xvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office o' Energy, Minerals and
Industry
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA-6007 7-79-089
March 1979
Research and Development
EPA PROGRAM
STATUS REPORT:
Oil Shale
7979 Update
Interagency
Energy-Environment
Research and Development
Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3, Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-79-089
March 1979
EPA PROGRAM STATUS REPORT:
Oil Shale
7979 Update
prepared by
Chemical Division EPA Oil Shale Work Group
Denver Research Institute Office of Research and Development
University of Denver Environmental Protection Agency
Denver, CO 80208 Washington, D.C. 20460
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Development, EPA, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. 22151.
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is involved in oil shale research and development
through projects for which it provides funds, and by staying abreast of projects funded by other
governmental and industrial sources. Research provides data for defining ecological and health
effects and for developing cost-effective control technology that can be used by government and
industry to minimize degradation of the environment.
This report presents the status of current EPA projects related to oil shale research and
development.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mr. Robert E. Pressey of the Denver Research Institute for accepting
the challenge to publish this document, based on the original publication plus input that was still to
be solicited from more than two dozen contributors, in only two months' time.
We wish to acknowledge with thanks the efforts of Paul E. Mills, lERL-Ci, William N. McCarthy,
Jr., OEMI Headquarters, and Thomas J. Powers, III, lERL-Ci, who served, respectively, as project
officer, publisher and coordinator, and assistant to both the project officer and publisher.
The support of Cameron Engineers of Denver, Colorado, for the update to "World Resources and
Development History", Appendix C, is appreciated.
A special thanks to Mr. George Rey, OEMI Headquarters, for his help on the revised Glossary,
Appendix F.
Finally, a thank you is also due the Vitro Laboratories Division of Automation Industries, Inc.
for providing illustration support.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Executive Summary vii
CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Rationale 1
2. PROGRAM OVERVIEW 3
2.1 Overall Assessments 3
2.1.1 Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale Development 3
2.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum 6
2.1.3 EPA Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling, Analysis and Quality Assurance 6
2.1.4 Integrated Assessments - 6
2.2 Extraction and Handling 6
2.3 Processing 6
2.4 Energy-Related Processes and Effects 7
2.4.1 Health Effects 7
2.4.2 Ecological Effects 7
2.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring 8
2.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes 8
2.5 End Use 8
3. CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS 9
3.1 Overall Assessments 9
3.1.1 Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale Development 9
3.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum 9
3.1.3 EPA Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling, Analysis and Quality Assurance 9
3.1.4 Integrated Assessments 9
3.2 Extraction and Handling 12
3.3 Processing . 14
3.4 Energy-Related Processes and Effects 17
3.4.1 Health Effects 17
3.4.1.1 General Supportive Studies 17
3.4.1.2 Pollutant Analysis Studies 18
3.4.1.3 In Vivo Studies 18
3.4.1.4 In Vitro Studies 21
3.4.2 Ecological Effects 24
3.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring 24
3.4.3.1 Air Monitoring 24
3.4.3.2 Water Monitoring 25
3.4.3.3 Instrumentation Development 28
3.4.3.4 Monitoring Methods for Characterizing Water Pollutants 28
3.4.3.5 Development of Techniques for Measurement of Organic
Water Pollution 29
3.4.3.6 Development of Ambient Monitoring Guidelines 30
3.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes 30
3.5 End Use 31
3.5.1 Shale Oil Refining 31
3.5.2 Exhaust Emissions from Shale Derived Fuel Oils 32
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Page
FIGURES
1. Principal Oil Shale Deposits of the U.S. 2
2. The EPA Oil Shale Work Group 4
3. EPA Oil Shale FY 1977 and 1978 Funding Summaries 5
4. EPA Meets with the Oil Shale Industry to Foster Communications and Cooperative
R&D Efforts 10
5. EPA Reaffirms its Commitment to Support the National Energy Plan 11
6. Testing the Effects of Shale Dust on Animals 20
TABLE
1. Current Program Status Summary 35
APPENDICES
A EPA Published and To-Be-Published Reports on Oil Shale
B General References on Oil Shale
C World Resources and Development History
D Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale Development:
Abstract and Table of Contents
E Abbreviations
F Glossary
INDEX
vi
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Executive Summary
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy's (EPA) Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry (OEMI) was established in 1975 to
assure that our national energy goals are
matched with an effective research and devel-
opment program in the critical area where
energy needs and environmental protection goals
overlap. OEMI implements and coordinates
EPA's energy related environmental/industry
research and development efforts and also
serves as the overall manager of the compre-
hensive Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program. This
program has established a mechanism to plan,
coordinate, and fund research and development
for clean energy use and pollution control
technology activities within the seventeen (17)
participating governmental agencies. Since the
western states in EPA's Region VIII contain
major energy resources, including oil shale, the
Region VIII Office works very closely with OEMI
to plan and utilize the results from the R&D
Energy Program. (These western states are
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Utah and Wyoming.)
EPA plays an active role in many areas of
oil shale research and development. EPA is
maintaining a close surveillance on the projects
of other Federal agencies in order to preclude
duplication and to stimulate programs which can
be applied to the technological advancement of
an oil shale industry, while maintaining the
environmental integrity.
The Program has been organized into five
major categories. Listed in the order of de-
creasing budgets as of the 1978 fiscal year,
they are Energy-Related Processes and Effects,
Processing, Overall Assessments, Extraction and
Handling, and End Use. The energy-related
processes and effects category has four signi-
ficant subdivisions: health effects, ecological
effects, measurement and monitoring, and
environmental transport studies.
The total budget in support of the EPA Oil
Shale Program in Fiscal Year (FY) 78 was $3.76
million as compared to $3.14 million in FY 77.
Although the funding by category for FY 1979
is presently not available, the magnitude of the
effort is currently only slightly larger than for
FY 1978. An influx of funds into the program
could be expected, however, if the commercial-
ization of our nation's oil shale reserves is
given primary importance in the National Energy
Plan-II, scheduled for release in April of 1979.
The agencies participating in this program
include: the Department of Energy, U.S.
Geological Survey, National Bureau of Stan-
dards, U.S. Department of Agriculture, the
Department of Navy, and the National Institute
of Environmental Health Sciences.
Within EPA ten separate laboratories
conduct or contract oil shale-related environ-
mental studies. The Office of Energy, Minerals
and Industry, Headquarters, acts as coordi-
nator for the Interagency Program, but has also
contracted work in the area of overall assess-
ments. OEMI's Industrial and Environmental
Research Laboratory in Cincinnati (lERL-Ci)
funds and manages research on processing,
overall assessments, and extraction and han-
dling. Research laboratories in Ada, Oklahoma;
Athens, Georgia; Duluth, Minnesota; Las
Vegas, Nevada; and Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina conduct research studies in the
processes and effects area. Shale oil product
(end use) studies are managed and funded by
both OEMI's Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory at Research Triangle Park (IERL-
RTP) and the Ann Arbor (Michigan) Emission
Control Technology Division (ECTD) of the
Office of Air, Noise and Radiation.
Specific objectives of the EPA Oil Shale
program are two-fold: first, the program is to
support the regulatory goals of the Agency;
second, the research is to be directed towards
ensuring that any oil shale industry to be
developed will be accomplished in the most
environmentally acceptable manner that is
reasonably possible. To these ends, EPA is
continuing to assess the research needs and
environmental concerns expressed by the
Department of Energy (DOE) and the oil shale
industry.
Research is being directed to find solu-
tions for the environmental problems expressed
by the Department's Laramie Energy Technology
Center, and the active developers. The Office
of Research and Development/EPA is focusing
on those efforts identified by the Laramie
Center, since Laramie has the responsibility
within DOE for managing and developing the
national effort for oil shale development.
The major thrust and accomplishments over
the past year have included: one, the develop-
ment of a pollution control guidance document
which will serve primarily to communicate EPA
regulatory policy to the oil shale developers on
a comprehensive basis, as well as suggest
ranges of discharge and emission limits within
which the industry should strive to operate;
and two, the formalization of an interaction with
industry in the form of a forum for the purpose
of not only transferring to industry the results
of EPA-sponsored research but also catalizing
cooperative research in the environmental areas
of mutual interest.
vii
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EPA PROGRAM STATUS REPORT:
OIL SHALE
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1. INTRODUCTION
This report provides an overview of
current oil shale research and development
(R&D) efforts being performed by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA), or funded by
EPA money passed-through to other federal
agencies under the Interagency Energy/Envi-
ronment R&D Program. This chapter introduces
the background and rationale behind EPA's
efforts. Chapter 2 discusses EPA program
goals and fiscal year (FY) 1977 program
funding. The scope-of-work for ongoing
projects and a table summarizing these efforts
are presented in Chapter 3.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Since its establishment in 1970, EPA has
been involved in energy-related environmental
research efforts, including the development of
pollution control technologies designed to elimi-
nate the adverse effects that are often by-
products of energy conversion.
The recent national policy emphasis on the
development of domestic energy supplies stimu-
lated the formation of an Office of Energy
Research (OER) by EPA in late 1974. The OER
was established within the Office of Research
and Development (ORD). Reorganization of
ORD in June 1975 combined industrial and
mineral extraction pollution control research
with energy-related environmental research in a
new Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
(OEMI).
OEMI provides a focus for EPA's own
environment/energy/industry R&D efforts and
coordinates the comprehensive Federal Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
This program is a seventeen-agency. effort
whose goals include: environmental protection
during every phase of accelerated development
and use of energy supplies, with emphasis on
domestic resources; and, the development 'of
cost-effective pollution control technologies for
energy, industry, and mineral extraction and
processing systems.
Region VIII is in the forefront of the
energy-related environmental protection acti-
vities, particularly in the permit application
procedures, which places the Region VIII office
in communication with many federal, state, and
industrial personnel.
1.2 RATIONALE
Our cheap and abundant energy supplies
are rapidly being depleted. Domestic reserves
of oil and natural gas have been declining since
1970, and imported oil and gas are growing
increasingly more expensive. U.S. vulnerabi-
lity to supply interruption has also increased.
By the mid-1980's. the U.S. could be vying for
scarce oil against its allies and other consuming
nations, causing even greater price increases
and pressure on the world oil supply.
Consequently, the U.S. must significantly
reduce its reliance on imported oil and gas, and
make greater use of domestic energy resources.
The present energy mix consists of crude oil.
natural gas, coal, hydroelectric power, and
some geothermal power. There is considerable
R&D activity in other energy sources such as
solar, tar sands, synthetic oil and gas from
coal, and oil shale.
The principal known oil shale deposits of
the U.S. are shown in Figure 1. The richest
of the deposits is the Green River Formation of
Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. This region
contains the largest single known concentration
of hydrocarbons in the world. If only that
portion of the Green River Formation containing
the equivalent of 25 gallons (or more) of oil per
ton of shale were mined, it has been reliably
estimated that the shale oil in-place would
amount to about 731 billion barrels of oil.
Because western oil shale is a domestic
energy resource of considerable magnitude, the
availability of large quantities of crude shale oil
for refining products such as gasoline, diesel,
and jet fuels could sharply expand the U.S.
energy supply. Current R&D work is oriented
toward finding an economically and environmen-
tally practical way of producing shale oil and
bringing it to market.
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Figure 1.
PRINCIPAL OIL SHALE DEPOSITS OF THE U.S.
Explanation
Tertiary deposits: Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; Monterey
Formation, California; middle Tertiary deposits in Montana. Black areas are known high-
grade deposits.
Mesozoic deposits: Marine shale in Alaska.
Permian deposits: Phosphoria Formation, Montana.
Devonian and Mississippian deposits (resource estimates included for hachured areas only).
Boundary dashed where concealed or where location is uncertain.
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2. PROGRAM OVERVIEW
EPA studies related to the development and
commercialization of oil shale are providing
information on health and ecological effects from
pollutants created by the extraction and
processing of oil shale, and on technological
methods that can be used to control the release
of those pollutants. The program is also
assessing the environmental impact of the use of
the fuels refined from shale oil. These efforts
are principally supported by funds from the
seventeen-agency Federal Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program.
Studies under these programs relate to
EPA's mission to protect the public health and
welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associ-
ated with energy systems. The goal of the
program is to assure the rapid development of
domestic energy supplies in an environmentally
compatible manner by providing the necessary
environmental data and control technology.
Through its efforts of managing and
coordinating the program, as well as implemen-
ting a portion of the effort, EPA is developing
an oil shale industry that will be economically
and environmentally sound, utilizing the best
and most practical control technologies.
/™ EPA- the oil shale w°rk Group
(OSWG) is responsible for assuring a coordina-
ted and integrated approach to oil shale R&D
efforts. Formed in 1975 by OEMI, the OSWG
consists of individuals selected from EPA
Research Laboratories and Program Offices who
have environmental responsibilities associated
with oil shale development. The OSWG provides
EPA with technical expertise for up-to-date
information on oil shale development and its
environmental impact at the policy/decision-
making level. OSWG is also responsible for
reviewing EPA's overall environmental research
strategy associated with federal and commercial
oil shale development and for exploring avenues
of cooperative environmental research between
industry and the government. Figure 2 shows
members of the OSWG.
OEMI's oil shale R&D activities are coordi-
nated by EPA. EPA's oil shale program is
administered by the Office of Energy, Minerals
and Industry within the Office of Research and
Development The overall effort is presently
divided into five subprogram areas:
o Overall Assessments
o Extraction and Handling
o Processing
o Energy-Related Processes and
Effects
o End Use
The remainder of this chapter examines
each of these areas as it relates to oil shale
R&D, and discusses its program funding. Total
funding for FY 1978 EPA oil shale efforts is
$3,760,000. At the end of this chapter,
Figure 3 shows EPA funding and pass-through
funding for the oil shale program by sub-
program category for Fiscal Years 1977 and
1978.
2.1 OVERALL ASSESSMENTS
. The overall assessment program was estab-
lished to define and evaluate the various envi-
ronmental and socioeconomic effects that result
from energy extraction, processing, transporta-
tion, conversion, and end use activities.
Objectives of the program include: identifica-
tion of energy supply and conversion alterna-
tives; evaluation of the cost/risk/ benefit
trade-offs of energy production, conservation.
and pollution control alternatives; assistance to
the nation in the selection of optimized policies
for the attainment of energy and environmental
quality goals; and, identification of critical gaps
in current energy-related research programs,
and of other priority research topics, which
must be addressed to support direct EPA
responsibilities.
2.1.1 Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale
Development
The EPA Oil Shale Work Group is pre-
paring a report entitled, "Pollution Control
Guidance for Oil Shale Development." The
purpose of this report is to provide environ-
mental guidance for the emerging oil shale
industry. The report is intended to serve as a
reference and guide to regulators, developers,
and others who are or will be involved with the
oil shale industry. It is expected that the
report will be published in three volumes: an
executive summary, the main report, and a
volume of appendices. , :
This report will convey EPA's understand-
ing and perspective of oil shale development by
providing a summation of available information
on oil shale resources; a summary of major air,
water, solid waste, health, and other environ-
mental impacts; an analysis of potentially
applicable pollution control technology; a guide
for the sampling, analysis, and monitoring of
emissions, effluents, and solid wastes from oil
shale.processes; suggestions for development of
interim standards :for emissions, effluents, and
solid waste disposal; and a summary of major
retorting processes, emissions, and effluents.
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I I
» •**
!•—*
Figure 2.
THE EPA OIL SHALE WORK GROUP
The group, including two associate members from the USGS Area Oil Shale Office, most recently met
in Denver in conjunction with the January 1979 meeting of EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry held with industry.
Back Row: Eugene Harris, lERL-Cin, Chairman; Edward R. Bates, lERL-Cin; Wesley L. Kinney,
EMSL-Las Vegas; Les G. McMillion, EMSL-Las Vegas.
Middle Row: Robert Thurnau, lERL-Cin; Mark Mercer, OSW; Bruce Tichenor, IERL-RTP; Alden
Christianson, lERL-Cin.
