil was raised from 3
to 4. The growth and regrowth responses of grasses in the sludge-treated area
were also .improved. Sludge application reduced the leaching of heavy metals
from the dredge spoils.
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D192
THE GREAT LAKES CLEANUP,
Walker, K. H.
Great Lakes Regional Office,
International Joint Commission,
Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 85, November, 1977.
The 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement was adopted to ensure effective
pollution control via Canadian and American programs. One of the major goals
of the project was to reduce phosphorus inputs and control eutrophication in
the Great Lakes. Effluent standards for municipal waste water discharge have
been set at 1.0 mg/liter for plants discharging in excess of 1 mgd. Although
phosphorus loadings have decreased since 1975, to date only 9 of the 44 muni-
cipal waste water treatment plants are meeting phosphorus standards. Current
activities of the International Joint Commission have been directed toward
evaluating the use of sodium nitriloacetate as a replacement for phosphorus in
laundry detergents. The commission also plans to provide information on Great
Lakes water quality and the persistence of toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes
ecosystem.
D193
SYKES HANDLE PUMPEX SUBMERSIBLES,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 10, p 7, October, 1977.
Pumpex AB of Sweden is prbducing a line of submersible drainage and sewage
pumps. Six sizes of drainage pumps are available with 15 different versions
capable of outputs of 70-840 gpm. Two of the models have torque flow impellers
and are specifically designed for pumping solids in waste water. Drainage
pumps suited to restricted access areas, such as deep wells and narrow
trenches, are produced with overall diameters of 11.25 inches. A wide variety
of sewage pumps for treatment plants and main drainage systems are produced by
Pumpex. The sewage pumps have interchangeable components, allowing for many
variations. The sewage pumps handle a capacity from 2100 gpm, when equipped
with single channel impellers, and up to 1210 gpm with torque flow models.
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D194
LAND APPLICATION GUIDELINES FOR SLUDGES CONTAMINATED WITH TOXIC ELEMENTS,
Garrigan, G. A.
Northern Virginia Community College,
Woodbridge,
Division of Environmental and Natural Sciences.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 2, p 2380-2389,
December, 1977. 5 tab, 25 ref.
Guidelines proposed for regulating the land application of municipal sludge
containing toxic elements are reviewed. The first guideline limits sludge ap-
plication on the basis of maximum concentrations of toxic elements in the
sludge or the maximum ratio of ammonium nitrogen to toxic element concentra-
tions. The major toxic elements discussed are zinc, copper, nickel, boron, and
cadmium. The second guideline proposes maximum allowable concentrations of
zinc, copper, and nickel in sludge destined for application to soils having no
previous history of sludge application. This guideline would be modified to
set limits for toxic elements in soil already having received sludge. The
toxicity of cadmium to animals and humans is the concern of another guideline.
An optimum nitrogen, or nutrient, loading rate to soil is suggested in the
last guideline.
D195
IMPROVING SLUDGE INCINERATION AND VACUUM FILTRATION WITH PULVERIZED COAL,
Hathaway, S. W., and Olexsey, R. A.
Ultimate Disposal Section, Wastewater Research Division,
Environmental Protection Agency Municipal Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2419-2430,
December, 1977. 8 fig, 8 tab, 6 ref.
More efficient methods of filtration and combustion of primary sludge which
involve the addition of pulverized coal before the dewatering process were
tested. Autogenous incineration of the sludge was calculated as occurring at
a 25.9% cake solids content with a stack gas temperature of 427 C. Sludge is
normally incinerated with the aid of supplementary fuels such as natural gas
or fuel oil. The effects of adding coal to the sludge before and after de-
watering were examined. Mixing the coal and sludge before filtration yielded
a higher solids concentration in the filter cake. Experiments with pulverized
coal additions in the range of 0.1-0.4 kg/kg dry sludge solids determined that
autogenous combustion could be achieved with the addition of 0.11 kg coal/kg
dry sludge solids. For dewatering with a vacuum filter, the addition of the
pulverized coal to the sludge increased filter yield or throughput.
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D196
ENERGY FROM SLUDGE DIGESTION—A DEVELOPING RESOURCE?,
Thomp s on, L.
Process Engineering, p 44-45, August, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 6 ref.
Methane gas produced during sludge digestion in municipal waste water treat-
ment is proposed as an alternate energy source. Methane is generated, along
with carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water, as a by-product of the breakdown of
complex organic compounds. This breakdown enhances dewaterability and reduces
the quantity of organic solids and pathogenic organisms. Waste water treat-
ment plants in England serving a population of more than 100,000 accelerate
sludge digestion by raising the temperature in the storage tanks to 30-35 C.
This temperature increase improves gas production and shortens the time re-
quired for the digestion process. The methane produced by this process can be
used to generate heat and electricity for treatment plant operations. Other
uses have included heating of offices and greenhouses, substitutes for gaso-
line, refrigerating agents, incendiary bombs, and various research purposes.
D197
CATALYTIC DEODORIZING SYSTEM FOR HUMAN MANURE GAS, (Shokubai sanka ni yoru
shinyo gasu no dasshu shisutemu),
Watake, H., and Horikawa, T.
Toshiba Rebyu, Vol. 32, No. 10, p 824-834, 1977. 7 fig, 1 tab, 3 ref.
High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in sewage gas have generally required
pretreatment before contact with a catalytic oxidation system. A system
developed by the Toshiba Company of Japan eliminates the need for pretreatment
of sewage gas before deodorizing by catalytic oxidation. A corrugated honey-
comb catalyst is used in the Toshiba deodorizing system. The new system is
operated at higher than usual temperatures and can effectively reduce the high
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in the sewage gas without deleterious
effects on the catalyst. The Toshiba deodorizing system has been installed at
Amagasaki City in Japan.
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D198
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY PLANNING ON QUALITY OF LIFE IN THE NORTH,
Grainge, J.
North West Territory Region, Medical Services,
Department of National Health and Welfare,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, p 436-444, December,
1977. 4 fig.
Environmental planning is necessary in northern Canadian communities to alle-
viate unsanitary living conditions and to protect the environment. Long range
environmental engineering must conform with the severe climatic conditions in
northern Canada. The climate and the isolated nature of the area also con-
tribute to high construction costs and failure of conventional waste disposal
and water supply methods. Settlement sites, road layout, recreational facili-
ties and parks are considered important in planning. Consolidation of com-
munities could provide the solution to problems such as ice fogs, high costs
of long lengths of pipe needed for sewerage and water distribution systems,
and road maintenance and building. Examples of well planned communities in
Finland, Greenland, and Iceland are cited as evidence that environmental prob-
lems can be overcome with advanced planning. Suggestions for insulated sewage
and water pipes, waste disposal, and community planning are given.
D199
PRECIPITATED WASTE WATER PHOSPHORUS AS FERTILIZERS (Abwasserphosphate als
Duengemittel),
"~i
Cervenka, L., and Timmermann, F.
Institut fuer Agrikulturchemie,
Gottingen? West Germany.
Deutsche Gewaesserkundliche Mitteilungen, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 6-7, 1977. 9 ref.
The use of phosphorus precipitated from municipal waste water as a fertilizer
was investigated. The precipitation of phosphorus using mechanical and bio-
logical methods resulted in only 30% removal. A 95% removal of phosphorus was
realized through chemical treatment using ferric and aluminic salts or lime.
These phosphorus precipitates were tested for their solubility and yielding
properties. The tests were performed to gain a better understanding of the
effectiveness of phosphorus precipitates from waste water as a fertilizer.
Phosphorus is contributed to water through soil erosion, drainage, excrement,
both animal and human, and detergents. The amount of phosphorus contributed
by municipal waste water is calculated at 3-4 g/person.
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D200
TREATMENT: NOT A THING OF THE PAST,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 12, p 21, December, 1977.
Waste water treatment and collection facilities, having a capacity of 30 mgd
with provisions for expansion to 100 mgd, were completed in 1976 for Raleigh,
North Carolina. The system was designed to serve the waste collection needs
of the city through the year 2020. In 1886, Raleigh's sewer system discharged
untreated waste water into the Walnut Creek and Crab tree Creek, tributaries to
the Neuse River. A suit was filed against the city of Raleigh by a town whose
water supply came from the Neuse River. Although the 1930's suit was dis-
missed, after World War II Raleigh was forced to construct sewage treatment
facilities. The plant, completed in 1956, employed primary treatment, filters
with secondary clarifiers, anaerobic digesters, sludge thickening and dewater-
ing, and chlorination. Plans for the new waste water treatment facilities
began in 1969 when the original system became overloaded. The treatment sys-
tem, which cost over $26 million, has three sewer interceptors, two sewage
lift pump stations, and a waste water treatment plant.
D201
SACRAMENTO REGION MOVES FAST ON WASTEWATER CLEANUP,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 3, p 52, January, 1978.
The Sacramento County Regional Sanitation District's $395-million secondary
waste water treatment system is scheduled to become operational late in 1980.
The federal funds for the project comprised the largest waste water treatment
project grant awarded at the time. In the early 1970's, the 21 separate waste
water collection and treatment systems in the Sacramento area were under pres-
sure from the state of California to improve their treatment facilities. By
late 1973, agreements were signed to construct a central plant. A $75-million
bpnd issue was approved by a 75.5% vote in June, 1974, for a plant to serve a
population of 70,000 in the 1980's. Property tax rates were immediately
raised to pay off the separate agencies' $25 million in debts. Sewerage costs
were also increased, and will be further increased, when the system is fully
operative, to about $7 monthly for residential users.
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D202
FULL SCALE EXPERIMENTATION ON THE NEW JOHANNESBURG EXTENDED AERATION PLANTS,
Nicholls, H. A.
City Health Department,
Johannesburg City Council,
South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 1, No. 3, p 121-132, October, 1975. 20 fig, 3 tab, 6 ref.
Full scale experiments were carried out to verify the long solids retention
time concept, the biological flocculation concept, the Bardenpho process to
remove nitrate, and the modified Bardenpho process to remove nitrate and phos-
phate. Most of the study was conducted at the Alexandra Works, north of
Johannesburg in South Africa. The waste water treatment facility was an ex-
tended aeration plant which treated 27-33 megaliters/day during the course of
the study. The theories were found to be correct. The use of a long sludge
age produced a sludge with good flocculation properties, and a high settling
velocity. The plant's operational procedure could be changed to remove nitrate
without additional cost. With nitrate removal, no sludge would rise in set-
tling tanks and the sludge could be thickened. An increase in pH when nitrates
were removed from the mixed liquor was advantageous in nitrification. Removal
of 45% of the phosphate was possible without additional cost.
D203
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA,
Bolitho, V. N.
Johannesburg City Council,
South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 1, No. 3, p 118-120, October, 1975. 2 tab.
South Africa's rapidly expanding urban population will require an additional
10,000-12,000 megaliter/day of waste water treatment capacity. The construc-
tion and operating costs of extended aeration plants of 100 megaliter/day ca-
pacity are estimated. New cost structures for sludge disposal methods must be
considered. Capital investments and operating costs for waste water treatment
over a 25-year period are estimated for various types of treatment. The cost
of treating municipal waste water to potable water standards is competitive
with that of supplying potable water from surface water supplies. A charge
levied on industries, based on the cost for treatment of their waste by the
municipality, forces the industry to consider pretreating the wastes before
discharging them to the municipal sewer. In the Johannesburg region, a
regional sewage system serves a total of 1.75 million people in the munici-
pality and eight other local authorities at about half the cost of independent
services in the peripheral areas.
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D204
WATER RECLAMATION—QUALITY TARGETS AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS,
van Vuuren, L. R. J.
National Institute for Water Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 1. No. 3, p 133-143, October, 1975. 4 fig, 10 tab, 6 ref.
In Southern Africa, secondary effluents have been reclaimed for industrial and
other purposes for some time. Most effluents from conventional sewage treat-
ment plants have marked diurnal and seasonal variations in quality with regard
to ammonia nitrogen, organic carbon, and alkalinity. Mineral quality, ammonia
nitrogen, dissolved organc constituents, and suspended solids all affect the
suitability of water for reuse. During recent years advanced treatment tech-
nology for waste water reclamation has progressed considerably. The Windhoek
and the Stander waste water reclamation plants in South Africa each treat 4.5
Mliters/day using lime treatment and carbon filtration. It is possible to
produce water meeting World Health Organization standards at an approximate
cost of 10 South African cents/kiloliter. Alum and polyelectrolyte additions
were used at another plant to improve treatment of waste water for reuse in
pulp bleaching operations. The reuse of waste water for industrial purposes
is possible at competitive prices and would be a rational way to deal with in-
creasing water demands. Strict operational control of reclamation plants is
required to produce potable water. Improved sewage treatment processes and
separation of toxic industrial wastes can greatly reduce risks.
D205
EFFECTIVE PHOSPHDRUS REMOVAL FROM SEWAGE BY BIOLOGICAL MEANS,
McLaren, A. R., and Wood, R. J.
National Institute for Water Research,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 2, No. 1, p 47-50, January, 1976. 5 fig, 1 tab, 5 ref.
The effects of an anaerobic stage on phosphorus removal by nitrifying-
denitrifying activated sludge treatment facilities were investigated. Treat-
ment of settled domestic sewage was studied with a 36 liter/day laboratory unit
and a 50,000 liter/day pilot plant in Daspoort, Pretoria, South Africa. Phos-
phorus in sludge was almost completely eliminated by release in an anaerobic
stage. A minimum residence time under anaerobic conditions appears necessary
for removal of phosphates. The phosphate removal mechanism is apparently
purely biological, since aeration and nitrate addition resulted in rapid up-
take of phosphates which were subsequently released under anaerobic conditions.
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D206
STUDIES ON DISINFECTION AND CHEMICAL OXIDATION WITH OZONE AND CHLORINE IN WATER
RECLAMATION,
Ross, W. R., van Leeuwen, J., and Grabow, W. 0. K.
National Institute for Water Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 2, No. 1, p 25-32, January, 1976. 6 fig, 2 tab, 34 ref.
The feasibility of using ozone for disinfection and oxidation of organic com-
pounds in reclaiming water from sewage was investigated in laboratory and pilot
plant studies. Laboratory studies showed Psuedomonas aeruginosa to be more
resistant to chlorine and ozone than Aeromonas hydrophila, Acinetobacter anit-
ratum, and Escherichia coli. A pilot plant with a 48-liter ozone reactor and
a 30-liter chlorine reactor was used to study disinfection efficiencies at the
4.5 M-liter/day Stander Water Reclamation Plant at Daspoort, Pretoria, South
Africa. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was used as the test organism. The disinfec-
tion studies showed ozone and chlorine to be equally efficient for disinfecting
chlorine demand-free water, although ozone was more efficient for water that
had a chlorine demand. This difference was attributed to the reaction of
chlorine with nitrogenous substances to produce chloramines, which are not as
efficient at disinfection as chlorine. Further laboratory studies ozonated
test solutions of pesticides and detergents for 3-5 min in a reactor column.
Ozone efficiently oxidized parathion, fenthion, lindane, dieldrin, Manoxol OT,
and LAS, which conventional chlorination does not oxidize. Combinations of
chlorine and ozone were recommended for disinfecting certain types of waste
water. Ozonation and activated carbon filtration followed by chlorination
were suggested to make water reclamation more economical and efficient.
D207
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON LAND,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 979, p 539, September, 1977. 1 ref.
The beneficial effects of sewage sludge disposal by land application can out-
weigh hazards if recommended guidelines are observed. The interim guidelines
for sludge application should optimize nutrient use and minimize any hazard to
humans, animals, crops, the soil, or the environment. The guidelines pub-
lished in a report by England's Department of the Environment and National
Water Council provisionally recommended application rates for numerous ele-
ments, including nitrogen. The guidelines are not mandatory, but are interim
targets pending publication of more scientific criteria. Comments on the
guidelines are being solicited by the Department of the Environment in London,
England. England's Standing Committee on the Disposal of Sewage Sludge was
set up by the Department of the Environment and the National Water Council in
1975. The Committee is responsible for reviewing land disposal of sewage
sludge and drafting a code of standard for sludge disposal.
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D208
FATE AND BEHAVIOR OF SELECTED HEAVY METALS IN INCINERATED SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Dewling, R. T.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2103, 1977.
Physical properties and heavy metal concentrations were measured for sludge
and ash from eight waste water treatment plants handling up to 50% industrial
waste. The median particle size of fluidized bed incinerator ash averaged
18.8 microns, and the median diameter of multiple hearth ash was 47.5 microns.
Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, nickel and zinc were preferentially concen-
trated with decreasing ash particle size. This relationship was attributed to
the form of the metals in the sludge, non-discriminate precipitation and ad-
sorption of the metals during drying in the incinerator, and collapse during
combustion of the metal-containing sludge matrix. Over 97% of the mercury
contained in raw sludge was released to the atmosphere at combustion tempera-
tures over 1350 F. Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, nickel, and zinc emis-
sions were under 1% of the total weight of metal contained in the sludge. The
ash metal content ranged 78-95%, depending on the metal, of the total content
in raw sludge.
D209
THE EFFICACY OF INCLINED TUBE AND PLATE MODULES IN A HIGH LIME CLARIFICATION
PROCESS,
van Vliet, B. M.
National Institute for Water Research,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 9, p 783-788, 1977. 6 fig, 5 ref.
A study was performed to ascertain whether tube and plate systems would im-
prove the performance of a clarifier in a high lime coagulation/clarification
process. The study was performed at the Stander water reclamation plant, which
uses the high lime process for chemical coagulation of bio filter humus tank
effluent. Sludge is produced at a rate of approximately 2000 kg dry solids per
day. The use of inclined tube and plate modules in the upper part of the high
lime clarifier improved the quality of the overflow. Hydraulic loading, pH,
and temperature, within defined limits, had relatively little effect on the
modules' performance. Flocculant dosage and clarifier turbidity strongly in-
fluenced the performance of the modules. At clarifier turbidities over three
Jackson turbidity units, the modules reduced carry-over of suspended material
by more than 50%. Although the modules were essentially self-cleaning, hosing
and brushing down were required approximately every 3 mos. Annual acid washes
were also recoranended to ensure continuous satisfactory operation.
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D210
AUTOMATION OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS: CONCLUSION—EXPERIENCES AND USE,
Cotton, P.
Norwich Sewage Division,
Anglian Water Authority,
Norwich, United Kingdom.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 9, p 461-465, September,
1977. 9 ref.
The Whitlingham works of the Norwich Sewage Division of the Anglian Water Au-
thority have recently been extended to handle a design daily waste water flow
of 55,000 cu m/day. The Whitlingham plant serves Norwich, England, and the
surrounding area. Since late 1973, new plant and automatic control sequences
gradually came into use. Initial problems involved preliminary treatment,
primary sedimentation, the activated sludge plant, sludge pumping, sludge
digestion, filter pressing, and motorized valves and penstocks. A problem with
foaming in the digesters was alleviated by adjustments in operating tempera-
ture, frequency and duration of mixer operation, and frequency of feeding.
Automatic control helped remedy problems associated with a dissolved oxygen
deficiency and sludge bulking in the activated sludge plant. Twenty-two
workers operate the automated facility, as compared with 20 before the plant
capacity was doubled and automatic control sequences were installed. The
power costs of preliminary and storm water treatment have also been reduced.
D211
WET AIR OXIDATION: EFFECT ON SLUDGE COMPOSITION,
Soimners, L. E., and Curtis, E. H.
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana,
Department of Agronomy.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2219-2225,
November, 1977. 2 fig, 4 tab, 6 ref.
A study was performed to obtain information on the forms of N, P, Cu, Zn, Ni,
Cd, and Pb in sludges processed by wet-air oxidation. Wet-air oxidation, a
pretreatment process to aid sludge dewatering, maintains the sludge at pres-
sures of 2340-2480 kN/sq m and temperatures of 180-200 C to cause partial
oxidation of organic matter and alteration of the sludge's physical charac-
teristics. Samples of sludge and decant liquors, taken before and after wet-
air oxidation, were obtained from the Terre Haute and Speedway, Indiana, waste
water treatment plants. The Terre Haute plant receives an average daily flow
of approximately 34,065 cu m/day, and-the Speedway plant receives an average
daily flow of approximately 17,000 cu m/day. Generally, total nitrogen reduc-
tions averaged over 50% with wet-air oxidation, although metal concentrations
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did not change or increased slightly. To satisfy a crop's nitrogen requirement
using wet-air oxidized sludge, higher sludge application rates will be re-
quired. This will, in turn, increase the annual rate of metal application.
The number of years the disposal site can be used will be reduced if wet-air
oxidized sludges are used. Wet-air oxidation tends to increase the phosphorus
content of sludges. Some sludges are unsuitable for wet-air oxidation. If
land application will be used for sludge disposal, wet-air oxidation may not
be feasible.
D212
SERVO CONTROLLED OPTIMIZATION OF NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION OF WASTE WATER
IN SOIL,
Enfield, C. G.
Waste Water Management Branch,
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada, Oklahoma.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 456-458, October-December,
1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 9 ref.
Studies were conducted to develop a servo control system which adjusts the
rate of waste water application to land to ensure nitrification-denitrifica-
tion. Operation of the control system is based on the potentials of five
platinum electrodes used in conjunction with a Calomel reference electrode. A
servo controller was used to regulate application of municipal trickling fil-
ter final effluent to four gravelly loam soil columns. The controller adjusted
the frequency of waste water application with respect to the Pt electrode
potential 6 cm under the soil surface. The duration of each application was
regulated according to a target potential measured 30 cm beneath the surface,
optimizing denitrification. Three soil columns received 7.5 metric tons (car-
bon) of digested municipal sludge/ha in the upper 30 cm of the profile. Waste
water application was continuously allowed by the servo controller for the
column that contained no sludge. Essentially all total Kjeldahl nitrogen-
nitrogen was converted to nitrate-nitrogen in the upper 3 cm of this column.
About 45% of the dissolved nitrogen disappeared in this column. Addition of
sludge increased apparent denitrification, so that total nitrogen removal
exceeded 90%.
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D213
EPOXY COATED GRATING RESISTS CORROSION IN SEWAGE PLANT APPLICATION,
Kelly, E. F.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 12, p 72, December, 1977.
A potential air contamination problem was presented by the combination of
strong chemicals and sewage in waste water treatment and incineration plants
located at the confluence of the Detroit and Rouge rivers. A self-ventilating
plant was designed. Industrial steel grating was specified for much of the
flooring of one of the incinerator complexes. A type of grating that offered
the load strength of the regular product, in addition to corrosion resistance,
was required. Ponbake epoxy-coated grating from Blaw-Knox Equipment, Inc., in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was selected. Waste flows from residential, commer-
cial, and industrial sources in Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties, as well
as storm water from Detroit and some Detroit suburbs, are treated. Volumes
sometimes exceed 1,000 mgd, but 800 mgd is typical. Ferrous chloride is used
to bind phosphates into a settleable form. Coarse screens remove solid ma-
terials and grit settling channels further remove inorganic material. The
waste water is then treated with polyelectrolyte addition, sedimentation and
skimming, aeration, clarification, and chlorination. Treated effluent is dis-
charged to the Detroit River; sludge is dewatered and transferred to 14 multi-
ple hearth furnaces. The ash is transported to a landfill. The industrial
grating at $3-5/sq ft was much less costly than conventional steel and con-
crete flooring.
D214
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF LAND UTILIZATION OF WASTEWATER EFFLUENTS AND SLUDGES,
Wolman, A.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2211-2218,
November, 1977. 2 tab, 17 ref.
The history and development of land-application of waste water and sludges are
presented. In 1922, Baltimore authorities were permitted to use wet waste
water sludge for fertilizer so long as certain conditions were met. The sludge
had to be digested for at least 10 days, transported in water-tight vehicles,
and applied before crops were planted. Soil accumulation of heavy metals con-
tained in sludge had been considered to pose a hazard under certain circum-
stances. Although land disposal must be accompanied by cautious pesticide use,
the latter cannot be considered as a primary constraint. Land disposal/ex-
periences over more than 100 years have indicated that application of waste
water or its derivatives to land is practicable, provided it is carefully, ef-
ficiently, and continuously managed. A site with appropriate soil permeability
and porosity must be available. Provisions must be made for storage in wet
weather. Waste water should not be used to fertilize crops which are eaten
raw. A monitoring program to protect groundwater quality should be instituted.
Potential hygienic risks must be detected and controlled. Land application as
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a means of sewage disposal is limited in the United States by regional varia-
tions in geology, hydrology, meteorology, and topography. The process may not
always be cost-effective.
D215
"USED" WATER USED AGAIN FOR IRRIGATION,
Crops and Soils Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 3, p 24, December, 1977.
Irrigation of farmland has been suggested as a means of recycling large amounts
of sewage treatment effluent, especially in California. California produces
1.7 million acre-feet of reusable waste water annually. Currently, two-thirds
of this is discharged directly into the ocean or estuaries. Municipal waste
water has already been used to irrigate small areas of farmland owned by Cali-
fornia sewage treatment agencies. Water supply and water treatment systems are
usually coordinated by different agencies, making cooperative planning dif-
ficult. Major waste water sources are also usually located some distance from
farming operations which need supplemental water. There are also uncertainties
involving benefits and costs, crop yields, and soil and water resources. Some
stable organic compounds found in waste water may be dangerous. Ideally, both
the farmer and the city should benefit from waste water reclamation for
irrigation.
D216
JURY ON LAND DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATER STILL OUT, MR. COSTLE,
Baxter, S.
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 12, p 28, December, 1977.
Health aspects of waste water and residual disposal on land were discussed at
the Water Pollution Control Federation's (WPCF) 1977 annual conference. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) will urge publicly-owned treatment plants
to use land treatment to reclaim and recycle municipal waste water. The engi-
neer designing a treatment plant must present evidence against the feasibility
of land application before standard mechanical and biological treatment pro-
cesses can be adopted. The health problems associated with land disposal are
not entirely understood. It is not known whether experience with land disposal
in Muskegon, Michigan, will be sufficient to ensure 1983 and 1985 water pollu-
tion abatement goals. Land disposal should only be considered when the
facility is properly operated and efforts are made to use sound engineering,
geological, farming, areal, meteorological, and economic expertise in design,
construction, and control procedures. Many of the narrow viewpoints stem from
arbitrary legal and regulatory provisions.
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D217
FULL-SCALE USE OF PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER AT ROCKY
RIVER, OHIO,
Moss, W. H., Schade, R. E., Sebesta, S. J., Scheutzow, K. A., and Beck, P. V.
Willard F. Schade and Associates, Incorporated,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2249-2254,
November, 1977. 3 fig, 5 tab, 3 ref.
The municipal waste water treatment plant in Rocky River, Ohio, processes an
average daily waste water flow of 37,850 cu ra, using chemical coagulation and
carbon adsorption. Operating data for an initial six-month period were used
to evaluate performance of the chemical treatment and carbon treatment systems.
Samples of influent, primary clarified effluent, and final plant effluent were
analyzed for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
suspended solids, and phosphorus. Samples of primary raw sludge, thickened
sludge, and thickener overflow were analyzed for percent solids. The effluent
complied with NPDES permit standards for secondary treatment and phosphorus
removal. Digested alum sludge production averaged 9.8 kg/sq m/hr; raw alum
sludge yield averaged 12.2 kg/sq m/hr. Problems with increased chlorine de-
mand and odor were attributed to anaerobic biological growth within the carbon
columns. Sodium nitrate addition and daily backwashing with air scour were
used to control hydrogen sulfide production. Operating problems included
separation of the rubber lining from the walls of the columns, physical
deterioration of the air scour diffusers, and loss of over 20% of the total
carbon volume during filtration. The operating cost was approximately
$0.079/cu m.
D218
SLUDGE IMPROVES SANDY SOIL, INCREASES YIELDS WITHOUT POLLUTING,
Crops and Soils Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 3, p 23-24, December, 1977.
The use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer can improve crop yields and increase
the level of organic matter in sandy soil. Application at crop fertilization
rates should not result in nitrogen pollution of groundwater. Anaerobically
digested sludge decomposes and releases nitrogen in the soil at a slower rate
than other varieties of sludge. Sludge from three waste water treatment
plants was applied to sandy soil over a 4-year period at rates of 13, 26, and
52 tons/acre/yr. The highest application rate, representing a normal 15-20
year addition rate, was 210 tons/acre of total dry solids. Corn yields in-
creased by an average of 60 bushels/acre at the high application rates. A
control plot which received commercial fertilizer produced 120 bushels/acre.
Nitrate levels in soil water below the corn root zone in plots treated with 13
tons of sludge/acre/yr were comparable to those in control plots fertilized
with 250 Ibs nitrogen/acre. Anaerobic sludge addition raised the organic mat-
ter level of the soil surface from 2.1 to 7.5%. Sewage sludge application
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should be limited to 5-10 tons/acre/yr to maintain high crop yields and low
nitrate levels in soil percolates.
D219
A FIELD STUDY OF THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE:
YIELD AND UPTAKE OF N AND P,
I. EFFECT ON CROP
Kelling, K. A., Peterson, A. E., Walsh, L. M., Ryan, J. A., and Keeney, D. R.
Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana,
Department of Natural Resources.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 339-345, October-December,
1977. 6 tab, 29 ref.
The effects of sludge application at rates based on typical fertilizer N ap-
plications to high sludge disposal loading rates were examined with respect to
crop yields, the residual fertility of the sludge, and the amounts of sludge-
applied N and P recovered by the crops. Anaerobically digested liquid sludge
was applied to field plots at rates of 0, 3.75, 7.5, 15, 30, and 60 metric tons
of dry solids/ha on a sandy loam and a salt loam. Rye or sorghum-sudan was
planted in the plots, followed by one to 3 seasons of corn. The first crop
after sludge application showed significantly increased yields for application
rates up to 7.5 metric ton/ha on silt loam soil and up to 15 metric tons/ha on
sandy loam soil. Application of 30 and 60 metric tons/ha occasionally de-
pressed yields of the first crop, possibly due to the presence of large quan-
tities of soluble salts. There were residual benefits from the sludge for 3
years or more at the higher application rates. Generally, an increase in
sludge application rate yielded higher concentrations of N and P in plant tis-
sue. Total nutrient recovery averaged about 50% for available N and 7% for P
at a low application rate, and about 14% for N and 3% for P at the highest rate
of sludge addition.
D220
REVIVING THE SEPTIC TANK,
Bell, H. F.
Bell Construction Company,
Matteson, Illinois.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 12, p 83-84, December, 1977.
Approximately 25% of the United States population depends on individual sewage
disposal systems. The septic tank for a single family house in Illinois is
required to have a capacity of 500 gallons for each bedroom in the house.
Percolation tests during a summer dry spell are used to determine the neces-
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sary trench area. Local requirements, which may call for distribution and drop
boxes at strategic locations, influence field design. Septic tank failures in
spring are typically caused by saturated soil and exceptionally high load;
summer and fall failures usually involve line stoppage. A series of recom-
mendations for improving septic sewage disposal are presented. Only organic
wastes should be disposed of in a septic tank. The sludge level should be
checked periodically; sludge and scum should be removed when the stored volume
approaches total capacity.
D221
EFFECTS OF PH AND MIXING ON POLYMER CONDITIONING OF CHEMICAL SLUDGE,
O'Brien, J. J., and Novak, J. T.
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Incorporated,
Wilmington, Delaware.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 69, No. 11, p 600-605,
November, 1977. 13 fig, 2 tab, 13 ref.
Laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate polymer performance with respect
to various sludge characteristics, including chemical composition, pH, spe-
cific resistance, and cake solids. Polymers were mixed with sludge samples in
300 ml beakers, and the amount of polymer needed to achieve a maximum decrease
in specific resistance was determined. Organic polymers can be used to im-
prove dewatering rates of inorganic sludges. The trial-and-error method
usually used to select polymers can be greatly simplified when the polymer
characteristics are provided. Cationic polymers are most efficient at pH of 7
or less. Nonionic polymers and the lower percent hydrolysis anionic polymers
function effectively at pH 6.5-8.5. The effectiveness generally decreased as
the pH increased. The 50% hydrolysis anionic polymer was most effective above
pH 8.5. Too much or too little mixing can greatly reduce polymer effective-
ness. The required degree of mixing depends on the solids concentration in
the sludge.
D222
PROCESS MODIFICATIONS OF AEROBIC DIGESTION FOR PRODUCT STABILITY AND NITROGEN
CONTROL,
Hartman, R. B.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2326-2327, 1977.
Aerobic digestion was evaluated for reducing odor and nitrate contamination
problems associated with land application of sludges from .waste water treat-
ment. Laboratory-scale studies indicated that biological oxidation of nitro-
genous material in the sludge provided greatest flexibility in sludge nitrogen
control. The maximum digestion rate occurred near 30 C. Product stability
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increased with detention time. The degree of stability depended strongly on a
small biodegradable fraction that was oxidized shortly before the end of the
digestion process. Additional alkalinity, which could be introduced by in-
cluding a reactor for biological dentrification in the aerobic digestion se-
quence, was needed to maintain conditions favorable for completion of the ni-
trification reactions. Aerobic digestion of waste water sludges was con-
sidered viable, yielding a product which was highly stable and suitable for
land application.
D223
SLUDGE TREATMENT PROCESS OFFERS FLEXIBILITY, LOW COST,
Evans, R. R.
Dorr-Oliver, Incorporated,
Stamford, Connecticut.
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 84, No. 26, p 86-88, December, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab.
Split-stream thickening, in which primary and waste activated sludges are sep-
arated and concentrated independently before further processing, can result in
a savings of about 15% on the capital cost of conventional sludge thickening.
Primary sludge is formed when influent is detained in settling tanks; micro-
organisms, using the dissolved organics as an energy supply, clump together to
form activated sludge in a secondary treatment step. It is difficult to ac-
curately predict the amounts of primary and biological sludges that a given
facility will produce. When primary and activated sludges are combined at
various ratios, operating results will deviate significantly from the design
calculations. Dewatering of primary sludge in a conventional gravity thick-
ener and activated sludge with a high capacity centrifuge alleviates these
problems. The capital and operating costs for the split-stream process are
site-specific, so it is difficult to give meaningful economic data.
D224
KANSAS TREATMENT PLANT USES SUBSURFACE INJECTION OF SLUDGE,
Strain, R. E.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 42-44, November, 1977. 2 fig, 1
tab, 1 re f.
Design features of the Manhattan, Kansas, municipal waste water treatment
plant include subsurface injection of sludge on farmland, preloading of the
poorly consolidated soils, no primary sedimentation, and duplication of power
supply and treatment components. The fill material excavated during construc-
tion of underground structures at the sludge injection site was used in levees
for the storm water lagoon. The activated sludge plant and an interceptor
sewer were constructed near a flood control levee on the Kansas River. Wet
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weather flows in excess of the design maximum dry weather flow are pumped to a
storm water settling basin. After excess flows subside, the storm water is
returned to the plant for treatment. The treatment system includes an aerated
grit removal basin, two coraminutors, two aeration basins, two final sedimen-
tation basins, and two chlorine contact basins. Waste sludge is piped to the
center of each 16-acre sludge disposal tract at the 120-acre site. A hose
carries the sludge to the tractor-pulled subsurface injector. Construction
costs of the treatment plant and sludge handling and injection equipment were
approximately $7,220,000.
D225
DISINFECTION OF DRINKING WATER, SWIMMING-POOL WATER AND TREATED SEWAGE
EFFLUENTS,
Clarke, N. A., and Hill, W. F., Jr.
Biological Contaminants Branch,
Health Effects Research Laboratory,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
p 705-722, 2 fig, 100 ref. In: Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation,
Block, S. S. (ed.), Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1977. 1049 p.
In disinfecting water and treated effluents, infectious microorganisms must be
destroyed to prevent transmission of pathogens. Because it is difficult to
measure some residual concentrations of disinfectants, coliform levels are
often used. Whether this accurately measures biological safety has been ques-
tioned in view of the resistance of viruses to disinfection. Dosage, contact
time, temperature, other organic and inorganic material in the water, and pH
can affect disinfection efficiency. Chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, io-
dine, ozone, silver, ultraviolet radiation, ionizing radiations, and heat have
been used to disinfect drinking water. Chlorine and its compounds, iodine,
bromine, and silver are used as swimming pool disinfectants. Copper sulfate
is used to control algae in pool water. Chlorine and its derivatives are the
most widely used disinfectants in sewage treatment. Flash mixing at pH 5.0
can provide disinfection equivalent to four times the normal chlorine dosage.
The final product water from advanced waste treatment must be disinfected to
prevent transmission of microbial pathogens. The activated sludge process,
properly carried out, will eliminate most sugars and amino acids, which can
interfere with disinfection. After filtration and adsorption in a carbon
column, disinfection with chlorine is easily accomplished. Water must be
chlorinated before reverse osmosis to prevent membrane plugging by microbio-
logical growth; the chlorine also disinfects the effluent.
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D226
WASTEWATER PLANT HAS AN EYE ON THE FUTURE,
Cannon, W. P.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 12, p 20-26, December, 1977. 1 fig.
The operation of the recently completed waste water treatment facility in
Raleigh, North Carolina, is examined. The 30 mgd operation was designed to
provide waste water treatment for Raleigh's increasing population through the
year 2020 with provisions for expansion to a capacity of 100 mgd. During pri-
mary treatment the raw waste water is pumped through coarse bar screens where
solids are removed for transport to a sanitary landfill. The first part of
secondary treatment includes aeration, followed by secondary settling in
earthen basins equipped with drains for transfer of influent to other treat-
ment units. Settled waste water then flows to the return sludge screw pump
station and on to secondary clarifiers. A Parshall flume at the return sludge
metering station monitors the return flow. Sludge treatment is accomplished
by aerobic digesters, sludge thickeners, dewatering, and sludge oxidation.
Secondary effluent is processed through automatically backwashed tertiary fil-
ters ^ at a rate of 3-7.5 gal/sq ft/min. The backwash rate is 5-22.5 gal/sq
ft/min. Effluent is polished by filtration through layers of anthracite coal,
sand, and gravel. Chlorination is accomplished by: three chlorinators, each
with a capacity of 8000 Ibs chlorine gas/24 hrsj three electrical chlorine
evaporators; and a chlorine residual analyzer. The plant consists of an ad-
ministration and laboratory building, a filter building, and a sludge dewater-
ing building.
D227
PERFORMANCE OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT,
Joshi, D. S.
Municipal Corporation of Bombay,
Dadar Sewage Purification Plant,
Bombay, India.
Indian Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 19, No. 3, p 238-243, 1977. 1
fig, 3 tab, 3 ref, 2 append.
Dadar Sewage Treatment Works in Bombay, India, has a total capacity of 20 mgd
using the activated sludge process and trickling filters. Sewage receives
primary treatment only. Suspended solids, BOD, and oxygen absorption in
treated effluent were measured over a two-year period after a renovation of
the sewage treatment plant. The aeration system, site of the renovation, was
changed by the replacement of 36 aeration cones by 24 cones installed in four
rows. Each aeration cone runs on a six horsepower motor and the 24 cones have
the same flow capacity as the original 36 cones. Return sludge pump capaci-
ties were increased to 60-65% from 30-35%. Suspended solids levels after pri-
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mary treatment were reduced by 64.6%, BOD was reduced by 32.4%, and four-hour
potassium permanganate absorption by 41.4%.
D228
THIS PLANT MARRIES TWO WASTES,
Clingenpeel, W. H.
Wiley and Wilson, Incorporated,
Lynchburg, Virginia.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 12, p 36-39, December, 1977. 2 fig.
A Virginia waste treatment plant has been redesigned to treat both municipal
and industrial wastes. Mead Corporation's Paperboard Mill in Virginia under-
went processing modifications that included elimination of pulping, recycling
of paper, and recycling of process water. Lynchburg, Virginia's waste treat-
ment facility was upgraded from an 11-mgd primary capacity to a 22-mgd second-
ary treatment capacity plant. The Mead waste water flow was estimated at 3.0
mgd with a BOD of 14,000 Ibs/day. Because treatment of the combined primary
sludges was found to be ineffective, primary settling and disposal of the
domestic and industrial sludges were conducted separately. Two variable speed
pumps and two constant speed pumps, each with a 15 mgd capacity, convey the
raw sewage through a Parshall flume to the primary clarifiers. The two aera-
tion basins have a total volume of 7,000,000 gallons. Two sludge removal
clarifiers were installed to supplement the two existing clarifiers. A second
chlorine tank, a wet air oxidation system, and two sludge dewatering centri-
fuges were also added to the treatment plant. An ammoniator was added to com-
pensate for the nitrogen deficiency of the industrial flow. The chlorinators
and evaporators, with a 16,000 Ibs/day capacity, supply high-pressure process
water to the plant via a non-potable water pumping station.
D229
RECENT ADVANCES IN SEWAGE EFFLUENT DENITRIFICATION: PART II,
Cooper, P. F., Collinson, B., and Green, M. K.
Water Research Center,
Stevenage Laboratory,
Stevenage, England.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 4, p 389-401,
1977. 8 fig, 7 tab, 3 ref.
Studies were conducted at a 9.1 million cu tn/day sewage treatment plant in
England to evaluate process modifications to remove all the nitrate present in
recycled activated sludge. Anaerobic conditions were created by modification
of two of the aeration units in the first part of a four-pass system. Two
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anaerobic areas were created in the third passes of the two other aeration
units. Equal parts of recycled sludge and settled sludge were passed through
the anaerobic zone. A 50% nitrate reduction was realized with the modifica-
tions in the first two units. Laboratory experiments were conducted to test
units with two anaerobic areas under varying conditions of incremental sludge
feed recycled sludge proportion. Tests indicated that nitrate removal in-
creased to 69% when 40% of the settled sludge was retained in the second an-
aerobic zone for 30 minutes. Further studies showed that increasing retention
time to 40 minutes resulted in a maximum 76% denitrification of the effluent.
D230
AEROBIC SLUDGE DIGESTION AT COLD TEMPERATURES,
Mavinic, D. S., and Koers, D. A.
British Columbia University,
Vancouver, Canada,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, p 445-454, December,
1977. 8 fig, 1 tab, 17 ref.
The effects of low temperature on the aerobic digestion of activated sludge
were examined. Three digester operations, continuous feed, daily fill, and
batch aeration, were compared using six sludge ages. Lower temperatures and
decreased sludge age were observed to decrease the volatile suspended solids
removal rates. A similar reduction in volatile suspended solids removal oc-
curred in the continuous and semi-continuous feed digesters operated at 20 C
and 10 C. At 5 C, the volatile suspended solids reduction was greater under
semi-continuous operation than in the continuous flow mode for all sludge ages
tested. Batch aeration exhibited a high degree of volatile suspended solids
removal at 20 C when compared to continuous flow operation at the same temper-
ature, although the reverse proved true at 10 C. Batch aeration and semi-con-
tinuous flow operations at 5 C showed similar reduction rates. Volatile sus-
pended solids removal was significantly decreased in laboratory experiments
and studies at two treatment plants when the value of the product of sludge
age and temperature exceeded 250. Oxygen uptake rates and BOD levels were
also significantly affected by sludge age and temperature.
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D231
NITROGEN REMOVAL BY ION EXCHANGE: BIOLOGICAL REGENERATION OF CLINOPTILOLITE,
Semmens, M. J., Wang, J. T., and Booth, A. C.
Illinois University,
Urbana,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2431-2444,
December, 1977. 14 fig, 1 tab, 12 ref.
The regeneration of clinoptilolite, a zeolite used for removal of ammonium
from waste water, by the use of nitrifying bacteria was examined. Clinoptilo-
lite containing high concentrations of ammonium was treated with a slurry of
nitrifying bacteria containing 0.3 M sodium nitrate. Biological regeneration
of the zeolite during 20 tests occurred over a time range of 1.3-4.6 hrs. The
rate of regeneration was found to be based on the rate of nitrification. Op-
timum nitrification rates were achieved by the addition of pure oxygen to
maintain the dissolved oxygen level above 6 rag/liter. Additions of phenol and
humic acid to the regeneration process did not have deleterious effects on the
nitrifying bacteria or the regeneration process. Chemical regeneration of
clinoptilolite at a neutral pH with 0.3 M sodium chloride was more effective
than the biological regeneration. This difference was attributed to the pro-
duction of magnesium and calcium ions in the brine during the biological re-
generation process.
D232
CHLORINE AND ACID CONDITIONING OF SLUDGE,
Sukenik, W. H., King, P. H., and Olver, J. W.
California State Water Resources Control Board,
Sacramento, California.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
1013-1020, December, 1977. 10 fig, 1 tab, 8 ref.
The effects of chlorine and acidity on the filterability and release of or-
ganic matter and metals from primary sludge after chlorination were analyzed.
Samples of raw primary, anaerobically-digested, and aerobically-digested
sludge were treated with 500, 700, and 1,000 mg/liter sodium hypochlorite.
The pH was varied from 3 to 7 with applications of sulfuric acid or sodium hy-
droxide. Observations were made on the specific resistance to filtration, COD
levels, and the release of chromium, copper, and zinc after chlorine and acid
treatment. Filterability of raw primary sludge improved slightly with the ad-
dition of 500 mg/liter chlorine at pH 3 and 700 mg/liter .chlorine at pH 4. A
significant decrease in filterability was observed at pH 5-7 with low chlorine
additions, while the lowest sludge filterability occurred with the 100 mg/
liter chlorine treatment. A decrease in pH slightly improved the filter-
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ability of anaerobically digested sludge, although overall filterability was
unaffected by chlorine or acid treatment. Aerobically treated sludge demon-
strated substantial increases in filterability after acid treatment alone.
Filtrate COD after chlorine oxdiation increased in raw sludge at pH 4, in-
creased in anaerobic sludge as the pH was lowered, and increased in aerobic
sludge with higher chlorine doses. The release of zinc, copper, and chromium
increased for raw and anaerobic sludge after chloride treatment at low pH.
D233
DISSOLVED METALS IN AQUEOUS EFFLUENTS FROM MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS,
Law, S. L.
College Park Metallurgy Research Center,
Bureau of Mines,
College Park, Maryland.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2453-2466,
December, 1977. 5 fig, 9 tab, 20 ref.
The environmental impact of dissolved metal concentrations in the water sys-
tems of three municipal incineration operations was examined. Flyash scrubber
water and quench water, utilized in separate processes by Alexandria, Vir-
ginia's municipal incinerator, were used as the basis for the study. The com-
bined flyash and quench waters from incinerators in Washington, District of
Columbia, and from Montgomery County, Maryland, were also analyzed for dis-
solved metal contents. Concentrations of 26 elements were measured in water
samples taken from the plants during operation and just before discharge of
waste water into municipal waste treatment facilities. Levels of dissolved
metals in waste water from the three operations were found to be low enough so
that biological treatment of wastes in the municipal plants would not be sig-
nificantly hindered. Zinc concentrations in the Alexandria incineration
wastes were considered to be detrimental to biological treatment if discharge
were made directly into the waste treatment facility. Comparison of metal
concentrations with Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards
revealed consistent excessive concentrations of cadmium, manganese, lead,
selenium, and zinc in Alexandria's recycled flyash waters. Further treatment
of the water from the three incineration operations would be required before
discharge into surface water -or public water supplies.
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D234
EFFECTIVE PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL BY ADDING ALUM TO SEPTIC TANK,
Brandes, M.
Ministry of the Environment,
Toronto, Canada.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2285-2296,
November, 1977. 6 fig, 4 tab, 29 ref.
Significant removal of phosphorus and other contaminants from septic tank ef-
fluent was achieved by the addition of aluminum sulfate to septic wastes. Ad-
ditions of 430 mg/liter of alum were made for each toilet flush in a three-
person residence in Ontario, Canada. Samples of septic tank effluent and
sludge were taken before and after alum application. The amount of soluble
phosphorus contained in the effluent was reduced by 99.2%. The addition of
246.8 mg/liter of alum to the waste resulted in 84.9% phosphorus retention in
the sludge with 15.1% released in the effluent. With the same alum applica-
tion, total colifora levels in the effluent were reduced by 35% and fecal
coliforms were reduced by 80%. Further total coliform and fecal coliform re-
moval was achieved with the addition of 430 mg/liter of alum. Ninety per cent
of the aluminum content was retained in the sludge while a 19% increase in
iron in the sludge was realized with the alum treatment. Sludge retention of
sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates increased, while sulfate concentra-
tions in septic effluent also increased with alum addition. The average 53.3%
BOD removal with 246.8 mg/liter of alum did not significantly improve with
greater alum doses. The alum treatment resulted in a higher sludge precipita-
tion rate.
D235
SEWAGE PLANT SHOWS OFF FANCY FORMWORK,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 3, p 52-53, January, 1978.
v
A new 300-mgd activated sludge treatment plant is currently being constructed
for the Sacramento County, California area to replace the present 25-mgd
plant. The completed treatment system, costing an estimated $395 million,
will consist of seven pumping stations, 75 miles of interceptor sewers, and
the advanced secondary treatment plant. Five existing digesters will be modi-
fied for incorporation into the facility; aeration and settlement facilities
will be converted to chemical handling facilities. Storm water overflow will
be controlled by the present treatment plant which will be converted to a
60-mgd capacity and backed up by a 21,000,000-gal holding lagoon for excess
flow. Aeration will be accomplished by a submerged, revolving, conical agita-
tor using high purity oxygen. This type of activated sludge process is con-
sidered more effective in controlling BOD of food processing wastes and other
organic industrial discharges. Aeration tanks up to 32 feet deep can be used
in this system; all facilities will be enclosed to prevent odor emissions.
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The treatment facility is expected to reduce BOD by 92% and suspended solids
by 88%.
D236
FROM WASTEWATER TO RESOURCE IN ST. PETERSBURG, FLORIDA,
Dove, L. A.
Resource Recovery and Conservation, Vol. 2, No. 4, p 329-336, November, 1977.
9 fig, 3 tab, 8 ref.
A zero-discharge waste water treatment system currently under construction in
St. Petersburg, Florida, is described. The system was designed to furnish ir-
rigation and drinking water to an area surrounded by polluted salt-water bays
and with a limited fresh water supply. Designs for the system, the first re-
gional recycling operation of its kind in the country, involve the expansion
of the four existing secondary treatment plants in St. Petersburg to an in-
creased combined capacity of 340,000 cu ra/day. One plant that has undergone
modification and expansion has been able to remove 90% of the BOD and sus-
pended solids from the effluent. A tertiary treatment plant provides multi-
media filtration, alum feed at 6.0-7.5 rag/liter as a filter aid, flash chlori-
nation, and chlorine injection in a 38,000-cu m retention pond. The effluent
produced is of potable quality at 1-2 JTU with 1.0-1.5 mg/liter of residual
chlorine after 30 minutes, and 0.2/100 ml or less coliform count. Treated
water is transported via a master pumping station to a 22.5-km distribution
system for irrigation. During rainy seasons and other periods when irrigation
is unnecessary, the treated water is pumped to a deep injection well system
with a capacity of 76,000 cu m/day. Nutrients useful in irrigation are re-
tained in the treated effluent. The treatment process will provide 40% of the
potable water demand for area irrigation.
D237
PLANNING FOR CLEANING UP AN ESTUARY—PART II: PHYSICAL PLANNING FOR THE
MERSEY,
Gouge, R. L., Sytnes, G. L., and Buckley, A. D.
Journal of the Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, Vol. 31, No. 5,
p 329-350, September, 1977. 8 fig, 2 tab, 11 ref.
Proposals for alleviating the discharge of pollutants into rivers which flow
into the Mersey estuary in England are presented. Pollution in the lower
reaches of the Mersey estuary consists of the deposition of sewage solids,
oils, and fats on the beaches and foreshore. This area also receives approxi-
mately 330 mega liters/day of untreated sewage during dry weather flow. Selec-
tion of a sewage treatment site to process the sewage from the municipality of
Liverpool and the expansion of the existing treatment facilities is recom-
mended. The construction of a treatment plant at Wirral, on the other side of
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the estuary, is suggested. More economically feasible are the proposals for
expanding the drainage area of the sea outfall or constructing another 5-m
outfall. Screening of the effluent discharged by the outfalls and digestion
plants for the treatment of raw sludge are also recommended. Contributing
streams and industrial plants are the major sources of pollution in the upper
areas of the estuary. Effluent discharged into the upper estuary has received
primary or full treatment but still has a low dissolved oxygen content. Pro-
vision for primary sewage treatment is recommended for Widness. The addition
of secondary treatment for areas with only primary treatment facilities is
suggested by either construction of facilities or transfer of sewage to a sec-
ondary plant. The addition of oxygen to upper estuary waters and the instal-
lation of a nitrifying plant are also considered.
D238
A STUDY ON WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS.--BACKFLOW PRE-
VENTER IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS (Kyusui setsubi ni okeru josui osen boshi ni
kansuru kenkyu),
Egawa, T.
Fukui kogyo daigaku kenkyu kiyo, No. 7, p 59-71, 1977. 11 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
Prevention of backflow into water supply systems from sanitation facilities is
discussed. Backflow of water from sanitation facilities presents a serious
threat to water supply systems. Pollution of water supplies can be restricted
or eliminated by the use of air gaps or backflow preventers. Air gaps tend to
be impractical in areas of limited space, such as closet flush pipes. In such
areas of restricted space, the installation of backflow preventers is recom-
mended. The backflow preventer allows air to circulate through the interior
openings in the water supply system from the exterior openings of the fix-
tures. Experiments on the function of backflow preventers produced in Japan
are discussed.
D239
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS,
Viraraghavan, T.
ADI Limited, Consulting Engineers,
Frederic ton, New Brunswick, Canada.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 103-110, January, 1977. 2
fig, 1 tab, 13 ref.
The impact of air, liquid, and soil temperatures on the efficiency of septic
tank and subsurface tile field operations was studied. Temperature readings
were recorded at a northern Canadian site over the period of more than a year
in a tile field and three soil depths, in the septic tank and the surrounding
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soil, and in the air. Mean monthly air temperatures ranged -11.7-23.7 C; the
temperature of the sewage in the septic tank never dropped below 15.8 C and
never exceeded 21.5 C. Temperatures inside the tile field ranged 3.3-18.7 C;
the nearby soil temperatures usually exceeded those of the air. Physical ad-
sorption, especially of phosphates, increased as the temperature decreased.
Reduction of BOD at a depth of 1.37 m ranged from a high of approximately 90%
at less than 5C to a low of 50% between 10-15 C. The sewage effluent tempera-
ture was maintained above freezing by hot water discharged into the system.
System efficiences during the summer months were higher, ranging 75-85%.
D240
NO METAL UPTAKE BY CORN OR GRASS,
Agricultural Research, Vol. 26, No. 7, p 10-11, January, 1978.
A study of sewage sludge application to corn and reed canarygrass crops was
conducted over a 2-3 year period. A two-year application at a rate of 4
tons/acre/yr of digested sewage sludge was used to fertilize a reed canary-
grass crop planted on a 40-acre terraced watershed in Minnesota. A higher an-
nual production yield was obtained with sewage, 4.4 tons/acre canarygrass,
than with conventional fertilizer, 3.5 tons/acre. Similar results were found
with applications of 4.5 tons/acre/yr to corn and grass crops over a three-
year period. Annual yields per acre averaged 108 bushels of corn and 6.5 tons
of fodder with sludge as the fertilizer, compared to 102 bushels of corn and
6.1 tons of fodder with conventional fertilizer. The sewage sludge applied to
the crops contained chromium, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, and cadmium. The
heavy metal content in the sludge-treated corn grain and leaf tissue and in the
reed canarygrass was not different from the content in the other crops. Sur-
face and soil waters in the research watershed did not display higher concen-
trations of these heavy metals nor was there significant movement of pollut-
ants through the groundwater. During snowmelt, spring runoff, and high rain-
fall, some movement of plant nutrients was detected in surface waters on the
sludge-fertilized areas.
D241
THE REMOVAL OF SALT AND ORGANIC MATERIAL FROM SEWAGE EFFLUENT BY ANION EXCHANGE
RESINS,
Giddey, T. B. S., De Kock, J. W., and Carr, A. D.
Cape Town University,
South Africa,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Water SA, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 24-27, April, 1975. 2 fig, 3 tab, 3 ref.
Two basic anion exchange resins were evaluated for effective removal of or-
ganic materials and anions from maturation pond effluent containing a high
276
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salt concentration. Tests were performed with anion columns containing either
the microporous, gel-type Amberlite IRA-68 resin or the macroreticular-type
Amberlite XE-275 exchange resin, hoth of which are weak bases with nearly
identical structures. COD and anion removal was observed in the anion ex-
change columns over 30 loadings of the resins. Both exchange resins effec-
tively removed COD, averaging a reduction from 40 mg/liter COD to between
10-20 mg/liter COD. The gel-type resin exhibited a greater capacity for chlo-
ride removal; the macroreticular resin demonstrated better removal of organic
material. The macroreticular resin's initial volumetric capacity was lower
and had a higher operating capacity loss than the gel-type resin. Removal of
anions and nitrate ions was similar for both resins. Complete ammonium ion
removal was accomplished when anion and cation columns were linked.
D242
DIGGING DEEP TO TREAT DOMESTIC SEWAGE,
Ousby, J. C., Walker, J., and Jones, R. T.
Process Engineering, p 81-84, September, 1977. 3 fig, 6 tab, 6 ref.
The ICI deep shaft, activated sludge treatment process increases oxygen trans-
fer intensity and effectively reduces BOD. The single cell protein fermenta-
tion process was modified to allow longer bubbling times at a greater height
or depth, resulting in the higher oxygen transfer intensity and a lower power
use. The average BOD, COD, and suspended solids removal with a 100-m shaft
depth was monitored at a pilot plant over a period of 194 days. BOD was re-
duced from 182 mg/liter to 7 mg/liter; COD decreased from 317 mg/liter to 83
mg/liter; and suspended solids dropped from 222 mg/liter to 18 mg/liter. The
total removal of BOD was 92%. A three-month study of sludge production from
conversion of BOD demonstrated that one kg of BOD was converted to 0.5 kg of
sludge, suggesting an effective reduction in sludge production. Dewatering
characteristics of the sludge were also found to improve with the deep shaft
process. A pressed cake containing 38% solids was produced after 4 hours of
filtration at 100 pounds/square inch; a cake containing 30% solids was
achieved 'at the same pressure after 2 hours pressing time.
D243
MOBILE DIESELS STAND-BY AT SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS,
Process Engineering, p 13, September, 1977.
The use of stationary automatic and mobile generators, manufactured by Auto
Diesels Braby of England, is suggested for the prevention of waste water
flooding in pumping stations or treatment plants during electrical power fail-
ures. Automatic generators are recommended for unmanned ,or remote pumping
stations where there is an immediate danger of flooding in the event of a
power loss. The standby power of these automatic diesels can be supplied
within 20 seconds of an electrical failure. The diesels can also be pro-
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grammed for manual start in manned operations. The generator, which is hooked
into the main controls, can supply the initial high voltage necessary to re-
start the pumping equipment. Mobile generators are practical for remote or
regional facilities where electrical power failure does not pose an immediate
threat of flooding. Since the system is mobile, with its own control panel
and fuel tank equipped trailer, it can be transported to the site of the power
failure and connected to the main controls. The mobile generator may also be
used as a standby power source for other activities when not in service at a
pumping station.
D244
EVALUATION OF NEW REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES FOR THE SEPARATION OF TOXIC COM-
POUNDS FROM WASTEWATER,
Chian, E. S. K., Aschauer, M. N., and Fang, H. H. P.
Illinois University,
Urbana,
Department of Environmental Engineering.
1976. 323 p, 69 fig, 56 tab, 122 ref, 5 append. NTIS Technical Report
AD-A030-884.
Studies with NS-100 and aromatic polyamide membranes were conducted in an at-
tempt to select reverse osmosis membrane materials for use in the treatment of
waste water from army field hospitals. Mathematical models were formulated
for optimizing the casting conditions for flat sheet NS-100 membranes. Mem-
brane performance was predicted under various operating conditions. NS-100's
surface structure was related to its capacity to retain organic compounds
using a simple test with a sodium chloride solution. The potential applica-
tion of both NS-100 and aromatic polyamide membranes, including B-9 and B-10
permeators, was examined for other waste water types. An additional objective
was to evaluate the engineering parameters involved in applying NS-100 mem-
branes to the treatment of waste water. Casting techniques for tubular NS-100
membranes were also refined. NS-100's chemical resistance to oxidants and the
effects of additives on membrane performance were evaluated. A computer pro-
gram was developed for use in the design of large treatment plants using the
results from tests on single tubes or tubular membrane modules.
278
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D245
LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE OF A COUPLED TRICKLING FILTER-ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT,
StenquLst, R. J., Parker, D. S., Loftin, W. E., and Brenner, R. C.
Brown and Caldwell,
Walnut Creek, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 1, p 2265-2284,
November, 1977. 15 fig, 10 tab, 8 ref.
The upgrading of the Livermore Water Reclamation Plant in Livermore, Cali-
fornia, and its operation and performance from its startup in early 1967
through its seventh full year of operation in 1974 are reviewed. The expan-
sion involved increased influent and primary effluent pumping capacity, addi-
tion of a secondary trickling filter, conversion of the existing secondary
sedimentation tank to a primary tank, and increased disinfection capacity.
Use of the coupled trickling filter-activated sludge process has resulted in
the consistent production of an effluent low in BOD, suspended solids, ammonia,
and coliform bacteria. Operational problems appeared to be correctable through
newer design techniques. Plants of similar design have either been or are now
being constructed in San Pablo and Lompoc, California, and in Corvalli.s,
Oregon.
D246
TREATMENT OF THERMALLY-CONDITIONED SLUDGE LIQUORS,
Loll, U.
Institut fuer Wassersorgung, Abwasserbeseitigung und
Stadtbauwesen,
TH Darmstadt, West Germany.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 10, p 869-872, 1977. 3 fig, 2 tab, 12 ref.
Studies on the aerobic-thermophilic purification of undiluted filter effluents
are described. The highly concentrated substrates from the dewatering of
thermally-conditioned sludges were biologically treated with aerobic-thermo-
philic processes in batch and continuous systems. Process performance was
assessed according to reductions in COD, BOD, total organic carbon, and vola-
tile solids. Temperature, pH, total phosphorus, and ammonia-nitrogen were also
measured. The studies indicated that reductions in COD of up to 71% and in BOD
of up to 96% were possible. Exothermal processes in the reactor resulted in
an effluent temperature of about 25 C, compared to an influent temperature of
about 17-18 C.
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D247
WASTE TREATMENT,
Canadian Chemical Processing, Vol. 61, No. 11, p 4-5, 1977.
Rapid changes occurring in waste treatment due to the use of new reactor de-
signs are cited. The new reactors are more compact than conventional oxida-
tion tanks and are better suited for handling wastes during cold weather. A
recent development is the Oxitron process which uses the upward flow of efflu-
ent through a sand bed to fluidize the sand. Bacteria coating each grain of
sand metabolize wastes in the stream. Pure oxygen is injected into the solu-
tion. The Oxitron reactor occupies 10-20% of the land area required for con-
ventional aeration tank designs. Another compact waste treatment system is
the Wetox process, a wet-air oxidation process which decomposes organics in
the waste stream. For small plants, requiring less than 20 mg oxygen per day,
a pressure-swing adsorption system is economical. Large plants can use less
expensive, cryogenic air separation. New technology and regulations on sludge
utilization and disposal will be reviewed in a seminar being sponsored by En-
vironment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment to be held in
Toronto in February 1978.
D248
A FIELD STUDY OF THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE: III. EFFECT ON UPTAKE
AND EXTRACTABILITY OF SLUDGE-BORNE METALS,
Kelling, K. A., Keeney, D. R., Walsh, L. M., and Ryan, J. A.
Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana,
Department of Natural Resources.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 352-358, October-December,
1977. 7 tab, 27 ref.
The uptake of Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, and Cr by rye, corn, stover, and sorghum-sudan
plant tissue was evaluated in studies on the effects of the application of
anaerobically-digested sewage sludge to croplands. Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cr were
measured in the plant tissue and the DTPA-extractable fraction of the sludge-
amended soil. Liquid sludge was applied to a sandy loam and a silt loam at
rates up to 60 metric tons/ha on a dry solids basis. Although sludge addi-
tions had little effect on the heavy metal content of corn grain, elevated
concentrations of Zn, Cd, and Ni were detected in plant tissue. Cr was not
detected in either tissue or grain. The concentrations of the metals were
under levels considered harmful to crops in all cases. The total recovery of
the applied metals by all four crops was under 1% for Cu, Cd, Ni, and Cr; 1-3%
of the applied Zn was recovered. The addition of metal-bearing sludge in-
creased the DTPA-extractable fractions of Cu, Zn, Cd, and Ni, but not Cr. Re-
gression analyses suggested that the quantity of heavy metal in the DTPA-
extractable of soil may be a useful indicator of the heavy metal content of
plant tissue from sludge-amended soils.
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D249
HYACINTHS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Joseph, J.
Plumbing Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 14-16, November-December, 1977.
The use of water hyacinths has been proposed as a low-cost means of waste
water treatment. Water hyacinths absorb contaminants from water which can be
recovered upon harvesting. The harvested plants can be used as supplemental
animal feed or converted into methane and fertilizer by composting. Results
from a test facility in Orange Grove, Mississippi, using hyacinths to treat
raw sewage from a community of 5000 residents indicate that water hyacinths
can be used for final polishing to produce effluent of a quality which com-
plies with advanced waste water treatment standards. A treatment facility de-
signed to use water hyacinths generally consists of treatment lagoons and
aeration, filtration, and plumbing equipment. Costs for operation and main-
tenance are generally low. Waste water is first held in an aerated basin for
a two-week period to allow bacterial consumption of the waste water organics.
The final filtration lagoon, planted with water hyacinths, can usually be
smaller than the aeration basin because of its higher efficiency. The water
hyacinth lagoon at Orange Grove, Mississippi, effectively reduces the concen-
tration of suspended solids in effluent by 63-80% and nitrogen by about 60%.
D250
LOW-FLOW WASTE WATER TREATMENT,
Rain, Vol. 4, No. 3, p 6-7, December, 1977. 7 fig.
A simple treatment system for low volumes of waste water with few suspended
solids is based on the use of a 30-gal garbage can as a settling tank to trap
floatables which would clog the seepage pit. When floatables and grease ap-
pear in a 5-gal plastic bucket used as a check tank, the settling tank should
be emptied and the contents buried. A sand filter made from a 55-gal drum can
be used to treat 25-50 gal of greywater per day. Because sand filters may
fail if continually saturated, the alternate use of two filters is recommended.
One direct surface application system is designed to retain urine and grey-
water in a 55-gal drum for use as irrigation water with a fertilizer value.
The end of the hose carrying the waste water to the garden is covered by a
cloth bag for retention of large particles. Systems have been designed for
treating 20-50 gal of greywater daily using tar-covered, 55-gal drums. The
leach line for one such system uses a 'V made of redwood or cedar instead of
plastic or tile pipe. A system for reusing greywater is designed to send all
sewage directly to the sewer when a valve is closed and to a holding tank when
the valve is open.
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D251
GREYWATER TREATMENT,
UKfiYWATEK iKEATMENT,
Rain, Vol. 4, No. 3, p 4-5, December, 1977. 1 fig.
Q«tX1*«O^^* t-*"r%*"* ^m j^*^#- s*f +• A i 1 <-»#• T.»*» Ft fr A e rt»-»/l IT 1 f* /•»!•* A« /* 1*»1
Separate treatment of toilet wastes and kitchen garbage by composting can re-
duce the extent of treatment required for the remaining greywater. Separate
treatment and water-conserving measures can reduce domestic waste water treat-
ment needs sufficiently to allow the use of simple treatment systems installed
and maintained by the homeowner. These simple systems can cost much less than
central septic-leach systems. They typically return water to the water table
in small doses. Their disadvantages are generally related to the lack of ex-
perience and inadequate standards. Because construction standards vary widely
and have a poor compliance record, regulatory agencies are usually reluctant
to accept these systems. Treatment requirements for greywater are generally
dependent upon the waste water volume, its strength, and the intent for reuse.
It is very difficult to determine the nature of health hazards associated with
greywater treatment.
D252
TRENDS EMERGE, BUT SOLAR DESIGN OPTIONS STILL OPEN,
Mungovan, J. A.
Modern Metals,
Chicago, Illinois.
Modern Metals, Vol. 33, No. 10, p 22-24, 26, November, 1977. 3 fig.
A new plant for waste water treatment in Wilton, Maine, will obtain most of
its energy requirements from solar collectors located on the southern exposure
of the plant and from methane generated by the treatment processes. Due to
federal and state participation, payback to Wilton will be about two yrs; the
plant would require about 18 yrs to pay for itself without aid. The $2 mil-
lion plant will use 54 double-glazed, copper-and-aluminum flat plate collec-
tors supplied by Grumman Energy Systems. The energy demand of the equipment
is low and the plant is designed so as to minimize heat loss. Fuel cost sav-
ings are expected to amount to $3594 annually; electricity cost savings should
be $875 each year. This application of solar energy won the Owens-Corning
Fiberglass Corporation Energy Conservation Award for 1975. Grumman Energy
Systems' aluminum flat plate collector can be used interchangeably with its
copper-and-aluminum flat plate collector in some applications.
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D253
SANITARY DISTRICT SOLVES SLUDGE REMOVAL PROBLEM,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 12, p 54-55, December, 1977. 3 fig.
The Los Angeles County Sanitary District has used flow aid devices to handle
non-degradable wastes. The devices, usually used in industrial applications,
included conveyor belt cleaners, pneumatic vibrators, and air cannons. The
conveyor system, running at 100 ft/rain, carries as much as nine tons of ma-
terial per hour. The sticky material, which is removed periodically from the
31 digesters, is carried by 24-in wide rubber conveyors to hoppers for storage
until it is hauled to a landfill. Three heavy-duty Clamp Mount Torsion Arm
conveyor belt cleaners reduce manual cleanup requirements of the conveyor
belts by 75%. The single blade counterbalance cleaners used previously had
tended to bounce away from the moving belt when larger particles were en-
countered. Problems of waste buildup under the conveyor belt cleaners were
solved with the installation of a small Martin Engineering Vibrolator ball-type
vibrator on one of the dribble chutes. Six Martin Clamp Mount Torsion Arm
belt cleaners have been ordered for the 36-in wide conveyor belts which handle
centrifuge cakes. The installation of two Big Blaster air cannons on a waste
loading hopper has made it possible to evacuate the hopper without prodding
with a rod. The air cannons each expel 13.276 cu ft of air at 100 psig into
the waste material through a 4-in diameter pipe.
D254
INFECTIOUS HOSPITAL WASTES: THEIR TREATMENT AND SANITARY DISPOSAL,
Block, S. S., and Netherton, J. C.
Florida University,
Gainesville,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
p 723-739, 3 fig, 3 tab, 44 ref. In: Disinfection, Sterilization, and Pre-
servation, Block, S. S. (ed.), Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
1977. 1049 p.
The increased use of disposable items has increased the quantity of solid
waste generated by hospitals. Hospital waste may be finely ground and dis-
charged to a sewage treatment plant, incinerated, or landfilled. Wet grinding
before discharge to the municipal sewage system is being considered for total
hospital solid wastes. Tests for chloride, BOD, and COD revealed no signifi-
cant changes in the sewage as a result. Most plastic and related materials
should settle out or be removed during primary treatment. The waste should
have little effect on the public health characteristics of the sewage, since
material from bioscience laboratories is disposed of by grinding. Hospitals
that use land filling for most wastes generally use an incinerator for path-
ogenic wastes. Complete sterilization of incinerated wastes requires a proper
combination of air temperature, firebrick temperature, and retention time.
Land disposal may expose the community to hospital waste contaminants, with
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the greatest potential of exposure arising from a disposal site where water
pollution by runoff or leaching may occur. Wastes should be ground and
sterilized before land disposal. High fecal coliforra densities sampled from a
landfill (2000 to 4,900,000 organisms per 100 ml) indicate potential health
effects during the first 2-month leaching period. The absence of pathogens in
the leachate confirms that pathogens are inactivated by heat in the landfill.
D255
EFFECTS OF INCUBATION AND LIMING ON YIELD AND HEAVY METAL UPTAKE BY RYE FROM
SEWAGE-SLUDGED SOIL,
Lagerwerff, J. V., Biersdorf, G. T., Milberg, R. P., and Brower, D. L.
Agricultural Research Center,
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 427-431, October-December,
1977. 3 fig, 4 tab, 12 ref.
Rye (Secale cereale) was greenhouse-grown in sandy loam fertilized with di-
gested secondary sludge in studies to evaluate the yield and uptake of Cd, Cu,
Pb, and Zn as a function of sludge origin, pH, incubation time between mixing
and planting, and plant age. Sludge application rates of 0-10% on a dry weight
basis and incubation times ranging 0-7 weeks were used. The effects of sludge
obtained from Baltimore, Maryland, and Washington, District of Columbia, were
compared. Comparisons of three successive clippings revealed that plant yields
decreased at higher sludge application rates. Metal uptake increased with
sludge addition and with plant age, with the effect being greatest for Zn,
followed by Pb and Cu. With the addition of lime, the uptake of Zn from sludge
decreased, followed by Cd, Pb, and Cu. The uptake of Cu and Pb significantly
decreased with incubation. The data suggested that the tendency to form
organic complexes was greater for Cu than for Pb, Zn, and Cd. The relative
uptake of HCL-extractable Cd from the soil was greater than that of Zn,
especially upon liming.
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D256
A FIELD STUDY OF THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE: II. EFFECT ON SOIL N
AND P,
Kelling, K. A., Walsh, L. M., Keeney, D. R., Ryan, J. A., and Peterson, A. E.
Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana,
Department of Natural Resources.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 345-352, October-December,
1977. 3 fig, 5 tab, 25 ref.
Changes in concentrations of soil inorganic N, organic N, and available P with
time were examined at field sites in Arlington and Janesville, Wisconsin,
which had been treated with digested sludge. Liquid digested sludge applied
at rates of 3.75-60 metric tons/ha increased the concentrations of inorganic
N, organic N, and available P in the sandy loam and silt loam soils. Most of
the inorganic N in the digested sludge was in the form of NH4-N and was
rapidly nitrified. At application rates of 30 metric tons/ha or higher, sub-
stantial amounts of sludge-applied N were lost by leaching. Concentrations of
N03-N in the soil water were over 100 mg/liter at a depth of 120-150 cm within
10 weeks after sludge application on permeable sandy loam and within about 1
year after application on silt loam. The N balance indicated that consider-
able N might have been lost via denitrification or volatilization at applica-
tion rates over 30 metric tons/ha. As much as 50% of the organic N in the
sludge was mineralized by 3 weeks after application, more than previously re-
ported. During the following 25 months, the mineralization rate essentially
remained at about 250 mg of organic N/kg of soil/year where 60 metric ton/ha
had been applied and at 180 mg of organic N/kg of soil/year where 30 metric
ton/ha had been applied. Sludge applications immediately increased the
quantity of available P. The quantity of available P subsequently decreased
with time, probably due to P fixation. Where higher treatment rates had been
used, significant amounts of available P remained in the soil after 2 years.
D257
DOMESTIC WASTE WATER RECYCLING,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 20, p 54, November, 1977.
Purecycle, of Boulder, Colorado, has developed a 5-step process for purifying
domestic waste water for recycling. The recycling module is controlled and
monitored by sensors connected to a microprocessor. The recycling module
would be installed outside the house and connected with existing plumbing.
Its size is approximately that of a compact car, and its costs will be com-
parable to those of conventional systems. Household waste water enters a bio-
logical reactor for the oxidation of organics; solids are removed by settling.
The water then enters a filtration system and an organic adsorption unit, fol-
lowed by a demineralizer and sterilizer. The microprocessor monitors the sys-
tem for malfunctions. According to the manufacturer, tests have indicated that
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the system can produce a constant and safe recycled water supply at reasonable
cost.
D258
CHEMICAL INTERACTION IN PARTICLE SEPARATION,
Stumm, W.
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 12, p 1066-1070, 1977. 8
fig, 8 ref.
Chemical interaction in particle separation is discussed with respect to solu-
tion variables which may influence the charge of colloidal surfaces. The
specific adsorption of Mg(++), H(+), heavy metals, and anions such as S04(—),
HP04( —), SiO, OH3(-), and OH(-) onto hydrous oxides of Si, Al(+3), and Fe(+3)
is examined with respect to the resultant electric charge on the particle sur-
face. The relative efficiencies of particle aggregation in coagulation and
particle removal in filtration are compared for natural systems and waste water
treatment processes. Mechanisms of phosphate removal during sewage treatment
by precipitation with Fe(+3) or Al(+3) salts are discussed.
D259
FILTER TOWERS AND DISTRIBUTORS FOR LLANDYRNOG SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS,
Industrial and Metallurgical Equipment Limited,
Wet tern House, Dingwall Road, Croydon,
Surrey, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 979, p 565, September, 1977. 1 fig.
The use of two filter towers and four motorized Carl ton distributors at the
Llandyrnog sewage treatment works in Scotland is described. The distributors
were designed to provide a 60% reduction in BOD by ADF treatment over Flocor
filter media. Two thirds of the influent BOD is contributed by creamery waste
and one third by domestic sewage. The initial raw sewage inflow is screened
to remove extraneous matter and grit. Pumps are then employed to feed the
liquor to the filter tower distributors. The liquor percolates through Flocor
media prior to sedimentation. Corrosion resistant stainless steel distribut-
ing arms are design features of the machines. The motorized Carlton distribu-
tors are used for secondary filtration operations on a 19.5-m diam and a
23.35-m diam filter bed. An important feature in the design is the friction-
less liquid seal, achieved by immersing the open ends of the pending siphons
in the liquid remaining at the bottom of the revolving tank.
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D260
CHLORINATION AND OZONATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Keenan, J. D., and Hegemann, D. A.
Pennsylvania University,
Philadelphia,
Department of Civil and Urban Engineering.
Cheraosphere, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 9-28, 1978. 2 fig, 51 ref.
An evaluation based on chemical and biological factors cited in previous
studies of chlorine and ozone as disinfection agents of waste water and pot-
able water was presented. Chlorination of potable water was effective for the
removal of tastes, odors, color, iron, and manganese. Chlorine was also found
to control algal growth, slime growth, and hydrogen sulfide, and to improve
activated silica precipitation. Studies in which the use of chlorine in waste
water treatment was shown to produce potentially toxic chlorinated organics
were cited. The production of chlorinated organics in waste water was con-
sidered more serious than in potable water because of the larger number and
concentrations of organics in waste water. Dechlorination was considered an
expensive remedy for the effects of chlorination. Ozonation of waste water
was found effective in the reduction of fecal coliform counts, odor, color,
turbidity, organic pesticides, and the conversion of cyanide to a biodegradable
level. Treatment with 60 ppm of ozone was required to reduce BOD levels; COD
was reduced with more conventional ozone concentrations. Costs for ozonation
and chlorination of waste water appeared compatible. An analysis of the
chemical reactions occurring during ozonation and chlorination was presented.
D261
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS TREAT ISLAND'S SALINE SEWAGE,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 62-66, February, 1978. 5 fig, 4
tab, 10 ref.
The performance of a compact, low power biological contactor that functions as
both an activated sludge reactor and a trickling filter for the South Pacific
island of Kwajalein was simulated in pilot studies at the University of Rhode
Island. The highly saline Kwajalein sewage effluent was monitored for BOD,
chloride, total and volatile suspended solids, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Or-
ganic overloading could be controlled by recirculation of 50% of the effluent
to reduce BOD and prevent trickling filter failure. Recirculation was effec-
tive at organic loadings exceeding 3.3-4.0 Ibs BOD/1000 sq ft/day. Low mixed
liquor suspended solid levels ranging 100-215 mg/liter with a hydraulic con-
tact time of 1-3 hrs, allowed both the activated sludge and trickling filter
processes to function. A decrease in biooxidation by the filter during in-
tense storms could be counteracted by increasing the mixed liquor suspended
solids concentration to 2,000 mg/liter. Higher hydraulic loadings were effec-
tive with low BOD effluent. Removal of 50% of the nitrogen from the effluent
was realized for a sewage nitrogen concentration of 4.5 mg/liter.
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D262
WATER RECLAMATION AND RECYCLING,
Kavanagh, M. D.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, Vol. 105, No. 1, p 7-14, January, 1978. 6 fig,
5 tab, 9 ref.
Water recycling and reclamation practices are reviewed for municipal and in-
dustrial wastes and water supplies. A study of the River Exe in England re-
vealed that the river's water was reused three times through removal for muni-
cipal water supplies and discharge from treatment plants. A total of 92,901
cu m was removed and 70,038 cu m discharged daily as indicated by licensed
uses of the River Exe. Fifty sewage treatment plants are located within the
River Exe basin. Research and methods for the recycling of sewage for potable
water supplies are discussed. Industrial plants have the option of treating
their own wastes or discharging them to municipal or regional waste treatment
plants. The latter alternative involves a surcharge tax for discharge or a
contribution to treatment plant construction and operation, eliminating dis-
charge costs. In-plant industrial treatment processes were examined at a ce-
ment company which recovers materials from its concrete mixer, using recycled
water at a significant savings. The reuse of municipal sewage for industrial
cooling was cited for electrical powerplants, steel manufacturers, gas produc-
tion, and food processing industries.
D263
SLUDGE DEHYDRATION BY MEANS OF CHAMBER FILTER PRESS (Slamavvanning med
kammerfilterpresser),
1977. 2 fig.
From, J. 0.
Teknisk Ukeblad, Vol. 124, No. 5, p 42-44, October,
Principles, advantages, and experimental results on the use of chamber filter
presses for dewatering sewage sludge are presented. Chamber filter presses
have the advantage of being sturdy, simple to operate, and dependable. They
do not require the use of synthetic polyelectrolytes for sludge conditioning,
although ferric chloride and lime may be used in pretreatment. Sludge from
physico-chemical waste water1 treatment plants can be dewatered in chamber fil-
ter presses without liming. The filter cake, with a solids content of 30-40%,
can be incinerated directly without further treatment. Experiments in Norway
with chamber filter presses operated at a specific load ranging 60-150
liters/sq m/hr produced a filter cake with a solids content ranging 26-35%.
Residual solids on the filter cloth could be removed by treatment with hydro-
chloric acid.
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D264
FILTERS FOR SCOTTISH SEWAGE PURIFICATION PLANT,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 979, p 558, September, 1977.
Two rotary drum vacuum filters, manufactured by Stockdale Engineering Ltd. of
Rockbank, Macclesfield, Cheshire, England, are being used in Scotland to de-
water a mixture of primary and secondary sludge at a waste water treatment
plant which handles municipal wastes in addition to effluents from a dis-
tillery and a vegetable cannery. The sludge, which varies in pH from 4.0 to
11.0, is conditioned by the addition of a slurry of lime and aluminum chloro-
hydrate. After conditioning, the sludge is fed by gravity to two 300 sq ft
Stockdale filters. The resulting filter cake containing about 20% solids is
discharged into skips for transport to a landfill.
D265
MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESS—PRINCIPLES, PRACTICE, AND PROSPECTS,
Meares, P.
Aberdeen University,
Scotland,
Department of Chemistry.
Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol. 2, No. 4, p 327-336, 1977. 2 fig, 6
tab, 21 ref.
Various membrane processes for separation at the molecular level and for
desalination, hyperfiltration, waste water treatment, and gas separation are
discussed. Some polymers and rubber-like elastomers have varying molecular
chain configurations which allow the pore size to change. Rigid polymers with
crystalline molecular chains and pores less than five nanometers in diameter
are formed by the combination of a cationic and an anionic polyelectrolyte or
by combined solvent and non-solvent casting. These rigid polymers, which can
become plasticized by large quantities of permeants, allow small molecules to
penetrate the pores but exclude the macromolecules, making these membranes
useful in dialysis and ultrafiltration. The primary processes of desalination
are reverse osmosis and filtration with gel membranes used in electrodialysis
and piezodialysis. Hyperfiltration with cellulose acetate membranes is effec-
tive in desalination but could be improved by the development of less bulky
polymer chains and hydrogen-bonding groups. Desalination through electro-
dialysis utilized cationic and anionic exchange resins and electric generation.
Polarization and organic fouling of the membranes inhibit the effectiveness of
electrodialysis. Piezodialysis, regarded as the best method for desalination,
utilizes ion and water flow coupling, and allows salt to permeate the membrane
under pressure while water is absorbed. The most permeable polymer in use for
separation of nitrogen and oxygen from gaseous products was found to be a
dimethyl silicone membrane. While permeability was high in comparison with
other membranes, selectivity was low.
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D266
HAYLE VALLEY STW—BIGGEST IN CORNWALL,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 979, p 570-572, September, 1977. 7 fig.
The Hayle valley sewage treatment plant in the West Cornwall area of England
was designed to serve a summer population of 37,500 and a winter population of
19,000. Raw sewage is first screened and grit is removed by two 5 m-diam
Pista grit traps. The sludge then undergoes primary settling in three 27 m
diam, 3.5 m-deep basins. Effluent from a local creamery, which the plant also
treats, is pumped to a 230 cu m holding tank and then to a primary tower fil-
ter containing 1200 cu m of Flocor E. Two screw pumps transport the flow to
primary humus tanks, secondary biological filters containing granite media,
and secondary humus tanks. Sludges are treated with a polyelectrolyte and de-
watered by two Manor-Guva tower presses.
D267
WHITHER AUTOMATIC CONTROL IN THE SEWAGE TREATMENT FIELD,
Thurley, L.
Kent Instruments Limited,
Luton, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 981, p 693-696, November, 1977. 2 fig.
The expansion and automation of waste water treatment facilities with analog
discrete units or digital processors to meet effluent standards are discussed.
Analog units include a flow control loop that operates a statutory recorder
with a penstock to restrict the flow of storm runoff. A monitor for the coarse
and fine screens can activate a rake mechanism or additional screening. Iso-
lation penstocks with relay circuitry control the velocity in the grit sepa-
rator with additional flumes, detritors, or macerators. Analog principles or
inflow channel flumes are used to equalize the flow of waste into the primary
sedimentation tanks. An ultrasonic sludge level detector regulates the hydro-
static removal of sludge on a time or suspended solids basis. The activated
sludge controls involve a magnetic flow controller and detector head or a flow
summation monitor of individual activated sludge channels. Mackereth probes
are used for dissolved oxygen level monitoring. Preset digital processors
automatically control the storm water inflow, primary sedimentation, and final
sedimentation. Screens and detritors are automatically activated in sequential
order according to flow rate. The handling, treatment, and disposal of sludge
is more efficiently handled with the aid of visual and printed data from the
digital processors.
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D268
HORSHAM'S NEW STW HANDLES INCREASING POPULATION,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 981, p 705-706, 708-709, November, 1977. 1 fig.
The new municipal waste water treatment plant in Horsham, Sussex, England,
with a daily effluent load of 335,000 liters and a BOD load of 415 kg, was
constructed to alleviate the 342% overload on the existing facilities. The
inlet works and pumping station, with three screw pumps, have a capacity of
2,680 liters/sec; an additional pump with a 1,320 liter/sec capacity is
planned. Two storm water tanks were constructed with space provisions for two
additional storm water holding tanks. Sewage effluent is mechanically
screened and then hydrostatically desludged in two sedimentation tanks. Four
biological filters are operated with alternate double filtration. Effluent is
further treated by two interchangeable primary and two secondary humus tanks
which return effluent to the secondary biological filters. Two sludge holding
tanks dewater sludge that is conditioned with a polyelectrolyte and pressed by
horizontal filter belts. Flowmeters monitor effluent and activate diesel
generators for alternate power sources in the event of a power failure.
Treated effluent is discharged into the River Arun through three outfalls.
D269
TREATMENT PLANT AND PIPELINES FLOW CONTROLLED BY MINICOMPUTER SYSTEM,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 981, p 700-701, November, 1977. 2 fig.
The largest municipal waste treatment facility in the Netherlands, located in
Eindhoven, is controlled by a Philips P800-series minicomputer with telemetry
links. The Eindhoven facility, with a population capacity of 750,000, also
receives sewage from several southern villages via a 46 km long pipeline. The
treatment processes, including bar screening, grit removal, primary and sec-
ondary sedimentation, aeration, and sludge pumping, are monitored and con-
trolled by a computer system which furnishes visual and printed information on
levels, flows, motor currents, and operating times. Six pumps, controlled by
the computer's monitoring of the waste levels in the supply channels, have been
installed to optimize pumping operations between the bar screens and the grit
chamber. Dissolved oxygen levels in the three aeration basins are maintained
by 24 loops controlled by the computer. Excess sludge pumping and routing to
another treatment facility, as well as measurement of effluent quality para-
meters at the discharge point, are controlled by the computer. A Philips RL
200 time division multiplex telemetry system relays pipeline information to
the central control room at the treatment facility. Based upon the pipeline
data, the computer provides optimal use of the buffer in the pipeline and pre-
vents or reroutes overflows.
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D270
AGENCY SOUGHT FOR CANADIAN DOMESTIC UNIT,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 17, January, 1978.
A domestic sewage treatment unit that produces purified water and non-odorous
sludge has been developed for distribution in England by Waltec Industries
Limited of Penctanguishene, Ontario, Canada. The 'Aquarobic' unit, intended
as a replacement for domestic septic tanks, consists of a 600-gal fiberglass
aeration tank and a 90-gal settling basin. The system utilizes aeration and
microbial degradation to purify waste water. Excess air is introduced into the
raw waste by an electro-mechanical pump. Aerobic microorganisms consume the
carbon-bearing pollutants in the sewage, producing carbon dioxide and inert
chemical ash. The waste water is passed through a sand filter before discharge
into the surrounding land. The sludge can be contained in the tank for a
period of up to eight years before removal is required. The unit has a ca-
pacity of 400 gal/day and requires 0.39 kilowatts/hour electrical power for
operation of the air supply pump.
D271
SAFETY INTERLOCKING AT SEWAGE WORKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 22, January, 1978.
Castell Locks, a European safety interlocking manufacturer, has developed a
safety lock system for waste water treatment plants. Full-scale testing of
the system was conducted at a treatment plant in Wolverhampton, England. Six
biological filter beds were equipped with power isolators and interlocks which
prevent access to the beds when the electric current is connected. A Castell
switch isolates the power supply to the beds, releasing a key when the switch
is activated. The key releases the interlocks on the access doors and cannot
be removed while the door is open. This safety precaution prevents the con-
nection of the filter bed with the electrical power source. Each access door
to the filter beds requires its own key, preventing access to one filter bed
with the key from another. The system has been shown to be a cost-effective
method of providing protection for plant personnel.
D272
NEW METHOD INJECTS SLUDGE INTO SOIL,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 17, January, 1978.
A technique has been developed for injecting sewage sludge and agricultural
slurries several inches below the soil surface. The method, which was devel-
oped to eliminate the visual and odor pollution resulting from land applica-
tions of sewage effluent, utilizes a slave tanker equipped with sludge injec-
tion tubes. Two coulter discs and tines, mounted on the tanker, open a furrow
into which sludge is injected through tubes attached to the backs of the tines.
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Two pairs of spring plates replace the ground over the sludge. This technique
allows for the application of sludge on steeper gradients and reduces nitrogen
loss from the sludge in the soil. On-site testing of the apparatus was con-
ducted at the Anglian Water Authority's Great Billing works in England where
71% of the fertilizer used for agriculture is of sewage sludge origin. The
process has been effective in the application of about 150 cu meters of
digested sludge/sq acre of land at a rate of 1.8 cu m/min.
D273
DUTCH TREAT SEWAGE BY COMPUTER SYSTEM,
Processing, Vol. 24, No. 1, p 21, January, 1978. 2 fig.
A Philips P800-series minicomputer controls and monitors pipeline flows, water
quality, and secondary treatment of sewage effluent at a municipal facility in
Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The Eindhoven treatment facility, the largest
waste water treatment plant in the Netherlands, receives effluent from six
pumping stations conveying wastes along a 46 km pipeline. The computer con-
trols the plant's treatment processes, including coarse screening, grit re-
moval, primary sedimentation, aeration, secondary sedimentation, and sludge
pumping. The computer has been able to optimize the pump operation between
the coarse screening and the grit removal chamber by automatically activating
the pumps in sequential order to maintain a desirable level of waste in the
channel. Pipeline flow data are fed into the computer via a time-division
multiplex telemetry system. The computer is able to provide optimum buffer
capacity in the pipes and prevent or reroute overflows. Monitoring equipment
records the pH, redox potential, dissolved oxygen, temperature, conductivity,
and other parameters of effluent discharged into the Dommel River. Similar
monitoring is conducted in the river above the point of discharge. The mini-
computer furnishes a printout listing of water levels, flow rates, motor cur-
rents, operating hours, and other data.
D274
U.S.A. TRY RADIATION AGAIN,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 11, p 14, 16, November, 1977.
Pilot plant investigations of the treatment of dried or composted sludge with
ionizing gamma radiation to reduce pathogen levels are being conducted at the
Sandia Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The dried or composted sludge
may be used for fertilizer or soil conditioner if pathogen levels are suffi-
ciently reduced by irradiation. Small lots of the sludge are exposed to one
megacurie of cesium-137, a waste product of nuclear reactors, activated by
photons of 10 million electron volts. The sludge will be exposed to the gamma
radiation in doses ranging from several thousand rads to.several million rads.
Doses of one million rads or less are expected to sufficiently reduce the
pathogen levels in the sludge. Experiments will also be conducted on raw and
digested sludge which has been dewatered by air drying, centrifugation, or
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filter pressing. The cost of the irradiation procedure is estimated at $60-70
per dry ton of sludge.
D275
FINE FILTRATION OF WASTE WATER USING ROTO-KLAER (Feinsiebung von Abwaessern
durch den ROTO-KLAER),
Schoettler, V. W., and Schinke, R.
Ingenieurberatung G. Morszeck,
Haraeln, West Germany.
Fette-Seifen-Anstrichmittel, Vol. 79, No. 12, p 492-494, December, 1977. 1
fig.
Applications of the ROTO-KLAER filter, manufactured by the Noggerath Co., for
clarification of sewage at municipal treatment plants are presented. The
ROTO-KLAER is capable of filtering fine material from sewage with a drum sieve
unit. The filtration unit replaces the conventional sand traps and preclari-
fication basins. The need for strainer racks is also eliminated by the ROTO-
KLAER filter. The elimination of sand traps, preclarification basins, and
strainer racks compensates for the higher cost of the ROTO-KLAER drum sieve.
The overloading of trickling filter plants can be avoided and processes im-
proved with the installation of the drum sieve filter. Installation informa-
tion and additional application of the filter are also presented.
D276
OXYGEN INJECTION AT WORK'S INLET,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. I, p 16, January, 1978.
An oxygen injection system, developed by BOG Ltd. of England, has eliminated the
odor problem at the Holdenhurst Sewage Treatment Works in England. Odors ema-
nating from the treatment facility during holiday seasons were controlled by
the pilot installation of the Vitrox system at the inlet to the waste treatment
plant. About three-quarters of a ton of oxygen is injected daily into sewage
waste as it arrives at the plant. The Vitrox system was found to afford an
additional advantage to that of odor elimination. The additional oxygen en-
hances the biological treatment and quality of the sewage effluent, which re-
ceives a total oxygen load of more than 2 tons/day. Plans are being completed
for the permanent installation of an oxygen injection plant at the Holdenhurst
treatment facility.
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D277
EXPERIMENT TO PRODUCE COMMERCIAL SOIL CONDITIONER FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE PROVES
SUCCESSFUL,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 2, p 22, January, 1978.
A soil conditioner developed by Enrich Development Corporation of Delta,
British Columbia, Canada, from sewage sludge produced by the Greater Vancouver
Regional District's lona Island waste treatment plant in Richmond is evaluated.
The sludge is mixed with sawdust and composted in six- to eight-foot piles for
two to three months. The stabilized, non-odorous composted sludge is then
screened for the removal of large particles. Tests conducted with the soil
fertilizer indicate increased plant growth and improved water retention by the
soil. The soil conditioner, commercially marketed as 'Grow-Rich,' is suitable
for use in agriculture, horticulture, landscaping, and lawn conditioning. In-
cineration of one dry ton of sludge by the waste treatment facilities costs
about $100 while the cost of producing one dry ton of the fertilizer from sew-
age sludge is about $17. The lona Island treatment plant produces about 370
cu yd/day of sludge. The market price of the soil conditioner is expected to
be competitive with the price of truck-load top soil, which sells for $7-10/yd.
D278
HYGIENIZATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE BY ELECTRON RADIATION,
Tofaute, K.
BBC Brown Boveri and Company Limited,
Baden, Switzerland.
Processing, Vol. 24, No. 1, p 22-23, January, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab.
An electron irradiation process for the removal of pathogens from raw and
digested sewage sludge has been developed by Brown Boveri and Company Ltd. of
Baden, Switzerland. The first stage of the irradiation process requires the
screening of the sludge for the removal of foreign particles and homogenization
of the remaining particles to about 1 mm. The pretreated sludge is applied in
a thin layer to a rotating drum containing the irradiation apparatus. Irra-
diation is accomplished with a high-voltage rectifier attached to an electron
accelerator which contains electron-producing cathodes and a magnetic field
through which the electrons are passed and deflected. The electron accelerator
and scanner are operated in a vacuum. The irradiated, hygienized sludge is
stored in a monitored, ventilated tank. Mortality rates of strains of Cole and
Salmonella ranged from 10,000-100,000,000 with 300 krad irradiation; virus
viability was reduced by 60-90%. The irradiated sludge was more easily settled
and dewatered; coagulant requirements were reduced by as much as 50%. The ir-
radiated sludge was more effective as a fertilizer than steam-pasteurized
sludge. A review of capital and operational costs is presented.
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D279
HONG KONG'S LARGEST SEWAGE WORKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 6-7, January, 1978.
A municipal sewage treatment plant currently under construction for Sha Tin
near Hong Kong will have a daily capacity of 102,000 cu m of raw sewage when
completed in 1980. The treatment facility, which will employ two physical
treatment stages and one biological stage, will contain primary sedimentation
tanks, aeration tanks, final settling tanks, sludge digestion and storage
tanks, as well as a laboratory, an administration building, and a power gen-
eration building. The treatment facility will remove 92% of the pollutants in
the sewage effluent before discharge into a landlocked harbor; provisions have
been made for a tertiary treatment facility to protect the quality of the re-
ceiving harbor if necessary. The plant will receive a maximum flow of 3.6 cu
m/second; biological treatment for nitrogen removal from the effluent will re-
duce the possibility of red tides in the harbor. The Sha Tin treatment facil-
ity, when fully developed, will be capable of treating sewage effluent from a
population of 500,000.
D280
OZONE SHAKES CHLORINE'S HOLD ON DISINFECTION,
Remirez, R.
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 85, No. 4, p 59-61, February, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab.
The transition from chlorine disinfection to ozone disinfection of sewage ef-
fluent by a number of waste water treatment facilities is discussed. Although
the more expensive ozonation process requires constant gas dosages to prevent
incomplete disinfection and toxin formation, chlorination can produce chlori-
nated organics which may be harmful to aquatic life. The relative expense of
ozonation is reduced when the cost of dechlorination is required to eliminate
harmful substances produced in the chlorine disinfection process. Sixteen
municipal treatment facilites in the United States that employ ozone disinfec-
tion of waste water are cited. Union Carbide's UNOX/ozone system, which re-
quires that oxygen be fed through the ozone generator only once, is evaluated
for use in large treatment facilities. The alternative use of air rather than
oxygen as a feedstock for ozone disinfection is discussed for large and small
capacity treatment facilities.
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D281
SHIELDHALL SEWAGE PURIFICATION WORKS—SPECIFICATION FOR AND SELECTION OF
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND PUMPS,
Buyers, J. S., and MacDonald, J.
Strain and Robertson, Consulting Engineers,
Glascow, Scotland.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, Vol. 104, No. 12, p 218-223, December, 1977.
4 fig.
Equipment and operational specifications for the design of a primary treatment
facility in Shieldhall, Scotland, are reviewed. The plant will have an initial
flow capacity of 48 mgd with provisions for expansion to a capacity of 60 ragd
and for a secondary treatment facility. The two control centers for the
treatment plant will be located in the presedimentation building and in the
sludge pumphouse. A computer control system may be installed at a later date.
Four identical low level screw pumps, each with a 980 liter/second capacity,
pump influent to the presedimentation building which contains an oil boom, in-
clined bar screens, and grit dredging machines. Six main screw pumps with a
1580 lite'r/second capacity convey the flow to 12 primary treatment tanks, each
equipped with a magnetic flowmeter, a gate valve, and an automatic scraper
with a scum blade. Storm water is bypassed by two penstocks to storm tanks
equipped with manually-operated scrapers. Sludge from the primary treatment
tanks is discharged to an inspection chamber for analysis before it is trans-
ported by automatic sludge pumps to retention basins. Odor pollution will be
controlled by filtration of process emissions through carbon. Sample contract
checklists, safety factors, construction materials, and other related infor-
mation are described.
D282
BELT PRESS BEATS SLUDGE DEWATERING PROBLEMS,
Processing, Vol. 23, No. 12, p 24-25, December, 1977. 2 fig, 1 tab.
A belt filter press, developed by Alfa-Laval Co Ltd, provides increased and
prolonged pressure during the sludge dewatering process. The ecobelt system
processes the sewage sludge through a drainage stage, a low-pressure section,
and a high-pressure stage. The sludge is first flocculated with polyelectro-
lytes and passed through a drainage filter band for gravitational dewatering.
The sludge is further dewatered as it is pressed by ploughs and rollers while
passing horizontally through the drainage section. The resulting sludge cake,
which has been dewatered by 50%, is passed between polyester filter bands
mounted on perforated rollers with diminishing diameters within the low pres-
sure zone of the process. Pressure on the sludge cake increases as the roller
diameters decrease until the cake is passed into the high 'pressure stage con-
trolled by two hydraulic cylinders. Pressure on the sludge cake is increased
by flat belts that squeeze the sludge-bearing filter bands against a large
perforated roller. The high pressure dewatering stage produces a final filter
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cake with a solids content 10% greater than sludge treated without the high
pressure stage. Filter belts are subject to less wear because they are not
over-extended; the filtrate and water removed during the process can be re-
cycled. Suspended solids recovery with this process has ranged from 99% for
raw and digested sludge to 9% for aluminum hydroxide sludge. Solids recovery
averaged 95%.
D283
SEALING A SEWAGE LAGOON FOR HALF THE COST,
Brown, J.
Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 91, No. I, p 37, January, 1978.
Polymer-treated bentonite has been used instead of conventional materials for
sewage lagoon linings at the White River sewage treatment plant in Ontario,
Canada. The polymer-treated bentonite Volclay SG 40, supplied by American
Colloid Co. of Lovell, Wyoming, swells to transform permeable, sandy soils into
water-tight, sealed basins. The bentonite, when mixed with sand and water,
doubles in size to form an impermeable seal, especially useful in swampy
regions. A mixed blanket technique was used to apply the bentonite to the
White River sewage lagoons. A 6.3 mm layer of the bentonite was applied to a
section of the lagoon at a rate of 7.32 kg/cu meter. Two more layers, each 3
mm thick, were applied to the lagoon in opposing directions and the bentonite
was raked into the sand to a depth of 50 mm and compacted. A 25 mm layer of
SG 40 gel, a mixture of bentonite and water, was applied to the waste inlet at
a depth of 609 mm to prevent erosion of the bentonite seal. One sewage lagoon
required 227 tons of SG 40 using the mixed blanket technique.
D284
ENVIRONMENT GETS TOP TREATMENT IN HAWAIIAN SEWAGE OUTFALL JOB,
Western Construction, Vol. 53, No. 2, p 30, February, 1978.
A mobile ocean platform and explosive charges were employed in the construc-
tion of a sewage effluent outfall for Honolulu, Hawaii. The construction firm
of Healy-Tibbitts utilized the Spider I offshore platform, which can transport
equipment by walking along the ocean floor, to support excavation equipment.
Shaped charges were required to break up the compacted coral on the sea floor
in the outfall area. A 16-ft deep channel was blasted and 7,200 linear ft of
material was excavated with a Lima 2400 crane and clamshell, a McKinnon-Tierney
pile extractor, and a Cal-Weld harmer, all supported by the mobile platform.
The outfall pipeline, ranging in diameter from 44 to 66 inches, contains a
diffuser at the terminal of the outfall that discharges and disperses the sew-
age effluent at a depth of 100 ft. Divers were required to link the bell and
spigot pipe sections and to set the explosive charges. The outfall will not
be visible from the surface once the construction equipment Ls removed.
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D285
CENTRALIZING SEWAGE TREATMENT IN DORSET,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4460, p 11-12, December, 1977.
A waste water treatment facility, with a capacity greater than 3 million
liters/day and serving an area of more than 11 km, has been completed in the
Dorset area of England. Flooding problems encountered in the floodplain of
the Stour River where the main trunk sewer was installed were alleviated with
wellpoint dewatering and sump pumps. Twenty-one kilometers of sewers and ris-
ing mains were constructed of asbestos cement or spun iron ranging 150-600 mm
in diameter. The treatment plant, with a capacity of 2,818,520 liters/day of
domestic and 385,420 liters/day of industrial effluent, reduces suspended
solids to 30 mg/liter and BOD to 20 mg/liter by biological treatment. Storm
water flows that exceed three times the dry weather flow are directed by pen-
stocks to eight storm water tanks, each with a 365 cu m capacity. After grit
is removed activated sludge is introduced to the influent as it is passed to
the aeration chamber. Complete aeration and mixing is accomplished by a Mam-
moth Rotor controlled by a dissolved oxygen meter. Effluent is treated in
three settling basins before discharge into the Stour River. Activated sludge
is hydrostatically removed and a portion is returned to the initial activated
sludge operation. The remainder of the sludge is thickened in a 7.6-m tank
with a picket-fence stirrer and removed to a holding tank for disposal.
D286
SEPTAGE COMPOSTING,
Lombardo, P.
Pio Lombardo and Associates,
Environmental Engineers-Planners,
Boston, Massachusetts.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 12-14, November-December, 1977. 4 fig, 2
tab, 5 ref.
Pilot plant studies were conducted in Rehoboth, Massachusetts, to evaluate the
treatment of domestic wastes from septic tanks by aerated and static pile com-
posting with sawdust, woodchips, and animal manure. The dumping of septic
wastes from three towns in the municipal waste treatment facility was pro-
hibited because of the quantities of suspended, volatile, and total solids, as
well as mean BOD and COD concentrations of 5,000 mg/liter and 45,000 mg/liter,
respectively. Composting treatment of the septic wastes was preferred over
chlorination, chemical treatment, anaerobic or aerobic treatment, lagooning,
sand drying, land application, and disposal in a waste treatment facility or
sanitary landfill. The high moisture content of the waste was reduced by the
addition of sawdust and woodchips for moisture absorption} nitrogen was sup-
plied by manure. Forced aeration and static pile composting were used at an
asphalt drainage site. After manual mixing, the compost reached a maximum
temperature of 163 F at 5-10 days after pile construction. The estimated cost
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of a composting facility with a daily capacity of 15,000 gal from the three
towns was $240,000.
D287
USING PLANTS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Golueke, C. G.
California University,
Berkeley,
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 16-20, September-October, 1977. 1 tab, 7
ref.
Waste water treatment systems using algae, duckweed, and water hyacinths were
evaluated for pollutant conversion or removal capabilities, ease of harvesting,
and potential food or fertilizer source. The use of algae in waste water
treatment requires a symbiotic relationship with bacteria which break down the
complex organic compounds to nutrients usable by the algae. Harvesting of the
algae is difficult because of the microscopic size and low specific gravity of
algae cells. The algae provide a source of protein for animal feed. The vas-
cular, floating duckweeds are capable of doubling in quantity over 3-7 days in
a semitropical climate by absorption of nutrients. These lemnaceae are easily
harvested, but wind can cause large accumulations of colonies that decay. De-
watering of the duckweed would be required before use as an animal feed and
oxalic acid concentrations must be considered. Emergent vascular plants, such
as reeds and bulrushes, are grown in a bed containing sand and gravel upon
which sewage effluent is applied. This method of treatment produces a clear,
neutral effluent with low BOD concentrations and pathogenic bacteria counts
but with residual phosphorus and nitrogen. Water hyacinths are capable of re-
moving 80% of the nitrogen and 40% of the phosphorus, as well as amounts of
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium, from a sewage pond within a two day
period. Vehicles from which harvesting operations are conducted are hindered
by the masses of hyacinths in the water. The plants would have to be dewatered
by 90-95% before use as an animal feed.
D288
MECHANIZED SLUDGE COMPOSTING AT DURHAM, NEW HAMPSHIRE,
Wolf, R.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 25-26, November-December, 1977.
A municipal sewage treatment facility planned for Durham, New Hampshire, will
combine a secondary treatment plant with a sludge composting facility located
within the plant. An aerated pile composting system with woodchip amendments
was chosen for the sludge treatment system. The filtered sludge and woodchip
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mixture will be stored and aerated for 21 days on a concrete pad outside the
plant and will have channels and screens for mounting the aerators. The daily
loading time required for processing the 30 cu yds of sewage sludge produced
each day is estimated at one hour. Six employees will be required to run both
the secondary treatment plant, costing more than $6 million, and the composting
system, costing $600,000. Wood and brush deposited at the municipal incinera-
tor will be shredded to provide woodchips for the sludge composting process.
Sludge processing costs are estimated to decrease from the experimental $15/yd
to $8/yd with woodchip production and reuse. The composted sludge will be
sold for turf production, erosion control, and landscaping.
D289
A GRAYWATER SOIL TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Laak, R.
Connecticut University,
Storrs,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 29-32, November-December, 1977. 2 fig, 4
tab, 23 ref, 1 append.
A pretreatment tank, an anaerobic upflow filter, and a leaching field system
were developed for the separate treatment of domestic graywater. The pollutant
parameters of gray water, comprising 40-70% of the total domestic waste flow,
were considerably lower than those for combined sewage containing black water.
The soluble BOD concentration of the gray water was higher than that of sewage.
The required pretreatment tank capacity for a 6 person residence was calcu-
lated at 600 gal, providing a three year cleaning period for solids removal was
established. Heat transfer to the surrounding soil and exit velocity reduction
was accomplished by a tank length-to-width ratio of 3:1 and an inlet-outlet
height difference of 0.1-0.2 m. Effective BOD and suspended solids reduction
in the gray water after pretreatment was achieved by an anaerobic upflow fil-
ter. The fixed media filter reduced BOD levels in pretreated gray water from
150 mg/liter to 100 mg/liter and suspended solids from 120 mg/liter to 80
mg/liter. The treated gray water was then discharged into a leaching field
that required a 40% smaller length and 50% smaller interface area than the
conventional septic tank soil field. Phosphorus and nitrogen loading of the
soil by gray water was six times less than that of septic wastes.
D290
BASIC SEWAGE TREATMENT FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 760-761, December, 1977.
A compressed air-operated sewage ejector type pumping plant for rural use where
small sewage volumes are encountered is described. The plant, manufactured by
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Adams-Hydraulics Ltd, utilizes a 100 nun diameter pipe and valves; storage of
sewage effluent is not required and clogging is avoided. The single or dupli-
cate ejector systems of the duplicate centrifugal pumps are now available as
prefabricated units, eliminating the need for constructing a permanent housing.
The ejector system of the pumping plant, used in conjunction with settling
tanks for full sewage treatment in isolated areas, is equipped with a rotary
distributor providing overhead self-dosing and feed. An air release valve has
been designed for use with sewage mains. The valve provides an 'in-line1 flow
pattern, as well as the conventional small and large orifices. The ejector
can be located adjacent to the air compressor, which can be run on industrial
air supplies in factories or at a distance from the air compressor plant.
D291
ORANGE COUNTY AUGMENTS WATER. SUPPLY WITH RECLAMATION SYSTEM,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 1, p 34-37, January, 1978. 1 fig, I
tab.
A reverse osmosis-demineralization operation in Fountain Valley, California,
provides high quality waste water which, when mixed with well water and in-
jected into the ground, prevents sea water intrusion and supplements the county
water supplies. Sewage effluent is initially treated in the municipal waste
water treatment plant by chemical clarification, ammonia removal, recarbona-
tion, filtration, activated carbon adsorption, and chlorine disinfection. Be-
fore reverse osmosis membrane filtration, the waste water is treated with scale
inhibitors, cartridge filtration, chlorination, and pH adjustment. Dissolved
minerals in the waste water are removed by the reverse osmosis system consist-
ing of 210 cellulose acetate elements housed in fiberglass-reinforced plastic
pressure tubes 21 ft long with 8 in diameters. After 90% mineral removal, the
effluent is mixed with water obtained from four deep zone wells, each provid-
ing 2 million gal of water daily. The water mixture is injected into the
groundwater through a series of 23 injection wells which distribute 10% of the
water mixture to the ocean as a hydraulic barrier system. The reverse osmosis
deraineralization system, with a capacity of 2045 gal/rain, cost $3 million and
is the largest system of its kind in full operation.
D292
TRUCK-TANKERS CLEAN SEPTIC TANKS IN RURAL AREAS,
Dyment, R.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 1, p 49, January, 1978.
A 4,000 gal sewage tanker truck is used by Rural Sanitation Service, Inc, of
Clarence, New York, to clean septic and holding tanks in unsewered areas. Sew-
age is removed from the septic tanks by a rotary stainless steel Vane pump with
continuous vacuum pressure. The rotor is equipped with sliding vanes mounted
along the rotor's circumference. When the vanes are pushed outward by centri-
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fugal force, the rotor casing is divided into separate compartments. The
volumetric capacity of these compression compartments is maximized during
rotation, causing air to be drawn in and compressed. Air is cleaned in the
compressor by an oil filter and is prevented from flowing out through the air
receiver by a non-return valve. Sewage pumped from the septic tanks to the
tanker truck is removed either to a municipal treatment facility, a sanitary
landfill, or to a farm where it is used in land applications. The sewage
sludge is buried in trenches 8-10 inches below the field surface in batches of
1500 gal for land fertilization.
D293
SEWAGE ODOR CONTROL WORKS IN BELOIT, WISCONSIN,
Bryson, J. D., Davis, C. A., and Zuicarelli, F. J.
Will Ross, Incorporated,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. I, p 82-83, January, 1978.
An electrical deodorizer at the Beloit, Wisconsin, sewage treatment plant neu-
tralizes odors produced in the clarifiers by mixing the gases with a dry vapor
containing modified and natural oils and Neutrox Gamma, an aromatic compound.
The inflow of odorous air into the unit's chamber is controlled by an aperture
which allows the proper mixture of air with the dry vapor for neutralization.
The dry vapor containing the special neutralizing formula is contained in
cartridges which inject the adequate amount of vapor for neutralizing odors.
The neutralizing unit replaced a biodigestor tank which was ineffective in the
winter months and expensive to maintain. The level of odor in the contami-
nated air is sampled in monitoring inlets; dry vapor treatment is controlled
by the odor contamination levels in the samples. Hydrogen sulfide and ammonia
are the primary odor causing gases produced in the treatment facility. The
total cost of the odor neutralizing unit, including 48 cartridges, was $2,585.
D294
CAROUSEL FOR CIRENCESTER,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 31, 34, December, 1977. 1 fig.
A patented Carousel activated sludge aeration system has been installed in the
new Cirencester sewage treatment plant in England which was designed to pro-
vide service for a population of 25,000. The English-Dutch Carousel treatment
process provides extended aeration and activated sludge purification in a large
tank containing four channels for circular aeration. Primary treatment con-
sists of grit removal and screening, with solids removed to a landfill. After
aeration, the effluent is pumped to settling tanks for sludge and liquid
separation. The liquid is filtered in a land area for removal of dissolved
nutrients and suspended solids. A screening unit will be installed to remove
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large solids such as plastics and rags from the sludge before application to
agricultural land. The waste treatment plant is automatically controlled and
requires only one attendant.
0295
FOOTPATH GOES THROUGH SEWAGE WORKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 35-37, December, 1977.
Piled foundations and combined treatment structures were incorporated into the
design of the new municipal waste treatment facility at Saffron Walden, Essex,
England. Pile foundations from 26-30 m deep were required to compensate for
the unstable peat and alluvial soil upon which the 5.16 million liter/day
treatment facility was constructed. The visual impact of the plant was
modified by the construction of low profile structures. Treatment processes,
such as the pumping operation and the effluent polishing microstrainers, were
combined within the same structure to accomodate the restricted plant area.
Influent is screened and degritted before passing to the primary settling
basins. The four biological membrane filters required 325 concrete piles for
foundation support. Two humus filters and two microstrainers provide second-
ary treatment and polishing. Sludge from the settling basins is thickened and
retained in three storage tanks for landfill disposal or further treatment.
Flows that exceed three times the dry weather flow are routed to storm water
storage tanks for eventual treatment or overland flow filtration.
D296
UPRATING SEDIMENTATION TANKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 40, December, 1977. 5 fig.
A sedimentation tank adjunct, the TPS module developed by CJB Developments Ltd.
of Portsmouth, England, enlarges the surface area in a humus tank for in-
creased suspended solids flocculation without increasing tank volume. The
stationary TPS unit is constructed of durable plastic. Suspended solids in
the effluent descend through the module until they hit a series of spaced, in-
clined plates. The inclined plates direct the particles into corrugated
plates containing troughs located beneath the inclined plates. As the solids
collection in the trough increases, larger floes with high settling velocities
form. The settling rate of the floes exceeds the upward flow rate of the in-
coming waste water. The TPS modules increase the settling capacity of upward
flow humus tanks when installed just below the surface level. Horizontal flow
tanks can be improved by installing the module in the second part of the tank
with a baffle extended across the width to create an upward flow chamber. The
TPS module was designed to correct flow conditions in overloaded tanks.
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D297
80 ACTUATORS AT ONE WORKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 37, December, 1977.
The Penybont sewage treatment works at Ogmore-by-Sea, Wales, includes an auto-
matic flow system controlled by Rotork motorized penstock and valve actuators.
The treatment facility, which processes wastes that were formerly discharged
directly into the Bristol Channel, has a present capacity of 12 mgd and a de-
signed expansion up to 16-21.5 mgd. Over 80 Rotork actuators control all the
valves and penstocks within the main treatment plant. The treatment facility
has a capacity of 108 mgd storm water flow, of which 36 mgd receive full
treatment while the rest is stored in settling tanks before discharge. The
aeration tanks and the feedback channels from the storm water tanks are
equipped with the Rotork valve actuators which provide fully automatic control.
Rates of flow from the aeration tanks are automatically controlled by outlet
weirs that operate according to the dissolved oxygen level in the activated
sludge. Monitors also assess treatment capacity in the plant and channel
stored storm water into the treatment process when capacity is not at maximum.
D298
DEODORIZATION MEASURES FOR NIGHT SOIL TREATMENT PLANTS (Shinyo shori shisetsu
no dasshu taisaki ni tsuite),
Toyoda, F., and Chugo, M.
Ebara infiruko joho, No. 71, p 23-29, October, 1977. 6 fig, 7 tab, 2 ref.
Deodorization of sewage effluent gases with similar densities was evaluated for
waste water treatment facilities using combined treatment processes. Deodori-
zation techniques often employed are scrubbing, ozonation, adsorption, and in-
cineration. Conventional deodorization methods treat gases from the different
treatment processes together by one of the conventional methods. The combined
treatment of gases was not considered adequately effective or economic. Odor-
bearing gases produced during treatment in waste water facilities were col-
lected and combined according to high, medium, or low density. These similar
density gases were then deodorized by a combination of treatment methods ap-
plicable to the specific density characteristics of the gases. Although
several types of equipment were required in the treatment plant, this method
of deodorization was considered a more effective treatment technique.
D299
SEWAGE FARMING ... WHY IT MAY BE IN YOUR FUTURE,
The American City and County, Vol. 93, No. 1, p 48-49, January, 1978.
Land applications of treated sewage effluent by crop irrigation, rapid infil-
tration, and overland flow are evaluated and design loading rates are devel-
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oped. The field size required for slow rate application by crop irrigation is
dependent upon the hydraulic and nitrogen loadings. Hydraulic loading, the
sum of all water uptake and loss rates, should not allow runoff. Rapid fil-
tration applications are dependent upon the soil permeability and the percola-
tion rate of waste water through the soil to the groundwater. Continuous in-
filtration of an area causes solids accumulation which governs the infiltra-
tion loadings. There is negligible crop uptake of water and nitrogen during
rapid infiltration; nitrogen removal is controlled by nitrification and deni-
trification in the soil. Overland flow applications are limited when the
slope of the area is more than 6%, the land area is less than 150 ft long in
the direction of flow, or during cold periods when biological activity is low.
Overland flow, in which waste water is treated by biological oxidation, sedi-
mentation, and grass filtration, provides the lowest phosphorus removal of the
three systems but achieves high BOD and suspended solids removal rates. Pre-
treatment measures suggested for all three processes are: solids and organics
removal, as well as disinfection, for slow irrigation; solids removal for
rapid infiltration; and extractable phosphorus improvement for overland flow.
D300
LET THEM EAT SEWAGE DOWN AT THE FISH FARM,
New Scientist, Vol. 77, No. 1085, p 70, January, 1978.
An estimated 1.4 million tons of dried sewage is disposed of each year in
England, representing 1 million tons of primary treated effluent and 0.4 mil-
lion tons secondary treated sewage. Primary effluent contains about 16%
available protein; secondary sludge contains about 40% available protein.
Sewage sludge is discussed as a possible source of food for the production of
fish protein in fish farms. The supplemental feeding of sewage effluent to
fish which are raised as a protein source for human consumption was suggested
as an energy and food conserving measure. As an alternative to the direct
feeding of sewage sludge to fish, it was suggested that feed worms and fly
larvae be reared on the solid wastes. A food chain system such as this could
produce an estimated 30 tons of fish/50 tons of sewage sludge. Although human
consumption of the sewage-fed fish may not be acceptable, the fish could be
marketable as fish meal in animal feeds.
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D301
EFFLUENT AND WATER TREATMENT AT AERE HARWELL,
Lewis, J. B.
Industrial Chemistry Group,
Chemical Technology Division,
Atomic Energy Research Establishment
Harwell, England.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 7, p 348-351, July, 1977.
A sewage treatment installation at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in
Harwell, England, separates the various active and inactive waste flows and
stores them for individual treatment. The daily water supply of 7,000 cu m is
supplied from the Thames River by a water works 10 km away. Drainage systems
installed at the research station separate into individual treatment tanks the
surface and roof runoff, the domestic sewage, the inactive trade wastes from
laboratories, workshops and cooling circuits, and the radioactive effluents.
The surface runoff is checked for radioactivity before discharge into a land
ditch near the treatment works. Treated domestic sewage is retained in hold-
ing tanks for radioactive testing before discharge into the land ditch. Sludge
is treated with aluminum chlorohydrate, dried on sand filters, and buried
nearby. Industrial wastes are clarified and chemically treated before dis-
charge through a 10 km pipeline to the Thames River. The active wastes, con-
taining between 0.0001-0.00001 microcuries of radioactive particles/ml, are
pumped to two brick tanks for ferric hydroxide precipitation. The effluent is
discharged to the Thames and the sludge is dewatered and buried in Cumbria.
Radioactive effluent with levels higher than 0.0001 microcuries/ml is precipi-
tated with calcium phosphate-ferric hydroxide or calcium phosphate-copper fer-
rocyanide.
D302
OVERALL OPTIMIZATION OF WATER PURIFICATION AND SLUDGE TREATMENT,
Tambo, N., Sato, A., Aya, H., Nambu, S., and Okamoto, S.
Environmental Research in Japan, 1976 Edition, 1977.
Water purification and sludge treatment methods involving filtration and coa-
gulation were evaluated in laboratory tests, pilot plants, and full scale
treatment facilities. The ratio of aluminum to suspended solids significantly
affected the removal capacities of both rapid filtration and direct filtration
processes. The efficiencies of both filtration processes were similar and
considered more effective than sedimentation for the removal of suspended
solids. The optimum pH range for the effective coagulation of both organic
and inorganic substances was established as pH 6.0-6.5. Coagulation with
aluminum sulfate and polyaerylamide was efficient in solids removal and sludge
generation but breakthrough occurred during initial direct filtration. Sludge
quality was significantly affected by the ratio of aluminum coagulant to sus-
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pended solids. The volatile solids content of the sludge significantly af-
fected the sludge dewaterability. Lime was the preferred sludge conditioner
for landfill disposal.
D303
ORGANIC FLOCCULANTS MARKET SET FOR BIG GROWTH,
Storck, W. J.
C and EN,
New York, New York.
Chemical Engineering News, Vol. 56, No. 4, p 9, 11, 1978.
The efficiency and economics of organic flocculants were compared to those of
alum as a coagulant. Traditional coagulation chemicals are alum, lime, and
some ferric or ferrous compounds. Organic flocculants such as polyamines,
polyacrylamides, and polyepichlorohydrins are more efficient because of their
electrical charge. Organic coagulants can be anionic, cationlc, or nonionic
polymers with mixed charges. A dose of 100 ppm of polymer can replace up to
1,000-5,000 of alum, although many plants are designed to handle the large
sludge-producing alum or lime treatments. Alum costs about $129/ton, compared
to polymers which may up to $2,700-5,000/ton. Polymers are preferred as floc-
culants over raw material monomers; they have the primary advantage of sig-
nificantly reducing the production of sludge, a major disadvantage of alum and
lime treatment.
D304
$30 MILLION ONE-MAN WASTE TREATMENT PLANT,
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (Australia), Vol. 49, No. 28, p 6,
December, 1977.
A $30 million waste water treatment plant under construction at the mouth of
Australia's Brisbane River will contain a digger elevator, an aluminum gantry,
and a transfer carriage for the automated treatment of effluent from a popula-
tion of 430,000. Municipal and industrial wastes are automatically screened
upon entering the plant. The removed solids are pressed and incinerated and
the waste water undergoes grit removal. The degritted effluent is subjected
to primary sedimentation in a series of tanks which remove about two-thirds of
the suspended solids. Scrapers convey the settled solids to six primary diges-
tion tanks. The sludge is retained in the digestion tanks with anaerobic
microorganisms for a period of three weeks. Methane and carbon dioxide pro-
duced by the sludge digestion are used as fuel for electric power generators.
After digestion, the sludge is stored in two open tanks and later dried on an
11-acre drying bed. The dried sludge is used as a fertilizer or land fill.
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D305
BEHAVIOR OF WASTEWATER SLUDGES AND CHEMICAL WASTEWATER SLUDGES DURING AEROBIC
DIGESTION,
Haraoda, M. F.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 9, p 4415, 1978.
Aerobic digestion of chemically-treated activated, primary, and precipitated
sludges was evaluated in laboratory experiments with alum, ferric chloride, and
calcium hydroxide. Doses of 200-600 mg/liter of calcium hydroxide, 8.1-22.3
mg/liter of alum, or 10-30 mg/liter of ferric chloride were added to five types
of sludge originating from primary treatment, activated sludge, lime treatment,
and mixed liquor treatment with alum or ferric chloride. The primary and
activated sludges were employed as the controls in the batch and semi-continu-
ous aerobic digestion systems. Sludges treated in semi-continuous digestors
had a higher supernatant quality, dewaterability and oxygen uptake rate. A
linear correlation existed between the decomposition rate constant for volatile
suspended solids reduction and the initial volatile suspended solids concen-
tration in batch digestion systems. For lime primary sludges, a linear rela-
tionship was found between the decomposition constant and alkalinity during
digestion. Nitrification decreased in sludges treated with high lime dosages;
settling and filtration improved after aerobic digestion for 10-12 days. Sol-
uble phosphorus was released from the lime primary sludge after storage for 15
days at 20 C. Aerobically-digested alum or ferric chloride activated sludge
required storage for up to 10-15 days and exhibited poor settling and filtra-
tion properties. Control activated sludges were unaffected by aluminum or
ferric additions during aerobic digestion and displayed lower oxygen uptake
rates than primary sludges.
D306
USE OF A NATURAL MARSH FOR WASTEWATER POLISHING,
Fetter, C. W. Jr., Sloey, W. E., and Spangler, F. L.
Wisconsin University,
Oshkosh,
Department of Geology.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 290-307, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 13 fig, 10 tab, 22 ref.
The purification capacity of a marsh receiving agricultural and municipal ef-
fluent was evaluated in on-site studies at the Brillion Marsh in Wisconsin.
Water samples were collected over a 14 month period at sites above the munici-
pal treatment plant outlet, below the discharge point, and below the Brillion
Marsh. During a three day intensive study, the 385 acre marsh received a total
inflow of 4,675-6,390 cu m/day; waste water comprised up to 50% of the total
inflow during the summer. The effluent substantially increased stream water
levels of BOD, COD, orthophosphate, total phosphorus, coliform bacteria, and
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ammonia. The treatment plant waste water contained 83 rag/liter BOD, 9.07
mg/liter total phosphorus, 200 mg/liter COD, and 3.77 log coliforms/100 ml.
Significant amounts of dissolved solids and nitrate were recorded above the
effluent outfall; these concentrations decreased below the discharge point.
Effluent samples collected after polishing by the marsh revealed that BOD was
reduced by 80.1%, COD by 43.7%, coliform bacteria by 86.2%, nitrate by 51.3%,
total phosphorus by 13.4%, and orthophosphate by 6.4%. Dissolved solids in-
creased by 16.7%; suspended solids and turbidity decreased by 29.1% and 43.5%,
respectively. An estimated mass balance of phosphorus indicated that an annual
phosphorus reduction of 32% was achieved by the marsh.
D307
REMOVAL OF POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON FROM WATER BY FOAM SEPARATION,
Bishop, P. L.
New Hampshire University,
Durham,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Separation Science and Technology, Vol. 13, No. I, p 47-57, 1978. 5 fig, 2
tab, 14 ref.
The use of powdered rather than granular activated carbon in water and waste
water treatment is limited by available techniques for removing the carbon from
the treated suspension for regeneration. Foam separation with a cationic sur-
factant was evaluated for carbon suspension separation in tests with a con-
tinuous reaction. Compressed air was introduced into the base of the 10
cm-diam reactor column at a rate of 0.4-0.8 standard cu ft/min/sq ft. The
cationic surfactant,•ethylhexadecyldimethylammonium bromide, was added as the
foaming agent in doses of 30, 50, and 70 mg/liter. Powdered carbon was com-
pletely removed from the effluent with a. surfactant dose of 30 mg/liter and a
liquid flow rate of 0.3-0.6 gal/min/sq ft. About 1% of the influent load was
removed as foam; a 30 mg/liter surfactant dose resulted in an effluent surfac-
tant content of 8.6-12.1 mg/liter. Column design modifications and more effi-
cient aeration were suggested for greater removal of the surfactant from the
effluent. Activated carbon regeneration was enhanced by a lower aeration rate
and surfactant dosage; effluent quality was improved by higher aeration rates,
lower hydraulic loading, and -lower surfactant dosages. Foam separation with a
surfactant was more efficient in powdered activated carbon removal than air
flotation alone.
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D308
HOW CHLORINE AFFECTS SOLUBLE COD IN ALGAL LADEN SYSTEMS,
Wight, J. L., Johnson, B. A., Reynolds, J. H., and Middlebrooks, E. J.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 48-52, 54, March, 1978. 14 fig, 3
tab, 20 ref.
The impact of chlorination on soluble COD concentrations in waste water con-
taining high levels of algae was analyzed in laboratory tests and in experi-
ments conducted at the Logan City, Illinois, municipal sewage treatment
lagoons. When chlorine doses of 4.2, 16.9, and 50.8 mg/liter were added to
secondary sewage effluent, free chlorine residuals ranged 0-5.90 mg/liter. In
the laboratory studies, soluble COD concentrations in the chlorinated algae-
bearing effluent increased from an initial 24.31 mg/liter to a high of 38.73
mg/liter and from an initial 52.70 mg/liter to a high of 70.37 mg/liter after
treatment with chlorine at a dose of 50.8 mg/liter. COD concentrations in-
creased substantially during the first 15 min of chlorine contact. Corre-
sponding increases were not observed in field studies of COD concentrations
after chlorine disinfection. In field experiments, soluble COD increases in
algal laden waste water were apparent only for unfiltered sewage lagoon efflu-
ent having a free chlorine residual. Oxidation of organic substances by free
chlorine residuals where sand filtration was not employed contributed to the
soluble COD increases.
D309
THICKENING OF WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE WITH A DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION UNIT,
Langenegger, 0., and Viviers, J. M. P.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 79-86, 1978. 7 fig, 3 ref.
An air flotation system for concentrating waste activated sludge was designed
in relation to the specific properties of activated sludge. Sludge volume
index, suspended solids, volatile suspended solids, and sludge age were used
as design criteria. Mixed sludge liquor reacted with a pressurized air-water
solution was introduced to a clarification tank equipped with scrapers. Four
samples of activated sludge from different treatment plants were treated in the
air flotation pilot plant. A solids loading rate of 10 kg/sq m/hr required an
air-solids ratio of 0.03; a downward flow rate of 6 m/hr in the clarifier re-
duced suspended solids by 98%. Water levels in the flotation tanks were ad-
justed to contact the varying float layer with the fixed level scraper. The
scraper was operated at a speed of 1 m/min and a depth of 5 mm. Weirs were
recommended for full scale plants so that water levels could maintain float
layers above the water line and limit the total layer to 600 mm to facilitate
drainage. Adequate turbulence in the reactor zone was recommended to promote
adhesion of the sludge particles and the air bubbles.
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D310
BUTANE IS NEARLY 'IDEAL1 FOR DIRECT SLURRY FREEZING,
Randall, C. W.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 43-44, 47-49, March, 1978. 4
fig, 1 tab.
Direct slurry freezing of waste water sludge with butane as the cooling agent
was evaluated with batch and continuous flow reactors. The batch reactor, with
a sludge volume of 1.5 liters, had a larger surface area than the 2 liter con-
tinuous flow reactor; the larger surface area increased the heat transfer rate,
minimizing sludge detention times. The effectiveness of batch treatment was
dependent upon the sludge detention time in the reactor and the quality of the
filtrates. Higher suspended and dissolved solids concentrations in the sludge
required longer detention times in the continuous flow reactor for adequate
treatment. A sludge cake solids concentration of 77% was achieved after vacuum
filtration and gravity drainage in batch tests, compared to 18% concentration
without sludge conditioning and 40% for continuous flow tests. Recovery of
40-60% of the butane after treatment was accomplished with a single compressor.
The addition of a second compressor increased butane recovery to 70-80%. The
direct slurry freezing process was competitive with other sludge treatment
methods at an estimated cost of $6-20/ton dry solids processed.
D311
WHAT TO CONSIDER IN BASKET CENTRIFUGE DESIGN,
Hagstrom, L. G., and Mignone, N. A.
Envirex, Incorporated,
Waukesha, Wisconsin.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 58, 60, 62, March, 1978. 3
fig, 5 ref.
Parameters involved in the effective design of a bottom feed, continuous batch
basket centrifuge for sludge dewatering were examined in studies with sludge
samples from five municipal treatment facilities. Basket centrifugation, which
removes cavity and capillary water, is used to dewater or thicken feed slurry,
skimmings, dewatered cake, and centrate. The slurry to be dewatered during
centrifugation is passed into a bowl via a continuous 360 degree slot in the
bowl floor. Turbulence and slippage of the sludge in the bowl is reduced by
this entrance scheme. Samples of contact stabilized, extended aerated, and
activated sludge from the five treatment facilities were dewatered in the
basket centrifuge tests. Results indicated that cationic polymer additions
enhanced machine throughputs and solids recovery. At constant feed rates and
polymer additions, increasing sludge ages decreased the machine throughput and
significantly affected solids recovery but not cake concentration.
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D312
THE MEMBRANE FILTER PLATE,
Edmondson, B. R., and Brooks, D. R.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 272, 274-278, May, 1977. 3 fig, 6 tab.
A sludge press equipped with membrane filter plates which can be stopped at the
optimum point of the cycle is evaluated. Recess and membrane filter plates are
mounted alternately within the press to provide flexible and fixed surfaces.
At a predetermined sludge level, the press apparatus is stopped and the sludge
is squeezed at a pressure of 827 kilopascals for a duration required to produce
the desired cake solids content. The dewatering efficiency of the membrane
filter plate system was examined in pilot plant tests conducted with sludge
which had been conditioned with lime and copper. A comparison of the membrane
filter plate and the recess press showed a 37-133% increase in dry solids pro-
duced by the membrane filter press at feed times of 150-180 min. Further tests
indicated that the press cycle could be reduced to 45 min for sludges that are
easily dewatered. The dry solids content of the sludge cake could be con-
trolled by the pressing time. A press converted to the membrane filter plate
process could produce an increase in output of up to 50% over conventional
press operation; this output could increase by 100% under automated operation.
D313
WASTEWATER PURIFICATION IN BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PONDS WITH ALGAL GROWTH
(Ochistka stochnjikh vod v apbgapizirobannjikh bioprudakh),
Tereshina, A. N.
Vodosnabzhenie i Sanitarnaia Tekhnika, No. 9, p 25-26, 1977. 1 tab, 9 ref.
Experiences with the use of algal ponds in the biological treatment of munici-
pal waste water are presented. The algal ponds have depths in the range of
0.6-0.9 m and are sectioned. They are established on impermeable ground where
possible and are sealed with polyethylene foil in permeable regions. They are
initially seeded with algae (Cyanophyta, Diatomaea, and Chlorophyta) at a dos-
age of 300 mg/25 cu m of water. The waste water throughput is generally in
the range of 400-1,000 cu m/day at a hydraulic load of 800-1,375 cu m/ha/day
and an organic matter load of 106-137 kg/ha/day. After 99.9% of the E. coli
are destroyed, the treated waste water is drained off via pipes installed
above the bottom. The treatment efficiency and chlorophyll synthesis rates
are comparable for algal ponds in the Baltic region and in Central Asia, in
spite of the considerable differences in climate and temperature.
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D314
DEEP SHAFT SYSTEM USES GRP,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 1, p 25, January, 1978.
Corrosion resistant glass-reinforced plastic was employed in the construction
of a deep shaft effluent treatment facility where the equipment would be ex-
posed to high chloride concentrations in the industrial effluent treated with
municipal wastes at the Marsh Farm Sewage Works in Tilbury, Essex, England.
