United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research i EPA-600/7-78-220
Laboratory November 1 978
Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Protection,
Cleanup and
Restoration of
Salt Marshes
Endangered by
Oil Spills
A Procedural
Manual
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program
Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-78-220
November 1978
PROTECTION, CLEANUP AND RESTORATION OF SALT MARSHES
ENDANGERED BY OIL SPILLS
A Procedural Manual
by
David J. Maiero
Robert W. Castle
0. Leon Grain
URS Company
San Mateo, California 94402
Contract No. 68-03-2160
Project Officer
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills Branch
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Edison, New Jersey 08817
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory - Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, con-
verted, and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and
even on our health often require that new and increasingly more efficient
pollution control methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory - Cincinnati assists in developing and demonstrating new and
improved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and
economically.
This manual provides information and guidelines on the best appli-
cation of protection, cleanup and recovery activities from oil spills to
minimize the damage to marshlands and to speed their recovery. Its
purpose is twofold. First, it provides a mechanism for the rapid field
assessment of marsh type and sensitivity and for the selection of environ-
mentally acceptable protection and cleanup techniques. Second, it
provides procedural instructions for the implementation of the techniques
identified.
Oil spill On-scene Coordinators and local officials should find
this report directly applicable during prior planning and oil spill
operations. For further information, please contact the Oil and
Hazardous Materials Spills Branch of the Resources Extraction and
Handling Division.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
m
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ABSTRACT
This manual addresses the response of the protection, cleanup, and
restoration phases of spilled oil endangering or contaminating tidal
marshlands. The manual follows a step by step approach to response
actions. Common to both the cleanup and protective phases are a
gathering of general information, knowledge of the characteristics of
the spilled oil, identification of the sensitivity and unique features
of the endangered marshland, and an investigation of any threat against
public and personnel safety. Decisionmaking criteria are provided for
both the protection and cleanup.
Special attention is given to the cleanup phase which involves foot
and vehicular traffic in the marsh and which may lead to serious adverse
impacts. The user is presented with criteria for termination of
activities for both protection and cleanup activities. Final sections
discuss requirements for debris disposal and restoration of the damaged
marsh. Recovery includes evaluation of the need for restoration versus
natural recovery, and restoration techniques.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-2160
by URS Company under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. The report covers the period January 1977 to March 1978
and work was completed as of March 31, 1978.
IV
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CONTFNTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures vi
Tables viii
Acknowledgments ix
1 Introduction 1
Use of the Manual 1
Spill Management Guide 5
2 Oil Classification 12
Approach 12
3 Marsh Classification 16
Marsh Type/Sensitivity 16
Special or Unique Features 30
4 Protective Measures 32
Approach 32
Spill Size and Movement Prediction 34
Environmental Conditions 36
General Protection Priorities 39
Protective Devices and Techniques 40
Impacts Associated with Protection Actions 44
Selection of Protective Techniques 44
Termination of Protection. . 49
5 Cleanup Measures . 52
Approach 52
Public/Personnel Safety 52
Marsh Sensitivity 53
Natural Cleaning 58
Recontamination Potential 60
Cleanup Techniques 61
Access/Trafficability 64
Operation on Marsh Surfaces Whenever Possible,
Particularly Where Surfaces are Oiled 65
Impacts Associated with Cleanup Techniques 66
General Cleanup Priorities 71
Selection of Cleanup Techniques 71
Degree of Cleanup 76
6 Restoration 78
Approach 78
Evaluation of Natural Recovery or Need for
Restoration 78
Restoration Techniques 81
Marsh Recovery Monitoring Program 87
7 Waste Handling 89
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CONTENTS (continued)
Appendices
A. Physical Properties of Oil 91
B. Implementation of Protective Measures 99
C. Cleanup Equipment and Procedures 123
D. Marsh Spill Experts 148
E. Glossary of Terms 150
VI
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Flow chart 2
2 Generalized management structure for major spill
response 6
3 Example of daily activity summary 10
4 Example of chronological log 11
5 Reed-like marsh 18
6 Reed-like marsh 18
7 Schematic cross section of tidal salt marsh 20
8 Succulent-like marsh 21
9 Elevational relationship between reed-like marsh
and succulent-like marsh 21
10 Red mangrove marsh 23
11 Red mangroves showing prop roots 23
12 Black mangrove pneumatophores 24
13 Black mangrove marsh 24
14 Schematic cross section of mangrove marsh. ...... 25
15 Use of overlay to plot slick movements and other
features 33
16 Volume, film thickness, appearance and area
covered of oil spills 35
17 Marsh sensitivity for Group 1 oils 57
18 Marsh sensitivity for Group 2 oils 57
19 Application of fiberglass landing mats 67
vi i
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FIGURES (cont.)
Number Page
20 Red mangrove seeds 82
21 Manual collection of mature Spartina plants 82
22 Setting of Spartina stock 83
23 Typical small scale replanting operation 83
24 Spartina seed 85
25 Manual harvesting of Spartina seed 85
26 Hand sowing of Spartina seed 86
viii
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Field observations required 3
2 Spill response oil classification .... 13
3 Classification of marshes 17
4 Impacts of protection action 45
5 Protective technique selection 46
6 General compatibility of device/technique
with marsh type 47
7 Compatibility of protective device/technique
with oil type 48
8 Response of protection action to physical processes . 50
9 Factors for evaluating natural cleaning 59
10 Major impacts of marsh cleaning activities 68
11 Candidate cleanup techniques - Class A oils 72
12 Candidate cleanup techniques - Class B oils 73
13 Candidate cleanup techniques - Class C oils 74
14 Candidate cleanup techniques - Class D oils 75
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manual summarizes a state of the art assessment conducted by
URS Company for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory, located at Edison, New Jersey. Mr.
Robert Castle was Program Manager from January 1975 through June 1977.
After June 1977 the work was conducted under the direction of William
Van Horn, Program Manager of the Oil and Hazardous Spills Program of URS
Company. David J. Maiero served as project manager with technological
assessments by 0. Leon Crain.
Lt. Frank Collier of the U.S. Coast Guard, Gulf Coast Strike Team,
provided valuable assistance during observations of actual oil spill re-
sponses in Florida and Louisiana.
Finally, URS thanks many people for their assistance in preparing
this manual; in particular, the Project Officer, Leo T. McCarthy,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratories, Edison, New Jersey, and:
Steve Dorrler, EPA, Edison, New Jersey
Dennis Dobbs, EPA, Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia
Robert Forrest, EPA, Region VI, Dallas, Texas
Harold Snyder, Washington, D.C.
Ed Simmons, California Department of Fish & Game
Warrant Officer Miller, Pacific Coast Strike Force
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SECTION T
INTRODUCTION
Salt marshes can be adversely affected from oil spills and associ-
ated cleanup activities. The capability of marshlands to survive and
recover from oil spills can, however, be greatly enhanced by directed
and intelligent intervention by man. This manual provides information
and guidelines on the best application of protection, cleanup and
recovery activities from oil spills to minimize the damage to marshlands
and to speed their recovery.
The manual is intended to be used in conjunction with existing
contingency plans prepared by local or regional agencies and oil co-ops.
The manual provides an overview of the problems likely to be encountered
from the time oil threatens or enters a marsh until protection and
cleanup operations have ended and the restoration process has begun. It
assumes that the user has a basic knowledge of oil spill characteristics
and attendant technologies, as well as a basic understanding of the
coastal environment. However, any additional details necessary for the
decisionmaking process should be provided by specialists and local
sources of information. The user must recognize certain inherent
limitations in the manual. Its contents reflect the state of the art
(as of late 1977) of a rapidly evolving technology. Hence, the user
should supplement the information in the manual with the new technology
as it becomes available.
USE OF THE MANUAL
The use of this Manual is designed to coincide as closely as pos-
sible with the sequence of operations encountered in a spill situation.
The ordering of the sections in this Manual is based upon the Flow Chart
shown in Figure 1. The flow chart serves two functions: (1) to identify
the informational and operational sequences in responding to an oil
spill, and (2) as a reference for sections of the manual.
Before deciding which actions should be initiated, the user must
have certain information available. A checklist is provided in Table 1
to insure proper observations in the field at the time of the spill.
This checklist is intended to be taken into the field and notations made
on the spot. Qualitative information gathered at the time of the spill
is of extreme importance in making operational decisions. This infor-
mation will be called for in the subsequent sections of the manual.
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(SELECT RESTORATION TECHNIQUES!
*
IWBSH RCCOVfUV PMtftAM I
I
Figure 1. Flow chart.
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TABLE 1. FIELD OBSERVATIONS REQUIRED
Oil Characteristics
o Determine if the spilled oil is highly viscose (does not flow
easily) or of a low viscosity
o What, is the color of the spilled oil when placed in a clean
glass container
o What is the odor of the oil (i.e., strong odor)
o Are tarballs, Mousse-like emulsions, other physical
phenomena present
o Do volatile components which could lead to fire or explosion
appear to be present
Presence of Shorebirds
o Note the presence and relative abundance of wading shorebirds
such as cranes, egrets, and herons
Presence of Waterfowl
o Note the presence and relative abundance of open water diving
birds such as grebes, ducks and geese
General Status and Behavior of Wildlife
o Note presence, number, and location of dead and/or oiled
animals (including fish and other aquatic life)
o Note and describe any unusual behavior, particularly failure
of avoidance responses such as withdrawal into hole, closing
shell, flying or swimming away when threatened
Plant Characteristics and Distribution
o Height and physical characteristics of vegetation stand
o Areal distribution/zonation of vegetation
o General plant status (seeds, flowers, seasonal dieback, etc.)
Hydrologic and Meteorological Conditions
o Currents -- direction, speed, variations
o Tidal variation, range, predictions
o Air temperature
o Channel, drainage configuration
o Presence of floating debris
o Wind speed and direction
o Weather forecasts
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TABLE 1. FIELD OBSERVATIONS REQUIRED (cont.)
Shoreline Characteristics
o Presence of configurations suitable for containment
o Slope
o Nature and amount of shoreline debris
o Presence of culverts, tide gates, etc. Note on map.
Substrate Characteristics
o General physical characteristics (i.e., sand, clay, mud, firm,
softj wet, well-drained, etc.)
o Obvious chemical features (odor and color)
o Penetration of oil into soil in areas of existing contamination
Backshore Characteristics
o Possible routes of access
o Locate possible staging/debris-handling sites
Nature of Human Infrastructure
o Nature and location of recreational use
o Commercial use and traffic
o Shoreline and nearshore land use
Field personnel should continually update the checklist so that it
specifically applies to marshes in their geographical area. A portable
tape recorder provides a convenient method for recording data.
After the required field observations have been made, the flow
chart (Figure 1) may be consulted. In the flow chart, rectangular boxes
identify the type of information and corresponding section numbers where
details are provided. Diamond shaped boxes, raise questions relevant to
choosing an information path in the flow chart. The circular boxes
contain a yes or no answer to these questions.
The first major division in the flow chart is determined by
answering the question, "IS THE MARSH CONTAMINATION IMMINENT"? The user
is then guided to one of two options:
PROTECTION Section 400
CLEANUP Section 500
Within each of these options further basic decision points are
identified, allowing the user to chart a course of action responsive to
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the ongoing situation. At the same time the user will be referring to
the informational boxes within each option and seeking additional infor-
mation from the appropriate section in the manual. The flow chart also
directs the user to the next phase (Recovery, Section 600) as well as to
ancillary or support functions (Debris disposal, Section 700).
SPILL MANAGEMENT GUIDE
This section presents general information to supplement the flow
chart, including management and logistical requirements, and a sample
log of operations.
Management
The complexity of the management structure required is governed by
a variety of factors. It may be dictated by Federal policy, outlined in
a contingency plan, or formulated to meet the working needs of the
individual contractor. Its structure will also be influenced by the
volume of the spill, complexity of the area, and the experience and
ability of the labor force.
One individual, either the On-scene Coordinator (OSC), the cleanup
contractor, or the representative of the spiller, will ultimately have
overall responsibility for management of operations described in this
manual. This single person, termed the "coordinator of operations,"
will have difficulty handling all the operations associated even with a
moderate-sized spill; thus, duties must be delegated depending on the
situation. Persons with delegated responsibilities will be responsible
both for directing the operations of their individual areas, and for
providing the coordinator with inputs necessary for making decisions.
Figure 2 is an example of an organizational structure for a major
oil spill response team. Not all of the functions shown would be neces-
sary for dealing with smaller teams mobilized for small or moderate
spills; these can be eliminated or consolidated in organizing a smaller
response management system. The responsibilities of each function are
generally to be found in oil spill co-op or local contingency plans.
Particular attention should be given to maintaining communications
between the coordinator of operations who is responsible for the overall
allocation of men and materials and the area supervisors who are respon-
sible for the actual deployment and maintenance of equipment. It is
helpful to schedule periodic briefings between field and management for
discussion and solution of specific problem areas.
Utilization of untrained labor is frequently necessary, and always
a management problem. Whenever possible, use of untrained personnel
should be avoided, since instruction and supervision must be intensive
or the effectiveness of such workers will be minimal.
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COORDINATOR
OF
OPERATIONS
I LEGAL
-j ADVISOR
STAFF
SUPPORT
I
AREA SUPERVISOR
NO. 1
AREA SUPERVISOR
NO 2
ADDITIONAL
AREAS
COMMUNICATIONS
SUPERVISOR
LOGISTICS
SUPERVISOR
1
REGULATORY AGENCY
LIAISON SUPERVISOR
CREW
FOREMAN
CREW
FOREMAN
CLAIMS & COMPLAINTS
SUPERVISOR
ACCOUNTING
SUPERVISOR
WILDLIFE CARE
SUPERVISOR
DOCUMENTATION
SUPERVISOR
WASTE DISPOSAL
SUPERVISOR
SPECIALISTS &
EXPERTS SUPERVISOR
Figure 2. Generalized management structure for major spill response.
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Logistics
Logistics involves procurement, transportation, and maintenance for
materials, personnel, and support facilities. Without a smoothly
functioning logistical support, even the best planned response will be
doomed to failure. Equipment must be located and transported to the
site. The primary source for locating equipment and materials is the
regional contingency plan (RCP) which can normally be obtained from the
local or regional Coast Guard Headquarters. Although the accuracy of
the RCP is sometimes tempered by the time elapsed since its last up-
dating, it is still probably the most useful first source. The RCP
should also identify any local contingency plans and cleanup coopera-
tives (co-ops). These localized sources are likely to be more up-
to-date and may provide specific information and recommendations on the
area in question. Local contractors and municipal public works depart-
ments can often supply men, equipment, and various other types of
support. Efforts should be made to find the closest source of equip-
ment, particularly for implementing a protective action. However, it is
important to remember that specialized equipment can be flown reasonably
close to virtually any coastal site within 24 hours.
If the spill is of sufficient magnitude or severity to activate one
of the Federal plans (i.e., Regional or National Response Plans), the
resources of the Federal government become available for use by the OSC.
There is no set formula for evaluation of how much equipment and
manpower is required. Each evaluation must be based on preliminary
observations and the judgment of the estimator. More than once, equip-
ment has been dispatched that did not function with the type oil
spilled, or that could not even be brought to the site. This situation
is particularly frustrating in remote salt marsh situations. The costs
associated with transport and standby of inappropriate equipment can be
largely eliminated with planning.
Over-ordering of equipment is another cost escalating factor.
Quantities of equipment should generally be matched to the estimated
volume of the spill, the size area to be protected or cleaned, the
access to the area, travel time to disposal sites, availability of
operators, and so on.
In the case of manpower, excessively large crews seldom work ef-
ficiently and, due primarily to their numbers, can cause more environ-
mental damage than smaller, well-organized and instructed crews. The
size of the crew must be matched to the job and resources available for
their support.
It is seldom, if ever, possible to predict all the requirements for
a response based on preliminary evaluations. The requirements will
evolve as the operation progresses, but knowing what is available and
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how long it will take to have it functioning in the field can relieve
much of the expense and irrelevant, ineffective activity associated with
a constantly changing situation.
Equipment and personnel must be supported to keep operations run-
ning smoothly and safely. Machinery and equipment will require mainte-
nance, normally provided by the contractor. If not, other arrangements
must be made for insuring proper functioning of all equipment in the
field. Included should be: provision for mechanics, parts and lubri-
cants; work space and staging areas; and back up equipment. Support
requirements for personnel include food, housing, and transportation.
Other personnel support requirements important for health and safety
include:
1. Provision and enforcement of use of equipment required by the
Coast Guard for boat operations, e.g., life vests, running
lights, etc.
2. Provision of a field water supply and, in extremely warm
weather, salt tablets.
3. Provision of portable sanitary facilities at the work site and
at staging areas.
4. Provision of special protective equipment such as waders,
boots, dust masks, etc.
5. Provision of facilities for field first-aid including, in
southern marshes, snake-bite treatment kits.
Log of Operations
The importance of keeping a log of operations cannot be over-
emphasized. In addition to forming the basis for contractors' billings
or for checking billings, the log provides a valuable historical docu-
mentation of the incident. Two types of logs are recommended -- a daily
summarization of activities and a chronological log of events. An
example form for summarizing daily activities is shown in Figure 3, and
a typical chronological log is shown in Figure 4.
While not intended specifically for this purpose, records of the
type suggested commonly find their way into legal proceedings. To be
useful and legally creditable, the logs should be as comprehensivexas
possible and follow a few basic rules.
I. Write down all observations and notes. In the confusion of
field operations, nonwritten records can be easily forgotten
and omitted.
8
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2. Never take notes on miscellaneous pieces of paper. Use bound
notebooks which can become permanent records.
3. The entries into the notebook should be made at the earliest
opportunity after each observation, preferably in chrono-
logical order. The person entering the record should identify
himself and give the date and time of each entry.
4. Document entries whenever possible using maps, sketches, and
photographs.
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DAILY PERFORMANCE CHECK OFF LIST
Contractor
Supervisor
Date
Job Description
Materials Utilized
Equipment:
a
Number of Men on Job
Daily Operations Commenced
Number of Disposal Loads
Submitted
Title
Hour Secured
Figure 3. Example of daily activity summary.
10
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DAILY LOG
15 July
0830 EPA (Mr. Paul ELLIOT) notified. (RRT alerted).
0900 Helo recon.
1000 Helo recon.
1320 New York City Fire Department notified of the incident by EPA
(Mr. Howard LAMP'L). RRT activated.
1345 Phone call between CDR HANSON and CAPT REILLY, USN. USCG will
provide OSC if Navy will release unlimited cleanup funds. If
not, USCG will advise and assist Navy OSC.
1345 EPA (Mr. Dick DEWLING) notified NY State, NJ State and Interstate
Sanitation Commission.
1400 Instructed COTP NYK to take samples from NY Harbor and USNS TOWLE
and hand deliver to EPA Lab, Edison, NJ.
1415 Notified EPA samples enroute.
1417 Phone call from CAPT REILLY USN: Navy requests USCG take over as
OSC.
1425 CDR R. J. HANSON, USCG designated as OSC.
1428 Phone call to Mr. Lee GREEN, Metropolitan Petrochemical Co., Inc.
He will call back upon return.
1440 Initial meeting of RRT at Governors Island, NY
1445 Call to Lee GREEN; still not in.
1445 Call to COTP NYK: directed COTP NYK to tell N.Y.F.D. representative
to meet with RRT. Notified LCDR CHITTICK, COTP NYK, on scene at
Bayonne, that CDR HANSON was designated as OSC.
1447 Call from Lee GREEN. Instructed him to send "Spillmaster," boom,
and boat to S.E. corner Gravesend Bay. Mr. GREEN to meet with RRT.
1448 Call to NYFD about using city personnel for beach cleanup.
1503 NY City Dept. of Parks notified. They will establish four beach
patrols. NYFD boat on scene in Gravesend Bay to keep oil out of
marinas.
1505 RCC to notify USCGS EAGLE not to anchor in Gravesend Bay.
Figure 4. Example of chronological log.
11
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SECTION 2
OIL CLASSIFICATION
APPROACH
Knowledge of certain physical and chemical properties of a spilled
oil is important in the evaluation of environmental effects and in the
selection of protection and cleanup actions. In many emergency situa-
tions specific information may not be readily available, and field
observations alone must be used. In response to varying environmental
conditions, spilled oil may respond differently than indicated by standard
oil specifications. What is important to the field response is the
"in-situ" character of the spilled oil.
To provide a basis for making emergency decisions a classification
based on field-observable properties has been developed:
Class A: Light Volatile Oils
Class B: Heavy Sticky Oils
Class C: Waxy Oils
Class D: Nonfluid Oils
The classification reflects field conditions at the time, but these may
change. For example, many oils change behavior and hence, their
classification -- as temperature changes or weathering proceeds. Representative
oils, diagnostic properties, and basic response properties for each of
the four classes are summarized in Table 2 and discussed in detail in
the following paragraphs.
Class A: Light Volatile Oils
This class typically includes fuel oils and many light crude oils.
These materials are generally flammable when fresh and should be ap-
proached as potentially dangerous. Class A oils can be identified by
high fluidity, clarity, rapid spreading rate, strong odor, and high
evaporation rate. They do not tend to adhere to surfaces well and can
be largely removed by flushing. Ease of removal by flushing can be
experimentally determined by agitating an oiled sample (e.g., plant
material) in water.
12
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Table 2. SPILL RESPONSE OIL CLASSIFICATION
Class
Designation
Typical Oil Types
Diagnostic Properties
Response Properties
Light oils
Distillate fuel and
light crude oils (all
types)
Highly fluid, usually transparent
or opaque, strong odor, rapid
spreading, can be rinsed from plant
sample by simple agitation
May be flammable, high evaporative loss of toxic
components, assume to be highly tc/.ic when
fresh, tend to form unstable en.ulsions, may
penetrate substrates, responds well to most con-
trol techniques.
Heavy sticky oils
Residual fuel oils;
medium to heavy asphaltic
and mixed base crudes
Typically opaque brown or black,
sticky or tarry, viscous, cannot be
rinsed from plant sample by agita-
tion
High viscosity, hard to remove from surfaces,
tend to form stable emulsions, high S.G. and
potential for sinking after weathering, low sub-
strate penetration, low toxicity-biologic.al ef-
fects due primarily to smothering, will inter-
fere with many types of recovery equipment.
Uaxy oils
Medium to heavy paraffin
base crudes
Moderate to high viscosity, waxy
feel
Generally removable from surfaces, soil penetra-
tion variable, toxicity variable -- may be high
in fresh oils, decreased tendency to form stable
emulsion
Nonfluld oils (at
ambient temperature}
Residual and heavy crude
oils (all types)
Tarry or waxy lumps
Nonspreading, cannot be recovered with most
equipment, cannot be pumped without heating or
slurrying, relatively nontoxic, may melt and
flow when stranded in sun
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The lighter members of this class tend to evaporate entirely and
quickly. Heavier Class A oils may partially evaporate, leaving a
residue falling into one of the other response classes. Class A oils
tend to penetrate porous surfaces and they may be persistent in contami-
nated substrate. When fresh, all can be considered highly toxic.
Generally they form unstable emulsions.
Class B: Heavy Sticky Oils
This class typically includes residual fuel oils and heavier as-
phaltic and mixed-base crude oils in the fluid state. Characteristi-
cally viscous, sticky or tarry, and brown or black in color, they cannot
be readily removed from test samples of vegetation by agitation in
water. After evaporation of natural light ends and cutter stock the
toxicity tends to be low. Biological effects result from the smothering
of invertebrates, covering of the photosynthetic surface of green plants
and the prop roots of mangroves, and adhering to fur and feathers of
animals. Typically the tendency to penetrate substrates is low. Many
Class B oils have a specific gravity near or exceeding that of water and
may sink. Class B oils which weather to a tar or asphalt-like consist-
ency are then considered as Class D oils. Emulsions may be easily
formed and tend to be stable.