Front Row: Miles LaHue, USGS; Glen A. Miller, USGS; Paul Mills, lERL-Cin; and William N.
McCarthy, Jr., OEMI, Washington, D.C.
in iti nd i bui n,.i [)ii tin wi wei e r . rmeth li nger, ERL-Duluth; David Coffin, HERL-RTP;
Robert Newport; R. S. Kerr, ERL and Terry Thoem, Region VIII (Denver).
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FY 1978
ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPORT
PROCESSES
140
(£> DOE:
BNL - 5
LASL- 100
LLL - 10
ORNL- 25
NIEHS 8O
© DOE: 106
LETC -56
BMI/PNL-50
NIEHS 20
DOE/AMES
NBS
uses
35
170
180
TOTAL =3,760
[g.fffl EPA PASS-THROUGH FUNDS
FUNDING DOES NOT INCLUDE IN-HOUSE
EP4 EXPENSES, E.6 SALARIES AND
TRAVEL.
FUNDIN8 MAS BEEN PROPORTIONED FOR
PROCESSES AND EFFECTS PROJECTS
THAT ARE NOT EXCLUSIVELY RELATED
TO OIL SHALE.
ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPORT
PROCESSES
FY 1977
(T) ooe - so
NBS - 90
U39S-IOO
(j) ooe -s»o
NIEHS- SS
TOTAL: 3,140
Figure 3
EPA OIL SHALE FY 1977 AND 1978 FUNDING SUMMARIES
(in thousands of dollari)
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2.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum
In October 1978, the headquarters office of
OEMI and its Cincinnati Laboratory (IERL)
initiated an effort to establish a closer working
relationship between EPA and the industrial
firms interested in developing oil from oil shale.
The approach is centering on two meetings with
industry to gain its ideas on the environmental
and regulatory problems that must be faced
prior to bringing oil shale to commerce.
2.1.3 EPA Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling,
Analysis and Quality Assurance
The symposium brought research, govern-
ment, and industry personnel together to
present technical papers and exchange thoughts
and knowledge pertinent to the environmental
control of oil shale development. Emphasis was
placed on quality assurance, sampling tech-
niques, and analysis in the areas of air and
water quality, solid waste control, and biologi-
cal and health effects.
2.1.4 Integrated Assessments
Two projects are currently active under
the integrated assessment program.
USDA is performing a technology assess-
ment of the development of six energy re-
sources (coal, geothermal, natural gas, oil, oil
shale, and uranium) in eight western states
(Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and
Wyoming) during the period from the present to
the year 2000. Energy development was
analyzed through the use of six site-specific
scenarios (Colstrip, Beulah, Gillette, Kaiparo-
wits/Escalante, Rifle, and Nava jo/Farming ton)
and two regional scenarios representing low and
nominal demand cases.
A University of Oklahoma study addressed
energy development water problems in both the
Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain
Region. Oil shale development in the Rocky
Mountain Region is highly concentrated in the
upper reaches of the Colorado River Basin.
One problem facing the oil shale industry here
is the lack of water availability due to the
fragmentation of the water market in the upper
reaches of the Colorado River Basin. Three
states hold rights to the water, while Colorado
(the state with the greatest share of oil shale)
has the least undepleted surface water flows.
While it seems likely that water rights can and
are being bought from agriculture, the very
localized nature of the oil shale industry seems
to indicate that agricultural production in
certain areas near the Piceance Basin may be
drastically reduced as a result of the sale of
water rights to the oil shale industry.
2.2 EXTRACTION AND HANDLING
EPA's program for oil shale extraction and
handling attempts to assess potential environ-
mental problems and develop resource handling
and control methods for in situ and surface oil
shale extraction and land reclamation. This
program is needed in order to define environ-
mentally acceptable practices for the extraction
of oil shale. The semiarid and arid oil shale
areas of the West will be extremely difficult to
restore.
Work being performed involves assessing
the potential environmental impact upon air and
water resources from the extraction and han-
dling of oil shale resources. Also included are
studies of disposal and revegetation of spent oil
shales.
Three projects are underway to determine
surface stability, water movement and runoff,
water quality, and revegetation of spent oil
shale from the TOSCO II, Paraho Direct, and
USBM retorting processes. Another project is
underway to assess the environmental impact of
leachates from raw mined oil shale. A fifth
project is determining the nature, quantities,
and composition of fugitive dust emissions in
the vicinity of mining operations, haulage
roads, crushing operations, and spent shale
transfer points. Another project is analyzing
trace element composition in two cores from the
Naval Oil Shale Reserve. A seventh project is
underway to assess air emissions from old oil
shale waste sites.
For FY 1979, $211,000 has been spent on
the oil shale extraction and handling program.
Of this, $100,000 was passed-through EPA to
the USDA for water quality work on surface
and subsurface drainage.
2.3 PROCESSING
The EPA program for processing seeks to
ensure that future large-scale commercial appli-
cations of oil shale processing, combustion, and
utilization can be constructed and operated
within required environmental limits. The
program's approach includes an environmental
assessment, evaluation, and testing of a number
of processes in order to (1) define the best
available control technology, (2) prepare stan-
dards-of-practice manuals, and (3) support
standards-setting efforts.
The processing program at lERL-Ci has
sponsored research in the areas of: (1) envi-
ronmental characterization; (2) environmental
analytical methods development; (3) assessment
of wastewater treatment and control technology;
(4) air pollution control of oil shale retorting;
(5) overview of environmental problems; and
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(6) preliminary oil shale pollution control
guidance. The overall objective is to define
environmental problems early in the process
development phase and to then develop effective
pollution control technologies to abate the
problems identified.
2.4 ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND .
EFFECTS
The energy-related processes and effects
program is designed to identify the mechanisms
of movement within the environment and the
effects on human, animal, and plant populations
which are associated with energy-related activi-
ties. The goal of the program is to compile and
evaluate information to support decisions
relative to the protection of natural biota,
human health, welfare, and social goals. This
program includes four areas that are directly
involved in oil shale R&D: health effects;
ecological effects; measurement and monitoring,
and environmental transport processes.
2.4.1 Health Effects
The health effects research program seeks.
to determine the hazards from pollutants
released by various energy technologies. The
program includes the development of bioassay
and other techniques to measure hazards, and
the application of these techniques to the
characterization of hazards to human health. In
relation to human health, the emphasis of the
program is on the effects of agents which give
rise to carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, teratogen-
esis, toxicity. and disorders of the cardio-
pulmonary system.
A variety of pollutant species are being
examined for their impacts on human health.
Research efforts have confirmed that pollutants
such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides and their
atmospheric reaction products are detrimental to
human health.
Another major effort has been to assess
the potential health impacts of developing
energy technologies. Although a number of
preliminary assessments have been made, most
of the data are derived from processes in the
early stages of development. It is acknowl-
edged that standard-setting information must be
based upon extrapolation of bench and pilot
scale data to the commercialization stage. This
developmental work also provides guidance to
industry on the anticipated environmental
regulations in order to avoid sudden and
expensive equipment alterations.
Other work involves a number of testing
methods that have been developed or refined by
research supported by EPA. These efforts
include new methods of identification by means
of cytological, biochemical, and physiological
indicators, of the damages resulting from expo-
sure to pollutants associated with energy
development. By incorporating these tech-
niques into a hierarchial testing methodology,
EPA's health effects program has been able to
efficiently allocate available research funds in
the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D
Program.
2.4.2 Ecological Effects
The ecological effects research program is
based on the results of research conducted in
other areas of the Interagency Program.
Various methods and instruments developed and
refined within the measurement and monitoring
areas, and the results of environmental trans-
port processes studies, are used to characterize
the ecosystem effects associated with oil shale
development. The various research efforts
determine the effects of organic and inorganic
pollutants, thermal discharges, and complex
effluents on water and land ecosystems.
Current research efforts include the
determination of immediate and long-term eco-
system dose-response relationships for single
pollutants and combinations of pollutants
released by oil shale extraction, conversion,
and utilization, and the assessments of the
effects of mining-related transportation systems
on water, air, soil, plant, animal, and aesthetic
resources.
Effects of Aqueous Effluents from In Situ Fuel
Processing Technologies on Aquatic Systems
This study at the University of Wyoming is
principally associated with in situ oil shale
retorting and underground coal gasification.
Specifically, it is directed to study the toxicity
to aquatic biota. Included are effects on
growth and reproduction, avoidance/preference
response of aquatic organisms, bioaccumulation
and metabolism in aquatic organisms, biochem-
ical, physiological and pathological effects on
aquatic organisms, and degradation and residue
kinetics in model laboratory microcosms.
Chemical and Biological Characterizations of Oil
Shale Processing and Coal Conversion Effluents
The Colorado State University study is to
provide predictive information about the effects
of pollutants from oil shale processing and coal
conversion on surface waters and aquatic biota.
The three areas of investigation are: chemical
characterization of effluents and by-products
associated with each of the above energy
development areas; field surveys and analyses
of aquatic organisms in streams which are, or
may be, impacted by these effluents; and
laboratory bioassays of known and potential
toxicants associated with these effluents.
The objectives of the proposed research
are to determine: the chemical and biological
impacts of aquifers associated with in situ oil
shale retorting on surface waters; cKimical
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characteristics of retort process waters; chemi-
cal characteristics of retorted oil shale leachate
waters; toxic materials present in oil shale
process and leachate waters; degradation
characteristics of oil shale retort and leachate
waters; chemical and toxicological characteristics
of coal gasification and tar sands process
waters; and physical and chemical transforma-
tions of toxic materials from coal gasification
process effluents.
For FY 1978, $134,000 has been spent on
oil shale research through the ecological effects
program. Work has been sponsored by EPA's
Environmental Research Laboratory in Duluth,
Minnesota and the Laramie Energy Technology
Center.
2.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring
This research area involves the detection,
measurement, and monitoring of pollutants, and
the performance of quality assurance activities
to characterize the ecosystem effects associated
with oil shale development. The objectives are
to accelerate the development of new and
improved sampling and analysis methods for
energy-related pollutants and to identify,
measure, and monitor effluents during oil shale
development activities.
2.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes
This research area is closely integrated
with the research areas of measurement and
monitoring, and ecological effects. Within the
former research area, methods and tools are
developed, tested, and applied to provide data
useful in the understanding of transport and
fate processes. Ecological effects studies are
related to the effects of pollutants on natural
organisms and their habitats. Environmental
transport processes research addresses energy-
related pollutants in terms of mechanisms of
dispersion from sites of production, transforma-
tions which occur subsequent to release, and
ultimate accumulation in man, domesticated and
wild animals and plants, and in nonliving
material such as soil and sediments.
Current efforts are underway to develop
methods to predict groundwater changes re-
sulting from mining activity. Presently, the
information being generated is in the area of
coal strip mining, but the methods will be
extrapolated to include oil shale retorting.
Efforts in 1978 and 1979 will concentrate on oil
shale.
Funding for the environmental transport
processes program was $200,000 for FY 1977.
Funds went to EPA's R. S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory.
The measurement and monitoring program
is defining baseline environmental conditions
and is analyzing the impacts of energy devel-
opment on the environment by the identifica-
tion, measurement, and long-term sensing of
air, land, and water quality. The various
research efforts investigate organic and in-
organic pollutants, thermal discharges and
complex effluents on water and land ecosystems.
Another important aspect of this program
is quality assurance. The data that are
collected on environmental pollutants must be
valid and reliable, so a separate subprogram
was designed to guarantee data accuracy. The
quality assurance activities seek to insure that
a common acceptable methodology be used by all
entities who perform monitoring so that data
may be compared.
2.5 END USE
The end use studies focus on potential
environmental problems which could be gener-
ated through the refining and combusion of
shale oil. To date the research has focused
primarily on the generation of NOK due to the
high Nitrogen content of the shale oil.
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3. CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS
Each EPA funded project falls under a
category described in Chapter 2 of this report.
The same is true for projects supported by EPA
pass-through funds. Table 1 on page 35
summarizes the status of EPA's current oil shale
program.
3.1 OVERALL ASSESSMENTS
3.1.1 Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale
Development
This report summarizes the anticipated EPA
regulatory approach toward oil shale develop-
ment and is designed to serve as a reference
and guide to EPA offices, federal agencies, and
private developers involved with the emerging
oil shale industry. Volume 1 contains seven
sections: Introduction; Recommendations;
Environmental Impacts; Pollution Control Tech-
nology; Sampling, Analysis, and Monitoring of
Emissions, Effluents, and Solid Wastes; Sugges-
tions for Development of Interim EPA Emissions,
Effluents, and Solid Waste Disposal Standards;
and Summary of Major Retorting Processes,
Emissions, and Effluents. Volume 2 contains
six appendices: State-Of-The-Art of Oil Shale
Development; Procedures for Ambient Air Monit-
oring; Past, Present, and Future Baseline
Monitoring Activities; Applicable Federal, State,
and Local Laws and Regulations; List of Analyt-
ical Procedures Manuals and Quality Assurance
Manuals; and Catalog of Existing Federal,
State, and Locally Required Permits.
3.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum
In October 1978, the headquarters office of
OEMI and its Cincinnati Laboratory (lERL-Ci)
initiated an effort to establish a closer working
relationship between EPA and the industrial
firms interested in developing oil from oil shale.
The approach is centering on two meetings with
industry to gain its ideas on the environmental
and regulatory problems that must- be faced
prior to bringing oil shale to commerce. It is
hoped that cooperative research directed toward
solving these problems will ensue. C.K.
GeoEnergy Corporation of Las Vegas, Nevada
was selected as the contractor to organize and
conduct both the initial and follow-up meetings
with industry.
On January 23-24, 1979, in Denver, senior
management from EPA's Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry representing the R&D
effort, and from Region VIII, representing the
regulatory function, met with senior management
from industry. (Figure 4). Senior management
from DOE and Department of Interior's (DOI)
Area Oil Shale Office were in attendance to
round out the federal sector. (Figure 5)
There was also representation from the State of
Colorado. Industry was represented by 25
companies. Industry heard both DOE and EPA
express a positive attitude toward the prospects
for oil shale commercialization. Industry
appeared receptive to the idea of cooperative
research. Industry was asked to make Individ-
ual contacts with EPA R&D to develop coopera-
tive efforts in those areas where environmental
problems were inhibiting development. A
second meeting is planned within five months to
coordinate and set funding priorities for these
individual efforts.
3.1.3 Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling,
Analysis, and Quality Assurance
The lERL-Ci, with Denver Research
Institute as grantee, sponsored a symposium in
Denver, Colorado, on March 26, 27, and 28,
1979. This symposium brought together the
available expertise from industry, government,
and academia to provide a forum for presenta-
tion of the state-of-the-art in sampling,
analysis, and quality assurance of the pollut-
ants from oil shale developments. Interagency
and industrial cooperation and information
exchange was encouraged. Opinions from
researchers as to the current capabilities of
methods, and research needs, were presented.
The symposium information will be pub-
lished- and evaluated for use in developing
standardized methods for oil shale environmental
sampling and analysis methodology. The in-
formation will be used to develop the manual on
sampling and analysis methods for oil shale
described above.
Topics of the symposium included:
pollutants to be characterized and quantified;
media to be examined; health effects; sampling
and analysis methods; quality assurance needs;
future directions of methodology; reference
materials; and instrumentation development.
3.1.4 Integrated Assessments
Integrated Assessment: Socioeconomic Conse-
quences of Coal and Oil Shale Development
USDA's Economic Research Service,
Washington, D.C., is working to describe
current resource use in coal and oil shale
extraction and to assess agricultural economic
implications, resource competition, and use
resulting from coal and oil shale development.
This work will also estimate the impact of
energy development in the Northern Great
Plains on employment, income, and population of
rural communities and of local government
finances and services, including revenue
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Figure 4.
EPA MEETS WITH THE OIL SHALE INDUSTRY TO FOSTER
COMMUNICATIONS AND COOPERATIVE R&D EFFORTS
On January 23-24, 1979 in Denver, Colorado, senior management personnel from the oil shale industry
met with senior management from EPA, DOE and DOI to explore cooperative research efforts that will
result in process methodology or control technology that will mitigate the environmental impacts that
could result from commercializing the oil shale reserves.