Effluent is aerated as it is passed down through the 132 m downcomer with a
1,200 mm diameter. The downcomer construction required corrosion resistance
for an anticipated life span of 30 years. Glass-reinforced plastic tubes, in
10 m lengths, provided the required resistance to the corrosive chloride con-
centrations and the necessary mechanical strength to hang freely in alignment
with the supporting shaft. The plastic sections were joined together by locks
and injected with resin, providing durability under high tensile loads. The
bell-mounted T piece, through which the effluent enters the downcomer, was
also constructed of glass-reinforced plastic.
D315
MINI SEWAGE WORKS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 760, December, 1977. 1 fig.
A municipal sewage treatment unit, developed by Simon-Hartley of Stoke-on-
Trent, England, provides extended aeration for small volumes of municipal ef-
fluent. The treatment unit is designed for simple operation in municipal fa-
cilities where volumes of sludge produced are limited or in warm climates where
sludge is used for irrigation. The compact unit treats fluctuating flows in
communities where sewage output may increase several fold at certain periods
of the day. The Capitox treatment unit uses initial coarse screening of in-
fluent, followed by the mixing of the raw sewage with recirculated sludge be-
fore aeration. A Simcar aerator is employed; a weir box passes the liquid ef-
fluent into the settling basin containing an inlet stilling box and a weir.
Solids are screened before leaving the aeration tank; sludge is removed from
the settling tank and returned to the beginning of the treatment cycle for
mixing with the influent. Tanks are constructed of either steel or concrete
from a variety of components, dependent upon the specific application.
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D316
DISINFECTION OF MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER WITH GAMMA RADIATION,
Melmed, L. N.
City Health Department,
Laboratory and Technical Services Branch,
Johannesburg, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 2, No. 3, p 131-135, July, 1976. 2 fig, 4 tab, 2 ref.
Disinfection with ganma radiation to reduce E. coli counts to within irrigation
or potable water standards was tested with biological filter effluent, matura-
tion pond water, and chlorinated water. Samples of effluent from a two-stage
biological filter were treated with cobalt-60 at doses of 10-90 krad and 100-
2,000 krad. An E. coli count of less than 1,000/100 ml was achieved for set-
tled biological filter effluent with radiation doses of 50 krad and greater.
Retention of the settled effluent in maturation ponds for 26 days without ra-
diation treatment reduced the E. coli count to 200/100 ml, a level comparable
to radiation treatment with 100 krad. Irradiation of maturation pond effluent
at doses of 10-1,000 krad resulted in no residual E. coli colonies after ra-
diation treatment with 50 krad or more, but unacceptable total residual bac-
teria counts. A potable water standard was reached after radiation at 200 krad
for maturation pond effluent and for settled filter effluent with 2,000 krad.
Chlorination of settled filter effluent with 4.3 mg chlorine for 5 min produced
a residual E. coli count of 1,000/100 ml. Simultaneous and successive chlori-
nation and radiation with 30 krad resulted in residual E. coli counts of 0.357%
and 0.347%, respectively. Radiation followed by chlorination, radiation alone,
and chlorination alone produced higher residual E. coli percentages.
D317
SOLVING SLUDGE BULKING PROBLEMS,
Barnard, J. L.
Water Pollution Control. Vol. 77, No. 1, p 103-106, 1978. 1 fig, 2 ref.
The identification and elimination of sludge bulking problems caused by treat-
ment deficiencies or by bacterial population shifts were reviewed. Low dis-
solved oxygen levels in mixed liquor were conducive to the growth of Sphaero-
tilus natans, a filamentous bacteria causing bulking. Increasing the oxygen
load or adding 5-19 mg/liter of chlorine to the return sludge was effective in
inhibiting the growth of filamentous bacteria. Incorporating a nitrification-
denitrification phase of operation into the treatment system was also an ef-
fective debulking method. Sulfide loads in the effluent feed from septic
wastes or pulp mill effluents were reduced by oxidation to sulfates in a bio-
logical filter or by aeration without the addition of activated sludge. Nu-
trient deficiencies in the waste water were alleviated by maintaining a
nitrogen:phosphorus:BOD ratio in excess of 5:1:150. Pretreatment of high car-
bohydrate effluents with anaerobic processes or biological filtration reduced
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sludge bulking problems. Sludge age up to 60 days, identified as a bulking
problem, was rectified by more frequent wasting of sludge under 30 days old.
Dairy wastes contributing to shock loads were effectively treated with batch
aeration followed by settling. PH variations caused by excessive nitrate for-
mation were controlled by providing an anoxic zone to denitrify the nitrates
and increase the pH to a neutral value.
318
VACUUM FILTRATION, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE
PROBLEMS,
Mansfield, R. A.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 61, 1978.
Problems encountered with the operation and maintenance of a vacuum filter for
digested sludge dewatering at the New Germany waste water treatment facility
in South Africa were discussed. The sludge, which was buried after treatment,
was excessively dewatered, creating an additional 21% solids loading on the
digester. The edges of the polypropylene monofilament filter, with a 1.85 m
diameter,.were sealed by vulcanizing the rubber edges with heat. Fibers and
other materials collected and clogged the pipelines at the check valves, the
polyelectrolyte-sludge mixing unit, and the spray nozzles. Sand and grit
caused excessive pump water; the dosing pumps in the polyelectrolyte make-up
tank were obstructed by insects entering the tank. An overhead gantry was re-
quired for repairs; the use of reclaimed effluent required pump, blower, and
chlorinator housings.
D319
GAMMA RAY TREATMENT REAPS HARVEST FROM SEWAGE,
Environmental Protection Survey, p 21, February, 1978. 2 fig.
Disinfection by gamma irradiation is promoted for sewage sludge used as fer-
tilizer. Irradiation with cobalt-60 or cesium-137 is conducted in a 7 m-deep
shaft with a concrete shield. The radioactive material is enclosed in corro-
sion resistant steel pipes contained in a closed flushing water circuit; sludge
is automatically circulated around the radioactive material. The irradiation
process effectively destroys pathogens and parasitic worm ova, as well as seed
germination capability. The disinfection process maintains the fertilizer
value of the sludge and increases the dewaterability by up to 50%. Gamma ra-
diation does not produce pollutants or utilize oxygen or hydrocarbon fuels.
About 12% of the cobalt-60 must be replaced each year; cesium-137 lasts about
10 years, making it slightly less expensive. The packaged disinfection plants
are currently available in sludge output capacities of 1-250 cu in/day and 15
cu m/day.
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D320
SLUDGE DISPOSAL: THE PROBLEM, THE SEARCH, THE SOLUTION,
Haag, R.
Rickel Manufacturing Corporation,
Kansas City, Missouri.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 3, p 58-61, March, 1978.
The sewage sludge land application system used by the Moorhead waste water
treatment plant in Minnesota is described. The anaerobic digestion treatment
system serves a population of 35,000, producing 30,000 gal/day raw sewage.
The plant has a design capacity of 4.5 ragd with a 95% BOD and suspended solids
removal efficiency. Two tank trucks with capacities of 3,000 and 3,500 gal
were replaced by the high flotation Big A 4500 truck manufactured by Rickel
Manufacturing Corp. of Salina, Kansas. The high-flotation truck allowed sludge
application to thawing ground which had previously been inaccessible during
the spring. The municipality transports 70,000 gal/week of whey and ice cream
wash water from a local dairy products manufacturer which financed the high-
flotation truck. This arrangement has reduced the treatment plant's BOD load
by 1,500-2,000 Ibs/day and the dairy's sewerage charges from $77,000 to
$36,000. Approximately 3.5 tons of sludge are applied to each acre at a cost
of $87.50/acre; the nitrogen and phosphorus pentoxide value of the sludge as
fertilizer is approximately $74.20/acre.
D321
TREATMENT AND USE OF SEWAGE PURIFICATION PLANT SLUDGES,
Brekelmans, K., and Hall, H.
J. M. Didier and Associates,
Brussels, Belgium.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 264, 266-268, May, 1977. 1 tab, 7 ref.
Methods of sewage sludge treatment, use, and disposal are evaluated. Various
parameters of raw or primary sludge and digested or secondary sludge are re-
viewed, including: pH, dry residue, fat, protein, carbohydrates, lignins, and
ash content. The production of sludge gas at a rate of 0.6 cu m/kg of organic
matter by anaerobic fermentation converts the organic matter into methane and
carbon dioxide without nitrogen loss. Anaerobic fermentation also reduces the
pathogens, parasitic worm ova, grease, and odor and breaks down organic nitro-
gen and phosphates. Disposal of sludge into the sea, onto the land, or through
incineration is reviewed; land application of stabilized, digested sludge has
the advantage of providing plant nutrients to the soil. Sludge dewatering
techniques with cationic or polyelectrolytic conditioning.agents, flotation,
and centrifugation are discussed; the need for sterilization of the dewatered
sludge before land application is stressed.
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D322
THE USE OF FILTERBELT PRESSES FOR DEWATERING OF SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Howe 11, H. 0.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 66-68, 1978. 2 fig.
Filterbelt presses for sludge dewatering with chemical conditioning, pressuri-
zation, and shearing are discussed. Chemically flocculated sludge is fed to
the filterbelt press for gravitational dewatering by positive displacement
pumps. Pressure is exerted on the dewatered sludge as the filter belts con-
verge; shearing or bending of the sludge further releases water, producing a
final 99% solids sludge. New designs in filterbelt presses are based on one
or both belts constructed of mesh with a longer shearing stage and reversible
roller support cages. The choice of chemical flocculant, diluted to 0.05-0.1%,
determines the optimum sludge conditioning for dewatering. The belt speed of
the press is linearly related to the filter cake quality; higher pressures re-
sult in more extensive moisture removal. Anaerobically digested primary
sludges are more easily dewatered and have higher solids contents. Filterbelt
presses offer low maintenance costs, capital outlay, and labor costs; a high
quality sludge cake is produced within a short operation period. The presses
also are compact and provide aerobic conditions to prevent phosphorus release
from the sludge.
D323
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE UP-GRADING OF SOME SMALL SEWAGE WORKS,
Abbott, A. L., and Law, I. B.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 106-111, 1978. 4 fig, 6 tab.
A treatment plant with a design capacity of 5.45 million liters/day employing
primary and secondary digestion was redesigned for a potential capacity of 12
million liters/day and upgraded for tertiary treatment. Additional settling
basins and tertiary filters were incorporated into the plant; existing set-
tling tanks were converted to humus tanks and secondary filters to tertiary
filters. Part of the effluent was stored for industrial use and the rest was
used for irrigation. The second treatment plant, employing the activated
sludge process, lacked nitrification and had a COD removal rate of 81%. To
increase the low dissolved oxygen concentration, a digester tank was rede-
signed as an aeration tank and larger aerators were installed. The third
plant, treating a combined flow of municipal and cannery wastes, was overloaded
by 80-90% during the canning season. Performance testing of the filter yielded
a 28% COD removal efficiency and a 36% BOD removal capacity. Secondary fil-
tration was installed to provide 60% COD removal during the canning season.
The fourth facility with a design capacity of 3.4 million liters/day had 100%
overloading of its filters, humus tanks, and digester. An oxidation pond was
constructed; sand filters were converted to secondary humus tanks; a sludge
dewatering tank was installed; and mechanical mixing was replaced with gas
mixing. The oxidation pond, originally constructed for use by the two towns
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served by the facility, was converted to use by one town with a flow of 1.36
million liters/day.
D324
ROTATING DISC SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Godfree, R. E.
Dickson Environmental Engineering Limited,
Guildford, Surrey, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 748, December, 1977.
A rotating biological disc with an automatic drum filter allows higher loading
rates and eliminates the need for final clarification or settlement of the
municipal effluent. The biological disc is constructed of polyvinyl chloride
in a continuous spiral configuration which maintains uniform contact of the
sewage effluent with the rotating disc. The waste water passes by gravity flow
through a filter cloth mounted on a perforated drum. The filtration process
requires about 3 rain, with longer times allowed for effluent with a high sus-
pended solids content such as activated sludge. The 1.5 m and 2.0 m diameter
disc packs have effective capacities of 12 g/sq m and 16 g/sq m BOD load, re-
spectively. Under these loading conditions, the treated effluent has a BOD
content of 20 mg/liter and a suspended solids level of 30 mg/liter. Higher
removal rates can be achieved by the rotating disc filter with longer contact
times; filter performance is dependent upon the texture of the filter cloth.
The system can function as a secondary or tertiary treatment method, based
upon the filter texture.
D325
DEWATERING OF SLUDGE AT COMPACT SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 757, December, 1977.
Restricted land area in Copthorne, Sussex, England, mandated the installation
of a compact, drum vacuum filter for sludge dewatering rather than drying beds
which would have required a 10,000 sq ft area. The treatment system selected
to serve the population of 10,000 included initial pretreatment with screening
and degritting. The system contained turbine aerators with high rate circula-
tion for activated sludge treatment; provisions were also made for aerobic
treatment of sludge. A daily volume of 5,000 gal of sludge with a 98% mois-
ture content was conditioned with lime and ferric chloride and thickened in
storage tanks before filtration. The rotating drum vacuum filter with a sur-
face area of 78 ft and a belt discharger, dewatered the sludge to 80% moisture
content. Capital and maintenance costs of the system were about equal to those
of drying bed-sludge treatment systems.
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D326
EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT FOR THE SMALLER COMMUNITY,
Ward, A.
Robert Hudson (Raletrux) Limited,
Leeds, Yorkshire, England.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 751-752, December, 1977. 3 fig.
Three desludging units, mnaufactured by Robert Hudson Ltd. of Leeds, Yorkshire,
England, provide sludge screening and scraping for small waste water flows.
The Hudson Bioscreen incorporates a bar screen mounted within a rectangular
section channel. The bar screen is angled at 30 degrees to the water surface,
effectively increasing the screening area at any channel width. The Rotosludge
unit contains a half bridge scraper with adjustable blades in a circular tank.
The system is manufactured in standard modules which allow custom, low-cost
installation. The rectangular tank Autosludge scraper unit, also built in
standard modules, provides savings in capital and installation costs that can
be returned within five years. The Autosludge unit, constructed of corrosion
resistant materials, is almost entirely submerged during operation.
D327
FILTER SACK DEWATERING,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 757, December, 1977. 1 fig.
A Degremont Laing filter sack sludge dewatering system is capable of high dry-
ing performance with a compact and adaptable design. A 1.0 m diameter Trevira
polyester fiber sack hangs vertically within a 2.50 m high cylinder. The
polyester fiber is resistant to the chemical and physical degradation by waste
water. Sludge is first flocculated with a polyelectrolyte in a rotating drum;
it is then passed into the polyester filter sack. The unit can accommodate up
to six sacks having sludge capacities up to six times the volume of the sack.
The filtrate seeps through the sack and is directed onto a sloped plate at the
base of the unit. A slide valve at the bottom of the sack, through which
sludge is removed, allows for a very dry sludge where required. The retention
time of the sludge in the sack determines its final moisture content. A re-
tention time of 30 min produces 29% solids; the solids content is increased
35% and 40% after retention times for 2 and 18 hrs, respectively.
D328
BLOWERS FOR WATER RECLAMATION WORKS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 752, December, 1977.
Waste water treatment aeration units, manufactured by Hick Hargreaves, a divi-
sion of Electrical and Industrial Securities Ltd, have been designated for in-
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stallation in the Loughborough Water Reclamation Works in England. Two 3150
Series 1423 Blowers will be put into operation with a third maintained as a
standby. The aerators will have variable capacities ranging 2,000-5,000 cu
ft/min at a pressure of 6 Ib/sq in-g. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the
four aeration tanks will be monitored by eight probes mounted in banks of four.
Each bank is capable of operating the aerators at variable speeds, dependent
upon the measured dissolved oxygen levels. The aerators will function automa-
tically when the oxygen level deviates by 0.5 rag/liter from 2.0 mg/liter.
Noise levels at speeds between 450-980 rpm will be controlled by acoustic hoods
and reactive-absorptive silencers. Electrostatic dry clean precipitors will
filter the air.
D329
THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE MARTHOLME REGIONAL SEWAGE-TREATMENT WORKS,
Roberts, P. D., Chadwick, D., and Richardson, D.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 4, p 493-504, 1977. 4 fig, 3 tab, 1 ref.
The design of the Martholme Regional waste water treatment facility in England,
under the jurisdiction of the North West Authority, is described. Waste water
from the Calder River valley is pumped to the regional facility; Hyndburn River
valley wastes are transported by gravity flow. The plant has a 1991 design dry
weather flow capacity of 74,880 cu m and a full flow capacity of 175,300 cu m.
The flow to the plant by 2011 is estimated as 101,550 cu m dry weather flow and
237,730 cu m full flow. The raw sewage flow to the regional facility has an
average BOD load of 283 mg/liter and a suspended solids content of 162
mg/liter. Treatment at Martholme includes initial screening and degritting,
storm water separation, primary sedimentation, aeration, secondary settlement,
and activated sludge return. Methods of sludge disposal, such as digestion
and land disposal, dewatering and landfill disposal, and incineration, are
being considered.
D330
ODOR AND CORROSION CONTROL,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 752-753, December, 1977.
Hydrogen peroxide treatment of odorous and corrosive sulfides produced by
anaerobic microbial activity in sewer mains was demonstrated by the Severn-
Trent Water Authority in Wimpstone, England. The daily waste water flow aver-
aged 30-40 cu m with a three hr waste retention time in the sewer main during
the day, increasing to 7 hrs at night. The sulfide content at the pumping
station was 6-20 ppm and up to 10 ppm beyond the pumping station. Hydrogen
peroxide was injected into the sewer main by a pump equipped with a storage
container. A hydrogen peroxide dose of 180 mg/liter of sewage resulted in
adequate oxidation of sulfides. The daily hydrogen peroxide dosage averaged 6
kg; treatment was required only in the summer months. The total cost of the
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installation was 200 pounds sterling, with a daily chemical cost of 1.50
pounds.
D331
AERATION PLANT FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 753-754, December, 1977.
Aeration plants designed for the treatment of wastes from small populations
are manufactured by Satec Ltd. of Cheshire, England. The Satec aeration units
for communities with populations up to 600 and up to 2,300 are rectangular
structures constructed of steel in factory built form for ease of installation
or in small plate form. The aeration plant operates on the extended aeration
method of activated sludge treatment. Concrete aeration structures are also
manufactured for this size range. The concrete aeration and settlement tanks
operate on the diffused air or mechanical aeration technique. Diffused air
plants with contact stabilization are manufactured for populations ranging
1150-18,000, using a circular steel tank or a concrete tank with an inner steel
tank. For populations of 1,500-25,000, a mechanically aerated rectangular tank
with a separate circular settlement tank has been developed for extended aera-
tion.
D332
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT CLEANS UP MASSACHUSETTS RIVER,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 75, March, 1978.
A municipal waste water treatment plant with a 52 mgd capacity was constructed
to reduce the pollutant load on the Merrimack River in Massachusetts. The
activated sludge treatment plant, designed by Camp, Dresser, and McKee, Inc. of
Boston, serves the municipalities of Lawrence, Andover, North Andover, and
Methuen. Influent is pumped through a 2,800 ft long force main to the plant
where it undergoes primary sedimentation and aeration. The effluent is then
treated with secondary sedimentation and is chlorinated before discharge into
the Merrimack River. Sludge produced during treatment is dewatered and in-
cinerated; stack gases are scrubbed before emission into the atmosphere. The
treatment plant is equipped with 8 heavy duty sluice gates, 40 aluminum slide
gates, and 9 roller gates. Six of the 8 sluice gates are electrically oper-
ated. Two interceptor sewer lines, one 21,600 ft long and the other 9,400 ft
long, collect the municipal wastes for transport to the facility. Flowmeters
measure the input from each community for calculation of operating expenses.
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D333
WASTEWATER SYSTEM PROVIDES NEW WATER SOURCE FOR ST. PETERSBURG,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 18, 26, March, 1978.
A water metering system installed in St. Petersburg, Florida, distinguishes
between the potable water lines and the secondary effluent lines used for ir-
rigation water. Because of a lower than average rainfall in the Tampa Bay
area, treated effluent containing nutrients was directed to a sprinkler system
for municipal and private irrigation. Approximately 10,000 meters will be in-
stalled at the distribution points to monitor the water application rates and
to curtail runoff. A combined color and manufacturer coding system was
selected to distinguish the secondary effluent system from the more than
90,000 water meters in the area. A blue plastic meter, produced by Kent Meter
Sales, Inc, was selected over its bronze counterpart. The plastic meter is
corrosion resistant, does not form metal oxides, and costs $10 less than
bronze meters. Installation of the plastic meter is expected to reduce the
meter discard rate from 6,000/yr to 1,000/yr during upgrading of the system.
D334
OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE AT THE BORCHERDS QUARRY WASTEWATER TREATMENT WORKS,
King, P. B.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 111-112, 1978.
The operation of a waste water treatment facility with a population capacity
of 55,000 was discussed. The treatment included screening, degritting, and
metering of the influent before transport via a sump to a 5,580 cu m aeration
tank. Liquid separated from the sludge in a settling tank was passed through
three maturation ponds before discharge into a river. The initial capacity of
the plant was 3,750 cu m/day with an average flow less than 7% of the design
flow. The flow was increased to 425 cu m/day by diversion of conservancy water
to the plant and by discharge of domestic wastes to the plant four days a week
to increase the organic load. With the additional discharges, the population
equivalent was increased to 34,500, based on a 110 g COD/day concentration.
Influent samples on days when domestic sewage was discharged to the plant con-
tained 50,000 rag/liter COD and 2,500 rag/liter ammonia nitrate. Maturation of
the treated effluent in lagoons for 60 days reduced the COD concentration to
150 mg/liter and ammonia nitrate levels to 1 mg/liter. Upgrading of the plant
to a population capacity of 55,000 was accomplished by the addition of two
aerators, a settling tank, and a screw pump. Two screens were added in the
grit channel to supplement a hand-raked bypass screen that was subject to
clogging. Activated sludge was returned to the sewage sump to reduce pump
blockage, eliminate odors, increase denitrification, and maintain sludge
return during power failures.
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D335
OZONE IN THE TREATMENT OF ODORS FROM SEWAGE WORKS,
Elphick, A., and Favell, G. E.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 280-282, May, 1977. 1 fig.
Ozone deodorization of municipal wastes was compared to chemical spraying and
activated carbon methods of treating sewage odors. The substances primarily
responsible for malodorous emissions from sewage are skatole, indole, hydrogen
sulfide, and mercaptans. Chemical spraying of the wastes masks the sewage odor
with an aromatic odor. Activated carbon adsorbs odorous skatole and mercap-
tans more readily than hydrogen sulfide. Replacement or regeneration of the
activated carbon is required about five times a year. About 860 Ibs of acti-
vated carbon at a cost of 900 pounds sterling are necessary for carbon adsorp-
tion of odorous substances. Wet well ozonation contacts the odorous substances
for 7-10 min before discharge into the atmosphere. Continuous operation of the
deodorization process reduces the extraction rate and thus the ozone dose. A
retention chamber, providing 20-30 seconds contact time, decreases the ozone
injection to about 1.0 ppm. Operating costs for ozone deodorization total
about 490 pounds sterling, primarily for the ozone generator's power supply.
D336
THE DANGERS OF INADEQUATE CHLOR1NATION OF POLLUTED WATERS,
Nupen, E. M., and Morgan, W. S. G.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 45-50, 1978. 2 tab, 46 ref.
The potentially harmful effects of residual chlorine compounds after chlorine
disinfection are reviewed. Hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids, formed when
chlorine is added to water, oxidize with nitrogen in the presence of sewage
reducing agents to chloramines and free chlorine. Monochloramines must be
oxidized to convert ammonia to free nitrogen and to allow dissociation of
hypochlorous acid for disinfection. Although E. coli may be eliminated before
the breakpoint, or ammonia conversion, viruses and parasite eggs are removed
after breakpoint. Chlorine also combines with other organic substances to
form toxic chlorinated compounds, such as chlorophenols and potassium sulfo-
cyanide. Tests with some of-these compounds indicate that fish egg hatching
was retarded by concentrations of 4-chlororescorcinol and 5-chlorouracil as
low as 0.001 mg/100 ml of water. Limits established by the United States En-
vironmental Protection Agency allow the discharge of 0.003 mg/liter of residual
chlorine, with concentrated residual chlorine discharges containing up to 0.05
mg/liter permitted for 30 min within a 24 hr period. In addition to its
toxicity to some fish, chlorine has also been shown to eliminate beneficial
heterotrophic organisms while pathogenic organisms remained unaffected.
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D337
CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION IN PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
EFFLUENTS,
Mahlman, H. A., Sisson, W. G., Kraus, K. A., and Johnson, J. S., Jr.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Tennessee.
1976. 126 p, 54 fig, 11 tab, 38 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-025.
Cross-flow filtration was evaluated for the physical-chemical treatment of
primary effluent and activated sludge effluent by conditioning with iron or
aluminum salts, or powdered activated carbon as reagents. The cross-flow fil-
tration process involves passing of the effluent flow parallel to a filter
surface composed of fire hose jacket fabric to delay the accumulation of flux-
limiting filter cake and to separate the influent into filtrate and a concen-
trated solids slurry. Addition of iron or aluminum salt to primary effluent
resulted in a filtrate with 10-15 mg/liter total organic carbon (TOC), <1
rag/liter total phosphate, and a turbidity of <1 Jackson Turbidity Unit.
Cross flow velocities of 4.6 m/sec produced average fluxes of 6 m/day with
metallic salt treatment; neutralization was necessary before metallic salt
addition to prevent contamination of the filtrate. Powdered activated carbon
treatment of the primary effluent yielded a filtrate quality similar to that
produced by metallic salt treatment but with a lower TOC of 5 mg/liter.
Treatment of activated sludge effluent with aluminum salt, iron salt, powdered
activated carbon, added separately or in combination, resulted in a higher
turbidity, phosphate content, and bacterial population than for primary efflu-
ent. Ferric chemical and cross-filtration treatment of primary effluent flows
to a plant at 3,800 cu m/day was estimated to cost $.12/cu m. Further re-
search is suggested on various treatment chemicals, the effects of low circu-
lation velocities, and cross-flow filtration of industrial wastes.
D338
MOTORISATION OF PENSTOCKS AT SEWAGE WORKS,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 22, No. 6, p 28, December, 1977.
Syncropak 16A actuators, manufactured by Rotork Controls Ltd. of Bath, Avon,
England, were installed in the Beckton Sewage treatment plant in North London
to convert the 8 penstocks on the aerated lagoons from manual to motorized
control. The mechanization of the penstocks reduced the operating time from
40 to 6 min. The actuator design was modified to retain control on the out-
side wall of the aeration tanks and avoid accidents. A bracket was designed
to permit tank wall mounting of the actuators. The original penstock stem and
position indicator were incorporated into the design and installation of the
mechanical control devices. Flow balancing to the 8 aeration tanks led to the
installation of motor control. Provisions have been made for future remote
control of the actuators.
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D339
SULPHIDE ODOURS FROM SLUDGE TREATMENT,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 289, May, 1977.
The use of hydrogen peroxide to oxidize odorous sulfide compounds formed dur-
ing sludge dewatering has been initiated by Interox Chemicals Ltd. of Widnes,
Cheshire, England. Hydrogen peroxide reduced high sulfide levels in return
liquor from sludge coagulation and dewatering, removed sedimentation tank
odors, and prevented potential septicity. Hydrogen peroxide treatment of
sludge prior to dewatering oxidized the sulfides and prevented hydrogen sulfide
gas formation during vacuum drying. Hydrogen peroxide dosing of sludge at
tanker collection points eliminated sulfide emissions during transport of the
sludge to a disposal point. Complications caused by sulfides in primary sedi-
mentation and secondary biological treatment recycled liquors were alleviated.
D340
SOLIDS DEWATERING,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 289, May, 1977.
A mobile sludge dewatering belt filter press, developed by Whitehead and Poole
of England, has produced adequate dry solids contents in pilot tests performed
at the Newthorpe works of the English Severn-Trent Water Authority. The mobile
pilot plant has a design capacity of 8.25 cu m/hr mixed primary and humus
sludge. The belt filter press effectively dewatered a sludge flow of 10-13 cu
m/hr to a final dry solids content within standard limits. The mobile unit
was in operation in waste water treatment plants, water purification plants,
and industrial waste facilities over a 12-month testing period. The belt fil-
ter press was effective in industrial liquid-solid separation tests and was
capable of efficiently dewatering combined domestic and paper mill waste
streams. Further tests will be conducttd to examine the feasibility of de-
watering other mixed waste sludges.
D341
A MULTI-STAGE FILTER BELT PRESS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 282, May, 1977. 1 fig.
A four-stage filter belt press process for sludge dewatering, manufactured by
Ames Crosta Babcock Ltd. of Heywood, Lancshire, England, is constructed of
modular units, permitting design customizing for various sludge types. The
first stage of the dewatering system utilizes a series of gravity dewatering
pockets arranged in a long or short configuration. The second stage presses
the sludge between two belts arranged as a wedge. Further pressure is applied
in the third stage; the sludge is pressed between belts which are passed over
and under a series of drums or rollers. Continuous pressure is exerted on the
sludge in the fourth stage by spring loaded plates. The dewatering system,
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available with belt widths of 1.0, 2.0, or 3.0 m, is designed for continuous
operation. Dry solids contents of mixed primary and humus sludges have been
increased from 4% to 35% by the filter belt system.
D342
THE THICKENING AND CENTRIFUGING OF SLUDGE,
Howarth, C. M.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 64-65, 1978.
Methods to improve sludge dewatering and thickening by centrifugation are pre-
sented. Investigations were conducted at a treatment plant where a combined
municipal and industrial influent was thickened, centrifuged to 25-30% solids
content, and incinerated in a fluidized sand bed. Centrifuge performance was
upgraded by providing a second thickener; a thick sludge was consistently pro-
duced, reducing fuel consumption in the incinerator. Pump wear was reduced by
installing a large Mono pump operated at lower speeds. The Mono pump was
custom-designed with a spring-operated diaphragm valve for pressure relief
during restricted sludge output. Disintegrator pumps, through which the sludge
was passed from the thickening tanks to a manifold, were replaced by hand rak-
ing operations. Uneven flows to the four centrifuge pumps were eliminated by
installing two header tanks equipped with diaphragm valves. Centrate backup
into the centrifuges was alleviated by collecting centrate in a sump from
which it was pumped to the disposal pipes. Cake dryness increased with
greater flow rates; solids recovery decreased with the decrease in liquid re-
tention. Because of its higher oil content, centrate had a 20% higher energy
value than the feed sludge or the sludge cake.
D343
HEAT TREATMENT AND PRESSING OF DIGESTED SLUDGE,
Everitt, I.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 62-63, 1978.
Solutions to problems encountered in two waste water treatment plants in South
Africa were presented. Sludge treatment processes at both plants included di-
gestion, heat treatment, decanting, and pressing; an additional sludge thick-
ening stage was present at one plant. Ram pumps at both treatment sites de-
veloped cracked cylinders; outlet valves became worn and cracked. Replacement
of the ram pumps with Mono pumps was only satisfactory; rotors and stators
were abraded by grit. Replacement of the outfall valves with flat valves
proved successful. Clogging and bursting of the Inner tubes removing treated
sludge from the heat exchangers were alleviated by regular washing with a
high-pressure water jet and replacement of coil seals with Teflon-wrapped cop-
per seals. Level probes in the pressure vessels required cleaning; the stain-
less steel discharge valves were replaced with more wear-resistant hardened
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tool steel and tungsten carbide. The nine presses, each with 55 cast iron
plates, developed cracked plates within four years. The cast iron plates in
the presses, operating at 65 kilopascals, were replaced with polypropylene
plates. Odor from the decant tanks was abated by covering the tanks with
floating plastic balls. Decantrates and filtrates with permanganate values of
2,000 mg/liter were introduced into the activated sludge units for clarifica-
tion.
D344
SEWAGE DEWATERING PLANT FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 747, December, 1977.
Four sewage treatment and sludge dewatering plants are manufactured by Hawker
Siddeley Water Engineering for population sizes ranging 75-20,000. Five con-
crete extended aeration plants are available for populations of 250-1,000. The
units, which lower the BOD and suspended solids content of the waste water,
require sewage pretreatment with maceration or comminution and follow aeration
with sedimentation and pebble bed clarification. The plant for treatment of
waste water from a population of 75-500 is constructed of steel; extended
aeration and sedimentation with pretreatment of the effluent are used. The
concrete plant serving a population of 2,000-20,000 provides a variety of
alternative treatment processes of modular design, such as aerobic digestion,
clarification, polishing, and sludge dewatering. The compact steel unit for
2,000-20,000 employs degritting, pre-aeration, plug flow aeration, secondary
sedimentation, and aerobic digestion in circular concentric tanks. The treat-
ment plant lowers BOD and suspended solids levels to within quality standards.
Potable water plants for populations of 300-7,000 are also available.
D345
MODULAR TREATMENT PLANT,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 758, December, 1977.
Modular waste water treatment plants are being manufactured by Albion of Swan-
sea, England, to treat waste water flows from a single family dwelling to a
population of 400. The modular components of the system are constructed of
precast concrete. The component systems for a population of 4-141 include
septic tanks, filters, pump wells, and soakaway and precast cesspools. A
modular component system was installed in Talley, Dyfed, England, in a short
period of time, despite adverse land conditions. The treatment system in-
cludes upflow settlement tanks, storm water tanks, a balancing tank, pump
wells, a siphon chamber, humus tanks, and a wall unit filter. Albion is cur-
rently developing modular aeration plants to replace filters in restricted
sites.
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D346
SEWAGE SLUDGE LIME DOSING AND FILTER PRESS FEEDING,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 289-290, May, 1977.
A mixing, pressing, and pumping system was developed by Mono Pumps Ltd. of
London, England, for lime dosing during the sludge dewatering. The Mono sys-
tem eliminates the need for a water source, a mixing tank, a mixer and trans-
fer pump, and pressure maintenance during periods when the pump is idle. The
Mono pump, equipped with a cylindrical Monoraix unit, draws sewage sludge from
the conditioning tank into the chamber while creating a whirlpool action.
Proper doses of dry lime are injected by the Monomix into the center of the
vortex; adequate mixing is ensured by the pump element. The lime-bearing
sludge is returned to the conditioning tank for copperas solution treatment
before passing to the filter press for dewatering. The need for pressure ves-
sels is eliminated by the variable speed drive of the Mono Presspack's pump.
Constant torque, corresponding to the potentiometrically controlled press
pressure, is supplied by the electrically controlled pump. Pressure is main-
tained within 5 Ib/sq in of the required value, producing a uniform filter
cake. The unidirectional sludge flow eliminates the need for maintenance of
non-return valves.
D347
SEWAGE TREATMENT ROTARY DISTRIBUTOR RANGE EXTENDED,
Surveyor, Vol. 4447, No. 151, p 28, March, 1978.
Rotary distributors, developed by Treatment Plant Contracts Ltd. of Andover,
England, are being manufactured in a diameter range of 16-40 ft. The distri-
butors are constructed of corrosion-resistant polyvinyl chloride and fiber-
glass-reinforced resin; they include a center underfeed unit, a center over-
feed unit, and a taper unit. The overfed version requires support beams for
diameters of 25 ft or more. A four inch column has replaced the three inch
column in the 40 ft underfed siphon unit. The overfed, underfed, and taper
units are manufactured in lengths of 5 or 7 ft and can accommodate the entire
range of diameters. The 40 ft distributor has a capacity of 40 gal/day and is
designed to treat wastes from a population of 500.
D348
SEWAGE TREATMENT EQUIPMENT FOR SINGLE HOUSEHOLDS TO 5000 PE,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 982, p 746-747, December, 1977.
Municipal or domestic waste water treatment equipment is manufactured for
populations up to 5,000 by Klargester Environmental Engineering Ltd. A three-
stage settlement tank is constructed of fiberglass-reinforced plastic for ease
of handling and installation. Biological filters with pumps or gravity feed
distributors are available for use in areas where effluent disposal is hindered
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by subsoil conditions. Rotary disc-filters are produced as an alternative to
biological filters. An unassembled septic tank provides a compact design, re-
duced handling and shipping charges, and simple assembly. An unassembled ver-
sion of the three-stage settlement tank is also available. The fiberglass-
reinforced plastic BioDisc unit•is suitable for use in climates ranging from
desert to subarctic.
D349
BELT PRESS SLUDGE DEWATERING MACHINES,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 290, 292, May, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab.
Two belt press sludge dewatering systems, developed by the English manufac-
turer Simon-Hartley, have capacities ranging 2-23 cu m/hr. The three-stage
Winklepress dewaters sludge after polyelectrolytic treatment. Consolidation
and further dewatering are then performed in a vertical zone with a diminish-
ing width; a final sheer action is applied by bands passing over and under
rollers positioned at varying heights. The Winklepress has an input width of
up to 2,300 mm with a sewage sludge capacity up to 23 cu m/hr; it produces a
combustible filter cake with 35% dry solids. The Simon-Hartley Type HF band
press employs the same band and roller configuration as the Winklepress but
eliminates the vertical dewatering and consolidation zone. The bands are
sprayed before and after they pass over 15 rollers mounted in a continuous
horizontal feed position. The band press is available in input widths ranging
200-1800 mm for sewage sludge capacities of 2-18 cu m/hr.
D350
POLISH/U.S. SYMPOSIUM ON WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND SLUDGE DISPOSAL: VOLUME II,
1976. 167 p, 53 fig, 49 tab, 60 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/9-76-021.
The proceedings of the Polish/U.S. symposium on wastewater treatment and sludge
disposal, held in Cincinnati, Ohio, on February 10-12, 1976, contain 15 dis-
cussions on municipal and industrial waste water treatment practices and water
conservation alternatives. Specific topics include: sludge treatment and
disposal; treatment of steel processing, coke plant, tannery, and textile
wastes; biodegradability assessments; and toxicity analyses of organic com-
pounds. The symposium focuses on studies that were undertaken for seven water
projects conducted in Poland on: the treatment of industrial wastes; biologi-
cal, physical, and chemical waste water treatment techniques; sludge use; and
waste water reuse. The Polish delegation represented the Ministry of Adminis-
tration, the Institute for Economy and Water Management, the Institute of En-
vironment Protection Engineering, the Environmental Pollution Abatement Center,
and the Institute of Municipal Economy. The United States delegation was com-
posed of Environmental Protection Agency representatives and members of Car-
negie-Mellon University, Clemson University, and the University of Cincinnati.
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D351
THE RESEARCH WORKS ON SEWAGE TREATMENT IN POLAND,
Nawara, S.
The Ministry of Administration,
Local Economy and Environment Protection,
Warsaw, Poland.
In: Polish/U.S. Symposium on Wastewater Treatment and Sludge Disposal: Vol-
ume II, February 10-12, 1976. 1976, p 2-10. Technical Report EPA-600/9-76-
021.
Sewage treatment research, management, and legislation in Poland are discussed.
Surface water pollution in Poland results from industrial and municipal opera-
tions lacking adequate treatment facilities for chemical, food, and wood pro-
cessing wastes. Industrial plants are responsible for about 80% of all wastes
generated; about 60% of the total waste water volume receives some form of
treatment. Technologies have been developed for biological and physicochemi-
cal treatment of phenol-bearing waste water; biological treatment of cellulose
sulfate wastes; salinated mine water treatment by thermic and hydrothermic
methods; storage and treatment of dairy wastes in biological lagoons; and the
elimination of hydrogen sulfide from sulfur mine wastes. Future water quality
improvement research areas include pilot plant programs, water use optimiza-
tion, production of biodegradable domestic and industrial materials, data col-
lection systems, and further development of sewage and industrial waste treat-
ment plants. Operations at the biological waste water treatment plant in
Czestochowa, Poland, treating a combined municipal and industrial waste water
flow, are reviewed.
D352
MARINE WASTE DISPOSAL IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT—PUBLIC POLICY, ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS, AND ALTERNATIVE FUTURES,
Italiano, M. L.
National Association of Regional Councils,
Washington, District of Columbia.
1976. 288 p, 6 fig, 10 tab, 156 ref, 4 append. NTIS Technical Report
PB-255-222.
The environmental impact of municipal waste and sewage sludge disposal by
barge transport to the 2,500 sq mile coastal area off New York City, New York,
is evaluated. Barge disposal of dredged materials has been conducted since
1888; municipal waste dumping is now allowed by permits issued by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Sediments in the sludge and dredge disposal sites
contain increased levels of heavy metals, organic materials, and petrochemi-
cals? both the sediments and the water in the disposal area have elevated
coliform bacteria counts. Dissolved oxygen concentrations have decreased and
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turbidity has increased; benthic organisms are significantly different at the
disposal site than in the surrounding area. An alternative to disposal of
municipal wastes and dredged materials in the coastal apex area is land dis-
posal of digested sludge. Diked disposal or incineration of dewatered sludge
are also considered.
D353
TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS BY HIGH GRADIENT MAGNETIC SEPARATION,
Allen, D. M., Sargent, R. L., and Oberteuffer, J. A.
Sala Magnetics, Incorporated,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
1977. 126 p, 24 fig, 21 tab, 15 ref, 6 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-
77-015.
A high gradient magnetic separation technique was applied to combined sewer
overflow (CSO) and raw sewage in laboratory and pilot plant tests. Parameters
which significantly influenced the separation process were alum concentration,
pH, polyelectrolyte dose, and magnetic seed concentration. The magnetic sepa-
ration of CSO effluent removed 95% of the suspended solids, 99% of the coli-
form bacteria, and 92% of the BOD. Reductions of pollutants in the raw sewage
were 91% suspended solids and 99% coliform bacteria. Optimization of the
parameters controlling the magnetic separation process in CSO reduced sus-
pended solids by 98.7%, BOD by 92%, fecal bacteria by 99.85%, turbidity by 96%,
and the color by 92%. A 3 min retention of the CSO and the sewage was ade-
quate for the flocculation-seeding process and the magnetic separation. The
estimated capital outlay for the process was $107,000/mgd with a maintenance
cost of $.137/1000 gal, 40% and 20% lower, respectively, than the costs of
other physical-chemical treatment processes compared.
D354
INDEPENDENT PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF RAW SEWAGE,
Directo, L. S., Chen, C-L., and Miele, R. P.
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts,
Whittier, California.
1977. 119 p, 37 fig, 21 tab, 15 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-137.
Independent physical-chemical treatment of raw sewage with alum and polymer
clarification and activated carbon filtration and adsorption was studied at a
50 gpm pilot plant in Pomona, California. The independent physical-chemical
process was evaluated as an alternative to biological treatment of raw sewage.
The effluent was initially clarified with 25 mg alum/liter and 0.3 mg anionic
polymer/liter. Activated carbon adsorption was conducted in a column with a
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hydraulic loading of 4 gpm/sq ft and a contact time of 30 min. The process
reduced COD by 94%, suspended solids by 96.6%, and total phosphate by 92%.
Additions of 5.4 mg sodium nitrate/liter N to the carbon column were preferred
over chlorination and oxygenation to prevent sulfide generation in the acti-
vated carbon. Nitrate additions enhanced biologic activity and allowed high
organic loading of the column, removing 3.54 kg total COD/kg carbon and 1.54
kg dissolved COD/kg carbon. Metals removed from the waste water by activated
carbon were evident in dust produced during thermal regeneration of the carbon,
including: Ca, Cd, Cu, Cr, Al, Fe, Sn, Pb, Ni, and Zn. The estimated cost
for a 10 mgd independent physical-chemical treatment, including initial clari-
fication and carbon regeneration, was $0.0869/sq m of effluent.
D355
OPERATING ACTIVATED-SLUDGE PLANTS TO EFFECT NUTRIENT REMOVAL,
Nicholls, H. A.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 99-101, 1978.
Non-chemical methods to remove nitrogen and phosphorus from waste water during
activated sludge treatment were presented. Nitrification occurred in an acti-
vated sludge operation at a retention time of 13 days and a dissolved oxygen
content of 0.5-1.0 mg/liter. Nitrate removal was effected by establishing an
anaerobic denitrification zone near the inlet of the treatment process where
oxygen demand was the highest. Raw sewage provided electron donors to the
nitrates by installing a plug flow or semi-plug flow system at the treatment
plant inlet to facilitate denitrification. Recycling of the nitrate-bearing
mixed liquor suspended solids to the denitrification zone, in conjunction with
the two previous steps, yielded a 90% nitrogen removal. Phosphorus removal
was achieved by mixing influent and sludge from the clarifier in the absence
of oxygen and nitrate. Phosphorus ions released into solution under anaerobic
conditions were more readily readsorbed onto the sludge with aeration. Before
the clarification step, the dissolved oxygen concentration of the mixed liquor
suspended solids was maintained at 3.0-4.0 mg/liter to prevent the dissolution
of the phosphorus ions. Disadvantages of nutrient removal in a single basin
were discussed.
D356
INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE AND ANIMAL SLURRY DE-WATERING,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 9, p 30, September, 1977.
A patented device for dewatering sludge and separating liquid and solid wastes
has been manufactured by Farrow Irrigation of England. The separator employs
stationary screens, roll presses, and brushes. The two processing screens are
constructed of stainless steel mesh and are supported by steel aperture plates.
The rollers, covered in heavy rubber, and the polypropylene brushes are ad-
justible for increased compression of solids or wear uptake. The device has
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two speeds, a speed reduction mechanism, and is powered by a 1 hp electric
motor. The separator has a treatment capacity of 5000 gph. Solids can be
stored for composting after processing and liquids may be pumped to storage
tanks with less probability of souring.
D357
HYACINTHS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Joseph, J.
Reeves Journal, Vol. 56, No. 2, p 34-36, February, 1978.
Secondary treatment of waste water with water hyacinths produced significant
reductions in impurities, coliforms, and heavy metals in pilot plant tests
conducted by the National Space Technology Laboratory at Orange Grove, Missis-
sippi. Biologically treated waste water from a population of 5,000 was intro-
duced into an 0.7-acre hyacinth lagoon which was four to five times smaller
than the primary aerated lagoon. Retention times of 14-21 days in the lagoon
reduced suspended solids by an average of 72%, total nitrogen by 60%, total
phosphorus by 26%, BOD to below standard levels, and coliforms from 121,000 to
40,000/100 ml. In the absence of toxins or metals, the harvested hyacinths
yielded up to 25% crude protein for supplemental animal feed. An acre of hya-
cinths, producing from 8-16 tons wet bio-mass/day, generated 3,200-6,450 cu ft
of methane gas/day with 0.5 ton fertilizer as a by-product. The water hya-
cinths were effective in removing lead, mercury, cadmium, cobalt, nickel,
silver, and phenols. Research is being conducted to expand the hyacinth belt
north of 33 degrees latitude.
D358
BUCKLAND POLLUTION CONTROL CENTRE IMPROVES ENVIRONMENT IN THE SOUTH WEST,
French, V. H.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 285-286, May, 1977.
The Buckland sewage treatment plant, operated by England's South West Water
Authority, is described. The treatment facililty is designed for a population
of 50,000 with provisions for expansion to a capacity of 100,000. The influ-
ent is screened before flowing into three settling basins equipped with half-
bridge rotating scrapers for sludge removal. The waste water is then distri-
buted to two three-sectioned aeration tanks equipped with 8 surface aerators
and dissolved oxygen probes. The aerated effluent is passed into three sec-
ondary settling basins with rotating scrapers which remove activated sludge
for return to the aeration tanks. Sludge is thickened, macerated, and condi-
tioned with lime and copperas before it is pressed and stored. A multi-hearth
incinerator with a 2.5 ton/hr capacity operates 50 days a year for sludge dis-
posal. Stack gases are treated in a multi-cyclone unit before discharge.
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D359
RECENT ADVANCES IN OZONE TECHNOLOGY,
Rice, R. G.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 51-55, 1978. 1 tab.
Ozonation has been used for the disinfection of sewage effluent, as well as
tertiary treatment, dissolved organics removal, suspended solids reduction,
and industrial waste water treatment. Ozonation has replaced chlorination in
three small treatment plants in the United States and its use is planned in a
number of other plants. Pilot plant investigations of disinfectants, includ-
ing ozone, ultraviolet radiation, bromine chloride, and chlorine have demon-
strated that ozonated waste water is less toxic than chlorinated effluent.
Substantial BOD and COD level reductions have been realized with high-level
ozonation. Ozone has not been as effective as chlorine in reducing dissolved
organic materials in activated sludge effluent. In a California treatment
plant, the need for chemical treatment of secondary effluent has been elimi-
nated by pre-ozonation to remove suspended solids. The 10 mg/liter ozone
treatment was 10% cheaper than chlorination but did not sufficiently remove
coliform populations. Ozone has been found effective in removing colors,
tastes, odors, cyanides, phenols, and iron ferricyanide from industrial waste
waters. Methods of ozone generation and application, and ozonation of potable
water were also reviewed.
D360
BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER SYSTEM,
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 85, No. 2, p 96, January, 1978.
Ecolotrol Inc. of Bethpage, New York, manufactures the Hy-Flo fluidized bed
system for biological waste water treatment. The system utilizes a compact
reactor containing a high biomass concentration for carbonaceous BOD removal,
nitrification, and denitrification. The high-rate system eliminates the need
for large concrete tanks or basins. During operation, waste water entering
the bottom of the reactor at a rate of 10-25 gpm/sq ft is contacted with more
than 1,000 sq ft of biological growth/cu ft of reactor volume, 20-40 times
that which would be expected from other commercially available systems.
D361
WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 85, No. 2, p 95, January, 1978.
The Clevepak Corp. of Fall River, Massachusetts, has begun marketing a sub-
merged aeration system for the secondary treatment of waste water. The Aero-
cleve system provides air bubbles in a size range of 0.2-0.4 mm, increasing
efficiency over conventional diffused air devices and mechanical aerators
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which produce bubbles in the range of 1.0-2.5 mm. Waves which trap pockets of
air and strike the walls of the chamber are created by differences in air and
waste water velocities in the Aerocleve's mixing chambers. Fine air bubbles
are released when the air pockets impinge against the wall of the chamber. An
oxygen transfer efficiency of 4.0-6.0 Ib 02/brake hp-hr is reported for the
Aerocleve system.
D362
A PILOT PLANT STUDY ON ADVANCED TREATMENT OF TREATED SEWAGE FOR RE-USE,
Ando, A., Yamada, T., Kimura, H., and Tamai, Y.
Journal of Japan Water Works Association, No. 518, p 41-61, November, 1977.
19 fig, 13 tab, 5 ref.
Pilot studies were conducted in Osaka, Japan, to evaluate advanced techniques
of municipal waste water treatment for reuse as potable water. Water supplies
for Osaka and several other districts are obtained from the Yodo River. Due
to an increasing water demand by these cities, alternative industrial water
supplies, such as treated sewage, are being considered. A three-year pilot
plant study has investigated the treatment of municipal waste water by bubble
separation, coagulation-sedimentation, activated carbon, rapid filtration, and
biological oxidation. Operating experiences and the results of the study are
presented.
D363
CIRIA STREAMLINES TANK DESIGN,
New Civil Engineer, p 7, January 5, 1978.
The standardization of sedimentation tank designs in England has been proposed
by the Construction Industry Research and Information Association. A report
on preferred sedimentation tank designs lists specifications for diameters,
depths, and floor slopes for circular and rectangular tanks. For circular
tanks serving populations of 3,000-250,000, diameters ranging in size from
8-30 m are preferred. In large diameter tanks with a 2 m/hr surface loading
rate, a 2.5 m diameter increase is required for a 7,000 population increase.
Preferred sidewall depths for tanks are 2, 2.4, and 3 m, with depths of 4 m in
the higher diameter ranges. Four floor slopes are offered: 1/2 1/5, 1/10,
and 1/500. More gradual slopes are allowed when shutters are not required.
Reports on standardizing biological treatment and sludge treatment plants are
being formulated.
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D364
SEWAGE SYSTEM REJUVENATION,
Western Construction, Vol. 53, No. 4, p 16, April, 1978.
Inland Steel Company's Blac-Klad Laminated Culvert Stock was used for all con-
veyance structures used in the upgrading of the Glendive, Montana, sewage
treatment plant. Treatment included primary skimming and biological treatment
in open lagoons aerated with open baffled flumes. The inlet culvert, the ac-
cess manholes, and the aerating open flume were constructed of the Blac-Klad
culvert stock. Corrugated .064 gauge steel sheets were rolled into culverts
ranging in size from 18-60 inches. Exposed areas, especially riveting or
welding, were coated with an asphalt base primer. The steel sheets were con-
structed of 2-oz galvanized copper-bearing culvert steel capable of withstand-
ing the effects of the corrosive waste water. Blac-Klad culvert stock pipe is
also manufactured in 12, 14, 16, and 18 gauge with a copolymer laminate coat-
ing.
D365
NIGHT SOIL TREATMENT BY "DENIPAC PROCESS"—KAWAMUKO TREATMENT PLANT, MATSUE
CITY (2), (Denipakku purosesu ni yoru shinyo shori-matsue shi kawamulo
shorijo),
Ichiki, Y.
Ebara Infuruko Jiho, No. 71, p 15-19, October, 1977. 5 fig, 5 tab.
The patented Ebara-Infilco Denipac process was implemented in 1976 at the
Kawamuko Treatment Plant in Matsue City, Japan. The Denipac process removes
suspended solids and BOD from domestic wastes treated in the plant. Effective
phosphorus and nitrogen removal has been achieved, resulting in high quality
effluent and less risk of eutrophication in water bodies. The Denipac process
has produced consistent results independent of load variations and waste den-
sity. The effluent from the sedimentation has a BOD and suspended solids con-
centration of 14 ppm, despite a primary dilution rate two to three times lower.
High removal rates have been observed for COD due to manganese, BOD, suspended
solids, and total nitrogen.
D366
PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL FOR PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL,
1976. 290 p, 53 fig, 57 tab, 178 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-625/1-
76-OOla.
Chemical precipitation techniques were reviewed for the removal of phosphorus
and its precipitate from waste water to prevent eutrophication or over-
fertilization in receiving waters. The kinetics of phosphorus precipitation
by chemical additions were described for the various forms of phosphorus found
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in waste water. Chemical precipitation of phosphorus before primary settle-
ment was tested with alum, iron, and lime as precipitants. The addition of
mineral coagulants to trickling filters, activated sludge plants, and second-
ary effluents was also studied. Lime was used to precipitate phosphorus in
secondary effluent. Parameters evaluated in phosphorus removal by chemical
precipitation in pilot and full-scale plants were performance, equipment, de-
signs, and costs. Recommendations on the storage techniques and dosing rates
and amounts were presented. Methods were evaluated for sludge handling and
dewatering.
D367
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A HYDROPERM (TM) MICROFILTRATION SYSTEM FOR THE TREATMENT
OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER EFFLUENTS,
Sundaram, T. R., Santo, J. E., and Brown, J. A.
Hydronautics, Incorporated,
Laurel, Maryland.
1977. 72 p, 15 fig, 7 tab, 11 ref, 2 append. NTIS Technical Report TR-7658-1,
Cross flow microporous filtration further increases the solids content of al-
ready concentrated human wastes. The microfiltration system consists of Hy-
droperm microporous tubes, developed by Hydronautics, Inc. of Laurel, Maryland,
which are constructed of polyethylene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride, or noryl
with pores ranging in size from 2-10 microns. Sludge dewatering is enhanced
by the addition of an oil to fluidize the waste. The Hydroperm tubes are
capable of separating water and oil emulsions, thus achieving up to 98% de-
watering. The permeate produced is free of suspended solids and may be pol-
ished before discharge. The concentrate may be further dewatered or inciner-
ated directly because of the high hydrocarbon content. The Hydroperm system
is cost-effective on a small scale, with a capital outlay of $2,800-5,000 for
a 100 liter/day plant. The microfiltration process was developed for use on
naval ships and field troop installations.
D368
WASTEWATER RECLAMATION PROJECT, ST. CROIX, U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS,
Buros, 0. K.
Black, Crow and Eidsness, Incorporated,
Gainsville, Florida.
1976. 257 p, 43 fig, 7 tab, 29 ref, 8 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-
134.
An economically feasible program of artificial groundwater recharge was accom-
plished with reclaimed waste water in St. Croix, Virgin Islands. A five-year
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study was conducted on waste water discharge into the groundwater by spray ir-
rigation and spreading basins as an alternative to sea water desalination as a
water supply source. A tertiary treatment plant and recharge facilities were
constructed for distribution of the effluent to several test sites. The 0.5
mgd tertiary treatment facility reduced the waste water turbidity to 3 Formazin
turbidity units and residual chlorine concentration to 3 mg/liter after 30
minutes of contact. The artificial groundwater recharge sites were located in
an alluvial valley and in a marl formation. The artificial recharge program
was most effective in the alluvial valley location with spreading basin appli-
cation of the waste water. The marl formation provided slow infiltration and
percolation rates with high evapotranspiration rates. The spreading basins in
the alluvial valley operating in a wet cycle had an average sustained rate of
infiltration of 14 gpd/sq ft with a groundwater reclamation cost of $2.15/1000
gal. Increasing the capacity of the treatment facility to 1 mgd would reduce
the recovery cost to $1.74/1000 gal, compared to $7/1000 gal for desalination
of sea water.
D369
MAXIMIZING PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Elliott, W. R., Riding, J. T., and Sherrard, J. H.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 88-92, March, 1978. 38 ref.
Improving phosphorus removal in activated sludge by microbial growth, excess
uptake, and chemical precipitation was discussed in a review of published ex-
perimental data and on-site tests in waste water treatment plants. Laboratory
data on microbial uptake identified the C:P ratio as a limiting factor in
phosphorus removal; the higher COD:P ratio provided more of the stoichiometric
requirement. Variations in mean cell residence time affected phosphorus re-
moval, although the average sludge phosphorus content of 2-3% by weight was
not significantly improved. Enhanced phosphorus removal was achieved in plug
flow reactors with dissolved oxygen control at pH 6; anaerobic conditions were
avoided by adequate sludge removal. Batch studies on excess uptake demon-
strated that 80% removal occurred for a low phosphate concentration, 5
mg/liter, in the presence of a high microbial population. The presence of
Na(+) and K and the rate of aeration were cited as limiting factors in excess
phosphorus uptake. In batch studies, E. coli contained 2.4-4.0% phosphorus by
dry weight, indicating that nutrient deprivation improved phosphorus uptake.
Full~scale studies verified that phosphorus was released into the effluent
stream under anaerobic conditions. Precipitation with CaC03 resulted in hy-
drolysis of phosphates at the head of the aeration tank, decreased C02 genera-
tion, and the formation of calcium phosphate sludge. The optimum conditions
for phosphorus removal in a plug flow system were concluded to be: pH 7.5-8.5,
less than 350 mg/liter CaC03, and 24 mg/liter Mg(++).
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D370
THE PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN FROM MUNICIPAL SLUDGE,
Christiansen, E. B., and Mitchell, D. H.
Utah University,
Salt Lake City,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 74, No. 172, p 175-181, 1978. 7 fig, 2 tab, 33
ref.
A laboratory technique combining chemical treatment and centrifugation was de-
veloped to extract protein from activated sludge. The activated sludge con-
tained about 4-6 g solids/liter, consisting of 6% nitrogen, 34% protein, and
25% ash. The activated sludge suspension was initially centrifuged and then
homogenized with deionized water. Further protein release was accomplished by
sodium hydroxide treatment at 25 C for 60 min. Solid waste was removed from
the suspension by centrifugation; the protein was then coagulated with dilute
sulfuric acid at pH 3.0. After the protein precipitate was centrifuged from
the liquid, the solids were heated at 80 C for 12 hr to yield a dry product
with 42.4% amino acids. Coagulation of the protein at 25 C produced an amino
acid content of 43.5% and at 95 C, a product with 48.5% amino acid. Experi-
ments to reduce the high concentrations of heavy metals in the activated sludge
were relatively unsuccessful. Further research on heavy metal removal, espe-
cially with hydrochloric acid, was recommended. Cost estimates based on 1976
prices were $.395/lb of protein or $0.17/lb of product for an operation han-
dling 12,000 tons of excess activated sludge containing 34% protein/320 day yr.
D371
LOS ANGELES FACES SEVERAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS,
Davis, B., and Haug, R. T.
LA/OMA Project,
Whittier, California.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 37-40, 42, April, 1978. 2
fig, 2 tab, 7 ref.
Alternative methods of sludge treatment and disposal were formulated by the
Los Angeles/Orange County Metropolitan Area project of California. Four of
the eighteen initial treatment alternatives are discussed. The sludge load
from Los Angeles, Los Angeles County, and Orange County is expected to reach
1,540 tons/day by 1985, increasing to 1,785 tons/day by 2020. Long distance
transport, a composting-sludge recycle station, thermal processing, and ocean
disposal are being considered for sludge disposal. Land application of di-
gested liquid sludge and composted digested sludge would require 80,000 or
30,000 acres, respectively, at agricultural application rates. Sludge would
have to be transported to suitable land areas 70-100 miles away or be pumped
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through a pipeline with pumping lifts. Mechanical dewatering and composting
of sludge fully recovers the fertilizer value, providing high cake solids are
produced; acreage and location requirements still pose a problem. A sludge-
refuse mixture can be thermally processed at the individual treatment facili-
ties, producing sufficient energy to operate the reactor and other treatment
facilities. Ocean disposal of sludge can now be performed to a depth of 3,000
ft in basins rather than the current 300 ft depth limit, but additional en-
vironmental impact studies are required.
D372
PLANTS AND SYSTEMS FOR COMPOSTING OF SEWAGE SLUDGES IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY—STATE OF THE ART AND TRENDS (Anlagen und Systeme zur Kompostierung von
Abwasserschlaemmen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland—Stand sowie Tendenzen),
Mach, R.
Unweltbundesamt,
Berlin, West Germany.
Muell und Abfall, Vol. 10, No. 1, p 1-9, 1978. 5 fig, 3 tab, 17 ref.
The current status and recent trends in sewage sludge composting in West
Germany are reviewed. About 30 composting plants currently in operation in
West Germany process sewage sludge alone without municipal refuse. Further
increases can be expected in the adoption of sludge composting in view of the
steady increase in the number of municipal waste water treatment plants and
their associated sludge disposal problems. Composting in rows with or without
additives (peat, lime, sawdust, manure, and mushroom mycelium) continues to be
of little significance because of the high space requirement, the poor con-
trollability, and the weather dependence of the composting process. Sludge
composting in bioreactors is favored because of the small space requirement
and ease of process control by monitoring temperature and carbon dioxide con-
centrations. The patented Kneer system is the most commonly used type of bio-
reactor in West Germany. Kneer bioreactors produce fresh compost in 2 weeks,
providing for temperatures of 60-85 C during the composting process.
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D373
NITRIFICATION SYSTEMS WITH INTEGRATED PHOSPHORUS PRECIPITATION,
Sutton, P. M., Murphy, K. L., and Jank, B. E.
Wastewater Technology Center,
Environmental Protection Center,
Department of Fisheries and Environment,
Burlington, Ontario, Canada.
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 4, p 27-33, April, 1978. 6 fig, 2
tab.
Design criteria for nitrifying activated sludge systems with integrated phos-
phorus precipitation were developed in pilot studies with combined and separate
systems. The pilot plants included a two-stage separate sludge system with
two 480 Imperial gal aeration tanks and a two-stage combined sludge system
having by-passable intermediate clarification and two aeration tanks. The
latter unit operated as a separate sludge system when the clarifier returned
sludge to the initial aeration tank. Alum or ferric chloride were added to the
separate and combined systems in a precipitant:influent phosphorus ratio of
1.0-2.0 with a dissolved oxygen concentration maintained at or above 2.0
mg/liter. Biological equilibrium was maintained with a solids retention time
of 8-10 days. The effect of chemical addition at 15 mg/liter on nitrification
was insignificant as measured by the amount of filterable total Kjeldahl ni-
trogen (TKN) in both systems. Both systems generated comparable quantities of
nitrate. The geometric mean value of total filterable phosphorus in the pre-
cipitant-treated effluent from both plants was 0.35 mg/liter, compared to 2.1
mg/liter in the untreated system. Alkalinity consumption as CaC03 was 8.0 g/g
filterable TKN in the chemically-treated system and 6.0 g/g filterable TKN in
the system without chemical precipitation. An additional 1.23 kg of solids was
generated in the chemically treated systems. The nitrification rate in the
combined and separate sludge systems was determined to be a function of tem-
perature .
D374
AIR VS 02: TWO ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS COMPARED,
Miller, M. A.
Environmental Systems,
Union Carbide Corporation,
Tonawanda, New York.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 58-60, 62-65, April, 1978. 6
fig, 8 tab, 17 ref.
Pure oxygen activated sludge systems and air activated sludge treatment of
waste water are compared with respect to differences in sludge quality, pro-
duction, and dewatering, energy input, and economics of the two systems. Air
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activated sludge systems operate at a dissolved oxygen concentration of 0.5-2.0
rag/liter; the dissolved oxygen range for the pure oxygen system is 5-8
mg/liter. The higher dissolved oxygen concentration improves oxygen diffusion
through the biofloc particles, thus supplying adequate oxygen to the organisms
in the biomass. The large supply of oxygen promotes endogenous activity in
the biomass and, in theory, the production of exocellular biopolymer and
rounded biofloc particles which settle readily and are easily dewatered. High
dissolved oxygen concentrations are thought to limit the predominance of fila-
mentous organisms over spherical organisms. Air activated sludge systems have
a higher volumetric oxygen demand and require a larger and more efficient
aeration tank than pure oxygen sludge systems. Pilot scale systems have de-
monstrated that oxygen increases sludge settling rates to about 2.5 times
faster than in air systems. Higher dissolved oxygen levels promote endogenous
respiration in the microorganisms which convert more biomass to carbon dioxide,
thereby reducing excess sludge production. The production of exocellular
biopolymers contributes to the shape and formation of the biological floe and
improves dewatering of the sludge. Operation and maintenance costs for the
pure oxygen system are about 20% lower than costs for air systems.
D375
LAWTON ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT,
Baker, J. M.
The Military Engineer, Vol. 70, No. 454, p 78-81, March-April, 1978. 2 fig.
The municipal waste water treatment plant recently completed for Lawton,
Oklahoma, provides separate sections for primary, secondary, and tertiary
treatment to remove high phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations from the raw
sewage. The plant has a capacity of 10 mgd with a potential capacity of
13.3-30 mgd with a 15 million gal holding tank for waste storage during over-
flow conditions. The influent contains: 253 mg/liter BOD, 561 rag/liter COD,
241 mg/liter suspended solids, 28 mg/liter total nitrogen, and 18 mg/liter
total phosphorus. Primary treatment consists of screening, degritting, pre-
aeration, and primary clarification. The two-stage secondary treatment pro-
cess combines circulation of waste water through trickling filters and poly-
vinyl chloride packed-media towers, followed by nitrification. The nitrifica-
tion process includes batch aeration and flash mixing of the effluent with
lime to maintain alkalinity. Sludge is removed by suction clarifiers and re-
turned to the flow. Phosphorus removal in the tertiary treatment section is
accomplished by lime precipitation, with alum and polymer as supplements. The
waste water is treated with alum in flash mixers and is then flocculated and
settled. This procedure is followed by a two-stage recarbonation with inter-
mediate clarification. Sludge is incinerated, returned to the flash mixers,
or wasted in a gravity thickener followed by storage and drying. The final
effluent is chlorinated and filtered through sand-anthracite beds. The treated
waste water has a BOD of 3 mg/liter, a total phosphorus content of less than
1.0 mg/liter, a nitrate-nitrogen level of 15 mg/liter, and no coliforms.
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D376
HUMAN PATHOGENS AS POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE REUSE OF WATER,
Lund, E.
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Copenhagen,
Denmark,
Department of Veterinary Virology.
Ambio, Vol. 7, No. 2, p 56-61, 1978. 4 tab, 7 ref.
Methods of removing pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths from
waste water are reviewed. Salmonella and E. coli are reduced by 50% with pri-
mary and mechanical treatment. Parasitic ova and amoebic cysts are removed
only through sedimentation in primary or secondary clarifiers. Trickling fil-
ter systems, depending on climatic conditions and facility design, can reduce
E. coli, salmonella, and sometimes viruses from 10,000,000-1,000,000 bacteria/
100 ml to 10,000-100,000/100 ml; Clostridium perifringens are relatively unaf-
fected. A pH of 10.5-11.0, induced by chemical treatment with lime, disin-
fects treated water but does not reduce mycobacteria or vibrio cholera. Chlo-
rination of sewage effluent effectively kills bacteria, salmonella, Clostridium
perfringens, and mycobacteria with adequate contact time but does not destroy
enteric viruses and parasitic eggs. Bacteria and viruses in drinking water are
effectively removed by chlorination. Pasteurization or irradiation may reduce
the concentrated microorganisms contained in primary and digested sludges.
D377
SEWAGE PLANT USES HOLE IN GROUND,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 1, p 12, January, 1978. 1 fig.
Eco-Research Ltd. of Canada has developed a deep shaft aeration and activated
sludge treatment system for Virden, Manitoba, Canada. The $1.5 million muni-
cipal waste treatment plant with a design capacity of 600,000 gpd employs a
500-ft deep shaft with a 30-inch diameter. Waste water mixed with activated
sludge is rapidly circulated within the shaft by compressed air. The aerated,
biologically treated waste water is passed to a continuously operating flota-
tion tank for gravity sedimentation of solids. A greater volume of waste water
can be treated in less time because of rapid circulation and elimination of
settling basin cleaning. The plant is constructed on a 10,000 sq ft site; the
shaft was drilled with conventional well drilling equipment. The air compres-
sor is driven by a 2-hp pump which constitutes the major energy demand of the
plant. The design of the deep shaft evolved from experiments on the fermenta-
tion of methanol for single-cell protein generation with intense aeration.
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D378
IMPORTED SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM CLAIMED TO CUT COSTS, ENERGY USE,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 1, p 16, January, 1978.
Designs for the municipal sewage treatment facility in Campbellsville, Ken-
tucky, include installation of a 4.2 mgd Dutch Caroussel activated sludge sys-
tem. The waste water is aerated and circulated through a baffled oval basin
divided into channels with depths up to 15 ft. Aeration and circulation at 1
ft/sec or more are maintained by vertical aerators mounted at one end of the
basin. Dilution of the raw sewage in a ratio of 50:1 with mixed liquor stabi-
lizes the biological process under shock load conditions. Capital costs of
the Kentucky plant are expected to be 50% lower than those for a conventional
activated sludge system with a 20% operational energy savings. The imported
Caroussel system converts nitrates into nitrogen gas and oxygen without addi-
tional treatment. A 500,000 gpd system that has been operational for one year
in a leather tannery in New Hampshire has reduced BOD in the treated effluent
to 3-7 ppm.
D379
HYPOCHLORITE GENERATION AT A WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PLANT,
Doan, R. Jr., and Haimes, A. S.
Town Engineer's Office,
Amherst, New York.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 1, p 48-51, January, 1978. 2 fig, 1 tab.
Two hypochlorite generators producing chlorine for disinfection of effluent
have been included in the design of the 24 mgd waste water treatment plant in
Amherst, New York. The Amherst plant will provide secondary and tertiary
treatment, as well as postchlorination and prechlorination of effluent. Two
5,000 Ib/day Ionics Inc. Cloromat hypochlorite generators will produce an 8%
sodium hypochlorite solution from rock salt and brine. As 2,900-3,900 Ibs
chlorine/day are required by the Amherst plant, in-plant generation of sodium
hypochlorite was considered safer than transporting chlorine to the plant.
Production of the 8% solution costs a total of $3,345,100, while the required
chlorine would cost $5,880,900 if purchased. The Cloromat system, consisting
of electrochemical cells containing ion-selective membranes, generates chlo-
rine gas from sodium chloride brine in a titanium-coated anode compartment.
The mild steel cathode generates hydroxide ions from water and mixes them with
sodium ions from the anode to form caustic solution and hydrogen. Chlorine
gas is removed from the brine and hydrogen from the caustic solution by gas-
liquid separators. These residuals are reacted to generate sodium hypochlorite
which is stored in two 6,000 gal storage tanks. The 100 gpra of cooling water
required by the Cloromat system will be supplied by a cooling tower for make-up
water.
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D380
MAINTAINING DIGESTER BALANCE MAKES FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION,
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 2, p 82-83, February, 1978.
A method for utilizing sludge digester gas to operate equipment has been de-
veloped for the Bay Park waste water treatment plant on Long Island, New York.
The 60 mgd treatment facility generates enough methane to furnish the energy
requirements of the plant at an estimated power savings of $430,000 over a
two-yr period. Odors generated by the activated sludge process with diffused
aeration are collected for ozonation treatment. Optimum conditions for methane
gas production in the digesters are created by maintaining pH above 6.8, vola-
tile acids below 280 rag/liter and alkalinity above 2,500 mg/liter. The daily
dry sludge load of 14 tons generates 500,000 cu ft of digester gas which is
stored in a Horton gas sphere. The digester gas is maintained between 92-94 F
by engine cooling water that is passed through heat exchangers. An imbalance
in optimum conditions for methane production is rectified with the addition of
2,000-2,500 Ibs of sodium bicarbonate and a small addition of lime to the
grease pit; the grease pit is pumped and cleaned before its contents are dis-
charged to the digester. Enough digester gas is produced daily to operate the
three 1,300 hp and one 700 hp diesel turbines which supply plant power.
D381
SINGLE BASIN TREATS SEWAGE SIMPLY,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 15, p 89, April, 1978. 1 fig.
Mixing Equipment Company of Rochester, New York,, has begun distribution of a
single basin waste water treatment plant with a capacity of 10 mgd. The pro-
cess employs activated sludge to treat waste water with BOD and suspended
solids concentrations up to 3,000 ppm and produces an effluent with less solids
than other processes. The plant utilizes a common concrete wall between the
aeration chamber and the clarifier at a cost savings. The system has either a
surface or submerged aerator which returns settled sludge from the clarifier
to the aeration basin. The system reportedly handles biological shock loads
by mixing the loads with mixed liquor to prevent overload. Chemicals can be
added directly to the basin to effect nitrification and phosphorus removal.
The system is equipped with automatic sludge return; sludge produced has pro-
perties equivalent to those of aerobically digested sludge.
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D382
PERFORMANCE OF CIRCULAR FINAL CLARIFIERS AT AN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT,
Munch, W. L., and Fitzpatrick, J. A.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago,
Illinois.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 265-276, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 10 fig, 2 tab, 10 ref.
The performance of a 38 m-diam circular center-feed clarifier was evaluated
under varying conditions of hydraulic and solids loading at an activated sludge
treatment facility in Chicago, Illinois. Limiting the effluent flow to 0.66
cu m/sec with a 30% return rate allowed a maximum solids loading rate for ef-
ficient clarification of 146 kg/sq m/day at a mixed liquor concentration of
2,500 mg/liter. Higher flow rates were possible when the mixed liquor content
was decreased. A higher solids loading rate was accommodated by the clarifier
when the hydraulic loading rate was maintained below 0.83 cu m/sec, verifying
the dependence of solids loading on hydraulic load. An increase in the thick-
ness of the sludge blanket, occurring at hydraulic loading in excess of 0.83
cu m/sec at a 30% return, threatened the solids separation efficiency of the
clarifier. Sludge blanket level, solids settleability, and hydraulic loading
reportedly had a greater impact on clarifier solids separation performance
than shock hydraulic loading. The actual maximum solids loading rate was sig-
nificantly lower than the theoretical maximum.
D383
INFRARED SLUDGE INCINERATORS OPERATIONAL IN TEXAS SEWAGE PLANT,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 23, February, 1978. 1 fig.
A patented infrared sludge incineration process, designed by Shirco, Inc. of
Dallas, Texas, has been installed in the Richardson, Texas, sewage treatment
plant. Sewage sludge is transported on woven wire belts through two horizon-
tal, insulated incinerators, each 8.5 by 72 ft. The sludge, which is fed into
the unit through a feed hopper, is pressed to 1-inch thickness by an internal
roller before it is passed into the incinerators. Within the chambers, in-
frared heating elements incinerate the sludge at a rate of 2,400 Ibs/hr. Gas
is heated over the ash produced as it passes counter-current to the incoming
sludge. The ash is removed for further handling. The modular incineration
system has a 1-1/2 hr start up or shut down time.
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D384
SLUDGES AND SIDESTREAMS GO HAND-IN-HAND,
Kalinske, A. A.
Camp Dresser and McKee Incorporated,
Walnut Creek, California.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 25-27, February, 1978. 1 ref.
The characteristics of waste water sidestreams generated by sludge stabiliza-
tion, thermal disposal, drying, composting, land filling, land application, and
advanced waste water treatment are discussed. Stabilization of sludge by
aerobic, anaerobic, lime, or heat treatment can produce a waste stream with
BOD concentrations ranging from 1,200-10,000 rag/liter, phosphorus levels from
150-700 mg/liter, and ammonia-nitrogen contents from 400-1,000 mg/liter.
Thermal destruction of sludge, which is conditioned with polymers or lime and
ferric chloride to reduce soluble BOD, produces gaseous emissions which are
scrubbed with water. These sidestreams, containing volatile organics, are
treated with chemical coagulation and settlement before discharge. Leachate
from drying beds contains high concentrations of BOD and ammonia which should
be prevented from percolating into aquifers or washing out with surface runoff.
Composting of sludge can result in a sidestream of waste water resulting from
storm water runoff; total enclosure of compost sites and collection of runoff
are recommended. Pathogens, heavy metals, and chlorinated hydrocarbons are
present in leachates from landfill disposal of sewage and industrial sludges.
Sewage sludge applied to land contains toxic metals and organics that are
solubilized by rainwater which carries the toxins into surface and groundwater.
Waste water sidestreams are generated by advanced treatment such as carbon ad-
sorption, electrodialysis, and ion exchange or reverse osmosis.
D385
CLEVELAND PUSHES TO MEET STRICT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS,
Ungar, A. T., and Patrick, D.
Cleveland Regional Sewer District,
Ohio.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 57-60, February, 1978.
Four sewage treatment facilities, with a combined capacity of 251.6 mgd, treat
the municipal wastes, storm water, and sludge in the Cleveland., Ohio, area.
The largest treatment plant, based on the activated sludge method, receives
wastes which average 125 mg/liter BOD and 135 mg/liter suspended solids.
Sludge produced by the plant is pumped 13.2 miles through a 12-inch cast iron
force main to the next largest treatment facility for final treatment at a
rate of 1,200-1,400 gpm. Sludges from both plants currently undergo primary
settlement, anaerobic digestion, and vacuum filtration. The incinerators,
which normally dispose of the sludge, are being modified to incinerate up to
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400 tons sludge/day. Further treatment in addition to current practices in-
cludes cyclone degritting, gravity thickening, centrifugation, and sludge con-
ditioning with ferric chloride and lime or polymers. The 35 mgd treatment
plant employs 64 Imhoff primary treatment tanks, primary digestion, and vacuum
filtration. A physical-chemical treatment plant with a 50 mgd dry weather
flow and a 100 mgd wet weather capacity, is planned. The smallest 1.6 mgd
treatment plant will be operated until interceptor lines are constructed to
transport wastes from the area to the second largest facility.
D386
OZONE PLANT IMPROVES EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Stopka, K.
U.S. Ozonair Corporation,
San Francisco, California.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 54-59, April, 1978. 4 fig, 9 tab.
A three-month field testing program was used to evaluate ozone concentrations
and dosages in waste water treatment. The study also examined the feasibility
of using ozone in small quantities as a source of nascent oxygen in aeration.
Air enriched with 5 rag/liter ozone was applied to effluent in a contact vessel
for 15 min of equalization and 30 min of treatment time. The. oxygen supplied
by the ozone stimulated the growth of aerobic organisms and suppressed the
growth of anaerobes. When the ozone dosage was increased to 10 rag/liter, the
enhanced bioflocculation effect was replaced by sterilization. The higher
solubility "of ozone/air mixtures was reported to reduce air requirements,
energy expenditures, and contact times to below those required for aeration or
pure oxygenation. Ozone treatment at a concentration of 2% by weight was con-
sidered to be effective for deodorization in municipal and industrial waste
treatment. Criteria were recommended for the design of an ozone plant, cover-
ing such topics as air preparation, ozone-producing electrode specifications,
air moisture, and ozone contractor performance.
349
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D387
EFFECT OF GAMMA RAYS ON MICROORGANISMS AND CHEMICALS IN WATER, WASTEWATER, AND
SLUDGE,
Woodbridge, D. D., and Cooper, P. C.
Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne,
University Center for Pollution Research.
1976. 175 p, 59 fig, 31 tab, 64 ref. NTIS Technical Report AD/A-029-680.
Gamma irradiation of secondary trickling filter effluent was evaluated in con-
junction with air and oxygen bubbling, ozonation, and prechlorination for the
treatment of bacteria and chemicals in waste water. Chemicals reduced by ir-
radiation included: phenols, detergent surfactants, parathion, and cyanide.
Dissolved oxygen and free chlorine were removed; chloroform and carbon tetra-
chloride, byproducts of chlorination, were eliminated by irradiation and si-
multaneous oxygen bubbling. The destruction of coliforms by irradiation was
enhanced in the presence of air or oxygen bubbling; chlorination before irra-
diation also had a synergistic effect. Irradiation was more effective in re-
ducing coliforms in aqueous media than in sludge; undigested sludge was more
treatable with gamma irradiation than digested sludge. Irradiation inactiva-
tion of the pathogenic bacteria, Streptococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus
aureus, and the pathogenic amoeba, Naegleria gruberi, was tested. Further
research was recommended for pathogens and viruses.
D388
A NOVEL CLARIFIER FOR DILUTE PROCESS STREAMS,
Flynn, P. J., and Boadway, J. D.
Industrial Water Engineering, Vol. 15, No. I, p 19-22, January-February, 1978.
7 fig, 1 tab, 3 ref.
The Vortex Clarifier, an automatic batch centrifuge developed by Queen's Uni-
versity, Kingston, Ontario, and Bird Machine Co., Inc., was found effective in
reducing suspended solids of 1,000 ppm or less in municipal and industrial
waste streams. The Vortex Clarifier separates the waste stream which is moved
axially between two rotating cylinders. The settling vanes and bowl, which
rotate at the same speed, create a fixed vortex in the liquid passing through
a separator for particulate migration toward the bowl wall. The settling
vanes enhance the removal of fine particles, reducing the internal turbidity
in the liquid vortex. Sufficient accumulation of particulate matter enacts
the solids discharge cycle. The Vortex Clarifier reduced suspended solids in
a mixed municipal and industrial waste stream at a 12 mgd municipal treatment
plant by 80%. Suspended solids levels in the filtrate from two vacuum filters
were reduced by 97%. Polishing of secondary clarifier overflow by the centri-
fuge unit reduced suspended solids from 15-24 ppm to 5-8 ppm. Suspended solids
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in an industrial waste stream containing talc and water were reduced by 97% in
the clarifier and by 91% for the settling tank effluent.
D389
HEAVY METALS IN WASTE WATERS FROM THE CITY OF ZURICH (Schwermetalle in den
Abwaessern der Stadt Zuerich),
Hegi, H. R., Krahenbuhl, H. R., Liebi, C., Roberts, P. V., and Weber, A.
Eidgenoessische Anstalt fuer Wasserversorgung, Abwasser-reinigung und
Gewasserschutz,
Duebendorf, West Germany.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 11, p 799-804, 1977. 10 tab, 3 fig, 18 ref.
Heavy metal concentrations were monitored in influent and effluent from two
waste water treatment facilities in Zurich, Switzerland. The heavy metals
measured in daily and weekly influent, effluent and sludge samples included:
lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc. Influent concentrations
averaged 0.1 mg/liter of chromium, copper, lead, and nickel; 0.5 mg/liter of
zinc and 0.01 mg/liter of cadmium. Heavy metal removal by the treatment pro-
cess averaged from 60-80%. Corresponding heavy metal concentrations were found
in the digested sludge from the waste water treatment plants. Mean concentra-
tions measured in the sludge were 3,000 rag/kg dry matter for zincJ 300-800
mg/kg dry matter for chromium, copper, nickel, and lead; and 20 mg/kg for
cadmium.
D390
REMOVAL OF HEAVY METALS VIA OZONATION,
Shambaugh, R. L., and Melnyk, P. B.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 113-121, January,
1978. 10 fig, 2 tab, 27 ref, 1 append.
Rate constants were calculated for the second-order reaction of aqueous ozone
with free and complexed heavy metals. The rate constants were dependent upon
ozone concentrations determined by ozone transfer between gas and liquid, the
reaction of ozone with free or complexed metals, and the degradation of ozone
in the aqueous solution with respect to pH. Ozonation of heavy metals was ex-
amined for ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA)-complexed manganese, cadmium,
nickel, and lead, and uncomplexed lead, manganese, zinc, nickel, cobalt, and
barium. Ozone contact times of 10 min were sufficient to break down the EDTA-
complexed metals. Uncomplexed metals with high oxidation states were rendered
less soluble after 1 min of ozonation. The second-order rate constant for the
ozonation of uncomplexed lead and other metals was estimated to be greater than
1 billion cu cm/mole-sec. The reaction rate of ozone with the EDTA-complexed
metals was an order of magnitude faster than for ozonation of the EDTA alone.
351
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D391
ENHANCEMENT OF PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL THROUGH IRON COAGULATION FOLLOWING LIME
PRECIPITATION,
Cavagnaro, P. V., Work, S. W., Bennett, E. R., and Linstedt, K. D.
Consoer, Townsend and Associates,
Chicago, Illinois.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 95-100, January,
1978. 5 fig, 2 tab, 8 ref.
Lime and iron coagulant additions to waste water were tested as a means of re-
moving phosphorus and reducing sludge and lime quantities. Lime was added to
unchlorinated secondary effluent, in doses of 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, and 400
mg/liter, followed by ferric chloride in doses of 0, 1.0, 2.1, 4.2, 6.2, and
8.5 mg/liter. The treatment process consisted of rapid mixing with the coagu-
lant conditioners, followed by flocculation and settling. Particulate phos-
phorus was completely removed at all of the lime dosage rates used in conjunc-
tion with iron; 360 mg/liter lime without ferric chloride additions reduced
total phosphorus to 0.7 mg/liter. The same total phosphorus concentration was
achieved with 180 mg/liter lime when 4.1 mg/liter ferric chloride was added.
The quantity of sludge generated from lime treatment without iron was 2.5
tons/million gal which was reduced to 1.2 tons/million gal with iron coagula-
tions. The lime and ferric chloride additions significantly improved suspended
solids removal and had a slight effect on COD and bacteria reductions.
D392
AN OVERVIEW OF LAND TREATMENT FROM CASE STUDIES OF EXISTING SYSTEMS,
Uiga, A., and Sletten, R.
United States Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 277-285, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 3 fig, 3 tab, 16 ref.
Four land application systems of waste water disposal are discussed with re-
spect^ to the varying climatic conditions the systems encounter. Untreated and
undisinfected municipal wastes from Calumet, Michigan, averaging 1.2 mgd an-
nually, are applied by rapid infiltration to percolation basins. Calumet's
average annual temperature is 4.4 C with a total yearly precipitation of 5,380
mm. Primary, undisinfected effluent from Quincy, Washington, is applied at
rates up to 15 cm/wk to four cropped fields and one fallow field by open ditch
gravity distribution. The annual temperature in Quincy averages 9.4 C with an
annual rainfall of 200 mm. Manteca, California, wastes receive secondary
treatment without disinfection and are applied at a rate of 45.0 iran/wk by
flooding to a 160-acre site covered with ryegrass. Temperatures in Manteca
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average 16.1 C with a yearly precipitation of 280 ram. At the fourth site in
Livermore, California, treated effluent is applied from April to October to a
municipal golf course, to land adjacent to the airport runways, and to crops.
Applications of 13.0 mm to half of 100-acre golf course every other day,
610-910 mm/season to 45 acres of crops, and 13.0 mm/day for 2-4 wks to 55
acres of adjacent runway land are performed over the season. Temperatures in
Livermore average 15 C with an annual rainfall of 380 mm. Land application of
waste water in Calumet and Livermore efficiently removed all detectable phos-
phorus while levels remained high in the soil waters at the Quincy and Manteca
sites. Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations at the four sites were on the average
below 10 mg/liter nitrate. Trace metal accumulations were low in all four
sites due to the absence of industrial wastes. Cost data and specific site
problems were also discussed.
D393
THAMES WA OUTLINES ITS COST STUDY ON SLUDGE,
Surveyor, Vol. 150, No. 4455, p 18, October, 1977. 1 tab.
Methods and costs of sludge treatment were analyzed by England's Thames Water
Authority. Of the Water Authorities' 305,000 tons of dry solids (tds) pro-
duced from their annual 10 million tons sludge/yr, 154,000 tons are applied to
agricultural land and 51,000 to land reclamation or fill. Sixty-nine percent
of these solids are treated with heat digestion. The remaining sludge is re-
duced by mechanical dewatering, sludge thickening lagoons, or shipped to sea
for disposal. The total cost, for a population of 500,000, of treating pri-
mary and secondary sludge by heat digestion is 14 pounds sterling/tds; by lime
stabilization, 3-5 pounds/tds; by earth-banked dewatering lagoons, 6.7 pounds/
tds; and by mechanized drying beds for digested sludge only, 52 pounds/tds.
Vacuum filtration produces a sludge containing 18-20% dry solids at 10 pounds/
tds. An 18-20% dry solids sludge costs 14 pounds/tds by centrifugal dewater-
ing. Band or belt presses dewater sludges to 25-35% dry solids at an expense
of 17 pounds/tds, while filter presses achieve a dry solids content of 35-40%
at a cost of 19 pounds/tds. Incineration of sludge from populations of 100,000
and 500,000 costs 159 and 74 pounds sterling/tds, respectively.
D394
50 YEARS' EXPERIENCE OF SLUDGE DEWATERING,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 292-293, May, 1977.
Sludge dewatering techniques developed over a 50-yr period by Edwards and
Jones Ltd. of Stoke-on-Trent, England, are discussed. The plate filter press,
developed 50 yrs ago, was completely mechanized in the 1960's and fitted with
steel-reinforced molded rubber trays and push button operation. Polymer ap-
plications to sludge were investigated as an alternative to ferric sulfate,
aluminum chlorohydrate, and lime conditioning. A patented in-line polymer
dosing apparatus that did not require separate pumping equipment was designed
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by Edwards and Jones Ltd. Modification of the belt press, which produces a
sludge cake with a high solids content, resulted in the development of the
continuous filter press. This press provides the high pressure of the plate
press within the design of the belt press and is suitable for liquid-solid
separation of most wastes. The continuous filter press is reportedly easily
integrated Into an on-line continuous sludge dewatering system.
D395
MARSH/POND SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS,
Small, M. M.
Department of Applied Science,
Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, New York.
1976. 15 p. NTIS Technical Report BNL-21237.
A marsh/pond sewage treatment system which purifies waste water to potable
water standards at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, is
described. A prototype 10,000 gpd treatment system required 0.2 acres of
marsh at a 1-ft depth followed by an 0.2 acre pond with a 5-ft depth. The
system was completely underlined with a 20-rail polyvinyl chloride membrane to
prevent groundwater infiltration of the waste water. A blend of sewage and
septage is applied to the marsh at a rate of 50,000 gal/acre/day; a 20-acre
site is required to treat 1 mgd. The marsh is planted with grasses, duckweeds,
and cattails, although the continued growth of the cattails has been unsuccess-
ful. The marsh/pond treatment system has been developed for populations up to
10,000, costing an estimated $0.60/gal/day for operation.
D396
EVALUATION OF FLOW EQUALIZATION AT A SMALL WASTE-WATER TREATMENT PLANT,
Foess, G. W., Meenahan, J. G., and Harju, J. M.
Johnson and Anderson, Incorporated,
Pontiac, Michigan.
1976. 57 p, 11 fig, 11 tab, 12 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-181.
The impact of flow equalization on a 2.1 mgd activated sludge waste water
treatment plant was evaluated at the Walled Lake/Novi, Michigan, municipal
treatment facility. The flow equalization system created uniform diurnal flow
rates over the one-week testing period. Concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen,
soluble orthophosphate, BOD, and total suspended solids in the equalized flow
were not significantly different under process equalization from those of the
raw influent. Mass levelling in the trial system occurred as a result of flow
equalization rather than improved blending. A two-week study of the treatment
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process in the two waste flows was evaluated by comparing clarifier effluent.
After filtration, BOD was reduced in the equalized flow to 4 mg/liter; BOD
averaged 7 mg/liter in the raw influent. Other comparisons of parameters in
the two waste streams showed similar reductions by both systems. The overall
quality of secondary clarifier effluent was slightly higher in the equalized
flow system than in the unequalized system.
D397
MASS TRANSFER AND REACTION RATE STUDIES OF OZONATED MUST WASTEWATERS IN THE
PRESENCE OF SOUND WAVES,
Sierka, R. A.
Arizona University,
Tucson,
Department of Civil Engineering.
1976. 143 p, 31 fig, 7 tab, 14 ref, 5 append. NTIS Technical Report
UA-ENGR-1436.
Ultrasonic waves were investigated for the treatment of synthetic, ozonated,
and U.S. Army field hospital (MUST) wastes; reverse osmosis permeates; sodium
acetate; urea; and Kodak X-ray developer and fixer. Ultrasonic treatment as-
sisted in the decomposition of ozone, thus lowering the dissolved oxygen con-
centration. Mass transfer coefficients for ozone increased from 49.7 to
65.9/hr with ultrasound. While the organic stripping of MUST permeates was
relatively unaffected by ultrasonic waves, ultrasound increased the rate and
extent of ozone oxidation of the permeates in the higher and lower peak en-
velope power ranges. Total organic carbon and COD were reduced to 5 mg and 10
mg/liter, respectively, within two hrs at an ozonation rate of 236.4 mg/min
with ultrasound. COD and total organic carbon level standards in permeates
were achieved with a combination air stripper and ozone reactor which utilized
35% less ozone than a continuous ozonation system but required a longer reac-
tion time. Ultrasonic treatment of sodium acetate improved its oxidation;
urea, developer, and fixer solution oxidation was not significantly enhanced.
The Kodak solutions could be oxidized before reverse osmosis treatment in the
presence of sufficient ozone.
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D398
FRESH WATER FROM SEWAGE ON LONG ISLAND,
Small, M. M.
Department of Applied Science,
Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, New York.
1977. 16 p, 10 ref. NTIS Technical Report BNL-21371.
Sewage and cesspool contents were used to recharge groundwater in studies at
the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York. The waste water puri-
fication system was a sloping grass meadow draining into a planted marsh and
eventually into a fish-stocked pond. The sewage was applied to the meadow
where it permeated the soil and plant roots. The waste water passed through
the marsh soils, plant stalks, and roots before flowing into the pond. Over-
flow from the pond was usable as potable water. The same degree of purifica-
tion could be attained by a marsh/pond system where meadowland is not avail-
able and there is a high population density. Both systems were completely
lined so the waste water could not percolate into the groundwater before puri-
fication. The system produced no sludge or odor. The marsh/pond sewage
treatment system costs an estimated $1,440,000, compared to $640,000,000 for a
municipal sewage treatment plant.
D399
A NEW METHOD OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT: INTERMITTENT SUBMERGED BIOOXIDATION,
Nagatani, M., Nakagawa, H., and Nunokawa, Y.
Yonetsuru Shuzo Company Limited,
Yamagata, Japan.
Hakoo
Kogaku, Vol. 56, No. 2, p 127-132, 1978. 5 fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
An intermittent submerged biooxidation system utilizing microbial slime at-
tached to plastic plates which are alternately submerged and exposed to air
was tested for use in small-scale waste water treatment plants. The plastic
plates, with a total surface area of 0.5 sq m available for microbial slime,
were mounted in two 5 liter vessels which were operated in 24 hr batch cycles.
Waste water introduced into the first tank was drained to the second tank and
then back to the first at 15 min intervals. The microorganisms thus received
alternate supplies of nutrients and oxygen. The COD concentration of waste
water initially containing less than 21 g/sq m/day was reduced by 90% with the
biooxidation system. The oxygen uptake rate of the microbial slime was mea-
sured as 22.2 g/sq m/day by a membrane oxygen sensor after air within an empty
vessel was circulated at 1.3 liter/min. The oxygen uptake rate of a slime-free
wet surface using the same apparatus was measured as 7.4 g/sq m/day by the
sulfide oxidation technique, verifying higher oxygen absorption rates due to
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the presence of microbial slime in the intermittent submerged biooxidation
system.
D400
RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS OF OPERATION TECHNIQUES, OPERATIONAL SAFETY, TECH-
NOLOGY AND ECONOMICS OF THE BIOREACTOR FOR SEWAGE SLUDGE ROTTING (Ergebnisse
der Untersuchungen ueber Betriebstechnik, Betriebssicherheit, Technologie und
Wirtschaftlichkeit am Bioreaktor zur Abwasserschlammverrottung),
Woerle, R.
Bayerisches Landesamt fuer Umweltschutz
Munich, West Germany.
Muell und Abfall, Vol. 10, No. 1, p 12-19, 1978. 6 fig, 3 tab.
The performance of a pilot-scale aerated bioreactor to produce compost from
sewage sludge and sawmill wastes was evaluated. Reactor performance was ex-
amined during three phases, including: charging of the reactor; operation
with complete product return and continuing aeration; and steady-state opera-
tion with discharge, partial product return, and addition of fresh sewage
sludge and sawdust. A carbon-to-nitrogen quotient of 31-33, the optimum level
for the composting process, was maintained by adequate mixing of the sludge
and sawdust. Temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations in different reac-
tor zones correlated well with biological processes, indicating that these
parameters could be used as control variables for oxygen input. Tests on the
effects of raw and cured compost on the growth of cress revealed that curing
for approximately two months in the bioreactor would significantly enhance the
fertilizer value and thereby improve plant growth.
D401
THE OPERATION OF THE ZIMPRO THERMAL CONDITIONING WITH AIR SLUDGE PLANT AT KWA
DABEKA (CLERMONT) SEWAGE WORKS,
Antoni, G. F.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. I, p 75-78, 1978. 1 fig, 4 tab.
A cost and performance analysis was presented for the Zimpro thermal sludge
conditioning system installed at the Kwa Dabeka sewage treatment plant in
Natal, South Africa. The Kwa Dabeka facility, with a planned capacity of
18,200 cu m/day, produced raw sludge containing 3-6% solids; sludge liquors
and vacuum filter filtrate were returned to the head of the works. The Zimpro
system passes settled raw sludge through disintegrators to heat exchangers and
a thermal reactor. After decompression, sludge is pumped to a catalyst fur-
nace; oxidized sludge is transported to a vacuum filter which separates the
sludge cake from the supernatant liquor. The Zimpro system cost about 400,000
rands less than conventional sludge treatment processes and required less land.
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The filtration properties of the sludge were also improved by thermal oxida-
tion. Capital costs for the sludge dewatering plant were 440,600 rands,
62,200 rands more than estimated. Annual operating costs of the Zimpro system
without sludge dewatering and supernatant liquor treatment were 17,051 rands,
at a unit cost of 3.79 rands/kiloliter raw sludge. Thermally oxidized sludge
liquors contained an estimated 6,180 mg/liter BOD and 12,360 rag/liter COD at a
pH of 4-9. Operational problems encountered during 1975, the first year of
operation of the Zimpro system, included collapse of the gearbox in the
oxidized sludge stirrer mechanism, grit abrasion of the piston seals and
sleeves of the high-pressure pumps, and line blockage due to large amounts of
rags and other materials in the influent to the raw sludge tanks.
D402
ABATEMENT OF ODOR IN SEWAGE WORKS—DETERMINED IN HEIDELBERG (Geruchsbekaempfung
in Kompostwerken am Beispiel Heidelberg),
Jaeger, B., and Jager, J.
Fachgebiet Abfallwirtschaft der Technischen Universitaet Berlin,
Berlin, Germany.
Muell and Abfall, Vol. 10, No. 2, p 48-54, 1978. 6 fig, 3 tab, 11 ref.
The Heidelberg refuse and sewage composting plant generated malodorous emis-
sions which were a nuisance to the residents of the community located 400 m
from the plant. Feasibility and cost studies of various alternatives for odor
abatement revealed the distinct advantages of odor control by means of compost
bed filters with surface areas of 200 sq m. The compost filters proved to be
efficient and reliable. The overall treatment efficiency relative to concen-
trations of organic carbon before and after filtration was 93%. Removal effi-
ciencies for specific emission components were: 100% for ethanol, diacetyl,
and acetone; 72% for limonene; and about 50% for other compounds.
D403
THE EURO-MATIC BIO-DRUM PROCESS,
Holmberg, L.
European Plastic Machinery Manufacturing,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Tribune du CEBEDEAU, Vol. 30, No. 409, p 437-441, December, 1977. 6 fig, 1
tab.
The design of the Euromatic Bio-Drum incorporates principles of both the
trickling filter and the rotating contact filter for biological waste water
treatment. The Bio-Drum utilizes plastic balls held together in the shape of
a drum by a metal net; the drum is free floating because of the low specific
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gravity of the plastic media. Containers built into the periphery of the
drums lift waste water out of the aeration tank, as well as trap air which is
taken down into the tank and bubbled through the drums. The drums can be ad-
justed to varying levels of waste water and speeds of rotation; the system
provides 100% moistening of the biological filter media. BOD removal effi-
ciencies by the microbial film supported on the plastic balls in the Bio-Drum
have been about 85% and as high as 95% when sludge is returned to the system.
Activated sludge floes are easily separated from the water; 100% settling has
been achieved within 30 min. The Bio-Drum removes 3-4 kg BOD/killowatt-hour,
compared to 1 kg BOD/kilowatt-hour for conventional activated sludge systems.
Two systems are in operation in Denmark; the Bio-Drum is also being tested for
recirculating fish breeding pond water.
D404
HOLDENHURST: OXYGEN BOOST TO SEASIDE WORKS,
Rees, J. T.
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4471, p 17-20, February, 1978.
A Vitrox oxygen injection unit was installed in the Holdenhurst sewage treat-
ment plant, under the jurisdiction of England's Wessex Water Authority, to im-
prove nitrification in the effluent. The plant was upgraded from a capacity
of 13.6 million liters/day to 27.2 million liters/day with provisions for an
additional 6.0 million liters/day to accommodate higher sewage loads during
the sumner months. After the waste water was degritted and pulverized, it
flowed through six settlement tanks to two activated sludge plants; a 12,000
cu in/day portion received further treatment by three nitrifying filters. The
final effluent should have contained 15 mg/liter BOD, 20 mg/liter suspended
solids, and 20 mg/liter ammonia-nitrogen. BOD levels were found to be higher
than anticipated because of incomplete oxidation of nitrogenous material; dis-
solved oxygen levels were below the minimum 4% in the aeration channels. A
fourth nitrifying filter was installed and the first aeration unit was limited
to carbonaceous oxidation. The second aeration unit was upgraded with the
Vitrox system injecting 4 tons oxygen/day. Mixed liquor suspended solids were
increased to 3,000 mg/liter in the aeration units; final effluent was pumped
into six storm tanks with a combined capacity of 6,820 cu m to eliminate the
effects of denitrification. Three additional Vitrox units were subsequently
installed to upgrade the first aeration unit. Odor problems arising from the
plant were abated by Vitrox injection of 0.75 tons of oxygen/day into de-
gritted influent.
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D405
STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF ACTIVATORS ON THE PURIFICATION EFFICIENCY OF SEPTIC
TANKS (Etude de 1'action des activateurssur 1'efficacite d'epuration des fosses
septiques),
Chelle, R., and Bazerque, F.
SETRIC,
Tou 1 ou se, Franc e.
Techniques et Sciences Municipales - 1'Eau, Vol. 73, No. 1, p 43-47, January,
1978. 5 fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
Organic and inorganic additives were tested for their ability to improve sep-
tic tank sewage treatment. Biodegradable activators which can be assimilated
by bacteria and stimulate microorganism growth were found to improve the per-
formance of septic tanks, both at the initial startup phase and at restart af-
ter accidental poisoning of the septic tank microflora. The activators, con-
taining concentrated bacteria and nutrients, shortened the length of time re-
quired to achieve a high degree of purification in terms of COD removal.
Mineral additives increased the suspended solids content of the septic efflu-
ent without increasing the degradation of organic matter. Bacteria seeding
was especially effective for temperatures below 15 C where the growth rate of
the bacteria in the additive far surpassed that of naturally occurring sewage
bacteria.
D406
IS CHLORINE THE BEST DISINFECTANT?,
The American City and Country, Vol. 93, No. 3, p 82-83, March, 1978. 1 fig.
Dechlorination, ozonation, chlorine dioxide, ultraviolet light, bromine chlo-
ride, and iodine are investigated as alternative disinfectants to chlorine
which has been found toxic to some aquatic organisms, to form carcinogenic
halogenated organic compounds, and to pose a potential health hazard in trans-
port and in storage. Dechlorination with sulfur dioxide can reduce the pH and
dissolved oxygen content of the effluent, which then requires further treat-
ment before discharge. Ozonation is a more costly procedure than chlorination
but it is not toxic to aquatic organisms, assists in increasing the dissolved
oxygen content, and provides adequate disinfection. Contactors under investi-
gation for ozonation include baffled diffusers, positive-pressure injection
systems, turbine contactors, bubble diffusers, and multi-stage mixing pumps.
Chlorine dioxide disinfection requires on-site generation equipment. While
chlorine dioxide does not form halogenated compounds, does not react with am-
monia in the waste water, and disinfects efficiently and selectively at high
pH levels, it is more toxic than chlorine. Ultraviolet light disinfection is
efficient at high doses, produces no toxins, and can disinfect turbid or
colored water. Bromine chloride, which forms bactericidal and viricidal bro-
mines when reacted with ammonia, produces some monohalogenated compounds which
are more degradable than chlorinated compounds. Bromine chloride disinfection
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also has the advantage of rapidly killing poliovirus. Iodine disinfection,
currently under investigation, is considered prohibitively expensive.
D407
CAN CALIFORNIA COPE WITH ITS MOUNTING SLUDGE VOLUMES,
Wassermann, K. L.
State Office of Water Recycling
Sacramento, California.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 2, p 60-65, February, 1978. 2 fig.
Alternatives to ocean disposal of sewage sludge from the major metropolitan
areas in California were investigated by the Los Angeles/Orange County Metro-
politan Area project and the San Francisco Bay Regional Wastewater Solids
Study. The Los Angeles Hyperion Treatment Plant discharges 1.2 mgd of sludge
through a 7 mile long outfall to a submarine canyon. The 40 acres of land
formerly employed by the Los Angeles County Sanitation District for winnows in
the composting of sludge are required for plant expansions. The San Francisco
Bay area disposes of 55% of its sludge in landfills, 30% in storage lagoons,
10% by incineration, and 5% as soil conditioner. Ocean disposal of sludge in
California has been banned by 1980 and real estate costs are becoming prohibi-
tive. An extimated 16,000 acres of farmland would be required for land appli-
cation of all the sludge produced. Anaerobically digested sludge, dewatered
to 20% solids content, can be composted and sold for domestic and commercial
landscaping. Sludge must have a 25-40% solids content for efficient combus-
tion; thermal processing can produce polychlorinated biphenyls and vaporized
mercury as well as other air pollutants. Improved thermal processing tech-
niques are under investigation. Pyrolysis of sludge generates gases which can
be used as a fuel source in plant operations but pilot plant studies have in-
dicated problems with the technique.
D408
ULLSWATER INSTALLATION,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, p 105, March, 1978.
A Klargester BioDisc waste water treatment plant with a daily capacity of 10.8
cu m has been installed at the Helvellyn youth hostel in Ullswater, England.
The 5.4 by 2.7 m BioDisc has a height of 3.2 m, of which 0.5 m is visible
above ground. The Cellobond glass-reinforced polyester resin unit weighs 2.8
tons and is suitable for remote locations, such as the youth hostel which is
1,100 ft up the Helvellyn mountain. The BioDisc sewage treatment plant was
installed within 30 rain and tripled the sewage treatment capacity of the
hostel. The sewage treatment plant can handle waste water with organic loads
up to 4.08 kg/day BOD.
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D409
THE OXFAM SANITATION UNIT,
Howard, J., and Lloyd, B.
Oxfam,
Oxford, England.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Vol. 199, No. 1134, p
179-182, 1977. 1 fig.
The patented Oxfam sanitation unit is a three-stage plastic waste water treat-
ment plant which does not require a power source and reduces pathogenic organ-
isms. Each unit, servicing 500 people, contains: a latrine area, partially
constructed from the unit's wooden shipping crate; nylon-reinforced butyl rub-
ber tanks for sewage containment and anaerobic treatment; and an aerobic per-
colating filter composed of 50-75 mm locally obtained pieces of brick or stone.
The filtrate from the process drains into a trench or drain. The Oxfam unit
was tested with wastes from the Cholera Research Laboratories in Dacca, Bang-
ladesh* Cholera, coliform, and salmonella populations were reduced to .01 of
their original counts. Ascaris and Trichuris ova were undetected in 100 ml of
effluent. The treatment unit, with an estimated life span of 5-10 yrs, costs
about 5 pounds sterling per capita.
D410
THE HOUSTON SOLUTION: ADVANCED TREATMENT AND SLUDGE RECLAMATION,
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 2, p 104, February, 1978.
A two-stage activated sludge plant has been selected for treating waste water
from a 53,500 acre section of Houston, Texas, containing one-third of the
city's population and most of the business district. The first stage of the
plant, following degritting and trash removal, reduces carbonaceous BOD by the
activated sludge process. The second stage promotes nitrification with pure
oxygen generated on-site in a cryogenic oxygen plant. The waste water then
flows by gravity through rapid media filters followed by chlorination and dis-
charge to the Buffalo Bayou and the Houston Ship Channel. The sewage sludge
is thickened, aerobically digested, dewatered by vacuum filtration, and dried.
An average of 112 tons/day of sludge is processed at the plant which has pro-
visions for a peak capacity of 140 tons/day. The processed sludge is sold as
commercial fertilizer. Sixty million dollars of the $220 million plant was
allocated for the sludge processing plant.
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D411
S. HANTS' SEWAGE GIANT,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4473, p 8-9, March, 1978.
The regional sewage treatment facility and outfall planned for the communities
of South Hampshire, England, are detailed. The sewage system will treat
wastes from six districts and will have an ultimate capacity for servicing a
population of 940,000. The first of four stages of construction includes:
inlets and screw pumps, screens, coarse solids channels, six primary and storm
water settling tanks, four parallel streams with diffused aeration, and four
final settling tanks. Belt press dewatering of the sludge will be followed by
fluidized bed incineration in a brick rather than asbestos building to reduce
noise. The 5-km long outfall with a 3-m diameter will be constructed in a
precast concrete culvert and will extend 1,000 m into the Lee-on-Solvent. The
plant will have a capacity of 57 mgd with provisions for treating up to 5.5
times the dry weather flow with primary settling. Gravity sewers will trans-
port sewage flows from the eastern and western sections of the region to a
pumping station where they will be combined, lifted, and passed by gravity
sewers to the treatment plant. The total cost of the completed project is
estimated to be 95 million pounds sterling.
D412
SPREADING SLUDGE,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4469, p 22, February, 1978.
A sludge spreading tanker with a 10-ft sludge outfall capability has been
ordered by the Thames Water Authority in England for the application of wastes
to land. The tanker is manufactured by Fergussons (Tankers) Ltd. of Ports-
mouth, Hampshire, England, and equipped with an engine mounted on an M-type
Bedford chassis. The spreader utilizes fan-shaped plates for even sludge ap-
plication. A Metalastic bush on the front of the truck and heavy duty out-
riggers on the back support the 1,300 g mild-steel tank which contains dished
and flanged internal anti-surge baffles to distribute the strain on the
knuckled radius. The tank webs have returned edges for extra strength. Two
Re is 4-inch discharge slide valves at the rear of the tanker have stainless
steel blades and are air operated.
D413
PACKAGED SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4474, p 27, March, 1978.
G. F. Dickson Environmental Engineering Ltd. of Guilford, Surrey, England, has
developed the Biospiral immersed rotating disc biological filtration system
suitable for populations of 10-800. The compact unit contains an archimedian
screw biological filter and a drum filter for suspended solids removal. The
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Biospiral system continuously recycles sludge and liquor to produce an efflu-
ent with 20/30 BOD and suspended solids concentrations. The patented tertiary
treatment system employing a cloth filter is automatically cleaned when solids
accumulate, eliminating the need for clarification of the effluent. Filter
cleaning pumps transport the solids removed from the filter cloth surface to
the system inlet or sludge storage tanks. The Biospiral units may be installed
in series as part of a larger treatment system. The unit can accommodate
fluctuating loads and has low operating and maintenance requirements.
D414
A CHLOROFORM PROBLEM AT GREAT WARFORD AND ITS SOLUTION,
Lumib, C., Brown, D., and Bottomley, M. K. V.
Allott and Lomax,
Manchester, England.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 11, p 459-467, 1977. 3 fig, 6 ref.
Air-stripping of sewage sludge was employed at the 2,950 cu m/day Great War-
ford municipal sewage treatment plant in England to remove chloroform origi-
nating from pharmaceutical plant wastes. Concentrations of chloroform averaged
2.7 mg/liter in wet sludge and 47 mg/kg in the dry sludge, arising from a dis-
charge of 3 liters/day chloroform from the pharmaceutical laboratory. To im-
prove sludge digestion, inhibited by the presence of chloroform, it was neces-
sary to limit the concentration of chloroform in the dry sludge to 5-10 mg/kg.
Laboratory experiments on air-stripping of chloroform indicated that an aera-
tion intensity of 20 cu m/sq m/hr at 9 C for periods of 6.8-8.7 hr would re-
duce the wet sludge chloroform content of 0.2 mg/liter, yielding a dry sludge
concentration of 5 mg/kg with a 4% dry solids content. The final sludge
stripping system employed 15 coarse bubble air jet diffusers, with 600 jets
mounted in the base of a 4.2 sq m tank operated on a batch basis. The
stripped sludge was transported to a digester feed tank for chloroform moni-
toring before it was fed to the digester. Stripped sludges with chloroform
concentrations in excess of 0.3 mg/liter, which would contribute to a dry
sludge content of 7.5 mg/kg, were returned to the air-stripping unit.
D415
FOR THE SAKE OF A FOOTPATH 240,000 (POUNDS STERLING) WAS LOST,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 295-298, May, 1977.
Because of unstable ground conditions, the municipal waste water treatment
facility in Saffron Walden, Essex, England, was constructed on piled founda-
tions. The 5,160 cu m/day capacity plant required 670 piles at 29-30 m in
length for support in the peat and alluvial soil; excavation was restricted to
4 m because of groundwater levels. The treatment system includes screening
and degritting, primary settlement, biological filtration, secondary settle-
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merit, and effluent polishing with microstrainers. In the winter, BOD and sus-
pended solids levels are reduced to 20 mg/liter and 30 mg/liter, respectively,
and to 15 mg/liter and 20 mg/liter, respectively, during the summer when
rivers have low flows. The sludge is thickened and stored for final treatment
at a regional facility. Storm water is stored in tanks with a total capacity
of 900 cu m and released for full treatment when flows decrease. During over-
flow conditions, the storm water flows over grassland for filtering and oxida-
tion. Up to 100 mg/liter suspended solids are permitted in storm water dis-
charged to the River Slade. The sewage flows by gravity to the site of the
old treatment works from which it is pumped to the new plant.
D416
LIQUID ALUM IS SUCCESSFUL IN ORLANDO, FLA.,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 54, April, 1978.
Orlando, Florida's, Bennett Road waste treatment plant removes 90% of the BOD
and suspended solids from 10 mgd of waste water with liquid alum treatment.
The trickling filter facility has a design capacity of 8 mgd; an average of
150-200 ppm of liquid alum is added to the waste water just prior to secondary
clarification. The plant stores the 2.5-3 weekly truckloads of alum delivered
in two 7,000 gal tanks; one tank holds a three-day reserve. During daily
periods of high waste water flow, alum is added to the splitter box effluent
after trickling filtration to provide additional flocculation time. Polymers
are added before the secondary clarifier to assist in coagulation. The efflu-
ent BOD and suspended solids concentrations, after alum treatment, are 13 and
20 ppm, respectively. Effluent samples are analyzed every 2 hrs. A 24 mgd
advanced treatment facility planned for Orlando will also be designed to in-
corporate the liquid alum treatment.
D417
SIERRAS BOAST MOST MODERN TREATMENT PLANT,
Allen, A. W.
Western Construction, Vol. 53, No. 4, p 22-24, April, 1978.
A $20 million tertiary treatment plant in California will treat 4.85 mgd of
wastes from the Lake Tahoe Basin area, Truckee, and several other areas. The
effluent receives conventional secondary treatment by primary and secondary
settling with oxidation. Phosphorus and some suspended solids are then pre-
cipitated with lime, followed by polymer dosage In rapid—mix and flocculation
tanks. The effluent is then injected with carbon dioxide gas in recarbonation
basins for calcium removal and pH adjustment. The treated effluent is pumped
to two ballast tanks with a total volume of 1.2 million gallons before the
wastes are filtered, adsorbed on activated carbon towers, and stripped of am-
monia on ion exchange beds and three ammonia removal and recovery modules for
ammonium sulfate fertilizer production. The effluent is discharged into a
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series of subsurface ditches for percolation through the glacial soil into the
Truckee River. Sludge is thickened, dewatered, conditioned with lime and
polymers, filtered on a horizontal press operated by 3 variable speed pumps,
and disposed of in a landfill. Carbon dioxide is generated on-site by com-
pressed gas from the digester boilers and by carbon dioxide stripping during
oxygenation of the wastes; supplementary liquid carbon dioxide is stored on-
site. Oxygen is also generated on-side by Union Carbide's Pressure-Swing Ad-
sorption process. The plant design includes enclosed piping and electrical
corridors which provide passage from one building to another and a complete
laboratory.
D418
INNOVATIVE DESIGN SLATED FOR TEXAS TOWN,
Garland, S. B., and Werner, D. F.
Bovay Engineers, Incorporated,
Houston, Texas.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 32, 34, 38, March, 1978. 3
fig, 1 tab.
A 2.45 mgd contact stabilization plant operating in conjunction with an exist-
ing 0.85 mgd plant was designed for Lake Jackson, Texas, to accommodate peak
flows up to 16.5 mgd. Primary treatment consists of screening and grit re-
moval with Dyneco's Aqua-Guard, employing bar screen openings of 0.25 inches.
An equalization/surge basin was selected for storing the peak storm water
flows and for on-line control of diurnal fluctuations. Overflows in the two-
section 700,000 gal equalization basin pass over a weir into the storage basin
where the waste water is used as makeup when the peak flow subsides. The two-
channel configuration provides a backup system when one channel is under re-
pair and reduces the energy required for mixing waste water in a 700,000 gal
tank. Pentech jet aerators at a depth of 22 ft were selected for the contact,
equalization, and stabilization tanks, and for the aerobic digesters because
of their lower power requirements. The aerators are guaranteed to maintain a
dissolved oxygen concentration above 2 mg/liter and a tank bottom velocity of
1 ft/sec. The Leopold Clair-Vac floating siphon sludge collector accommodated
the design specifications for,size, shape, operation, and maintenance. Sludge
is aerobically digested, gravity thickened, and dewatered by a belt filter
press; scum is transported by an air lift pump to the filter press. Before
discharge, the treated effluent is chlorinated for a contact period of 20 min
with a Pentech jet disinfection system.
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D419
INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTOR AND SUPPLIER FEATURES SLUDGE TECHNOLOGY,
Water Services, Vol. 8.1, No. 975, p 293-294, May, 1977.
Waste water treatment equipment manufactured by Hawker Siddeley Water Engi-
neering Ltd., Workingham, Berkshire, England, and its subsidiary, F. W.
Brackett, is reviewed. Trummer tube screw pumps lift influent at the treat-
ment plant inlet; raked inlet screens, dewatering presses, Temact screenings
presses, automatic baggers, and a TC incinerator remove and dispose of screen-
ings. Spiral flow aerated grit channels with sedimentation and storm tank
scrapers are available in an aluminum alloy or steel. Hawker manufactures
diffused activated sludge systems that provide optimum oxygen transfer with
low operating costs in sizes accommodating populations of 250-3,000,000.
Brackett supplies Geiger vertical shaft surface aerators, Trummer tube screw
pumps for sludge return, and final clarification tanks. Sludge and screenings
disposal systems include thermal or chemical sludge conditioning in conjunc-
tion with a single rotating hearth, multipal hearth units, and Ahlstorm fluid-
ized bed incinerators. AKA dissolved air flotation units thicken sludges in
activated sludge processes. Tertiary treatment systems include the Brackett
Microscreen and the Hawker Contraflow filter systems. These companies also
manufacture industrial waste and potable water treatment equipment.
D420
ACTIVATED-CARBON TREATMENT REDUCES CHLORINE DERIVATIVES,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 55, April, 1978. 1 fig.
A two-stage activated carbon system has been developed for the removal of
chlorinated compounds from treated effluent. Designed by Caltech/JPL and NASA
in cooperation with Orange County, California, the system incorporates acti-
vated carbon treatment prior to chlorination to remove potentially hazardous,
compounds such as phenols, aliphatic amines, aromatic amines, and polychlori-
nated biphenyls. The second stage removes chlorinated compounds on the acti-
vated carbon after chlorination. Residual chlorine is also removed by the
final activated carbon treatment. The combined chlorination-activated carbon
treatment system has been shown effective in removing ammonia, which is con-
verted to chloramines during chlorination and removed by subsequent activated
carbon treatment.
D421
MARINE SLUDGE DISPOSAL,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, p 14, January, 1978.
Ocean dumping practices of sludge disposal used in England are reviewed. Land
disposal of sludge was considered economically feasible where adequate land
was available and agricultural aspects were conducive to land application.
Sewage sludge has been disposed of in the North Sea, the Firth of Clyde, and
Liverpool Bay at sites that were investigated over long periods. The New York
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Bight was cited as an example of ocean disposal which proved detrimental to
the marine ecology. Sludge disposal in the New York Bight caused sludge
blanketing over the ocean bed, created anaerobic zones, and altered the char-
acter of the aquatic organisms and plants in the area. Sludge disposal at
other sites has reportedly enhanced the flora and fauna of an area by enrich-
ing the source of food without causing eutrophication. Further research by
marine biologists, ecologists, and sewage treatment authorities is recommended,
D422
RANGE OF INCINERATORS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 975, p 294, May, 1977. 1 fig.
The Nicholas Herreshoff multiple hearth furnace, developed by Neptune Nicholas
Ltd. of Camberley, Surrey, England, incinerates sewage sludge at temperatures
ranging from 760-870 C. The furnace is constructed of a vertical cylinder
containing circular hearths; sludge is dried in the upper zone, combusted in
the middle zone, and the resulting ash is cooled in the lower zone where com-
bustion gas is also preheated. Rotary scrapers or rabble blades, operated by
a vertical shaft with an external power source, move the sludge through the
different levels. Sludge is dried in the upper zone at a temperature of 70 C
while the outlet gases are about 425 C. Few odorous gases are generated by
evaporation with this configuration; flyash gases require minimal scrubbing.
Dried sludge with a solids content of 40-50% is ignited on the combustion
hearth in the presence of an oxidizing atmosphere; the ash is cooled by the
fresh air of combustion. The incinerator has a diameter of 8 m and is avail-
able with 4-12 levels. The system is automatically controlled and is capable
of accommodating fats, skimmings, or screenings which are introduced above the
combustion hearth.
D423
OCEAN BAN BUOYS SLUDGE PROCESSES,
Chemical Week, Vol. 122, No. 10, p 38, March, 1978.
The Carver-Greenfield sludge treatment process is being considered for the
disposal of sludge by the Los Angeles/Orange County Metropolitan Area Commis-
sion. Other alternatives to ocean disposal of sludge, which has been banned
by the Environmental Protection Agency, are: transporting sludge to the
desert for drying and composting, mechanical dewatering and composting, me-
chanical dewatering, pyrolyzing, and ocean disposal in deeper trenches. The
Carver-Greenfield process is capable of generating fuel; it requires 300 Btus
to dewater 1 Ib of liquid in sludge, compared to 1,600 Buts/lb of water re-
quired by an Organic Recycling recovery process. In the Carver-Greenfield
process, sludge is dewatered to 20% solids content on a filter press or cen-
trifuge and mixed with vegetable oil if the sludge will be used as a food sup-
plement or with fuel oil if it is to be incinerated. The sludge with an oil-
to-solids ratio of 10:1 undergoes evaporation in multiple-effect units and is
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separated into solids and oil by settling or centrifuging. More than 90% of
the oil is recovered and the liquid fraction is returned to the treatment
plant. A 100 ton/day Carver-Greenfield system will cost an estimated $4.5
million or $10.4 million with energy generation for producing electricity.
D424
STUDY INVESTIGATES FATE OF METALS IN LAND DISPOSAL,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 14, March, 1978.
The movement of heavy metals, contained in secondary treated waste water ap-
plied to land, through soil was examined for 4 soil types. Samples of the
soil types were enclosed in drainage lysimeters and dosed at a rate of 2.7
cm/wk over a 2-yr period with effluent bearing 1 ppm each of copper, zinc,
cadmium, nickel, and lead. Land plots of two of the soil types were treated
in the same manner and protected from rainfall. Bermuda grass grown in the
lysimeters, soil at various depths, and water from the root zone were sampled
periodically for heavy metal analysis. Results indicated that heavy metals
accumulated within the top 12.5 cm and primarily at the surface. Bermuda
grass uptake of the heavy metals was minimal; downward movement of the metal
through the lysimeters was slow.
D425
ALUM ADDITION AIDS SLUDGE PROCESS IN PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 14, March, 1978.
Alum precipitation of phosphorus with lime additions to maintain alkalinity
was evaluated in a plug flow, oxygen aerated, activated sludge reactor. Alum
doses from 84-184 mg/liter were added during five steady-state operating
periods to the co-current liquid oxygen contacting reactor. The food-to-
microorganism ratio was maintained between 0.18-0.24 g BOD/g mixed liquor
volatile suspended solids. BOD levels were reduced by 82-92% to 7.4-19
mg/liter; phosphorus in the effluent decreased by 54-86% to 1.05-3.26 mg/liter.
Phosphorus was most efficiently removed at an alum-to-phosphorus mole ratio of
1.8:1, resulting in a residual phosphorus content of 1.05 mg/liter. When the
reactor was operated on a step-feed method with a food-to-raicroorganism ratio
of 0.23 g BOD/g mixed liquor suspended solids, BOD was reduced by 89%. Sludge
oxygenation, followed by three-stage oxygen aeration, sequentially reduced
mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) in each stage to 10,700 mg/liter, 7,060
mg/liter, 5,020 mg/liter, and 4,150 mg/liter. Step-feed operation produced an
effluent before clarification containing an average of 6,500 mg MLSS/liter and
required less oxygen than co-current contact operation.
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D426
POLYACRYLAMIDES SHOWN TO BE EFFECTIVE FLOCCULANTS,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 14, March, 1978.
Polymerized linear and branched polyacrylamides were compared as flocculating
agents for removing suspended solids and organic materials from waste water.
Linear and branched anionic polyacrylamides were polymerized and fractionated
into portions having different molecular weights. The samples were hydrolyzed
to several anionic levels and evaluated for flocculating properties and effi-
ciencies. The linear polyacrylamides were more efficient at flocculation than
the branched structures; the higher the molecular weight of either the branched
or linear polyacrylamides, the better the flocculating efficiency. Optimum
flocculation occurred when the polymers were hydrolyzed from 15-30% and the
waste water had a pH lower than 6.5.
D427
INTERIM TREATMENT PLANT BUILDS SLUDGE CONCENTRATORS,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 48, March, 1978.
Four gravity pressure sludge concentrators employing cationic polymeric condi-
tioning have been installed at a 20 mgd interim waste water treatment plant in
Independence, Missouri. The plant, providing municipal and industrial waste
treatment until an 80 mgd facility is completed, contains an earthen aeration
and sedimentation basin, an aerobic digester, and two sand filters. Treatment
reduces the BOD from an initial 180-200 ppm to 5 ppm and suspended solids from
200-225 ppm to 2 ppm. The accumulation of sludge in the aerobic digester,
where it was stored and chemically treated, led to the installation of sludge
concentrators which increase the solids content of the sludge from 4% to 14.5%.
After the sludge is thickened to the 4% solids level, it is conditioned with a
cationic polymer and flash mixed. The sludge is further concentrated by
gravity dewatering and pressure; the sludge cake is pumped to a truck for land
application.
D428
DOE CONTRACTS FOR SLUDGE DEWATERING,
Product Finishing, Vol. 31, No. 5, p 53, May, 1978.
Biospiral waste water treatment systems, distributed by Sludge Dewatering Ltd.,
have been selected for installation in three areas in Wales with small popula-
tions. The system contains a rotating disc biological filter formed on the
archimedian screw design; an automatic rotating drum removes suspended solids.
Effluent qualities guaranteed by the Biospiral system are 20/30 BOD and sus-
pended solids, respectively. The unit is especially suitable for warm cli-
mates. The installation of the units, designated by England's Department of
the Environment, will be in areas with populations of 160, 200, and 500. The
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Biospiral will treat raw waste in one area, laboratory and domestic wastes in
another, and supplement an existing plant in the third area.
D429
A NEW PACKING MEDIUM FOR BIOLOGICAL PERCOLATING FILTERS,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 985, p 192-193, March, 1978.
An injection molded filtration medium for biological waste water treatment has
been developed by Alcor International Ltd. of Crawley, Sussex, England. The
geometrically-shaped Biofil medium has triangular faces delineated by serrated
edges which promote random packing and filter bed stability for biological
growth. Point loading in individual units is eliminated by the design of the
Biofil which evenly distributes the bed load through a series of planes. The
uniform Biofil particles enhance distribution of the waste load with even con-
tact time; blockage by biological growth is alleviated by the design which
allows solids to filter through. The filter volume is reduced and the removal
efficiency increased by the Biofil because of its improved load/efficiency
curve, leading to a cost savings. The medium's surface area is conducive to
high-rate biooxidation and has performed as well as other plastic packing.
Biofil is suitable for primary or secondary treatment, biological percolating
filters, and roughing and polishing of effluent.
D430
SEWAGE PUMPING THE PREFAB WAY,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4478, p 20, 1978. 1 fig.
Sykes Pumps Ltd., of London, England, has begun manufacturing prefabricated
Pumpex sewage pumping stations in three size ranges. The pumping stations are
constructed of a leak-proof, fiberglass-coated polyester tank equipped with
pumps, pipework, valves, ladder, and control systems. Manufactured in dia-
meters of 1.1 m, 2m, and 2.5 m, the Pumpex stations have rated capacities up
to 1,000 gal/min. The prefabricated stations are available in heights of
2.2-5.2 m to accommodate design depths of the pumping mains; each Pumpex unit
is equipped with a steel plate cast at its base for attaching pump volutes
with instructions for removing the motor units. The station is bolted to a
concrete base and connected to the inlet and discharge lines of the pumping
main. The excavated area is backfilled and the system is connected to a power
source. Stations may be supplied with platforms, allowing the addition of a
wash basin, water heater, lighting, flush water hose, and electric radiator.
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D431
RANDOM PLASTIC FILTER MEDIUM,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 12, p 659, December, 1977.
The Random FLOCOR plastic medium for percolating filters reportedly treats a
biological load three times the capacity of a mineral filter medium of the same
volume. The cylindrical FLOCOR medium is structurally capable of withstanding
its own weight and preventing blockage by acccretion. Forced aeration is not
required because of the open structure providing more than 95% void space. The
FLOCOR medium has a comprehensive strength of 7,000 kg/cu m with a surface area
of 240 sq m/cu m. The use of FLOCOR reduces the number or size of trickling
filters and its light weight permits easy installation. Filters require sim-
ple foundations and bases and pre-fabricated walls. Percolating filter
heights up to 4-5 m can be accommodated when FLOCOR is utilized.
D432
BLANFORD AREA MAIN DRAINAGE SCHEME,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 983, p 59-60, January, 1978.
Thirteen miles of sewers and rising mains were constructed in the Blandford
area in England to connect a 6.8-mile area of scattered villages to the Tar-
rant Crawford sewage treatment plant. Asbestos cement, and in some cases spun
iron, sewer pipes ranging in diameter from 6-24 inches were installed under
adverse groundwater and rainfall conditions requiring pumping at 6,000 gal/min
in the excavation areas. The treatment works, with provisions for accommodat-
ing a population of 40,000, treats 619,987 gal/day of municipal wastes and
84,780 gal/day of industrial wastes to 30 mg/liter suspended solids and 20
mg/liter BOD. Flows exceeding 3 dry weather flows are treated to 150 mg/liter
suspended solids. Peak flows are stored for 3 hrs in three 365 cu m storm
water tanks and pumped to the treatment plant when the flow subsides. Influ-
ent is screened by mechanically raked curve bar screens, and passed through a
Pista grit trap. Sewage passing to the activated sludge feed and aeration
chamber is automatically controlled by a storm water penstock and a flume con-
trol measure. The activated sludge is aerated and thoroughly mixed by a hori-
zontally rotating Passavant Mammoth Rotor. Dissolved oxygen is automatically
maintained by a sensor activated motorized effluent weir which controls sub-
mergence of the rotor. Effluent passes into three 13.7-m diameter final set-
tling tanks where activated sludge is hydrostatically removed and liquid is
discharged to a river. Activated sludge is returned by screw pumps to the
system and the excess is thickened in a 7.6 m diameter tank equipped with a
picket fence stirrer and stored for disposal.
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D433
U-TUBE CONNECTIONS FOR WASTEWATER PONDS,
Churchwell., R., and Fox, A.
Tenneco Chemicals,
Pasadena, Texas.
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 85, No. 11, p 212, May, 1978. 3 fig.
A U-shaped tube for returning floating solids from a holding pond to a skimmer-
equipped pond is readily adjustable to varying heights. The ends of the U-tube
pipe apparatus are equipped with angle irons located at 120 degree intervals
around the pipe's circumference. The angle irons support additional pipe rings
for increasing the height of the U-tube. Surface scum and floating materials
are transferred from the feed pond to the skimmer pond by adjusting the height
of the U-tube with the pipe rings to the required level in the feed pond. The
back-bevelled pipe rings, which are hung on the angle irons when not in use,
are easily assembled and alleviate leakage. Gravity flow through the U-tube
can be sustained in either direction.
D434
WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITY,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 96, May, 1978.
A regional waste water treatment facility, designed by the engineering firm of
Foth and Van Dyke and Associates, Inc. of Green Bay, Wisconsin, replaces two
treatment plants and a number of septic systems in four Wisconsin towns. The
regional facility maintains two activated sludge plants for secondary treat-
ment of the effluent from the four towns. Tertiary treatment is provided by a
20-acre glacial deposit infiltration-percolation system. Effluent is passed
to three seepage lagoons equipped with a surrounding underdrain system. The
waste water is filtered prior to groundwater recharge or river disposal. Lit-
tle maintenance is required for the natural soil ponds which saved an esti-
mated $350,000 over a 20-yr period. The regional waste water treatment fa-
cility reduced the pollutant load on a trout stream in the area.
D435
BLANFORD AREA MAIN DRAINAGE SCHEME,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, p 37, January, 1978.
The Blanford, England, sewage treatment project includes 13 miles of sewers
and rising mains and a municipal waste treatment facility with an ultimate de-
sign capacity of 40,000 population equivalents. High water tables neces-
sitated pumping of the excavation areas during installation of the asbestos
cement and spun iron sewers and rising mains with diameters ranging from 6-24
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inches. The Tarrant Crawford sewage treatment plant reduces BOD and suspended
solids to 20 rag/liter and 30 mg/liter, respectively, under normal conditions;
flows in excess of this are treated to 150 mg/liter suspended solids. Me-
chanically raked curve bar screens and a Pista grit trap screen the influent
which is then treated by the activated sludge process in aeration chambers
equipped with horizontally rotating Passavant Mammoth Rotors. Submergence of
the rotor to maintain dissolved oxygen levels is controlled by a motorized ef-
fluent weir activated by an oxygen sensor. Three 13.7 m diameter settling
tanks contain hydrostatic equipment for activated sludge removal. Liquid is
removed from the tanks for discharge to a river; activated sludge is returned
to the system; and excess sludge is pumped to thickening tanks followed by
storage for discharge. Storm water is stored in 3 tanks with 365 cu m capaci-
ties for discharge to the treatment plant.
D436
SAVE IT AERATION,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 197, April, 1978.
The Mixaerator was designed on the basis of a 72% oxygen transfer by a 3 mm
bubble at 60 cm depth; it provides zero diffuser head loss and thorough mixing
during aerobic digestion. The Mixaerator is constructed of a resin-bonded
fiberglass casing with a polypropylene air pipe and manifold and horizontal
diffusers. Air is discharged through 100 perforations of 4-7 mm in diameter
in the diffuser head. The airlift action exerted by the bubbles and water on
the intake, at the base of the aerater, accelerates intake at a perpendicular
angle to the diffuser, causing shearing of the bubbles to prevent bacterial
growth on the aerators. The unit discharges a horizontal surface stream at
177 cu m/hr generated by blowers or centrifugal fans exerting pressures of 1
psi. Large systems with 23 Mixaerator units have maintained oxygenation effi-
ciencies of 2.6 kg oxygen/kilowatt-hr.
D437
BUBBLE POWER CUTS SEWAGE PLANT ENERGY USE,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 17, p 16, April, 1978.
Polyethylene biological contact cylinders, installed in Philadelphia, Pennsyl-
vania's Northeast waste water treatment plant, may receive additional govern-
ment funding as an innovative design. The 190 mgd treatment plant installed
22 surfact units, each 25 ft long with a 12 ft diameter, providing a total of
2.2 million sq ft of surface area. The honeycombed cylinders contain angled
cups which catch the air from the aeration bays, causing the cylinders to
rotate at about 0.8 rpm without a power source. An estimated $850,000/year
will be saved in power costs with the biological treatment system, which also
reportedly increases the activated sludge process efficiency. The surfact
system is expected to provide an additional 28% of the costs of upgrading the
secondary treatment plant to 250 mgd. The city may receive an additional 10%
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funding for the $160 million project as an incentive for designing innovative
sewage treatment techniques.