Class C: Waxy Oils
This class of oils includes medium to heavy paraffin-base oils and
is distinguished by a waxy feel. While adhering to plant and other
surfaces, viscous oils of this class tend to be moderately removable by
flushing. Their tendency to penetrate permeable substrates varies,
increasing as temperatures rise. Their toxicity varies depending on the
percentage of volatile components. When weathered or subjected to low
temperatures they commonly become solid and fall into the Class D cate-
gory. Emulsions formed are usually less stable than those associated
with Class B oils.
Class D: Nonfluid Oils
This class includes residual and heavy crude oils, and weathered
oils which are solid or nonfluid at spill temperatures. In the solid
form they are essentially nontoxic. When heated by the sun, these oils
may melt and flow, contaminating adjacent areas.
Emulsions
As a result of transporting mechanisms and natural processes, some
degrees of emulsification can be expected in most oils by the time they
encounter the marsh. In most cases emulsions will not be visually
detectable and may be treated as unemulsified oil. Complete emulsions
(i.e., Mousse) may create problems in recovery equipment, although the
14
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extent of this effect is not well understood. Additionally, some
emulsions of this nature may exceed the specific gravity of water, and
sink. If this occurs, flushing into open water may be undesirable.
Emulsions compound the problems of handling recovered oil because
they increase it's volume. Some emulsions (particularly Class A oils)
are sufficiently unstable that onsite coagulation and separation is
possible. (Emulsion stability can be crudely assessed in the field by
observing how easily and quickly a sample in a glass jar separates.)
Further information on the properties of refined products and crude
oils is presented in Appendix A.
15
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SECTION 3
MARSH CLASSIFICATION
MARSH TYPE/SENSITIVITY
A marsh's sensitivity to oil spills is determined by its resource
value and vulnerability to damage from contamination. Sensitivity is
important in selecting response actions and in establishing cleanup
priorities. This section helps the manual user assess marsh type and
sensitivity on a case-by-case basis.
It is sometimes believed that an area affected by an oil spill will
be destroyed, but this is generally not the case. Rather, there can be
a wide range of effects, most of which are not permanently damaging.
Initial effects are related to environmental factors and oil type.
Effects of response actions are seldom considered, yet they may damage
the area more than the contamination itself (i.e., trampling of marsh
plants, reaction to dispersants, etc.).
A number of factors are significant in conducting an emergency
assessment of the sensitivity of a marsh to an oil spill. A discussion
of these factors follows:
Marsh Type
Coastal marshes of the United States can be divided into three
biological groups based on their sensitivity to oil spill parameters.
Types of marshes have been grouped by morphologic similarity, tidal
zonation, and nature of the root system. Named for common or dominant
representative plants, these types of marshes include: "reed-like"
marshes, "succulent-like" marshes, and mangroves, which are farther
subdivided into red and black types. Table 3 summarizes these^ marsh
types and their general features.
Reed-like Marsh --
The plants of this marsh are tall, thin, and grass- or reed-like, as
shown in Figures 5 and 6. Spartina is a reed-like plant which is domi-
nant in marshlands throughout the United States. In this discussion,
Spartina is used as the key example of a reed-like marsh.
16
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TABLE 3. CLASSIFICATION OF MARSHES
General
Appearance
Tidal
Zonation
Seasonal ity
Reproduction
Root System
Geographic
Distribution
Reed-like
Marsh
Tall, thin/grass
or reed-like. Up
to 7 feet high
Mean low low
water (MLLW) to
boundary of water-
logged soil . Fre-
quent inundation.
Primarily brackish
to saline waters.
Some fresh waters.
Generally peren-
nial , autumn and
winter dieback
Seedlings and
rhizomes
Dense rhizome mass
deeper rooted
Between channels
and in shallow
Succulent-like
Marsh
Prostrate or low
in stature, less
than 2.5 feet
Mid to high
intertidal soil
occasionally
waterlogged and
inundated. Highly
saline waters
Annual or Perennial
succulent, espe-
cially in spring
and summer, becom-
ing slightly woody
in fall and winter.
No dieback in peren-
nial types
Seed and creeping
shal low root stocks
Shallow root
system, shallow
rhizomes
Adjacent to Spar-
tina marsh to in-
Mangrove
Red
Trees up to 60
feet in height
usually fringing
a marsh, branch-
like prop roots
Mangrove
Black
Shrub reaching
10 to 20 feet
high
Permanently water- Less water! oqqed
logged soil.
Average salinity
Requires inunda-
tion
Evergreen
Seed
prop roots
Fringes marsh.
and in interior
soils. Higner
salinity. Occa-
sional inundation
Evergreen
Seed
pneumatophores
radiating shallow
roots
Along caost, in inlets
saline lakes. Florida
Typical Plant
Association
channels. Along
coast and saline
inlets and bays
on alluvial fans
Gulf, East, and
West coasts
Saltmarsh cord-
grass, bulrushes,
black rush
rush
land side. Some-
times occurring
landward of mud-
flats without
Spartina, in diked
marshes, and above
undercut creek banks
in. Spartina marshes
and on levees. Gulf,
East, and West coasts
and Gulf coasts where there is no
danger of frost
Saltwood, salt-
wort, saltgrass,
saltmeadow
cordgrass
Red mangrove
Black mangrove,
white mangrove,
buttonwood in higher
areas
17
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Figure 5. Reed-like marsh,
Figure 6. Reed-like marsh.
18
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The Spartina marsh is limited to the lower intertidal level.
Plants grow at a range of intertidal heights beginning near MLLW. The
upper limit of the growth of Spartina is determined by frequency and
duration of tidal inundation. Thus on steeply sloping shorelines, the
zone of Spartina will be narrow; on low, gradually sloping shorelines,
such as found along the Gulf Coast, the Spartina zone may be hundreds of
yards wide.
Spartina are generally perennial plants. Following an autumn and
winter dieback, they reproduce primarily by rhizomes (rhizomes are
specialized underground stems which perpetuate the plant between growing
seasons),., but can also reproduce by seeding. The dense rhizome mass may
be 6 inches to several feet thick and provides the stability needed to
allow the outer marsh edge to resist wind and wave erosion. As long as
the plants are healthy and the rhizome mass intact, a Spartina marsh is
an extremely stable entity, with great recuperative powers. When the
plants are killed or the rhizome mass broken and damaged, the marsh is
less resistant to erosion.
Succulent-like Marsh --
The succulent-like marsh plants grow at higher intertidal levels
than reed-like plants in soil that is only occasionally waterlogged and
inundated. Figure 7 schematically demonstrates the occurrences of
reed-like and succulent-like marshes as a function of tidal elevation
and salinity. The succulent-like plants include a number of species
which are small and usually less than 2 feet high. Unlike the reed-like
appearance of Spartina, these plants are bushy or shrubby. Their
branches are fleshy or succulent and are divided into numerous sub-
branches ending in short, finger-like projections. Figure 8 provides an
illustration of the succulent-like marsh type. Usually, it occurs on
higher ground adjoining the reed-like plants as shown in Figure 9;
however, succulents can also occur wherever the physiography of the
marsh provides shallow ponds which are subject to evaporation after
tidal flooding or precipitation runoff. With evaporation, the salinity
of these ponds increases and they may become salt pans.
The succulent-like marsh includes annual plants, which reproduce
only by seeding, and perennials, which have both rhizomes and seeds.
Because this type of marsh occurs at higher tidal elevations, it is far
less subject to erosion from tidal currents and runoff. Its rhizome
system is, however, still an important means of reproduction of a large
proportion of the marsh's plant community.
Red and Black Mangrove Marshes --
Mangroves are trees or shrubs which are found only in tropical and
subtropical regions including the coasts of Florida, Hawaii, many U.S.
Territories, and some Gulf states. The most extensive continental
mangrove marshes occur in Florida and are best developed in the south-
western Ten Thousand Island Region. Further east, around Biscayne Bay,
19
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High
Low
Reed-1ike marsh
Succulent-like marsh
High
water
MLIW
Soil
surface
'Tidal
channel
Figure 7. Schematic cross section of tidal salt marsh. The
graph shows zonation according to elevation and
salinity.
20
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Figure 8. Succulent-like marsh.
Figure 9. Elevational relationship between reed-like
marsh and succulent-like marsh (foreground)
21
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Florida Bay, and the Florida Keys, they are also well developed. There
are still extensive mangrove marshes in Puerto Rico, although their
number has been reduced by shoreline development.
Mangroves grow best in the brackish waters of estuaries but they
also develop well along the outer coastline in seawater, around high
salinity lagoons and salt flats, and up rivers and streams where salt
water only occasionally reaches. Mangrove marshes in one locality may
be only a narrow coastal fringe, but elsewhere they may spread many
miles inland up tidal rivers. The mangrove plants require continual
inundation by tides.
The mangrove marsh is composed of two major plant types. The red
mangrove, characteristically fringing the marsh, is a tree which may
grow to 75 feet high. It is easily distinguished by its branch-like
prop roots (Figures 10 and 11). The black mangrove is a tree reaching
60 feet in height which grows landward of the red mangrove on less
waterlogged ground and in higher salinity. The black mangrove is dis-
tinguished by the. presence of pneumatophores: branchless, leafless
shoots emerging from the ground around each tree (Figures 12 and 13).
The prop roots of the red mangrove and pneumatophores of the black
mangrove function as respiratory structures. Mangrove roots and pneu-
matophores collect and retain debris, thus contributing to the process
of soil accumulation and island building. Mangrove sediments commonly
become anaerobic with depth.
The different kinds of mangroves sometimes grow in random asso-
ciations but usually the different species dominate in bands, with red
mangroves seaward. This zonation results from differences in prefer-
ence, tidal coverage, and soil salinity. Figure 14 is a schematic
illustration of a cross-section of a mangrove marsh.
Substrate
Like all plants, marsh vegetation requires a medium in which to
grow. Marsh plants are especially sensitive to frequency and duration
of tidal coverage, which depends on soil surface elevation. If the
marsh surface is too low with respect to the water level, only submerged
aquatic plants will grow. If it is too high, upland plants will replace
the marsh vegetation. Between these limits, the average water level in
each portion of marsh is a critical factor in determining which/species
will be dominant. Thus, change in soil elevation or average water level
can result in a change in vegetation cover, create upland out of former
marsh, or change the plant composition of a given marsh.
Substrate elevation can be affected by erosion, natural deposition
or dredge spoil disposal, earthworks, and similar processes and activ-
ities. All marshes are sensitive to these changes. In practice, reed-
22
-------
Figure 10. Red mangrove marsh.
*.&
Figure 11. Red mangroves showing prop roots,
23
-------
Figure 12. Black mangrove pneumatophores.
Figure 13. Black mangrove marsh.
24
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ro
01
High
Red mangrove
seedlings
High water
UULW.
Soil
surface
Figure 14. Schematic cross section of mangrove marsh. The graph
shows zonation according to elevation and salinity.
-------
like marshes are much more easily disturbed than the others, because
they typically inhabit erosion-prone areas like river- and marsh-channel
banks. Mangroves are least vulnerable to any soil-level changes that
would be likely to result from oil spill response activities.
Exposure of green (photosynthetic) surfaces
All plants require their green tissues to be exposed to air and
light so that they can produce food. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is the building block out of which plants make the food they need to
survive, and sunlight is the power source for the food production
process.
Anything that prevents air or light from reaching the plants' green
tissues will have some detrimental effect. Heavy oils that coat leaves
and stems Will block out both air and light. Trampling of the plants
into the wet soils may have a similar impact. Cutting and burning also
reduce the availability of the photosynthetic tissues.
Most marsh plants are fairly tolerant of this type of disturbance,
because they have food stored in their rhizomes or other tissue. They
use this food to produce new photosynthetic structures. Recurrent
destructive events may eventually deplete the food supply, and have a
much more severe effect than a single event.
Reed-like marshes are most tolerant of activities that remove or
block out light and air from green tissues. (For example, some types of
spartina can be harvested for hay.) Few data are available on the
tolerance of perennial succulent-like species although, except for such
stresses as trampling, they may be nearly as resilient as reed-like
species. Annual succulent-like species carry few if any food reserves.
They are very unlikely to survive loss of green tissue. There is some
conflict in the literature about the ability of mangroves to withstand
leaf loss. Adult trees do not seem to be severely affected by a single
event. Furthermore, their height makes it unlikely that they would be
significantly affected by spilled oil or response activities. Seed-
lings, on the other hand, have minimal food reserves; they are much
shorter and much more vulnerable.
Aeration
Carbon dioxide is not the only component of the atmosphere that
plants require. They also need oxygen to breathe. The aerial parts of
the plant are able to absorb oxygen directly from the air. The under-
ground parts, however, cannot generally absorb oxygen directly, because
marsh soils tend to be anaerobic. Instead, roots and rhizomes obtain
oxygen that diffuses down specially adapted, air-filled tissues from
aboveground portions of the plant. In Spartina, the grass leaves and
stems act as air-intake structures for the underground parts. Red
26
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mangrove prop roots and black mangrove pneumatophores and leaves per-
form this function. Anything that prevents air from entering these
structures will effectively strangle the roots of the plants, which will
subsequently die. The sooner that air can once again enter the roots,
the greater the chance that the plant will survive.
Succulent-like marsh plants also have air-filled tissues to bring
oxygen to their roots. These plants grow closer to the soil, and may
therefore be more vulnerable to complete coating by oil, and consequent
suffocating than other species. However, succulents also sometimes
inhabit less frequently waterlogged soil, which may not be anaerobic.
In such a case, their roots are not likely to suffocate if the aerial
portions of the plant are isolated from the air.
Sensitivity to physical disruption
To some extent, all plants can sustain physical injury from activ-
ities associated with protection and cleanup. The importance of main-
taining intact photosynthetic tissues has been discussed above. The
potential for erosion can also be increased by removal or decimation of
the aerial portions of the plants which act as a cushion to disperse the
energy of waves that impinge upon the marsh and bind sediments. It is
important that stems remain intact, so that food and water can be trans-
ported within the plant. Rhizomes (roots) are also vitally important to
plant survival. Rhizomes may extend for some distance underground. If
the soil is soft, they may be broken by heavy foot traffic or other
disturbance, but breakage is generally not harmful to the plant. In at
least one reed, Phragmites communis, which grows in the higher or less
saline areas of some salt marshes, rhizome breakage promotes sprouting.
The vegetation of Spartina marshes is very tolerant of physical
disruption. The green parts of the dominant plants die back each year,
and the rhizomes are very prone to sprout new shoots. Saltworts are
less tolerant. Mangroves of both types are woody plants that could
regenerate only over a long period of time if they were extensively
injured (for example, by cutting). In an oil spill response, red
mangroves are unlikely to suffer much physical damage. The pneumato-
phores of black mangroves may be exposed to breakage, which can result
in invasion by water of the air-filled tissue and suffocation of the
roots. Physical injury to plants can have secondary adverse effects,
including increased vulnerability to toxic materials.
Sensitivity to toxic materials
All living organisms are subject to injury by toxic materials.* In
the case of marsh plants, poisonous materials may either contact the
As discussed earlier, Class A oils and cutter stocks in other classes of
oil are considered as the most toxic. Marsh plants may also be subject to
spills of hazardous or toxic materials (say, pesticides or chlorinated
hydrocarbons) but such materials are not discussed in this manual.
27
-------
plants directly or be buried in the soil by trampling or sedimentation,
possibly damaging underground plant parts in the future. The aerial
portions of most plants are protected to some extent by a waxy cuticle.
Physical breakage opens this covering and may permit toxic substances to
enter the liquid transport system so directly that poisons can be
carried throughout the plant. The underground root hairs, which di-
rectly absorb water and nutrients from the soil, are not protected at
all, and are therefore highly susceptible to toxins in the substrate.
Poisons in the marsh environment may do more than simply kill
existing plants. They can prevent germination of seeds and growth of
new sprouts, effectively sterilizing the soil and frustrating attempts
at reclamation.
It is, difficult to make a single statement about the effects that
the many toxic substances would have on a given marsh, but the herba-
ceous Spartina and saltwort are likely to be more susceptible to most
toxic substances.
Previous disturbance
Successive damaging incidents are likely to produce more long-term
impact on a marsh than a single incident. Therefore, previous or
chronic stress, whether physical or chemical, increases the sensitivity
of all marsh types to most forms of disturbance. This relationship
cannot be quantified in a general study, because it depends completely
upon the form, frequency, and extent of previous damage to the affected
area. For example, previous exposure to oil contamination or to pol-
lutant stress generally lowers the tolerance of the marsh to further
contamination. Studies near major marine terminals where chronic low-
level oil contamination is a problem show that the greater the frequency
of contamination, the greater the damage which results from new contam-
ination. However, if previous contamination is not chronic, but rather
a single large-scale contamination event, the tolerance of the marsh to
new contamination is probably good.
Other biota
Throughout the above discussion, reference has been restricted to
marsh vegetation because the vegetation and physical characteristics of
the marsh determine animal habitat. It is assumed that animals will
colonize suitable habitat areas, and that faunal populations' are sensi-
tive to various types of disturbance to the same degree that their
habitats are sensitive. However, special features which make a marsh
unique must be considered in determining that marsh's sensitivity to
disturbance. Such special features include bird rookeries, important
wintering grounds for waterfowl, rare species populations, and highly
productive nursery areas. Local or regional experts should be relied
upon to provide information about such highly sensitive marshes.
28
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Season
The season of disturbance is particularly important in determining
the potential threat to marsh biota. During migratory periods (pri-
marily fall and winter), large concentrations of waterfowl may be
temporarily present. Similarly, during nesting periods young birds may
be exposed to impacts of disturbance.
Marshlands act as nursery grounds for a large number of fish as
well as many commercially valuable invertebrate species. Nursery
seasons can vary between the Gulf, West and East coasts but generally
occur during the later winter and spring periods. Large scale damage to
a marsh could have severe effects on future marine and estuarine commu-
nities contained therein.
The response of marsh vegetation is also frequently dependent upon
the time of year. Mangroves of both types grow year-round, but reed-
like and succulent-like plants have a distinct summer growing period and
a winter season of dormancy. In winter, reed-like plants such as
Spartina grass dies back to the soil level, so virtually anything can be
done to the remains of the aerial portions without harming the plants.
In general, succulent-like plants to not die back, alhough much of the
green tissue may disappear. The aerial portions therefore remain sensi-
tive, if inactive. In spring, the young sprouts of both reed-like and
succulent-like plants are sensitive to toxic materials and physical
disturbance. This sensitivity increases later in spring because the new
stems have not yet produced enough food supply to replace the winter
stores. Removal of green tissue does the most damage at this time of
year, and decreases in severity as the season progresses.
Physical and toxic disturbance can interfere with the seasonal
processes of flowering, seed-set, and germination. This is detrimental
to both marsh plant types, but could completely eliminate a population
of an annual succulent-like marsh which depends upon a new seed crop
each year.
Physiography
One aspect of marsh physiography, the elevation or slope of the
substrate, has been discussed above in terms of its relationship to
tidal inundation and consequent effects on plants. Additionally,
variations in elevation throughout the marsh determine where fluid
substances like oil are likely to collect. The location of tidal
channels likewise determines patterns of fluid flow. The sensitivity of
a marsh in terms of accessibility by contaminants in the surrounding
waters depends in part upon these patterns.
Physiography may provide clues to other aspects of marsh sensi-
tivity. Wide mudflats adjacent to shallow bays are likely to be points
29
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of sediment accumulation. The erosion potential in such areas is low.
However, toxic materials may become buried in the substrate. Converse-
ly, the steep banks of rivers and tidal channels are not likely to
accumulate sediment; toxic materials are not likely to become buried
adjacent to them, but their potential for erosion is relatively high.
Tidal circulation
The importance of relative elevation of the marsh soil surface to
average water level has been discussed above. However, the tidal pat-
terns of ebb and flow are also very important to marsh life. The
organisms in any given marsh are adapted to the local tidal cycle.
Interruption of this tidal cycling can be detrimental to marsh
life. Marsh soil animals may become desiccated if tidal waters are
prevented from re-entering the marsh. Continuous inundation, without
tidal ebb, will cause salinity and temperature deviations and therefore,
suffocation of structures like black mangrove pneumatophores that depend
upon exposure to the atmosphere. In general, the longer the tidal cycle
is interrupted, the greater is the potential that the marsh will be
damaged. This form of disturbance is most serious where and when the
tidal range is great, and less severe where tidal fluctuations are
small.
Saltwort marshes are essentially exempt from this type of damage,
because they do not require regular inundation. Mangrove plants of both
the black and red types are probably able to sustain continued low water
more successfully than reed-like plants, which has a strong requirement
for regular inundation.
SPECIAL OR UNIQUE FEATURES
In addition to the potential danger to marsh plants from an oil
spill, the special or unique features of threatened marshlands should be
considered in evaluating sensitivity. Listed below are general cate-
gories of special or unique features:
1. Areas of threatened wildlife. These include the habitats of
rare and endangered species, the nesting areas of either
indigenous or migratory waterfowl, national and state parks,
game reserves, and shellfish beds used for either seed stock
or commercial harvesting.
2. Ar_Ms_ojf_pjriii^__T^cjreati\pnal__vaJ_ue. These include both public
hunting reserves and private game clubs. Concern for these
areas would be limited to the hunting seasons. Information
concerning hunting season schedules can be identified by a
call to the local game warden.
30
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3. Areas of aesthetic value. Marshlands having unique aesthetic
value are prevalent in the eastern and Gulf Coast states.
These include special observation sites in parklands and
viewsheds from major highways.
Special features will often be listed on charts or maps. Rapid
identification of these features will require contacting local experts.
31
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SECTION 4
PROTECTIVE MEASURES
APPROACH
Figure 1 presents the approach used to determine the protection
strategy. The protection, as versus cleanup, strategy is used if the
endangered marshlands have not been contaminated. The flow chart leads
the user to first assess environmental conditions and predict the move-
ment of the oil. If oil is expected to evaporate or sink, disperse or
evaporate, no action is required. If the oil appears to be moving
toward the marsh, monitoring meteorolgic and oceanographic conditions
and oil movement predictions should continue until the oil either moves
out to sea or contact with the marsh becomes imminent. If oil contact
is possible with the marshlands, protection priorities are set and the
protection strategy implemented.
A field inspection of the area potentially threatened should be
conducted, normally following the OSC briefing and orientation. During
this inspection it is desirable to obtain sufficient basic information,
as contained in the list of field observations presented in Section 100,
using a chart or map to note findings. The helicopter provides an ideal
platform for rapid nearshore observations and documentary photography.
In the marshland situation, however, total reliance on aerial observa-
tions should not be made, as oil penetrating into the marsh often will
not be observable. Surface surveys should supplement helicopter obser-
vations in all cases.
Locations of oil slicks, shoreline contamination, and other relevant
features should be recorded on a chart of the area. It may be convenient
to compile data on clear plastic (mylar) overlays which can be sequentially
superimposed over the charts thereby permitting a quick assessment of
oil movements and other operations. A new set of mylar sheets dan be
compiled daily to give a chronological record of spill movement and
damage. An example of such an overlay is given in Figure 15.
Threatened shorelines should be photographed during the initial
overflight. Photographs will provide both a tool in the management of
the response and a basis for determining the need for restoration.
Oblique and vertical photography using hand-held 35 mm or medium-format
32
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CO
co
* ~ *^^ ~ *o i3 * "^~~» i """*' ^^~^'-^ " _' ^
Exposed at \
^^v^^
* f,-/'^*%c> ,> . ** t'V v^><^ -*VW
'" '^'-' -
" * "*". ~- -*T - -»- -...* Tojurf' »
^.ji^». ~* ' -*"^- ' ' J*- ^- ^i(.l*l»nc' i -1
» - -
--'-, "-..£?-+. * '
"- -s*-^ S1- ~T ' i
Figure 15. Use of overlay to plot slick movements and other features.
-------
cameras is generally suitable for these purposes. Photographs should be
taken in continuous sequences, beginning and ending with some recog-
nizable landmark. A picture overlap of at least 20 percent is recom-
mended. Camera altitude will vary with the situation and weather, with
optimum balance between resolution and coverage found below 1,000 feet.