10
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Figure 5.
EPA REAFFIRMS ITS COMMITMENT TO SUPPORT THE NATIONAL ENERGY PLAN
At the Denver EPA Industry meeting, Alan Merson, EPA Region VIII Administrator (left), discusses
with Jackson Gouraud, Deputy Undersecretary for Commercialization, DOE, EPA's commitment to
ensure that any commercialized oil shale industry will be environmentally acceptable to the nation.
During the meeting, Gouraud and Merson each presented his agency's viewpoint concerning the
development of the nation's oil shale reserves.
11
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potential. Interrelationships of local govern-
ment expenditures to employment, population,
income, age structure, and other socioeconomic
variables will be analyzed. The work will
evaluate costs of mined land reclamation and
uses for land after mining. Interregional
economic implications and trade-offs for agri-
cultural and rural areas resulting from coal
development will also be evaluated. Included
are effects of increased water demand for coal
development on agricultural industries, environ-
mental quality, and rural resource use. This
project is funded by EPA pass-through funds to
USD A. The duration of this project is from
March 1976 to June 1979.
Technology Assessment of Western Energy
Resource Development
The University of Oklahoma is under
contract to determine the effects of development
of six energy resources in the western U.S.
The energy resources under study are: coal,
geothermal, natural gas, oil, uranium, and oil
shale. The study comprises an eight-state area
including: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New
Mexico, North and South Dakota, Utah, and
Wyoming. The results of the assessment will be
used by EPA in developing pollution control
policies and their associated implementation
strategies applicable to western energy resource
development.
Recently, the University of Oklahoma, in
conjunction with Radian Corporation of Austin,
Texas, released a four-volume report titled,
"Energy from the West: A Progress Report of
a Technology Assessment of Western Energy
Resource Development," EPA-600/7-77-072. It
is a progress report of a three-year technology
assessment of the development of the six energy
resources. The contract began in July 1975
and is scheduled for completion in late 1978.
3.2 EXTRACTION AND HANDLING
Within the extraction and handling program
are four projects sponsored by EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati
(lERL-Ci) that are being performed by Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Three
of these projects deal with surface stability,
water movement and runoff, water quality and
revegetation of processed oil shale. The fourth
deals with assessing the environmental impact of
leachates through raw mined oil shale. A
project being conducted by the USDA using
EPA pass-through funds is developing recom-
mendations for revegetation following oil shale
mining. Another study is being conducted by
TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California, which
analyzes the mining and handling operations and
the fugitive dust emitted at the Paraho site in
Colorado. Two projects are being cofunded
with the Laramie Energy Technology Center,
DOE. The first being performed by the
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, California, is analyzing
trace element composition in two cores from the
Naval Oil Shale Reserve. The second being
performed by Science Applications, Inc.,
Lafayette, California, will assess air emissions
from old oil shale waste sites.
Technologies for Controlling Adverse Effects of
Mining on Forest, Range and Related Fresh-
water Ecosystems
Coordinated studies are underway to
develop technologies for controlling adverse
effect^ of mining on forest, range, and related
freshwater ecosystems. The studies are being
conducted by USDA Forest Service research
scientists at several locations in the Northern
Great Plains and Southwest U.S., by the Rocky
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Fort Collins, Colorado; the Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah;
the Forest Environment Research Staff,
Washington, D.C.; and the Northeastern Forest
and Range Experiment Station, Upper Darby,
Pennsylvania.
. The work will: (1) develop guidelines and
criteria for overburden drilling, analysis, and
placement as related to growth-supporting
media; (2) prepare technical handbooks on
revegetation recommendations for new research;
(3) develop guidelines and criteria for the use
of nonmine wastes as soil amendments on oil
shale spoils; and (4) develop recommendations,
guidelines, and criteria, based on new research
for revegetation following oil shale mining.
This project is sponsored by USDA with pass-
through funds from EPA. Term of the contract
is from 1975 to 1981. An interim report will be
available in the spring of 1979 and a final
report in 1981.
Water Quality Hydrology Affected by Oil Shale
Development
Colorado State University is under a grant
from lERL-Ci to study the water quality of both
surface and subsurface drainage within the oil
shale areas of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah.
Specific objectives of this study are to:
1) gather all available data pertinent to the
present and future assessment of the water
quality hydrology in the oil shale regions of the
Upper Colorado River Basin; (2) summarize and
analyze these data in order to identify data
deficiencies, needs for additional data, and
procedures for the assessment of the impact on
water quality management; and (3) develop
procedures for the quantitative assessment of
the quantity and quality of surface and sub-
surface runoff from processed shale residue and
mine spoils, and to verify these procedures
using existing large-scale volumetric lysimeters
at Anvil Points, Colorado. Term of this project
is from June 1975 to June 1980.
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Vegetative Stabilization of Paraho Spent Oil
Shale
Colorado State University is working under
contract to lERL-Ci to study surface stability
and water movement in and through Paraho
spent shale and soil-covered Paraho spent
shale. In addition, the distribution of water
and salts in the plots was monitored with the
objective of quantifying the potential salt pollu-
tion from shale residues.
This study duplicates on a small scale what
might be disposal schemes for Paraho spent
shale or other types of spent shale. The
project involved the compaction of a 3-foot layer
of Paraho spent shale over a reinforced
concrete pad (132 feet long, 44 feet wide,
6 inches thick, and coated with an inert
sealant). A four-inch thick layer of gravel was
placed immediately over the concrete pad. This
allowed collection of water which percolated
through the compacted spent shale.
A layer of compacted spent shale (96 to
100 lb/ft3) was then placed over the gravel. A
layer of uhcompacted spent shale was placed on
top of the compacted shale and then covered
with either 8, 16, or 24 inches of soil.
Two separate concrete pad units with the
above treatments were constructed on Bureau of
Land Management property just below the
housing area of DOE's Anvil Points Oil Shale
Research Facility. One unit was used to
simulate a low-elevation spent shale disposal
site, while the other was used to simulate a
higher elevation site receiving more precipita-
tion. Since the actual study site was located in
the low-elevation zone, the high-elevation
disposal zone was simulated with irrigation.
The low-elevation unit was irrigated the first
growing season to establish the vegetation; then
left under natural precipitation. The high-
elevation unit required yearly irrigation,
scheduled to simulate a disposal site at 8,000
feet with 20 inches of average annual precipita-
tion.
To develop the hydrological model phase of
this study, drains were installed in the surface
of the concrete pad and at the interface
between the compacted and uncompacted zones.
The purpose of the drains was to collect the
water and salts percolating through the zones.
Term of this study was from June 1975 to
November 1978. . A final report should be
available by Summer 1979.
Vegetative Stabilization of Spent Oil Shale
Colorado State University is working under
grant to lERL-Ci to continue investigations of
surface stability and salt movement in spent oil
shales and soil-covered spent shales after a
cover of native vegetation has been established
by intensive treatments and then left under
natural precipitation conditions. Work under
this project continues the maintenance and
observations on vegetation, moisture, salinity,
runoff, and sediment yields on revegetation
plots established in 1974 and 1975.
The study is being performed on three
different spent oil shales—coarse-textured
USBM, fine-textured TOSCO II, and coarse-
textured Paraho Direct mode. Various soil
treatment tests are included to study plant
establishment on leached spent shale, soil cover
over leached spent shale, soil cover over un-
leached spent shale, and soil with no spent
shale.
Data collected includes general observa-
tions, collection of runoff and sediment samples,
soil moisture measurements, movement of salts
in soil and shale profiles, maintenance of mete-
orological equipment, and vegetation analysis of
species and groundcover. A final report is
expected in 1980.
Fugitive Dust from Oil Shale Extraction
TRW, Inc., is working under contract to
lERL-Ci to obtain samples of fugitive dust
generated at the Paraho shale oil operations at
Anvil Points, Colorado. Support services and
facilities were worked out with the site opera-
tor. Development Engineering, Inc., Grand
Junction, Colorado.
The nature, quantities, and specific
sources of fugitive dust emissions were deter-
mined in the vicinity of mining operations and
spent shale transfer points. A survey was
made of the mining and oil shale handling
operations to determine the sources of fugitive
dust and candidate locations > for collection
devices. Visual observations of dust-generating
operations and local wind behavior were useful
in preparing the equipment plan and choice of
methodology.
The principal dust collection devices were
high-volume samplers. These were supple-
mented by cascade impaction samplers for
determining particle size distribution. Testing
locations and periods of operation were reviewed
to obtain concurrence and assure that mining
and extraction operations were not affected by
the sampling activity. Meteorological instrumen-
tation was also provided at each collection
location to continuously record wind direction
and velocity.
Records of mine and plant activity for each
sampling site were kept by the field crew. In
particular, mining activities, blasting, haul-
truck operations, crushing, and shale transfer
operations were logged, since all of these
activities are intermittent or variable. These
records were coordinated with the high-volume
sampler unit records. A final report should be
available in the summer of 1979.
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Trace Element Analysis on Cores from the Naval
Oil Shale Reserves
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the
University of California is examining two core
samples from the Naval Oil Shale Reserve for
the presence of 45 elements including As, Se,
Mo, B, F, Hg, Cd, and U. One hundred and
eighty-five (185) composite samples will be
prepared from core segments selected to include
oil shale zones under consideration for commer-
cial development. These samples will be
analyzed using the neutron activation method,
Zeeman atomic absorption spectroscopy, and
other selected methods. X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry will be used to validate the
methods previously cited in the case of selected
samples. The data which results can then be
used to aid in the selection of environmentally
acceptable sites for in situ oil shale plants or to
select zones for mining for surface retorting
which would minimize environmental impacts.
This project is cofunded by lERL-Ci. the U.S.
Navy, and the Department of Energy. A final
report should be available late in 1979.
Leaching Characteristics of Raw Surface Stored
Oil Shale
Colorado State University is working under
grant from lERL-Ci to determine the leaching
characteristics of raw oil shale for the purpose
of determining potential impacts upon water
quality of large quantities of surface-stored raw
oil shale. Subordinate objectives are to esti-
mate the quantities of leachate water likely to
be available in field locations and to combine
these data with data on leachate concentrations
to estimate potential loading of receiving waters
with dissolved solids, trace elements, and
organics.
Data will be obtained by subjecting
columns of mined raw shale to leaching tests
under a variety of flow rates, conditions of
aeration, and column lengths. Chemical analy-
ses of raw shale and effluent for common ions,
trace elements, and total organics will be made.
Samples of native soil will be leached under
similar conditions for comparative purposes.
The term of this project is from October 1978 to
March 1980.
Air Emissions from Old Shale Waste Sites
Science Applications, Inc., will conduct a
field testing program to determine if air emis-
sions are being released from old in situ oil
shale sites, spent shale piles or oxidation of
exposed oil shale. The project entails field
sampling of soils and air at ten sites of pre-
vious in situ or surface oil shale retorting
activity and at one location away from any oil
shale development which will serve as the
control.,. Four soil samples and one air sample
will be collected at each of the eleven sites.
Soils will be tested for SO2, total organ-
ics, hydrocarbons, pH and soil atmosphere SO2.
Air samples will be tested for SO2 and hydro-
carbons. The term of this project is from
November 1978 to September 1979.
3.3 PROCESSING
The main areas of the lERL-Ci processing
program are: environmental assessment, analy-
tical methods development, control technology
development, and pollution control guidance.
Eleven major projects encompass the FY 1978
research activity on oil shale processing.
Assessment of Environmental Impacts from Oil
Shale Development
TRW/DRI are working under contract to
lERL-Ci to study the environmental impact of oil
shale development. This three-year project
includes the acquisition of the necessary back-
ground data on the principal industrial shale
recovery processes and U.S. shale resources, a
comparative assessment of their environmental
acceptability, and an evaluation of technologies
available for the control of air, water, and solid
waste emissions.
Work under this contract was divided into
six tasks: (1) project management; (2) oil
shale and recovery process characterization; (3)
engineering analysis and problem definition; (4)
field testing and laboratory analysis; (5) envi-
ronmental evaluation, and (6) evaluation of
existing environmental control technology. This
project has provided a basis for establishing
rational design, management, and monitoring
procedures to mitigate unavoidable adverse
environmental impacts prior to development of a
full-scale oil shale industry.
Sampling and Analysis of the Paraho Surface
Retort
A sampling and analysis research program
at the Paraho oil shale retorting demonstration
site at Anvil Points, Colorado, was conducted
by TRW/DRI in conjunction with DOE's Laramie
Energy Technology Center (LETC), Development
Engineering, Inc., Grand Junction, Colorado,
and EPA's lERL-Ci. The overall objective of
the test program was to obtain quantitative and
qualitative measurements of air, water, and
solid effluent compositions, and to gain experi-
ence that will lead to improved sampling proce-
dures and the determination of priorities for
sampling and analysis of oil shale recovery
operations.
The existing Anvil Points operations
include two vertical retorts: a larger semi-
works unit in which a portion of the off-gas
was recycled and heated externally to supply
heat to the retort and a smaller pilot plant in
which air was introduced with recycled gas to
14
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support combustion of carbon on retorted shale
as a source of process heat. The test plan
included both retorts, since their process
streams (with the exception of oil product) are
essentially different. Selection of sample
locations was based on the need for information
on process streams relative to emissions and
effluents .expected in a full-scale plant.
Samples taken included the recycled gases
(H2S, SO2, NOX, NH3, and trace organics),
recycle condensate, product oil/water, pro-
cessed shale discharged from the retorts, and
dust in the vicinity of crushing, screening, and
conveying equipment. A variety of laboratory
analysis methods were used, including wet
chemical analysis, spark source mass spectrom-
etry, high pressure liquid chromatography, thin
layer chromatography, gel permeation chroma-
tography, and gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry methods (GC/MS).
Condensate water inorganic analyses were
done for calcium, magnesium, sodium and potas-
sium salts, ammonia, gross parameters, and
trace elements. Condensate and product water
samples were also analyzed for organic neutrals
(particularly aromatics), organic acids, and
organic bases. Elemental determinations of both
retorted shale and raw shale particulates were
made. The report from this work (EPA 600/
7-78-065) was published in April 1978.
Sampling and Analysis for Retort and Combus-
tion Gases at the Paraho Shale Oil Demonstra-
tion Plant
This second effort in the lERL-Ci environ-
mental testing program was carried out by TRW
at the Paraho shale oil demonstration plant in
Anvil Points, Colorado. The test program
emphasis was placed on measurements of
gaseous stream constituents in recycle gas from
the Paraho retort, and the combustion products
from a thermal oxidizer fueled by recycle gas
and auxiliary fuel. Measurements included
nitrogen-based compounds (NH3, HCN),
reduced sulfur compounds (H2S, COS, CS2),
combustion products (SO2, NOX/ N2, O2, CO,
CO2), particulates, volatile trace elements (As,
Hg) and hydrocarbons. Light-end hydro-
carbons (Cj - C6) are reported for the normal
alkanes, from samples analyzed in the field by
gas chromatography. Heavier hydrocarbons
(C6 - C12) are quantitatively reported for 53
constituents, as determined by mass spectrom-
eter identification and gas chromatograph
determination.
In that draft report of this effort (on EPA
Contract No. 68-02-2560), TRW discusses
comparative sampling and analysis methods,
including instrumental and impinger train tech-
niques, and their applicability to shale oil
process streams is indicated. Quantitative
determinations of very small arsenic concentra-
tions were made by a GC/MS method. Possible
sources of sampling and analysis error are
indicated for traditional methods, especially for
attempted determinations of HCN, COS and CS2.
Recommended instrumentation developments and
additional analyses are indicated, as well as the
applicability of the data to control technology
investigations.