D438
TWO BELT FILTER PRESS PROVIDES LOW COST DEWATERING,
Modern Power and Engineering, Vol. 72, No. 3, p 35, March, 1978.
The Perrin model FBP continuous belt filter press provides two separate
screens to accommodate varying porosity specifications. The continuous screen
belts are independently washed and available in widths of 2-10 ft. The filter
press utilizes different screen sizes for supplying high and low pressure
operation. The screen belts are constructed with an automatic tracking ap-
paratus and with varying porosities to meet specific dewatering needs. Fric-
tional wear on the belts is reduced in the Perrin press by its single converg-
ing screens and simple sludge circuits. Drainage and pressing operations are
reportedly more efficient because the screens are individually washed, provid-
ing double processing of sludge on clean screens. Perrin manufactures seven
models of the continuous belt filter press, producing dewatered sludge with
solids contents of 15-40%.
D439
EVALUATION OF A WATER-REUSE CONCEPT FOR HIGHWAY REST AREAS,
Parker, C. E., Ritz, M. A., Heitman, R. H., and Kitchen, J. D.
Transportation Research Record, No. 631, p 37-39, 1977. 1 fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
A waste water reuse system was developed for highway rest areas where waste
water disposal processes and potable water supplies are often limited. The
reuse system, suitable for areas equipped with extended aeration biological
treatment, requires additional sedimentation and sand filtration. Water used
in flushing toilets, representing 90-95% of the total water use, undergoes ex-
tended aeration followed by sand filtration and chlorination. Between 90-95%
of the treated flushing water can be recycled to the toilets with 5-10% of the
drinking fountain and lavatory waste water added as makeup. When 95% of the
flushing water was recycled with sodium fluorescein and blue dye added for
color, the returned water contained 12 mg/liter BOD, 846 mg/liter COD, and
7,152 mg/liter total dissolved solids. It was suggested that recycled water be
maintained at pH 8.3 during the winter and pH 5.5-6.0 in the summer to control
nitrification.
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D440
REDUCING COLIFORM AND SALMONELLA BACTERIA DURING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION,
Cooke, M. B., Thackston, E. L., and Malaney, G. W.
Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee,
Department of Environmental Engineering and Policy Management.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 1, p 50-5.3, January, 1978. 4 fig, 2 tab.
The reduction of salmonellae and coliforms by anaerobic digestion was examined
in three sewage treatment plants in Tennessee. Samples of primary-treated and
anaerobically-digested sludge were collected from each plant over three days
and analyzed by the multiple tube fermentation technique for coliforms and by
the Alley-Malaney membrane filter technique for salmonellae. Similar coliform
concentrations before digestion were apparent in raw sludge from all three
plants; anaerobic digestion at the two Murfreesboro treatment plants reduced
coliforms by 10,000-fold on the third sampling day, while significantly lower
reductions were observed in Nashville's Dry Creek plant. Salmonellae concen-
trations in undigested sludge were similar in the three plants on the first two
sampling days. In samples of digested sludge taken during these days, the two
Murfreesboro plants reduced salmonellae concentrations by 1,000-10,000-fold,
while concentrations were reduced 100-fold by the Dry Creek plant. The
greater reductions at the Murfreesboro plants were attributed to detention
times of 50 and 38 days; Dry Creek detention time averaged 9 days.
D441
SOME TESTS ON THE MEMBRANE FILTER PLATE,
Edmondson, B. R., and Brooks, D. R.
Severn-Trent Water Authority,
Birmingham, England.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 117-137, 1978. 8 fig, 13 tab.
A full-scale membrane filter plate press, equipped with two inflatable cloth
membrane plates, was tested with sludge from five treatment facilities to
evaluate the increased solids output potential of membrane filter plates over
conventional recess plate presses. Under manual operation, the membrane fil-
ter plate, producing a 35% dry solids sludge cake that was 32 mm thick, in-
creased the ouput of three of the treatment plants by 69%, 64%, and 24% for a
24-hr, 5-day/week operation. Automatic operation of the membrane filter plate
increased output by 129%, 141%, and 68%. The membrane filter plate reduced
the press cycle to 45 min for easily dewatered sludges and controlled the dry
solids content by the squeeze time. The membrane filter plate was more adapt-
able to automation, significantly increasing the output of solids.
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D442
INSURING TROUBLE-FREE PUMP OPERATION,
LaFarge, A.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 60-63, May, 1978. 6 fig.
Recommendations are reviewed for improving the installation and operation of
pumps used in waste water treatment facilities. Flooding of pumps installed
in low-lying areas requires cleaning and greasing of the bearings, stuffing
box, mechanical seals, couplings, impeller, and pipes. Location, foundation,
alignment, and piping are considered in the installation of pumps. It is re-
commended that pumps be located near the inlet and below the liquid flow,
especially when suction lift pumps are used, to facilitate priming and flow
rate. Alignment of the pump by placement on a foundation of blocks and shims
is important during installation to prevent uneven wear and ensure proper
operation. Grouting around the steel or cast iron base plates stabilizes the
alignment and compensates for an uneven foundation beneath the pump. Pipes
should have air-tight joints and be installed in the most direct route to the
pump. Suction and discharge pipes require supports or anchors to prevent
stress. A length of suction pipe 4-5 times the pipe diameter should be in-
stalled upstream of the pump to maintain proper flow. Suggestions are made
for proper pump maintenance.
D443
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT IS REGIONAL SUCCESS,
Dob son, R. T.
Gwin, Dobson and Foreman, Incorporated,
Altoona, Pennsylvania.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 1, p 46-48, January, 1978. 1 fig,
2 tab.
A regional waste water treatment plant in Tyrone, Pennsylvania, treats 9.0 mgd
of combined municipal and paper mill wastes. One-third of the design flow is
generated by the Westvaco Corp. paper mill which provides primary treatment of
its wastes; provisions have been made to expand the municipal treatment plant
to 30 mgd. The waste water receives comminution, primary clarification, aera-
tion and activated sludge treatment, followed by final clarification and chlo-
rination. Paper mill sludges with a high clay content are mixed with sewage
sludges, conditioned with polymers, thickened, centrifuged, incinerated in a
fluidized bed reactor, and discharged to a landfill. Effluent during the ini-
tial phase of operation contained 15.6 mg/liter BOD and 19.8 mg/liter sus-
pended solids. A 3,000-linear ft reinforced concrete interceptor sewer with a
diameter of 48 inches and a capacity of 36 mgd was constructed to connect the
new treatment facility to the site of the former treatment plant.
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D444
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF EXISTING LAGOONS-PETERBOROUGH, NEW HAMPSHIRE,
Bowen, S. P.
JBF Scientific Corporation,
Wilmington, Massachusetts.
1977. 101 p, 6 fig, 6 tab, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-085.
The performance of waste water treatment lagoons in Peterborough, New Hamp-
shire, was monitored over a 12-month period with respect to federal standards
for effluent quality. The treatment plant had average and design flows of 0.5
mgd and 2.14 mgd, respectively; three treatment lagoons without aeration had a
total surface area of 21 acres. Chlorination of the treated effluent was con-
ducted before discharge. Fecal coliforms and suspended solids were efficiently
removed during the entire study; BOD and COD were adequately reduced during
all but four months of the study. During these winter months, total BOD was
reduced by 60% to about 52 mg/liter and pH dropped to below 6.0. The reduced
efficiency of the treatment lagoons was attributed to anaerobic conditions
created by an ice cover. The installation of induced air aeration equipment
in one or more ponds was recommended. A 27% seepage loss was recorded in the
plant which was BOD and hydraulically underloaded. Average effluent dissolved
oxygen levels of 2 mg/liter dropped to zero during the winter months; ammonia-
nitrogen concentrations increased and nitrate-nitrogen decreased during the
cold periods. Total phosphorus was reduced by about 10% for the year; nitrate-
nitrogen was removed to below detectable levels. Alkalinity doubled during
the winter months because of the necessary increase in residual chlorine
levels from 2 mg/liter to 40-50 mg/liter.
D445
DOWNFLOW GRANULAR FILTRATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE EFFLUENTS,
Bowker, R. P. G.
Government of the District of Columbia,
Department of Environmental Services,
EPA-DC Pilot Plant,
Washington, District of Columbia.
1977. 55 p, 16 fig, 6 tab, 6 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA-660/2-77-
144.
The impact of downflow granular filtration media properties on activated sludge
effluents from plug flow, complete mixing, and step aeration operations was
evaluated in pilot plant studies. The filtration media consisted of anthracite
in particle sizes ranging 1.0-2.0 mm, with or without sand with effective par-
ticle sizes of 0.4-0.9 mm. The media depth in the filter was varied over
38-64 cm for the anthracite and 30-38 cm for sand. Hydraulic loadings on 0.1
sq ra filters were varied over 3-9 gpm/sq ft. Breakthrough of suspended solids
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in the activated sludge treated waste water occurred during tests with single
media anthracite with particle sizes of 1.65 and 2.0 mm. Breakthrough was ob-
served to increase at higher flow rates. With a dual media of 2.0 ram anthra-
cite and 0.9 mm sand, higher quality effluent was obtained with higher sus-
pended solids loadings and longer run times. Backwashing tests of the dual
filter media demonstrated that a 13% bed fluidization at a 35 gpm/sq ft flow
rate was effective in cleaning. The growth of filamentous organisms and
Nordica species interfered with some of the experiments, as did low suspended
solids concentrations in some of the activated sludge influent.
D446
WASTEWATER DEMINERALIZATION BY TWO-STAGE FIXED-BED ION EXCHANGE PROCESS,
Chen, C-L., and Miele, R. P.
County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County,
Whittier, California.
1977. 81 p, 19 fig, 27 tab, 4 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-146.
A 2.5 gpm two-stage and an automated 4 gpm single-staged fixed ion exchange
pilot plant were used to investigate the impact of carbon adsorption pretreat-
ment of waste water on ion exchange performance. The 2.5 gpm pilot plant,
located in the sewage treatment plant at Pomona, California, contained primary
cation, primary anion, secondary cation, and secondary anion exchange columns,
operated in series. Regenerants were first applied to the secondary exchange
columns and then to the primary columns in a downflow direction to insure
monovalent ion removal efficiency from the secondary columns. Resin longevity
studies were conducted with the 4 gpm single-stage pilot plant over 32 mos.
Resins remained stable throughout the tests. The two-stage plant reduced
total dissolved solids by 90% at regenerant concentrations of 17.6 gal/liter
H2S04 in the cation column with 85% regeneration efficiency and 9.6 gal/liter
NH3 in the anion exchanger with 90% regeneration efficiency. Costs associated
with reducing total dissolved solids from 600 to 60 mg/liter in a 10 mgd
operation were $0.059/1,000 liters.
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D447
FEASIBILITY OF TREATING SEPTIC TANK WASTE BY ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Bennett, S. M., Heidman, J. A., and Kreissl, J. F.
Government of the Distrtcct of Columbia,
Department of Environmental Services,
EPA-DC Pilot Plant,
Washington, District of Columbia.
1977. 67 p, 17 fig, 12 tab, 10 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-141.
Pilot plant studies evaluated the impact of septic tank wastes on municipal
activated sludge treatment facilities. Septic tank pumpings, generated at an
estimated volume of 13 million cu tn/yr, were introduced into a 1,980 gpd acti-
vated sludge pilot plant on a continuous flow basis and on a shock load basis.
Batch aeration tests were also conducted for the shock load studies. A con-
trol unit treating only primary effluent was also operated over the four month
study period. The municipal activated sludge pilot plant was able to accom-
modate both continuous and intermittent loads of septic tank wastes without
significant interference with effluent quality. While the strength and or-
ganic loading of the septic wastes introduced on a continuous feed basis in-
fluenced the response of the activated sludge system, wastes with COD levels
below 3 g/g mixed liquor volatile suspended solids/day did not disrupt treat-
ment performance. Unacclimated activated sludge systems were also able to ac-
commodate septage. Results of the study also indicate that sufficient excess
aeration, especially for shock septage loads, and adequate sludge handling fa-
cilities are necessary for municipal activated sludge treatment of septic
wastes.
D448
CENTRAL PIVOT SPRAY SYSTEM CONTROLS STORM LAKE POLLUTION,
Rosse, J. C.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 1, p 72-75, January, 1978. 2 tab.
A system of lagoon treatment, storage, and central pivot spray irrigation has
been installed to treat a combined municipal and industrial food processing
waste flow in Storm Lake, Iowa. The waste water, containing high concentra-
tions of ammonia-nitrogen and sulfate, is treated in two waste water plants
and/or diverted to the lagoons which provide biological treatment, stabiliza-
tion, anaerobic and aerobic treatment, and storage. The stored waste water is
used to spray irrigate leased cropland; a 630-ft Model 2071 Valley electric
drive center pivot system with five drive towers irrigates a 33-acre circle.
Pilot plant studies on a 40-acre tract planted with corn and soybeans in-
dicated that application of 8.2 inches of effluent to a corn crop during the
growing season increased the yield by 30%; 18.7 inches applied to a soybean
crop increased the yield by up to 100%. Groundwater studies have indicated
that waste water applications up to 18.7 inches/yr would not adversely affect
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groundwater, dependent upon annual precipitation. Waste water is stored dur-
ing the winter months when ammonia-nitrogen levels are the highest to prevent
fishkill in the receiving streams.
D449
HOME REMEDY HELPS FIGHT SLUDGE BULKING,
Barber, N.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 45-46, April, 1978. 2 fig, 1 tab.
Sodium bicarbonate treatment of waste water bearing large volumes of high pH,
starchy industrial wastes has improved sludge settleability in the Wilbraham,
Massachusetts, municipal waste water treatment facility. The treatment plant
has fluctuating volume and organic loads which range 30,000-130,000 gpd and
1500-2500 ppm BOD. The higher flow rates and BOD occur during the week when a
potato chip plant and an ice cream plant are in operation. Waste water laden
with starch and having a pH up to 12.2 flows to the plant once each week when
the potato chip plant's tanks are washed. A 300 Ib dose of sodium bicarbonate
is added to the aeration tanks, followed by subsequent additions of 50 Ib/day
on Monday through Wednesday and 100 Ib/day on Thursday and Friday. Aerated
waste water is settled and chlorinated before discharge with 30 ppm BOD and
suspended solids. The sludge volume index was decreased to 80-90, alkalinity
was increased from 285-344 mg/liter and sludge solids content was increased by
1.5-2.5% with sodium bicarbonate treatment. Waste sludge volume decreased
from 14,000-9,000 gpd and mixed liquor suspended solids increased from
6,460-11,600 ppm within 6 mos.
D450
NEW HAMPSHIRE SECTION NAMES TREATMENT FACILITY STATE'S OUTSTANDING CE ACHIEVE-
MENT,
Laity, B. M.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 2, p 84-85, February, 1978.
The New Hampshire division of the American Society of Civil Engineers has
cited the Manchester, New Hampshire, 26 mgd waste water treatment plant as a
significant engineering achievement. The waste water treatment project pro-
vides for the construction of 20 miles of interceptor sewers, a pumping plant,
and expansion of the facility to 60 mgd. The treatment facility, which will
reduce the pollution load on the Merrimack River, provides secondary waste
water treatment with 2 primary and 2 secondary clarifiers, aeration basins,
chlorination, sludge thickening, and sludge incineration. Venturi scrubbers
mounted in the incinerators reduce the particulate emissions into the air.
The treatment system is electrically monitored and remotely controlled; gas
analyzers and negative room pressure equipment have been installed in poten-
tially hazardous areas of the plant. Air exhausted from these areas by nega-
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tive pressure is treated with ozone for deodorizing the gases before release.
Air in areas containing toxic or explosive supplies is exchanged 12 times/hr.
D451
EFFLUENT TREATMENT PROCESS USES FILAMENT-WOUND GLASS FIBER/EPOXY,
Reinforced Plastics, Vol. 22, No. 2, p 52-53, February, 1978.
Glass-reinforced plastic was selected as piping material for the installation
of a deep shaft effluent treatment system at the Marsh Farm Sewage Works in
Tilbury, Essex, England. Because the combined municipal and industrial waste
water treated at the plant had a high chloride level, the deep shaft equipment
had to be resistant to corrosion for a period of 30 yrs. The 132—m long fila-
ment-wound fiberglass epoxy downcomer, with a 1,200 run diameter, hangs freely
in a 130-m deep shaft with a 2-m diameter. The fiberglass epoxy pipe was
delivered in 10-m sections and joined with a locking system and resin injec-
tion to insure tensile strength and rigidity. Effluent is passed through a
bell-mouthed T-piece to the downcomer, equipped with stainless steel aeration
pipes. The fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipes are manufactured by Wavin
Plastics Ltd. of Hayes, Middlesex, England.
D452
ALUM USED FOR REMOVING PHOSPHORUS FROM WASTEWATER,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 67, April, 1978.
Alum conditioning of waste water has been instituted at the 900,000 gpd acti-
vated sludge treatment facility in Trenton, Ontario, Canada. The waste water
has an average pH of 7.2 and contains 200 mg/liter BOD and 3.0 mg/liter phos-
phorus. Alum treatment methods investigated included continuous 55 mg/liter
additions, continuous 14.3 mg/liter additions, 12 hr 30 mg/liter additions, 24
hr cyclic 20 mg/liter additions, and no chemical additions. The 14 mg/liter
continuous alum treatment after aeration of the wastes reduced phosphorus con-
centrations to 0.6 mg/liter and alum requirements by 57%. The theoretical
ratio of 1 mole Al:l mole P has been reduced due to the phosphorus removal by
alum sludge return to the system. Higher amounts of phosphorus were removed
with lesser amounts of alum, possibly because of phosphate binding by the alum
sludge. Jar tests of alum removal of phosphorus overestimated the alum dosage
required by 500%.
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D453
PERFORMANCE, DESIGN AND OPERATION OF NORTHERN EXTENDED AERATION PLANTS,
Given, P. W., and Smith, D. W.
Northern Technology Center,
Fisheries and Environment Canada,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 1, p 70-82, March, 1978.
12 fig, 2 tab, 19 ref.
The performance of extended aeration treatment plants in northern Canadian
territories and Alaska with mean temperatures below freezing was compared in a
literature review with the performance of plants located south of the 0 C mean
annual isotherm and National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) plants. The northern
plants were found to have stronger sewage than the non-northern plants with
influent BOD and COD concentrations averaging 289 mg/liter and 722 mg/liter,
respectively, in the northern regions and 156 mg/liter and 405 mg/liter, re-
spectively, in the non-northern regions. BOD was reduced by 56%, COD by 51%,
and suspended solids by 58% in the northern plants; the non-northern plants
reduced BOD by 60%, COD by 47%, and suspended solids by 44%. Optimum removal
rates established by NSF for BOD and suspended solids were 89% and 87%, re-
spectively. Low performance standards in the northern treatment plants were
attributed not to temperature but to hydraulic and organic overloading, fail-
ure to scrape the clarifiers and maintain sludge returns, and insufficient
aeration.
D454
WAUSAU SOLVES DUAL PROBLEM BY USING FILTER PRESS,
Bizjak, G. J., and Becher, A. E., Jr.
Becher-Hoppe Engineers, Incorporated,
Schofield, Wisconsin.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 28-20, 32, February, 1978. 2
fig, 1 tab.
A Zimpress cloth filter press installed in the Wausau, Wisconsin, waste water
treatment plant dewaters combined waste water and water treatment sludges.
Thickened water treatment sludges, comprising about one-third of the daily
16,209 Ibs of combined sludge treated, are mixed with waste water sludges in
an oxidized storage tank where they are further concentrated from the initial
4% or higher solids content. The sludge flows by gravity to one of two ram-
type filter press feed pumps with hydraulic capacities of 125 gpm at 100
Ibs/sq inch. The flow-controlled, pressure-compensating filter press is floor
mounted and contains cast iron plates controlled by an automatic mechanism.
The press has a polypropylene-monofilament yarn filter with a surface area
of 1,381.8 sq ft; under continuous operation, the press has a cycle time of
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2.25 hrs. A filter cake with a total solids content of 45% is produced; the
press frame allows for future expansion by 40%. Filtrate is returned to the
aeration tanks and the sludge cake is disposed of in a landfill. The solids
dewatering system cost a total of $429,678.
D455
RADIATION TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER,
Ballantine, D. S.
Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research,
United States Energy Research and Development Administration,
Washington, District of Columbia.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 87-96, 1978. 8 fig, 3 tab, 35 ref.
Design criteria for radiation treatment of waste water are reviewed and two
sewage irradiation systems are described. Radiation has been found to: re-
duce the BOD and COD concentrations in sewage; improve biodegradation; destroy
cyanide and chlorinated organic pesticides; enhance settling, filtering, and
dewatering properties of sludge; and disinfect pathogenic sewage bacteria.
Electron accelerators and gamma radiation with cobalt-60 or cesium-137 are
cited as the primary sources of radiation. Cesium-137 has the disadvantages
of being less available, producing less kilowatts/curie, and diminishing by
50% through self-adsorption. Marketing of cobalt-60 is more extensive, but
with increased use of nuclear power, cesium-137 will be more readily available.
The Geisselbulach, West Germany, sewage treatment plant utilizes cobalt-60 to
irradiate municipal sludge for disinfection before land application; the system
includes an irradiation shaft equipped with a reaction vessel and a recircula-
tion system for complete exposure to the radiation. A 50 kilovolt electron
accelerator utilized at the Dear Island Waste Treatment plant in Boston, Mas-
sachusetts, incorporates aeration and spreading of the sludge on a rotating
drum which moves the sludge under the accelerator beam. Although the design
sludge thickness is 2 mm, radiation from the electron accelerator penetrates
to about 0.3 cm. A cost comparison of the three irradiation systems reported
that a cobalt-60 source cost $0.89/kl, cesium-137 radiation cost $0.75/kl, and
a 3-million volt electron accelerator cost $0.40/kl of sludge treated.
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D456
TROUT SIGH WITH RELIEF AS PLANT ENDS POLLUTION,
Swanson, J. L.
Stearns and Wheeler,
Cazenovia, New York.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 26-27, 31, March, 1978. 1 fig.
An 0.95 mgd waste water treatment plant constructed for Cazenovia, New York,
reduced the pollution load on the Chittenango Creek, a feed stream to Oneida
Lake. The plant was constructed with provisions for expansion to 2.1 mgd.
Treatment is supplied by an oxidation ditch with horizontal rotary aerators
requiring low maintenance and providing high oxygen transfer. After the in-
fluent is comminuted and aerated, it is flocculated in settling tanks. Sludge
is returned by two pumps to the preaeration tank and liquid is contacted for
15 min with chlorine. Sludge is dried in three paved earthen beds. Nitrifi-
cation is maintained at 50% during the summer months; BOD is reduced by 85%.
Provisions for plant expansion include additional primary and secondary set-
tling tanks, aeration splitter boxes for chemical conditioning mixers, clari-
flocculators, and aeration basins in series to provide two-stage nitrification.
The existing treatment facility was constructed at a cost of $1,790,000.
D457
COMPUTER-CONTROLLED PLANT FEATURES ADVANCED TREATMENT,
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 2, p 50-54, February, 1978. 2 tab.
A 12 mgd addition to an existing 4 mgd sewage treatment plant in the New Jersey
township of Parsippany-Troy Hills was designed with computerized control. The
plant addition includes: 2 grit chambers, 6 primary settling tanks, 6 dif-
fused air aeration tanks with activated sludge, 6 final settling basins, and 2
chlorine contact tanks for sodium hypochlorite disinfection. A planned 18 mgd
advanced waste water treatment addition will include: 4 nitrification tanks
and clarifiers; 4 methanol reduction tanks, supplying about 9,100 Ibs methanol/
day; 4 denitrification tanks and clarifiers; and 8 multimedia filters, each
with a 400 aq ft surface area. The 12 mgd addition will supplement the exist-
ing anaerobic digestion and vacuum filter dewatering of sludge with gravity
thickening of primary sludge and air flotation of waste activated sludge. It
will also incorporate chemical conditioning with lime, aluminum chloride, and
polymers; vacuum filter dewatering; incineration in two multiple hearth fur-
naces; and ash storage in lagoons. Control of the plant is maintained by a
Fischer and Porter computer-based real time system with a dual computer ar-
rangement. The computer system controls 14 plant operations and monitors 9
others with magnetic flowmeters in the plant addition. The computer system
controls flows to the primary settling tanks, to the aeration tanks, to the
secondary settling basins, and activated sludge returned to the aeration basin.
The quantity of waste activated sludge, the air flow in the diffused aeration
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tanks, the number of blowers on-line, primary sludge pumping, and sodium
hypochlorite disinfection are also computer controlled.
D458
UNIQUE SLUDGE HANDLING SYSTEM CHOSEN IN DUBUQUE,
Walker, J. T.
Environmental Engineering Department,
Henningson, Durham, and Richardson,
Omaha, Nebraska.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 20-23, February, 1978. 1 fig,
2 tab, 7 ref.
A sludge treatment system combining centrifugation, thermal conditioning,
vacuum filtration, incineration, and landfill disposal of ash was selected for
the Dubuque, Iowa, waste water treatment facility. The system was chosen over
six alternatives employing centrifugation, anaerobic digestion, thermal condi-
tioning, vacuum filtration, incineration, landfill disposal or land applica-
tion of sludge. Secondary sludge is expected to have a 30% solids content
after vacuum filtration and thermal conditioning. About 20% of the primary
sludge will receive thermal conditioning and vacuum filtration followed by in-
cineration. Although the dewatered secondary sludge will not require supple-
mentary fuel for incineration, thermal conditioning will use 1.8 million
BTU/hr of power. Waste heat operated boilers and coal-fired boilers are being
considered as alternatives to gas-fired burners. Effluent is treated by the
plant with aerated grease and grit removal, primary settlement, trickling fil-
tration, oxygen activated sludge, final clarification, and chlorination. Pri-
mary sludge is vacuum filtered and incinerated in a fluidized bed. Secondary
sludge is pumped to an aerated holding tank, centrifuged, thickened, thermally
treated with primary sludge, vacuum filtered, and incinerated in a fluidized
bed. The plant capacity will be 15 mgd by 1990.
386
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D459
CHEMICAL FLOCCULABILITY OF SLUDGE ORGANISMS IN RESPONSE TO GROWTH CONDITIONS,
Wu, Y. C.
Pittsburgh University,
Pennsylvania,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 20, No. 5, p 677-696, 1978. 10 fig, 4
tab, 19 ref.
The influence of nutrient deficient wastes on alum flocculation of sludge or-
ganisms was evaluated in an activated sludge system without cellular recycle.
Microbial samples were cultivated in a continuous-flow activated sludge reac-
tor at 25 C, using a hydraulic retention time of 4.5 hrs and an aeration rate
of 2,000 ml/min/liter. Cell capsule formation occurred under phosphorus and
nitrogen limitation; capsules were thought to be negatively-charged polymers
when formed in neutral conditions. While the unit cell surface charge was not
influenced by low nutrient restrictions, it increased significantly when COD:N
and COD:P ratios increased above 34:1 and 290:1, respectively. This phenome-
non was attributed to increased capsule material accumulation. Biological
solids production, bacterial cell surface properties, and residual and soluble
P content in the culture media were controlled by the influent feed concentra-
tions of N and P; these conditions, in turn, directly affected the chemical
flocculation efficiency of the system. Higher alum doses were required to
flocculate nutrient-starved dispersed microorganisms because of the higher
unit cell surface charge and resistance to charge neutralization. The ratio
of alum-to-phosphorus for 90% phosphorus removal was higher than the stoichio-
metric relationship of these substances at equilibrium; an alum-to-phosphorus
ratio of 1.17:1-2.0:1 was required to produce effluent soluble phosphorus con-
centrations of 6.68-9.03 mg/liter. Sludge settling velocity increased with
increasing nutrient concentrations in the feed.
D460
CO-DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE USING REFUSE-DERIVED FUEL,
Kaufman, H. L., and Grille, L. M.
Clifford Bogert Associates, Consulting Engineers,
Fort Lee, New Jersey.
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Technical Meeting, Proceedings, p 204-208,
1978. 4 ref.
Co-disposal of sewage sludge and refuse-derived fuel (RDF) ,is considered an
economical means of recovering inherent energy in the waste products and re-
ducing the need for fossil fuels. RDF from municipal solid wastes contains an
estimated 6,500-7,000 BTU's/lb, compared to raw and digested sludges which
have heat values of 12,000 and 10,000 BTU's/lb, respectively. RDF as a sup-
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plementary or primary fuel source costs less than fuel oil and low sulfur
coals but produces more ash after incineration of sewage sludge. Thermal dis-
posal of sewage sludge by dewatering and incineration may employ RDF as a sup-
plementary fuel source. RDF can assist in the incineration of sewage sludge
in the middle combustion stage of multiple hearth incinerators; co-pyrolysis
has also been investigated. Small modifications to the fluidized bed may be
made to the allow the use of fossil fuels instead of RDF for combustion of wet
sludges. Refuse incinerators may provide hot air for flash-drying sludge at
1,300 F to a moisture content of 10-15%. Steam for multiple-effect sludge
moisture evaporation in the Carver-Greenfield process may be generated by RDF.
Sewage sludge composting with wood chips and suction aeration has been tested
at the USDA Agricultural Experimental Station in Beltsville, Maryland; the use
of RDF rather than wood chips or other bulking materials would eliminate the
final compost-wood chip separation stage because of RDF's biodegradability.
D461
LIME/SODIUM BICARBONATE TREATMENT INCREASES SLUDGE DIGESTER EFFICIENCY,
Barber, N. R.
Church and Dwight Company, Incorporated,
Piscataway, New Jersey.
Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 2, p 28-30, 1978. 2 fig, 1
tab, 4 re f.
Combined lime and sodium bicarbonate treatment of sewage sludge during anaero-
bic digestion is evaluated. Methane-forming bacteria require a pH of 6.8-7.2
for optimum methane generation; neutrality is maintained by chemical treatment
of the sludge to counteract the effect of acid-forming bacteria. When added
to the digester to raise the pH, lime reacts with C02 and can cause a vacuum
to form at different C02 partial pressures. In imbalanced digesters, the
vacuum potential increases and air may flow into the digester with toxic ef-
fects on the methane-forming bacteria. Excess lime addition in the presence
of C02 can form insoluble calcium carbonate which will not increase alkalinity.
The use of lime and sodium carbonate in anaerobic digestion reduces the toxic-
ity of divalent cations. The combined treatment also reduces the presence of
high pH patches in the sludge liquor. It is recommended that lime be added
initially to increase the pH to 6.3-6.5, followed by sodium bicarbonate to in-
crease pH to the optimum 6.5-7.2. The chemicals are added to maintain a di-
gester alkalinity of 2,500-5,000 mg/liter as CaC03 and a volatile acid concen-
tration of 300-500 mg/liter as acetic acid. Sodium bicarbonate additions of
500 mg/liter/day will maintain a sodium concentration of 137 mg/liter; addi-
tions of 1,500 Ib sodium bicarbonate/1 million gal influent sludge will in-
crease bicarbonate alkalinity by 180 mg/liter when digester alkalinity falls
below 2,500 mg/liter.
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D462
THE COMPARISON OF ACTIVATED AND DIGESTED SLUDGE APPLIED TO FLOWERING CHINESE
CABBAGE, BRASSICA PARACHINESIS BAILEY,
Wong, M-H., and Yip, S-W.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shatin,
Department of Biology.
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Health, Vol. A13, No. 3, p 241-251, 1978.
1 fig, 3 tab, 22 ref.
Flowering white Chinese cabbage (Brassica parachinensis) was cultivated in
activated sludge and digested sludge mixed with garden soil and in garden soil
alone. The cabbage seedlings, averaging 2 cm in height, were grown under
sludge-to-sandy clay loam ratios of 1:500 and 2:500 dry weight; pH was main-
tained at 7 by liming. Heavy metal contents in the garden soil and amended
soils were measured with atomic absorption spectrophotometry after one week;
heavy metal uptake by plant tissues was measured at the end of the growing
period. The flowering cabbage exhibited the highest growth rate in the 1:500
activated sludge-soil mixture, reaching a total dry weight after harvesting of
50 g. Plants grown in soil amended with digested sludge achieved a total dry
weight growth of 40 g. Higher additions of digested and activated sludge did
not enhance cabbage growth. At the 1:500 sludge-soil ratio, the edible por-
tion of the plant tissues contained significant levels of Cd and Mg when cul-
tivated with activated sludge and high levels of Cd, Mn, and Mg when grown
with digested sludge. Plants grown at the 2:500 sludge-to-soil ratio had sig-
nificant levels of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, and Mg after activated sludge amend-
ments, and significant concentrations of Cd, Pb, Mn, and Mg with digested
sludge addition. Although the plants did not exhibit symptoms of heavy metal
toxicity, the significant heavy metal uptake by the plants grown with higher
ratios of sludge was considered the reason for lower growth.
D463
RECLAIMED SEWAGE WATER: A HYDROPONIC GROWTH MEDIUM FOR PLANTS,
Wallace, A., Patel, P. M., Berry, W. L., and Lunt, 0. R.
Resource Recovery and Conservation, Vol. 3, No. 2, p 191-199, May, 1978. 1
fig, 6 tab, 7 ref.
Greenhouse crops of chrysanthemum, tomato, egg plant, bell pepper, and lettuce
plants were sustained by a hydroponic growth medium of secondary effluent
waste water when insoluble iron oxide was applied to the plant roots during
transplanting. The test plants were grown hydroponically for 7 weeks in pro-
cessed and chlorinated-dechlorinated municipal waste water. Plants grown only
in the sewage water were iron deficient; tests groups received foliar applica-
tions of 4 g/liter iron sulfate or direct root addition of 2-4 g/plant of in-
soluble iron oxide. The latter treatment produced growth equivalent to plants
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grown in complete nutrient solutions. An adequate supply of the major nutri-
ents was available to the plants in the waste water; manganese was near the
deficiency level in some test plants. Root retention of heavy metals did not
cause toxicity to the plant or present a consumer health hazard potential.
Acidification of the hydroponic media to pH 7.8, 6.5, 6.0, and 5.0 with sul-
furic acid demonstrated that chrysanthemums and tomatoes overcame the iron de-
ficiency problem at pH 5-6; lettuce growth was reduced at pH 5. Acidification
increased the trace metal contents in the plants. Results of tests on mature
crop response to waste water were comparable to those of greenhouse tests.
Flow-through water from the mature crops was used to grow a cucumber crop in
the greenhouse study. A two- to six-fold reduction in waste water trace metal
concentrations by the mature plants was apparent; it was suggested that this
higher quality water could be used for crop irrigation or algae production for
cattle feed.
D464
LAND TREATMENT: PRESENT STATUS, FUTURE PROSPECTS,
Pound, C. E., Crites, R. W., and Reed, S. C.
Metcalf and Eddy, Incorporated,
Palo Alto, California.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 6, p 98-102, June, 1978. 2 tab.
Land treatment of municipal waste water is recommended as a cost-effective
method of fulfilling the pollution abatement and grant guidelines established
by the 1977 Clean Water Act. The Act increased the construction grants to 85%
for innovative forms of waste water treatment; an additional 15% of life-cycle
costs for these treatment methods is considered competitive with alternative
conventional processes. The Clean Water Act encourages energy saving pro-
cesses; land application conserves about 38,000 kilowatt hrs more annually
than an advanced waste water treatment plant. It also supplies nutrients and
water to soils and crops. Although capital costs, which are partially funded
by the Act, are similar for a 25 mgd advanced treatment plant and a comparable
land treatment system, non-fundable operation and maintenance costs are about
$2 million/yr more for advanced treatment than land applications. Operation
and maintenance costs of land treatment have been offset by 8-128% in estab-
lished systems where crops are grown with the waste water applications. Land
treatment, such as slow rate irrigation, rapid infiltration, and overland
flow, does not produce sludge which requires further treatment.
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D465
EXPERIENCES IN OPERATING SMALL PACKAGE-TYPE SEWAGE-TREATMENT UNITS,
Nicolle, N. P.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 112-115, 1978.
Problems associated with the operation and maintenance of small package sewage
treatment plants are reviewed. Hand-raked screens can clog if they are not
cleaned often enough, resulting in sewage overflows to the receiving water
body. Covered stainless steel screenings containers with drainage holes
should be emptied daily at a disposal site. Stone traps, which can be stirred
to remove organic accumulations and sand, are recommended over detritus chan-
nels at the inlet to the sewage treatment plant. V-notched overflow weirs on
the sedimentation tanks should be cleaned frequently to prevent high overflow
rates. Biological filters are preferred for treatment; replacement of distri-
butor arm parts may require professional engineers. Operation of vertical
disc and surface aerators at maximum speeds can cause excessive oxygen concen-
trations; dissolved oxygen concentration tests should be performed regularly,
as well as mixed liquor suspended solids content, oxygen absorption, COD, sus-
pended solids, ammonia, and bacteriological tests. Final sedimentation tanks
should be cleaned daily to prevent algae accumulations which can contribute to
increased humus or activated sludge. Regular maintenance of sand filters is
recommended for operation efficiency. Corrosion of chlorination equipment has
often occurred due to chlorine leaks and improper handling of the equipment.
D466
DIFFUSED AIR SUPERSEDES MECHANICAL SURFACE AERATION AT OXFORD,
Lewin, V. H., and Henley, J. R.
Thames Water Authority, Vales Division,
London, England.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 163-165, 167, 169,
April, 1978. 5 tab, 12 ref.
A diffused air aeration system and a Vitox liquid oxygen augmentation system
were installed to supplement the mechanical surface aeration-activated sludge
system in the sewage treatment works at Oxford, Sanford on Thames, England.
Increased flows to the treatment plant necessitated nearly continual use of
the 3.3 mgd diffused air system after installation to maintain effluent
quality. The efficiency of the plant was improved when the aeration tanks
were deepened from 2.44 to 5.0 m and the 40 aeration units were converted to
accommodate the extra depth. Two Vitox pumps, supplying 0.5 tons 02/day, were
later installed to provide supplementary oxygen during breakdowns and upgrad-
ing of the plant operation. This system was unable to improve effluent quality
and could not provide adequate treatment in the event of a cone breakdown.
Plastic concrete-weighted Venturators and an air compressor were purchased as
an auxiliary unit. An analysis of protozoa and rotifera in the surface aera-
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tion and diffused air systems indicated that Pertrichia, Rotifera Lecane, and
Philodina were most abundant. Further upgrading and replacement of the sur-
face aeration system, as well as advanced monitoring systems, tank drainage
systems, mixed liquor ditribution chambers, and final clarifiers, are planned.
D467
WASTEWATER CHLORINAT10N BY JET DIFFUSION,
Lagrosa, J. J., Mandt, M. G., and Burde, G. F.
Water Pollution Control,
Ridgewood, New Jersey.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 4, p 71-73, April, 1978. 2 tab.
Waste water chlorination by water jet diffusion was incorporated into the 5
mgd contact stabilization-activated sludge treatment facility in Ridgewood,
New Jersey, to reduce effluent fecal colifonn counts. The jet disinfection
unit, developed by the Pentech Division of Houdaille Industries, employs a
Venturi reactor tube equipped with a jet plume. Waste water is pumped through
the jet into the assembly, forming a vacuum which draws chlorine into the
stream; the hydrolyzed hypochlorous acid formed is immediately lethal to the
microorganisms at the proper pH. Effluent fecal coliform counts have ranged
over 21-70/100 ml since the jet diffusion chlorination system was installed.
The chlorine dosage has been reduced to about 18 Ibs/million gal to maintain a
chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/liter; BOD concentrations have been reduced by
90-94%.
D468
CHEMICAL CONDITIONING OF SLUDGE,
Macaulay, R. A.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 69-71, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab, 3 ref.
Poly electrolyte conditioning- of sewage sludge prior to dewatering by centri-
fugation or vacuum filtration was investigated in tests at 25 South African
waste water treatment plants. Organic primary, secondary, digested, and acti-
vated sludges were conditioned with Zetag 92 cationic polyelectrolyte. Chemi-
cal sludges were flocculated with Magnafloc 155 anionic polyelectrolyte.
Solids contents were increased to 22.3-25.3% for primary sludges, 13.8-29.0%
for digested sludges, and 8.8-17.3% for waste activated sludges. The anionic
polymer increased solids contents in chemical sludges to 15.0-26.0%. A non-
linear relationship was established between the polymer dosage and the re-
covery percentage. Activated sludge required a significantly higher polymer
dosage than digested sludge.
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D469
BELT FILTER PRESSES: A NEW SOLUTION TO DEWATERING?,
Dembitz, A. E.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 36, 38, 40, 41, 70, February,
1978.
Belt filter press and recessed plate press designs and manufacturers are dis-
cussed as alternatives to vacuum filters, centrifuges, gravity sludge de-
waterers, and incinerators for municipal, activated, and industrial sludges.
Belt filter presses usually incorporate an initial gravity drainage stage,
followed by dewatering of sludge between a perforated and a solid continuous
belt; 0.25-2.0 inches thick cakes can be obtained. Sludge conditioning with
organic polymers has increased the potential dewatering capabilities of filter
presses. Two-stage gravity dewatering belt presses, manufactured by Ecodyne
and Permutit Cos., dewater 1-2% solids sludges to 14-16% solids content; units
with widths of 3-6 ft cost about $50,000-70,000. A completely equipped system
with 8-10 ft wide belts costs approximately $80,000-120,000. Three-stage belt
filter presses are often required to produce an autogenously combustible sludge
with a solids content of 25%. Recessed plate presses, operating at pressures
of about 125 psi or more, have low power requirements and are capable of han-
dling difficult industrial sludges; the numerous small precision parts of the
units may make recessed filter plates more expensive.
D470
REST-AREA WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Hughes, G. W., Averett, D. E., and Francingues, N. R.
Environmental Effects Laboratory,
United States Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Transportation Research Record, Vol. 631, p 30-36, 1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 5 ref.
Various rest-area waste water treatment processes and problems associated with
these in several states were reviewed as a preliminary step to developing de-
sign parameters for rest-area facilities that comply with P. L. 92-500. The
principal methods of treatment encountered were: septic tanks with leach
fields; facultative, aerobic, or totally evaporative lagoons; land applica-
tion; and package extended aeration, activated sludge plants. Problems asso-
ciated with the rest-area treatment processes were inadequate information on
waste characteristics and incorrect calculation of flow fluctuations. Data on
effluent characteristics, previously assumed to be similar to domestic wastes,
demonstrated lower concentrations of BOD and suspended solids but higher am-
monia levels and COD:BOD ratios. Miscalculations of rest-area usage origi-
nated in the practice of averaging percentages of daily traffic; a more accu-
rate method for determining waste water flows utilized monthly traffic sum-
maries and incorporated three peak-month averages. An extended aeration-
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activated sludge plant at a Mississippi rest-area was cited as producing an
effluent in compliance with P. L. 92-500 standards.
D471
AN ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS WITH THERMAL REGENERATION - XXI. DESALTING OF SEWAGE
EFFLUENTS,
Bolto, B. A., Eppinger, K. H., Ho, P. S. K., Jackson, M. B., and Pilkington,
N. H.
CSIRO,
Division of Chemical Technology,
South Melbourne, Australia.
Desalination, Vol. 25, No. 1, p 45-59, March, 1978. 5 fig, 7 tab, 11 ref.
Thermally-regenerable ion exchange resins (Sirotherm), containing active raic-
roion exchange particles within a salt and water penetrable matrix, were eval-
uated for desalting of physio-chemically treated effluent, permeability of the
matrix to organic wastes, and matrix structure modification to anion permea-
tion. Treated effluent was passed through a column packed with 226 g of dry
weight of resin, operated at an adsorption cycle of 50.5 min at 10-20 C and a
regeneration cycle of 15.5 min at 80-90 C. Unprotected ion exchange resin
performance dropped about 20% after 100 cycles and stabilized at 45% after 600
cycles. Two fouling stages of the resin were identified, the second occurring
between 991-1300 cycles. Resin foulants comprised polymeric carboxylic acids;
they were removed by trap resin Amber lite IRA 401S, which stripped more or-
ganics from the resin then others tested. When tertiary effluent from an ac-
tivated sludge process was desalted, the resin was economically competitive
with conventional ion exchange, but cost 60-85% of the operating costs for re-
verse osmosis and 60-120% of conventional chemically-regenerated ion exchange
processes. Accidental fouling of the resin was eliminated with caustic brine
treatment at 45 C, which also reduced anion diffusion through the matrix in
some cases. An advantage associated with Sirotherm was the recovery of waste
heat.
D472
FORMULATING PUBLIC POLICY ON LAND APPLICATION OF WASTEWATER AND RESIDUALS,
Emrich, G. H.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 78-81, March, 1978. 7 fig, 4 tab,
12 ref.
Land application processes in operation for disposal of waste water and sludge
were reviewed as guides for formulating public policy on land disposal. Over-
land flow as practiced in the marsh-pond system at Brookhaven, New York, re-
moves a large quantity of the nutrients in waste water with minimal percola-
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tion of pollutants into the soil; groundwater and subsurface monitoring is re-
commended for overland flow sites. The Flushing Meadows rapid infiltration
project in Phoenix, Arizona, releases about 80 mgd of activated sludge efflu-
ent to infiltration-percolation basins underlined with sand and gravel. De-
pending upon weather conditions, nitrogen removal varies from 30-90% at a dis-
tance 20 ft into the groundwater below the basins; phosphorus is reduced by
90% at a distance 100 ft from the basin. The suitability of spray irrigation
is dependent upon soil, geologic, and groundwater conditions at the site; ad-
vantages of spray irrigation include economic nutrient supplements to crops
and groundwater recharge. Spray irrigation of waste water has been success-
fully practiced at: Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Muskegon,
Michigan; and Longwood, Pennsylvania. Land disposal of sludges in metropoli-
tan areas is often unsxiitable because of the heavy metal content originating
from industrial wastes.
D473
CARBON REGENERATION FURNACE FOR COLESHILL,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 987, p 303, May, 1978.
An activated carbon regeneration furnace, manufactured by Sutcliffe Speakman
and Co. Ltd. of Leigh, Lancashire, England, has been incorporated into the
Coleshill advanced waste water treatment plant. Carbon slurry from the acti-
vated carbon plant is collected in a steel tank, dewatered, and passed by
screw conveyors to the top of the regeneration furnace. The furnace is a 5 m
high mild steel cylinder lined with refractory blocks and equipped with 7 man-
holed hearths with internal diameters of 1.5 m. A rotating central shaft,
driven by a variable speed, nickel-chrome rabble arm, agitates the carbon in
the 7 hearths as it falls through grates between the hearths during the drying
process. The propane-fueled regeneration furnace also contains an air fan
which generates combustion air at a rate of 5.6 cu m/min and burners which
supply 200,000 Btu's/hr. The system has sequential starters for the conveyor
and furnace drive motors; burners are individually controlled and monitored by
an ultra-violet detection system. Waste furnace gases are saturated with
water before they are scrubbed and emitted through the stack.
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D474
FIXED-GROWTH NITRIFICATION OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT,
Gasser, J. A., Chen, C-L., and Miele, R. P.
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County,
Whittier, California.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE1, p
77-92, February, 1978. 7 fig, 6 tab, 3 ref.
Fixed growth nitrification of activated sludge liquor and alum-clarified raw
and carbon-filtered raw sewage was investigated in two 1.73 ra high columns.
The columns were packed with gravel, silica sand, river-washed stone, or
granulated activated carbon and operated at varying empty-bed detention times
and temperatures to obtain effluent ammonia-N concentrations of less than 2
mg/liter. Backwashing was required to prevent solids accumulations. Second-
ary effluent was supplied to the columns at a rate of 0.29 gal/min/sq ft; air
or pure oxygen was injected into one column. Successful nitrification of the
activated sludge liquor was accomplished with the gravel filter medium. The
sand medium was limited by solids accumulation; the alum-clarified and alum-
carbon treated effluent was adequately nitrified in the fixed growth process.
The correlation between temperature and empty-bed detention time influenced
nitrification; 2 hrs detention time required 20 C, while 80 min detention re-
quired 25 C to reduce effluent ammonia-N to 2 mg/liter. No significant dif-
ferences in nitrification were observed between air and oxygen aeration; pH
adjustments were not required for activated sludge effluent. Influent COD
concentrations above 90 mg/liter adversely affected nitrification and in-
creased detention time requirements.
D475
CANADIAN-MADE BEARINGS PROLONG LIFESPAN OF PASVEER SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 4, p 50, April, 1978.
Modifications to the aeration unit of the Pasveer sewage treatment system have
increased the projected lifespan of the treatment facility in New South Wales,
Australia. The Pasveer extended aeration system utilized a Mark I floating
aeration unit containing two 6-ft rotors, supported by segmental bearings and
driven at 75 rpm. Corrosive and abrasive material caused excessive wear on
labrinth seals; materials invaded bearing casings. Case-hardened shaft sleeves
reduced some of the wear. The Mark II unit incorporated 9-ft rotors supported
by bearings, designed by Thomas-Gordon Ltd. of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, con-
sisting of a cast pillow block with a central thrust ring and two flanged, 270
degree segmented inserts. Oil is circulated through the bearings; the rubber
thrust ring is covered with felt to prevent infiltration of abrasive material.
The modular Pasveer unit also utilizes a gravity decanting system with a bell-
mouth.
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D476
LAND TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER MAY BE KEY TO POLLUTION CONTROL,
Hartman, W. J., Jr.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 82-83, May, 1978.
Instigation of land application as an alternative waste treatment program which
produces no residual solids is dependent upon the coordination of the public,
regulating institutions, and technical groxips. Land treatment is applicable
to communities limited to 1 million where suitable land is available. Re-
straining parameters, governed by the public, require consideration in the
selection of^land treatment sites. Out-right purchase of farmland for waste
application is not recommended because of existing constraints placed upon the
agricultural industry. Farm-city coordination is suggested, as well as local-
ized land treatment sites rather than regionalized treatment. Sewage effluent
regulations can be simplified and made consistent; technical plans and design
parameters should be comprehensible to user groups. Land treatment techniques
and regulations can be reduced by the institutional and technical groups to a
form understandable by the general public. Groundwater, stream flow, and sur-
face water supplies should be considered in the formulation of land treatment
policies.
D477
MAKE SEWAGE WORKS WORK,
Mai one, C. D., and Swann, P.
Associated Water and Air Resources,
Nashville, Tennessee.
American City and County, Vol. 93, No. 6, p 79-81, June, 1978. 2 fig.
Improvements in operation, maintenance, and performance of the expanded Archie
Elledge Waste Treatment Plant in Winston Salem, North Carolina, included per-
sonnel training and reorganization and process modifications. The 36 mgd ac-
tivated sludge plant, with a peak capacity of 54 mgd, was unable to maintain
design effluent parameters soon after start-up. A consulting engineering firm
was retained to perform plant reorganizations and evaluations. Operating per-
sonnel underwent a 20-hr on-the-job training program; operation and maintenance
responsibilities were reorganized. High organic concentrations from one in-
fluent source were reduced by adding pretreatment with a second aerated lagoon
with a 2 mgd capacity to operate in parallel with the existing 1.33 mgd aerated
lagoon. Surge control was provided by varying the waste water depths in the
lagoons. Anaerobic digester supernatant was returned to the pretreatment
lagoons as a source of nitrogen rather than to the primary,clarifiers. About
4,000 ft of polyvinyl chloride pipe was installed to divert the digester
supernatant to the lagoons. Three additional aerators were installed in the
activated sludge basins to increase dissolved oxygen concentrations. Effluent
flows from the centerwells of the final clarifiers were reduced somewhat by
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increasing the diameter of one of the clarifier centerwells. Sampling pro-
cedures were automated; other process modifications are under consideration.
D478
WASTEWATER DISINFECTANTS: MANY CALLED - FEW CHOSEN,
Smith, J. W.
CH2M Hill, Incorporated,
Corvallis, Oregon.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 6, p 18-25, June, 1978. 1 fig, 1
tab, 40 ref
Enteric virus survival rates in domestic sewage treatment and the formation of
toxic compounds during waste water chlorination have led to questioning of the
reliability of the coliform test as a means of assessing disinfectant perfor-
mance, as well as a search for alternatives to chlorination. Numerous inves-
tigations have been directed toward characterizing chlorination byproducts and
their associated toxicities, as well as evaluating methods for reducing re-
sidual chlorine concentrations in potable and waste waters. A variety of dis-
infectants are discussed with respect to current technology level, efficiency,
energy consumption, toxic effects, and costs. Of the disinfectants currently
being considered, ozone is cited as the most promising alternative to chlorine.
Advantages of ozone include its powerful oxidizing nature, byproduct oxygen
generation, and viricidal properties. Recent studies on ozone disinfection
efficiency and the possible toxicity of ozonation intermediates are reviewed.
Additional pilot studies on the use of bromine chloride, chlorine dioxide, and
ultraviolet irradiation are described.
D479
OXYGEN-ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT COMPLETES TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSFUL OPERATION,
McDowell, C. S., and Gianelli, J.
Air Products and Chemicals, Incorporated,
Allentown, Pennsylvania.
1977. 195 p, 75 fig, 12 tab, 9 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-
040.
The conversion to and performance of an oxygen-activated sludge system in-
stalled in the Westgate municipal sewage treatment plant, serving Fairfax
County, Virginia, is described. The report encompasses the first two years of
operation of the $1.7 million oxygen-activated sludge plant, including start-
up, optimization, operation, and problems. The treatment facility was up-
graded from an 8 mgd aeration-sedimentation operation without sludge return to
a 14 mgd oxygen-activated sludge system. The new system reduces BOD by 92%;
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the former process reduced BOD by only 50%. The effluent produced by the
oxygen-activated sludge system has consistently contained 10-15 mg/liter total
BOD, less than 5 mg/liter soluble BOD, and less than 20 mg/liter suspended
solids. Weekly oxygen requirements have averaged 0.7-1.0 kg 02/kg BOD re-
moved, less than originally anticipated. After the optimization program was
completed, sludge production increased to 1.4 kg total suspended solids/kg BOD
removed; the sludge volume index has ranged from 35-110 mg/g total suspended
so lids.
D480
SOME HOT NEWS ABOUT SLUDGE,
Brough, K.
Portland Water District,
Maine.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 8, p 22-26, August, 1977. 2 fig, 6
tab, 4 ref.
Zimpro heat-treated sludge was stored in 3-4 ft piles and applied to two one-
acre plots seeded with silage corn. The sludge was placed on plastic sheets
to reduce seepage; a portion of one pile was covered and leachate samples from
both piles were collected after several weeks of storage. Sludge was applied
to portions of the corn plots as the sole amendment or in conjunction with
manure and chemical fertilizers. The Zimpro sludge contained about 3% total
nitrogen, 0.5% phosphorus, and 0.1% potassium; leachate samples from one pile
after heavy rain contained about 280 mg/liter total Kjeldahl nitrogen and 120
mg/liter ammonia. Plant growth was not as extensive in one of the plots
treated with sludge and manure than in plots that had also received chemical
fertilizers; no significant growth differences were observed in the other plot
treated under the same conditions. Analysis of the corn tissue and crop yield
showed no significant differences between the bulk yield and the heavy metal
uptake concentrations for the different soil amendments. Odor problems in the
stored sludge indicated the need to maintain aerobic conditions in the piles
through aeration or mechanical turning. The sludge could be applied with con-
ventional manure spreaders. High coliform counts in the sludge were attri-
buted to contamination by transport and spreading equipment; negligible coli-
forms were found in the sludge soon after Zimpro heat treatment.
D481
THERMALLY CONDITIONED SLUDGE HAS AGRICULTURAL USES,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 73-75, May, 1978.
Several municipalities practicing land application of thermally conditioned
sludge are identified. The Zimpro sludge conditioning process employs com-
pressed air and heating to 350 F to destroy pathogens and dewater the sludge
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to 25-50% solids. Thermally conditioned sludge from Jeffersonville and Speed-
way in Indiana, is applied to lawns, gardens, and some pasture land. Sludge
from Indio, California, is conditioned and vacuum filtered at a rate of 6.4
tons/day for use as a fertilizer base by a fertilizer manufacturer. Ten
tons/day of North Olmstead, Ohio, waste activated and primary sludge is ther-
mally conditioned and supplied to residents and farmers or used to fill in
hollows around the treatment plant. About 25,000 gal/wk of thermally condi-
tioned and thickened sludge is injected or spread on crop and pasture land in
Bedford Heights, Ohio, by the Ny-Trex company. Thermally conditioned sludge
in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, is applied to silage corn crops; sludge from a
second thermal unit for the county of Lancaster conditions wheat and corn crop
soils at one farm. Denton, Texas, sludge is applied to hayfields and pasture
land; Troy, Ohio, applies its sludge to a 30-acre municipal cornfield. Silage
corn was successfully grown in tests at Portland, Maine, with thermally-condi-
tioned sludge. The University of Florida has grown crops of turf grass in a
mixture of thermally conditioned sludge, wood chips, sugar refinery wastes,
sandy muck, and water treatment sludge.
D482
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER. COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION,
Leentvaar, J., Buning, W. G., and Koppers, H. M. M.
Agricultural University,
Wageningen, The Netherlands,
Department of Water Purification.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, p 35-40, 1978. 8 fig, 6 tab, 13 ref.
Coagulation-flocculation of wastes primarily domestic in origin was investi-
gated in pilot studies using ferric chloride, hydrated lime, and alum with and
without coagulation aids. Treatment efficiency was evaluated according to ef-
fluent concentrations of total organic carbon, BOD, COD, suspended solids, am-
monia, phosphorus, proteins, and low organic acids. At pH 5.3, a ferric chlo-
ride dose of 61 mg/liter reduced suspended solids by 93%, soluble organic car-
bon by 27%, and total organic carbon by 54%. Alum, added as 47 mg Al/liter at
pH 5.9, removed 94% of the suspended solids, 24% of the soluble carbon, and
58% of the total carbon. A 520 mg/liter dose of hydrated lime at pH 11.0 re-
duced suspended solids by 90%; when ferric chloride was added as a coagulation
aid, the removal efficiency of soluble carbon was increased from 17% to 23%
and total organic carbon reduction was improved from 44% to 56%. Alum floc-
culation removed a larger percentage of the anionic detergents in the waste
water than the other two flocculants; all three agents removed 99% of the
orthophosphate and 14-18% of the ammonia. Cost comparisons Concluded that
ferric chloride was the most economical flocculant of the three tested.
400
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D483
TREATING SLUDGES,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 5, p 511-512, May, 1978.
Sewage sludge treatment and disposal were the major topics of a symposium
conducted by the Division of Environmental Chemistry of the American Chemical
Society in March, 1978. Co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and refuse-derived fuel
was described as an innovative and alternative process of heat recovery, eli-
gible for an additional 10% funding under P. L. 95-217. A co-pyrolysis system
installed in the 30 mgd Central Contra Costa, California Sanitation District
treatment plant, may supply up to 90% of the power for operating the plant and
recalcining lime used in treating waste water. Pyrolysis, maintaining tem-
peratures up to 2,400 F, destroys most toxic materials and oxidizes most heavy
metals; the ash produced by pyrolysis occupies about 3-10% of the original
sludge volume and is suitable as a soil amendment when metal content is not
important. Sludge incinerators can be retrofitted with heat recovery units.
Treating sewage sludge with molten alkali, sulfate, or oxide salts in a kiln
at 550 C was suggested as a source of heavy metal recovery and toxic organic
compounds removal. Costs associated with molten salt treatment of sewage
sludge were estimated at $30/ton.
D484
OXYGEN ACTIVATED SLUDGE TRIALS AT PERSLEY,
Fuggle, R. W., Charlton, R. A., and Button, J. L.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 225, 228, 230-232,
May, 1978. 7 fig, 2 tab, 5 ref.
A Wimpey Unox oxygen activated sludge pilot plant was installed in the
Persley, Scotland, sewage treatment plant in an attempt to reduce the growth
of filamentous bacteria causing poor sludge settling characteristics. About
15% of the waste water flow to the plant originated from a chicken processing
plant, a dyeing operation, a fish processing plant, an animal breeding labora-
tory, and a refuse dump. The Unox pilot plant was operated on three test
modes: 26 days at 2-6 hrs retention; 29 days at 1-7 hrs; and 29 days at
diurnal variations of 1.7-1.0 hrs. Various recycle and biological loadings
were also examined. Effluent BOD and suspended solids concentrations were re-
duced to less than 20 mg/liter and 22 mg/liter, respectively, at a bioloical
loading of 0.6-0.9 kg BOD/kg mixed liquor volatile suspended solids/day.
Sludge settling characteristics improved when the pilot plant was operated on
the third test mode. A photomicrographic comparison of effluent from the Unox
pilot plant and the original activated sludge plant showed a significant re-
duction in filamentous bacteria in the Unox effluent. Higher dissolved oxygen
concentrations, larger and more active microbial populations, or higher carbon
dioxide concentrations in the liquor were cited as possible factors involved
in reducing filamentous bacterial growth.
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D485
AERATION EQUIPMENT COSTS REDUCED BY NEW SYSTEM,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 81, May, 1978.
Envirex Inc. manufactured the fiberglass-reinforced plastic rotary lift aera-
tion unit which was installed in the 3 mgd Marshall, Michigan, waste water
treatment plant. Selection of the unit reduced installation costs by 20%.
The light weight PFT rotary lifts, reportedly comparable to stainless steel in
corrosion resistance, reduced head losses and power costs because of their
larger internal diameters and lower surface resistance; the 4-inch header had
about the same capacity as a 6-inch steel header. Fiberglass-reinforced plas-
tic pipe, molded urethane-rubber tees, elbows, and flanges, and glass-wound
vinyl-ester upper and lower headers were used when the eight rotary lift sys-
tems were installed. The header assembly acconmodated Envirex snap-on dif-
fusers, superfusers, and air-locked crowns and was designed for uniform air
distribution to the diffusers. The Marshall plant also provided primary
treatment, final settling, and chlorination.
D486
HOT SPRINGS GETS REGIONAL TERTIARY TREATMENT PLANT,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 5, p 92, May, 1978.
Upgrading of the sewerage and trickling filter waste water treatment plant in
Hot Springs, Arkansas, included the construction of a $14.7 million tertiary
treatment plant, new interceptors and force mains costing a total of $3.8 mil-
lion, and three pumping plants costing $1.6 million. An additional 15,000
acres will also be sewered. The modular 12 mgd tertiary treatment plant, with
a peak capacity of 30 mgd, provides primary aeration and settling, as well as
degritting, coarse bar screening, and automatic primary sludge removal. The
activated sludge system is aerated with high purity oxygen and mixed with
three mechanical mixers; detention time is 1.33 hrs with a recycle rate of 30%.
Gravity thickened primary sludge is mixed with waste activated sludge which
has been thickened with polymers in a dissolved air flotation tank. The mixed
sludge is heated to 350 F in a wet air oxidation tank for 15 min at 500 psi;
the sludge is stored and supernatant is decanted. Two coil filters dewater
the sludge to a cake suitable as a soil amendment. The activated sludge
liquor is treated with alum and polymer for phosphorus precipitation and fil-
tered through a 49-inch mixed media filter, prior to chlorination and dis-
charge. Filter backwash water, which is also used for chlorination, wash down,
pump seal, and fire extinguishing, is passed to the clarifiers after use.
Screening, degritting, primary sludge removal, phosphate precipitation, and
filter backwashing are computer-controlled.
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D487
MOTORISATION OF PENSTOCKS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 4, p 43, April, 1978.
Manually operated penstocks controlling aeration basin influent in the North
London Beckton Sewage Treatment Works were motorized by the Retrofit Division
of Rotork Controls Ltd. of Bath, England. Opening and closing of the eight
manual penstocks required 40 min to accomplish the 118 penstock turns required.
Actuators were installed on each of the eight tank walls using a specially de-
signed bracket that permitted remote operation to conform with safety proce-
dures. Mounting of the actuators for motorizing the penstocks utilized the
existing penstock stem and position indicator. The push-button controlled
penstocks required 6 min to open or close; future plans include the installa-
tion of remote control devices to operate the penstocks. Flow balancing in
the aerators, as well as cleaning and maintenance operations, have been
facilitated by the motorization of the penstocks.
D488
SEWAGE TREATMENT FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 4, p 24, April, 1978.
The Biospiral operates as a submerged disc biological unit to treat waste
water loads from populations of 10-880. The Biospiral unit is constructed of
prefabricated steel and contains a rotating biological filter disc in the form
of an Archimedean screw. Following biological treatment, effluent passes to
an automatic drum filter for suspended solids removal. The Biospiral consis-
tently reduces waste water pollutants to a BOD/suspended solids ratio of 20/30,
with low maintenance and operation requirements. Effluent passes through a
patented tertiary filter before discharge; sludge and liquor are continuously
recirculated. The biodisc filter cloth is automatically cleaned; residue is
returned to the plant inlet or passes to the sludge storage tank. The Bio-
spiral is supplied by G. F. Dickson Environmental Engineering Ltd., ready for
process and power connections. Additional Biospiral units can be installed
for larger populations.
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D489
DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION TACKLES SLUDGE THICKENING,
Komline, T. R.
Komline-Sanderson Engineering Corporation,
Peapack, New Jersey.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 63-67, 69, February, 1978. 2
fig, 2 ref.
The performance and costs of dissolved air flotation in thickening waste acti-
vated sludge were evaluated in pilot plant studies conducted at 20 municipal
treatment plants and industries using the Komline-Sanderson, Peapack, New
Jersey, HR-400 flotation unit. The flotation unit can thicken sludge at a
rate of 2.25 Ibs dry solids/sq ft/hr with a 4% float concentration and a sus-
pended solids removal rate of 95%. Units often operate at double the capacity
when sludge is of normal quality; the overall design of the unit permits ade-
quate thickening of difficult sludges. The flotation unit is designed to
operate at a recycle rate of 2 gpm/sq ft, retention of tank pressure of 60-70
psi, pressure, 75-95% air saturation, and an air/solids ratio of 0.035.
Solids contents of sludges conditioned with polymers are usually 1% higher
than sludges treated without polymer flotation aids. In the flotation unit,
influent and recycled sludges are mixed with an air/polymer mixture to form a
surface sludge blanket 8-24 inches thick above the waste water surface. A
skimmer unit equipped with fixed vertical blades moves the flotating sludge
along the surface of the flotation tank; a bleaching plate horizontally
mounted before an inclined ramp also moves the sludge. Effluent is reaerated
with aeration eductors in a retention tank to increase the air/water surface
interface. The high dissolved oxygen content of the sludge contributes to
lowering BOD in the influent activated sludge. Float suspended solids concen-
trations have ranged over 2.5-12% in the pilot plants studied; costs associ-
ated with dissolved air flotation are reviewed.
D490
RUGGED SELF-PRIMING PUMPS,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 987, p 290, May, 1978.
Gorman-Rupp 'T1 series self-priming pumps, supplied by Wade Engineering Ltd.
of Brighton, England, can upgrade existing or outmoded sewage treatment plants.
The pumps can provide recirculation, storm flow balancing, and sludge removal
without excessive structural modifications to the plant. The Gorman-Rupp seal
protects the pump; when weather proofing and anti-frost heating elements are
incorporated into the pump's design, no housing is required. Complete pumping
units with motor and bedplate or bareshaft units, attachable to an electric
motor, are available in 75, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mm sizes. The T4 series
can accommodate 75 mm solids, 33.5 m heads, a discharge of up to 530 gal/min,
and connection to suction lifts up to 7.6 m.
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D491
NEW JERSEY PLANT TO TURN SLUDGE INTO COMPOST,
Solid Wastes Management, Vol. 21, No. 5, p 12, May, 1978. 1 fig.
The $2.1 million sludge composting plant in Camden, New Jersey, will reduce
sludge treatment costs to $35/dry ton from the $109/wet ton cost associated
with ocean disposal. The pilot plant was constructed with a design developed
by the United States Department of Agriculture's Beltsville, Maryland, re-
search facility. The sludge is mixed with wood chips in a 1:2 ratio by volume
and deposited on a compost pad. The compost pad is underlined with a piping
system to draw air through the sludge. The sludge and wood chip pile is
covered by a layer of recycled wood chips or composted sludge. After three
days, the sludge reaches a temperature of 160-170 F. The compost pile is dis-
mantled after 21 days and allowed to cure for an additional 30 days. The com-
post is then separated from the wood chips, which are reused. The high com-
posting temperature kills pathogenic bacteria; the pilot plant has a 15
ton/day sludge capacity.
D492
NEW CONCEPT CLAIMED FOR SEWAGE AERATION,
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (Australia), Vol. 50, No. 7, p 56,
April, 1978.
Pacific Pumps has begun distribution in Australia of submersible turbine aera-
tors suitable for activated sludge, aerobic digestion, sludge oxidation
lagoons, and flotation processes. The aerator turbine, with a Frogman sub-
mersible motor, does not rely on a fan or compressor. Waste water is drawn
into the turbine through an intake at the base; the effluent is mixed with air
drawn in through a tube. The high speed rotation of the turbine provides
thorough mixing; air and waste water are discharged automatically. Units are
manufactured with capacities ranging over 25 cu m/hr to 200 cu m/hr; motor
sizes range over 1.5-11 kilowatts. Due to the high oxygen intake and absorp-
tion values achieved by the aerators, these units are reportedly suitable for
high strength sewage and industrial wastes.
D493
SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL PRACTICES AT SELECTED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREAT-
MENT PLANTS,
1977. 60 p, 12 fig, 8 tab, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-430/9-77-007.
Sludge treatment practices of 46 of the 54 members of the Association of
Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies are described. Flow charts of plant processes,
capacities, and sludge generation are detailed for the 98 plants studied; the
majority of the plants reviewed are located in heavily populated urban areas.
Processes for treatment of primary, secondary, and combined sludges are
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analyzed and associated costs are presented. The most frequently employed
methods of sludge treatment, in descending order, are: anaerobic digestion,
gravity thickening, and vacuum filtration; centrifugation and incineration are
also reviewed. Current and future demonstration and research projects are
discussed, as well as nontechnical data associated with sludge management.
D494
USE AND MISUSE OF CHLORINATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES AND
THE TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER,
Dugan, P. R.
Ohio State University,
Columbu s,
Department of Microbiology.
American Society for Microbiology News, Vol. 44, No. 3, p 97-102, 1978. 1
fig, 24 ref.
While chlorination of drinking water supplies is justified for removing coli-
forms, viruses, and other pathogens, chlorination of waste water is considered
more hazardous than the pollutants the treatment seeks to reduce. The low BOD
water that is disinfected with chlorine has fewer organics with which chlorine
can react than raw waste water and sewage. Hypochlorous acid has been found
to be an effective bactericide while the hypochlorite ion has potential
viricidal properties. Chloraraines, a combined chlorine residual formed by
reaction with ammonia or other substances, have been found to cause methemo-
globinemia in uremia patients, genetic mutations in Bacillus subtilis, and
sterility in several species of marine invertebrates. Other compounds which
may form chloramines are urea, amino acids, proteins, other amines, and whole
cells. The chlorine demand of these compounds must be satisfied with break
point chlorination before free residual hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ion
will predominate. Chlorination also produces toxic compounds that are often
resistant to biological degradation. Polychlorinated phenols and cresols,
chloranil, trichloroanaline, and non-aromatic oxidation products have been
formed within 2 hrs of sodium hypochlorite contact with small concentrations
of industrial waste products, such as phenol, meta-cresol, hydroquinone, ana-
line, and dimethylamine. Ozonation and more efficient secondary and tertiary
treatment of waste water are recommended as alternatives to chlorination.
D495
TEXAS UTILITY TAPS MUNICIPAL SEWAGE PLANT FOR DEPENDABLE COOLING WATER SUPPLY,
Combustion, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 31-32, May, 1978. 1 tab.
Tertiary treated municipal effluent from Amarillo and Lubbock, Texas, is used
as cooling water in Southwestern Public Service Company's mechanical draft
cooling towers for power generation. The tertiary treatment plant has a ca-
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pacity of more than 18 mgd and will conserve a daily potable water supply for
75,000 people. Tertiary treatment consists of a high contact cold-lime react-
ing clarifier, designed by the Graver Division of Ecodyne Corp., in which
chemical flocculants precipitate suspended solids in a flash mixing zone. PH
is adjusted with alum and lime, as well as carbonates and carbon dioxide gas
contained in well water; phosphates are reduced to less than 1.0 rag/liter.
Reverse osmosis units further treat the tertiary effluent for use as boiler
make-up water, reducing suspended solids, trace organics, and colloids by 85%.
Cooling tower blowdown is used to irrigate agriculatural crops; sludge from
tertiary treatment will supply the additive requirements of the stack scrub-
bers at one power plant to be completed.
D496
OXYGEN INJECTION SYSTEM,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 289, June, 1978. 1
fig-
BOC Vitox oxygen injection systems have been installed as an alternative to
plant expansion in several English waste water treatment plants where aerators
were overloaded. The Vitox system, supplied with liquid oxygen in vacuum in-
sulated containers, injects oxygen into activated sludge tanks when dissolved
oxygen levels fall below a preset level. Oxygen is mixed with process liquor,
pressurized to 2-3 bars in a venturi-type blender; the mixture is pumped to
the oxygen deficient area. The bubble-bearing liquid is discharged through a
high velocity expansion nozzle which shatters the oxygen bubbles to a readily
dissolvable size as they are released with the liquid. The Vitox system pro-
motes rapid mixing and 95% oxygen dissolution. One kg of BOD is removed for
each kg of oxygen; oxygen may also be generated on-site rather than supplied
in contained liquid form. Several Vitox systems already in use augment aera-
tors during diurnal or seasonal peaks, reduce odor problems at plant inlets,
and reoxygenate contaminated rivers.
D497
THROUGH A GLASS DARKLY,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 295, June, 1978. 2
ref.
Fouling potentials and prevention methods are discussed for anion exchange re-
sins. The presence of organics and a high organic-to-inorganic dissolved ion
ratio in the influent can lead to fouling, breakthrough, high organic loading,
and a high residual on the anion exchange resin. When waste water containing
fulvic or hutnic acids with a high inorganic ion concentration is treated on a
cation/anion exchange system, subsequent anion exchangers, especially in mixed
beds, may be damaged. Anion exchangers with a high reversibility to organics
and a large total available capacity will perform more efficiently and resist
organic accumulations. Weak bases are preferred over strong bases for resis-
407
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tance to organics. Gels rather than macroreticular resins provide higher ca-
pacities. Mixed bed operations have shown the highest susceptibility to foul-
ing by acid fixation of the organics. Matrix and macroporosity have improved
weak and strong base resins; physical stability, bead integrity, bead shape,
and hydraulic properties are considered the important parameters in macro-
porous resins. Backwash characteristics and organic reversibility by polymers
are considered important features of anion exchange resins.
D498
LIME/NA2C03 TREATMENT IMPROVES SLUDGE DIGESTION,
Jacob son, A. R.
Illinois State University,
Normal,
College of Applied Science and Technology.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 7, p 94, July, 1978.
Lime and sodium bicarbonate treatment of anaerobically digested sludge pro-
vides the optimum pH for methane-forming bacteria. A natural buffer system
established by digesters is based on bicarbonate alkalinity from the reaction
of ammonia and carbon dioxide to form ammonium bicarbonate. The optimum pH
for growth of methane-producing bacteria is in the range of pH 7.0. Lime will
adjust the pH of the digester to 6.3-6.5. Sodium bicarbonate further in-
creases the pH to 7.0-7.4. When digester bicarbonate alkalinity falls below
2,500 mg/liter, a 1,500 Ib/million gal sodium bicarbonate addition will in-
crease the alkalinity by 180 mg/liter. Treatment with sodium bicarbonate in
addition to lime prevents lime overdose or localized pH variations.
D499
SWISS TUNNEL CONFIRMS MINI'S URBAN ROLE,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 988, p 361-362, June, 1978.
Atlas Copco's Mini Fullfacer tunnel driving system was selected over conven-
tional blasting, drilling, and boring techniques to construct a 250-tn long
sewage tunnel that ran under railroad tracks, a church, and several houses in
Laufen, Switzerland. Rock cover below the railroad bed ranged from 1.5-2.0 m.
The Fullfacer, equipped with a conveyor belt and 2.5 cu m diesel dumper for
muck removal, power connections, ventilation system, and laser directional
control, completed the tunnel within 1 mo. The unit undercut rock and broke
the mass toward the free face, a process requiring less power than drilling or
blasting. The Fullfacer unit initially cut a right hand curve with a radius
of 80 m and proceeded to excavate at a rate of almost 15 m/day. The 1.5 m
vault of the tunnel beneath the railroad bed did not require reinforcement
because of the 1,000-1,300 bar compressive strength of the area's limestone.
408
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D500
MOTORISED VALVE SYSTEM FOR SLUDGE VESSEL,
Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 23, No. 3, p 31, June, 1978.
Rotork Controls Ltd. of Bath, Avon, England, designed the centralized electric
valve actuators installed on the sewage sludge disposal ship, MV Garroch Head.
Four valve actuators were installed on the 254 ram butterfly valves which con-
trol the loading hoppers; 22 were connected to the 500 mm equalizing and dis-
charge valves; and 8 were mounted on the 406 mm ballast flooding valves. The
actuators provide centralized and individual push-button control of the sludge
loading, discharging, and ballasting operations. The ship was capable of
loading 3,400 tons of sludge in one hour and discharging the cargo in about 8
min with the Rotork valve actuators. The actuators on the ballast flooding
valves allowed easy trim adjustment and tuning.
D501
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE ELIMINATES ODOR IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 7, p 27, July, 1978.
Hydrogen peroxide was injected into force mains, pumping stations, and wet
wells to reduce sulfide odors and corrosion problems at the Manatee County,
Florida, waste water treatment plant. Odors, especially prevalent during the
summer months, were attributed to water temperatures up to 85 C, a relatively
flat sewer system layout, and low flow in sewers in certain areas. Paint on
some houses near the plant was actually discolored by the hydrogen sulfide gas.
Du Font's Tysul WW hydrogen peroxide was injected by metering pumps into 12
sites located along the sewer system. The hydrogen peroxide was stored at the
sites in 500 gal tanks. Chlorine injections of 100-200 ppm into lift station
lines provided only temporary relief; permanganate and chemical injections were
also ineffective. Hydrogen peroxide injection also eliminated corrosion prob-
lems; the cost of the deodorization system was an estimated $5/yr/residence.
D502
DUAL PURPOSE VEHICLE,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 6, p 25, June, 1978.
R. Bradley Municipal Vehicles Ltd. of Clay Cross, Derbyshire, England, has
begun production of a modified BMV 5000 vehicle to collect both sewage and
solid refuse. Designed especially for sewage and refuse collections in rural
areas, the BMV dual purpose vehicle is a modified BMV 5000 refuse collection
truck equipped with two 200 gal tanks constructed of alloy welded plates. The
sewage tanks, bolted beneath the truck's body, have 18 inch diameter screw-
sealed filler caps; the tanks are drained by gravity through 6 inch diameter
convoluted hose. The standard BMV refuse collection vehicle consists of a
Dodge Gil chassis with a 10-ft wheelbase containing 13.5 cu yds body space
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with a 1 cu yd hopper. The hopper has a rammer blade and ripper teeth for re-
fuse collection. The BMV dual purpose vehicle will eliminate the need for two
separate weekly trips to rural areas for sewage and refuse collections.
D503
FILTER BED FLOOR TILES,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 6, p 31, June, 1978.
E. C. C. Quarries Ltd. of Croft, England, has begun production of completely
concrete filter bed floor tiles for waste water treatment plants. The precast
filter tiles are constructed of sulfate-resistant cement concrete in an aver-
age scale of 2.5 tiles/sq m and up to 700 mm square. The tiles have a crush-
ing strength above 50.0 Newton/sq mm at 28 days and are supplied with layout
designs which include ducts up to 300 mm wide for solid bed floors. It is re-
portedly possible for two employees to install a floor 22 m in diameter within
8 hrs; lifting cradles for direct installation of the bed by a crane are pro-
vided. The floor tiles supply full coverage of the filter bed, maximum drain-
age, and basal aeration.
D504
DRAINAGE AND SEWAGE PUMPS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 6, p 41, June, 1978.
Sweden's Pumpex A. B. drainage and sewage pumps will be distributed in England
by Sykes Pumps Ltd. Pumpex manufactures six drainage pumps with output ca-
pacities of 70-840 gpm. Two models are equipped with torque flow impellers
for solids handling and are available with rubber liners for abrasive solids
loads or without liners for pumping sludges and non-abrasive slurries. Volt-
age ratings range over 240 or 110 volts for single phase to 415 or 550 volts
for three phase. The drainage pumps with diameters down to 285 mm are suit-
able for narrow trenches and other restricted areas; all the drainage pumps
can operate in series or in parallel configurations. Submersible sewage pumps
are available as mobile units or stationary units attached to a wet sump or
submerged in a wet pit. The modular pumps may be supplied with single chan-
nels or with torque flow impellers with solids capacities up to 125 mm. The
56 torque flow impeller equipped models have capacities up to 1,210 gpm; single
channel pumps are available in 40 models with capacities up to 2,100 gpm. The
wet pit submerged pump units may be raised for maintenance by disconnecting
the volute positioned at the bottom of the sump. Sewage pumps have voltage
ratings of either 415 volts in three phase or 240 volts single phase.
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D505
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROBLEMS AT NORTH KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI,
Schmidt, P. J.
Black and Veatch, Consulting Engineers,
Kansas City, Missouri.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 635-644, April,
1978. 5 fig, 3 tab.
On-site data collections, bench scale studies, and an activated sludge pilot
plant evaluated treatment inefficiencies and corrosion problems at the 7 mgd
North Kansas City primary waste water treatment plant in Missouri. About 90%
of the BOD in the influent stream originated from food processing plants,
paint factories, soft drink bottling, paper processing, and grain storage and
milling operations. The influent had temperatures ranging over 29-41 C and a
low pH. BOD was reduced by 1-17% and suspended solids by about 90%; hydrogen
sulfide concentrations ranged over 0.3-5.0 mg/liter. Besides primary settling,
the plant also provides vacuum sludge filtration. Sludge septicity in the
primary tanks was caused by sludge blankets up to 1 m deep in the center of
the tank; a picket fence unit installed in one tank reduced the sludge blanket
to less than 130 mm and improved BOD removal. Bench scale tests demonstrated
that further BOD removal could be achieved with 25-50 mg/liter additions of
ferric chloride as a flocculating agent. The activated sludge pilot plant
study concluded that BOD could be reduced by 89-99% to an average of 53
mg/liter and suspended solids could be reduced by 78-95% to 20 mg/liter aver-
age with aeration for 20 hrs.
D506
CONTACT STABILIZATION TREATMENT OF A COLLOIDAL ORGANIC WASTEWATER,
Kharajian, H. A., and Sherrard, J. H.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 645-652, April,
1978. 6 fig, 1 tab, 22 ref.
Parameters influencing the biodegradation of a colloidal organic waste water
during contact stabilization treatment were studied in a continuous flow bench-
scale activated sludge unit containing a contact tank, a sedimentation basin,
and a stabilization tank with regulated sludge wastage and recycle. Synthe-
sized waste water containing diluted colloidal yogurt, beef extract, inorganic
nutrient salts and a colloidal COD content comprising 45% of the total 420 mg
COD/liter was used in the study. The contact tank had a hydraulic retention
time of 2.2 hrs and was mechanically mixed and aerated. Sludge recycle from
the sedimentation basin was maintained at about 15 ml/min; the stabilization
tank had a hydraulic retention time of about 4.9 hrs. Mean cell residence
time varied over 0.77-4.2 days in the contact tank and 3.2-22.1 days in the
total system. High levels of COD removal at low mean cell residence times in
the contact tank were observed and did not impair sludge settling properties.
411
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High specific utilization rates were maintained in the contact tank because of
the sludge settling properties and low hydraulic retention times. Factors
causing the observed yield to decrease at lower cell retention times were not
clear. About 82.2% of the microbial solids in the contact tank were trans-
ferred to the stabilization tank, compared to an average of 17.2% in the
steady state systems.
D507
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND MEMBRANE SEPARATION OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER,
Grethlein, H. E.
Dartmouth College,
Hanover, New Hampshire,
Thayer School of Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 754-763, April,
1978. 3 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
A domestic septic tank was converted to an anaerobic digester with a variable
stroke piston pump and equipped with a flat sheet semipermeable membrane
module and a Helicore reverse osmosis unit operated in cyclic and continuous
flow patterns. Under an on-off cyclic operating time of 2 rain, a steady flux
of 490 liters/sq in/day was achieved with the flat sheet membrane at a bulk
velocity of 22.9 cm/sec. The membrane did not foul during cyclic operation
because of the backflow when the pump was turned off. Flux during cyclic
operation was maintained in the flat semipermeable membrane for 1,500 hrs and
in the reverse osmosis membrane for 8,500 hrs. A bulk fluid velocity of
15.2-122 cm/sec over the membrane surface was possible, depending upon the
operating cycle. The anaerobic digestion rate within the septic tank more
than tripled because of higher concentrations of microorganisms and substrate;
BOD was reduced by 85-95%. The system completely removed turbidity and E.
coli and reduced nitrate by about 75%. The process by which insoluble phos-
phate was removed could not be identified.
412
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D508
ULTRAFILTRATION OF COMPLEX WASTEWATERS: RECYCLING FOR NONPOTABLE USE,
Bhattacharyya, D., Jumawan, A. B., Jr., Witherup, S. 0., and Grieves, R. B.
Kentucky University,
Lexington,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 846-861, May,
1978. 15 fig, 5 tab, 24 ref, 1 append.
Charged, non-cellulosic membrane ultrafiltration of laundry and shower waste
water produced a reusable, non-potable water supply that was shown not to be
an irritant or toxin to mice and rabbits in oral, ocular, and dermal applica-
tion tests or to human skin. Synthetic laundry wastes containing a nonionic
surfactant, polyphosphates, silicates, hypochlorites, clay, and oil, and syn-
thetic shower wastes containing aliphatic acid soaps, toothpaste, hair oil,
shampoo, insect repellent, sodium orthophenylphenolate, and soil, were fil-
tered in an ultrafiltration module operated at a channel velocity of 500
cm/sec and a transmembrane pressure of 560 kiloPascals. A 90% water recovery
was predicted by computer scale-up of the model data at a feed flow rate of
1,000 cu cm/day; 90% of the organic carbon and phosphate and 52% of the dis-
solved solids were removed from laundry wastes at this performance level. A
75% reduction in organic carbon and a 45% removal of dissolved solids were at-
tained with 90% recovered shower wastes. Re filtration of ultrafiltered waste
water mixed with 10% make-up water was evaluated with curves describing
organic carbon and dissolved solids accumulations on the membrane and residuals
in the water. Toxicity and irritation by the recycled water were negligible
in tests with mice, rabbits, and humans.
D509
SHOCK LOAD ATTENUATION TRICKLING FILTER,
Cook, E. E., and Herning, L. P.
Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale,
Department of Thermal and Environmental Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE3, p
461-469, June, 1978. 6 fig, 8 ref.
The kinetics of shock load attenuation by trickling filters were examined in a
laboratory-scale filter with interchangeable sections. An 8-ft column stacked
with 8 plastic media-packed boxes, each providing 27 sq ft of media surface
area, was fed at four organic loading rates: 200 mg/liter COD or 400 mg/liter
COD at 200 gal/day/sq ft; 400 mg/liter COD or 800 mg/liter COD at 400 gal/day/
sq ft. During each run, the bottom filter box was successively moved to the
top of the stacked column and exposed to the four organic loadings. After
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eight runs, the trickling filter configuration had resumed the original ar-
rangement. As the top box was moved down through the column, COD removal ef-
ficiency decreased; the COD reduction by the first box was relatively constant
at the highest organic loading, independent of its position in the filter.
Boxes from the middle and lower depths in the filter were capable of higher
substrate removal when placed at or near the top of the filter; when in the
higher positions, these boxes received higher organic loadings than in the
steady-state position. The ability of the trickling filter to accommodate
shock loads was attributed to a reserve capacity of starved bacteria in the
lower parts of the trickling filter. Under shock loads, the upper strata of
the filter, operating at maximum metabolic capacity, allowed organic wastes to
trickle to the lower starved biota. The stabilization of COD removal effi-
ciency implied the presence of a COD saturation point.
D510
ELECTRO-OXIDATION OF AMMONIA IN WASTE WATER,
Marincic, L., and Leitz, F. B.
Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts,
E. P. Joslin Research Laboratory.
Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, Vol. 8, No. 4, p 333-345, 1978. 9 fig, 7
tab, 11 ref.
Electrocatalysts and optimum operating conditions were defined for the elec-
trooxidation of ammonia at concentrations of 2-170 mg/liter in waste water. A
three-electrode cell was employed to test the suitability of platinum, tita-
nium, tantalum, Teflon-bonded platinum, and graphite-bearing platinum as elec-
trocatalysts; platinum was the only material which sustained an adequate peak
current density of 2.30 milliamperes/cm during oxidation of 100 mg/liter am-
monia at pH 8. A continuous flow bench-scale electrolytic cell containing a
platinized titanium anode and stainless steel cathode was operated at various
ammonia concentrations, flow rates, current densities, electrode potentials,
and spacer thicknesses. The optimum current density for ammonia oxidation was
about 0.476 milliamperes/sq cm. Low current densities (0.158 milliamperes/sq
cm) produced the highest current efficiency; current efficiency ranged over
13.5-40.2%. Ammonia conversion ranged over 25.3-56.9% under influent concen-
trations of 27-30 mg/liter. A commercial powder platinum catalyst with a
platinum loading of 30 mg/sq cm achieved 23.7-40.8% ammonia reductions at a
current efficiency of 25%. While the process was considered technically fea-
sible, the high cost of platinum was considered to make the process economi-
cally unattractive.
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D511
HEAT TREATMENT AND LOW PRESSURE OXIDATION OF AQUEOUS SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Ottengraf, S. P. P., and Lotens, J. P.
Eindhoven University of Technology,
The Netherlands,
Laboratory for Physical Technology.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 3, p 171-178, 1978. 15 fig, 6 tab, 12 ref.
The impact of wet-air oxidation and heat treatment on the specific filtration
resistance, COD, nitrogen, and phosphorus of liquid sewage sludge was measured
in laboratory and full-scale tests. The laboratory reactor was operated at
160, 180, and 200 C for 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 hrs; pressure was maintained at 26
atm and gas flow at 3.6 liters/hr. Laboratory results indicated that filtrate
COD increased with increasing residence time at the lowest temperature; the
lowest specific resistance of 16,000,000 sq sec/g was achieved at 180 C and
0.5 hrs. Phosphorus was not readily dissolved and nitrogen in the dry solids
decreased slowly. A full-scale Zimpro wet-air oxidation unit was operated at
165 and 185 C with a mean cell residence time of 48.5 min; the COD conversion
rate in the reactor was calculated at 5.2%, although the observed COD reduc-
tion was 10-15%. Operation at 165 C required 45,000 kilocalories/hr more heat
than at 185 C, representing a 20% increase in steam consumption. Sludge
treated at 185 C had a mean filtration resistance of 80,000,000 sq sec/g, com-
pared to 600,000,000 sq sec/g at 165 C; this increase was attributed to axial
mixing of the liquid phase in the reactor. Heat treatment at 160, 180, 200,
and 220 C with nitrogen pressurization demonstrated that filtration resistance
decreased with increasing temperature and residence time up to a certain point.
With a constant residence time, specific resistance decreased significantly in
the range of 150-160 C; heat treatment did not increase sludge resistance over
that of wet-air oxidation.
D512
SINGLE VESSEL ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT FOR SMALL SYSTEMS,
Goronszy, M. C.
Process Biochemistry, Vol. 13, No. 6, p 19-25, June, 1978. 6 fig, 3 tab.
Sequential operation of single vessel activated sludge treatment is suitable
for small scale systems accommodating fluctuating hydraulic and organic loads.
Single vessel systems operate at a food-to-microorganism ratio of 0.05 kg BOD
applied/day/kg mixed liquor suspended solids, with extended aeration at a rate
of 2.4 kg 02/kg BOD applied/day. A six-hour cyclic operation, with a 100 min
storm cycle, provides up to 18 hrs aeration; nitrification or denitrification
can be induced by adjusting the aeration time. When nitrification in a six-
hour cycle is desired, the waste water is aerated for 4.5 hrs, following set-
tling and decanting; denitrification requires 3 hrs aeration after 1.5 hrs of
anoxic conditions and a 50% higher oxygen transfer rate. Because a larger
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settling area is provided, sludges with poor settling properties can he more
readily accommodated in sequential than in continuous systems. Shallow ves-
sels for populations of 500-2,000 have a maximum depth of 1.5 m, with an end-
less channel or racetrack configuration. Shallow vessels utilize a decant
rate of 34 liters/sec for a 500 person unit; decantation is performed by a
cast iron bellmouth which is steadily lowered over the 30 rain decant period.
Oxygen transfer, dependent upon the depth of aeration float immersion, varies
over 4.2-5.2 kg 02/hr m. Rectangular vessels, with diffused or mechanical
aeration, provide treatment for larger populations of up to 4,000.
D513
PURE OXYGEN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM TRANSFERS OXYGEN RAPIDLY,
Huang, J. Y. C., and Mandt, M. G.
Environmental Systems Department,
Calspan Corporation,
Buffalo, New York.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 6, p 98-100, 102-103, June, 1978. 7
fig, 2 tab, 16 ref.
Pure oxygen and air activated sludge systems were compared in terms of power
requirements, solids separation characteristics, sludge yield, and substrate
removal kinetics. Oxygen generators included cryogenic air-separation systems
for large plants, requiring about 350 kilowatt hrs/ton 02, and pressure-swing
adsorption systems for small operations, consuming 380 kilowatt hrs/ton 02.
Oxygen dissolution and mixing equipment required 23.8 brake hp/hr to dissolve
83.3 Ib 02/hr. Power requirements for oxygen aeration were shown to be eco-
nomically competitive with air systems only at high mixed liquor dissolved
oxygen concentrations. Sludge settling characteristics in oxygen systems were
not significantly different from those of air systems operated at the same
solid retention time, mixed liquor suspended solids concentration, and mixing
intensity. Sludge solid contents of 2.0-3.0% have been achieved in both oxy-
gen and air systems; a dissolved oxygen level of 1.0 mg/liter, which could be
maintained by either system, contributed to sludge settleability and decreased
sludge production. The reduced aeration tank size required for oxygen systems
was offset by a larger clarifier size required at suspended solids levels in
excess of 3,000-5,000 mg/liter. There were no significant differences in
sludge yield or substrate removal kinetics between pure oxygen and air acti-
vated sludge systems.
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D514
THE APPLICATION OF SURPLUS SLUDGES FROM HUMAN WASTE DISPOSAL PLANTS TO SANDY
SOIL (2) - THE EFFECT OF MIXING SLUDGE ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
(HAMAKAIDA SANDY LOAM) (Shinyo shorijo ni okeru yojo odei no shashitsu do jo en
riyo (2) - dojo no butsuriteki seishitsu ni oyobosu odei kongo no eikyo),
Kataoka, I., and Kataoka, I.
Kochi University,
Japan,
Laboratory of Applied Analytical Chemistry,
Department of Agriculture.
Kochidaigaku Gakujutsu Kenkyu Hokoku, No. 26, p 45-57, 1978. 1 fig, 5 tab, 5
ref.
The physical characteristics of a sandy loam soil were examined after addi-
tions of 1-4% powdered surplus sewage sludge. The initial bulk density of the
soil was 1.40 g/cu cm; the 13 sludge bulk densities ranged 0.22-0.77 g/cu cm.
The bulk density of the 1% sludge-soil mixtures ranged 1.35-143 g/cu cm; bulk
density usually decreased after sludge additions. Increased bulk density was
attributed to the fine particle size of some of the sludges. When the soil-
sludge mixtures were saturated with water, a linear relationship between the
evaporation and the duration period was established during the first 13 days,
followed by a curvilinear relationship during the next 13-32 days. Sludge ad-
ditions did not control evaporation from the soil. The capillary-rise time to
the surface for the soil alone was 8 min; 1% sludge additions increased the
rise time to 10-85 min. The water capacity of the soil, initially 38.2%,
ranged from 33.2-41.0% when 1% sludge was added; capacity was related to the
particle size and shape and the wetting resistance of the sludges. Insoluble
aggregate formation in the mixture increased from 5.1% to 5.4-7.8% after 9 mos
of repeated wetting and drying; aggregate formation also improved after wheat
cultivation. The permeabilities of the sludge-soil mixtures were lower than
that of soil alone.
D515
FEASIBILITY OF THE USE OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN OVERLOADED WASTE-WATER PURIFY-
ING PLANTS (Moznosti vyuziti peroxidu vodiku v pretizenych cistirnach odpadnich
vod),
Cerny, J. K.
Krajska Hygienicka Stanice Stredoceskeho Kraje,
Prague, Czechoslovakia.
Ceskoslovenska Hygiena, Vol. 22, No. 10, p 474-480, 1977. 4 tab, 4 ref.
Hydrogen peroxide was tested as an additional source of oxygen in waste water
aeration treatment tanks during laboratory tests and in an overloaded plant
treating waste water from a medical facility for tuberculosis and respiratory
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diseases. The results indicated that 1 kg oxygen could be added to the waste
water for each 7.5 liter addition of a 40% hydrogen peroxide solution. The
addition of hydrogen peroxide enhanced the activity and composition of the ac-
tivated sludge organisms. Metered additions of hydrogen peroxide were con-
sidered economically feasible in the event of treatment plant overloading or
aeration equipment failure. There were problems associated with the handling
of the caustic hydrogen peroxide.
D516
OZONE GIVES WASTE WATER THE TREATMENT,
Chemical Week, Vol. 122, No. 25, p 49, June, 1978.
The use of ozone for water and waste water treatment in the United States is
increasing, with the largest current application being the 30 mgd waste treat-
ment plant in Springfield, Missouri. Major suppliers of ozone-producing
equipment in the United States include Emery Industries, Union Carbide, Crane,
Wellsbach, PCI, Trailigaz, and Degremont. Several current projects and con-
tracts anticipated by these suppliers are described, including waste water
treatment plants in: Meander, Ohio; Olympia, Washington; Indianapolis,
Indiana; Tacoma, Washington; and Cleveland, Ohio. Cleveland's Westerly plant
has used ozone-generating equipment supplied by Emery for disinfection, as
well as to enhance tertiary treatment with activated carbon. EPA-sponsored
pilot studies in several cities are currently testing the feasibility of acti-
vated carbon-ozone treatment for potable water. Additional EPA studies have
examined dosage requirements for high level disinfection and compared costs
for ozonation and chlorination.
D517
TOWN ABANDONS TERTIARY SEWAGE PLANT,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 201, No. 1, p 11, July, 1978.
Moosehead, Maine, Sanitary District's three-year-old tertiary treatment plant
in Greenville will be replaced by a secondary effluent land application treat-
ment system. The 250,000 gpd tertiary plant cost $4.3 million to construct;
annual estimated operation and maintenance costs of $28,000 increased to
$125,000 due to overtime paid to employees attempting to fix the sand filters.
The upper 6 inches of the third stage 5 ft-long sand filters had clogged re-
peatedly with secondary effluent. Polymers could not alleviate the clogging
problem and effluent was bypassed. Chemical treatment was applied directly to
the final clarifiers. The proposed $2.5 million land application system will
spray 80 acres of private woodlands with secondary effluent.
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D518
STALLED SLUDGE TALKS SPUR COURT ORDER,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 201, No. 4, p 19, July, 1978.
The District of Columbia has been ordered by the federal district courts to
construct a sludge composting plant to treat the 850 tons/day of wet sludge
produced by Washington and three other counties. The city has claimed that a
composting facility will produce particulate emissions exceeding federal
limits and release a lung disease-related fungus that would present a health
hazard to patients in a nursing home 2,000 ft from the site. EPA has reported
that no data has yet been presented to support these claims. The sludge is
currently transported to the three countires for burial, composting, or land
application; negotiations had centered on the ultimate location for disposal
of the sludge. The $2 million composting facility will be constructed at
Washington's Blue Plains waste water treatment plant.
D519
SMART SHOPPERS CUT COST OF TREATMENT PLANT,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 201, No. 4, p 24, 28-29, July, 1978.
The division of a $364 million waste water treatment plant construction pro-
ject into 18 separate contracts has saved an estimated $50 million. Construc-
tion of the Passaic Valley, New Jersey, plant is under the supervision of
Charles A. Manganaro Consulting Engineers of New York City who staggered the
bid dates of 11 of the contracts over an 11-mo period to take advantage of
market fluctuations. The first phase of the project, a 300 mgd computerized
pure oxygen-activated sludge system, is being constructed on timber piles and
60 ton concrete shell piles, driven 30-60 ft into a swampy site 10 ft above
sea level. Oxygen injections of 600 tons/day will treat mixed municipal and
industrial effluent with BOD and suspended solids loads of 400 ppm. A five
mile 12-ft diameter outfall discharging waste water into New York Harbor will
be converted from a gravity flow line to a pumped system. The second stage of
the project, still under design, will include upgrading and some new construc-
tion for the primary treatment system.
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D520
THE FILTER BELT PRESS-APPLICATION AND DESIGN,
Austin, E. P.
Simon-Hartley Limited,
Stoke-on-Trent, England.
Filtration and Separation, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 320, 324, 326, 329-330,
July/August, 1978. 4 fig, 1 tab.
The design and application of filter belt presses are described for sludge de-
watering. Free water within organic sludge is removed by gravity dewatering
to produce a sludge containing 10% solids; intercellular water, chemically
bonded around the sludge particles, is removed by chemically conditioning with
a polyelectrolyte. Intracellular water within the biotnass cells is expensive
to remove and contributes to a higher BOD load. Compaction dewatering is
usually accomplished on monofilament polyester filter belts, with small
length-to-width ratios. The selection of filter belts, with tensile warp
strengths ranging 140-280 kg/cm, depends upon the mechanical strength of the
filter press machinery, the sludge characteristics, and the desired degree of
dewatering. Municipal sludges can be dewatered to 20-45% solids; dewatering
is enhanced by the ash content of the sludge. The range of polyelectrolyte
dosages is larger for sludges with lower feed solids concentrations, such as
oxidation ditch and activated sludges; stable digested sludges accommodate a
much narrower range of optimum polyelectrolyte dosages.
D521
INFILTRATION THROUGH SOIL AS A TERTIARY TREATMENT OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT,
Childs, C. W., Searle, P. L., and Wells, N.
Soil Bureau, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
New Zealand Journal of Science, Vol. 20, No. 4, p 433-437, December, 1977. 1
fig, 5 tab, 4 ref.
Infiltration of secondary effluent through ten 50-cm core soil samples from
North Island, New Zealand, was used to investigate the effectiveness of the
soils in tertiary treatment of municipal sewage. The soils included three
silt loams, a stony loam, clay, two sandy loams, sand, sandy silt, and peat.
The soil columns, with vegetation intact, were irrigated for 10 mos with tap
water or secondary effluent at a rate of 55 mm/week during the warmer months
and 27.5 mm/wk during winter months; the soils were also flooded weekly for 24
hrs during a 5-mo test period. Leachates were analyzed for Na, K, Mg, Ca, Mn,
Al, Fe, ammonium-N, nitrate-N, kjeldahl-N, total-P, F, and coliforms. The
Otorohanga silt loam and the Taupo sandy silt produced leachates with 2.0
mg/liter or less total-N and 0.07 mg/liter or less total-P under systematic
irrigation and flooding conditions. These soils also consistently achieved
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the lowest coliform counts. The dry weight of the pasture vegetation on all
columns treated with effluent was nearly double the weight of plants watered
with tap water.
D522
SUBMERSIBLE SEWAGE PUMPS,
Pollution Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 6, p 95, June, 1978.
The Hyr-0 Pumps Division of Wylain, Inc. has developed a new line of non-clog
submersible sewage pumps. The 4-inch S4N Series pumps were designed for high
efficiency wet well pumping in the intermediate range and lower capital costs.
The units have the capacity to pump grease, dirt, raw sewage, and solids up to
3 inches in diameter. The S4N Series accommodates capacities up to 580
gal/min with head sizes up to 56 ft. The two-vaned impeller is constructed of
cast iron and balanced to ensure clog-free, quiet, vibrationless performance.
The pumps are suitable for liquids with pH values in the range of 6-9; the
submersible units can also accommodate specific gravities in the 0.9-1.1 range
and viscosities in the range of 28-35 Saybolt seconds universal.
D523
DISPOSAL OF AEROBICALLY DIGESTED SLUDGE,
Watenburger, T.
Little Blue Valley Interim Treatment Plant,
Independence, Missouri.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 7, p 70, July, 1978.
Four Model 80 sludge concentrators, manufactured by Ecodyne Corp.'s Smith and
Loveless Division, were installed at the Little Blue Valley Interim Treatment
Plant in Independence, Missouri, to dewater the large quantities of sludge
produced in the aerobic digester. The 20 mgd capacity interim plant treats an
average of 16 mgd of waste water in two combined aeration/settlement basins,
an aerobic digester, and six sand filters; the final effluent contains about 5
mg/liter BOD and 2 mg/liter suspended solids. The concentrators process
13,000-25,000 gal/day of a thickened slurry with a 49-50% organic load and 4%
solids content. The sludge is treated with a cationic polymer, flash mixed,
and concentrated by gravity and pressure processes to 14.5% solids content.
Gravity dewatering is performed on continuous, variable speed open-mesh filter
screens; three sets of compression rollers further dewater the sludge in the
pressure stage. The dewatered cake is pumped to a truck for removal to land
application sites.
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D524
WASTE-WATER CENTRIFUGAL DECANTERS FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS,
Sulzer Technical Review, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 179, 1978.
The ZDA series of municipal waste water centrifugal decanters, manufactured by
Escher Wyss, offers minimal flocculant consumption with optimum concentrate
purification. The decanter produces a dewatered sewage sludge that is suit-
able for direct storage or application to agricultural land as an organic fer-
tilizer. The dewatered sludge may also be dried further and incinerated.
Rotor diameters of 360, 500, 630 mm are available; the ZDA-50 model has a
maximum nominal capacity of 18 cu m/hr. Escher Wyss can supply the centri-
fugal decanters with adjustable, fixed, or in-service controllable speeds to
operate the solids discharge screw. The centrifugal decanters are also suit-
able for chemical and mining industrial applications.
D525
HYGIENIZATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE WITH ELECTRON BEAMS,
Sulzer Technical Review, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 179, 1977. 1 fig.
The Sulzer electron beam-hygienization plant for disinfection of sewage sludge
employs an electron accelerator and scanner system, in addition to a sludge
supply, dosing, and regulating system. Electron beams, emitted from an elec-
tron source with a heated cathode, are fine and tightly packed with low energy.
The electrons gain maximum energy as they pass through an accelerator in a
vacuum. A scanner system containing a thin titanium foil strip is used to de-
flect the electron beam by an alternating magnetic field to adapt the beam to
the width of the sludge. A sludge dosing system continuously distributes a
preset amount of sludge onto a conveyor roller at a thickness suitable for
electron beam penetration. The electrons are braked as they come into contact
with the 2,000 mm width of the sludge on the conveyor roller. Throughput
speed is determined by the beam current; throughput quantity is controlled by
the sludge thickness and width, and the roller rotation speed.
D526
EDINBURGH SINKS (POUNDS STERLING)35M IN UNDER CITY AND SEA SEWERAGE,
Paynting, T.
Surveyor,
Button, Surrey, England.
Surveyor, Vol. 4481, No. 151, p 17-18, April, 1978.
Edinburgh, Scotland's, 35 million pounds sterling sewage treatment project in-
cluded the construction of a 55 mgd primary treatment plant, 8.4 km of inter-
ceptor lines, and a 2.8 km long outfall sewer. The treatment facility, with
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an ultimate design capacity of 74 mgd, was constructed on a stone graded
foundation enclosed by a sheet-piled cofferdam. The plant has triple feed
channels, bar screens, a feed conveyor belt to the screenings press, detritor
tanks, and four 55 m-diameter sedimentation tanks. Interceptor sewers with
diameters of 3,124 mm and 2,290 mm connect to the older sewers and have pro-
visions for automatic storm overflow control. The outfall sewer was con-
structed in an undersea tunnel with a treatment plant access point located 52
m below the surface. The tunnel diminishes in diameter from 3.6 m to 0.9 m;
it is equipped with 20 diffuser pipes located along the outer 760 m. Sewage
sludge is discharged 16 km offshore by a specially designed vessel with a
sludge capacity of 2,500 tons.
D527
NINE PUMP INSTALLATION FOR WESSEX WATER AUTHORITY,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 987, p 293-294, May, 1978.
Nine New Haden pumps, installed at the Kinson Sewage Disposal Works in Wessex,
England, can accommodate a flow rate of 10,800 cu m/day. Three type 37 un-
chokeable pumps with 15 hp, 960 rpm motors can each pump 216 cu m/hr of raw un-
screened sewage at the sewage works inlet. They are equipped with single
channel or double unchokeable impellers and pump against a total head of 8.15
m. Two type 36 semi-unchokeable pumps equipped with double channel shrouded
impellers are used to move sludge from humus tanks to the sewage works inlet
at a rate of 108 cu m/hr. These pumps have 10 hp, 1450 rpm motors that oper-
ate against a head of 13.37 m. Four type 36 semi-unchokeable pumps recircu-
late waste water to rotary bed filters. Each pump is equipped with a 15 hp,
960 rpm motor, operating at a rate of 234 cu m/hr against a head of 7.6 m.
D528
PLANT TO DISINFECT WASTEWATER WITH OZONE,
Allen, R. K., and Oblas, V. C.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 7, p 48-53, July, 1978. 4 fig, 2 tab.
A $38 million regional project in Washington includes separation of storm
and sanitary sewers and construction of the 13.9 mgd LOTT secondary treatment
plant. The plant will utilize an equalization basin, a high—purity oxygen ac-
tivated sludge system, and an ozone disinfection system to accommodate a BOD
loading of 13,744 kg/day, an equalized flow of 35 mgd, and a maximum flow for
partial treatment of 137 mgd. Space limitations at the existing site and the
need to improve the quality of receiving waters provided additional impetus
for selecting the ozone/oxygen process. Prior to design finalization, three
modes of ozone-oxygen treatment were tested: air-fed, oxygen-fed once-through,
and oxygen-fed recycle. Comparisons of the oxygen-fed systems according to
process performance, control complexity, power requirements, track record, and
current technology led to the selection of the once-through mode of operation
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for LOTT. Ozone generation will be controlled by the waste water flow and the
oxygenation basin line pressure. Design specifications for LOTT's ozonation
basin include: two contact chambers; an ozone dosage of 10 rag/liter; a deten-
tion time of 16 min, a 5.8 m-deep vertical baffled tank; tubular fine bubble
diffusion equipment, submerged to 4.88 m; and a diffuser pore size of 60 mic-
rons. Bid specifications for the ozone generation equipment are designed to
give consideration to capital cost, power efficiency, and heat recovery
capability.
D529
SECONDARY CLARIFIER WITH A DIFFERENCE,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 41, July, 1978.
The Rim Flo secondary clarifier is equipped with both feed and decanting chan-
nels at the periphery of the tank and a suction header sludge removal unit.
The clarifier was designed by Envirex Inc. and is distributed in England by
Paterson Candy International. The design of the clarifier reportedly permits
greater waste water volumes, higher overflow rates, maximum hydraulic sta-
bility, full surface skimming, and lower construction costs than conventional
clarifiers with central feed well units. Clarifiers that have been converted
to the peripheral channel configuration have accommodated greater volumes
without tank expansion. The Rim Flo is also equipped with a rotary suction
tube containing specifically sized and spaced outlets for sludge removal. The
central shaft of the rectangular, tapered suction tube runs parallel to the
base of the clarifier and can remove low density sludges or provide rapid
sludge removal.
D530
DEEP SHAFT,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 43, July, 1978.
The deep shaft biological treatment system installed in England's Marsh Farms
treatment plant treats both industrial and municipal wastes. The high chlo-
ride content of the waste water required that the 130 m deep shaft unit's
downcomer be constructed of corrosion-resistant fiberglass-reinforced plastic.
The deep shaft is 2 m in diameter, with a large be 11-mouthed T-piece to dis-
tribute waste water to the downcomer. The downcomer hangs freely in the shaft
and is constructed to withstand 30 yrs of service; the downcomer must have
high mechanical strength and precision alignment in the shaft for efficient
waste water treatment.
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D531
PREFAB PUMPING STATIONS,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 43, July, 1978.
Sweden's Pumpex AB has designed a range of prefabricated sewage pumping sta-
tions with capacities rated up to 75 liters/sec. The pumping stations are
supplied completely equipped in diameters of 2-2.5 m and heights of 2.2-5.2 m
to accommodate the design depths of mains. The fiberglass-reinforced poly-
ester tanks are equipped with pumps, pipework, valves, control system, and
ladder. Installation comprises bolting the station to a concrete platform
laid at the base of an excavation; the station is then connected to the inlet
and outlet of the pumping main and to a power supply. Motor units may be re-
moved and pump volutes may be attached through a steel plate at the base of
the station. The stations may be purchased with options such as a radiator,
platforms, lighting, and water heater; prices for the pumping stations start
at 2,000 pounds sterling.
D532
ELECTROLYTIC DISINFECTION,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 41, 43, July, 1978.
An electrolytically-produced hypochlorite solution, derived from sea water, is
used to disinfect sewage from the English Channel island of Guernsey. The hy-
pochlorite solution is obtained by passing sea water through a 3 mm gap be-
tween a platinized titanium anode and a mild steel cathode contained in two
pairs of enclosed glass fiber electrolytic cells. Waste water from cesspools
is treated at the rate of 7,000 gal/hr by treatment with ferric oxide for hy-
drogen sulfide removal, followed by metered treatment with the hypochlorite
solution. The hypochlorite reduces bacillus coli in the sewage by 99.9%; the
waste water is then screened, pumped to two 5,000 gal reactor tanks, agitated,
and discharged to the outfall sewer. Power costs for pumping equipment and
electrolysis were about 245 pounds sterling for one month; a similar treatment
plant has been constructed at the island's Bellegreve outfall at Saint Peter
Port. The treatment system replaced direct discharge of sewage through an
outfall sewer to the sea.
D533
FLUIDIZATION TREATMENT PROCESS TO BE TRIED, '
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 41, July, 1978.
The Oxitron biological treatment system, developed by Ecolotrol Inc. of New
York and distributed by Dorr-Oliver, provides nitrification and denitrifica-
tion of waste water. The Oxitron system consists of a reactor filled with a
biomass support media, such as sand, that is expanded to more than twice its
compacted size. The waste water is introduced upwards into the media at a
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rate sufficient to maintain fluidization of the media. The large surface area
of the fluidized bed provides a higher concentration of active biomass, in-
cluding bacteria and higher-order microorganisms. This higher concentration
reportedly permits higher hydraulic loading rates during biological carbonace-
ous BOD removal.
D534
FLUID TREATMENT WITH PLASTICS PASTA,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 40-41, July, 1978.
Acalor International Ltd. has designed Biofil, an injection molded filter
medium for percolating or trickling filters, absorption towers, and gas scrub-
bing systems. The spherical Biofil medium has triangular faces, a configura-
tion that contributes to the strength of the material. The triangular faces
are outlined by two serrated-edged fins which provide a more functional sur-
face area. The serrated edges interlock, providing greater stability to the
packed bed, and allow for random packing of the media. Biofil promotes even
contact time and uniform distribution of the waste water through a series of
planes. The use of Biofil media can reduce filter construction costs and size.
D535
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT GAINS CARBON REGENERATION FURNACE,
Consulting Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 7, p 40, July, 1978.
A 7-hearth activated carbon regeneration furnace has been installed in the
Coleshill, England, advanced waste water treatment plant, under the jurisdic-
tion of the Severn-Trent Water Authority. The furnace is constructed of a
mild steel, 5 m-high stack lined with refractory blocks; a variable speed
shaft drives a rotating nickel-chrome rabble arm unit in each 1.5 m diameter
hearth to agitate the carbon as it falls through the hearth floor gratings.
The carbon is dried by five burners and an electrical fan supplying combustion
air at a rate of 5.6 cu m/min. The burners, conveyors, and motors are indi-
vidually controlled and monitored with ultra-violet detection. Plant operat-
ing conditions are continuously monitored in the main plant control room and
plant malfunction data is conveyed by remote signalling to an alarm system in
the control room. Steam is generated on-site and injected at 54 kg/hr into
five of the hearths. Waste gases are saturated with water and passed through
a two-stage scrubbing unit before returning to the furnace stack.
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D536
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FRACTIONS FROM SECONDARY EFFLUENT ON SELENASTRUM
CAPRICORNUTUM (KUTZ),
Sachdev, D. R., and Clesceri, N. L.
Envirosphere Company,
New York, New York.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1810-1820, July,
1978. 8 tab, 26 ref.
The maximum specific growth rate and the maximum standing crop of Selenastrum
capricornutum were measured in studies using effluent organic fractions of
varying molecular weight. Filtered effluent from a trickling filter plant and
a stabilization pond was concentrated and the organic components were sepa-
rated on Sephadex Gels G-10 into the apparent molecular weight (AMW) fractions
of 0-700 AMW, 0-1,500 AMW, and 1,000-5,000 AMW. In the >700 AMW fractions,
the organic carbon content ranged 200.0-780.0 rag/liter; in fractions with
<700 AMW, the phosphorus level was 0.0003-0.064 mg/liter, and the nitrogen
concentration 0.0005-2.29 mg/liter. Organic fractions were added to 100 ml of
an S. capricornuturn-bearing algal assay medium in doses that simulated the
concentration of the original effluent. Both effluents stimulated maximum
specific growth rates of the algae; only the stabilization pond effluent had
an impact on the standing crop of algae. Organic fractions with AMW >700
stimulated both the maximum specific growth rate and the standing crop of S.
capricornutum; growth stimulation was attributed to organic components and not
to inorganic carbon or the supplemental nitrogen or phosphorus additions. The
organic compounds were not considered to be chelating agents in the experi-
ments because of the medium composition, although their role as chelating
agents in a natural aquatic environment was considered feasible.
D537
UPGRADING STABILIZATION POND EFFLUENT BY WATER HYACINTH CULTURE,
Dinges, R.
Wastewater Technology and Surveillance Division,
Texas Department of Health,
Austin.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 833-845, May,
1978. 6 fig, 10 tab, 15 ref.
Treatment of stabilization pond effluent was investigated with water hyacinths
(Eichhornia crassipes) grown in a four-sectioned 585 sq m tank at the William-
son Creek Waste Water Treatment plant in Austin, Texas. The water hyacinths
reduced volatile suspended solids by an average of 93%, chlorophyll-a by 93%,
fecal coliforms by 98%, BOD by 87% to less than 10 mg/liter, and nitrogen by
63% to less than 5 mg/liter. The leaves and stems of the water hyacinths ex-
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hibited high accumulations of phosphate, potassium, chloride, magnesium, and
iron; the plants also accumulated arsenic, chromium, mercury, lead, nickel,
zinc, copper, and manganese. Small basin design, in the range of 4,000 sq m
with a 1-m depth, was considered more efficient for treating about 0.3 mgd of
stabilization pond effluent. Incorporating rapid and effective drainage means
into the design of the hyacinth ponds was also recommended.
D538
SLUDGE DEWATERING STUDIES AT HYPERION TREATMENT PLANT,
Ohara, G. T., Raksit, S. K., and Olson, D. R.
Bureau of Sanitation,
Los Angeles, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 912-925, May,
1978. 9 fig, 9 tab.
The Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation investigated sludge treatment and de-
watering techniques as an alternative to ocean disposal of the 150 tons sludge
with a solids content of 2.5% produced daily. Pilot plant studies covered
solid-bowl centrifugation, basket centrifugation, vacuum filtration, drying
beds, and pressure filtration. Physical, chemical, and thermal conditioning
techniques of sludge treatment were also studied. The most suitable methods
were identified by the study as: drying bed or evaporation pond dewatering of
chemically-conditioned sludge; solid-bowl centrifugation of chemically-condi-
tioned, thermophilically digested sludge; and basket centrifugation of chemi-
cally-conditioned, mesophilically digested sludge. The latter two treatment
processes cost $41.40 and $39.50/ton dry solids, respectively, while drying
bed treatment cost $22.40/ton dry solids, excluding the cost of required land.
D539
LAND TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER AS AN INNOVATIVE OR ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY,
Hadeed, S. J.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1709-1712, July,
1978. 1 fig.
The 1977 Clean Water Act gives consideration to innovative and alternative
waste water treatment processes. The act considers unconventional projects
with total costs 15% more than the most cost-effective conventional projects
as competitive; thus, grant eligibility would be extended to innovative pro-
jects with higher costs. These novel systems are defined as resource recovery
processes, such as land application, water reuse, and energy recovery. Other
criteria require: that the energy costs be 20% less than those required for
the most cost-effective conventional system; that the process be relatively
safe from upset and operational malfunctions; that toxins management be im-
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proved; that the project conserve water, land, and resources; and that methods
incorporate treatment of both municipal and industrial wastes. Land applica-
tion alternatives include overland flow, infiltration-percolation, and spray
irrigation. The 28 mgd Muskegon, Michigan, biological treatment facility ap-
plies secondary effluent to corn crops by spray irrigation. While the fa-
cility has realized a 60% operating cost reduction from corn crop revenues,
criticism has been directed at the site location, the potential groundwater
contamination, the design of the storage lagoons, and the results of pilot
plant tests. The act also requires that construction materials and treatment
equipment be manufactured in the United States.
D540
REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS IN JAPAN,
Brill, E. D., Jr., and Nakamura, M.
Illinois University,
Urbana-Champaign,
Institute for Environmental Studies.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1715-1726, July,
1978. 4 fig, 5 tab, 29 ref.
Planning and implementation of regional waste water treatment facilities were
surveyed in Japan. Japan's urban area has more than doubled since 1963 and
the population served by drainage has increased from 7.4 to 22.6%; between
1976-1980 Japan is expected to spend $25 billion for sewerage. Prefectural
governments in Japan are currently conducting a comprehensive regional plan-
ning program to design and implement waste water treatment facilities and
sewerage projects. Waste water treatment planning in Japan encompasses a
study of historical and cultural frameworks, short-run economies of scale,
short-run effectiveness, and long and short-run flexibility. Other factors
considered in comprehensive regional planning include drainage, water supply,
and land use; the prefectural governments are responsible for planning pro-
jects, with the cooperation of the community; they also own and operate cen-
tral facilities and interceptors. Although local communities do not directly
participate in the regional planning projects, a program for the dissemination
of public information provides public hearings, meetings, and tours of com-
pleted facilities.
D541
SLUDGE DEWATERING WITH CENTRIFUGES,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 989, p 399, July, 1978.
KHD Industrieanlagen AG manufactures three types of solid bowl and screen cen-
trifuges for dewatering sewage sludges. Solid bowl centrifuges, operating on
the co-current principle, dewater sludges at throughput rates up to 120 cu
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m/hr when the rotor and screw speeds match the feed rate. The feed point is
loc/»t-ed in front of the drum's solid rear wall; this configuration allows for
a settling zone in proximity to the feed point. Septic tank size at treatment
facilities can be reduced when the centrifuge precedes the tank, reducing the
quantity of sludge to be treated; centrifuges located after the tanks further
reduce sludge. Besides primary dewatering, the centrifuges dewater digested
sludges for storing or recycling. The solid bowl centrifuges can operate ef-
ficiently at low feed concentrations and provide extended settling durations
for minute particle removal and improved solids compaction.
D542
FILTRATION MEDIA FOR SEWAGE APPLICATIONS,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 989, p 422, July, 1978.
Webron Products Ltd. of Rossendale, Lancashire, England, has introduced the
Hydron needle felt wet filtration fabric. The fabric, which is used as a
cover on rotary drums, has been pretested in filter presses and rotary drum
filtration plants for dewatering digested sewage sludges. Results of the
testing indicate that the Hydron product has a high liquid throughput rate and
a long working life; it is also capable of producing a high quality filtrate
and high solids content sludge cake. Filter press investigations have demon-
strated that needle felt media provide high flow rates through the pore struc-
ture, shorter batch cycle time, and easy release of the sludge cake. The
Hydron fabric, which is suitable for use with diatomaceous earth and activated
carbon, is available in filtration grades ranging from coarse for sewage
sludge to fine for particulate removal and clarification.
D543
TURNING SLUDGE INTO SOIL CONDITIONER SOLVED A CITY'S DISPOSAL PROBLEM,
Senske, F., and Lauletta, T.
Philadelphia Water Department,
Water Pollution Control Division,
Pennsylvania.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 7, p 24-26, July, 1978. 2 tab.
As an alternative to ocean disposal, sewage sludge from Philadelphia, Pennsyl-
vania, is anaerobically composted, cured, shredded, and given to the public as
a soil amendment. Philorganic has a solids content of 60-70%, about 17,000
mg/kg phosphorus, 9,700 mg/kg Kjeldahl nitrogen, 12,100 mg/kg iron, 3,900
mg/kg potassium, and quantities of mercury, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
manganese, nickel, zinc, potassium, arsenic, vanadium, selenium, and beryl-
lium. Sludge excavated from storage lagoons, containing about 25% solids, is
spread in an 8-inch layer, harrowed with an agricultural disc, and scraped
into containers; the process requires about 4 wks and produces a sludge con-
430
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taining about 60% solids. The addition of a cleated-belt conveyor shedding
unit with a 125 cu yd/hr input capacity produced a more uniform and spreadable
product. Fresh sludge is anaerobically composted for 21 days, cured for 20
days, and transported to the shredder for Philorganic production. The shredder
automatically removes foreign debris from the sludge and recovers up to 50% of
the wood chips being tested as a bulking agent.
D544
EFFECTIVENESS OF BACKWASHING FOR WASTEWATER FILTERS,
Cleasby, J. L., and Lorence, J. C.
Iowa State University,
Ames,
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Research Institute.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE4, p
749-765, August, 1978. 3 fig, 6 tab, 6 ref.
A four-year study of backwashing practices suitable for municipal trickling
filters has concluded that single media filters are most effectively washed by
simultaneous air scour and subfluidization backwash. .Water fluidization, air
scour prior to water fluidization, and surface wash and subsurface wash before
and during fluidization backwash were tested on three pilot-scale trickling
filters packed with single, dual, or mixed media to treat secondary effluent.
Single medium filters containing coarse sand had bed depths of 24-60 inches;
the total depth of the dual coal and sand filter was 24 inches; the tri-media
coal, sand, and garnet filter was 27 inches deep. Air scour or surface wash
was considered essential for proper performance of filter beds within these
depth ranges; these practices, in conjunction with water fluidization back-
washing, were considered feasible but not optimum for all filter types tested.
Separate backwashing of three coarse sand filters with different depths demon-
strated that the initial 8 gal/min/sq ft backwash flow rate utilized during
simultaneous air-water wash and water wash alone was insufficient; increasing
the water flow rate to 15 gal/min/sq ft at an air flow rate of 8 cu ft/min/sq
ft immediately improved media condition. A 12-15 inch bottom layer of media
remained dirty; provisions were recommended for preventing the loss of filter
media during backwashing.
431
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D545
TREATMENT OF PRIMARY SEWAGE SLUDGE WITH ENZYMES,
Knapp, J. S., and Howe11, J. A.
Swansea University College,
Wales,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 20, No. 8, p 1221-1234, 1978. 7 fig,
19 ref.
Cellulolysis of primary sewage sludge with an enzyme isolated from Trichoderma
viride did not improve the filterability of sludge but did improve the set-
tling characteristics.of very dilute sludges. The cellulase preparation was
obtained by removing the mycelium from a submerged culture of T. viride. One
ml of the enzyme preparation was mixed with 39 ml of primary sewage sludge in
all but one experiment where larger volumes were used. The specific resis-
tance to filtration (SRTF) of the cellulase-treated sludges increased sharply
within the initial 4-6 hrs of treatment. In some cases, the SRTF gradually
returned to that of untreated sludge, while other sludge samples did not re-
gain their original filtration properties even after 24 hrs of treatment. A
30-fold increase occurred in the settling rate of cellulase-treated dilute
sludge containing 6 g/liter suspended solids. Settling doubled in treated
sludge containing 20-25 g/liter solids. Cellulolysis tripled the settling
rate at 50 g/liter solids but only increased the solids concentration by 30%.
The protein concentration of the filtrate from the treated sludge increased
5-10 fold, up to 2.4 g/liter protein, and the BOD increased up to 13,000
mg/liter; the filtrate was capable of supporting the growth of yeasts, such as
Candida utilis, for the production of single cell protein. The productivity,
however, was low and the process was not considered economically feasible at
this time.
D546
PURE OXYGEN FIXED FILM REACTOR,
Yeh, S-J., and Jenkins, C. R.
Reid, Quebe, Allison, Wilcox and Associates, Incorporated,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE4, p
611-623, August, 1978. 6 fig, 4 tab, 20 ref.
Laboratory tests were performed on a continuous-flow aerobic media trickling
filter which supplies pure oxygen to the biomass through pressurized, thin
capillary walls of Teflon. The studies concluded that the process was capable
of accomodating higher organic loads than conventional trickling filters or
activated sludge processes. The bench-scale reactor consisted of a 51-mm in-
ternal diameter, 1.7-m long Plexiglass pipe containing etched Teflon tubes
432
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with wall thicknesses of 0.33 mm, 0.79 mm, and 0.23 mm; upstream tube ends
were attached to an oxygen inlet manifold, while the downstream ends were
sealed. A synthetic waste water feed, with a BOD concentration of about 200
mg/liter and a pH of 6.15-7.00, was varied according to total organic carbon
content over 55, 110, and 165 rag/liter; detention time in the reactor was
maintained at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 hrs for each organic loading. The
organic removal efficiency in the reactor increased with detention time,
reaching a plateau after about 1 hr at the lowest organic loading; for the
other organic carbon concentrations, 2 hrs was considered the optimum deten-
tion time for 90% removal. Yield coefficients, dependent upon detention time
in the aerobic media filter, were not as high as those of conventional or oxy-
gen activated sludge processes, but were comparable to those in high rate
trickling filters. Although nitrification occurred along the length of the
reactor, the rate decreased as the reactor length increased because of local-
ized denitrification, inhibitory conditions, washout of nitrifying populations,
and low ammonia concentrations. The oxygen demand for the filter system
ranged over 1.4-2.27 Ibs 02/lb BOD removed, similar to the demand of an oxygen
activated sludge system.
D547
CITY OF HAMILTON WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PLANT,
Steven, D. L.
Steven and Fitzmaurice,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
New Zealand Engineering, Vol. 33, No. 6, p 122-126, June, 1978. 2 fig, 2 ref.
The first stage in a three-stage project to develop a municipal waste water
treatment plant in Hamilton, New Zealand, involved the construction of primary
treatment and chlorination facilities to accommodate an average dry weather
flow of 45,500 cu m and installation of a 2,400 mm sub fluvial outfall into the
Waikato River. The second and third stage plans include the construction of
secondary treatment facilities to increase the treatment capacity to 57,000 cu
m and doubling the size of both primary and secondary facilities. Sewage
flows by gravity through a 1,650 mm reinforced-concrete pipeline to the plant
where it is passed through three bar screens each 1,800 mm wide. Screened
sewage passes through a standing wave hydraulic control flume and aerated con-
crete conduits to the grit removal and aeration tanks where it is subjected to
about 30 min of aeration at a rate of 0.4 cu m/min/meter tank length. Grit
and settled particles are transferred from the tank bottom to hoppers for sub-
sequent cyclone dewatering. Following preaeration, the waste water receives
primary settling for about 2.2 hrs in three reinforced-concrete tanks equipped
with sludge removal pumps and air jets for removal of surface grease, fat, and
scum. Sodium hypochlorite is produced on-site by electrolysis of a brine
solution; the waste water is chlorinated in the subfluvial outfall which also
acts as a contact basin. The facility also contains two reinforced-concrete
sludge digesters and a foul air reclamation system.
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D548
TERTIARY TREATMENT OF EFFLUENTS BY FILTRATION,
Schmidt-Holthausen, H. J.
Schumacher"sche Fabrik,
Bietigheim, West Germany.
Filtration and Separation, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 350, 352, 367, July-August, 1978.
1 fig, 1 tab.
Separating layer filtration, sand filtration, and multi-layer filtration are
evaluated as tertiary treatment methods for municipal waste water. Separating
layer filtration, utilizing porous media, requires precoating of the filter
layer with diatotnite or per lite to prevent waste accumulation and filter
clogging. Precoating of the filter medium can increase the surface filtration
area within a small space, reduce backwash water and compressed air require-
ments for filter cleaning because of a fairly dry solid residue, and provide a
chemical reagent for additional treatment of resistant materials. Incorporat-
ing waterproof membranes between the filter layers enhances solids removal.
During tertiary treatment, sand filtration requires two or more layers for
adequate sludge retention. Tests have indicated that high performance with
low resistance and maximum solids deposition can be achieved with a filter
containing equal volumes of 1.5-2.5 mm hydro-anthracite and 0.7-1.2 mm quartz
sand. A new highly porous media, Hydro-Multifilt, can be arranged in 400-600
mm layer thicknesses without upper layer stratification of fine particles.
The round granules have a bulk density of about 640 kg/cu m and an apparent
density of approximately 1.03 g/ml. Upflow rather than downflow filtration
through a multi-layer filter is not considered as efficient because of the re-
duced filtration speed and potential breakthrough.
D549
AERATED-PILE COMPOSTING: A PROMISING NEW ALTERNATIVE FOR DISPOSING OF SEWAGE
SLUDGE,
Dallaire, G.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 48, No. 9, p 110-117, September, 1978. 3 fig, 3
tab, 10 ref.
The United States Department of Agriculture's research center in Beltsville,
Maryland, has developed an aerated-pile composting technique for digesting raw
sewage sludge. The raw sludge is initially dewatered to about 22% solids with
a centrifuge, belt filter press, or vacuum filter; the solids content is
further increased by mixing the sludge with woodchips. The mixture is then
applied to a bed of woodchips which cover a suction aeration system. The com-
post pile is covered with a 1-ft insulating blanket of woodchips or compost.
The aeration system draws air, heat, and moisture down through the compost
pile to the suction pipe system. Within the first 3-5 days of composting, in-
ternal temperatures reach 80 C, sufficient for destroying most pathogens.
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After 21 days of composting, the material is spread in thin layers or in wind-
rows for drying. The compost may also be piled, unaerated, for 30 days of
curing if inclement weather conditions exist. If the compost is dried, the
material is then screened to remove the woodchips and cured for 30 days; if
the compost \s initially cured, the material is then dried and screened. The
use of aerated extended piles, in which piles are placed adjacent to one an-
other and covered with a continuous layer of insulation, can reduce expendi-
tures for land and woodchips. High heavy metal concentrations, especially
cadmium, in the compost may render the material unsuitable for agricultural
fertilizer. A composting system treating 10 dry tons sludge/day has an esti-
mated capital cost of $376,200 and an annual operating cost of about $185,800.
D550
AIR-POLLUTING EFFECT OF ACTIVATED-SLUDGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
(Eleveniszapos szennyviztisztitok levegoszennyezo hatasa),
Szabo, M., Csatai, L., and Nemedi, L.
Budapesti Kozegeszsegugy, Vol. 65, No. 2, p 49-51, 1978. 5 tab, 14 ref.
The emission of airborne microorganisms was measured at two activated sludge
waste water treatment plants in Budapest, Hungary. Aerosol samples were taken
by the sedimentation method at several distances from the plants. The number
of bacteria growing in cultures at 20 C was found to be 5,000,000/ml; at 37 C,
the bacteria count was 2,000,000/ml. Occurrences of specific bacteria identi-
fied included: a Clostridium count of 3,000/40 ml, fecal coliform of
3,000,000/100 ml, fecal Streptococcus of 1,000,000/100 ml, and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa of 30,000/100 ml. Tests for Salmonella were positive for 70-100%
of the 100 ml samples. The maximum distance from the treatment plants at
which microorganisms were found increased with increasing wind speed. At a
wind velocity of 7 m/sec, E. coli was detected at distances of up to 20 m,
Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella at up to 5 m, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
at up to 10 m from the treatment plant. The results of the study implied that
the air space above biological waste water treatment plants may be a potential
source of bacterial infection.
435
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D551
THE USE OF COAGULANTS IN PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION OF SEWAGE,
Al-Momen, F. H., and Willis, H.
Wales University Institute of Science and Technology,
Cardiff,
Department of Civil Engineering and Building Technology.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 6, No. 3, p 179-181, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab, 10 ref.
Coagulation of primary domestic sewage with ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate,
and aluminum chloride was evaluated in jar and laboratory settling column
tests with respect to effluent suspended solids, BOD, and sludge filterability.
Coagulant doses of 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/liter were applied to effluent
samples containing mean suspended solids concentrations of 165, 215, 256, and
362 mg/liter. An effective dose of 100-150 mg/liter ferric chloride reduced
suspended solids by 80-90% and BOD by an average of 80%; this dosage also in-
creased the capillary suction time of the sludge by a factor of 5.22 and pro-
duced a sludge with a moisture content of 99.34%. Aluminum sulfate, in an
optimum dose range of 200-250 mg/liter, reduced suspended solids by 60-80% and
BOD by 75%; it also increased sludge capillary suction time by a factor of
3.85, and produced a sludge with 99.25% moisture content. An effective dose
of 100-150 mg/liter aluminum chloride resulted in an 85-90% decrease in sus-
pended solids and an 80% decrease in BOD; it also increased capillary suction
time by a factor of 4.19 and produced sludge with a moisture content of 99.30%.
Sludge volumes more than doubled with all coagulants tested; effluent pH aver-
aged between 7.20 and 7.50. Ferric chloride was considered the most effective
coagulant of those evaluated.
D552
GRANULAR MEDIA FILTRATION OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT,
Dawda, M. M., Davidson, M. L., and Middlebrooks, E. J.
Central Weber Sewer Improvement District,
Ogden, Utah.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 9, p 2143-2156, Sep-
tember, 1978. 7 fig, 10 tab, 10 ref.