SPILL SIZE AND MOVEMENT PREDICTION
Early in the response, an estimation of spill volume will partially
aid field personnel in determining the equipment and manpower needed to
manage the spill containment, cleanup efforts, and disposal require-
ments. Since estimations of spill volume may be unavailable, field
estimations are commonly necessary. Several methods can be used to
provide working approximations. The most accurate method involves
inspection of the source. Estimations for a tanker or barge can be
based on the cargo capacity of the vessel and the number of holds in-
volved. Spill volume from well blowouts or pipeline ruptures can be
estimated in some cases from flow and production data.
Spill size approximations can also be based on the thickness of the
oil slick and the area covered by the slick. Moderate- to high-altitude
aerial photography coupled with sea-surface measurements are most useful
since an assessment of the size of the entire slick at a single point in
time is necessary. In the absence of photography, coverage may be
carefully plotted on navigational charts. Spreading and rapid movement
of floating slicks can, however, make accurate volume estimations diffi-
cult.
After estimating the area of contamination, the graph presented in
Figure 16 can be used to provide spill volume based on slick appearance.
For estimation of slicks of variable thickness it may be necessary to
divide the slick into areas of similar appearance. Area measurements,
especially of broken-up slicks, can be conveniently obtained, using a
planimetric measuring device. Determination of extremely thick oil
layers will probably require field measurement.
Slick Movement by Spreading
The initial spread of oil on the water is determined by gravity,
surface tension of the water, and interface tension between the water
and oil. After a day or two, the oil film thickness normally.stabilizes
between 0.002 to 0.003 cm. When no strong oceanographic or meteoro-
logical forces are influencing the spill movement, slick spreading may
be approximated using the Blokker Equation (see Glossary). According to
this equation, the film thickness and surface area will decrease
rapidly. After an elapsed time of a few hours, the rate of spread and
film thickness will decrease significantly.
34
-------
1,000,000-
10cm.
1cm. O.lcm. 0.01cm.
OJ
S-
-
0!
Q.
in
«*-
O
E
-
100,000-
10,000-
1,000-,
10"
O.OOlcra.
0.0001cm.
O.OOOOlcra.
:
Area covered after 24 hours (meters )
Figure 16. Volume, film thickness, appearance and area covered of oil spills.
-------
Prediction of Slick Movements
Slick movement predictions can be as simple as observing oil move-
ment and projecting continued movement of the slick at the same rate and
direction. Generally, however, local current and weather variations
must be considered driving forces which will modify the direction and
extent of movement. Such information can be obtained from current
charts, weather forecasts, etc.
Tide and current efforts can be rapidly deduced by simple vector
addition, which assumes all driving forces to be additive. In making
accurate predictions of slick movement, it is necessary to use the most
current weather and tidal forecasts. New predictions or adjustments to
the calculations are required whenever any of the driving forces change
significantly. Shoreline recontamination is a possibility when such
changes occur.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
In most coastal areas meteorologic and oceanographic processes
comprise the dominant mechanisms influencing slick movement. Of these
processes, wind, tide, and currents are the most important in dictating
movement of oil on the surface of the water. Even within the salt
marsh, oil remains highly subject to the influence of these processes.
In addition temperature and precipitation influence oil movement in the
marsh environment.
Field personnel must be aware of these environmental factors.
Local sources of meteorological information should be contacted and
weather predictions obtained. If such sources of information are un-
available, equipment for determining wind speed and direction should be
utilized to keep the field team abreast of such changes.
General meteorological information and forecasts are available from
U.S. Coast Guard stations, airport control towers or flight plan opera-
tion centers, U.S. Weather Bureau stations, or VHF-FM weather reports on
162.55 MHz. Area weather forecasts are made every 6 hours, forecasting
the weather for the next 12-hour period.
Field personnel must also be aware of tides and currents. The
major source of information on local currents and tides is that pub-
lished by the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Ocean arid Atmos-
pheric Administration/ National Ocean Survey. Secondary sources of
information are local tide tables and local personnel suchxas the U.S.
Coast Guard harbor masters, etc.
36
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Wind
Oil slicks can drift at speeds of 1 to 3 or 4 percent of wind
speed, depending on oil type. If oil is floating immediately beneath
the surface, it will move lin response to wind) at the low end of the
scale. Wind can also combine with high tides to force oil through the
marsh fringes into the interior. After pushing the oil into the marsh,
the wind tends to hold it in position until the wind changes direction.
Changes in wind direction (commonly 180 degrees in coastal areas) can
blow oil out of the marsh into open water which can cause recontamina-
tion. Mangrove marshes are particularly susceptible to oil remobili-
zation by this process. When impending wind shifts can be predicted,
containment procedures can often be implemented prior to the slrift, thus
limiting recontamination problems.
Wind shifts can also influence the cleanup operations. Oil held
along one side of a tidal channel, for instance, can be blown to the
other side as the wind shifts. Changes of this nature can require major
redeployment of containment and cleanup equipment. If not foreseen,
wind shifts can cause unnecessary spread of oil, additional contamina-
tion, and increased cleanup effort.
Winds can generate waves capable of interfering with the func-
tioning of recovery equipment. While wind-generated waves are not
normally a problem in salt marshes, their occurrence should be con-
sidered in the selection of oil recovery equipment.
Wind activity can influence the behavior of tides under certain
conditions. Wind influence of tide is particularly common along the
Gulf Coast, where strong consistent winds blowing from the Gulf can pile
up water along the shoreline and produce extra or extended tides. A
side effect of this condition includes the formation of unpredictable
currents. Such local phenomena must be considered in planning and
implementation.
Tides
In addition to generating tidal currents, tides can significantly
influence the extent of contamination, and the type of response action
necessary. The impact of the tide is of particular concern where varia-
tion between low and high water is significant or the marsh gradient is
extremely flat. Under these conditions, potential for contamination is
increased, both vertically and horizontally. As the area exposed to
contamination increases, protection and cleanup requirements also
increase. The anchoring of booms and other devices must accommodate the
tidal rise and fall, and boom maintenance and monitoring requirements
may increase.
37
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Compared to east and west coast tidal fluctuations, the tides in
the southern salt marshes are generally not of major concern when plan-
ning response operations. However, occasional spring and storm tides
can be abnormally high in these areas. These occurrences can be deter-
mined by consulting tide tables and weather forecasts. In those
southern salt marshes which have significant amounts of free standing
water, oil spreading can occur regardless of tidal stage. More inten-
sive protective actions are required in such cases.
Currents
Currents in the vicinity of a salt marsh are influenced by shore-
line physiography, wind, tides, local runoff, and in some areas, oceanic
circulation. In addition to moving the oil, strong currents can cause
direct failure of many types of protective equipment, especially booms.
Velocity and direction predictions will be available only infre-
quently and only for navigable channels. When there are no formal
predictions, general understanding of the nature of flooding and drain-
age of a marsh may be useful in implementing a protective response.
Marshes tend to flood primarily through their system of channels and
canals. As the water rises, the banks of these channels are overtopped
and the interior low areas inundated. As the tide ebbs, water flows
from the interior of the marsh to the fringe areas. Considering this
pattern, protective booming of marsh channels and tidal inlets during
the tidal flood stage can greatly reduce the extent of contamination of
marsh interiors.
Temperature
Air and water temperature can influence the behavior of the oil and
the nature of the control response. Temperature can significantly
affects oil viscosity, evaporation rate, and burning characteristics. A
response designed around the properties of oil and environmental condi-
tions at a given temperature may not be effective if the temperature
changes. The consequences of predictable changes should, therefore, be
considered.
Temperature drops can increase the viscosity of the oil, poten-
tially requiring use of a different type of recovery device (see
Appendix C). Elevations in temperature can speed evaporation rate
causing a reduction in the volume of a light oil or causing fluidity in
heavy, nonsolid oils. Elevated temperatures can also lower viscosity,
resulting in increased penetration into underlying soils. Further, oil
which was adhering to marsh plants or stockpiles of collected debris can
run off, leading to recontamination. Finally, extremes in temperature
can affect the performance of the labor force. Crews will perform less
efficiently when it is very hot or very cold and additional manpower may
be needed in these extremes.
38
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Precipitation
Rainfall can influence the response in a number of ways. Obviously
direct rainfall can cause recontamination by washing oil from the marsh
back into the water. Rainfall is particularly detrimental in leaching
oil from debris stockpiles. Indirect effects include in river eleva-
tions and overland flow, reduction of marsh trafficability, and general
deterioration of operating conditions.
GENERAL PROTECTION PRIORITIES
Time, weather, and logistical constraints seldom permit total
protection of a threatened shoreline. Although it is desirable to
attempt total protection, it is generally necessary to set priorities
governing protection of special areas and features. Under emergency
conditions the development of these priorities must be conducted rapidly
in the field with minimal information. This section provides criteria
for setting priorities using information developed in previous sections.
Emergency protection criteria are based on the following assumptions:
1. Regardless of oil type, quantity, and nature of the shoreline,
some degree of environmental modification or damage will
occur.
2. Once the oil has grounded, cleanup will generally be required -
or demanded. Effective protective actions will reduce cleanup
and restoration costs and associated damage.
A logical sequence of priority considerations must be followed in
planning an effective marshland protection response. Included are field
examination and weighing of characteristics unique to the threatened
area. Basic order-of-priority rules exist and form the foundation for
developing response priorities.
Offshore spill control operations should be considered as the
highest protection priority. Though beyond the scope of this manual,
offshore containment can eliminate shoreline problems and should be
given first consideration.
The following priority rules are stated in the order of decreasing
importance and require field observations, interviews, and recording of
the information obtained. It is recommended that pertinent data be
plotted using a clear overlay on the chart, map, or preferably air
photo(s) of the threatened area, as discussed in previous sections.
39
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1. Protect Areas Where Public Safety is Threatened. Public, com-
mercial, and industrial facilities are commonly found in or near
many marshland areas necessitating consideration of the safety
element. In all cases where human safety is potentially threat-
ened, life-protection actions should receive highest priority.
Typical facilities of concern include: harbors, piers and docks
(especially those with enclosed and vapor confining configura-
tions); water supply, cooling, or irrigation water intakes; and
petroleum manufacturing or transfer facilities. Development of
priority rankings within this category should reflect usage and
number of people potentially impacted.
2. Protect Wetland Interiors. Driven primarily by winds, tides,
and erratic wind tides, oil entering wetland interiors tends to
spread widely, severely expanding and compounding damage and clean-
up requirements. It is singularly important that every attempt be
made to control oil at the entrance to the marsh's interior.
3. Habitat Protection. Once the areas of unique or special
concern are identified (Section 300), priorities can be set.
Available local experts should be consulted in this priority set-
ting. As a guideline, priorities generally follow a progression of
concern for direct impact to rare/endangered/unusual species and
habitat protection downward to concern for arbitrarily set
boundaries such as parks and refuges.
4. Protect Other Areas. To the degree possible, and to the
extent practical, all other areas should be protected. Often
action of this nature will delegate lower priority shorelines to
containment, and subsequent pollution, in an effort to protect
other areas.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES
A wide variety of devices and techniques have been developed for
the control of oil spills. Although few are specifically designed for
use in marshlands, most can be adapted for such use. The following
section describes general categories of devices and techniques, and
discusses relative advantages and constraints in their application to
marshland protection. Implementation instructions are contained in
Appendix B.
Protective devices and techniques can be categorized as follows:
1. Existing control features.
2. Skirt and fence booms.
3. Improvised booms.
4. Earth and rigid barriers.
40
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5. Permeable barriers.
6. Sorbents (pads, rolls, pillows, snares, granular, etc.)
7. Wildlife deterrents.
Within the context of this manual, only inshore application is
discussed. All actions described require subsequent removal of oil, and
some require restoration. Additionally, most actions described can be
used to contain an already oiled area preventing recontamination of
adjacent areas.
Although legally permitted in certain cases of threat to human
life, use of chemical treating agents in inshore marshland protection is
not currently recommended. Consideration of chemical use in coastal
protection should be restricted to offshore spills which threaten highly
valuable coastlines. Application of chemical treating agents is the
subject of a companion EPA Manual of Practice (Project Number 68-03-2621).
Existing Control Devices
Many coastal marshlands have controlled drainage in the form of
weirs, tide gates, and so on. Before other protective measures are
explored the threatened area should be examined for presence of such
features. If such structures in threatened locations are simply closed
or plugged, interior areas may be readily protected or existing contami-
nation limited. In utilizing such control structures, it must be realized
that restriction of natural tidal circulation for an extended period of
time may result in environmental damage to the enclosed area. Limiting
circulation to a few tidal cycles should not result in adverse effects;
however, even short closure should be evaluated by qualified experts.
Skirt and Fence Booms
A wide variety of commercial booms are available. While varying in
size and details of construction, all have certain common character-
istics. All have a flexible or solid barrier (curtain or skirt) extend-
ing vertically into the water and supported by floats. Some (fence
booms) also have a barrier projecting vertically above the water to
control splash. Regardless of size or type, booms are hydrodynamically
limited in their response to currents. Virtually all conventional booms
fail (i.e., allow oil to pass under the boom) in currents exceeding
1.5 knots and normal, that is at 30°, to the boom. Depending on float
configuration and skirt weighting or tensioning, many fail at consider-
ably lower velocities. Performance in currents can be greatly improved
by angling the boom to the direction of flow.
Other than availability, two primary factors govern the practiced
application of booms in marshland situations. Perhaps the greatest
limiting factor is ease of handling which is related to boom size and
weight. Larger booms are heavy and extremely difficult to manipulate,
41
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requiring mechanical transport and much manpower. The manner in which
the boom responds to depth and tidal variation is also critical. Booms
are designed for maximum efficiency when free-floating. In inshore
situations, tidal ebb exposes some or even all of the bottom. Thus, as
water depth decreases, skirt booms tend to collapse on themselves,
leaving a reasonably effective seal on the bottom but not necessarily on
the side. Fence booms, on the other hand, tend to fall over with result-
ing oil loss. In general, smaller booms (with skirts of 12 inches or
less) are more useful in marshes.
Sorbent Booms
Sorbent booms consist of loose sorbent materials encased in a mesh
sleeve. Round in cross-section and low in density, sorbent booms gen-
erally ride,high in the water and act as physical barriers only in still
water. To work with maximum effectiveness they require considerable
manipulation and adjustment. As with most sorbent devices, sorbent
booms are most effective with light oils.
Improvised Booms
Virtually any floating object of more than a few feet in length can
be used as an improvised boom in the absence of specialized equipment.
Booms of this type are generally ineffective in the presence of light
winds, waves, and currents, but can be effective in the still waters of
marsh interiors.
Earth and Rigid Barriers
Temporary barriers of this type are particularly useful in prevent-
ing ingress of oil through narrow channels into low spots in the interior
of the marsh. Such barriers must compensate for changes in tidal height.
To prevent permanent changes in natural marsh circulation patterns,
these barriers must be removed promptly after use. The prime advantage
of these barriers is their relative ease of construction and continued
effectiveness, with minimal maintenance, throughout the operation.
Permeable Barriers
Permeable barriers generally find application in small to moderate
tidal channels within the marsh. Typically, in marsh usage, they con-
sist of two layers of wire fence (chicken wire is excellent), firmly
anchored at each side of the channel and extending to above (and below
maximum tidal variations. The space between the two fences (4 to 8 inches)
is filled with a sorbent material. When the fences are properly con-
structed, the sorbent floats on the water, responding to tidal changes
and continually trapping oil. The distance between fences can be larger
to prevent currents from sweeping oil under or sorbents blown into one
area (also can use a couple of sorbent booms with sorbent between them).
42
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Their prime advantage is that they do not restrict flow into interior
areas. A major disadvantage is the requirement for frequent replacement
of the enclosed sorbent material.
Sorbents
Two types of sorbents can be used in marshland protection: non-
degrading synthetic materials and biodegradable natural materials such
as seagrass or wood chips. Natural materials, when available, are pre-
ferred since they are simple to use and can, if unoiled, be left in
place at completion of operations. However, noncohesive materials such
as wood chips are to be avoided since retention and collection can be
most difficult and, if lost when oiled, they can create recontamination
problems.
Synthetic materials, which come in a variety of forms, must be
gathered and disposed of at completion of operations, even if nonoiled.
Granular sorbents should be used only in controlled situations and then
with caution to prevent escape and loss. Some sorbent materials are
constructed on plastic mesh to give them strength. After extended
exposure, the sorbent may migrate leaving only the mesh which can en-
snare small birds and animals. If such material is used, all such
residual materials must be collected.
Sorbents can protect by serving as a physical barrier or, addi-
tionally, by trapping oil thereby preventing its further movement.
Sorbents can be applied, for example, to immobilize a floating slick as
it moves into a marsh. Sorbent rolls can be laid along near-level
shorelines at low tide to protect the substrate against oil in the
incoming tide. Granular sorbent can be used in fence booms to form a
barrier as well as to trap oil. These sorbents have many applications
in protection of marshlands but they must be used properly and then
properly disposed of.
Wildlife Deterrents
Waterfowl may be present in many marshland situations. When pre-
sent, they generally present an item of major concern. Birds will
generally avoid areas of intense cleanup activity. Many species will
instinctively avoid oily areas. A variety of devices and techniques can
be used, with varying degrees of success, to keep birds away from oiled
areas. In other cases firecrackers, shotgun blanks, or gas-powered
cannons may be used to scare them away. Noise-generating devices may be
limited severely by wind and the attenuation of sound over distance.
Recorded wildlife distress calls have been used with some success.
They generally consist of sounds of wounded animals or local predators.
In extreme cases personnel (preferably volunteers) can be stationed in
critical areas to drive birds away.
43
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IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH PROTECTION ACTIONS
Most protective techniques are unlikely to damage marsh ecosystems.
For the most part, such techniques are used on open water and in tidal
channels, and are consequently unlikely to affect marsh biota. Some-
times, areas of marsh must be traversed by foot or vehicular traffic in
order to implement protective measures. Such traffic, even though
small, can be damaging. The effects of traffic on the marsh are more
fully discussed in Section 500.
Barriers (such as wiers or earthen dams) may be damaging to the
marsh if they interrupt the tidal fluctuations. Exclusion of water from
the marsh may be detrimental if it extends beyond a few tidal cycles,
for the reasons discussed in Section 300. Construction of earth bar-
riers can-also be damaging to the substrate from which material is
obtained.
Wildlife deterrents should be used with caution during the nesting
season. They may cause birds in unaffected portions of marsh to abandon
their nests. Local or regional experts should be consulted about this
possibility before deterrents are employed.
As discussed in the previous section, nonbiodegradable remnants of
sorbent materials can be injurious to marsh animals.
Table 4 summarizes the impacts associated with various types of
protective action.
SELECTION OF PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Once basic information about the marshland and spill is developed,
appropriate protective techniques may be selected by answering a series
of questions. The basic sequence of questions, actions, and references
to supporting information matrices is presented in Table 5.
Selection Procedure
Using Table 6, actions and techniques compatible with the marsh
type involved can be selected. Selection of the most ideally suited
action from those specified as possible must be done on a case-by-case
basis. The general description of action types may be usefu/1 in choos-
ing an action(s). Commonly, cost and availability of equipment or
materials may be limiting factors.
Not all actions are appropriate for all oil types. Using Table 7,
the general compatibility of a device or technique with a given oil type
can be identified. If the device or technique is not compatible,
another option should be explored. Oil type definitions are presented
in Section 200.
44
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TABLE. 4. IMPACTS OF PROTECTION ACTION
Protective Action
Reed-like Marsh
Succulent-like Marsh
Red and Black
Mangrove Marsh
en
Use of existing con-
trol features
Skirt and fence booms
Improvised booms
Earth and rigid
barriers
Permeable barriers
Sorbents
Wildlife deterrents
Possible interruption
of tidal cycle
No impact
No impact
Possible interruption
of tidal cycle; sub-
strate loss if marsh
soil is used for bar-
rier construction
No impact
Possible injury to
birds and other ani-
mals by nonbiodegra-
dable remnants
Possible disturbance
to nesting birds in
nearby, unoiled areas
No impact
No impact
No impact
Substrate loss if
marsh soil is used
for barrier construc-
tion
No impact
Possible injury to
birds and other ani-
mals by nonbiodegra-
dable remnants
Possible disturbance
to nesting birds in
nearby, unoiled areas
Possible interruption
of tidal cycle
No impact
No impact
Possible interruption
of tidal cycle; sub-
strate loss if marsh
soil is used for bar-
rier construction
No impact
Possible injury to
birds and other ani-
mals by nonbiodegra-
dable remnants
Possible disturbance
to nesting birds in
nearby, unoiled areas
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TABLE 5. PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUE SELECTION
Question
Action
1. What is threatened?
Predict movement. Identify
marsh type and special
features (Section 300)
2. What should I be most concerned
with?
Establish priorities
(Section 700)
3. What actions should I take?
Select candidate actions
(Table 6)
4. Is the action compatible with the
oil type involved?
Determine oil/technique
compatibility
(Table 7)
5. Is the action influenced by
physical processes?
Determine response of action
to physical processes
(Table 8)
6. Is the action environmentally
acceptable?
Evaluate general impact of
action
(Table 4)
Can the action be implemented in
time?
If yes, go to 8. If no,
select next best alternative.
8. Implement Action.
Appendix B
46
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TABLE 6. GENERAL COMPATIBILITY OF DEVICE/
TECHNIQUE WITH MARSH TYPE
Potential protection Reed-like
devices/techniques marsh
Succulent-like
marsh
Mangroves Man-made
Red Black structures
Existing control
devices
Skirt & fence booms
Sorbent booms
Improvised booms
Earth and rigid
barriers
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Key: X = Acceptable under normal conditions.
Blank = Not recommended.
N.A. = Not applicable.
N.A. N.A. N.A.
X .X X
XX X
XX X
Permeable barriers
Sorbents - loose
- other types
Wildlife deterents
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(harbors,
slips)
X
47
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TABLE 7. COMPATIBILITY OF PROTECTIVE DEVICE/
TECHNIQUE WITH OIL TYPE
Protective Device/
Technique
Existing control
devices
Skirt and fence
booms
Sorbent booms
Improvised booms
Earth and rigid
barriers
Permeable barriers
Sorbents
Granular
Other types
Wildlife deterents
Reed- like
Marsh
all
all
A
all
all
all
A
A
/
NA
Succulent- like Mangroves
Marsh Red Black
all
all
A
all
all
all
A
A
NA
NA
all
A
NA
NA
NA
A
A
effectiv
NA
NA
all
A
NA
NA
NA
A
A
NA
Man -Made
Structures
NA
all
A
all
NA
all
NA
A
\
NA
Key:
A = Oil Type A, light distillates and crudes.
B = Oil Type B, heavy distribution and residuals.
NA = Not applicable and/or recommended.
48
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The limiting effect of major physical processes on the action or
technique can be evaluated with Table 8. Currents, wind, tidal varia-
tion, and debris effects are considered. Weather forecasts should be
consulted to determine possible impending changes in conditions.
Finally, before implementing an action, its environmental conse-
quences must be weighed. Generally, impacts associated with protection
actions are small or nonexistent. Table 4 in the previous section,
summarizes the general impacts associated with the various protective
techniques.
When a proposed action successfully passes the selection procedure
outlined above it may be implemented. Appendix B provides details on
the use and deployment of respective actions. In some cases no actions
will be acceptable. In other cases, the acceptability of implementing a
partially effective or slight damaging technique must be weighed against
the alternative of no action and extensive contamination. In general,
however, even a partially effective protective action is preferable to
no action.
TERMINATION OF PROTECTION
The major goal of protection is to prevent or reduce oil spill
contamination of a marshland. Marshland protection should be terminated
when the danger of contamination ends or when all practical protection
techniques prove ineffective. Some of the considerations that may
justify terminating marshland protection include:
1. Meteorological and oceanographic conditions move the oil into
open water where it will undergo natural dissipation.
2. The spread of the oil is physically halted by booms or
barriers and removed before entering the marsh.
3. Oil is no longer subject to mobilization and additional
contamination or recontamination of an area is impossible.
4. Weather or oceanographic conditions make protection inef-
fective or unsafe.