Environmental Characterization of In Situ Oil
Shale Processing
The horizontal in situ oil shale retorting
technology developed by Geokinetics, Inc., will
be environmentally characterized by the lERL-Ci
at the Uintah County, Utah site demonstration
with the Department of Energy. Monsanto
Research Corporation is under contract to EPA's
lERL-Ci to provide assistance to Geokinetics
personnel and Department of Energy represen-
tatives in the collection of wastewater samples
and their analysis for conventional pollutants,
trace metals, and priority pollutants (except
pesticides). The retorting process off-gases
will also be sampled and analyzed for criteria
pollutants, trace elements, and specific toxic
gases (HCN, NH3, COS, CS2 and H2S). The
final report will summarize the horizontal in situ
oil shale retorting technology and process
characteristics, quantify environmental impacts
(emissions, effluents, and residues) and
recommend future areas of environmental
research.
The sampling and analysis of in situ oil
shale retorting at the Laramie Energy Tech-
nology Center's (DOE) Rock Springs, Wyoming
Site 12 by Monsanto Research Corporation
(under contract to EPA's lERL-Ci) is designed
to identify the major potential environmental
problem areas from process gas emissions and
water effluents. An environmental characteriza-
tion will be provided by sampling and analyzing
the process gas, before and after incineration,
for particulate loading, particle sizes, organic
material, inorganic material, total nonmethane
hydrocarbons, NO , SO , COS, CS2, H2S,
HCN, AsH3, NH3, O3, CO2, CO and moisture.
The modified Method 5, Method 6, Method 7,
gas chromatography/flame ionization detector
and flame photometric detector (GC/FID and
GC/FPD), GS/MS, inductively coupled argon
plasma (ICAP), atomic absorption (AA),
impinger techniques and FYRITE/ORSAT
analyses will be utilized to characterize emis-
sions. In addition, composite retort wastewater
samples from each third of the burn and the
total burn will be analyzed for water quality
parameters, organic consent decree compounds
(except pesticides), and trace elements. A
stored sample of "Omega 9" wastewater (from
the Site 9 burn) was provided as a background
standard to be analyzed prior to initiation of
the field sampling program at Site 12. This
effort will complement the environmental charac-
terization work on this process by EPA's Robert
S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory at
Ada, Oklahoma and the Laramie Energy Tech-
nology Center of the Department of Energy at
Laramie, Wyoming.
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Assessment of Oil Shale Retort Wastewater
Treatment and Control Technology
The work and services to be performed
under this FY 78 RFP (Request for Proposal)
include: the definition of pollutant discharges,
detailed treatability studies, and development/
testing of control technology. The award
pending final negotiation is to Monsanto.
The approach will be to establish a specific
list of water pollutants and their sources to
provide a guideline for the assessment of line
for the design of the field pilot-scale water
pollution control devices to be fabricated and
tested in subsequent project phases. The
pollutants identified shall be those contained in
oil shale retort wastewaters emanating from
surface retorts and in situ retorts whose
wastewaters are treated"Tn above-ground
processing equipment.
Air Pollution Investigations of Oil Shale Re-
torting: In Situ and Surface
Characterizing the effluent streams associ-
ated with oil shale processing is necessary from
a standards and control technology standpoint.
It was the consensus of the oil shale developers
at a recent meeting that a commercial-size
facility should be built and the environmental
impact determined. The risks involved in such
a venture are considerable and thus far only
pilot-scale operations have been conducted. It
was EPA's position that small air pollution
control devices could be "slipstreamed" into
some of these oil shale operations and valuable
information on emissions and control technology
could be obtained.
To satisfy this goal, a procurement action
(RFP) was started in FY 78 in which the
control of particulate, hydrocarbons, trace
metals, and toxic chemicals would be evaluated
from both in situ and surface retorts. The
contract negotiations are in the final stages and
award is anticipated in early 1979. The first
year's work will consist of emissions evaluation,
design, construction, and shakedown. The
second and third year's work will consist of
extensive field tests at in situ and surface oil
shale retorts. The award pending final negoti-
ation is to Monsanto.
Analytical Methods Manual for Oil Shale
Effluents
A need was expressed to EPA by many of
the personnel involved with the analytical
measurement aspects of oil shale effluents to
improve the reliability of the chemical methods
of analysis that were applied to those effluents.
To address that need, a contractual effort
(RFP) was initiated in FY 78 and the award is
expected in early 1979. The first year's work
will involve investigating all the methods used
by the oil shale chemists. Reliable methods will
be separated from the others and published in
report form for immediate use by these work-
ers. Methods identified as needing additional
development will be studied in the following two
years with the end product being a report
entitled, "Analytical Methods Manual for Oil
Shale Effluents." The award pending final
negotiations is to Denver Research Institute.
Overview of the Environmental Problems of Oil
Shale Development
As more data becomes available and oil
shale technologies are updated or modified, the
potential environmental impact of the develop-
ment also changes significantly. This situation
was recognized by EPA when it began to study
the environmental problems of oil shale under
Contract No. 68-02-1811 (with TRW). One of
the outputs of this contract was a document
entitled, "A Preliminary Assessment of the
Environmental Impacts from Oil Shale Develop-
ments." The oil shale industry has progressed
in several significant areas since the publication
of the first report and this new project will
document, update, and/or expand that prelimi-
nary work. Most of the effort in selecting the
contractor has been accomplished, and the
award is expected in early 1979. The award
pending final negotations is to the Denver
Research Institute.
Distribution of As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sb and Se
During In Situ Oil Shale Retorting
Preliminary investigations of oil shale
retorting have indicated that mercury emissions
in the off-gas could be significant. The
volatile properties of mercury and the other
elements listed above made them candidates for
additional study.
An interagency agreement with DOE's
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory was arranged to
conduct a bench-scale study, and the project
was initiated in October 1978. Analytical
methods will be developed and tested for the
measurement of each of these elements in the
gas stream. Distribution coefficients for each
output stream will be determined. The effect of
retorting temperature and sweep gas rates on
the coefficients will be used to predict similar
coefficients for field operations. Sampling
strategies suitable for use during large-scale
field operations will be determined.
Portable Zeeman Atomic Absorption Mercury
Monitor
Mercury is a toxic element which can be
emitted at harmful levels from oil shale retorts.
A Zeeman Atomic Absorption instrument is being
constructed by the Lawrence Berkeley Labora-
tory which will be capable of extended field use
in analyzing mercury emissions from in situ
retorts.
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The instrument will be scaled up from
laboratory dimensions, calibrated, subjected to
corrosion and performance tests, and prepared
for field testing. This work will be completed
in mid-1979.
3.4
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND
EFFECTS
The energy-related processes and effects
program is designed to identify and assess the
environmental effects of each stage of an
energy source's fuel cycle. The program is
subdivided into four major areas: health
effects, ecological effects, measurement and
monitoring, and environmental transport
processes. Current oil shale R&D activities for
each of these areas are presented in the
following sections.
3.4.1 Health Effects
EPA's Health Effects Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (HERL-
RTP), and the Environmental Research Labora-
tory in Gulf Breeze, Florida (ERL-Gulf Breeze),
are conducting research which deals with the
effects of air and water pollutants associated
with alternative forms of energy development on
human health and on aquatic ecosystems.
Laboratory testing is being performed by
both in vivo (whole animal) and in vitro (test
tube) methods to identify and control hazardous
agents. These projects are being conducted by
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana;
Northrop Services, Huntsville, Alabama; and by
UCLA. In addition, pass-through funds have
been given to NIOSH; DOE's Lawrence Liver-
more Laboratory (LLL) in Livermore, California;
the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) in
Los Alamos, New Mexico; and to the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL), in Oak Ridge,
Tennessee.
These projects are, in general, related to
oil shale in that they are multi-technology
oriented. The resources associated with them
are not exclusively related to oil shale.
EPA's Health Effects Research Laboratory
at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, is
studying the pulmonary effect of particulate
material from the oil shale industry by means of
intratracheal instillation of pathogen free rats
and organ culture including tracheal trans-
plants. Materials under study are shale rock
direct from the Paraho mine and particulate
effluent from surface retorting of shale and
corresponding material from the Estonian Soviet
Republic. The influence of other particles and
fractions containing organic carcinogens in
interaction with oil shale particulate materials
are also being evaluated through in vitro
systems, organ cultures, and intratracheal
inoculations. Project duration is 1978 to 1981.
3.4.1.1 General Supportive Studies
Repository for Alternate Energy Source Material
for Toxicity Testing
ORNL, under the sponsorship of EPA's
Health Effects Research Laboratory (HERL), at
Research Triangle Park, NC, provides a center
for the collection, storage, and distribution of
materials from new energy sources. The
purpose of this EPA/ORNL function is to seek
out appropriate technologies, secure suitable
material for biological and chemical testing, and
distribute it to a matrix of participating
governmental and nongovernmental investiga-
tors. The concept is to encourage rapid
testing of those effluents, products, and wastes
with which there is a possibility of human
contact to determine the relative risks among
the various new technologies and to compare
them to analogous materials from existing
technologies. An additional function of the
repository is to provide uniform material to
investigators carrying on different test systems
so that correlations may be made as to the
predictive efficacy of these tests on the basis
of work on the actual problems of the synthetic
fuels industry.
An additional function of the repository is
to carry on a continual communication between
the various investigators of biological and
chemical data being derived from internal and
external sources.
The guidance for the project is provided
by consultation with the personnel from the
repository, participating biological investiga-
tors, and engineers from the various technolo-
gies.
During the past year, the repository has
been concerned with developing a model
approach utilizing a particular oil shale technol-
ogy (Paraho) which will be studied from the
aspects of community and occupational health,
covering extraction of the rock, grinding, re-
torting, transportation of crude, refining,
transportation of products, and product utiliza-
tion.
Materials through the stage of refining
have been logged into the repository to date
and have been distributed for testing or are
under consideration for distribution.
Additional commercial or near-commercial
modules will be studied in a similar manner as
the program continues. The project is open-
ended and is funded through an interagency
agreement with DOE.
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3.4.1.2 Pollutant Analysis Studies
Air, Water, and Multiroute and Health Effects
from Pollutants Associated with Energy
Development
EPA's HERL-Ci is assessing the health
effects of exposures to substances which pollute
air and water as a result of energy technolo-
gies. Emphasis is being placed on potentially
toxic agents resulting from fuel extraction,
conversion, and combustion. The evaluation of
the toxicity of the pollutants and their metabolic
products includes a spectrum of bioeffect
indices.
The present program includes: (1) the
assessment of exposure to toxic organic chemi-
cals which are associated with energy processes
and which are waterborne. The investigations
include screening for potential carcinogens,
mutagens, and teratogens in water supplies, as
they result from energy sources emphasizing
coal and shale oil processing, and (2) toxico-
logic data obtained for multiroute exposures
from metal pollutants resulting from fossil fuel
extraction, combustion, and conservation.
Studies also include establishing additional
physiological and biochemical indicators to
establish a more sensitive dose; data base
studies of age sensitivity and influence of
dietary composition on adsorption, deposition,
and toxicity of the trace elements which pollute
the environment from energy-related sources;
long-term effects of inhalation exposures to
toxic components of fly ash, and biochemical
effects of energy-related trace metals on
pulmonary macromolecular metabolism. The
project duration is from October 1976 to October
1977.
Chemical Fate, Detection, Metabolism and Bio-
accumulation Potential of Shale Oil Components
and the Effects of Marine Diesel Fuel on
Marine Organisms
ERL-Gulf Breeze is studying the environ-
mental effects of shale oil used as marine diesel
fuel. There is no published literature on the
effects of shale-derived marine diesel fuel on
the marine environment that results from end
use of the fuel, yet the U.S. Navy is planning
to use it as a fuel for its ships.
Since shale-derived marine diesel fuel has
not been available until March 1979, preparative
experiments have been done using a surrogate
petroleum-derived marine diesel. Two major
categories of research have been completed:
(1) studies on the potential fate and bioaccumu-
lation in the marine food web, and (2) the
effect of marine diesel on marine organisms.
The study of chemical fate, detection,
metabolism, and bioaccumulation potential of
shale oil components was summarized in a sym-
posium, "Carcinogenic Polyaromatic Hydrocar-
bons in the Marine Environment." Papers from
this symposium are being edited for publication
in a book that emphasizes photochemistry,
activation systems, detection methods, and
bioaccumulation potential.
The second study is concerned with the
effects of marine diesel fuel on marine organ-
isms. The experimental design considered
effects on planktonic settling communities,
existing communities, and the resiliency of
existing benthic communities. The results of
these studies indicate that petroleum-derived
marine diesel fuel impacts both settling commu-
nities and preexisting communities in spring and
summer. Poriferan, annclidan, molluscan, and
chordatan settling communities were more
severely impacted than were coelenteraian and
arthropodan communities. In future experi-
ments it is important to compare the effects of
shale-derived fuel with petroleum-derived fuel
in order to evaluate their relative toxicities.
Comparative studies would indicate whether the
effects of shale-derived fuels represent a
severe enough hazard to warrant special pre-
cautions for its use in the marine environment.
Denver Research Institute is studying the
feasibility of the in vitro activation of micro-
somal drug-metabolizing enzyme systems for the
development of a rapid and sensitive prescreen-
ing test. This is a test for mutagenicity of
synfuel-related environmental pollutants, their
derivatives, and their metabolic products which
may occur on land and in aquatic and marine
environments. Specifically investigated was the
in vitro enhancement of biphenyl 2-hydroxylate
in lepatic and plant microsomes in the presence
of NADPH-regenerating septems. In addition to
biphenyl, more specific substances were substi-
tuted, including various terphenyls. Because
carcinogens have been reported to selectively
increase biphenyl 2-hydroxylation while having
no significant effect on biphenyl 4-hydroxyla-
tion and noncarcinogens do not enhance either
hydroxylase, several known carcinogens and
noncarcinogens have been tested. In vivo
studies using the marine organism Paraunema
acutum were done with the biphenyl. Biological
data have been collected and analyzed for both
terphenyl and biphenyl metabolism. Develop-
ment of a quantitative HPLC-SPF analytical
method for the separation of biphenyl, ter-
phenyl and their hydroxy metabolites and the
detection of metabolites resulting from the
carcinogenic test substances has been accom-
plished and analyses are presently being done.
3.4.1.3 In Vivo (Whole Animal) Studies
Effect of Alternate Energy Source Material on
Whole Animal Carcinogenesis by Percutaneous
Application of Extracts and Fractions to Mice
DOE's ORNL is the lead laboratory for
carcinogenesis for the EPA studies of the toxic
18
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effects of products and effluents from alterna-
tive energy sources. Materials for study are
derived through the chemical repository estab-
lished at ORNL. Materials received are
subjected to preliminary toxicity testing and
fractionation followed by cancer screening by
standard methods, including skin painting and
injection. Data from this contract will be used
to evaluate data from other methods such as
bacterial mutagenesis, neoplastic transformation,
intratracheal instillation, etc., to arrive to a
comprehensive view of the relative value of
various methods in dealing with a practicable
evaluation of the carcinogenic potential of crude
material. This project is under the sponsorship
of EPA's HERL-RTP and IERL-RTP. Project
duration is from September 1976 to September
1978.
Morphological Variants in Damaged Sperm
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories (LLL),
under sponsorship of the Interagency Agree-
ment is conducting this project. Ionizing
radiation as well as various mutagens, carcino-
gens, and teratogens are known to induce
elevated levels of morphologically abnormal
sperm in mice. The objectives of this study
are: (1) to develop further and apply the
detection of morphologically abnormal mouse
sperm as a rapid, simple, quantitative assay of
the pathology response of the male gonad to
toxic agents; (2) to extend the studies in the
mouse to the hamster; and (3) to develop the
methodology of automated scoring of abnormally
shaped sperm, especially after the exposure of
the male to toxic agents. Of special interest
are possible effects of the chemical pollutants
associated with the recovery, process stream,
and emission of nonnuclear sources of energy,
especially coal gasification and oil shale extrac-
tion in situ.
To accomplish these objectives, groups of
test mice have received subacute or chronic
exposures by injection, inhalation, or dermal
application. The percent of abnormally shaped
apididymal sperm will be determined as a
function of dosage and time after exposure.