A dual-media tertiary filter was tested in pilot studies at the Central Weber
waste water treatment plant near Ogden, Utah, as a method of polishing second-
ary effluent to within BOD and suspended solids standards. The SVG filter,
supplied by Envirotech Corp., consisted of a 4-ft diameter tank containing a
filter compartment with one ft of anthracite coal at an effective size of
1.00-1.10 mm, overlying a one ft layer of sand with a 0.45 mm effective size;
the coal and sand had a uniformity coefficient of 1.7. Hydraulic loadings of
3, 4, 5, and 6 gal/min/sq ft with automatic filter backwashing were employed.
One filter cycle, 16-, 18-, 20-, and 24-hr composite samples were analyzed for
436
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BOD, suspended solids, nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, and total and orthophos-
phates. During summer months, chlorine had to be added to the influent to
maintain a chlorine residual adequate for inhibiting the growth of Sphaerotilus
which clogged the filter media. At a hydraulic loading of 3 gal/min/sq ft,
filtered effluent containing less than 10 mg/liter BOD and suspended solids
was produced; although this loading was considered optimum for effluent
quality, a loading of 5 gal/min/sq ft was considered more economical.
Smaller, more uniform media enhanced effluent quality and influenced the fil-
ter cycle duration. Chemical filtration aids, such as aluminum sulfate and
cationic polymers with alum, significantly reduced the filter cycles; jar
tests of coagulation aids were recommended before implementation.
D553
ULTRAFILTRATION MEETS DISCHARGE REGULATIONS AND REDUCES WASTE PUMP-OUT,
Harris, L. R., Schatzberg, P., Bhattacharyya, D., and Jackson, D. F.
David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center,
Annapolis, Maryland.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 8, p 66-71, August, 1978. 6 fig, 7 tab,
7 ref.
Ultrafiltration membrane treatment of domestic sewage from marine vessels was
evaluated as a method for treatment to within the stricter discharge standards
of 150 mg/liter suspended solids and 200 coliforms/100 ml. An ultrafiltration
module containing seven 1-inch diameter noncellulosic tubular membranes, ar-
ranged in parallel, was used to treat several combinations of wastes including
raw sewage and wastes from the galley, laundry, and shower areas. The module
was operated in a semi-continuous mode at a pressure of 40 Ib/sq inch and a
circulation rate of 30 gal/min; a batch concentration pump-down mode was also
tested with six modules in series, operated at the same circulation rates and
pressure. At a feed temperature of 80 F, raw sewage exhibited the lowest flux
decline slope while galley wastes displayed the highest; higher initial fluxes
resulted in higher final fluxes after processing mixed wastes. The pump-down
phase utilizing new membranes recovered 90% of the water after 15 hrs of pro-
cessing, achieving a membrane flux of 60 gal/sq ft/day. When the feed tem-
perature was increased to 130 F, the average flux increased, decreasing the
flux decline slope; an average flux of 58 gal/sq ft/day was obtained at a feed
temperature of 100 F. Membrane performance for the various waste parameters
encompassed 61.5-91.0% removal of COD, 89.5-99.3% rejection of suspended
solids, and more than 99% reduction of fecal coliforms. The use of a 200
mg/liter hypochlorite solution to wash the membrane restored flux reasonably
well and was considered more convenient than an enzyme-detergent wash. Total
operating costs for a prototype ultrafiltration system were calculated at
$2.99/1000 gal.
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D554
RAW SEWAGE TREATMENT AT DEER CREEK PARK,
Brar, S. S., and Miller, R. H.
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center,
Department of Agronomy,
Wooster.
Ohio Report, Vol. 63, No. 4, p 57-59, July-August, 1978. 2 fig, 3 tab.
An oxidation lagoon-land application pilot plant was constructed at the Deer
Creek State Park in Pickaway County, Ohio, to treat raw sewage from 232 camp-
sites. Sewage was pumped to the stabilization pond for treatment, followed by
chlorination in a storage tank, and spray irrigation onto 3-acre plots of reed
canarygrass, soybeans, alfalfa, and tree seedlings. Samples were collected
from the raw sewage, stabilization pond effluent, storage tank waste water,
surface runoff, drainage water, and test wells in and near the land applica-
tion sites. The stabilization pond reduced BOD by 85% and fecal coliforms by
99.9%; carbonate formation and increased pH, resulting from carbon dioxide up-
take by blue-green algae in the pond, caused the precipitation of calcium and
magnesium and decreased water hardness. Total phosphorus was reduced to 0.4
mg/liter and total nitrogen to 4.6 mg/liter in stabilization pond effluent;
further decreases in nutrient levels were observed in holding tank effluent
and drainage water samples. Although effective treatment was obtained with
the pilot system, it was noted that low usage of the camp sites during the
study period resulted in atypical raw sewage characteristics.
D555
LAND DISPOSAL OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND WATER-RELATED PROBLEMS,
Epstein, E., and Chaney, R. L.
Energy Resources Company, Incorporated,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 8, p 2037-2042,
August, 1978. 2 tab, 28 ref.
The physical and chemical reactions occurring in soils and plants when sludge
is applied to land are reviewed. Certain heavy metals become divalent cations
in acidic soils; in alkaline or neutral soils, hydroxyl ions are often formed.
Soil acidity usually increases the solubility of trace elements and heavy
metals, thereby increasing the uptake of these substances by plants. Organic
matter may act as a chelating agent when contacted with metal ions in the soil;
higher soil cation exchange capacities reduce heavy and toxic metal chelation.
Reversion of toxic metals to unavailable chemical forms is controlled by soil
pH, phosphate, and organic material contents; soil moisture, temperature, and
aeration also control the availability of metals in the soil. Accumulations
of heavy metals in plants from the application of sewage sludge, fertilizers,
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or pesticides can result in phytotoxic effects. Significant amounts of organic
chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, and pesticides, have been found
in raw sludge from Michigan and the District of Columbia. Human pathogens
have been shown to survive in soils and on plants from less than one day to
nearly 7 years; risks associated with these pathogens are significantly re-
duced when digested or composted sludges are applied to land.
D556
OZONATION IN A WASTEWATER REUSE SYSTEM: EXAMINATION OF PRODUCTS FORMED,
Elia, V. J., Clark, C. S., McGinnis, K. T., Cody, T. E., and Kinman, R. N.
Cincinnati University,
Ohio,
Department of Environmental Health, College of Medicine.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1727-1732, July,
1978. 5 fig, 1 tab, 17 ref.
The Kettering Laboratory of the University of Cincinnati in Ohio initiated ex-
periments to examine the characteristics of water treated by a direct reuse
system. The system was designed to treat raw wastes from five sources within
a mobile surgical hospital, using ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and ozona-
tion. A synthetic reverse osmosis permeate having a strength equivalent to 8
times that expected in a conventional hospital waste stream was contacted in a
plexiglass chamber with 50 mg/liter ozone; a gas flow rate of 6.2 liters/min,
feedwater flow rates of 18.9-56.7 liters/hr, and ozonation times of 18-193 min
were employed. After 193 min of ozonation, total organic carbon (TOC) and COD
were reduced by 28 and 31%, respectively; ozonation produced acetone, acetal-
dehyde, and acetic acid. Concentrations of methanol, ethanol, and Isopropanol
were reduced by 70, 95, and 99%, respectively, during the first 60 min of
ozonation. Additional studies examined the cytotoxicity of the ozonated sam-
ples using a mammalian cell culture bioassay system. Measured TOC values were
significantly higher than calculated values, suggesting that all the oxidation
products had not been identified. Further studies on the effects of oxidation
products in a closed-cycle direct water reuse system were recommended.
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ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
E001
CHLORINATED WASTEWATER OUTFIT IS PORTABLE,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 8, p 28, August, 1977.
The LaMotte Chemical Products Company of Chestertown, Maryland, produces a
combination monitoring unit (Model MH-3) for chlorine, dissolved oxygen, and
pH. For use with chlorinated waste water discharges, the unit includes a
waterproof carrying case, solid state electrical components, and a combination
electrode. It is a lightweight field instrument which uses a DPD-FAS titra-
tion procedure to determine free and combined chloride over a 0.1-5.0 ppm
range. Dissolved oxygen in the 0-20 ppm range is determined with a micro-
burette procedure in an Azide modification of the Winkler method. A battery-
operated LaMotte pH meter is provided to measure pH from 0 to 14 within 0.1 pH
units.
E002
PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATION OF THE MANNING MODEL S-4000 PORTABLE WASTEWATER
SAMPLER AND THE MODEL F-3000 DIPPER FLOWMETER,
Lauch, P. R.
Instrumentation Development Branch,
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
1976. 62 p, 13 fig, 23 tab, 4 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA-600/4-76-
059.
The objective of this study was to examine the operation and performance of
two automatic monitors used in waste water treatment plants, the Manning
model S-4000 waste water sampler and the Manning model F-3000 flowmeter.
Descriptions of the two monitoring devices are presented. The sampler was
tested in a laboratory environmental chamber at temperatures of 2, 20 and 35
C. Accuracy and precision, multiplexer runs, multiple bottle sampling, bat-
tery endurance, sample preservation with ice, sample representativeness, and
reliability were evaluated. Tracking, analog to digital conversion, elec-
tronic drift, deadband, and overall accuracy and precision were evaluated in
laboratory tests of the flowmeter. Results of laboratory studies indicated
that the overall design and performance of the devices tested were above aver-
age when compared with similar equipment available for use in waste water
treatment plants. Deadband or backlash in the gearing which produced an error
of from 11.63% to 6.14% was considered the most serious shortcoming of the
flowmeter. In field tests with treatment plant influent and effluent, the
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sampler reliably collected suspended solids and raw sewage while left un-
attended for a 24-hr period.
E003
POLLUTION STUDIES OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN SEDIMENTS FROM THE UPPER SARONIKOS
GULF, GREECE,
Grimanis, A. P., Vassilaki-Grimani, M., and Griggs, G. B.
Nuclear Research Center "Demokritos",
Athens, Greece,
Department of Chemistry.
Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 37, No. 2, p 761-773, 1977. 8 fig,
1 tab, 20 ref.
Instrumentation neutron activation analysis was used to analyze 84 sediment
samples collected from Elefsis, Keratsini, and Piraeus Bays of the upper
Saronikos Gulf in Greece. Concentrations of 17 elements were measured: As,
Ce, Co, Cr, Eu, Fe, Hg, Hf, La, Lu, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sm, Yb, and Z. Isopleths for
the concentrations of these elements in the upper Saronikos Gulf were extra-
polated from experimental data. Lower and upper limit values of trace element
concentrations in sediments are presented. Sediments collected in the
vicinity of the Athens sewage outfall exhibited the highest concentrations of
Cr, while all the other elements occurred at their greatest concentrations in
the Piraeus Harbor region. In general, trace element concentrations were
lower for Elefsis Bay than for Keratsini Bay. Industrial plants at the entr-
ance of Piraeus Harbor, the Athens sewage outfall, and industries in the
northern and eastern regions of Elefsis Bay were suggested as the major
sources for the increased trace element concentrations in upper Saronikos Gulf
sediments.
E004
SEWAGE SLUDGE-SOIL SYSTEMS: A STUDY OF METAL FORMS AND EFFECT OF METALS ON
CARBON AND NITROGEN TRANSFORMATIONS,
Silviera, D. J.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 451, August, 1977.
The fate and distribution of heavy metals, including Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Ni,
were investigated for sewage sludge and soils amended with sewage sludge.
X-ray diffraction analyses of sludge from six Indiana cities revealed that
quartz, feldspar, montmorillonite, chlorite, mica, dolomite, and calcite were
present in crystalline form. DTPA (diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid)
extractibility was used in studies on the effect of soil, sludge, and environ-
mental factors on the distribution of sludge-borne heavy metals. Metal move-
ment through soils was reduced during frequent applications of small amounts
of sludge relative to larger, more infrequent applications and was observed to
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be at its lowest level when sludge was applied at a rate of 22.4 metric tons/
ha. The extraction of metals with DTPA was reduced under anaerobic condi-
tions. In studies with synthetic sludge, the DTPA extractabilities of Cu,
Zn, Pb, and Ni were altered by the presence of sludge organic matter while Cd
was unaffected. In studies on the interaction of Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Ni with
C and N transformations, high heavy metal concentrations were reported to re-
duce nitrification by as much as 50%. The reasonable agreement of data ob-
tained in studies with municipal and synthetic sludges has led to the sugges-
tion that synthetic sludges be used in studies on soils-microbes-metals rela-
tionships.
E005
THE DETERMINATION OF TRACE ACRYLAMIDE IN WATER AND SLUDGE (Mizu oyobi surajji
naka no biryo akuriruamido no teiryo ho),
Nakamura, H.
Suido Kyokai Zasshi, No. 514, p 37-41, July, 1977. 5 fig, 2 tab, 11 ref.
Trace acrylamide concentrations in municipal water, artificial seawater, and
sewage sludge were measured with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer
equipped with an electron capture detector. The sample containing acrylamide
was brominated with the addition of a large amount of KBr and 0.1% M KBr03.
The gas chromatograph column was filled with 15% EGS and the Florisil clean-up
method was used in the determinations. With this method the detection range
for acrylamide was 0.1-1,000 ng/liter. With the use of the standard addition
method in the analysis of municipal water, artificial seawater, and sludge,
acrylamide was determined within 86-93% with a relative standard deviation of
less than 2%.
E006
OPTIMAL USE OF INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON AND PHOTON ACTIVATION ANALYSES FOR MULTI-
ELEMENT DETERMINATIONS IN SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Chattopadhyay, A.
Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada,
Trace Analysis Research Center,
Department of Chemistry.
Journal, of Radioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 37, No. 2, p 785-799, 1977.
4 tab, 28 ref.
A procedure involving a combination of instrumental neutron activation analy-
sis (INAA) and photon activation analysis (IPAA) for multielement determina-
tions in a variety of sludges and fertilizers is described. The method was
devised in experiments with raw and anaerobically-digested, chemically-condi-
442
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tioned sludges, agricultural lime, N-P-K fertilizers, ammonium nitrate, muri-
ate of potash, Milorganite, cattle manure, and sewage-based fertilizers. De-
tails of the neutron and photon irradiation of the samples are presented. Ex-
periments on the INAA method indicated that a total of 50 elements could be
measured in sludge samples with 15 min and 60 hr irradiation times. Irradia-
tion periods of 2 min and 6 hr allowed measurements of 36 elements with the
IPAA method. Nuclear data for the elements detected with the methods are pre-
sented, including activation reactions, product half-lives, gamma-ray energy,
and decay times. Replicate analyses of a homogenized chemical sludge sample
were used to evaluate the reproducibility and accuracy of both methods. The
analyses indicated that the standard deviations of most of the elements ex-
amined were 5-10% of the mean value. The choice of the analytical method
should be based on the irradiation facilities available.
E007
BIODEGRADATION OF POLYMERIC BUILDERS—EXPERIMENTS WITH A C-14 LABELLED SODIUM
POLY( ALPHA-HYDROXYACRYLATE ),
Mulders, J., and Gilain, J.
Laboratoire Central Solvay and Cie, S. A.,
Brussels, Belgium.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 7, p 571-574, 1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 5 ref.
Eutrophication of surface waters brought about by the use of phosphate-bearing
detergents has prefaced this investigation of the biodegradation of polymeric
polyelectrolytes, in particular sodium poly(alpha-hydroxyacrylate). Oxygen
consumption and mineralization were measured in laboratory experiments. Re-
moval of a C-14 labelled product was investigated in continuous activated
sludge tests. Studies indicated that the sludge was capable of rapidly and
quantitatively adsorbing the polymer and that microorganisms did not have to
adapt to the product. A co-metabolism mechanism of removal is suggested by
the high degree of transformation and low mineralization. Tests with accli-
mated sludge resulted in a higher rate of polymer assimilation and a low rate
of mineralization. More than 95% of the polymer was biodegraded.
443
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E008
EXPERIENCES WITH THE ALGAL ASSAY PROCEDURE (Erfahrungen tnit der Algal Assay
Procedure),
Hartz, P.
Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft,
P f1anz ens chu tz f ors chung-Biolog ie,
Frankfurt, West Germany.
Gas- und Wasserfach, Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 118, No. 8, p 272-278, 1977. 6
fig, 7 tab, 6 ref.
The Algal Assay Procedure was studied with respect to its suitability for the
assessment of the eutrophication of biologically purified waste water and of
surface water bodies. Bottle tests with purified waste water from the last
biological stage revealed that precipitation with aluminum sulfate causes a
considerable reduction of the algal growth compared with that observed before
precipitation. Tests with Rhine water showed that iron (II) sulfate is un-
suitable for the precipitation of phosphates, if the phosphate sludge can not
be removed within a short time, because the phosphate may be remobilized.
Moreover, considerable growth stimulation of Anabaena flos-aquae was observed
in surface water treated with iron (II) sulfate, which can be explained by the
specific stimulating effect of iron. By contrast, the algal growth was signi-
ficantly depressed in water treated with aluminum sulfate.
E009
COMPARISON OF FOUR-HOUR AND TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR REFRIGERATED STORAGE OF NONPOT-
ABLE WATER FOR FECAL COLIFORM ANALYSIS,
Standridge, J. H., and Lesar, D. J.
Wisconsin University,
Madison,
Department of Natural Resources.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 4, p 398-402, October,
1977. 1 tab, 14 ref.
Fecal coliform levels observed in water samples stored for 4 hr at 4 C were
compared with those observed in the samples after 24 hr of storage. Samples
for analysis were obtained from secondary sewage treatment plants receiving
only domestic wastes, from plants receiving a combination of municipal and in-
dustrial wastes, and from rivers and streams receiving a mixture of municipal
and agricultural wastes. The membrane filter technique was used in the 30 re-
plicate analyses of each sample at 4- and 24- hr periods. The 5-day bio-
chemical oxygen demand in mg/liter was measured for each sample. A statisti-
cal comparison of the analyses conducted for 4- and 24-hr storage periods in-
dicated that fecal coliform levels obtained were equivalent within the 95%
confidence interval for all but three sampling sites. Two of three sites were
444
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reported as grossly overloaded sewage plants producing a poor final effluent,
and the third was one in which vacuum filtration was used after final clarifi-
cation. The test results suggested that storage of samples for 24-hr could
result in reliable analyses with economic and qualitative advantages over
storage for 4 hr.
E010
ANALYSIS FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN WASTE WATER FOR BIOLOGICAL PURIFICA-
TION PURPOSES (Pruefung von Abwasserinhaltsstoffen auf Giftwirkung fuer die
biologische Klaerstufe),
Schefer, W.
Vorsteher der Abt. Chemie,
Eidg. Materialpruefungs-und Versuchsanstalt (EMPA),
St. Gallen, Switzerland.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 7, p 520-523, 1977. 4 fig, 1 tab, 7 ref.
A simple method for testing inorganic and organic substances for their
toxicity with respect to the activated sludge of biological waste water treat-
ment plants is described. The substance to be tested is added in various con-
centrations ranging from 5 to 1,000 mg/liter to activated sludge taken from
biological waste water treatment plants, and the resulting reduction in the
oxygen consumption is determined by a known (barometric, coulometric, etc.)
method. Substances which reduce the oxygen consumption to 50% in concentra-
tions over 500 mg/liter are considered as non-toxic or of low toxicity, while
substances with LC50 under 100 mg/liter are highly toxic to the activated
sludge.
E011
I. DYNAMICS OF MERCURY IN LAKE SEDIMENTS, II. STUDIES ON ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS IN
SOILS IRRIGATED WITH MUNICIPAL WASTEWATERS,
Floyd, M.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 446-447, August,
1977.
The synthesis and degradation of alkylmercury compounds in sediments, the ef-
fects of municipal waste water irrigation on the levels of phosphotase in
soils, and the stability of organic phosphorus compounds in humic polymers
were examined in laboratory experiments. Studies indicated that mercury was
not significantly transformed in sediments, and that microbial activity was
necessary for the degradation of alkylmercury compounds in natural sediments.
Studies with waste water irrigated soils revealed that phosphotase activity
was dependent on the crop grown and based on the following relationship: reed
445
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canary grass > hardwood forest on clay loam > old field > hardwood
forest on sandy loam > corn.
E012
A SEMICONTINUOUS EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF MIX-
ING CONDITIONS ON THE HOMOGENEITY OF SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Taralli, G., Eduardo, M. D., Honorio, E. D., and Filgueira, M. B.
Companhia Estadual de Technologia de Sameamento
Basico e de Defesa do Meio Ambiente (CETESB),
Superintendencia de Pesquisa,
Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 19, No. 7, p 1087-1090, July, 1977.
2 fig, 2 ref.
A semicontinuous experimental technique for defining correlations between mix-
ing and sludge homogeneity with anaerobic digestion is presented. Small vol-
umes of sludge are periodically removed from the digester and the same volume
of water is added. A series of equations relating the amount of sludge re-
moved, the effective dilution, and the sludge concentration are presented.
The system can be considered homogeneous if the final sludge concentration
follows a prescribed function. Possible experimental errors are indicated
when the volume of sludge periodically removed from the digester is large with
respect to the total volume of sludge in the digester. However, the dilution
factor and the time interval between sample removal must be sufficiently large
for proper equilibration of the system. An example of the semicontinuous
technique in an experiment with sewage sludge from a primary settling tank at
the Pinheiros sewage treatment plant in Sao Paulo, Brazil, is presented.
E013
SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL HYDROGEN PEROXIDE,
Massachelein, W., Denis, M., and Ledent, R.
Brussels Intercommunal Water Company,
Brussels, Belgium.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 8, p 69-72, August, 1977. 2 fig, 34 ref.
Hydrogen peroxide (H202) a strong oxidizing agent, decomposes by reactions in
water and leaves residual oxygen. Applications of hydrogen peroxide in waste
water treatment include oxidation of sulfhydric acid and mercaptans, indirect
oxidation of phenols, aeration, disinfection in reservoirs, and elimination of
taste or odor caused by chlorine or chloramines in drinking water. Various
analytical methods for determining residual H202 concentrations are de-
scribed. Existing methods include colorimetric determination with
446
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titanium(lV) salt (chloride or sulfate), with phenolphthalein in the presence
of Cu(+2), or with oxygen-sensitive electrodes which have been adapted for use
with H202 by incorporating a suitable catalyst (Mh02, Co203, or Ru203) in the
electrode membranes. The cobalt-bicarbonate-H202 method for determination of
H202 is described. Standard solutions containing H202 are titrated with am-
monium molybdate and neutral potassium iodide. Sodium hexametaphosphate,
Co(+2), and a saturated sodium bicarbonate solution are added to samples, pro-
ducing an intense bicarbonate green color which is probably caused by the pre-
sence of a CO(+3) carbonate complex. Absorption is measured with a spectro-
photometer at 260 nm. The reported detection limit is about 0.01 mg/liter
H202 with possible interference caused by turbidity or suspended particles. A
graph for optical density (absorption) as a function of H202 concentration is
provided.
E014
EVALUATION OF A NITRATE-SPECIFIC ION ELECTRODE,
Yu, K. Y., and Berthouex, P. M.
Southern California University,
Los Angeles,
Environmental Engineering Programs.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 8, p 1869-1901,
August, 1977. 1 fig, 9 tab, 7 ref.
The Simple Electrode and the Standard-Addition Electrode methods are used to
evaluate nitrate determinations with a nitrate-specific ion electrode and the
Brucine method using effluent samples from biological treatment units. The
nitrate electrode measures nitrate activity in terms of potential across a
layer of water-immiscible ion exchanger held in place by an inert porous mem-
brane. Electrode behavior follows a Nernst relation within the working
range. Ionic interference is usually counteracted by the addition of a buffer
to maintain constant ionic strength. The Standard-Addition or Known-Increment
method involves the addition of a known amount of nitrate to a solution con-
taining an unknown amount. The quantity of nitrate present in the initial
solution is determined by measuring the change in potential produced by the
additional nitrate. Grab samples of waste water effluent with nitrate concen-
trations ranging from 2-20 mg/liter were collected from nitrification pilot
plants. Higher readings obtained with the Simple Electrode method than with
Standard-Addition were attributed to greater influence of high hardness and
alkalinity in the waste water on simple electrode determinations. Standard
errors for nitrate determinations with the Brucine method were higher than for
either electrode method, and procedures were more time-consuming, requiring
reagent preparation. The specific-nitrate ion electrode is recommended as a
relatively inexpensive, fast, portable means of nitrate determination in waste
water for concentrations as low as 1 mg/liter nitrate-N.
447
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E015
CHEMICAL REGENERATION OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON,
Paccari, M., Paolini, A. E., and Variali, G.
Rome University,
Italy,
Physical Chemistry Institute.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 6, p 290-294, June, 1977.
4 fig, 4 tab, 20 ref.
Regeneration of the adsorption capacities of granular activated carbon which
had been exhausted by peptone was investigated. Peptone solutions with vari-
ous COD levels were percolated through beds of activated carbon. Tests were
carried out at 20 C and 30 C. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms relating the
COD of the solution and the weight of adsorbate and adsorbent with equilibrium
conditions were calculated. Batch and continuous testing procedures were out-
lined. Thermodynamic analysis and adsorption isotherms indicated that the re-
lationship between adsorbate and adsorbent followed the van't Hoff-Arrhenius
equation with a change in enthalpy of -6.36 kcal/mole. An examination of ad-
sorption kinetics revealed that the rate-limiting step was intraparticle dif-
fusion. Regenerating capacities were measured for various oxidizing and non-
oxidizing agents. In batch tests, oxidants did not have appreciable chemical
regenerating abilities, while non-oxidizing agents exhibited regenerative ef-
ficiencies of not more than 50%. The extractive capacities of non-oxidizing
agents were improved by alkaline pretreatment at 80 C, with alkaline pretreat-
ment itself having an extractive efficiency of 50%. Continuous studies with
several regenerative cycles showed a decrease in regenerative efficiency after
the first two cycles.
E016
BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE INTERACTION OF BDELLOVIBRIO AND
ENTEROBACTERIACAE,
Westergaard, J. M.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 525, August, 1977.
The occurrence of Bdellovibrio and its possible hosts (Enterobacteriaceae,
Pseudomonadaceae, Vibrionaceae, Neisseriaceae, Chromobacterium, Streptococcus,
Rhodotorula, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella pullorum)
was investigated with water samples collected from wells, ponds, streams,
waste water oxidation lagoon systems, and municipal waste water treatment
plants. Although Bdellovibrio was most easily isolated from municipal waste
water, studies indicated that Bdellovibrio was not incorporated into the in-
testinal microfloral population of animals and was not considered a threat to
poikilothermal and homeothermal animals. The simultaneous 3-log reduction in
Bdellovibrio and the host E. coli when a waste water innoculated mixture was
448
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incubated for 72 hr suggested that biological purification of waste water by
Bdellobivrio was minor.
E017
OBSERVATIONS ON PRE-ENRICHMENT FOR ISOLATING SALMONELLAS FROM SEWAGE POLLUTED
NATURAL WATER USING MULLER-KAUFFMANN TETRATHIONATE BROTH PREPARED WITH FRESH
AND DESSICATED OX BILE,
Harvey, R. W. S., and Price, T. H.
Wales University,
Cardiff,
Public Health Laboratory Service.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Vol. 43, No. 1, p 145-148, August, 1977. 2
tab, 13 ref.
Dessicated ox bile was evaluated as a substitute for fresh bile in the pre-
paration of Muller-Kauffraann Tetrathionate Broth for the isolation of sal-
monellas from sewage-polluted waters. Salmonellas in water samples collected
from the Taff River in Wales were isolated in media which had been prepared
with fresh bile, dessicated bile, or a combination of the two. The media had
also been directly enriched or had undergone pre-enrichment followed by en-
richment. Studies on enriched samples indicated that fresh bile was more ef-
ficient for isolating salmonella than dessicated bile. With pre-enrichment,
both forms were equally satisfactory.
E018
COMPUTERS AND INSTRUMENTATION—PARTNERS IN TREATMENT PLANT OPERATION,
Zucchetti, R.
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 8, p 9-11J August, 1977. 1 fig.
The use of computers and instrumentation systems is considered for providing
automatic control and operation monitoring in municipal water and waste water
treatment. Topics discussed include the importance of primary sensing ele-
ments, data logging, digital control centers, microprocessors, and trouble-
shooting. A typical wiring diagram for a microprocessor which can be used to
monitor filters, headless, turbidity, and flow rate is presented. Criteria
which may be useful in the evaluation of a computerized monitoring system for
plant operation are presented.
449
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E019
A MORE PRECISE METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE TO FILTRATION,
Wuhrmann, K. A.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p
377-378, 1977. 2 fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
The method of determination of specific resistance to filtration of substances
such as sewage sludge was refined with the design of an automatic device for
filtrate sampling. The resistance to filtration is normally expressed as a
function of the flow gradient of the filtrate calculated on the basis of the
filtrate volume as a function of time, the filtering pressure, the active
filtering area, the dry residue, and the dynamic viscosity of the liquid. The
automatic resistance measuring device registers the time to obtain two pre-
determined volumes of filtrate from a standardized filtering apparatus. A
comparison of results obtained from eight series of five conventional and five
automatic measurements is presented.
E020
LEVEL INSTRUMENTATION IN EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 9, p 29-34, September, 1977. 6 fig.
Analytical instrumentation and flow monitoring devices available for use in
waste water treatment plants are discussed. General detection methods em-
ployed in flow measurement and control include sonic, ultrasonic, capacitance
probe, vibrating probe, windlass, nuclear, microwave, and radar. Sonic and
ultrasonic systems are used to provide non-contact level measurements based on
reflected pulses whose echos are received by an emitting transducer located
above the water surface. Sonic and ultrasonic systems such as the E + H
Aquatot system can be used at various points in a sewage plant, including the
in-flow points, between primary and secondary treatment facilities, and at
outflow points. They can also be used for automatic bar screen control, screw
pump control, and slide valve control in an activated sludge tank. Large-
scale application of sonic controllers to monitor groundwater levels and con-
trol pump start-up in Richmond, British Columbia, Canada, is described. The E
+ H Aquatot system has also been used for open channel measurement by the city
of Thompson in Manitoba, Canada. The change in electrical capacitance between
a probe and the wall of a tank is used to operate capacitance systems for
operation and automatic sequencing of a pumping system. The E + H tuning
fork, or Vibratrol instrument, contains a piezoelectric element which is used
for underwater detection. Additional applications of monitoring instruments
produced by Endress and Hauser of West Germany are discussed for mechanical
windlass instruments, nuclear and microwave measurement, gamma radiation,
microwave control, and other instrument types.
450
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E021
LAB MODERNIZATION CREATES NEW PROBLEMS FOR PLANT OPERATORS,
Clark, D. W.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 10, p 82-83, October, 1977.
The addition of a water quality laboratory to the 4.5-mgd waste water treat-
ment plant at Las Cruces, New Mexico, has included the installation of auto-
matic samplers, a spectrophotometer, a camera-equipped high power microscope,
Kjeldahl nitrogen apparatus, grease extraction apparatus, a continuous-reading
electrolytic BOD system, and a water purification system. The need for
trained personnel in the field of water quality monitoring is discussed.
Major divisions of water quality analysis for sewage treatment plants in-
clude: the identification of finished water contaminants, such as heavy
metals and pesticides, and their effects on the environment; evaluations of
new treatment processes; development of new testing procedures; surveillance
of pollutants unaffected by present treatment processes; protection of the
treatment process through upstream monitoring; and the determination of
charges for industrial waste effluents.
E022
MASS TRANSFER AND MIXING IN THE KENICS AERATION SYSTEM,
Chen, S. J., and Gilbert, R. G.
Kenics Corporation,
North Andover, Massachusetts.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 23-32, 1977. 11 fig, 3 tab, 11
ref.
The full-scale test facility used in the evaluation of the Kenics Aeration
System includes a 38.5-ft diam, 32-ft deep cylindrical steel tank, an aeration
system with 46 Kenics aerators, a 2000-scfm rotary positive, a distribution
piping system, air flow meters, a chemical feed system for deoxygenation, and
dissolved oxygen analyzers. Oxygen transfer efficiency is measured with the
clean water sodium sulfite method. Four methods of analysis used to evaluate
oxygen transfer efficiency are described: direct analysis, exponential curve
fitting, the rapid estimate (time constant) technique, and log deficit
(semilog). An equation for the standard oxygenation rate (SOR) is presented.
The analytical techniques were tested in three aeration tests under conditions
representing a typical completely-mixed activated sludge aeration system.
Methods for determining direct pumping capacity and mixing are described.
Field tests to determine the solids suspension characteristics of Kenics Aera-
tion Systems are described. An expression for oxygen transfer as a function
of SOR and the wire or line electric horsepower (LHP) is presented.
451
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E023
MASS TRANSFER IN LARGE SECONDARY TREATMENT AERATORS,
Uhl, V. W., Winter, R. L., and Heimark, E. L.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 33-41, 1977. 6 fig, 5 tab, 17 ref.
A 40-ft square basin filled to a depth of 20 ft with tap water was used in
studies to provide values for oxygen uptake rate and mass transfer coefficient
for large-scale aeration systems such as those used in secondary waste water
treatment. Procedures for power consumption tests and oxygen transfer mea-
surements are described. Tests with the aeration basin were run at mixer
drive output speeds of 30 and 56 RPM; with impellers of 66", 72", 75", and
122" diameters; and with blower gas rates from 280 to 1570 scfm. Regression
analyses of semi-log plots of the oxygen saturation deficit data acquired dur-
ing 18 tests were used to calculate mass transfer coefficients. Five correla-
tion schemes incorporating various configurations of gas turbine input, liquid
volume, impeller speed, superficial gas velocity, impeller shaft torque, and
impeller discharge rate were evaluated in terms of yielding a "best fit" for
the experimental data. An optimization procedure to maximize the amount of
oxygen transferred in Ib/hr per total horsepower is presented.
E024
INVESTIGATION OF MUTAGENIC EFFECTS OF PRODUCTS OF OZONATION REACTIONS IN WATER,
Cotruvo, J. A., Simmon, V. F., and Spanggord, R. J.
Office of Water Supply,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, District of Columbia.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 298, p 124-140, 1977. 5 ref.
Potential hazards posed by chlorinated organic chemicals in waste water and
drinking water after disinfection by chlorination have led to an evaluation of
potential biological activity of products of ozonation, an alternate means of
disinfection. Rapid in vitro microbiologic bioassays of 28 selected organic
compounds subjected to high levels of ozone, as well as similar analyses on
municipal secondary treated waste water which had been disinfected with vari-
ous agents, were used to evaluate mutagenic activity in Saccharomyces cere-
visiae D3, Salmonella, and a rat liver homogenate. Process conditions were
more severe than those in conventional ozone treatment. Only seven of the 28
organic compounds tested showed any mutagenic activity, and in those cases the
activity was not dose-related and usually resulted from prolonged ozone
exposure.
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E025
APPLICATION OF THE RAPID LYSINE DECARBOXYLASE TEST FOR EARLY ISOLATION AND
DETECTION OF SALMONELLAE IN SEWAGE AND OTHER WASTEWATERS,
Phirke, P. M.
Bacteriology Cell, Life Sciences Division,
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nehru Marg, Nagpur, India.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 4, p 453-455, October,
1977. 1 tab, 18 ref.
The lysine decarboxylase (LD) test has been among several test schemes advo-
cated for identification of Enterobacteriaceae and has been used in conjunc-
tion with hydrogen sulfide production to verify the presence of Salmonellae.
The application of the rapid lysine decarboxylase test for isolation and
detection of Salmonellae was evaluated in experiments with 39 waste water sam-
ples, including raw sewage, settled sewage, treated effluent from facilities
at the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute in India, and raw
and filtered slaughterhouse wastes. The test involved inoculation of samples
into Kaufftnan tetrathionate broth, incubation at 41.5 C for 24 or 48 hr,
streaking of the enriched culture on BGA plates, and incubation of the BGA
plates for 18 hr at 37 C. Colonies exhibiting a pink or magenta hue were then
inoculated into tubes which contained lysine broth, and sterile 0.5% plain
agar was added. The tubes were incubated in a dry-air, water-jacketed unit
at 37 C and read at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-hr intervals. The development of a
green or blue color was considered as a positive indication of LD activity.
Tests with the LD method which revealed Salmonellae presence in 129 of 205
colonies were verified with the modified Kohn method and with slide agglutina-
tion tests of 6-hr growth obtained on nutrient agar slopes. The LD test was
capable of identifying and isolating Salmonellae within 2-3 days, as compared
to 5-7 days with conventional methods.
E026
COMPUTER CONTROL OF LARGE-SCALE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT,
Kato, S., Nagasaki, R., Ohto, T., Nogita, S., and Tanuma, M.
Bureau of Sewage Works,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government,
Tokyo, Japan.
Hitachi Review, Vol. 26, No. 7, p 229-234, 1977. 10 fig, 6 ref.
Results of experiments with analog and digital DO/air control systems con-
ducted at the Mikawashima activated sludge treatment plant in Tokyo, Japan,
are presented. The analog control system includes a controller with propor-
tional and integral functions, a valve-opening control element, and a power-
actuated butterfly valve. Studies on DO control with the analog system for
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four parallel aeration tanks resulted in DO values within 0.3 mg/liter of the
desired value of 2 mg/liter. Lower control precision at 4 mg/liter DO was at-
tributed to nonlinear characteristics of the butterfly valve. Functions of
the MINIDIC direct digital control system used in the study include filtering
of input data, feed-forward control based on a flow meter, feedback compensa-
tion of valve opening angle, feedback control based on a DO meter, and com-
pensation of nonlinear characteristics between valve opening angle and flow
rate. Experiments with the digital controller were conducted with MLSS levels
of 1,000 or 2,000 mg/liter and DO levels of 2, 4, and 6 mg/liter. The digital
controller was effective in reducing valve actuating frequency to one-fifth of
the frequency when the analog controller was used. The AQUAMAP-80F system, a
computer control system for a large-scale waste water treatment plant, has
been devised by Hitachi Ltd. of Japan for controlling flow rate, electrical
devices, and water quality and for providing a data bank of treatment plant
operations. Three mathematical models are presented for use in feed-forward
control and waste water treatment process simulation, including models for
water quality, transparency, and dissolved organic matter concentrations.
E027
OZONE EFFECT ON NITROGENOUS MATTER IN EFFLUENTS,
Narkis, N., Wachs, A. M., and Schneider, M.
Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
877-891, October, 1977. 6 fig, 7 tab, 16 ref.
Experiments with lime-treated effluent from a biological municipal waste
water treatment plant and solutions of nitrogenous compounds were used to ex-
amine the effects of ozone on nitrogenous matter in effluents. The pH of the
solutions was adjusted to values from 2.8 to 12.2 and ozonation was carried
out at a concentration of 20 mg 03/liter 02, a gas mixture flow rate of 0.4
liter/rain, and contact periods of 15-120 min. In studies with lime-treated
secondary effluents, ozonation produced nitrates which never increased above a
concentration of 12 mg/liter, and total oxidation of organic nitrogen and am-
monia was not achieved. At pH values below 6 nitrates were not produced,
while nitrification increased significantly above pH 9 to reach a plateau
level of 8.0 mg/liter beyond pH 10. The buffering capacity of lime treatment
lowered the pH of the effluent during ozonation and inhibited nitrification.
Increasing the length of the ozonation period decreased TKN, atnmonia-N, and
organic-N with a concurrent increase in nitrates in the treated effluent.
Studies on the effects of the presence of ammonia on COD removal indicated
that the oxidation of ammonia during ozonation did not affect the degree of
removal nor the oxidation of organic compounds responsible for COD in the
lime-treated effluent. The effects of ozonation on specific nitrogenous com-
pounds in aqueous solutions were examined in experiments with NaN02, NH4C1,
454
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amino acid leucine solutions, borate and phosphate buffers, and bovine serum
albumin.
E028
SHORT-TERM WATER COLUMN PERTURBATIONS CAUSED BY WASTEWATER SLUDGE DUMPING IN
THE NEW YORK BIGHT APEX,
Duedall, I. W., O'Conners, H. B., Oakley, S. A., and Stanford, H. M.
New York State University,
Stony Brook,
Department of Oceanography.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2074-2080,
October, 1977. 6 fig, 1 tab, 13 ref.
The behavior of waste water sludge in the marine environment was evaluated
during a two-day moratorium on waste sludge dumping in the New York Bight
apex. Background information on temperature, salinity, pH, in vivo chloro-
phyll fluorescence, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, chlorophyll
a, ammonium, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, and silicic acid was obtained at a
marker buoy site before and after dumping of digested waste water sludge. A
subsurface current cross drogue was used to estimate the net direction and
drift of the near-surface water layer immediately after dumping. The 2890 cu
m of waste sludge from the Newton Creek waste water treatment plant produced a
plume about 200-250 m in diameter within 10-15 rain after discharge. The plume
visibly blackened the surface water for about 30 min after dumping and moved
in a southeast direction away from the discharge point. Sludge dumping did
not significantly affect temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen and
chlorophyll a concentrations in the water column. The dumping did, however,
produce dramatic perturbations in the nutrient and suspended solids concentra-
tions in the water column. Bottom dilutions of phosphates and suspended
solids were measured at 1:185 and 1:2000 parts, respectively, in seawater 40
min after dumping and 1:1300 and 1:6500 at 157 min after dumping. The ammonium
to seawater ratio was 1:12 at 157 min after dumping. The presence of a thermo-
cline inhibited upward mixing of the sludge-seawater mixture.
455
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E029
SAMPLES OF RHINE WATER REVEAL ORGANIC CARBON CONTENT,
Sontheimer, H.
Karlsruhe University,
West Germany,
Engler-Bunte Institute, Department of Water Chemistry.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 24, 26-27, October, 1977. 2
fig.
Dissolved organic carbon, COD, ultraviolet extinction, oxygen content, tem-
perature, and flow rate were measured in water samples collected at seven sta-
tions along the Rhine River in West Germany. Because current, temperature,
and the nature and quantity of pollutants contribute to a wide variation in
organic substances within the Rhine, the geometric means of several analyses
was used in comparisons of analytical data with time of collection and loca-
tion. The analyses indicated that a major increase in dissolved organic car-
bon, COD, and ultraviolet extinction occurred at Mainz, where effluents from
the Mannheim-Ludwigshafen area were discharged. Concentrations below this
point were relatively constant despite further considerable discharges of ef-
fluent, verifying the river's capacity for self-purification. The study con-
cluded that the total dissolved organic carbon pollutant load increased with
flow rate. A decrease in the load of biologically degradable substances with
a decrease in flow rate was attributed to more time available for self-purifi-
cation under conditions of low flow rate. Since deviations in COD values were
greater than in dissolved organic carbons from curve fitting of 1970-1974
values, the use of dissolved organic carbon rather than COD was suggested for
determining river quality. An equation to estimate pollutant loading with
respect to flow rate was presented. The effects of the large BASF water
treatment plant in Ludwigshafen on the quality of the Rhine were discussed.
E030
SONICATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE FLOCS AND THE RECOVERY OF THEIR BACTERIA ON
SOLID MEDIA,
Banks, C. J., and Walker, I.
York University,
Heslington, England,
Department of Biology.
Journal of General Microbiology, Vol. 98, No. 2, p 363-368, February, 1977. 5
fig, 1 tab, 12 ref.
Since the enumeration of activated sludge bacteria is dependent on the ability
to release them undamaged from sludge, the optimal conditions for bacteria re-
covery were investigated with ultrasound And sludges grown under different
nutrient and hydraulic conditions. Samples of mixed liquor from the aeration
456
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tanks of an activated sludge plant were diluted and sonicated for periods
ranging from 20 to 240 sec at five different intensities. Floe breakage was
assessed according to the absorbance of the supernatant at 400 and 610 nm.
Changes in temperature were used as a measure of energy input, and plating
techniques were used to quantify the release of viable organisms during floe
disruption. Experiments indicated that floe breakage depended on the in-
tensity rather than the duration of sonic input, although bacteria release was
controlled by intensity and duration. A sonication period of 80-100 sec at an
intensity of 26 J/sec yielded the most viable bacteria. Measurements of the
heating effect of sonication indicated that the creation of temperatures
lethal to bacteria was unlikely, since sonication over 140 sec at maximum
power output only increased the temperature from 0 to 13 C. Bacteria deter-
minations conducted in diluted sonicated mixed liquor from six municipal
treatment works with CGY, MP, and TGEVA agars indicated that recovery was
dependent on the particular sludge and its suspended solids and viable bac-
teria content.
E031
WASTE WATER SURVEY OF A PARTIALLY SEWERED CITY,
Mahmood, T. A., Kanbar, S. A., and Ahmed, S.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3, p
103-107, June, 1977. 4 fig, 4 tab, 10 ref.
A field study was conducted to examine quantitative and qualitative aspects of
waste water in Mosul, Iraq, a city with an estimated population of 350,000.
Much of the industrial and domestic waste water generated in the city is dis-
charged to the Tigris River without treatment. During June, July, and August,
1972, bi-hourly flow measurements were taken at the city's 10 major outfalls.
Additional parameters measured during the survey included BOD and a deoxygena-
tion constant. Minimum, maximum, and average flow rates were computed for
each station. Individual hydrographs were calculated to illustrate daily
variations in waste water flow. The hydrographs indicated that one peak in
waste water flow occurred in areas that were predominantly residential, while
multiple peaks occurred in areas which had mixed commercial and residential
uses. The per capita waste water flow for Mosul averaged 280 liters/day.
Waste water analyses were conducted with bi-hourly samples which were mixed to
produce a flow-proportioned, 25-hr composite sample. Characteristics examined
included total, suspended, and settleable solids; BOD; organic nitrogen;
organic, ammonia, and nitrate nitrogen; chloride; pH; fat; alkalinity; total
bacteria; and coliform bacteria. Analyses indicated that the waste water was
primarily domestic in origin.
457
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E032
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC-MASS SPECTROMETRIC IDENTIFICATION OF PHENOLS AND AROMATIC
ACIDS IN RIVER WATERS,
Matsumoto, G., Ishiwatari, R., and Hanya, T.
Tokyo Metropolitan University,
Japan,
Department of Chemistry.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 8, p 693-698, 1977. 7 fig, 2 tab, 21 ref.
The presence of phenols and aromatic acids in the Tama and Sumida Rivers in
Tokyo, Japan, was investigated in laboratory experiments with gas chromato-
graphy-mass spectrometry. Water samples were subjected to ethyl acetate ex-
traction and silica gel column chromatography. Separation procedures used for
the analysis of phenols and aromatic acids are described. Analyses indicated
that the ratio of ethyl acetate extracts to total organic matter was about 10%
for each river water sample. Phenols and aromatic acids identified in the
Tama River included: pentachlorophenol, phthalic acid, trimesic acid,
p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic
acid, bisphenol A, o-hydroxybenzoic acid, and m-hydroxybenzoic acid. All of
these compounds except p-courmaric acid, ferulic acid, and bisphenol A were
detected in the Sumida River. Possible sources are hypothesized for each of
the compounds. It is suggested that pentachlorophenol, bisphenol A, and
phthalic acid are probably industrial in origin, while the phenolcarboxylic
acids probably originated from lignin-like matter and urine.
£03 3
VIRUS DETECTION SYSTEM,
NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 2, No. 2, p 239-240, Summer, 1977. 2 fig.
A nonpathogenic marker virus, bacteriophage F2, is used as a tracer in a water
reclamation system to determine if other, possibly more toxic, viruses have
survived the treatment process. The virus is first concentrated by adsorption
onto cellulose acetate filters in the presence of trivalent cations (A1C13) at
low pH. A passive immune agglutination test, in which an antibody or an
antigen is bound to latex beads, is used to detect the marker virus. The
waste water detection system includes a reagent pump and metering system,
reagent storage containers, a filter concentrator, an incubation/detector sys-
tem, and an electronic readout and control system. Peristaltic pumping is
used to control the flow sequence of the reagents and samples, and a trans-
mitted-light photometer is used to measure the degree of agglutination.
458
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E034
ULTRASONIC SLUDGE DIP STICK,
ULTRASONIC SLUDGE DIF STICK,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 526-527, August, 1977.
The USP 10 ultrasonic sludge level meter has been produced by Krohne Measure-
ment and Control Ltd. of Moulton Park, England. A probe which contains an
ultrasonic transmitter/receiver is suspended from a fixed cabinet in the
sludge settling tank. The strength of pulses returned by a reflector con-
nected to the probe is proportional to the position of the sludge interface,
with pulses being weaker when absorption by suspended solids is at its maxi-
mum. The probe measuring depth range is 1-10 m and the probe can be raised
and lowered automatically or manually. The probe can be positioned to cor-
respond to suspended solids contents of 0.3-10%, and indication of the probe
depth is available. The probe can be moved at a speed of 0.66 m/min. With
the use of two limit switches, the input of raw material and the extraction of
clear water and sludge can be controlled.
E035
SEROLOGICAL TYPING AND CHLORINATION RESISTANCE OF WASTEWATER CYANOPHAGES,
Stanley, J. L., and Cannon, R. E.
Virginia Medical College,
Richmond,
School of Dentistry.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 1993-1999, Sep-
tember, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 15 ref.
The chlorine resistance of waste water-isolated cyanophages and their ecologic
distribution according to serological typing were evaluated with regard to the
use of LPP-cyanophages as possible indicators of animal viruses and coliforms
in waste water. Samples of waste water were collected on a biweekly basis
from the inflow, following primary settling tanks, following trickling filtra-
tion, and after chlorination at the Buffalo Creek sewage treatment plant in
Greensboro, North Carolina. Concentrations of LPP-cyanophages and Plectonema
boryanum, a species of filamentous blue-green algae which is attacked by LPP-
cyanophages, were measured. Cyanophages were observed in waste water on a
year-round basis, with a decline during the winter months attributed to a de-
cline in the cyanophage host algae. Studies on inactivation of stock cyano-
phages and cyanophages isolated from waste water indicated that the latter
were much more resistant to chlorination. Since cyanophages also appear to be
more resistant to chlorination than enteric viruses,., cyanophage monitoring is
suggested as an inexpensive, reliable, simple method of testing for viral and
bacterial contamination.
459
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E036
LEARN MORE ABOUT VARIABLE SPEED PUMPING/2,
Gottlieb son, M.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 10, p 58-59, 62-64, 68, 90, Octo-
ber, 1977. 27 fig.
Various considerations in the selection of pumping systems are discussed with
respect to insuring sufficient pumping capacity to discharge the peak influent
rate when any single pump in a series is out of service. Various configura-
tions of one-, two-, and three-pump variable-speed pumping systems are dis-
cussed. The use of efficiency curves for optimum arrangement of the "lag" and
"lead" pumps in a variable speed system is described. Basic operating modes
include the load sharing mode, in which lead and lag pumps operate at the same
speed and discharge rates, and the staggered mode, in which the lead pump
operates at maximum speed while the lag pump discharges the portion of in-
fluent which exceeds the capacity of the lead pump. The use of a variable-
speed controller in staggered pump operation is described. Power requirements
and efficiency ratings for load snaring are compared with values for stagger-
ing. A series of guidelines for the operation of a variable-speed sewage
pumping system are described. Configurations involving the combination of
variable-speed pumps with constant-speed pumps are evaluated. Limits placed
on maximum speed are controlled by the speed at which pump cavitation is pro-
duced. Methods of pump failure detection and pumping system control are
described.
E037
HOW RELIABLE IS INSTRUMENTATION IN WASTEWATER APPLICATIONS?,
Molvar, A. E., Babcock, R. H., Roesler, J. F., and Wise, R. H.
Raytheon Company,
Portsmouth, Rhode Island.
Instruments and Control Systems, Vol. 150, No. 10, p 29-33, October, 1977. 1
tab.
Measurement principles, potential applications, operating characteristics, and
user's experiences are discussed for analytical sensors, transducers, and
monitoring devices observed during a survey of 50 waste water treatment
plants. Data presented for instrument operating experiences include variable,
type of instrument, applications, typical cost, mean time between failures,
typical life expectancy, and maintenance requirements in terms of frequency/
hr, maintenance-hrs/yr, and skill level. Types of instruments discussed in-
clude level-measuring devices, flow meters, wet chemical analyzers, sludge
density meters, and pH electrodes. Monitors for TOC, COD, TOD, DO, residual
chlorine, chlorine gas, flammable gas, and turbidity are also evaluated.
460
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E038
STUDY OF A SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM ON A LAKE SHORE: TEMPERATURE AND EFFLUENT FLOW
PATTERNS,
Gibbs, M. M.
Ecology Division,
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Taupo, New Zealand.
New Zealand Journal of Science, Vol. 20, No. 1, p 55-61, March, 1977. 7 fig,
10 ref.
Septic tank effluent seepage was mapped over a shallow groundwater table near
Lake Taupo in New Zealand to determine whether septic effluent was entering
the lake. Because conventional tracer methods were prohibited by the area's
low groundwater velocities, the extent and direction of movement was traced by
measuring temperature changes produced at the groundwater surface by the ef-
fluent. A network of 10-mm dia boreholes laid out on a grid pattern at 1-m
centers was used to monitor effluent movement. A finite difference method was
used to determine the path of the effluent from the septic tank soakhole to
the test borehole. Elevated temperatures were observed in the surface water
at nearly all of the borehole sites, with a sharp thermal gradient below about
0.2 m and background groundwater temperature at about 1 m. A thermal plume
which emanated from the soakhole was observed, with effluent water travelling
considerable distances before entering the groundwater. The thermal buoyancy
of the septic tank effluent and the thermal gradient between it and the back-
ground groundwater confined effluents to the upper 0.2 m of the water table at
distances greater than 8 m from the soakhole. The probability of septic ef-
fluents reaching Lake Taupo in this situation was considered significant.
This groundwater temperature mapping technique is recommended for areas where
low groundwater velocities or anisotropic soil properties limit the applica-
tion of traditional tracer techniques.
E039
QUANTITATIVE MAPPING OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE PLUMES IN THE
NEW YORK BIGHT APEX,
Johnson, R. W,, Duedall, I. W., Glasgow, R. M., Proni, J. R., and Nelsen, T. A.
National Aeronautics and Space Admistration,
Hampton, Virginia.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2063-2073,
October, 1977. 11 fig, 1 tab, 13 ref.
Since large quantities of waste are dumped into the apex of the New York Bight
and little is known about the dispersion of these wastes in coastal waters,
studies were conducted to quantitatively map waste water sludge plumes on the
basis of water quality properties and remotely sensed data. The testing pro-
461
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gram took place after a 2-day moratorium on sludge dumping in the Bight apex.
Aircraft remote sensing and two surface vessels were used to map three waste
water sludge plumes on September 22, 1975, with comparisons of suspended
solids and chlorophyll-a concentrations obtained by the sea-truth and remote
measurements. Spectral signatures were determined to allow specific identifi-
cation of sludge plumes. Multiple regression techniques, including stepwise
regression analysis, were used to reduce the remote sensing data. The statis-
tical analyses indicated that calibrated regression equations were adequate
for mapping the sludge plume by remote sensing with respect to suspended
solids. For chlorophyll-a, however, interference with analyses and plume
mapping was attributed to possible fluorescent characteristics of the waste
water dump material. Comparison of data obtained for line and spot plumes
revealed similar spectral characteristics.
E040
STUDY OF POLYSACCHARIDES IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE MUCILAGE (Etude des polyosides du
mucilage des boues activees),
Rideau, J. P., and Morfaux, J. N.
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique,
Station de Technologie Alimentaire,
Villeneuve d'Ascq, France.
Water Research, Vol. 10, No. 11, p 999-1003, 1976. 6 fig, 18 ref.
Activated sludges from the treatment of municipal and industrial waste water
were used in experiments to isolate the polymer or polysaccharide fraction in
sludge. The studies revealed that carbohydrates and related compounds such as
galacturonic acid and rhamnose were partially incorporated in the activated
sludge mucilage. Extracellular polymers or exopolysaccharides were synthe-
sized during the contact period of contact-stabilization and were assimilated
during sludge stabilization. Morphological features of the floe particles, as
in the case of filamentous bulking, are said to be related to the activated
sludge polysaccharides.
462
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E041
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN AGRICULTURAL SOIL (Polyzyklische,
aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Boden),
Kunte, H.
Hygiene-Institut der Johannes Gutenberg-Universitaet,
Mainz, West Germany.
Zentralblatt fuer Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und
Hygiene, Abteilung 1: Originale, Reihe B, Vol. 164, No. 5-6, p 469-475,
1977. 2 fig, 3 tab, 19 ref.
Since sewage sludge used to amend agricultural soils may contain considerable
amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), studies were conducted to
establish baseline concentrations of these substances in soils. Fifty soil
samples were collected at various locations throughout West Germany and
analyzed for six PAH forms, including fluoranthene, benzo(b)fluoranthene,
benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(ghi)perylene, and indeno (1.2.3-
cd)pyrene. The average concentration of benzopyrene for 74% of the samples
ranged from 2-50 ppm, while the total PAH concentration was 50-500 ppm.
Higher values were attributed to extraneous sources of PAH. Previous studies
on the concentration of benzo(a)pyrene in soils are reviewed.
E042
DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN WASTEWATER,
Klei, H. E., Sundstorm, D. W., and Perna, A. J.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 380-383, 1977. 2 tab, 11 ref.
Characteristics of dissolved solids in municipal and industrial waste waters
are reviewed. Total dissolved solids concentrations are normally measured by
evaporation to dryness of the filtrate obtained after passing the sample water
through a 0.2-0.45-micron membrane filter. Since most industries contribute
heavily to the total dissolved solids concentration of combined municipal and
industrial waste, pretreatment of an industrial waste by ion exchange or re-
verse osmosis is suggested. Expected concentrations in municipal waste water
of total, volatile, and fixed dissolved solids and of various contributing
cations, anions, and organics are listed in tabular form. Components of in-
dustrial waste water are listed according to the particular type of industry.
463
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E043
TESTS FOR NITRIFYING AND DENITRIFYING ABILITY OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Beer, C.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation,
Albany, New York.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 18, No. 5, p
558-564, 1977. 6 ref.
Analytical procedures are presented for the quantification of the bacterial
mass of a single-stage activated sludge system designed for carbonaceous con-
taminant removal, nitrification, and denitrification. The test for nitrifying
ability is based on the respiration activity of Nitrosomonas. The substrate-
mediated test is conducted at an ammonia-N concentration greater than 2.5
mg/liter to provide for a zero order reaction. The test is 1 hr in length and
is conducted on mixed liquor rather than on return sludge. The pH is opti-
mized and mass transport difficulties are eliminated by placing the heterotro-
phic bacteria in a state of endogenous respiration and by increasing turbu-
lence and dilution. The test for the percentage of denitrifying bacteria in
mixed liquor solids is based on endogenous nitrate respiration and is con-
ducted on deoxygenated return sludge. Deoxygenation is accomplished by the
addition of sodium thiosulfate and anaerobic conditions are maintained
throughout the experiment. The denitrifying ability is based on the N03/N02-N
ratio.
E044
VENTURI FLUMES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR MEASUREMENTS TECHNIQUES FOR EXACT MEASURE-
MENTS OF QUANTITIES OF WASTE WATER (Venturikanaele und messtechnische Anfor-
derungen fuer genaue Abwassermengen),
Zuellig, H.
Zuellig AG Rheineck, Apparatebau fuer die Wasserwirtschaft,
Rheineck, Switzerland.
Wasser, Energie, Luft, Vol. 69, No. 5, p 111-115, 1977. 9 fig, 4 ref.
Venturi flumes and flow measurement techniques are described with respect to
waste water flow measurements at treatment facilities. Venturi flumes with U
or hexagonal profiles and parabolic or trapezoidal throats are best for exact
measurements, especially at low flow velocities. The required accuracy of the
flow measurement (+ or - 0.25% of the end value) can be achieved by the air
bubble or sonic depth finder methods.
464
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E045
THE COMPARABILITY OF OXYGENATION CAPACITY MEASUREMENTS (Vergleichbarkeit von
Sauerstoffeintragsmessungen),
Binge 1, F.
Institut fuer Siedlungswasserbau, Wasserguetewirtschaft
und Abfallwirtschaft der Universitaet Stuttgart,
Stuttgart, West Germany.
Wasserwirtschaft, Vol. 67, No. 6, p 168-174, 1977. 5 fig, 6 tab, 7 ref.
Observations on oxygenation capacity and oxygen demand of sewage are presented
for use by consulting engineers and planners in the design of sewage treatment
plant equipment used for aeration. Observed values for oxygenation capacity
and oxygen uptake were compared with values predicted by aeration equipment
manufacturers. Surveys indicated that there were often wide differences in
oxygen input and actual uptake by sewage. Temperature and the degree of mix-
ing partially explain the discrepancies. Possible sources of measurement
error are described.
E046
DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS IN SEWAGE-BASED FERTILIZER USING SHORT-LIVED
ISOTOPES,
Egan, A., and Spyrou, N. M. .
Surrey University,
England,
Department of Physics.
Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 37, No. 2, p 775-784, 1977. 3 tab,
18 ref.
A fully instrumental method of neutron activation analysis is presented for
use in the analysis of heavy metals present in sewage sludge. Objectives of
the project under which the procedure was devised included the development of
a means of analysis based on a fixed experiment time per sample, non-destruc-
tive irradiation and count, fully instrumental data collection, standard com-
puting procedure, absolute determination of microgram quantities, and accuracy
compatible with sampling uncertainties. The method which was developed is
based on short-lived isotopes and requires a total experiment time of 1 hr per
sample. Cyclic irradiation based on the period of radiation to measure 207 Pb
(T=0.8s) was used to activate the samples. Gamma ray spectral data obtained
by the Ge(Li) detectors were transferred to magnetic tape and analyzed by the
SAMPO spectral analysis program. Modifications to the SAMPO program included
the addition of an IDENTIFY subroutine which included a library of peaks for
identification followed by a quantitative determination of the mass of the
target element, eliminating the need for standards. Sample and standard pre-
465
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paration, irradiation and counting conditions, sensitivities and detection
limits, and data-processing methods are presented.
E047
PHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF TOTAL PHOSPHATE WITH HYDRAZINE-MOLYBDIC ACID
REAGENT (Photometrische Bestimmung des Gesamtphosphats mit Hydrazin-
Molydaensaeure-Reagenz),
Beyer, A.
Chemisch—biologische Laboratorien der Stadt Duesseldorf,
Dusseldorf, West Germany.
Gas- und Wasserfach, Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 118, No. 7, p 327-332, 1977.
6 tab, 5 ref.
A photometric method for the determination of the total phosphate content in
water is described. After treatment with sulfuric acid,-the condensed phos-
phoric acid is hydrolyzed to orthophosphoric acid by boiling with distilled
water. The acid is neutralized, and a 40-tnl sample is successively combined
with 1 ml of 2% citric acid and 9 ml of hydrazine sulfate-molybdic acid
reagent. The flask is heated in a boiling water bath for 30-60 min to develop
the colored complex. The extinction is measured at room temperature against a
blank sample of distilled water treated in the same manner. The method per-
mits the accurate and reproducible determination of 4-260 micrograms P0(4) per
40 ml. Heavy metal ions and silicic acid do not falsify the results. Chro-
mate reduces the readings at concentrations of about 15 mg/liter and over.
Sulfuric acid up to 0.25 g/40 ml has no influence on the result. Nitrate has
to be destroyed when present in concentrations exceeding 2.5 mg/liter.
E048
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT,
Prescan, N. L.
Engineering-Science, Incorporated,
Cleveland, Ohio.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 78-85, 1977.
In the development of an activated sludge treatment facility, the construction
of a final detailed design, preparation of plans and specifications, construc-
tion of the facility, and initiation of operation generally follow the estab-
lishment of design criteria and process flow sheets. An effective final de-
sign is dependent on the engineer's accurate interpretation of design criteria
and on the selection of the proper equipment and constraints. Various tasks
which must be completed before a final detailed design is possible are out-
lined. The selection of process units is usually based on the constraints set
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by the material to be handled, the degree of performance requirement, and
operation and maintenance requirements along with economic considerations and
the designer/owner preference. Pumping systems, clarification, aeration, and
other process stages are discussed with respect to process units. The con-
struction of process and instrumentation diagrams is suggested to provide an
overview of the plant early in the project. Coordination of the detailed de-
sign with operations and construction is discussed.
E049
POLLUTION MONITORING WITH TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON ANALYSIS,
Chandler, R. L., 0'Shaughnessy, J. C., and Blanc, F. C.
Northeastern University,
Boston, Massachusetts,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 48, No. 12, p 2791-2803,
December, 1976. 11 fig, 2 tab, 4 ref.
A TOG analyzer which oxidizes organic carbon in the sample to C02 and then re-
duces the C02 to CH4 was used in experiments to evaluate the use of TOG as an
indirect measure of BOD and COD in domestic and industrial waste water treat-
ment and river quality monitoring. Correlations between BOD, COD, and TOG are
described. Experiments with municipal waste water indicated that there was a
significant correlation between 5-day BOD and TOG for samples from a specific
location within a treatment process. In general, the correlation between TOG
and 5-day BOD in domestic secondary effluents was greater than the relation-
ship between TOG and COD. Regression equations for nitrification-inhibited
and noninhibited 5-day BOD yielded values which were significantly different
at the 0.10 level. Analysis of TOG measurements is also suggested to evaluate
activated carbon for advanced waste water treatment, to monitor substrate-
removal batch-treatability studies, and to monitor industrial waste water for
fluctuations in strength. The correlation between 5-day BOD and TOG in river
water was significant at the 0.01 level, although this decreased as the river
approached higher flow conditions. TOC measurements are reported as unaf-
fected by a sample storage period of 1 wk, provided the samples are acidified,
capped, and refrigerated.
E050
WATER RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION: 2,
Journal of the Institute of Measurement and Control, Vol. 10, No. 10, p
364-365, October, 1977. 1 fig.
Various measurement techniques which were presented during an open house on
May 4-6, 1977, at the Medmenhan Laboratory of the Water Research Centre in
England are described. A non-contacting flowmeter for use in sewers has been
467
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developed by the Water Research Centre in conjunction with the Department of
Control Engineering at the University of Bradford. Flow velocity is measured
by means of photodetectors which detect turbulent patterns on the fluid sur-
face. An ultrasonic method of flow velocity and suspended solids measurement
being developed for use with influent sewage, mixed liquor, returned sludge,
and surplus sludge is described. The Digidip, an instrument for measuring
levels in sewers, combines the operating principle of an oscillating probe
with the reliability of low power digital electronic circuitry. Sulfur hexa-
fluoride has been used as a tracer gas in detecting leaks in sewer lines.
Cross-correlation of leak noise by statistical comparison of the shape
envelope from one microphone with that of another has also been used.
E051
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT DISCHARGE TO COOLING LAKES,
Taylor, R. D., Dailey, J. E., and Rohlich, G. A.
Texas University,
Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
907-918, October, 1977. 7 fig, 1 tab, 14 ref, 2 append.
The large quantity of fresh water required for cooling lakes which are used to
dispose of waste water from power plants, and the increasingly stringent re-
gulations on discharge of municipal waste waters, have created interest in the
use of treated municipal waste waters as makeup water in cooling lakes. Al-
though waste water has been used in cooling towers, up to this point it has
not been discharged directly to cooling lakes in the United States. Results
of a field study at Lake Brauning, a man-made cooling lake near San Antonio,
Texas, are presented. Much of the lake's makeup water is drawn from the San
Antonio River which in,itself contains a large portion of secondary effluent.
The water quality and trophic state were monitored in Lake Braunig over a
12-month period. The program indicated that the lake was highly eutrophic,
although still useful for recreational and power plant purposes. The dominant
algal species within the ecosystem is suggested as the most important factor
in the usefulness of a lake as a cooling water source. Problems associated
with the full-scale discharge of waste water to cooling lakes include: car-
bonate scaling and dezincification of condensers, boiler water treatment,
water quality limitation on recreational uses, and the quality of cooling lake
effluent released to receiving waters.
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E052
INACTIVATION OF ENTERIC VIRUSES IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE THROUGH DEWATERING BY
EVAPORATION,
Ward, R. L., and Ashley, C. S.
Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 5, p 564-570, November,
1977. 3 fig, 6 tab, 23 ref.
The use of waste water sludge as a fertilizer or animal feed supplement is de-
pendent on the ability to inactivate the pathogens in the sludge without re-
ducing its economic value. Studies were conducted to examine the effects of
dewatering on the inactivation rates of enteric viruses in sludge. Raw sludge
from the Albuquerque sewage treatment plant in New Mexico was seeded before
and after dewatering with Poliovirus type 1, coxsackievirus Bl, and reovirus
type 3. Dewatering was accomplished by evaporation at 21 C. Measurements of
the loss of viral plaque-forming units during dewatering indicated that the
recoverable infectivity of poliovirus decreased gradually until the sludge
solids content reached 65%. During evaporation from 65 to 83% solids, the
virus titer decreased by more than 3 orders of magnitude. This was attributed
to irreversible inactivation since viral particles were observed to have re-
leased extensively degraded RNA molecules. The inactivation of poliovirus by
dewatering is supported by the significantly slower inactivation rates ob-
served for sludge seeded after drying. Similar behavior was observed with
reovirus type 3 and coxsackievirus Bl, suggesting that dewatering by evapora-
tion may be a viable method of inactivating all enteric viruses in sludge.
E053
A MERCURY-FREE ACCELERATED METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
OF LARGE NUMBERS OF WATER SAMPLES BY AUTOCIAVING THEM UNDER-PRESSURE WITH
ACID-DICHROMATE,
Ryding, S-0., and Forsberg, A.
The National Swedish Environment Protection Board Institute of Physiological
Botany, Algal Assay Laboratory, Uppsala, Sweden.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 9, p 801-805, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 10 ref.
A simplified colorimetric method for measuring COD in waste water effluents
and receiving waters was developed in response to a program initiated in 1972
by the National Swedish Environment Protection Board to assess the effects of
tertiary treatment on receiving waters. The RR method, named for a Swedish
abbreviation for the words waste water treatment plant and receiving body of
water, has been adapted for use with either waste water or fresh water with a
detection range of 10-300 and 10-100 mg 02/liter, respectively. Details of
the apparatus, reagents, and procedure are presented. Reagents include potas-
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slum dichromate, sulfuric acid, silver sulfate, ferrous ammonium sulfate, and
a ferrion indicator solution. The method requires small sample and reagent
volumes of 1.0 and 2.0 mis, respectively, and does not require mercury. The
procedure includes the rapid addition of a mixture of all the reagents to the
sample and autoclaving for 1 hr in flasks fitted with glass stoppers. Titra-
tion of the excess dichromate with ferrous ammonium sulfate and the ferrion
indicator is used to calculate the COD from dichromate. Parallel analyses
with the RR method and KMn04 consumption of 318 samples from 14 waste water
receiving lakes yielded a correlation coefficient (r) of +0.90. Possible in-
terference is presented by chloride at concentrations greater than 1 g/liter.
E054
IDENTIFICATION OF END PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM OZONATION AND CHLORINATION OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS COMMONLY FOUND IN WATER,
Kuo, P. P. K., Chian, E. S. K., and Chang, B. J.
Illinois University,
Urbana,
Department of Environmental Engineering.
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 13, p 1177-1181, December,
1977. 7 fig, 4 tab, 22 ref.
Chlorination of the humic acid materials in the ultra-filtration (UF) retent-
ate and of the fulvic acid materials in the reverse osmosis (RO) retentate of
secondary effluents can result in the formation of potentially toxic halo-
genated organics. Studies were conducted on the effects of ozonation with and
without ultraviolet irradiation on 2-propanol, acetic acid, and oxalic acid.
These compounds have been identified as poorly removed by RO and activated
carbon in municipal waste water treatment. Further studies examined the for-
mation of volatile halogenated organics during chlorination and ozonation of
the UF and RO retentates of municipal secondary effluent. The ozonation
studies indicated that 2-propanol was oxidized to acetone which was, in turn,
oxidized to acetic and oxalic acids. Ozonation of acetic acid yielded gly-
oxylic and oxalic acids. Ultraviolet irradiation significantly enhanced the
removal of organics during ozonation, increasing the rate constant for organic
carbon removal by a factor of 8 for 2-propanol and by a factor of 6 for acetic
acid. Volatile halogenated organics detected in the chlorinated UF and RO
retentates included: methylene chloride, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane, and bromoform.
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E055
CHEMICAL MONITORING OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN PENNSYLVANIA,
Doty, W. T., Baker, D. E., and Shipp, R. F.
Pennsylvania Agricultural Experimental Station,
University Park.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 421-426, October-December,
1977. 1 fig, 1 tab, 26 ref.
A one-year sampling program of sewage from six Pennsylvania cities was initi-
ated to determine the sampling procedures required for the chemical monitoring
of sewage sludge destined for land application. The program emphasized tech-
niques required for a municipal waste water treatment plant which treated com-
bined domestic and industrial wastes. Bi-weekly samples were collected at
each plant and analyzed for solids, total-N, NH4-N, P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe,
N03-N, Mn, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, and pH. The data revealed that sewage
sludge from every treatment plant varied significantly over time with respect
to almost every composition variable. The differences in solid concentrations
were greater between the different plants than in material from any given
plant. In general, solids concentrations varied inversely with respect to
changes in total-N. Although the variation in sludge composition was signifi-
cant with respect to time, no seasonal trends were observed. Since the nitro-
gen concentration in sludge from all plants ranged from 1-36% of the dry
solids and phosphorus ranged from 1-6%, the prediction of the fertilizer value
of the sludge was considered impossible without continuous chemical analysis.
Heavy metal concentrations, particularly Cd, were considered the limiting fac-
tor in the feasibility of land application of the sludge since only 35% of the
sludges analyzed were acceptable for application to cropland and 25% were in
ranges which could adversely affect crop composition and the food chain.
EOS 6
LEAK TESTING WITH DYED LIQUID TRACERS,
Alburger, J. R.
Shannon-Glow Incorporated,
Los Angeles, California.
Materials Evaluation, Vol. 35, No. 12, p 60-64, December, 1977. 6 ref.
Dyed liquid tracers have been used in a wide variety of applications, ranging
from charting flow patterns in rivers to discerning leaks in pipelines.
Flourescent dyes have been used as an alternative to non-flourescent visible
color dyes which lose their tinctorial power rapidly by dilution. Fluorescent
dyes, which can often be detected in extremely dilute solutions, generally
fall into two categories: sensitizer dyes and color-former dyes. The sen-
sitizer dyes exhibit strong fluorescence in thin films. The color-former dyes
are normally used in conjunection with sensitizer dyes to shift the color
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response by cascading fluorescence. Bulk fluorescence is used in leak detec-
tion when the use of high tracer dye concentrations required for the thin-film
mode is considered impractical. Dye tracers have been used to map water seep-
age in soil and to trace leaks in outfall sewers. Thin-film fluorescence has
been used with extremely small leaks in encapsulated electronic components and
lead-through wires. Heating units and evaporative dyes have been used in con-
junction with micro-leaks associated with surface porosity. Dye tracers are
available in oil-phase, water-phase, and gaseous forms. The various dyed
liquid leak tracer materials and processes are summarized.
EOS 7
COMPARISON OF MEMBRANES FOR FECAL COLIFORM RECOVERY IN CHLORINATED EFFLUENTS,
Lin, S. D.
Water Quality Section,
Illinois State Water Survey,
Peoria, Illinois.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2255-2265,
November, 1977. 4 tab, 21 ref.
Various membrane-based techniques have been proposed for the enumeration of
fecal coliforms in waste water effluents. Ten varieties of commercially
available membranes were tested for their ability to recover fecal coliforms
from chlorinated effluents. Grab samples of secondary and tertiary effluents
were obtained from five Illinois waste water treatment plants. Statistical
analyses of fecal coliform data obtained with the ten membranes revealed sig-
nificant differences in performance. Membrane capabilities fell into four
groups, with greater differences in fecal coliform recovery occurring between
groups than within a group. The Millipore HC, Gelman GN-6, and Sartorius SM
138 06 (green) membranes yielded the highest fecal coliform recovery in chlo-
rinated effluents, while the J-M radiation membrane gave the lowest recovery.
Colony size also varied with respect to membrane type, with the Nuclepore mem-
brane yielding the largest colonies. An average of 93.2% of the 1002 blue
colonies isolated from all the filters was verified. Membrane characteristics
and previous studies on factors which influence membrane performance are dis-
cussed.
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E058
APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO GARDEN PLOTS,
Sjogren, R. E.
Vermont University,
Burlington,
Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, p 26-32, September/October, 1977. 6 fig, 3
tab, 20 ref.
Studies with corn, tomato, and beet crops were used to assess the response of
garden crops to two levels of high-temperature, anaerobically-digested lime-
amended sludge and one level of fertilizer. The effects of field addition of
sewage sludge and fertilizer on plant yields and tissue elemental content were
evaluated under local environmental conditions. Sludge application rates were
based on the assumption that half of the nitrogen present in the sludge would
be available to the plant. A double application of sludge was used to observe
possible toxicities of metal Ions. Results of elemental analyses of anaerobi-
cally digested sludge and sludge-grown plants are presented. Corn plant
yields from plots receiving the inorganic fertilizer were essentially the same
at all sludge application rates. For those plots which did not receive the
inorganic fertilizer, yields were greatest with the double application of
sludge. Gross yields of tomato plots were largest in terms of the number of
fruit from the plot which received a double application of sludge and the in-
organic fertilizer. The average weight per tomato was greatest from the plot
which received the inorganic fertilizer but no sludge. Beet plant weight was
much higher from those plots which received the inorganic fertilizer, irre-
gardless on the amount of sludge applied. Iron and potassium deficiencies
were exhibited by plants from some of the sludge-amended corn plots. Although
tests for bacterial and viral pathogens in the amended sludge were negative,
some transmission of soil bacteria by splashing onto corn stalks was observed.
E059
IMPROVED DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE TO FILTRATION (Determination
amelioree de la resistance specifique a la filtration),
Wuhrmann, K. A.
Institut Federal pour L'Amenagement,
1'Epuration et la Protection des Eaux,
Zurich, Switzerland.
Techniques et Sciences Municipales-L'Eau, Vol. 72, No. 2, p 59-60, February,
1977. 3 fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
The validity of using specific resistance as a descriptive parameter for fil-
tration of waste sludges has been questioned because of the dispersion coef-
ficient inherent to the method. The method could be improved by calculating
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the mean value from a multitude of parallel determinations. Equations are
given for measurement techniques, stressing the importance of the flow
gradient. Automatic measuring devices are recommended as the most accurate
means of determining specific resistance to filtration. Optimization of fil-
tration analysis has been accomplished by an instrument which can be used for
filtration as well as for recording resistance data.
E060
THE COMPARISON OF SLUDGE EXTRACTS AND CHU 10 IN CULTIVATING CHLORELLA
PYRENOIDOSA,
Wong, M-H., and Ho, S-K.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shatin, Hong Kong,
Department of Biology.
Chemosphere, Vol. 6, No. 9, p 581-588, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab, 14 ref.
Increasing demands on the world's food supplies have led to various studies on
the culturing of green algae as a source of protein. Experiments were con-
ducted at the Chinese University in Hong Kong to evaluate the use of sewage
sludge extracts as opposed to the Chu 10 medium for cultivating Chlorella
pyrenoidosa green algae. Samples of sewage sludge were obtained from the Uni-
versity's treatment plant and extracts were prepared in concentrations of 1,
2, and 3%. Cell counts, chlorophyll, protein, and heavy metals were measured
in Chlorella cultures. The growth rate in 1% sludge was higher than at other
sludge concentrations and was also higher than in Chu 10. The cells cul-
tivated in the 2% sludge extract had the highest chlorophyll content. The
protein content in Chlorella cells fluctuated with time, regardless of the
medium. Heavy metal concentrations were higher in the sludge-grown cells than
in the Chu 10 variety. Since from 10 to 15% of the heavy metals in the sludge
extracts were removed during culturing, the use of Chlorella pyrenoidosa is
suggested as a possible means of waste water purification.
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E061
ACCLIMATION OF FATHEAD MINNOWS AND LAKE TROUT TO RESIDUAL CHLORINE AND BROMINE
CHLORIDE,
DeGraeve, G. M., and Ward, R. W.
Wyoming University,
Laramie,
Department of Zoology and Physiology.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2172-2178,
October, 1977. 3 tab, 17 ref.
Previous studies on the effects of the total residual chlorine (TRC) and total
residual bromine chloride (TRBC) in waste water effluents on aquatic life have
suggested that fish are able to tolerate higher levels if levels are initially
low and gradually increased. Experiments were conducted at the Grandville,
Michigan, waste water treatment plant to determine if fathead minnows and lake
trout previously exposed to TRC or TRBC could acclimate and survive in efflu-
ents having TRC or TRBC levels above their respective 96-hour TL50 values.
The experiments also examined the 7-day survival rate of fathead minnows at
maximum TRC levels after previous exposure to sub-lethal levels. The rela-
tionships between acclimation time, concentrations of TRC during acclimation,
and degree of acclimation achieved by fathead minnows were determined. Re-
sults indicated that fathead minnows and lake trout with previous exposure to
TRC or TRBC for more than 2 hours did acclimate more readily to chlorinated or
chlorobrominated effluents. A linear relationship was observed between pre-
vious exposure and tolerance to residual halogen levels in excess of 96-hour
TL50 values. Prior exposure to TRC for 4 hours or longer created greater
tolerances to TRC in fathead minnows. High TRC concentrations were lethal,
regardless of previous exposure history.
E062
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT,
Cross, F. L., Jr.
Frank L. Cross PE PA,
Orlando, Florida.
Pollution Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 12, p 52-55, December, 1977. 1 fig, 2 tab,
1 ref.
Proper maintenance techniques for the efficient operation of pollution control
facilities are outlined. Initially, the guidelines recommend an inventory of
all equipment by maintenance crews or outside consultants. A monthly mainte-
nance report is suggested as a record of servicing, failures, and costs.
Maintenance of the activated sludge system involves the recognition of prob-
lems such as sludge bulking, erratic sludge volume, difficulty in maintaining
balanced mixed liquor and dissolved oxygen in aeration tank, and excessive
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foam in aeration tanks. The establishment of a floating maintenance man or
crew for regional area air pollution equipment is recommended. Routine main-
tenance of incineration equipment is advised for preventing major breakdowns.
Regulations governing sanitary landfill use and maintenance and a routine
check of potential problems are suggested.
E063
A SIMPLE SOIL PERCOLATION TEST DEVICE FOR FIELD ENVIRONMENTALISTS,
Smith, W. H., and Stark, P. E.
Summit County Department of Environmental Health,
Frisco, Colorado.
Environmental Health, Vol, 40, No. 3, p 138-139, November-December, 1977. 6
fig, 3 ref.
A simple float meter has been designed to provide accurate, reliable and sys-
tematic soil percolation data for sewage disposal site evaluations. The de-
vice consists of a styrofoam float, aluminum float rod, PVC float housing
tube, and plastic end cap. It allows technicians to run several tests simul-
tane*ously. The float meter yields uniform, precise and reproducible test re-
sults. The float is placed in a hole at the test site and marked with tape.
After the hole is filled with water and the initial level marked, level mark-
ings are registered for three consecutive time intervals once the water level
decrease becomes consistent. The device can be constructed for about $10.
More than one float meter can be used to conduct several simultaneous tests.
E064
METHODS FOR MEASURING THE DEGREE OF STABILITY OF AEROBIC STABILIZED SLUDGES,
Eikum, A. S., and Paulsrud, B.
The Norwegian Institute for Water Research,
Oslo, Norway.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 9, 1977. 7 fig, 6 tab, 18 ref.
Various parameters which can be used to assess the degree of stability of
aerobically processed raw sludges were identified and then used to devise a
definition of fully stabilized sludge. Sludges were termed fully stabilized
after 14 days of storage at 20 C, providing the Odor Intensity Index did not
exceed 11 at any time. Stabilized sludges having a 'soil' odor were not
considered objectionable. Insufficient sludge aeration and detention periods
contributed to an increase in the odor intensity. As long as temperature ef-
fects were considered, oxygen uptake rates were also deemed suitable measure-
ments of stability. Nitrate concentrations in aerobic stabilized sludge were
also suggested as a measure of stabilization. Both oxygen uptake and nitrifi-
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cation were judged to be reliable parameters of stability for primary sludge,
mixed-primary, chemical sludge, and septic tank sludge. BOD and COD reduc-
tions, pH changes, volatile suspended solids contents, and lead acetate tests
were not considered adequate parameters for measuring sludge stability.
E065
OCCURRENCE OF ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS DURING COMPOSTING OF SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Millner, P. D., Marsh, P. B., Snowden, R. B., and Parr, J. F.
Biological Waste Management and Soil Nitrogen Laboratory,
Agricultural Research Service,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 6, p 765-773, December,
1977. 1 fig, 3 tab, 48 ref.
The presence of Aspergillus fumigatus, a fungus which affects the respiratory
system, was investigated in sludge, compost, woodchips, and commercial potting
mediums. A., fumigatus was detected in all stages of composting; high levels
were especially prevalent in crude and screened compost and in stored wood-
chips from stockpiles older than one month. Levels of the fungus decreased
significantly with an increase in the age of the stored compost, yielding
negligible levels in compost stored more than six months. Sludge samples in-
dicated that soil type and location could influence A. fumigatus. Levels
detected in commercial potting soils varied from undetectable traces to
amounts comparable to those detected in one-month-old storage compost. Tem-
peratures greater than 60 C in compost limited the growth of A. fumigatus
significantly. Airborne spores of the fungus were more abundant in compost
sites exposed to air than in noncompost sites, a finding that supports the
need for caution by treatment facilities employees with histories of respira-
tory problems.
E066
DISCOVERY OF AN AGENT IN WASTEWATER SLUDGE THAT REDUCES THE HEAT REQUIRED TO
INACTIVATE REOVIRUS,
Ward, R. L., and Ashley, C. S.
Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 6, p 681-688, December,
1977. 4 fig, 6 tab, 25 ref.
A viricidal agent contained in both raw sludge and anaerobically digested
sludge was discovered and analyzed. The agent was shown to inactivate reo-
virus, a genus of enteric viruses found in human waste. The viricidal agent
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was not isolated or identified, but several of its properties were discovered
through laboratory experiments. The agent was associated with waste solids
but could be washed from the sludge solids with water. Viricidal activity in
the sludge increased at pH 8-10 but was not observed at a pH lower than 6.
The antivirus agent was assumed to be insoluble in acidic solutions. Tempera-
tures greater than'35 C increased the rate of reovirus inactivation by the
agent. The viricidal agent was inactivated at a temperature of 350 C sus-
tained for 30 minutes, indicating its organic nature. The antiviral qualities
of the agent significantly increased in the temperature range of 45 C. Heat
inactivation of reovirus occurred more frequently in anaerobically digested
sludge than in raw sludge. The alkaline properties of the anaerobically
digested sludge were considered more conducive to the activation of the
viricidal agent than the acidic nature of raw sludge. Ammonia, a compound
which retards the activity of poliovirus, did not appear to be the viricidal
agent as reovirus was unaffected by ammonia at 47 C. The agent did not inac-
tivate poliovirus and may be the sludge component which protects poliovirus
from heat inactivation.
E067
THE EFFECT OF TOXIC LOADS ON EFFLUENT PURIFICATION SYSTEMS,
Gillie, G. G., Davies, T. R., Hart, 0. 0., and Hassett, A. J.
National Institute for Water Research,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 3, No. 2, p 83-89, April, 1977. 12 fig, 3 tab, 4 ref.
An attempt was made to correlate performance data from the Stander Water Re-
clamation Plant and various biological treatment plants and pilot plants at
the Daspoort Sewage Works in Pretoria, South Africa, for a period in 1975 when
efficiency was reduced. The deterioration in performance was attributed to
the presence of toxic substances in the sewage. Unusually high concentrations
of mercury, phenol, chromium, and an organophosphorus compound were detected.
Any of these substances or a combination of them might have caused the reduced
efficiency. Reactors which employed attached biological growth were affected
more than the extended aeration activated sludge processes. Biofilter efflu-
ents had high bacterial counts due to encystation by peritrichous ciliates.
Nitrification, which declined rapidly during late July and early August, was
still not recovered completely by the middle of October. The effect on COD
removal was more limited. Biological treatment following lime flotation was
unaffected, suggesting that prior lime addition protected the biological pro-
cesses. The high quality of the water from the Stander Water Reclamation
Plant remained the same, even when the quality of influent from the biological
treatment facilities was not substantially improved over that of settled
sewage.
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E068
GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY PINE SEEDLINGS IN STRIP-MINED KAOLIN SPOIL AS INFLUENCED BY
SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Berry, C. R., and Marx, D. H.
Institute for Mycorrhizal Research and Development,
Southeastern Forest Experimental Station,
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
Athens, Georgia.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 379-381, October-December,
1977. 2 tab, 11 ref.
A study was carried out to determine whether adding sewage sludge to kaolin
spoils would improve growth of loblolly pine seedlings. The minimum quantity
of sludge addition needed to significantly increase growth and the maximum
quantity that could be used without reducing growth were also determined.
Loblolly pine seedlings were transplanted and grown for 6 mo in strip-mined
kaolin spoil amended with different amounts of dry sludge. Seedlings on spoil
amended with the equivalent of 34 metric tons of sludge/ha were 49% taller,
79% greater in stem diameter and had a 126% greater fresh weight than seedl-
ings grown without sludge. The percentage of short-roots having ectomycor-
rhizae was higher for seedlings grown with 34 and 69 metric tons of sludge/ha
than for those grown in spoil which received 0, 138, or 275 metric tons/ha.
Chemical analyses showed significantly greater amounts of residual organic
matter and elements essential for plant growth in sludge-amended kaolin spoil
than In non-amended kaolin spoil. Land application of sewage sludge as
a soil conditioner was considered advantageous because of its dual purpose
in waste disposal and land reclamation. The addition of even small a-
mounts of sludge to the kaolin spoils produced a significant increase
in the growth rates and the extent of mycorrhizal development by the
loblolly pine seedlings.
E069
LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE: V. CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION AS INFLUENCED
BY SEWAGE SLUDGE AND WOOD WASTE MIXTURES,
Agbim, N. N., Sabey, B. R., and Markstrom, D. C.
Nigeria University,
Nsukka,
Department of Soil Microbiology.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 446-451, October-December,
1977. 6 fig, 4 tab, 20 ref.
Studies were conducted to examine the effect of different proportions and
rates of application of wood residues and sludge on the rate of C02 produc-
tion. Wood, bark, and a wood-bark mixture from Engelmann spruce were added to
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anaerobically digested sludge in varying proportions. Each mixture was ap-
plied to a clay loam at a rate of 22.4-224 metric tons/ha. The carbon oxida-
tion rate was assessed using carbon dioxide production over a period of 367
days. Generally, carbon dioxide production increased as application rate in-
creased, but the increase was not additive for most of the time intervals. At
higher application rates, carbon dioxide accumulation increased as the per-
centage of wood and bark materials increased up to 75% bark or wood material,
then dropped at 100% wood material. Laboratory incubation and greenhouse
studies attempted to correlate carbon dioxide production with N mineraliza-
tion. Microbial respiration was considered a suitable index of plant-avail-
able nitrogen in soil, except in cases where nutrients were deficient because
of microbial immobilization or where toxic substances limited microbial
activity.
E070
INVESTIGATION OF FILL AND BATCH PERIODS OF SEQUENCING BATCH BIOLOGICAL
REACTORS,
Irvine, R. L., Fox, T. P., and Richter, R. 0.
Notre Dame University,
Indiana,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 8, p 713-717, 1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 5 ref.
Operational difficulties with sequencing batch biological reactors have led to
the more widespread use of continuous flow, constant volume treatment sys-
tems. Improvements in process control and the need for more reliable and con-
sistent treatment have led to the need for a re-evaluation of biological
treatment practices. Sequencing batch reactors provide equalization of flow
and concentration, treatment of organics, and quiescent sedimentation. Reduc-
tions in volume are also expected from plug flow systems. Laboratory studies
were performed to study waste removal, organism growth, and oxygen supply dur-
ing the fill and batch phases of biological treatment. The mathematical model
was derived for calculation of the waste and organism concentration and oxygen
uptake rate with respect to time. Measured and predicted values agreed well.
These results suggested that fill and draw reactors may provide a viable
alternative to continuous flow treatment schemes.
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E071
OZONE OXIDATION OF ORGANIC SEQUESTERING AGENTS IN WATER PRIOR TO THE
DETERMINATION OF TRACE METALS BY ANODIC STRIPPING VOLTAMMETRY,
Clem, R. G., and Hodgson, A. T.
California University,
Berkeley,
Environment and Energy Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 102-110, January, 1978. 6 fig, 3 tab,
27 ref.
Acids, normally used to destroy naturally occurring sequestering agents in
water samples prior to trace metal analysis by anodic stripping voltammetry
(ASV), can rapidly destroy the graphite electrodes used in the analysis.
Ozone oxidation was evaluated as an alternative to acidification In the analy-
sis of bay water and sewage effluents for Pb and Cd. Ozone is a strong oxi-
dizing agent which has been observed to inactivate sequestering agents over a
pH range of 2-10. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), ammonium pyrroli-
dine dithiocarbamate (APDC), tannic acid, and humic acid solutions were used
to simulate the complexing agents present in sewage and natural waters. A
corona discharge tube and a high-voltage transformer were used to generate
ozone from oxygen which was introduced at a flow rate of 3 liters/min. Solu-
tions containing 3 ppm EDTA, 25 ppm APDC, 25 ppm humic acid, 100 ppm tannic
acid, and 20 ppb Cd and Pb were ozonized under acidic and basic conditions;
and the relative metal recoveries were compared. Approximately 96% of the Cd
and 99% of the Pb were recovered from a 100 ppm humic acid solution after 3
hours of ozonolysis. The adsorption of surface active compounds onto the
graphite electrode produced a loss of sensitivity which increased in propor-
tion to the length of contact time between the electrode and the sample solu-
tion. Ozonolysis was recommended for application to on-line ASV systems for
measuring heavy metal concentrations in waste water effluents.
E072
THE APPLICABILITY OF TRACER TECHNIQUES FOR STUDIES ON SEWAGE TREATMENT PROCESS
DYNAMICS,
Kuoppamaeki, R.
Reactor Laboratory,
Finland Technical Research Centre,
Espoo, Finland.
International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, Vol. 28, No. 10-11, p
833-837, 1977. 2 fig, 34 ref.
Radioactive isotopic tracers have been used to label particular elements,
solid particles, and sludge for the examination of physical and chemical pro-
cesses occurring during waste water treatment. The dilution method, the total
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count method, and the total sample method have been used to measure flow rates
in channels or conduits having unknown flow cross-sections. When the flow
volume and the degree of mixing between two designated points can be deter-
mined, the trace pulse velocity method is favored for measuring tube flows.
Tracer techniques have been used to study sedimentation basin dynamics, to
detect severe hydraulic malfunctions, and to compare sedimentation basin de-
sign efficiencies. Radioactive isotopic tracers have been used in the acti-
vated sludge process to determine the sludge recycling ratio, circulation
time, and mixing requirements. Tracer methods have been developed for measur-
ing the aeration capacity of an aeration basin under actual process conditions.
E073
THE APPLICABILITY OF PYROLYSIS-GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY FOR THE QUANTITATIVE
IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA IN SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT EFFLUENT,
Symuleski, R. A.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 7, p 3308, 1978.
Pyrolysis-gas-liquid chromatography (PGLC) was evaluated for the identifica-
tion of bacteria in aqueous sewage effluent. PGLC analysis of bacteria re-
duced the identification time from the 24-27 hrs necessary for other methods
to 1-2 hrs. Analysis at the strain level resulted in unique signatures of
bacterial cells using the PGLC technique which could be detected at bacteria
levels of about 80 colony-forming units in 100 ml of liquid. The chemical
heterogeneity of the secondary treated waste analyzed resulted in more accu-
rate qualitative results than quantitative. It was determined that PGLC anal-
ysis of homogeneous effluent would yield better quantitative results. Bac-
terial signatures calculated by PGLC were not dependent on the composition of
the effluent. The method may also be applicable to the analysis of food, cos-
metic, and pharmaceutical industry wastes. Signatures of bacteria detected in
the effluent were matched with a data bank of species' signatures included in
a computer program designed for the project.
E074
THE REDOX POTENTIAL OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Burrows, M. G.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 4, p
415-422, 1977. 6 fig, 3 tab, 3 ref.
The redox potential of activated sludge was examined under laboratory and
full-scale conditions using a platinum electrode with a Ag/AgC12 reference
electrode, a pH meter, and a recorder. Samples collected during three aera-
tion cycles were monitored for EH, BOD, ammonia-nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate,
dissolved oxygen, mixed liquor suspended solids, and pH. The rate of change
of the sludge redox potential during aeration was directly related to the con-
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centration of mixed liquor suspended solids and the rate of aeration of the
activated sludge. The redox potential increased further with the precondi-
tioning of the sludge through aeration cycles. The establishment of nitrifi-
cation was also found to result in an increase in the plateau level of the
redox potential. A higher potential was considered better for activated
sludge processes. Redox potentials were monitored at an activated sludge
facility which was subject to variations in loading and at a diffused air
activated sludge treatment plant which produced a 30:20 standard effluent.
It was discovered that redox potential was related to loading variations,
with a 12-hour delayed effect. Low quality effluent was produced at lower
redox potentials, while a higher redox potential enhanced nitrification.
E075
BIODEGRADATION OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT AND IN NATURAL
WATERS (Gesuido shori jo oyobi kokyoyo suiiki ni okeru yukiodoku busshitsu no
bunkai katei ni kansuru kenkyu),
Murakami, K., Hasegawa, K., Watanabe, H., and Komori, K.
Showa 51 Nendo Kankyo Hozen Kenkyu Seika Shu II, Vol. 1, No. 95, p 1-17,
1977. 24 fig, 8 tab, 3 ref.
Organic components which are resistant to waste treatment were identified and
their properties investigated. Samples of secondary sewage effluent and re-
ceiving waters were exposed to aerobic, dark conditions at 20 C. It was found
that the rate coefficient of decay by first-order reaction was greater for
short-term decomposition of BOD than for COD due to manganese and total or-
ganic carbon. The decomposition rate for total organic carbon was greater
than that of COD under the preceeding conditions, but both were approximated
more accurately with longer decomposition periods and higher-order reactions.
Using gel filtration chromatography, soluble organic compounds were catego-
rized into two groups of biodegradable substances and two groups of nondegrad-
able substances. Gel chromatographs were similar for polluted receiving water
and secondary effluent and showed that the order of removal of compounds for
size separation by gel filtration chromotography was based not on molecular
weight, but on molecular structure and functional group. Aerobic decomposi-
tion of freshwater green and blue-green algae in lake water occurred within
ten days during summer. The activated sludge process was effective in remov-
ing contributors to TOC which did not exhibit much ultraviolet absorbence at
260 nm.
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E076
PARAMETER ESTIMATION FOR THE FIRST-ORDER BOD EQUATION USING NONLINEAR TECH-
NIQUES,
Constable, T. W., and MeBean, E. A.
Waterloo University,
Ontario, Canada,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, p 462-470, December,
1977. 7 fig, 5 tab, 14 ref.
BOD parameters in waste water were calculated using two nonlinear techniques.
The techniques were compared to other estimation methods by application of the
techniques to raw sewage and primary effluent from the Waterloo Pollution Con-
trol Plant in Ontario, Canada. The first technique used in estimating the
parameters in first-order BOD equations was the Re illy discrete Bayesian tech-
nique. This method was preferred for calculating BOD parameters in situations
where there was a considerable amount of operating data and a relatively small
amount of experimental data. The Reilly discrete Bayesian technique, which
successfully incorporated prior data into the BOD parameter estimation method,
was shown to be satisfactory when other simpler techniques produced inadequate
results. The second method of estimating firsr-order BOD parameters was Mar-
quardt's nonlinear least-squares technique. This algorithm was found to pro-
duce results comparable to the Bayesian method and to require less time for
computer calculations. While Marquardt's method was considered simpler and
less expensive than the Bayesian technique, various problems, such as slow
convergence, wide oscillations, and failure to converge, did occur. Two non-
linear techniques tested were considered better than the other techniques
which had incorrect error structures.
E077
METALS IN URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE POTENTIAL REUSE OF
PURIFIED SEWAGE,
Funke, J. W.
National Institute for Water Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 36-43, April, 1975. 2 fig, 7 tab, 11 ref, 1 append.
Methods were examined for the removal of heavy metals from waste water to
allow recovery of potable and industrial water in South Africa. Tests con-
ducted at four South African sewage treatment plants indicated that a major
percentage of the copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc, and iron in the waste
water accumulated in the sludge after treatment. Significantly lower concen-
trations of nickel and manganese were removed during the treatment process. A
comparison of South African Bureau of Standards' limits for heavy metals in
484
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drinking water with maximum concentrations observed over a one-year period in
treated water from the four sewage plants indicated that concentrations of
lead and chromium frequently exceeded drinking water standards. Precipitation
of heavy metals from waste water with lime was found effective when the metals
were present as salts. Further treatment was necessary for hexavalent chro-
mium and cyanide-metal complexes. Alum was found to be effective for the re-
moval of heavy metals from pulp and paper industrial wastes. It was concluded
that mercury limitations and stricter nickel concentrations should be estab-
lished in South Africa but that other heavy metal standards were acceptable.
E078
FACTORS AFFECTING EFFLUENT QUALITY FROM FILL-AND-DRAW ACTIVATED SLUDGE
REACTORS,
Daigger, G. T., and Grady, C. P. L., Jr.
School of Civil Engineering,
Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana,
Environmental Engineering Laboratory.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2390-2396,
December, 1977. 1 fig, 4 tab, 12 ref.
The concentration of soluble organic matter in effluent treated by the acti-
vated sludge process was compared with the concentration of organic matter in
waste water before treatment. The influence of hydraulic residence time on
the quality of the effluent was also observed. Experiments were conducted
using plug-flow activated sludge reactors with influent lactose concentrations
ranging from 600-3,600 mg/liter. Hydraulic residence times were held constant
at 46 hours with the fill-and-draw cycle occurring every 24 hours. Daily sam-
ples were analyzed for suspended solids, volatile suspended solids, pH, COD,
and lactose. Soluble COD concentrations in the effluent were found to be
directly.related to the soluble COD content of the influent. This propor-
tional influence of influent concentration on effluent quality in a plug flow
activated sludge system was found to be the same result as obtained in experi-
ments with completely-mixed processes. Soluble COD in the effluent was pro-
duced by microbial action during the activated sludge process. It was con-
cluded that the COD concentration of the influent determined the effluent
quality, regardless of the hydralic process, and that the activated sludge
method not only used organic matter, but produced it as well. The effect of
the hydraulic residence time on effluent quality could not be determined.
485
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E079
THE USE OF FAECAL BACTERIA AS A TRACER FOR SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL IN THE SEA,
Ayres, P. A.
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
Fisheries Laboratory,
Burnham-on-Crouch, Essex, England.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 12, p 283-285, December, 1977. 2 fig,
4 ref.
The movement of sewage sludge discharged into Liverpool Bay in England was
followed using bacteria indigenous to sewage as a tracer. Enumeration of E.
coli and other enterobacteria associated with fecal waste was accomplished
within two days for samples of bottom sediment collected from 62 sites in
Liverpool Bay. Initial concentrations of coliforms in the sediment samples
proved higher than E. coli concentrations, indicating greater survival of
coliform bacteria over a large area. Movement of the bacteria demonstrated a
definite easterly direction towards the River Mersey and rising tide; little
northerly or southerly movement was observed. Previous studies with radio-
active tracers had yielded similar results and indicated rapid dispersion with
east-west settlement over an area 8-km wide by 30-km long. Fecal bacteria was
found to collect in muddy sediments and had a short viability in seawater.
E080
A MICRO-KJELDAHL TECHNIQUE FOR NITROGEN DETERMINATION IN WATER, WASTEWATER,
AND SLUDGE,
Stephenson, R. L.
Butler, Fairman and Seufert, Incorporated,
Carmel, Indiana.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2499-2502,
December, 1977. 2 tab, 5 ref, 1 append.
A modification of the micro-Kjeldahl technique was developed as a simplified
method of measuring the nitrogen content in waste water, sludge, and water. A
5-ml sample containing ammonia nitrogen is subjected to a temperature of 340
C, producing ammonium bisulfate and ammonium sulfate. The sample is diluted
after digestion with ammonia-free water and its pH is raised to 10 with the
addition of sodium hydroxide. The nesslerization technique is used to cal-
culate the ammonia nitrogen concentration in the sample. The simplified tech-
nique was tested in laboratory experiments with four representative amino
acids: glycine, methionine, tryptophan, and diphenylcarbazone. The nitrogen
concentrations of the samples were 500, 250, 50, and 10 mg/liter. Nitrogen
recovery from glycine, used to represent a monoamino monocarboxy acid, ranged
92-100%. Nitrogen recovery with methionine, used as a long-chain, sulfur-
containing amino acid, ranged 96-124%. Tryptophan, as a heterocyclic acid,
486
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exhibited recoveries of 100-106%. Diphenylcarbazone, insoluble in acid solu-
tions, showed poor recovery of nitrogen, ranging 8.4-120%.
E081
A FAECAL STEROL SURVEY IN THE CLYDE ESTUARY,
Goodfellow, R. M., Cardoso, J., Eglinton, G., Dawson, J. P., and Best, G. A.
Bristol University,
England,
Department of Chemistry.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 12, p 272-276, December, 1977. 2 fig,
5 tab, 21 ref.
Various tracer techniques have been used to map the movement of sewage efflu-
ents discharged from ocean outfalls. In this study, gas chromatography was
used to measure levels of coprostanol in water and sediments collected in the
Clyde estuary and Firth of Clyde in England. Bottom sediments contained
0.1-14.0 ppm of coprostanol (5beta-cholestan-3beta-ol), as well as the cor-
responding 24-methyland 24-ethyl-5beta-stanols. The concentrations of copros-
tanol in seawater closely parallelled fecal coliform counts obtained for the
seawater samples. Coprostanol levels were also directly related to the dis-
charge locations and quantities of sewage input to the estuary by sewage out-
falls and dumping operations. The data indicated that fecal steroid levels in
sewage were rapidly diluted after discharge, although they could be detected
in surface waters over 20 km from the sewage outfalls. The results suggested
that coprostanol data might be used in addition to fecal coliform enumeration
for monitoring the path of pollutants, especially for detecting domestic wastes
in industrial outfalls where the concentration of sewage bacteria is generally
low.
£08 2
DISTRIBUTION OF VIRAL AND BACTERIAL PATHOGENS IN A COASTAL CANAL COMMUNITY,
Gerba, C. P., Goyal, S. M., Smith, E. M., and Melnick, J. L.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 12, p 279-282, December, 1977. 1 fig,
3 tab, 18 ref.
In canal communities, each house has canal frontage allowing direct water ac-
cess. The occurrence and distribution of bacterial and viral pathogens were
examined in a canal community on the Texas Gulf coast where secondary-treated
sewage effluent was discharged. Turbidity and salinity, as well as bacteria
487
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and viruses, were measured. Sewage from the community is treated in a small
activated sludge plant which discharges an unchlorinated effluent. Recom-
mended limits of 1000 total coliforms/100 ml and 200 fecal coliforms/100 ml
for recreational water were exceeded in two of the three monthly samples.
Salmonella, poliovirus, and Echovirus types 1, 2, and 3 were also isolated.
Assuming an average virus concentration efficiency of 50%, the recommended
standard for recreational water of one infectious unit of virus per 10 gallons
was exceeded in all water samples.
E083
STUDIES ON THE TOXICITY OF AMMONIA, NITRATE AND THEIR MIXTURES TO GUPPY FRY,
Rubin, A. J., and Elmaraghy, G. A.
Ohio State University,
Columbus,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 10, p 927-935, 1977. 8 fig, 6 tab, 19 ref.
The toxicities of ammonia and nitrate, administered separately and in mix-
tures, on guppy fry were evaluated. Individual toxicities of ammonia and nit-
rate, two common constituents of treated waste water, were estimated in statis
tests at constant pH and temperature. The 72-hour median lethal values were
199 and 1.26 mg/liter-N for potassium nitrate and free ammonia, respectively.
The toxicities of mixtures of the two were additive, except at very low am-
monia to nitrate ratios. Watson's equation, a disinfection law relating toxi-
cant concentration to survival, was applicable to both toxicants. The appli-
cability of Chick's law and other kinetic models to fish toxicity was also
evaluated.
E084
INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL DRAINAGE ON PENETRATION OF COLIFORM BACTERIA FROM
SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENTS INTO WET TILE DRAINED SOILS,
Reneau, R. B., Jr.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia,
Department of Agronomy.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 23-30, January-March, 1978.
4 fig, 6 tab, 14 ref.
The movement of fecal and total coliform bacteria through tile drained soil
systems from domestic septic tanks was monitored with on-site analytical tech-
niques in Windsor, Virginia. The residential study area was characterized by
poorly drained Aerie and Typic Ochraquults soil that had been previously tile
488
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drained for agricultural purposes. Sampling monitors were oriented in the
direction of the groundwater flow; water table control wells and tile outfalls
were established at various distances from the three sites. Log normalized
fecal coliform densities for high water tables reached a mean high of 160,OOO/
100 ml in the third site at 152 cm from the septic source. Fecal counts for
three sites at distances of 1,310, 1,341, and 2,172 cm from the sewage source
were reduced to a minimum of less than 3.0/100 ml. The highest mean total
coliform density recorded at site three of 730,000/100 ml at 152 cm was re-
duced to a density of 380/100 ml at the maximum distance from the source. A
high of greater than 240,000/100 ml for total coliform density and a low of
less than 3.0/100 ml for fecal coliform density were observed in the tile out-
falls for high water tables. Coliform counts increased during the summer low
water tables.
E085
CONSERVATION OF SAMPLES OF WASTE WATER BY COOLING (Konservierung von
Abwasserproben durch Kuehlung),
Gudernatsch, H.
Wasser, Luft, und Betrieb, Vol. 21, No. 11, p 598-600, 1977. 4 fig, 2 tab, 7
ref.
The influence of sample treatment and storage temperature on the total organic
carbon (TOG) and COD values of industrial and combined municipal-industrial
waste waters was evaluated. Samples were collected at waste water treatment
plants after the primary treatment stage and from the treated stream. Dif-
ferences of not more than 10% in TOC and COD values measured in samples which
had been subjected to various types of handling and storage were considered
insignificant. The COD and TOC values obtained for most of the homogenized
samples were significantly higher than those of filtered samples. The dif-
ferences between sedimented and filtered samples were significant in 2 out of
8 cases only. Experiments on the effect of storage length and temperature re-
vealed that storage at 20 C for more than 24 hours would result in erroneous
TOC and COD data. Storage for up to 7 days at 4 C and for up to 28 days
at -18 C did not affect TOC and COD determinations.
489
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E086
PHDTOTROPHIC PURPLE AND GREEN BACTERIA IN A SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT,
Siefert, E., Irgens, R. L., and Pfenning, N.
Institut fuer Mikrobiologie der Gesellschaft fuer
Strahlenund Umweltforschung mbH,
Goettingen, West Germany.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 1, p 38-44, January, 1978.
2 fig, 5 tab, 19 ref.
The content and metabolism of phototrophic bacteria in waste water purification
processes were investigated in laboratory experiments with effluent from the
Goettingen, West Germany, sewage treatment plant. Phototrophic bacteria were
evident in every stage of the treatment process; the bacteria count was high-
est in sludge-bearing waste water. Colony counts of purple nonsulfur bacteria
in all stages of waste treatment ranged 100-650,000 colonies/ml of waste.
Purple and green sulfur bacteria colony counts ranged 0-1,300/ml. The quantity
of bacteriochlorophyll, synthesized by the purple nonsulfur bacteria, in acti-
vated sludge samples was found to be 5-10 times higher than the calculated
production for the bacteria colony count. It was concluded that phototrophic
bacteria continue to grow in a reduced oxygen environment. The reduction of
light in activated sludge layers was not a growth-limiting factor for photo-
trophic bacteria. It was assumed that the bacteria continue to grow through
respiratory energy at low oxygen concentrations. Phototrophic bacterial growth
was limited, but not eliminated under anaerobic and dark conditions. Growth
continued by fermentative energy metabolism, but not efficiently enough to
allow competition with chemotrophic anaerobes. Although not considered as
efficient as chemotrophic bacteria in waste water treatment, phototrophic bac-
teria had the advantage of assimilating inorganic minerals and producing cell
protein as a byproduct. An example of waste water treatment with phototrophic
bacteria in Japan was cited.
E087
DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE DIOXIDE IN SEWAGE EFFLUENTS,
Knechtel, J. R., Janzen, E. G., and Davis, E. R.
Wastewater Technology Center,
Burlington, Ontario, Canada.
Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 202-205, February, 1978. 5 fig, 3
tab, 14 ref.
An spectrophotometric technique with acid chrome violet K decolorization was
developed for the measurement of chlorine dioxide in waste water. Maximum ab-
sorbance of acid chrome violet K in a dilute solution with chlorine dioxide
occurred at 550 nm. The chlorine dioxide content was measured after solids
removal with a spectrophotometer at pH 8.1-8.4. A similar procedure was de-
490
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vised for the reaction of acid chrome violet K with chlorine, hypochlorite,
chlorite, chloramine T, and nitrite to determine interference. Effluent sam-
ples were also analyzed for chlorine dioxide content with an electron spin re-
sonance technique for verification of the acid chrome violet K data. Simulta-
neous analysis for chlorine dioxide with the colorimetric and the electron
spin techniques was necessary because of the decay rate of chlorine dioxide.
Both techniques gave similar chlorine dioxide values in sample tests.
E088
TRANSFER OF HEAVY METALS FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE TO FESCUE TO RAT TISSUES,
Miller, J., and Boswell, F. C.
Georgia Experiment Station,
Georgia University,
Experiment.
Federation Proceedings, Federation of American Societies for Experimental
Biology, Vol. 37, No. 3, p 894, 1978.
Heavy metal absorption by organ tissues was examined .in experiments with rats
which had been fed diets of fescue which had been treated with secondary
treated sewage effluent and with inorganic salts of minor elements. Estab-
lished fescue crops were irrigated with sewage sludge from a highly industri-
alized city and treated with inorganic salts of cadmium, chromium, copper,
iron, manganese, and zinc. A three week diet consisting of 50% fescue was fed
to Sprague-Dawley rats. The rate of uptake of the heavy metals by the rats
was dependent upon the source of the metal, effluent or inorganic salt, and
upon the organ or system absorbing the metal. Liver and kidney accumulations
of chromium from both types of treated fescue were similar in the rats; chro-
mium uptake by fescue was five times higher from the sewage effluent than from
the inorganic salts. Liver tissue of rats which had been fed cadmium salt-
treated fescue contained 10 times more cadmium than the tissue of rats which
received sewage-treated fescue. Cadmium uptake by fescue was the same with
effluent irrigation and salt application. Liver size in the rats was found to
increase, although there were no significant weight changes.
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EOS 9
THE EFFECTS OF SEWAGE SLUDGE ON THE GROWTH RATE OF CARP, CYPRINUS CARPIO L.,
Yip, S. W., and Wong, M. H.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shatin,
Department of Biology.
Environmental Pollution, Vol. 14, No. 2, p 127-132, 1977. 1 fig, 3 tab, 10
ref.
Cyprinus carpio (carp) were raised in tap water, sewage effluent, and various
concentrations of digested sludge in laboratory experiments to determine the
effects of waste on carp growth. Detritus-feeding carp were raised in sludge
mixed with tap water at concentrations of 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, and 0.2%. The medium
most conducive to carp growth was the sludge solution of 0.2%, followed by, in
decreasing order, sewage effluent, tap water, 0.4%, 0.6%, and 0.8%. All the
carp raised in the 0.8% sludge died within 2 weeks and a 50% mortality rate
was observed in the 0.6% solution after 2 weeks, with only one carp surviving
into the third week. Carp reared in sewage effluent and 0.2% sludge had
greater dry weights and protein contents than carp grown in tap water or
higher sludge concentrations. Phosphate concentrations in the media increased
during the test period for sewage effluent, tap water, 0.2%, and 0.4% sludge.
Media metal concentrations, including Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ce, and Mg were
analyzed. Metal contents of sewage effluent and the 0.2% sludge solution were
similar and consistently lower than those of other media. Cr and Pb were only
detected in sewage effluent. Metal levels in the higher sludge concentrations
were considered harmful to the carp and the cause of fish mortality. It was
suggested that asphyxiation resulted from a reaction of heavy metal ions with
mucus in the fish gills, a phenomenon known as the coagulation film anoxia.
E090
A NEW METHOD OF MONITORING WATER QUALITY IN A STREAM RECEIVING SEWAGE
EFFLUENT, USING CHIRONOMID PUPAL EXUVIAE,
Wilson, R. S., and McGill, J. D.
Bristol University,
England,
Department of Zoology.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 11, p 959-962, 1977. 3 fig, 20 ref.
Organic enrichment of the River Chew in England by sewage effluent was moni-
tored by the on-site quantification of Chironomid pupal exuviae. Large popu-
lations of Chironomus riparius often predominate over other chironomid species
in polluted water courses. The pupae of Chironomus riparius shed easily re-
cognizable skins at the water's surface which float and are transported down-
stream. Samples of floating scum were collected at 11 stations along the
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River Chew and Stoke Brook into which sewage effluent is discharged. Three of
the sampling stations were upstream of a sewage outfall while the others were
below it at a maximum distance of 1,040 meters from the discharge point. C.
riparius exuviae were absent in samples taken 240 and 90 meters above the sew-
age outlet and comprised 1.0% of a sample collected 30 meters above the out-
fall. A maximum concentration of C. riparius skins of 62% was obtained for a
sample collected 30 meters below the outfall. The concentration decreased
consistently with distance from the effluent source. No pupae exuviae were
evident in the sample obtained 1,040 meters below the outfall. An increase to
55% C. riparius occurring 130 meters downstream was attributed to water ob-
struction by fallen branches which entrapped scum. Yearly sampling was sug-
gested as a means of continuously monitoring the river quality.
E091
NEARSHORE SEDIMENT POLLUTION IN ISRAEL BY TRACE METALS DERIVED FROM SEWAGE
EFFLUENT,
Amiel, A. J., and Navrot, J.
Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Rehovot, Israel,
Department of Soil and Water Science.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 9, No. I, p 10-14, 1978. 5 fig, 9 ref.
Marine sediment from the Israeli coast in the vicinity of a sewage outfall was
analyzed for silver, copper, chromium, cobalt, mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc.
Both total and extractable trace metal measurements were recorded for sediment
core samples. Trace metal concentrations were found to be a function of dis-
tance from the sewage outfall, with the highest accumulations recorded near
the pipeline outlet. Significant trace metal concentrations were found within
400 meters from the shoreline and sewage pipe. Beyond the 400 meter distance,
dilution reduced the trace metal concentrations. Dilution of bacteria was
limited near the outfall and increased progressively with distance from the
pipe. Trace metal concentrations in sediment collected at a significant dis-
tance from the outfall were similar to concentrations in non-polluted areas.
Maximum trace metal levels were recorded during the summer months and in the
upper layers of the sediment. A previous study of the outfall area indicated
concentrations of cadmium and copper at a level considered potentially danger-
ous to aquatic organisms.
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E092
TRACE METAL DISTRIBUTIONS AMONG THE HUMIC ACID, THE FULVIC ACID, AND PRECIPIT-
ABLE FRACTIONS EXTRACTED WITH NAOH FROM SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Holtzclaw, K. H., Keech, D. A., Page, A. L., Sposito, G., and Gange, T. J.
California University,
Riverside,
Department of Soil and Environmental Science.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 124-127, January-March,
1978. 2 fig, 4 tab, 11 ref.
Trace metal concentrations in the humic acid, fulvic acid, and precipitable
fractions of four organic sludge-soil samples were measured in laboratory ex-
periments with atomic absorption spectrophotometry. After extraction with
sodium hydroxide, the humic acid, fulvic acid, and precipitable fractions were
analyzed for concentrations of aluminum, cadmium, copper, iron, nickel, zinc,
phosphorus, and carbon. Precipitation of the trace metals from solution with
pH adjustments to 4.5, 6.5, and 8.5 was examined. Precipitation by pH adjust-
ment of the trace metals, phosphorus, and carbon from the solutions suggested
that most of the copper and carbon in the sludge samples was contained in the
humic acid fraction. The precipitable fraction, a high ash precipitate formed
after pH adjustment of impure fulvic acid, contained the highest concentra-
tions of aluminum, iron, zinc, and phosphorus. Cadmium and nickel were as-
sociated primarily with the fulvic acid extraction and to a lesser extent, the
precipitable fraction.
E093
RESIDUAL TOXICITIES OF SEVERAL DISINFECTANTS IN DOMESTIC WASTEWATER,
Ward, R. W., and DeGraeve, G. M.
Grand Valley State Colleges,
Allendale, Michigan,
Department of Biology.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. I, p 49-60, January,
1978. 13 tab, 18 ref.
Effluent from the Grandville, Michigan, waste water treatment plant was used
in studies on the toxicities of nondisinfected, chlorinated, dechlorinated,
chlorobrominated, and ozonated effluents. Residual C12, BrCl, 03, and sulfite
were measured in effluents used to fill aquaria which contained fathead min-
nows (Pimephales promelas) and Daphnia magna; acidity, alkalinity, total am-
monia, conductivity, hardness, and pH were also measured. The study revealed
that mean total residual chlorine concentrations as low as 0.045 rag/liter and
0.33 mg/liter could have deleterious effects on fathead minnows and Daphnia,
respectively. Dechlorination with sulfur dioxide eliminated these adverse ef-
fects. The growth of fathead minnows was retarded by mean residual bromine
494
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chloride concentrations as low as 0.034 rag/liter. The survival, growth, and
reproduction of fathead minnows were not affected by long-term exposure to
ozonated effluents having mean residual ozone concentrations of 0.016 mg/liter
or less.
E094
SALMONELLA AND BACTERIAL INDICATORS IN OZONATED AND CHLORINE DIOXIDE-
DISINFECTED EFFLUENT,
Schiemann, D. A., Brodsky, M. H., and Ciebin, B. W.
Ontario Ministry of Health,
Toronto, Canada.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 158-162,
January, 1978. 5 tab, 17 ref.
Studies were conducted to examine the incidence of Salmonella in secondary
waste water effluent and to assess various methods for recovery. The rela-
tionship of Salmonella isolation to densities of three bacterial indicator
groups (total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci) in effluents
disinfected by ozone and chlorine dioxide was also examined. Samples of ef-
fluent from a secondary activated sludge waste water treatment plant in Bramp-
ton, Ontario, were disinfected under controlled laboratory conditions. Sal-
monella recovery by a membrane filter and a glass fiber filter were compared;
membrane filter and MPN counts were also compared for total and fecal coli-
forms in effluent disinfected by chlorine and ozone. Recovery rates for Sal-
monella from undisinfected primary and secondary effluents were 88.9 and 72.5%,
respectively. Rates for effluents which had been treated with ozone, chlorine
dioxide, and chlorine were 8.0, 12.5, and 0.0%, respectively. For undisin-
fected secondary effluent, incubation of the tetrathionate broth at 4.5 C with
XLD agar and brilliant green sulfa agar was most effective. Higher coliform
densities were generally found in ozonated and chlorinated effluents in which
Salmonella had been detected.
495
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E095
BIODEGRADATION OF SOME CATIONIC SURFACTANT AGENTS (Biodegradation de quelques
agents de surface cationiques),
Baleux, B., and Caumette, P.
Universite des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc,
Montpellier, France,
Laboratorie d 'Hydrobiologie.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 9, p 833-841, 1977. 15 fig, 1 tab, 18 ref.
The biodegradation of 10 cationic surfactants in sewage wastes and river water
was studied. Bacterial growth of heterotrophic populations was not inhibited
or destroyed by the cationic surfactants, although pathogenic bacteria were
affected. A colorimetric technique using sodium alizarine sulfonate was era-
ployed to monitor the decrease of active material during surfactant biodegra-
dation. Measurements of biodegradation were obtained with infrared spectros-
copy. The ten cationic surfactants studied were: 15 ethoxymethyl distearyl
ammonium chloride, hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride and bromide, dodecylpy-
ridinium iodide, hexadecylpyridinium bromide, laurylpyridinium chloride,
diisobutylphenoxyethoxyethyl benzyl dimethylammonium chloride, quaternary
alkylimidazolium compound, ethoxylated tertiary alkyl primary amines, and
dimethyldistearylammonium chloride. Five of the alkylammonium compounds were
found degradable while the other five were not. Three of the nondegradable
products were cyclical alkylammonium compounds of benzene and pyridium, while
the other two were petroleum derivatives.
E096
LEAK DETECTOR,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 11, p 32, November, 1977.
The English company of Fischer and Porter Ltd., Workington, Cumbria, has
developed an automatic chlorination system and a device for the detection of
chlorine gas leaks in waste water treatment facilities. The Chloralert Chlo-
rine Leak Detector warns of chlorine gas in the surrounding atmosphere with an
alarm light and activates external alarms through electrical contacts. The
Chlorimatic chlorination system controls chlorine dosages applied to waste ef-
fluent and water supplies. The system, which supplies exact proportions of
chlorine gas to varying waste water flow rates and qualities, is vacuum ope-
rated and solution fed. The Chlorimatic system, used in processes requiring
up to 500 Ib of chlorine gas/day, consists of a vacuum regulator, a flowmeter,
an ejector, and an automatic control valve developed by Fischer and Porter Ltd.
496
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E097
FILTER MEDIA FOR SAMPLING AND MONITORING,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 10, p 54, October, 1977.
A review of filter media products, manufactured by Whatman of England for
analytical and filtration processes, is presented. A glass microfiber filter
that does not contain binders and can be ignited for gravimetric analysis is
used in the measurement of total suspended solids in waste water. Industrial
waste water in Japan is analyzed with a thick glass microfiber filter that has
a high loading capacity. A paper developed by Whatman with an ion-exchange
resin coating is used in the detection of metal ions in water. A glass micro-
fiber filter is also used in the gravimetric analysis of ruthenium-106 in sea
water. Whatman cotton cellulose thimbles are used in conjunction with a sol-
vent to remove animal or mineral fats, greases, and oils from sludge. Specific
resistance of sludge to filtration is measured with Whatman No. 1 filter papers
or No. 17 chromatography paper. A glass microfiber filter with a high flow
rate and 1.6 micrometer retention is used to identify Salmonella and Pseudomo-
nas aeroginosa in water supplies. Bacteria analysis of potable water is also
conducted with No. 17 filter pads. Whatman produces five glass microfiber
filter grades and 28 cellulose filter verifies.
E098
TWO COMPLEMENTARY ULTRASONIC SYSTEMS,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 10, p 42, 44, October, 1977.
An ultrasonic effluent sampler and monitor, produced by Endress and Hauser,
provides pH, dissolved oxygen, water level, and flow data. The water sampling
system monitors pH and dissolved oxygen levels; the level monitor utilizes an
echo gauge; and the flow metering is performed in open channels by an ultra-
sonic sensor. PH monitoring for short or long distances is accomplished by a
constant meter reference electrode and a glass electrode that galvanically
charges the effluent with a voltage dependent the upon ion concentration of
the water. Dissolved oxygen levels in the waste water are measured by a gold
and silver electrode covered by a plastic membrane pervious only to oxygen.
Flow proportional or time proportional water sampling is conducted by a glass
cylinder with an air pump and a pinch valve. The level monitoring device is
used for the measurement of grit, sump pump, sludge-water interfaces, and
digesters. Flow measurements in open channels are accomplished by an ultra-
sonic gauge that monitors elapsed time of echoes between the surface of the
water and the gauge. The measurement is converted into an analog signal pro-
portional to the flow within the open channel.
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E099
VERSATILE WASTEWATER FLOWMETER,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 981, p 685-686, November, 1977.
The digital QSFM4 waste water flowmeter, developed by Quantum Science Ltd.,
accurately measures the depth of flow in pipes, channels, or flumes. The
digital system employs a series of 20 vertical thermistors, each representing
5% increments in flow. Data obtained by the thermistors on flow increments is
transcribed by the digital instrument into gal/hr, gal/day, liters/hr, or
liters/day. Total and maximum flows are automatically computed; note is made
of the number of times the flow has exceeded a preset flow limit. The digital
flowmeter is capable of operating external automatic analyzers or samplers
within a preset schedule. The flowmeter can be modified to show rate of loss
of a substance, such as calories. Accuracy is maintained by the digital unit
to ensure integrated readings.
E100
AUTOMATION OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS—PART I—DATA COLLECTION AND USE,
Cotton, P.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 7, p 331-332, 335, July,
1977.
The collection and storage of data in waste water treatment facilities by
automatic computer operation is evaluated. Analog and digital computer data
can be displayed at the monitoring site or transmitted to the central control
room for processing or display. Printed logs of treatment facility data are
processed and provided by central processing units. Analog systems are being
replaced by digital and direct digital control systems that are more reliable.
Data collected in the treatment facility can be used for automatic control,
daily operation in manually-controlled plants, evaluation of plant efficiency,
accumulation of a data base for future design reference, and specific data in-
vestigations. Physical parameters measured in treatment facilities include:
flows and volumes; settled sewage, sludge, and process liquor measurement; and
energy usage. Analyses provided by computer control include: dissolved oxy-
gen levels; suspended solids contents; sludge density; and thermal digestor
gas values.
498
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E101
A STUDY ON THE LOADING AND PERFORMANCE OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS,
Stones, T.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 7, p 352-353, July, 1977.
3 tab, 11 ref.
The measurement of oxidtzable load on a waste water treatment facility accord-
ing to BOD and permanganate values was evaluated for the effective calculation
of biological filter and activated sludge capacities. BOD and permanganate
values provide only partial measurement of total carbonaceous oxygen demand
and did not reflect nitrogenous oxygen demand. A comparison of BOD reduction
by biological filtration and activated sludge indicated higher reduction rates
by the activated sludge treatment. However, the biological filter reduced the
nitrogenous oxygen demand by 73%, the dichromate value by 77.8%, and the total
oxygen demand by 76.6%. The activated sludge method achieved reductions in
nitrogenous oxygen demand of 23.1%, dichromate value of 69.2%, and total oxygen
demand of 56.1%, reductions that were significantly lower than with biological
filtration. The activated sludge method was considered better for reducing BOD
than the filtration technique. For total oxygen demand, a 76% reduction was
achieved by biological filtration and a 56.1% reduction by activated sludge.
The analysis of total oxygen demand reduction, consisting of carbonaceous and
nitrogenous oxygen demand, was considered superior to BOD and permanganate
analyses for the calculation of treatment plant loading and performance.
E102
AUTOMATIC MONITORING TECHNIQUES OF EUTHOPHICATION SUBSTANCES IN COASTAL SEA
WATER (Sangyo haisui no fueiyokaseibun no shori ni kansuru kenkyu-kenshutauki
haihatsu ni kansuru kenkyu),
Hiiro, K., Tanaka, T., Kawahara, A., and Hagiwara, K.
Analytical Chemistry Section,
Government Industrial Research Institute,
Ministry of International Trade and Industry,
Osaka, Japan.
Tsusansho kogyo gijutsuin sangyo kogai kenkyu kaihatsu choseikyoku 51 nendo
kogai tokubetsu kenkyu hokoku, No. 47, p 1-6, July, 1977. 4 fig, 3 tab, 8 ref.
A two year eutrophication study of coastal sea wate,r vulnerable to red tide
monitored nitrate ion, phosphate ion, and organic substance concentrations.
Selective ion sensitive electrodes and absorbence differentials for concentra-
tion calculations were developed. Nitrate nitrogen concentrations ranging
1.4-1,400 ppm were detected by two types of electrodes developed for the study,
An Urushi matrix membrane in a liquid ion exchanger produced a linear nitrate-
nitrogen calibration curve similar to that produced by the polyvinyl chloride
499
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membrane i.n a liquid ion exchanger. Phosphate-phosphorus was monitored by a
lead sulfide membrane electrode with a sensitivity range of 0.31-3,100 ppm
phosphate-phosphorus at pH 7-9. Correlation coefficients for total nitrate
and nitrite ions in sea and river water samples were calculated according to
absorbence differences between 223 and 232 mm. The 14 sea water and 18 river
water samples yielded correlation coefficients of 0.81 and 0.94, respectively.
Absorbence differences between 250 and 280 nm produced a correlation factor of
0.96 to total organic carbon in the sea water samples. Fluorescence was used
to measure the organic content of the sea water samples; the correlation coef-
ficient was calculated at 0.96 for the organic and total carbon fluorescence
intensities. Ion exchange-precipitation methods for enrichment of nitrate-
nitrogen and phosphate-phosphorus were installed; an automatic monitoring
station is planned.
E103
COMPUTER CONTROLS PIPELINE FLOW,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 12, p 34-35, December, 1977. 1 fig.
The Eindhoven sewage treatment plant in the Netherlands, designed to treat ef-
fluent from a maximum potential population of 750,000 and an expanding indus-
try, is controlled by a Philips P800 minicomputer with telemetry links. The
computer system also monitors and controls the flow in the 46 km long pipeline
through which sewage is transported to the treatment facility. A P855 com-
puter collects and displays data in the central control room on measurements
of levels, flows, motor currents, and operating hours. Computer control of
the six sewage pumps located between the coarse screens and the grit remover
has maximized pump efficiency by operating the pumps in sequential order ac-
cording to the monitored effluent levels in the three supply channels. The
computer operates the sewage transport pipeline as a buffer reservoir by in-
corporating monitored pipeline data into a simulated model of the line. Flow
data relayed to the computer by the telemetry system allows the balance of
water levels in the pipeline for optimal buffer capacity, and prevents or con-
trols overflows. Control stations and a pumping station along the pipeline
route are also under computer control.
El 04
DETERMINATION OF COD USING A SEALED-TUBE METHOD,
Best, D. G., and de Casseres, K. E.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 138-140, 1978. 7 tab, 3 ref.
A sealed-tube technique using titration or colorimetry for COD analysis of
standard and oxidation-resistant compounds was compared to the conventional
reflux COD method. A solution contained 10.126 g of potassium dichromate, 167
ml of sulfuric acid, and 33.3 g of mercuric sulfate was mixed in a sealed
glass tube with a catalyst solution containing 22 g of silver sulfate and 2.5
500
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liters of sulfuric acid. The mixture was rotated and heated to 150 C in a
block thermostat unit. The reaction mixture was then diluted and fed to a
colorimeter or a titrator. This tube method was capable of recovering 100.4%
of potassium hydrogen phthalate, 99.9% of glucose, and 97.3% of glutamic acid.
Ethanol and sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, considered difficult to oxidize,
were recovered more efficiently with the sealed tube method than with the
standard reflux technique. The two analytical procedures were comparable in
precision analyses with synthetic potassium hydrogen phthalate standard solu-
tions and waste water samples. When compared to the reflux technique, the
sealed tube process required 75% less testing space and saved an estimated 70%
of the cost of chemicals for analysis.
E105
AIRBORNE ENTERIC BACTERIA AND VIRUSES FROM SPRAY IRRIGATION WITH WASTEWATER,
Teltsch, B., and Katzenelson, E.
Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School,
Jerusalem, Israel,
Environmental Health Laboratory.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 2, p 290-296, February,
1978. 7 fig, 2 tab, 15 ref.
Aerosolized bacteria and viruses were monitored in an agricultural area spray
irrigated with sewage effluents. Marker strains of mutant E. coli, introduced
into the irrigation effluent, were present in the air only when the E. coli
concentration in the waste water exceeded 1,000/ml. Monitoring of temperature,
solar irradiation, relative humidity, and wind velocity was conducted simul-
taneously with the air sampling. Peak solar irradiation coincided with the
minimum relative humidity level and aerosolized bacterial density. Samples
obtained at night yielded bacterial concentrations 10 times higher than for
corresponding daytime measurements. The correlation coefficient between bac-
teria and relative humidity was calculated at 0.80; the correlation coefficient
with solar irradiation was -0.50. Wind velocity and temperature did not in-
fluence bacterial density. Four out of 12 air samples collected at a distance
of 40 m downwind from the irrigation site contained echovirus 7. Coliforms
were detected in air samples obtained as far as 350 m downwind of the spray
irrigation lines.
501
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E106
NOVEL COMBINATION METHOD ASSESSES SEWAGE ODORS,
Molton, P. M., and Cash, D.
Batelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories,
Richland, Washington.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 47-48, 50, 52, February, 1978.
3 fig, 1 tab.
Odor analysis of municipal sewage and sludge was accomplished by a combined
method of organoleptic testing and gas chromatography. Threshold odor numbers
were defined for sludge treated by digestion, irradiation, and heat, and un-
treated sludge in a series of tests by a six member panel. An electron cap-
ture detector was employed in the gas chromatography analysis of sewage and
sludge odor. Gas chromatography indicated that digestion of sludge signifi-
cantly reduced the odor of the effluent. The results of the organoleptic and
gas chromatography analyses indicated that odors vary with time; peak odor
levels were followed by odor decreases. Odor development patterns were useful
in predicting maximum odor levels. Chemical treatment of minor odorous com-
pounds was suggested as a possible means of reducing odor significantly.
E107
PROGRAMMING PHOSPHATE TREATMENT SAVES MONEY,
Culver, R. H., and Chaplick, D.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 84-87, March, 1978. 2 fig, 3 tab,
1 ref.
An alum treatment schedule based on observed hourly variations in phosphorus
concentrations was developed for the Pittsfield, Massachusetts, municipal waste
water treatment plant. Random sampling of the effluent for phosphorus concen-
tration data proved to be an inefficient basis upon which to calculate alum
requirements. Alum additions of 300 mg/liter prior to screening and grit re-
moval reduced effluent phosphorus to 0.8 mg/liter but produced large volumes
of sludge with a solids content of 2%. To avoid anaerobic digester failure,
alum doses were reduced to 200 mg/liter, reducing effluent phosphorus to 1.5
mg/liter. Hourly sampling of the influent over a seven day period indicated
that peak phosphorus flows occurred from 10 a.m. to 12 midnight. With a 20:1
alum-to-phosphorus ratio for treatment, alum was wasted when additions were
made on the basis of daily average phosphorus flow. An individual schedule for
each day of the week established adequate alum doses with respect to hourly
phosphorus data. Simplification of the schedule to eight daily manual addi-
tions of the varying alum doses provided the most effective reduction of phos-
phorus with the most efficient plant operation.