Protective action does not guarantee that marshlands will not be
impacted. If oil enters the marsh protective devices should not be
removed, but should be repositioned for the best protection action and
augmented, if necessary, so that recontamination is prevented. For
example, heavily contaminated shorelines and tidal inlets contaminated
by spilled oil should be boomed.
A monitoring program can provide the On-scene Coordinator with
valuable information in determining if marshland protection should be
49
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TABLE 8. RESPONSE OF PROTECTION ACTION TO PHYSICAL PROCESSES
en
o
Protective device/
technique
Existing control devices
Skirt and fence booms
Sorbent booms
Earth and rigid barriers
Currents
Good
May fail
Generally fail
Excessive cur-
Wind
Good
May fail
Skirt better
Generally fail
Good
Tidal variation
Good
Good when
Fence may
stranded.
better
Good
floating.
fail when
Skirt
Barriers must be
Debris
Good
Generally good,
high debris
loads may cause
failure
Variable
Good
Permeable barriers
Sorbents
Granular
Other types
Wildlife deterents
rents may erode
or destroy
Fair
May be scattered
May be scattered
None
Good
high enough
Fair to poor
May be scattered Good
May be scattered Good
Range may be
limited
None
Poor to fair
Good
Poor to fair
None
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terminated. Highly effective surveillance techniques include both
continuing overflights and surface observations. Other useful informa-
tion that should be incorporated is weather and oceanographic forecasts
and status reports from field personnel. -Biological experts should also
be consulted in determining if the marshland is still endangered by the
oil. It is the Onscene Coordinator, however, who has the final responsi-
bility of determining when to terminate the protection phase.
51
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SECTION 5
CLEANUP MEASURES
APPROACH
The cleanup process proceeds after the marsh is contaminated and
involves the physical removal of oil from the marsh. The Flow Chart
presented as Figure 1 suggests a procedural approach to a generalized
cleanup strategy. Initially, location of oil slicks, shoreline contami-
nation, and other relevant features should be recorded on a chart or map
of the area. The determination of possible fire or safety hazard is
then evaluated. If a hazard exists in populated areas, they should be
evacuated; operations within the area will be restricted until the
Onscene Coordinator considers it safe to begin cleanup operations. The
sensitivity of the threatened marshland is then evaluated.
If the sensitivity/impact potential of the contaminated area is
considered to be low or the possibility for adequate cleaning is good,
no or minimal cleanup action may be considered and the natural cleaning
alternative selected. If the possibility of recontamination is high
requirements for protective actions should be considered. If cleanup
action is considered necessary, cleanup equipment should be evaluated,
access to the area determined, impacts assessed and cleanup priorities
set. For implementation measures consult Appendix C.
PUBLIC/PERSONNEL SAFETY
Oil spills can pose direct and indirect threats to human life and
safety. Some lighter oils may pose a fire threat in special situations.
Oil can also contaminate public and industrial water supplies, forcing
their shutdown.
Public safety is always the first concern. Thus, protection and
cleanup activities may have to be directed at ensuring /the safety of the
general public. Of particular concern are built-up waterfront areas
where structures, such as docks or piers can trap oil vapors and create
a potential for explosion or fire. Evacuation of persons from such
threatened areas may be required.
52
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If the chance of explosion exists, an area restricted to trained
personnel only should be established. Attention should also be given to
any closed-in areas which may act as a trap for oil fumes. Personnel
entering such hazardous areas should use only explosion-proof equipment;
additionally, they may require self-contained breathing equipment.
Fortunately, even in a short time, atmospheric dispersion will generally
reduce flammability so operations can be conducted safely.
Marshes proper, even when adjacent to industrial facilities,
usually have neither enclosed areas in which explosive vapors can
accumulate nor ignition sources, aside from those brought in by cleanup
workers. However, care must be taken to avoid accidental ignition.
Fire in a marshland during the dormant season or in marsh grasses
coated with oil most probably burn uncontrollably.
Marshes may harbor a number of potential hazards which should be
made known to the spill response team. Inherent dangers in marshes may
include poisonous snakes, spiders, and insects. Field personnel should
be able to identify and avoid such poisonous animals. Antivenom kits
should also be readily available.
The topography of a marsh can also be dangerous to the unaware
worker. Many marshlands are actually floating islands, whose surface
can be broken through by foot traffic. Hip boots can be dangerous in
these situations. Therefore, the clothes and equipment of the field
team should be assessed for safety. Experienced workers should enter
the marsh first and act as guides for inexperienced personnel.
MARSH SENSITIVITY
This section gives an analysis of marsh sensitivity and the kind of
impact which can be expected from a spill. Section 300 proposes the
basic criteria for determining marsh sensitivity.
General Impacts from an Oil Spill
The effects of an oil spill upon the biota of salt marshes are
quite specific. Therefore, information given here cannot be indiscrimi-
nately applied to other environments. For simplification, three types
of oil (light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil, and crude oil) three groups of
marsh organisms (vegetation, burrowing and creeping organisms) and
waterfowl are considered.
Characteristics of Different Oils
Light Fuel Oils (Class A oils - see Table 2)
When light fuel oils are driven ashore, toxic effects are usually
severe to both marsh plants and soil organisms. A high degree of
53
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penetration into and contamination of soils is common. As a general
rule, waterfowl will not be directly affected but may be poisoned by
eating contaminated organisms buried in the mud along contaminated
shorelines. Since light fuel oils are subject to rapid evaporation and
weathering, short-term containment and protection measures may suffice
to preclude oil from reaching the marsh.
Heavy Fuel Oils (Class B and C oils - see Table 2)
Heavy fuel oils are less acutely toxic; rather, their effect upon
organisms is exerted by suffocation, that is by plugging feeding or respi-
ratory structures, and by simple physical interference with body parts of
the organism, that is by stickiness. Plants and burrowers will not
experience severe mortality unless the contamination is heavy. On the
other hand, diving birds and mammals can be expected to experience wide-
spread mortalities. Wading shorebirds are usually unaffected. Heavy fuel
oils are not physically modified appreciably by evaporation or weathering,
although chemical modification does occur during the period concerned
with response and cleanup. They can come ashore floating as slicks, sub-
merged in sheets, or mixed with water (emulsified). There is usually'a
very low degree of substrate penetration in all marsh types.
Crude Oils (Class D oils - see Table 2) --
Crude oils are an extremely variable group. Crude oil normally
contains fractions of both heavy and light fuel oils. Thus, depending
upon the extent of weathering of a slick, the oil can come ashore with a
wide range of biologically influential physical properties. Even though
significant evaporation of light fractions may occur from a floating
crude slick, the residue can still exert considerable toxicity. Further-
more, it is generally of sufficient viscosity that it clings to plants
and other organisms, limiting or preventing respiratory or feeding
activities. Generally, experience with crude oil spills has shown that
slicks that come ashore after an initial period of weathering exert
their biological effects more through suffocation and occlusion than
through toxicity. Penetration into the marsh substrate is highly vari-
able depending upon the viscosity of the spilled oil.
Response of Marsh Organisms to Contamination
Vegetation --
Plants can be affected in several ways by contamination. Oil can
coat the leaves and stems, inhibiting passage of air and gases through
the plants' respiratory surfaces. If the oil is dark-colored, the
sunlight's energy is absorbed in the oil film and photosynthesis is
inhibited. If seedlings or young plants are emerging from the soil, the
tips of the shoots may be damaged by physical and chemical properties of
the oil. Light fractions are likely to kill green tissues which they
contact and, if they penetrate into the substrate, can be taken up by
the roots, poisoning the plant. Heavy oils are generally less toxic and
can sometimes be removed to a sufficient degree to prevent widespread
54
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mortality. In numerous instances in which reasonable cleanup was achieved,
either by natural means such as tidal flushing, or through an effective
organized cleanup effort, damage to the marsh has been minimized and
completed recovery has occurred.
Burrowing and Creeping Organisms --
This group includes clams, worms, snails, and crabs. They are
found burrowing in the mud bottoms of canals or in the substrate, partic-
ularly in the rhizome matrix. Creeping forms emerge at night from
hiding places among the roots or stems and feed by grazing on the sur-
face of the substrate. Burrowing forms feed by sucking in water (or by
ingesting sediment) and sieving out food particles by means of a filter-
like apparatus.
Penetration of oils into the substrate can expose these organisms
to damage by incorporation of toxic substances. Interference with
feeding and respiratory structures may also occur when animals moving on
the surface of the substrate contact oil deposits.
Recovery of burrowing animals can be expected within several years
for spills of weathered crude and heavy oils; however, very long periods,
Perhaps 5 to 10 years, may be required following light oil spills.
Waterfowl --
Wading birds such as herons, egrets, sandpipers, snipe, and rails
have no known natural response to avoid oil. They may wade in oil
slicks or deposits; they may sit in oil if it contaminates the location
°f the nest or resting area; they may feed through oil deposits contami-
nating bills or heads. While this degree of contamination is not good
for the bird, it is unlikely to cause death; this probably accounts for
the frequent sighting of these birds in marsh oil spills in low numbers.
Large numbers of ducks, murres, grebes, and diving birds, however, are
found in marshes and can be completely incapacitated by oil contamination
during marsh oil spill events. Once contaminated they are unable to
fly, swim, or feed and the prognosis for their natural recovery is
extremely poor. The long-term implications of oiling of a large number
of such waterfowl are most negative. Since such birds produce a very
few offspring per year, reduction of the breeding stock may reduce
future populations for many years. Hence, readily available bird-rescue
stations, which have been known to save 40 to 50 percent of birds
treated, is most desirable.
Designation of Marsh Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the contaminated marshland should be known
before the decision to cleanup can be made or cleanup priorities can be
set. in many spill situations resources are limited so that cleanup of
some areas may not be possible. In such cases, priorities must be set.
55
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Figures 17 and 18 compare marsh classifications and type of biota
with oil type. The figures present marsh plant and biotic sensitivity on
a monthly schedule. These figures should be considered as gross general-
ities because no single figure is capable of simultaneously presenting
information valid for marshes on the West, Gulf, and East coasts of the
United States. Therefore, the user of this manual should have these
figures validated by a marshland expert in the potential geographical
area of use so that any corrections necessary can be made.
Five categories of oil type and degree of oiling were considered:
light oiling of the marsh
heavy oiling of the marsh
oiling of the marsh
oiling of the marsh
Because the sensitivity designation is arrived at by considering a
worst case situation, the sensitivity of the marsh plants and biota is
the same for light oils and heavy and crude oils under the conditions of
a heavy oiling. Therefore, to avoid repetition, the previous categories
are further divided into two groups for the purpose of determining
sensitivity.
Group 1. Heavy oil/light oiling of the marsh
Crude oil/light oiling of the marsh
Group 2. Light oil
Heavy oil/heavy oiling of the marsh
Crude oil/heavy oiling of the marsh
To use Figures 17 and 18, the following steps are necessary:
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
Light
Heavy
Heavy
Crude
Crude
oil
oil
oil
oil
oil
(Cl
(Cl
(Cl
(Cl
(Cl
ass
ass
ass
ass
ass
A
B
B
D
D
oil
and
and
oil
oil
s)
C
C
s)
s)
oils)
oils)
light
heavy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Determine
Determine
Determine
Group 2.
Determine
Determine
oil characteristics (Section 200).
degree of oiling (Field Observation).
if type and degree of oiling fall within Group 1 or
marsh type (Section 300).
the presence of migratory and indigenous waterfowl
and burrowing and creeping organisms (from information list in
Section 100). The presence of larvae need not be/ determined.
6. A darkened space placed in the box for the month/in which the
spill occurs indicates a high or low sensitivity^for marsh
plants and biota.
Only high and low sensitivity designations are presented because
the figures are designed for quick assessments yielding the user a "yes"
or "no" answers. These figures should only be used as a guide and not a
rule. If at all possible, a marsh expert should be contacted for final
sensitivity designation.
56
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Marsh type
Reed-like marsh
Succulent-1 ike
marsh
Mangrove marsh
Existing biota
Wildfowl
Burrowing &
creeping organisms
Marine larvae
Season in months
J F M A MJJASOND
J F MAMJJASOND
Sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of High sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Figure 17. Marsh Sensitivity for Group 1 oils.
Marsh type Season in months Sensitivity
Reed-like marsh
J F M AMJJASOND
Succulent-like
marsh
Mangrove marsh
E
Existing biota FMAJ1JJASOND
Wildfowl
Burrowing &
creeping organisms
Marine larvae
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Months of high sensitivity
Months of low sensitivity
Figure 18. Marsh sensitivity for Group 2 oils.
57
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Examples of the use of these figures are presented as follows:
Example #1
A heavy oil spill in December has lightly oiled (Group 1) a marsh in a
reed-like marsh. Figure 17 aids the user in determining that there is a
low sensitivity to marsh plants, burrowing and creeping organisms, and a
high sensitivity to fowl. Because of the high sensitivity to fowl,
protection priorities may be to block the oil from entering the marsh
channels which may supply water to ponded feeding areas used by migra-
tory fowl. The exposed marsh fringe can withstand some contamination
during this period. A major priority would be to inhibit migratory fowl
from landing in the area of contamination,, possibly by use of propane
zoom guns, etc.
Example #2
A light oil spill (Group 2) occurs in January (cold weather) in a
succulent-like marsh. Figure 18 aids the user in determining that there
may be a low sensitivity to the marsh plants and high sensitivity to the
biota in this month. If protection efforts fail and oil enters the
marsh, the cleanup strategy may be geared toward restricting entry of
fowl into the marshland and using nonintensive cleanup methods such as
flushing.
NATURAL CLEANING
Because of the potential for damage to the marsh from conventional
cleanup procedures, natural cleansing should be evaluated as a non-
damaging option. Factors that must be considered in selecting this
option are discussed below. Table 9 presents criteria for evaluating
this feasibility of natural cleaning. These criteria are not all of
equal importance. Some, particularly mobility of oil and type of oil,
are always of paramount importance. The importance of each factor in
relation to the others varies on a case-by-case basis.
Tidal action and currents provide natural flushing mechanisms. The
cleansing capability of these processes can be significant. Even with-
out flushing, weathering causes physical and chemical degradation of the
oil ultimately resulting in its disappearance.
The type of oil is an important factor in evaluating the rate of
natural cleaning. The rate of weathering, and resulted decrease in
toxicity, and the nature of the residual oil material dictate the degree
of interference with biological processes (such as gas exchange, photo-
synthesis, and attachment by colonizing organisms).
Biological factors that should be considered include the presence
of sensitive organisms such as waterfowl or endangered species, and the
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TABLE 9. FACTORS FOR EVALUATING NATURAL CLEANING
Factor Feasibility of Natural Cleaning*
1. Physical
tidal and current energy
high +
low
mobility of oil
high
low +
degree of contamination
high
low +
degree of weathering
high +
low
2. Chemical
type of oil
high toxicity (light)
low toxicity (heavy) +
3. Biological
Waterfowl concentration present
Previously damaged +
Note: Underlined factors are most important.
*+ = natural cleaning favored
~ = natural cleaning disfavored
59
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overall health of the plant and animal community. A marsh may have con-
siderable tolerance to a single spill and its cleanup, but may be
damaged by repeated stress.
Bacterial degradation is a natural process that should not be over-
estimated when evaluating natural recovery. It may be a very slow
process that takes place only at the oil/water interface. When the
ratio of the contaminated surface-to-volume of oil is low, degradation
is so slow as to be insignificant at mitigating potentially damaging
effects of the oil. When the degree of contamination is low, the
acceptability of natural cleansing is dictated by the efficiency of
active methods. Sometimes natural cleaning is the only reasonable
option, even when the degree of contamination is high.
RECONTAMINATION POTENTIAL
Remobilization of grounded oil may occur in response to a variety
of factors and threaten recontamination. This can occur under the
following conditions:
1. if the spill is not properly contained,
2. if the degree of clearing is inadequate,
3. if a drastic change occurs in environmental conditions which
physically moves the oil from the contaminated site, or
4. if warming of oil or surfaces lowers viscosity to the point
where the oil flows.
The degree of potential recontamination can vary from each of these
causes. Criteria for evaluation of recontamination potential include a
consideration of the following factors:
1. Amount of Oil Remaining During and After the Cleanup Operation.
An oil budget is the means by which field personnel keep a
running estimate of the amount of oil remaining in the spill
area. An oil budget is estimated by calculating the total
amount of oil spilled minus the estimated amount of oil lost
to open waters, to evaporation, to the bottom and the amount
of oil picked up through the cleanup operation. The develop-
ment of a "budget" for light oils is extremely difficult, and
unreliable, because light oils are not easily visable, once
spilled. Since some light oils fluoresce, a method of locat-
ing light oil on the surface of sediments can belaccompli shed
by a nighttime inspection of vegetation and soil using a
battery-powered ultraviolet (UV) light source. The potential
for recontamination may remain high if a significant amount of
oil is unaccounted for.
2. Type and Condition of Oil Remaining in the Contaminated Area.
Light oils do not adhere well to surfaces but may enter the
60
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substrate. Heavy oils, on the other hand, can adhere to, but
do not generally penetrate the substrate. Therefore, light
oils can recontaminate recently cleaned or unaffected areas by
means of a slow release from the substrate and heavy oils by
warming of the oil on the surface, especially on sunny days,
flowing into the nearby water for redistribution.
Both light and heavy oil can be trapped in cracks and inter-
stices in the substrate. Unless removed, these pockets of oil
may cause recontamination. It is very difficult to visually
assess the amount of oil remaining in cracks, etc; however,
the extent of substrate contamination may be determined by
removal of a cross section of the sediment, either by a shovel
or a core device, for examination. Heavy oils, if black and
sticky, may be obvious; the presence of light oil may often be
assessed using a UV light.
3 Environmental Conditions. The area subject to recontamination
will be determined largely by the direction of currents and
winds in respect to the site of the oil release. Knowledge of
these factors will enable the field supervisor to plot which
previously cleaned or uncontaminated marshlands could be
threatened. In many cases, micro-environmental forces acting
only within the confines of the marsh will determine the
movement of free oil. Therefore, field investigations within
the confines of the contaminated area is necessary.
4. Type of Shoreline Adjacent to Spill. A rapid inventory of
shoreline types, including the location of marshlands, tidal
inlets, and the mouths of rivers and creeks, should be per-
formed 'at the time of the spill. The On-scene Coordinator and
the cleanup contractors should be aware of valuable natural
features outside of the immediate spill area which could be
contaminated if the oil were mobilized.
CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Section 500 provides a mechanism for identifying major types of
equipment and candidate cleanup techniques for a variety of marsh and
oil-type situations. In developing this mechanism, the state-of-the-art
in marshland oil spill control has been divided into two groups: those
techniques which treat the oil inplace; and those which remove both oil
and oiled material (substrate and/or vegetation). The implementation
strategy for these cleanup techniques is presented in Appendix C. The
following paragraphs summarize relevant factors for techniques and
equipment types within each group:
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Inplace Cleaning
Low-pressure flushing --
The objective of this technique is to reverse the process which de-
posited the oil, that is, to generate a flood of water which loosens and
floats oil out of the marsh. Water pressure must be kept low enough to
prevent soil erosion; consequently all oil may not be removed. With
portable pumps and hoses from shallow draft boats, flushing can be
accomplished without disturbing the marsh surface. Appropriate con-
tainment and recovery equipment is required.
Sorbents (formed) ~
Many types of surface oil can be recovered with sorbent materials.
Commercial formed sorbents are .available in a variety of shapes includ-
ing pads, blankets, rolls, sweeps, pillows, booms, and snares. They are
typically most effective on water or in open areas. In vegetated areas
their use is limited because oil/sorbent contact is difficult to
achieve.
Pads, snares, and rolls are most generally suited for marshland
use. Some types are re-enforced with plastic mesh, however, and should
be avoided as unrecovered mesh is believed to present a long-term en-
trapment hazard to wildlife. Snares (oleophilic strands) function best
with heavier oils and can be worked in tight places. Pillows and booms
are not generally effective in marshlands although they may find limited
application in channels during light oil spills. Due to their high
cost, sorbents should not be used on a large scale until other methods
of concentration and collection have been explored.
Sorbents have proven effective in the final cleanup (or polishing)
of many oil types. Care should be exercised in polishing operations to
hold substrate disturbance to a minimum. Caution: Sorbent materials
should never be used to wipe oiled mangroves!
Sorbents (loose) --
Recovery or immobilization of oil can be accomplished with loose
sorbent material. Loose sorbents have the ability to penetrate around
plant stems and respond to changes in water level. They can be removed
by flushing and can be recovered with vacuum systems or nets. Recovery
by raking should not be attempted. Loose sorbents are, unfortunately,
highly responsive to winds and currents and should be used only when
their control can be assured; as a significant percent of the material
distributed is likely not recoverable, biodegradable types are pre-
ferred.
Endless Rope Skimmers --
Endless oleophilic rope skimmers (oil mops) can be used to collect
surface and pooled oil in extremely shallow water. Advantages include:
configurations of the rope can be varied to suit the geometry of the
62
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site; water recovery is typically low; and the rope is not affected by
debris or surface irregularities. Smaller units are sufficiently port-
able to be used in marsh interiors.
Disc and other absorbent skimmers --
These skimmers squeeze or wipe oil from oleophilic discs or belts.
Typically only the smaller units are applicable to marshland use. They
are best used in a stationary deployment in conjunction with a system of
booms to direct oil to them. Performance with debris is generally poor
for disc skimmers and fair for belt skimmers.
Weir skimmers --
These skimmers which separate floating oil with a weir device must
be used in conjunction with directing and concentrating systems. Their
use in marshes is limited because of their extremely poor performance in
debris and of their requirement for adequate water for floatation.
Vacuum systems --
Vacuum systems generally use septic tank pumping trucks; their use
is limited to accessible areas. The use of skimmer heads will improve
oil recovery efficiency, but these heads tend to clog with debris. If
skimmer heads are not used, recovery is lower but clogging is lessened.
Manual recovery
In some cases, particularly with Class D oils, manual recovery
(pitch forks, dip nets, etc.) may be the only mechanism of recovery.
Manual efforts result in extensive surface disruption and should be
carefully controlled and limited.
Removal of Contaminated Material
Cutting --
Removal of oiled vegetation can be accomplished by either hand or
mechanical cutting. Mechanical methods are preferred as they involve
less surface disturbance.
Burning--
Efficient removal of some oils with minimum surface disturbance can
be accomplished by burning. Not all oils will support combustion, and
those that will may be difficult to control. Burning is normally prac-
ticed during the dormant or dieback stage. Effects of burning growing-
state marshes are unknown. Buring should only be limited to reed-like
marshes.
Soil removal --
Physical removal is the only known treatment for contaminated
substrate. Equipment for large-scale removal includes hydraulic dredges,
floating clamshells, drag lines, etc. If at all possible, soil removal
should be restricted to small areas using manual methods (such as
shoveling) to minimize the damage to the marsh.
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Other --
Application of chemical and microbal agents in marshland situations
is currently considered developmental and therefore not considered in
this manual.
Bird-Cleaning Operations
There is a good potential for rescuing a significant number of
oiled birds. However, no person should attempt to disperse birds from
an area where they may be endangered, nor clean oiled birds, unless
adequately experienced and with proper equipment and materials. Further,
government regulations prohibit the capture and holding of wild birds
without the necessary permits. A local bird-cleaning center should be
established in the vicinity of the cleanup operation. Local veterinar-
ians and game wardens can be contacted to manage the operation.
ACCESS/TRAFFICABILITY
Access
Access can constitute a major obstacle in mounting protection and
cleanup operations in marshes since response actions cannot be conducted
if equipment cannot be brought to the site. Access and associated
traffic problems have been found to be detrimental to marshes.
To determine the most efficient equipment deployment strategy,
charts and road maps should be consulted, local contractors contacted,
and vehicles for equipment and personnel transport located. The weight
and bulk of the protection and/or cleanup equipment should be estimated,
so that the proper size transportation vehicles can be obtained. Land
transport requires a knowledge of road conditions best obtained from
persons familiar with the site. In inclement weather, landing mats,
which may be available from local National Guard headquarters, can be
used to improve trafficability on muddy roads or work areas.