These results will be compared to those
obtained by more conventional mutagens, car-
cinogens, and teratogens. Preliminary studies
with the hamster and mouse have shown that
these two species are qualitatively similar in
response. Furthermore, an attempt is being
made to distinguish sperm morphology in these
species based on suggested differences in
fluorescent dye uptake. These results may lead
to automated analyses of sperm morphology.
Project duration Is from June 1975 to June 1980.
Detection of Early Changes in Lung Cell Cytol-
ogy by Flow Systems Analysis Techniques
LASL is studying the application of modern
automated cytology techniques for assessing
damage to humans resulting from exposure to
physical and chemical agents associated with oil
shale and coal extraction, conversion, and
utilization. The approach is to apply unique
flow-system cell-analysis and sorting technolo-
gies developed at LASL to determine cytological
and biochemical indicators of early atypical
changes in exposed lung epithelium using the
Syrian hamster initially as a model test system.
Current plans are to adapt cell preparation
and staining methods developed for flow systems
to characterize lung cells from normal and
exposed hamsters using the multiparameter cell
separator and multiangle light-scatter systems.
This includes acquisition of respiratory cells by
lavaging the lungs with saline, adapting
cytological techniques developed on human
gynecological specimens to hamster lung epithe-
lium for obtaining single-cell suspensions,
utilization of existing staining techniques for
measurement of cellular biochemical properties,
and initial characterization of lung cells using
flow analysis instrumentation. (Figure 6)
LASL has achieved some progress in
measuring DNA content, total protein, esterase
activity, cell size, nuclear and cytoplasmic
diameters, and multiangle light-scatter proper-
ties of exfoliated hamster lung cell samples
composed of macrophages, leukocytes, epithe-
lial, and columnar cells. As this new technol-
ogy is adapted further to analyze lung cells
from hamsters and subsequent characterization
studies are completed, measurement of changes
in physical and biochemical cell properties as a
function of exposure to toxic agents associated
with synthetic fuels energy production will be
performed, with the eventual examination of
sputum samples from occupationally exposed
humans. This project is being sponsored by
DOE with EPA pass-through funds. Term of
this project is from 1976 and is continuing.
Mortality, Morbidity, and Industrial Hygiene
Study of Oil Shale Workers
NIOSH is studying 320 men who have
worked in pilot oil shale operations. The men
are divided into three groups consisting of
workers from: (1) the U.S. Bureau of Mines;
(2) the Joint Venture of the Colorado School of
Mines Research Institute, Anvil Points,
Colorado; and (3) the Union Oil Retort facility
in Grand Valley, Colorado.
A retrospective mortality study of approx-
imately 60 men will be done in-house while a
cross-sectional morbidity examination to evaluate
several morbidity aspects that may be associated
with oil shale occupations will be done by
contract. Mortality due to 21 specific causes
will be determined after an extensive follow-up
effort, and the death certificates of those who
have died will be examined. The various
causes of death will be examined to determine if
an excessive number of deaths were due to a
particular cause. Numerous indices of health
19
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(Photo courtesy of L.M. Holland, Health Division, LASL)
Figure 6.
TESTING THE EFFECTS OF SHALE DUST ON ANIMALS
Hamsters are being placed into an inhalation chamber during a chronic inhalation study of shale dust.
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regarding the living men will be assessed
through physical examinations and health ques-
tionnaires. NIOSH has contacted various people
knowledgeable in oil shale technology, as well
as others who are or have been involved in
health studies related to oil shale mining and
retorting.
An additional contract was signed by
NIOSH with Utah Biomedical Testing Laboratory,
Salt Lake City, to conduct testing on cancer of
the bladder and respiratory system. NIOSH's
efforts are supported by EPA pass-through
funds. Term of the contract was from
November 1976 to November 1978.
Determination of the Influence of Mineral Co-
factors in Conjunction with Carcinogens from
Energy-Related Materials
Northrop Services, Huntsville, Alabama,
was under contract to the EPA's HERL-RTP to
determine the influence of environmental
materials such as fibrous amphiboles, fine
particles, etc., as cofactors with carcinogenic
influences from alternative energy sources such
as coal gasification and liquefaction, and shale
oil products and effluents. Intratracheal
instillation and intrapleural inoculation were
used, and the end points would -have been the
formation of cancer in the lung or pleura or the
development of precancerous lesions compared to
appropriate controls. The duration of this
project was from December 1975 to August 1978.
In Vivo Screening for Gene Mutation in Mouse
Germ and Somatic Cells
DOE's ORNL is conducting this study with
EPA pass-through funds. In screening for
mutagenic agents it is important to include
mammalian tests for gene mutations. In this
project, identification of mutagens associated
with coal and oil shale technologies that can
induce gene mutations and small deficiencies will
be accomplished by scoring for: (1) trans-
mitted specific-locus mutations induced in germ
cells, and (2) somatic mutations in coat color
genes.
The specific-locus method developed has
been used extensively in radiation work and has
already proved its usefulness in chemical muta-
genesis studies. It is the only established,
reliable, and definitive test for transmitted gene
mutations and small deficiencies currently
available in mammals. To make the method
economically efficient for screening purposes, it
will be used to test whether there is anything
mutagenic in a whole mixture of compounds, for
example, in an effluent. One mixture from a
coal conversion process that has just become
available after studies with nonmammalian
systems is now being used in preliminary
toxicity tests. An in vivo somatic-mutation
method, developed in an earlier X-ray experi-
ment, has now been explored for its usefulness
in the prescreening for germinal point mutations
induced by chemicals. In an array of seven
compounds tested, parallelism with spermato-
gonial specific-locus mutation rates was found,
indicating that the in vivo somatic-mutation test
may detect point mutations in addition to other
types of genetic changes that lead to expression
of the recessive. The method is now being
used to test fractions from coal conversion pro-
cesses. Term of this contract is from 1976 and
is continuing.
The Carcinogenic Effects of Petroleum Hydro-
carbons on Selected Marine Estuarine Organisms
It is well documented that epidermal
papillomas occur in several flatfish species along
the West Coast of the U.S., in incidences
exceeding 50 percent in selected groups of
young fish. The possible involvement of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in papilloma
development has been suggested, but never
proven.
If chemicals such as benzo(a)pyrene are
responsible (either directly or indirectly) for
the appearance of neoplasia in aquatic species
then these animals have potential as early
warning indicator systems for human carcino-
gens and mutagens in the aquatic environment.
This program attempts to identify pathological
alterations in internal organs, as well as exter-
nally, in response to benzo(a)pyrene exposure.
It is also testing exposure effects on the
induction of hepatic and extrahepatic benzo(a)
pyrene hydroxylase activities in a flatfish.
The period of the program was December
1976 through December 1978. It was being
performed by the University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington, for NIEHS-RTP.
3.4.1.4 In Vitro Studies
Determination of the Effects of Material from
Alternate Energy Sources on Upper Respiratory
Tract Clearance Mechanisms
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana,
under sponsorship to EPA's HERL-RTP, is
screening a variety of substances for their
toxic effect on mucociliary activity using an
in vitro model system. Since cilia play a signi-
ficantrole in pulmonary clearance, proper
functioning is essential for defense against
various environmental insults. However, ozone,
nitrogen dioxide, nickel, and cadmium have an
adverse effect on this system. Therefore, it
becomes increasingly important to determine if
alternative energy sources such as shale oil and
coal gasification and liquefaction, or particulate
effluents from power stations, stationary
engines or mobile sources produce pollutants
toxic to the mucociliary escalator.
Consequently, isolated hamster tracheal
rings are exposed to pollutants in vitro.
21
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Parameters measured are the: (1) effect on
ciliary beat frequency; (2) effect on the energy
source (ATP) of beating; (3) effect on ciliary
and tracheal morphology, and (4) recovery of
the tracheal rings after exposure. In all cases,
parameters are tested for dose-response effects.
Project duration is from October 1975 to May
1979.
Quantitative Mutagenesis Testing in Mammalian
Cellular Systems
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory is to
develop and apply quantitative and multiple-
marker assays utilizing cultured mammalian cells
to evaluate the potential mutagenic effects of
agents derived from energy technologies.
Additionally, LLL will use these existing and
newly-developed biological screening systems to
identify mutagenic agents associated with coal
and oil shale extraction, conversion, or
utilization.
This program proposes the use of multiple
drug-resistance markers for forward mutation in
cultured Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, as
well as in vitro and host-mediated in vivo/
in vitro procedures in the Syrian hamster
embryo (SHE) system. The markers being
developed measure the frequency of forward
mutation at the recessive azadenine-resistant
marker, the X-linked azaguanine-resistant
phenotype, and the dominant ouabain-resistant
locus. Established procaryote and lower
eucaryote systems will be used for comparison
and reference; the most satisfactory markers in
all systems will then be combined into a stan-
dard protocol in which each of the gene loci can
be measured for mutation following exposure to
a particular test agent or combination.
To date, both CHO and SHE systems have
been tested with the standard mutagen EMS.
and experiments using specific hydrocarbons
relevant to energy technology are now under-
way. This project is being sponsored by DOE
under pass-through funds from EPA. Project
duration is from June 1975 to June 1980.
Development of Cytochemical Markers for
Cell Transformation and Carcinogenesis
LLL is developing rapid, sensitive, and
economical systems for the in vitro and cytolog-
ical assay for carcinogenic effects of substances
involved in the extraction, conversion, and
utilization of nonnuclear energy sources, with
particular consideration of in situ coal gasifica-
tion, shale oil utilization, coal burning power
plants, and geothermal power plants. The
approach is based on the development of cyto-
chemical markers for cell transformation, and on
the ability to quantify such markers by micro-
fluorometry and by flow system analysis and
sorting.
There are two phases to this work:
(1) the development of appropriate test systems
whose response is defined by well characterized
and representative carcinogenic agents, and
(2) the application of such systems to sub-
stances released by energy technologies, and
including testing with whole and fractionated
samples of effluents. This project is under the
sponsorship of DOE with pass-through funds
from EPA. Project duration is from June 1975
to June 1980.
Somatic Cell Genetics
LASL sponsors a genetics program which is
isolating temperature sensitive mutants
(variants) of the mammalian cell for use in
studying the genetics of cell life-cycle traverse.
In addition to these mutants, several auxo-
trophic clones have been isolated and a mutation
system has been developed for use in assessing
the mutagenicity of suspected carcinogens
derived primarily from coal gasification and oil
shale extraction processes. The Ames Salmon-
ella/microsome test system will serve as an
ancilliary test for mutagenicity. The mammalian
cell forward and reverse mutation system and
the Ames bacterial test system currently are
functional in this laboratory. Temperature-
sensitive life-cycle traverse mutants are being
analyzed to determine in what phase of the
life-cycle the ts phenotype is expressed using
the LASL flow microfluorometer. This project is
sponsored by DOE under pass-through funds
from EPA. This was a two-year program
ending in 1977.
Analysis of the Effects of Energy-Related Toxic
Materials to Karotype Stability in Mammalian
Cells
LASL is developing systems for the rapid
detection of karyotypic changes in mammalian
cells as a result of exposure to energy-related
environmental pollutants and to screen selected
subjects utilizing these systems. Flow micro-
fluorometry (FMF) of isolated, fluorescently
stained chromosomes will be used to identify
chromosome aberrations, and FMF of stained
intact cells will be used to detect mitotic non-
disjunction. Cadmium will be used as the
clastogenic agent in the development of a test
system. It has been demonstrated that chromo-
some analysis can be accomplished by flow
systems in mammalian cells with relatively simple
karyotypes. Cadmium at low concentrations is a
potent clastogen. It induces primarily chromo-
tid-type aberrations.
LASL has also demonstrated that tolerance
to the damaging effects of cadmium can be
induced in fibroblast cells in culture by long-
term exposure of the cells to sublethal concen-
trations of cadmium. There are plans to repeat
these experiments on human fibroblast and
22
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lymphocyte cells in vitro and to extend these
studies to other toxic agents associated with
alternative energy technologies. This project is
being sponsored by DOE with EPA pass-through
funds. Term of the contract is from 1976 and
is continuing.
Effects of Products of Coal and Oil Shale
Conversion on Cell Cycle Kinetics and
Chromatin Structure.
LASL is providing a means for detecting
and monitoring damage to humans as a result of
exposure to various toxic chemical and physical
agents. To obtain an idea of the parameters to
be monitored in humans, it is first necessary to
establish the effects of agents on cells in
simpler model systems.
Earlier experience with drugs which act as
carcinogens and teratogens has convinced
researchers that changes in population cell-
cycle distribution and alterations in chromatin
structure may provide useful early indicators of
sublethal damage to cells exposed to hazardous
agents. Examination will be made of alterations
in these parameters following exposure to
specific energy-related toxic substances in cur-
rently available tissue-culture systems which
show promise as a predictive indicator of
response to humans. A technique has been
developed that allows preparation of both
cycling and noncycling cell populations in
tissue-culture, mimicking these classes of
somatic cells in humans. By combining auto-
radiography, cell number enumeration, and flow
microfluorometry, it will be possible to obtain
highly detailed information regarding the
cellular kinetics response of both arrested and
cycling populations to treatment with toxic
agents.
Results obtained to date suggest that DNA
interactive agents elicit different types of
kinetics responses in treated cells, indicating a
degree of specificity of interaction between
various alkylating and intercalating agents and
the genome. This project is sponsored by DOE
with EPA pass-through funds. Term of the
contract is from 1976 and is continuing.
Mutagenicity Assay of Fractionated Coal Con-
version and Shale Oil In Situ Retorting
Products
ORNL is monitoring environmentally impor-
tant processes for genetic damage using rapid
screening assays to identify mutagenic agents.
They have extended in initial work on the
crude product from a coal liquefaction
(Syncrude/COED) to subfractionation and have
identified the potential genetic hazards with the
Ames system. The most active fractions appear
to be the neutrals and the basic (Ether soluble)
components prepared by liquid extraction pro-
cedures. Parallel identification work by the
analytical chemistry division has been carried
out and a selected group of polycyclic com-
pounds involved has been assayed and evalua-
ted for mutagenicity. The crude product
assays have been extended to the separator
liquor components of the same process, again
using the coupled analytical-biological assay
approach.
Similarly, parallel studies with fractionated
materials have been initiated with the Synthoil
Process (liquefaction), the Synthane Process
(gasification), and the Shale Oil In Situ
Retorting Process. Primary fractions of various
steps or materials from these processes have
been prepared and assayed for potential genetic
damage.
The mutagenicity of crude industrial
products and effluents was arrayed with the
Sabnonella/microsomal activation system. Test
materials (crude products from coal conversion
processes and natural crude oils) were initially
fractionated into primary classes by liquid--
liquid extraction and then further fractionated
by column chromatography. Prescreening was
accomplished over a wide concentration range
with the Ames tester strains. Active fractions
(mainly the neutral fractions containing poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and certain basic
fractions) can be identified, and dose-response
relationships can be established. Standard
values are expressed as revertants per milli-
gram of the test material assayed with frame-
shift strain TA98 including metabolic activation
with rat liver preparations. Total mutagenic
activity of synthetic fuel samples was consis-
tently higher than that of natural crude
"controls." Activities of subtractions are
roughly additive and presumably reflect the
mutagenic potential of the whole test material.
These results are being extended to other
genetic assays. Chemical identification is
carried out along with the bioassays.
The application of short-term mutagen
tests was evaluated using bacterial, fungal,
mammalian cells and Drosophila on synfuel A
fraction. The results of the use of these
systems simply show that-biological testing and
genetic assays, in this case, can be carried out
with the developed tester systems, but only
when coupled with the appropriate analytical
separation scheme.
The Quantitative Evaluation of Hazardous
Chemicals Using a Closed Aquatic Test System
Brookhaven National Laboratory is devel-
oping a new comparative test system, using
clones of fish P. formonsa, capable of detecting
the carcinogenicity of chemicals by treatment of
cells in vitro or by treatment of whole animals.