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E108
ORGANOCHLORINATED RESIDUES IN WASTEWATERS BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT,
Martin, G. B., and Gosselin, C.
Universite Laval,
Quebec,
Department des Vivres.
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Health, Vol. A13, No. 1, p 1-H> 1978.
2 fig, 3 tab, 8 ref.
The removal efficiency of polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT, and other organo-
chlorine compounds present in municipal waste water was studied at a treatment
facility in Valcartier, Quebec, Canada. Samples of waste water were collected
at the plant inlet and outlet over a five-day period and over a 24-hr period.
All samples were analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detec-
tors. The municipal facility provided primary and secondary treatment with
chlorination. Daily sampling over the five-day collection period yielded a
polychlorinated biphenyl concentration range of 0.50-2.00 ppb at the inlet and
0.02-0.60 ppb at the outlet. DDD ranged from traces to 0.07 ppb at the inlet
and 0.03 ppb at the outlet. DDT concentrations were as high as 0.08 ppb at
the inlet and 0.02 ppb at the outlet. Mean reductions from the inlet to the
outlet of the organochlorine compounds during the 24 hr collection were
0.29-1.38 ppb for polychlorinated biphenyl and 0.03-0.08 ppb for DDD. Accord-
ing to the chromatographs, the higher chlorinated polychlorinated biphenyls
were more easily removed during treatment than the lower chlorinated compounds.
Concentrations of lower chlorinated compounds were increased by the treatment
process. A 75% reduction of polychlorinated biphenyls was achieved by the
treatment process; DDD and DDT were also eliminated.
E109
SURVIVAL AND MOVEMENT OF FECAL INDICATOR BACTERIA IN SOIL UNDER CONDITIONS OF
SATURATED FLOW,
Hagedorn, C., Hansen, D. T., and Simonson, G. H.
Oregon State University,
Corvallis,
Department of Microbiology.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 55-59, 1978. 2 fig, 3 tab,
8 ref.
A pollutant tracing study, monitoring movement of septic tank and waste water
drainage, evaluated the use of antibiotic-resistant fecal bacteria as bioin-
dicators of groundwater contamination under saturated conditions. Two drain-
age sites were seeded with antibiotic-resistant mutants of E. coli and S. fae-
calis. Samples were obtained over 32 days from wells located in eight compass
directions at 0, 50, 100, 300, 500, 1500, and 3000 cm from each site pit.
503
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Both E. coli and S. faecalis gravitated to the 300 cm well and, in two samples,
to the 500 cm wells, within 24 hrs of site innoculation. Rainfall was
responsible for reducing the peak numbers of bacteria in the wells farther
from the pit site. Bacteria peaks in the 1500 cm well were associated with
the first rainfall period; no bacteria reached the 300 cm wells. Both E. coli
and S. faecalis survived throughout the 32-day test period and longer survival
was considered probable. The antibiotic-resistant bacterial indicators were
adequately differentiated from other fecal bacteria populations in septic tank
drainage. Interference with tracing techniques by other non-pollution source
bacteria can be eliminated by introducing the proper antibiotic.
E110
COMPARISON BETWEEN ADSORPTION OF POLIOVIRUS AND ROTAVIRUS BY ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE
AND ACTIVATED SLUDGE FLOCS,
Farrah, S. R., Goyal, S. M., Gerba, C. P., Conklin, R. H., and Smith, E. M.
Texas University Health Science Center,
Houston,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 2, p 360-363, February,
1978. 4 tab, 25 ref.
Aluminum hydroxide and activated sludge floe adsorption of poliovirus and
simian rotavirus (SA-11) was studied in laboratory experiments. The simian
rotavirus was used in place of human rotavirus which/was difficult to isolate
and culture. Aluminum hydroxide adsorption reduced the titer of added poli-
ovirus by three logs. A one log reduction in simian rotavirus concentrations
was achieved with aluminum hydroxide. Human rotavirus was not significantly
adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide floes. Activated sludge floe adsorption of
the viruses resulted in an 0.7-1.8 log reduction in poliovirus and a 0.5 log
reduction in simian rotavirus. The results indicated that poliovirus was more
readily adsorbed than rotavirus. An estimated reduction of the viruses by ad-
sorption onto both activated sludge and aluminum hydroxide floes predicted the
predomination of rotavirus after waste water treatment. The use of model
viruses such as reovirus to predict the fate of viruses in waste water treat-
ment was considered.
504
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Elll
IS INADEQUATE SLUDGE AGE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTROL PREVENTING OPERATORS
FROM GETTING THE BEST FROM THEIR ACTIVATED-SLUDGE PLANTS?,
Pitman, A. R.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 97-99, 1978. 1 fig.
The optimization of the activated sludge waste water treatment process is con-
sidered with respect to sludge age and dissolved oxygen control. Clarifier
capacity increases at a constant feed rate of homogenous sludge and a dis-
solved oxygen level of 2 mg/liter. As sludge age increases under these cir-
cumstances, effluent clarity improves due to increased bioflocculation effi-
ciency; the sludge settling rate increases with higher floe density; and the
quantity of sludge produced decreases. The oxidation of organic nitrogen and
ammonia also improves while the floe oxygen demand and mixed liquor suspended
solids increase. As sludge age increases, optimum conditions are approached.
These include the reduction of the protozoa population, the presence of bac-
teria in the endogenous growth phase, the deterioration of bioflocculation,
and the continuing increase of floe density, suspended solids, total oxygen
demand, and clarifier solids levels. When sludge age exceeds the optimum con-
ditions, deflocculation occurs. Two examples of effluent deflocculation are
presented. In one case, control of the dissolved oxygen level below capacity
improves the clarified effluent quality. In the second case, reducing sludge
age improves the ambient dissolved oxygen level.
E112
CHLORINE DETECTOR SAVES A LIFE,
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 3, p 77-78, March, 1978.
A Chloralert chlorine detector, installed in a municipal treatment facility in
Dover, New Hampshire, was responsible for detecting a potentially fatal chlo-
rine leak. The Chloralert system, developed by the Fischer and Porter Co.,
continuously samples the air through an intake pipe connected to a suction
system. Because chlorine is twice as heavy as air, the chlorine monitor is
located at floor level. The Chloralert is capable of detecting chlorine
levels to 1 ppm. The monitor system is equipped with an automatically acti-
vated flasher and an external bell. Chlorine at the Dover waste water treat-
ment plant is surveyed continuously; the Chloralert monitor is connected by an
output terminal to a remote alarm at the police station. Chlorine detectors
are required in all new treatment facilities in New Hampshire.
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E113
GAS MONITORS FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS,
Canadian Chemical Processing, Vol. 61, No. 12, p 682, 685, December, 1977.
A gas monitoring device for sewage treatment facilities, developed by Neot-
ronics Ltd, prevents poisoning of the catalytic sensing element by reducing
the exposure to heat and using digital calibrations. Catalytic sensing
devices for monitoring sludge gases and silicone vapors often fail within a
short period of time as a result of heating of the catalyst which oxidizes the
gaseous materials. The Neotronics gas monitoring device is equipped with a
Pellistor catalytic sensing head which is heated for 10 seconds every 4 min.
Gas monitoring data is collected by a digital sensing circuit which compares
the information to a digital logic format. In the presence of catalytic
poisoning, the sensing circuit registers a zero condition to which the digital
logic responds with an alarm. When catalytic poisoning is not present, the
calibration stability increases 20 fold with zero or stability drift. The
system is equipped with a fail-safe instrument malfunction indicator.
E114
INSTRUMENTATION AND AUTOMATION IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT,
Brinkoff, H. C.
Philips Environmental Protection,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 55, 1978.
The instrumentation of an automated waste water treatment facility in the
Netherlands is described. The plant utilizes process stream analyzers, sen-
sors, telemetry, and computers. The combustion of organic matter at 900 C
with a catalyst is monitored for total oxygen demand by a meter located near
the conditioned gas stream containing the organic wastes. Coulometric titra-
tion restores the oxygen from combustion to its original condition. Electro-
chemical water quality sensors measure pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and
redox potential. An ion-sensitive electrode is used to monitor chlorides; ad-
ditional instruments record temperature and turbidity measurements. An auto-
matic electrode calibration unit compares on-site measurements with levels ex-
perienced under laboratory conditions. An ultrasonic transducer automatically
unclogs the sensor; the optimum design of the sampling unit and measuring cell
also contributes to accuracy. Automation of Amsterdam's potable water treat-
ment plant is in progress. Optimization of the sewage treatment plant during
large flows will be achieved when the automation of the main pipelines is com-
pleted.
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E115
STERIC HINDERANCE ON COMPETITIVE INTERACTION IN ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION
FROM BI-SOLUTE SOLUTION OF PHENOL AND ORGANICS IN BIOLOGICAL TREATED SEWAGE,
Tambo, N., and Fukushi, K.
Journal of Japan Water Works Association, No. 518, p 28-40, November, 1977.
23 fig, 8 ref.
Mathematical models were developed for calculating the competitive adsorption
onto activated carbon in a bi-solute solution containing phenol and organic
materials in biologically treated waste water. The mathematical models,
adapted from Langmuir's bi-solute adsorption equations, incorporated the ef-
fects of spatial limitations on the adsorption of phenol caused by sewage
molecules occupying available sites. The equations accurately predicted the
deterioration of the adsorbed phenol equilibrium in response to competition
with organic materials for activated carbon adsorption. A method for cal-
culating the equilibrium deterioration rate was also developed using the com-
parative molecular size of the bi-solute molecules. Experiments were con-
ducted to verify the accuracy of the deterioration rate predictions.
E116
CONCEPTS, CRITERIA, AND MEASUREMENTS OF BIODEGRADABILITY,
Bunch, R. L.
Wastewater Research Division,
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Int Polish/U.S. Symposium on Wastewater Treatment and Sludge Disposal: Vol-
ume II, February 10-12, 1976. 1976, p 132-140. Technical Report EPA-600/9-
76-021.
Biodegradation criteria and analyses of waste water compounds that pose a
potential threat to the environment are reviewed. Polluting compounds in the
waste water must first be identified; the extent of degradation required to
obviate their effects should be determined. Future criteria for the degrada-
tion of polluting compounds to cell matter, carbon dioxide, and water are re-
commended to reduce the input of harmful substances to potable and surface
waters. Methods of calculating the biodegradability of waste water-borne com-
pounds are reviewed. These include: river die-away or natural microbial de-
gradation in rivers; Warburg respirometry to measure oxygen demand of micro-
organisms; BOD tests for dissolved oxygen uptake; flask tests with a chemically
defined medium and preadapted seed; and the activated sludge method in con-
tinuous or semicontinuous flows. Laws mandating the use of biodegradable ma-
terials and further research in biodegradation byproducts, rates, and extents
are recommended.
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E117
SAMPLING OF WATER AND WASTEWATER,
Shelley, P. E.
EC and G Washington Analytical Services Center, Incorporated,
Rockville, Maryland.
1977. 320 p, 7 fig, 11 tab, 21 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA-600/4-77-
039.
Water quality monitoring techniques, practices, and equipment designs are re-
viewed for waste water and water sampling procedures. Sample types are clas-
sified and recommendations for handling, preservation, and quality are made.
Information on site selection, sampling frequency, and source flows is pre-
sented. Situations in which manual or automatic samplers are preferred are
identified; sampler intake, gathering, transport, and storage designs are
evaluated. Automatic sampling equipment is reviewed, including commercially-
marketed and custom-designed equipment. Field sampling procedures are recom-
mended with respect to automatic and manual sampling techniques and equipment
maintenance. A thorough evaluation of 266 automatic sampling devices and cus-
tom designed units is included.
E118
PH AVERAGING,
Eralp, A. E., and Tomson, M. B.
New York State University,
Buffalo,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 389-392, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 1 fig, .2 tab, 7 ref.
Numerical pH averaging procedures were evaluated with mathematical models con-
sidering pH as an intensity factor and as a capacity factor. PH is illustrated
as an intensity factor in protonated and unprotonated systems. A system can
display various pH values during proton additions and removals, making it pos-
sible for pH values to be registered as acidic for part of the recorded time
and basic for the remainder. Simple numerical averaging of pH measurements
may yield erroneous data if the average numerical value is assumed to be repre-
sentative of the series of continuous measurements. This becomes especially
significant when the average pH value is used to monitor a waste treatment
process, such as nitrogen stripping, which is only operable within a specific
pH range. Numerical averaging when pH is an intensity factor is valid only
when standard deviations and other parameters are considered. Numerical
averaging of pH as a capacity factor is suitable for elements which exhibit
conservative behavior, such as divalent calcium and sodium.
508
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E119
EFFECT OF THERMAL PRETREATMENT ON DIGESTIBILITY AND DEWATERABILITY OF ORGANIC
SLUDGES,
Haug, R. T., Stuckey, D. C., Gossett, J. M., and McCarty, P. L.
LA/OMA Project,
Whittier, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 73-85, January,
1978. 6 fig, 4 tab, 11 ref.
Thermal pretreatment of organic sludges increased the biodegradability and im-
proved the methane gas production of activated sludge. Digested, primary,
flotation-thickened, and activated sludges were treated at 175 C for 30 min in
laboratory pressure reactors followed by anaerobic digesters. Thermal pre-
treatment of activated sludge increased the methane production by 60% and de-
creased volatile suspended solids by 36%. In primary sludge, volatile sus-
pended solids and COD were reduced by more than 60% but gas generation did not
significantly increase. Methane gas production increased by 14% after thermal
pretreatment of a mixture of primary and activated sludge; volatile suspended
solids levels decreased by 16%. Thermal pretreatment of waste activated sludge
at temperatures up to 175 C improved the biodegradability and gas production
of the sludge. Treatment at 200 C and 225 C of basic activated sludge ad-
versely affected the sludge properties and gas generation. After thermal pre-
treatment, residual heat in the sludge was sufficient for digestion without
supplementary fuel being required. Odors were reduced during anaerobic diges-
tion after thermal pretreatment.
E120
THE BACKGROUND TO, AND THE APPLICATION OF, LABORATORY INSTRUMENTATION TO WATER
ANALYSIS,
Cottrell, C. T.
AC/UV Applications Laboratories,
Pye Unicam Limited,
Cambridge, England,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 981, p 663-668, November, 1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 21
ref.
Analytical techniques to measure pollutants in water are described, including:
gas-liquid chromatography, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, ultraviolet
and visible spectrophotometry, automatic chemistry systems, and infrared spec-
troscopy. Chlorinated and organophosphorus pesticides, petroluem hydrocarbons,
phenols, organo mercury compounds, and fatty acids are identified with gas-
liquid chromatography in conjunction with thermal conductivity, flame ioniza-
tion, electron capture, flame photometric, and alkali flame ionization detec-
tors. Atomic absorption spectrophotometers of the single- or double-beam
509
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variety are employed to detect 66 metallic elements contained in waste water.
Single- and double-beam ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometars measure
non-metallic inorganics, nutrients, detergents, organic compounds, color, and
turbidity. Spectrophotometrically visible substances, such as ammonia, chlo-
ride, silicate, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate, are analyzed by automatic
chemistry systems. Double-beam infrared spectroscopy is used to identify
organic compounds, in industrial wastes, detergents, chlorinated pesticides,
carbohydrates, and amino acids.
E121
VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOWMETERS,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 986, p 241-242, April, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab.
Neptune International Corporation has developed a vortex-shedding flowmeter,
the Vort-X-Cel, which supplies a digital flow rate output. The system con-
tains a sensor whose pulses are converted into flow rate measurements by two
signal processing modules. Power is supplied by modules with input ranges of
24-35 Vdc, 111 Vac, or 220 Vac. The flow rate read-out can be provided by an
optional scaling circuit module in engineering measurements, such as gal, bar-
rels, or cu ft; analog output is also an available option. For accurate mea-
surement, the flow transmitter should be installed in an unobstructed pipe
without protruding gaskets or weld beads upstream. Pressure taps may be in-
stalled at a distance four pipe diameters upstream from the transmitter; tem-
perature taps should be no more than two pipe diameters downstream. The
Vort-X-Cel flowmeter is applicable to liquid and gas streams.
E122
VIRION AGGREGATION AND DISINFECTION OF WATER VIRUSES BY BROMINE,
Sharp, D. G.
North Carolina University,
School of Medicine,
Chapel Hill,
Department of Bacteriology,
1976. 43 p, 14 fig, 19 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-163.
Bromine disinfection of viruses was evaluated with aqueous solutions contain-
ing single particle or aggregated suspensions of poliovlrus and reovirus.
Quantitative analysis of single particle reovirus and poliovirus was per-
formed by electron microscopy. Disinfection of the single particles by bromine
required the development of a special apparatus to accommodate the exposure
times, 0.05 sec in some cases, required for virus inacttvation. First order
reactions of both viruses with bromine were observed and equated as linear,
semi-log graphs. Poliovirus inactivation occurred at a rate of 6 log
units/min; reovirus infectivity declined at a rate of 3 log units/min. Single
510
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polio virus disinfection with 10 micromoles of bromine was twice as rapid at
10 C than at 2 C and more rapid at 20 C than at 10 C. Single reovirus was in-
activated 30 times faster than poliovirus. Aggregated viruses had a signifi-
cant effect on the disinfection kinetics of bromine. Slightly aggregated reo-
virus displayed a continuous reaction rate decline that deviated from the first
order reaction. Other experiments with aggregated reovirus disinfection by
bromine demonstrated that single reovirus was 200 times more sensitive to bro-
mine treatment than aggregated reovirus, which survived for up to four minutes
with the same bromine dose that inactivated single reovirus within 1-1/3 sec.
E123
A PASSIVE FLOW MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR STORM AND COMBINED SEWERS,
Foremand, K. M.
Grumnan Aerospace Corporation,
Bethpage, New York.
1976. 135 p, 71 fig, 2 tab, 6 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-
115.
A nonintrusive flow measurement technique using an acoustic emission flowmeter
was evaluated for application to combined and storm sewers. The method was
designed for conduits and channels with varying geometric cross-sections and
discontinuities. Fluid flow rates through conduits were calculated and mea-
sured with the flowmeter in laboratory and field tests. Flows were analyzed
with the aid of a dipolar pseudosound which was emitted from the flow in a
perpendicular direction. This acoustic emission was the result of the reac-
tion of the fluid with a solid surface within the area of the conduit discon-
tinuity. The pseudosound emitted was recorded by an accelerometer. The
acoustic emission flowmeter technique was applied to open channel, full flow,
and pressurized flow conditions, establishing steady, unsteady, uniform, and
nonuniform flows in waste water conduits. Field evaluations of the metering
technique supported the laboratory findings.
E124
WATER/WASTEWATER SURVEY GUIDELINES,
Schanche, G. W., Creep, L. A., Cannon, J. R., and
Donahue, B. A.
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory,
Champaign, Illinois.
1976. 55 p, 11 fig, 12 tab, 1 append. NTIS Technical Report AD/A-033-233.
A survey format provides guidelines for improving data collection and analysis
techniques in the design, planning, and installation of water and waste water
511
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treatment facilities. The guidelines are constructed to assist in the pre-
paration and performance of water and waste water surveys by supplying a for-
mat for collecting specific background data. Conceptual guidelines are of-
fered for conducting waste water mass balances, designing sampling schedules,
and measuring waste water flows. Survey designs for water law compliance,
waste source identification, and ambient water quality evaluation are pre-
sented. Information from these surveys is employed in evaluating environ-
mental impact, characterizing design problems, and analyzing designs. Back-
ground information on sampling sites, waste water sources, and flow measure-
ment techniques is provided.
E125
MEDICALLY USED RADIONUCLIDES IN SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Erlandsson, B., and Mattsson, S.
University of Lund and Lund Institute of Technology,
Lund, Sweden,
Department of Nuclear Physics.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 9, No. 2, p 199-206, 1978. 3 fig, 2 tab,
6 ref.
Sewage sludge from the municipal waste water treatment plant in Malmo, Sweden,
was analyzed for concentrations of radionuclides using a Ge(Li)-spectrometer.
The radionuclides had been discharged by one of the town's hospitals which
used the radioisotopes for medical procedures. The plant treated wastes from
a population of 225,000 using partial biological treatment and sludge diges-
tion, producing 1,320 cu m of digested sludge monthly with a solids content of
23%. The concentration of iodine-131, which is orally administered to and
subsequently excreted by patients at the hospital, ranged from 0.03-0.12
nanocuries/kg, assuming a sewage-to-sludge iodine-131 concentration ratio of
6:1. Concentrations of gold-198 were 0.030-0.069 nanocuries/kg in two samples
but were below detection limits in the remainder. Gamma ray emissions by
other radionuclides interfered with analyses for strontium-85 which was dis-
charged to the treatment plant at a rate of about 0.2 microcuries/week.
E126
THE BEHAVIOR OF F2 COLIPHAGE IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT,
Balluz, S. A., Butler, M., and Jones, H. H.
Cambridge Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 80, No. 2, p 237-242, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab,
12 ref.
Influent, effluent, and mixed liquor from a model activated sludge plant were
innoculated with £2 coliphage and monitored for 5 days. Titers of the bac-
teriophage increased rapidly in the mixed liquor and the effluent, reaching a
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plateau after about 20 hrs. liters of the virus from the liquid and solid
portions of the mixed liquor before innoculation indicated that a higher per-
centage of the bacteriophage was contained in the solids fraction. After in-
noculation, 84% of the total titer was contained in the liquid fraction.
After innoculation ceased, the solids portion had the higher 64% virus con-
tent. The £2 coliphage concentration in the effluent during innoculation was
about 20.4% of that in the influent, indicating 79.6% removal by the model
activated sludge plant. When the influent settled sewage was replaced with
raw sewage, plant efficiency dropped to 26.3% during innoculation. A compari-
son of the titers of f2 coliphage with data from a previous study using polio-
virus showed that poliovirus was concentrated in the solids portion of the
mixed liquor during innoculation; the removal rate of the poliovirus by the
model plant was 99.96%. The f2 coliphage was not considered an appropriate
model for studies of human enteroviruses.
E127
MEASURING PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN DIGESTED SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Liu, D. L.
Process Research Division,
Canada Centre for Inland Waters,
Environment Canada,
Burlington, Ontario.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 40-44, March, 1978. 11 fig, 2 tab,
13 ref.
Lipids and petroleum hydrocarbons contained in anaerobically digested sewage
were measured in samples from three Canadian municipal sewage treatment plants
by infrared, gas chromatography, mass spectrum, and microbiological assay
techniques. Land application of digested alum sewage sludge from the Point
Edwards treatment plant in Ontario inhibited the growth of orchardgrass. A
comparison of the composition of this sludge with iron sludge from North
Toronto and lime sludge from Newmarket yielded no significant differences.
The Point Edwards sludge contained a lipids concentration of 23% by sludge dry
weight. Total lipid concentrations in the anaerobically digested chemical
sewage sludges were: 10,403 mg/liter in the alum sludge, 636 mg/liter in the
iron sludge, and 733 mg/liter in the lime sludge. Petroleum hydrocarbon con-
centrations in the sludge were 7,580 mg/liter for the alum sludge, 524 mg/liter
in the iron sludge, and 434 mg/liter in the lime sludge. Gas chromatography
revealed that a higher percentage of the petroleum hydrocarbons in the sludges
were fractions of the high molecular weight n-paraffin, indicating that motor
oil and grease were components of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Three saturated
fatty acids, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids, were found in the alum
sludge as products of hydrocarbon oxidation.
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E128
CONCENTRATION OF ENTEROVIRUSES FROM LARGE VOLUMES OF TAP WATER, TREATED SEWAGE,
AND SEAWATER,
Gerba, C. P., Farrah, S. R., Goyal, S. M., Wallis, C., and Melnick, J. L.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 3, p 540-548, March, 1978.
3 fig, 4 tab, 31 ref.
Fiberglass depth cartridges in series with pleated epoxy-fiberglass filters
were evaluated as adsorption media for the concentration of enteroviruses from
treated waste water, tap water, and sea water. The filter adsorption-elation
method of virus recovery was tested with 10 inch filters having capacities up
to 10 gal/min. The sample water containing the virus was acidified to pH 3.5
and mixed with aluminum chloride. After adsorption on the filters, the virus
was eluted with one to five filter washings with 1,600 ml of glycine adjusted
to pH 10.5. The viral eluates were neutralized before reconcentration with
aluminum flocculation and hydroextraction. The virus recovery rates were: 52%
from tap water, 53% from sea water, and 50% from secondary treated sewage.
Nearly all the virus was extracted from sewage solids in tests with virus ad-
sorbed on activated sludge. In further tests, the laboratory batch procedure
recovered a maximum of 80% of the virus, compared to 82% for an in-line acid-
salt injection method.
E129
NEW PROCEDURE DETERMINES AEROBIC SLUDGE STABILITY,
Hartman, R. B., Bennet, E. R., Linstedt, K. D., and Smith, D. G.
Virginia University,
Charlottesvilie,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 42-44, April, 1978. 2 fig, 16 ref.
The stability of aerobically digested sludge was measured by a modified lead
acetate strip procedure which provided a stability index from hydrogen sulfide
production by Desulfovibrio bacteria. Conventional means of stability deter-
mination by total and volatile solids reduction were considered inadequate be-
cause of the influence of sludge composition and age. The specific oxygen up-
take rate method of stability calculation was rejected because of its depen-
dence upon digestion reactor environment, temperature, and sludge age. The
lead acetate strip test was modified from a method introduced by Ruffer. A 10
ml sample of digested sludge was placed in a 6-inch test tube containing a
strip of lead acetate paper. The tube was stoppered and incubated at 37 C
until the test paper turned brown or black, indicating hydrogen sulfide
514
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generation. The stability index was defined as the duration of the incubation
period. The procedure was applicable to both drained and undrained sludge
samples. The method provided closer contact of the lead acetate strip with
hydrogen sulfide, a more favorable temperature for Desulfovibrio bacteria, and
a minimum sample size requirement.
E130
PROTON BINDING IN FULVIC ACID EXTRACTED FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE-SOIL MIXTURE,
Sposito, G., Holtzclaw, K. M., and Keech, D. A.
California University,
Riverside,
Department of Soil and Environmental Science.
Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 41, No. 6, p 1119-1125, 1977. 2
fig, 3 tab, 15 ref.
Proton disassociation from sludge-derived fulvic acids was measured with
potentiometric titrations conducted at 25 C and pH 11 using potassium-fulvate
solutions in a potassium ionic medium and hydrochloric acid. Using a model
describing the titration curve of fulvic acid, formation functions and condi-
tional protonation constants were calculated for the classes of acidic func-
tional groups protonating between pH 3-11. Three functional groups of weak
acids were evaluated for logarithmic protonation constants averaging 3.9, 6.5,
and 9.4. The quantity of titratable protons within the functional groups de-
creased with increasing standing time between preparation of the fulvic acid
solution and calculation of the titrametric curve. Data on the reversibility
of the fulvic acid titrations was also collected.
E131
ANIMAL DISEASE HAZARDS OF SLUDGE DISPOSAL TO LAND: OCCURRENCE OF PATHOGENIC
ORGANISMS,
Argent, V. A., Bell, J. C., and Emslie-Smith, M.
Northumbrian Water Authority,
Newcastle upon Tyne, England.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, p 511-516, 1977. 5 tab, 31 ref.
Laboratory studies investigated the presence of worm eggs, salmonella, and My-
cobacterium tuberculosis in raw, primary digested, and secondary digested
sludge which was to be applied to land. The raw sludge was anaerobically
digested at about 32 C for 37 days. The sludge underwent secondary digestion
for 33 days before it was applied to land. Sludge samples were obtained at
each point in sludge processing. No trematode, nematode, or cestode ova were
detected in 20 raw sludge samples, 33 primary digested sludge samples, or 33
515
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secondary digested sludge samples. Raw sludge obtained from 28 small treat-
ment plants did not contain worm eggs. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was un-
detected in 10 digested sludge samples, although non-pathogenic Mycobacterium
terrae was identified. Out of 33 samples of secondary digested sludge to be
applied to land, 22 samples were positive for salmonella with 9 serotypes
identified. Four serotypes of salmonella were detected in 6 of 9 raw sludge
samples and 12 out of 13 mixed samples contained 13 serotypes. Samples of raw
sludge from the 28 small treatment plants showed 9 instances of salmonella as
evidenced by 7 serotypes. The quantity of salmonella in raw sludge was less
than 105/100 cu cm; the number of salmonella found in digested sludge ranged
from 10-161/100 cu cm.
E132
SOIL PERCOLATION TESTS IN THE LAGOS AREA,
Aluko, T. M.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p'152-155, 1977. 4 fig, 3 tab, 11 ref.
An empirical formula relating percolation rates with permitted rates of sewage
effluent application was applied to percolation test results from six soil
sites in Lagos, Nigeria. The sandy-laterite test sites had percolation rates
which varied significantly over the three days of testing. Considerable rate
differences were recorded for tests sites that were 1 m apart. The allowable
sewage loading rates for the six lites as calculated by the empirical formula
were less than the standard loading rates defined by Nigerian building codes.
Results of the empirical formula would indicate that loading rates on soakaway
pits used for domestic waste disposal were excessive. It was concluded that
the empirical formula developed for calculating allowable sewage application
rates was not valid for Nigerian soil types and therefore, not a universally
applicable formula.
E133
A MECHANISM FOR ASH ASSISTED SLUDGE DEWATERING,
Micale, F. J.
Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
Center for Surface and Coatings Research, Sinclair Laboratory.
1976. 51 p, 39 fig, 2 tab, 9 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-297.
Fly ash and three types of ash from sludge incineration were evaluated as
flocculants for improving activated sludge settleability. The ashes, with
surface areas from 1.7-17 sq m/g, were washed to separate them into: a solid
fraction containing two carbons, two silicas, and magnetite; and a liquid
fraction of water soluble salts containing calcium fluoride, aluminum chloride,
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potassium phosphate, and anionic and cationic polymeric surfactants. Separate
experiments were used to test the settling capabilities of the solids and the
water soluble salts. Of the solids tested, the carbon black Elf-4 and the
silica Quso H-40 were the most efficient flocculants because of their hydro-
philic characteristics and high levels of polar groups. Flocculation of the
alkaline activated sludge was enhanced by the polar surfaces which adsorbed
the cationic and polar molecules and disrupted the sludge particle/liquid
interfaces. Tn the water soluble salt tests, calcium fluoride and aluminum
chloride promoted activated sludge settlement via preferential adsorption of
the calcium and aluminum ions. Experiments using the unwashed ashes demon-
strated that the ash with the most hydrophilic surface and the highest surface
area had the greatest effect on activated sludge settleability. The reverse
was true for this ash after washing.
E134
AMMONIA VOLATILIZATION FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE APPLIED IN THE FIELD,
Beauchamp, E. G., Kidd, G. E., and Thurtell, G.
Guelph University,
Ontario, Canada,
Department of Land Resources Science.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7,i No. I, p 141-146, January-March,
1978. 4 fig, 4 tab, 10 ref.
The volatilization of ammonia-nitrogen from sewage sludge applied over a cir-
cular 0.405-hectare area was measured. The sewage sludge was applied at rates
of 116,480 and 134,400 kg/hectare; ammonia flux was measured over periods of 5
and 7 days, respectively. Aerodynamic data was obtained at heights of 10, 50,
100, and 150 cm above the sewage application area. The sewage sludge applica-
tions monitored over the 5 day period contained 150 kg/hectare ammonia-nitrogen
while the 7 day measurement period recorded volatilization of sewage sludge
bearing 89 kg/hectare. Ammonia-nitrogen flux measurements were calculated ac-
cording to the quantity of ammonia molecules carried through a vertical zone
by horizontal air movement. Ammonia flux peaked daily around noon, decreasing
exponentially with time. Ammonia volatilization was estimated during the 5
day measurement period at 60% or 90.9 kg of ammonia lost/hectare. In the 7
day experiment, 56% or 50.3 kg/hectare of the ammonia was volatilized. Air
temperature within two or three days of application was found to affect the
rate of ammonia flux. Actual ammonia-nitrogen levels in the sludge and soil
layers varied significantly from predictions.
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E135
A UNIFIED THEORY OF FILAMENTOUS ACTIVATED SLUDGE BULKING,
Sezgin, M., Jenkins, D., and Parker, D. S.
California University,
Berkeley,
Division of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 362-381, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 16 fig, 3 tab, 36 ref.
The formation of filamentous microorganisms is examined as a factor in bulking
during the activated sludge process. The outgrowth of filamentous micro-
organisms from activated sludge floe is greater than zoogleal microorganism
growth under particular conditions within the floe interior conducive to fila-
ment growth. Lower floe interior dissolved oxygen levels, from 1.3-1.8
mg/liter in an air system, are more conducive to filament growth than higher
dissolved oxygen levels of 6.7-8.0 mg/liter. A minimum sludge floe interior
dissolved oxygen level of 2.0 mg/liter, maintained automatically, is con-
sidered optimum for sludge settleability. Filaments longer than 10,000,000
microns/ml can increase reflocculation time, 60-min compact volume, and the
sludge volume index. A filament length of 10,000,000 microns/ml is considered
the dividing point between a bulking and a non-bulking sludge. Activated
sludge bulking was reportedly controlled by toxic chemicals, such as chlorine
and hydrogen peroxide. Waste character and strength, reactor design, aeration
system, and temperature affect the critical dissolved oxygen concentration
which limits sludge bulking.
E136
TESTSETS FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS WITH PERMANENT IN-
DICATION (Testsets fur die quantitative Analyse waessriger Loesungen mit
bleibender Anzeige),
Gleisberg, J.
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser -und Abwasserforschung, Vol. 11, No. 1, p 13-27,
1978. 15 fig, 23 tab, 3 ref.
The Aquanal test sets can quantify trace concentrations of various elements in
aqueous solutions by colorimetric techniques. The single-use test kit,
equipped with a sampling mechanism and a filter, mixes the sample solution
with reagents to form colored cylindrical layers with lengths from 0.5-25 ram
which are proportional to the solution concentration as measured on a gauged
scale. Aquanal test sets can be used to detect cyanide, iron (III), cobalt
(II), copper (II), nickel (II), sulfide, titanium (IV), vanadium (V), and zinc
in concentrations of 0.5-10 mg/liter; test sets are available for detecting
concentrations over a range of 5-100 mg/liter of cyanide, iron (III), cobalt
(II), copper (II), nickel (II), and zinc. Salts can be measured over 50-3,000
mg/liter and 1,000-40,000 mg/liter as sodium chloride. The Aquanal test sets
518
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can provide cumulative concentrations, as well as the individual concentra-
tions of elements in solution. Permissible levels of cations and anions in
solution which may interfere with analyses are listed for each element. A
series of control sets is available for calibration. The system is capable of
documenting concentration changes over a certain time period and accumulating
trace metals within a small volume of adsorbent.
E137
STUDIES ON THE TREATMENT OF NIGHT SOIL. VII. IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA
ISOLATED FROM AEROBIC TREATMENT PLANT OF UN-DILUTED NIGHT SOIL AND AMINO ACID
UTILIZATION BY THESE BACTERIA (Shinyoshori ni kansuru kenkyu (dainanaho)—
mukishaku shinyo no kokusei shorishisetsu karano jokasaikin no burni ro sono
amino san bunkaino),
Ishikawa, T., Fukuyama, J., Ose, Y., and Sato, T.
Gifu College of Pharmacy,
Japan,
Department of Environmental Hygiene.
Gifu Yakkadaigaku Kiyo, Vol. 26, p 8-12, 1978. 1 fig, 2 tab, 12 ref.
Amino acid utilization by bacteria isolated from undiluted domestic wastes was
identified in aerobically-treated waste water. The domestic wastes were
aerated in a series of four digestion tanks following grinding. The wastes
were settled; excess sludge was removed; and the waste was diluted. Secondary
aeration of the effluent was followed by final clarification and chlorination.
Excess sludge from the sedimentation tank, secondary aeration tank, and clari-
fier was dewatered by centrifugation. Analyses of the treated effluent re-
vealed the presence of Bacillus megaterium, Escherichia coli variety communior,
and Staphylococcus epidermis. Oxidation of the amino acid, L-alanine, amounted
to 75.2% by B. megaterium and 64.7% by E. coli variety communior. Other forms
of amino acid utilization included: L-valine and L-leucine by B. megaterium;
L-lysine HC1 by E. coli; and L-aspartic acid and L-glutamic acid by E. coli
and B. megaterium. The sulfur-bearing amino acids, L-methione and L-cystine,
were not appreciably utilized by any of the bacteria isolated.
519
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E138
A RAPID CENTRIFUGE METHOD FOR DETERMINATION AND CONTROL OF SLUDGE CONCENTRATION
IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS,
Drews, R. J. L. C.
National Institute for Water Research,
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, South Africa.
Water SA, Vol. 4, No. 1, p 1-3, January, 1978. 2 fig, 1 tab, 3 ref.
A centrifuge technique to measure mixed liquor suspended solids in activated
sludge processes was developed as a more rapid alternative to the half-hour
sludge settled volume test currently used by small treatment plants. Two
graduated centrifuge tubes were filled with 15 ml of mixed liquor and centri-
fuged at 2,000 rpra for 2 min. Sludge levels were recorded immediately upon
completion of centrifugation; values were multiplied by a centrifuge sludge
volume factor calculated from the various solids retention times. A compari-
son of sludge concentration values obtained from 29 South African plant sludges
by half-hour sludge settled volume tests and by the centrifuge method using
4,200 as the sludge volume verified that the centrifuge values were more reli-
able than the half-hour settling results and more easily obtained than gravi-
metric data. The half-hour test was still required to provide the sludge vol-
ume index for predicting sludge bulking potential.
E139
CRITICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DETERMINATION OF EXTRACTABLE SUBSTANCES IN
POLLUTED WATERS (Considerazioni critiche sulla determinazione di sostanze
estraibili in acque inquinate),
Legittimo, P. C., Piccardi, E. B., and Pantani, F.
Florence University,.
Florence, Italy,
Institute of Analytical Chemistry.
Rassegna Chimica, Vol. 29, No. 6, p 297-303, November-December, 1977. 4 fig,
7 ref.
Methods to extract, identify, and measure fatty substances in large volumes of
waste water are examined in detail. Solvent extraction of fatty substances
with chloroform is not satisfactory in the presence of nonionic surfactants
because of the nearly complete coextraction. Benzene extracts only 20-25% of
these surfactants and partially removes anionic surfactants and phenolics. A
carbon adsorption method using chloroform for elution results in the nearly
complete separation of nonionic surfactants along with fatty substances; an-
ionic surfactants are eluted from the carbon only partially by chloroform. In
the presence of phenolics, the chloroform eluate obtained after carbon adsorp-
520
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tion must be analyzed spectrophotometrically; the distilled portion is dis-
carded.
E140
THE EFFECT OF QUICK FREEZING ON THE CONTENT OF ORGANIC WATER CAPACITY SUB-
STANCES (Die Wirkung des Tiefgefrierens auf den Gehalt an organischen
Wasserinhaltstoffen),
Neis, U.
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser -und Abwasserforschung, Vol. 11, No. I, p 3-7, 1978.
6 fig, 3 tab, 10 ref.
The impact on waste water samples of quick freezing as a storage method was
evaluated with respect to values of COD, BOD, and total organic carbon (TOC).
Unfiltered samples of waste water from a preclarifier, an activated sludge
tank, and a receiving stream were used in the study. One liter samples were
quick frozen at -30 C and retained for 8 and 16 days. BOD concentrations in
the waste water samples which had been frozen for 8 and 16 days were notice-
ably lower 5 days after thawing than the concentration of an unfrozen sample.
Of the samples which were frozen, the activated sludge effluent had the highest
BOD concentration while the receiving stream sample exhibited the lowest
values. COD concentrations in preclarified effluent decreased from the initial
137 g/cu m to a minimum of 112 g/cu m after 16 days of freezing; activated
sludge liquor COD increased from 2,000 g/cu m to a maximum of 2,520 g/cu m
after 8 days of freezing; and receiving water COD increased from an initial 17
g/cu m to 23 g/cu m after 16 days. The TOC values of preclarification effluent
and the activated sludge liquor were not significantly affected by freezing.
E141
PROFILE-ANALYSIS OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE BY GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY (Gas-chromatographische Profilanalyse der polycyclishen
aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffe in Klarschlammproben),
Grimmer, G., Boehnke, H., and Borwitzky, H.
Biochemisches Institut fuer Unweltearcinogene,
Ahrensburg, West Germany.
Fresenius Zeitschrift fuer Analytische Chemie, Vol. 289, No. 2, p 91-95,
1978. 2 fig, 1 tab, 6 ref.
A profile analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sewage sludge was
performed with gas chromatography. A 25 ml source of cyclohexane was mixed
with 45 ml of dimethylformamide and 5 ml of water; chromatography was per-
formed with 10 mg of Sephadex LH20 in 50 ml of isopropanol; the cyclohexane
was filtered on aluminum oxide. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were
separated by gas chromatography with high performance columns and the signals
521
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were compared with internal standards. Five analyses of the sample for 18
main components yielded a variation coefficient of 1.6-11.3%. The retention
time of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons controlled the detection limit
under amplification. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were detected in
the range of 0.5-5.0 ng while benzo(a)pyrene was in the 1 ng range. Mass
spectrometry in conjunction with the gas chromatography was considered un-
necessary as the profiles of different sludges were similar.
E142
PHOSPHATE FERTILIZING EFFECT OF SLUDGE FROM DOMESTIC SEWAGE PURIFICATION WITH
PHOSPHATE PRECIPITATION (Zur Phosphatduengewirkung von Schlaemmen aus der
kommunalen Abwasserreinigung mit Phosphatfaellung),
Gleisberg, D., and Taubel, N.
Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft,
Huerth-Knapsack, West Germany.
Wasser und Boden, Vol. 30, No. 1, p 5-8, 1978. 3 fig, 6 tab, 8 ref.
The phosphate fertilizer value of sludge from municipal waste water treatment
plants using alum and iron sulfates for phosphate precipitation was measured
in greenhouse and field studies with lettuce, spinach, and corn plants. The
phosphate content of the sludge was 18.8-28.5%, compared to 9.4% for untreated
sewage sludge and 28.5% for calcined phosphate. For sludge obtained after
phosphate precipitation, 12.3-20.5% of the phosphate was soluble in citric
acid, 12.5-26.7% in citrate, and 0.1-0.39% in water. There were no significant
differences in terms of trace element content between the untreated sludge and
that obtained after phosphate precipitation. Greenhouse studies revealed the
advantages in terms of fertilizer value of using sludge from phosphate pre-
cipitation instead of untreated sludge to amend lettuce and spinach crops
grown in acidic and neutral soils. The effect of the sludge was comparable to
that of calcined phosphate. Neither the phosphate precipitation sludge or the
calcined phosphate enhanced plant growth in a loamy sand at pH 3.8. Field
tests with corn demonstrated that soil amendments with phosphate precipitation
sludge would not significantly affect the trace element content of the corn-
cobs.
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E143
PERSISTENCE OF ENTEROVIRUSES IN SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Subrahmanyan, T. P.
Enteric Viruses Laboratory, Laboratory Services Branch,
Ontario Ministry of Health,
Toronto, Canada.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Vol. 55, No. 4, p 431-434, 1977. 1
fig, 2 tab, 14 ref.
The survival of viruses in sewage sludge was investigated under varying condi-
tions of pH, temperature, and time in laboratory experiments. Titers of vir-
uses in sewage sludge maintained at pH 6.0, 6.5, 7.5, 8.5, and 9.5 indicated
that maximum enterovirus elution occurred at pH 9.5. Chloroform did not af-
fect the infectivity of attenuated poliovirus type 1, coxsackievirus B5, and
echovirus type 6. Viral concentrations in sewage sludge maintained at room
temperature (22 C) and at 4 C were unchanged after 7 days and were smaller in
amount after 14 days. Larger quantities of poliovirus survived at 4 C than at
22 C after 14 days. The survival of various enteroviruses in digested sludge
at 22 C was observed over a period of 12 weeks. Coxsackievirus A9 survived
less than 2 weeks; coxsackievirus B2 and B4 survived less than 5 weeks; and
coxsackievirus B5 survived the entire 12 weeks of the experiment. Echovirus
type 6 was evident through the 10th week and type 9 survived through the 12
weeks. Virulent polio type 3 and vaccine polio type 1 persisted until the 8th
week; polio vaccine type 3 and virulent polio type 1 were present in the 10th
week. Echovirus type 6 survived 10 weeks while the echovirus type 9 was
detected through the entire 12 weeks. The viruses survived longer in sludge
than in another medium. Separate tests with reovirus type 2 demonstrated a
survival period of 6 weeks.
E144
RELATION BETWEEN DEHYDRABILITY AND PROPERTIES OF SEWAGE SLUDGE (Report I)
(Gesuiodei no shoseijo to dasseuisei ni tsuite),
Yokoyama, M., Nozawa, F., Toda, S., and Kondo, Y.
Ebara Infiruko Jiho, No. 72, p 2-11, 1978. 3 fig, 9 tab.
Chemical and physical techniques were employed to measure the properties of
digested and undigested sewage sludge. The dewaterability of sewage sludge
was considered to be best described by the capillary suction time. Differences
in concentratibility and particle size were less apparent in tests with dilter-
ent sludges than in capillary suction time measurements. The capillary suction
time index was used to determine the optimum rate of ferric chloride and slaked
lime feed to sewage sludge during dewatering. Polyelectrolyte conditioning,
which impeded the removal of the sludge cake and increased the water content
of certain sludges, was not considered generally applicable.
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E145
THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAVY METALS IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTION,
Hayes, T. D., and The is, T. L.
Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York,
Department of Agricultural Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 61-72, January,
1978. 15 fig, 5 tab, 21 ref.
The distribution of heavy metals in anaerobic digesters was investigated using
three bench-scale anaerobic digesters fed with sewage containing varying con-
centrations of heavy metals. Nitrate salts of chromium, copper, nickel, zinc,
cadmium, and lead and dichromate were fed to the digesters in concentrations
ranging from 5-15,000 mg/liter by step or pulse feed applications over a
period of 10 days. Sludge samples taken during the digestion process were
separated into soluble, precipitated, extracellular, and intracellular frac-
tions for heavy metal analysis. Decreasing gas generation, methane concentra-
tions, and organic acids accumulation were monitored as indicators of anaerobic
digestion disruption by heavy metals. The toxicity impact of the heavy metals
on anaerobic digestion followed the relationships: nickel > copper > lead
> chromium > zinc, with no toxic impact observed for the cadmium doses.
Heavy metal concentrations in the digester were distributed between the
insoluble or precipitated fraction and the intracellular or biomass fraction,
with little of the metals evident in the extracellular fraction. Levels of
heavy metals which would produce inhibition and toxicity during anaerobic
digestion were calculated.
E146
MONITORING POLLUTION,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4469, p 22, February, 1978.
A dissolved oxygen and temperature monitor has been developed by pHOX Systems
Ltd. of Baldock, Herfordshire, England. The Series 67 measures and records
the dissolved oxygen data in percent saturation or mg/liter. The self-
contained, waterproof unit was designed for remote field stations and waste
water treatment plant trials. The unit is operated by an internally-mounted
cell with a one-month power supply; overnight recharging restores the one-
month power supply. Dissolved oxygen and temperature levels are measured by a
patented cartridge-type pHOX Mackereth electrode. The inkless 'chopper bar1
type recorder for maintaining oxygen and temperature values is available with
a variety of chart speeds.
524
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E147
MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE APPLIED TO THE MONITORING OF
TREATMENT PLANTS (L1 observation microscopiques des boues activees applique a
la surveillance des installations d'epuration: Technique d'etude
interpretation),
Drakides, C.
Laboratoire de Genie Chimique,
Traitement et Epuration des Eaux,
Universite des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc,
Montpellier, France.
Techniques et Sciences Municipales-1'Eau, Vol. 73, No. 2, p 85-98, February,
1978. 18 fig. 16 ref.
Observations of macroscopic and microscopic activated sludge characteristics
are forwarded as a means of monitoring the operation of biological waste water
treatment plants. Clear or slightly turbid supernatant (transparency of 40-80
cm or more) is considered indicative of efficient operation and low BOD and
COD levels in the effluent. A high degree of purification is also represented
by: the presence of a light, white flexible froth; the characteristic odor of
moist earth; particles measuring 20-50 microns; non-filamentous free bacteria
counts in the range of 10 to the 10th to 10 to the llth/liter; and a diverse
microfaunal assemblage in normal abundances.
E148
TEEPOL AND TRITON MEDIA FOR THE ENUMERATION OF ESCHERICHIA COLI BY MEMBRANE
FILTRATION,
Opara, A. A., Mara, D. D., and Wheater, D. W. F.
The University,
Dundee, Scotland,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 11, p 949-954, 1977. 11 tab, 20 ref.
More accurate techniques of E. coli enumeration in waste, river, and esturine
waters were investigated by varying the concentration of Teepol broth and
modifying Triton agar broth for use with membrane filtration. False E. coli
counts inaccurate by up to 25% have resulted from utilizing membrane-enriched
Teepol broth at 44 C. In this study, the concentration of basal Oxoid mem-
brane-enriched Teepol broth was varied from 0-7%. A Triton agar broth con-
taining 2 ml of the non-ionic surfactant Triton X-100 was membrane-enriched
for use in filtration. Control groups cultured in tryptone mannitol broth and
tryptone lactose formate broth were retested using lactose peptone water and
tryptone water when negative results occurred. Millipore membranes were used
for filtration. False positive enumerations of E. coli were reduced to 8.9%^
when the Teepol concentration was reduced from 0.4 to 0.2%. Enumeration
525
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errors were reduced to 6.8% when E. coli in 0.2% Triton in a membrane-enriched
agar medium were filtered through membranes at 44 C.
E149
COMPARISON OF ADSORPTION ELUTION METHODS FOR CONCENTRATION AND DETECTION OF
VIRUSES IN WATER,
Fattal, B., Katzenelson, E., Hostovsky, T., and Shuval, H. I.
Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School,
Jerusalem, Israel,
Environmental Health Laboratory.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No< 11, p 955-958, 1977. 4 tab, 20 ref.
Removal of poliovirus and enteroviruses from sewage was tested with aluminum
hydroxide precipitation, cellulose nitrate membrane filtration and glycine
buffer elution, insoluble polyelectrolyte treatment, and cellulose nitrate
filtration with beef extract elution. The control aluminum hydroxide precipi-
tation techniques recovered an average of 50% of the poliovirus. The cellu-
lose nitrate membrane filter with glycerine buffer elution recovered an aver-
age of 65%. Seventy-seven per cent of the poliovirus was removed on the cel-
lulose nitrate membrane filter with a 3% beef extract solution. The insoluble
polyelectrolyte (PE 60) removed an average of 70% of the poliovirus. Entero-
virus recovery from sewage averaged 40% with aluminum hydroxide precipitation,
111% with membrane filtration and beef extract elution, 67% on the membrane
filter with glycerine buffer, and 80% with PE 60. In experiments with echo-
virus 7, poliovirus, and enterovirus seeded in tap water, recovery rates were
higher than those from sewage.
E150
DETERMINATION OF TOCL^BY ENRICHMENT ON POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON AND FLOCCULA-
TION (Unterschungen zur Bestimmung de organisch gebundenen Chlors mit Hilfe
eines neuartigen Anreicherungsverfahren),
Kuhn, W., Fuchs, F., and Sontheimer, H. .,
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser- und Abwasserforschung, Vol. 10, No. 6, p 192-194,
1977. 2 fig, 3 tab, 3 ref.
Enrichment of chlorine compounds on powdered activated carbon followed by
flocculation was performed as a preliminary to pyrohydrolysis detection of
total organic chlorine. Conventional concentration techniques for chlorine
compounds utilized granular activated carbon is a miniature sampler unit. The
described enrichment procedure employs powdered activated carbon for step-by-
step adsorption of chlorine compounds at pH 5. Enrichment is followed by
flocculation with 100 mg aluminum and 8 mg polymer at pH 6.5 for 10 min. The
526
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detection range of this analytical technique is reported to be about 20 micro-
grams of total organic chlorine/liter.
E151
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF A DIFFUSED AIR TREATMENT PLANT,
Thurley, B. L.
Brown Boveri Review, Vol. 64, No. 11, p 693-698, November, 1977. 6 fig.
Automatic monitoring and control systems are described for diffused air aera-
tion waste water treatment facilities. Debris buildup on the raking screens
and sludge accumulation in the digester can be monitored by a Deltapi E trans-
mitter with air fed Pneumerstats; data can be displayed on a milliammeter in-
dicator and computing bin. Venturi flume throat constricters in grit channels
are employed as flowmeters when connected to a Lea series A recorder or trans-
mitter. This series can be used to control a penstock for maintaining appro-
priate flows. Sediment removal from the primary settling tanks, final sedi-
mentation tanks, and storm tanks is controlled by ultrasonic sludge level
detectors. A Veriflux magnetic flowmeter, connected to Flexel LB-52 flow con-
trollers, and a computing bin maintain the flow of air in the diffused aera-
tion system. Activated sludge return is measured by the Veriflux meter; Sim-
plex high-intensity aeration cones control the aeration intensity by varying
the rotational speed. Mackereth lead anodes, surrounded by a cathode con-
tained in a semipermeable polyethylene membrane, monitor the dissolved oxygen
content of the effluent. Kent Deltapi E transmitters are also used to measure
gas pressures in the digesters. Analog displays can be connected to digital
telemetry systems for data collections in large plants.
E152
CATALYSTS USED TO REPLACE SILVER SULFATE IN COD,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 14, March, 1978.
Alternatives to sliver sulfate determination of COD at various concentrations
in waste water were explored. Less costly catalysts were examined to replace
the conventional COD testing methods. Magnesium sulfate employed in conjunc-
tion with a smaller quantity of silver sulfate was efficient for detecting COD
concentrations in the range of 50-500 mg/liter. COD determinations using mag-
nesium sulfate as a catalyst were comparable to test results when silver sul-
fate was used alone. A combination of silver sulfate, aluminum sulfate, and
magnesium sulfate was accurate to 5-50 mg/liter COD. Results comparable to
the conventional silver sulfate catalyst technique were obtained with the com-
bined catalysts.
527
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E153
MOISTURE DETERMINATION BALANCE SPEEDS UP TOTAL AND VOLATILE SOLIDS ANALYSIS,
LaSpina, A. J.
Florham Park Sewage Treatment Plant,
Florham Park, New Jersey.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 61, February, 1978.
The Ohaus 6010 moisture determination balance, installed in the Florham Park,
New Jersey, sewage treatment plant, has reduced the time required for total and
volatile suspended solids calculations in sewage samples from 5-6 hrs for the
conventional method to 15-20 min. The technique employs infrared radiation to
evaporate liquids in the waste water. A 10 g waste sample is placed on a pan
and subjected to infrared heat for 10 min. The weight loss of the sample due
to moisture loss during heating and the percentage moisture are displayed on a
readout in the balance. The residual solids are then reduced to ash by fur-
ther heat treatment to remove volatiles. The percentage of volatile and total
solids are then calculated from the moisture content and the residual ash
weight. The Ohaus 6010 balance does not require constant monitoring by a
technician.
E154
FORMATION OF POLYCHLORINATED AROMATIC COMPOUNDS DURING AQUEOUS CHLORINATION,
Smith, J, G., McCall, R. B., and Chan, P. K.
Guelph-Waterloo Center for Graduate Work in Chemistry,
Waterloo University,
Ontario, Canada,
Department of Chemistry.
Environmental Pollution, Vol. 14, No. 4, p 289-296, 1977. 3 tab, 23 ref.
Naphthalene and biphenyl were reacted with aqueous solutions of chlorine under
homogeneous (10 ppm) and non-homogeneous (500 ppm) conditions. A 100 ml hypo-
chlorous acid solution was mixed with 50 mg of the hydrocarbon at room tem-
perature in the non-homogeneous tests. At pH 6, all of the naphthalene was
converted to chlorinated compounds. Biphenyl was not as reactive as naphtha-
lene at 500 ppm but was more reactive than chlorinated biphenyl. Decreasing
the pH from 7 to 2 at 500 ppm biphenyl increased the formation of dichloro-
biphenyls as biphenyls decreased. When the pH decreased from 6 to 4, naph-
thalene at 10 ppm was converted to chlorinated hydrocarbons. The non-homo-
geneous concentration of naphthalene was more readily reacted with chlorine.
In the 500 ppm biphenyl solution at pH 6, 60% of the biphenyl was converted
while only 2.5% of a 6 ppm biphenyl solution reacted with active chlorine,
even after 120 hrs. The nature of the chlorinating agent was affected by pH
and influenced the non-homogeneous reaction; chlorine was represented as hypo-
chlorous acid at pH 4 to 6, while at a lower pH free chlorine was present.
528
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E155
AUTOMATIC CONTROLS PREVENT CHLORINE SPILL HAZARDS,
Last, H.
American City and County, Vol. 93, No. 5, p 89-90, May, 1978. 1 fig.
A chlorine scrubbing system installed in the Tonawanda, New York, waste water
treatment plant chemically neutralizes chlorine spills automatically. The
system contains five chlorine detectors installed at floor level in the chlo-
rine storage room and chlorine feed room to seal off the rooms and stop the
ventilation system when chlorine is detected in the air. An alarm is acti-
vated and the scrubbing system pumps create a draft to circulate the chlorine
contaminated air through one or more of the three ejector venturi scrubbers.
The chlorine is neutralized with caustic sodium hydroxide solution in the ven-
turi scrubbers and neutralized air is recirculated through mist eliminators to
the room where the leak originated. The scrubbing system continues to operate
until the chlorine content in the air is reduced to 1 ppm. The use of caustic
soda does not significantly change the character of the treatment plant efflu-
ent which is discharged into the Niagara River.
E156
SIMULTANEOUS DETERMINATION OF TRACE METALS IN INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC EFFLU-
ENTS BY DIFFERENTIAL PULSE ANODIC STRIPPING VOLTAMMETRY,
Kinard, J. T.
Benedict College,
Columbia, South Carolina,
Department of Chemistry.
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Health, Vol. A12, No. 10, p 531-547,
1977. 3 fig, 6 tab, 12 ref.
Differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry, following Parr acid digestion
bomb treatment, was tested for the simultaneous analysis of trace metals in
industrial and domestic wastes. Effluent from textile, printing, meat pack-
ing, slaughter house, soft drink, dyeing and finishing, steel mill, aluminum,
egg processing, and chicken farm industries and domestic wastes were placed as
0.1-10 ml samples in a Teflon digestion cup containing 2.5-3 ml nitric acid
and heated to 200 C. The samples were heated 2-7 hrs, cooled, and diluted
with sodium acetate to pH 5.5-5.8. The solutions were purified on a Chelex
100 column and placed in an electrolysis cell for analysis. Recovery of zinc,
cadmium, lead, bismuth, and copper during simultaneous determinations by the
differential pulse anodic stripping voltanmetry technique ranged from 93.9-
107%. The technique was superior to atomic absorption in terms of detection
limits, sensitivities, and cost.
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E157
MEASURING WASTEWATER FLOW WITH DYE,
Foster, W. S.
American City and County, Vol; 93, No. 5, p 38, May, 1978.
Rhodamine WT dye, supplied by. E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., was used in a
dye-dilution tracing method for short-term monitoring of flows in sewers and
for calibrating weirs, flowmeters, and flumes. Rhodamine has a specific gra-
vity of 1.2 and a viscosity that requires it be diluted with water to increase
the injectable rate above 10 ml/min. The dye is dispersed into the flow at a
constant rate by a constant-feed pump or a Mariotee vessel; a sampling unit is
installed at a sufficient distance downstream from the injection point to in-
sure adequate mixing. The flow rate of the waste water is calculated as the
product of dye injection rate and the ratio of initial dye concentration to
sampled dye concentration. The dye tracer technique is also appropriate for
measuring pump performance, settling and chlorine basin efficiency, canal and
stream flow rates, and effluent dilution in receiving water bodies.
E158
FISH COUGH RESPONSE—A METHOD FOR EVALUATING QUALITY OF TREATED COMPLEX
EFFLUENTS,
Carlson, R. W., and Drummond, R. A.
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth,
Minnesota.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. I, p 1-6, 1978. 2 fig, 2 tab, 22 ref.
Blue gill sunfish cough responses to treated effluent were investigated as a
means of evaluating the toxicity of municipal and industrial wastes mixed in
varying concentrations with receiving waters and Lake Superior water. Fish
were exposed to different waste concentrations in an electrode chamber. Sun-
fish died in all experiments with chemical plant effluent concentrations of
56% and uranium mine effluent concentrations above 18%; the cough response of
the fish increased by 505% in a 1.0% uranium mine solution. A 50% death rate
occurred in ammunition wastes of 0.75-1.0% while the cough response increased
as much as 774% in concentrations of 0.56%. A decrease in sunfish response
when pulp mill effluent concentrations increased from 56-75% was attributed to
the individual tolerance levels of the fish tested. Cough responses increased
by the same order when fish were exposed to 75% concentrations of both chlo-
rinated municipal effluent and receiving water. Cough responses remained the
same after 2 days for carpet mill, pulp mill, and chemical plant effluents
while responses to the other samples declined. Concentrations of 0.8-6.0% of
refinery effluent produced a cough response increase of 122-709%.
530
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E159
BIODEGRADABILITY TESTING AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY,
Gilbert, P. A., and Watson, G. K.
Unilever Research Port Sunlight Laboratory,
Wirral, Merseyside, England.
Tenside Detergents, Vol. 14, No. 4, p 171-177, 1977. 3 tab, 36 ref.
Definitions, techniques, and limiting parameters of biodegradability of muni-
cipal waste water are reviewed. Distinctions are made between biodegradation,
biodegradability, functional biodegradation, environmentally acceptable bio-
degradation, ultimate biodegradation, complete mineralization, bio-elimination,
biological hardness, and biological softness. Definitions are also provided
for elimination, acclimatization, biomass, constitutive enzymes, die-away
testing, enrichment or elective culture techniques, inducible enzymes, inocu-
lation, inoculum, and substrate. Conditions influencing biodegradation in-
clude: acclimatization, enzymatic co-oxidation, waste concentration inhibi-
tion, temperature, pH, inorganic salt composition and concentration, and the
presence of certain compounds during testing. Test methods are classified as:
die-away techniques where only the test compound is present; die-away tech-
niques, where other organic carbon sources besides the test compound are pre-
sent; and activated sludge techniques. Analytical techniques include specific
chemical analysis for each compound, radio-labelled compound, oxygen uptake
and carbon dioxide generation, dissolved organic carbon, COD, biomass, and
pure culture analysis. Limitations, advantages, and selection of the testing
procedures are reviewed.
E160
THE COMPARISON OF ACTIVATED AND DIGESTED SLUDGE EXTRACTS IN CULTIVATING
CHLORELLA PYRENOIDOSA AND C. SALINA,
Wong, M. H.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shatin, Hong Kong,
Department of Biology.
Environmental Pollution, Vol. 14, No. 3, p 207-211, 1977. 2 fig, 1 tab, 11
ref.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Chlorella salina were cultured in activated sludge
and digested sludge extracts, Kuhl medium, and MAV enrichment medium for 11
days at 25 C with a relative humidity of 70-80% and a daily 16 hr light cycle.
The highest growth rate of Chlorella pyrenoidosa was observed in a medium con-
taining 2% digested sludge extract, followed by 2% activated sludge extract,
with Kuhl medium exhibiting the lowest growth rate. Chlorella salina growth
rate was highest in the 2% activated sludge extract, followed by the 2% di-
gested sludge extract. Growth rates were lower in the 3% activated and di-
531
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gested sludge extracts, with the MAV enrichment medium demonstrating the lowest
growth. The sludge extracts were analyzed directly rather than after leaching
with ammonium acetate; the activated sludge was found to contain higher con-
centrations of NH3-N, Mg, K, Cd, Cr, Fe, Pb, and Zn; digested sludge had higher
concentrations of total-N, Ca, water soluble-P, Cu, and Mn.
E161
THE BACTERIAL METABOLISM OF 4,4'-DICHLOROBIPHENYL, AND ITS SUPPRESSION BY
ALTERNATIVE CARBON SOURCES,
Tulp, M. T. M., Schmitz, R., and Hutzinger, 0.
Amsterdam University,
The Netherlands,
Laboratory of Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry.
Chemosphere, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 103-108, 1978. 2 fig, 26 ref.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used in experiments to examine
the metabolism of 4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl by activated sludge bacteria. In shake
culture studies, 50 ppm of the test compound, dissolved in ether, was added to
vessels containing an inoculum of sludge supernatant. D-glucose, glycerol,
peptone, yeast extract, and humic acid were used as alternate carbon sources
for an unsedimented activated sludge inoculum. In soil studies, the test com-
pound was continuously filtered through an inoculated column containing garden
soil and coarse sand. The metabolites were isolated at the termination of the
experiments by acidification with H2S04, hydrolysis, three ether extractions,
and centrifugation. Retention times and relative intensities during GC-MS re-
vealed that 4-chlorobenzoic acid and 4,4'-dichloro-2,3-biphenyldiol were the
major byproducts of 4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl metabolism. The formation of these
metabolites by the mixed bacterial populations in the activated sludge cultures
was suppressed to below detection limits when alternate carbon sources were
made available. No metabolites were detected in similar experiments with
higher chlorinated isomers, including 2,4',5-tri-, 2,2',5,5'-tetra-,
2,2',3,4,5'-penta-, 2,2',3,4,5,5'-hexa-, and decachlorobiphenyl.
532
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E162
ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR OF ANIONIC AND NONIONIC SURFACTANTS (Das Umweltverhalten
anionischer und nichtionischer Tenside),
de Oude, N. T. V.
Prater and Gamble European Technical Center,
Grimbergen, Belgium.
Tenside Detergents, Vol. 14, No. 4, p 189-194, July-August, 1977. 7 fig, 6
tab, 14 ref.
The distribution and toxicity of anionic and nonanionic surfactants in a re-
ceiving stream were investigated at a Belgian community without sewage treat-
ment facilities. During the first part of 1976, 85 families recorded their
use of detergent supplied for household use during the test period. Samples
of river water were collected periodically above and at a sewage outfall, and
1 km below the outfall. The samples were chemically and physically analyzed
for detergent components concentrations, degradation, and mineralization with
die-away tests. The river and waste waters at the three sampling sites were
analyzed with an Azure A reactive substance for anionic surfactants, similar
to the methylene blue techniques and Cobalt-thiocyanate method for nonionic
detergents. Boron concentrations were also recorded as an indicator substance
normally not found in the water or wastes. Toxic units calculated from modi-
fied toxicity tests in the water ranged from 3.05-6.90 while 44.1-87.5% Azure
A reactive substance was found.
E163
ISOLATION OF SALMONELLAE FROM SEWAGE WITH A NEW PROCEDURE OF ENRICHMENT,
Vassiliadis, P., Trichopoulos, D., Kalandidi, A., and Xirouchaki, E.
The Hellenic Pasteur Institute,
Athens, Greece.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Vol. 44, No. 2, p 233-239, 1978. 3 tab, 13
ref.
A total of 151 strains of salmonellae belonging to 27 serotypes were isolated
by three enrichment methods using municipal wastes samples collected from the
sewer system in Athens, Greece. Sewer samples collected by 40 gauze-wrapped
Moore swabs were incubated in 200 ml buffered peptone broth for 18-22 hrs at
37 C! 0.1 ml aliquots of the peptone media were then enriched at 37 C for 48
hrs in Rappaport's medium formula R25, at 43 C for 48 hrs in RIO medium, or at
34 C for 48 hrs in Muller-Kauffmann's tetrathionate broth. Subcultures were
derived for each of these enrichment media on brilliant green-deoxycholate
agar and incubated for 24 hrs at 37 C. Of the 27 serotypes isolated, four
were formerly unreported in Athens' sewage. The Rappaport enrichment media
isolated more serotypes and strains than the tetrathionate broth. RlO at 43 C
isolated 103 strains and 24 serotypes; R25 at 37 C isolated 82 strains and 19
533
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serotypes; and M-K tetrathionate broth isolated 25 strains and 11 serotypes.
While the RIO medium yielded more salmonellae serotypes and strains, the growth
of competing organisms was inhibited in this media compared to the other two
media. Smaller quantities of inoculum were required for the Rappaport enrich-
ment media.
El 64
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF HYDROCARBONS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE FROM WASTE WATER PURI-
FICATION STATIONS,
Landry, J-C., and Dennemont, J.
Service de Toxicologie Industrielle,
d'Analyse de 1'Air et de Protection centre le Bruit,
Institut d'Hygiene,
Geneve, Switzerland.
Travaux de Chimie Alimentaire et d'Hygiene, Vol. 69, No. 1, p 96-108, 1978. 6
fig, 2 tab, 9 ref.
A gas chromatography technique, incorporating pentane-benzene elution and pen-
tadecane as an internal standard, permitted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
quantification in sewage sludge samples with varying solids contents. The
technique, which employed direct hydrolysis of sewage sludges containing 40-95%
water rather than Soxhlet extraction, was tested on sludge samples obtained
from five Swiss waste water treatment plants. A 10 g sample of sludge was
homogenized and hydrolyzed with a 30 ml solution of methanolic potassium hy-
droxide for 1.5 hrs, followed by the addition of 25 ml pentane. Duplicate
sludge samples were mixed with pentane and 0.25 micrograms pentadecane to pro-
vide an internal standard. In some of the samples, pentane elution was incom-
plete and a pentane-benzene solution was added to elute polar hydrocarbons.
The sample was filtered, adjusted to pH 2.5, and extracted with 25 ml pentane.
The sample was then placed in a column containing 40 g activated silica gel in
pentane, eluted with 250 ml pentane-benzene, concentrated to 0.2-1.0 ml, and
analyzed by gas chromatography at 120-320 C. The total areas of the sample
peaks were compared to corresponding pentadecane peaks, employed as an internal
standard. Results correlated well with predicted surface areas when high con-
centrations of hydrocarbons were present. Hydrocarbon recovery ranged 96.0-
98.9% in samples bearing more than 50% solids.
534
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E165
RECOVERY OF ASCARIS EGGS FROM SLUDGE,
Meyer, K. B., Miller, K. D., and Kaneshiro, E. S.
Cincinnati University,
Ohio,
Department of Biological Sciences.
Journal of Parasitology, Vol. 64, No. 2, p 380-383, April, 1978. 2 tab.
The zinc sulfate concentration technique for quantifying Ascaris ova in sewage
sludge was enhanced by pretreatment with hypochlorite and an anionic detergent.
A 75 g sample of mixed sludge seeded with Ascaris eggs was mixed with 100 ml
of 2.62% hypochlorite, swirled, mixed with additional hypochlorite to obtain a
225 ml volume, and allowed to react for 50 min. The sample was centrifuged at
4 C for 2 min and the solids fraction was mixed with 2 ml of anionic detergent
and distilled water to a 225 ml volume. The mixture was centrifuged again,
washed twice with distilled water, mixed with 75 ml of 33.2% zinc sulfate
solution, and then centrifuged. The supernatant containing the eggs was
passed through an 0.45 micron membrane filter; the recovered eggs were in-
cubated in the dark for 10 days at 25 C. The hypochlorite and anionic deter-
gent treatment recovered 71% of the eggs, compared to 38% recovery with hypo-
chlorite alone. Higher recovery rates were obtained when larger quantities of
eggs were seeded in the sludge. Hypochlorite did not interfere with egg via-
bility or destroy nonviable eggs.
E166
PRACTICAL METHOD FOR DETECTING POLIOVIRUS IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTER SLUDGE,
Glass, J. S., Van Sluis, R. J., and Yanko, W. A.
North Carolina University,
Chapel Hill,
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 5, p 983-985, 1978. 2
tab, 10 ref.
Poliovirus was eluted from anaerobic digested sludge and dewatered composted
sludge with beef extract addition, sonic disruption, and dithizone-chloroform
extraction. A 47% poliovirus recovery was achieved when 10 mg sludge solids
were suspended in 200 ml of 3% beef extract, disrupted by sonic treatment for
2 min, and centrifuged for 20 min; eluted viruses were assayed on monolayers
of Buffalo green monkey kidney cells cultured in a medium with 10% fetal bovine
serum. Virus recovery was increased to 60-65% when the beef extract eluates
were concentrated to 8-12 ml by organic flocculation. The poliovirus isola-
tion frequency was 100% when the elution and concentration method was applied
to undigested liquid sludge, digested liquid sludge, and dewatered digested
sludge. Poliovirus isolation in dewatered digested sludge, composted for 6 or
535
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more days, was limited because of mammalian monolayer cell death attributed to
toxic concentrations of heavy metals formed by organic flocculation of digester
solids eluates. Detoxification of the cytotoxic concentrates was achieved by
extraction of the concentrated eluates with dithizone in chloroform. Polio-
virus recovery after solvent extraction averaged 98.9%. The elution-concen-
tration-extraction technique had a detection limit of about 1 infective virus
unit/concentrated sample.
E167
APPLICATION AND DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC POLYMERS,
Wang, L. K., Wang, M. H., and Kao, J-F.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 9, No. 3, p 337-348, 1978. 6 fig, 67 ref.
Organic polymer applications to water and waste water are reviewed and a me-
thod to measure anionic and cationic polyelectrolytes is described. Cationic
polyelectrolytes are employed as coagulants where colloids and suspended solids
are negatively charged. Nonionic organic polymers are added after the onset
of flocculation to agglomerate colliding particles; they can also remove phos-
phates when used in conjunction with ferric chloride. Anionic polymers assist
in the agglomeration of negatively charged particles that have been neutra-
lized by inorganic cations. Anionic polyelectrolytes are added as coagulation
aids with alum or ferric chloride as the principle coagulants. Organic poly-
mer treatment of waste water can enhance sedimentation, sand filtration, dia-
tomaceous earth filtration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, flotation, or
centrifugation. Quantitative analysis of 0.0002-0.005 N concentrations of
anionic and cationic polyelectrolytes is performed by dilute and regular direct
titration with corresponding cationic and anionic titrants. Calibration curves
determine the normality of cationic polyelectrolytes titrated with poly(vinyl-
sulfuric acid) potassium and anionic polyelectrolytes titrated with
1,5-dimethyl-l,5-diaz aundecamethylene.
E168
GROWTH AND METAL UPTAKE ON SNAP BEANS GROWN ON SEWAGE SLUDGE-AMENDED SOIL: A
FOUR-YEAR STUDY,
Dowdy, R. H., Larson, W. E., Titrud, J. M., and Latterell, J. J.
Minnesota Agriculture Experimental Station,
Saint Paul.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 2, p 252-257, April-June, 1978.
7 fig, 3 tab, 18 ref.
A four-year study evaluated the trace metal uptake by snap beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris) grown in sandy Udorthentic Haploboroll soil amended with anaerobi-
cally-digested sludge at total application rates of 350, 700, and 1,400 metric
536
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tons/ha. Subsequent crops received a single sludge application of 112, 225,
or 450 metric tons/ha. Sludge application increased soil pH from 5.3 to a
maximum of 6.5; crop yields increased with sludge amendments and often sur-
passed yields of commercially fertilized control plants. Zn and Cu concentra-
tions in the bean tissue increased with sludge application. Zn continued to
accumulate after the second application and stabilized after the third and
fourth applications; Cu uptake levelled off after the initial sludge applica-
tion. While these concentrations stabilized in the tissue, they did not de-
crease after sludge treatment was terminated. The concentration of Cd in
edible bean tissue never exceeded 0.09 micrograms/g, regardless of the sludge
application rate or schedule. Zn and Cu concentrations also increased in the
leaf portion of the plants after sludge application.
E169
BACTERIAL DEHALOGENATION OF HALOGENATED ALKANES AND FATTY
ACIDS,
Otnori, T., and Alexander, M.
Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York,
Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, Department of Agronomy.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 35, No. 5, p 867-871, 1978. 6
tab, 10 ref.
Unacclimated sewage sludge was capable of releasing halides from 1,9-dichlo-
rononane, 1-chloroheptane, and 6-bromohexanoate. None of the sludge organisms
could utilize the 1,9-dichlorononane as the sole growth medium. Resting Pseu-
domonas cells derived from n-undecane grown cultures released more chloride
from 1,9-dichlorononane in the absence of chloramphenicol; cells derived from
glycerol-grown cultures dehalogenated 1,9-dichlorononane, except in the pre-
sence of chloroamphenicol. Five n-undecane-utilizing bacteria were used to
test for the possibility of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction by a non-specific
dehalogenase. None of the five bacteria could subsist on 1,9-dichlorononane,
but rest cells from 24-hr n-undecane cultures catalyzed chlorine release. Four
of the five bacteria dehalogenated 1-chloroheptane; all five dehalogenated
6-bromohexanoate. Sewage samples incubated with n-undecane or 1,9-dichlo-
rononane showed a greater tendency for n-undecane utilization or dehalogena-
tion, respectively. Possible dehalogenation processes were attributed to: an
inductible enzyme; co-metabolism and constitutive latent enzymes; or a dif-
ferent enzyme issued to cleave two substituted fatty acids.
537
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E170
WATER POLLUTION TESTS - BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD),
Nice, R.
Regional Water Pollution Control Plant,
Palo Alto, California.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, Reference Number, p 186-187, April, 1978.
A method to measure BOD in raw sewage, primary, secondary, and final dechlo-
rinated effluent is presented. A sewage seed is obtained by filtering a
1-liter sample of primary effluent which has been incubated for 24 hrs at 20
C. The supernatant is filtered through glass wool, frozen, and analyzed for
BOD using 1 ml of seed. In sterilized BOD bottles, several milligrams of
allyl thiourea and 1 ml seed are mixed with 2 samples each of 10 ml raw sew-
age, 10 ml primary effluent, 50 ml secondary effluent, or 50 ml final effluent
and filled with a prepared diluent. Half of the samples are incubated at 20 C
for five days; dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations are then calculated. DO
concentrations in the other samples are determined within 15 min of prepara-
tion. DO is calculated by adding 2 ml manganous sulfate solution and 2 ml
alkaline-iodide-sodium azide solution, stoppering, and then shaking the bottle.
The sample is acidified with 2 ml H2S04, stoppered, shaken to dissolve the
precipitate, and titrated. Starch is added if the mixture is not tinted brown;
no DO is present if no blue color develops. A brownish solution is titrated
with sodium thiosulfate until a pale yellow is achieved. Starch is added and
the mixture is further titrated until the blue disappears. The volume of
sodium thiosulfate equals the DO concentration. With this value, BOD is cal-
culated as a function of the initial and final DO concentrations, the seed
factor, the sample volume, and a constant.
E171
CHLORINATED ORGANICS AS A FACTOR IN REDUCED BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND (BOD),
Carlson, R. M., and Long, D. W.
Minnesota University,
Duluth,
Department of Chemistry.
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Health, Vol. A13, No. 2, p 177-186, 1978.
5 tab, 11 ref.
The contribution of the chlorinated organic forms of phenols, benzoic acids,
and anilines to BOD reduction during waste water chlorination was compared to
the impact exerted by the original phenols, benzoic acids, and anilines pre-
sent in the waste water. A 5 ml aliquot of a standard solution containing 150
mg/liter each of reagent grade glucose and glutamic acid was seeded with 1
ml/liter settled domestic sewage and mixed with 0.001 M aliquots of phenol,
538
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benzole acid, and anilines, and their chlorinated derivatives. BOD determina-
tions were made after one to five days of incubation at 20 C. Aniline was
found to be the most resistant of the three parent organics to degradation.
The second order chlorinated organics were more resistant to degradation when
the parent organic was significantly degradable. Metabolic activity was not
reduced by any of the chlorinated organics except 4-chloro-3-methylphenol; the
chloroorganics were not found to contribute to BOD values. When both the
parent organic and the chlorinated derivative were present, the BOD was attri-
butable only to the parent. It was concluded that the chlorinated second
order organics were not readily degradable within the test period and will not
be represented by the resulting BOD value.
E172
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS IN SEWAGE WORKS,
Brown, D.
Imperial Chemical Industries, Limited,
Brixham Laboratory,
England.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, p 110, 112-113, 115-117,
March, 1978. 5 tab, 8 ref.
Raw, settled, and final effluent sewage samples from six English sewage treat-
ment plants were analyzed for chlorinated organic solvents (trichloroethylene,
perchloroethylene, alpha-trichloroethane, and chloroform). The plants em-
ployed diffused air activated sludge, surface aeration activated sludge,
trickling filters with or without a Passavant ditch, or double filtration
after activated sludge treatment. Chloroform levels in the effluent after
biological treatment and in the biological and digested sludges in two treat-
ment plants were below detection limits; chloroform levels were high in pri-
mary sludge from a trickling filter plant but were lower in the final effluent
(0-102 micrograms/liter) and in the biological sludge (100 micrograms/kg).
Alpha-trichloroethane was not detected in the biological and digested sludge
from two plants or in the final effluent of one of these; a mean level of 1
microgram/liter was found in the other plant effluent. Trichloroethylene was
apparent In two final effluent samples at mean concentrations of 45 and
5-13 micrograms/liter. Low levels of the solvent were found in sludges from
three of the plants sampled. Low levels of perchloroethylene were found in
final effluent and sludge samples at four of the plants; the mean effluent
concentration was 144 micrograms/liter in an activated sludge plant, with
negligible amounts in the digested sludge. The removal of chlorinated hydro-
carbons was considered to result from biodegradation and/or volatilization;^
the chlorinated aliphatics entering with the raw sewage were passed on to bio-
logical treatment and not preferentially absorbed by primary sewage.
539
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E173
SUB-SERVICE SURVEYING,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 6, p 29, June, 1978.
The electro-magnetic subsurface GPR 104 Drain Locator, manufactured by Electro-
location Ltd. of Bristol, England, eliminates the need to excavate trial holes
in locating the course of uncharted drains or sewers. A probe is rodded,
jetted, or floated through the pipe; signals are transmitted by the probe to a
hand-held surface receiver equipped with earphones. The GPR 104 Drain Locator
has reportedly saved the Cheltenham Borough in England the large expense of
excavating the trial holes generally required to locate and map subsurface
drains.
El 74
SELECTED PROBLEMS OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF DOMESTIC SEWAGE,
Zanker, A.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, Reference Number, p 182-185, April, 1978. 3
fig, 1 tab, 2 ref.
A nomograph was used to calculate the maximum BOD load that may be discharged
into a receiving stream without causing a specific oxygen deficiency down-
stream. The nomograph was developed as a simpler alternative to the Thomas
equation. The ratio of the reaeration rate to the deoxygenation rate in the
stream is first calculated for use in the nomograph. The actual dissolved
oxygen deficit upstream and the maximum allowable deficit downstream are
plotted on the primary scale and their linear value intersected with the first
reference line using a straight edge. The intersection point is then trans-
ferred to a second reference line; a second intersection point is labelled,
using oblique tie-lines-. This point is connected to the value of the reaera-
tion:deoxygenation ratio and extended to intersect with another reference line.
This reference point is connected to the value of the maximum allowable dis-
solved oxygen deficit downstream plotted on a secondary scale; the maximum BOD
load is read at the intersection point of this line on the secondary scale.
The value obtained is then multiplied by the average flow of the stream.
540
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E175
ASSESSMENT OF THE TRACE ORGANIC MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL AND MUNI-
CIPAL WASTEWATER EFFLUENTS BY CAPILLARY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/REAL-TIME HIGH-
RESOLUTION MASS SPECTROMETRY: A PRELIMINARY REPORT, .
Burlingame, A. L.
California University,
Berkeley,
Space Sciences Laboratory.
Exotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 111-150, 1977. 17
fig, 4 tab, 27 ref.
High-resolution gas chromatography, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and
elemental composition chromatography identified trace organic compounds in
secondary and tertiary municipal effluent and primary petroleum refinery ef-
fluent. The municipal waste water samples included: secondary effluent which
had been treated by the activated sludge process; tertiary effluent treated
with flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination; and tertiary
effluent also treated with carbon adsorption. Trace organics in the secondary
and tertiary effluent were eluted with both 6% and 15% ether in hexane, fol-
lowed by separation in a column effluent splitter. Samples were analyzed by
packed column gas chromatography, capillary column gas chromatography, high-
resolution gas chromatography-real-time high-resolution mass spectrometry, and
elemental composition chromatography. Secondary effluent contained: di-,
tri-, tetra-, and pentachlorobenzenes; tri-, tetra-, and pentachloroanisoles;
and various alkylbenzenes. Pentachloroanisole and alkylbenzenes were not re-
moved by tertiary treatment. Analyses of the neutral, phenolic, and acidic
fractions of refinery effluent were performed by elemental composition chro-
matography after oxidation and clarification or after nonaerated stabilization.
Trace amounts of complexed hydrocarbons, oxygenated compounds, nitrogen com-
pounds, and sulfur compounds were detected in the neutral fraction.
El 76
CHARACTERISTICS OF CALCUTTA SEWAGE,
Nath, B., Mukherjee, D. B., and Das Gupta, S. B.
All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health,
Calcutta.
Journal of the Institution of Chemists (India), Vol. 49, No. 6, p 279-281,
November, 1977. 2 tab, 3 ref.
Pollutant parameters in sewage were monitored in Calcutta, India, over a two-
year period in studies to select a treatment process suitable to the waste
water characteristics. Total solids, alkalinity as CaCOS, and chloride con-
centrations were highest during May and June. Temperature ranged over
23.3-31.2 C; the pH averaged 6.75. Other averages were: 1444 mg/liter total
541
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solids, 333 mg/liter alkalinity, 275 mg/liter chloride, 154 mg/liter BOD, 411
mg/liter COD, and 33.4 mg/liter total nitrogen. About 64.3-69.4% of the total
nitrogen was in free or saline ammonia form; the remainder was found as
nitrite or nitrate. All sewage samples lacked dissolved oxygen during the
sampling period. Phosphate concentrations ranged over 31.0-50.0 mg/liter;
higher nitrogen concentrations were observed during the winter months.
E177
ACTINOMYCETE SCUM PRODUCTION IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES,
Pipes, W. 0.
Drexel University,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Department of Environmental Sciences.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 628-634, April,
1978. 7 fig, 11 ref.
Actinomycete scum formation on the surface of activated sludge aeration tanks
was analyzed using 94 samples collected from 32 activated sludge plants over a
12-yr period. The actinomycetes were of the genus Nocardia and represented as
short, highly branched filamentous colonies; actinomycete scum was formed by
the secretion of lipids which collected on air bubbles which then agglomerated
on the aeration tank surface as a scum. The scumming in aeration tanks was
often found in activated sludge plants treating some dairy wastes. BOD in the
effluent from the plants was lower than in other plants without actinomycete
scum problems; suspended solids were significantly higher. No correlation was
found between actinomycete counts and the food-to-microorganism ratio or the
sludge volume index. In the samples analyzed, actinomycete counts were never
above 100/mg mixed liquor suspended solids when the mean cell retention time
was less than 9 days. AIT of the plants that had scum problems operated at
temperatures above 18 C and mean cell retention times longer than 12 days;
high actinomycete counts were not always associated with scumming. The de-
flocculated or floating sludge caused by actinomycete scumming had poor sepa-
rating properties and was not considered a form of sludge bulking. Laboratory
tests indicated that the scum might be partially dissolved with hexane or
acetone.
542
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El 78
A SURVEY OF PHOSPHORUS LEVELS IN TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER,
Gakstatter, J. H., Allutn, M. 0., Dominguez, S. E., and Grouse, M. R.
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory,
Environmental Protection Agency,
Oregon.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 718-722, April,
1978. 2 tab, 10 ref.
Phosphorus and nitrogen levels were measured in samples of treated effluent
from 809 waste water treatment facilities which discharge effluent to lakes,
reservoirs, or tributaries. The treatment plants were categorized into four
groups: 709 not under a phosphate detergent ban and not providing tertiary
phosphate removal; 42 New York plants where phosphate detergent bans were im-
posed half-way through the sampling period; 25 Indiana plants under a phos-
phate detergent ban; and 33 plants providing tertiary phospate removal but not
under detergent bans. The effluent from the group of 709 plants had a median
phosphorus concentration of about 6.1 mg/liter and a medium nitrogen level of
about 15 mg/liter. Effluents from the New York plants averaged 3.4 mg/liter
phosphorus and 13.5 mg/liter nitrogen. The median phosphorus concentration
was about 2.7 mg/liter and median nitrogen level about 11.6 mg/liter in the
Indiana plants. The plants providing tertiary treatment produced median phos-
phorus levels of 1.8 mg/liter and nitrogen concentrations of 11.6 mg/liter.
The phosphate detergent ban in Indiana accounted for a 50% reduction in the
per capita phosphorus load in the effluent when compared to the 709 plants
without phosphate restrictions. Activated sludge and stabilization ponds pro-
vided greater nitrogen and phosphorus removal than did primary treatment or
trickling filtration.
E179
COMPENSATION FOR AN INHERENT ERROR IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE CHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND OF SEWAGE,
Stones, T.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 290-292, June, 1978.
5 tab, 4 ref.
Correction factors were defined for the 0.125 N ferrous ammonium sulfate
titration of residual dichromate during the analysis of COD in waste water.
Inherent errors in the determination of COD result from: the decomposition of
dichromate, added as 25 ml of a 0.25 or 0.125 N potassium dichromate solution;
and by temperatures above 130 C induced by sulfuric acid concentrations above
45%. British standard methods recommend a 54.4% acid concentration while
American standards advocate a 50.0% sulfuric acid for COD analysis. The 45%
acid concentration is reported to result in incomplete oxidation and reduced
COD concentrations. The corrections are derived by comparing theoretical and
543
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actual titers obtained during COD analysis of glutamic acid solutions. In a
reduced scale working model for the determination of COD in waste water, a 10
ml sample of sewage is mixed with 0.5 g mercuric sulfate, and dissolved in 5
ml concentrated sulfuric acid. The sample is then mixed with 20 ml of 0.125 N
potassium dichromate and 30 ml of a 0.2% wt/vol solution of silver sulfate in
concentrated sulfuric acid; the sample is then heated under reflux for 2 hrs.
The cooled aliquot is diluted with 100 ml distilled water and titrated with
0.125 N ferrous ammonium sulfate for excess dichromate titration. The titra-
tion corrections are applied to compensate for the thermal decomposition of
dichromate.
El 80
BIOLOGICAL GROWTH ON ACTIVATED CARBON: AN INVESTIGATION BY SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY,
Weber, W. J., Jr., Pirbazari, M., and Melson, G. L.
Michigan University,
Ann Arbor,
Department of Environmental and Water Resources
Engineering.
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 7, p 817-819, July, 1978.
7 fig, 15 ref.
Micrographs depicting the bacterial and bacteriovorous protozoan growth on
granular activated carbon from mixed batch and expanded bed continuous flow
reactors were obtained with a JOEL JSM-U3 scanning electron microscope. Acti-
vated carbon samples from a mixed batch reactor treating raw and coagulated
sewage and from a continuous flow reactor treating humic acid were immersed in
a 2% paraformaldehyde-2.5% glutaraldehyde solution for 2 hrs to kill the at-
tached organisms. The samples were then treated with 1% Os04 in 0.1 M sodium
phosphate buffer at pH 7.3 to fix the liquid portion of the cell membrane.
The specimens were dehydrated in ethanol baths, an ethanol-amylacetate solu-
tion, and amylacetate and dried with a critical point dryer. Microorganisms
attached to carbon from the mixed batch reactor consisted primarily of stalked
protozoans; the spherical ciliates were about 16 microns in size and were
firmly attached by their stalks to the carbon surface. Carbon from the ex-
panded bed reactor contained rod-like bacteria about 1.3 microns in length.
Bacterial colonies on the surface formed a nonhomogenous slime with a porous
matrix.
544
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E181
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PATTERNS OF FECAL COLIFORMS ISOLATED FROM DOMESTIC
SEWAGE BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT IN AN AEROBIC LAGOON,
Bell, R. B.
Singapore University,
Singapore,
Department of Microbiology.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology, Vol. 24, No. 7, p 886-888, 1978. 2 tab, 12
ref.
The antibiotic sensitivity of fecal coliforms isolated from raw sewage and
aerobic storage lagoon effluent was measured in Taber, Alberta, Canada. The
isolated colonies were exposed to antibiotic discs, bearing 10 micrograms of
ampicillin, aureomycin, chloromycetin, gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline,
or 300 micrograms sulfadiazine. The aerobic lagoon reduced fecal coliform
counts by about 95%. While most coliform populations in raw sewage exhibiting
resistance to single antibiotics were diminished by lagoon treatment, 11.5%
were resistant to tetracycline and 0.8% to gentamicin in both raw and treated
sewage. Of the fecal coliform populations in the lagoon effluent, 7.7% were
resistant to streptomycin, 4.6% to ampicillin, and 18.5% to sulfadiazine. The
3.9% population in the raw sewage resistant to chloromycetin disappeared in
the lagoon effluent. About 3.1% of the raw sewage coliforms and 4.6% of the
effluent coliforms were resistant to a combination of four antibiotics; 5.4%
of the raw sewage population was immune to a combination of five antibiotics.
The apparent lack of intercellular transfer of resistance in the sediments of
the lagoon effluent was attributed to the low population densities and not to
an extrachromosomal R-factor.
El 82
RAPID FLAMELESS ATOMIC ABSORPTION ANALYSIS OF THE METALLIC CONTENT OF SEWAGE
SLUDGES - II. CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND ZINC,
Stoveland, S., Astruc, M., Perry, R., and Lester, J. N.
Imperial College,
London, England,
Department of Public Health Engineering.
The Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 9, No. 3, p 263-269, 1978. 5 tab,
15 ref.
A flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometric technique detects chromium,
nickel, and zinc in homogenized sludge samples. Sludge samples are diluted
with 50 parts 1% Analar nitric acid. The sludge samples are then homogenized
for 5 min at 8000 rpm and dried at 99 C for 30 sec. For Cr analysis, the sam-
ple is ashed at 1,207 C for 30 sec and atomized at 2,660 C for 10 sec; flame-
less atomic absorption spectrophotometry is performed at 357.9 nm. Trivalent
545
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and hexavalent Cr yield identical signals with flaraeless atomization. For Ni
analysis, the diluted sludge sample is ashed at 971 C for 30 sec, atomized at
2,627 C for 10 sec, and measured at 232.0 nm. After a sample has been ashed
at 520 C for 60 sec and atomized at 2,231 C for 5 sec, zinc can be measured at
307.6 or 213.9 nm. The latter spectral line provides a detection limit of
0.001 mg/liter and working range of 0.001-0.02 mg/liter; extensive dilution is
required for larger zinc concentrations. The 307.8 nm line, with a detection
limit of 0.1 mg/liter, is recommended for sewage analysis. Flameless atomic
absorption of homogenized sludge yields results comparable to bomb or nitric-
sulfuric acid digestion with flame atomic absorption.
E183
CONCERNING THE BEHAVIOR OF MBAS AND BIAS IN A MUNICIPAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
(Ueber das Verhalten von MBAS und BiAS auf einer kommunalen Klaeranlage),
Wagner, R.
Institut fuer Siedlungswasserbau und Wasserguetewirtschaft der Universitaet,
Stuttgart, West Germany,
Department of Chemistry.
GWF-Wasser/Abwasser, Vol. 119, No. 5, p 235-241, May, 1978. 10 fig, 3 tab, 16
ref.
Daily loads and concentrations of anionic surfactants, or methylene blue active
substances, and nonionic surfactants, or bismuth active substances, were mea-
sured in the raw sewage and the activated sludge effluent of the Busnau-
Stuttgart sewage treatment plant in West Germany. Influent methylene blue
levels averaged 11.9 mg/liter and bismuth levels about 3.08 mg/liter; effluent
concentrations were approximately 0.59 mg/liter methylene blue and 0.28
mg/liter bismuth. The daily surfactant loading on the plant was described by
a logarithmic normal distribution. Total phosphorus averaged 14.5 mg/liter in
the influent and 11.5 mg/liter in the effluent; COD and BOD levels were 354
mg/liter and 194 mg/liter, respectively, in the influent and 64.0 and 5.9
mg/liter, respectively, in the effluent. Peak loading was found to occur on
Monday and Saturday, with lowest concentrations occurring on Sunday. Fluctua-
tions in surfactant loading were reflected in parallel deviations in total
phosphorus, COD, and BOD loads. Mean BOD and COD reductions of 96.4% and
81.0%, respectively, correlated to a mean methylene blue removal of 94.4% and
a mean bismuth reduction of 91.2%; total phosphorus was reduced by 16.9% in
the effluent.
546
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El 84
SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLUBLE ORGANIC NITROGEN IN ACTIVATED-SLUDGE
EFFLUENTS,
Partin, G. F.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 12, p 6106-6107, 1978.
The sources and characteristics of soluble organic nitrogen (SON) in activated
sludge effluents and raw sewage were investigated. From 20-50% of the bio-
logically produced SON originates from excreted materials; another 20-50.% re-
sults from organism decay, while a much smaller percentage is produced by sub-
strate oxidation. About 20-40% of the SON is produced biologically during the
activated sludge process. When operated with 6 hours of aeration and 4-10
days of solids retention, the activated sludge can reduce SON by 60-70% and
soluble COD by 70-80%. SON concentrations of 0.2-0.8 mg/liter can result from
semi-continuous operation; these concentrations increase to 1.5-5.0 mg/liter
during start-up and system imbalance. SON consists of about 15-30% nucleic
acid and 10% free or combined amino acids. About 50-60% of the effluent SON
and soluble COD has a molecular weight below 1,800; higher molecular weights
are observed in the excess SON produced during start-up. Activated carbon ad-
sorption reduces SON by about 72% and soluble COD by about 78%. Cationic ex-
change at pH 2.0 reduced SON by 33-56%; at pH 9.5, anionic exchange reduces
SON by about 10-24%.
El 85
LARGE EUNICE HARASSII AUDOUIN AND MILNE-EDWARDS FROM A SLUDGE DISPOSAL AREA,
Walker, A. J. M.
Marine Science Laboratories,
Menai Bridge, Anglesey, North Wales.
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section B: Biological, Geological and
Chemical Science, Vol. 77, No. 9, p 175-179, 1977. 3 fig, 8 ref.
Four polychaete specimens, identified as Eunice harassii Audouin and Milne-
Edwards, found in Ireland's Dublin Bay where sewage sludge is discharged, were
larger and had more branchial filaments than other specimens previously docu-
mented. The appearance of Eunice harassii had not been previously recorded in
Irish waters. The maximum number of branchial filaments on specimens found in
earlier studies had been 15; Eunice specimens collected in Liverpool Bay, Menai
Bridge, and museum specimens from the English Channel had up to 26 filaments.
The four Dublin Bay annelids had maximum filament numbers of 24, 30, 32, and
34; setiger widths for three of the four specimens were in the 8-10 mm range.
The fragmented worms were found in Dublin Bay at a depth of about 30 m in an
area receiving about 140,000 wet tons/yr primary sewage sludge; the enrichment
of the area was thought to be a primary factor in the large size of the Eunice
harassii.
547
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E186
ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN WATER,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 7, p 311, July, 1978.
The EPA has retained Battelle Columbus Laboratories in Ohio for a 3-yr $1.5
million survey of contaminants in drinking water and tertiary effluents. The
water analysis will focus upon a number of toxic substances, such as 2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyls. Toxic organic com-
pounds will be identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; a computer
will be used to match unidentified spectra with reference sample spectra. An
integration of the specific ion current system will be employed to quantify
the compounds. Drinking water and tertiary effluent samples from six regional
areas in Texas, California, and the District of Columbia will be tested, as
well as samples from Miami, Florida; New Orleans, Louisiana; Ottumwa, Iowa;
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Seattle, Washington.
E187
WIDER USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE,
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 7, p 311, 313, July, 1978.
England's Water Research Center has developed a technique to evaluate the
thickening properties of sewage sludges. A low speed centrifuge accelerates
the sludge settling process and simulates the thickener's compressive force.
Subjecting a sludge sample in a 10-cm tube to 20 rain of gravitational accel-
eration is equivalent to 3.5 hrs of thickening in a 200-cm deep tank. The
technique was developed during investigations into the agricultural applica-
tion of sewage sludge to plants. To reduce transport costs, it was necessary
to increase sewage with 5% solids contents to 12% solids; the thickening anal-
ysis was also applied to laboratory studies on anaerobic digestion of sludges.
The Center is evaluating the effects of applying three types of undigested
sludge and one lagooned sludge to agricultural crops for a 2-yr period.
E188
FLOW AND LOAD VARIATIONS IN TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN,
Young, J. C., Cleasby, J. L., and Baumann, E. R.
Iowa State University,
Ames,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE2, p
289-303, April, 1978. 13 fig, 2 tab, 20 ref.
Waste water flow and loading patterns at the Ames, Iowa, treatment plant were
studied as a means of incorporating peak flow and load variations into the de-
548
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sign of biological treatment plants. With an increase in population over the
last 22 yrs, the organic loading on the plant has increased from an average
4,050 to 6,690 Ibs/day BOD and from 3,655 to 7,396 Ibs/day suspended solids.
Flow rates to the plant peaked during spring months due to infiltration; the
peak-month flow rate averaged 135% and the peak-day flow rate was about 191%
of the annual flow rate. Peak 8-hr and 4-hr flow rates averaged 229% and 237%,
respectively, of the annual average. From these parameters, it was estimated
that biological treatment units should be designed to accommodate BOD loads of
1.3 times the average annual load and ammonia loads of 1.25 times the average
annual load. Design oxygen supply rates were calculated as a function of the
peak daily BOD and ammonia loads plus 50% of the peak 4-hr load rate. Design
criteria was also developed for the final clarifiers, the surface settling
rate, and the solids load.
E189
ACCUMULATION RATE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPTIC TANK SLUDGE AND SEPTAGE,
Brandes, M. V
Applied Science Section, Pollution Control Branch,
Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
Toronto, Canada.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 936-943, May,
1978. 7 tab, 11 ref.
The impact of septic tank capacity and waste water strength on the accumula-
tion rate and the chemical and biological sludge characteristics was evaluated
in three septic tanks with different capacities and influent volumes over a
2-yr period. The chemical and bacteriological properties of the sludge and
septage were dependent upon the strength of the waste water and the detention
time in the tank. The 3,410 liter tank, treating toilet wastes, had a deten-
tion time of 9.7 days; the 4,590 liter tank, treating additional bathroom and
kitchen wastes, had a detention time of 2.4 days; and the 8,980 liter tank,
treating bathroom, kitchen, and laundry wastes, maintained effluent for 1.9
days. Septage was found to accumulate in the tanks at a rate of 200 liters/
capita/yr. Longer detention times enhanced decomposition of organic matter
and solids removal. Permissible time intervals between cleanings were cal-
culated as 8.08 yrs for the small tank, 2.89 yrs for the medium tank, and 1.44
yrs for the large tank; health regulations required that the small size tank
be cleaned every 4.2 yrs.
549
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El 90
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND PROGRESSION IN MIXED SUBSTRATES,
Parisod, J. P., Schroeder, E. D.
California University,
Davis,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1827-1834, July,
1978. 6 fig, 4 tab, 13 ref.
The kinetics and the plateau BOD values for mixed substrate systems were ana-
lyzed with glucose, glutamic acid, succinate acid, and sorbitol and the exis-
tence of stoichiometric end points for substrate conversion reactions was in-
vestigated. Plateau BOD values were obtained for individual and mixtures of
soluble substrates seeded with bacteria from primary sedimentation tank efflu-
ent or from activated sludge reactors; a Gilson differential respirometer was
employed to measure oxygen uptake. The net cell growth in the substrates was
calculated by subtracting the initial cell mass concentration from the plateau
cell mass concentration. Single substrate plateau values obtained in these
experiments correlated closely with previously reported values. In 34 mixed
substrate plateau tests, the maximum variation between predicted and actual
plateau values was 10.1%; the standard deviation was 4.0%. The study con-
cluded that the calculation of ultimate BOD from the sum of the plateau BOD
and the theoretical BOD of the cells produced up to the plateau was a feasible
and valid technique.
E191
BIO AS SAYS-PROCEDURES AND RESULTS,
Little, L. W.
Research Triangle Institute,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1852-1868, July,
1978, 179 ref.
Literature on bioassay procedures and their applications to a variety of
aquatic flora and fauna was reviewed. The design and interpretation of bio-
assay testing has been applied to individual chemicals and metals in labora-
tory procedures; in-depth studies have examined the impact of naturally oc-
curring complex chemical compounds on bioindicators. Experimental equipment
has been designed to closely simulate conditions in water bodies and soils;
structures have been improved to provide realistic dosing procedures, to main-
tain proper oxygen concentrations, to quantify microbial populations, and to
record patterns of movement. The results of bioassay procedures were reviewed
for microorganisms, algae, invertebrates, and fish; results of comparative
550
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testing with several trophic levels and the effect of the health status of the
test organisms on the results of bioassay interpretations were also examined.
E192
A NOMOGRAM FOR THE DETERMINATION OF AMMONIA IN WASTEWATER BY A KNOWN ADDITION
TECHNIQUE,
Ip, S. Y., and Pilkington, N. H.
CSIRO, Division of Chemical Technology,
Applied Chemistry Laboratories,
South Melbourne, Australia.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1869-1870, July,
1978. 4 ref.
A nomogram incorporating a known addition technique is presented for calculat-
ing the concentration of NH3-N in waste water. The technique is designed to
compensate for random drifts in the calibration lines of an ammonia gas sens-
ing electrode. A 1,000 mg/liter NH3-N solution is prepared by adding 3.819 g
of NH4C1 to one liter of water, followed by dilutions to 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and
100 mg/liter. To a 100 ml sample is added 1 ml 10M NaOH; the initial elect-
rode potential is then calculated as a function of the electrode slope and the
solution concentration. The Nemstian slope is calculated from a semi-log
plot of the millivolts in relation to a series of standard NH3-N solutions. A
2.0 ml sample of a 1,000 mg/liter NH3-N solution is added to the sample and
the new equilibrium potential of the electrode is calculated to provide the
change in electrode potential. The decrease in potential is then calculated
as a function of the electrode slope and the various solution concentrations
and volume. The nomogram is developed by aligning the Nernstian slope with
the decrease in electrode potential; the concentration of NH3-N is then cal-
culated by extrapolating the line to the intersection with the NH3-N concen-
tration axis.
El 93
DIRECT ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINATION OF VOLATILE ORGANIC ACIDS IN RAW
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER,
Narkis, N., and Henfeld-Furie, S.
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology,
Technion City, Haifa,
Environmental Engineering Laboratories.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 7, p 437-446, 1978. 15 fig, 3 tab, 22 ref.
A technique for analyzing volatile organic acids in raw or chemically treated
sewage permits direct injection of the sewage sample into a gas chromatograph
551
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without extensive pretreatment. Less than 1 g of crystallized metaphosphoric
acid is added to a 10 ml sample of raw sewage to adjust the pH to 2-3. The
mixture is then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 20 min at 5 C to remove sus-
pended solids and proteins; the sample is injected directly into a gas chroma-
tograph equipped with a hydrogen flame ionization detector. An 8 ft glass
column with a 0.125 inch diameter is packed with 60-80 mesh Chromosorb W which
has been washed with phosphoric acid and coated with 20% Carbowax 20 M dis-
solved in chloroform; the packing is washed again after vacuum drying with 3%
H3P04. Acetic and propionic acid analysis requires 5-10 microliter samples;
20-40 microliter samples are used for analysis of butyric, isovaleric, valeric,
and hexanoic acids. The appearance of volatile acids after 4-7 min of reten-
tion follows the order: acetic, propionic, isobutyric, butyric, isovaleric,
valeric, and hexanoic acid; formic acid is not detectable by flame ionization.
The gas chromatography direct injection technique can detect and quantify
70.0-97.5% of the volatile acids identified acccording to standard methods.
El 94
METHODS FOR CHECKING THE OPERATION OF ACTIVATED-SLUDGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANTS AND FOR DETERMINING DESIGN CRITERIA FOR NEW TREATMENT FACILITIES
(Modszerek eleveniszapos szennyviztisztito telepek uzemenek ellenorzesere, uj
telepek tervezesi adatainak a meghatarozasara),
Fleps, W., Pal, T., and Szilagyi, M.
Fovarosi Csatornazasi Muvek,
Budapest, Hungary.
Hidrologiai Kozlony, No. 4, p 166-173, 1978. 1 fig, 5 tab, 5 ref.
A flow-through respirometer measured the 'impact of increased aeration basin
retention time, increased activated sludge concentration, and effluent sus-
pended solids concentration on the COD removal efficiency of a Hungarian waste
water treatment plant. The respirometer contained a flow-through reactor and
settling tank, a gas scrubbing flask, an oxygen burette, feed valves, a gradu-
ated cylinder for collecting treated effluent, and a peristaltic pump for in-
troducing raw sewage from the holding tank into the reactor. When the reten-
tion time in the aeration basin was increased from 2 to 4 hrs, COD removal
only increased from 61.6 to 62.1%; COD removal decreased from 62.6 to 50.0%
and unit oxygen demand increased from 58 to 70 tag/liter when the activated
sludge concentration increased from 3.0 to 5.0 g/liter. Effluent suspended
solids levels averaged 43 mg/liter over a 24 hr period; this high concentra-
tion, as well as high diurnal COD concentrations in industrial wastes dis-
charged to the plant, were considered the causes of poor COD removal effi-
ciency. Respirometer, pilot plant, and full-scale tests indicated that doubl-
ing the aeration basin retention time would reduce COD by 76-78% and suspended
solids by 89-90%.
552
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E195
THE OCCURRENCE OF AEROMONADS IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE: ISOLATION OF AEROMONAS
SOBRIA AND ITS POSSIBLE CONFUSION WITH ESCHERICHIA COLI,
Neilson, A. H.
Swedish Water and Air Pollution Research Laboratory,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Vol. 44, No. 2, p 259-264, 1978. 1 tab, 26
ref.
Strains of Aeromonas sobria, isolated from activated sludge, paper mill efflu-
ent, and biologically-treated food processing effluent, exhibited characteris-
tics very similar to E. coli when analyzed according to standard methods.
Between 100,000 and 10,000,000 aeromonads/g wet weight were isolated on Endo
Agar, Tergitol-7 Agar, galactitol peptone agar, Shotts and Rimler medium, and
ana line blue agar. All of the isolated populations produced acid in stabs of
triple sugar iron medium but demonstrated weak or negligible oxidase activity
in freshly isolated strains. A. sobria produced gas more readily from lactose
and formed metallic colonies on Endo and EMB agars; A. hydrophila more readily
hydrolyzed aesculin, formed acid from arabinose and salicin, and exhibited
aerobic growth in arabinose, L-histidine, and L-arginine. None of the iso-
lates produced gas from lactose in EC medium at 44.5 C. About 95% of the
strains were resistant to ampicillin and sensitive to gentamycin; all were re-
sistant to penicillin and sensitive to tetracycline and chloramphenicol. None
of the strains exhibited nitrogenase activity comparable to the nitrogen-
fixing capacity of Enterobacteriaceae. Other characteristics distinguishing
A. sobria strains from E. coli included positive DNase, lipase, gelatinase,
and arginine decarboxylase activities. The strains are unable to produce acid
from xylose and arabinose or grow in L-glutamate; about 67% of all strains
were beta-hemolytic.
E196
DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF ENTEROVIRUSES IN
SEWAGE SLUDGES DURING ACTIVATION AND FOLLOWING LAND DISPOSAL,
Hurst, C. J., Farrah, S. R., Gerba, C. P., and Melnick, J. L.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 36, No. 1, p 81-89, July, 1978.
3 fig, 9 tab, 16 ref.
Enteroviruses were eluted from sewage sludge by: suspension of the solids in
0.05 M glycine buffer at pH 11.5; magnetic stirring for 30 sec; centrifuga-
tion; adjustment to pH 3.5 by the addition of 0.05 M glycine buffer at pH 2.0
to form organic floes; filtration through 3.0, 0.45, and 0.25 micron filters;
553
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and elation for bioassay. The described procedure recovered about 80% of
poliovirus type 1, 68% of echovirus type 7, and 75% of coxsackievirus B3 from
seeded activated sludge. The technique required about 3 hrs to complete and
recovered more viruses than elution with 3% beef extract and sonification.
Analysis of activated sludge after land application concluded that a linear
semilogarithmic relationship exists between viral inactivation and duration on
land. After 7 days of drying in the field, 0.5-3.0% of the viruses were re-
covered from the sludge; no viruses were apparent in the sludge 3 mos after
land application. Sludge solids content increased up to 30 days, levelled at
about 65% solids, and subsequently decreased; a direct correlation was ob-
served between moisture loss in the sludge and viral inactivation.
E197
A MORE ECONOMICAL METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND,
Knechtel, J. R.
Wastewater Technology Centre,
Canada Center for Inland Waters,
Burlington, Ontario.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 5, p 25-29, May-June, 1978. 1 fig, 5
tab, 9 ref.
An alternative technique for COD analysis of waste water, employing spectro-
photometric measurement, utilizes smaller sample and reagent volumes. A 10 ml
waste water sample, standard, or blank solution is placed in a screw cap cul-
ture tube which is of a size suitable for direct placement in the adapter of
the spectrometer. The sample is mixed with 6 ml of a digestion solution; the
digestion solution is prepared by mixing 167 ml concentrated sulfuric acid,
500 ml distilled water, 17.0 g mercuric sulfate, and 10.216 g potassium di-
chromate; cooling the mixture; and diluting it to 1.00 liter. A 14 ml aliquot
of catalyst solution, prepared by mixing 22 g of reagent grade silver sulfate
in a 19.8 kg bottle of concentrated sulfuric acid, is added to the sample.
The solution is digested for two hours with the teflon-lined bakelite cap
closed at 150 C in a forced-air oven. After the aliquot has cooled, absor-
bance is measured at 600 nm; the blank is adjusted to 100% transmittance and
the sample optical densities are plotted against COD to form a calibration
curve. Values of tests using the described procedure have been slightly
higher than those obtained by standard COD techniques; this difference is at-
tributed to more complete digestion and retention of volatile matter in the
culture tube. The detection limit of the test is reported to be double the
optical density variation at the blank level; samples containing more than
1,000 mg/liter COD must be diluted before testing.
554
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El 98
REGULAR TESTING CAN CONTROL HYDROGEN SULFIDE,
Keating, E. J.
FMC Corporation,
San Jose, California.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 7, p 68-70, July, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab.
Procedures to quantify and control hydrogen sulfide in waste water can reduce
the gas's potential toxic effect on treatment plant workers and alleviate
sewer corrosion from sulfuric acid generation. Monitoring the pH of the waste
water is important in calculating the amount of dissolved sulfide present as
hydrogen sulfide, associated with the odor and corrosion problems, or as hy-
drosulfide ions; hydrogen sulfide predominates in acidic wastes and equals the
quantity of hydrosulfide ions at pH 7. The methylene blue colorimetric test,
with a detection limit of 20 rag sulfide/liter, has several variations: the
titrimetric iodine test for oxidizing sulfides to sulfur; the LaMitte-Pomeroy
test with dual test tube analysis; the Hach Alka-Seltzer technique which ef-
fervesces hydrogen sulfide onto a chemically treated disc; and gas detector
tubes. A T-I-Y Kit developed by FMC Corp. can be used for analysis when
hydrogen peroxide is used to control hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen peroxide may
be detected with titanium sulfate or test strips. A laboratory analysis of
three waste water samples, untreated, treated with a small quantity of H202,
and treated with a larger H202 dose, provides data on the optimum H202 dosage
to control sulfide in waste water. From this information, field tests can be
conducted at problem sites to determine specific treatment needs.
El 99
' ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PATTERN OF SALMONELLA WELTEVERDEN STRAINS ISOLATED FROM
MAN, ANIMALS, SEWAGE AND WATER,
Upadhyay, K. N., and Misra, D. S.
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, Nainital, India,
College of Veterinary Medicine.
Indian Journal of Medical Research, Vol. 67, p 212-216, February, 1978. 2
tab, 9 ref.
Strains of Salmonella welteverden isolated from humans, animals, sewage, and
water were examined for resistance or sensitivity to antibiotics. Of the 127
strains isolated, all were completely resistant to bacitracin and erythromycin.
Strains isolated from humans exhibited resistance to eight other antibiotics,
including: sulfathiozole, viomycin, polymyxin B, nalidixic acid, tetracycline,
oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, and kanamycin; human isolates were the only
strains resistant to the three latter antibiotics. The higher resistance of
human strains was attributed to the frequent medical use of antibiotics.
555
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Animal strains were resistant to four antibiotics while sewage isolated strains
were resistant to three. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) levels of 60
strains against polymyxin B sulfate, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol were
high for human strains exposed to tetracycline and chloramphenicol and high
for sewage strains in contact with polymyxin B sulfate. Low MIC level sensi-
tive strains from humans were recorded for polymyxin B and tetracycline. Low
MIC level sensitivity to chloramphenicol was absent in human strains but pre-
sent in animal and sewage strains.
E200
COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS,
Kashiwagi, M., Mori, S., and Harada, T.
Hitachi, Limited,
Tokyo, Japan.
Hitachi Review, Vol. 27, No. 3, p 146-152, 1978. 10 fig, 7 ref.
Hitachi, Ltd., of Japan has developed the AQUAMAX-80 computer control series
and AQUADIC, the supervisory control computer subsystem, for use in water and
waste water treatment plants. The AQUAMAX-80 series permits shifts from cen-
tralized to distributed systems, from hardware to software systems, and from
simple to total or optimum control; it provides continued localized control in
the event of supervisory system shut-down. Three models are available in the
series. The A analog control model for small plants has a graphic panel which
provides cathode-ray tube (CRT) display for plant monitoring and data logging.
The C model offers microcomputerized control, light emitting diode display
(LED), CRT, and a high-speed telemeter and telecontrol system (signal trans-
mission unit). The computerized supervisory F system provides CRT and LED
display, high-speed data transmission, and optimum operation and prediction
controls. All series are equipped with Hitachi's telemetry system, data con-
centrating boards, and motor control centers. The AQUADIC system provides: a
data base for analog, fault, and other information; standard programs for
water and waste water treatment plants; analog, digital, and pulse input;
digital and analog output; CRT formats; sequential fill-in-the-form logging;
and an automatic reports generator. The color CRT and special keyboard pro-
vide the operator-machine interface for displaying equipment, instrument, and
piping details. A typical computerized dissolved oxygen control system de-
signed for an activated sludge plant provides feedback and feed forward con-
trol, nonlinear compensation for valve position-air flow rate, and feedback
valve position compensation.
556
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E201
TWO-TEMPERATURE MEMBRANE FILTER METHOD FOR ENUMERATION OF FECAL COLIFORM BAC-
TERIA FROM CHLORINATED EFFLUENTS,
Green, B. L.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 39, No. 1, p 80, 1978.
The incubation procedure required for the membrane filtration enumeration of
fecal coliform bacteria in chlorinated effluents was modified to permit more
accurate analysis. Incubation of chlorinated effluent samples at 44.5 C prior
to standard membrane filter enumeration of coliforms was found to critically
affect the recovery of sublethally injured coliforms. Chlorinated primary and
secondary effluents were preincubated at 35 C for 5 hrs, followed by incuba-
tion for about 18 hrs at 44.5 C, prior to membrane filtration of the effluents
for coliform quantification. Results of the modified and standard methods
were compared to those obtained by multiple-tube most probable number (MPN)
procedures; the standard membrane filter technique recovered only 15% of the
coliforms obtained by the MPN procedure. The modified incubation technique
yielded 68% of the fecal coliforms recovered by the MPN procedure. Correla-
tion of results obtained from the modified technique and the MPN procedure was
highest in tests with secondary effluents.
E202
DETERMINATION OF ORGANOSILICONE IN SEWAGE SLUDGE BY ATOMIC ABSORPTION
SPECTROMETRY,
Tsuchitani, Y., Harada, K., Saito, K., Muramatsu, N., and Uematsu, K.
Central Research Laboratories,
Ajinomoto Company, Incorporated,
Kanagawa, Japan.
Buseki Kagaku, Vol. 27, No. 6, p 343-347, 1978. 4 fig, 6 tab, 6 ref.
Organosilicone was separated from sewage sludge by solvent extraction, dehy-
dration, and activated carbon filtration before analysis by atomic absorption
spectrometry. A 10-20 g sample of sludge was neutralized to PH 6-7 and placed
in an extraction apparatus with 100-150 ml of toluene. The sludge was azeo-
tropically dehydrated; the organosilicone was extracted in 70-100 ml of tolu-
ene. After vacuum evaporation of the toluene, the organosilicone-bearing
residue was dissolved in methyl isobutyl ketone; the solution was filtered
through an activated carbon column and concentrated to 20 ml. The organo-
silicone concentration was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry at
251.6 nm; the oil was primarily in the form of dimethylpolysiloxane. The ex-
traction process recovered about 88% of the organosilicone at a variance coef-
ficient of 12%. The technique was considered more practical than liquid-liquid
extraction by a separation funnel or extraction by a Soxleht unit; results of
the atomic absorption spectrometry analysis were comparable to those of proton
nuclear magnetic resonance or gel permeation chromatography.
557
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E203
TOXICITY-TEST ON FISH CARASSIUS AURATUS IN WATERS AND SEWAGES CONTAINING
PHENOL, TREATED WITH NACLO OR WITH CL02 (IL TEST DI ITTIOTOSSICITA1 SU ACQUE E
LIQUAMI DEPURATI CON IPOCLORITO E BIOSSIDO DI CLORO, IN PRESENZA DI FENOLO),
Paoletti, A., Parrella, A., Aliberti, F., and Gargiulo, E.
Universita' degli Studi di Napoli,
Naples, Italy,
Department of Hygiene and Science.
Igiene Moderna, Vol. 71, No. 1, p 86-116, 1978. 8 fig, 3 tab, 27 ref.
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) were used in 50% median mortality (TLM50) tests
performed on phenolated sewage and potable water disinfected with chlorine
dioxide or sodium hypochlorite. Samples of phenol-bearing spring, mineral,
and tap water were treated with 40 ppm of C102 or NaCIO for a contact time of
30 min; oxidized waste water, containing 30-70 ppm BOD, 60-95 ppm COD, and
400,000-700,000 coliforms/100 ml, and graywater having 95-280 ppm BOD, 280-400
ppm COD, and 8,000,000-50,000,000 coliforms/100 ml were similarly treated.
The potable and sewage waters acquired a "secondary induced toxicity1 after
treatment with either disinfectant; phenolated potable water was more toxic
than sewage wastes after treatment. The greater toxicity of the disinfected
potable waters was attributed to the lack of organic matter, especially fecal
coliforms, to consume the chlorinated phenolic compounds. The TLM50 for gold-
fish sustained in mineral, spring, and tap water treated with NaCIO ranged
over 1.22-2.92 hrs; in water treated with C102, the TLM50 covered 2.85-4.85
hrs. The TLM50 of oxidized waste water was 7.35 hrs after NaCIO treatment and
9.05 hrs after C102 disinfection; graywater yield TLM50 values of 7.16 hrs and
8.46 hrs after treatment with NaCIO and C102, respectively. Graywater was
more toxic to fish before disinfection; untreated phenolated tap water was
more toxic to fish than the other potable waters tested.
E204
SIGN-OF-CHARGE OF SPECIES OF CU, CD AND ZN EXTRACTED FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE, AND
EFFECT OF PLANTS, -/
Lagerwerff, J. V., and Milberg, R. P.
Agricultural Environmental Quality Institute,
Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Plant and Soil, Vol. 49, No. 1, p 117-125, 1978. 2 fig, 2 tab, 18 ref.
Laboratory studies measured the sign of charge and the concentration of Cu,
Cd, and Zn leached from moist or air-dried 5-yr-old sewage sludge passed
through columns bearing cationic, anionic, or mixed resins; the sewage sludge
had been obtained from the Back River waste water treatment plant in Balti-
558
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more, Maryland. The sludge had an initial moisture content of 38.4% which was
reduced to 1.9% by air drying. Aliquots of sludge, extracted by equilibra-
tion, were adjusted to pH 3.2, 5.2, and 6.6 before filtration through the
resins. For air-dried sludge, the Cd extract yielded 87% cationic species;
the Cu extract contained 16% cationic and 72% amphoteric species. Moist stor-
age extracts contained 83% amphoteric Cd, 50% cationic Cu, and 30% amphoteric
Cu. Increasing the pH of the extracts caused an increase in neutral and
anionic Cu species. Zn extracts, regardless of storage conditions, yielded
84-92% cationic species. The Cu uptake from sludge extracts by plants was
analyzed by growing soybean seedlings for 48 hrs in aqueous extracts of
Cu-enriched sludge. Extracts sampled after the growth period demonstrated
that 68% of the amphoteric, 55% of cationic, 83% of anionic, and 100% of
neutral Cu species remained in the extract.
E205
H2-PRODUCING BACTERIA IN DIGESTING SEWAGE SLUDGE ISOLATED ON SIMPLE, DEFINED
MEDIA,
Holmes, P., and Freischel, M. R.
North Dakota State University,
Fargo,
Department of Bacteriology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 36, No. 2, p 394-395, August,
1978. 2 tab, 10 ref.
Five genera of H2-producing Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from digested
sewage sludge on a modified anaerobic basal salts medium, supplemented with
various carbohydrate substrates. The basal salts medium received additions of
0.0000001 M sodium selenite, 4 mg/liter ferrous chloride, a vitamin mixture,
1.5% wt/vol agar, and one of the test substrates. The supplemental substrates
included: glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, cellobiose, glutamate, his-
tidine, glycine, serine, threonine, stearic and oleic acids, phenol, nicotine,
tryptophan, benzoate, and olive oil. Glucose yielded the highest number of
H2-producing isolates; carbohydrate substrates produced more H2-producing bac-
teria than non-carbohydrate media. About 69% of the isolates recovered on
glucose were H2-producing species; 58% of the isolated Enterobacteriaceae were
identified as Citrobacter, 28% as Enterobacter, 0.3% as Escherichia, and 13%
as two unidentified genera. Of all the H2-generating bacteria produced, 85%
were isolated on glucose and consisted of 65% Citrobacter and 25% Enterobacter;
about 2% of the isolates were found on non-carbohydrate media. The average
H2-producing bacterial count in digested sewage sludge was about 14,000,000/ml
sludge; it was concluded that H2-producing Enterobacteriaceae contribute in
some way to the eventual production of methane.
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MODEL STUDIES
F001
ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR STORM AND COMBINED SEWER MANAGEMENT,
APPENDIX F: SELECTED COMPUTER INPUT AND OUTPUT,
Brandstetter, A.
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories,
Water and Land Resources Department,
Richland, Washington.
1976. 387 p. Technical Report EPA-600/2-76-175b.
Input data and selected output are presented as part of a general evaluation
of storm water management models. Hypothetical catchments and pipe systems
were used in simulations. Storm water management models which are considered
include: Battelle Urban Waste Water Management Model, Chicago Flow Simulation
Program, Dorsch Consult Hydrograph-Volume, Environmental Protection Agency
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM), Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Urban Watershed Model, SOGREAH Looped Sewer Model, and Water Resources Engi-
neers Storm Water Management Model.
F002
THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS, PART II—-DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR,
Ekama, G. A., and Marais, G. V. R.
Capetown University, South Africa,
Water Research Commission of South Africa,
Water Resources and Public Health Engineering.
Water SA, Vol. 3, No. 1, p 17-50, January, 1977. 48 fig, 10 tab, 10 ref, 1
append.
A model to describe the behavior of the activated sludge process under dynamic
conditions for both carbonaceous and nitrogen degradation is presented.
Aspects of carbonaceous degradation include influent COD fractions, biodegrad-
able COD removal, synthesis of cell mass, endogenous respiration, and car-
bonaceous oxygen demand. Various aspects of nitrogen removal are discussed,
including influent TKN fractions, nitrogen requirements for sludge, and the
storage of nitrogen. The mathematical model includes basic differential equa-
tions for sludge generation, COD utilization, and nitrification. Equations
are presented for the general form of the mass balance equation, the biode-
gradable COD in the reactor liquid, unbiodegradable COD in the reactor, active
mass concentration in the reactor, the stored COD (as VSS) accumulated in the
560
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sludge, inert material accumulating through endogenous residue, inert material
accumulating from the influent, rate of change of total mass (MLVSS), slowly
biodegradable TKN, unbiodegradable nitrogen, immediately available nitrogen,
nitrates in the reactor liquid, and oxygen utilization. The predictive abili-
ties of the mathematical model were tested against experimental data. Acti-
vated sludge process performance is evaluated with respect to sinusoidal and
square-varying loading conditions. A design example is presented for a com-
pletely-mixed activated sludge plant with a flow of 10 M liters/day, sludge
age of 20 days, peak COD mass flow of 1.8 times the average COD mass flow, and
sinusoidal loading conditions.
F003
FUNCTIONAL DESIGN OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES,
Gaudy, A. F., Jr., and Kincannon, D. F.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Department of Bioenvironmental Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 76-81, September, 1977. 4 fig, 2
tab, 9 ref.
Mathematical models for the functional design of activated sludge processes
which include design equations based on simultaneous solution of mass balances
and equations for direct solution of tank volume are examined. Equations for
the mass rate of change in biomass concentration and the effluent substrate
concentration are presented. The reaction tank volume is derived as a func-
tion of net specific growth rate. Expressions are presented for the recycle
flow ratio and the biological solids concentration in the aeration tank. A
materials balance for biological solids around the clarifier at steady state
conditions is used to provide an expression for excess sludge production. The
model is illustrated with a numerical example at the following design condi-
tions: BOD of primary effluent (275 nig/liter), flow rate (10 mgd), required
effluent BOD (30 mg/liter), and required suspended solids (30 mg/liter). Use
of the model entails: collection of data to characterize the concentration of
soluble substrate in the influent; characterization of biomass by determining
the saturation constant, maximum specific growth rate, true sludge or cell
yield, and the maintenance energy; the determination of the required net
growth rate, the selection of recycle flow ratios to give the required concen-
tration of soluble substrate in effluent; calculation of biological solids in
the aeration tank; and determination of aeration tank volume, excess sludge
production, and metabolic oxygen requirements.
561
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F004
KINETICS AND STOICHIOMETRY OF COMPLETELY MIXED ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Sherrard, J. H.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 9, p 1968-1975,
September, 1977. 6 fig, 1 tab, 24 ref.
Microbiological principles, materials balance equations, and the stoichio-
metric composition of waste water are examined with respect to the completely
mixed activated sludge process. Mathematical equations for microbial growth
kinetics are derived. Mathematical relationships which describe bacterial
growth and substrate utilization are developed from a series of materials
balance equations. Parameters defined include: the yield coefficient, the
mean cell residence time, the rate of substrate utilization per unit weight of
microorganisms, and the foodrmicroorganism ratio. An example problem is cal-
culated according to the described relationships for industrial waste water
with a flow rate of 1 mgd and a temperature of 20 C which is treated in a com-
pletely mixed activated sludge process. Effluent waste concentration, treat-
ment efficiency, aeration basin volatile suspended solids, waste sludge pro-
duction, and the food:microorganism ratio are plotted against the mean cell
residence time.
F005
SECONDARY SEWAGE TREATMENT VERSUS OCEAN OUTFALLS: AN ASSESSMENT,
Officer, C. B., and Ryther, J. H.
Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire,
Earth Sciences Department.
Science, Vol. 197, No. 4308, p 1056-1060, September, 1977. 1 fig, 1 tab, 27
ref.
Questions have been posed on the relative cost-effectiveness and environmental
effects of ocean outfall dumping as an alternative to secondary sewage treat-
ment. The direct oxygen demand of waste materials and the indirect oxygen de-
mand associated with eutrophication are compared for untreated and secondary
effluents. The assimilation characteristics of rivers, estuaries, and coastal
waters are defined in terms of volume, dilution, reaction rate phenomena, and
retention or residence time in a steady state model. A mathematical model for
waste biochemical oxidation is derived to calculate the waste dissolved oxygen
deficit in terms of the combined waste discharge oxygen demand, volume, reten-
tion time, the waste biochemical oxygen demand decay coefficient, and the time
from the discharge. An index for estimating the effects of alterations in
waste loading, outfall location, or other environmental factors within the
system is presented. A nutrient-limited model for estimating the eutrophica-
tion potential in terms of nitrogen waste loading or the potential utilization
562
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of the oxygen in waste nutrients by phytoplankton is presented. The phyto-
plankton dissolved oxygen deficit for bottom waters is derived in terms of oxi-
dation utilization rate, volume, retention time, percentage of phytoplankton
which decays in the photic zone, and volume of bottom waters with respect to
total volume. Ocean outfalls are suggested as eliminating the eutrophication
potential of inorganic nutrients present in secondary-treated effluent.
F006
A MODEL FOR MULTI-PERIOD REGIONAL WASTEWATER PLANNING,
Chiang, C. H.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 861, August, 1977.
A method for determining the location, timing, and scale of regional waste
water treatment plants, sewers, and pumping stations with a heuristic al-
gorithm composed of several subprograms is presented. The algorithm is capa-
ble of producing marginal cost analyses, examining tradeoffs between economies
of scale in treatment and waste water conveyance, accounting for existing
facilities, and considering plant capacity. Basically an iterative procedure,
the algorithm can be used to provide fast, possibly, least-cost solutions to
several types of waste water planning problems.
F007
OPTIMIZATION OF A REGIONAL WATER RESOURCE QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM,
Vasconcelos, J. J.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 2, p 863, August, 1977.
A mathematical model to optimize design and minimize total costs for a
regional water supply-waste water treatment management system is presented.
The Fresno groundwater basin in the San Joaquin Valley in California was used
in a simulation of an integrated water system with five sources of water for
22 water demands. Declining groundwater levels and increasing concentrations
of total dissolved solids and nitrates in groundwater are the major water re-
source problems in the area. An iterative algorithm which included a linear
programming optimization model, a groundwater quantity and quality model, and
a data processing-costing program was used to analyze four management alterna-
tives which failed to meet problem constraints.
563
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F008
LOW-TEMPERATURE ORGANIC REMOVAL AND DENITRIFICATION IN ACTIVATED CARBON
COLUMNS,
Maqsood, R., and Benedek, A.
McMaster University,
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 10, p 2107-2117,
October, 1977. 14 fig, 6 tab, 17 ref.
Results of parallel pilot studies at 5 and 25 C on low-temperature organic re-
moval and denitrification in activated carbon columns are presented, with
special emphasis on the monitoring of microbial life in activated carbon
columns and the mathematical modelling of these columns in the presence of
biooxidation. A series of equations are presented for the modelling of fixed-
bed adsorbers in the presence of bacterial activity. Results of pilot studies
at the Dundas Water Pollution Control Center indicated that physical-chemical
treatment with granular activated carbon columns was capable of delivering
high quality effluents at both temperatures examined and that microbial de-
gradation enhanced the adsorptive capacities of the carbon columns. Dentrifi-
cation was observed in the inside aerobic beds, and anaerobic bioactivity was
attributed to localized flow conditions in pockets within the columns. The
higher treatment efficiency at 25 C was attributed to the greater prolifera-
tion of bacterial life in the column at higher temperatures. Studies on bac-
terial densities indicated that concentrations were similar to that of mixed
liquor in an activated sludge plant. Denitrification rates were increased by
at least 25% with the addition of organic substrate in studies with methanol
addition in plastic media and GAC fluidized beds. The study concluded that
the removal of organics by activated carbon was a biological rather than a
physico-chemical phenomenon and that bacterial action did, in fact, prolong
the life of the carbon bed.
F009
OPTIMAL CONTROL OF SEWAGE AND RAIN PUMPS BASED ON INFLUENT FLOW PREDICTION,
Kato, S., Shioya, M., Shiraishi, A., Kashiwagi, M., and Ozaki, M.
Bureau of Sewage Works,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government,
Tokyo, Japan.
Hitachi Review, Vol. 26, No. 7, p 235-240, 1977. 6 fig, 2 tab, 6 ref.
Pumping stations servicing combined sewer lines are subjected to varying in-
fluent flow rates during wet and dry weather conditions and in situations
where a diurnal distribution in sewage flow occurs. When flow rates of in-
fluent to the pumping station can be predicted, pump start-up and operation
564
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can be controlled to raise treatment efficiency, minimize energy consumption,
and prevent combined sewer overflows. The mathematical models which are pre-
sented include an influent prediction model and a scheduling model for quasi-
optimum pump operation. The first model utilizes a multiple regression analy-
sis technique to predict influent flows up to 1 hr in advance on the basis of
stored volume in the sewer, calculated from sewer line sizes and suction well
water level, pumping rate, and rainfall data. The scheduling model or Quasi-
optimum Routing System (QRS) is based on the variation of pumping rate through
control of the number of pumps in operation with respect to stored volumes and
cumulative curves for pumping rate, sewer line capapity, and influent flow
rate over a given time period. The QRS technique utilizes a heuristic al-
gorithm to search for a pump scheduling route which minimizes start-stop fre-
quency. The algorithm can then be used in evaluation functions for the total
number of pump switchings, energy consumption, variation of pumping rate,
operating time of a specified pump, and energy consumption per pumping rate.
F010
HEURISTIC ALGORITHM FOR WASTEWATER PLANNING,
Chiang, C. H., and Lauria, D. T.
Malcolm Pirnie, Incotporated,
White Plains, New York.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
863-876, October, 1977. 6 fig, 3 tab, 18 ref.
Waste water treatment costs may be reduced and treatment efficiencies in-
creased by regional waste water planning which considers waste water sources,
treatment plant sites, sewer systems, and associated costs for multi-purpose
treatment facilities. The mathematical model which is presented is designed
to evaluate and compare construction costs for treatment facilities and sewage
systems with respect to temporal and spatial considerations. The first sub-
program encountered in the algorithm is START in Which the user proposes con-
struction of plants and lines for the region in each time period and for given
locations. STAGE is used to examine costs for combining two or more plants at
a given time period of construction with respect to plant scale economics and
costs of waste water conveyance. STAGE incorporates several additional rou-
tines in decision making: BUMP to determine deficiencies in START input; DROP
and ADD to compare costs for construction, expansion, and connection of indi-
vidual plants in the region; ROUTE to insure that waste water treatment routes
are cost-efficient; and SHIFT to insure that treatment plants in the final
solution are constructed at the best locations. MERGE is then used to deter-
mine whether cost advantages are available in construction of plants and con-
veyance structures within a single or over several time periods. The STAGE
and MERGE subprograms are repeated until no further cost reductions can be
realized and a final solution is reached. The upper Connecticut Valley region
Of Vermont and New Hampshire and the upper Neshaminy Creek basin in Pennsyl-
vania are used in examples of the use of the heuristic algorithm.