If the spill site is far removed from road access, equipment trans-
port may be limited to boat or helicopter. If water transportation is
necessary, local launching sites should be plotted and local harbors
contacted to check into the class of boats available. If strong winds
or waves exist at the site, the use of small craft to transport bulky or
heavy cargo should be avoided.
Helicopters are used for a number of purposes, including equipment
transfer, so that a suitable landing site must be provided.
Trafficability
In planning the response to any marshland contamination situation,
one basic rule should be followed: AVOID FOOT TRAFFIC AND VEHICLE
64
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OPERATION ON MARSH SURFACES WHENEVER POSSIBLE, PARTICULARLY WHERE
SURFACES ARE OILED.
There are two major reasons for restricting terrestrial marshland
operations. First, operation on the low-bearing strength and irregular
terrain of the typical marsh is, at best, difficult. Relatively few
specialized pieces of equipment exist that can operate in this environ-
ment, and even these can become stuck. Even where possible, foot traf-
fic is slow and hazardous, with the hazards often further compounded by
the presence of poisonous or dangerous wildlife.
Second, damage to the marsh environment resulting from surface
operations may far exceed that resulting from the oil itself. Damage of
this type can destroy delicate root systems and burrowing organisms and
may require long recovery periods. Disruption of the marsh surface can
also result in the mixing of surface contamination with the upper sedi-
ment layers. Once contamination is mixed with soil numerous adverse
effects occur: root systems and organisms not previously exposed are
contaminated; the area of contamination is greatly increased; the oil is
placed in a situation where degradation may be slow or halted; and
general cleanup is greatly complicated.
Equipment capable of limited marshland operation is often available
in many coastal areas. Among the best sources of information on avail-
able operational equipment are industries, such as those in petroleum
exploration, which regularly must be concerned with marsh trafficability.
Other sources of information are the Regional Contingency Plan, local
regulatory agencies, and local contractors.
Equipment capable of limited-surface operation includes amphibious,
tracked vehicles, specialized wheeled vehicles such as used for geo-
physical exploration, air boats, and air-cushion vehicles. With the
exception of air boats and air-cushion vehicles, such types of equipment
are generally damaging to the marsh surface, and should only be used if
absol-utely necessary. Repeated operation of equipment on the same
surface will rapidly reduce soil-bearing capacity.
Vehicular trafficability can be increased by enlarging the vehicle's
loadbearing surface area or by improving the bearing strength of the
marsh soil. Loadbearing surface area of a vehicle can be increased by
lowering the tire pressure, installing oversize tires or tracks, or
adding tracks to the wheels.
The bearing strength of the marsh substrate can be increased by
building temporary roads. One form of temporary road can be constructed
by laying a dense material (rocks, gravel, etc.) on the marsh surface.
Although effective, this type of roadway is difficult and expensive to
remove after completion of the cleanup operation, and causes severe
damage to the vegetation.
65
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Temporary airport and beach landing mats can be used as convenient
light-duty temporary roads. These mats consist of perforated, inter-
locking metal plates or fiberglass sheets and may be rapidly deployed as
shown in Figure 19. The only preparation required is removal of rocks
and brush from the planned alignment.
Construction of small bridges may be required to traverse the
marshland drainage network. These bridges are usually small and can be
readily constructed from locally available materials. Pipes should be
installed when crossing any waterway to prevent restriction of local
circulation.
IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
The equipment used for several cleanup techniques considered in
this manual do not impact on the marsh itself. For example, mechanical
and weir skimmers are deployed in tidal channels and pools, not in the
marsh proper. Vacuum skimming in itself produces no impact on the
marsh, but it is frequently accompanied by substantial foot traffic.
Foot and equipment traffic are considered secondary impacts and may, in
themself, produce substantial adverse effects.
Major impacts of marsh cleaning activities are summarized in
Table 10, and discussed in detail below.
Traffic
The most obvious type of disturbance caused by traffic in a marsh
is physical breakage of plants. In both reed-like and succulent-like
marshes, physical damage effectively reduces the amount of photo-
synthetic tissue and may expose the interior of the plants to toxic
fractions of the oil. Plants are likely to recover from one such event,
but recurrent trampling may clear a path that will persist for years.
If the soil is soft, as it is in many marshes, roots and rhizomes will
be broken thereby accelerating the erosive processes.
Foot traffic potentially accelerates erosion even where the sub-
strate is firm and the rhizome mat remains essentially intact. Shore-
lines that consist of steep escarpments are particularly vulnerable.
Cleanup activities that entail foot traffic should be useo) in such
regions only after other methodologies have been considered and rejected.
Red mangroves are unlikely to be harmed to any significant extent
by foot traffic. In contrast, black mangroves are subject to pneu-
matophore breakage, which can lead to root suffocation and death or
severe stress of the tree. Furthermore, seedlings of both the red and
black species are subject to injury.
66
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Figure 19. Application of fiberglass landing mats.
67
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TABLE 10. MAJOR IMPACTS OF MARSH
CLEANING ACTIVITIES
Cleanup
Operation
Reed- like
Marsh
Succulent- like
Marsh
Red and Black
Mangrove Marsh
Traffic
Cutting
Flushing
Burning
Sorbents
Soil Removal
Rhizomes may be
damages; erosion
potential high
Rhizomes may be
damages; little
erosion potential
Very tolerant Tolerant
Frequently involves foot traffic-
Very tolerant
Very tolerant
Very tolerant
Intolerant
Very tolerant Very tolerant
Frequently involves foot traffic-
Plant dominance may
change, or marsh
plant habitat may be
elimi nated
Plant dominance may
change or marsh
plant habitat may
be eliminated
Red mangrove -
tolerant to traf-
fic
Black mangrove -
pneumatophores
may be damaged
Intolerant
Very tolerant
Intolerant
Very tolerant
Plant dominance
may change or
marsh plant
habitat may be
eliminated
68
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Sometimes it is necessary to transport heavy equipment to remote
portions of marsh. The impacts of foot traffic described above apply
even more strongly to vehicular traffic. The impenetrability and typi-
cally swamp-like character of red mangrove stands make it unlikely that
cleanup crews would attempt to bring heavy equipment into a red mangrove
marsh. Cutting trees to create paths is detrimental and not recommended
unless this action is necessary to save the overall area.
Traffic on soft marsh soil may bury the stems and leaves of reed-
like and succulent-like plants, consequently reducing their productivity
until they resprout or grow back above the soil surface. Further,
traffic under these conditions is likely to bury oil. In the anaerobic
soils that characterize mangrove marshes, residual oil may persist for
years. If the buried oil is toxic, it may inhibit the growth of any-
thing in the contaminated zone until it eventually dissipates.
Flushing
Low-pressure flushing produces no adverse effects aside from foot
traffic that may be required to deploy the flushing equipment. This
method of cleanup, when properly conducted, essentially reverses the
mechanism of contamination. It may additionally be effective in float-
ing oil out of contaminated sediments.
High-pressure flushing may cause some erosion, local rearrangement
of the substrate, and physical damage to the plants. These forms of
damage are usually less severe than similar impacts caused by foot
traffic, but this depends upon mode of deployment. Low pressure flush-
ing seldom causes oil to be driven into the substrate. If steam or
heated water are used, marsh animals in the spray pattern may be killed
or stressed by thermal shock.
Sorbents
Sorbent pads, oil snare, and similar cleanup aids have two major
drawbacks: first, they are usually used by a large group of personnel
who heavily traffic the marsh and second, they must be recovered.
Additionally, if cleanup teams are not trained in the use of these mate-
rials, there is a chance that oil may be mixed with a shallow layer of
the substrate in the course of recovery.
If the oiled pneumatophores or prop roots of red or black mangroves
are wiped with sorbent pads, the air pores in these structures may be
plugged, resulting in root suffocation.
Because complete recovery of sorbent materials is seldom possible
in a field cleanup exercise, remnants of sorbents may persist. Most
remnants are merely unsightly, although some may ensnare birds and
mammals. Large concentrations of undegraded materials could block the
69
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light from an appreciable portion of the marsh surface and consequently
reduce the marsh's productivity in that region. Biodegradable sorbents
avoid many of these problems.
Oiled sorbent materials (synthetic and biodegradable) should always
be recovered from the marsh. Those that are not collected comprise a
potential source of recontamination and a hazard to marsh animals.
Cutting
Cutting of oiled plants is a cleanup technique that entails direct
physical destruction of plant tissues. As such, it severely reduces the
amount of photosynthetic tissue and may expose the plant's interior to
toxic substances in the oil as discussed in Section 500. Moreover,
cutting operations are likely to require a great deal of foot traffic
and the attendant adverse effects.
Cutting is probably most beneficial with certain species of reed-
like plants which have been heavily contaminated with viscous oil and
are not subject to natural cleansing. If the entire aerial portion of
the plant is coated, the roots are likely to suffocate unless some
passageway is opened to the plant's interior. Cutting accomplishes
this, provided that free oil that might replug the cut stem has been
removed from the surrounding marsh. However, if an oiled Spartina plant
is not thoroughly coated with oil, air can still diffuse down the stem
to the roots, so that cutting is unnecessary unless other threats are
present.
Spartina marshes are very tolerant of occasional cutting, espec-
ially late in the growing season. Saltwort marshes are less tolerant,
and mangroves are quite intolerant to cutting.
Burning
Burning is sometimes an effective method of removing oil and con-
taminated vegetation from a marsh without encouraging injurious foot
traffic.
Spartina marshes can withstand occasional burning. In fall and
winter they die back to a state of dormancy. During this period, the
plants are dry and may support burning. In fact, fall buYning of
marshes is a commonly applied management tool in many areas. During the
dieback period, burning can be achieved in reed-like marshes without
damaging the buried portions of the plants and can stimulate their
regrowth. In all other seasons, however, not only is Spartina difficult
to burn, but the growing portions, shoots and buds are injured by burn-
ing. However, this damage does not necessarily permanently harm the
marsh since the underground portions of the buried plants are likely to
sprout and replace the destroyed portions soon after the fire. Saltwort
70
-------
marshes do not dieback seasonally; thus, burning is injurious at any
time. Mangroves, which are large, woody plants that have a year-round
growing period, should never be burned.
Soil Removal
Removal of soil entails elimination of marsh plant habitat. None-
theless, if the substrate is heavily saturated with toxic oil and not
predicted to recover naturally, this may be only available cleanup
technique.
GENERAL CLEANUP PRIORITIES
Time, weather, and logistical constraints seldom permit total
cleanup of spilled oil. Therefore, priorities which govern such factors
as the overall magnitude of the cleanup response, equipment deployment
and manpower allocations must be determined.
Because cleanup priorities must be modified to suit each geo-
graphical location, only general guidelines can be provided. These
criteria previously discussed, are herein presented as topic headings
with section references where applicable. Criteria are presented in
decreasing order of importance.
1. Area of public and personnel hazard (Section 400)
2. Areas of commercial activity including fishing grounds, public
hunting areas, marinas and docks
3. Areas of recreational value (Section 300)
4. Areas of special concern, e.g., rare and endangered species
(Section 300)
5. Areas of high environmental sensitivity (Section 600)
6. Other areas.
SELECTION OF CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Effectiveness of a given cleanup technique will vary with marsh and
oil type. Table 11, 12, 13, and 14, may be used to identify generally
acceptable treatments for the various combinations of conditions. These
tables relate techniques to marsh type for each of the oil categories.
Rankings of 1, 2, and 3 are given. Ranking 1 denotes a technique that
will be generally productive. A ranking of 2 indicates a technique that
may be suitable in some areas or provide an acceptable support function
(e.g., a skimming system suitable for recovery of flushed oil). Tech-
niques given a ranking of 3 will generally not perform acceptably in the
marsh environment. No attempt is made to distinguish between multiple
rankings for the same marsh type.
In situations for which no primary technique is recommended, selec-
tion of a secondary technique must suffice. Numbers following each
technique in... the tables refer to implementation instructions in Appen-
dix C.
71
-------
TABLE 11. CANDIDATE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
CLASS A OILS
ro
Reed-
like
marsh
Succulent
like
marsh
langrove
Outer fringe
Interior
Outer fringe
Interior
Red
Black
o>
c:
r
.C
to
^
f
If*.
GJ
i.
=3
to
to
0)
i.
Q.
3.
o
1
2
1
2
1
1
,
XI
Ol
c:
i.
O
H-
lO
4-J
C
CD
-O
s_
0
1/1
2
2
2
2
2
3
,P ^
0)
to
o
o
»
to
4_)
a
O)
o
t.
0
oo
2
3*
3
3
2
2
to
5-
e
£
\s
to
OJ
Q.
0
C£
1
2
2
2
2
2
s.
Ol
E
_E
to
-M
£Z
a;
S-
o
to
J3
fO
^.
at
jz
^
0
o3
O
IO
r
O
2
2
2
2
3
3
to
O)
£^
1
V*
IO
J_
-f
QJ
3
3
3
3
3
3
in
£
a>
M
to
>^
to
£
3
^3
O
ra
1
3
1
3
2
2
>^
&_
O)
o
u
QJ
1-
i
ra
^J
c
fO
21
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
CD
C
r~*
-M
4J
"l
0
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
CD
C
r
C
s-
~1
en
NR
1
NR
NR
NR
NR
r_
(O
>
o
E
QJ
S-
r-
I
O
oo
a
OJ
cr
QJ
s-
10
NR
NR
1 - Primary Candidate Technique
3 - Technique will probably have poor
effectiveness
2 - Technique may have limited application
NR - Not recommended
*May be useful in preventing substrate contamination.
-------
TABLE 12. CANDIDATE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
CLASS B OILS
Reed-
like
marsh
Succulent
like
marsh
l-langrove
Outer fringe
Interior
" Outer fringe
Interior
Red
Black
en
,
r-
CO
l__
1 .
QJ
3
CO
to
n i
\jj
i.
Q.
^
O
2
2
2
2
2
2
, ^
o
QJ
j_
O
.>__,
to
c
n
0
2
2
3
3
2
3
^- ^
OJ
CO
O
0
^_,
4J
c
QJ
s_
O
OO
2
3
3
3
2
'
tO
S-
QJ
E
E
to
QJ
Q.
O
2
2
2
2
2
3
*
to
i.
QJ
E
E
r~
to
c
OJ
-Q
5-
O
CO
JD
fO
S-
QJ
4->
O
o3
CJ
to
5
2
2
2
2
2
3
*
CO
s_
QJ
E
^-
r~
1/1
t-
»r
QJ
3
3
3
3
3
3
to
E
QJ
+J
to
>i
to
E
^3
3
O
fO
2
3
2
3
2
3
^>
i_
QJ
>
O
U
QJ
i-
i
nj
3
C
s:
2
NR
2
NR
2
2
01
c
r
M
-1*
5
2
NR
2
NR
NR
NR
CD
d
"r~
C-
^~
=3
CQ
NR
1
NR
NR
NR
NR
*~~
fo
>
O
QJ
S-
"^
O
to
T3
QJ
r
CT
QJ
S-
to
NR
NR
1 - Primary Candidate Technique
3 - Technique will probably have poor
effectiveness
2 - Technique may have limited application
NR - Not recommended
*Hay foul with heavier oils.
-------
TABLE 13. CANDIDATE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
CLASS C OILS
Reed-
like
marsh
Succulent
like
marsh
Mangrove
Outer fringe
Interior
" Outer fringe
Interior
Red
Black
CD
r
_G
I/)
j
r
*|
o»
5-
ZJ
CO
CO
OJ
Q.
3:
o
1
2
1
2
1
1
, ,
^
O)
E
O
^-
^^^
CO
d
Q)
f^l
i.
O
oo
2
2
2
2
1
3
,.*
L
o^
E
*~i
3
O
rt3
^
2
3
2
3
1
3
^
J_
QJ
>
O
o
ai
S-
r
rtj
^
c
f^
2-
2
NR
2
NR
1
2
cn
c
r-
4-)
4_)
3
0
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
cn
cr
r
C
s-
3
CQ
NR
1
NR
Nk
NR
NR
r~*
fO
>
0
E
O)
5_
r
I
O
CO
a
aj
S-
r-
CT
OJ
CO
NR
NR
1 - Primary Candidate Technique
3 - Technique will probably have poor
effectiveness
2 - Technique may have limited application
NR - Not recommended
-------
TABLE 14. CANDIDATE CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
CLASS D OILS
en
Reed-
like
marsh
Succulent
like
marsh
Mangrove
Outer fringe
Interior
Outer fringe
Interior
Red
Black
en
c-
to
-J
^^
n
CJ
s-
13
to
to
E
to
c
cu
i.
o
>
S-
QJ
>
O
-------
DEGREE OF CLEANUP
The determination of the degree of cleanup required is perhaps the
most difficult question to respond to in this manual. The cut-off point
of cleaning operations is ideally when the marsh is completely clean and
realistically when the efficient use of manpower and equipment reaches a
point of diminishing returns when related to the environmental damage
resulting from the cleanup operation. Unfortunately a complex assort-
ment of factors are involved in terminating the cleanup operation in the
real world. In general, each oil spill will have a unique set of cir-
cumstances that must be evaluated before the decision to terminate is
possible. The On-scene Coordinator normally evaluates these circum-
stances and upon, consultation with experts and officials will decide if
the cleanup should be terminated. The following are suggested criteria
for termination:
1. Has the threat of fire or safety of local residents and
visitors in the marshland been removed? The cleanup operation
should not be terminated unless the contaminated area is free
of oil-related fire hazard and people can visit the marshland
without spill-related hazard. The fire hazard is normally
ended when most of the light hydrocarbons have evaporated and
when thick pockets of oil have been removed.
2. Has the cleanup operation removed the oil from sites that
support commercial activities? Many marshlands are used by
fishermen, trappers and hunters. Although the cleanup opera-
tion may seriously impair these commercial activities, the
cleanup operation should not be terminated until the areas are
cleaned sufficiently to prevent recontamination.
3. Has the cleanup operation removed oil from private property?
The cleanup operation should not be terminated until privately
owned docks, boats, erosion barriers, and other areas have
been cleaned.
4. Are sensitive marsh areas (Section 300) cleaned to the point
that any further effort would do more damage to the environ-
ment than would the presence of the oil? As a general rule,
remove the oil that is visible and avoid heavy activity on the
marsh except for areas with thick concentrations or pools of
oil. Realistically, all of the oil cannot b6 removed. The
cleanup operation should be terminated if it, in itself, can
damage the marsh beyond its ability to recover naturally.
5. Has the recreational value of the marshland been restored?
Most marshlands are used for a variety of recreational
activities such as bird watching, aesthetic enjoyment and so
forth. The contaminated area generally cannot be cleaned
76
-------
sufficiently to allow all of these activities to return to
pre-spill conditions. However, the cleanup operation should
not be terminated until the area has been cleaned sufficiently
enough to allow such areas as wildlife reserves, parks, wilder-
ness areas, to recover naturally.
During and after an oil spill, pressure groups can place great
demands upon those persons involved in the cleanup operation. The
cleanup operation should not be terminated until the demands of these
groups are considered within the realities of what can be accomplished
by the cleanup. It will be up to the On-scene Coordinator to evaluate
these demands and evaluate them on a case by case basis.
77
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SECTION 6
RESTORATION
APPROACH
The restoration of a salt marsh must be considered whenever a marsh
has been damaged beyond natural recovery by toxic effects of oil contami-
nation or by cleanup procedures. Marsh restoration is not a fool-proof
science. The techniques of marsh restoration have primarily evolved
from the techniques of stabilizing dredge spoils, for example, as spoils
islands or dumping areas. A large number of biological and physical
factors determine the probability of a successful marsh restoration
effort.
The approach to restoration is presented in Figure 1. First, the
natural resources of the contaminated area are analysed to determine if
natural recovery or restoration is the best course of action. If natural
recovery is acceptable, a monitoring program is begun and the recovery
program proceeds. If restoration is selected, field operations are
begun followed by a monitoring program.
EVALUATION OF NATURAL RECOVERY OR NEED FOR RESTORATION
Given sufficient time and the proper natural conditions, most dis-
turbed marshlands will recover. The time frame for recovery is, there-
fore, the first criterion to be considered. A disturbed marshland
requiring assisted recovery and ineligible for the natural recovery
process would be one:
1. noted as an area of threatened wildlife in which lack of
cover for a season could endanger the biota. This includes
habitat of rare and endangered species and selected areas
heavily utilized by migratory fowl.
2. necessary for bank stabilization of such areas as channels
affected by heavy routine shipping activity or beach
frontage subject to heavy seasonal wave action. Priority
should only be given to these areas if these losses could
result in severe erosion or loss of shoreline.
78
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3. used as a principal recreation area within a major
recreational service area. This could include prime
sport fishing or hunting areas, especially when lack of
cover of food stocks would reduce occupation by migratory
species.
The following factors are considerations if marsh restoration is
required:
Need
Soil-binding properties -- transplanting will provide more soil-
holding capability than will seeding.
Herbaceous growth -- transplanting will immediately provide some
screening and forage vegetation, while growth of seedlings will provide
denser growth, but not for several months.
Aesthetic improvement -- transplanting will provide immediate
improvement.
Public relations -- transplanting produces an immediate visible
improvement.
Time
If a stand of plants is required within 3 months, then transplanting
should be considered. If a longer period can be permitted, then seeding
may be the best alternative.
Area Size
Since transplanting proceeds one plant or clump of plants at a
time, it is extremely expensive and tedious for large areas. Seeding
can be accomplished either by hand or by aircraft. It is limited pri-
marily by the amount of seed available.
Cost
Transplanting --
The cost for restoration by transplanting can be calculated by the
number of plants required. Using an auger to prepare holes for planting
gives a planting rate of 100 plants/hour/man. Using a shovel, an average
rate is 30 plants/hour/man. Labor costs should be doubled to account
for digging up the plants and then replanting them. The cost of plants,
if purchased, must be included, but labor costs will be lower. In
addition, a contingency for costs of transportation, soil testing, and
miscellaneous items must be provided.
Seeding --
The cost for restoration by seeding is calculated on a per-acre
basis as:
79
-------
2/md*/acre x $/md + 300 Ibs seed/acre x $ /lb seed = $/acre
If crop-dusting aircraft are used to spread seed, the cost is:
$200/hour x 0.5 hr/acre x 100 Ibs seed/acre x $ /lb seed = $/acre.
Partial (selecting a portion of the total acreage for the restora-
tion process) or complete restoration can be required by the necessity
of maintaining the marsh's function or by state, federal, or local
agencies. If it is determined that restoration of a salt marsh is
required, one of the institutions listed at the end of this section can
provide the necessary expertise. Each of these institutions has had
experience in evaluating the feasibility of, and in actually conducting,
the restoration and reconstruction of marshes.
If the loss of a significant number of marsh plants in a given
marsh does not require immediate restoration action, the natural
recovery process can proceed. It should be kept in mind that some areas
of the disturbed marsh can still be designated for restoration even if a
decision is reached to rely upon natural recovery for the marsh as a
unit.
The condition of the remaining plants after the cessation of cleanup
activities is of major importance in the natural recovery process.
First, enough living vegetation must be present to recolonize the area.
As an example, Spartina grows and expands into the marsh by means of
extending rhizomes. New shoots are therefore established close to the
fringe area of living plants and the clumps of plants expand to gradually
recolonize an area. Spartina can also recolonize an area by seeding.
Plant stocks must be available in the disturbed area to supply this seed,
or be available in adjacent marshes so that seeds can be deposited in the
disturbed area by currents and wave wash.
The marsh plant species composition which is recovering can be
altered by the establishment of opportunistic plant species. If the
plant composition is providing a specialized habitat for the biota
(i.e., food, shelter or soil binding properties), a change in specie
composition can be detrimental to the existing animal community. Many
of the succulent-like or reed-like varieties can colonize areas which
were previously inhabited by Spartina before the spill. If the marsh
fringe undergoes erosion a short time after the spill, the elevational
contours of the marsh fringe may be altered. Also, the soil character-
istics may be modified by loss of fine sediments causing an increase in
the percent of sand or gravel in an area. A change in these parameters
can, for example, select against natural colonization by Spartina.