The approach is to treat cells in vitro with
presumptive carcinogen by (1) injecting cells
into fish and scoring recipient fish for tumors
one or two years later, or (2) introducing
23
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presumptive carcinogen directly into the water
tank to assess their effects on the whole
animal. This is a continuing program that
began in 1976.
The Interaction of Chemical Agents Present
in Oil Shale with Biological Systems
The objectives of this NIEHS project are:
(1) to study the role of free radical intermedi-
ates formed during the metabolism of poly-
nuclear hydrocarbons in the toxicity of these
agents, (2) to study the mechanisms by which
UV and visible light synergizes the tumor-
gencity of polynuclear hydrocarbons on skin,
and (3) to study the binding of heavy metal
ions to plasma and tissue proteins on the body
distribution of the metal ions.
The formation and characterization of free
radical intermediates will be done using electron
spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. ESR spec-
troscopy can detect unpaired electrons present
both in free radicals (organic or inorganic) and
in paramagnetic metals. In some cases, spin
trapping techniques will be used to transform
reactive free radical intermediates to form stable
radicals which can then be identified.
Development of Permanent Epithelial Cell Lines
DOE's ORNL is conducting this study with
EPA pass-through funds. Objectives are:
(1) To develop the means by which chemicals
associated with nonnuclear energy generation,
especially agents arising from coal and oil shale
extraction, can be screened for potential car-
cinogenic activity. Reliability, speed, and cost
relative to current animal exposure techniques,
are emphasized. (2) To utilize appropriate cul-
tured cells developed under the first objective
to study hydrocarbon metabolism into carcino-
genically active forms, and determine the
mechanism of chemical carcinogenesis.
A research group with two discrete but
closely related approaches to these problems is
being developed. The approaches are: (1) cell
biology—the major focus here will be the
development of permanent cell lines of epithelial
origin (human, when possible and appropriate)
which possess the enzymatic equipment for
carcinogen activation and which are trans
formable with high frequency, and (2) bio-
chemistry—principal focus will be the study of
the metabolism of polycyclic hydrocarbons in
various cell lines developed in the first
approach to establish with certainty the
"ultimate" carcinogenic metabolite, using
primarily high pressure liquid chromatography
techniques. This contract was initiated in 1976
and is continuing.
Development of an In Vitro Assay for Cocarcin-
ogenesis of Coal/Oil Shale Derivatives
The UCLA School of Medicine is developing
an in vitro assay capable of detecting the
cocarcinogenic potential (with X-rays) of
materials produced during coal and oil shale
processing. Initially it was proposed to utilize
mouse tissue cultured cells and an already
established transformation assay. Initial exper-
iments indicated that rodent cells may possess
lesions induced by alkylating agents different
from human cells and that their use as
screening materials might be misleading. This
was shown by demonstrating that a variety of
DMA damaging agents yielded significantly
different effects on various cell lines when
measured by a variety of techniques.
It was hypothesized that a ventral differ-
ence between the lines (rodent versus human)
may be the "activation of on-cogenesis" related
to the strand breakage induced, and because
rodent lines carry transforming virus materials
of a complete or incomplete nature, which is
lacking in most human target cells. This is
being evaluated through cell hybridization
analysis using hybrids made by sendaivirus
fusion of cells lacking either: (1) different
DNA repair enzymes, or (2) (potential) RNA
viruses. This project is sponsored by DOE
with EPA pass-through funds. This contract
began in 1979 and is continuing.
3.4.2 Ecological Effects
The Environmental Research Laboratory in
Duluth (ERL-Duluth) is providing predictive
information with regard to potential toxicants to
the aquatic environment resulting from coal and
oil shale extraction and conversion. Current
work involves chemical characterization and bio-
assays of retort process waters and chemical
and analytical studies of water in the Piceance
Creek basin. Term of the present projects is
1975 - 1980.
3.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring
Projects under the measurement and moni-
toring program deal with air, surface, and
groundwater monitoring and methodology devel-
opment, instrumentation development, and
identification of wastes and effluents. Work is
being conducted by EPA's Environmental Moni-
toring and Support Laboratory in Las Vegas
(EMSL-LV), the Region VIII office in Denver,
the Environmental Research Laboratory in
Athens (ERL-Athens), USGS, DOE, and NBS.
3.4.3.1 Air Monitoring
Oil Shale Area Meteorological Data Analysis
COM Limnetics, Wheat Ridge, Colorado,
has purchased upper air meteorological data
from the National Climatic Center in Asheville,
North Carolina, for the National Weather Station
at Grand Junction, Colorado. The temperature,
wind speed, and wind direction data collected at
Grand Junction, Colorado has been compared
with like data obtained near the Colorado
federal oil shale lease tracts. A determination
24
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of the representativeness of obtaining upper air
data for 15 days in the central portion of each
quarter has been made. A report providing
this low level radiosonde monitoring data
comparison has been released. This completed
project was sponsored by EPA, Region VIII,
Denver, Colorado.
Air Quality and Surface Wind Monitoring in
Colorado
The Colorado Department of Health is
under contract to EPA Region VIII to install
and operate air monitoring sites in selected
areas of western Colorado to collect baseline
data prior to major expansion of energy
activities. Particulate samples from the energy
area are analyzed for nitrate and sulfate
content. EPA Region VIII is administering this
project with OEMI funds. Term of the contract
is from 1975 to 1980. Annual reports were
published in January 1979.
Upper Air Meteorological Data Collection
Aeromet, Inc., Norman, Oklahoma, has
collected upper air data at tract U-a/U-b from
June 1, 1976 through October 30, 1977, and at
tract C-b from June 1, 1976 through November
30, 1978. Temperature, wind speed, and
direction versus altitude were measured via
pilot balloons and temperature sondes. Single
vs double theodolite evaluations were made.
Temperature and wind data were used to
generate stability-wind rise data on a seasonal,
annual, and monthly basis. These data also
provided mixing height data. Similar data
collection will begin at C-a in 1979. EPA
Region VIII is administering this project with
OEMI funding. Term of the contract is from
1976 to 1980.
Visibility Monitoring in Piceance Basin
Instrumentation has been provided by EPA
Region VIII to leasees of Tract C-b for mea-
surement of visibility. A comprehensive basin-
wide program is contemplated for commencement
in 1979. EPA Region VIII funds total about
$50,000 for this project.
3.4.3.2 Water Monitoring
Monitoring the Impacts of Oil Shale Extraction
on Groundwater Quality
This project was initiated in late 1976 with
the goal of developing guidelines for the design
of groundwater quality monitoring programs for
western oil shale operations. The initial focus
of the study was the deep subsurface retorting
type of operation proposed for Federal Oil Shale
Lease Tracts U-a and U-b in eastern Utah.
The study format follows a generic groundwater
quality monitoring methodology developed under
previous contract by General Electric-TEMPO
for EPA. This structured monitoring evaluation
process includes:
c identification and characterization of
potential sources of groundwater
quality impact
o characterization of the location of
these sources with regard to hydro-
geology and existing groundwater
quality
• assessment of mobility and attenuation
of potential pollutants in the sub-
surface
• development of a priority ranking of
potential sources of impact and of
potential pollutants.
An initial pass through this design
sequence has been completed using the
proposed Utah oil shale operations as a case
study. A priority ranking of potential pollution
sources and constituents associated with those
sources has been developed (Slawson, G. C.,
1979, Groundwater Quality Monitoring of
Western Oil Shale Development: Identification
and Priority Ranking of Potential Pollution
Sources, EPA-600/7-79-039). The second moni-
toring design report (Slawson, G. C., 1979
[draft], Groundwater Quality Monitoring of
Western Oil Shale Development: Monitoring
Program Development, FE78TMP-90) is in review
by EPA.
In support of this project, a summary of
research and development related to oil shale
operations has been completed (Slawson, G. C.,
and Yen, T. F., 1979, Compendium Reports
on Oil Shale Technology. EPA-600/7-79-039)
in cooperation with the University of Southern
California. Topics considered are mining,
retorting, shale oil upgrading, organic and
inorganic characteristics of oil shale products,
and potential environmental controls on the oil
shale industry.
Contributors to this contract include
TEMPO'S Water Resources Program, University
of Southern California, Denver Research
Institute, and several prominent consultants in
the field of hydrology and groundwater pollu-
tion (Dr. D. K. Todd, Dr. D. L. Warner,
Dr. K. D. Schmidt, Dr. L. G. Wilson).
Legal entanglements related to ownership
of Tracts U-a and U-b have delayed those
development operations. Modified in situ devel-
opments proposed (and now under construction)
on Colorado Tracts C-a and C-b represent the
present focal point for commercial development
of oil shale. Hence the project has shifted
emphasis in its assessments from the Utah to
the Colorado operations. Much of the informa-
tion gained in the Utah studies is transferable
to the associated surface operations on the
Colorado tracts. The major new area of study
is, of course, the modified in situ retorts and
the potential for groundwater quality impact
25
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after abandonment. A preliminary assessment
and monitoring design report will be prepared
in late spring 1979. This design will include
identification of data deficiencies and uncertain-
ties associated with monitoring of the proposed
development operations and recommendations for
field and possibly laboratory studies needed to
address these deficiencies.
The results of this testing and analysis
phase, to be initiated in late spring 1979, will
be used to finalize recommendations for ground-
water quality monitoring of surface and modified
in situ oil shale operations. This guideline
document will provide technical information and
a planning format for the design of monitoring
programs. The study results may be used by
industrial developers and their consultants as
well as by the various local, state, and federal
agencies with responsibilities in environmental
monitoring and planning.
Energy-Related Water Monitoring Data
Integration
EMSL-LV is establishing a water monitoring
network throughout the western U.S. to monitor
and assess the impact of energy resource devel-
opment. Through the use of computer data
banks, water monitoring stations that are
currently in operation, and those prior to 1970
which have reported a large number of
measured parameters were selected for incor-
poration into a primary monitoring network.
Parameters of interest were identified and a
quality assurance program is being established
in participating laboratories. Data from the
primary network stations are being augmented
with data from other stations. An assessment
of baseline water quality, trends, and impacts
on a basin-by-basin basis is underway. D_ata
gaps and monitoring problem areas are being
identified, and actions will be taken to correct
them. The primary network will be updated
periodically and extended into areas not
presently addressed. Monitoring methodologies
and parameters of interest are being assessed
and improvements recommended. Term of the
contract is from 1975 to 1980.
Water Quality and Geochemistry of Shallow
Aquifers of Piceance Creek, Colorado
The objective of the USGS program is to
define the variation of water chemistry in the
aquifers of the Piceance basin and its relation-
ship to the soluble minerals of the Green River
Formation. A digital model of the chemical
reactions will be developed and coupled with the
existing digital model of the aquifer hydraulics
and used to predict the effects of oil shale mine
dewatering on water chemistry.
Water quality samples will be collected and
analyzed from the wells drilled in the basin.
Samples will also be collected from springs. A
digital model of the water chemistry will be
developed and coupled with the existing
groundwater hydraulics model. The chemical
data will be used to calibrate the model. Mine
dewatering operations can then be simulated to
predict changes in the water chemistry of the
mine discharge.
The project began in July 1974. The
initial interpretive phase of the project was
completed September 1978. Monitoring of
groundwater quality has been in progress since
1974 and will continue throughout the period of
oil shale development on the prototype lease
tracts. In 1976, a two-layer two-dimensional
solute transport model of the groundwater basin
was constructed but could not be properly
calibrated. The invalid assumption was that the
basin is primarily a two-aquifer system with
water quality differences between each aquifer
but not within each aquifer. It now appears
that significant concentration changes may occur
with depth within the aquifers and that high
concentration water in some wells and springs is
a composite mixture of water of greatly
different quality rather than a representative
sample of water quality in the aquifer as a
whole. In order to consider the effects of the
concentration variation with depth in the
aquifers, a three-dimensional solute transport
model of the basin was constructed.
Continued work in 1977 with the finite
element solute transport model has shown that
the program could successfully solve the flow
equation representing the Piceance basin but
could not solve the corresponding solute trans-
port equations. As a result, this finite
difference solute transport model was construc-
ted and successfully calibrated in 1978, using
equilibrium groundwater flow and dissolved
solids concentration data.
The model has been used to simulate the
effects of mine dewatering and resaturation on
the groundwater quality in the basin. Simula-
tion results indicate that enhanced vertical
movement of groundwater near pumping mines in
Tracts C-a and C-b will produce a zone of
better quality groundwater in the deeper
aquifers adjacent to each mine. The effects of
spent oil shale leachate in an abandoned and
resaturated mine in both tracts was also
simulated. Results indicate that a large zone of
degraded groundwater quality will occur down-
gradient of Tract C-a, while only a small zone
occurs near Tract C-b. The proximity of
Piceance Creek to the C-b mine causes ground-
water of degraded quality to move into the
stream without affecting large areas of the
surrounding aquifer. A report, "Hydrochem-
istry and Simulated Solute Transport in
Piceance Basin, Northwestern Colorado,"
documenting the results of this investigation
has been prepared for open file release and
publication as a U.S. Geological Survey
professional paper. Subject to approval, the
report will be released in the summer of 1979.
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Water Quality Monitoring on White River,
Parachute Creek and Logan Wash in Oil
Shale Areas of Western Colorado
The objective is to inventory the water
resources and describe the hydrologic system of
Parachute and Roan Creeks.
Basic water data will be collected on
streamflow. sediment yields, water quality,
spring discharge, and groundwater potentio-
metric levels. The data will be used to docu-
ment the existing hydrologic conditions in
Parachute Creek and Roan Creek. The data
will provide a description of the relationship
between surface water and groundwater quan-
tity and quality in the study area.
The project began in July 1974 and is
planned to continue through September 1980.
Four continuous record surface water stations
and one miscellaneous station were operated in
the study area at the start of 1976. Two of
these stations are equipped with automatic
suspended sediment samplers and two-parameter
water quality monitors. Water quality samples
are collected monthly at three sites, and
sediment samples are collected monthly at one
site. In addition, twelve surface water stations
are operated by industry. Records from these
stations have been made available to the U.S.
Geological Survey. Later in 1976, Occidental
Oil Shale, Inc., gave permission for the use of
three alluvial wells in major drainages around
its in situ operation. Water levels and water
quality samples are being obtained from these
wells. A deep core hole near Mount Callahan
was also provided by Occidental, permitting
water levels and water quality samples to be
obtained in the upper and lower aquifers of the
Green River formation.
By 1977, a new project in the Parachute
Creek basin was funded by the U.S. Navy; the
objective is to inventory the water resources
and describe the hydrologic system of the U.S.
Naval Oil Shale Reserve No. 1. Five surface
water gauges, two automatic sediment samplers,
three precipitation gauges, and one climate
station have been installed on the Reserve.
Data from this project will be used to supple-
ment the existing program for Parachute and
Roan Creeks.
Monitoring of surface water and ground-
water quality is continuing in 1979. Eight
surface water gauging stations, four automatic
sampling sediment stations, five two-parameter
monitoring stations are maintained by USGS.
Ten surface water stations are maintained by
private oil companies. Ten deep core holes
have been drilled and hydrologic information
collected on the Naval Oil Shale Reserve. Four
private oil company core holes have been re-
worked for hydrologic monitoring. Two pro-
duction wells and ten observation holes have
been installed for alluvial aquifer testing in the
Roan Creek basin. Water quality samples of
miscellaneous sites were collected for 35 springs
and surface water sites near existing oil shale
operations. A final report on the investigation
is planned for 1980 as a professional paper.
Collection of Geochemical Data in the Piceance
Creek Structural Basin of Colorado
The USGS, Lakewood, Colorado, monitored
the collection and analysis of geochemical data
on the relatively' shallow groundwaters that may
be impacted by the extraction of oil shale in the
Piceance and Yellow Creek basins of Colorado.
Water samples were collected from approximately
12 wells and many springs. Chemical analyses
for approximately 30 parameters were collected
on selected samples. Data will be used to
refine predictive models of resultant water
quality both for those waters encountered by
mining operations and waters centering surface
drainages, springs, and seeps. USGS was
funded by EPA pass-through funds. Term of
the contract was from 1976 to 1978.