565
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F011
DISPERSION OF BUOYANT WASTE WATER DISCHARGED FROM OUTFALL DIFFUSERS OF FINITE
LENGTH,
Roberts, P. J. W.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 4, p 1818-1819, 1977.
Laboratory experiments were used to examine the three-dimensional flow field
produced by a line plume analogous to the dispersion of buoyant waste water
released from line diffusers in ocean outfalls. Results indicated that the
minimum surface dilution was independent of the diffuser length:water depth
ratio (L/H) and the Reynold's number (Re) from 1,190 to 12,900. Dilutions
were related to a type of Froude number (F) equal to the ratio of the cube of
the current velocity (u) to the buoyancy flux per unit length (b). Dilutions
were independent of current velocity and current direction for F<0.1 and
proportional to current velocity for F>0.1 when the current direction was
perpendicular to the diffuser. At 0.1
-------
alternatives considered by DYNAMO-1 in the analysis of designs is presented
for a 10-mgd municipal waste water treatment plant on the basis of raw waste
characteristics of BOD at 220 mg/liter and TSS at 150 mg/liter and effluent
requirements of 20 mg/liter for both constituents.
F013
DOES POLLUTION ABATEMENT IMPROVE AQUATIC LIFE,
Savage, N., and Alcamo, J.
Normandeau Associates,
Bedford, New Hampshire.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 108, 111-112, 158, September,
1977. 4 fig, 2 tab, 2 ref.
The environmental effects of water pollution control efforts are discussed
with respect to finfish and benthic invertebrates in the Merrimack River in
Massachusetts. SNSIM (Stream Network Simulation) was used as a computerized
mathematical model for this analysis. The model, developed by the EPA in
1974, calculates carbonaceous BOD of a stream from carbonaceous BOD values for
point source loads and tributaries. The dissolved oxygen content is calcu-
lated with respect to the oxygen demand from biochemical breakdown of nitro-
genous wastes; algal production and respiration of oxygen; benthal oxygen de-
mand; and diffusion of atmospheric oxygen. Reaction coefficients on which the
model is based include the oxidation rate of nitrogenous BOD and carbonaceous
BOD by bacteria, the rate of algal assimilation of ammonia and nitrate, and
the diffusion rate of atmospheric oxygen into the river. Use of the model re-
quires data preparation, model calibration and refinement, and water quality
projections. The Merrimack River was divided into segments according to flow,
velocity, cross-sectional area, and depth. Water quality projections were
calculated on the basis of 7-day, 10-yr low flow conditions. Projections of
aquatic organism response were evaluated according to the sensitivity of the
organism to pollutants and a direct linear relationship between dissolved oxy-
gen concentration and biological response. The study concluded that changes
in resident aquatic organism populations were not widespread as a result of
pollution abatement schedules, although substantial improvements were observed
in certain highly polluted stretches of the river.
567
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F014
CONSIDERATION OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS TRANSPORT IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS
SYNTHESIS: II. TOWER TYPE OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS,
Erickson, L. E., Heydweiller, J. C., and Fan, L. T.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 112-134, 1977. 7 fig, 4 tab, 9
ref.
The optimal structure and process designs for a co-current multi-stage aera-
tion tower and a secondary clarifier were examined in model studies with the
structural parameter method of system synthesis. Schematic diagrams of an
activated sludge system with one, two, and three tower stages are presented.
A series of equations for mass balances with respect to substrate concentra-
tion, flow rates, organism concentration, specific growth rate, and other
parameters for each stage is presented. Computation aspects of the model,
such as the choice of independent variables, dependent variable constraints,
and input requirements, are discussed. A set of dimensionless, non-linear
algebraic equations is derived through the introduction of a series of dimen-
sionless variables into the mass balance equations for organism concentration,
substrate concentration, settling velocity, backflow rate, saturation, endo-
genous organism attrition rate, time, and the linear dispersion equation con-
stant. The effects of the number of tower stages on the clarifier, fermentor,
and total volumes are illustrated, as are the fraction of the system volume
allocated to the tower fermentor, and the sludge recycle and wasting rates.
Analyses indicated that the three tower stage system achieved the desired ef-
fluent quality with the smallest tower, clarifier, and total volumes, and that
the fraction of organic waste which was metabolized also increased as the num-
ber of tower stages increased. The amount of suspended solids in the overflow
increased as the number of tower stages increased.
F015
PERIODIC OPERATION OF AN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Sincic, D., and Bailey, J. E.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 135-139, 1977. 2 fig, 9 ref.
A variety of studies have been conducted to develop a control design for the
activated sludge process which would minimize the effects of disturbances on
process performance and effluent quality. A mathematical modelling and simu-
lation study of the application of periodic control to the activated sludge
process is presented. The model is based on the activated sludge reactor as
two ideal continuous flow stirred tank reactors. Assumptions include a con-
stant recycle sludge concentration and a recycle substrate concentration equal
to the substrate concentration in the activated sludge reactor effluent. A
series of equations for the two-tank process are presented. The periodicity
of the fluctuations in feed rate and composition is mathematically defined and
used to modify the process variables. A variability index based on the mean
square fluctuation of effluent substrate concentration about its mean is pre-
568
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sented. Process conditions and parameters used during the calculations are
defined, including recycle sludge concentration; average value and upper limit
of sludge recycle flow rate; volume; sludge:substrate ratio; and the auto-
catalytic kinetics rate constant. The effects of optimal period control and
steady control on the effluent substrate concentration are illustrated.
F016
NITRATE AND CHLORIDE POLLUTION OF AQUIFERS: A REGIONAL STUDY WITH THE AID OF
A SINGLE-CELL MODEL,
Mercado, A.
Tahal-Water Planning for Israel, Limited,
Tel Aviv, Israel.
Water Resources Research, Vol. 12, No. 4, p 731-747, August, 1976. 15 fig, 6
tab, 7 ref.
Nitrate and chloride pollution of aquifers as a result of waste water disposal
and the use of fertilizers in agricultural regions is of particular concern to
public health authorities because of possible effects on potable water sup-
plies. A single cell model has been developed to examine regional patterns of
nitrate and chloride pollution of a coastal aquifer in Israel. Integration of
pollution sources on the land surface, hydrological parameters of the aquifer
and the unsaturated zone, and variations of chloride and nitrate concentration
distributions in pumping wells are used to assess present concentrations and
their respective sources and to predict future pollution trends on a regional
scale. Transit time from land surface to the aquifer and nitrogen losses in
the soil are used to represent hydrologic and biochemical processes in the un-
saturated zone. Linear relationships are defined between the nitrogen quanti-
ties released on the surface and the quantities reaching the water table. The
chloride ion was used as a conservative tracer to define the effective volume
of groundwater in the mixing zone. The Monte Carlo technique was applied to
predict trends in average groundwater concentration as a function of time.
The forecasted nitrate and chloride values reveal the need for immediate ac-
tion to alleviate groundwater pollution, especially because of the time lag
factor between the loading reduction and the aquifer response. Thirteen al-
ternative measures are presented for pollution abatement, including tertiary
treatment of sewage and modifications in agricultural.practices.
569
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F017
FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION OF OVERLAND AND CHANNEL FLOW,
Ross, B. B., Contractor, D. N., and Shanholtz, V. 0.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Transactions of the ASAE, Vol. 20, No. 4, p 705-712, July-August, 1977. 6
fig, 3 tab, 32 ref.
A mathematical model was developed to allow simulation of flood flows from a
watershed with considerations for the effect of land-use changes on the runoff
hydrograph. Previous approaches to hydrodynamic problems are reviewed, in-
cluding numerical methods, the finite element numerical method, Galerkin's re-
sidual method, and the kinematic wave approximation. A mathematical deriva-
tion of the model used in this study is presented. Use of the models involves
a discretization of the watershed into elements which reflect significant
changes in characteristics such as slope and/or roughness. Input parameters
to the model include the element sizes, the topographical characteristics of
the watershed, and the storm event. The South River Watershed in Augusta
County, Virginia, is used in an example of the application of the model.
Hurricane Camille, a 12-hr storm, was used to test and calibrate the flood
routing model. The effects of flood detention features on the discharge hy-
drograph were calculated. Population projections were used to re-evaluate
each element in terms of its land-use characteristics predicted for the year
2000, and a modified hydrograph was calculated.
F018
MODEL TESTING AIDS SUCTION CHAMBER DESIGN,
Best, I. W., Jr.
Crown Zellerbach Corporation,
Seattle, Washington.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 9, p 86-87, 91-93, September,
1977. 10 fig.
Model testing is suggested for the evaluation of alternate suction chamber de-
signs for axial and mixed flow pumps. Problems encountered during the opera-
tion of the high specific speed pump for condenser circulating service, water
filtration plants, and other systems requiring large quantities of water at
relatively low heads have been related to inherent characteristics of the pump
type. Since these can be influenced by suction chamber characteristics, pro-
per design can also reduce operating costs and required floor space of the
pumping system. Cavitation, air entrainment, overloading of the pump impel-
ler, lowered capacity and efficiency, and bearing misalignment and vibration
can all occur because of improper suction chamber design. The advantages of
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designing suction chambers with separate chambers for each pump are de-
scribed. Adjustments in the bell-to-floor clearance and submergence are dis-
cussed with respect to pump performance. Techniques in model testing of hy-
draulic structures such as suction chambers are based on maintaining a geo-
metric similarity and scale in the prototype so that problems can be antici-
pated and various modifications can be made in the design stage at relatively
low cost, instead of after the full-scale model is in operation.
F019
NEAR OPTIMAL EFFLUENT CONTROL FOR AN EXISTING ACTIVATED SLUDGE WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PROCESS,
Therien, N., Perdrieux, S., and Harrington, P.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 95-104, 1977. 11 fig, 2 tab, 19
ref.
The waste water treatment plant for Sherbrooke University Hospital in Sher-
brooke, Quebec, Canada, was the site of an evaluation of a model for predict-
ing the dynamic behavior of the activated sludge process with respect to a
control action. In this study the control action involved direct injection of
active solids into the aeration unit of an activated sludge process in time in
order to minimize the mean daily concentration of organic substrate flowing
out of the clarifier in response to variations in the influent. In the pre-
sentation of the mathematical model for the aerator-clarifier system, differ-
ential equations for the substrate and bioimass entering and leaving the aera-
tion unit and clarifier are defined. A set of equations for the optimization
of the control problem and for numerical synthesis of the control function are
presented. Calculations indicated that a feasible control scheme for the
Sherbrooke University Hospital to provide a pulse of solids in time could be
realized by simply installing an on-off automatic timer activating an injec-
tion pump at the plant.
F020
A REVIEW OF FILM FLOW MODELING AS APPLIED TO TRICKLING FILTER SYSTEMS,
Kehrberger, G. J.
Hydroscience,
Westwood, New Jersey.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 151-159, 1977. 7 fig, 20 ref.
The trickling filter has been used in waste water treatment as a means of bio-
logically removing organic carbon from municipal and industrial wastes.
Microorganisms grown and maintained on the surface of the filter media receive
oxygen and remove nutrients from the liquid film of waste water on the surface
media. Various mathematical models have been developed to describe trickling
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filter performance as a function of organic loading, hydraulic loading, depth,
and recirculation. A general review of film flow models with emphasis on
liquid-phase concepts which can be used to examine trickling filter perfor-
mance is presented. Liquid phase film flow models based primarily on mass
balances within the reactor include the general heterogeneous model, the reac-
tion control model, the pseudo-homogeneous model, and models for hydraulic
loading response and recirculation effects. Models based on the bacterial
film and biological activity are also described.
F021
PERFORMANCE PREDICTIONS FOR THE REMOVAL OF AQUEOUS FREE CHLORINE BY PACKED
BEDS OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON,
Suidan, M. T., Snoeyink, V. L., and Schmitz, R. A.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 18-24, 1977. 5 fig, 9 ref.
The chlorine residual in treated water and waste water may have deleterious
effects such as toxicity to species in receiving waters; taste or odor in
drinking water; and adverse effects on ion exchange resins and industrial pro-
cesses. Various studies have been conducted on methods of dechlorination. A
mathematical model for free chlorine reacting with activated carbon in a
packed bed was used in studies to show the effect of pH, particle size, tem-
perature, influent concentration, and flow rate and contact time on the break-
through curve and on the buildup of surface oxides of carbon within the bed.
The effect of pH on the breakthrough curve was examined at pH values of 4.0,
7.6, and 10.0. The reaction of chlorine with the carbon was slowest at pH
10. With influent concentrations of 1, 5, 20, and 100 mg/liter, the higher
concentrations resulted in more rapid breakthrough of chlorine and more rapid
poisoning of the carbon. Chlorine removal increased with a decrease in carbon
particle size. Removal, was greater at lower flow rates and at longer contact
times. The reaction between chlorine and the carbon bed was slowed down ap-
preciably with decreasing temperatures.
F022
CONSIDERATION OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS TRANSPORT IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM SYNTHE-
SIS: I. SIMULTANEOUS USE OF CLARIFICATION AND SLUDGE THICKENING MODELS,
Erickson, L. E., Heydweiller, J. C., and Fan, L. T.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 105-111, 1977. 3 fig, 3 tab, 16
ref.
The design of an activated sludge system consisting of a completely mixed
aeration vessel and a secondary clarifier was considered with respect to
minimizing the total volume of the system. Since the optimization of designs
for waste treatment systems is dependent on accurate descriptions of the vari-
ous processes, mathematical models to describe clarification and thickening in
572
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secondary clarifiers have received considerable attention. A clarifier model
which considers overflow and underflow (clarification and thickening) is pre-
sented. Equations for the flow balance around the secondary clarifier, the
organism balance, and the organism concentration in the overflow stream are
presented. Equations for the bulk, settling, and total downward flux of
organisms in the clarifier are used to derive an expression for the limiting
flux of organisms in the system. The optimization of a system design is de-
scribed with respect to the balance equations, the organism concentration in
the underflow, inlet conditions, the desired effluent quality, and the clari-
fier depth. The effects of operating conditions such as loading, recycle flow
rate, and sludge wasting rate on actual clarifier performance are discussed.
F023
ESTABLISHING THE BASIS FOR A WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN,
Gloyna, E. F.
Texas University,
Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Boletin de la Academia de Ciencias Fisicas, Mathematicas y Naturales, Caracas,
Vol. 37, No. Ill, p 31-46, First Trimester, 1977. 10 fig, 3 tab, 10 ref.
An analysis of the microbial processes in waste stabilization is presented as
part of a discussion on the basic design concepts of aerobic, anaerobic, and
facultative biological waste water treatment systems. Kinetic equations are
presented for the net rate of growth of microorganisms and substrate utiliza-
tion in biological treatment systems. Process efficiency is related to the
specific removal of some soluble substrate or the combined removal of BOD in
all forms. Aerated lagoons with biomass recycling and the continuous acti-
vated sludge process without biomass recycling comprise the major types of
aerobic systems. Equations for materials balance, oxygen requirements, and
sludge production in aerobic treatment systems are presented. Anaerobic de-
gradation involves hydrolysis and subsequent fermentation of organic wastes
with the conversion of volatile acids into methane and carbon dioxide by an-
aerobic bacteria. The optimum operating conditions for methane fermentation
in an anaerobic system are discussed with respect to temperature, pH, oxida-
tion-reduction potential, volatile acids concentration, and alkalinity.
Facultative waste stabilization ponds rely on the oxidation of carbonaceous
organics by aerobic and facultative bacteria, nitrification, reduction of car-
bonaceous organics by anaerobic bacteria, and oxygenation of surface liquids
by algae. Guidelines are presented for pond depth, surface area, and tempera-
ture.
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F024
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Sayigh, B. A.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2327-2328, 1977.
Since the completely-mixed, continuous-flow activated sludge process is cur-
rently one of the most commonly used aerobic modes of biological waste water
treatment, studies were conducted to study the effects of temperature varia-
tions on the kinetics and performance of the process. Domestic waste water,
an organic chemicals industrial waste water, and the mixed waste water from
several industries were used in laboratory experiments at 4, 10, 15, 20, and
30 C. The control parameter used in the laboratory-scale experiments was
sludge age. Filtered COD, filtered TOG, and/or filtered BOD were used as mea-
sures of influent and effluent substrate concentrations. Mixed liquor vola-
tile suspended solids (MLVSS) levels were used as an indication of micro-
organism concentration. The experiments examined the effect of temperature on
kinetic coefficients governing cell synthesis, microorganism decay, soluble
substrate utilization, and dissolved oxygen utilization. A mathematical model
was presented for the interrelationship between steady state MLVSS concentra-
tions, the net rate of MLVSS production, and sludge age.
F025
HEAVY METALS TRANSPORT MODEL IN A SLUDGE-TREATED SOIL,
Sidle, R. C., Kardos, L. T., and van Genuchten, M. T.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 438-443, October-December,
1977. 5 fig, 4 tab, 25 ref.
A one-dimensional solute transport model was developed to describe the move-
ment of Cu, Zn, and Cd in sludge-amended soils. Freundlich adsorption iso-
therms were used to describe the adsorption of the cationic forms by the
soil. The miscible displacement of chloride ions through undisturbed soil
cores was used to determine the dispersion coefficient. A 17-month simulation
period, with sludge inputs during the first 37 days and between the 168th and
196th days, was initiated to test the model's ability to predict the movement
of Cu, Zn, and Cd in 15- and 120-cm soil percolates. Although the model
predicted virtually no movement of the metals at either depth, field studies
revealed increases in concentration of 322, 422, and 833% for Cu, Zn, and Cd
at 15 cm and 121, 305, and 800%, respectively, at the 120-cm depth. Acceler-
ated movement of metals at times of high hydraulic loading through intercon-
necting soil channels was suggested as contributing to the large discrepancy
between the predicted and observed values. Since the more highly soluble
chelated forms of heavy metals may be transported to greater depths than their
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cationic counterparts, a partitioned model for metals transport was tested.
The data generated indicated that mechanisms other than simple chelation are
responsible for metals movement through soils.
F026
INTERACTIVE COMPUTER DESIGN OF WASTEWATER PLANTS,
Shoemaker, T. E., and Barkley, W. A.
Grodon Herkenhoff and Associates, Incorporated,
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
919-934, October, 1977. 1 fig, 10 ref, 1 append.
Increased interest in higher level, more costly waste water treatment facili-
ties has led to the need for more effective design practices. A variety of
mathematical models have been developed to aid in treatment plant design. The
two basic design approaches involve either effluent criteria and unit sizes or
are directed toward upgrading existing facilities. Standard values and in-
dices have been used in many models. Since treatment streams are often re-
cycled to process units, programs have been developed to analyze and minimize
recycling requirements. The use of low diagrams, stream parameters, and unit
operation parameters is discussed with respect to unit process ordering and
input requirements. A design example involving the addition of an activated
sludge unit to an existing trickling filter plant is used to illustrate input
parameters, computer output, and final sizes of the unit processes which have
been calculated by an interactive computer program for waste water treatment
plant design.
F027
A MODEL FOR THE SIMULATION OF RAINWATER RUNOFF IN SEWERS (Bin Modell zur Simu-
lation des Regenabflusses in Kanalisationsnetzen),
Kaufmann, P.
Balzari Blaser Schudel, Ingenieure und Planer,
Bern, Switzerland.
Gas-Wasser-Abwasser, Vol. 57, No. 3, p 287-292, 1977. 14 fig, 1 tab.
An electronic program has been developed for the hydraulic analysis of drain
pipes. ELCAN precisely simulates flow conditions in a sewer system, taking
into consideration backwash, retention, and pipe or trunk pressure in the net-
work. This type of calculation for sewer networks allows optimum use of
existing pipelines, while minimizing unwarranted investments so that sewer
construction will answer actual needs. A series of tests used in evaluating
575
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the model and its sensitivity is presented along with some examples of possi-
ble practical applications.
F028
THE MODELING OF ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORBERS IN THE PRESENCE OF BIO-OXIDATION,
Peel, R., and Benedek, A.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 25-35, 1977. 13 fig, 13 ref.
An activated carbon adsorption model which considers the effects of biological
activity within the column is presented. The fact that substances introduced
to the column may or may not be biodegradable and/or adsorbable has been con-
sidered. Input parameters required for the model include: bulk liquid and
bacterial film diffusivities, particle diffusion coefficient, liquid phase
mass transfer coefficient, bacterial film thickness, bacterial reaction rate,
and the estimation of residual yield factor. Pilot plant data on physical-
chemical treatment at the Dundas Water Pollution Control Center in Ontario,
Canada, the Ewing-Lawrence Sewage Authority plant in New Jersey, and the Los
Angeles County Sanitation Districts Advanced Waste Treatment Research Facility
in Pomona, California, were simulated to test the model's validity. The
specific biological reaction rates calculated for the three plants had a mean
of 5.59 x 10 to the minus tenth g TOC/sq cm-sq sec with a standard deviation
of 1.53 x 10 to the minus tenth g TOC/sq cm-sec.
F029
A PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF MASS TRANSFER AND REACTION KINETICS OF
OZONATION,
Majumdar, S. B., Ceckler, W. H., and Sproul, 0. J.
Anderson-Ni chols,
Boston, Massachusetts.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 188-205, 1977. 7 fig, 7 tab, 11
ref.
Since the exact mechanism of ozonation has not yet been established, a discus-
sion is presented to delineate the fundamentals of ozonation with respect to
mass transfer and reaction kinetics. A theoretical model which is presented
assumes a first order relationship between the rate of mass transfer and the
difference in the bulk phase concentrations of ozone. A two-step process is
assumed for the model. Ozone is first transferred from gas to liquid by a
mass transfer process which is not dependent upon chemical reaction. The
chemical reaction between ozone and the waste material then proceeds without
regard to mass transfer. Expressions for mass transfer of ozone from the gas
phase to the liquid phase are derived with respect to a counter-current bubble
column. The reaction rate constant and the order of the reaction are defined
576
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for the reaction of ozone with the dissolved and suspended substances in waste
water. Results of kinetic studies on primary and secondary waste waters are
presented. Bubble size, interfacial area, and residual ozone concentrations
were determined in the studies.
F030
ACTIVATED SLUDGE-UNIFIED SYSTEM DESIGN AND OPERATION,
Keinath, T. M., Ryckman, M. D., Dana, C. H., and Hofer, D. A.
Clemsoti University,
South Carolina,
Department of Environmental Systems Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE5, p
829-849, October, 1977. 11 fig, 2 tab, 19 ref, 1 append.
The settling flux approach can be adapted for evaluating economic tradeoffs
between alternative designs for waste water treatment systems. The design
basis for the aerator incorporates solids residence time and hydraulic resi-
dence time. The design basis for the clarifier incorporates the clarification
constraint, and a recycle rate constraint. This methodology can be used for
evaluating the economic aspects of an activated sludge system consisting of an
aeration basin, clarifier, and sludge processing equipment. The settling flux
approach can also be used in operations monitoring of an activated sludge sys-
tem. This approach indicates that increased hydraulic flow rates would only
cause solids to enter the effluent at certain critically located state points
near the settling flux curve. For decreased hydraulic flow rates, the recycle
rate could be reduced to the point of critical loading. The settling flux
approach indicates that flow proportional recycle controls can estimate the
required flow fairly accurately. It does not, however, provide the precise
recycle rate required to maintain the clarifier in a critically loaded condi-
tion. This approach can also establish the hydraulic surge that a system
could accommodate without indiscriminate solids wasting. This approach can
only be used for operations monitoring and control if current settling flux
curves are available. Changes in the operational set-point of solids resi-
dence time can be accommodated by changes in the solids wasting program.
577
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F031
EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL MASS TRANSFER AND INTRAPARTICLE DIFFUSION ON ADSORPTION
RATES IN SLURRY REACTORS,
Mathews, A. P., and Weber, W, J., Jr.
Williams and Works,
Grand Rapids, Michigan.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 91-98, 1977. 13 fig, 6 ref.
Studies were conducted to evaluate the relative effects of liquid and solid
phase transport rates on the overall adsorption rate of carbon in slurry reac-
tors. The effects of external mass transfer, unsteady state surface diffusion
in the particle, and nonlinear adsorption isotherms were considered. The re-
sults of the study indicated that, in general, film diffusion controls the
solute uptake rate in the initial stages, followed by particle diffusion in
the latter stages. The initial uptake rates predicted by an adsorption model
were compared with those of film diffusion-controlled adsorption. Negligible
intraparticle diffusion resistance was considered a valid assumption for the
initial adsorption period, in the case of solutes having a large solid-to-
liquid phase equilibrium solute distribution. However, the errors were con-
sidered substantial beyond the first few minutes, especially at a high agita-
tion power input. The effect of variation in the external mass transfer re-
sistance on the concentration/time profile was examined for four solutes. At
the same agitation speed, solutes having a high solid-to-liquid phase equilib-
rium solute distribution appeared to be more sensitive to the external mass
transfer resistance. Substantial deviations in profiles were illustrated for
variations of 20-30% in the mass transfer coefficient.
F032
MODELS FOR BATCH MIXING IN AIR AGITATED TANKS,
Akhtar, W., and Mathur, G. P.
Windsor University,
Ontario, Canada,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 6-14, 1977. 8 fig, 14 ref.
Efforts to develop a mathematical model to describe mixing in a batch aerated
rectangular tank are described. Variations in the air flow rate and tank
dimensions were used to test the model. The model for batch mixing is based
on a two-dimensional description of the mixing phenomenon. Results of 17 ex-
perimental runs indicate that the vortex model for predicting mixing charac-
teristics of an air-agitated tank provides an extension to computer models
used for mixer design. Measurements of surface and bottom velocities at the
mid-length of the tank are required by the model for estimation of the neces-
578
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sary velocities and diffusion coefficients. Extension of the approach to geo-
metries other than the rectangular one used in the study is suggested.
F033
MAPPING THE LAG PHASE AND BOUNDING THE GROWTH PHASE IN FERMENTATION REACTIONS,
Tanner, R. D., Loo, A. C., Shisler, J. L., Reed, M. W., and Rowlett, R. D.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 55-65, 1977. 8 fig, 19 ref, 4
append.
An analytical expression has been derived for the initial transient domain
(lag phase) of fermentation reactions, such as those which occur in the sludge
fermentors used for liquid waste treatment. Parameters for gluconic acid fer-
mentation were estimated to a first approximation. A model for pure culture
fermentation was applied to mixed culture fermentation in liquid waste treat-
ment. Used in conjunction with in vitro enzyme data for the glucose-
gluconolactone-gluconic acid network, the approximation procedure was sug-
gested as an efficient and feasible method of identifying a substrate-limited
fermentation model. Examination of the complementary logarithmic-growth
phase, typically described by a hyperbolic equation relating substrate concen-
tration to specific cell growth rate, indicated that the lower bound for a
simplified mass action fermentation kinetic model was defined by the Monod
equation. The upper bound was defined by a hyperbolic quasi-equilibrium coun-
terpart of the Monod equation. These boundaries are analogous to the Briggs-
Haldane and Michaelis-Menten relationships, respectively, for the single
intermediate enzyme reaction.
F034
A DYNAMIC KINETIC MODEL OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Chase, L. M.
Measurex Corporation,
Cupertino, California.
Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 19, No. 10, p 1431-1447, October,
1977. 7 fig, 11 ref.
A kinetic model for the activated sludge process based on the assumption that
the rate of metabolism is primarily controlled by the enzyme concentration in
the biological mass is presented. Four hypotheses for substrate utilization
are described. A differential equation for the substrate concentration is
derived *and equilibrium conditions are defined. Solutions to the equations
are presented for three feed functions which define a step decrease, a step
increase, and an instantaneous change in the feed rate. Laboratory experi-
ments with activated sludge were conducted to test the theoretical model's
ability to predict substrate utilization in terms of C02 production. Corre-
579
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spondence between the experimental results and the model calculations was
favorable with respect to a yield factor.
F035
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF WASTEWATER LAND APPLICATION SYSTEMS,
Haith, D. A., Koenig, A., and Loucks, D. P.
Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York,
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2371-2379,
December, 1977. 6 tab, 14 ref.
A cost-effectiveness model for a spray irrigation system utilizing municipal
waste water from a hypothetical northeastern U.S. city with a population of
50,000 is outlined. Cost estimates of the land application system incorporate
factors for waste water storage pond preparation and maintainance, irrigation
equipment, land purchase, and crop cultivation. Monthly precipitation aver-
ages, evaporation of waste water from the storage pond, and the nitrogen con-
tent of the soil and pond influent are also considered. Three of the 11 al-
ternative proposed designs which varied in irrigation rates, pond capacity,
irrigated area, maximum effluent and nitrogen concentrations in drainage, and
estimated annual costs, are considered feasible. Although the land applica-
tion system based on mass balance equations for nitrogen and water is only a
preliminary design, the mathematical model can be adapted to outline cost-
effective alternatives.
F036
ABSORPTION AND DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS,
Kuo, C. H., Li, K. Y., Wen, C. P., and Weeks, J. L., Jr.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 230-241, 1977. 10 fig, 22 ref.
A stopped-flow spectrophotometer system was used to study kinetics of the de-
composition of ozone in aqueous solutions. Experiments were conducted at 15,
25, and 35 C over a pH range of 2.2-11.0. The kinetics of ozone decomposition
were found to follow a three-halves order relationship with respect to ozone
concentration. The decomposition rate increased with the pH of the aqueous
solutions. Differential equations governing molecular diffusion and decom-
position in the ozone absorption process were solved by finite difference
techniques. Absorption experiments were conducted utilizing a gas-liquid con-
tacting reactor equipped with a gas disperser. The experimental data and
theoretical results agreed in predicting build-up of absorbed ozone in an
aqueous solution. They also indicated that it might be difficult to achieve a
saturation concentration of absorbed ozone in an aqueous solution because of
580
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ozone depletion by decomposition during absorption. Ozone absorption under
acidic conditions and at a moderate-to-fast gas flow rate was reconmended for
a high degree of ozone utilization.
F037
MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR THE OZONE-WATER SYSTEM,
Richards, D. A., Fleischman, M., and Ebersold, L. P.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 166, p 213-224, 1977. 5 fig, 7 tab, 8
ref.
A 0.75"-diam static mixer with 42 elements was used in studies on the ozona-
tion of secondary effluents. Within 2-7 sec, the static mixer reduced COD and
bacteria to the same extent as a Welsbach reactor could in 22 min. This sug-
gested that ozonation of waste water was controlled by mass transfer. To
examine the mass transfer characteristics in the absence of chemical reaction,
a 2-4% by weight ozone-oxygen gas mixture was contacted with water in a 0.25"-
diam static mixer having 21 elements housed in a horizontal glass tube. The
ozone balance between the two phases was measured according to the quantity of
ozone absorbed in water. The mass transfer coefficient for static mixing was
at least twice that obtained without mixing for all combinations of flow rates
tested. Overall mass transfer coefficients were related to the void fraction
and Reynolds number. At low liquid flow rates, significant power loss was
produced as a result of an increase in gas flow rate, although the mass trans-
fer coefficient was relatively unchanged. Liquid phase resistance was found
to be greater than gas phase resistance.
F038
DYNAMIC SIMULATION OF CONTINUOUS SEDIMENTATION,
Attir, U., Denn, M. M., and Petty, C. A.
Diamond Shamrock Company,
Painesville, Ohio.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 49-54, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab, 9
ref.
The assumption that only discrete layers of constant concentration and under-
flow rate exist in continuous sedimentation may not always be valid. The Chi-
Howell model for settler dynamics is extended to account for continuous con-
centration variations with height in place of unallowable discontinuities.
Discontinuous, layered solutions must sometimes be excluded because of Lax's
generalized entropy condition, the generalized entropy condition for the
partial differential equations describing the dynamics of the process. When
this happens, a series of discrete layers which span the concentration range
is inserted. The removal of unallowable concentration discontinuities can
581
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have a major effect on the simulated process dynamics and the dynamics and
control system design for the integrated waste water treatment process.
F039
REGIONAL PLANNING FOR LAND APPLICATION OF WASTEWATER,
Chiang, C. H.
Malcolm Pirnie, Incorporated,
White Plains, New York.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2366-2370,
December, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 4 ref.
A cost-effective heuristic algorithm was designed to match secondary waste
water treatment plants with applicable land disposal sites. Disposal sites
already containing a land application system are termed 'open;' sites without
a land application system are defined as 'closed.' The first step of the
heuristic algorithm is the proposal of a regional plan. The second step is to
determine the location of alternate, cost-effective, open land sites and to
select the site which yields the highest potential saving. If none of the
alternatives exhibits a positive potential saving, the third step in the al-
gorithm is the reversal of open land sites and closed disposal sites. If this
change results in a more cost-effective plan, the algorithm begins again at
step two until all land disposal sites have been evaluated. If no potential
savings are realized by considering closed sites as open and open sites as
closed, sites are ranked according to the largest positive savings. The al-
gorithm returns to the second step whenever a cost improvement is achieved.
The algorithm can be used by planners and engineers to determine the most
cost-effective land application site for a waste water treatment plant.
F040
MASS TRANSFER IN THE LIQUID PHASE WITH TUBULAR WASTE-WATER TREATMENT CON-
TACTOR,
Fujie, K., Sekizawa, T., and Kubota, H.
Tokyo Institute of Technology,
Ookayama, Japan,
Research Laboratory of Resources Utilization.
Journal of Fermentation Technology, Vol. 55, No. 5, p 532-543, 1977. 11 fig,
3 tab, 5 ref, 1 append.
The effect of mass transfer on the removal of organic substances from waste
liquid by a biological filter was examined in laboratory experiments employing
a microbial film attached to a tubular contactor. Honeycomb and parallel
plate supporters were used as tubular contactors. The microbial film was
582
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established by the circulation of a nutrient solution containing a high per-
centage of glucose through the supporters for several days. Simulated waste
water, also containing glucose, was passed through the supporters on which
microbes had grown. Rate controlling factors were determined through observa-
tion of liquid flow rates, the mass transfer resistance of organic substances
or dissolved oxygen removal by the microbial film, and resistances of organic
or dissolved oxygen diffusion. Honeycomb and parallel plate supporters with
more complicated liquid flow routes produced higher glucose removal rates
through the elimination of the effects of the liquid flow velocity. The ef-
fect of mass transfer was eliminated for the liquid phase as it was based on
the liquid flow rates; the reaction rate controlling step was transferred to
the microbial film. The dissolved oxygen concentration was shown to directly
affect the reaction in the microbial film.
F041
HIGH-RATE DISINFECTION: CHLORINE VERSUS CHLORINE DIOXIDE,
Geisser, D. F., and Garver, S. R.
O'Brien and Gere Engineers, Incorporated,
Syracuse, New York.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
1089-1103, December, 1977. 10 fig, 5 tab, 14 ref, 1 append.
Pilot plant studies were used to compare high-rate disinfection of combined
sewer overflow by the application of chlorine and chlorine dioxide. Mathe-
matical performance models were developed to analyze the cost-effectiveness
and the cost-benefit of chlorine and chlorine dioxide disinfection systems at
a Rochester, New York, treatment facility. Multiple regression analysis in-
dicated that chlorine disinfection was more effective with increased mixing
intensity and larger detention times. Chlorine dioxide performed better than
chlorine under conditions of low mixing intensity and short contact periods.
The bacteria kill by chlorine dioxide as a function of BOD and mixing inten-
sity was proportional to the dosage. Chlorine dioxide was also found to be
more sensitive to changes in BOD of the waste water. Chlorine and chlorine
dioxide disinfection effectiveness was not influenced by pH changes ranging
6.7-8.1. An insignificant increase in high-rate disinfection was realized by
temperature increases from 2-30 C. Total and volatile suspended solids in the
waste water did not influence high-rate disinfection. Although chlorine diox-
ide was more expensive, shorter detention times that offset capital expendi-
tures were possible. High-intensity mixing with a short detention time was
found to be the most cost-effective method for high-rate disinfection; chlo-
rine, requiring minimum contact times of 3-6 min, was the more effective cost-
performance method for treating combined sewer overflow.
583
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F042
NITROGEN TRANSFORMATIONS IN LAND TREATMENT,
DiGiano, F. A., and Su, Y-S.
Massachusetts University,
Amherst,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
1075-1087, December, 1977. 4 fig, 1 tab, 21 ref, 1 append.
The nitrogen transformations occurring in an aerobic waste water storage basin
before land application were measured in studies with an experimental waste
water lagoon and simulated with a biological model. The biological model was
based on the ratio of cellular nitrogen to chlorophyll as a function of the
inorganic nitrogen concentration. Variations in radiation, temperature, and
waste water properties are taken into account. The experimental aerobic stor-
age lagoon collected waste water during three winter months at a rate of 6
gal/day. A fill-and-draw procedure was used to simulate land application
treatment over a nine-month period. Daily measurements of dissolved organic
nitrogen, algal cells, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, total organic car-
bon, ammonia, and nitrate were recorded. A significant reduction in the con-
centration of chlorophyll-A per cell and in the cellular nitrogen to
chlorophyll-A ratio was observed during July and August. A comparison of
model predictions and experimental lagoon measurements for concentrations of
chlorophyll-A, organic-nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, and nitrate-nitrogen re-
vealed similarities. The observed nitrogen concentrations were then examined
with respect to the effects of spray irrigation on crops, land area, and hy-
draulic application rate of effluent. The inorganic nitrogen concentration
decreased during June and July when rates of nitrogen uptake by plants in-
creased. It was suggested that applications of unstored secondary effluent be
combined with stored effluent to ensure adequate nitrogen levels.
F043
NEW APPROACH TO BACTERIAL KINETICS IN WASTEWATER,
Andrews, G. F., and Ti en, C.
Syracuse University,
New York,
Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
1057-1074, December, 1977. 8 fig, 1 tab, 21 ref, 1 append.
A bacterial growth kinetics model is presented for the prediction of biomass
growth and cell yield behavior based on substrate concentrations. The growth
expressions predicted by this model are reduced to Monad-type rates for low,
constant substrate concentrations. The kinetic model is examined with respect
584
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to data on the effects of dentrifying bacteria on dextrose metabolism. The
kinetic model can be used to qualitatively predict the carbon to nitrogen
ratio of the sludge during the activated sludge process. For a more accurate
prediction, the relationship of substrate concentration to the carbon to
nitrogen ratio must be clarified. The quantity of floe matrix material con-
sidered as stored substrate must also be determined. The kinetic model of
bacterial growth also predicts the substrate uptake rates during contact
stabilization, the delayed response of the activated sludge process after
changes in influent concentration, and the difference between flow culture and
batch culture cell yield.
FOA4
THE USE AND INTEGRATION OF GROUND AND SURFACE WATER MODELS IN THE 208 PLANNING
PROCESS,
Raymond, J. R.
Battelle,
Pacific Northwest Laboratories,
Richland, Washington.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 319-327, 1977. 10 fig,
13 ref.
Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 re-
quires waste treatment management planning for areas with substantial water
quality problems. The impact, interrelationships, and treatment alternatives
must be identified and assessed for complex waste sources which may affect
water quality. Waste treatment needs must be projected over a period of 20
years. Numerical hydrologic models and associated models for pollutant trans-
port are important planning tools, allowing complex interrelationships between
surface and groundwater quality, water supply, waste discharge, waste water
treatment, and treatment alternatives to be assessed. The hydraulic and
transport theories are well developed; equations exist which can be solved by
existing computers to describe the systems. The development of a model to
provide accurate assessments requires considerable hard data and knowledge of
system parameters and boundaries. Because of the cost, time, and technology
required, numerical modelling should be limited to complex problems where sim-
pler methods are insufficient.
585
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F045
CONVERTING WASTES TO ENERGY—A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH,
Chiu, Y., and Guey-Lee, W.
Nihon Suido Consultants Company, Limited,
Tokyo, Japan.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 44-47, February, 1978. 2 fig, 1
tab, 15 ref.
A mathematical model was developed for thermal energy recovery water reuse,
steam generation, and methane gas production during sludge digestion of muni-
cipal wastes. The study was performed for a municipal area with a population
of one million, producing 6 Ib sewage/capita/day. The electric energy produc-
tion rate from the municipal wastes in a high rate digester was calculated as
180,000 kw/day with a waste heat production of 960 Btu/hr. The total daily
energy requirement for a population of one million was calculated to be
880,000 kw, indicating the need for an additional 6,000 tons of coal daily to
supply the demand. The required digester capacity for a digestion temperature
of 90 F, based on the total available waste heat, was calculated to be
100,000,000 cu ft. Based on a per capita water requirement of 160 gal/day, a
water reuse loop system would provide 60% of the daily water demand by the
municipality. Controlling factors in the production of fuel gas include:
detention time; the percentage of methane in the digester gas; and the diges-
tion temperature, which decreases detention time and methane percentage when
it is increased but also increases heat requirements.
F046
EFFLUENT QUALITY VARIATION AT DIFFERENT ORGANIC LOADINGS WITH MULTICOMPONENT
SUBSTRATE IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Siber, S.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 8, p 3616, 1978.
Parameters of substrate removal by activated sludge were examined in labora-
tory tests with a synthetic, organic multicomponent substrate used to simulate
waste water. The substrate, a mixture of glucose, phenol, and sulfanilic
acid, was treated with activated sludge in a continuous flow, completely-mixed
laboratory-scale reactor. Parameters observed during the treatment process
were the removal of substrate as measured by total organic carbon, removal at
four food-to-microorganism ratios, influent and effluent quality, and the ef-
fect of sludge age on substrate removal. Combinations of the phenol, glucose,
and sulfanilic acid were varied to more accurately approximate the removal,
biodegradability, and influent concentration of each substrate. Overall re-
moval rates were found to be the sum of the single substrate removal rates
when analysed in terms of total organic carbon. A kinetics model was used to
show the relationship of the parameters to effluent quality.
586
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F047
NITRIFICATION AND NITROGEN REMOVAL,
Sharma, B., and Ahlert, R. C.
Corning Glass Works,
Corning, New York.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 10, p 897-925, 1977. 12 fig, 7 tab, 223 ref.
Various aspects of the use of nitrifying bacteria and nitrification processes
in the aerobic biological treatment of waste water are discussed. The bio-
chemistry of nitrification and characteristics of nitrifying bacteria are de-
scribed. Recent literature on the effects of dissolved oxygen, temperature,
pH, ammonia and nitrite ion concentrations, and the concentration of nitri-
fiers on nitrification processes is reviewed. The effects of sludge age,
organic loading, detention time, surfaces, turbulence, light, micronutrients,
organic matter, and microbial interactions are also considered. Mathematical
models for nitrification and nitrifier growth kinetics are discussed with re-
spect to the determination of kinetic constants, modelling of nitrifiers in
attached growth and in streams, and the dynamic behavior of nitrifying sys-
tems. Single and combined stage processes for the removal of carbon, ammonia,
and nitrogen from waste water are detailed.
F048
MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS,
Tyteca, D., Smeers, Y., Nyns, E. J., and Erickson, L. E.
Catholic University of Louvain,
Belgium,
Department of Engineering.
Critical Reviews in Environmental Control, Vol. 8, No. 1, p 1-89, 1977.
10 fig, 11 tab, 231 ref.
Mathematical modeling procedures in waste water treatment plant processes were
evaluated in an effort to achieve economic optimization of treatment facili-
ties. A framework of treatment plant methods was developed for unit processes
employing primary settlers, activated sludge aeration, secondary settlers,
sludge thickening, sludge digestion, and press filtration. A review of mathe-
matical models describing the kinetics of bacterial growth and substrate eli-
mination was presented for single and raulticomponent substrates, and microbial
decay and growth stages. Model applications to biological treatment of waste
water were evaluated with respect to kinetic parameters, including; oxygen
demand, oxygen transfer efficiency, temperature effects, sedimentation, clari-
fication, flocculation, and filtration. Mathematical models were developed
for each of the treatment processes in the framework with respect to the in-
terrelationships of the kinetics parameters. A study of dynamic models,
trickling filters, thickening processes, anaerobic digestion kinetics, press
587
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filtration, and energy requirements of aeration devices was also conducted.
Models of global treatment processes encompassing total plant operations and
costs associated with each process unit were considered. The development of
economic optimization models based on global models was attempted to maximize
efficiency and minimize costs. The optimization study was directed toward
activated sludge and anaerobic digestion processes, whole treatment plant cost
minimization, and network optimization.
F049
SLUDGE COMPOSTING: A DISCUSSION OF ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES,
Haug, R. T., and Haug, L. A.
Regional Wastewater Solids Management Program,
Los Angeles-Orange County Metropolitan Area Project,
Whittier, California.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 6-11, November-December, 1977. 7 fig, 1
tab.
Mathematical models were' developed to represent the thermodynamic behavior of
sludge composted by several techniques with and without amendments. The
methods included: the windrow system, in which piles of waste are periodi-
cally rotated; the aerated pile system in which waste piles are maintained
under aerobic conditions without turning; and the mechanical method, in which
sludge is constantly rotated and aerated. A sludge composting mass balance
equation, applicable to the aerated pile, the windrow, and the mechanical com-
posting methods, was presented for calculating the quality of the compost ma-
terial, recycle ratios for both dry and wet weights, the compost recycle
solids, and the final desired solids contents. Techniques were developed for
controlling volatile solids production during composting, based on the rela-
tionship to moisture content and mass balance. Volatility of the compost was
found to decrease as the amount of cake solids decreased and recycled compost
increased. Measures suggested for maintaining or increasing mixture vola-
tility were: to increase the dewatered cake solids by drying the sludge be-
fore composting; to compost raw sludge rather than digested sludge solids; or
to add a dry, degradable organic amendment. The volatilities examined exhi-
bited a linear relationship to the total weight of the amendment required.
588
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F050
SIMULATION STUDIES ON OPTIMIZATION OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Angelbeck, D. I., and Shah Alam, A. B.
Toledo University,
Ohio,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 31-39, January,
1978. 4 fig, 1 tab, 30 ref.
Optimization of the activated sludge treatment process of waste water was in-
vestigated in simulation studies with dynamic modelling. Two system differen-
tial equations were derived for the analysis of sludge and substrate mass bal-
ance. Microorganism mass balance in a completely mixed aerator was calculated
as a function of influent sludge concentration and flow rate, raicrobial growth
rate and endogenous decay rate coefficients, and dilution rates. Sinusoidal
curves for system dynamics were used to evaluate the variations of influent
microbial concentrations and substrate levels. System control was maintained
by aerator detention time and sludge wastage rate. Optimal operational con-
trol of the system with a variational calculus technique minimized the distur-
bances in the effluent quality. Aerator detention time and sludge wastage
rate were found to control the magnitude of the effect of system perturbations
on the effluent quality.
F051
STATE VARIABLE MODEL FOR SEWER NETWORK FLOW ROUTING,
Mays, L. W., and Tung, Y-K.
Texas University,
Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE1, p
15-30, February, 1978. 10 fig, 2 tab, 24 ref, 1 append.
A storm water flow prediction model, based on the state variable model, was
developed for the design of sewer flow routing systems to regulate unsteady
flow and runoff conditions. State variable modelling described flow as a
function of input and output variables with respect to time factors. When ap-
plied in conjunction with an output equation, the state formula represented
the relationship of input, output, and state variables over time. The mathe-
matical model approximated the flow profile in a sewer with parameters mea-
sured by continuity and momentum equations. Application of the model to storm
water routing through a single pipe produced symmetric, triangular inflow
hydrographs. Comparison of the state variable model with other design equa-
tions indicated that valid sewer network designs could be obtained with the
589
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state formula. The model was applicable to linear or nonlinear, time-variant
or invariant, and deterministic or stochastic network systems.
F052
MEASURING AND PREDICTING FLOTATION PERFORMANCE,
Gehr, R., and Henry, J. G.
Toronto University,
Ontario, Canada,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 203-215, Febru-
ary, 1978. 11 fig, 3 tab, 14 ref.
Techniques for measuring and predicting dissolved oxygen flotation perfor-
mance in waste water treatment were developed in laboratory batch tests and
full-scale continuous flow flotation experiments. The dissolved air flotation
process, involving air introduction, pressurization, polymer addition, blend-
ing, and flotation, was evaluated with respect to a series of parameters mea-
sured in the effluent samples. An air saturation level of 90% was recorded
after batch flotation; a saturation of 41-52% was measured in the continuous
flow full-scale operation. The correlation between float solids concentration
and the air-solids concentration was not significant. A thickening parameter
was used in the batch tests to assess sludge amenability to flotation and to
evaluate the effect of polymer dosage on flotation. When the thickening para-
meter was held constant during continuous flotation, changes in float solids
concentration, recycle volume, influent volume, and available air mass could
be predicted. Saturation levels in both batch and continuous flotation pro-
cesses were 90% when the pressurizer in the continuous flow flotation opera-
tion was not allowed to clog. Flotation performance was directly dependent
upon polymer dosage. Continuous flow flotation systems provided greater
thickening and a clearer subnatant than the batch units.
590
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F053
A BRANCH AND BOUND METHOD FOR USE IN PLANNING REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
SYSTEMS,
Brill, E. D., Jr., and Nakaraura, M.
Illinois University,
Urbana,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Resources Research, Vol. 14, No. 1, p 109-118, February, 1978. 7 fig, 1
tab, 24 ref.
A branch and bound computational algorithm was devised for comparisons of eco-
nomic and scale alternatives in constructing regional waste water treatment
facilities and interceptor sewers. The mathematical model incorporates physi-
cal requirements, locations, sizes of facilities and interceptors into a se-
quential network of design alternatives. Each alternative outlines a con-
figuration of treatment facilities and interceptors that is comparable to
other solutions on the basis of qualitative and quantitative planning objec-
tives. The linear functions of the algorithm are generated by inspection or
by the computationally effective network algorithm. The branch and bound
method produces systematic alternative plans and design evaluations rather
than mathematically optimal solutions. The branch and bound algorithm was ap-
plied to a hypothetical regional waste water treatment facility planned for
seven town point sources and 11 potential interceptors. The capacity of the
method can be expanded to incorporate projected increasing waste flows to a
facility.
F054
OPTIMIZATION OF DESIGN AND OPERATIONS OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
SYSTEMS,
Craig, E. W.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 9, p 4414, 1978.
A Box-Complex algorithm was employed to optimize the design and operation of
an activated sludge waste water treatment process with sludge reuse capa-
bility. The use of a nonlinear objective function and nonlinear, noncontinu-
ous constraints with the Box technique permitted realistic models for unit
processes. Predicted flow rates and a discrete time series definition were
used in a plant performance technique developed for higher effluent quality at
the lowest cost. A procedure for the optimization of an existing activated
sludge plant with phosphorus reduction was designed to incorporate flow pre-
diction data. A digital computer program was devised for plant optimization
using the Box Search technique. Solids retention time and the recycle ratio
were used as the control variables. According to the results of the computer
program, substantial savings could be realized with flow rate predictions and
other data.
591
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F055
FACTORS INFLUENCING OXYGEN INPUT IN AERATORS WITH VERTICAL SHAFT (Az Oxigen-
bevitelt Befolyoasolo Tenyezok a Fueggoleges-Tengelyu Felueleti Levegoztetok-
nel),
Karoly, M.
Tatabanyai Szenbanyak Muszaki-Kozgazdasagi Koezlemenyei, Vol. 17, No. 1-2, p
12-16, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab.
Design parameters of vertical shaft aerators and aerating basins which in-
fluence oxygen input were investigated. The oxygen input increases with the
second power of the aerator diameter and with the second or third power of the
circumferential speed; the efficiency is not influenced significantly by cir-
cumferential speeds in the range of 3.5-6.0 m/sec. Up to a certain level,
oxygen input increases nearly linearly with the depth of immersion of the
aerator. Although the oxygen input is intrinsically higher in rectangular
basins than in circular ones, it can be increased in circular basins to yield
an oxygen input of 1.7-1.9 kg/kWh by means of baffles which prevent or reduce
the rotation of water around the aerator. For rectangular aeration basins,
the specific oxygen input increases with a decrease in basin volume and is
lower in rectangular shallow basins than it is in deeper basins of equal
volume. Oxygen input is highest for rectangular basins having side length to
water depth ratios in the range of 3-4:1.
F056
HYDRAULIC INVESTIGATION OF THE OPERATION OF DIFFERENT DESIGNS OF SECONDARY
SETTLERS (idravlicheskoe issledovanie rabot'1 vtorichnjikh otstoinikov
razlich'ikh konstrukcii),
Skirdov, I. V., and Kol'tsova, S. I.
Vodosnabzhenie i Sanitarnaia Tekhnika, No. 9, p 7-11, 1977. 4 fig, 6 ref.
Hydraulic characteristics of secondary vertical and radial settlers used in
biological waste water treatment were examined. The performance of radial and
vertical settlers was controlled by currents due to the difference in density
between water and sludge. The currents generally limited the space utiliza-
tion factor to less than 40%. Rotary distributors installed at the bottom of
the settler were capable of increasing the space utilization factor to ap-
proximately 80-90%. The rotary distributors also increased the hydraulic load
to a maximum of 2.2 cu m/sq m/hr, or nearly twice as high as that achieved in
conventional radial settlers.
592
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F057
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL BY PRECIPITATION WITH FE (ill),
Kavanaugh, M. C., Krejci, V., Weber, T., Eugster, J., and Roberts, P. V.
James M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Incorporated,
Walnut Creek, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 216-233, Febru-
ary, 1978. 10 fig, 6 tab, 46 ref.
Waste water from Zurich, Switzerland, was used in pilot plant studies on phos-
phorus removal from biologically treated waste water with ferric under post
precipitation conditions. Statistical models of ferric precipitation, shear
flocculation, and filtration of suspended solids removal in the sludge blanket
clarifier were developed. The performance controlling variables examined dur-
ing physical-chemical treatment were pH, initial mixing, surface loading rates
in the sludge blanket clarifier, the ferric/total phosphorus mole ratio,
hydraulic residence time, and flocculation mixing intensity. Initial mixing
in the 1.4 cu m/hr flow pilot plant was not an important factor. At pH 8.8, a
significant amount of total phosphorus was removed. The reduction of soluble
phosphorus, total phosphorus, and total organic carbon was significantly im-
proved by increasing the ferric/total phosphorus mole ratio. Solids-liquid
separation was the most significant factor influencing system performance.
Surface loading controlled the solids removal from the sludge blanket clari-
fier. The models agreed significantly with observations and could be effec-
tive in evaluating other phosphorus removal techniques.
F058
CAPACITY PLANNING FOR REGIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS,
Rossman, L. A.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Massachusetts,
Department of Civil Engineering.
1977. 141 p, 17 fig, 12 tab, 33 ref, 1 append. NTIS Technical Report WPI/CE-
77/1.
A computerized economic optimization model is developed for the preliminary
design of a regional waste water facility to provide cost effective sites and
service alternatives and capacity expansion schedules. A three phase heuris-
tic procedure for solving the optimization model utilizes dynamic programming
to minimize combined cost solutions and optimize waste flows; site locations
are evaluated in terms of treatment options. The model incorporates design
variations in pipeline connections between waste sources and treatment facili-
ties; excess capacity in existing systems is also considered. Accommodations
are also made for discount and inflation rates, pipeline costs for preliminary
design limits, and treatment facility improvement costs. Application of the
593
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optimization model and a mixed interger program to a large scale problem re-
sults in similar solutions. The heuristic solution has the advantage of com-
putation speed and accuracy over nonlinear cost or time periods. The model's
flexibility allows for alternative objectives other than cost efficiency when
parameters and limitations are changed.
F059
CLINOPTILOLITE COLUMN AMMONIA REMOVAL MODEL,
Senmens, M. J., Booth, A. C., and Tauxe, G. W.
Minnesota University,
Minneapolis,
Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE2, p
231-244, April, 1978. 11 fig, 2 tab, 20 ref.
Performance models were developed for the removal of ammonium by a column of
clinoptilolite, a zeolite consisting of an aggregate of crystallites cemented
together by quartz, feldspar, unaltered glass, and other impurities. Synthe-
tic secondary effluent containing 95 mg Na, 21 mg Ca, 18 mg Mg, 6.5 rag K, and
358 mg alkalinity per liter at pH 8.0-8.5 was passed through a column packed
with clinoptilolite that had been conditioned with sodium chloride, ammonium
sulfate, and hydrochloric acid. In batch isotherm measurements, 0.0-5.80 gram
aliquots of clinoptilolite were equilibrated in the synthetic waste water with
ammonium additions of 10, 20, 40, and 50 mg/liter. The batch isotherms and
breakthrough curves for clinoptilolite yielded a linear plot which was de-
scribed by the Langmuir model. The ammonium capacities predicted according to
batch isotherms were higher than those observed in actual column tests. An
accumulation model, estimated by a finite difference technique, adequately
predicted breakthrough curves under conditions of varying flow rate, ammonium
concentrations, bed depth, and particle size. Batch isotherms accurately pre-
dicted ammonium removal by the column when the clinoptilolite was completely
regenerated. In the case of incomplete regeneration, breakthrough curves for
different ammonium concentrations were needed to accurately predict column
performance.
594
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F060
DEVELOPMENTS IN PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS FOR SEWAGE,
Tebbutt, T. H. Y.
Birmingham University,
England,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Public Health Engineer, Vol. 6, No. 2, p 79-85, 1978. 9 fig, 21 ref.
Performance relationships based on operating conditions in pilot-scale primary
sedimentation and activated sludge units are utilized to develop optimization
models for sewage treatment plants. The performance relationships may be
established by developing a theoretical model based on the nature of the
treatment process and the principles of its operation or by formulating an em-
pirical model to depict the mathematical or graphical relationships of ob-
served performance. Performance data should be obtained with pilot-scale sys-
tems. The performance relationships in primary sedimentation are derived as a
function of suspended solids removal efficiency, surface overflow rates, re-
tention time, and various effluent characteristics. The organic removal rate
in the activated sludge process is expressed as a function of the concentra-
tion of the organic matter, active biological solids, and time. The suspended
solids removal efficiency of the final sedimentation tank is calculated with a
model incorporating surface overflow rate, mixed liquor suspended solids, and
time; it does not require data on the properties of the suspended solids.
Performance relationships in the production and treatment of sludge are based
on primary sedimentation performance. In the case of activated sludge units,
they are represented as a function of solids accumulation, endogenous repira-
tion, nonbiodegradable solids, and volatile solids in the influent and efflu-
ent. The performance relationships can be used to evaluate treatment plant
designs on a least-cost basis.
F061
MODEL TESTS OF CIRCULAR SEWAGE SEDIMENTATION TANKS,
Christie, I. F., and Harbinson, R. W.
Edinburgh University,
Scotland,
Department of Civil Engineering.
proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (London), Vol. 65, Part 2, p
71-84, March, 1978. 6 fig, 3 tab, 29 ref.
Model studies of circular sewage sedimentation tanks were performed with quie-
scent columns of screened sewage and in model circular sedimentation tanks
with deep cylindrical inlet baffles. The quiescent column tests with screened
sewage yielded suspended solids reductions of 35% and 60% for initial sus-
pended solids concentrations of 250 rag/liter and 600 rag/liter, respectively.
595
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Suspended solids in composite sewage were reduced by 50% in the quiescent
column tests. Flow pattern and sludge distribution analyses in circular sedi-
mentation tanks indicated that four horizontal inlet plates with wide spacing
produced the most uniform sludge distribution. Sludge deposition near the in-
let was prevented in similar studies with a cylindrical inlet baffle. A com-
parison of the two inlet types in model sedimentation tanks receiving a flow
of 35 cu m/sq m/day demonstrated that the cylindrical baffle, which reduced
suspended solids by 31%, was more efficient than the horizontal plates, which
reduced solids by 20-21%. These results indicated that detention time in the
tank, rather than equal surface rating scaling, was the important factor in
predicting full-scale tank performance.
F062
SOLUBILIZATION OF ORGANIC CARBON DURING THE ACID PHASE OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION,
Eastman, J. A.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 9, p 4414-4415, 1978.
Soluble organic carbon produced during the acid phase of anaerobic digestion
was evaluated as a substrate replacement in biological denitrification. A
surrogate substrate containing dry dog food and cellulose at 25-35 C and pH
3.6-6.7 and primary sludge at 35 C and pH 5.1-6.7 were mixed separately in
digestors operated with detention times of 9, 18, 36, and 72 hrs. The hy-
drolysis of particulate matter, rather than acid fermentation, was found to be
the rate-limiting stage in the acid phase of digestion. Of the degradable
materials in the surrogate substrate, starch was the most readily utilized,
followed by nitrogenous matter; cellulose was used most slowly. For primary
domestic sludge, carbohydrate degradation was 70% compared to 55% utilization
of nitrogenous materials. Lipids were not utilized in the acid phase; methane
generation was less than 10% of the COD. The temperature during dog food sub-
strate digestion could more than double the rate of hydrolysis; solubilization
increased with pH and detention time but was unaffected by initial volatile
solids concentration. Acid phase steady state models for hydrolysis, bac-
terial growth, and product formation were formulated with first order func-
tions, Monod's equation, and the COD balance, respectively. Up to 50% of the
non-lipid COD was solubilized during the acid phase, indicating that organic
carbon was a suitable substrate replacement during denitrification.
596
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F063
BACTERIAL AEROSOLS RESULTING FROM SPRAY IRRIGATION WITH WASTEWATER,
Bausum, H. T., Schaub, S. A., Small, M. J., Highfill, J. A., and Sorber, C. A.
United States Army Medical Bioengineering Research and
Development Laboratory,
Frederick, Maryland.
1976. 143 p, 16 fig, 11 tab, 318 ref. NTIS Technical Report 7602.
Air-borne bacteria resulting from spray irrigation with chlorinated and un-
chlorinated waste water were quantified in on-site investigations at Ft.
Huachuca, Arizona and in laboratory experiments. Air sampling equipment was
adapted for detection of the aerobic and indicator bacteria present in treated
and untreated effluent from the army installation. Aerobic bacteria reached a
maximum aerosol density of 1,630/cu m nearest the spray irrigation source;
bacterial aerosols from chlorinated effluent were as high as 20/cu m close to
the source. Coliforms comprised 0.5% of the total aerobic bacteria, with half
of the coliform population represented by Klebsiella. Conditions of low wind,
atmospheric stability, and darkness increased the aerosol densities of the
bacteria. A mathematical model, used in conjunction with fluorescein tracer
data, predicted that 0.3% of the applied waste water aerosolized. With this
aerosol figure, the model estimated that a downwind distance of 518-1,800 m
from the source would be required to reduce air-borne bacteria to background
levels. The diameter of viable aerosol bacterial aerosols averaged 4.5 micro-
meters, indicating that more than half were small enough for human aspira-
tion. Laboratory tests determined the viability of enteric bacteria under
varying humidity.
F064
STABILITY AND FLOCCULATION OF COLLOIDAL PARTICLES—PART 1,
Gregory, J.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 10, p 515, 517, 519-521,
October, 1977. 5 fig, 15 ref.
Mathematical models were developed to describe the stability and flocculation
kinetics of colloidal particles. Flocculation of colloidal particles occurs
by either Brownian motion (perikinetic flocculation) or induced velocity gra-
dients (orthokinetic flocculation). Both types of flocculation are rate de-
pendent upon the collision rate which expresses the maximum flocculation rate.
This rate can be described as a function of colloidal concentration, decreas-
ing with time, and rate constant, indicating that perikinetic flocculation is
a second-order process. Integration of the flocculation rate equation can
provide particulate concentrations at a specific time. The rate of ortho-
kinetic flocculation can be expressed as a function of shear rate, spherical
particle diameter, and initial concentration of the particles. Perikinetic
flocculation of spherical particles is described with an equation using Boltz-
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mann's constant, absolute temperature, and water viscosity. A comparison of
the orthokinetic and perikinetic rates indicates that orthokinetic floccula-
tion is more significant for particles above 1 micron in diameter and for
higher shear rates. Hydrophilic colloid flocculation occurs when water solu-
bility is altered by temperature, or salt or ion additions. Hydrophobic col-
loids aggregate when the energy barrier formed by an excess electrical repul-
sion is reduced or removed. The zeta potential of the particle and solution
can be measured by electrokinetic techniques.
F065
KINETIC AND EQUILIBRIUM ASPECTS OF FLOG COAGULATION,
Wilson, D. J.
Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee,
Department of Chemistry.
Separation and Science Technology, Vol. 13, No. 1, p 25-37, 1978. 2 fig, 4
tab, 13 ref.
The kinetics of colloidal flocculation were studied under various conditions
of surface potential, ionic strength, particle size, temperature, and particle
concentration. Mathematical models to describe flocculation were developed by
modification of the Gouy-Chaptnan model of the electric double layer. The
potential agglomeration of particles is calculated according to the height of
the barriers created by the potential energy generated from dispersion forces
and electrical forces of the particles. Flocculation of the particles with
time is expressed by an integration of the floe distance probability equation,
which is considered as a function of floe length, medium viscosity, and poten-
tial energy of the two floes separated by a given distance. A time constant
and boundary conditions of flocculation were predicted based upon the assump-
tion that with a large time constant, potential colloidal stability and poten-
tial energy barriers between floes increase, reducing flocculation. Equilib-
rium factors in particle agglomeration were dependent upon maintaining ambient
temperature and a particle concentration greater than half the electrolyte
concentration. The rate of the system's approach to equilibrium increased
functionally with ionic strength increase. Ionic strengths below 0.01 mole/
liter increased the potential barrier to the point of near colloidal stability.
598
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F066
STRATIFICATION IN LABORATORY SIMULATIONS OF SHALLOW STABILIZATION PONDS,
Bokil, S. D., and Agrawal, G. D.
Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 12, p 1025-1030, 1977. 5 fig, 3 tab, 14 ref.
Laboratory simulations were used to calculate the biochemical stratification
occurring in shallow waste water stabilization ponds. Light intensity in the
laboratory stabilization ponds, with depths of 53.5 and 35.5 cm, was main-
tained at a constant value of 60 cal/sq cm/day; two organic feed rates were
employed. Biochemical stratification occurred in both laboratory ponds; stra-
tification consisted of a small lower anaerobic bottom layer and an upper
aerobic layer whose depth size remained constant under variations in hydraulic
loading and pond depth. Low alkalinity and BOD levels were apparent in the
upper stratum; high alkalinity and BOD were found in the bottom layer. The
rate of oxygen decrease in the upper layer was a function of depth in the
absence of agitation and averaged 0.09 mg/liter/cm. Algae concentrations in-
creased functionally with decreasing detention time. Light attenuation at the
depth where algal concentrations were insignificant was 96% of the surface
light intensity.
F067
CONTROL TESTS AND KINETICS OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Wang, L. K., Poon, C. P. C., and Wang, M. H.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, New York,
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 8, No. 3, p 315-351, August, 1977. 16
fig, 1 tab, 31 ref.
Mathematical models described the kinetics of the activated sludge process in
complete-mix reactors with and without sludge recycle and in plug-flow reac-
tors with sludge recycle. The process parameters of biodegradability and
sludge acclimation were analyzed as a function of oxygen uptake rate based on
dissolved oxygen concentrations. Definitions and standard evaluations of
solids, sludge settling, sludge blanket, sludge units and substrate utiliza-
tion were presented. Equations were developed to describe the interrelation-
ships between hydraulic retention time, volumetric loading, sludge production,
sludge wasting, and recirculation ratio for the three types of activated
sludge reactors. The ratio of BOD to COD could be replaced with equations for
calculating the BOD:total organic carbon ratio; methods of establishing 5-day
BOD, initial BOD of the influent, ultimate BOD, residual BOD, and BOD at any
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given time period were presented. Mathematical models were also developed for
calculating treatment efficiency, yield and endogenous respiration coeffi-
cients, growth rate, and sludge volume index. An energy-assimilation reaction
model was designed to assess the nitrification and denitrification capacity of
a system; an analytical procedure for calculating maximum nitrifying and
denitrifying abilities was outlined.
F068
SIGNIFICANT CORRELATION EXISTS BETWEEN DESIGN TECHNIQUES,
Sherrard, J. H.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 1, p 50-52, January, 1978. 5 fig,
1 tab.
Correlations between rational and empirical design techniques of the activated
sludge process are investigated with mathematical models. Rational techniques
are based on microbial growth and degradation balanced with the utilization of
materials to supply values for mean cell residence time, biological solids re-
tention time, or sludge age. Empirical techniques utilize functions of hy-
draulic retention time, alone or in conjunction with oxygen uptake, BOD, and
the food-to-microorganism ratio. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is a function
of BOD, uptake rates of BOD or TKN, microorganism constant yield coefficient,
influent flow rate, and influent and effluent BOD or TKN levels. Mean cell
residence time is related to aeration basin volume, mixed liquor suspended
solids, and flow rate; the food-to-microorganism ratio follows the ratio of
flow rate and BOD or TKN concentrations to basin volume and mixed liquor sus-
pended solids. When the mathematical models were applied to a 10 mgd treat-
ment plant, BOD was metabolized at higher cell residence times with higher
mixed liquor suspended solids. The food-to-microorganism ratio became smaller
while nitrification occurred with increasing cell residence time and larger
amounts of TKN.
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F069
INAPPLICABILITY OF BATCH KINETIC DATA TO ANALYSIS OF SOIL TREATMENT SYSTEMS,
Adams, R. M.
Kennedy Engineers, Incorporated,
San Francisco, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 2, p 386-389, Feb-
ruary, 1978. 1 fig, 14 ref.
Mathematical models were unsuccessful in describing the kinetics of biochemi-
cal removal of organic carbon by plug flow through soil columns. An equation
for calculating hydraulic retention time of a constant-density liquid is in-
tegrated with the initial and final reactant concentration. To calculate the
residence time in a differential plug flow reactor, the flow streamline length,
the liquid fraction, and the water velocity are considered as a function of
the soil and waste water COD, the streamline flow distance, and the rate of
COD removal. Activated sludge samples containing 330 mg/liter COD were fil-
tered through packed soil columns; results were compared to batch anaerobic
incubation data for COD reduction. The cell residence time equation was ap-
plicable only in designing plug flow systems where reaction rates were depen-
dent upon concentrations and reactions involving only single chemical species.
Batch incubation experiments provided unreliable COD reduction data in the soil
columns because of spatial variations of the microorganism types in the soil.
The batch data cannot, therefore, be utilized in soil treatment system designs.
F070
ADSORPTION IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Ekama, G. A., and Marais, G. V. R.
Cape Town University,
Rondebosch, South Africa,
Water Resouces and Public Health Engineering.
Water SA, Vol. 4, No. 1, p 39-48, January, 1978. 8 fig, 3 tab, 5 ref, 1
append.
The cause of sharp decreases in the oxygen consumption rate when waste water
feed to an activated sludge reactor is stopped was investigated in laboratory
tests. One unit was fed with COD-bearing influent containing low nitrogen
levels during five test runs using a square wave system, equivalent to a 12 hr
feeding period followed by a 12 hr period without feeding. The other unit was
fed during three tests with influent at a constant COD concentration and low
nitrogen levels at square wave additions of 24 mg NH4/hr. In the fourth test,
the NH4 concentration was raised to 13.7 mg/hr. For the fifth test, the in-
fluent was spiked with an additional 20 mg NH4/hr. The units were monitored
over a 10 hr period with sludge ages of 1.5 and 2.5 days. When the feeds were
terminated, the unit fed on the square wave regimen exhibited an instantaneous
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steep reduction in oxygen consumption. The constant feed unit was unaffected.
In the fifth test, both units displayed the same changes in oxygen consumption
at feed termination. The oxygen consumption decline in the cyclically fed
reactor was attributed to increased energy requirements for carbonaceous mat-
ter adsorption. An adsorption model incorporating the increased energy re-
quirements was formulated in conjunction with Monod's nitrification equation
and applied to the activated sludge model to improve process response predic-
tions of oxygen consumption rate, effluent total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and
nitrate concentrations.
F071
THE BEHAVIOR OF A POORLY DEGRADABLE MODEL SUBSTANCE DURING BIOLOGICAL PURIFI-
CATION (Verhalten einer schwer abbaubaren Modellsubstanz bei der biologischen
Reinigung),
Pedrag, I.
Institut fuer Wassversorgung, Abwasserbeseitigung und Raumplanung,
Technische Hochschule Darmstadt,
Darmstadt, West Germany.
GWF-Wasser/Abwasser, Vol. 119, No. 3, p 127-134, 1978. 12 fig, 1 tab, 15 ref.
Pentaerythrito1 was used as a model substance to study the behavior of sub-
stances which are not generally amenable to biological waste water treatment.
Persistent substances are broken down by slow growing microorganisms which may
not have sufficient time to develop in conventional aeration basins. These
substances can be more efficiently handled by increasing the age of the acti-
vated sludge. This can be achieved by subdividing the biological treatment
into two stages. The first stage is operated under high sludge loading condi-
tions. The easily degradable substances are removed in this stage and some of
the more persistent substances are converted by the microorganisms into more
easily removed intermediates. The latter, along with the intact persistent
substances, are removed in the second stage by microorganisms which have aged
under low sludge loading conditions. The overall efficiency of the two-stage
aeration system is equivalent to that of a conventional one-stage basin. The
model studies with pentaerythritol demonstrate that hardly any degradation oc-
curs during the first 2.5 days, after which pentaerythritol removal increases
sharply until the 8th day.
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F072
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE GROWTH OF ACINETOBACTER CALCOACETICUS,
Du Preez, J. C., and Toerien, D. F.
Orange Free State University,
Bloemfontein, South Africa,
Department of Microbiology.
Water SA, Vol. 4, No. 1, p 10-13, January, 1978. 5 fig, 2 tab, 10 ref.
The activated sludge organism, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, was cultered in an
acetate medium and in Tryptone soy broth over a temperature range of 16-40 C
to evaluate the influence of temperature on microbial growth. The growth rate
of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in the acetate medium peaked within a tempera-
ture range of 30-36 C; growth declined steadily until 40.6 C when growth
ceased. The maximum specific growth rate was 1.17/hr; the pH of the acetate
media ranged from an Initial 6.7 to 8.6 during growth. Optimum temperature
for growth in the Tryptone soy broth was 29-33 C, with growth ceasing above 37
C; the maximum specific growth rate was 1.28/hr. Arrhenius curves were
plotted for the relationship between growth rate and temperature in both media.
Activation energies calculated from the curves for Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
in the soy broth ranged from 9.51-22.87 kilocalories; activation energies for
the acetate medium ranged from 10.36-17.49 kilocalories. Optimum temperature
for an activated sludge process utilizing A. calcoaceticus bacteria for fatty
acid removal was considered to be 29-35 C.
F073
THE STABILITY OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN FLOCCULATION PROCESSES IN WATER AND
WASTE WATER (Die Stabilitaet von suspendierten Feststoffen bei
Flokkungsprozessen in Wasser und Abwasser),
Neis, U.
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser- und Abwasserforschung, Vol. 10, No. 6, p 183-192,
1977. 11 fig, 3 tab, 26 ref.
The impact of flocculation and precipitation on the kinetic behavior of aque-
ous suspensions containing silica, aluminum oxide,, kaolinite, illite, mont-
morillonite, and bacillus cereus was investigated with particle count tech-
niques. Flocculation rates varied for the suspensions of silica, aluminum
hydroxide, and clays when simple or hydrolized salts and polyelectrolytes were
employed as aggregating agents. Aggregation rates increased while floes re-
mained intact when the mean velocity gradient was increased to 100/sec. Under
optimal concentration ranges of 3.1 million to 2.1 billion particles/ml,
variations in hydrodynamic parameters did not affect the destabilizing effi-
ciency of the flocculants. When aluminum salt was used as a precipitant
rather than a flocculant, the aggregation of silica in aqueous suspensions was
more successful.
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F074
UNDERFLOW RATE AND CONTROL OF AN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Schaffner, M. W., and Pipes, W. 0.
Hoff-Weston Associates,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 20-30, January,
1978. 4 fig, 4 tab, 18 ref.
The limitation of the underflow solids concentration by the area of the set-
tling tank was quantified with mathematical models relating batch settling
velocity to solids concentrations. A logarithmic formula, based on Dick and
Young's theory of continuous sludge thickening, empirically related the ini-
tial settling velocity to the varying initial concentrations of solids. A re-
ciprocal formula, describing the initial settling velocity in batch settling
tests, related the hypothetical settling velocity at an infinite solids con-
centration and the maximum batch solids flux to the initial solids concentra-
tion. When the equations were applied to data from batch settling tests con-
ducted over a 1-rao period at a treatment plant, the empirical formula under-
estimated the underflow solids concentration while the reciprocal model over-
estimated the concentration. The underflow suspended solids in the batch set-
tling tests also exceeded the values calculated from the sludge volume index
by six-fold. The solids loading on the settling tank was always greater than
the solids flux.
F075
REMOVAL OF DICHLORAMINE AND AMMONIA BY GRANULAR CARBON,
Kim, B. R., Snoeyink, V. L., and Schmitz, R. A.
Tennessee Valley Authority,
Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 122-133,
January, 1978. 10 fig, 2 tab, 17 ref.
Mathematical models were derived for the removal of dichloramine and ammonia
on activated carbon batch and packed bed reactors. Temperature, concentration,
and particle size were monitored in closed batch experiments; pore diffusion
coefficients were calculated from this data. The coefficients were used to
solve an algebraic expression, obtained from the removal rate of dichloramine
from bulk fluid on carbon, as a function of the average mass of dichloramine
reacted with time for a unit weight of carbon. The data obtained from the
packed bed models was applicable in the design and prediction of performance
of activated carbon beds. Units employing different carbon types than these
experiments required additional batch tests to ensure the accuracy of the
mathematical models. The packed beds did not achieve a steady state condi-
604
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tion; reaction rates decreased as surface oxides accumulated on the packed bed
media.
F076
THE INFLUENCE OF PH AND ORGANIC LOADING ON THE FILAMENTOUS BULKING OF
ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Yasuda, M.
Toyama College of Technology,
Japan,
Department of Sanitary Engineering.
Transactions of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 8, p 131-132, 1976.
5 fig, 1 tab.
The growth of Sphaerotilus, an organism contributing to filamentous sludge
bulking, in activated sludge was measured with respect to variations in pH,
COD, temperature, and organic loading during laboratory experiments. The tem-
perature of the 5 liter aeration tank and the 1.5 liter settling tank ranged
from 18.5-29.4 C with an organic loading of 0.24 g COD/g volatile suspended
solids/day and a hydraulic loading of 0.57 g COD/liter/day. Sphaerotilus
growth increased when the pH of the aeration tank effluent was raised above pH
6; the organic and hydraulic loading rates did not significantly affect
Sphaerotilus growth. When pH was varied from 6-9 with an organic loading of
0.30 g COD/liter/day, Sphaerotilus growth was stimulated. Above this pH range
Sphaerotilus growth was not apparent; organic loading rates did not affect
growth in the high pH ranges.
F077
DESIGN OF DRYING BEDS FOR SURPLUS ACTIVATED SLUDGE,
Vosloo, P. B. B.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 71-74, 1978. 1 fig, 2 ref.
An excess activated sludge drying bed was designed to act as both a settling
tank and a drying bed. The settling/drying bed contains a 200-250 mm deep
layer of fine, ungraded sand that may be obtained from the construction site.
The rectangular bed has one end wall, opposite the sludge inlet, that acts as
an overflow weir rising 300 mm above the sand level. A 150-300 mm wide chan-
nel runs between this weir and another located upstream; the channel is
divided into 5 sections with drainage means 500 mm below the sand level, con-
necting to the main overflow weir which discharges into a downstream collect-
ing trough. The drainage valves within the troughs are closed when the mixed
liquor is introduced. Water in excess of the bed capacity spills over the
main weir into the collection trough as sludge settles to a 100-200 mm thick-
ness. The surface water is drained sequentially through the trough valves
605
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serving the 5 sections of the upstream weir at heights above the sand level of
75, 120, 165, 210, and 255 mm. Liquid that is not drained from the surface
filters through the sand bed and the sludge layer is allowed to evaporate.
The design application rate is 1.5 kg/sq m with an excess activated sludge
drying time of 4 days.
F078
AUTOTHERMAL THERMOPHILIC AEROBIC DIGESTION,
Gould, M. S., and Drnevich, R. F.
Union Carbide Corporation,
Linde Division,
Tonawanda, New York.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE2, p
259-270, April, 1978. 3 fig, 2 tab, 7 ref, 1 append.
Autothermal thermophilic aerobic digestion with high purity oxygen aeration of
sewage sludge was evaluated in pilot plant studies. Based on a stoichiometric
oxygen-to-volatile solids ratio of 1.50, the heat generation coefficient was
estimated as 9.150 BTU/lb oxidized volatile solids. Cell synthesis contri-
buted to a higher net oxygen requirement of 1.6-1.8 Ib oxygen/lb oxidized
volatile solids. Oxygen aeration during the thermophilic operation increased
the oxygen saturation of the system and significantly enhanced mass transfer
with less aeration power input than air systems. Digestion systems and the
pilot plant study utilized a two-stage operation in which heating was limited
to the first stage with mass transfer heating of the second stage. An air
aeration system was unable to attain thermophilic digestion without supple-
mentary heat, was mass transfer limiting, and was unable to operate efficiently
at high solids loading. An autothermal thermophilic digester with oxygen
aeration was operated in the first stage at temperatures exceeding 50 C over a
period of 1.4-2.3 days. Heat leaks and reduced mass transfer to the second
stage necessitated insulation of the pilot plant. Volatile solids were re-
duced by 30-40% in the first stage at retention times of 1.4-2.3 days, with
overall reductions of about 80%. The pilot plant operation reduced salmonel-
lae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa to below detection limits.
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F079
BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION THROUGH A PACKED-COLUMN,
Elmaleh, S., Labaquere, H., and Ben Aim, R.
Universite des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc,
Montpellier, France,
Laboratoire de Genie Chimique et Traitement des Eaux.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, p 41-46, 1978. 6 fig, 5 ref.
Mathematical models predicting porosity decrease, oxygen depletion, and puri-
fication efficiency in a packed column during biological filtration of waste
water were tested in a laboratory column reactor packed with crushed brick and
fed with a dissolved substrate. Porosity decrease is calculated from initial
porosity of the packed column which is diminished by the ratio of initial bio-
mass concentration to density as a partial product of the specific growth rate
to oxygen transfer coefficient ratio minus the growth yield rate with respect
to the specific growth rate and time. Oxygen depletion is determined as a
function of influent oxygen concentration, the oxygen transfer coefficient ac-
cording to the filtration velocity, the specific area, porosity, and the ini-
tial biomass concentration with respect to the specific growth rate and time.
Purification efficiency is taken as the product of the height of column effi-
ciency at a specific growth rate and time and the ratio of specific growth rate
and initial biomass concentration to filtration velocity and initial substrate
concentration. Performance predictions calculated from these design para-
meters agreed with data obtained with the laboratory packed column. Although
certain assumptions in the models are oversimplified, the models are con-
sidered accurate enough for laboratory tests of filter designs.
F080
ENSURING CLARITY AND ACCURACY IN TORQUE DETERMINATIONS,
Boyle, W. H.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 3, p 76-77, March, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab.
Methods were developed to calculate running, alarm, shut-off, and peak torques
for circular clarifiers. Torque may be represented as the squared product of
the uniform sludge load and the radius of the clarifier. The drive unit of
the clarifier usually operates at a single running torque for 90% of the time.
Alarm torque, set at 120% of the running torque, warns of loads in excess of
the design clarifier parameters, provides additional running torque, and pro-
tects the drive unit in the presence of excessive loads. Shut-off torque
automatically stops operation of the clarifier under adverse or abnormal con-
ditions and may be set at 140% of the running torque. Peak torque, determined
by the manufacturer to be the absolute capacity of the drive unit, accommo-
dates excessive loads for a duration of about 3 sec when torque increases too
rapidly for the shut-off torque to respond; peak torque is usually twice the
running torque. Torque values were calculated for a municipal primary clari-
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fier with an 80-ft diameter and a uniform sludge load of 8 Ibs/ft. From the
initial torque equation and the modes of torque operation, torque values were
calculated as 12,800 ft Ibs for running, 15,360 ft Ibs for alarm, 17,920 ft
Ibs for shut-off, and 25,600 ft Ibs for peak torque.
F081
FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW SPEED SURFACE AERATION SELECTION,
Sherrard, H. H.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 32-35, February, 1978. 3 fig, 4
tab, 5 ref.
Parameters influencing the selection of low speed surface aerators are re-
viewed for activated sludge systems in which the kinetic coefficients for BOD
and nitrification are known. Oxygen demands under different conditions are
calculated from waste water treatability and subsequent biokinetic coeffi-
cients. From these values, sludge age is calculated for use in determining
balanced biochemical stoichiometrical equations to predict oxygen demand by
microorganisms. Stoichiometric equations are developed for calculating influ-
ent waste water BOD and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) concentrations, removal
efficiencies of BOD and TKN, sludge production related to time, and the vari-
able yield coefficient. The overall mass transfer coefficient under aerator
design conditions is calculated for selecting the aerator shaft horsepower in
conjunction with a nomograph. The mathematical models are applied to condi-
tions in a 1 mgd waste water treatment facility treating effluent with BOD
levels of 350 mg/liter. The results of the model studies demonstrate that
greater horsepower capacities are required for tanks with larger aeration
volumes, higher values of hydraulic retention time, and higher concentrations
of TKN.
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F082
CALCULATION AND COMPARISON OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE BASINS AS CONTINUOUS STIRRED
TANK OR PLUG FLOW REACTORS,
Mehring, A., and Wiesmann, U.
Technische Universitaet Berlin,
West Germany,
Institut fuer Chemieingenieurtechnik.
German Chemical Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 31-38, 1978. 11 fig, 2 tab, 29
ref.
A theoretical analysis of continuous activated sludge reactors operated as
completely mixed continuous stirred tanks (CST) or as plug flow reactors (PF)
without back-mixing considered the performance of reactors and their limiting
conditions. The maximum recycle ratio was calculated as a function of the
sludge recycle, thickening, and outlet ratios derived from the microorganism
balance. Equations were developed for the dimensionless concentration of the
substrate and of the microorganisms at the reactor inlet, the balance of sub-
strates and microorganisms in dimensionless form, and the dimensionless sub-
strate concentration at the outlet. The dimensionless mean cell residence
time was derived as a function of assumed values of substrate concentration
and recycle ratio. Significant fractional conversion was observed only after
a specific mean residence time was exceeded. Application of the equations to
PF and CST reactors with sludge recycle assumed a constant oxygen concentra-
tion in an isothermal and steady-state process. The results indicated that a
higher minimum mean residence time was required by the PF reactor to avoid
washout of the bacterial culture; PF reactors provided higher fractional con-
version. With lower residence times and fractional conversion, the CST reac-
tor was considered superior.
F083
SEWER NETWORK SCHEME FOR DIGITAL COMPUTATIONS,
Mays, L. W.
Texas University,
Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE3, p
535-539, 1978. 3 fig, 4 ref.
Algorithmically-derived isonodal lines and node numbers describing the physi-
cal arrangement of multilevel branching municipal and storm sewer networks may
be entered into digital computers for simpler optimization and hydraulic rout-
ing studies. The imaginary isonodal lines correlate manholes with pipe sec-
tions connecting to the sewer system outlet. Construction of the isonodal
lines begins with the sewer system outlet and progresses upstream; number
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nodes are initiated upstream and proceed sequentially downstream on each iso-
nodal line. A vector of connections describes the sets of node connections or
links between adjacent isonodal lines. The algorithmic scheme permits de-
scription of systems with more than one outlet. Network pipeline data, such
as length, diameter, flow, and roughness factor, can be stored in the computer
for access through the isonodal lines or nodes. Computations associated with
optimization models and hydraulic simulation models are performed by the com-
puter using the stored information and flow scheme.
F084
LAB STUDY HELPS SOLVE AEROBIC DIGESTER PROBLEMS,
Benefield, L., Seyfarth, R., and Shindala, A.
Colorado University,
Boulder,
Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural
Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, Reference Number, p 60, 62-64, 66-68, 70,
1978. 20 fig, 13 ref.
Laboratory batch and continuous flow digesters were used to compare solids de-
struction rate coefficients, oxygen demand, and supernatant characteristics
under temperature variations in studies to develop design parameters for con-
tinuous flow aerobic digesters. Acclimated sludge was digested on a batch
feed mode at temperatures of 30, 40, and 50 C with aeration for 15 days. COD,
nitrate, orthophosphate, oxygen uptake, and volatile suspended solids were
measured after 5, 10, and 15 days of aeration. Similar conditions were main-
tained in continuous feed digesters; waste sludge was replaced daily with
batch feed sludge for aeration times of 5, 10, and 15 days. Analyses were
conducted over 7 days, after steady-state was reached. The modified Arrhenius
relationship for calculating the reaction rate constant for volatile suspended
solids degradation was not applicable to the temperature variations employed
in the study. Specific oxygen uptake rates were highest in the continuous
feed digester maintained at 30 C, lowest at 40 C, and constant between 5-15
days in all continuous digesters. COD values in batch and continuous diges-
ters were significantly different; the highest COD levels in continuous diges-
ters were observed at 50 C. Little variation in nitrate and orthophosphate
levels in the batch and continuous digesters was apparent; nitrifying bacteria
were sustained in the 40 C continuous digester but not in the 40 C batch
digester.
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F085
A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR OPTIMIZING CHLORINATION OF WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOON
EFFLUENT,
Johnson, B. A.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 11, p 5529-5530, 1978.
A mathematical model was developed to optimize chlorination of oxidation lagoon
effluent with varying characteristics in Logan, Utah. Chlorination of primary
and secondary oxidation lagoon effluent was evaluated in an on-site test fa-
cility over a year-long period. Tests were also conducted on the chlorination
of lagoon effluent after it had been filtered through sand. The bacterial re-
moval efficiency of the lagoon system was also monitored. Contact periods of
1 hr or less adequately disinfected the lagoon effluent. Temperature, sulfide,
and COD levels in the effluent controlled the chlorine dose required for ade-
quate disinfection; filtered effluent required lower chlorine doses. The
mathematical model predicted the chlorine dose required for varying effluent
characteristics and optimized chlorination practices with design curves.
F086
RESPONSE OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES TO ORGANIC TRANSIENTS-KINETICS,
Selna, M. W., and Schroeder, E. D.
Los Angeles Sanitation Districts,
California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 944-956, May,
1978. 15 fig, 3 tab, 21 ref.
The impact of square-wave transient loading variations, 2-7 times the steady-
state organic levels, on growth rates, substrate utilization rates, and set-
tling rates was investigated using mixed liquor from an activated sludge reac-
tor. Mean cell residence time ranged over 5.5-11.5 days, with hydraulic resi-
dence times in the aeration tank of 6.0-6.9 hrs. Transient loading was accom-
plished by increasing the steady-state COD of 265 mg/liter to 520-1,950 mg
COD/liter. The Monod equation adequately described the results when applied
before step-down and when soluble effluent COD calculations were modified.
Transient loading variations did not significantly affect suspended solids
concentrations of sludges which initially had good settling properties; large
deviations in growth rates and organic removal rates were observed. Soluble
effluent COD increased significantly with square-wave transient loadings at
four times the steady-state parameters. Results of the study indicated that
effluent COD could be controlled by regulating steady-state unit growth rates
as an inverse function of mean cell residence time; a 5-day mean cell resi-
dence time did not adversely affect substrate utilization.
611
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F087
UTILIZING STOICHIOMETRY FOR DENITRIFICATION,
Sherrard, J. H., and Sivasubramanian, R.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 6, p 104-106, 108, June, 1978. 5 fig, 2
tab, 12 ref.
Balanced stoichiometric equations were used to calculate methanol additions
and waste sludge production for denitrification of waste water under anaerobic
conditions. Formulas were derived for predicting methanol requirements, bio-
mass production, effluent waste concentration, waste treatment efficiency,
sludge production, and variable cell yield coefficients. Utilizing predeter-
mined kinetic coefficients of denitrification at 10, 20, and 30 C and an
influent nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 14 mg/liter, the kinetic equations
were solved for a selected initial methanol concentration; solutions were
utilized to develop a stoichiometric equation for denitrification. From this
balanced equation, methanol doses at various mean cell retentions times and
temperatures were calculated as a function of observed cell yield coefficients.
The study determined that methanol requirements for denitrification decreased
with increasing mean cell retention time and increased with increasing tem-
perature. Waste sludge production increased with shorter mean cell retention
times and higher temperatures. Higher methanol doses were required for higher
influent concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen and dissolved oxygen.
F088
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION,
Walzer, J. G.
Pennutit Company,
Zurn Industries,
Paramus, New Jersey.
Pollution Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 2, p 46-48, 1978. 5 fig.
Design criteria for dissolved air flotation systems are calculated in mathe-
matical models optimizing hydraulic loading rates, solids loading rates, and
the air-solids ratio. The optimum surface area of the separator at 100% effi-
ciency is equal to the ratio of the waste water flow to the particle rise rate.
Thus, any particle with a rise rate greater than or equal to the hydraulic
loading rate or the detention/water depth ratio will ideally be removed by
dissolved air flotation. Pilot plant studies demonstrate that solids removal
efficiency at specific design hydraulic loading rates decreases when the
solids loading rate increases. Pilot plant studies are recommended to cal-
culate the design criteria for solids loading rates as related to the size of
612
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the thickening tank and dewatering equipment. The air-to-solids ratio for
flotation systems is expressed as the product of the air solubility at atmo-
spheric pressure (1.3 mg air wt/1 cc air), the efficiency factor, and the
pressure per suspended solids in the waste water. When effluent recycle is
incorporated into the system, the waste water flow rate is included in the
design equation for the air-to-solids ratio.
F089
MULTI-PART EXAMPLE OF SOLIDS/VOLATILES RELATIONSHIPS,
Lee, D. A.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, Reference Number, p 188, April, 1978. 1 tab.
Mathematical models described the relationship between solids recovery and
water removal in waste activated sludge thickening, filtering, and drying pro-
cesses. The models were used in estimating appropriate sizes for process
equipment and feed rates and calculating associated cost factors. Equations
were developed which interrelated volatile removal on the filter press, solid
sludge discharge, feed rate, and associated parameters of food solids content
and moisture content in the final sludge product. The solids/volatiles analy-
sis was applied to a thickener with a feed rate of 20 tons Air and a sludge
solids content of 7.8% prior to pressure filtration dewatering and drying.
After filtration, the sludge solids content was 68.8%; a final 1.5% moisture
content after drying was desired to make the sludge suitable as a fertilizer.
Results from these calculations were used to approximate the fuel requirements
associated with sludge drying.
F090
OPTIMAL PERIODIC CONTROL OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES - I. RESULTS FOR THE
BASE CASE WITH MONOD/DECAY KINETICS,
Sincic, D., and Bailey, J. E.
Houston University,
Texas,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, p 47-53, 1978. 9 fig, 3 tab, 9 ref.
Mathematical models incorporating Monod's equation and microbial decay kinet-
ics are used to redesign continuous-stirred steady state activated sludge
reactors to operate in an optimal periodic control mode. Under periodic
operation, diurnal fluctuations are controlled in the base case design and
variations in effluent substrate quantity are reduced. Mathematical models
for optimal periodic operation include waste and sludge recycle flow rates,
feed substrate concentration, objective function, and variability index. The
periodic gain control strategy is based on a linearization of the system about
613
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a base periodic state. Using periodic flow configurations to minimize efflu-
ent substrate, the average effluent concentration is reduced by 38% compared
to steady state operation. Treatment efficiency is be further improved by
periodic variation in the sludge recycle flow rate. Simulated process para-
meters are used to illustrate the optimal periodic operation of the activated
sludge reactors.
F091
PROCESS SELECTION FOR OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF REGIONAL WASTEWATER RESIDUALS,
Dick, R. I., Simmons, D. L., Ball, R. 0., and Perlin, K.
Delaware University,
Newark,
Department of Civil Engineering.
1976. 269 p, 17 fig, 11 tab, 169 ref, 3 append. NTIS Technical Report
NSF/RA-760578.
Mathematical models were developed for the optimal selection and integration
of sludge treatment and disposal processes. This preliminary report on the
first of two years of research focuses on sludge treatment processes culminat-
ing in land application. The mathematical models relate process performance
to design and operation parameters and waste water and sludge characteristics.
The models also incorporate capital and operating costs into the design of
processes with selected sizes and operating strategies. Based on performance
and cost data, a digital computer program outlined in the report identified
the optimum integration of various processes. Parameters extraneous to the
direct cost basis of the mathematical optimization scheme considered in this
report included: public acceptance, environmental impact, and indirect costs
and benefits. Limited data on sludge characteristics restricted the develop-
ment of process variables such as mean cell retention time in activated sludge
processes, sludge mixing, the impact of aerobic and anaerobic digestion for
various temperatures and times on sludge thickening and dewatering, and the
influence of conditioning practices on sludge dewaterability.
614
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F092
APPLICATION OF MASS TRANSFER TO ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS,
Famularo, J., Mueller, J. A., and Mulligan, T.
Hydroscience, Incorporated,
Westwood, New Jersey.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 653-671, April,
1978. 14 fig, 3 tab, 38 ref, 1 append.
Mass transfer and biological reaction kinetics were used to design fixed film
rotating biological contactors. The Michaelis kinetic equations were used to
describe the rates of oxygen consumption and substrate removal in a fixed film
treatment process. Oxygen and substrate diffusion flux values were calculated
as a function of oxygen or substrate diffusivity in the biofilm, oxygen or
substrate concentration, and the organism yield coefficient. Mass transfer
through the liquid phase to the biofilm interface in aerated sectors was
dependent upon the liquid film oxygen and substrate concentrations and the
oxygen and substrate mass transfer coefficients above the waterline. Similar
equations were derived for mass transfer in submerged sectors. The mass
transfer coefficients were expressed as a function of the liquid film thick-
ness and the oxygen and substrate diffusivity in the biofilm. The rotating
biological contactor model was tested in three pilot plant operations which
treated municipal, pulp, and paper mill wastes. To determine and verify
kinetic constants, the pilot plants were run at two hydraulic loadings. By
incorporating mass transfer, hydraulic, and kinetic processes governing BOD
removal, full-scale plant performance was predicted for various hydraulic
loadings, waste strengths, media diameters, and rotational velocities. The
models were also considered applicable for optimizing rotating biological con-
tactor performance and incorporating nitrification.
F093
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Sayigh, B. A., and Malina, J. F., Jr.
Texas University, Austin,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 678-687, April,
1978. 13 fig, 18 ref.
Process kinetics and performance efficiency were evaluated in a completely
mixed continuous flow activated sludge reactor operated at 4, 10, 20, and 31 C
with sludge ages of 0.5-3.0 days. The kinetic relationships between sludge
yield, soluble substrate utilization, and oxygen uptake were described by
empirical equations; the process parameters monitored included microbial
growth, performance efficiencies, settling characteristics in terms of sludge
volume index, and the volatile suspended solids content of the effluent. The
615
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cell synthesis coefficient was not influenced by the soluble substrate concen-
tration of the influent or by temperatures in the range of 4-20 C; the coeffi-
cient decreased significantly at 31 C. When the sludge age was increased from
1 to 3 days, the ratio of the net yield coefficient to the cell synthesis co-
efficient decreased in the range of 4-20 C. The soluble substrate removal co-
efficient increased at 31 C; the removal efficiency was independent of tem-
perature at a sludge age of 3 days or more. Effluent BOD was also consistently
below 10 mg/liter at all temperatures at a sludge age of at least 3 days.
Dissolved oxygen utilization decreased with decreasing temperatures. The
sludge volume index in the range of 4-20 C was maintained at less than 200
mg/liter at all sludge ages; the index deteriorated at 31 C when the sludge
age was less than 2.75 days. The effluent volatile suspended solids concen-
tration decreased with increasing sludge age.
F094
A SIMPLE, EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUE FOR CONTROLLING SOLIDS RETENTION TIME IN
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS,
Roper, R. E., Jr., and Grady, C. P. L., Jr.
H. B. Steeg and Associates Division,
HNTB,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 702-708, April,
1978. 6 fig, 9 ref.
Operational charts were developed to assist activated sludge reactor operators
in controlling the solids retention time. A hydraulic formula was employed to
calculate the solids retention time in an activated sludge reactor as a func-
tion of aeration tank volume, waste sludge flow rate, and recycle ratio. The
sludge wastage rate necessary to achieve any desired solids retention time was
determined under the assumption that mixed liquor suspended solids loss in the
effluent is negligible; the results of the analysis were presented graphically.
A calibration chart was then devised to correlate the data in the hydraulic
control chart to full-scale reactor parameters. A calibration coefficient,
related to the effluent suspended solids/substrate removal ratio, was employed
to correlate the hydraulically estimated and the actual solids retention time.
Using full-scale plant data, a calibration chart was devised. The impact of
recycle ratio adjustments on the plant performance was then calculated with a
two-curved operating diagram. One set of curves depicted the maximum mixed
liquor suspended solids loading capacity of the settler at a given recycle
ratio. The other set of curves diagrammed the actual mixed liquor suspended
solids concentration in the aeration chamber at a specific influent flow rate
and concentration. The graphical technique was successfully used to operate a
5.45 cu m/day pilot plant.
616
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F095
SHOCK LOAD RESPONSE OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE WITH CONSTANT RECYCLE SLUDGE CON-
CENTRATION,
Saleh, M. M., and Gaudy, A. F., Jr.
El-Azhar University,
Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt,
School of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 764-774, April,
1978. 10 fig, 1 tab, 11 ref.
The cyclic and step shock loading response of an activated sludge system
operated with a constant sludge recycle concentration was evaluated according
to effluent quality stability. The reactor was operated with a normal influ-
ent organic substrate concentration of 500 mg/liter glucose and a cell recycle
of 8,000 mg/liter. During step shock loading tests, the substrate concentra-
tion was increased from 500 mg/liter to 1,500 or 3,000 mg/liter and the re-
cycle concentration remained constant. The three-fold increase in substrate
concentration did not adversely affect effluent quality; six-fold substrate
shocks produced a three-day transient period in the biomass before steady
state resumed. Cyclic shock loading of the reactor was then performed at a
cell recycle of 10,000 mg/liter. The reactor was fed on a diurnal schedule of
12 hrs at a substrate concentration of 500 mg/liter glucose, followed by 12
hrs at 1,500 mg/liter over an 18-day period. Minimal cyclic disturbance was
observed in the effluent quality during the first week of pulsing shock loads.
The significant cyclic peaks of total COD and suspended solids in the effluent
decreased after the sixth day of operation and were negligible after the 10th
day. The study concluded that high activated sludge reactor performance could
be expected under shock load conditions when the cell recycle concentration
was held constant.
F096
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN OF DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION SYSTEMS,
Gulas, V., Lindsey, R., Benefield, L., and Randall, C.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1835-1840, July,
1978. 8 fig, 1 tab, 5 ref.
A design procedure, based on the air-to-solids ratio in dissolved air flota-
tion sludge thickening systems, incorporated the influence of sludge age and
concentration on operating parameters. Three continuous flow dissolved air
flotation reactors were operated with synthetic influent COD concentrations of
500, 1,000, and 1,500 mg/liter and sludge ages of 5, 10, and 13 days. Reactor
performance was assessed according to effluent soluble COD, mixed liquor sus-
pended solids concentration, oxygen uptake, and the sludge volume index;
operating parameters monitored during flotation included the percentage of
float solids, the subnatant suspended solids concentration, the float volume,
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and the rise rate of the interface. From laboratory reactor data, the design
procedure established the relationships between sludge age and sludge volume
index at varying seasonal temperatures; the float solids percentage and feed
solids concentration were calculated for specific air-to-solids ratios. Rela-
tionships between the maximum float solids percentage and sludge volume index
and between interfacial rise rates and feed solids concentration were also
calculated at specific air-to-solids ratios. The air-to-solids ratio was
derived from the feed solids concentration, soluble air concentration at 1
atm, the recirculation ratio, the gauge pressure, and the pressurlzation system
efficiency. The maximum required thickener area was determined from the ratio
of total influent flow at critical seasonal temperatures to the rise rate.
F097
PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR DESIGN OF FIXED-BED ADSORBERS: SINGLE-COMPONENT MODEL
VERIFICATION,
Crittenden, J. C., and Weber, W. J., Jr.
Washington State University,
Pullman,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE3, p
433-443, June, 1978. 8 fig, 2 tab, 4 ref, 1 append.
The simulation performance of the Michigan Adsorption Design and Applications
Model (MADAM) for fixed bed adsorbers treating single component solutions was
verified by four adsorption columns operated with varying fixed bed depths and
hydraulic loadings. The dimensionless groups characterizing the model adsorp-
tion systems for single components included: the solute distribution para-
meter, representing the so lid-to-liquid adsorbate concentration; the modified
Stanton number," defining the liquid phase mass transfer removal efficiency;
and the Sherwood number, comparing mass transfer resistances of solids and
liquids. The adsorbate distribution parameters of the single solutes, phenol,
p-bromophenol, p-toluene sulfonate, and dodecyl benzene sulfonate, ranged over
2,492-4,636; the Sherwood numbers ranged 0.857-17.0. The model simulations,
which incorporated the two-step in-series transfer resistances and solids and
liquid diffusion, adequately predicted single solute kinetics in the fixed bed
adsorption systems. For verification of the model, the equilibrium uptake
which was independent of the hydraulic loading was calculated in one of the
columns and the result was used for other hydraulic loadings.
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F098
SOURCES OF ERROR IN PARAMETER ESTIMATION FOR MATHEMATIC MODELS IN PROCESS
KINETICS (Fehlerquellen der Parameterabschaetzung von methematischen Mode11en
der Prozesskinetik),
Moser, A.
GWF-Wasser/Abwasser, Vol. 119, No. 5, p 242-252, May, 1978. 17 fig, 2 tab, 36
ref, 1 append.
Potential errors in parameter estimations are cited for the development of ma-
thematical models of activated sludge process kinetics required for optimiza-
tion and automation. Simple models with a minimum number of process para-
meters are recommended; erroneous kinetic parameters should be avoided to pre-
vent miscalculations. Variable physical properties that may be disregarded
and result in faulty models include oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, temperature,
and sludge adsorption. Limited development of Monod or enzyme kinetics, reli-
ance on stationary or mobile kinetics alone, and homogeneous or heterogeneous
modelling can lead to reactor parameters that are valid only under ideal or
limited conditions. Conditions inherent in individual processes that may be
overlooked when model parameters are formulated should be identified through
laboratory, pilot plant, and full-scale evaluations. These conditions include
oxygen transfer, mixing characteristics, ideal flow deviations in continuous
operations, electrode response time, and the dimensions of microbial floes and
films. Potential errors in the Monod kinetics and the Monod constant for the
substrate concentration can result from pseudokinetic constants.
F099
ALLOCATIONAL INEFFICIENCY OF BENEFIT/COST APPLIED TO WATER AND SEWERAGE
SUPPLY: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TIME-SERIES AND CROSS-SECTIONAL MODELS,
Coelen, S. P., Bahl, R. W., and Warford, J. J.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
Department of Economics.
Water Supply and Management, Vol. 2, No. 3, p 265-274, 1978. 1 fig, 3 tab, 13
ref.
Time-series, cost-benefit models to evaluate water facilities and sewerage
projects are derived on the basis of increased property values associated with
these projects. Both cross-sectional techniques, incorporating existing hous-
ing away from municipal areas, and time-series techniques, which estimate the
increasing value of existing residential properties, are considered relevant
for developing countries. The empirical cost-benefit analysis compares pro-
perty value increases in a sewered or water-supplied control area to those in
the proposed project area using time-series analysis; the average subset pro-
perty sales within a given period of time are also compared to the control
area indices. The time-series technique is considered analogous to cross-
619
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sectional analyses. The model is applied to a case study in Nairobi, Kenya,
to verify that unpaid for benefits from investments in public sewerage and
water facilities are reflected in increased land values.
FIDO
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM FOR WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING,
Sarsenski, J. E.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 39, No. 11, p 5530, 1978.
Integrated models were designed to incorporate population and land use pat-
terns, water quality criteria, waste treatment systems, and associated costs
into water quality management system design. An epicenter model plotted as an
ogee curve described the population density patterns and residential, commer-
cial, and industrial land use relationships. The GENERATE model calculated
waste water flows associated with the land use patterns. Residential flow was
based on population density and per capita flow; commercial flow was dependent
upon acreage and per acre flow coefficients; and industrial flow was taken
from standard published data. A sewer model developed alternative interceptor
designs which considered maximum waste loads and water quality standards. The
results of the sewer model were incorporated into a treatment planning and
cost model which calculated the land area requirements and associated costs of
various treatment configurations. By varying the water quality parameters,
the tradeoffs of specific water usages and treatment system costs were as-
sessed. Planning tools to evaluate interrelationships between the various
areas of water quality management were considered limited by the lack of an
adequate data base.
F101
A DYNAMIC MODEL OF NITRIFICATION-DENTRIFICATION IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM
WITH POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON. (VOLUMES I AND II),
Lee, J. S.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 12, p 6106, 1978.
A dynamic model of suspended growth biological nitrification-denitrification
was developed with data from two activated sludge pilot plants, one of which
contained powdered activated carbon in the mixed liquor. The two reactors
were operated with dynamic loading and were sampled every 2 hrs over 24-56 hr
sampling periods. Effluent nitrate from both the nitrification and denitrifi-
cation processes varied according to the cyclic flow and loading rates of the
reactors; hydraulic and solids retention times directly controlled the degree
of nitrification-denitrification. As dynamic loading increased, the concen-
tration of non-biodegradable dissolved organic carbon increased in the nitri-
fication effluent. The dynamic model, developed with a Newton-Shooting itera-
tion computer program, predicted a higher substrate removal for powdered acti-
620
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vated carbon. Activated sludge treatment with powdered activated carbon at 5
C required a higher microbial population to effect the same degree of nitrifi-
cation-denitrification obtained at 20 C. Powdered activated carbon influenced
denitrification kinetics; heterotrophic growth affected nitrification kinetics.
The maximum growth rate coefficient was the most sensitive process parameter.
F102
PERFORMANCE OF A ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR UNDER VARYING WASTEWATER FLOW,
Clark, J. H., Moseng, E. M., and Asano, T.
Pentech Division, Houdaille Industries, Incorporated,
Cedar Falls, Iowa.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 896-911, May,
1978. 10 fig, 17 tab, 16 ref.
Design criteria derived from a steady-state mathematical model was compared to
the performance of a four-stage rotating biological contactor operating under
varying waste water flows and strengths. The steady-state model calculated
the coefficient of substrate removed/unit surface area of each disc as the
product of Monod's half-velocity coefficient/area capacity constant and the
effluent substrate concentration plus the area capacity constant. To verify
the model under varying waste water flows and strengths, graphical analyses of
the Monod coefficient and the area capacity constant were performed for each
stage of the rotating biological contactor. Nitrification limited the model's
ability to predict the removal of soluble BOD in the last two stages; model
predictions for the first two stages closely correlated to pilot plant perfor-
mance. In a plant with uniform surface areas in each of four stages, the
model required a total surface area of 3,520,000 sq ft at a hydraulic loading
rate of 2.27 gpd/sq ft; the graphical method predicted a total surface area of
3,709,000 sq ft at a hydraulic loading rate of 2.16 gpd/sq ft. Under fluc-
tuating hydraulic and organic loads, the graphical method recommended a hy-
draulic loading rate of 1.61 gpd/sq ft; an 8 mgd plant operating at a hydrau-
lic loading rate of 1.5 mgd/sq ft required a total contactor surface area of
5,300,000 sq ft.
621
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F103
MIXING FIXED-SPEED PUMPS TO VARIABLE FLOWS,
GoIdschmidt, G.
M. M. Dillon Limited, Consulting Engineers,
London, Ontario, Canada.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1733-1741, July,
1978. 6 fig, 2 ref, 2 append.
Mathematical models investigated the adaptation of fixed speed screw pumps to
variable storm water flows in collection chambers at lift stations. The ob-
jectives of the study were to match pumping and system parameters to the
ranges of collection chamber inflows, to calculate a suitable control cycle,
and to determine the cycle time between sequential pump starts when inflow ex-
ceeds the capacity of a pump. Other studies considered the critical inflow
for minimum cycle time, the relationship between the water level in the tank
and the pump discharge capacity, and the minimum storage volume required for a
minimum pump cycle time under any inflow variation. Multiple pump operating
sequences were determined by equations which calculated the distance between
the control levels for the on and off pumps, the liquid level in the collec-
tion chamber above the off control level, the minimum recommended cycle time
of the pump, and the pumping capacities of the pumps at the on and off control
levels. The temporary trial storage volume heights were calculated for each
pump. The combined pumping capacities were matched to the volume inflow rate.
The critical inflows for minimum pump cycle time were derived from the volume
flow rate, the portion of inflow exceeding pumping capacity at the on control
level, the critical inflow parameter, the minimum cycle time and the area of
the collection tank.
F104
LABORATORY STUDIES ON OPTIMIZATION OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Alam, A. B. S., and Angelback, D. I.
Schneider Engineers,
Bridgeville, Pennsylvania.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 7, p 1786-1803, July,
1978. 14 fig, 9 tab, 17 ref, 1 append.
A laboratory-scale activated sludge plant verified mathematical models to pre-
dict process performance parameters and optimize process control. The vola-
tile sludge level in the aerator was calculated as a function of the specific
growth rate correction due to a temperature change, the maximum specific
growth rate coefficient at the reference temperature, the aerator effluent
concentration, the sludge wastage flow rate, the clarifier sludge compaction
ratio, the dilution rate, the endogenous decay rate, and the influent volatile
sludge concentration. The effluent total dissolved organic carbon (TDOC) con-
622
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centration was expressed as a function of dilution rate, influent substrate
concentration, the specific growth rate correction, the maximum specific
growth rate, the aerator sludge concentration, and the growth yield coeffi-
cient. The clarifier sludge compaction value was the ratio of the aerator
volatile suspended solids fraction to the product of the sludge volume index
and the aerator sludge concentration. Other model parameters included the
sludge stratification coefficient, the ratio of recycle sludge to influent
waste flow rate, and an overall performance function incorporating weighted
matrices for state and control variables.
F105
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS-I. DEVELOPMENT OF A
SIMPLIFIED DYNAMIC MODEL,
Lech, R. F., Lira, H. C., Grady, C. P. L., Jr., and Koppel, L. B.
Exxon Company,
Baytown, Texas.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 2, p 81-90, 1978. 7 fig, 3 tab, 21 ref.
Mathematical models were developed to describe the dynamic behavior of primary
settlers, biological reactors, and final settlers in the activated sludge pro-
cess. Steady state mass balances were calculated for flow rate, soluble
organics concentration, and suspended solids concentration in the primary set-
tler. The values were applied to a model depicting solids removal as a func-
tion of the underflow stream parameters or the overflow rate. Models were
also developed for the degree of thickening in the settler, the effect of in-
fluent suspended solids concentration and influent flow rate, and the effluent
soluble substrate concentration. In the biological reactor, the concentration
of the influent substrate was the sum of the soluble and suspended substrate
leaving the primary settler; the specific microbial growth rate was calculated
as a function of the surrounding substrate using Monod's equation. Models
also described the net rate of biomass production, the true growth yield, the
material balances for live cells and substrate, the concentration of the mixed
liquor suspended solids, and the recycled sludge concentration. Several
models were evaluated for calculating the effluent suspended solids concentra-
tion in the final settler; transfer functions for the biological reactor in-
corporated dead time and steady-state gain parameters.
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F106
AUTOTROPHIC DENITRIFICATION USING ELEMENTAL SULFUR,
Batchelor, B., and Lawrence, A. W.
Texas A and M University,
College Station,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation Vol. 50, No. 8, p 1986-2001,
August, 1978. 9 fig, 8 tab, 24 ref, 1 append.
The kinetic, stoichiometric, and solids separation properties of an autotro-
phic denitrification process employing Thiobacillus denitrificans were evalu-
ated in five continuous-culture, anaerobic slurry reactors using elemental
sulfur. Steady-state stoichiometric reactions and nitrate removal were cal-
culated for various solids retention times; the maximum denitrification rate
was then determined for ratios of elemental sulfur to biomass ranging over
45-194 mg/mg nitrate-nitrogen. A series of zone settling velocity and floc-
culant settling tests were conducted at several elemental sulfur concentra-
tions. The observed biomass yield remained fairly constant within a range of
growth rates, elemental sulfur-to-biomass values, and temperatures, indicating
negligible microbial decay; a stoichiometric equation for autotrophic denitri-
fication was derived from the average observed biomass yield and an empirical
cell mass formula. Under steady-state conditions, the continuous flow reac-
tors achieved about 99.5% nitrate removal. The maximum unit rate of denitri-
fication was a linear function of the sulfur-to-biomass concentration ratio;
the influence of temperature was described by the Arrhenius equation. Within
the lower ranges of sulfur-to-biomass, smaller solid fluxes were produced; the
solids flux was linearly related to the sulfur-biomass slurry solids level.
The effluent suspended solids concentration was proportional to the overflow
rate.
F107
KINETIC PARAMETERS AND RELATIVE TURNOVERS OF SOME IMPORTANT CATABOLIC REAC-
TIONS IN DIGESTING SLUDGE,
Kaspar, H. F., and Wuhrmann, K.
Michigan State University,
East Lansing,
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 36, No. 1, p 1-7, July, 1978. 4
fig, 4 tab, 24 ref.
The kinetics of fatty acid degradation, methanogenesis by acetate splitting,
and lithotrophic methane generation were evaluated in laboratory-scale anaero-
bic digesters. Under steady-state conditions, the initial acetate concentra-
tion averaged 0.26 millimoles/liter with an average degradation rate of 0.27
624
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millimoles/liter/hr; the acetate concentration was then increased to 1-2
millimoles/liter with sodium acetate under conditions of system saturation.
Acetate degradation increased by 56% at saturation with a maximum degradation
rate of 0.63 millimoles/liter/hr; the half-saturation concentration averaged
0.32 millimoles. Under steady-state conditions, the propionate concentration
was less than 0.02 millimoles/liter with a degradation rate averaging 0.03
millimoles/liter/hr; at system saturation, propionate removal averaged 0.19
millimoles/liter/hr, attaining a maximum of 0.233 millimoles/liter/hr and a
half-saturation concentration of 0.094 millimoles/liter. Hydrogen removal
comprised less than 1% of the maximum potential degradation rate. Acetate
splitting was considered the rate-limiting factor in anaerobic digestion. The
unused hydrogen consumption capacity acted as a buffer for dissolved hydrogen
partial pressures low enough for exergonic oxidation of fatty acids. Bacteria
capable of anaerobic fatty acid oxidation and hydrogen generation were con-
sidered essential in methane-forming ecosystems.
F108
DYNAMICS AND CONTROL OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE WASTEWATER PROCESS,
Attir, U., and Denn, M. M.
Diamond Shamrock Company,
Painesville, Ohio.
AIChE Journal, Vol. 24, No. 4, p 693-698, July, 1978. 8 fig, 2 tab, 11 ref, 1
append.
Dynamic modelling of the reactor and the settling basin in an activated sludge
system established a control strategy in which the settler underflow and re-
cycle rates were maintained at a constant ratio with respect to the feed flow
rate. The reactor model described the BOD and solids concentration in the
reactor volume in terms of the volumetric flow rates, feed concentration, re-
cycle stream, stoichiometric yield factor, and the reaction rate; the
organism growth rate at a steady state in the reactor followed the Monod equa-
tion. Steady state modelling of the solids flux in the settler was based on a
curve encompassing convective, gravity, and total fluxes. The settler was
divided into zones of clarification, thickening, and compaction; concentration
layers between the thickening and compaction zone were described by mass
balance equations and the velocity of solids discontinuity. The response of
settlers to two-step alterations in feed rate and'to 24 hr cyclic feeds was
simulated; underloading was found to destroy the buffering action of the
sludge blanket and render the system unable to adequately resume steady state
conditions. A compromise between controlling the sludge blanket level in the
settler and the reactor solids concentration was reached by computing the
optimum settler underflow rate for each feed rate and maintaining a constant
underflow-to-feed rate ratio.
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F109
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF MODEL TREATMENT UNITS,
Hart, F. L., and Gupta, S. K.
McGill University,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada,
Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE4, p
785-798, August, 1978. 9 fig, 6 tab, 15 ref, 1 append.
A technique incorporating dye tracing procedures was applied to a model chlo-
rine contact chamber to provide design criteria for optimum treatment unit
configuration. For a model or prototype unit with a fixed length scale and
actual prototype flow, the required model flow was varied to obtain a tracer
output paralleling the prototype response. For a prototype with a flow rate
of 8.6 mgd, the required model flow with equal detention times was calculated
as 10 gal/min; when designed according to the Froude number or the Reynolds
number, the required flow was calculated as 29 gal/min or 710 gal/min, respec-
tively. For a model with a 142 gal volume and a scale ratio of 1:8.43, the
recovery of a fluorescent dye injected in the influent was measured with a
fluorometer; the model flow rate was varied over 6.4-40.0 gal/min. Based on
dye curve variations in the model and comparison of the relative magnitudes of
model and prototype dye curves, a flow of 6.4-19.0 gal/min produced parameters
closely correlated to the model performance. Thus, the design flow rate cal-
culated by the data similitude technique was significantly lower than those
rates recommended by the Froude or Reynolds numbers. The mean detention time
index, the average detention index, the dead space fraction, the plug flow,
the standard detention efficiency, and the fraction dead volume adequately
simulated prototype performance.
F110
DESIGN 'EFFECTIVE' COST-EFFECTIVE SYSTEMS,
Lee, C. M.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 7, p 66-68, 70, 72, July, 1978. 2
fig, 4 tab.
A five-step cost-effective analysis scheme was developed for designing and
constructing municipal waste water treatment plants. The collection of base-
line reference data in the first step provides an outline of project objec-
tives, limitations and constraints, quality standards, and service loads; this
information from local, regional, and state resources is interpreted into ob-
jectives for the individual waste treatment project. The second step defines
the potential type of service load, operating schemes, and alternative con-
figurations capable of achieving planning objectives. In the third step, ma-
thematical cost-effective models simulate waste water treatment processes and
predict system performance under various waste streams, time patterns, and
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operating constraints. From the models, the measure of effectiveness is
evaluated for each treatment configuration and operating performance is pre-
dicted during regular and peak flow periods. Environmental, investment, an-
nual operating, and research and development costs are then applied. Thres-
hold levels for cost, effectiveness, and environmental impact are employed in
step four to evaluate each alternative; the optimization of these threshold
values is achieved through sensitivity analysis and trade offs. Treatment
processes, cost, and configurations are manipulated to form the optimum thres-
hold configuration. Once the alternative configuration has been decided, step
five provides documentation of all design specifications.
Fill
NITRIFICATION AND ALKALINITY RELATIONSHIPS IN ACTIVATED
SLUDGE,
Benninger, R. W., and Sherrard, J. H.
Virginia State Health Department,
Lexington.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 9, p 2132-2142,
September, 1978. 9 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
Alkalinity destruction during nitrification and factors influencing the oxida-
tion of ammonia were investigated in laboratory-scale activated sludge sys-
tems, operated under steady state conditions with influent COD-to-total
Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) ratios of 6.5:1 and 4.2:1. From nitrification reac-
tions, stoichiometric calculations indicated that 7.14 mg alkalinity/liter
were destroyed and 4.57 mg/liter 02/liter were required to oxidize 1 mg
ammonia/liter to nitrate-nitrogen. The activated sludge reactors were oper-
ated at several mean cell residence times up to 15.2 days. Mathematical
models were derived for the minimum aeration time required to sustain nitrifi-
cation, the mean cell residence time, and the observed yield coefficient.
Greater mean cell residence times reduced TKN, ammonia, and alkalinity; larger
COD:TKN ratios at a specific residence time also improved nitrification.
Longer residence times also reduced TKN in the sludge, reduced waste sludge
production, and increased the nitrate content of the effluent; higher influent
COD:TKN ratios reduced effluent TKN, ammonia, and nitrate levels. The ratio
of alkalinity destroyed to TKN removed increased at longer residence times and
lower COD:TKN ratios. The stoichiometric value initially calculated for
alkalinity destruction proved to be higher than observed. TKN and ammonia
were completely removed and COD reduced by 91.1% after 15.2 days at an influ-
ent COD:TKN ratio of 6.61:1.
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F112
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF BIOLOGICAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR THE DESIGN OF
AERATION TANKS,
Vavilin, V. A., and Vasilyev, V. B.
Water Problems Institute, Union Soviet Socialist Republic,
Academy of Sciences,
Moscow.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 7, p 491-501, 1978. 8 fig, 1 tab, 32 ref.
Formal activated sludge process models which incorporated pollutant sorption
by activated sludge floes, as well as biooxidation, were developed for design-
ing aeration tanks and stabilization tanks in completely-mixed and plug-flow
systems. The reactor kinetics of organic matter consumption and activated
sludge growth as described by Monod's equation were considered too general and
limited to describe microbial growth and decay rates, the impact of growth
rate saturation on substrates, and process inhibition by high organic loading
and metabolic products. Nonlinear models describing biooxidation kinetics
were presented for plug-flow, completely-mixed, and multiple-step aeration
tanks; optimization of process kinetics for varying substrate characteristics
was considered dependent upon the hydrodynamic regime of mixing within the
aeration tank. Evaluation of process kinetics, using theoretical process
parameter values, by the Monod equation and its derivatives concluded that
sorption of organic materials by activated sludge was a significant factor not
included in the kinetic models. Differential equations, which incorporated
the total suspended solids concentration without stored substrate and the
sorbed pollutant concentration, were developed to include the oxidation of
stored substrate on and in the sludge floes within the stabilization tank.
Models incorporating sorbed substrate were developed for several activated
sludge process control configurations.
F113
PHASE SEPARATION OF ANAEROBIC STABILIZATION BY KINETIC CONTROLS,
Massey, M. L., and Pohland, F. G.
Westvaco,
Covington, Virginia.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 9, p 2204-2222,
September, 1978. 16 fig, 5 tab, 17 ref.
Examination of process kinetics of the acid and methane fermentation phases of
anaerobic stabilization indicated that phase separation improved process sta-
bility and control and reduced the total required reactor volumes. Utilizing
the continuous growth theory, mathematical models for both the acid and
methane phase reactors described the specific growth rates of acid or methane
formers, the concentrations of formers in the effluent, and the available sub-
628
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strata concentration. A retention time of 32.7 hrs or less in the acid reac-
tor enhanced substrate conversion to volatile acids but inhibited the growth
of methane-forming organisms and the utilization of volatile acids; the
methane reactor retention times were varied over 46.9-133.9 hrs in three tests.
Organic carbon in the acid reactor was primarily converted to acetic acid and
propionic acid; the concentration of propionic acid exceeded that of acetic
acid after 24 hrs retention. Although gravity settling and biomass recycling
in the acid reactor enhanced process operation, the same procedure was not
feasible in the methane reactor because of the poor settling properties of the
biomass solids. In the acid phase, the kinetic models defined a maximum spe-
cific growth rate of 2.7/hr, a saturation constant of 2,583 mg COD/liter, a
yield of 0.31 mg volatile suspended solids/rag COD utilized, and a decay con-
stant of 0.065/hr. The methane phase yielded maximum specific growth rates of
0.43 and 0.86/day and saturation constants of 369 mg acetic acid and 164 mg
butyric acid/liter for acetic and butyric acid-utilizers, respectively.
F114
CONTROL AMMONIA NITROGEN WITH SINGLE-STAGE NITRIFICATION - BIOLOGICAL CONVER-
SION OF AMMONIA CAN BE MADE USING THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Munch, W. L.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago,
Illinois.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, p 16-20, August, 1978. 3 fig, 1
tab, 2 ref.
Control parameters were identified and mathematical models were developed for
maintaining nitrification activity in activated sludge treatment reactors.
Single-stage nitrification was dependent upon the solids retention time (SRT).
The SRT, in turn, controlled the net microbial growth rate in the reactor,
especially that of Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. The growth of nitrifying
bacteria was also affected by temperature, ammonia-nitrogen, dissolved oxygen,
pH, toxic metals, and organic compounds. The SRT, which must be increased for
the growth of nitrifying bacteria, could be controlled by calculating the
mixed liquor suspended solids concentration, the total aeration tank volume,
and the sludge wasting rate. At a specific SRT, the aeration tank solids con-
tent was calculated from the mixed liquor suspended solids and the aeration
tank volume; the sludge wasting rate was the quotient of the total solids
level in,the aeration tank and the solids retention time. The required waste
sludge flow rate was obtained from the sludge wasting rate and the waste sludge
solids concentration. Utilizing these mathematical models, the 1,440 mgd West-
Southwest sewage treatment works in Stickney, Illinois, converted its four
aeration facilities to simultaneous nitrification. A graph, developed from
the model studies, depicted the optimum parameters for nitrification in each
facility. Implementation of nitrification processes in the four units reduced
effluent ammonia-nitrogen concentrations at the outfall to 0.7-4.6 mg/liter
over a year-long period.
629
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F115
PROBLEMS ON SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION IN DESIGNING NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION
METHOD WATER TREATMENT PLANTS (Shoka datchiso ho mizushori puranto no sekkei
ni okeru kishitsu nodo no mondai),
Fukunaga, S.
Ishikawa Harima Giho, Vol. 18, No. 3, p 243-246, 1978. 5 fig, 2 tab, 16 ref.
Laboratory experiments verified hypotheses obtained from a literature review
that denitrification rates in waste water treatment systems were controlled by
the concentration of methanol in the influent. In a nitrification-denitrifica-
tion process, methanol was assumed to be a source of organic carbon which in-
fluenced the rate of denitrification. Testa conducted in a laboratory reactor
revealed that the change of the denitrification rate along the process line
was directly related to the concentration gradient of methanol in the appratus.
Denitrification was also directly dependent upon the temperature maintained
within the apparatus. Permissible concentrations of nitrogen in the influent
and methanol in the effluent were cited as important considerations in design-
ing denitrification systems.
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HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS
H001
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF MINNESOTA TRIBUTARIES AND MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES TO
LAKE SUPERIOR,
1975. 234 p, 2 fig, 4 tab, 7 ref, 2 append. Technical Report EPA-905/4-75-
002.
Results of a sampling program to determine constituent loadings of Minnesota
tributaries to Lake Superior are presented. The geology, topography, climate,
and population of the study area are described. Sampling and analytical tech-
niques used in the study are presented. Stream descriptions and stream flow
values comprise the section on hydrology. Effluent standards and characteris-
tics are presented for municipal-industrial discharges. Classification codes
for the intrastate and interstate tributaries in the study area are listed.
Water quality data are given for three subbasins, including the Nemadji River,
the St. Louis River, and Lake Superior. Stream loadings for major tributaries
in the sub-basins are given. Effluent quality and loadings are given for the
four sewage treatment plants which discharge directly into Lake Superior. Ap-
pendices to the report include a summary of tributary and sewage treatment
plant loadings, as well as lists of data obtained at tributaries and sewage
treatment plants during the study.
H002
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUN-OFF RATE OF POLLUTION LOAD IN AN UNSEWERAGED AREA,
Wada, Y.
Kansai University, Osaka, Japan,
Department of Engineering.
Technology Reports of the Kansai University, No. 18, p 111-120, March, 1977. 4
fig, 4 tab, 7 ref.
Studies were conducted on the Akashi River in Japan to determine average load-
ing rates on the river and examine the river's capacity for self-purification.
The objectives of the study were to characterize pollutant loading rates in an
area which is not serviced by a sewage collection system, and to derive resi-
dence times of various pollutants as a function of their loading rates. A
series of mathematical equations to determine residence times and loading
rates are presented. Major factors affecting the degree of loading are rain-
fall, stream characteristics, vegetation, the amount of available pollutants,
and previous accumulations. Major factors affecting residence times include
permeation, erosion, absorption, and dilution. On-site data collections were
used to test the validity of the model in predicting the residence times of
631
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BOD, COD, suspended solids, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. These para-
meters were measured at five locations along the Akashi River at Tokyo,
Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe. The survey indicated that at average flow
rate much of the observed reduction in pollutants occurred over a short
travel distance in the river, while at low flow rates the reduction occurred
over a larger distance.
H003
OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BACTERIAL INDICATORS AND PATHOGENS IN CANAL
COMMUNITIES ALONG THE TEXAS COAST,
Goyal, S. M., Gerba, C. P., and Melnick, J. L.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 34, No. 2, p 139-149, August,
1977. 6 fig, 7 tab, 31 ref.
The occurrence and distribution of bacterial indicators and pathogens were ex-
amined in residential canals of six Texas coastal communities which use a
variety of waste disposal methods. The disposal systems include three which
utilized collection systems and treatment plants, one in which sewage was
initially collected in septic tanks and which later changed to collection and
treatment, and two in which disposal was 25% septic tank and 75% collection
system and treatment plant. Other parameters measured for the canals included
depth and age. Measurements of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and salmonellae
were made in the surface water and bottom sediments of the canals over a
17-month period. The most-probable-number (MPN) method was used to analyze
all samples. The results indicated that there was no significant correlation
between organism concentrations and physical-chemical characteristics of canal
waters such as temperature, pH, turbidity, and suspended solids. Organism
concentrations, however, did decrease as the salinity increased. Levels of
enteric bacteria in the sediment were higher, often by a factor of several
logs, than in the accompanying surface water. The rapid increase in bacteria
concentrations in surface waters was attributed to the desorption of bacteria
in the sediment as a result of decreasing salinities.
632
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H004
THE DELINEATION OF A POINT SOURCE PLUME BY THE STUDY OF BACTERIAL POPULATIONS,
Rao, S. S., and Bukata, R. P.
Canada Center for Inland Waters,
Applied Research Division,
Burlington, Ontario, Canada.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Vol. 43, No. 1, p 61-66, August, 1977. 6
fig, 5 ref.
The radial sampling grid method and remote sensing techniques were used to ex-
amine the plume of Niagara River water in Lake Ontario. Water samples were
collected at nine sampling stations on four radii from the mouth of the
Niagara River and analyzed for aerobic heterotrophic bacteria, coliforms, fecal
coliforms, and fecal streptococci. Thermal scans over the Niagara plume and
aerial infrared photography indicated that the thermal regimes established by
the merging lake and river had the same spatial distribution as microbial
populations. The aerobic heterotrophic bacterial populations were indicative
of lake waters, while the coliforms and streptococci were indicative of river
water. The microbiological data were used to define the main impact zone of
the river, the zone of minor influence of the plume, and non-plume lake
waters. Microbiological and air remote sensing measurements are suggested for
use in studies on the dynamic interaction of lakes and rivers at the source of
discharge.
H005
WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH SOIL ~ WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SEPTIC TANK
EFFLUENT TREATMENT,
Viraraghavan, T.
ADI Limited,
New Brunswick, Canada.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 57, Part EN 3, p 95-102,
June, 1977. 5 fig, 3 tab, 44 ref.
Various hydrologic aspects which may influence waste water disposal with sep-
tic tank-soil absorption systems are discussed, including infiltration, per-
colation, evapotranspiration, and runoff. Major factors which control infil-
tration include soil porosity, moisture content, surface soil compaction, and
the presence and type of vegetation. Studies on the effects of long-term,
continuous water application on infiltration rates are described. Factors af-
fecting percolation rates are discussed for saturated and unsaturated flow
conditions. Modifications for septic tank effluent application to the Darcy
equation are discussed for saturated and unsaturated percolation. Physical,
chemical, and biological actions which help to remove pollutants from water as
it travels through soil are described. Studies on filtration, the major phy-
633
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sical mechanism by which waste water is purified in the soil, are described.
Adsorption and ion exchange are discussed as chemical mechanisms. The role
that soil bacteria play in waste water treatment is discussed. Typical char-
acteristics of septic tank effluent are presented. Studies on the transport
of sewage bacteria and viruses through soil systems are described. The fate
and effects of specific chemical contaminants in septic tank effluents, in-
cluding nitrogen, phosphates, surfactants, chloride, BOD, COD, and TOG, are
discussed.
H006
THE RISING COST OF MAKING DESERTS BLOOM,
Agarwal, A.
Earthscan,
London, England.
New Scientist, Vol. 76, No. 1073, p 96-97, October, 1977.
Israel has adopted extensive programs to utilize marginal water resources such
as storm runoff, brackish water, and treated waste water for irrigation and
for artificial groundwater recharge. The Dan Region sewage reclamation pro-
ject, designed to treat 130 mem of sewage from the greater Tel Aviv area, is
scheduled for completion in 1985. Treated sewage has also been used to pre-
vent seawater intrusion into fresh groundwater. One of the major goals of the
Israeli water program is to keep water consumption constant without limiting
agricultural growth. Water-saving practices in use include drip and sprinkler
irrigation, electronically controlled irrigation systems, and irrigation with
brackish water. Since Israel's water system now operates as a closed cycle,
salt and other dissolved materials such as pesticides, fertilizer nitrates,
detergents, and minerals are not regularly flushed from the aquifer. De-
salination plants are being considered for aquifer purification.
H007
EVALUATION OF LEACHATE CHARACTERISTICS AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPACTED
MIXTURES OF FLY ASH AND WASTEWATER SLUDGE,
Helm, R. B.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 37, No. 4, p 1804, October,
1976.
Laboratory investigations were used to assess the environmental impact of com-
bined disposal of municipal waste water sludge and power plant fly ash as
structural fill or in highway embankments. Various combinations of two muni-
cipal sludges and four different ashes were tested. Leachate characteristics,
the extent of biological degradation of sludge organic matter, permeability,
u neon fined compressive strength, and the effects of calcium sulfate and lime
as additives were examined. Analyses of the leachate samples measured pH,
634
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total dissolved solids, boron, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, lead, and
zinc. Total organic carbon, sulfate, calcium, and magnesium were measured in
selected samples. Leach pH ranged from 7.0 to 12.4, total dissolved solids
from 400 to 3,800 ppm, and total organic carbon from 1 to 770 ppm. Trace ele-
ments which were suggested as posing a potential environmental hazard included
boron and copper. Lime addition was capable of reducing the boron concentra-
tion to below 1 ppm and increasing the compressive strength up to 40 psi. No
significant biological decomposition of organics was observed. Various sta-
tistical techniques were used in the data reduction.