Field personnel should continue to monitor these parameters during the
recovery period.
*md = man-day.
80
-------
RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
There are two general methods of restoration. One is by seeding;
the second is by transplanting mature or seedling plants from an estab-
lished marsh or nursery to the area to be restored. Seeding can be
accomplished at relatively low cost and can cover extended areas.
Generally however, there is a fairly low percentage of germination and
a time lag between seeding and the appearance of a vigorous marsh growth.
Moreover seeds may wash away. Transplanting gives immediate visual
enhancement and physical stabilization. It is, however, both extremely
labor-intensive and expensive. With the exception of a few specialized
cases, only very small areas can be transplanted. It may be desirable
to consider transplanting, however, when control of erosion is regarded
to be a serious, immediate problem. The choice of restoration technique
is also dependent on the type of marsh.
The reed-like marsh can be restored either by seeding or by trans-
plantation. The succulent-like marsh can be restored only by trans-
planting at present; if seed stocks become available in the future,
seeding will become a viable option. Black mangroves have been estab-
lished by seeding; however, transplantation has been shown to be more
successful. Red mangroves are viviparous (seeds sprout while still
attached to the parent plant, see Figure 20). Either the embryos from
these plants may be removed from parent stock and planted, or seedlings
from established plant stocks can be transplanted to the disturbed area.
Transplanting
Plants for transplanting may or may not be available as nursery
stock Nursery plants should be furnished as seedlings in 4- to 5-inch
peat pots. This greatly facilitates handling the plants. Nursery
stock, when available, can be obtained from one of the sources listed.
If nursery stock is not available, plants must be collected at the time
of transplanting from adjoining marshes. Plants may be dug either as
individuals, or they may be removed as blocks or mats (Figure 21).
Preparation of the substrate for transplanting is not required,
unless oil contamination remains. In the latter case, oil and any
contaminated substrate should be treated or removed and similar soil
added to return the area to the original elevation.
After transport to the area to be restored, the plants are set in
place as shown in Figure 22. To minimize the difficulty of working in
soft substrate, one worker should remain on the bank. He can then pass
the plants to another worker who digs the holes and places the plants as
shown. The proper space between plants is critical to their successful
establishment.
81
-------
Figure 20. Red mangrove seeds
fkigure 21. Manual collection of mature Spartina plants.
82
-------
Figure 22. Setting of Spartina stock.
Figure 23. Typical small scale replanting operation,
83
-------
Several other variables will also influence the success of the
transplants. These are depth of planting, tidal elevation, space be-
tween transplants, and seasonal timing. The sources listed can provide
expert guidance in dealing with these variables and ensure full poten-
tial for success of the transplants.
Transplanting is highly labor-intensive and must be performed
carefully to ensure establishment and thus reward the expense. Trans-
planting should only be used over small areas (Figure 23) and then
concentrate on sites with the most severe damage.
Seeding
The seed (Figure 24) must be harvested (Figure 25) before its use,
treated, and stored correctly to maintain viability. These procedures
will have been completed with commercially supplied seeds. Spartina
marsh seed has been successfully harvested and germinated and its use
for reseeding is well proven in dredge spoils stabilization programs.
Seed for succulent-like marsh plants is extremely scarce. Mangrove
seeds are not stockpiled but can readily be collected during the fall.
Sites can be seeded at any time of year, although the rate of
successful germination will vary seasonally. Wave and current action at
a site may wash most of the seeds away before they can germinate and
become established. Sometimes, this problem can be reduced or elimina-
ted by using manual or standard agricultural techniques, i.e., discing,
raking, harrowing, which bury the seed, as shown in Figure 26. Fertiliz-
ing has been practiced on some restored sites. Because of tidal flushing,
however, it is difficult to keep the fertilizer on the seed and the
results do not always justify the effort. Migrating waterfowl, particu-
larly geese, may invade newly sown and germinated areas and cause very
severe damage by grazing. Some means of waterfowl exclusion, such as
alarm signals, may be necessary.
Seeding of very large areas can be accomplished in some limited
cases through the use of crop-dusting aircraft. When the site is
accessible to small aircraft, weather conditions permit, and seed stocks
are available, use of the crop duster is most useful and economical
alternative.
Sources
The private and public institutions listed below have the special
capabilities required to check transplant stock for disease, match soil
type of the area to be restored and the source of transplant stock,
investigate soil nutrient balance at the restoration site, and evaluate
the need for fertilization. Furthermore, these institutions then can
furnish the materials, trained manpower, and equipment necessary to
undertake this procedure.
84
-------
Figure 24. Spartlna seed.
Figure 25. Manual harvesting of Spartlna seed,
85
-------
Figure 26. Hand sowing of Spartlna seed.
86
-------
1. Agricultural Experiment Station, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, North Carolina.
2. Environmental Concern Incorporated, West Chew Avenue, P.O.
Box P, Saint Michaels, Maryland.
3. Marine Research Center, Inc., Richmond, California.
4. Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research
Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida.
MARSH RECOVERY MONITORING PROGRAM
If either natural recovery or restoration is selected, a marsh
recovery monitoring program should be established. The program will aid
decision-makers in determining the success of the project. Because
natural recovery is not always successful, the monitoring program should
be designed to determine if a restoration project is necessary after the
natural recovery project is selected.
This type program can range from visual observation combined with
photographic documentation, to an intensive scientific investigation.
In any case, the program should adhere to some set plan including a
monitoring schedule, specific sites of study, and a standard methodology
which is followed during each site visit. At a minimum, the program
should:
A. Determine The Study Areas
Stake out or plot study areas in the disturbed marsh. The
plots can be physically marked by flags or tall stakes on
easily readable charts. The plots should be located to ensure
accessibility during all seasons of the year. Because stakes
can be lost, each location, based on a reading from a pocket
transit (or better a sextant), should be noted on a large-
scale map.
B. Determine The Monitoring Frequency
During the first month after the natural recovery or restora-
tion program has begun, the study plots should be monitored
once a week. During the second and third month, the plots
should be inspected every other week; and during the fourth
through the eighth month, inspection should occur once a
month. If the plants appear to be establishing a good hold in
the disturbed marsh and the ground cover is spreading, the
plots should be inspected at intervals of 6 weeks until the
disturbed surface is once again covered by plants.
87
-------
If a new growing season begins during the first 8-month
period, monitoring should resume at the once-a-week inspection
intervals.
C. What to Look For
A photographic record of the study plot is a helpful tool to
make an accurate assessment of the success of the project over
time. An object of known dimensions should be placed in the
study plot being photographed so that plant growth can be
gauged over time. The following points should be considered
during each site visit:
1. Do the plants look healthy?
2. If plants were used for the restoration, look for an
increase in height; if sprigs were used, look for new
shoots appearing around the sprig; if seeds were planted,
look for sprouts. If natural recovery was the method
chosen, look for new shoots around the existing clusters
of plants.
3. Are animals eating the plant shoots or birds eating the
seeds?
4. Is the amount of ground bared by the disturbance
decreasing in area?
5. Is the bared area eroding? Is the soil's composition
changing from silt or silty-sand to one with a higher
percentage of sand? If so, measures may have to be taken
to dissipate wave energy such that erosion is slowed
until new plant growth can stabilize the area.
Notes should be kept throughout the monitoring program and local
experts contacted for confirmation of marsh reestablishment.
-------
SECTION 7
WASTE HANDLING
Materials generated during a wetland oil spill can be massive,
often containing such diverse elements as oil, oil-water mixtures,
emulsions, oil-contaminated debris of all types, plant material, oily
soil, and oil recovery and response debris such as spent sorbents,
paper, and plastic products.
Method of offsite handling and ultimate disposal of these waste
materials is beyond the scope of this manual. Detailed information
regarding disposal may be found in a recently prepared EPA companion
document: Oil Spill: Decisions for Debris Disposal, EPA Contract
Number 68-03-2200. It is recommended that this document be used in
conjunction with the recommended wetland procedures included here.
Onsite handling of debris, however, is of primary concern to wet-
land cleanup. Improper handling techniques can result in a greatly
expanded spill area and contamination, thereby magnifying environmental
effects and cleanup/ restoration costs. Since waste handling efforts
are visible to public scrutiny, improper handling can damage the
public's reception of an otherwise successful operation.
Methods of waste handling in wetlands:
A. Minimize the number of transfer operations by minimizing
distances between operation areas and points of vehicle/vessel
access. Only one operation should be required.
B. Minimize waste material storage time at transfer points to
avoid oil loss and subsequent recontamination from stockpiled
materials. Losses can result from: (1) oil flowing from
elevated sites, (2) elevated temperatures decreasing the
viscosity of the oil allowing it to flow, and (3) oil flushing
by rainfall. Provisions should be made for immediate removal
of stockpiled material from onsite to ultimate disposal site.
The basic restriction against nighttime operations can be
waived for stockpile removal.
89
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C. Areas for stockpile sites should be selected to avoid recon-
tamination. Areas should not be chosen where leaching oil can
flow into water. Permeable soils should be avoided or modi-
fied as necessary through site preparation including emplace-
ment of clay or plastic liners, berms, etc. No stockpiling
within the wetland itself should be permitted.
D. Field cleanup crews should be instructed on the importance of
proper waste handling, both from an environmental and public
relations standpoint.
90
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL
Introduction
Crude oils and refined products are not homogeneous fluids; rather
they are mixtures of organic and other miscellaneous compounds with
varying physical properties and, often, designations. For simplicity
these materials can be classified into three types. The types, shown in
Table A-l, are light distillates (characterized by low boiling points
and specific gravities), heavy distillates (characterized by high boiling
points and specific gravities), and crude oil (raw oil with a wide range
of boiling points and specific gravities). Table A-2 groups are common
designations of the more refined products.
Light Distillates --
Light distillates are fractions of refined crude oil with boiling
point ranges from 35° C to 300° C and specific gravities from 0.76 to
0.97. The four main classifications of these distillates are motor
gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and naphtha. These four distillates are
not intended to represent all products with boiling points below 300° C
but are included rather to depict the range of physical properties.
Specific properties of these four light distillates are shown in
Table A-3.
The rate of evaporation of light distillates is fairly high. The
evaporation rate by weight of gasoline and kerosene is shown in Figure A-l.
Factors that accelerate the evaporation rate of oil include surface
winds and elevated air temperatures, and to a minor extent, water tem-
perature. With reasonable air circulation and moderate temperatures,
almost all light distillates can be expected to evaporate within a week.
However, the volatile nature of these materials can pose an extreme fire
hazard. Extreme care should be exercised in using equipment that may
ignite the oil or vapors.
Many light-distillate constituents dissolve, elute, or separate out
of the oil and into the water column. A general rule is that the lighter
the molecular weight of the oil, the more soluble it will be in water.
Many light organics (such as benzene and toluene) are quickly dissolved
in water, but later are lost to the atmosphere due to evaporation
91
-------
TABLE A-l. GENERAL OIL CLASSIFICATIONS
Light Distillates (Boiling PointBP--Range from 35° C to 300° C)
A. Motor Gasoline (BP Range 69° C to 198° C)
B. Jet Fuel (BP Range 177° to 288° C)
C. Kerosene (BP Range 189° C to 300° C)
D. Naphtha (BP Range 35° C to 300° C)
Heavy Distillates (Boiling Point Range over 188° CJ
A. Diesel Fuel Oil (BP Range 204° C to 382° C)
B. Number 1 Fuel Oil (BP Range 188° C to 329° C)
C. Number 2 Fuel Oil (BP Range 221° C to 334° C)
D. Number 4 Fuel Oil (BP Range 257° C to 427° C)
E. Bunker Fuel Oil (BP Range over 316° C)
F. Number 6 Fuel Oil (BP Range 283° C to 683° C)
Crude Oil (Major Sources)
A. Libya G. Venezuela
B. Nigeria H. United States
C. Iran I. Canada
D. Iraq J. Algeria
E. Kuwait K. Etc.
F. Saudi Arabia
92
-------
TABLE A-2. COMMON DESIGNATIONS OF REFINED PRODUCTS
Group
Common Designations
Gasoline
Aircraft Tubine Fuel
Kerosene
Diesel Fuel Oil
Distillate Heating Oils
Residual Fuel Oils
Gasoline
JP-1, JP-3. JP-4, JP-5, JP-6, Type A, B, C
Kerosene, No. 1 fuel oil, range oil,
Type A, C, JP-5, Aircraft Turbine Fuel
No-ID, No-2D, No-4D, Marine Diesel
(Type I: No-ID, Type II: No-2D,
Type III: heavy distillate or marine diesel,
Type IV: residual and distillate - includes
Bunker C)
No. 1 grade
No. 2 grade
No. 4, No. 5, No. 6, Navy Special, Navy
Heavy, Bunker C
93
-------
TABLE A-3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME LIGHT DISTILLATES
Properties
Distillation Range, ° C
10%
50%
90%
Final Boiling Point, ° C
Distillation Residue, %
Vapor Pressure, cm Hg
Maximum Sulfur Content, %
Freezing Point, ° C
Flash Point, ° C
Gravity
API
Specific Gravity
Motor
Gasoline
69°
105°
125°
193°
3
47 to 67
0.25
-60°
60
0.76
Jet
Fuel
177°
218°
260°
288°
3
10 to 36
0.4
-60°
43°
50
0.78
Kerosene
189°
214°
249°
300°
1.5
5 to 31
0.13
-46°
58°
43
0.81
Naphtha*
* 35n
* 177n
* 191°
* 300°
Variable
Variable
^ 5%
Variable
* 38°
34 to 16
0.85 to 0.97
*Many organic compounds are included in the general category of naphtha
products. Some of these are: Mineral spirits (both light and heavy),
solvents, benzene, naphtha (both light and heavy), toluene, and xylene.
Source of much of the information came from: Guthrie, Virgil B., editor,
1960. Petroleum Products Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
94
-------
i
'.'
3
O.
IT3
QJ
100
90
80
70
;
E
'!
.'
H
I
:
01
Q.
r- 60
50
40
30
20-
10
10
20 30
Time (hours)
40
Motor
gasoline
Kerosene
No.2 fuel oil
.No.4 fuel oil
jNo.6 fuel oil
50
Figure A-l. Theoretical evaporation rates of several
selected distillates.
95
-------
(normally within 24 hours). The quantity of free-floating light distil-
lates may quickly be reduced due to their solubility in seawater.
Light distillates commonly penetrate and contaminate marsh substrates
following spills. Factors that determine penetration of oil into sediments
are temperature, exposure time, and porosity and water content of the
sediment. Light distillates have been found to penetrate marsh sediments
faster and deeper (up to 60 cm) than other oil types. Once the oil has
penetrated the sediment, it tends to persist rather than evaporate into
the atmosphere or dissolve in the water column.
Heavy Distillates --
Heavy distillates are composed of refined products with a boiling
point over 175° C and a specific gravity over 0.81. There is some
overlap between the boiling point of heavy distillates and light distil-
lates with heavy distillates having the majority of their fractions
distilled at temperatures over 300° C. The oils that will be classified
as heavy distillates are fuel oils, diesel oils, and bunker oils.
Selected physical properties of several heavy distillates are shown in
Table A-4.
Several physical changes occur when heavy distillates are exposed
to the environment. The first, and most predominant, is the evaporation
of the most volatile oil fractions (that is, with a boiling point below
370° C). Experimental and field tests have shown that up to 90 percent
of the light hydrocarbons (C-,7 and C,Q) and 50 percent of the medium
hydrocarbons (C,g to Cp-,) are lost in a few months. Little change in
heavy hydrocarbons (above Cp-,) is generally observable. Figure A-l
shows percent losses for several types of heavy distillates.
Light and heavy fuel oils, as shown in Table A-5, will tend to form
oil/ water emulsions. Emulsion formation is rapid at first but stabilizes
within 5 days. Emulsification has been found to be accelerated by wave
action, high surface currents, and high winds, because of the increased
mixing action between water and oil. Formation of emulsions having a
water content of up to 70 percent is not uncommon.
Low temperatures will affect the behavior of oils heavier than
No. 4 fuel oil. As temperatures drop, the viscosity of these heavy oils
will increase significantly.
As discussed previously, lighter distillates will penetrate deeper
and faster than heavy distillates. Given enough time, however, heavy
distillates can penetrate some marsh sediments, though the fine-grained
nature of typical marsh soils resists penetration by heavier oils.
Crude Oil --
Crude oils are mixtures of simple and complex organic compounds and
inorganic elements. Physical properties of crude oil vary from country
96
-------
TABLE A-4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME HEAVY DISTILLATE OILS
Properties
Distillation Range, ° C
10%
50%
90%
Initial Boiling Point, ° C
Final Boiling Point, ° C
Gravity
API
Specific Gravity
Viscosity @ 38° C
Flash Point, ° C
Cloud Point, ° C
Pour Point, ° C
Average Sulfur Content, %
Source of most of the information
Diesel
Fuel
Oil
-v, 204°
v296°
x, 357°
^ 177°
v 382°
^ 36
x- 0.84
33 to 50
38°
-46°
-57°
0.1
was: Guthrie,
Number
2 Fuel
Oil
-221°
^261°
v 288°
v-1840
* 334°
v 30
-v. 0.87
2.6
43°
-29°
-43°
0.3
Virgil B.,
Number
4 Fuel
Oil
- 257°
v 310°
-v- 388°
v. 216°
-.427°
13 to 33
v. 0.89
43 to 119
^ 65°
-12° to 2°
-43° to 7°
0.83
editor, 1960.
Number
6 Fuel
Oil
^283°
-493°
-x, 593°
^ 256°
-v. 683°
0.3 to 20
^ 0.96
45 to 342
> 65°
* 2°
-18° to 24°
1.4
Bunker C
^316°
--
v 8
v 0.98
vJOO 0 50° C
> 65°
* 2°
-v 18°
2.0
Petroleum Products Handbook,
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
-------
TABLE A-5. OIL/WATER EMULSIONS AND SOLUBILITY OF DISTILLATES
Types of Oil
Light Distillates
Gasoline
Kerosene
Naphtha
Heavy Distillates
Diesel
No. 2 Fuel
Oil
No. 4 Fuel
Oil
Formation of
Emulsion
None
None
Partially Stable
None
None
Partially Stable
Water % in
Emulsion
After 5 Days
5 to 10 j
"" 1
.. I
5 to 10 )
Solubility of Oil
in Water
Fairly Soluble in Water
but Evaporates Easily
Soluble in Water
Little Solubility in
Bunker Oil
Crude Oil
Significant
Significant
70 )
70 to 85
Water
Variable Solubility
in Water
98
-------
to country and from well to well. Considering the variability of the
physical properties of crude oil (Table A-6), it is impossible to
categorize them easily. The determination of the rate of evaporation,
dissolution, emusification, microbial degradation, oxidation, etc., for
a specific crude oil will be difficult. However, several physical
properties of crude oil may provide enought information to facilitate
cleanup operations.
Normally, a crude oil with a low specific gravity will have many
light fractions with low boiling points, thereby increasing the
weathering loss to atmospheric evaporation and seawater solubility.
Conversely, if an oil has a high specific gravity, the short-term
weathering losses will be smaller. The rapid weathering of the lighter
and more soluble compounds will also increase the specific gravity and
viscosity. Therefore, a cleanup crew may start the cleanup operations
removing oil with the consistency of a No. 2 oil but finish cleanup
operations cleaning up crude oil that behaves as a Bunker C oil,
depending upon the nature of the oil and time. After weathering, the
specific gravity of some crude oils may exceed 1.0 and they can sink.
Since the specific gravity of many crudes is near that of water, they
are also susceptible to sinking by emulsification, weathering, or
incorporation of sediment.
Most crude oils are capable of forming water and oil emulsions or
"mousse." The content, depending upon the character of the crude, will
normally range between 70 and 85 percent water.
All factors being equal, soil penetration is generally deeper and
faster for a crude oil with a low overall specific gravity than a crude
oil with a high specific gravity.
The salinity of the water affects crude oils with a low specific
gravity more than crude oils with high specific gravity because the
solubility of light fractions is increased in low-salinity water.
APPENDIX B. IMPLEMENTATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES
This section of the Manual provides procedural information on the
use of equipment and methods for the protection of marshes threatened by
oil contamination. Divisions within this section are provided for easy
access to the marsh protection technique desired. The breakdown of
these techniques are shown as follows:
1. Fence and Skirt Booms
2. Sorbent Booms
3. Improvised Booms
4. Rigid Wall, Permeable, and Earth Barriers
5. Pneumatic Barriers
6. Sorbents
7. Wildlife Deterrents
99
-------
TABLE A-6. GENERALIZED PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL
Properties Range
Gravity
API 13 to 57
Specific Gravity 0.73 to 0.98
Sulfur Content, % Nil to 4.0
Asphaltene Content, % Nil to 5.8
Wax Content, % Nil to 27
Pour Point, ° C -57° to 21°
Viscosity @ 38° C 1.6 to 739
Distillation Rate, %
to 149° C 3 to 54
to 232° C 7 to 84
to 343° C 23 to 100
to 371° C 27 to 100
100
-------
It should be understood that each application of a technique will
be unique. As such, precise instructions are impossible. Procedures
given are designed to provide a basis for general application.
Fence and Skirt Booms
Fence Booms --
Most fence booms are difficult to transport and deploy without
heavy equipment due to their physical size and weight. Normally, they
are assembled at a nearby dock, barge, or shoreline and towed to the
site. However, if good terrestrial access is available, they can be
brought directly to the site by trucks.
For effective control of oil, all types of booms must be used in
conjunction with some type of oil-recovery system. Oil which is trapped
and accumulates behind the boom must be removed, periodically or con-
tinuously, depending upon the rate of accumulation. Failure to do so
will lead to escape of oil around the ends or from the pocket of the
boom.
Planning prior to installation should consider possible stranding
at low tide, current reversals, and vessel traffic. In the following
paragraphs a variety of deployment configurations are described.
Open Shore Deployment Shown in Figure B-l are three types of
configurations that can be used to block the path of the oil.
The first configuration shows a fence boom diverting the oil slick
to a recovery system. Normally, both ends of the boom are secured to
the sea floor by anchors; other locations along the boom can be anchored
if the boom is long or currents and winds are strong. This configuration
requires that one or two boats be available .as support for transfer of
oil from the recovery system to shore and for boom repositioning.
The second configuration shows an application where oil is funneled
into a recovery system. The booms can be anchored or workboats put at
the ends of the boom, and the system towed.
The third configuration is similar to the first except that shore-
based recovery equipment is used. Although this configuration reduces
the workboat requirements, good marsh accessibility is needed to move
the equipment to the marsh and recover the oil. Skirt booms or some
other shallow water barrier may be necessary to prevent the loss of oil
in the shallow water where the fence boom no longer works.
Channel Deployment Figure B-2 shows two different channel de-
ployment configurations.
101
-------
Configuration 1
Oil
movement
Fence boom
JRecovery equipment
Configuration 2
Oliimovement
.Fence boom
Recovery equipment
Configuration 3
Oil movement
Fence boom
_ Jr
'" " £ I-| Recpvery ,:" /
, M , -| | equipment. ,
Figure B-l. Open shoreline boom deployment,
102
-------
c:
O)
t-
3
O
Configuration 1
Recovery
equipment
Configuration 2
I
Recoverypi
equipment]-!
Recovery
equipment
Figure B-2. Channel deployment.
103
-------
The first shows a double boom deployment, permitting boat traffic
to move along the channel. This configuration responds particularly
well to tidal current reversals.
The second configuration can be used when disruption of boat traffic
is not a problem. As in the previous situation, this deployment also
responds well to tidal current reversals.
Skirt Boom
The light weight and high flexibility of skirt booms permit a
variety of methods of deployment. These booms can be deployed from the
shore by small boat or barge (as shown in Fig. B-3), or by helicopter
(using a break-away connection) as shown in Figure B-4. Like fence
booms, skirt booms are containment devices only. They must be used with
oil-recovery equipment, or oil and debris will build up and boom failure
will occur.