Definition of Potentiometric Surface of Shallow
Aquifers in Piceance Creek Impacted by Oil
Shale
The objective of this study is to supple-
ment the Geological Survey effort required to
describe the detailed steady state conditions of
the groundwater system of the Piceance Creek
basin prior to mining oil shale. The unstressed
potentiometric surface will be defined in order
to calibrate digital models that can then be used
to predict the impact of oil shale extraction,
waste disposal, and water storage reservoirs on
the shallow ground and surface water regimes.
The digital model will also incorporate chemical
and water quality data to provide predictions of
changes in the shallow groundwater and surface
water regimes that could be brought about by
additional oil shale extraction in the Piceance
basin.
The total project will involve the drilling
of 40 wells, 20 completed in the upper aquifer
and 20 completed in the lower aquifer, in the
Piceance and Yellow Creek drainages of the
Piceance basin. The wells will be of adequate
diameter to accept submersible pumps for
aquifer testing and water quality sampling.
Water levels will be monitored on a quarterly
basis and correlated with continuous hydro-
graphs already installed at seven locations in
the basin. The data collected will be used to
construct potentiometric maps for the aquifers
which will be used to improve the calibration of
the groundwater model and to provide baseline
data-for the region. The data so collected will
be supplemented by similar data from the lease
tracts and from wells where completion statistics
and methods are known. In addition to U.S.
Geological Survey and Bureau of Land Manage-
ment funding, the U.S. "Environmental Protec-
tion Agency is providing funds for collection of
27
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basic data to be used as input to the digital
model.
The project began in July 1974. The
observation well drilling contract was completed
in January 1976, and consisted of the drilling
of 22 observation wells. The total footage
drilled was 25,092 feet. By September 1976,
water levels in 58 wells were being measured as
part of the semiannual measurement program
and geophysical logging of 24 observation wells
drilled during 1976 was completed. In addition,
seven digital water level recorders were in
operation. The semiannual mass measurement of
wells by helicopter has been conducted through
1978.
A basic data report describing the hydro-
logic information, released under • the title
"Digital Model of Groundwater Flow in the
Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield
Counties, Colorado, Water Resources Investi-
gations 78-46," includes the results of these
studies and the resulting three-dimensional
groundwater flow multiaquifer model thus devel-
oped. The model uses the iterative, alternating
direction implicit procedure to solve the finite
difference flow equations. The digital model is
documented by a program listing and flow
charts. Data used in the model and sample
output are presented to demonstrate the simula-
tion of steady state flow in the aquifer system.
Water Quality Monitoring Techniques Evaluation
Water quality monitoring techniques and
procedures were tested in the lower reaches of
the White River adjacent to tracts U-a/U-b and
their utility for application in such areas was
evaluated. Conventional grab sampling pro-
cedures, automated in situ pump-type samples,
electronic contact sensors, and various biologi-
cal sampling methods were included in the
study. Preparation of a final project report is
currently underway. Term of the project is
from 1975 to 1979.
Assessment of Macroinvertebrate Monitoring
Techniques
Three methods of macroinvertebrate collec-
tion were evaluated for selectivity, reproduci-
bility, capture effectiveness, and cost efficiency
in the White River near Meeker, Colorado.
Samples were collected With a standard Surber
sampler, with a portable invertebrate box
sampler (PIBS), and with the Standardized
Traveling Kick Method (STKM). The methods
were evaluated in riffles of the White River
directly upstream and downstream from the
confluence of Piceance Creek, as well as at a
comparable riffle at an upstream control station.
The data are evaluated in a report which is
expected to be published by April 1979. Term
of the project was 1977 to 1978.
3.4.3.3 Instrumentation Development
Instrumentation and Methods for Characterizing
Aqueous Effluents from Oil Shale
At ORNL, DOE is studying the feasibility
of large-scale oil shale processing in the Green
River Formation. Plans include surveillance of
related effluents. This project focuses on the
development of methods for the chemical char-
acterization of aqueous effluents associated with
retorting processes. Attention is being given
principally to organic and trace metal compo-
nents. Organic components are being analyzed
by several methods under development. Major
organic components are analyzed directly by gas
chromatography with no sample pretreatment.
Minor and trace organic components are removed
from the samples by adsorption" on activated
carbon, neutral macroreticular resins, and ion
exchange resins. The components are profiled
by gas chromatographic methods employing
standard and specific element detectors.
Fractionation of the organic mixture is followed
by identification and quantification of some
nitrogenous bases. Trace metals will be deter-
mined simultaneously by spark source mass
spectrometry. This project is being conducted
by DOE with EPA pass-through funds. Term of
the contract is from 1976 and is continuing.
3.4.3.4 Monitoring Methods for Characterizing
Water Pollutants
Identification of Components of Energy-Related
Wastes and Effluents
Two contractors have worked to identify
components of energy-related wastes and
effluents. The first contract, performed by
Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle
Park, NC, has been completed. Their work
was reported in EPA Research Report No.
EPA-600/7-78-004, January 1978. The second
contract is being performed by Gulf South
Research Institute, New Orleans, LA, and will
be completed by the end of 1979.
Contract work was divided into two
phases. Phase A consisted of a state-of-the-art
summary to determine which energy-related
solid wastes and aqueous effluents had already
been analyzed to identify and measure pollu-
tants. Information concerning past and current
relevant projects was summarized by both
contractors. These reports indicated projects
concerned with analysis of samples from coal
mines, oil refineries, oil shale processors,
coal-fired power plants, coal liquefaction and
coal gasification. The summary prepared by
Research Triangle Institute was included in the
EPA report mentioned above. The report
prepared by Gulf South Research Institute is
currently being printed and will be available as
an EPA research report about May 1979.
23
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Phase B of both contracts consisted of
selecting sampling sites, collecting samples, and
analyzing samples. Analysis of samples for all
elements except mercury was performed by
spark source mass spectrometry. Mercury
determinations were carried out using the cold
vapor atomic absorption technique. Organic
compounds in the samples were identified by
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Volatile organic compounds were determined
using purge-and-trap techniques. Semivolatile
organic compounds were extracted with methyl-
ene chloride, once at a high sample pH and
once at a low sample pH. Organic compounds
identified were quantified using molar response
ratios. Six oil shale process effluent samples
were collected at the Anvil Points site. Rifle,
Colorado, and are being analyzed at Gulf South
Research Institute.
3.4.3.5 Development of Techniques for Mea-
surement of Organic Water Pollution
Comparison of Carbon and Resin Sorption of
Organic Materials
In studies at Iowa State University per-
formed with EPA pass-through to DOE funds,
synthetic resins of different chemical compo-
sition and activated carbons produced by
different processes were used to analyze
drinking water. Use of polystyrene-divinyl-
benzene (PS-DVB) porous polymers led to the
recovery of greater amounts of gas chromato-
graphable organic materials from these water
supplies than did the use of other adsorbents
evaluated. Materials accumulated were tested
for the presence of potential carcinogens using
the Salmonella mutagenicity assay (Ames Test).
Mutagenic activity was detected in materials
recovered using PS-DVB resins more frequently
than in materials recovered using other ad-
sorbents. These findings indicate that the
PS-DVB resins are superior for accumulating
gas chromatographable and potentially carcino-
genic materials from drinking water.
Adsorbents were also compared for
recovering organic materials from shale oil
process water and from water obtained from test
wells in the vicinity of coal storage piles. No
adsorbent tested accumulated more than a
fraction of the organic materials present in the
shale oil product water. Strong base anion
exchange resins and acrylic ester resins,
however, were the most effective adsorbents
tested. No adsorbent tested accumulated
detectable amounts of organic materials from the
coal mine storage water.
Most of the goals of the carbon resin
comparison studies have been accomplished. It
has been found that resins of the PS-DVB type
are the most effective agents for accumulating
gas chromatographable organic materials from
water. Other work has shown that reverse
osmosis accumulation procedures are effective
for high molecular weight and ionic organic
materials. A brief study will determine if these
two techniques can be combined to yield a
procedure applicable to the isolation of all
organic materials from drinking water.
Characterization of Dirty Aqueous Effluents
from Energy Generating Sources
This project, initiated late in FY 1978, is
also conducted at Iowa State University. The
focus of this study is on the development of
procedures for the characterization and quanti-
tation of potentially hazardous constituents in
dirty aqueous effluents.
Samples of "typical" effluents will be
obtained from pilot and demonstration scale
facilities now in operation. Attempts will be
made to modify existing techniques or to
develop new techniques for isolating organic
contaminants from these effluents. Work will
begin on procedures for separating sample
components into fractions containing species
with similar chemical properties and functional-
ities. Procedures for the routine determination
of priority contaminants will be refined. Capa-
bilities for performing bioassays will be
expanded.
Isolation and separation protocols will be
finalized. Routine monitoring procedures will
be applied to samples taken from operating
facilities. Bioassay procedures will be utilized
to guide separation and characterization efforts
towards those sample components posing the
greatest potential threat to the environment.
Developed procedures will be tested on
"real" samples. An attempt will be made to
identify or characterize all major components
and to identify or characterize all components
which might have an adverse environmental
effect.
Quality Assurance and Instrumentation in Air
and Water Pollution
In cooperation with the EPA and other
government agencies, the NBS is developing
methodology and standard materials for mea-
suring the environmental effects resulting from
increased energy production. The NBS Analy-
tical Chemistry Division is initiating research
and development in the areas of reference
materials, instrumentation, and methods re-
quired for monitoring air and water quality
associated with energy production. The
research and development leading to Standard
Reference Materials (SRM) instrumentation and
methods are urgently needed for the monitoring
of air and water quality associated with
increased energy development of many different
types. Due to the current and future energy
problems facing the U.S., it has become imper-
ative for the rapid development of the internal
energy capabilities of this country. In order to
29
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maintain an acceptable level of environmental
pollution, the methods devised for increased
utilization of these internal energy sources,
(e.g., petroleum, coal, uranium, oil shale,
geothermal) must be adequately evaluated and
monitored for effects on air and water pollution.
In order to effectively carry out its responsi-
bilities in these areas, the EPA has requested
the assistance of the NBS Analytical Chemistry
Division for research and development of SRM's.
The overall approach to be taken involves
three basic steps. First, in areas of well-
defined pollution effects, the emphasis will be
on the development and certification of SRM's to
enable effective quantitation. Examples of such
well-defined pollution effects include gases in
air pollution (e.g., sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide) and trace metals in water pollution
(e.g., mercury, arsenic, lead). Second, in
areas of known effects but imperfect measure-
ment methodology, research and development on
analytical methods and instrumentation will be
undertaken. Examples of these areas include
particulates and trace organics in air and water
pollution. Third, in areas of new or increased
energy production techniques (i.e., coal gasifi-
cation and liquefaction, uranium production,
etc.), a series of workshops will be held to
help define the current state-of-the-art, future
requirements for analytical reference materials,
and methodology for air and water pollution
measurements. Term of the contract is from
1975 to 1979.
3.4.3.6 Development of Ambient Monitoring
Guidelines
Western Energy-Related Regional Air Quality
Monitoring
EMSL/LV is presently engaged in an
extensive program to evaluate the existing and
potential regional impact of energy development
for air quality in the western energy resource
development area (WERDA). This study area
encompasses an essentially "pristine" eight-state
area (Arizona, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico,
Montana, Wyoming, North and South Dakota)
with extensive proposed fossil fuel resource
development. The program's primary objectives
are to establish an energy-related air quality
baseline, evaluate air quality trends, assess the
impacts of specific energy-related development
activities, and predict the impact of proposed
energy development.
To accomplish these objectives a number of
individual programs have been initiated. First,
a monitoring and source network inventory was
prepared and is being maintained. Air quality
monitoring was evaluated and the existing
network is being augmented in terms of
sampling locations, frequency of sampling, and
analyses being conducted. In particular, the
analysis of particulate sulfates and nitrates has
been added to many of the stations. In
addition, a 28-station network was established
in the Four Corners states to monitor total
suspended particulates, sulfates, nitrates, and
selected trace elements. The accuracy and
intercompatibility of the data collected by the
various networks in the study area are deter-
mined by a quality assurance program encom-
passing federal, state, and local monitoring
programs.
To assess the impact of energy develop-
ment and visibility, a 14-station visibility
monitoring network has been established in the
Four Corners states. A visibility monitoring
research station has been operating in Canyon-
lands National Park since the spring of 1978.
At this station, various monitoring techniques
are compared and evaluated. Beginning in the
summer of 1979, a network of 40 fine particulate
monitoring stations will be deployed and
operated in the WERDA for a period of 15
months. This network will provide information
on the composition and concentration of the fine
particulates. In addition to these ground-based
programs, an instrumented air quality aircraft
is being flown to characterize dispersion from
the sources and assess long-range regional
transport of air pollutants. These field mea-
surements are being used to validate regional
scale atmospheric diffusion models for predicting
the impact of various energy development
scenarios.
Air and Water Monitoring Guidelines for
Advanced Coal Conversion and Combustion
Plants
Within an overall coal conversion-oil shale
effort, Dalton-Dalton-Newport, Inc., Cleveland,
Ohio, is developing ambient monitoring guide-
lines for commercial scale in situ and/or
modified in situ oil shale developments. The
monitoring guidelines will include priority
'.ranking of potential pollutants, recommended
sampling and analysis procedures, a preliminary
quality assurance program design, and recom-
mended data management plans. A monitoring
guideline document will be prepared for in situ
/oil shale development. This project is being
sponsored through EMSL-LV. Term of the
contract is from October 1978 to October 1981.
3.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes
The Mineralogy of Overburden as Related to
Groundwater Chemical Changes in Strip Mining
of Coal, In Situ Coal Gasification, and Oil
Shale Retorting
In this Colorado School of Mines Research
Institute study, overburden cores and ground-
water samples will be chemically and physically
characterized. It is anticipated that this effort
will generate scientific information, predictable
in nature, which can be extrapolated to other
areas of mining activity. The overall objective
of this research is to provide regulatory
30
-------
agencies and the mining community with a
method to predict groundwater changes
resulting from coal strip mining, in situ coal
gasification, and oil shale retorting. This is a
four-year effort, in which the third year will
concentrate on oil shale, with a report expected
in 1979.
Organic Fractionation and Solute Transport
Study
The objective of this LETC study is to
develop a unique organic solute characterization
study based on sorption of both true in situ
and simulated in situ retort waters. An effort
will be made to relate DOE fractionation analysis
of retort waters to sorptive interactions with
retorted shale, so that predictions can be made
concerning availability, potential movement and
ultimate fate of organic solute from retorted
shale to adjacent ground waters.
Solute analysis will emphasize quantitative
organic analysis of fractions obtained in DOE
fractionation. A material balance approach,
based on carbon, will be used and hopefully
identify 50-75 percent of organic carbon. This
information will be used to .identify compounds
whose transport is of greatest environmental
significance.
Environmental Pathways of Selected Chemicals in
Freshwater Systems
Environmental exposure assessment models
and laboratory procedures for predicting the
pathways of potentially harmful chemicals in
freshwater environments were described in
Part I of this report EPA-600/7-77-113, Envi-
ronmental Pathways of Selected Chemicals in
Freshwater Systems, October 1977. In Part II,
EPA-600/7-78-074, May 1978, procedures were
developed for measuring the rates of volatiliza-
tion, photolysis, oxidation, hydrolysis, and
biotransformations as well as the sorption
partition coefficients on natural sediments and
on a mixture of four bacteria. The results
were integrated with a simple computer model to
predict the pathways of chemicals in ponds,
rivers, and lakes. This second part of the
project report describes the successful applica-
tion of these procedures to 11 chemicals of
environmental interest. The chemicals were
p-cresol, benz(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene,
quinoline, benzo(f)quinoline, 911-carbazole,
7H-dibenzo(c,g)carbazole. benzo(b)thiophene,
and dibenzothiophene, which might be found in
the effluents of plants using or processing
fossil fuels, and methyl parathion and mirex,
which are agricultural pesticides. This work
was performed by SRI International for EPA
ERL/Athens, Georgia.