H008
THE EFFECT OF THE SPRAY IRRIGATION OF SECONDARY TREATED EFFLUENT ON THE
VEGETATION, SOILS AND GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN A NEW JERSEY PINE BARRENS HABITAT,
Sawhill, G. S.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2104, 1977.
The Stockton State College spray disposal system at Pomona, New Jersey, was
the site of an investigation on the waste assimilative capacity of the sandy
soils of the pine barrens region for secondary treated effluent. The study
area is described as a pineoak ecosystem, having a continental climate with
prevailing land and sea breezes and acidic sandy soils. The site received
monthly applications of secondary treated effluent at average rates 2.13
ha-cm/ha. Analyses of seasonal samples of groundwater and effluent revealed
significant variability in chemical constituents. The electrical conduc-
tivity, pH, and the concentrations of Ca, Mg, K, NH4-N, N03-N, Cl, and S04
were significantly higher in groundwater collected at the spray irrigation
site than in the control area, with N03-N exceeding EPA limits for potable
water. Perturbations in prevailing species as well as in concentrations of
total N, crude protein, Ca, Mg, Na, K, P, and Cl were observed in both summer
and winter vegetation. Although groundwater levels were not affected, in-
creased base saturation due to Ca and Na was observed.
H009
MOVEMENT OF PHOSPHORUS FROM A SEPTIC SYSTEM DRAINFIELD,
Sawhney, B. L., and Starr, J. L.
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
New Haven, Connecticut.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2238-2242,
November, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab, 24 ref.
More than 9,500,000 cu m of waste water containing appreciable amounts of phos-
phorus is discharged daily through septic systems in the United States.
Since existing data on phosphorus movement from septic system drainfields is
635
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limited, studies were conducted to examine the movement of phosphorus from a
septic tank drainfield through the surrounding soil to groundwater and its
eventual discharge to surface waters. Suction probes and tensiometers were
installed at various depths below and distances from a 6-yr old septic system
for collection of effluent solutions for phosphorus measurements and to deter-
mine the moisture distribution in the soil at different locations. Septic
system effluent began to pond in the trench soon after use and reached a maxi-
mum height of approximately 48 cm after about 3 mos. The effluent accumula-
tion was attributed to the development of a slime layer on soil surfaces which
impeded vertical and horizontal infiltration. The waste water flow through
the soil was primarily unsaturated and phosphorus movement occurred in both
the downward and horizontal directions. Phosphorus concentrations of only 0.5
mg/liter at the 6-cm depth suggested that a soil with a deep water table below
the drainfield could be used to treat waste water for a number of years, espe-
cially when resting periods are established to allow regeneration of phos-
phorus sorption sites in the soil.
HO 10
RECYCLING SEWAGE THROUGH PLANT COMMUNITIES,
Woodwell, G. M.
Marine Biological Laboratory,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
American Scientist, Vol. 65, No. 5, p 556-562, September-October, 1977. 6
fig, 13 ref.
Water is continuously taken up by municipal and industrial users and then dis-
charged back to the natural environment where it undergoes purification. Al-
though many sewage treatment plants have been constructed as means of pollu-
tion abatement, the toxins entering the environment still pose hazards to
aquatic life and to subsequent users of the discharged waste water. The im-
portance of natural vegetation has been considered with respect to the role
that normal patterns of water and nutrient flows in nature play in the further
purification of discharged sewage effluents. Various studies on the terres-
trial absorption of sewage-borne nutrients are reviewed. The use of aquatic
systems to purify waste water is discussed with respect to pilot studies in-
volving meadows and a combination of marshes and ponds.
636
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HO 11
TRANSLOCATION AND ATTENUATION OF WASTEWATER PHOSPHORUS IN STREAMS,
Carlson, G. A., Jr.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 38, No. 5, p 2326, 1977.
Three small streams in calcareous soil zones in the western part of New York
were sampled at points 5-17.5 km below waste discharge sites to assess their
ability to assimilate phosphorus contained in the waste water. Stream dis-
charge, dissolved and particulate phosphorus, chloride and calcium in the
water column, and available phosphorus in the fixed bed sediments were mea-
sured bi-weekly from May to October. Equations describing the variation in
these parameters along each stream under mean, high, and low flow conditions
were defined using regression analysis. Chloride, used to test a conservative
material's behavior, was conserved as load accumulated in a linear manner with
reach. The concentration and load of dissolved phosphorus decayed exponen-
tially with stream reach, with phosphorus load decreasing significantly down-
stream from each waste water outfall. Phosphorus concentration and load de-
cayed exponentially at rates ranging 0.04-0.36/km. Concentrations of avail-
able phosphorus in sediment and the phosphorus distribution along each stream
indicated significant uptake as the waste discharge's impact was ameliorated.
The study concluded that sediments in streams flowing through calcareous soil
have a high, long-term assimilative capacity for phosphorus; and phosphorus in
the sediments and in the water column approached equilibrium.
H012
TRANSPORT OF HEAVY METALS IN A SLUDGE-TREATED FORESTED AREA,
Sidle, R. C., and Kardos, L. T.
West Virginia University,
Morgantown,
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No, 4, p 431-437, October-December,
1977. 10 tab, 16 ref.
The transport of selected heavy metals in a forested sludge disposal area was
evaluated with respect to the distribution of metals in the extractable and
total fractions of the soil and in the soil water percolate. Anaerobically
digested sludge was applied to plots in a hardwood forest at rates of 12.71
and 26.96 metric tons of sludge solids/ha. Cu, Zn, and Cd loadings at the
higher application rate were 24.50, 28.49, and 0.253 kg/ha, respectively.
Percolate quantities of Cu, Zn, and Cd leaving the 120 cm soil depth at the
high treatment rate were 0.3, 3.2, and 6.6% of the applied levels, respec-
tively. The relative order of mobility in the soil was determined as
Cd>Zn>Cu. Measurements of the 0.1N HCL extractable and total soil frac-
tions of Cu, Zn, and Cd in samples collected before and after sludge applica-
tion indicated that the relative order of extractability was Cu>Zn>Cd.
637
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Analyses of Cr, Pb, Co, and Ni in 0.1N HCL soil extracts revealed an increase
in the Cr and Ni concentration at the 0-7.5 cm depth as a result of sludge
application.
HO 13
LEACHATE PRODUCTION AT SANITARY LANDFILL SITES,
Dass, P., Tamke, G. R., and Stoffel, C. M.
Owen Ayres and Associates, Incorporated,
Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
981-988, December, 1977. 1 fig, 4 tab, 9 ref.
The effects of surface runoff, soil moisture storage, and evaportranspiration
on the quality of leachate from a sanitary landfill were evaluated. Precipi-
tation data over a 30-yr period and monthly precipitation rates were used for
runoff coefficients to calculate monthly runoff. Four case studies were con-
ducted on the Blue Valley sanitary landfill in Wisconsin using various water
balance data and runoff coefficients. The first case study used monthly data
on water balance parameters, including runoff, available moisture, evapora-
tion, and an annual precipitation of 24.53 inches. The runoff coefficient of
0.065 inches produced an annual leachate of 3.75 inches. In the second case
study, a runoff coefficient of 0.2 inches yielded an annual leachate of 2.04
inches. A runoff coefficient of 0.065 inches and a potential evapotranspira-
tion of 15.0 inches produced an annual leachate of 7.94 inches. The same run-
off coefficient, considered with an evapotranspiration potential of 20.0
inches and a maximum soil moisture of 4.80 inches available for plant use,
produced a leachate of 3.01 inches in the fourth case study. The use of the
runoff coefficient in the second case study was not recommended for the design
of storm sewers. Reduced evapotranspiration in the third case study resulted
in a larger quantity of leachate than obtained with the parameters used in the
first case study. The depth of an effective root zone was calculated in the
fourth case as 2 feet with a soil moisture capacity of 0.2 inches/inch.
HO 14
SEWAGE EFFLUENT ON PASTURE SHOWS LITTLE EFFECT,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 12, p 14, December, 1977.
Supplementary irrigation with secondary treated sewage effluent has been shown
to have little adverse affect on pasture land. Irrigation with sewage efflu-
ent in Lakeland, Florida, began in 1969 and averaged 25,000 gal/d per 30 acres
of grazed pasture. Analyses of samples collected from nine monitor wells near
the irrigation sight yielded low bacteria and coliform counts. Tests at four
other monitor wells revealed the presence of fecal related bacteria. The pas-
ture's water table varied 1.0-3.3 ft below the land surface. Percolation to a
638
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depth of 8 ft yielded a nitrogen concentration of less than 20% of the efflu-
ent nitrogen. Negligible increases of nitrogen were found at a depth of 20 ft
and in down-gradient groundwater. A geological survey conducted by the Water
Resources Division of Tallahassee, Florida, produced no evidence of ground
water contamination by carbon or phosphorus.
H015
UNDERGROUND INJECTION OF LIQUID WASTE CAN BE ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND,
Mullican, J. W.
Geological Services Section,
Texas Water Quality Board,
Austin, Texas.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No 12, p 62-63, December, 1977.
Subsurface injection can be an environmentally sound method of waste disposal.
In Texas, the Disposal Well Act requires certification by the Texas Water
Quality Board that wastes will not be injected into freshwater strata, pro-
tecting groundwater resources. Subsurface disposal of other wastes requires a
thorough engineering and geological evaluation of the waste character, well
design, construction, operation, and monitoring program. Injection is only
permitted after other methods have been found less desirable with regard to
environmental protection and dependability. A technical staff qualified to
evaluate applications in light of current developments is required. Applica-
tion for a permit requires an on-site inspection and a technical report in-
cluding information on local topography and geology, chemical and physical
characteristics of the waste, and average and maximum anticipated injection
rates. Disposal wells are inspected routinely; routine measurements of sur-
face injection pressures and water analyses are required. Safe abandonment of
the injection well and the effect on improperly plugged wells in the vicinity
must also be considered. Proper plugging confines the injected wastes to a
specific area. Cement plugs must be properly placed at the top of the injec-
tion zone, across any formation producing oil or gas, and at the top and bot-
tom of the surface casing.
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H016
BEHAVIOR OF ANIONIC SURFACTANTS IN A SOIL-SEWAGE EFFLUENT SYSTEM,
Acher, A. J., and Yaron, B.
Agricultural Research Organization,
Institute of Soils and Water,
The Volcani Center,
Bet Dagan, Israel.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 6, No. 4, p 418-420, October-December,
1977. 5 fig, 2 tab, 11 ref.
The adsorption and desorption of anionic surfactants by soil during the ap-
plication of water and sewage effluents was investigated. Sodium lauryl sul-
fate (NaLS), dodecyl benzene sulfonate sodium salt (DDES), and linear alkyl
aryl sulfonate (LAS) were applied in 1% aqueous solutions to a sandy regosol
from Mivtachim, Israel and a clay grumusol from Tel Adashim, Israel. The soil
was mixed with a combination of the anionic surfactant solution and sewage ef-
fluent from Nazareth or Haifa, Israel. The concentration of anionic sur-
factants was measured with the methylene blue active substances (MBAS) method.
The affinity of the soil was lowest for DDBS and highest for NaLS. Microbial
attack during adsorption from sewage effluent raised the soil's apparent ad-
sorption capacity. The adsorption isotherms of the ionic surfactants were
linear and the soil type controlled the rate of accumulation. The soil-
adsorbed NaLS was completely fixed and could not be desorbed. The desorption
rate of DDBS and LAS from soil was controlled by the initial concentration.
HOI 7
IMPROVING SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE,
Jones, E. E., Jr.
Agricultural Research Center,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 40, No. 4, p 186-190, 1978. 3 fig, 3
tab, 16 ref.
Factors influencing the longevity of domestic subsurface disposal systems, in-
cluding oxidation potential, soil percolation, hydraulic loading, soil type,
and weather, are discussed. Consideration of primary and secondary soil mois-
ture is necessary in the construction of disposal systems. Increasing the
soil moisture content reduces the oxidation potential of the soil to below the
level required for the degradation of organic compounds. Excessive soil mois-
ture content can lead to anaerobic conditions and early failure of the septic
system. Time controlled, intermittent loading systems with manual override and
overload alarm are recommended for hydraulic loading of sand over alternated
systems, volume controlled intermittent systems, and direct gravity loading
systems. The time-volume control system limits loading to 0.5 cm/hr with 4-10
640
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doses daily. Intermittent uniform pressure distribution and alternated load-
ing systems are recommended for silt and clay loam soils with percolation
rates ranging 60-300 minutes/inch. Sandy loam soils have percolation rates
ranging 1-12.9 minutes/inch. Soil disposal systems located in soils with per-
colation rates of 0-5 minutes/inch have an estimated life of 13-36 years for
families of 1-6 members. Disposal system longevity is also calculated for
fair and poorly percolated soils.
HOI 8
PURIFICATION OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT IN A NATURAL SAND FILTER,
Aulenbach, D. B., Harris, R. R., and Reach, R. C.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, New York,
Department of Environmental Engineering.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 86-94, January,
1978. 4 fig, 3 tab, 9 ref.
Depths at which secondary effluent contaminants are removed by a natural sand
bed filter were determined with seepage samples from observation wells and
lysimeters installed at the rapid infiltration sites used by the Lake George
Village, New York, Sewage Treatment Plant. Secondary effluent from trickling
filters was applied to 21 sand filtration beds covering a total area of 5.4
acres. Samples in the 20-meter sand filter were collected with lysimeters at
depths of 3, 7, 11, and 18 meters. Analyses of the samples indicated that
coliforms, BOD, COD, orthophosphate, ammonia nitrogen, and organic nitrogen
were completely removed and nitrate-nitrogen levels were reduced to approxi-
mately 8 mg/liter. Chlorides and other soluble substances passed through the
sand filter unchanged. Nitrate removal increased with depth of passage through
the filter and almost complete nitrate removal was achieved by a depth of 18
meters. Orthophosphate was reduced to less than 0.1 rag/liter within the first
10 meters; total phosphate reductions decreased with depth. Phosphate levels
decreased to less than 0.1 mg/liter during the spring. Copper concentrations
were below 0.05 mg/liter for all samples analyzed. Levels of calcium, mag-
nesium, alkalinity, iron, sodium, and potassium were also monitored.
641
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HOI 9
NITRATE LEACHING DURING LONG-TERM SPRAY IRRIGATION FOR TREATMENT OF SECONDARY
SEWAGE EFFLUENT ON WOODLAND SITES,
Kook, J. E., and Kardos, L. T.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
Department of Agronomy.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 30-34, January-March, 1978.
5 fig, 3 tab, 16 ref.
Studies were conducted at two forested areas irrigated weekly with 5 cm of
waste water to evaluate long-term effects of sewage effluent land applications
on nitrate leaching. A hardwood forest received an average annual effluent
loading of 293 kg/acre over a nine-year period. The study indicated that 83%
of the total nitrate, more than 2,000 kg/acre, had leached from the hardwood
site in six of the nine years. Analyses of the soil water at a depth of 120
cm showed an average nitrate concentration of 15 mg/liter, with a high of 30
rag/liter recorded during the latter part of 1969 and early 1970. Little nit-
rate reduction was achieved by dividing effluent applications into 2.5 cm
twice weekly or reducing irrigation to 2.5 cm weekly. Nitrate concentrations
at the 120-cm depth remained above the potable water nitrate limit of 10
mg/liter. A white spruce forest planted in well-drained clay loam was
irrigated weekly with 5 cm of effluent over 9 months of the year beginning in
1963. Analyses of the soil water nitrate content at a depth of 120 cm showed
an average concentration of less than 10 mg/liter. A total of 36% of the
nitrate had leached from the site between the sixth and ninth years of the
study. An increase in the rate of effluent irrigation to 7.5 cm/week resulted
in a 75% leaching rate, with nitrate concentrations exceeding 10 mg/liter at
the 120 cm depth.
H020
DECOMPOSITION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE COMPOST IN SOIL: II. PHOSPHORUS AND SULFUR
TRANSFORMATIONS,
Taylor, J. M. , Sikora, L. J., Teaster, C. F., and Parr, J.
Biological Waste Management and Soil Nitrogen Laboratory,
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center,
Agricultural Research Service—United States Department of
Agriculture, Maryland.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 119-123, 1978. 2 fig, 2
tab, 32 ref.
Varying amounts of sewage sludge compost were incubated for 54 days at 22 C in
Evesboro loamy sand, Christiana silty clay loam, and Fauquier silt loam to
evaluate the production of extractable phosphorus and sulfur. The sludge com-
642
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post was incubated with carbon dioxide and ammonia and in applications of 0,
2, 4, and 6% of the dry weight. The amounts of extractable phosphorus and
sulfur were dependent upon immobilization by iron and aluminum and mineraliza-
tion by microbial activity. The Fauquier soil-sludge medium yielded the least
amount of extractable phosphorus and sulfur, with initial immobilization fol-
lowed by mineralization at 54 days. Phosphorus mineralization occurred ini-
tially in the Evesboro soil-sludge mixture, the medium with the highest ex-
tractable phosphorus, with, immobilization at 54 days. Extractable sulfur in-
creased in this mixture after 54 days. An initial increase in extractable
phosphorus was observed in the Christiana soil-sludge mix, followed by a de-
crease of phosphorus during incubation. Extractable sulfur was immobilized in
this mixture during the early incubation period; higher compost applications
of 4 and 6% produced subsequent sulfur mineralization. Applications of sludge
compost adequately supplied or altered phosphorus and sulfur concentrations
for plant growth.
H021
MEASUREMENT OF TRICKLING FILTER EFFECT ON POLLUTED RIVERS (Messung des
Benthaleffekts im Vorfluter),
Esser, W.
Institut fuer Wasserversorgung,
Abwasserbeseitigung und Raumplaming,
Darmstadt, West Germany.
Wasserwirtschaft, Vol. 68, No. 3, p 83-85, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab, 8 ref.
The waste assimilative capacity of a river was found to be dependent upon both
the attached organisms and suspended organisms residing in the water. On-site
experiments were conducted to evaluate the contribution of attached organisms
in the river self-purification process. The concept of the trickling filter
was employed for the direct quantification of nutrient removal by attached or-
ganisms. The results of the study revealed that attached organism purifica-
tion was responsible for 66-90% of the nutrient removal. The treatment ability
of the attached organisms increased as the concentration and degradability de-
creased. The study verified the importance of bacterial slimes in the waste
assimilative capacities of rivers.
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HO 22
VIRUS ADSORPTION BY FIVE SOILS,
Surge, W. D., and Enkiri, N. K.
Agricultural and Environmental Quality Institute,
Agricultural Research Service—United States Department
of Agriculture,
Beltsville, Maryland.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 73-76, 1978. 4 fig, 3 tab,
14 ref.
The Freundlich isotherm was applied to the adsorption kinetics of phi X-174
bacteriophage in five soil types with varying physical and chemical properties.
Adsorption rates of 6 ml of the bacteriophage were observed in 6 g samples of
Aastad clay loam, Kranzburg silt loam, Palouse silt loam, Parshall silt loam,
and Quincy loamy sand. The Freundlich isotherm and adsorption rate constants
and the optimum Nad concentrations for virus adsorption were also calculated.
The Quincy soil with a pH of 7.2 showed no adsorption of the virus, due pos-
sibly to its high organic content. Bacteriophage adsorption was represented
as a function of the square root of time. The cation exchange capacity, spe-
cific surface area, and organic carbon content of the soil correlated with the
virus adsorption rates of the four remaining soils. The influence of pH was
found to be significant in the adsorption of the virus by the soil.
H023
NATURAL SEWAGE RECYCLING SYSTEMS,
Small, M. M.
1977. 40 p, 17 fig, 17 ref. NTIS Technical Report BNL-50630.
Natural purification of municipal waste waters was evaluated in experiments
with marsh-pond systems at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New
York. Observations under identical conditions indicated that a marsh-pond
system produced effluent of the same quality as a meadow-marsh-pond system but
required about half the land area. Raw sewage mixed with septage was pre-
treated with degritting and aeration before application. The design of a
marsh-pond sewage treatment system for a population of 2,500 and a waste flow
of .25 mgd utilized a BOD curve to predict final effluent quality. A 24 hr
aeration period reduced the initial 210 ppm BOD by 50%. A retention time of
18 days in the marsh further reduced the BOD to less than 30 ppm. Recharge of
the waste water through a pine and deciduous forest floor produced a BOD of
5-15 ppm, resulting in a 98% BOD removal. Total nitrogen removal by the
marsh-pond method with forest recharge was 87.5%. Costs for a marsh-pond
treatment system of this scale, without land purchase costs or interest, were
estimated to be $1/gal/day for initial expenses and $0.50/1,000 gal for opera-
tion and maintenance.
644
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HO 24
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS,
Scalf, M. R., Dunlap, W. J., and Kreissl, J. F.
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ground Water Research Branch,
Ada, Oklahoma.
1977. 42 p, 11 fig, 4 tab, 23 ref. Technical Report EPA-600/3-77-096.
On-site septic tank systems for disposal of domestic wastes were evaluated in
terms of soil suitability, treatment efficiency, and health codes. Approxi-
mately one-third of the private homes in the United States depend upon on-site
disposal systems, 85% of which are septic tank-soil disposal systems. An es-
timated 50% of these systems are located in soils not considered suitable to
this type of disposal method. The potential for contamination of groundwater
by septic tank-soil absorption systems is enhanced by: large densities of
systems within one area; Improper maintenance, construction, and design; and
failure of these systems within the design life. Modifications to the septic
tank system can increase efficiency, decrease potential groundwater contamina-
tion, and expand the applicability of a system. Land use planning and legis-
lation are recommended to control the use and efficiency of septic tank-soil
disposal systems. Research to modify and improve septic systems and alterna-
tive methods of domestic waste disposal are suggested.
H025
RATE OF AMMONIUM NITRIFICATION AND NITRATE LEACHING IN SOIL COLUMNS,
Corey, P. R., McWhorter, D. B., and Smith, J. L.
Colorado State University,
Fort Collins,
Department of Agricultural Engineering.
1976. 8 fig, 21 tab, 42 ref, 3 append. NTIS Technical Report NSF/RA-760505.
The rate of nitrification of ammonium, the leaching rate of nitrates through a
saturated soil column, and the effect of aeration on nitrate leaching were ob-
served in laboratory experiments to evaluate the impact of sewage sludge ap-
plication to soils. Ammonium sulfate was applied to clay loam soil packed in
1.32 m columns; nitrate concentrations in the leachate from each column were
measured. The nitrate leaching rate through the soil columns was calculated
by the addition of sodium nitrate to the inflow water. The time required for
nitrates to leach through the soil was significantly longer than the rate at
which nitrification occurred. Nitrate leaching to a depth of 100 cm required
a period five times longer than the time required for nitrification. In the
clay loam soil, the seepage velocity was four times greater than the nitrate
ton travel velocity. Water velocity was described as a function of inflow,
saturated hydraulic conductivity, porosity, and a pore size distribution para-
645
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meter. Unrealistic estimations of the parameters were required to predict the
nitrate ion velocity through the soil column as a function of the water
velocity equation.
HO 26
RECLAMATION OF WASTEWATER BY APPLICATION ON LAND,
Iskandar, I. K., and Leggett, D. C.
United States Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
1976. 15 p, 5 fig, 2 tab, 23 ref. NTIS Technical Report AD/A-026-050.
Slow infiltration land application of primary and secondary waste water efflu-
ents to areas of sandy loam and silt loam was tested over a two-year period.
The primary effluent contained 101 mg/liter BOD, 22.1 mg/liter ammonium-nitro-
gen, 0.6 mg/liter nitrate-nitrogen, 26.4 mg/liter total nitrogen, and 7.0
mg/liter total phosphorus. The secondary effluent contained 35 mg/liter BOD,
21.6 mg/liter ammonium-nitrogen, 2.4 mg/liter nitrate-nitrogen 26.9 mg/liter
total nitrogen, and 7.1 mg/liter total phosphorus. Copper, zinc, chromium,
nickel, lead, and mercury were added to simulate heavy metal concentrations in
industrial wastes. Effluent was applied to six test cells by slow infiltra-
tion at rates of 5, 7.5, and 15 cm/wk. Percolates obtained from the test
cells indicated that BOD was reduced to 0.6-2.1 mg/liter, ammonium-nitrogen
lowered to 0-2.9 mg/liter, nitrate-nitrogen increased to 7.2-14.5 mg/liter,
total nitrogen decreased to 8.1-16.3 mg/liter, and total phosphorus reduced to
less than 0.5 mg/liter. Nearly all of the ammonium-nitrogen in the upper 45
cm of the test cells was converted to nitrate-nitrogen. Increases in total
and extractable heavy metals were found in the soil and vegetation in the top
15 cm of the test cells. Extractable copper, cadmium, and nickel increased
significantly with spiked sample application, especially in the silt loam test
cells. The levels of these extractable metals were considered toxic.
H027
TRAVEL OF MICROORGANISMS FROM A SEPTIC TILE,
Viraraghavan, T.
ADI Limited, Consulting Engineers,
Frederic ton, New Brunswick, Canada.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 9, No. 3, p 355-362, 1978. 4 fig, 3 tab,
11 ref.
The horizontal movement of indicator microorganisms from a septic tile drain
in the direction of groundwater flow was significantly affected by soil satu-
646
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ration levels. Water samples were obtained over a two-day period from a 7.93
m-long test tile using 2 m boreholes located 0, 3.05, 6.10, 9.15, 12.20, and
15.25 m downslope from the end of the septic tile. The groundwater samples
were analyzed for coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci. The
concentrations of the bioindicators decreased with distance from the septic
tile drain. The groundwater level, which generally varied from 0-3.05 m, was
0.15 m below the septic tile at a depth of 0.6 m during the sampling period.
Significantly high concentrations of the indicator microorganisms were found
at a distance of 15.25 m. These were attributed to the high saturation level
which limited vertical gravitations and allowed horizontal travel of the bio-
indicators by the groundwater flow. Results indicated that a vertical dis-
tance of 1.22 m would require a horizontal separation of not less than 30 m
between the septic tile and a water source in a shallow aquifer for adequate
adsorption and filtration of sewage bacteria.
H028
MONITORING IN THE ZONE OF AERATION,
Morrison, R., and Bulot, M.
SCS Engineers,
Long Beach, California.
Public Works, Vol. 109, No. 4, p 64-65, April, 1978. 2 fig, 8 ref.
SCS Engineers of Long Beach, California, has developed pressure/vacuum lysi-
meters and moisture cells for detecting the infiltration of pollutants through
the soil to the groundwater. The monitors are installed above the water
table, in the aeration of vadose zone, to trace the path of leachates carried
via interstitial water from waste disposal sites. The 3 ft-long polyvinyl
chloride lysimeter has a porous ceramic cup at one end to filter elements of
the leachate. Two polyethylene tubes mounted in a rubber stopper at the other
end of the lysimeter are used to collect the water sample and pressurize and
evacuate the tube. Although they cannot provide water samples for subsequent
analysis, moisture cells can yield information on the amount of soil water
present with respect to established background levels. In the moisture cell,
two plates are separated by a processed fiberglass binding which expands or
contracts with respect to variations in the soil interstitial moisture con-
tent. Moisture cells can he used to detect infiltration to the aeration zone
beneath lined waste disposal lagoons located in areas for which the field
capacity is known.
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H029
RECYCLING OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION: PERSISTENCE OF ENTEROVIRUSES IN SEWAGE
EFFLUENT AND NATURAL WATERS RECEIVING THE EFFLUENT,
Fujioka, R. S., and Loh, P. C.
Hawaii University,
Honolulu,
Water Resources Research Center.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 9, No. 2, p 213-226, 1978. 5 tab, 21 ref.
Human enteroviruses were isolated in raw sewage, activated sludge, and chlo-
rinated effluent from an Oahu treatment plant used to irrigate a two-year
sugarcane crop, and in several samples from streams and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
The sewage samples were concentrated by polyelectrolyte 60 (PE-60), polymer
two-phase, aluminum hydroxide, and protamine sulfate methods of enterovirus
adsorption. Viruses were recovered from samples of river and harbor water by
filtration through a cellulose membrane. Concentration of the chlorinated ef-
fluent yielded a 36% virus recovery by the PE-60, 68% by the polymer, 44% by
aluminum hydroxide, and 3% by the protamine sulfate. The cellulose membrane
recovered 38% of the enterovirus from receiving waters. The removal percent-
ages from the samples were relatively high, although recovery rates were less
efficient. Other viruses isolated in the waste water effluent included: cox-
sackievirus B-4, and B-5; echovirus-1, 7, and 27; reovirus; and poliovirus-1,
2, and 3. Poliovirus strains 1 and 3 were isolated in the water samples from
the streams and harbor. Although the treatment methods at the Oahu plant re-
moved about 90% of the human enteric viruses from the wastes, infectious
viruses were still evident in the treated effluent and receiving waters.
H030
AQUEOUS RELEASE OF HEAVY METALS FROM TWO SEWAGE SLUDGES,
Sidle, R. C., and Kardos, L. T.
West Virginia University,
Morgantown,
United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service, Division of Plant Sciences.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 8, No. 4, p 453-459, 1977. 3 tab, 12 ref.
Since heavy metals in land-applied sludge pose a potential threat to the eco-
system, experiments were performed to investigate the quantity of cationic and
non-cationic copper, zinc and cadmium released into water extractions from a
primarily domestic waste sludge and an industrial waste-dominated sludge.
Five aqueous extracts, simulating conditions immediately following land dis-
posal of sludge, were obtained from both of the anaerobically-digested sludges.
In the domestic sludge, the initial aqueous extraction removed 89.7% of the
water soluble copper, 95.9% of which was cationic; the five combined extrac-
648
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.s.f,r;r™i-- »
H031
INFECTIOUS DISEASE HAZARDS OF LANDSPREADING SEWAGE WASTES,
Surge, W. D., and Marsh, P. B.
Biological Waste Management and Soil Nitrogen Laboratory,
Agriculture Environmental Quality Institute,
'---United State. Department of Agriculture,
Journal of Environ^ntal Quality, Vol. 7, So. 1, p 1-9, January-March, 1978.
in the Drespn^n? consumption of raw vegetables and shellfish grown
bactefia and virn^L ^^ ^ r&W°Ve **"*** Cy8t8' **l«Lnto ova, and some
Seat frying SSS 'c^n"? rUn°ff ^ W"t6 Wat6r P°8e8 a P'^'ia! h— rd.
found to 2'tnorT Sf C°^°8tjn8' ^"adiation, and pasteurization have been
£t0°
ro n r ieation
modification of i ^ «Prinltier irrigation of waste water can be reduced by
tries and 8^rubfi18atl0n e«U1Pment and ^ establishment of a buffer zone'of
649
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H032
RIVER WATER QUALITY IN ESSEX DURING AND AFTER THE 1976 DROUGHT,
Slack, J. G.
Essex Water Company,
England.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 11, p 575-578, November,
1977. 2 fig, 3 tab, 2 ref.
The impact of a 1976 drought on the water quality of sewage receiving rivers
in Essex, England, was analyzed. River flows in the River Stour in July aver-
aged 2.64 mgd, nearly the total quantity of sewage discharged to the river;
the River Chelmer averaged 4.98 mgd, half of which consisted of sewage efflu-
ent. Sewage effluent in the rivers was monitored with boron measurements, an
element that is not found naturally in river water. The concentration of
chloride, discharged into the Stour at the rate of 7,000-8,000 Ibs/day, down-
river from the outlet source was much lower than expected during the very dry
summer months. Similarly, nitrate in the sewage effluent, averaging 20
mg/liter, was reduced to one-tenth the initial concentration in the downstream
river water, indicating biological denitrification. Nitrate and chloride con-
centrations increased significantly in the fall when rainfall increased. It
was concluded that chloride and other sewage effluent constituents accumulated
in the river beds during low flow periods and were washed from the bed with
the increasing volume of clean water from rainfall; biological denitrification
also increased during the low flow periods.
H033
THE MOVEMENT OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT THROUGH SOIL COLUMNS: THE MAJOR IONS (NA, CA,
MG, CL, AND S04),
De Jong, E.
Saskatchewan University,
Saskatoon, Canada,
Department of Soil Science.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 1, p 133-136, January-March,
1978. 5 fig, 4 tab, 13 ref.
Laboratory experiments investigated the leaching of sodium, calcium, mag-
nesium, chloride, sulfate, and potassium contained in sewage effluent through
soil columns. One liter of sewage effluent contained 236 mg sodium, 19.6 mg
potassium, 87 mg calcium, 53 mg magnesium, 204 mg chloride, and 387 mg sul-
fate. The effluent was introduced into the columns packed with 3 horizons of
Asquith loamy sand and 1 horizon of Oxbow clay as flood or trickle flow at 7,
13, and 18 C under dark conditions. The passage of sodium, calcium, mag-
nesium, chloride, and sulfate ions was not significantly altered by tempera-
ture, soil structure, or application. Breakthrough curves demonstrated more
650
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rapid passage of the anions through the columns than predicted. This behavior
was attributed to incomplete mixing of the effluent and soil. The passage of
sodium, calcium, and magnesium was affected by exchange reactions; sodium and
calcium approached equilibrium after 3 pore volumes leached, much sooner than
magnesium. Cation breakthrough curves were altered by incomplete mixing, ini-
tial exchangeable and soluble cation concentrations, and the sum of the ex-
changeable cations.
H034
WASTEWATER RENOVATION BY A PROTOTYPE SLOW INFILTRATION LAND TREATMENT SYSTEM,
Iskandar, I. K., Sletten, R. S., Leggett, D. C., and
Jenkins, T. F.
United States Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
1976. 51 p, 23 fig, 10 tab, 63 ref, 1 append. NTIS Technical Report
AD-A029-744.
Six experimental sand loam and silt loam test cells at the United States Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in New Hampshire were spray ir-
rigated with ozonated primary and secondary effluent for a one year period.
The program's objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of waste water puri-
fication by slow land infiltration. Nitrogen, chloride, and suspended solids
levels in the waste water varied with seasonal conditions; BOD, fecal coli-
forms, and organic carbon were reduced by secondary treatment with extended
aeration. The applicationNof 628-2055 kg/hectare total nitrogen, 85% of which
was ammonia, to the soil cells over the one year period revealed that nitrogen
was converted to nitrate-nitrogen in the top 45 cm of the soil. The concen-
tration of nitrate in the soil percolates peaked at 125 mg/liter nitrate-
nitrogen during the summer months and averaged 10 mg/liter during other
periods. Ammonia-nitrogen leached through the soil cells only during winter
months. A total nitrogen uptake of 26-54% by the forage grown on the soil
cells was reported. The test cells removed 99% of the total phosphorus,
averaging 7.0 and 7.1 mg/liter in the primary and secondary effluent, respec-
tively. The test cells completely removed BOD, suspended solids, fecal coli-
form, and organic carbon.
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H035
SPRAY IRRIGATION OF DOMESTIC SEWAGE IN THE BRAUNSCHWEIG SEWAGE ASSOCIATION -
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION OF SUCCESSFUL UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE? (Die Verregnung
von kommunalem Abwaessern im Abwasserverband Braunschweig - Uraweltverschmutzung
oder sinnvolle Abwasserverwertung?),
Baumann, H., and Braun, A.
Institut fuer Wasserwirtschaft und Meliorationswesen der
Christ!an-Albrecht-Universitaet,
Kiel, West Germany
Wasser und Boden, Vol. 30, No. 3, p 63-67, 1978. 8 fig, 4 tab, 10 ref.
The Braunschweig Sewage Association in West Germany performed tests on a 4,000
ha plot of brown podsol agricultural land to determine the extent of ground-
water contamination by spray irrigation with municipal waste water. Water and
soil analyses were also used to define the waste assimilative capacity of the
soil. Permanganate consumption and BOD values disclosed that almost no organic
substances in the spray-irrigated effluent reached the groundwater. Soil water
analyses following a single application of excessive quantities (5,400 ram/ha)
of municipal sewage by spray irrigation revealed that although the groundwater
was contaminated at the irrigation site, only elevated nitrate levels were ap-
parent after 350 m of transport from the site. Repeated applications of ef-
fluent reduced the waste assimilative capacity of the soil, especially during
winter months when vegetation was not extensive. Effluent applications did
leach sodium, potassium, and nitrate ions from the large quantities of syn-
thetic fertilizers which had been applied to the area. This phenomenon was
considered an important consideration in assessing the nutrient levels pro-
vided by spray irrigation.
H036
A SHORT TERM STUDY ON THE POLLUTION OF TAPTI RIVER IN SURAT REGION,
Shelat, R. N., Vashi, N. V., and Subbayya, N. V.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 58, Part EN 1, p 25-28,
October, 1977. 5 fig, 1 tab, 4 ref.
Physical and chemical water quality parameters were recorded at 10 sampling
stations along a 16-km portion of the Tapti River in the Surat region of India.
Pollution sources along the river included a paper mill, a thermal power plant,
municipal sewage, domestic sewage, and textile wastes. The pH of the river
samples ranged from 6-8 with a temperature of 20-24 C. Other chemical para-
meter ranges included: 24-54 mg/liter chlorides, 17-52 mg/liter sulfates,
6.2-8.4 mg/liter dissolved oxygen, 40-280 mg/liter BOD, and 89-512 mg/liter
COD. Total solids ranged from 48-344 mg/liter with suspended solid loads of
42-269 mg/liter. While the physical properties of the river water did not ex-
ceed Indian water quality standards, BOD values were higher than allowed at all
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sampling sites; chlorides exceeded standards near the municipal storm water
outlet to the river. The pollutant levels were lower during the winter months.
H037
THE APPLICATION OF A TIME-SERIES-ANALYSIS IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
(Anwendung einer Zeitreihenanalyse in der Wasserguetewirtschaft),
Stegmann, R., Ehrig, H., and Liem, P.
Institut fuer Stadtbauwesen,
Abteilung Siedlungswasserwirtschaft,
Braunschweig, West Germany.
Wasser und Boden, Vol. 30, No. 3, p 50-54, 1978. 8 fig, 8 ref.
Spectral and Fourier analysis constitute important tools for the description
of time series in water quality management. A calculated time series function
can be extrapolated to predict changes in water quality. The difference be-
tween measured water quality indicators, such as oxygen content and chloride
levels, and the extrapolated values can be used to quantify the environmental
impact of external factors, such as the construction of a sewage treatment
plant or the addition of a new industrial source of pollution. The procedure
is used in an example involving water quality data for the Oker River and its
tributaries, collected for the years 1965-1973 by the Institute for Urban
Studies of the Technical University in Braunschweig, West Germany. Equations
expressing the trend and periodicity functions are derived; time series analy-
sis is used to predict the Oker River quality on the basis of trends in dis-
solved oxygen and chlorine levels.
H038
PROBLEMS AND TECHNIQUES FOR THE AERATION SYSTEMS IN SEWAGE WORKS AND SURFACE
WATERS—EXPERIENCE WITH INSTREAM AERATION AND OXYGEN MONITORING IN THE RIVER
RUHR,
Albrecht, D.
Ruhrverb and,
Essen, West Germany.
Tribune du CEBEDEAU, Vol. 30, No. 409, p 449-456, December, 1977. 13 fig, 7
ref.
Instream aeration of the Ruhr River in West Germany has been conducted since
1965 to compensate for oxygen deficiencies during summer months due to the de-
composition of dead algae. The Ruhr, with average flows of 75 cu m/sec, sus-
tains low flows of 3-5 cu m/sec over an average of 120 days annually. The
water flow is augmented by reservoir water during these periodsJ The Ruhr
also receives treated waste water which comprises up to 36% of the total flow
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during low flow conditions. Four impounding lakes, providing further treat-
ment of municipal effluent and storm water overflows, reduce effluent BOD from
5.5 to 4.8 mg/liter. Chlorophyll-a algal blooms during summer months depress
dissolved oxygen levels to as low as 2 mg/liter; high chlorophyll-a concentra-
tions have resulted in oxygen supersaturation followed by dissolved oxygen de-
pression, a situation leading to fishkill. During 1971-1975, five oxygen
monitors were installed along the Ruhr above an instream aeration system which
includes: a 47 kg 02/hr floating aerator, a 178 kg 02/hr aerator, two weirs,
and a bypass stream. The instream aeration system is activated when the oxy-
gen monitors detect dissolved oxygen concentrations below 4 mg/liter in the
upstream waters. Compressed air was found to be more economical than pure
oxyg en ae ra t i on.
H039
RESULTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL OF THE RHINE WATER IN RHINE-LAND-PALATINATE
(Erfolge bei der Reinhaltung des Rheins in Rheinland-Pfalz),
Hantge, E.
Landesamt fuer Gewasserkunde,
Mainz, West Germany.
Wasserwirtschaft, Vol. 67, No. 11, p 348-352, 1977. 7 fig, 1 tab.
Pollution parameters in the Rhineland-Palatinate area of the Rhine River were
measured by the West German Hydrologic State Office. The pollution load on
the Rhine has been reduced by 90% since 1974, representing a population
equivalent of 1.16 million. Water quality parameters measured during the
study included BOD, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, chromium, and saprobidity. The
pollution load on the Rhine, reduced by 650,000 population equivalents in
1976, was higher in that year than in the previous year due to a 56% increase
in runoff. The pollution load was lower within the first 4 mos of 1977 than
during 1975 and 1976. The study verified that the water quality of the Rhine
since has improved significantly as a result of pollutant load reductions.
H040
CONTROLLING IMPOUNDMENTS WHICH MAY POLLUTE GROUNDWATER,
Schiffman, A.
Permits Division, Maryland Water Resources Administration,
Annapolis.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 1, p 62-64, 66-67, January, 1978.
Problems associated with groundwater contamination by impoundments storing
municipal and industrial wastes are reviewed. A leak in one of two oxidation
lagoons, lined with reinforced rubber on tar-impregnated fiber mats on top of
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rock, was undetected by a water level counter and was found only when lagoons
were drained. Leakage from sewage oxidation lagoons, occupying 180 acres and
receiving municipal wastes and sodium chloride pickling brine, contaminated
groundwater within a 1,000 ft zone with chloride levels up to 220 mg/liter.
Chloride levels near the pickling plants ranged up to 1,690 mg/liter in domes-
tic drinking wells and 6,300 mg/liter in a plant well. Chloride was found at
a depth of 75 ft, 400 ft from brine and pickling tanks. Leakage in two
covered, polyvinyl chloride membrane-lined storage lagoons for liquid nitrogen
increased nitrate-nitrogen concentrations to as high as 27 mg/liter at a dis-
tance 50 ft from the ponds. Plating waste leakage from a storage lagoon con-
taminated water 1000 ft from the site to a depth of 50 ft. Groundwater was
not contaminated; chromium and other metals had coated sand, silt, and clay
horizons at a depth between 20-45 ft. Phenolic wastes stored in a clay-lined
lagoon leaked to a depth of 9 ft, producing stream and groundwater phenol con-
centrations of 2.1 mg/liter and 14.4 mg/liter, respectively.
H041
APPLICATION OF DIGESTED SLUDGE FOR IMPROVING ERODED SOIL CAUSED BY S02,
Wong, M. H., and Yip, S. W.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Shatin,
Department of Biology.
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Health, Vol. A13, No. 1, p 23-31, 1978.
4 tab, 15 ref.
Soils degraded by S02 emissions from an acid manufacturing plant were condi-
tioned with digested sewage sludge and planted with Agropyron smithii and Buc-
hole dactyloides in a greenhouse trial test. The grasses were grown in: un-
treated S02-degraded red-yellow podzol soil; degraded soil treated with 0.5,
1.0, and 1.5 cm digested sludge; and garden soil. The digested sludge had
29.02% organic carbon, 1.96 ppm phosphorus, 41 ppm exchangeable potassium, and
a pH of 6.68; the eroded soil contained 1.30% organic carbon, 0.02 ppm phos-
phorus, and 2.4 ppm exchangeable potassium and had a pH of 4.7. A. smithii
and B. dactyloides were grown for 80 days and then harvested. A. smithii cul-
tivated in S02-degraded soil with sludge applications of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 cm
grew to heights of roughly 12.55, 15.17, and 17.77 cm/pot, respectively; the
untreated S02-degraded soil and the garden soil yielded growth of 2.12 and
38.25 cm/pot, respectively. B. dactyloides had heights of about 4.76, 9.07,
and 14.50 cm/pot in the sludge amended soil} heights of 1.50 and 25.65 cm/pot
were attained in the untreated soil and the garden soil, respectively.
Grasses grown in the digested sludge treated soil were immature in comparison
with the garden soil grown plants, but demonstrated improved growth over those
grown in the untreated S02-degraded sludge. Extractable zinc levels in the
sludge were in excess of English agricultural standards.
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H042
TEHRAN GROUND WATER POLLUTION BY DETERGENTS,
Imandel, K., Razeghi, N., and Samar, P.
Tehran University,
School of Public Health and Institute of Public Health Research,
Iran,
Department of Environmental Health.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 9, No. 1, p 119-122, January, 1978. 2
fig, 3 ref.
Detergent concentrations in groundwater aquifers were analyzed in 316 wells
with depths ranging from 8-330 m in Tehran, Iran. Samples were analyzed by
the methylene blue colorimetric technique; calibration curves were calculated
by the least squares method. Detergent concentrations in samples collected
over a 10-mo period ranged from traces to 1.403 mg/liter. The average concen-
tration of detergents, within a confidence limit of 95% and a permissible
error of t 0.005, was calculated at 0.1163-0.1593 mg/liter as methylene blue
active substance. The United States and the World Health Organization permit
detergent concentrations of 0.5-1.0 ppm in drinking water, below Tehran sam-
pled concentrations. An isoconcentration map of detergent concentration dis-
tribution revealed localization in industrial and urban areas.
H043
THE EFFECTS OF MADISON METROPOLITAN WASTEWATER EFFLUENT ON WATER QUALITY IN
BADFISH CREEK, YAHARA AND ROCK RIVERS,
Lee, G. F.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Vol. 65,
p 163-179, 1977. 3 fig, 1 tab, 14 ref.
The impact of diverting the flow of treated effluent from the Madison Metro-
politan Sewerage District's Nine Springs Sewage Treatment Plant in Wisconsin
to the Badfish Creek was examined. A $3.5 million pipeline was constructed to
divert effluent flows to Badfish Creek rather than the Yahara and Rock Rivers,
which flow into Lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa where excessive amounts of algae
were growing. Activated sludge, trickling filters, and chlorination are em-
ployed by the plant before effluent is discharged to the diversion ditch lead-
ing to the creek. Flows measured over the period from 1952-1970 ranged from a
low of 16.2 mgd in 1953 to a high of 31.3 mgd in 1970; BOD ranged 16-47
mg/liter and suspended solids ranged 15-52 mg/liter. The higher pollutant
concentrations occurred during 1961-1963 when the treatment facility was
undergoing construction. Water samples from 12 stations on the Badfish Creek
and the Yahara and Rock Rivers were analyzed for BOD, suspended solids, total
and soluble P, nitrates, nitrites, ammonium, and organic nitrogen. Inorganic
nitrogen and orthophosphate concentrations in the Yahara River just below the
point where Badfish Creek enters have increased since effluent has been
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diverted. Nutrient levels in the Rock River below the Yahara River junction
have also increased. This increase in orthophosphate has been partially at-
tributed to increased loads of phosphorus on the treatment plant. Dissolved
oxygen levels at the first sampling station on Badfish Creek often dropped
below 3 rag/liter; dissolved oxygen levels at stations on the lower Yahara
River were usually above the critical level.
H044
RECLAMATION OF ACIDIC DREDGE SOILS WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE AND LIME AT THE
CHESAPEAKE AND DELAWARE CANAL,
Palazzo, A. J.
United States Army Cold Regions and Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
1977. 28 p, 6 fig, 9 tab, 29 ref. NTIS Technical Report AD-A041636.
The impact of sewage sludge and lime enrichment of pyritic, acidic dredge
soils from the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal was investigated in field studies
examining the growth of 29 grasses on the reclaimed soils. A 17-acre area was
treated with 45 tons/acre sewage sludge and 10 tons/acre lime applied to a
depth of 8 inches. Soil samples at depths of 0-8, 8-16, and 16-24 inches were
obtained 20 months after sewage sludge and lime application. The upper soil
layer sample had higher pH, cation exchange, exchangeable Ca and Mg, organic
C, and P levels when compared to untreated control areas. Total and extract-
able metals also increased within the 0-8 inch depth. Parameters measured in
the lower strata were similar in the control area; Ca and Mg levels were ele-
vated in the lower layer samples. Most of the Zn, Cr, Pb, and Hg was not in a
plant-available form; 50% of the Ni and Cd were available to plants and ex-
tractable at a concentration of 30.2 ppm. Good growth was observed in
Kentucky bluegrass, red fescue, and K-31 tall fescue; the dense groundcover
growth of ryegrass hindered the growth of other perennial grasses. Of the
seven plant species analyzed for mineral uptake, two types contained Ni con-
centrations approaching toxicity.
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H045
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING DENITRIFICATION IN SOILS IRRIGATED WITH WASTEWATER,
Barr, S. S., Miller, R. H., and Logan, J. T.
Ohio State University,
Columbus,
Department of Agronomy.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 709-717, April,
1978. 6 fig, 5 tab, 17 ref.
Biological denitrification was investigated at soil sites irrigated with waste
water by the Pennsylvania State University waste water management project.
The three clay loam soil sites included a plot of reed canarygrass, a hardwood
forest, and an abandoned field; the fourth mixed hardwood site was formerly
designated as gameland and consisted of loamy sand. The sites had been spray
irrigated with waste water since 1963; untreated control sites were also main-
tained and soil samples were collected at various depths four times in two
years. The top 7.5 cm of the treated soil sites contained the highest organic
carbon and total nitrogen levels, and carbon/nitrogen ratios. All soils and
vegetation exhibited low denitrification potentials attributed to a shortage
of available organic carbon. This assumption was supported when denitrifica-
tion increased after glucose was added to the soils as a carbon source. Car-
bon supplements added in the form of plant residues in the wastewater could
not support denitrification below the 15 cm root zone, indicating that excess
nitrate would leach into the groundwater. Reducing nitrogen levels in the
waste water and increasing carbon sources during periods when crops were not
grown was recommended.
H046
MODELLING AND OPERATIONAL CONTROL OF WATER QUALITY IN RIVER SYSTEMS,
Whitehead, P. G.
Australian National University,
Canberra,
Center for Resource and Environmental Studies.
Water Research, Vol. 12, No. 6, p 377-384, 1978. 9 fig, 14 ref.
BOD, dissolved oxygen (DO) and nitrogen models developed for the English
Bedford-Ouse River System were applied to the control of instream aeration and
nutrient levels. A basic differential mass balance was transformed into a
discrete-time model incorporating two coupled first-order equations to de-
scribe BOD and DO at the output of a specific reach in a non-tidal river. The
ratios of BOD and DO to the oxygen absorption potential at the output of the
reach were expressed as a function of the volumetric flow rate in the stream,
the volumetric hold-up of the reach, the upstream BOD or DO input, factors in
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algal growth, and a series of time-invarlent coefficients. Reaeration rates,
which can lead to low dissolved oxygen calculations in winter months, could be
incorporated into the model as coefficients determined from the volumetric
flow rate and the river depth. Instream aeration to raise the DO concentra-
tion near sewage effluent outfalls could be controlled by locating DO probes
downstream and upstream of the outfall. The models could be used to control
instream aeration by incorporating coefficients to influence DO probe signals
and prevent deviation from the desired DO level. The artificial aeration con-
trol model was applied to the River Cam; nutrient levels in the Bedford-Ouse
were predicted with previously developed models.
HOA7
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND RIVER ECOLOGY,
Chaturvedi, A. C.
Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Commission,
Lucknow, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 58, No. 2, p 38-41, Feb-
ruary, 1978.
The physical, chemical, and hydraulic characteristics of eight Indian rivers
receiving municipal and industrial effluents were investigated by on-site
analysis and model studies. Transport equations for the dilution characteris-
tics of the discharged effluents incorporated the balance of convection, tur-
bulent diffusion, production, and dissipation; the rate of dispersion of in-
dustrial effluents was dependent upon the transverse mixing. The model con-
tained equations for depth, average velocity, and concentration; rapid verti-
cal mixing of the effluents was observed. Analytical data from the 25 sampl-
ing sites was relayed by telemetry to a computer for storage. Discharge
velocities from the effluent outfalls had a greater influence on the discharge
width; downstream channel flow directly affected dispersion. Artificial des-
tratification to improve water quality by increasing the exchange in the ver-
tical direction was rejected because of adverse temperature disruption; in-
stream oxygenation was considered feasible for improving water quality.
Laboratory-scale aeration tanks revealed that a 50% increase in salinity in
waste water would destroy ether-soluble bacteria; phenol concentrations in-
creased to 400 mg/liter, causing overloading. When operated at 25-33%
salinity, sludge wastage at a rate of 0.5 liters/day was required.
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H048
RECOVERY OF TWO POLLUTED RIVERS,
Best, G. A.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 6, p 267-271, 273, June,
1978. 4 fig, 5 tab, 2 ref.
The quality of two Scottish rivers, Black Cart Water and Levern Water, was in-
creased by improved sewage treatment and by the termination of some industrial
waste discharges. Effluent quality improved significantly when the Johnstone
sewage treatment works was completed in July, 1976. Black Cart Water, the re-
ceiving body for the effluent, was continuously monitored according to Chemi-
cal Quality Index (CQI) and Biotic Index (BI). The CQI, derived from BOD,
suspended solids, ammonia, and dissolved oxygen concentrations, increased to 9
on a 1-10 scale for both upstream and downstream waters, within 9 mos after
the plant was operational. The BI of the river, derived from aquatic inver-
tebrate studies, improved more slowly due to the slow recolonization by clean
water organisms. Construction of the Neilston sewage treatment plant and
closure of the overloaded Barrhead plant improved the quality of the Levern
Water. The CQI of the river in the vicinity of Neilston had improved to 9
both upstream and downstream within 4 mos of initiation of the activated
sludge plant operation; downstream water quality had been as low as 3. The
CQI in the Barrhead area of Levern Water increased to 8 from a low of 1 down-
stream and 6 upstream. Biological recovery was retarded by periodic tannery
waste discharges and slow recolonization of the benthic substrate.
H049
ORGANIC ASSIMILATION CAPACITY OF MAUMEE RIVER ESTUARY AT TOLEDO, OHIO,
Kunkle, G. R., and Wordeiman, S. L.
Earthview, Incorporated,
Toledo, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 5, p 957-969, May,
1978. 11 fig, 4 tab, 13 ref.
The Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) and a streamwater quality budget model
evaluated the organic waste assimilative capacity of the Maumee River estuary
at Toledo, Ohio. A total annual BOD load of 5,485,900 kg, calculated by SWMM,
flows into the Maumee River through combined and separated sewers, industrial
discharges, the Bay View Water Reclamation plant, abnormal bypasses of over-
flows, and Swan Creek. A water quality monitoring station on the river has
detected vertical stratification of dissolved oxygen during the summer months;
the dissolved oxygen flowing load deficit between the months of June and
October ranged over 3,000-9,300 kg/day. The streamwater budget model for
determining the assimilative capacity of the river calculated the net and
gross dissolved oxygen concentrations, the upstream and local BOD flushed, the
benthic BOD deposited and exerted, the gross oxygen demand, and the changes in
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dissolved oxygen storage. The annual average dissolved oxygen supply of
33,200 kg/day and the gross oxygen demand of 33,100 kg/day represented a 100
kg/day dissolved oxygen storage change. The assimilative capacity of the
Maumee River during the summer months varied over 7,800-27,100 kg/day, requir-
ing an instream oxygen demand reduction ranging from 7,300-16,000 kg/day. It
was concluded that if all local BOD discharges to the river were eliminated,
the dissolved oxygen concentration would still be below 4.0-5.0 mg/liter dis-
solved oxygen standard set by Ohio.
H050
SURVEY OF HUMAN VIRUS OCCURRENCE IN WASTEWATER-RECHARGED GROUNDWATER ON LONG
ISLAND,
Vaughn, J. M., Landry, E. F., Baranosky, L. J., Beckwith, C. A., and Dahl, M.
C.
Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Department of Energy and Environment,
Upton, New York.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 36, No. 1, p 47-51, July, 1978.
9 tab, 22 ref.
Three waste water recharge facilities on Long Island, New York, were monitored
in a 1-yr study to assess the transfer of human enteroviruses and coliforms
into groundwater. Effluent samples from all three plants were collected
monthly and observation wells were drilled below the recharge sites. Total
coliform counts in groundwater near a facility recharging chlorinated trick-
ling filter effluent 30 ft above the aquifer ranged over 15-23,000/100 ml;
enterovirus isolation ranged over 0-3.6 plaque-forming units/gal. Viruses
isolated in the effluent included echo-, coxsackie-, and poliovirus types; the
groundwater contained echovirus type 12 and other unidentified viruses. Chlo-
rinated effluent was recharged 80 ft above the water table in another facility;
groundwater samples yielded no viruses and 4-23,000 coliforms/100 ml. The re-
sults indicated that viruses were unable to reach the depth of the aquifer.
Total coliforms in groundwater from a facility discharging tertiary effluent
to a basin 18 ft above the aquifer ranged over 4-930 coliforms/100 ml; virus
levels ranged over 0-10.6 plaque-forming units/gal. Viruses isolated in
groundwater at this site included echoviruses types 6, 21, 24, 25, and several
unidentified types; both vertical penetration and horizontal movement of the
viruses through the aquifer were indicated by their presence in the observa-
tion well located 50 yds from the recharge site.
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H051
NITRIFICATION AND OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING NITROGEN IN THE HOLSTON RIVER,
Ruane, R. J., and Krenkel, P. A.
Tennessee Valley Authority,
Chattanooga.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 8, p 2016-2028,
August, 1978. 8 fig, 3 tab, 41 ref.
Recent studies measured nitrification and denitrification in the Holston River
near Kingsport, Tennessee; factors influencing these processes and the impact
of nitrogen on the Cherokee Reservoir near Jefferson City were also evaluated.
Along the 151.3 km stretch of the river studied, total nitrogen inputs to the
river included 82 kg/day by a sewage treatment plant, 27 kg/day by a paper
mill, 2,497 kg/day by an ammunition plant, and 7,312 kg/day by a chemical
plant. Dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, benthic oxygen demand, and standing
crops of attached aquatic plants were measured in river samples; the rates of
change in ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite levels within the various stream
reaches were used to calculate the oxidation rate for nitrogenous BOD. Sig-
nificant nitrification did not occur until river mile 137.9 and was attributed
to nitrifying bacteria requiring up to 10 days to generate; denitrification
occurred in the upstream reaches where nitrifiers were absent. The point of
observed nitrification, occurring after about 0.2 days, corresponded to the
critical dissolved oxygen sag. Oxygen depletion in the Cherokee Reservoir was
dependent upon influent oxygen demand, decomposition of aquatic weeds, ammonia
regeneration by zooplankton, fish excretions, and overall biological respira-
tion.
H052
THE EFFECT OF WASTE WATER REUSE IN COLD REGIONS ON LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS,
Iskandar, I. K.
United States Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 3, p 361-368, July-September,
1978. 5 fig, 5 tab, 26 ref.
The impact of land application of primary and secondary effluent on ground-
water quality, soils, and vegetation in cold climates was investigated over a
2-yr period at the Army's Cold Regions Laboratory in Hanover, New Hampshire.
Three cells containing Windsor sandy loam and three containing Charlton silt
loam with depths of 150 cm were established; for a 1-yr period, two sandy loam
cells received 5 and 15 cm/wk secondary effluent and one silt loam cell re-
ceived 5 cm/wk. The other test cells received 7.5 cm/wk primary effluent.
Vegetation, primarily quackgrass, was harvested six times over the two-year
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period. Test cell leachate for the 1-yr period contained 8.1-16.3 mg/liter
total nitrogen, <0.5 mg/liter total phosphorus, 8.5-10.3 mg/liter organic
carbon, 0.6-2.1 mg/liter BOD, and 21.9-28.0 mg/liter chloride. High nitrate
concentrations in the leachate during early summer were attributed to oxida-
tion of ammonia stored in the soils during winter months; the ammonia was
oxidized to nitrate within the top 45 cm of the soil. Nitrogen removal was
primarily by plant growth and percolation. Effluent application at a rate of
15 cm/wk to one test cell consistently produced a leachate containing an ex-
cess of nitrate-nitrogen for 9 mos of the year. Heavy metals were confined
primarily to the top 15 cm of soil; leaching below this level was attributed
to a decrease in soil pH.
H053
ELIMINATION OF FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA FROM SOIL IRRIGATED WITH MUNICIPAL
SEWAGE LAGOON EFFLUENT,
Bell, R. G., and Bole, J. B.
Singapore University,
Singapore,
Department of Microbiology.
Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 7, No. 2, p 193-196, April-June, 1978.
3 tab, 17 ref.
Sewage lagoon effluent was applied by spray irrigation at a rate of about 4.5
cm/week to two Brown Cavendish loamy soil plots planted with reed canarygrass.
The study was performed to examine the distribution and viability of fecal
coliforms in the soil. Soil samples to a depth of 130 cm were collected
weekly; fecal coliforms were enumerated after the first vegetation cutting,
after the second cutting, and after a single fall irrigation. Coliforms never
moved below a depth of 69 cm and were concentrated primarily within the top 8
cm of the soil. The initial 48 hrs after irrigation yielded a die-off rate of
about 90%. The remaining 10% of the coliforms were diminished at a much
slower rate over a period of about 2 weeks in the planted plots. Fecal coli-
form populations in the soil irrigated once after canarygrass harvesting re-
mained detectable for 8 wks; the death rates of the coliforms doubled for each
10 C increase in temperature.
663
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H054
THE IMPACT OF SUBTIDAL SEWAGE OUTFALLS ON THE INTERTIDAL MACROFAUNA OF SEVERAL
CENTRAL PUGET SOUND BEACHES,
Armstrong, J. W.
Dissertation Abstracts International B, Vol. 39, No. 2, p 527-528, 1978.
The intertidal macrofauna were surveyed over a 21-mo period at five beaches
located near municipal outfall sewers in Puget Sound, Washington. The 80
sites, sampled every three months, were characterized by fine-grained wave-
rippled sand or cobble-strewn mixed sediments. Sampling yielded 302 species
of intertidal invertebrates and fish; infauna and epifauna were screened from
sediment samples. The control beach and the beach considered most likely to
be affected by the outfall discharges yielded the highest number of species;
10-15% fewer species were obtained from the other sites. Substrate type
rather than the extent of pollution controlled the degree of species differen-
tiation; benthic faunal diversity was greater in individual samples than the
variability between different beach samples. Saxidomus giganteus and Macoma
inquinata collected at the beach most likely to be affected by outfall dis-
charges did not exhibit deteriorated bivalve condition index values; growth
rates of Hemigrapsus oregonenesis and S. giganteus were not substantially dif-
ferent from those at other beaches. Although several species of pollution-
indicating polychaete feeding types were collected at all beach sites, the
proportions were similar at all beaches and not considered to be related to
waste disposal. Stepwise discriminant analyses yielded no pollution-related
gradients; benthic faunal variations were primarily dependent upon sediment
type.
H055
POLIOVIRUS REMOVAL FROM PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEWAGE EFFLUENT BY SOIL FILTRA-
TION,
Gerba, C. P., and Lance, J. C.
Baylor College of Medicine,
Houston, Texas,
Department of Virology and Epidemiology.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 36, No. 2, p 247-251, August,
1978. 2 fig, 3 tab, 22 ref.
The adsorption of poliovirus from primary and secondary effluents was examined
using packed soil columns 250 cm in length and batch tests with loamy sand.
Virus-seeded primary and secondary effluents were applied for nine consecutive
days to soil columns; fluid samples were collected at various depths along the
columns. Batch tests were conducted in a centrifuge with varying soil concen-
trations and constant virus concentrations. Poliovirus adsorption on the soil
columns was similar for both primary and secondary effluent. In 1-ml samples,
viruses were not detectable below 40 cm in primary or secondary effluent
664
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flooded columns; in one case, viruses reached a depth of 80 cm in secondary
effluent tests. Passage of the effluents through the top 5 cm of the columns
removed about 1 log of virus, but the removal of another log of virus required
passage through an additional 35 cm of soil. The viable virus concentration
after one day of storage decreased by about 50% in primary effluent and by 47%
in secondary wastes. About 5 plaque-forming units/ml were desorbed from the
soil column to a depth of 80 cm by flooding with deionized water immediately
after primary effluent application. The adsorption of poliovirus was not in-
fluenced by the organic concentration at the various depths but was directly
dependent upon the soil type; low adsorption occurred with unconsolidated
silty sand and gravel.
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MISCELLANEOUS
J001
AN ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION COST EXPERIENCE FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS,
Otakie, G. F.
Municipal Construction Division,
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, District of Columbia.
1976. 44 p, 6 fig, 13 tab, 3 append. Technical Report EPA-430/9-76-002.
Waste water treatment plant construction bid data were gathered in an effort
to develop construction curves for estimating treatment plant costs. A data
base was established with information from federally-funded construction pro-
jects. Input to the data base for each project included: grant-eligible con-
struction costs; cost projections; design treatment level (new plant, upgraded
plant, or upgraded/expanded plant); and individual treatment processes added
or expanded (activated sludge, filtration, nitrification, secondary, tertiary).
Distributions of treatment plants in the data base by design flow rate, prin-
cipal unit processes, treatment level, and construction are listed. Linear
regression analysis was used to derive cost curves for secondary plants, both
new and upgraded from primary plants. Costs for actual construction programs
were compared with predicted costs from an EPA guide for construction cost
estimation.
J002
WATER RESOURCES - THE PRODUCTIVE CONTRIBUTION OF POLLUTION CONTROL,
Rowntree, N.
Chemistry and Industry, No. 15, p 631-633, August, 1977.
Activities and objectives of the Water Resources Board of England and Wales
are described in an award address by Sir Norman Rowntree for the Society of
Chemistry and Industry. The Trent research program, conducted by the Trent
River Board in conjunction with the Water Resources Board, was initiated to
facilitate compliance with higher effluent standards and the development of
water resources. Technical aspects of water pollution and water quality con-
trol are discussed, including monitoring and characterization of effluents,
the effects of pollution, and waste water treatment processes. The need for
long term planning in water management is discussed. A reevaluation of water
quality standards for particular application is suggested.
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J003
TIME SERIES ANALYSIS ON AMMONIA CONCENTRATION AND LOAD VALUES OF THE RIVER
RHINE,
Mueskens, P. J. W. M., and Hensgens, W. G. J.
Nijmegen Catholic University, The Netherlands,
Department of Analytical Chemistry.
Water Research, Vol. 11, No. 6, p 509-515, 1977. 2 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
The autocorrelation technique was used to statistically evaluate a series of
data on ammonia concentrations and load values collected for the Rhine River
over a 5-yr period. The purpose of the investigation was to separate observa-
tion noise from process fluctuations and to prove the presence of a periodicity
or trend in the process. A derivation of the autocorrelation function is pre-
sented. Standard deviations and means were calculated for ammonia concentra-
tions and load over 4 biannual periods and the total period of 5 yrs. An
autocorrelation program was used to calculate autocorrelograms. Analysis of
variance indicated that three factors could cause variance in sample values:
analytical errors, sampling errors, and fluctuations in ammonia concentrations.
Examination of ammonia concentrations in the time series revealed that ammonia
load was a stochastic variable with an annual periodicity and a slightly de-
creasing trend. For ammonia concentrations distinct trends were observed
within but not between the biannual periods.
J004
ALABAMA,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 20, September, 1977.
Approximately $150 million has been appropriated by the state of Alabama and
the federal government for municipal waste water treatment programs throughout
the state. Individual cities receiving funds for improvements on waste water
disposal systems will provide 75% of the necessary monies. Federal funds will
be used to upgrade the primary level treatment plant at Bay Minette to second-
ary status. A pollution abatement program directed by the Jefferson County
Commission will be used to clean up Patton Creek, with additions to the Valley
Creek plant and construction of an interceptor system for the upper portion of
the area serviced by the facility. The secondary treatment plant at Decatur
will be replaced and a new plant will be constructed at Huntsville. Addi-
tional projects designated for partial federal funding are described.
667
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J005
WHITHER POLLUTION CONTROL?,
Lester, W. F.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 327-331,
1977. 1 fig, 2 tab, 3 ref.
Various aspects of water pollution and water quality management in the United
Kingdom are discussed. The organization of pollution control by the 10 re-
gional water authorities in England and Wales is described. Standards imposed
by the Control of Pollution Act of 1974, the main body of water pollution con-
trol legislation in England, are discussed. The Act grants new powers to the
state for discharges of effluent to rivers, estuaries, and the ocean. Water
quality standards for potable water supply purposes, industrial use, and
spray irrigation of effluents are discussed. The national expenditure for
water-related services is discussed. Results of water quality and river pol-
lution surveys in England are presented. Philosophies and objectives of the
Royal Commission and the European Economic Community are discussed.
J006
WASTEWATER LOANS READIED BY EPA,
The American City and County, Vol. 92, No. 9, p 28, September, 1977.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's interim regulations on loan guar-
antees for waste water treatment works construction are discussed. The pur-
pose of EPA loan guarantees is to provide a source of funding for municipali-
ties that can not sell bonds or other maturities at reasonable rates on the
open market. Financing can be used to cover all or part of a project. Appli-
cants must prove that credit at reasonable rates from other sources was un-
available by furnishing the results of public bidding, certification from a
municipal bond underwriter, certification from two or more local banks, and
certification from the Farmers Home Administration. Proof of ability to repay
the loan must also be furnished. The application fee is $1000 or one-eighth
of 1% of the loan amount, whichever is greater but not to exceed $25,000.
Repayment must be made within a period set by the EPA.
J007
POLLUTION CONTROL AND LEGISLATION IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY,
Leroff, H. E.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 271-276,
1977.
Water pollution control problems in West Germany are compounded by the fact
that pollution is imported by waterways that originate outside Germany's
668
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boundaries. International cooperation on water pollution control is enforced
by the 1972 Treaties of Oslo and Paris, the European Water Resources Protec-
tion Commission, and the Rhine Protection Commission. The framework for water
pollution control legislation in West Germany is the Water Resources Act of
1957 with its fourth amendment adopted in 1976. According to the 1957 Act,
the creation of detailed regulations and the enforcement of water policy are
left up to the individual states. Waste disposal is governed by the Federal
Waste Disposal Law of 1972. The law's definition of waste excludes waste
water discharged into the courses of waste water treatment plants, but sewage
sludge treatment and disposal must conform to waste disposal regulations.
Political interference and shortcomings of the legislation have allowed indus-
tries and municipalities to resist providing waste water treatment. A waste
water taxation program is being considered under which the states will pay a
waste water tax for discharging waste water into waterways, with the amount of
tax depending on the contamination level of the waste water. Policies of the
United Kingdom, the United States, and the German Federal Republic on uniform
water quality standards are compared.
J008
POLLUTION CONTROL AND LEGISLATION—THE DUTCH APPROACH,
Scheltinga, H. M. H.
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 3, p 263-270,
1977. 1 fig, 2 ref, 2 append.
Various aspects of water pollution control and legislation in the Netherlands
are discussed. The Pollution of Surface Waters Act of 1970 is the central
core of water quality protection in the Netherlands. Based on the principle
of decentralization, the Act delegates a portion of the responsibility for
water quality management to provincial authorities. A 5-yr plan (1975-1979)
was implemented to insure coordination and uniformity of practice with respect
to planning, permits, and enforcement. A discussion of general water stan-
dards and objectives is presented. Discharge standards include required full
biological sewage treatment for systems serving more than 500 people and "best
practicable technology" treatment for industries. Taxation for waste treat-
ment is levied on a per capita basis for municipal wastes and in terms of COD
and N loading for industrial wastes. Additional taxation for dischargers of
heavy metals is being considered. The results obtained in water pollution
control since 1970 are illustrated in a projection of 1960-1980 total pollu-
tion loading and biological treatment plant capacity in the Netherlands, with
60% of the total biodegradable organic pollution loading (municipal and indus-
trial) slated for full biological treatment by 1980.
669
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J009
EPA INDEXES SHOW SHRINKING COST HIKES,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 12, p 129, September, 1977. 3 tab.
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's city indexes for waste water
treatment costs are described. Cost indexes are presented for 25 cities in
each of three categories based on hypothetical treatment facilities. The
hypothetical facilities include a 5-mgd municipal waste water treatment plant,
a 50-tngd municipal waste water treatment plant, and a complete urban sewer
system. The cost index for the second quarter of 1977, based on the third
quarter of 1973, and the percentage of change from the second quarter of 1976
are given for each of the cities. The cost index is also broken down accord-
ing to percentages for labor, civil materials, other equipment, construction
overhead, and buildings. Cost figures indicated that although sewage treat-
ment costs rose from 0.7% to 8.3% above first quarter levels, the rise in con-
struction costs was lower for the second quarter. Average cost increases from
the first quarter to the second quarter were 1.9% for the 5-mgd plant, 2.0%
for the 50-mgd plant, and 1.9% for the complete urban sewer system.
JO 10
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PONDS,
1974. 14 p, 14 ref. Technical Report EPA-430/9-74-011.
Technical information on waste water treatment ponds is provided to supplement
federal guidelines on the design, operation, and maintenance of municipal
waste water treatment facilities. Photosynthetic ponds, aerated ponds, and
complete retention ponds are the types of waste water ponds emphasized in this
publication. Background information on the ability of flow-through photo-
synthetic ponds to meet secondary treatment requirements is presented. Vari-
ous aspects of controlled discharge ponds which are designed to retain waste
water on a long-term basis are discussed, including design criteria for ponds
in operation and the selection of the optimum day and hour for the release of
effluents. Criteria for the operation of complete-mix and partial-mix aerated
ponds are given. General requirements are listed for positive disinfection,
prevention of short circuiting, and protection of groundwater from pond seep-
age. Supplemental treatment methods for flow-through photosynthetic ponds are
described, including conversion to controlled discharge, intermittent sand
filtration, land treatment of pond effluents, addition of supplemental aera-
tion, and chemical coagulation.
670
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JO 11
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR MECHANICAL, ELECTRIC, AND FLUID SYSTEM AND COMPONENT
RELIABILITY,
1974. 54 p. Technical Report EPA-430-99-74-001.
Design criteria and minimum standards of reliability for mechanical, electric,
and fluid systems and components of waste water treatment equipment are dis-
cussed. Works design criteria are examined for works location, works expan-
sion and/or upgrading, piping requirements, pipes subject to clogging, provi-
sions for draining pipes, maintenance and repair of feed lines, component
maintenance and repair requirements, and isolation of hazardous equipment.
Waste water treatment system requirements are given for trash removal or com-
minution, grit removal, settled solids removal, controlled diversion, and unit
operation bypassing. Component backup requirements are described for bar
screens, pumps, comminution facilities, primary sedimentation basins, sedimen-
tation basins, activated sludge units, aeration basins, air diffusers, flash
mixers, flocculation basins, and disinfectant contact basins. Provisions for
isolating components for repair and maintenance, as well as for protection of
components from overload, freezing, and up-lift due to groundwater, are in-
dicated. Design criteria are also given for electric power systems, instru-
mentation and control systems, and auxiliary systems. Minimum standards are
established according to three classes of waste water treatment works: works
which discharge into navigable waters which could be irretrievably damaged
after a few hours by low-quality effluent; works which discharge into navig-
able waters which could be damaged by continued receipt of low-quality efflu-
ent; and the remaining facilities.
J012
FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT FOR THE DELAWARE COUNTY, OHIO BOARD OF
COMMISSIONERS, OLENTANGY ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL CENTER AND INTERCEPTOR SYSTEM,
1976. 501 p, 36 fig, 20 tab, 9 append. Technical Report EPA-5-OH-Delaware-
XX-WWTP.
The final environmental impact statement for the proposed Olentangy Environ-
mental Control Center and Interceptor System in Delaware County, Ohio, is pre-
sented. The project includes a 1.5-mgd sewage treatment facility with a peak
capacity of 3.4 mgd. The treatment process includes a two-stage activated
sludge facility, phosphate removal, tertiary rapid sand filtration, chlorina-
tion, post-aeration, disinfection with ozone, anaerobic digestion of sludge,
and disposal of treated sludge to a state-approved sanitary landfill site.
The proposed cost for the control center and interceptors was $11.05 million.
A description of the environment without the proposed project is presented,
including topography, geology, soils, groundwater, surface water, biology, air
quality, land use, historic and archaeological sites, environmentally sensi-
tive, areas, population projections, economic forecasts, and aesthetics. Al-
ternatives to various aspects of the proposed project are described, including
flow reduction measures, interceptor alternatives, site location, treatment
process approaches, discharge point selection, and methods of sludge disposal.
671
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The effects of the Olentangy project are evaluated with respect to water
quality and quantity, air, land use, biology, and the general environment.
JO 13
RECLAIMED WATER FOR CAPE PENINSULA,
The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol. 19, No. 7, p 163-164, July, 1977.
Limited water resources in the Cape Peninsula region of South Africa have led
to an investigation of the reclamation and reuse of treated sewage effluents
by the Water Research Commission, the city of Cape Town, and the National In-
stitute for Water Research of the CSIR. Extensive studies have been conducted
on the use and hydraulic suitability of the sand beds of the Cape Flats for
the storage, infiltration, and abstraction of natural water or purified efflu-
ents. Hydrogeologic studies indicated that approximately 75,000 cu tn of
water, or 3 cu m H20/day/m of coastline, was being lost daily to False Bay by
subterraneous flow. The interception of this water through 50 boreholes to be
drilled along the coast has been recommended. Current research has focused on
the possible effects of pollutants on this water supply and on operations of a
300-cu-m/day pilot plant at the Athlone Sewage Works.
JO 14
SURVEY FORECASTS FLOOD IN 1978 SEWERAGE MARKET,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 14, p 40-41, October, 1977. 1 tab.
A survey of 66 major sanitary districts in the United States indicated that
they intended to spend approximately $2 billion for sewer and waste water
treatment projects in 1978, with half of the funds slated for new, upgraded,
or expanded treatment plants. Much of the support of these projects will be
provided by the EPA'.s sewerage construction grants program. Estimates by the
66 districts of expenditures during fiscal 1979 totalled $1.1 billion, 40%
less than the anticipated 1978 expenditures. The districts also reported an
increase in the number of bidders per project in fiscal 1977 and the receipt
of contract bids which averaged 12% below the engineer's projected cost.
JO 15
ADVANCED SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS, AN EPA PLANNING FLOP,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 19, p 12-13, November, 1977.
A study by the General Accounting Office (GAO) that challenged the EPA's fund-
ing of advanced municipal waste water treatment plants and the corresponding
reply by the EPA are discussed. A study by Vertex Corporation of McLean,
Virginia, for EPA called for a temporary moratorium on federal funding for ad-
vanced plants, thereby agreeing with the GAO's recommendations. Current esti-
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mates suggest that approximately $21 billion in federal funds will be required
to construct tertiary treatment plants for the estimated 1990 United States
population. Fundamental defects in advanced waste water treatment policy
cited by Vertex included the lack of planning based on technical information
rather than on water quality standards, mathematical models, and wasteload al-
locations; and the apparent funding inequities among the states. The Vertex
report also recommended the acquisition of more information on hydrodynamics,
waste water discharges, water quality, sediments, and aquatic biology, along
with an extensive cost-benefit analysis of advanced wastewater treatment.
Review of areas of the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments
which concern advanced waste water treatment is suggested.
JO 16
RISING SEWAGE PLANT OPERATION COSTS BEG ENGINEERED SOLUTIONS,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 14, p 71, October, 1977.
Through analyses of current trends in sewage treatment costs, the EPA has pre-
dicted annual sewage treatment expenditures in the United States of $148.4
billion by 1990. The Water Pollution Control Federation's estimates are even
higher at $150 million for operating costs and $450 billion for construction
of municipal and industrial facilities. Current high costs for operation and
maintenance as well as for energy, chemicals, and labor have indicated the
need for engineered improvements in sewage plant operating efficiency with
particular emphasis on reducing costs. A survey revealed that in 38 sewage
treatment plants annual operating and maintenance costs exceed amortized capi-
tal costs at 21 of the plants, and that in 18 secondary plants cumulative
operation and maintenance costs exceeded their design and construction costs
in less than 4 yrs. For primary plants, costs for operation and maintenance
exceeded costs for initial design and construction after an average of 13.4
yrs, and for all the plants in the survey after an average of 6.1 yrs.
JO 17
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT—PROBLEM AREAS IN SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL,
Lewin, V. H.
The Public Health Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 4, p 125-127, September, 1977.
Various topics are discussed in response to the newly organized tri-purpose
regional water and waste treatment authorities in England. The need for more
effective communications systems, telemetry, data acquisition, and information
storage and retrieval systems is discussed. Specialized training and educa-
tion programs are cited as important in assuring adequate water and waste
water treatment by regional authorities. Sewer rehabilitation programs are
suggested to relieve overloading of treatment plants produced by infiltration
and inflow in deteriorated sewage systems. Adjustments in unit processes ac-
cording to pollutant load are suggested. Various areas of water quality
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planning and waste water management are discussed, including the development
of long-term plans which are periodically reevaluated. The need for better
maintenance and a greater understanding of the workings of mechanical and
electrical equipment is described.
JO 18
CONCRETE FORMING FOR WATER AND WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS,
Concrete Construction, Vol. 22, No. 11, p 615-617, November, 1977.
Concrete has been used as a construction material for a wide variety of water,
sewage, and industrial waste treatment projects. Construction requirements
may vary greatly from one project to the next, but site-cast concrete can be
designed and built to provide desired hydraulic characteristics, to produce a
watertight system, and to accomodate almost any other design requirement. Re-
usable factory-built modular forms are discussed as an alternative to custom-
built forms which can rarely be reused. Modular forms which are currently
manufactured are usually in the form of panels on a steel-frame backing faced
with plastic-coated plywood to insure smooth surfaces after multiple reuse.
The panels can be connected to produce straight or curved walls, Y-walls,
haunches, and slabs. Experiences with the use of modular forms during con-
struction at the Meander Water Pollution Control Project in Mineral Ridge,
Ohio, are described.
J019
WELSH WATER RE-ORGANIZATION,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 453, August, 1977. 1 fig.
The Welsh National Water Development Authority has reorganized its 25 single-
purpose water supply, river, and sewage divisions into seven regional authori-
ties which will cover all three purposes. Slated to go into effect on or
about April 1, 1978, the new multipurpose divisions will be the Gwynedd, West
Wales, Gower, Dee and Clwyd, Wye, Usk, and Taff divisions. The initial capital
expenditure for the reorganization will be approximately 500,000 pounds and
annual operating costs after the initial 3-yr period should be similar. Ap-
proximately 100 jobs, or 2% of the 5500 existing positions, will be gradually
eliminated in the reorganization process. Services will be coordinated from a
single headquarters location within each regional division.
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J020
VALVES FOR THE WATER INDUSTRY,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 476-481, August, 1977.
Recent developments in valve design and construction for industrial, munici-
pal, and water-related operations are described. The use of ductile iron in
valves because of its resistance to mechanical and thermal shock and to corro-
sion is described. Ease of pouring, the ability to cast light sections of
very high strength, and the high quality surface finish are cited as advant-
ages of using ductile iron castings for valve components, gear box casings,
combustion engine parts, and other products. The use of elastomers instead of
natural rubber for valve components alleviates problems associated with ab-
sorption, swelling, aging, and attack by ozone, hydrocarbons, and acids. Ap-
plications of elastomers for butterfly valves and resilient sealing gate
valves are discussed. Research into the use of stainless steel for valve com-
ponents, to allow more compact designs and to resist corrosion by ionized
waters, is discussed.
J021
EPA ENLISTS ARMY TO MANAGE SEWAGE PLANT CONSTRUCTION,
Engineering News-Record, Vol, 199, No. 13, p 10, September, 1977.
The EPA has enlisted the aid of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers in the
supervision of design and construction of federally-funded municipal waste
water treatment plants. The Corps will insure smooth construction for large
projects, review design specifications and bid documents, identify construc-
tion problems and solutions, and cooperate with the community's private con-
sulting engineer. The tentative agreement between the Corps of Engineers and
the EPA was announced after the release of a report by the General Accounting
Office that cited problems in design and construction stages in the EPA's mul-
tibillion dollar construction program. The Corps will provide 600 man-yrs at
a cost of $20 million during the first year of the program, which is still
subject to approval by the Office of Management and Budget.
J022
ORSANCO: AN INTERSTAGE AGENCY,
Boes, R., and Weaver, L.
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 262-266, 1977. 1 ref.
ORSANCO (Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission) has been administering
a regional program to control water pollution in the 155,000-sq mile Ohio
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River basin which includes Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Penn-
sylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. The commission's purposes are to coor-
dinate the acquisition of information on stream quality characteristics, to
evaluate pollution abatement, and to guide additional control efforts while
insuring adequate water quality within the basin for purposes. The committee
also adopts and enforces effluent limitations and standards. Biological moni-
toring and sampling programs have been used to assess water quality and the
status of municipal and industrial control facilities. The commission was
also responsible for an order to expand five waste water treatment plants in
the Pittsburgh and Cincinnati metropolitan areas in 1964. Along the Ohio
River, treatment facilities provide service for 99% of the 3 million sewered
population and 90% of the 1700 industrial dischargers. Comparisons of water
quality for 1952-53 and 1963-64 indicated lower levels of mineral constituents
associated with mine drainage and waste water dischargers, higher dissolved
oxygen levels, lower coliform levels, and other water quality improvements as
a result of the program. Future interest of the commission will be focused on
the effects and bioaccumulation of pollutants by aquatic life and on other
water quality management programs.
J023
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN STUDYING THE HEALTH ASPECTS OF ORGANIC CONTAMI-
NANTS IN INDIRECTLY REUSED WASTE WATER,
Zoeteman, B. C. J.
National Institute for Water Supply and International
Reference Center for Community Water Supply,
World Health Organization,
Leidschendam (The Hague), The Netherlands.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 298, p 561-573, 1977. 2 fig,
6 tab, 24 ref.
Since much of the world's water supplies contains some proportion of sewage
effluent which enters drinking water through indirect reuse, more extensive
investigations into the health effects relating to direct and indirect reuse
of waste water for human consumption have been recommended. Health risks as-
sociated with organic contaminants in tap water may be assessed by identifica-
tion of the individual chemicals and by examination of the toxicologic proper-
ties of individual and combined chemicals, or by evaluating the characteris-
tics and effects of the water as a whole. Thex principal organic contaminants
found in drinking water in the United States are described. European studies
on health aspects of organic contaminants in drinking water have included a
survey of organic contaminants Ln tap water of 20 major cities in the Nether-
lands; preparation and toxicologic screening of concentrates of organics in
drinking water; and epidemiologic studies. Studies concerned with source
identification of drinking water contamination and with regulatory programs on
environmental chemicals in Europe are described.
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J024
MARINE POLLUTION: A MULTIFACETED, MULTI-AGENCY DETECTION, RESEARCH AND EN-
FORCEMENT PROGRAM,
Sea Technology, Vol. 18, No. 10, p 10-17, 49-50, October, 1977.
Activities of the numerous federal and civil organizations involved in marine
pollution programs, and federal measures being taken to control or eliminate
pollution of the marine environment, are described. Among the agencies in-
volved in detection, clean-up, and research of ocean pollution are the Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U. S. Coast Guard.
Programs being conducted by the various agencies to control ocean dumping of
sewage sludge and other wastes are described. The Marine Ecosystems Analysis
(MESA) project under the auspices of NOAA has investigated waste dumping and
its environmental effects in the New York Bight and Puget Sound, Washington.
A 7-yr study on the New York Bight was initiated to determine the fate and ef-
fect of pollutants on the ecosystem, to quantify environmental factors in-
volved in designing and siting offshore structures, and to provide other in-
formation on coastal processes. Various projects on oil pollution and the
disposal of oily wastes are described. Studies being conducted by the U. S.
Navy on treatment and disposal of sanitary sewage for ships are described.
J025
HISTORIC TURNING POINTS IN MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER DISPOSAL,
1850-1932,
Tarr, J. A., and McMichael, F. C.
Carnegie-Me 11on University,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
Department of History, Technology, and Urban Affairs.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 10, p 82-86, October, 1977.
During much of the 19th century, government involvement in waste water manage-
ment was minimal, and the cesspool-privy system was the only means for collec-
tion and treatment of human wastes. Urban population growth and the develop-
ment of new urban water supply systems from 1850 to 1890 overloaded existing
waste treatment systems. Piped water supply systems and the resulting in-
crease in the per capita water consumption also placed great demands on the
cesspool-privy system. Water-carriage removal and sewerage systems were
adopted to alleviate overflowing of cesspools and privies. From 1880 to 1890
the virtues of separate vs. combined sewer systems were debated. An extensive
report by Rudolf Bering, an American sanitary engineer, on the status of sewer
systems in Europe was published. During the period 1900-1932, stream pollu-
tion by sewage and resulting higher typhoid fever rates in downstream communi-
ties led to more attention to water pollution control and water treatment.
Sand filters and trickling filters were first evaluated for water and waste
water treatment during the early part of the 20th century.
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JO 26
MAINE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPTS FOR SOLAR HEATING,
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 124, No. 11, p 72, November, 1977.
The design for the roof and parts of the walls of the waste water treatment
plant in Ellsworth, Maine, includes passive solar collector panels constructed
of aluminum and translucent fiberglass. The ten sliding roof panels allow
solar heat and light to enter the building and also provide natural ventila-
tion during the summer months. Land costs, the effect of the location on con-
struction and operating costs, topography, soils, environmental impact, influ-
ence on property values, and multiple site utilization were all considered be-
fore the plant's location was finalized. A town-owned, waterfront parcel in a
residential area was selected for the plant. Because of the plant's compact
design, a recreational area will also be situated at the site. Heating costs
are being minimized by the use of a system which differentially supplies heat
to areas occupied only by mechanical equipment and those occupied by plant
personnel. The solar collector panels were manufactured by the Kalwall Cor-
poration of Manchester, New Hampshire.
J027
BALANCE IN TRAINING FOR LATIN AMERICAN WATER AND WASTEWATER UTILITIES,
Carefoot, N. F.
Pan American Health Organization — World Health Organization,
Lima, Peru.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 69, No. 12, p 641-643,
December, 1977. 2 tab.
Training programs for supporting subprofessional, technical, and trade person-
nel in water and waste water treatment have fallen behind needs for trained
personnel in Latin America. A manpower and training resources inventory was
recently completed in Peru. An estimated 80% of current workers require
training for their present jobs. An estimated 6,000 additional employees will
be required by water and waste water utilities within 5 yrs. A 30% increase
in the portion of city dwellers served by sewers has been adopted as a minimum
goal by 28 countries in the western hemisphere. Various aspects recommended
for a balanced training program include: a preparatory working group, inven-
tories of human and training resources, review of personnel policies, estab-
lishment of training policies, preparation of training material and methodol-
ogy, cooperation between training institutions, and an accountability system.
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J028
EVALUATING WASTEWATER FACILITY STAFFING NEEDS,
Gulp, G., Benjes, H. H., Jr., and Puntenney, J.
Gulp, Wesner, Gulp,
El Dorado Hills, California.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 11, p 2226-2237,
November, 1977. 15 tab, 2 ref.
Plans to expand the Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District (MDSDD)
secondary treatment facilities from a 98-mgd to a 170-mgd capacity led to a
study on staffing needs. The program included a comparison with available
staffing guidelines, comparisons with other plants, on-site interviews of
existing MDSDD personnel, and recommendations of appropriate staffing levels.
The various findings of this survey are reported. By reviewing work tasks,
the minimum staff requirement was estimated as 177. The preliminary MDSDD
plan had provided for 199 positions, a level of staffing considered consistent
with similar plants. Environmental Protection Agency staffing guidelines
agreed with MDSDD's preliminary staffing plans for their expanded facility.
It was determined that the 22 positions could be left unfilled until a
definite need was demonstrated. The results of this survey indicated the need
for a thorough study of a specific plant's needs for an accurate estimation of
s ta ff requ i remen t s.
J029
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF INDIA AND THEIR POSSIBLE TRENDS IN FUTURE,
Parikh, J. K.
%
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis,
Schloss Laxenburg,
Laxenburg, Austria.
Environmental Conservation, Vol. 4, No. 3, p 189-198, Autumn 1977. 1 fig, 5
tab, 13 ref.
Environmental problems in India and their possible influence on the future are
reviewed. The anticipated population growth, increased industrial and agri-
cultural activities, and depletion of natural resources are expected to pre-
sent serious problems over the next 25 years. The quality of the air, water,
sanitation, health, and housing are considered. A quantitative outline is
presented for various conservation techniques for forests, soils, and wild-
life. Two of the most serious problems in India are water pollution and de-
forestation. Presently, in rural areas, less than 10% of the population is
served by existing water distribution and waste water treatment systems. Un-
less drastic measures are taken, this percentage may not exceed 30% by the
year 2000. The lack of adequate sewerage and sanitation facilities could lead
to severe degradation of existing water supplies. Further consideration of
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the effects of agricultural runoff containing wastes, pesticides, and fer-
tilizers on rural water sources is also suggested.
J030
SEWER USE CHARGE SURVEY REVEALS WIDELY DIVERGENT POLICIES,
Dukes, L. S., and Moore, R. R.
Charlotte/Meklenburg Utility Department,
Charlotte, North Carolina.
Public Works, Vol. 108, No. 12, p 48-49, 83, December, 1977. 2 fig, 2 tab.
A survey was taken to compare the current and proposed sewer use charge rates
employed by the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utility Department in Charlotte, North
Carolina, with those of other cities with similar facilities. Information was
obtained from 74 publicly-owned systems. The largest was Los Angeles with a
455-mgd capacity; the smallest was New London, Connecticut, having a 6-mgd
system. The survey solicited information on financing for operation, main-
tenance, and repair. Funding for capital expansion of collection and treat-
ment systems was assessed. Charges based on waste water volume were signifi-
cantly different for the various utilities. For a monthly volume of 1,000 cu
ft, charges ranged $0.98-8.68 for users inside city limits and $3.02-13.00 for
users outside city limits. Corresponding charges for a monthly volume of
100,000 cu ft were $71.65-531.50 and $103.25-1478.20, respectively.
J031
SEWERAGE COSTS RISING AT A FASTER PACE,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 25, p 102, December, 1977. 3 tab.
Construction costs for wa'ste water collection and treatment facilities in the
United States are reported by the Environmental Protection Agency to have
taken a sharp rise in the third quarter of 1977. This rise in cost parallels
a similar increase in the concrete pipe and lumber industries. For 25 cities
across the United States having waste water treatment plants of the 5-mgd
treatment size, cost indexes averaged 126.3 in the July-September period, up
2.5% from the previous quarter. For 50-mgd treatment plants, cost indexes
averaged 138.5, a 3.2% increase over second-quarter figures. Cost indexes for
complete urban sewer systems averaged 143.2 in the third quarter, up 3.4% from
the April-June period.
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J032
COMMUNITY ACTION ON WATER POLLUTION,
Friedman, J. J.
Cook College,
Rutgers, New Jersey,
Department of Human Ecology.
Human Ecology, Vol. 5, No. 4, p 329-353, 1977. 2 tab, 48 ref.
A community's progress toward the institution of water quality control is
relative to the influence of polluting industries on the community, the cost-
benefit factors, and the characteristics and needs of the community. Options
available to communities for pollution control include EPA grants for the con-
struction of new treatment facilities, HUD's Water and Sewer Facilities Pro-
gram providing matching grants for sewers and waste disposal facilities, and
the adoption and enforcement of regulations restricting pollution through in-
dustrial wastes. The benefit of these alternatives is considered collective,
or shared by the entire community. Costs, however, may be more specific,
falling mainly upon the users of treatment facilities and polluters, such as
local industry. Opposition by local industry can influence the action taken
by a community toward pollution control. Other factors that influence a com-
munity's application for waste control grants include location, need, popula-
tion potential, and resources.
J033
DAMAGE TO POLLUTED LAKES CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY SAYS,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 12, p 35, December, 1977.
A study by a group of Cornell University researchers has concluded that dis-
solved phosphorus presents the major threat to freshwater lakes and that the
pollution can be reversed. Erosion, which contributes undissolved phosphorus
to water, is not as serious a threat to the water quality as dissolved phos-
phorus, which controls the growth of algae. This conclusion contradicts fed-
eral guidelines. Sewage is cited as the primary source of dissolved phos-
phates, originating from the use of phosphate detergents. Prohibiting use of
these detergents and instituting tertiary treatment of wastes provide the most
economical control. Water quality regulations should meet the needs of in-
dividual watersheds and their biological characteristics. Removal of phos-
phorus input from agricultural drainage and unsewered areas was found to be
more costly than the other controls and treatment. Public awareness and con-
cern is also considered.
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J034
PHOSPHATE PROBLEMS COME TO THE UNITED KINGDOM,
Roberts, F. W.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 11, p 599-600, November,
1977.
Nitrogen and phosphorus in effluents will stimulate plant growth, causing
eutrophication of receiving waters. There is also a possibility of adverse
health effects due to nitrates. Since plant growth requires a number of nut-
rients, limiting the supply of one element will limit algal proliferation.
Limiting phosphate is considered the most economical option because most phos-
phate can be traced to sewage effluent, while much of the nitrate is contri-
buted by drainage from agricultural land. The Anglian Water Authority re-
ported severe algal growth, attributed to high phosphate levels, in one of
their reservoirs. Nitrilo-triacetic acid (NTA) could be used as a substitute
for tri-poliphosphate in detergents. Because of health objections to NTA,
chemical coagulation will probably be used to remove phosphates from sewage.
The coagulants can be added during primary sedimentation, during biological
treatment, or during tertiary treatment. Ferrous sulfate added during bio-
logical treatment will be oxidized to ferric sulfate, which has superior pro-
perties in phosphate removal.
J035
CALIFORNIA TAKES HALTING LEAD ON SEWAGE PLANT CM,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 3, p 53, January, 1978.
California now requires applicants for federal waste water treatment construc-
tion grants to submit plans for construction management of projects costing
over $5 million. Separate construction managers are not required. This ap-
proach allows for project variability and flexibility. The Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) has delegated more responsibility for water pollution
control to California than to any other state. California and the EPA believe
that a reduction in change orders and delays will more than offset any addi-
tional costs incurred by retaining a construction manager. The EPA is sending
other states information about the program and encouraging them to adopt
similar requirements. The EPA may order construction management at a later
date.
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J036
REGIONAL WATER QUALITY PLANNING: A VIEW FROM SOUTHEAST MICHIGAN,
Akeley, R. P., Jr., Collins, P. G., Harlow, C. D., and Ridgway, J. W.
AIChE Symposium Series, Vol. 73, No. 167, p 288-296, 1977. 4 fig, 1 tab.
The Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG) received $5.1 million
to produce a plan for water quality management for the Detroit metropolitan
region. Data requirements were extensive. Water quality models include:
STORM-LLODS, a precipitation-runoff screening model; QUAL II, a stream quality
routing model; and RUNQUAL, which routes surface runoff plus base flows
through a converging, branching network of pipes or channels. Southeast
Michigan has a complicated mixture of point, nonpoint, and intermittent point
sources of pollution. Facilities planning was to include careful technical
reviews, improved cooperation with the local units, close communication with
the state clearinghouse, integration of facilities reviews and development of
the water quality management plant, cooperation during facilities plan devel-
opment, and a sewer service area map. Population forecasts were necessary for
anticipating appropriate service area boundaries. The Council was given 2
years in which to create a plan that was both technically sound and implement-
able.
J037
TECHNOLOGICAL ECONOMICS APPLIED TO WASTE RECOVERY AND TREATMENT PROCESSES,
Bridgwater, A. V.
Aston University,
Birmingham, England,
Department of Chemical Engineering.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 17, No. 9, p 467-473, September,
1977. 5 tab, 6 ref.
Model for estimating costs of waste recovery processes and operations are pre-
sented. Waste recovery equipment costs, particularly for the more basic items,
can vary widely. Operating costs are conventionally estimated as a function
of raw materials, labor, energy, and fixed investment related costs. The total
energy cost rarely exceeds 20% of the total product cost. The chemical
reagents required to treat the effluent may be an appreciable part of the total
cost. A more complete and accurate operating cost figure can probably be ob-
tained by examining the particular situation rather than by relying on pub-
lished information. Depreciation rarely represents a real cash flow, but
rather an arbitrary allocation of change in value. The most important single
factor affecting the viability of a waste recovery scheme is the market for
the recovered materials.
683
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J038
EPA HALTS AWARD,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 199, No. 25, p 46, December, 1977.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) postponed funding of an $80 million
waste water treatment plant. The action was in response to bid specifications
requiring performance bonds covering equipment from potential suppliers which
were considered too restrictive. Officials of the Passaic Valley Sewerage
Commission felt that the ruling would unnecessarily delay construction of a
$500-million treatment plant in Newark, New Jersey. It might also prevent New
Jersey from meeting a federal deadline of December 31, 1989, to end ocean
dumping of sludge. The specifications required suppliers of the thermal sludge
conditioner to have at least 5 years of experience with the equipment or to
post a bond to guarantee the system's performance for 5 years. According to
the commission, an inexperienced supplier might install a system having de-
fects which would not be found during construction or initial testing. Only
two United States firms currently manufacture the wet air oxidation system:
Zimpro Inc., of Rothschild, Wisconsin; and Envirotech Corp., in Menlo Park,
California. The EPA had initially approved the experience requirement, but
decided later that it only inhibited free competition. The Passaic Valley
Sewerage Commission has contemplated appealing the EPA ruling.
J039
THE IMPACT OF WATER SAVING WATER CLOSETS ON BUILDING DRAINS AND SEWERS,
Sharpe, W. E., and Cole, C. A.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
The Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources.
Plumbing Engineer, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 20-21, 60, November-December, 1977. 4
tab, 6 ref.
The effect of the use of water-saving toilets on drainage and sewage systems
has been evaluated. Water closets with discharges ranging 0.25-5.25 gallons
per flush were compared in terms of solid sewage velocity, sewer pipe dia-
meter, sewer pipe slope, and depth of flow. The average water-saving water
closet discharges 3.5 gallons per flush. Necessary velocities for the trans-
port of solid sewage were calculated as 1.5-2.0 ft/sec. The velocity for a
water-saving toilet with a discharge of 3.50 gallons per flush was discovered
to be 1.88 ft/sec. This velocity was considered adequate for sewage transport.
The depth of flow was considered a potential problem in the use of water
closets with a discharge of less than two gallons per flush. Large scale in-
stallation of low flow water closets in a Pennsylvania resort did not present
adverse effects to the sewage system, although detailed data was not available.
684
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J040
DISCHARGE OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND ORGANIC MATTER INTO THE GULF OF BOTHNIA,
Ahl, T., Haverinen, A., Thorelt, L., and Wartiovaara, J.
Limnological Survey,
Swedish Environment Protection Board,
Uppsala, Sweden.
Ambio, Vol. 6, No. 5, p 273-275, 1977. 4 fig, 1 tab, 12 ref.
Sources and quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter discharged
into the Gulf of Bothnia, a feeder to the Baltic Sea, from Sweden and Finland
were calculated. Major sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter
were determined to be rivers, municipal waste waters, and industrial waste
waters. A total of more than 81,000 tons/yr of nitrogen in the form of am-
monia, nitrite, nitrate, and organic matter was discharged into the gulf, 90%
from rivers. The total quantity of inorganic nitrogen discharged was 22,000
tons and organic was 59,000 tons. A total of 6,200 tons/yr of phosphorus was
released with under 5,000 tons from rivers, more than 600 tons from municipal
waste waters, and more than 700 tons from industrial wastes. About 56% of the
total phosphorus was organic, with the remainder being inorganic phosphate.
An estimated 600,000 tons/year of 7-day BOD was discharged, with 54% contri-
buted by industrial waste waters and 43% from rivers. The 7-day BOD loading
on the Gulf of Bothnia was calculated at 5.16 g/sq m/yr. Bothnian Bay loading
was estimated at 6.58 g/sq m/yr, and 4.51 g BOD/sq m/yr in the Bothnian Sea.
J041
EFFLUENT STANDARDS—EFFECT UPON DESIGN,
Garber, W. F.
Bureau of Sanitation,
Los Angeles, California.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, Vol. 103, No. EE6, p
1115-1127, December, 1977. 1 fig, 4 tab, 8 ref.
Cost-benefit relationships and the practicality of water quality standards
established by the California Water Resources Control Board are considered in
terms of calculated environmental impact. A comparison of the degree of
treatment required to meet these standards and the net environmental impact of
contaminants and energy requirements showed an eventual negative net environ-
mental impact. At some point, the impact of energy requirements for compli-
ance with the water quality standards would exceed the benefits of the in-
creased standards. Suggestions for preventing a negative environmental effect
include: consideration of environmental cost-benefit relationships; estab-
lishment of the most effective point source controls and industrial waste pre-
treatment processes; and legislative enforcement of nonpoint source controls,
such as domestic toxin discharges. It is further suggested that water quality
685
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criteria and environmental impact controls be adapted to the conditions exist-
ing in the receiving waters and to threshold toxicity levels for marine organ-
isms. Consideration of water currents which can contribute to waste concen-
tration and dispersion is recommended when establishing waste water standards.
J042
INPUT AND FATE OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS ENTERING THE PROVIDENCE RIVER AND
UPPER NARRAGANSETT BAY FROM WASTEWATER EFFLUENTS,
Van Vleet, E. S., and Quinn, J. G.
Rhode Island University,
Kingston,
Graduate School of Oceanography.
Environmental Science and Technlogy, Vol. 11, No. 12, p 1086-1092, November,
1977. 4 fig, 2 tab, 23 ref.
A sampling program was conducted to investigate the input of petroleum hydro-
carbons to the Providence River and upper Narrangansett Bay by a municipal
sewage treatment plant and to determine the transport mechanisms and fate of
these hydrocarbons on entering the estuarine system. A one-year background
survey had indicated that municipal waste water treatment plants may be sig-
nificant contributors to oil pollution in estuarine and coastal waters. The
discharged hydrocarbons were primarily associated with the suspended solids.
Analysis of suspended material and sediments in the river and upper Narragan-
sett Bay indicated that about half of the suspended hydrocarbons were rapidly
settled out in the river; the remainder was transported out of the river and
dispersed throughout the bay. The petroleum products were detected to a depth
of about 40 cm in some sedimentary cores. The subsequent emergence of bio-
genie hydrocarbons revealed the extent to which oil pollution was present in
these sediments. Effluent from the Fields Point Treatment Plant contained on
the average 2.80 rag/liter of hydrocarbons, yielding a possible annual dis-
charge of hydrocarbons into the Providence River of 226 metric tons.
J043
CANNING GROUP EXPANSIONS,
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 980, p 598-599, October, 1977.
In October 1976 when Water Management Limited became part of the Canning
Group, it became apparent that larger premises would be needed for construc-
tion of water treatment facilities and production of Water Management spe-
cialty chemicals for water conditioning. Larger manufacturing operations
were established in Kidderminster, together with laboratories for their water
treatment and conditioning consulting service. A complete analytical labora-
tory was made available, along with flocculents for water and sewage treatment
and Vortex Oil Drinkers to remove floating oil from water. All products of
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the Canning Group will be available in France, including treatment equipment
for industrial effluents and public water supplies. The European marketing
activities will be controlled through Canning International BV, Amsterdam.
Penguin Pumps Limited joined the Canning Group in 1970 as a subsidiary of Can-
ning effluent treatment specialists, Pollution Control Limited. The present
move brings together the group's pump manufacturing activities. In the near
future the group will manufacture some pumps made entirely of plastic for han-
dling chemicals over a wide temperature range.
J044
POLLUTION CONTROL PLANT STATISTICS,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 115, No. 11, p 78-96, 98, 101-102, November,
1977. 13 tab.
A comprehensive listing of Canadian municipal water pollution control facili-
ties is provided in tabular form. The information given for each facility in-
cludes population size, whether the municipality has an industrial waste
strength limiting by-law, average daily flow, and whether the system is sepa-
rate or combined. Information on the degree of treatment, influent and efflu-
ent BOD and suspended solids, type of treatment, sludge processing, and cost
of treatment per million gallons of waste water processed is also provided.
Types of treatment covered include: algae lagoons, aerated lagoons, anaerobic
lagoons, primary sedimentation, conventional activated sludge, completely
mixed' systems, contact stabilization, biological filtration, extended aera-
tion, and septic tanks. Sludge processing techniques include: heated diges-
ters, drying beds, filtration, centrifuging, agricultural disposal, unheated
digesters, incineration, liquid haulage, deep well disposal, and landfilling.
Selected listings of key management and operating personnel responsible for
pollution control at various locations in Canada are also provided.
J045
COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF ON-SITE AND COMMUNITY SEWERAGE ALTERNATIVES,
Troyan, J. J., and Norris, D. P.
Brown and Caldwell,
Eugene, Oregon.
Civil Engineering-ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 12, p 84-89, December, 1977. 3 tab.
Information pertinent to the cost-effectiveness analysis of sewerage systems
for small communities and rural residential areas is presented. Selection
criteria are established for eight alternative systems for on-site disposal
and community collection, including: septic tank-soil absorption system, sep-
tic tank-mounted system, septic tank-evaporation-transpiration system, conven-
tional gravity sewers, small-diameter gravity sewers, pressure sewers, and
vacuum sewers. The feasibility analyses are based upon results of an inven-
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tory of soils, site characteristics, geology-hydrology, and climate. The in-
ventory results are evaluated in conjunction with data on technical feasi-
bility, environmental regulations, and unit costs. Advantages, disadvantages,
and limitations of the on-site disposal and community collection systems are
described.
J046
1978 SEWERAGE PROJECT FORECAST,
Western Construction, Vol. 53, No. 2, p 32, February, 1978.
Water project construction legislation, approved by the United States Con-
gress, has allocated $24.5 billion to be appropriated over the next five years.
According to the National Utility Contractors Association, the legislation will
provide an economic boost to construction firms in 1978. The additional fund-
ing comes at the end of an $18 billion allocation established by the 1972 Clean
Water Act. A study completed by the National Utility Contractors Association
refuted the contention by the Environmental Protection Agency that collector
systems are not a cost-effective approach to waste water management. The re-
cent legislation mandates that more than 25% of the funds be used for the con-
struction of collectors and interceptors, rehabilitation, or combined sewer
separation. The appropriation is part of the 1977 Clean Water Act approved by
Congress.
J047
THE BARCELONA CONVENTION AND ITS PROTOCOLS,
Lagrange, A. S.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Rome, Italy.
Ambio, Vol. 6, No. 6, p 328-332. 1977. 8 ref.
The 1976 Barcelona Convention, in which 16 Mediterranean coastal countries
participated, resulted in international agreements for controlling pollution
in the Mediterranean Sea. Fifteen countries have signed agreements establish-
ing the Convention as a framework for protection of the ocean from pollution,
control of the dumping of pollutants by ships and aircraft, and regulation of
pollution in the Mediterranean Sea by oil spills. Three categories of wastes
were identified within the protocol regulating pollution by ships and aircraft.
One category lists the various substances which are totally prohibited; the
second details those pollutants which require a special permit from the ap-
propriate authority before dumping; and the third category covers the general
range of all other wastes and matter for which a general dumping permit is
necessary. A list of totally prohibited pollutants, including acid and alka-
line compounds, is currently under consideration for adoption. The second
pollution abatement protocol adopted by the Convention establishes a regional
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data collection center and mandates international cooperation in controlling,
monitoring, recovering, and identifying pollution caused by an emergency or
accidental situations. No agreement could be reached among the participating
countries on the control of land-based pollution sources.
J048
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL IN METROPOLITAN ATHENS,
Gilad, A.
Environmental Pollution Control Project,
Athens, Greece.
Ambio, Vol. 6, No. 6, p 350-354, 1977. 6 fig, 1 tab.
Water, air, solid waste, and noise pollution controls under consideration for
Athens, Greece, are reviewed. A Greek Environmental Pollution Control Project,
initiated in conjunction with the United Nations Development Program and the
World Health Organization, was established in 1973 as an environmental data
collection center and coordinator of pollution abatement policies. A liquid
wastes disposal system is being developed based on analyses of municipal and
industrial effluent data, water use, and the impact of effluent discharges on
water quality. Bioindicators have also been traced in receiving waters to
determine the long-term effects of effluent discharge. Noise level surveys
were conducted in six areas of Athens to delineate noise sources. Traffic was
found to be the major source of noise pollution; legislation is pending that
will establish maximum noise levels. Disposal of solid wastes in sanitary
landfills is considered the most economic alternative for pollution control.
Studies were conducted on the disposal of industrial wastes and resource re-
covery of methane gas and scrap paper. The impact of air pollution on ma-
terials, archeological monuments, and public health was monitored; air pollu-
tion controls are under development.
J049
SEAWATER PLUS SEWAGE YIELDS LOTS OF THE FUEL GAS,
Machine Design, Vol. 50, No. 3, p 10, February, 1978.
A technique for hydrogen gas production by reacting sea water with molten fer-
rous iron in subsurface magma has been developed by Sandia Laboratories of
Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is estimated that 500 Ib/hr of hydrogen gas would
be produced by pumping 150,000 Ib/hr of water into basaltic magma at a tem-
perature of 1,200 C. Hydrogen production in magma containing 2-12% ferrous
iron can be increased by the addition of biomass to the water. Suggested
souces of biomass are sewage sludge, waste byproducts from crop harvesting and
processing, and seaweed. The cellulose of the plants releases its hydrogen
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during the reaction with the magma. The reaction of water containing 10% bio-
mass with magma at 1,300 C would yield gases containing 10% hydrogen. Reduc-
tion of the magma temperature at 600 C would produce a higher methane gas con-
tant. An annual production rate of 26 billion cu ft of hydrogen is predicted
for large basaltic magma chambers with a 12% ferrous iron centent at 1,200 C.
Magma sources are thought to be located approximately 2-3 km below the ocean
floor, within the range of current drilling technology. Steam, a byproduct of
the process, can be used in electrical power generation.
J050
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN A MEDITERRANEAN PORT CITY: HAIFA,
Evan, H. Z.
Ambio, Vol. 6, No. 6, p 346-349, 1977. 2 fig, 1 tab.
A two-year experimental environmental management project conducted in Haifa,
Israel, was co-sponsored by the Environmental Protection Service, the city of
Haifa and the United Nations Environment Program. A municipal agency was es-
tablished to monotor air quality, river and beach pollution, and solid waste
disposal. The agency was also responsible for establishing industrial coop-
eration, urban planning studies, and information services to public and legis-
lative bodies. Air quality management has focused on monitoring stations,
emission inventory, microclimatic studies, and industrial stack emissions,
especially during inversions. An autonomous River Authority has been proposed
to prevent pollution of the Kishon River with agricultural and industrial
wastes. A 1,000 ton/day recycling facility has been proposed as a solution to
the diminishing sanitary landfill areas. Reduction of coastal pollution by
tanker oil and bilge water has been attempted by the provision of cleaning
facilities and increased surveillance. Urban planning has concentrated on
limiting population densities and separating residential and industrial areas.
Legislation has been introduced for the dissemination of information to the
public and for administrating guidelines.
J051
COMPUTERIZATION AND AUTOMATION OF WASTEWATER SYSTEMS,
Hadeed, S. J.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 1, p 5-7, January, 1978.
The advantages of automatic or computer control of municipal waste water
treatment facilities are reviewed. Automation of sewage treatment plants is
recommended as a means of reducing labor costs and human error. Large-scale
facilities and industries have converted to automatic control to increase
equipment life, reduce instrument size and maintainence requirements, and con-
serve chemical and energy consumption. Computerized operations are capable of
collecting and reacting to data from flowmeters, thermocouples, pressure
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meters, thermometers, and other metering units. Plant efficiency can be com-
puter controlled by comparing collected data with current instrument readings.
Equipment malfunctions can be detected and even avoided by automatic monitor-
ing of instruments and plant processes. The quality and quantity of the ef-
fluent during each treatment process is monitored by sampling units. The
evaluation of computer operation in municipal waste treatment plants is based
on the efficiency of the automatic processes and the cost factors involved in
automation. An alternative for small treatment plants is the installation of
a time-sharing terminal for data collection and analysis.
J052
SUBMISSION BY THE INSTITUTE OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL TO THE ROYAL COMMISSION
ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ON 'ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND AGRICULTURE1,
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 76, No. 4, p 505-510, 1977. 1 fig, 3 tab, 17
ref.
Water pollution in agricultural areas and water supplies contributed by farm
wastes and other sources is examined. Farm land application of treated and
untreated sewage sludge is a suitable method of fertilization when the micro-
bial and chemical contents of the sludges are monitored. An estimated 4% of
the nutrients required for agricultural fertilization in England could be sup-
plied by the phosphorus and nitrogen values in sludge. Limitations are recom-
mended for levels discharged into the receiving soils of metals and boron be-
cause of their phytotoxic characteristics and potential harm to the food chain.
Other pollution sources in agricultural land are spray irrigation waters con-
taining chloride, boron, salts, trichlorobenzoic acid, and cadmium. Agricul-
ture can contribute to water pollution by leaching of inorganic nitrogen and
other fertilizers, and organic farm wastes.
JOS 3
FUTURE TREATMENT PLANT REQUIREMENTS,
Macleod, D. C.
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 77, No. 1, p 20-24, 1978.
Supplementation of South Africa's potable water resources with treated munici-
pal and industrial wastes is considered. Protection of river catchments which
provide potential water supplies is recommended to prevent pollution by waste
discharges. Waste water which contains difficult to treat but environmentally
safe substances can be discharged to catchments which are not potential water
sources. To maintain the quality of inland waters, tertiary treatment must be
included in future waste water treatment plants; algal growth potential must
be controlled below 25 mg/liter by nutrient removal. Nitrogen and phosphorus
removal from waste waters is an important consideration in preventing algal
blooms which clog filters in waste water treatment facilities. Landfill
leachates and heavy metals from industrial, domestic, and municipal wastes
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should be controlled at the source before pollutants accumulate in the water
supplies. Suspended solids and virus reductions can be achieved through
natural self-purification in water bodies by locating waste discharge points a
proper distance from the water supply. Disinfection by ozonation, chlorina-
tion, and other chemical treatments needs to be further investigated in rela-
tion to future water supplies.
JOS 4
POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE BALTIC IS RESULT OF COOPERATION,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 23, April, 1978.
Baltic Sea countries have reached agreements on the control of pollution en-
tering the sea from municipal and industrial sources. Inadequately treated
municipal sewage, agricultural runoff, and wastes from paper, shale oil, and
chemical industries are the primary sources of pollution in the Baltic Sea.
Tallinn, Estonia, discharges domestic sewage directly into the Baltic without
treatment; Leningrad, U.S.S.R., treats one-third of its sewage before dis-
charge to the Bay of Finland. Regulations limiting the discharge of sewage
containing BOD, nitrogen, and ammonia are based on the waste assimilative ca-
pacity of the receiving body of water. The establishment of biological and
chemical secondary treatment facilities has been initiated. Industries in the
Soviet Union are now required to remove carcinogens and other toxic materials
from waste water before discharge to a water body or treatment facility. Re-
moval of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fertilizers from agricultural runoff has
been required by the Soviet Union; DDT has been banned. Water consumption has
been reduced through reuse in industrial operations.
J055
LANDMARK TEXAS DECISION AGREES BENEFIT IS NOT WORTH THE COST,
Taylor, T. E.
Department of Water Utilities,
Dallas, Texas.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 26-29, April, 1978. 2 fig.
The Texas Water Quality Board relaxed the standards for advanced treatment of
waste water in response to hearings conducted in 1977. The Board had adopted
waste water treatment standards of 5 mg/liter BOD, 5 mg/liter total suspended
solids, and 3 rag/liter ammonia-nitrogen. Treatment facilities costing $250
million were under construction in the Dallas and Fort Worth area to attain
water quality standards of 10 mg/liter BOD and 10-15 mg/liter total suspended
solids which were required by other Texas cities. These standards represented
a 96% pollutant removal, whereas the more stringent regulations corresponded
to 98% removal. Testimony during the hearing on the standards revealed that
an additional $100-600 million would be required to upgrade and maintain the
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treatment plants to meet the strict standards. Other reports indicated that
the quality of the river receiving the treated effluent would not be signifi-
cantly improved by the measures until other nonpoint pollution sources were
controlled. The Board voted to accept the 10 mg/liter BOD and 15 mg/liter
total suspended solids regulations.
JOS 6
CONSERVE ENERGY IN WASTEWATER SYSTEMS,
Foster, W. E.
Black and Veatch, Consulting Engineers,
Detroit, Michigan.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, p 20-23, April, 1978.
Recommendations for the energy-efficient design of waste water treatment
facilities are presented. Alternatives to direct firing of fossil fuels are
electricity, solar energy, and heat pump recovery techniques. Oxidation ponds,
fixed media filtration, anaerobic digestion, and land application of sludge
require less energy than other treatment methods. Constant capacity pumps are
more efficient than variable speed units; continuous flow requires less energy
for warm-up or idle than intermittent operation. Mixing of primary anaerobic
digesters is more efficient and the greater volume of gas produced can be
stored for use in internal combustion equipment. Limiting the chemical doses
of lime, ferric chloride, or polymer in sludge conditioning and designing ef-
ficient conditioning tanks can improve the properties of the sludge for later
disposal. The reduction of dissolved oxygen levels in activated sludge and
nitrification systems, excess air in the incinerator, and sludge pumping from
the settling tanks effectively reduces energy requirements. Energy efficiency
can be maintained in treatment buildings by reducing ventilation, temperature,
and light, in non-critical areas, and by providing an elevated tank for the
plant water system. Further energy savings can be attained by recovering all
heat sources in plant operation.
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J057
LEGISLATION NEEDED TO PROMOTE CONSERVATION AND RECYCLING,
Wilson, D. G.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge,
Systems and Design Division,
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Compost Science, Vol. 18, No. 4, p 13-15, July-August, 1977.
Legislation for regulating environmental pollution proposes that polluters be
charged for sewage treatment and those who are affected by the pollution be
compensated. An increase in sewer charges is recommended so that adequate
waste water treatment can be accomplished. Suggested charges are based on the
amount of waste water produced by an individual rather than evenly distributed
charges. While sewer charges are usually based on water intake, individuals
using water for non-polluting practices, such as irrigation, should be
credited rather than taxed for this water usage. Individual waste production
charges would encourage the use of water-saving and non-polluting devices,
such as composting toilets. Where adequate sewage treatment is unfeasible, it
is recommended that waste water charges continue to be collected and utilized
in a compensatory fashion. This would include improvement of water supply and
recreational facilities for communities located downstream from a pollution
source. Long-term effects of pollution may be compensated for by creating na-
tional parks or wildlife centers. Other areas affected by pollution that are
considered by the proposed legislation include natural resources, air pollu-
tion, and water supplies.
J058
CHLORINATION: ASSESSING ITS IMPACT,
Winklehaus, C.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49, No. 12, p 2354-2357,
December, 1977.
The 'Second Conference on Water Chlorination: Environmental and Health Ef-
fects' was held in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, during November 1977 under the spon-
sorship of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the U. S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, and the U. S. Department of Energy. Topics covered by the 65
papers presented during the conference included: freshwater systems, marine
systems, toxicity, trihalomethanes, waste water disinfection, industrial
wastes, health effects, alternatives, and legislation. An EPA overview of the
regulatory aspects of chlorination cited the flexibility in coliform standards
for secondary waste water disinfection as responsible for the reduction in the
increased use of chlorine. EPA officials favored improving water and waste
water treatment processes used prior to disinfection as a means of reducing
the disinfectant doses required to achieve adequate pathogen control. EPA-
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sponsored projects on alternatives to chlorine, such as ozone and bromine
chloride, were highlighted during a separate session. Papers on the health-
related aspects of chlorination focused on the carcinogenicity and mutagenicity
of chlorinated waters as evidenced by epidemiological studies.
J059
PRELIMINARY LISTING OF MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT CAPACITIES,
1976. 187 p, 50 tab. NTIS Technical Report EDA-OER-76-038.
A preliminary listing of all municipal waste water treatment facilities ser-
vicing populations over 2,000 in the United States was compiled. The updated
listing was devised by the Oklahoma Foundation for Research Development Utili-
zation, Inc. for the Economic Development Administration. The municipal treat-
ment facilities, categorized by state and county, are evaluated for the popul-
ation served, based on data from the 1970 census. Municipalities within coun-
ties located in Economic Development Districts are noted. Each plant is clas-
sified according to the daily treatment capacity, the average daily use, the
average daily per capita use rate, and the percentage of treatment facility
capacity utilized. Predicted parameters recorded in the preliminary listing
include the population expansion permitted by the present facility's design
capacity, the estimated cost of expanding the plant for a utilization rate of
70% with a 20% impact margin, the use of the system approaching capacity or
beyond capacity, and a reference number for each municipal facility. The
second phase of this project, planned for 1977, will correct, update, and
refine the data.
J060
CANADIAN GOVERNMENT APPROVES $66 MILLION LOANS TO MONTREAL FOR SEWAGE TREAT-
MENT PROJECT,
Water and Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 1, p 17, January, 1978.
The Canadian government, through the Central Mortgage and Housing Corp., has
loaned the Montreal Urban Community $66,660,400 for improvement of its munici-
pal sewage collection and treatment system. Twenty-five percent of this loan,
or $16,665,100, does not have to be repaid by Montreal. The loan is part of
the $1.2 billion required for the upgrading of Montreal's sewerage system.
Two-thirds of the total funding will be furnished by the Central Mortgage and
Housing Corp. Loans totalling more than $231 million have been awarded to the
Montreal Urban Community since 1974. The most recent loan will be used to
purchase the land for a waste water treatment plant and for awarding contracts
for its construction. Of the total cost of the project, $22 million was for
the construction of an 11-ft diameter sewage collector tunnel. The Canadian
government has awarded more than $1.5 billion to over 3,700 projects; 700 pro-
jects in Quebec have received $356 million, of which $67 million does not have
to be repaid.
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J061
1984 IS APPROACHING—WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO THE WASTE-WATER SERVICE?,
Crossley, A. M.
Metropolitan Public Health Division,
Thames Water Authority,
London, Eng1and.
Water Services, Vol. 81, No. 978, p 475-476, August, 1977.
Future trends in municipal waste water treatment facilities are predicted.
Treatment facilities will reportedly be automatically controlled and operated
by a main computer. Log sheets and records will be maintained by the computer
for read-out on a visual display unit or on tape. The computer will control
plant maintenance schedules as well as security and personnel matters. Mag-
netic or ultrasonic flowmeters and level transmitters will monitor waste water
and sludge flows. Floats and electrodes in pumping stations will be replaced
by upstream level meters; pumping operations will be controlled by integrated
solid state circuit chips. The computer will automatically regulate the dis-
solved oxygen secondary treatment process by evaluating data from electrodes.
Digesters will be operated according to the quantity and rate of gas produc-
tion, measured by the BTU or heat meter. Fuel to power the treatment facility,
as well as excess fuel for local power stations, will be supplied in the form
of methane from the digesters.
J062
DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AT MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT WORKS—EVALUA-
TION AND CONTROL OF SITE AESTHETICS, AIR POLLUTANTS, NOISE AND OTHER OPERATION
AND CONSTRUCTION FACTORS,
Leffel, R. E.
1976. Ill p, 20 fig, 14 tab, 104 ref, 1 append. Technical Report EPA-430/9-
76-003.
Methodologies of municipal waste water treatment plant design evaluation and
planning in compliance with the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment
of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) were developed to assist treatment plant designers in
achieving cost-effective and environmentally sound projects. Planning and de-
sign controls are reviewed for treatment plants, pumping stations, separation
structures, interceptors, force mains, collection systems, and outfall sewers.
Criteria for controlling noise and air pollution, and providing aesthetic
lighting, architecture, site design, and landscaping are presented. Environ-
mental impacts considered in project planning include wildlife, shorelines,
wetlands, flood plains, drainage, and construction and operation effects. A
compilation and review of reference legislation affecting waste water treat-
ment plants is included in the guidelines.
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J063
FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT—CITY OF JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT FACILITIES, ARLINGTON-EAST SERVICE DISTRICT,
1976. 245 p, 15 fig, 1 tab. Technical Report EPA-904/9-76/021.
The final Environmental Impact Statement on the specifications of the 10 mgd
regional waste water treatment plant planned for Jacksonville, Florida, was
presented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a preliminary to
awarding grants for funding the project. In addition to the waste water
treatment plant, the project included 13,900 ft of outfall line to the St.
Johns River and a 38,000 ft force main for pumping sludge to an incinerator.
The impact of construction activity on aquatic animals in two salt marsh ponds,
on wildlife, and on the surrounding communities was reviewed. The effects of
the discharge of 10 mgd of treated effluent on the St. Johns River and the
community development associated with the expanding waste water treatment
facilities were evaluated. The alternative sites for the treatment plant,
outfall, and force main were considered on a cost-effective basis. The En-
vironmental Impact Statement is a continuation of a draft presented in 1976.
J064
NEW PROSPECTS FOR SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN U P,
Chaturvedi, A. C.
Irrigation Commission,
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 58, Part EN 1, p 21-22,
October, 1977.
Sources of water pollution in Uttar Pradesh, India, are identified and water
quality controls are cited. The discharge of sewage effluents to rivers,
ponds, and lakes has overburdened the natural self-purification process of re-
ceiving waters. Surveys have indicated that waste water treatment facilities
should be expanded or replaced; further research on pollutant identification
and water basin management is recommended. Identification of a water re-
source's use is required for the cost-effective evaluation of the need for
treatment facilities, reservoirs, sewer systems, and control regulations.
Trace quantities of pollutants have been identified as leading to hematopoite-
tic tissue. More strict control of halogenated methanes, and chloroforms in
receiving waters is needed; organic components in domestic wastes have been
classified as carbohydrates, proteins, fatty acids, and soluble organic ma-
terials evident in trickling filter effluent. Effective water quality manage-
ment includes establishing standardized rating scales, information resources,
nutrient requirements of aquatic flora, and cost-effective alternatives of
waste water treatment projects.
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J065
THE PROVISION OF TECHNICAL INFORMATION IN A REGIONAL WATER AUTHORITY,
Mathews, M. G., and Hilder, D. W.
Severn-Trent Water Authority,
Birmingham, England.
Journal of the Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, Vol. 32, No. 1,
p 7-18, January, 1978. 1 fig, 5 tab.
Guidelines for water quality data collections and analyses are described for
regional planning and records maintained by water authorities. The guidelines
are categorized as: water resources, land drainage, reclamation and trade ef-
fluent control, water supply, sewerage, general engineering, planning and de-
sign, water quality management, recreation, fisheries, and medical. Continu-
ous monitoring of water in water supply sources, waste water treatment plants,
and rivers is recommended; samples are referenced according to site, date,
time, and type of analyses to be performed. Background information suggested
for sewage works includes: flows, discharges, pumping information, economic
history, physical statistics, and a complete record of sewers. Further infor-
mation required for treatment plants involves: the chemical, biological, and
bacteriological data; and trade effluent details, such as the strength and
volume of the waste, as well as charges and rebates. Computers are forwarded
for collating, analyzing, and storing the regional water authority data.
J066
CONDUCTING VALUE ENGINEERING STUDIES—THE EXPERIENCE OF FIVE CITIES,
Gulp, G.
Gulp, Wesner, Gulp, Clean Water Consultants,
El Dorado Hills, California.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 2, p 56-60, February, 1978. 6 tab, 1
ref.
Value engineering reports, required by the EPA for all waste water treatment
projects costing more than $10,000, and the subsequent cost reductions of con-
structing municipal waste treatment plants were reviewed for five cities in
which value engineering was employed. The value engineering report on the up-
grading of a 3 mgd trickling filter plant indicated a cost savings of
$3,843,570, of which $920,000 was implemented. An evaluation of a 70-80% com-
pleted 24 mgd activated sludge plant indicated a cost savings of $547,467, of
which $274,770 was realized. The third plant, upgraded from 1.6-3.8 mgd ca-
pacity, saved $1,404,872 with value engineering. Upgrading of a 115 mgd
treatment plant to 200 mgd with nutrient removal operations cost $5,700,000
less than estimated. The fifth project, in which two plants with a total ca-
pacity of 250 mgd were upgraded to provide nitrification and improved effluent
quality, was evaluated as costing $43,600,000 less than estimated; $9,318,000
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was saved in construction costs when value engineering was implemented. The
value engineering fees ranged from 0.2-0.8% of the total construction costs
for each of the five projects.
J067
REUSE, ENERGY, SLUDGE: IN WHAT DIRECTION ARE WE GOING?,
Greifer, L.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 1, p 37-38, 40, 42-44, January,
1978.
Pilot plant studies and current waste water treatment practices are reviewed
for the reuse of waste water and energy generation from sludge disposal tech-
niques. The Odessa, Texas, sewage treatment plant discharges its wastes to a
secondary treatment facility in a petrochemical plant which uses the treated
water as cooling tower makeup and boiler feed water; the petrochemical wastes
are recharged into injection wells for oil production. An Israeli pilot plant
recharges the waste water into potable aquifers after oxidation lagooning, lime
conditioning, clarification and chlorination; the recharged water is used for
irrigational and industrial purposes but also fulfills potable water standards.
Autothermic copyrolysis of sewage sludge and refuse-derived rather than fossil
fuel required a fuel-to-sludge ratio of 1:2 and a sludge solids content of 24%.
Orange County, California, has utilized digester gas and waste heat from /
secondary treatment operations with a fuel value of 600 BTU/cu ft as a power
supply. A comparison of pyrolysis and incineration in Arlington County,
Virginia, indicated that pyrolysis required lower temperatures and less com-
bustion air, while producing enough steam to power the afterburner. Pyrolysis
in conjunction with activated carbon reduced suspended solids by 95%, grease
to 10 mg/liter, BOD above 30 mg/liter, and heavy metals by 75.0-99.9%. Co-
incineration of sludge and refuse produced 150,000 kilowatt hrs/day of power.
Viruses in sludge supernatant were disinfected within 3 days at 35 C. Land
application, pH adjustment, and ocean disposal of sewage sludge were also
reviewed.
J068
WATER REORGANIZATION—AIMS, ACHIEVEMENT AND THE FUTURE,
Sinnott, C. S.
Thames Water Authority,
London, England.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2, p 73, 76-77, 79,
February, 1978.
Improvements in waste water quality enacted by England's Thames Water Authority
since its inauguration in 1974 are reviewed. An 8,300 million gallon reser-
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voir, completed in 1976, and the Lambourn valley groundwater plan augmented
the water supplies during a drought. A complete sewage treatment plant was
constructed at Beckton to improve the quality of effluent flowing into the
Thames River. Carrousel waste water treatment systems were installed in Ash
Vale and Shroncote to assist the overloaded treatment plant in Farnborough,
Hampshire. Secondary treatment operations were installed in the Long Reach
works where primary treated effluent was polluting an estuary. High nitrate
concentrations in the Lee River, supplying 7% of the water for the Thames
region, were reduced by constructing a denitrifying plant at Luton Sewage
Treatment Works and converting an activated sludge plant to reduce nitrates at
Rye Meads. A total of 19.25 million pounds sterling will be spent on treat-
ment systems, pumping plants, and sewers in Southwark and Beckton to accom-
modate the increasing population in the redeveloped Docklands. The capacity
of the Fobney Water Works on River Kennet will be increased by 10 mgd to ac-
commodate developments and industries in the Basingstoke-Reading area. The
Reading treatment plant will be expanded from 11 to 14 mgd with a two-stage
activated sludge operation using pure oxygen injection and surface aeration
for nitrification.
J069
COUNTRIES RESEARCH WASTE TREATMENT AND FISH FARMING,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 63, March, 1978.
A research project on the feasibility of utilizing sewage stabilization ponds
for fish farming has been supported by institutions in Israel, Kenya, Thailand,
Malaysia, and Peru. The stabilization ponds, averaging 1.5 m in depth, promote
bacterial and algal growth in a warm and sunlit environment. Fecal coliforms
are reduced by 98% in stabilization ponds due to other predatory organisms, the
physical conditions in the ponds, and the lack of nutrients. The research will
examine the uptake of heavy metals and pesticides by fish and the transfer of
pathogens on the scales or in the gut of fish. Stabilization pond design,
operation, and quality may have to be altered from the conventional rapid
treatment and discharge of waste water to accommodate fish production. Con-
siderations include the type and concentration of the wastes and nutrient
levels required for fish growth.
J070
POINT-OF-USE WATER TREATMENT ALLOWS SELECTIVITY,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 56, March, 1978.
Point-of-use waste water and potable water treatment systems are reviewed as
an alternative to centralized waste water treatment facilities and water sup-
ply connections. A municipal waste water treatment facility for two towns in
Minnesota, eligible for 80% EPA funding, cost an estimated $2,800,000 for a
stabilization pond, sewers, a pumping plant, and other treatment equipment.
The sandy loam soils in the two areas were reportedly suitable for septic
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tanks and soil treatment units costing an estimated $1,500-2,000/lot. If the
homeowners would have been required to pay 20% of the per capita costs of the
centralized treatment plant, they would have had to pay $2,000 more than for a
septic tank system. The example was used to demonstrate the need for inves-
tigation of point-of-use waste water treatment. Point-of-use treatment was
also applied to potable water. In the example cited, connection of a remote
farm to a centralized water supply cost an estimated $2,350 more than drilling
a private well and installing water treatment equipment. In this case, point-
of-use water treatment system operation cost an estimated $520/yr less than
equivalent water usage charges.
J071
USER ACCEPTANCE OF WASTEWATER SLUDGE COMPOST,
Ettlich, W. F., and Lewis, A. E.
Culp/Wesner/Culp, Clean Water Consultants,
El Dorado Hills, California.
1977. 54 p, 2 fig, 6 tab, 7 ref, 6 append. Technical Report EPA-600/2-77-096.