Booms may be fixed in place by a variety of methods. They are gen-
erally held in place in the water by terminal and intermediate anchors.
Anchors should be suited to bottom type and must be self-setting in
situations where tidal current changes are present. The landward end of
the boom may be fastened to any convenient feature (tree, etc.) or
attached to a pipe anchor as shown in Figure B-5. Note that in this
case there is a gap between the boom and the shoreline. Sand bags or
sorbent materials placed in the gaps will greatly reduce escape of oil
through such spaces. In situations where the appropriate equipment is
available, piles have been effectively used to anchor booms. An instal-
lation of this type is shown in Figure B-6. Although booms fixed by
this mechanism still require oil and debris removal, maintenance
required in response to tidal reversals is low. In any marshland
application the possible stranding of the boom at low tide should be
considered.
In most cases it will be neither possible nor desirable to protect
entire shorelines with booms. Instead, the primary objectives should be
exclusion of oil from particularly sensitive areas, prevention of pene-
tration into the marsh interior, and containment of existing contamina-
tion.
Minor Channel Deployment -- Normally, skirt booms are positioned
across these channels to restrict oil from flowing into backwaters or
the marsh interior. This is illustrated in Figures B-7 and B-8. These
booms should be checked as often as possible to make sure they remain
correctly deployed or have not failed. Where the possibility of boom
overloading exists, double booming such as shown in Figure B-9 may in-
crease the efficiency of blockage.
Coastal or Seaward Exposure -- Normally, skirt booms are not
deployed in open areas unless the sea is calm and current velocity is
low. Figure B-10 shows typical protective booming in an open shoreline
104
-------
Figure B-3. Deployment of boom from barge,
Figure B-4. Helicopter deployment of sktrt boom.
105
-------
Figure B-5. Shoreline termination of boom.
Figure B-6. Anchoring of boom with piles,
106
-------
Figure B-7. Small channel booming,
Figure B-8. Small channel booming.
107
-------
Figure B-9. Double booming.
Figure)-B-10. Skirt boom, positioned for open shoreline protection.
108
-------
situation. Grounding of the boom at low tide is particularly a problem
in coastal areas. When stranded, skirt booms serve little useful function,
as shown in Figure B-ll. If it is not possible to anchor booms so that
they will not be stranded, continual repositioning may be necessary.
High-Flow Channel Deployment -- The successful use of skirt booms
is inversely related to the strength of currents in the channel. If
currents are not excessive, skirt booms may be deployed in the same
configurations as discussed for fence booms.
Harbors and Marinas Many coastal marshalands often border com-
mercial and recreational boat harbors. If a harbor area is threatened,
it may be desirable to protect it with skirt booms. Generally, currents
and wind exposure in harbor areas are low enough to permit simple closure
of the entrance as shown in Figure B-12.
Sorbent Booms
The use of sorbent booms as protective devices is generally limited
by their low retention capacity and poor performance in even low currents.
Perhaps their best applications are in the containment of existing
shoreline contamination where they serve to recover oil coming out of
the marsh, and in situations where the water is extremely shallow.
Due to their light weight and flexibility, sorbent booms are easily
deployed, even by small work crews. Physical arrangement and anchoring
are similar to that for skirt booms. Sorbent booms should not be used
for diverting flow or blocking channels.
Improvised Booms
The type of improvised boom used will determine the equipment and
manpower for its deployment. Likewise, the deployment location will
determine the configuration requirements of the boom. For typical con-
figurations, see the fence and skirt boom sections. Table B-l lists
some types of improvised booms.
Rigid Wall. Permeable, and Earth Barriers
Rigid Wall Barriers --
Most of these devices can be constructed from new or used building
materials available in virtually all localities. The equipment needed
to construct these barriers consists of simple hand tools. Construction
of rigid barriers is relatively labor-intense.
Rigid wall barriers should not be constructed across deep channels
or long expanses because they require strong vertical supports.
109
-------
Figure B-ll. Skirt boom stranded by falling- tide.
Figure B-12. Harbor protection using skirt booms*
110
-------
TABLE B-l. TYPES OF IMPROVISED BOOMS
Type of Boom
Construction Material
Wooden Boom
Plastic or Metal Pipe Boom
Fire Hose Boom
Rubber Tire Boom
Float Booms
Puerto Rican or
U.S. Navy Boom
Timber, railroad ties, railroad poles,
etc.
Watertight plastic water pipe,
aluminum pipe, thin gauge steel
pipe, etc.
Blown up and capped fire hose
Connected rubber tires
Cork, synthetic foats, rubber
bladders, etc.
55-gallon barrels strapped to marine
plywood
The best time to start construction is during low tide. In most
cases, the support posts are driven into the ground (using sledge ham-
mers) or held in place by heavy shoes, such as concrete or sand bags.
Panels are then connected between these posts. All cracks should be
sealed with plastic, or other materials to prevent unnecessary leaks.
Typical rigid wall barriers are shown in Figures B-13 and B-14.
It is neither time- nor cost-effective to build barriers strong
enough to withstand waves and currents. Instead, their use should be
limited to low-flow situations, such as drainage pipes and narrow
channels.
Rigid wall barriers must be removed after the cleanup operations
have been terminated or the danger of oil pollution has alleviated.
Permeable Barriers --
The construction of permeable barriers can be done with materials
found on site and with common hand tools.
The one-sided type of permeable barrier is used along or in chan-
nels that have continual water flow in one direction. A single line of
posts is driven into the bottom. Screen is then secured to the upstream
side of the post by nails or staples. An elaborate example of this type
of barrier is shown in Figure B-15. Notice that sorbent is placed only
111
-------
Figure B-13. Typical rigid barrier.
Figure B-14. Rigid barrier using logs and sandbags.
112
-------
Figure B-15.
Permeable barrier
single direction of flow.
Figure B-16. Permeable barrier
for flow^reversing situations,
113
-------
on the upstream side of the barrier, thus preventing it from being
washed away.
The second type of barrier must be used when tidal action is suf-
ficient to change the direction of the current. This type consists of
two parallel wire fences with the sorbent material placed between. This
is illustrated in Figure B-16. These barriers are normally used across
low-flow channels and in some coastal areas.
The screen height must be sufficient to prevent the sorbent from
going over the top at high tide and under the bottom at low tide. The
permeable barrier's main advantage is that it does not obstruct the flow
of water out of or into an area. Of course, permeable barriers should
not be deployed across channels having significant boat traffic. Where
possible, the barriers should be placed to take advantage of shoreline
configuration such as the small islands shown in Figure B-17.
Earth Berms
The deployment instructions for earth berms are dependent upon the
size and depth of the site to be blocked. The simplest and probably the
majority of cases will involve the construction of a shallow barrier
across a small inlet. A work crew of three to five men should be able
to quickly construct such a barrier using simple hand tools such as
shovels and hoes. This type of berm can also be constructed across
shallow coastal areas, or shallow tidal lakes. A typical berm is shown
in Figure B-18.
If larger berms are required, heavy equipment and trained operators
will be necessary. Marsh accessibility and soil-bearing strength must
be good if conventional equipment is to be utilized. Floating or self-
propelled dredges of a dragline or clam-shell type are well suited for
marsh application. Typical of this type of equipment is the amphibious
dredge shown in Figure B-19.
The thickness and height of these berms are relative to the tidal
or wave action against them. If the tidal and wave action is significant,
the berm should be thick and high, allowing for wave erosion.
Time needed for berm construction and the availability of local re-
sources (equipment and labor) are other factors requiring consideration.
After the cleanup operation has been terminated, the earth berms
must be removed.
Pneumatic Barriers
Generally, the pneumatic barriers are effective when surface currents
do not exceed 1 to 2 knots, or winds 20 knots. A typical deployment
profile is shown in Figure B-20.
114
-------
Barrier location
Figure B-17. Utilization of shoreline geometry
1n placement of permeable barriers
115
-------
Figure B-18. Blockage of small channel with earth barrier.
Figure B-19.
Construction of large earth barrier with
amphibious dredge.
116
-------
Compressor
Oil film
Turbulence
Bottom
Figure B-20. Pneumatic barrier,
117
-------
Effective operation of the pneumatic barrier requires water depths
of at least several meters. This fact alone limits application to deep
low-flow channels and harbor areas. In the latter case, pneumatic bar-
riers are particularly applicable as they do not disrupt vessel traffic.
The physical requirements for constructing a pneumatic barrier are
given by the formula:
C = 13,825 hdl,
o
where C = compressor capacity in m /min (cubic meters/minute)
h = hold size in m (meter)
d = pipe i.d. in m
1 = pipe length in m
Materials which can be used to construct pneumatic barriers (if
commercial ones are unavailable) include pastic, steel, or aluminum
pipe. Most of these materials can be found locally.
Pneumatic systems normally require at least one day to construct
and deploy properly. The installation of one of these systems will
probably require a crew of five or more people, and of at least one
workboat. Once deployed, continual monitoring of the compressor and
pipe will be required. Weights may be required to prevent the pipe from
floating.
If the pneumatic pipe is directly on the bottom, the small outlet
holes may get plugged by debris during start-up or shut-down. To avoid
this situation the pipe should be mounted somewhat above the bottom.
When a pneumatic barrier is deployed to impound oil, cleanup equipment
must be provided to remove the oil that accumulates behind the barrier.
Sorbents
Sorbents are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes, including
granular, pads or pillows, or rolled strips. (Only granular and roll
sorbents are recommended for protective use.)
Granular Sorbents --
Granular sorbents are composed of small pieces of plant, mineral,
animal, or synthetic materials. Table B-2 lists many types of sorbents
and their general properties.
Granular sorbents can be deployed from shore, by boat, or in some
cases by air, either by hand or mechanically assisted with mulchers or
blowers. To act as a protective mechanism, granular, sorbents can be
applied in one of two ways.
118
-------
TABLE B-2. TYPES OF FLOATING SORBENT MATERIALS
Materials
Plant Material
Straw/Hay
Seagrass
Sawdust
Bark
Peat
Cotton Haste
Cork
Corn Cobs
Waste Paper
Reeds
Mineral Material
Asbestos
Talc
Fuller's Earth
Volcanic Ash (Pumice)
Perlite
Vermiculite
Activated Carbon
Animal Material
Wool
Chrome Leather
Polymers or Synthetics
Rubber
Polyether (Foam)
Polystyrene (Foam)
Polyurethane (Foam)
Polyester Plastics
Nylon Fibers
Cellulose
Imbiber
Polypropylene
Polymeric Fiber
Polyethylene
Near-Site
Availability
Generally
Generally
Generally
Limited
Limited
Limited
Seldom
Limited
Generally
Generally
Seldom
Seldom
Generally
Seldom
Generally
Generally
Seldom
Seldom
Seldom
Seldom
Limited
Limited
Generally
Seldom
Limited
Limited
Limited
Generally
Generally
Limited
Water to
Oil Ratio
3-5
1
5
3
1
3
5
5
2
I
4
2
2
3
3
2
2
4
10
4
6
5
15-18
3-16
6-15
3-15
27
10-20
10-24
10
Buoyancy
After 6 Hours
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Floats
Sinks
Sinks
Floats
Sinks
Sinks
Floats
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Floats
Floats
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Application
(Hand, Equip.
or both)
Both
Both
Both
Hand
Both
Both
Both
Both
Hand
Both
Hand
Hand
Hand
Hand
Hand
Hand
Hand
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Hand
Hand
Both
, Possible
Weight Toxicity*
Moderate
Moderate
Light
Light
Moderate
Moderate
Light
Light
Light
Moderate
Moderate
Very
Very
Moderate
Moderate
Very
Moderate
Light
Moderate
Moderate
Light
Light
Light
Moderate
Light
Light
Moderate
Light
Light
Light
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Yes
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Oil
Typet
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Material
Only
Cost
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
*Many synthetics give off toxic fumes when burned.
tH, heavy oils and most crudes.
-------
First, the sorbent can be applied ahead of an advancing slick,
using wind and currents to drive it ashore. The resulting configuration
will be similar to that shown in Figure B-21, conforming well to the
shoreline and responding to tidal variations reasonably well. Barriers
of this type may not perform satisfactorily with light fuel oils.
While virtually any size shoreline can be treated by this method in
theory, actual application should be limited to areas where effective
control of the materials can be maintained and effective recovery con-
ducted.
Where coves are used for containment, granular sorbents can be
effectively used for shoreline protection. In such cases, diverting
booms present as part of the containment system insure the control of
the sorbent.
Second, granular sorbents may be applied directly to an advancing
slick. Used in this manner, they serve a protective function by immo-
bilizing the oil rather than keeping it off the marsh. Although appli-
cations of this nature can be made under any circumstances, it is rec-
ommended that application be limited to slicks immediately threatening
unprotected shorelines. The recovery of all sorbent materials will
probably be impossible; therefore, if possible, granular sorbents should
be restricted to biodegradable materials.
Any benefits gained by use of granular sorbents for protection must
be balanced against costs and potential environmental damage associated
with their recovery and disposal.
Once applied, the sorbent should be left in place to minimize
environmental damage until the threat of contamination is over or
impending weather shifts indicate the possibility of wide dispersion.
Respiratory protective devices should be worn by all personnel
involved in deployment of granular sorbents to avoid ingestion of
sorbent dust. Eye protection is also recommended.
Roll Sorbents --
These sorbents are almost exclusively manufactured from synthetic
or treated materials. They also come in a variety of lengths, thick-
nesses, and shapes.
Roll-type sorbents are best suited for specialized protective
applications. Generally, quiescent conditions are required for their
successful use. Deployed in sheltered shallow water (Figure B-22), the
form an effective, easily deployed, and low-maintenance barrier for
restricting movement of oil through a marsh interior. When the absorbing
power of such a barrier is exhausted, a new layer of sorbent will restore
its function. Sequential removal of exhausted sorbent is not recommended
120
-------
Figure B-21. Use of granular sorbent as a
protective barrier.
121
-------
Figure B-22. Use of roll sorbent as a marsh Interior barrier.
Figure B-23. Use of roll sorbent for shoreline protection
in a containment area.
-------
unless soil contamination is taking place. Less damage to the marsh
will generally result from a single period of sorbent recovery.
Figure B-23 demonstrates the use of a roll sorbent to protect the
edges of a small cove being used for oil containment and recovery. In
this case, minor position adjustments as necessitated by tidal variation
are conveniently made by the cleanup crew. Unattended shoreline appli-
cation of this type sorbent is not recommended.
Wildlife Deterrents
Wildlife deterrents are normally classified as either a loud-noise
type or the animal distress and predator call type. The loud-noise type
chase animals away from one area to another by creating a sharp noise
similar to a gun blast, and the animal distress and predator call type
operates on the principle that wildlife will flee when they hear a
danger signal such as an animal in trouble or a prey animal in the area.
Although these devices are used mostly for birds, they can be used to
scare mammals.
The loud-noise type can be manually operated, although newer models
are designed to use signals or timers. A propane fueled device is
commonly used. Animal distress and predator call types, however, are
operated using tape recordings.
Both types of devices must be positioned sufficiently close together
to allow overlap of the effective noise envelopes. During rain or windy
conditions, these devices must be spaced closer together. Since birds
and animals become conditioned to these devices, their use may have to
be rotated. Still, such systems can become ineffective for many species
of animals in the area.
Commercial devices can frequently be found at major airports (where
bird ingestion into jet engines presents a problem) or ordered from com-
mercial outlets. Local fish and wildlife services may prove to be ex-
cellent sources for locating these devices on short notice.
Almost all of these devices can be operated from land or boat,
depending on the terrain of the contaminated area. Many marsh locations
either have thick undergrowth or are inundated with water, making land
deployment of the device impractical. Whenever practical, however, land
deployment of the device is preferred.
APPENDIX C. CLEANUP EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
This Appendix provides procedural information (or implementation
instructions) for the cleanup techniques and equipment identified in
Section 600. As the number of marsh configurations and cleanup require-
ments is potentially limitless in any given incident, the section is, of
123
-------
necessity, general. For simplification, however, techniques and equip-
ment may be divided into three general categories, and several subcate-
gories:
Removal and Collection of Oil
1. Low-pressure water flushing
2. Sorbents (formed products)
3. Sorbents (loose)
4. Rope skimmers
5. Disc and other absorbent skimmers
6. Weir skimmers
7. Vacuum systems
Handling of Contaminated Materials
1. Cutting
2. Burning
3. Soil Removal
Bird Cleaning
The successful application of any technique depends on adhering to
certain common rules which include the following:
1. The marsh is a fragile environment. All physical actions
should be restricted to only those absolutely necessary. This
requires careful supervision of field crews.
2. Physical conditions in a marsh change rapidly and often unpre-
dictable. Thus, close monitoring of cleanup techniques and
readjustment of equipment deployment is required.
3. Many cleanup techniques, such as booming, require removal of
accumulated contamination at regular intervals. Thus, regular
attention of equipment is essential.
Removal and Collection of Oil
Low-Pressure Water Flushing
Low-pressure water flushing provides one of the easiest and most
effective methods of removing the bulk of most oils on substrate and
plant surfaces without extensive damage to plants or erosion of the
substrate. Once the oil is driven into open water, a water spray unit
can also be used to direct the oil to a recovery point.
The equipment required for most flushing operations are booms,
portable pumps, inlet and outlet hoses, and an oil-recovery system. A
typical deployment of the low-pressure flushing system is shown in .
Figure C-l.
124
-------
Figure C-l. Typical deployment of low pressure flushing system.
125
-------
The boom used in the flushing operation should be compatible with
the terrain and the deployment capabilities of the obscene personnel.
In gradually sloping, shallow-water locations, a small light skirt boom
(e.g., 8-inch float with 12-inch skirt) will meet the requirements.
Cleanup crews must be supplied with equipment to deploy and redeploy the
boom as wind and current situations change. The selection of the anchor
to stabilize the boom should be compatible with the bottom sediments.
In a marsh most equipment may be accessible from the water at high tide
but not at low tide. As a result, movement of equipment may be limited
to a few hours of daylight each day.
Small portable gasoline-powered centrifugal or diaphragm pumps have
been found to be the most flexible method -of flushing. (Larger pumps
can also be used if marsh access is good and if the outlet pressure can
be reduced). Self-priming type pumps are preferable because they are
the easiest to operate. Although maintenance requirements are minimal,
pumps should be equipped with extra gasoline and oil and an extra spark
plug with a wrench. It is recommended that a number of spare pumps be
stockpiled for immediate replacement of any "down" units.
Each pump must be equipped with an inlet hose (suction line) and
outlet hose (spray line). Intake hoses must have a rigid wall to prevent
collapse. Consequently, they should be as short as possible to facilitate
handling and maneuvering. The water intake should also be equipped with
a screen to preclude debris. Outlet hose length is dependent on the
distance to a continuous water supply and the length and horizontal
depth of the area to be flushed. The outlet hose should be flexible and
easy to handle. Garden hoses, fire hoses, and small diameter are suitable.
Several hoses can be operated from one pump, by equipping the pump
discharge with a multi-outlet nipple ("T's," crosses, etc.).
The oil-recovery unit can vary from a skimmer equipped with a
vacuum system to a sorbent system, depending on the oil concentration
and type and the terrain of the site. Some recovery units are more
effective on light density oils than heavy and vice versa. Regardless
of the type used, operation of the recovery unit must be continuous
while flushing the oil from the shoreline.
Organic debris and drift material will be washed out with the oil
during the flushing operation. This debris will clog or foul most
recovery systems. Therefore, the cleanup crew must be provided with
equipment for removing and safely storing debris. Some devices that
have proven effective in removing debris from water are dip nets,
seines, leaf rakes, and pitch or clam forks.
Before commencing flushing operations, physical conditions along
the shoreline must be assessed. If wind and currents are not in an
appropriate direction to hold the oil along the shoreline once flushed
from the substrate, containment booming will be necessary.
126
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Flushing should proceed from the highest elevation of contamination
and work downs lope toward the shoreline. Also, flushing should proceed
from the upstream area and work downstream to take advantage of natural
currents. Although flushing may be conducted from land, boat operations
are preferable since they result in less physical disruption of the
marsh. The water spray should be concentrated on removing as much oil
as possible from the leaves and stems of plants and from rocks. Generally
oil on the substrate surface will float off with the water flow Direct
application of the water stream to the substrate should be avoided since
it will usually result in soil erosion and damage of buried organisms
and plant roots. Lighter oils will be easier to flush. Even after
flushing, a coating will normally remain but this coating, usually
innocuous, will be scoured off in time by tidal and wave action or else
will disappear during the seasonal marsh dieback.
In many marsh situations, access is provided by roads on dikes and
berms. In these locations flushing from onshore may be desirable unless
traffic extends into the marsh itself.
Once driven into the water, the oil can be herded toward a collectina
point with water jets. Attempts should be made to utilize shoreline
characteristics and work with currents and tides. Figure C-2 illustrates
the general sequence of flushing using natural processes.
Provision for protection of cleaned areas is an important and often
overlooked aspect of cleanup operations. Protection is critical where
tidal reversals prevail since an area capable of withstanding one period
of cleanup can be destroyed by repeated operations. Figure C-3 illustrates
one procedure for prevention of recontamination of clean areas, using a
skirt boom. As each area is flushed, the boom is repositioned'to prevent
recontamination due to currents or winds. In cases of extremely heavy
or ongoing oil contamination, total booming of cleaned areas may be
required.
A sump (natural or dug) can act as an oil/water separator to ensure
an uncontaminated water supply. The inlet hose is placed at the bottom
of the sump, allowing oil to accumulate above it. Collected oil must be
removed regularly. This system can be used within depressions or other
inland areas where water naturally collects.
Sorbents --
The use of sorbents must consider application recovery, and disposal
In general, the use of sorbents involves more manpower and disposal
requirements than other procedures. Additionally, the physical acts of
deployment and, in particular, recovery, can severely disrupt and damage
the marsh surface. In general, then, use of sorbents is not recommended
if other options exist. " ~~
127
-------
OIL RECOVERY
UNIT
CURRENT
BARRIER
BERM
(BOO
ETC.)
WATER
WIND
Figure C-2. General flushing tactics.
128
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Containing
boom
Boom
position A
^^^^^':'.,:"''".'"'-, . , " ;!''*,!"l":5ic'*
Figure C-3. Booming to prevent recontamination
of cleaned areas.
129
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If granular-type sorbents are used, preference should be given to
biodegradable types, such as bark because one-hundred percent recovery
of any granular sorbent is virtually impossible. Thus, biodegradable
sorbents not oiled may be left in the marsh without environmental con-
sequence, whereas persistent types should be removed, whether oiled or
not. When using sorbents for cleanup, it is wise to restrict applica-
tion to small areas and to mandate the use of containment booms. If
tidal changes in the marshes are large and rapid, sorbent control and
recovery may be impractical. In such cases, sorbent use should not be
attempted.
Granular sorbents -may be applied mechanically or by hand as shown
in Figure C-4. After distribution of the sorbent, a contact period
consistent with the nature of the material must be allowed. Too little
contact time will not permit full effectiveness of the sorbent, while
too much time may result in waterlogging and possible loss by sinking.
The status of the sorbent can normally be evaluated visually (i.e,,
degree oiled, and floating or not). In many cases it may be desirable
to agitate the sorbent to improve its penetration around the plant stems
and contact with the oil. Light spraying with water is usually effec-
tive for this purpose.
Sorbent removal from or transport through a marsh can generally be
done by water flushing as shown in Figure C-5. Care must be taken to
minimize the amount of foot traffic when operations in the marsh itself
are required. In vegetated areas raking can physically damage plants.
In areas devoid of vegetation, raking will work the oil and sorbent into
the soil, spreading the contamination rather than reducing it.
Sorbent recovery may be accomplished by a variety of means, including
flushing into seines (Figure C-6). In this case the sorbents are encircled
and physically removed with the net. Tarps or plastic sheets should be
available to control spreading of contamination where the net is emptied.
Granular sorbents may be herded into position for recovery by small
portable vacuum boat-mounted units. (Figure O7). Run from gasoline
generators, these vacuum units may be used in conjunction with modified
50-gallon drums, greatly increasing holding capacity. Where road access
is available, commercial vacuum trucks may be brought directly to the
site. Advantages in the use of vacuum trucks are their large capacity
and ability to recover small solids.