An investigation of consumer attitudes toward waste water sludge compost
utilization and past and current distribution practices was conducted. In-
terviews were performed with compost users in areas which produce and distri-
bute composted waste water sludge. Usage interviews were conducted in Placer-
ville, California; Colorado Springs, Colorado; Fort Worth, Texas; Washington,
D. C.; Los Angeles, California; and Chicago, Illinois. Results of the inter-
views indicated a willingness by users to accept composted sludge providing it
cost no more than current products and could be tested prior to use. Sludge
transportation costs, based on data collected from the Chicago composting
operations, were $2.50/cu yd sludge for 28 miles, one way, and $1.30/cu yd for
8 miles, one way. Expected user pick-up of composted sludge in the inter-
viewed areas ranged from 75-100% of the sludge volume produced.
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J072
RETROSPECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES
1800-1972,
Tarr, J. A., McMichael, F. C., McCurley, J., Yosie, T. F., and McShane, C.
Carnegie-Mellon University,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
Department of History.
1977. 367 p, 15 fig, 10 tab, 422 ref, 4 append. NTIS Technical Report
NSF/RA-770351.
The historical development of water supplies and waste water treatment was ex-
amined by methods of retrospective and prospective analysis. It was hypothe-
sized that initial attempts at instituting water quality standards and con-
trols paralleled water quality developments since 1960. A review of tech-
nologies developed since 1800 includes: water-carriage collection systems,
separate or combined sewerage, and waste water applications to land. Water
quality policy and conflicts, social impacts and values regarding waste water
management, federal roles, policy, programs relating to water quality, and
health and economic impacts are examined. Relevant historical and contem-
porary technological comparisons are highlighted. The study concluded that
waste water technology has transferred pollution sources from the municipali-
ties due to the negative impacts of certain capital-intensive technologies on
second parties; retrofit of in-place, capital-intensive technology has limited
waste water treatment techniques; social values have been affected by the
negative and positive aspects of waste water technology; and retrospective ex-
amination of water quality technology can be a useful instrument in formulat-
ing contemporary and future water policies and technologies.
J073
LAND TREATMENT OF SEWAGE: EPA1S VIEW,
Reid, F.
Water and Sewage Works,
Chicago, Illinois.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 64-67, April, 1978,
'>
The EPA's policies on land treatment of waste water by rapid infiltration,
groundwater recharge, and vegetation fertilization are reviewed. The use of
primary-treated, secondary-treated, or mixed wastes in land application is in-
fluenced by the type of waste, local soil, application method, and area topo-
graphy. EPA policy emphasizes the need to examine the constituents of munici-
pal wastes in evaluating treatment requirements. Land application of pure
domestic wastes removes and utilizes up to 99% of the nutrients and other waste
products. Municipal wastes containing nondegradable household detergents may
require pretreatment before land application; food processing wastes are
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usually amenable to land application without pretreatment. Variables in-
fluencing land treatment include climate, soil condition, and height above
groundwater. The statutes adopted by EPA give preference to land application
when it is a cost-effective alternative to other treatment systems. About 15%
of the grants that have been issued by the EPA have funded land application
systems, primarily in small communities. Although pretreatment may reduce the
cost-effectiveness of land application, the same would be required before dis-
charging wastes into receiving waters. Land treatment has the additional
benefit of supplying nutrients and is not as energy or chemically intensive as
advanced waste water treatment methods. The EPA policy on land treatment also
considers the advantage of producing recoverable water by this method.
J074
CMS SYSTEM SAVES TIME AND MONEY,
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 5, p 76, May, 1978.
Construction management services supplied by CH2M Hill permitted a 16% savings
and early completion of the Rock Creek sewage treatment plant, commissioned by
the Unified Sewerage Agency of Washington County, Oregon. The plant, which
provides primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment, was completed on a phased
design and construction system. Construction contracts were divided into 50
separate packages; major equipment was ordered directly from the manufacturers.
The project was divided into three phases: the raw sewage pumping plant, the
primary treatment facilities, and the secondary-tertiary treatment facilities.
Phased design and construction permitted earlier startup than would have been
possible with conventional design-bid-construct systems. Phased design also
permitted earlier equipment orders and deliveries; inflation associated with
project construction costs was reduced because of the shorter and earlier con-
struction time. Initial designs were developed in March, 1975; the entire
tertiary operation was completed in November, 1977, 9 months ahead of schedule.
J075
ESTABLISHING GUIDELINES FOR LAND-BASED WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNERS,
Baker, M., and Christensen, L. A.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 4, p 76-80, April, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab,
11 ref.
Technical, economic, legal, and socio-political considerations are incor-
porated into a design framework for sewage sludge treatment and disposal deci-
sion making. Alternative methods of waste treatment should be evaluated with
cost-benefit analyses. Resource recovery and land application of waste water
treatment residuals can be encouraged through government policies, reducing
depletion of certain natural resources. This can be accomplished through
legal regulations or through an economic incentive program. Fee simple title
and ownership, easements, leases, and other contractual arrangements are the
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alternatives cited for land acquisition and management. Other considerations
incorporated into the decision framework are transport, other types of re-
cycling processes, management objectives, and revenue producing alternatives.
J076
SEWERAGE FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES,
Pickford, J.
University of Technology,
Loughborough, England,
Department of Civil Engineering.
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, p 119-120, 122-123, 127,
129, 1978. 3 fig, 1 tab, 11 ref.
Social and economic factors are considered in alternative sewerage designs for
developing nations. In some countries, sewer systems constructed in the 19th
and early 20th centuries are still in operation. An estimated 140 million
people in developing countries have no sanitary or sewerage provisions. Only
about 3% of the population in developing countries is serviced by sewers that
connect to treatment facilities; an estimated 200 million have household
sewerage systems, ranging from septic tank systems to pit or bucket latrines.
Economic situations in developing countries may limit sewer installation in
many areas; water supplies to remove wastes are also inadequate in many parts
of the world. Blockage and septicity in sewer systems are common problems in
tropical countries. Conventional sewerage is often feasible only in indus-
trial areas or in commercial and higher class residential areas. Modified
sewerage is applicable in areas where housing is under construction and a sys-
tem can be installed simultaneously. Rural, low-density, and transitional
districts are more amenable to on-site household treatment systems. In over-
populated urban areas, high density villages, or transitional districts, com-
munal latrines or vacuum truck systems can provide waste removal in the
absence of adequate drainage and disposal land.
J077
WASTEWATER PLANT CONSTRUCTION,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 5, p 512-513, May, 1978.
A three-year agreement between the EPA and the United States Army Corps of En-
gineers provides construction evaluation, management, and supervision of waste
water treatment projects funded by the 1977 Clean Water Act. The Act will
supply $24.5 billion in grants for municipal waste water treatment projects,
incorporating a three-phase grant process. The process includes an initial
facility plan developed locally, a more detailed plan with designs and spe-
cifications, and a final construction and operation phase. Corps personnel
assigned to the EPA construction grant program are responsible for the engi-
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neering feasibility studies. Bid and construction plans are evaluated by the
Engineers' assessment of the submitted plans and specifications. When a pro-
ject is funded, Corps personnel will be maintained on-site to indirectly man-
age the construction projects; projects funded for more than $50 million will
have a full-time Corps supervisor.
J078
BETTER 0 AND M PROGRAMS IS ULTIMATE ANSWER TO 0 AND M PROBLEMS,
Davanzo, A. C., and Thompson, W. B.
Detroit Water and Sewage Department,
Michigan.
Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3, p 22-23, March, 1978.
Camp, Dresser and McKee of Boston, Massachusetts, were retained by the Detroit
Water and Sewerage Department to formulate operation and maintenance manuals
and train personnel employed in the new 800 mgd waste water treatment plant.
The plant has a maximum capacity of 1,200 mgd and a staff of 500 people em-
ployed over three shifts. The plant provides primary treatment, secondary
aeration treatment, chemical flocculation for phosphorus removal, scum and
grease removal, clarification, and incineration. Operation and maintenance
priorities were identified for certain sludge treatment and disposal opera-
tions where effluent quality standards were threatened; manual preparation and
personnel training were initiated in these areas. Final manuals describing
operation and maintenance guidelines for all processes will be assembled into
a comprehensive volume. Training and evaluation of the personnel will cul-
minate in testing that will include both written and practical examinations.
In-plant training programs are also being established to educate new employees,
as well as maintain and update the operation and maintenance manuals as re-
quired.
J079
SEWAGE SLUDGE - WASTE OR AGRICULTURAL ASSET?,
Coker, E., and Davis, R.
Soil Science Section,
Water Research Centre,
Stevenage, England.
New Scientist, Vol. 78, No. 1101, p 298-300, May, 1978. 1 fig, 1 tab.
The use of sewage sludge as an agricultural fertilizer is reviewed as an al-
ternative method of disposal. Liquid sludges, with high soluble nitrogen con-
centrations, can be applied to crop and pasture lands by spray irrigation;
they generally contain higher levels of nutrients than solid sludges. Solid
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sludges must be ploughed into fields but contain higher levels of organic ma-
terial. England's Department of the Environment, the National Water Council,
and the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service have recommended that a
Cu:Ni:Zn ratio of 2:8:1 be maintained when adding sludge to soils. Standards
for As, B, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mo, Pb, and Se in sewage sludge and soils have also
been proposed. Guidelines on sludge application rates to crop lands define
the amount of nitrogen to be added to soils to maintain the proper balance.
Salmonella, Taenia saginata, Heterodera rostachiensis, and other pathogenic or
infectious organisms should be reduced or removed. Grazing on land treated
with raw sludge should be delayed for six months; pasture lands receiving
treated sludge should not be used for three weeks. When treated sludge is ap-
plied to land that will be planted with crops that are eaten raw, planting
should be postponed until one year after sludge application.
J080
WATER-CONSERVATION METHODS TO MEET PENNSYLVANIA'S WATER NEEDS,
Fletcher, P. W., and Sharpe, W. E.
Pennsylvania State University,
University Park,
Department of Forestry.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 70, No. 4, p 200-203,
April, 1978. 11 ref.
Sources of potential water conservation in Pennsylvania are reviewed with re-
spect to reducing the load on sewage treatment plants and residential waste
water treatment sites. Water-saving devices attached to showerheads, toilets,
and sinks can reduce water closet water use to 3.5 gal/flush, compared to the
conventional 4-6 gal, and shower water discharge to 3.5 gal/min, compared to
the conventional 4-10 gal/min. Pressure-reducing valves can be installed to
reduce residential water pressure to 340-410 kPa. Compressed air-assisted
showers and water closets can reduce water consumption to 0.5 gal/min and 0.5
gal, respectively. Water saving devices can reduce sewage flows to the treat-
ment plant by up to 7% and flows to residential on-lot disposal fields by 40%;
infiltration-inflow comprises about 30-40% of the treatment plant influent,
necessitating sewer line studies and corrections. Further water and energy
saving techniques can be applied to dishwashers, clothes washers, and water
heaters.
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J081
CURRENT STATUS OF ON-SITE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT,
Senn, C. L.
Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 40, No. 5, p 279-284, March-April, 1978.
2 tab.
Current planning techniques and regulations governing on-site waste water
treatment facilities are reviewed. Zoning and land use planning are recom-
mended before land development begins; soil topography, geology, aquifer,
vegetation, and climate analyses are, initial considerations in regulating
on-site sewage systems. Building permits should be issued by building and
plumbing regulatory agencies before actual on-site systems are constructed to
insure that proper design criteria are met and site characteristics are suit-
able. The Manual of Septic Tank Practice has modified the design criteria for
on-site treatment; other methods of residential waste treatment include aero-
bic treatment, soil absorption-evapotranspiration, pressurized subsurface ab-
sorption, electric osmosis for impervious soils, waterless and water-conserv-
ing toilets, mound systems, and recycling systems. Absorption field design,
septic tank design, and water depth parameters mandated by various state
agencies are presented; land use planning practices and regulations adopted in
some states are reviewed. The development of new on-site treatment methods
and standardization of test methodology are recommended. The expanded re-
quirements of on-site waste water treatment regulations are considered.
J082
COST STUDIES FOR RENOVATED WASTEWATER,
Clark, R. M., English, J. N., and Gillean, J. I.
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, No. 4, p 688-697, April,
1978. 18 fig, 9 tab, 8 ref.
An economic evaluation of three options for expanding the potable water supply
in San Diego, California, and Dallas, Texas, included two in which waste water
was renovated. The first scheme involved expanding the existing water supply
source; a cost analysis concluded that this option would increase the total
cost of water by 23.5% in Dallas and decrease the total cost by 3.4% in San
Diego. The second scheme, in which treated water would be routed to an exist-
ing reservoir to supply up to 50% of the water demand, would cost Dallas an
additional 46.5% and San Diego 41.7%. In the third option, waste water would
be treated to higher levels in a renovation plant and directed to the inlet of
the water treatment plant; total costs for this scheme would increase by 64.4%
for Dallas and 52.0% for San Diego.
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J083
DIESEL GENERATING SETS PROVIDE BACK-UP POWER,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 987, p 295-296, May, 1978.
Auto Diesels Braby Ltd. manufactures a variety of generators for use as stand-
by power units in England's water and sewage treatment plants. The diesel
generator units have power outputs ranging over 20-1500 kilovolt-amperes. The
generators are available as mobile units or stationary models; weatherproof
enclosures and optional soundproofing make the units suitable for a variety of
residential or treatment plant conditions. The power units are equipped with
either manual or automatic start-up control and may be used as power backups
or primary power sources. Power frequencies range over 40-60 hertz to operate
variable speed pumps; the diesel generators are usually installed as sets
which operate separately or in parallel.
J084
SEWAGE COULD SPREAD HEALTH HAZARD,
New Scientist, Vol. 78, No. 1106, p 646, June, 1978.
Potential public health hazards are identified for the land application of
municipal waste water and sewage sludge containing bacteria, viruses, parasi-
tic protozoa and helminths. The increased use of sewage-derived organic fer-
tilizers and incorporation of land application techniques into EPA construc-
tion grant policies may increase the potential for introducing pathogens into
the soil. Conventional secondary waste water treatment and chlorination may
not destroy all of the pathogenic or infectious agents; techniques for analyz-
ing viruses are selective and may not identify all types present. Viruses
have been shown to be resistant to many environmental conditions; poliovirus
has survived for up to 36 days on lettuce and radish crops spray irrigated
with waste water. Laboratory tests on pathogen viability in waste water after
treatment have often overestimated the removal efficiency of the processes.
Further biological, chemical, or physical stabilization processes are recom-
mended for primary effluent and aerobically or anaerobically digested efflu-
ent. Caution is advised in the consumption of raw vegetables harvested within
2-3 mos of spray irrigation with sewage effluent.
JOS 5
EPA AMENDS SEWAGE PLANT FUNDING RULES,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 25, p 41, June, 1978.
The EPA Has amended construction grant regulations for municipal sewage treat-
ment plants in an effort to improve grant application processing procedures
and to update the regulations to conform with 1972 amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act. Equipment procurement practices will be modified
and awarded construction grants will be cross-referenced with waste water per-
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mits. Enforcement practices will be coordinated with grant mechanisms to
monitor construction schedules. Equipment costing less than $200,000 will no
longer require commercial code equipment liens for progress payments. Retro-
active applications based on inflationary increases prior to December 1975
will be eliminated. New provisions have been established for integrating spe-
cific treatment facilities with regional water quality. Proposed compliance
with facilities planning requirements by March 31, 1980, will eliminate grace
periods.
J086
JAPANESE GAS FROM SEWER SLUDGE,
Water and Waste Treatment, Vol. 21, No. 6, p 17, June, 1978.
An electric powerplant, developed by Ebara-Infilco of Tokyo, Japan, uses sew-
age sludge gas as its fuel source. The powerplant, reportedly capable of
generating 170,000 kilowatts/1 mgd waste water, reclaims sludge gas in a high-
efficiency sewage digestion chamber. Desulfurization and other methods remove
hydrogen sulfide and other impurities from sludge digestion gas which is then
stored in a pressure tank. The digester gas is burned in an engine designed
and supplied by Motoren-Werke Manheim A. G. of Munich, West Germany. Combus-
tion of the gas in the engine turns a generator turbine which generates elec-
tricity. The powerplant is equipped with a waste gas burning boiler which
supplies steam to the digestion chamber. The plant is reportedly capable of
supplying enough electrical power to operate all sewage treatment equipment,
including the air blowers and pumps, in addition to generating surplus power.
J087
IWES 83RD SUMMER MEETING AND CONFERENCE, 1978,
Water Services, Vol. 82, No. 988, p 334-336, June, 1978. 1 tab.
The water quality of Welsh estuaries and coastal waters was one of the topics
discussed at the 83rd IWES Conference. The Welsh Water Authority reported
that about 65% of the 574,000 cu m/day sewage and 10,647,000 cu in/day indus-
trial effluent produced in the area was discharged with little or no treatment
to tidal waters. A 1975 survey indicated that of the 414.5 km of Welsh estu-
aries, 25.7 km were grossly polluted, 59.9 km were of poor quality, and 53.0
km were in need of some improvement. Wastes produced by about two-thirds of
Wales population are discharged into the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Chan-
nel. Liverpool Bay receives domestic and industrial wastes from Lancashire;
the Menia Straits receive sewage discharges totalling about 8,730 cu m/day at
an average organic loading of 2,600 kg BOD/day. Guidelines were adopted by
the Welsh Water Authority in 1975 for controlling domestic sewage and indus-
trial waste discharges into tidal waters. The Working Party on Sewage Dis-
posal concluded that screening and comminution of sewage rather than biologi-
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cal treatment was adequate for discharged waste water; suitable outfall design
was also recommended. A directive on bathing water quality and a reservoir
system on the River Dee for water augmentation were also discussed.
J088
SLUDGE GAS AN ENERGY SOURCE IN SEWAGE WORKS,
Bicknell, M.
Civil Engineering, p 61, 63, 65, May, 1978. 9 ref, 2 append.
The use of methane gas from sludge digestion is discussed as a fuel source for
sewage treatment plant operations. A plant serving 1,000 people, utilizing
sludge digestion tanks with a 30 day capacity of 82.5 cu m, can supply 30 cu
m/day of digestion gas. The gas contains methane, carbon dioxide, and nitro-
gen, with a caloric value of 24.5 megajoules/cu m. While small plants may not
economically utilize the surplus digestion gas produced, power costs to heat
boiler water, which raises the sludge digestion temperature to 35 C, could be
offset if the boiler system were expanded to also provide heating of offices
and laboratories in small treatment plants. In larger plants serving a popu-
lation of 100,000 people, digestion gas can be generated at a rate of 3,000 cu
m/day at an available energy supply of 73,500 megajoules/day. Sludge diges-
tion also has the advantage of easier sludge handling and may provide fuel for
sludge incinerators.
JOS 9
SEWERAGE STUDY HITS SOUTH TAHOE AWT COSTS,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 201, No. 4, p 11, July, 1978.
South Lake Tahoe, Nevada, has been advised by the engineering firm of Gulp,
Wesner, Gulp, of El Dorado, California, to convert from advanced waste water
treatment to secondary treatment with irrigation disposal. Designs for ex-
panding the 7.5 mgd tertiary treatment plant to 10 mgd demonstrated that
secondary treatment with land application would require $20 million in capital
expenditures and $1.4 million annually for operation and maintenance. This
expense represents an annual savings of 27% plus an additional 50% energy con-
sumption reduction. Nitrogen removal would require $32 million in capital ex-
penditures and $2.7 million for maintenance; expansion to nitrification would
require capital expenditure of $25 million with annual maintenance costs of
$2.5 million. A 1 mgd reverse osmosis water reclamation demonstration plant
in addition to secondary treatment and land application was also considered;
capital and operating costs were estimated at $25 million and $2.5 million,
respectively.
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J090
MILWAUKEE'S LAST STAND - CITY FIGHTS ADVANCED TREATMENT ORDERED IN WATER
CLEANUP SUIT,
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 200, No. 22, p 13, June, 1978.
The city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is fighting a federal decision on a suit
brought against the city by Illinois and Michigan. The decision mandated that
Milwaukee construct a tertiary treatment plant to accommodate all of its muni-
cipal wastes before discharge to Lake Michigan. Milwaukee contends that the
construction costs would be excessive, $1.46 billion, and that the advanced
treatment plant would require 11 yrs to complete. The city also claims that
storm water tunnels and detention systems to reduce the 50 overflows in the
lake occurring each year should have priority over the treatment system.
Since Wisconsin water quality standards are lower than those in Illinois and
Michigan, Milwaukee maintains that advanced treatment of waste water is not
required; the EPA will refuse funding of the advanced waste water system and
will only supply grants for treatment within Wisconsin's standards. An
Illinois official has claimed that the costs reported by Milwaukee for the
tertiary treatment are inaccurate and excessive. The court decision required
that the treatment facility be completed by 1986.
J091
HOLLAND FIGHTS WATER POLLUTION,
Industrial Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 5, p 42-43, May, 1978.
Several of the Netherlands' 519 waste water treatment plants are described.
The Eindhoven plant can treat waste water from a population of 750,000; sewage
is transported to the facility through a 27.6 mile-long pipeline. The treat-
ment plant's operations are controlled by a computer which collects plant
data, performs impact and fluctuation calculations, and controls pipe flows
and pumping operations. An underwater plant planned in Rotterdam will dis-
charge fumes through a pipeline to a destructor. A number of plants utilize a
patented water-jet aeration treatment system that simultaneously oxygenates
and mixes the waste water. The Dutch State Mines have constructed an aeration
system to convert organic wastes as well as inorganic nitrogen compounds into
nitrogen. An industrial anaerobic digester has been designed by the Central
Sugar Works. Some plants employ electro-flotation processes, sludge drying
techniques, or sludge fermentation tanks for methane gas production. An auto-
matic water pollution monitoring network collects data on water quality from a
number of sources and issues short- and long-term alarms when quality is below
normal.
711
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J092
MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SYSTEM SPRINGS 20-25 MILLION GALLON PROBLEM,
Mackay, B. B., Jr.
Solid Wastes Management, Vol. 21, No. 7, p 56, 58, July, 1978.
The leakage of raw sewage and sludge from oxidation lagoons into groundwater
caused the illness of 700 residents in the area of West Plains, Missouri, in
June 1978. The oxidation lagoons, constructed in caverned and fissured lime-
stone, developed holes soon after completion in 1964. The first hole, which
developed in the lagoon before it was completely operational, was 17 ft in
diameter and between 10-20 ft deep. A second hole, which was 34 ft wide and
10-20 ft deep, developed in 1966 and released about 40 million gal of sewage
into the groundwater. Local authorities reportedly did not notify state
agencies or the public of the leaks. The third leak occurred in May 1978 in
the 37-acre lagoon; the local health department and the public were reportedly
not informed of the new break in the lagoon until five days after it occurred.
Residents in the town and surrounding area developed symptoms similar to dys-
entery and influenza. Water supplies had to be imported to the area by the
National Guard. The lagoon was repaired before a geologic report was com-
pleted; a new treatment facility is planned for construction on the same site
as the lagoons.
J093
THE WRC-WHERE THEY KNOW A BIT ABOUT WATER AND ARE LEARNING ALL THE TIME,
Surveyor, Vol. 4487, No. 151, p 17-19, June, 1978.
Waste water treatment, transport, leakage, and impact research projects have
been conducted by the Water Research Center at Stevenage, England. Tests on
sewage sludge have concentrated on economical methods of disposal, agricul-
tural benefits, metal extraction, and pumping of thickened sludge with 12%
solids contents. Oxygen injection into activated sludge plants and rising
main sewers has been practiced as an alternative to diffused air and surface
aeration. Anaerobic digestion rather than aerobic treatment has been tested
as a source of methane production, as an economical means of treating warm
waste water, and as a method which produces less sludge. Anaerobic filtration
of acetic acid-bearing waste water has been found to reduce organics by 90-97%.
Urban runoff measurement and sampling has been conducted in on-site investiga-
tions. The sensitivity of fish to pollutants, odors, and reduced dissolved
oxygen concentrations has been measured using rainbow trout. Leaks have been
detected in water pipes and pressurized sewage conduits with a sulfur hexa-
fluoride injection technique. When a leak is present, the sulfur hexafluoride
gas permeates to the ground surface and collects in bar holes drilled above
the pipes.
712
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J094
DEVELOPING NATIONS FACE PROBLEMS IN WATER AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT,
Larrick, C. L., and Adams, L. W.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 6, p 62-63, June, 1978.
The past, present, and future status of water treatment and sewerage in devel-
oping countries is reviewed. Many developing nations are still serviced by
pre-World War II water and waste water systems that are now inadequate for the
population. The World Health Organization has financed feasibility studies
for water and waste water management surveys in developing countries through
the World Bank. Marginal progress has been achieved in urban centers within
the past 10-15 yrs; sewerage systems are not often considered as important as
a water supply system. Industrial development in emerging countries often oc-
curs at the expense of sewerage systems and the environment; the governments
and populations of developing countries should be made aware of the environ-
mental impact of unrestricted industrial expansion. Water and waste water
management and development are often not priorities in these countries. This
has resulted in a large number of foreign-born engineers and scientists,
trained in the United States and elsewhere, who do not have positions to
return to in their own countries. There is also a lack of trained management,
administrative, and operations and maintenance personnel for water quality
management projects in these countries.
J095
HEALTH EFFECTS OF LAND APPLICATION OF WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE: WHAT ARE THE
RISKS?,
Sorber, C. A., and Sagik, B. P.
Texas University,
San Antonio,
Center for Applied Research and Technology.
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 125, No. 7, p 82-84, July, 1978. 3 tab, 5 ref.
The potential impact on public health of toxic materials and pathogenic or-
ganisms contained in waste water and sewage sludge applied to land was dis-
cussed at the 1977 Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land
Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge. Studies have concluded that
pathogens can survive sewage treatment; pathogens isolated from sewage include
salmonellae, shigellae, E. coli, enteric viruses, several species of protozoa,
and a number of helminths. Transmission of disease from these pathogens by
sewage applications to land, however, was considered unproven. Organic chemi-
cals and metals present in primary sewage effluent were considered potential
sources of groundwater contamination through toxin migration or seepage from
land application sites. More research into the impact of these toxins on pub-
713
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lie health and their fate after land application of sewage was recommended.
Another consideration in evaluating land application of wastes was the ac-
curacy of epidemiological techniques to identify and quantify pathogens in
waste water. Because of the nature of viral infection transmission, the
source of a disease can be difficult to trace. The total removal of viruses
from wastes was recommended before land application.
JO 96
HUGE LOANS FUND WORLD'S LARGEST SEWAGE WORKS,
World Water, Vol. 1, No. 1, p 11, May, 1978.
The world's largest sewage treatment plant, planned for Sao Paulo, Brazil,
will serve a population of 5.5 million and extend sewerage to 55% of the
city's 10.6 million inhabitants. The $1,240 million Sanegram project is being
partially funded by the Sao Paulo Water and Sewerage Fund, the Banco Nacional
de Habitacao, and by a loan for $110 million from the World Bank. The sewer-
age project will alleviate groundwater and surface water contamination. The
sewer system will contain 5,500 km of collectors, 60 km of interceptors, and
10 pumping stations. The largest treatment plant will have a capacity of 63
cu ra/sec; two major secondary and two smaller plants are also planned. Con-
sulting engineers for the project are Metcalf and Eddy.
J097
STANDARD UNITS SOLVE SEWAGE TANK ACCESS PROBLEM,
Surveyor, Vol. 151, No. 4484, p 26, May, 1978.
Stephens and Carter of Brentford, Middlesex, England, custom designed an ac-
cess walkway for the underground sewage balancing tanks at a treatment plant
in Amersham, England. The underground basins, which are employed during peak
and storm periods, require periodic cleaning. The four pentagonal tanks have
bases which slope down to central channels; this configuration made access and
footing difficult. The walkway is constructed of ClimaHoy components con-
nected by aluminum sections. The access unit spans the central channel of the
basin and is held in position by the counterbalance of the splayed castors at
each corner; the unit is 3.05 m long, and 1.35 m wide. The span has aluminum
decks which are adjustable up to maximum height of 2.76 m. The unit is mobile
and can be used in all four balancing tanks.
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J098
REGION OF DURHAM LEADS WAY WITH SLUDGE DISPOSAL,
Water Pollution Control, Vol. 116, No. 5, p 22, May-June, 1978.
A comprehensive study of sludge disposal techniques is planned for nine sewage
treatment plants and six water treatment plants in the region of Durham,
Ontario, Canada. The sewage treatment plants have capacities ranging over
0.4-15.0 mgd; the water treatment plants have capacities of 0.7-30.0 mgd. The
study will investigate the current sludge handling and disposal techniques
used in all the plants and the problems associated with sludge treatment. The
nutrient concentrations and metal contents of the individual sludges produced
by the treatment plants will be measured and the results compared to guide-
lines established by the Ministries of Agriculture and Food, Health and En-
vironment. The final report will evaluate land disposal, land filling, lagoon-
ing, and incineration as singular or combined methods of disposing of sludge
from each plant.
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INDICES
The numbering system used in the following
author and subject indices refers to the FIRL
accession, or abstract number. To locate a
specific abstract, consult the table of
contents to find the pagination for these
accession numbers.
716
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AUTHOR INDEX
Abbott, A.L., D323
Abrams, E., C085
Acher, A.J., DOSS, HOI 6
Adams, L.R., C086
Adams, L.W., J094
Adams, R.M., F069
Agarwal, A., H006
Agbim, N.N., E069
Agrawal, G.D., F066
AM, T., J040
Ahlert, R.C., F047
Ahmed, S., E03I
Akeley, R.P., Jr., J036
Akhtar, W., F032
Al-Monun, F.H., D551
Alam, A.B.S., F104
Albrecht, D., H038
Alburger, J.R., E056
Alcamo, J., F013
Aldridge, A.P., D041
Alexander, M., El69
Aliberti, F., E203
Allen, A.W., D417
Allen, D.M., D353
Allen, R.K., D528
Allum, M.O., E178
Alter, A.J., D003
Aluko, T.M., El 32
Amiel, A.J., E091
Ando, A., D362
Ando, S., D160
Andrews, E.N., B113
Andrews, G.F., F043
Angelback, D.I., F104
Angelbeck, D.I., F050
Annichiarico, A.V., C014
Antoni, G.F., D402
Appleton, B., B071
Aregger, A., C089
Argent, V.A., El31
Armstrong, E.T., C002
Armstrong, J.W., H054
Aron, G., A020
Asano, T., D124, F102
Aschauer, M.N., D244
Ashley, C.S., E052, E066
Astruc, M., El 82
Attir, U., F038, F108
Aulenbach, D.B., H018
Austin, E.P., D520
Averett, D.E., D470
Aya,H., D302
Ayres, P.A., E079
Babcock, R.H., E037
Bacon, V.w., DOSS
Bagdasarian, A., D048
Bahl, R.W., F099
Bailey, D.A., D1S1
Bailey, J.E., F015, F090
Baker, D.E., E055
Baker, J.M., D375
Baker, M., J075
Baleux, B., E095
Ball, R.O., F091
Ballantine, D.S., D455
Balluz, S.A., E126
Balmer, R.T., D055
Banerjee, A.C., B006, B013
Banerji, S.K., D029
Banks, C.J., E030
Baranosky, L.J., HOSO
Barber, N., D449
Barber, N.R., D102, D461
Barkdoll, M.P., A003
Barkley, W.A., F026
Barnard, J.L., D317
Barr, S.S., H045
Batchelor, B., F106
Bathija, P.R., D075
Baumann, E.R., E188
Baumann, H., H03S
Bansum, H.T., F063
Baxter, S., D216
Bayley, R.W., B044
Bazerque, F., D405
Beauchamp, E.G., El 34
Beccari,M., E015
Becher, A.E., Jr., D454
Beck, P.V., D217
Becker, H., D092
Beckwith, C.A., HOSO
Beer, C., E043
Belfort, G., D089
Bell, H.F., D220
Bell, J.C., E131
Bell, R.B., El81
Bell, R.G., H053
Bellair, J.T., DOS9
Bellmore, N., C075
Ben Aim, H., F079
Benedek, A,, F008, F028
Benefleld, t., D190, E096, F084
Benjes, H.H., Jr., J028
Bennett, E.R., D159, D391, E129
Bennett, S.M., D447
Benninger, R.W., Fill
Berry, C.R., E068
Berry, W.L., D463
Berthouex, P.M., E014
Best, D.G., E104
Best, G.A., £081, H048
Best, I.W., Jr., F018
Betson, R.P., A003
Beyer, A., E047
Bhattacharyya, D., DS08, D553
Bicknell, M., JOSS
Biersdorf, G.T., D255
Bieszczat, T.E., B014
Bingel, F., EMS
Binkley, C, B09S
Bishop, G., B039
Bishop, P.L., D307
Bizjak, G.J., D4S4
Blanc, F.C., E049
Bland, C.E.G., B044
Blenderman, L., BIOS
Block, C.S., C107
Block, S.S., D254
Boadway, J.D., D388
Boehnke, H., E141
Boes, R., J022
Bokil, S.D., F066
Bole, J.B., HOS3
Bolitho, V.N., D203
Boiler, M., D091
Bolto, B.A., D471
Bomberger, D.C., Jr., D056, D086
Bond, M., D190
Booth, A.C., D231, F059
Borchardt, J.A., C006
Borwitzky, H., E141
Boschen, W.O., C014
Boswell, F.C., E088
Bottomley, M.K.V., D414
Bowen, J.H., C003
Bowen, S.P., D444
Bowker, R.P.G., D445
Boyle, W.C., D188
Boyle, W.H., F080
Brandes, M., D234, E189
Brandstetter, A., F001
Brar, S.S., D554
Braun, A., H03S
Braunscheidel, D.E., D030
Brekelmans, K., D321
Brenner, R.C., D24S
Bridgwater, A.V., J037
Brill, E.D., Jr., D540, F053
Brinkoff, H.C., El 14
Brodsky, M.H., E094
Brooks, D.R., D312, D441
Brough, K., D480
Brower, D.L., D255
Brown, D., D414, E172
Brown, J., BIOS, D283
Brown, J.A., D367
Bryce, R., B031
Bryson, J.D., D293
Buchanan, R.J., Jr., D028
Buckley, A.D., D237
Bucksteeg, K., B029
Budde, P.E., D188
Bukata, R.P., H004
Bulot, M., H028
Bunch, R.L., El 16
Buning, W.G., D482
Burde, G.F., D467
Burge, W.D., H022, H031
Burlingame, A.L., E17S
Buros, O.K., D368
Burrows, M.G., E074
Bush, C.M., B023
Butler, M., E126
Buyers, J.S., D281
Bybel, D., C07S
Cannon, J.R., E124
Cannon, R.E., E03S
Cannon, W.P., D226
Canzano, P.S., D191
717
-------
Caple, R., D004
Cardoso, J., E081
Carefoot, N.F., J027
Carleo, D.J., A016
Carlson, G.A., Jr., HO 11
Carlson, R.M., D004, El71
Carlson, R.W., E158
Carmouche, L.N., D178
Carr, A.D., D241
Cash, D., El06
Caumette, P., E095
Cavagnaro, P.V., E391
Ceckler, W.H., F029
Cenerini, R., D133
Cerny, J.K., D515
Cervenka, L., D199
Chadwick, D., D329
Chambers, B.C., C103
Chan, P.K., El54
Chandler, R.L., E049
Chancy, R.L., D555
Chang, B.J., E054
Chao, J.L., B045
Chaplick, D., E107
Charlton, R.A., D484
Chase, L.M., F034
Chattopadhyay, A., E006
Chaturvedi, A.C., A008, H047, J064
Chawathe, S.D., B084
Chelle, R., D405
Chen, C-L., D189, D354, D446
D474
Chen, J.H., D107
Chen, M.S., C107
Chen, S.J., E022
Chian, E.S.K., D066, Dill, D244
E054
Chiang, C.H., F006, F010, F039
Childs, C.W., D52I
Ching, C.W., D042
Chisholm, C.H., D104
Chiu, V., F045
Chow, D.K., D088
Christcnscn, L.A., J075
Christiansen, E.B., D370
Christiansen, CD., D003
Christie, I.F., F061
Chugo, M., D298
Churchwell, R., D433
Ciebin, B.W., E094
Cillie, G.G., E067
Clark, C.S., D556
Clark, D.W., E021
Clark, J.H., F102
Clark, R.M., J082
Clark, S.E., D003
Clarke, N.A., D225
Cleasby, J.L., D544, El88
Clem, R.G., E071
Clesceri, N.L., D536
Clingenpeel, W.H., D228
dough, F., D148
Cody, T.E., D556
Coelen, S.P., F099
Cohen, J.M., D156
Coker, E., J079
Cole, C.A., J039
Coll, J.J., B059
Collins, P.G., J036
Collinson, B., D229
Conklin, R.H., El 10
Constable, T.W., E076
Contractor, D.N., F017
Conway, R.A., C100
Cook, E.E., D509
Cooke, M.B., D440
Cooper, L.T., B058
Cooper, P.C., D387
Cooper, P.P., D151, D229
Corey, P.R., H025
Cotruvo, J.A., E024
Cotton, P., D210, El00
Cottrell, C.T., El20
Courts, H.J., D003
Craig, E.W., F054
Crawford, N.H., A001
Crites, R.W., D049, D464
Crittenden, J.C., F097
Cronholm, L., D181
Cross, F.L., Jr., E062
Crossley, A.M., J061
Crouse, M.R., E178
Crump, J.R., D078
Csatai, L., D550
Culp, G., J028, J066
Culver, R.H., E107
Curtis, E.H., D211
Dahl, M.C., H050
Daigger, G.T., E078
Dailey, J.E., £051
Dallaire, G., D549
Dana, C.H., F030
Daniels, P., B010
Daniels, S.L., D178
Das Gupta, S.B., El76
Dass, P., H013
Davanzo, A.C., J078
David, M.M., D088
Davidson, M.L., D552
Davies, T.R., E067
Davis, B., D371
Davis, C.A., D293
Davis, E.R., E087
Davis, R., J079
Dawda, M.M., D552
Dawson, J.P., EOS 1
Day, D.C., D041
de Casseres, K.E., El04
DeJong, E., H033
De Kock, J.W., D241
de Oude, N.T.V., El62
Deb, A.K., B061
DeGraeve, G.M., E061, E093
Delleur, J.W., A035
DeMarco, J., D046
Dembitz, A.E., D469
Demergian, H., B036
Denis, M., E013
Denn, M.M., F038, F108
Dennemont, J., El64
Dewling, R.T., D208
Dick, R.I., D147, F091
DiGiano, F.A., F042
Dinges, R., D537
Directo, L.S., D189, D354
Doan, R., Jr., D379
Dobson, R.T., D443
Dominguez, S.E., E178
Donahue, B.A., El24
Donigian, A.S., Jr., A001
Donnelly, L.A., C024
Donovan, J., D048
Doty, W.T., E055
Dove, L.A., D236
Dowdy, R.H., E168
Drakides, C., El47
Drehwing, F.J., A016
Drew, E.A., D151
Drews, R.J.L.C., El38
Driscoll, E.D., D178
Drnevich, R.F., CO 12, F078
Drummond, R.A., El 58
Du Preez, J.C., F072
Duedall, I.W., E028, E039
Dugan, P.R., D494
Dukes, L.S., J030
Dunlap, W.J., H024
Dyment, R., D292
Eastman, J.A., F062
Ebara, K., C088
Ebersold, L.P., F037
Edmondson, B.R., D312, D441
Eduardo, M.D., E012
Egan, A., E046
Egawa, T., D238
Eggener, C.L., D177
Eglinton, G., E081
Ehrig, H., H037
Eichmann, B.W., D081
Eikum, A.S., E064
Eisenhardt, A., D126
Ekama, G.A., F002, F070
Elia, V.J., D556
Elliott, W.R., D369, D369
Elmaleh, S., F079
Elmaraghy, G.A., EOS3
Elphick, A., D335
Emrich, G.H., D472
Emslie-Smith, M., El 31
Endo, I., D053
Enfield, C.G., D212
Engelbrecht, R.S., D066, Dl 11
English, J.N., D146, J082
Enkiri, N.K., H022
Eppinger, K.H., D471
Epstein, E., D134, D172, D555
Eralp, A.E., El 18
Erickson, L.E., F022, F048
Erikson, L.E., F014
Erlandsson, B., E125
Esser, W., H021
Ettlich, W.F., J071
Eugster, J., D091, D149, D155
F057
Evan, H.Z., J050
Evans, P.R., A031
Evans, R.R., D223
Everitt, I., D343
718
-------
Fadanvis, S.S., B084
Famularo, J., F092
Fan, L.T., F014, F022
Fang, H.H.P., D244
Farooq, S., D066, Dill
Farrah,S.R., El 10, El28, El96
Farrell, J.B., D162
Fattal, B., El49
Favell, G.E., D335
Fazeli, A., D106
Fell, W.J., A011
Fetter, C.W., Jr., D306
Fey, R.T., B094
Filgueira, M.B., E012
Fitzpatrick, J.A., D382
Fleischman, M., F037
Fleishman, M., D181
Fleps, W., El94
Fletcher, P.W., J080
Flocke, L.C., C024
Floyd, M., E011
Flynn, P.J., D388
Foess, G.W., D043, D396
Fonds, A.W., D067
Foremand, K.M., El23
Forsberg, A., E053
Foster, W.E., J056
Foster, W.S., El57
Fowler, H., B074
Fox, A., D433
Fox, C.T., D020
Fox, G.T.J., D034
Fox, T.P., E070
Francingues, N.R., D470
Freeman, P.A., B102
Freischel, M.R., E205
French, V.H., D358
Friedman, J.J., J032
From, J.O., D263
Fuchs, F., E150
Fuggle, R.W., D484
Fujie, K., F040
Fujio, Y., D025
Fujioka, R.S., H029
Fukunaga, S., F11S
Fukushi, K., El 15
Fukuyama, J., El37
Funke, J.W., E077
Furey, R.F., C075
Gakstatter, J.H., £178
Ganje, T.J., E092
Garber, L.L., D117
Garber, W.F., J041
Gargiulo, E., E203
Garland, S.B., D418
Garrett, M.E., C001
Garrigan, G.A., D194
Carver, S.R., F041
Gasser, J.A., D474
Gaudy, A.F., Jr., F003, F095
Gehr, R., F052
Geisser, D.F., F041
Gerba, C.P., D158, E082, E110
E128, E196, H003, H055
Chobrial, F.H., D122
Gianelli, J., D479
Gibbs, M.M., E031
Giddey, T.B.S., D241
Giggey, M.D., B077
Gilad, A., J048
Gilain, J., E007
Gilbert, P.A., El 59
Gilbert, R.G., E022
Gillean, J.I., J082
Given, P.W., D453
Glasgow, R.M., E039
Glass, J.S., El66
Gleisberg, D., El42
Gleisberg, J., E136
Gloyna, E.F., F023
Go, T.L., D191
Godfree, R.E., D324
Goel, V.V., B084
Goldschmidt, G., F103
Goldsmith, R.L., D179
Gollan, A.Z., D179
Golueke, C.G., D287
Goodfellow, R.M., E081
Goronszy, M.C., D512
Gorski, T., C063
Goss, J., D070
Gosselin, C, F.I08
Gossett, J.M., El 19
Gottliebson, M., E036
Gouge, R.L., D237
Gould, M.S., F078
Goyal, S.M., E082, El 10, E128
H003
Grabow, W.O.K., D206
Grady, C.P.L., Jr., E078, F094
F105
Graham, S., A002
Grainge, J., D198
Grant, F.A., B045
Green, B.L., E201
Green, M.K., D229
Green, R.H., D027
Creep, L.A., El 24
Gregory, J., F064
Greifer, L., J067
Grethlein, H.E., D507
Grieves, R.B., D508
Grigg, N.S., A017
Griggs, G.B., E003
Grille, L.M., D460
Grimanis, A.P., E003
Grimmer, G., E141
Griskey, R.G., D055
Guarino, C.F., D032
Gudernatsch, H., E085
Guey-Lee, W., F045
Gujer, W., D149, D155
Gulas,V., D190, E096
Gupta, S.K., F109
Gurak, R., D036
Gyger, H.F., D030
Haag, R., D320
Hablett, T.H., B087
Hacker, D.S., D087
Hadeed, S.J., D539, J051
Hagedorn, C., E109
Hagiwara, K., El 02
Hagstrom, L.G., D311
Haimes, A.S., D379
Haith, D.A., F035
Hall, H., D321
Hamoda, M.F., D305
Hancock, N., B048, B107
Hannah, S.A., D1S6
Hansen, D.T., E109
Hantge, E., H039
Hanya, T., E032
Hara,S., C013
Harada, K., E202
Harada, T., E200
Harbison, R.W., F061
Harju, J.M., D043, D396
Harlow, C.D., J036
Harrington, P., F019
Harris, L.R., D553
Harris, R.R., HOI 8
Hart, E.C., B098
Hart, F.L., F109
Hart, O.O., E067
Hartenstein, R., D057
Hartman, R.B., D222, El 29
Hartman, W.J., Jr., D476
Hartmann, L., C126
Hartz,P., E008
Harvey, R.W.S., E017
Hasegawa, K., E075
Hasegawa, S., C030
Hasegawa, T., C030
Hassett, A.J., E067
Hatada, H., D065
Hathaway, S.W., D195
Haug, L.A., F049
Haug, R.T., D371, El 19, F049
Haverinen, A., J040
Hayakawa, N., D124
Hayes, T.D., E145
Hays, B.D., D031
Healey, A.K., D116
Heaney, D.F., CO 15
Hegemann, D.A., D260
Hegi, H.R., D389
Heidman, J.A., D447
Heimark, EX., E023
Heinem, A., C063
Heitman, R.H., D439
Helfferich, F.G., D077
Helliwell, P.R., D153
Helm, R.B., H007
Henfeld-Furie, S., E193
Henley, J.R., D466
Hennessy, P.V., B045
Henry, J.G., F052
Hensgens, W.G.J., J003
Heming, L.P., D509
Heydweiller, J.C., F014, F022
Highfill, J.A., F063
Hilder, D.W., J065
Hill, W.F., Jr., D225
Hillmer, T.J., Jr., D058
Himel, V.H., C024
Hiro, K., E102
Ho, P.S.K., D471
Ho, S-K., E060
719
-------
Hodgins, B., D060
Hodgson, A.T., E071
Hofer, D.A., F030
Hofer, K., B046
Hoi, W., D039
Holmberg, L., D403
Holmes, P., E205
Holtzclaw, K.M., E092, El30
Hong, S., C107
Honorio, E.D., E012
Horikawa, T., D197
Horner, R.W., A025
Horvath, P.J., COOS
Hossain, A., A035
Hostovsky, T., El49
Howard, J., D409
Howarth, CM., D342
Howell, H.O., D322
Howell, J.A., D545
Howland, R.G., D027
Huang, J.Y.C., D513
Hughes, G.W., D125, D470
Hui, C., D107
Hull, D.H., B093
Hunter, J.V., A013
Hurst, C.J., E196
Hutter, K., B046
Hutton, J.L., D484
Hutzinger, O.. E161
Ichiki, Y., D365
Imandel, K., H042
Ip,S.Y., E192
Irgens, R.L., E086
Irvine, H.L., E070
Ishikawa, T., £137
Ishlwatari, R., E032
Iskandar, I.K., H026, H034, HOS2
Italiano, M.L., D3S2
Ivashkov, A.S., BUS
Jacknow, J., D086
Jackson, D.F., D553
Jackson, M.B., D471
Jacobson, A.R., B103, D498
Jaeger, B., D402
Jager, J., D402
Janicke, W., DIS4
Jank, B.E., D373
Janzen, E.G., E087
Jelus, M, D1S6
Jenkins, C.R., D546
Jenkins, D., E13S
Jenkins, S.H., D090
Jenkins, T.F., H034
Johnson, A.L., CO 14
Johnson, B.A., D308, F085
Johnson, J.S., Jr., D337
Johnson, R.W., E039
Jones, E.E., Jr., HOI 7
Jones, H.H., El26
Jones, J.L., D056, D086
Jones, R.T., D242
Jordan, T.A., A016
Joseph, J., D249, D357
Joshi, D.S., D227
Jowers, A.B., D127
Jumawan, A.B., Jr., D508
Kalandidi, A., E163
Kalinske, A.A., D384
Kampelmacher, E.H., D067
Kanbar, S.A., E031
Kaneshiro, E.S., El 65
Kao, J-F., E167
Kardos, L.T., F025, H012, H019
H030
Karoly, M., F055
Kashiwagi, M., E200, F009
Kaspar, H.F., F107
Kataoka, I., D514
Kato, S., E026, F009
Kato, T., C013
Katzenelson, E., E10S, E149
Kaufman, H.L., D460
Kaufmann, P., F027
Kavanagh, M.D., D262
Kavanaugh, M., D091
Kavanaugh, M.C., FOS7
Kawahara, A., E102
Kawahara, H., DOS3
Kawasaki, K., BOS1
Keating, E.J., E198
Keech, D.A., E092, E130
Keenan, J.D., D260
Keeney, D.R., D219, D248, D256
Kehrberger, G.J., F020
Keinath, T.M., F030
Keller,!., D107
Kelling, K.A., D219, D248, D256
Kelly, E.F., D213
Kelly, E.M., C092
Kelly, H.G., A010
Khararjian, H.A., D068, DS06
Kidd, G.E., E134
Kikkawa, S., C088
Kilama, W., D036
Kim, B.R., F075
Kimura, H., D362
Kinard, J.T., E156
Kincannon, D.F., F003
King, P.B., D334
King,P.H., D232
Kinman, R.N., D556
Kipp, T.M., A036
Kirby, T.H., B039
Kitchen, J.D., D439
Klantschi, K., C089
Klei, H.E., E042
Knapp, I.M., D108, D120
Knapp, J.S., DS4S
Knechtel, J.R., £087, E197
Kneer, F.X., C050
Kobori, K., D024
Kobrlo, K., D160
Koenig, A., D097, F035
Koers, D.A., D230
Koido, Y., D053
Koistinen, O., C110
Kol'tsova, SJ., F056
Komline, T.R., D489
Komori, K., E075
Kondo, Y., E144
Konen, T.P., B082
Kook, J.E.. H019
Koppel, L.B., F105
Koppers, H.M.M., D482
Korenaga, T., C106
Krahenbuhl, H.R., D389
Kraus, K.A., D337
Kreissl, J.F., D447, H024
Krejci, V., F057
Krenkel, P.A., H051
Kropf, F.W., D116
Kubota, H., F040
Kugelman, I.J., D189
Kuhn, W., El50
Kunkel, G.R., H049
Kunte, H., E041
Kuo, C.H., F036
Kuo, P.P.K., E054
Kuoppamaeki, R., E072
Laak, R., D116, D289
Labadie, J.W., A017
Labaquere, H., F079
Lacy, W.J., D130
LaFarge, A., D442
Lagerwerff, J.V., D255, E204
Lagrange, A.S., J047
Lagrosa, J.J., D467
Lakatos, D.F., A020
Lally, B.M., D450
Lambert, D.J., D094
Lamberton, R., B022
Lance, J.C., H055
Landry, E.F., H050
Landry, J-C., El64
Lanfear, K.J., B059
Langenegger, O., D309
Larrick, C.L., J094
Larson, W.E., El68
LaSpina, A.J., El S3
Last, H., E155
Latterell, J.J., El68
Lauch, R.P., E002
Laughlin, J.E., D052
Lauletta, T., D543
Lauria, D.T., F010
Law, I.B., D323
Law, S.L., D233
Lawless, E.J., B072
Lawrence, A.W., F106
Lawson, C.T., C100
Lech, R.F., F105
Ledent, R., E013
Lee, C.M., F110
Lee, D.A., F089
Lee, G.F., H043
Lee, J.S., F101
Leentvaar, J., D482
Leffel, R.E., J062
Leggett, D.C., H026, H034
Legittimo, P.C., E139
Leich, H.H., B026, D139
Leitz,F.B., D510
Lekkas, T.D., D020, D034
Leroff, H.E., J007
Lesar, D.J., E009
Lester, J.N., El 82
Lester, W.F., J005
Lewin, V.H., D466, JO 17
720
-------
Lewis, A.E., J071
Lewis, F.M., D056, D086
Lewis, J.B., D301
Li, E.C.C., B021
Li, K.Y., F036
Liebi, C., D389
Liem, P., H037
Lira, H.C., F105
Lin, S.D., E057
Lindsey, R., E096
Lindstrom, C., D143
Linstedt, K.D., D159, D391, E129
Little, L.W., E191
Liu, D.L., E127
Lloyd, B., D409
Lo, S.H., DUO
Lockowitz, T., D087
Loftin, W.E., D245
Logan, J.T., H045
Loh, P.C., H029
Loll, U., D246
Lombardo, P., D286
Long, D.W., E171
Loo, A.C., F033
Lord, B.N., D125
Lorence, J.C., D544
Lotens, J.P., D511
Loucks, D.P., F035
Lumb, C., D414
Lund, E., D126, D376
Lunt, O.R., D4«3
Macaulay, R.A., D468
MacDonald, J., D281
Mach, R., D372
Mack, K., C063
Mackay, B.B., Jr., J092
MacLennan, R.G., B074
Macleod, D.C., J053
Maeda,Y., D106
Mahlman, H.A., D337
Mahmood, T.A., E031
Maitland, J., B057
Majumdar, S.B., F029
Malaney, G.W., D440
Malina, J.F., Jr., D001, F093
Malone, C.D., D477
Malysko,'R.W., B099
Mandt, M.G., D075, D467, D513
Manning, M.J., A036
Mansfield, R.A., D318
Maqsood, R., F008
Mara, D.D., El48
Marals, G.V.R., F002, F070
Marincic, L., DS10
Markstrom, D.C., E069
Marsh, P.B., E065, H031
Martin, G.B., E108
Marx, D.H., E068
Masella, A.J., C085
Masschelein, W., E013
Massey, M.L., F113
Mathews, A.P., F031
Mathews, M.G., J06S
Mathur, G.P., F032
Matsch, L.C., C012
Matsumoto, G., E032
Mattsson, S., El25
Mauck,C.A., D071
Mavinic, D.S., D230
Maxwell, M.J., D159
Mays, L.W., F051, F083
McBean, E.A., E076
McCall, R.B., E154
McCammon, J., D181
McCarthy, J.M., D128
McCarty, P.L., El 19
McCurley, J., J072
McDowell, C.S., D072, D479
McGarry, M.G., D012
McGill, J.D., E090
McGillivray, R., A033
McGinnis, K.T., D556
McGivern, R.F., C022, C044
McLaren, A.R., D205
McMichael, F.C., J025, J072
McNulty, K.J., D179
McShane, C., J072
McWhorter, D.B., H025
Meares, P., D26S
Medina, M.A., Jr., A006
Meenahan, J.G., D002, D396
Mehring, A., F082
Meile, R.P., D354
Melmed, L.N., D316
Melnick, J.L., D158, E082, E128
E196. H003
Melnyk, P.B., D390
Melson, G.L., E180
Mennahan, J.G., D043
Mercado, A., F016
Meyer, K.B., E16S
Micale, F.J., E133
Middlebrooks, E.J., D308, D552
Miele, R.P., D446, D474
Mlgnone, N.A., D311
Mikels, J.J., C024
Milberg, R.P., D255, E204
Miller, A.C., Jr., A020
Miller, J., E088
Miller, K.D., E16S
Miller, M.A., D374
Miller, R.H., D554, H045
Mlllner, P.D., E065
Mirzadeh, A., D106
MIsra,D.S., E199
Mitchell, D.H., D370
Mitchell, M.J., D057
M!tci,C.. B085
Molton, P.M., E106
Molvar, A.E., E037
Moore, K.W., A022
Moore, R.R., J030
Moreau, E., D100
Morfaux, J.N., E040
Morgan, W.S.G., D336
Morl,S.. E200
Morrison, R., H028
Moseng, E.M., F102
Moser, A., F098
MOSS.W.H., D141, D217
Mueller, J.A., F092
Mueskens, P.J.W.M., J003
Mukherjee, D.B., E176
Mulders, J., E007
Mullican, J.W., HO 15
Mulligan, R.M., D057
Mulligan, T., F092
Munch, W.L., D382, F114
Mungovan, J.A., D252
Munier, A.E.. C024
Munz,W., A018, A027
Murakami, K., E075
Muramatsu, N., E202
Murphy, C.B., Jr., A016
Murphy, K.L., D373
Musselman, N.M., D069
Nagasaki, R., E026
Nagata,Y., D065
Nagatani, M., D399
Nakagawa, H., D399
Nakamichi, Y., BOS1
Nakamura, H., E005
Nakamura, M., D540, F053
Nambu, S., D302
Narkis, N., E027, E193
Nath, B., E176
Navrot, J., E091
Nawara, S., D351
Nehm, P., D188
Neilson, A.H., E195
Nels, U., E140, F073
Nelsen, T.A.. E039
Nelson, M.D., D032
Nemedi, L., D550
Nesbeitt, W.D., B060
Netherton, J.C., D254
Neuhauser, E.F., D057
Nice, R., E170
Nicholls, H.A., D202, D355
Nicolai, B.. BOH
Nicolle, N.P., D465
Nishimura, S., C088
Nissen, B., D126
Nissen, J.A., A021
Noble, E.R., D145
Nogita,S., E026
Noichl, O.J., C107
Nordberg, K., C033
Norris,D.P., J045
Novak, J.T., D092, D221
Nozawa, F., E144
Nunokawa,Y., D399
Nupen, E.M., D336
Nyns,EJ., F048
O'Brien, J.H., D221
O'Conner, J.T., D029
O'Conners, H.B., E028
O'Donnell, J.M., C035, C105
O'Shaughnessy, J.C., E049
Oakley, S.A., E028
Oberteuffer, J.A., D353
Oblas, V.C., D528
Ochi,S., D024
Officer, C.B., F005
Ogawa,!., C088
Ohara, G.T., D538
Ohto,T.p E026
Okamoto, S., D302
721
-------
Olesen, D.E., C078
Olexsey, R.A., D195
Olson, D.R., D538
Olver, J.W., D232
Omori, T., El69
Opara, A.A., E148
Opferkuch, R.E., Jr., C099
Ose, Y., El37
Otakie, G.F., J001
Otsuki, H., 8051
Ottengraf, S.P.P., D511
Ousby, J.C., D242
Overton, D.E., A003
Ozaki, M., F009
Page,'AX., E092
Pal, T., E194
Palazzo, A.J., H044
Pantani, F., £139
Paoletti, A., E203
Paolini, A.E., E015
Parikh, J.K., J029
Parisod, J.P., El90
Parker, C.E., D439
Parker, D.S., D245, E135
Parkin, G.F., El84
Parr, J.F., D187, E065, H020
Parr-Smith, G.A., D059
Parrella, A., E203
Patel, P.M., D463
Patrick, D., D385
Patterson, K.E., F012
Paulsrud, B., E064
Pavoni, J., D181
Paynting, T., D526
Pearson, F.H., B024
Pedrag, I., F071
Peel, R., F028
Penner, I.L., B076
Pennine, B.J., B096
Perdrieux, S., F019
Perkins, R.A., B096
Perlin, K., F091
Perna, A.J., E042
Perrich, J., D181
Perry, R., El82
Peters, H.H., C031
Peterson, A.E., D219, D256
Petroski, A., C082
Petty, C.A., F038
Pfennig, N., E086
Phirke, P.M., E025
Piccardi, E.B., El 39
Pickford, J., J076
Pilkington, N.H., D471, E192
Pipes, W.O., E177, F074
Pirbazari, M., E180
Pitman, A.r,, El 11
Pohland, F.G., F113
Poon, C.P.C., F067
Pound, C.E., D049, D464
Pratt, J.M., A023
Prescan, N.L., E048
Price, T.H., E017
Proni, J.R., E039
Przybylowicz, R., C090
Puntenney, J., J028
Quinn, J.G., J042
Raksit, S.K., D538
Ramachandra, A., A035
Ramirez, E.R., C058
Randall, C., E096
Randall, C.W., D310
Rao, A.V., D113
Rao, M.N., D113
Rao, S.S., H004
Raymond, J.R., F044
Razeghi, N., H042
Reach, H.C., H018
Reed, M.W., F033
Reed, R.J.R., D1S3
Reed, S.C., D464
Rees, J.T., D404
Refaat, M.E., D080
Reid, F., J073
Remirez, R., D280
Reneau, R.B., Jr., E084
Reynolds, D.E., A021
Reynolds, J.H., D308
Rice, I.M., D071
Rice, R.G., D130, D359
Richards, D.A., F037
Richardson, D., D329
Richter, R.O., E070
Rideau, J.P., E040
Ridgway, J.W., J036
Riding, J.T., D369, D369
Rimer, A.E., A021
Ritz, M.A., D439
Roberts, F.W., J034
Roberts, P., D149, D155
Roberts, P.O., D329
Roberts, P.J.W., F011
Roberts, P.V., D389, F057
Rockefeller, A., D143
Roesler, J.F., E037
Rohlich, G.A., E051
Roper, R.E., Jr., F094
Rosenthal, I., DOSS
Ross, B.B., F017
Ross, W.R., D206
Rosse, J.C., D448
Rossman, L.A., F058
Rovey, E.W., A012
Rowlett, R.D., F033
Rowntree, N., J002
Ruane, R.J.. HOM
Rubin, A.J., £083
Russell, L.L., DOSO
Ryan, J.A., D219, D248, D256
Ryckman, M.D., F030
Ryder, R.A., D184
Ryding, S-O., E053
Ryther, J.H., F005
Sabey, B.R., E069
Sachdev, D.R., DS36
Sagik, B.P., J095
Sago, M., D053
Saito, K., D024, E202
Saleh, M.M., F095
Samar, P., H042
Sambuichi, M., D025
Sanderson, W.I.D., D1S2
Sane, M., D090
Santo, J.E., D367
Sargent, R.L., D353
Sarsenski, J.E., F100
Sastry, C.A., D113
Sato, A., D302
Sato, T., El37
Savage, N., F013
Sawhill, G.S., H008
Sawhney, B.L., H009
Sayigh, B.A., F024, F093
Scalf, M.R., H024
Schade, R.E., D217
Schaffner, M.W., F074
Schanche, G.W., El24
Schatzberg, P., D553
Schaub, S.A., F063
Schefer, W., E010
Scheimann, D.A., E094
Scheltinga, H.M.H., J008
Scheutzow, K.A., D217
Schiffman, A., H040
Schinke, R., D275
Schmidt-Holthausen, H.J., D548
Schmidt, O.J., D505
Schmitz, R., E161
Schmitz, R.A., F021, F075
Schneider, M., E027
Schnulle, G., D101
Schoettler, V.W., D275
Schroeder, E.D., E190, F086
Schulz, H.W.P., A026
Scribner, J.W., D003
Searle, P.L., D521
Sebesta, S.J., D141, D217
Sekizawa, T., F040
Selna, M.W., F086
Semmens, M.J., D231, F059
Senn, C.L., J081
Senske, F., D543
Seyfarth, R., F084
Sezgin, M., E13S
Shah-Alam, A.B., FOSO
Shambaugh, R.L., D390
Shanholtz, V.O., F017
Sharma, B., F047
Sharma, M.N., C108, C125
Sharp, D.G., E122
Sharpe, W.E., J039, J080
Shelat, R.N., H036
Shelley, P.E., El 17
Sherrard, J.H., D068, D369, D506
F004, F068, F081, F087, Fill
ShevtsoY, N.M., B083
Shidhaye, V.M., B043
Shindala, A., F084
Shinde, U.R., B084
Shioya,M., F009
Shipp, R.F., E055
Shiraishi, A., F009
Shisler, J.L., F033
Shoemaker, T.E., F026
Shuckrow, A.J., C078
Shuval, H.I., E149
Siber, S., F046
Sidle, R.C., F025, H012, H030
722
-------
Siefert, E., E086
Sierka, R.A., D397
Sikora, L.J., D187, H020
Silviera, D.J., E004
Simmon, V.F., E024
Simmons, C., BO 18
Simmons, D.L., F091
Simonson, G.H., £109
Sincic, D., F015, F090
Sinnott, C.S., J068
Sisson, W.G., D337
Sivasubramanian, R., F087
Sjogren, R.E., E058
Skirdov, I.V., F056
Slack, J.G., H032
Sletten, R., D392
Sletten, R.S., H034
Sloey, W.E., D306
Small, M.J., F063
Small, M.M., D395, D398, H023
Smeers, Y., F048
Smith, D.G., E129
Smith, D.W., D453
Smith, E.M., E082, El 10
Smith, G., D107
Smith, J.E., D061
Smith, J.G., E154
Smith, J.L., H025
Smith, J.W., D478
Smith, K.C., C001
Smith, R.G., D049
Smith, W.G., B077
Smith, W.H., E063
Snoeyink, V.L., F021, F075
Snowden, R.B., E065
Sommers, L.E., D211
Sontheimer, H., E029, El 50
Sorter, C.A., F063, J095
Spanggord, R.J., E024
Spangler, F.L., D306
Spector, M.L., C032
Sposito, G., E092, El30
Sproul, O.J., DUO, F029
Spyrou, N.M., E046
Stahl, D.P., C075
Stanbridge, H.H., B070
Standridge, J.H., E009
Stanford, H.M., E028
Stankewich, M.J., Jr., C100
Stanley, J.L., E035
Stanley, N.F., A031
Stark, P.E., E063
Starr, J.L., H009
Stegmann, R., H037
Sten, M., C110
Stenquist, R.J., D245
Stephanson, R.L., E080
Stephenson, D., B047
Steven, D.L., D547
Stoffel, C.M., HO 13
Stones,!., E101, El79
Stopka, K., D386
Storck, W.J., D303
Stoveland, S., El82
Strain, R.E., D224
Strier, M.P., D157
Strudgeon, G.E., D142
Stuart, W.J., D176
Stuckey, D.C., E119
Stumm, C., D039
Stumm, W., D258
Su, Y-S., F042
Subbayya, N.V., H036
Subrahmanyan, T.P., E143
Suidan, M.T., F021
Sukenik, W.H., D232
Sullivan, R.H., A036
Sundaram, T.R., D367
Sundquist, M.J., B038
Sundstrom, D.W., E042
Sussman, D.B., D121
Sutton, P.M., D373
Suzuki, T., D124
Swann, P., D477
Swanson, J.L., D456
Symes, G.L., D237
Symuleski, R.A., E073
Szabo, M., D550
Szilagyi, M., E194
Takahashi, S., C088
Takegami, S., C106
Tamal, Y., D362
Tambo, N., D302, El 15
Tamke, G.R., H013
Tanaka, T., E102
Tanner, R.D., F033
Tanuma, M., E026
Tao, J.C., D072
Tapola, E., C110
Taralli, G., E012
Tardivel, J., C049
Tarr, J.A., J025, J072
Taubel, N., E142
Tauxe, G.W., F059
Taylor, J.M., D187, H020
Taylor, R.D., E051
Taylor, T.E., JOSS
Teaster, C.F., H020
Tebbutt, T.H.Y., F060
Teltsch, B., E105
Tereshina, A.N., D313
Terry, R.E., D062
Tester, C.F., D187
Tettemer, J.M., A034
Thackston, E.L., D440
Theis, T.L., E145
Therien, N., F019
Thirumuithi, D., D118
Thomas, E.V., B044, D151
Thompson, L., D196
Thompson, W.B., J078
Thorell, L., J040
Thurley, B.L., El51
Thurley, L., D267
Thurtell, G., El34
Tien, C., F043
Tiller, F.M., D048, D078
Timmermann, F., D199
Titrud, J.M., El 68
Toda, S., E144
Toerien, D.F., F072
Tofaute, K., D278
Tomita, T., D065
Tomlinson, B.C., D177
Tomson, M.B., El 18
Tootill, P.R., A014
Toyoda, F., D298
Tracy, J., BO 18
Trichopoulos, D., El 63
Trotta, P.D., A017
Troyan, J.J., J045
Tsal, K-C., D161
Tsuchida, M., DOS 3
Tsuchitani, Y., E202
Tsukube, S., C101
Tuinte, J., D039
Tulp, M.T.M., E161
Tung, Y-K., F051
Tyteca, D., F048
Ueda, S., D025
Uematsu, K., E202
Uhl, V.W., E023
Uiga, A., D392
Ungar, A.T., D385
Upadhyay, K.N., El99
Ursprung, H.G., B114
Van Der Drift, C., D039
van Genuchten, M.T., F025
Van Kirk, J.W., C023
van Leeuwen, J., D206
Van Noorle Jansen, L.M., D067
Van Seggelen, E., D039
Van Sluis, R.J., El66
Van Vleet, E.S., J042
van Vliet, B.M., D209
van Vuuren, L.R.J., D204
Vance, H.A., A034
Variali, G., E015
Varis, M., C033
Vasconcelos, J.J., F007
Vashi, N.V., H036
Vasilyev, V.B., F112
Vassilaki-Grimani, M., E003
Vassiliadis, P., El63
Vasuki, N.C., D191
Vaughn, J.M., H050
Vavilin, V.A., F112
Veerannan, K.M., D073
Vermeulen, T., D074
Villiers, R.V., D162
Viraraghavan, T., D239, H005
H027
Vischer, D., B046
Viviers, J.M.P., D309
Vosloo, P.B.B., F077
Wachs, A.M., E027
Wada,Y., A037, H002
Wagner, R., El83
Wagner, W.F., C074
Walker, A.J.M., E185
Walker, I., E030
Walker, J., D242
Walker, J.M., D144
Walker, J.T., D458
Walker, K.H., D192
Wallace, A., D463
Wallace, C.J., D027
Wallbank, T., D090
723
-------
Wallis, C, D158, E128
Wallis, I.G., D059
Walsh, L.M., D219, D248, D256
Walzer, J.G., F088
Wang, J.T., D231
Wang, L.K., D157, El 67, F067
Wang, M.H., D157, El 67, F067
Ward, A., D326
Ward, R.L., E052, E066
Ward, R.W., E061, E093
Warford, J.J., F099
Wartiovaara, J., J040
Wass, V.C., B023
Wassermann, K.L., D407
Watake, H., D197
Watanabe, H., E075
Watson, G.K., El59
Wattenburger, T., D523
Waud, A., D115
Weaver,!., J022
Weber, A., D091, D389
Weber, C.L., D095
Weber,!., F057
Weber, W.J., Jr., E180, F03I, F097
Weeks, J.L., Jr., F036
Weir, D.R., Jr., D037
Weiss, J., C135
Wells, N., D521
Wen, C.P., F036
Werner, D.F., D418
West, R., B019
Westergaard, J.M., E016
Wheater, D.W.F., E148
Whipple, W., Jr., A013
White, E.B., C108, C125
Whitehead, P.G., H046
Wiesmann, U., F082
Wiggert, D.C., B038
Wight, J.L., D308
Williams, L.M., B028
Williams, T.C., D132
Willis, H., D551
Willson, G.B., D172
Wilson, D.G., J057
Wilson, D.J., F065
Wilson, R.S., £090
Winblad, U., D036
Winklehaus, C., JOSS
Winter, R.L., E023
Wise, R.H., E037
Witherup, S.O.. D508
Woerle, R., D400
Wolf, R., D288
Wolntan, A., D214
Wong-Chong, G.M., C099
Wong, M-H., D462, E060,
El60, H041
Wood, L.B., A025
Wood, R.J., D205
Woodbridge, D.D., D387
Woodwell, G.M., H010
Woolhiser, D.A., A012
Wordelman, S.L., H049
Work, S.W., D159, D391
Wroe, L.R., A025
Wu, Y.C., D459
E089
Wuhrmann, K., FI07
Wuhrraann, K.A., E019, E059
Xirouchaki, E., E163
Yagibashi, I., D160
Yagihashi, I., D024
Yamada, T., D362
Yanko, W.A., El66
Yaron, B., HO 16
Yasuda, M., F076
Yeh, S-J., D546
Yip, S-W., D462, E089, H041
Yokomichi, K., D06S
Yokoyama, M., EI44
Yoshihara, K., D025
Yoshinaga, C., C106
Yosie, T.F., J072
Young, J.C., E188
Yu, K.Y., E014
Yu, S.L., AOI3
Zabierzewski, C, C090
Zaghoul, N.A., A019
Zanker, A., £174
Zeff, J.D., D079
Ziegler, R.C.. DI57
Zoeteman, B.C.J., J023
Zucchetti, R., E018
Zuellig, H., E044
Zuicarelli, F.J., D293
Zurow, A., D092
724
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
Activated carbon, C077, C100, D003
D307, E150, E180
Adsorption
Mass transfer, F031
Upflow-downflow system, D142
Ammonia, F075
Chlorine, D420
Denitrification, F101
Temperature effects, F008
Disinfection, D027
Ozone, D130
Filtration
Pilot plants, D141
Mathematical models, F021, F028
F075
Nitrogen removal, El84
Organics removal, C078, D149
D155, D189, E115
Physico-chemical treatment, D354
Operating experiences, D217
Trace elements, D156
Regeneration, D033, D142, D189
D473, D535
Adsorption, E015
Tertiary treatment, D088, D148
Incineration, D535
Wet air oxidation, D033
Activated sludge
see also Biological treatment
C096, D084.D118
D227, D245, D378, D382
D410, D477, E110, E147
E161
Adsorption, C106, F070
Aeration, C027, C030, C048
C053, C065, C071, C107
D235, D294, D374, D381
D466, D512, El77, F081
F112
Alkalinity, Fill
Bacteria, D122, D550, E030
El26, F072
Bactericides, F043
Biochemical oxygen demand, E101
E190
Chemical oxygen demand, E078
Coliforms, D039
Contact stabilization
Disinfection, D467
Denitrification, D160, D355, F101
Analytical techniques, E043
Pilot plants, D151, D229
Design criteria, C042, D030
D373, E048, F014, F030
F054, F068
Aeration basins, El94
Filtration, CO 15, C131, D445
Flocculation, C040, D459
Flow control, F074
Equalization basins, D1S3
Solids retention time, F094
Hydrogen ion concentration, F076
Loading, D512, E101, F076
Activated sludge (cont'd)
Loading, F086, F095
Mathematical models, F003, F014
F019, F050, F054, F068
F074, F104, F105, F108
Carbonaceous degradation, F002
F070
Clarification, F022
Flow variations, F015
Kinetics, F004, F043, F067
F082, F086, F090, F098
Nitrification, D030
Pollutant sorption, F112
Substrate utilization, F034, F046
Temperature effects, F024, F093
Waste activated sludge, D147
F089
Nitrification, D024, D160, D355
D373, D474, Fill, F114
Analytical techniques, E043
Oxygenation, C063, C079, C100
D242, D404, D513
Operation/performance, D150
D374, D479, D484, Bill
Vitox injection, D496
Phosphorus removal, C012, C020
D355, D369, D373
Anaerobic conditions, D20S
Counter-current stripping, C026
Microorganisms, CO 11
Physico-chemical treatment, D106
Polymers, C120, E040
Biodegradation, E007
Sludge dewatering, D092
Redox potential, E074
Scum formation, El77
Septic tank effluents, D447
Sludge bulking, C032, D190, El 35
F076
Sludge dewatering, C056, D190
E133
Centrifugation, D173
Dissolved air flotation, D309
Drying beds, F077
Soluble organic nitrogen, El 84
Suspended solids, El38
Waste recycling, D370
Adsorption, C041, F097
Activated carbon
Chlorine, F021
Mass transfer, F031
Upflow-downflow system, D142
Activated sludge, C106, F070
Soils, H022
Viruses, El 10, E149, H055
Advanced treatment
see Tertiary treatment
Aeration
see also Oxygenation
C014,C039,C045
C060,C090,C091
C121, D075, D118, D176
Aeration (cont'd)
D331, D361, D456, D485
D487, D492
Activated sludge, C027, C030
C048, C053, C065, C071
C107, D235, D294, D374
D381, D466, D512, E177
F081, F112
Biological treatment, C054
Chemical wastes, D414
Composting, D172
Deep shaft aeration, C037, D377
D530
Diffusers, D055, D064, D152
D466
Dissolved oxygen
Rivers, H038
Instream aeration, B097
Automatic control/instruments
H046
Rivers, H038
Mass transfer, E022, E023, F040
F055, F081
Mathematical models, F081
Mixing, F032
Pollutant sorption, F112
Ozone, D386
Rotors, C029, C051, D475
Waste water lagoons, D104
Aerobic digestion
see also Sludge treatment
C047, C050
C124, D305
Design criteria, F084
Sludge retention time, D161
Odor control
Land application, D222
Oxygenation, D436, F078
Sludge disposal, D523
Sludge stability, E129
Temperature effects, C079, D230
F084
Algae, D082, D308, El 60
Analytical techniques, E008, E03S
E191
Growth media, D536, E060
Sewage stabilization ponds, D113
D313, J069
Alum
see also Physico-chemical treatment
D003
Phosphorus removal, D425, D452
Physico-chemical treatment, D234
D354, D416, E107
Activated sludge, D4S9
Operating experiences, D217
Water treatment
Sludge disposal, D070
Ammonia
see also Nitrification
Activated carbon, F075
Analytical techniques, E192
725
-------
Ammonia (cont'd)
Electro-oxidation, D510
Land application, El34
Physico-chemical treatment, C076
Time series analysis
Rivers, J003
Toxicity, E083
Zeolites, F059
Anaerobic conditions
Phosphorus removal
Activated sludge, D205
Anaerobic digestion
see also Sludge treatment
C076,C124,D320
F062, J086, J088
Coliforms, D440
Design criteria, D093
Heat treatment, £119
Heavy metals, El45
Kinetics, F107, F113
Lime, D461, D498
Methane, C007, D380
Organics removal, F107
Phase separation, Fl 13
Reverse osmosis, D507
Salmonella, D440
Sludge analysis, EOI2, E145, E166
Sludge disposal
Crop yields, D218
Sodium bicarbonate, D102, D380
D461, D498
Viruses, D126, E166
Analytical techniques
see a/so Mapping; Sludge analysis
D308, E116.E120
E132, E175
Activated sludge, E043
Aeromonads, E195
Algae, E008, E035, E191
Ammonia, El92
Ascaris, E16S
Bacteria, E205
Chromatography, E073
Ultrasound, E030
Bioassay, El91
Biochemical oxygen demand, El70
E174
Chemical oxygen demand, E053
E104, EI40, E152, E179
E197
Chlorine, E150
Chlorine dioxide, E087
Colorimetry, E136
Cost-benefit analysis, F012, F099
Cyanophages, £035
Dissolved solids, £042
Dyes
Flow rates, E157
Hydraulic design, F109
Leak detection, E056
Fecal coliforms, E009, £079
Agars, £195
Membranes, E057, El48, E201
Filters, E097
Groundwater contamination
Mathematical models, F016
Analytical techniques (cont'd)
Heavy metals, E071, El56, El82
Hydrogen ion concentration, El 18
Hydrogen peroxide, E013
Hydrogen sulfide, El98
Hydrograph analysis, A026
Nitrates, E014
Nitrogen, £080
Odor control E106
Organic acids, E193
Organosilicone, E202
Phenols, E032
Phosphates, E047
Regression analysis, E039
Salmonella, E017, E094
Enrichment media, £163
Lysine decarboxylase test, £025
Sludge stability, E064
Soils
Percolation, E063
Reviews, E191
Solvent extraction, £139, El 72
£202
Storage, E085
Stress analysis, B024
Structural analysis
Sewer pipelines, B031
Time series analysis, F099
Autocorrelation, A006, J003
Rivers, H037
Total organic carbon, E049
Toxicity, E158, E203
Viruses, E128, £149, £196
Water quality
Reviews, E191
Rivers, £090
Automatic control/instruments
see also Flow meters
B115,C094, D034
E021, E050, E120, E121
J061
Aeration, H046
Application rates
Trickling filters, D212
Biological treatment, C081
Digital control systems, D021
D065, D267, D269, D273
D457, E018, E100, E103
E113, E114, E151, £200
J051
Dissolved oxygen. El46
Flow control, B052, D013, D153
D297
Pumps, E036
Leak detection, E096, El 12, E155
Lysimetere, H028
Monitoring, E037
Biological filters, D271
Soils, E063
Total organic carbon, £049
Ultrasound, E034
Viruses, £033
Operating experiences, D210, E100
Sampling, £117
Automatic control/instruments (cont'd)
Sewer pipelines, B069, Bill, £173
Sludge transport, D042
Storm runoff, A017
Water treatment, D184
Bacteria, El69
Activated sludge, D122, D550
El26. F072
Amino acid utilization, E137
Analytical techniques, E20S
Chromatography, £073
Bdellovibrio, £016
Denitrification, F106
Estuaries
Pollutant identification, £082
H003
Land application, H031, J084
Phototrophic bacteria, E086
Sewers
Cleaning, B009
Sprinkler irrigation, £105, F063
Biochemical oxygen demand, C062
Activated sludge, E101, E190
Analytical techniques. El70, El74
Biological filters, E101
Chlorine, E171
Mathematical models, E076
Sludge bulking, C032
Biodegradation, C071, C121, El 16
El 59
Chemical oxygen demand, E075
Contact stabilization, D068
Polymers, E007
Surfactants, E095
Total organic carbon, E075
Biological filters
see also Filters; Rotating biological
contactors; Trickling filters
C018, C072.C110, D399
D431, D488
Automatic control/instruments
D271
Fluidized beds, D533
Loading, C126, D509, £101
F102
Mass transfer, F040
Mathematical models, F079, F102
Package plants, D413
Repair, D168
Rotating biological contactors
D403, D428
Trickling filters, D546
Biological treatment
see also Activated sludge; Rotating
biological contactors
C084, C128.C137
D249,D313,D324
D360, E070, F071
Aeration, C054
Automatic control/instruments
C081
Deep shaft aeration, C037, D377
726
-------
Biological treatment (cont'd)
Deep shaft aeration, D530
Filters, C018
Flow control, E188
Oxygenation, C077, C104, D276
Package plants, C113, D408
D465
Pilot plants
Rotating biological contactors
D032.D174,0437
BOD
see Biochemical oxygen demand
Bromine, D478
Disinfection, El22
Bromine chloride, D406
Toxicity, E061.E093
Carbonation, C099
Catalysts, El52
Enzymes, D080
Oxidation
Ammonia, DS10
Odor control, D197
Ozone, D107
Centrifugation, C109, C112, D119
Clarification, D388
Design criteria, D311
Sludge analysis, £138
Sludge dewatering, C123, D019
D124, D311, D342, D524
D538, D541, El87
Activated sludge, D173
Chemical oxygen demand
Activated sludge, E078
Analytical techniques E053, E104
E140, E152, E179, E197
Biodegradation, E075
Chlorine, D308
Contact stabilization, DS06
Temperature effects, E140
Trickling filters, D025
Chemical wastes, D301
Chloroform, D414
Sewage disposal, DO 18
Surfactants, D154
Wet air oxidation, B042, D018
D175
Chlorine, F109
Activated carbon, D420
Biochemical oxygen demand, E171
Chemical oxygen demand, D308
Disinfection, B064, C115, D027
D206, D260, D406, D420
D467, D478, D494, D532
F085, J058
Coliforms, D067, D188
Cyanophages, E035
Salmonella, D067, E094
Chlorine (cont'd)
Hypochlorite generation, D379
D532
Leak detection, E096, E112, E155
Monitoring, E001, El 12, E150
Organics removal, E054, E108
Oxidation
Surfactants, D1S4
Polychlorinated biphenyls, El54
Sludge treatment, D232
Toxicity, D004, D336, E061
E093, E203
Chlorine dioxide, F041
Analytical techniques, E087
Disinfection, D406, E094
Clarification
see also Sedimentation basins
D105.D529
Activated sludge, D382
Design criteria, F030
Mathematical models, F022
Centrifugation, D388
Heat treatment, C073
High lime process
Tube and plate modules, D209
Coagulation, C041, C136, D482
D551
Colloids, D258
Filters, D302
Multimedia filters, D159
Trace elements, D156
COD
see Activated sludge; Chemical oxy-
gen demand
Coliforms
see also Fecal coliforms
Activated sludge, D039
Anaerobic digestion, D440
Disinfection, D188
Chlorine, D067
Septic tank effluents, E084, E109
H027
Combined sewers, A030, A032, B097
B102
Cleaning, B112
Cost-benefit analysis, B077
Design criteria, A009, B096
Legislation, B001
Mathematical models, A037, F001
Overflow, A031, A036, B077
Disinfection, B064, F041
Magnetic separation, D353
Storage, B065
Sewer construction, A016
Storm runoff, A037
Storage, A014
Composting. C038, C061, D288
D372, D491, D518, H020
Aspergillus fumigatus, £065
Domestic wastes, D100, D206
Fertilizers, D277, D543
Forced aeration system, D172
Mathematical models, F049
Odor control, D402
Composting (cont'd)
Pilot plants, D171, D172, D400
Forced aeration system, D549
Rural areas
Latrine systems, D036, D139
Sludge digestion
Earthworms, D057
Sludge disposal, D134, D543
Municipal/industrial wastes
D037
User surveys, J071
Computer control
see Automatic control/instruments
Computer programs
Design criteria
Waste water treatment facilities
F026
Manning's equation, B087, B098
Concrete pipes, B074
Conditioning
see Sludge treatment
Construction
Costs, D519, J066, J074
Regional planning, F010, JO 14
J031
Environmental effects
Sewers, B002, B003
Manholes, B006
Waste water treatment facilities
D200
Costs, J001
Construction materials
Concrete, JO 18
Corrosion, B043, D213
Glass-reinforced plastic, D485
Sedimentation basins, D137
D348
Slime accumulation, B044
Sludge disposal, D053
Contact stabilization, D068, D118
D418
Activated sludge
Disinfection, D467
Colloids, D506
Corrosion, D330, D505
Incineration, D213
Linings, B043
Outfall sewers, BO 17, B045
Pipes, B035
Rotors, D475
Valves, J020
Costs, B095
Construction, D519, J066, J074
Regional planning, F010, J014
J031
Cost-benefit analysis, B077, F012
F039, F048, F110, JOSS
Environmental effects, J041
Storm sewers, A034
727
-------
Costs (cont'd)
Physico-chemical treatment, D178
Sewer use, J030, J045
Sludge disposal, D056, D061
D086
Land application, D049
Sludge transport, D058
Sludge treatment, D061, D393
Storm runoff
Sewers, A002
Tertiary treatment, J089
Waste recycling, J037
Waste water treatment facilities
D029, J009, J016
Construction, J001
Extended aeration, D203
Water reuse, D051, J082
Demineralization, D446
Denitrincation, C062, F115
Activated carbon, F101
Temperature effects, F008
Activated sludge, D160, D355
F101
Aeration, D512
Pilot plants, D151, D229
Rivers, H051
Soils, H045
Stoichiometry, F087, F106
Sulfur, F106
Desalination, D471
Design Criteria, F110, J011, J081
Activated sludge, C042, D030
D373, E048, F014, F015
F054, F068
Aeration basins, El94
Settling flux, F030
Aerobic digestion, F084
Sludge retention time, D161
Anaerobic digestion, D093
Catchment basins, AGIO, A027
Centrifugation, D311
Combined sewers, A009, B096
Dissolved air notation, F088, F096
Filters
Multimedia filters, D034
Rotating biological contactors
F102
Flow control, £188
Outfall sewers, B045, D169
Package plants, D470
Pumps, B061, BOSS, F018
Sedimentation basins, D363, F061
F080
Sewers, B039
Storm sewers, A01S, A033
Waste water lagoons, D183, F023
J010
Waste water treatment facilities
E124, J062
Computer programs, F026
Construction, £048
Upgrading, D022
Detention
see Storage
Dewatering
see Sludge dewatering
Diffusers
Aeration, D055, D466
Hydraulic design
Outfall sewers, B046
Oxygenation, D064
Disinfection, C002, D225, D376
Activated carbon, D027
Adsorption
Viruses, DUO
Bromine, D478
Bromine chloride
Toxicity, E061, E093
Bromine choride, D406
Browne, £122
Chlorine, B064, C115, D004
D027, D206, D260, D406
D420, D467, D478, D494
D532, F041, J058
Coliforms D067, D188
Cyanophages, £035
Hypochlorite generation, D379
Salmonella, D067, E094
Sewage stabilization ponds, F08S
Toxicity, D336, £061, £093
£203
Chlorine dioxide, D406, £087
£094, F041
Dye-sensitized photo-oxidation
Poliovirus, D158
Evaporation, E052
Gamma radiation, D083, D135
D274,D316,D319, D387
Heat treatment, C127, £066
Hospital wastes, D254, D556
Iodine, D188
Irradiation, C095, D278, D406
D455, D525
Oxygenation
Sewage stabilization ponds, D001
Ozone, C003, C095, D004, D066
D072, D130. D181, D206
D260, D280, D358, D359
D386, D406, D478, D5I6
D528, D556
Coliforms, D188
Mutagenicity, £024
Salmonella, £094
Temperature effects, Dill
Toxicity, £093
Viruses, D087
Ultrasound, C003, D397
Dissolved air notation, D309, D489
F052, F088, F096
Dissolved oxygen
Automatic control/instruments
£146
Digital control systems, £026
Monitoring, E001
Dissolved solids
Municipal/industrial wastes, £042
DO
see Dissolved oxygen
Domestic wastes, C097, D365
Composting, D100, D206
On-site treatment, B026, D250
D251, D257, D270, D289
J045, J070
Water reuse, D257
Grey water, D250
Grey water, D143, D251
Dyes
Analytical techniques
Flow rates, El57
Hydraulic design, F109
Leak detection, £056
Dye-sensitized photo-oxidation
DOSS, D158
Electrolysis
Flocculation, C040
Environmental effects, J040
Cost-benefit analysis, J041
Interceptor sewers
Sewers, BO 18
Ocean disposal, D352, £091
Outfall sewers, D169, £031, £091
Faunal diversity, H054
Fecal coliforms, D059
Pollutant identification, D047
Sewage disposal, H043
Outfall sewers, F005
Sewers, D009, JO 12
Construction, B002, B003
Storm runoff, A024, A025
Aquatic life, A023
Waste water treatment facilities
JO12, J063
Enzymes
Catalysts, D080
Cellulolysis, D545
Sludge treatment, D545
Equalization basins, D418
Access, J097
Flow control, D396
Pilot plants, D043, D153
Estuaries, D237, J087
Faunal diversity, H054
Pollutant identification
Bacteria, £082, H003
Hydrocarbons, J042
Trace elements, £003
Waste assimilative capacity, H049
Water pollution sources, J040
Eutrophication, £102, F005, J033
Evaporation
Disinfection, £032
Excavation
Cave-ins, B037
Rotary moles, B078
Sewer construction, A028, BOOS
BO 12, B027, B041, B060
728
-------
Excavation (cont'd)
Sewer construction, B072, B078
Sheet piling, B107
Tunneling, BIOS, D499
Extended aeration, C080, C086
D315, D344
Alaska, D003, D453
Costs, D203
Nitrogen removal
Bardenpho process, D202
Fecal coliforms
see also Coliforms
Aeromonads, El95
Analytical techniques, E009, E079
Agars, EI95
Incubation, E201
Membranes, E057, E148, E201
Antibiotic resistance, El81
Outfall sewers, D059
Sprinkler irrigation, H053
Fermentation
Anaerobic digestion, C124, F113
Mathematical models, F033
Phase separation, F113
Fertilizers
see also Land application
D481
Composting, D277, D543
Crop yields, D219, D462, E058
E142
Domestic wastes, D143
Sludge disposal, D108, D120
D136, D248
Sludge analysis, £055
Sludge treatment, COBS
Disinfection, E052
Soils, D218
Filters
see also Biological filters; Trickling
filters
C043,D063,D275
D503
Analytical techniques, E097
Belt filter press, DO 16, D081
D162, D282, D322, D340
D341, D349, D438, D469
D520
Biological filters, D123, D399
F079 v
Nitrification, C028
Packing media, C110, D429
D431
Repair, D168
Cleaning, DOM, D089, D544
Contact filtration, D091
Cross-flow filtration, D367
Microfiltration, D367
Multimedia filters, C006, C093
D445, D548, D552
Coagulation, D159
Design criteria, D034
Grain size, D020, D034, D159
Phosphorus removal, D091
Trace elements, D1S6
Sand filters, D020, D125, H018
Filters (cont'd)
Sludge dewatering, C055, C069
D103, D119, D264, D282
D312, D318, D322, D325
D327, D340, D341, D349
D394, D438, D441, D454
D469, D520, D542
Chamber filter press, D263
Physico-chemical treatment
D098
Thin-cake filtration, D048
Trickling filters, D080, D245
D259, D534
Automatic control/instruments
D212
Chemical oxygen demand, D02S
Film flow, F020
Vacuum filters, D081, D119
D195, D264, D318, D325
Filtration, C019, D078
Activated carbon
Pilot plants, D141
Activated sludge, C015, C131
D445
Cross-flow filtration, D337
Sludge analysis
Specific resistance, D232, E019
E059, E144
Tertiary treatment
Water reuse, D012
Ultrafiltration, D508, D553
Financial aid, D437, J035, J060
JOSS
Legislation, J046
Tertiary treatment, J015, J090
Waste water treatment facilities
J077, J096
Construction, D132, D201
J004, J006, J021
Flocculation, A031, C103, C108
C115, D296, D482, F073
Electrolysis, C040
Kinetics, F064, F065
Polyacrylamides, D426
Polymers, C120, D303
Sludge dewatering
Magnetic thickening, D1S7
Flow control, F094
Automatic control/instruments
B052, D013, D297
Biological treatment E188
Effluent quality
Pilot plants, D1S3
Pilot plants
Equalization basins, D043
Sewer pipelines, B059, F051
Mathematical models, B047
Storm runoff
Pumps, F009, F103
Flow meters
see also Automatic control/
instruments
E099.E121.E151
Infiltration/inflow, B010, B021
C083
Flow meters (cont'd)
Ultrasound, E020, E050, E098
E123
Flow rates, El 57
Monitoring, E002
Slime accumulation, B044
Foam separation, C024, C058, D307
Funding
see Financial aid
Gravity separation
see also Separation techniques
C036,C043
Groundwater contamination
Automatic control/instruments
H028
Irrigation, H014, H035
Mathematical models, F016
Soils, E109
Surfactants, H042
Waste water disposal
Viruses, H050
Waste water lagoons, H040, J092
Groundwater recharge, D015, H023
H034, J073
Irrigation, D539
Soils, D050, H008
Viruses, H050
Waste water disposal
Marshlands, H010
Water reuse, D291, D368, JO 13
Israel, H006
Grouting
see also Sewer repair
B076.B078
Heat treatment, C023, C057, C102
C118, D458, D47I, D481
Dili
Activated carbon, D473
Anaerobic digestion, El 19
Clarification, C073
Disinfection, C127
Viruses, E066
Screening, D041
Sludge treatment
Conditioning, D246, D343
D401, £119
Disinfection, C127
Heavy metals
see also Trace elements
D389
Anaerobic digestion, E145
Analytical techniques, E071, El56
E182
Animal uptake, E088
Cadmium, D097
Incineration
Waste disposal, D208, D233
Land application, D424, HO 12
Cadmium, D185
Guidelines, D194
Mathematical models, F02S
Plant uptake, D240, D248
D255, E088, E168
729
-------
Heavy metals (cont'd)
Reviews, D045
Soils, D248, E004
Ocean disposal, E091
Ozone, D390
Sludge analysis, E055, E092, E145
El82, E204, H030
Neutron-photon activation, E046
Wet air oxidation, D211
Soils
Land application, D097
Storm runoff, A013
Water reuse, E077
Zinc, D097
Hospital wastes, D397
Disinfection, D254
Radioisotopes, El25
Reverse osmosis, D244
Sewage pumps, D099
Water reuse
Ozone, D179
Hydraulic design, B082, C093
Dyes, F109
Outfall sewers
Diffusers, B046, F011
Hydraulic equipment, B075, B102
D238, D347
Pumps, D193
Impellers, D138
Sludge transport, DOM), D292
Valves, C033, J020
Ball valves, D127
Hydrocarbons, El27, E141, El64
Hydrogen ion concentration, F076
Analytical techniques, E118
Polymers, D221
Hydrogen peroxide, D339, D501
D515, E013, E198
Hydrogen sulfide, El98
Incineration, D419
Multiple hearth furnaces, CO 13
D422
Pyrolysis, D046, D180, D483
J067
Refuse-derived fuels, D121, D131
D180, D460, D483, J067
Sludge dewatering
Coal additions, D19S
Sludge disposal, C074, D131
D383
Waste disposal
Heavy metals, D208, D233
Screening, D041
Industrial water
Cooling towers, D495
Water reuse
Africa, D204, D209
England, D262
Infiltration/inflow
Flow meters, B010, B021, C083
Storm runoff, A020
Television inspection, B022, B023
Inflow
see Infiltration/inflow
Interceptor sewers
see also Sewers
B054, BIOS, B109, F526
Ion exchange, D241, D497
Analytical techniques, E102
Demineralization, D446
Regeneration, D231, D471
Resins, D077
Tertiary treatment, D074
Zeolites, D231, F059
Irradiation
Disinfection, C095, D278, D316
D406, D455, D525
Gamma radiation, D083, DBS
D274, D316, D319, D387
D455
Sludge analysis
Heavy metals, E046
Ultraviolet radiation, D079, E054
Irrigation, B074, B083, D392, D464
H006, H026, H029
Groundwater contamination, H014
H035
Soils, D299, H052
Denitrification, H045
Mercury, E011
Waste assimilative capacity
H008, H035
Sprinkler irrigation, D096, D128
D333, D448, D472, D517
E105, F035, F042, F063
H008, H019, H034, H035
H053
Tertiary treatment
Water reuse, D023, D236
Water reuse, D215
Kinetics, F069, F081
Anaerobic digestion, F107, F113
Flocculation, F064, F065
Mass transfer
Ozone, F029
Mathematical models
Activated sludge, F004, F043
F067, F082, F086, F090
F093, F098
Substrate utilization, El90
Lakes
Mapping
Septic tank effluents, E031
E038
Waste water disposal, EOS 1
Eutrophication, J033
Land application
see also Fertilizers; Sludge disposal
D144,D222,D320
D392,D412,D464
D472, D476, D543, D554
E168, H018, J052, J073
J084, J095
Irrigation, D299, D517, D539
HO 19, H026
Cold regions, H052
Land application (cont'd)
Costs, F035
Nitrogen transformations, F042
Mathematical models, F039
Nitrogen removal, D219, D256
Phosphorus removal, D219, D256
Sludge disposal, D035, D069
D514, E069, E131
Ammonia, El34
Aromatic hydrocarbons, E041
Bacteria, H031
Costs, D049
Crop yields, D218, D480, E058
Decomposition rate, D187
H020
Dredge spoils, D191
Guidelines, D194, D207, D216
J075, J079
Heavy metals, D045, D136
D185, D240, D255, D424
E055, E088, H012
Pollutant identification, D031
Reviews, D214, D555, H031
Sludge transport, D165, D272
Soils, D062, D097, D256, D514
E041, H025, H041
Heavy metals, E004, F025
Mineralization, D187
Permeability, D116
Tertiary treatment, D521
Viruses, H055
Tertiary treatment
Groundwater recharge, D539
Land reclamation, H041
Dredge spoils, D191, H044
Sludge disposal, E068
Land use
Regional planning, J081
Storm runoff
Mathematical models, F017
Water quality, A021
Leachates, H040
Nitrates, H019
Pollutant identification, H007
Sanitary landfills, D028, H013
Soils, H033
Legislation
Combined sewers, B001
Water pollution control
England, J002
Germany, J007
Great Lakes, D192
The Netherlands, J008
Linings, BOS4, D163, D283
Asphalt, B101
Corrosion, B035, B043
Fiberglass-reinforced pipes, B033
Glass, B028, D167
Membranes, D145
Sewer repair, B019, B080, B091
B103
Mapping
see a/so Analytical techniques
Ocean disposal, E039, E079, EOS I
730
-------
Mapping (cont'd)
Ocean disposal, E091
Rivers, H004
Septic tank effluents
Lakes, £031, E038
Soils, E084, H005
Sewer pipelines, E173
Marshlands
Tertiary treatment, D306
Hyacinths, D207, D249, D357
Pilot plants, D026, D395, D398
H023
Waste water disposal, H010
Mass transfer
Activated carbon
Adsorption, F031
Aeration, E022, E023, F055
F081
Biological filters, F040
Ozone, D397, F029, F036, F037
Rotating biological contactors, F092
Mathematical models
see also Simulation analysis
B095
Activated carbon, F028, F075
Chlorine, F02I
Nitrification, F101
Activated sludge, F003, F019
F050, F054, F060, F068
F074, F104, F105, F108
Carbonaceous degradation, F002
F070
Clarification, F022
Design criteria, F014, F015
Kinetics, F004, F043, F067
F086, F090, F098
Nitrification, D030, F101
Pollutant sorption, F112
Substrate utilization, F034, F046
Temperature effects, F024, F093
Waste activated sludge, D147
F089
Aeration, F081
Mixing, F032
Biochemical oxygen demand, £076
Combined sewers, A037, F001
Composting, F049
Cost-benefit analysis, F012, F048
Land application, F039
Filters
Biological filters, F079, F102
Trickling filters, F020
Groundwater contamination, F016
Kinetics
Activated sludge, F082
Land application, F039
Soils, F025
Sprinkler irrigation, F035
Manning's equation, BOS9, B087
B098
Monod model, D030, F090
Fermentation, F033
Mathematical models (cont'd)
Nitrification, F047
Performance relationships, F060
Regional planning, F006, F007
F039, F044, F053, F058
F091
Sewer pipelines, B038, BOS9, FOS1
F083
Flow control, B047
Storm runoff, A011, A012, A019
A029, A035, A037, F001
Hydrograph analysis, A026
Land use, F017
Nutrient loadings, A001
Sewers, B084, F027
Storm frequency, A013
Time series analysis, A006
Water quality, A003
Waste assimilative capacity
Rivers, F013
Soils, F069
Zeolites, F059
Membranes, C087, C088, C128
D265, D312
Analytical techniques
Fecal coliforms, E057, E148
£201
Incubation, E201
Linings
Sanitary landfills, D145
Reverse osmosis, D244
Ultrafiltration, D553
Mercury
Irrigation
Soils, E011
Methane, D380, J086, J088
Mixing
Aeration, C090, C091
Mathematical models, F032
Diffusers, B046
Monitoring, J061
Automatic control/instruments
£037
Chlorine, £001, £112, £150
Digital control systems, D021
Dissolved oxygen, EOOl, £045
Flow meters
Infiltration/inflow, BO 10
Venturi flumes, £044
Flow rates, £002
Heavy metals
Fertilizers, £055
Pressure, B052
Radioisotopes, £072
Sludge level
Ultrasound, E034
Television inspection, B022, B076
Viruses, E033
Water quality, £090
Monod model, D030, F033
Municipal/industrial wastes, D228
D334, D350, D443, D448
Aeration, D152, D235
Dissolved solids, £042
Municipal/industrial wastes (cont'd)
Oxygenation
UNOX Pressure Swing Absorp-
tion, D008
Ozone, D130
Sludge dewatering, D124
Sludge disposal
Composting, D037
Nitrates
Analytical techniques, E014
Leachates, HOI 9
Toxicity, E083
Nitrification
see also Ammonia; Nitrogen removal
F115
Activated sludge, D024, D355
D373, D474, D512, F101
Fill, F114
Oxygenation, D150
Sludge retention time, D160
Anaerobic conditions
Biological filters, C028
Land application, H025
Mathematical models, F047
Activated carbon, F101
Activated sludge, D030
Ozone, £027
Rivers, H051
Nitrogen removal
see also Nitrification
C137,D365,J034
Activated carbon, El84
Extended aeration
Bardenpho process, D202
Ion exchange
Zeolites, D231
Land application, D219, D256
Rivers, H051
Soils, D170, D256
Trickling filters
Automatic control/instruments
D212
Ocean disposal, D352, D407, D421
E028, E039, El 85
Mapping, E079, £081
Heavy metals, E091
Monitoring, J024
Sludge transport, D500
Odor control, C135, D293, D298
Aerobic digestion, D222
Analytical techniques, E106
Catalysts
Oxidation, D197
Composting, D402
• Hydrogen peroxide, D330, D339
D501
Ozone, D335, D450
Operation/maintenance
Mathematical models, F060
Waste water treatment facilities
E062, J078
Organics removal, £108, E175
Activated carbon, C078, D155
El 15
731
-------
Organics removal (cont'd)
Pilot plants, D149, D189
Activated sludge, D160
Algae, D536
Anaerobic digestion, F107
Biological filters, F040
Chlorine, E054
Ozone, D358, D359, E054, E071
Outfall sewers
see also Sewers
B066.B067.D411
F526
Corrosion, BO 17
Environmental effects, E031
Fauna! diversity, H054
Fecal coliforms, D059
Heavy metals, E091
Hydraulic design
DifTusers, B046, F011
Sewage disposal
Environmental effects, F005
Sewer construction, B016, B040
BOSS, B079, B089, B104
B106, D166, D284
Overflows
Storm runoff, A016
Oxidation, CO 17
Catalysts
Odor control D197
Chlorine, D1S4
Ozone, D079
Surfactants, D154
Sewage stabilization ponds
Camp sites, DSS4
Dye-sensitized photo-oxidation
D085
Oxygenation
see also Aeration
C077,C085,C104
C119.D466
Activated sludge, C063, C079
C100, D242, D404, D513
Operation/performance, D1SO
D374, D479, D484, Bill
Vitox injection, D496
Aerobic digestion, D436, F078
Biological treatment, D276
Disinfection
Sewage stabilization ponds, D001
Hydrogen peroxide, D515
Monitoring, E045
Rivers
In-stream aeration, D186
Trickling filters, D546
UNOX Pressure Swing Absorption
D008, D417
Ozone, C046, C075
Activated carbon, D130
Aeration, D386
Catalysts, D107
Decomposition rates, F036
Disinfection, C003, C095, D066
D072, D130, D181, D206
D260, D280, D358, D359
D386, D406, D478, DS16
Ozone (cont'd)
Disinfection, D528
Coliforms, D188
Hospital wastes, D179, D397
D556
Salmonella, E094
Temperature effects, Dill
Viruses, D087
Heavy metals, D390
Mass transfer, D397, F029, F036
F037
Mutagenicity, E024
Nitrification, E027
Odor control, D335, D386, D450
Organics removal, D358, D359
E054, E071
Oxidation, D079
Surfactants, D1S4
Septic tank effluents, C132
Toxicity, D004, E093
Ultrasound, D397
Ultraviolet radiation, Dill, E054
Package plants, C12S, C130, C139
D331, D345, D381, D409
Biological treatment, C113, D408
D465
Physico-chemical treatment, C070
D177, D465
Rest areas, D125, D439, D470
Rotating biological contactors
D413
Sewage pumps, D531
Tertiary treatment, D101
Water reuse, D038, D257
Parasites
Pollutant identification
Sewage stabilization ponds, D073
Penstocks, DOB, D297, D338
D487
Personnel
Training programs, D477
Waste treatment facilities
J028
Waste water treatment facilities
Activated sludge, D477
Latin America, J027
Operation/maintenance, J078
PH
see Hydrogen ion concentration
Phenols
Activated carbon, El 15
Analytical techniques, E032
Phosphates
Analytical techniques, E047
Phosphorus removal, D365, D366
E142, El78, J034
Activated sludge, CO 12, C020
D355. D369, D373
Anaerobic conditions, D20S
Counter-current stripping, C026
Microorganisms, CO 11
Alum, D42S, D4S2
Ferric chloride, D117, D391
Phosphorus removal (cont'd)
Land application, D219, D256
Lime, D391
Multimedia filters, D091
Physico-chemical treatment, C089
D199, E107, F057
Polymers, D052
Septic tank effluents, D234, H009
Soils, D170
Waste assimilative capacity
Rivers, H011
Physico-chemical treatment
see a/so Alum; Polymers
leaning, Oil, D090, D182
D305
Activated carbon, D189, D217
D354
Activated sludge, D106, D4S9
Alaska, D003, D177
Alum, D217, D234, D354, D416
D452, D459, E107
Ammonia, C076
Anaerobic digestion, C076
Lime, D461
Sodium bicarbonate, D102
D461
Carbonation, C099
Chemical precipitation
Suspended solids, COOS
Coagulation, C136, D302, D482
D551
Costs, D178
Cross-flow filtration, D337
Filters
Sludge dewatering, D098
Lime, C099
Package plants, C070, D46S
Phosphorus removal, C089, D199
D452, E107, F057
Ferric chloride, D117, D391
Lime, D391
Polymers, D303
Sludge dewatering, E144
Amines, C031, C059
Pilot plants
Activated carbon, D141
Organics removal, D149
Regeneration, D189
Activated sludge
Denitrification, D151, D229
Biological treatment
Rotating biological contactors
D261
Rotating filters
D032
Composting, D400, DS49
Disinfection, D188
Irradiation, D13S
Filtration, D141
Flow control
Equalization basins, D043
Tertiary treatment, D071
Marshlands, D026
Pipes
see also Sewers
B063
732
-------
Pipes (cont'd)
Cleaning, C064
Construction materials, B063, B113
Corrosion, B035, B043
Flow rates, 8044
Temperature effects, B036
Plastic pipes, B057, B090
Fiberglass-reinforced pipes, B058
D451
Linings, B080
Sewers, B004, B072
Underwater pipelines, B114
Vacuum system, BO 15
Temperature effects, B036
Pollutant identification, E021, El76
Environmental effects, D047
Estuaries, £082, J042
Bacteria, H003
Trace elements, E003
Leachates, H007
Organic contaminants, El86
Parasites, D031
Sewage stabilization ponds
Parasites, D073
Sludge analysis, 3005
Sludge disposal
Aspergillus fumigatus, £065
Land application, D031, £131
Septic tank effluents, E189
Storm runoff, A036
Water reuse, J023
Polychlorinated biphenyls, EIS4
E161
Polyethylene pipes
see Sewers
Polymers
see also Physico-chemical treatment
C103, D354
D427, D468, E167
Activated sludge, C120, £040
Biodegradation, £007
Centrifugation, D124
Flocculation, D303
Hydrogen ion concentration, D221
Phosphorus removal, D052
Sewers, B093
Sludge dcwatering, D092, D124
D221
Conditioning, C034
Power generation, B062, D140, D243
D380, F045, J049, J083
J086, J088
Pumps, B100, D442, D490, D527
Design criteria, B061, B085, F018
Flow control
Screw pumps, F103
Storm runoff, A032, F009
F103
Impellers, C101, DBS
Sewage pumps, BOH, B070, B085
C004, C116, D010, D054
D193, D243, D290, D430
D504, D522
Automatic control/instruments
Pumps (cont'd)
Automatic control/instruments
BUS
Discharge siphons, BOS 5
Hospital wastes, D099
Package plants, D531
Sludge dewatering, D346
Sludge transport, D094
Screw pumps, DI6S
Turbines, 0060
Variable speed pumps, Dl 12, E036
Pyrolysis
Multiple hearth furnaces, C013
D131
Refuse-derived fuels, D180
Radioisotopes, £072, El25
Regeneration
Activated carbon, D473, D535
Heat treatment, D471
Ion exchange, D231, D471
Regional planning, D095, F100, J036
J065, J081
Canada, D198
Construction
Costs, F010
Design
Construction, J014, J031
England, D237, J017, J098
Mathematical models, F006, F007
F039, F044, F053, F058
F091
Sludge disposal, J098
Wales, J019
Water pollution control, J022
Regional treatment facilities
see also Waste water treatment
facilities
D434.D443
D540
Reverse osmosis, D265
Anaerobic digestion, D507
Hospital wastes, D179
Membranes, D089
Hospital wastes, D244
Ozone, D556
Rivers, H046
Mapping, H004
Phenols, £032
Pollution abatement, D007. H039 N
H048, J068
• In-stream aeration, D186
Instream aeration, H038
Sampling, H004, H036
Time series analysis, £029
Ammonia, J003
Times series analysis, H037
Waste assimilative capacity, H002
H021, H049
Biochemical oxygen demand
E174
Mathematical models, F013
Nitrogen removal, H051
Phosphorus removal, H011
Rivers (cont'd)
Water pollution sources, D006
D007
Sewage disposal, H001
Water quality, H032, H036
Analytical techniques, £090
Rotating biological contactors
see also Biological filters; Biological
treatment
D174, D324, D428
D488
Design criteria, F102
Euromatic Bio-Drum, D403
Loading, F102
Mass transfer, F092
Package plants, D413
Pilot plants, D261, D437
Rotors
Aeration, C029, COS1, D475
Corrosion, D475
Rural areas
Composting
Latrine systems, D036
Pumps, D290
Sewers, B039
Sludge transport, D292
Salmonella
Anaerobic digestion, D440
Analytical techniques, £017, £094
Enrichment media, El63
Lysine decarboxylase test, £025
Antibiotic resistance, £199
Disinfection
Chlorine. D067, £094
Ozone, £094
Sampling, £176, £178
Automatic control/instruments
£117
Rivers, H004, H036
Storage, £085, £140
Sanitary landfills
Leachates, D028, HOI 3, H028
Linings
Membranes, D145
Screening, A008, C024, C112, D115
Bar screens, C02S, D326
Rotary drum microscreens, D017
Storm runoff, A030
Waste disposal, D419
Incineration, D041
Sedimentation basins
see also Clarification
C044.C047
C060, C066, D382, D529
F056, F105
Construction materials
Glass-reinforced plastic, D137
D348
Design criteria, D363, F061, F080
Monitoring
Radioisotopes, £072
733
-------
Sedimentation basins (cont'd)
Ultrasound, E034
Scum removal, C022
Sludge level, E034
Sludge transport, C049, C052
C067, C122, C134
Upgrading, D296
Separation techniques
see also Gravity separation; Sludge
dewatering
Colloids, D258
Gravity separation, C036
Magnetic separation, D353
Septic tank effluents, B094, D220
D292, D405, H017, H024
Activated sludge, D447
Coliforms, E084, E109, H027
Composting, D206
Mapping
Lakes, E031, E038
Soils, E084, E109, H009
Ozone, C132
Phosphorus removal, D234, H009
Sludge disposal, El89
Soils, H005
Temperature effects, D239
Sewage disposal, D460, J064
Aquatic life, D300, E089
Chemical wastes, DO 18
Irrigation, E105
Outfall sewers
Environmental effects, FOOS
Rivers, H043
Water pollution sources, H001
Sewage pipelines
see Sewers
Sewage stabilization ponds
see also Waste water lagoons
D076
Algae, D113, D313, J069
Disinfection
Chlorine, F085
Oxygenation, D001
Financial aid, D132
Hyacinths, D537
Oxidation
Camp sites, D554
Dye-sensitized photo-oxidation
D085
Pollutant identification
Parasites, D073
Stratification, F066
Sewage treatment, D409, J076
Carbonation, C099
Phototrophic bacteria, E086
Physico-chemical treatment, C099
Sewer construction
see also Sewers
B020, B025, B053
B071, B081, B090, D435
Brazil, B034
Concrete pipes
Cast-in-place pipes, B030
Sewer construction (cont'd)
Excavation, A028, BOOS, B012
B027, B041, B060, B072
B078
Cave-ins, B037
Sheet piling, B107
Tunneling, B100, BIOS, D499
Interceptor sewers, B054, B109
Outfall sewers, B016, B040, B055
B079, B089, B104, B106
D166, D284
Soils, BO 13
Twin-tunnel design, B014
Underwater pipelines, B114
Sewer pipelines, B020, B048, B074
E157
Automatic control/instruments
B052, B069, Bill, D269
E103, El73
Joints, B007, B053, B109
Linings, B054
Asphalt, B101
Mathematical models, B038, F051
F083
Flow control, B047
Manning's equation, B059, B087
B098
Stress analysis, B024
Structural analysis, B051
Flexibility, B031, B060
Underwater pipelines, Bl 14
Twin-tunnel design, B014, B032
Sewer repair
see also Grouting
B056,B099
D364
Grouting, B023, B076
Linings, B019, B080, B091, B103
Sewers
see also Interceptor sewers; Outfall
sewers; Pipes; Sewer construc-
tion
B050,B063,B113,C097
D018, D432, J076
Asbestos-cement pipes, B092
Biological treatment, COO I
Cleaning, B009, B073, B075
B086, BOSS, B099, B112
COM, C129
Combined sewers
Legislation, B001
Manholes, B112
Concrete pipes, B030, B033
Design criteria, B039
Ductile iron pipes, B007, B068
Environmental effects, D009, JO 12
Construction, B002, B003
Fiberglass-reinforced pipes, B033
BOSS, B067, D451
Flow meters, E050
Gravity sewers, B090, B094
Interceptor sewers, B018, B081
B095, BIOS, D009
Leak detection, E050
Dyes, E056
Linings
Sewers (cont'd)
Glass, B028
Mathematical models
Costs, A034, B095
Storm runoff, A015, B084
F027
Outfall sewers, B040, B067, B106
D009, D169
Corrosion, BO 17, B045
Environmental effects, E031
Plastic pipes, B004, BOOS, B057
B058, B072, B090, B092
D451
Vacuum system, B015
Polyacrylamide injection, B093
Rural areas, B039
Slime accumulation, B044
Storm runoff
Costs, A002
Simulation analysis
see also Mathematical models
Sedimentation, F038
Storm runoff
Nutrient loadings, A001
Sludge analysis
see also Analytical techniques
E147.F089
Anaerobic digestion, E012, E145
E166
Ascaris, El65
Bacteria
Amino acid utilization, E137
Ultrasound, E030
Centrifugation, El38
Denitriflcation, E043
Filtration
Specific resistance, D232, E019
E059, E144
Fulvic acid, El30
Heavy metals, E055, E092, £145
El82, E204, H030
Hydrocarbons, E141, E164
Neutron-photon activation, E006
Heavy metals, E046
Nitrification, E043
Nitrogen, E080
Organosilicone, E202
Pollutant identification, 3005
Redox potential, E074
Sludge stability, E064, E129
Suspended solids, £138, E153
Toxicity, E010
Viruses, E143, E166
Sludge application
see Land application
Sludge bulking C032, D190, D317
D449, E135, F076
Sludge dewatering
see also Separation techniques;
Sludge treatment
C058.C068.C092
C105.D130
D321, D344, D356, D458
Belt filter press
Filters, D282
734
-------
Sludge dewatering (cont'd)
Centrifugalion, C123, D019, D124
D173, D311, D342, D524
D538, D541, E187
Conditioning, D221, El 19, E133
D162
Dissolved air flotation, D309
D489
Drying beds, D538, F077
Filters, C055, C069, D103, D312
D327, D394, D454, D542
Belt filter press, DO 16, D081
D162, D322, D340, D341
D349, D438, D469, D520
Chamber filter press, D263
Membrane filter plate, D441
Physico-chemical treatment
D098
Thin-cake filtration, D048
Vacuum filters, D081, D119
D195, D264, D318, D325
Gravity separation, C008, C021
Heat treatment, El 19
Incineration, D411
Coal additions, D195
Multiple hearth furnaces, C013
Magnetic thickening, D157
Physico-chemical treatment, El44
Amines, C031, C059
Polymers, C034, D124, D221
Activated sludge, D092
Pumps, D346
Sludge transport, D094
Split-stream thickening, D223
Sludge digestion
Composting
Earthworms, D057
Methane, D196
Sludge disposal
see also Land application; Waste re-
cycling
D224.D321
D371, D384, D407, D419
D480, D493, D523, J093
Composting, D134, D543
Aspergillus fumigatus, E065
Forced aeration system, D172
Municipal/industrial wastes
D037
Pilot plants, D171
Construction materials, D053
Costs, D056, D061, D086
Fertilizers, D108, D120, D136
Crop yields, D218, D219, D462
E058
Incineration, C074, D383
Refuse-derived fuels, D121
D131, D180
Land application, D035, D069
E069, H020
Bacteria, H031
Costs, D049
Dredge spoils, D191, H044
Guidelines, D194, D207, D216
J075, J079
Heavy metals, D045, D136
Sludge disposal (cont'd)
Heavy metals, D185, D240
D248, D424, E088, H012
Pollutant identification, D031
E041, E131
Reviews, D214, D555, H031
Soils, D187, D248
Land reclamation, E068
Ocean disposal, E028
Mapping, E039
Regional planning, J098
Water treatment
Alum, D070
Sludge thickening
see Sludge dewatering
Sludge transport, B112, C038, C082
C114, D115, D253, D326
D412, D500, D502
Automatic control/instruments
D042
Costs, D058
Hydraulic equipment, D040, D292
Land application, D165, D272
Pumps, D094
Sedimentation basins, C049, C052
C067, C122, C134
Sludge dewatering, D094
Sludge treatment
see also Aerobic digestion; Anaerob-
ic digestion; Sludge dewatering
C102, D305.D321
D410, D458, D483, D493
J093
Carver-Greenfield process, D423
Chemical oxygen demand
Oxidation, CO 10
Conditioning, C117, CI27
Chlorine, D232
Heat treatment, D246, D343
D401
Polymers, C034, D427, D468
Costs, D061, D393
Disinfection, C095, D274, D278
D316, D319, E052
Irradiation, D45S, DS25
Viruses, E066
Enzymes, D545
Fertilizers, C035
Soils, F069
Adsorption, H022
Analytical techniques
Percolation, E063, El 32
Reviews, El91
Fertilizers, D218
Groundwater recharge, D050
Infiltration/inflow, A020
Irrigation, D299, H035, H052
Denitrification, H045
Mercury, E011
Land application, D062, DS21
H025, H041
Aromatic hydrocarbons, E041
Heavy metals, D097, E004
F025
Nitrogen removal, D170, D256
Soils (cont'd)
Permeability, D116
Phosphorus removal, D170
D256
Viruses, H055
Leachates, H033
Septic tank effluents, £084, EI09
Sewer construction, BO 13
Sludge disposal, DS14
Mineralization, D187
Surfactants, HO 16
Solar energy, D2S2, J026
Storage, D164, D167
Sampling, E085, E140
Storm runoff, A004, A005, A007
A014, A018, A025, A027
B065, B097, 0044
Storm runoff, A008, A022
Automatic control/instruments
A017
Catchment basins, A018, A027
B096
Combined sewers, A037
Design criteria, A010
Disinfection, A030
Environmental effects, A024, A025
Aquatic life, A023
Flow control
Pumps, A032, F009, F103
Heavy metals, A013
Infiltration/inflow, A020
Mathematical models, A011, A012
A019, A029, A035, A037
F001
Hydrograph analysis, A026
Land use, F017
Nutrient loadings, A001
Sewers, A015, B084, F027
Overflows, A016
Pollutant identification, A036
Screening, A030
Sewers
Costs, A002
Storage, A004, A005, A007
A014, A025, B065, B097
D044
Time series analysis
Mathematical models, A006
Water quality, A024
Dustfall, A003
Land use, A021
Storm frequency, A013
Storm sewers, B084
Cost-benefit analysis, A034
Design Criteria, A015, A033
Excavation, A028
Stress analysis
Sewer pipelines, B024
Structural analysis
Sewer construction, B114
Sewer pipelines, BOS I
735
-------
Structural analysis (cont'd)
Flexibility, B031, B060
Underwater pipelines, B114
Substrate utilization, F11S
Activated sludge
Kinetics, £190
Mathematical models, F034
F046
Dehalogenation, El69
Subsurface injection, D224, D272
D291, D314, H015, H017
J049
Surfactants, D307, E162, E183
Biodegradation, E095
Groundwater contamination, H042
Oxidation, D1S4
Soils, H016
Suspended solids
Physico-chemical treatment
Chemical precipitation, COOS
Coagulation, D302
Sludge analysis, E138, E1S3
Temperature effects
Activated carbon
Denitrification, F008
Activated sludge, D230, F072
F093
Aerobic digestion, C079, D230
F084
Chemical oxygen demand, El40
Disinfection
Ozone, Dill
Pipes
Plastic pipes, B036
Sampling, E085, £140
Septic tank effluents, D239
Tertiary treatment, D226, D249
D265, D375, D417, D457
D486, D517, D539, H034
Activated carbon, D015, D088
D148
Incineration, DS35
Wet air oxidation, D033
Biological filters, D123
Costs, J089
Financial aid, J015
Ion exchange, D074
Multimedia filters, D548, D552
Organic contaminants, El 86
Package plants, D101
Phosphorus removal, D117
Pilot plants, D071
Filters, D552
Marshlands, D026, D306
D395, D398, H023
Reverse osmosis, DO 15
Reviews, D146
Sand filtration, D090
Soils, DS21
Ultrafiltration, D508, D553
Vascular plants, D207, D357
Water quality standards, J055
J090
Water reuse, D508, E067
Tertiary treatment (cont'd)
Filtration, DO 12
Groundwater recharge, D291
Irrigation, D023, D236
Potable water, D012, D236
D362
Time series analysis, F099
Groundwater contamination
Mathematical models, F016
Rivers
Ammonia, J003
Storm runoff
Mathematical models, A006
TOC
see Total organic carbon
Total organic carbon
Analytical techniques, £049
Biodegradation, E075
Toxlclty, El 58
Ammonia, E083
Bromine chloride, E061, E093
Chlorine, D336, E061, E093
E203
Fish growth, E089
Nitrates, E083
Ozone, £093
Sewage effluents, E089
Sludge analysis, E010
Water reuse, J023
Trace elements
see also Heavy metals
Physico-chemical treatment
Coagulation, D156
Pollutant identification
Estuaries, E003
Trickling niters
see also Biological filters; Filters
C126,C133,D245,D387
D403, D509, D534, D544
D546, H021
Turbines, B070, D060, D129, D492
Ultrafiltration, D508, DS53
Ultrasound, C07S
Disinfection, C003, D397
Flow meters, E020, EOSO, E098
E123
Ozone, D397
Sedimentation basins, E034
Sludge analysis
Bacteria, £030
Urban runoff
see Storm runoff
Vacuum filters, D264, D318, D32S
D4S8
Vacuum sewage systems
Pumps, C116
Valves, C033
Valves
Ball valves, D127
Construction materials, J020
Sludge transport, D500
Vacuum sewage systems, C033
Vascular plants, D207, D357, D463
Venturi flumes, E044, El 51
Viruses, £143
Adsorption, DUO, El 10, E149
H055
Anaerobic digestion, D126, El66
Analytical techniques, £128, E149
E196
Disinfection
Bromine, El 22
Evaporation, EOS2
Ozone, D087, D181
Groundwater recharge, H050
Irrigation, H029
Monitoring, £033
Poliovirus, DUO, D181, El 10
E122, E166, H055
Dye-sensitized photo-oxidation
D158
Reovirus, £066, E122
Soil filters, H055
Waste assimilative capacity
Estuaries, H049
Rivers, E029, H002, H021, H048
H049
Biochemical oxygen demand
£174
Mathematical models, F013
Nitrogen removal, H051
Phosphorus removal, HOI 1
Soils, F069, H005, H008, H035
Waste disposal
Heavy metals, D233
Screening
Incineration, D041
Waste recycling
see also Sludge disposal
C016.D147.J057
Activated sludge, D370
Algae, E060
Costs, J037
Fertilizers, C035
Fish growth, D300
Waste treatment, C009
Waste waste treatment facilities
Personnel, J028
Waste water disposal
see also Water reuse
J025
Eutrophication, J033
Septic tank effluents, H005
Water reuse
Groundwater recharge, H050
Irrigation, D011
Waste water lagoons
see also Sewage stabilization ponds
D308, D433.D448
736
-------
Waste water lagoons (cont'd)
Aeration, D104
Decantation, C138
Design criteria, D183, F023, J010
Fecal coliforms, E181, H053
Groundwater contamination, H040
J092
Linings, D163, D283
Nitrogen transformations, F042
Operation/performance, D444
Waste water treatment facilities
see also Regional treatment facilities
B110,D109
D226, D279, D281, D301
D385, D410, D456, D505
F526, J043, J059, J091
Automatic control/instruments
D273, D304, J051
Operating experiences, D210
E100
Canada, 1044
Construction, D200, D332
Brazil, B034, J096
Financial aid, D132, D201
J004, J006, J021
Costs, J009, J016
Construction, J001
Extended aeration, D203
Design criteria, D002, D029, El 24
J062
Activated sludge, E048
Computer programs, F026
Energy requirements, D029, J056
England, B049, D266, D268
D285, D295, D329, D358
D415, D432, D435
Environmental effects, J012, J063
Feasibility studies
Malawi, B029
Italy, D133
Japan, D540
Municipal/industrial wastes, D152
D228, D235, D351
New Zealand, DS47
Operation/maintenance, E062
J078
Package plants
Rest areas, D12S
Personnel, D477
Waste water treatment facilities
(cont'd)
Latin America, J027
Training programs, J078
Upgrading, D002, D022, D114
D228, D323, D364, D486
Water pollution control, J032, J048
J050, J052, J065, J072
Estuaries, D237, J087
Legislation, J046, J047, JOS4
England, J002
Germany, J007
Great Lakes, D192
The Netherlands, J008
Wales, JO 19
Regional planning, J022
Water pollution sources
Estuaries, J040
Rivers, D006, D007
Industrial wastes, E029
Sewage disposal, H001
Water quality
Analytical techniques
Rivers, E090
England, H032, J005
Greece, J048
India. H036, H047, J029. J064
Storm runoff, A024
Dustfall, A003
Land use, A021
Water reuse
see also Waste water disposal
A008,D015,D088
D144, F045, J053, J067
J070
Costs, D051, J082
Domestic wastes
Greywater,D143,D251
Separation, D2SO
Groundwater recharge, D291
D368, H050, JOB
Hospital wastes
Ozone, D179, D556
Reverse osmosis, D556
Hydroponics, D463
Industrial water
Africa, D204, D209, E077
Water reuse (cont'd)
Cooling towers, D495
England, D262
Irrigation, D215, H026, H029
Cold regions, HOS2
Israel, D011, H006
Sprinkler irrigation, D096, D128
D333
Package plants, D038, D2S7
D439
Pollutant identification, E067, J023
Potable water, D236
Japan, D362
Thailand, D012
Reviews, D146
Tertiary treatment
Filtration, DO 12
Irrigation, D023, D236
Water-saving devices, C098, J039
J080
Water supply development, J094
Water reuse, J082
Water treatment, J02S, J072
Automatic control/instruments
D184
Disinfection
Chlorine, D260, D494
Ozone, D260
Organic contaminants, El 86
Sludge disposal
Alum, D070
Wet air oxidation, D247, D401
D480, D481, J038
Chemical wastes, B042, D018
D175
Heat exchangers, C023
Sludge composition, D511
Land application, D211
Tertiary treatment
Activated carbon, D033
Zeolites, F059
Ion exchange, D231
737
-------
JOURNAL LIST
Agricultural Research
AIChE Journal
AIChE Symposium Series
Ambio
American City and County
American Scientist
American Society for Microbiology News
Analytical Chemistry
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials
Applied and Environmental Microbiology
Australian Official Journal of Patents, Trade Marks, and Designs
Biotechnology and Bioengineering
Boletin de la Academia de Ciencias Fisicas, Matematicas y Naturales, Caracas
Brown Boveri Review
Budapesti Kozegeszsegugy
Building Systems Design
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
Bunseki Kagaku
Canadian Chemical Processing
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering
Canadian Journal of Microbiology
Ceskoslovenska Hygiena
Chartered Mechanical Engineer
Chartered Municipal Engineer
Chemical Engineering
Chemical and Engineering News
Chemical Engineering Progress
Chemical Processing
Chemical Week
Chemistry and Industry
Chemosphere
Civil Engineer in South Africa
Civil Engineering
Civil Engineering-ASCE
Combustion
Compost Science
Concrete Construction
Consulting Engineer
Control Engineering
Corrosion Prevention and Control
Critical Reviews in Environmental Control
Crops and Soils
738
-------
Derwent Belgian Patents Abstracts
Derwent French Patents Abstracts
Derwent German Patents Abstracts
Derwent Netherlands Patent Report
Derwent Soviet Inventions Illustrated
Desalination
Design News
Deutsche Gewaesserkundliche Mitteilungen
Dissertation Abstracts International B
Dock and Harbour Authority
Domestic Engineering
Ebara Infiruko Jiho
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
Effluent and Water Treatment Journal
Electrical Review
Engineering and Contract Record
Engineering News-Record
Environmental Conservation
Environmental Health
Environmental Pollution
Environmental Protection Survey
Environmental Research in Japan
Environmental Science and Technology
Farm Chemicals
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Proceedings
Fette-Seifen-Anstrichmittel
Filtration and Separation
Fresenius1 Zeitschrift fuer Analytische Chemie
Fukui Kogyo Daigaku Kenkyu Kiyo
Gas, Wasser, Abwasser
Gas- und Wasserfach, Wasser - Abwasser
German Chemical Engineering
Gesundheits—Ingenieur
Gidrotekhnika i Melioratsiia
Gifu Yakka Daigaku Kiyo
Hakko Kogaku
Hidrologiai Kozlony
Highway and Heavy Construction
Hitachi Review
Human Ecology
Igiene Moderna
Indian Journal of Environmental Health
Indian Journal of Medical Research
Industrial Engineering
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Product Research and Development
Industrial Water Engineering
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Technical Meeting, Proceedings
Instrumentation Technology
Instruments and Control Systems
Interdisciplinary Science Reviews
International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes
Ishikawajima - Harima Giho
739
-------
Journal of the American Water Works Association
Journal of Applied Bacteriology
Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE
Journal of Environmental Health
Journal of Environmental Quality
Journal of Environmental Sciences
Journal of Environmental Science and Health
Journal of Fermentation Technology
Journal of General Microbiology
Journal of the Hydraulics Division-ASCE
Journal of the Institute of Measurement and Control
Journal of the Institute of Water Pollution Control
Journal of the Institution of Chemists (India)
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (Australia)
Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India)
Journal of the Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists
Journal of Japan Water Works Association
Journal of the New England Water Works Association
Journal of Parasitology
Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation
Kankocho Kogai Senmon Shiryo
Kochi Daigaku Gakujutsu Kenkyu Kokoku
Machine Design
Marine Pollution Bulletin
Materials Evaluation
Materials Handling News
Military Engineer
Modern Metals
Modern Power and Engineering
Muell und Abfall
NASA Technical Briefs
New Civil Engineer
New Scientist
New Zealand Engineering
New Zealand Journal of Science
North American Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress
Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office
Ohio Report
Photochemistry and Photobiology
Pipes and Pipelines International
Plant and Soil
Plumbing Engineer
Pollution Engineering
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (London)
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section B
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B
Process Biochemistry
Process Engineering
Processing
Public Health Engineer
740
-------
Public Roads
Public Works
Rain
Rassegna Chimica
Reeves Journal
Reinforced Plastics
Resource Recovery and Conservation
Sanitar- und Heizungstechnik
Science
Science of the Total Environment
Sea Technology
Separation Science and Technology
Showa 51 Nendo Kankyo Hozen Kenkyu Seiku Shu II
Sludge Magazine
Soil Science Society of America Journal
Solid Wastes Management
Suido Kyokai Zasshi
Sulzer Technical Review
Surveyor
Tatabanyai Szenbanyak Muszaki-Kozgazdasagi Koezlemenyei
La Technique Moderne
Techniques et Sciences Municipales - L'Eau
Technology Reports of the Kansai University
Teknisk Ukebald
Tenside Detergents
Toshiba Rebyu
Toshiba Review
Transactions of the ASAE
Transactions of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Transportation Research Record
Travaux de Chimie Alimentaire et d"Hygiene
Tribune du CEBEDEAU
Tsusansho Kogyo Gijutsuin Sanyo Kogai Kenkyu Kaihatsu Choseikyoku 51 Nendo
Vodosnabzheniei Sanitarnaia Tekhnika
Vom Wasser
Wasser und Abwasser Bau-intern
Wasser und Boden
Wasser, Energie, Luft
Wasser, Luft und Betrieb
Wasserwirtschaft
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution
Water Pollution Control
Water Research
Water Resources Research
Water SA
Water Services
Water and Sewage Works
Water Supply and Management
Water and Waste Treatment
Water and Wastes Engineering
Western Construction
741
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World Dredging and Marine Construction
World Water
Zeitschrift fuer Wasser- und Abwasserforschung
Zentralblatt fuer Bakteriologie, Parasiten, Infektions und Hygiene, Abt 1,B
742
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/9-78-036
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI*NO.
4. TITLE ANDSUBTITLE
MUNICIPAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ABSTRACTS:
November 1977 - October 1978
5. REPORT DATE
December 1978 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Judith G. Kutcher
Evelyn B. Schulz
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
The Franklin Institute Research Laboratories
Science Information Services Organization
20th and Parkway
Philadelphia, PA 19103
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R804922-01-2
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Information Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
- Cinn, OH
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
FINAL - Nov. 1977 - Oct. 1978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/00
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The Franklin Institute Research Laboratories, Science Information Services Organiza-
tion, prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency Volume 5 of the Municipal
Technology Bulletin, a current-awareness abstracting bulletin covering methods of
municipal waste water treatment, problems of water quality, and water pollution con-
trol. Volume 5 of the Bulletin contained abstracts of technologically significant
literature appearing in print during 1977 and 1978. Under the same grant the Science
Information Services Organization, as a center of competence on municipal waste water,
provided 1320 abstracts, including those appearing in the Bulletin, to the Water
Resources Scientific Information Center (WRSIC). The Municipal Technology Bulletin
informs researchers, consultants, engineers, and government officials of current
developments described in more than 4000 English and non-English language scientific
and technical publications. Topics covered in the Bulletin and in the abstracts sub-
mitted to WRSIC include: analytical techniques for water quality measurements; bio-
logical, chemical, and physical methods of waste water treatment, disposal, and
recycling; construction and equipment for pollution control; model studies; storm
runoff; tunneling technology and sewer systems; and treatment plant operation and autO'
mation. This report is a compilation of the 1320 abstracts arranged consecutively by
accession number within subject categories. The report is completed by a journal list
and subject and author indices.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Water pollution, Water treatment,
Abstracts, Bibliographies,
Documents, Sewage treatment, Waste
disposal, Models, Hydrology, Water
analysis, Automatic control, Sewer pipes,
Water quality, Urban areas
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Indexing
COSATI Field/Group
68D
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
747
2_Q± SJJCU RITYCLASS (This page)
XCjlJ
UNCLASSIF]
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
743
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978 — 657-060/1536
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