Shallow-draft, improvised floating conveyor systems or commercial
aquatic weed cutters (Figure C-8) can be used for granular sorbent
recovery operation along shorelines. Commercial units require only
minor modification to control leakage of oil through the mesh belts and
holding bins. They are particularly useful where driftwood and other
floating debris are abundant. A mechanized recovery system of this type
will require a shoreline crew to flush or physically herd oil and sorbents
130
-------
Figure C-4. Application of granular sorbents by hand,
Figure C-5. Removal of granular sorbents by flushing.
131
-------
Figure C-6. Recovery of granular sorbents with seines.
Figure C-7. Portable vacuum system for recovery of sorbents,
132
-------
Figure C-8. Conveyor system for weed cutter.
r
/'
(
V.
Figure C-9.
Typical deploynent of tndless rope skimmer
in a containment area.
133
-------
to the device, and a number of tarp-lined boats to receive the contami-
nated discharge.
Pad and roll sorbents have limited application for marsh cleanup.
Generally, their use is restricted to zones devoid of vegetation, such
as salt pans, or for the recovery of floating oil along shorelines lined
with debris. As their application and recovery involve considerable
surface activity, and they are difficult to handle when oiled, use
should be limited to those situations where no better means of cleanup
exists.
Roll sorbents can'provide a secondary function in cleanup operations,
not involving recovery of oil. Laid on the ground, they can increase
bearing characteristics to the point that foot traffic is often possible
in areas previously inaccessible. At the same time, the sorbent roll
prevents oil from boats or whatever being forced into the substrate.
Sorbent "snares" consist of spaghetti-like masses of oleophilic
material. Although expensive and labor-intensive to use, "snares" may
find application in marshland situations as filler for permeable bar-
riers, and leak-proofing of boom connections and shoreline terminations.
Sorbent mops -- essentially "snare" material fixed to the end of a stick
or pole -- are convenient for small-scale cleanup of small pockets of
oil in difficult-to-reach areas. They may prove extremely convenient
for final cleanup in mangrove areas.
Rotating Drum, Endless Belt, and Rope Skimmers --
This type of skimming device removes oil from the surface of the
water by adherence of the oil to a rotating drum, conveyor belt, or rope
covered with, or constructed from, an oleophilic material. The oil that
adheres to the surfaces is subsequently squeezed into a holding tank or
scraped off by a blade or squeegee. Skimmers of this type recover very
little water and are less sensitive to debris-foul ing than other types
of recovery equipment.
Rotating Drum and Conveyor-Belt Skimmers -- The application of
rotating drum and conveyor-belt skimmers in marshlands is generally
limited. When mounted on a workboat or barge, they may be maneuvered
for cleanup of floating slicks in larger channels and nearshore areas
where depth permits. They may also be anchored in positions where the
oil may be directed to them.
Endless Rope Skimmers -- Endless-rope skimmers are among the most
effective saltmarsh oil-recovery devices. They exhibit infinite flexi-
bility in deployment configuration, are not easily fouled by debris, are
little affected by water depth, and are completely portable. They
require an oleophilic rope, two or three anchored pulleys (water resist-
ant and designed to float), a wringer, collection and .containment, and a
power drive.
134
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The usual application of the endless-rope skimmer is in recovery of
oil from a natural or artificial containment. A typical deployment in a
containment area is indicated in Figure C-9. Note the use of plastic
sheets to protect the marsh surface crossed by the rope before reaching
the wringer. Water-jet herding, either from land or water, as shown in
Figure O10, is particularly effective when used with endless-rope
skimmers due to their large effective recovery surface.
The size of these units ranges from configurations designed to fit
on top of 50-gallon drums to larger, trailer-mounted units. While the
smaller units are ideal for small boat or remote location use, even the
larger versions are small enough to be carried into remote areas by
helicopter. Most types are equipped with small holding tanks and,
requiring frequent emptying.
While it is theoretically possible to use ropes of extremely long
lengths and many pulleys, it is seldom practical to exceed 100 meters
and more than two.pulleys. The threat of snagging and the maintenance
required is greatly increased for large, elaborate systems.
Anchoring of the pulleys is relatively simple. As the pulleys
float, it is a simple matter of using ropes to attach them to fixed
objects or posts set in the shoreline. In shallow water, pulleys may be
fixed to piles set in the bottom. It is difficult to fix the pulleys
with anchors as they pull at an angle and tend to foul. If it is neces-
sary to use an anchor to fix a pulley offshore, placing a buoy between
the anchor and the pulley will reduce the risk of fouling.
Endless-rope skimmers respond poorly to currents. Even relatively
low currents tend to cause submergence of the rope and place tremendous
forces on the anchors.
Other possible applications of this type of skimmer are numerous,
responding to the configuration and requirements of the individual
situation. In Figure C-ll, a rope skimmer is shown in use along a marsh
shoreline. Completely contained by booms, this configuration is ideally
suited for shoreline flushing and recovery.
Weir Skimmers --
Shallow depths and high-debris concentrations, characteristics
common to salt marshes, greatly influence the application and usefulness
of weir skimmers. In order to maintain the proper relationship of the
weir to the water surface, weir skimmers are designed to float (where
water depths are insufficient, weir skimmers can only be operated by
placing them in excavated sumps). Floating debris will interfere with
operation by forming an impenetrable barrier along the weir as material
is drawn toward the intake. Further, debris passing over the weir will
usually clog the intake orifices. Attempts to prevent clogging by using
wire-mesh barriers to exclude debris are only marginally successful as
they merely move the site of clogging; oil flow to the skimmer is still
impeded.
135
-------
Figure C-10. Water Jet herding used with endless rope skimmer.
Figure C-ll. Shoreline application of endless rope skimmer.
136
-------
Generally, use of weir skimmers is limited to cases where there are
extremely high concentrations of oil, adequate depth for operation,
access for large-scale removal of collected fluid, and little or no
debris. Advantages of most weir skimmers are their small size and ease
of deployment.
Where conditions dictate their application, weir skimmers should be
deployed in conjunction with herding, diverting, and collecting devices.
Placement of the skimmer should be as near to the "apex" of the collecting
mechanism as possible. Typical applications utilizing shoreline configura-
tion and booms are shown in Figure C-12. In designing any collection
system of this nature, care must be taken to locate the "apex" point so
that it is accessible to maintenance and recovery equipment.
Vacuum Systems
Deployment tactics are essentially the same as described for all
other types of stationary recovery devices. Shoreline configuration and
booms can be used to allow natural processes to move the oil to the
skimmer. Water-jet herding provides a convenient substitute in the
absence of wind and current. Once near the suction head, the current
caused by the device itself will entrain nearby oil.
Vacuum recovery systems are most effectively operated from the
shoreline. Conventional vacuum trucks (normally used for cleaning out
residential septic tanks or transferring industrial wastes) can be used
for recovery, transport, and disposal operations. By proper scheduling
of the proper number and size of trucks, near continuous operations can
be maintained.
Vacuum skimming is best applied where heavy concentrations of oil
are present. It is also effective in recovering small debris, including
granular sorbents. For light concentrations of oil, the high concentra-
tions of water recovered make application of vacuum skimming impractical.
Depending on the nature of the suction head, debris of varying sizes
will cause clogging. Debris exclusion measures generally will solve the
clogging problem, but in doing so, will reduce the flow of oil to the
device. Constant cleaning of the suction head (Figure C-13) is the only
currently available solution to the clogging problem.
Maximum efficiency of the vacuum-skimming operation also requires
careful positioning and adjustment of the suction head. In some marsh
areas the adjustment required will be continuous. A method for posi-
tioning the suction head in shallow water with wedges is shown in
Figure C-14.
For dealing with small concentrations of oil in isolated areas,
such as found in mangrove swamps, small improvised vacuum systems may be
useful. The limited holding capacity of such small systems can be
somewhat offset by having several crews exchanging empty for filled
50-gal Ion drums.
137
-------
Figure C-12. Typical small weir skimmer.
Figure C-13. Operation of vacuum suction head.
138
-------
tea^JJFV
Figure C-14. Positioning of suction head with wedges.
139
-------
Handling of Contaminated Materials
Cutting --
Cutting and removal of contaminated vegetation can be accomplished
by two methods, mechanical cutting and hand cutting. The choice of
method depends on marsh trafficability, shoreline slope, tidal variations,
and water depth. Hand cutting involves using manual labor equipped with
shears, power brush-cutters, sickles, or other hand-held devices.
Mechanical cutting can be accomplished by a variety of commercially
available aquatic weed-cutters, or, in some cases where soil-bearing
capability is adequate, agricultural harvesting equipment.
Mechanical Cutting -- Aquatic weed-harvesting devices are available
throughout most parts of the country. Manufactured in a variety of
configurations and sizes, some of these devices are capable of operation
in very shallow water and combine the process of cutting, pickup, and
temporary storage in one apparatus. A typical mechanical cutting device
is shown in Figure C-15.
Importantly, devices of this type offer the advantage of vegetation
removal without significant traffic on, and damage to, the marsh surface.
Because the aquatic cutters are floating devices, their application
is limited to shoreline marshes. By raising the cutting edge above the
water surface, plants may be cut several yards beyond the water line.
When operated at high tide, fairly wide bands of marsh can be removed.
The most common cutters operate off the bow of the vessel. A
typical cutting pattern is indicated in Figure C-16. After the initial
pass parallel to the shoreline, the device must be "nosed" into the
shoreline for the remainder of the cutting, starting at the upstream end
of the area to be treated, and working downstream.
Side-mounted cutters may be operated in a sequence similar to that
indicated in Figure C-17 with successive passes into the marsh as the
tide rises.
Aquatic harvesters are designed for the recovery of plant material
only, and as such, a percentage of the oil will be lost through the con-
veyor screen unless modified. Rather than attempt to "drip-proof" the
cutter, it is recommended that lost oil be recovered by another system.
In any case, booms should be deployed to control the possible spread of
oil and debris. In deploying these booms, space must be provided for
maneuvering the cutter.
Hand Cutting -- Hand-cutting operations require moderate-to-large
crews working on land in the marsh. Each crew should be split into two
groups, cutters and debris handlers. Equipped with hand tools or small
power brush-cutters (Figure C-18), the cutting groups cut the plants
140
-------
Figure C-15. Typical aquatic weed harvester.
141
-------
ZONE OF
CONTAMINATED
MARSH
UPPER MARSH
HIGH TIDE
~-~ LINE
. .
SHORELINE
o
l-
uu
-^
I
&t
u. :D
l-« (_)
U-
h-
=3 =
O t-J
U-
o
f-
Ci
°-fc
UJ t_
oo
FIRST CUT
CURRENT
CONTAINING BOOM
Figure C-16. Typical operational sequence for front-cutting harvester.
HIGH TIDE LINE
ZONE OF
CONTAM-
INATED
MARSH
CURRENT
Figure C-17. Typical operational sequence for side-cutting harvester,
142
-------
Figure C-18. Gasoline powered brush cutters.
Figure C-19. Containment booming of cutting operation.
143
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within a few inches of the substrate. As with all types of cleanup,
cutting should begin at the upstream end of the area to be treated and
work downstream, thus limiting recontamination (Figure C-19).
The bulk of the cutting must be done during low tide when the
plants are exposed and marsh accessibility is the best. The general
procedure is to start at the waterline and work ahead of the tide.
Following the cutting group, the debris handlers pick up and remove
the oiled vegetation. Materials should not be stockpiled on the site
for any period of time as they will be subject to leaching and the
action of high tides unless protected by tarps, plastic sheets, or
plastic. Collected debris may then be removed by boat, land (if access
is available), or by helicopter. Oil released during the cutting
process can be recovered by flushing and an oil recovery system.
Before cutting, the areas to be treated should be boomed to control
oil released during the procedure. Likewise, treated areas should be
protected from recontamination until the threat is eliminated.
Hand cutting is an extremely hazardous operation. The risk of
injury to personnel must be weighed as part of the decision to cut.
Additionally, the abuse to the marsh surface may be significant.
Potential plant damage from foot traffic must also form part of the
decision criteria.
Burning --
The feasibility of burning can be determined by test ignition of a
sample of oiled vegetation. Relatively high temperatures may be required
for first ignition. Once ignited, however, the fire must be self-
sustaining for effective use. Once "burnability" has been demonstrated,
burning permits must be obtained by the OSC from appropriate regulatory
agencies (typically the EPA, state fish and wildlife agencies, and local
air pollution agencies). Obvious factors associated with granting of
permits include public safety, wildlife hazard, and air pollution.
A burn plan should be prepared as part of the permit process. In
essence, this plan merely provides for the orderly and safe implementa-
tion of the burning and for its control. In many areas, game management
personnel will be available to provide expertise on burning. Burning
should be restricted to small sections of marsh isolated by water or by
earth barriers. Generally, fires should be set on the upwind side of
each section and allowed to burn with the wind until exhausted or
reaching a barrier. Figure C-20, shows fire lines set by a tracked,
amphibious vehicle. A well developed burn is shown in Figure C-21.
While it is impossible to describe the actual implementation of a
marsh-burning operation in a manual of this nature, several details
should always be kept in mind:
144
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Figure C-20. Lighting of fire lines,
Figure C-21. Representative large marsh burn,
145
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1. Care must be taken to insure that all personnel are out of the
burn and adjacent areas before proceeding. Traffic in adjacent
waterways should be restricted to emergency vessels only.
2. Burning should be conducted when winds are blowing seaward to
reduce air pollution impacts.
3. Oil fires in marshes can be erratic and have been known to
burn into the wind. Provision for control of fires in all
directions must be included in the burn plan.
Soil Removal --
No standard instructions can be given regarding soil removal. This
is a costly, environmentally damaging procedure and must be limited to
the smallest possible area. Careful preliminary surveys will be useful
in controlling the area to be treated. Silt curtains and earth barriers
may be useful in controlling siltation during the removal process.
Any area
undergoing substrate removal will require restoration. A
preliminary step prior to attempting restoration procedures involves re-
turning the substrate surface to its original elevation. Impoundment of
hydraulic-dredging slurry provides the only economically reasonable
method of replacing large volumes of soil.
Bird Cleaning Operations
The potential for rescue of a significant number of oiled birds is
very good. With some specialized assistance from local veterinarians, a
treatment center can become a highly successful part of the total clean-
up effort. In fact, the public response to the problem of oil-contaminated
birds is usually so negative that a cleanup effort which provides proper
treatment of waterfowl can be a highly effective and beneficial public
relations feature.
The first task is detection of oiled birds. Generally, severely
oiled birds will be found on the shore or near shore in shallow water
and can easily be seen from land or aerial observation points. While
spill reconnaissance is continuing, all observers should note and report
the number and location of oiled birds.
The next task is to evaluate the nature and scale of the problem.
Birds which are heavily contaminated, i.e., total-body and head covered
with oil, must be treated or they will die. Birds which have smudges of
oil, usually seen on the head or breast, will usually survive, as they
are mobile, can avoid stress and exposure, and are able to feed. There-
fore, only heavily oiled birds should be enumerated. If relatively few
birds are affected, the situation can be satisfactorily met using local
veterinary skills. If a large number of birds are affected, the Center
should be asked to initiate and operate a treatment station.
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Part of the evaluation of the bird problem must be the size and
condition of the oil slick. If the oil is believed to be grounded or
contained, the threat to waterfowl is lessened. However, if the slick
is still uncontrolled or if recontamination is continuing, then the
number of oiled birds may continue to increase.
In remote coastal locations, the cleanup effort should include
patrols to locate and recover oiled birds, using vehicles providing the
greatest access to the shoreline. The number may be large, as many as
several thousand birds, and the scale of shoreline patrols should be
large in the first few days until the number of affected birds becomes
apparent.
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APPENDIX D. MARSH SPILL EXPERTS
Allan Hancock Foundation
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 90007
Telephone: (213) 741-2311
American Institute of Biological
Sciences
Special Science Program
1401 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, Virginia 22209
Telephone: (703) 527-6776
American Petroleum Institute
2101 L Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037
Telephone: (202) 457-7300
Auke Bay Fisheries Laboratory
P. 0. Box 155
Auke Bay, Alaska 99821
BatteHe Pacific Northwest
Laboratories
3000 Stevens Drive
Richland, Washington 99352
Telephone: (509) 942-7411
Center for Marine Resources
Texas A & M University
College Station, Texas 77843
Telephone: (713) 845-3854
Center for Wetlands Resources
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
Telephone: (504) 388-1558
Coastal Research Division
Dept. of Geology
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina 29208
Telephone: (803) 777-6759
Coastal Studies Institute
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
Telephone: (504) 388-2395
College of Marine Studies
University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware 19711
Telephone: (302) 738-2842
Exxon Research and Engineering
Company
Box 101
Florham Park, New Jersey 07036
Telephone: (201) 474-0100
International Bird Rescue Center
Aquatic Park
Berkeley, CA
Telephone: (415) 841-9086
OBF Scientific Corporation
Burlington, Massachusetts 01803
Louisiana State University
Coastal Studies Institute
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
Maine Dept. of Marine Resources
State House
Augusta, Maine 04330
Marine Chemistry Unit
7B Parliament Place
Victoria, Australia 3002
Marine Ecosystem Analysis Program
Office
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Boulder, Colorado 80303
Telephone: (303) 499-1000
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
Program
c/o Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory
Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528
Telephone: (205) 861-3702
Control School
State University
National Spill
Corpus Christi
P. 0. Box 8263
Corpus Christi, Texas 78412
Telephone: (512) 991-8692
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Office of Sea Grant
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
U.S. Dept. of Commerce
2001 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20007
Telephone: (202) 634-4120
Oil Spill Control Association of
America
17117 West 9 Mile Road
Suite 1515
Southfield,
Telephone:
Michigan
(313) 559-8866
Rutgers University
Water Resources Institute
P. 0. Box 231
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Telephone: (201) 932-9817
Science and
St. Mary's College
Division of Natural
Mathematics
St. Mary's City, Maryland 20686
Skidaway Institute of Oceanography
Savannah, Georgia 31404
Telephone: (912) 352-1631
Southern California Coastal Water
Research Project
El Segundo, California 90245
Telephone: (213) 322-3080
Texas A & M University
Dept. of Biology
College Station, Texas 77843
Texas A & M University
Texas Engineering Extension Service
Oil Spill Control School
College Station, Texas 77843
Telephone: (713) 845-2122
URS Company
155 Bovet Road
San Mateo, California 94402
Telephone: (415) 574-5000
University of Rhode Island
Marine Experiment Station
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
Telephone: (401) 783-2304
University of South Carolina
Coastal Research Division
Dept. of Geology
Columbia, South Carolina 29208
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
.Glouster Point, Virginia 23062
Telephone: (804) 642-2111
Westinghouse Ocean Research and
Engineering Center
Baltimore, Maryland 21240
Telephone: (301) 765-1000
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
Telephone: (617) 548-1400
Woodward-Clyde Consultants
3 Embarcadero Center, Suite 700
San Francisco, California 94111
Telephone: (415) 956-7070
Yale University
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics
New Haven, Connecticut 06520
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APPENDIX E. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
aerobic: able to live or grow only where free oxygen is present
anaerobic: Able to live and grow where there is no air or free oxygen.
annual: A plant that lives only one year or season.
aquatic weed cutter: A specially designed mechanical device that is used
in water to cut aquatic vegetation.
aromatic: Organic compounds containing any of a series of benzene ring
compounds. They are unsaturated organic ring compounds with low
boiling points and are generally toxic to aquatic life.
bearing strength: Resistance of soil to pressure. This is important
because trucks, shoes, etc., are affected by it.
benthos: The plants and animals that live in and on the bottom of a water
body.
blokker equation: An equation which approximates slick spreading by use of
an oil dependent constant, density of the oil and water, respectively,
the volume of oil and the initial slick diameter.
brackish: Intermediate in salinity between sea water and fresh water.
clam shell: A mechanical device mounted at the end of a crane which picks
up soil or mud with a pincerlike movement.
coagulating agent: Chemical additives applied to oil to form a more
cohesive mass.
contact period: The time required to maximize the efficiency of the
sorbent or chemical agent or the time before plant or animal damage
occurs.
detergent: Chemical agent used to disperse and suspend oil in water
leading to enhanced biodegradation.
dispersant: See detergent.
distillate: A refined hydrocarbon which is obtained by collection and con-
densation of a known vapor fraction of the crude oil.
distillate range: The range of temperature in which a hydrocarbon dis-
tillate such as gasoline, kerosene, and fuel oil is manufactured at a
refinery.
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drag line: A mechanical device that excavates or transports soil, using
a container pulled over earth by cables or chains.
dredge: A device used to remove sediment from the bottom of a water body.
emulsification: The process by which oil is mixed with water.
endless rope: A continuous rope-like oil sorbent device that is pulled
across the surface of the water to pick up oil.
erosion: The wearing away by action of water or wind of unprotected or
exposed earth.
estuary: A tidal coastal feature where salinity is intermediate between
fresh and salt water.
evaporation: The conversion of a fluid, including hydrocarbons, to a
gaseous state.
fertilizer: A substance or agent that helps promote plant or seed growth.
flash point: The temperature at which an oil will burn in air.
flushing: Use of a water stream to make oil flow to a desired location
or recovery device.
fouling: Accumulation of oil or other materials, such as debris, that
makes a device inoperative.
gelling agent: See coagulating agents.
germination: The sprouting of a seed.
habitat: The chemical, physical, and biological setting in which a plant
or animal lives.
herding agent: Chemical agent which confines or controls the spread of a
floating oil film.
hydraulic slurry: A suspension of particles in water.
landfill: A dump that has progressive layers of waste matter and earth.
marsh fringe: The outermost edge of shoreline vegetation.
migration: Season movement of a group of animals from one location to
another.
mobilization: Movement of oil caused by physical forces such as gravity,
tides, wind. Mobility of oil is limited by its viscosity.
mousse: A type of oil/water emulsion.
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nursery stock: Small plants in flats or pots suitable for transport and
transplanting.
oil/water separator: A device for separating oil from water.
oleophilic: A material that has affinity for oil.
paraffin: The waxy saturated component of crude oil, having relatively
high boiling point and low volatility. Any member of the methane
series having the general formula C^ +2.
perennial: Vegetation that continues to grow for several years.
physiography: The elevation of the marsh's substrate.
pneumatophore: A respiratory organ of the black mangrove which protrudes
from the ground like a leafless shoot.
porosity: The permeability of the substance to water or air.
propagation: Reproduction.
prop root: Short specialized roots which branch from a plant's stem, which
fasten the plant to a soil system.
recontamination: Contamination by oil of an area that has been already
cleaned up.
rhizome: A root!ike stem under or along the ground, ordinarily in a
horizontal position, which usually sends out roots from its lower
surface and leafy shoots from its upper surface.
salt pan: A pool above high tide, "drained" only by evaporation so that
salt is accumulated and concentrated.
seine: A fish net which can be used to collect sorbent or debris.
skimmer: A mechanical device that removes an oil film from the water
surface.
specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance such as oil
or seawater to the density of pure water at standard conditions.
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solubility: The amount of oil that dissolves into the water column;
always a very low number (few ppm).
solvent: A chemical agent which will dissolve oil.
substrate: The soil on which vegetation grows.
substrate penetration: Oil which has soaked into the ground.
sump: A pit or reservoir that serves as a drain from which oil can be
collected.
tank barge: A barge for transporting liquids.
tarballs: Lumps of oil, weathered to a high density, semi-solid state.
tidal variation: The vertical range between high and low tides.
toxicity: The poisonous effect of crude oil or petroleum products.
trafficability: See bearing strength.
viscosity: Flowability; a function of oil type and temperature.
water table: Depth from the ground surface to water saturation.
weathering: Natural influences such as temperature, wind, bacteria,
that alter the physical and chemical properties of oil.
weir: A vertical barrier placed just below the surface of the water so
that a floating oil slick can flow over the top.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Jnanictions
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