3.5 END USE
3.5.1 Shale Oil Refining
Emission and Process Water Monitoring During
Shale Oil Refining
On November 1, 1978, EPA entered into an
Interagency Agreement (IAG) with the Energy
and Natural Resources Research and Develop-
ment Office of the Department of the Navy, to
measure fugitive emissions during the refinery
processing of Navy shale oil and to collect
various samples for health and ecological
research purposes. The Navy Department in
conjunction with the Department of Energy has
a multimillion dollar, multiyear program directed
towards evaluating oil shale as a source of
defense mobility fuels. As part of that
program, the Navy procured approximately
100,000 barrels of shale oil produced by the
Paraho process. During this past November, at
Standard Oil of Ohio's (Sohio) Toledo refinery,
the Navy Department had this oil refined into
jet and diesel fuels. This represented the first
refinery processing of shale oil at this scale.
EPA's interest in that activity stems from its
desire to obtain as much precommercialization
data as possible in order to identify any envi-
ronmental and health problems that might be
associated with the utilization of the shale oil.
To implement the above EPA-Navy Inter-
agency Agreement (IAG), Paraho Development
Corporation (PDC), the Navy's prime contractor
for obtaining the shale oil, hired Radian Corpo-
ration of Austin, Texas to measure and charac-
terize the emissions from these refinery units
associated with processing of the shale oil and
to collect selected process water samples. The
report on this analysis is expected to be
published in the summer of 1979.
A. foul water condensate sample, the only
process water sample collected, has been sent
to EPA's R. S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory for analysis of priority pollutants.
Selected liquid hydrocarbon samples collected
were: raw shale oil, hydro treated shale oil,
and precursor gas feed stock. These and an
acid sludge sample were in the process of being
shipped to the EPA/DOE Chemical Respository
at ORNL at the end of February 1979 for
distribution to various investigators for health
and ecological studies. In vitro and in vivo
testing will be performed on these materials
along with comparable products derived from
petroleum feed stocks and various synfuel
products from coal. The effort will be corre-
lated with biological and health studies being
performed by the Navy and the -American
Petroleum Institute.
31
-------
Plans also call for following the shale oil
products through the combustion phase by
collecting exhaust effluents for chemical and in
vitro toxicology when bench tests begin under
the Navy's auspices.
3.5.2 Exhaust Emissions from Shale Derived
Fuel Oils
The Combustion Research Branch of
IERL/RTP is currently involved in three con-
tractual efforts which include tasks for
measuring exhaust emissions from shale derived
fuel oils. The first of these efforts is with
Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, which is addressing
stationary gas turbine engines, while the other
two efforts are with Energy and Environmental
Research Corporation (EERC) and are address-
ing package boilers. In each of these contracts
the primary focus is the development of low
NOX combustor technology for a variety of fuel
oils and is not directed toward an in-depth
investigation of shale oil emission characteristics
per se.
In order to place the ongoing R&D involv-
ing shale oil into better perspective, it is
important to note that shale oil has the inter-
esting characteristic that it contains significant
amounts of chemically bound nitrogen within the
fuel matrix. (The quantity, of course, depends
upon the degree and details of distillation.) As
such, the potential use of shale oil or similarly
coal derived liquids has the potential for in-
creased NOy emissions relative to the emission
levels that would be achieved with a normal
distillate fuel oil or with natural gas.
Advanced Combustion Systems for Stationary
Gas Turbine Engines
Under the Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
contract, a major effort is underway to develop
low NOX combustor design technology for
stationary gas turbine engines (SGTE). Pre-
viously, within the U.S., SGTE's have burned
natural gas, kerosene fuels, and No. 2 distillate
oil almost exclusively. Energy resource avail-
ability is placing steady economic and political
pressure on the gas turbine manufacturers to
begin using dirtier fuels or alternate fuels such
as shale oil or SRC II. At the very least, they
must begin developing the technology to allow
these alternate fuels to be burned. Develop-
ment of NOX control technology for SGTE's has,
of course, been underway for several years
now, but, unfortunately, that R&D has been
directed at the traditional fuels used by
SGTE's. Techniques, such as water injection
and super lean combustion, have demonstrated
significant NOX control capabilities for the clean
fuels but have been shown to contain significant
quantities of bound nitrogen.
In 1975, the EPA recognized this potential
problem and embarked on the subject contract
to develop NO control technology which would
be effective for both clean fuels and fuels
containing significant amounts of bound nitro-
gen. To accomplish this goal, the program was
structured to investigate a wide spectrum of
SGTE combustor concepts in subscale hardware
and, based on those subscale results, to select
a single combustor concept for testing in full-
scale hardware. As regards fuels used in these
tests, prime consideration was given to the fact
that the combustor concepts could best be
screened and evaluated on distillate cut fuels
without incurring the added complexity associ-
ated with the ash, tars, and high viscosity of
residual oils. To that end, test work has
proceeded on three primary fuels: No. 2
distillate, No. 2 distillate doped to 0.5 percent
nitrogen by pyridine addition, and a distillate
cut shale oil. The shale oil used in these tests
was obtained from the Navy and was a diesel
fuel marine (DFM) cut from the Paraho project.
Analysis of this product revealed a 0.25 percent
nitrogen content, which is typical of the
nitrogen content of many No. 6 residual oils.
Thus, from a NOX control standpoint, this
particular shale oil cut was an ideal choice" for
the intended purposes.
Due to the limited quantities of DFM
available (50 barrels), the majority of the
development work was performed with the
straight No. 2, and the doped distillate with
the DFM was used as a check fuel and for
verification testing. Results from the contract
to date have been identification of a combustor
concept which produces NO in the 25 to 40
ppm range (at 15 percent O2) on clean fuels
and less than 75 ppm on doped distillate and
shale oil. The above cited results were
obtained in the subscale testing and are
currently being verified in full-scale hardware.
From the standpoint of emissions, it is
interesting to note that the shale oil with 0.25
percent nitrogen produced NO which was com-
parable to the No. 2 distillate doped with 0.5
percent nitrogen. This result is most certainly
due to the fact that pyridine has a lower
boiling point than the temperature at which
nitrogen is evolved from the DFM. A full
report on this contractual effort is due around
the end of September 1979.
Development and Optimization of Low No
Burner Designs for Heavy Liquid Fuel-Fired
Package Boilers
R&D activities directed toward the devel-
opment of low NOX burners for oil-fired package
boilers has been underway for several years.
In this program, primary interest is with the
burning of residual fuel oils in both firetube
and watertube package boilers. This program
is a continuing effort, being performed by
Energy Environmental Research Corporation.
32
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Early in the program, it was discovered
that a significant degree of NO control could
be achieved with residual fuel oif firing through
the application of staged combustion techniques
and/or through the control of the fuel/air
mixing patterns established by the burner
The maximum degree of NO control was limited
by the onset of unacceptable smoke emissions.
Further, both the baseline NO emissions and
an attainable degree of controfwere found to
vary depending upon the source of the residual
oil. To follow up on this fuel dependency, a
wide range of residual fuel oils were collected,
analyzed for chemical composition and distillation
characteristics, and fired in a small research
furnace (approximately 100,000 Btu/hr). To
date approximately 28 residual oil, fuel blends,
and alternate nitrogen-containing liquid fuels,
including shale distillate and crude shale, have
been tested. Baseline tests show that under
conditions of a high degree of early mixing
between the fuel and oxidizer and fuel lean
conditions in the early part of the flame, both
total NOX and the NO attributable to
oxidation of the fuel-bouna nitrogen correlate
well with the nitrogen content in the fuel.
Further, it has been shown that for these fuels
approximately 75 to 80 percent of the exhaust
NOX is related to the fuel-bound nitrogen. The
degree of control attainable appears to be a
function of the conditions established within the
boiler and on several characteristics of the
fuel. In addition to the amount of nitrogen in
the fuel matrix, another controlling fuel charac-
teristic is how tightly the nitrogen is bound
within the fuel. For fuels such as the distillate
shale oil or SRC II with the nitrogen predom-
inantly bound in light fractions, control of NO
emissions is relatively easy, when compared to
fuels such as the residual oil from Alaska's
North Slope which has the nitrogen bound in
very heavy ends. No firm conclusions have yet
been reached from this research but valuable
clues are being derived. Recently a large
quantity of the residual oil left from refining a
Paraho crude.jshale oil was secured from the
Navy and will be used in tests on package
boilers in the 2 to 10 x io« Btu/hr size range.
Results from the EERC efforts should first be
reported by the end of September 1979, while
the latter results and. associated reports are
scheduled for early 1981.
Emissions From Vehicles Using Oil Shale Derived
Fuels
Emission Control Technology Division, Ann
Arbor, is primarily interested in the impact of
oil shale derived fuels on the emissions from
mobile sources (light and heavy duty vehicles,
motorcycles, aircraft, locomotives, etc.). The
principal area of interest is whether or not the
use of oil shale derived fuels in mobile sources
will cause an increase, relative to conventional
fuels, in an emission parameter, that could thus
represent a potential hazard to public health,
welfare, or safety.
In one effort that is planned, a vehicle
operating on an oil shale derived gasoline would
be tested for a variety of exhaust emissions
including HC. CO, NOX, particulates, sulfates,
sulfides, organic amines, etc. The emission
data will be compared to data gathered under
the same conditions using conventional
petroleum-based gasoline.
In another effort, an oil shale derived fuel
would be used to operate a light duty diesel
vehicle, and analyses would be made for a
variety of resultant emissions. These emissions
would include the regulated emissions of HC,
CO, and NOX as well as several of the
currently unregulated emissions of particulates
(including mass emission rate of particulates,
associated organics, benzo(a)pyrene, and ele-
mental analysis of the organics), aldehydes,
phenols, smoke, and odor. ECTD also plans
bioassay studies using the Ames test on both
the fuel and its emission products. EPA has
already done work of this nature on a variety
of commercially available fuels and, therefore,
has an extensive data base with which to
compare the emissions from the oil shale derived
fuel.
33
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Table 1
CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY
Title
OVERALL ASSESSMENTS
Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale
Development
EPA-Industry Forum to Research
Technical and Regulatory Problems
for Shale Development
Integrated Assessment: Socioeconomic
Consequences of Coal and Oil Shale
Development
Technology Assessment of Western
Energy Resource Development
EXTRACTION AND HANDLING
Technologies for Controlling Adverse
Effects of Mining on Forest, Range
and Related Freshwater Ecosystems
/Water Quality Hydrology Affected by Oil
Shale Development n 0 &o »n vm~]
\/ Vegetative Stabilization of Paraho Spent
Oil Shale C^vf-GX&U-<
Sponsor
lERL-Ci
OEMI/Hq
lERL-Ci
EPA pass-
through to
USDA
OEMI
EPA pass-
through to
USDA
Performing
Organization
EPA Oil Shale
Work Group
C.K. Geo-
Energy
USDA
University of
Oklahoma
USDA
lERL-Ci Colorado State
, TYlC (jk)T\
-------
Table 1
CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY (Continued)
Title
PROCESSING (Cont.)
Sampling and Analysis for Retort and
and Combustion Gases at the Paraho
"' Shale Oil Demonstration Plant
Environmental Characterization of In Situ
Oil Shale Processing
Assessment of Oil Shale Retort Wastewater
Treatment and Control Technology
Air Pollution Investigations of Oil Shale
Retorting: In Situ and Surface
/ Analytical Methods Manual for Oil Shale
v Effluents
/Overview of the Environmental Problems
•J of Oil Shale Development
Distribution of As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sb and
Se During In Situ Oil Shale Retorting
Portable Zeeman Atomic Absorption
Mercury Monitor
Sponsor
lERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
Performing
Organization
O/> ?-P'- •
TRW
Monsanto Re-
search Corp.
Monsanto Re-
search Corp.
Monsanto Re-
search Corp.
DRI
DRI
Lawrence
Berkeley
Laboratory
Lawrence
Berkeley
Laboratory
Duration
,.; J.
1 yr.
1 yr.
3 yr.
3yr.
3yr.
28 mo.
1 yr.
1 yr.
Contact
T. Powers
513/684-4363
T. Powers
513/684-4363
T. Powers
513/684-4363
R. Thurnau
513/684-4439
R. Thurnau 7'
513/684-4439
R. Thurnau <
513/684-4439
P. Mills
513/684-4303
P. Mills
513/684-4303
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS
Health Effects
Repository for Alternate Energy Source
Material for Toxicity Testing
Air, Water, and Multiroute and Health
Effects from Pollutants Associated with
Energy Development
Chemical Rate, Detection, Metabolism and
Bioaccumulation Potential of Shale Oil
Components and the Effects of Marine
Diesel Fuel on Marine Organisms
Effect of Alternate Energy Source Material
on Whole Animal Carcinogenesis by Percu-
taneous Application of Extracts and
Fractions to Mice
Morphological Variants in Damaged Sperm
Detection of Early Changes in Lung Cell
Cyntology by Flow Systems Analysis
Techniques
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
HERL-Ci
ERL-Gulf
Breeze
EPA pass-
through
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
HERL-Ci
ERL-Gulf
Breeze
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
Lawrence
Livermore
Laboratory
Los Alamos
Scientific
Laboratory
Syr.
12 mo.
12 mo.
2yr.
5 yr.
1976-
in prog.
D. Coffin
919/541-2586
J. F. Stara
513/684-7401
N. Richards
904/932-5311
D. Coffin
919/549-2586
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
G. Duda
301/353-3651
fH
s°;.«^
36
-------
Table 1
CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY (Continued)
Title
Sponsor
Performing
Organization
Duration
Contact
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS (Cont.">
Health Effects (Cont.)
Mortality, Morbidity, and Industrial
Hygiene Study of Oil Shale Workers
Determination of the Influence of Mineral
Cofactors in Conjunction with Carcinogens
from Energy-Related Materials
In Vivo Screeninq for Gene Mutation in
Mouse Germ and Somatic Cells
The Carcinogenic Effects of Petroleum
Hydrocarbons on Selected Marine
Estuarine Organisms
Determination of the Effects of Material
from Alternate Energy Sources on Upper
Respiratory Tract Clearance Mechanisms
Quantitative Mutagenesis Testing in
Mammalian Cellular Systems
Development of Cytochemical Markers for
Cell Transformation and Carcinogenesis
Somatic Cell Genetics
Analysis of the Effects of Energy- Related
Toxic Materials to Karotype Stability in
Mammalian Cells
Effects of Products of Coal and Oil Shale
Conversion on Cell Cycle Kinetics
and Chromatin Structure
Mutagenicity Assay of Fractionated Coal
Conversion and Shale Oil In Situ Retorting
Products
The Quantitative Evaluation of Hazardous
Chemicals Using a Closed Aquatic Test
System
The Interaction of Chemical Agents Present
in Oil Shale with Biological Systems
Development of Permanent Epithelial Cell
Lines
NIOSH
HERL-RTP
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
NIEHS
HERL-RTP
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
NIEHS
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
NIOSH
Northrop
Services
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
University of
Washington
Ball State
University
Lawrence
Livermore
Laboratory
Lawrence
Livermore
Laboratory
Los Alamos
Scientific
Laboratory
Los Alamos
Scientific
Laboratory
Los Alamos
Scientific
Laboratory
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
Brookhaven
National
Laboratories
NIEHS-RTP
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
2yr.
32 mo.
1976-
in prog.
2yr.
42 mo.
Syr.
5 yr.
2 yr.
1976-
in prog.
1976-
in prog.
1975-
in prog.
1976-
in prog.
1977-
in prog.
1976-
in prog.
J. Costello
304/599-7474
D. Coffin
919/549-2586
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
P. E. Schambra
919/541-3457
D. Gardner
919/549-8411
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
G. Duda
301/353-3651
G. Duda
301/353-3651
G. Duda
301/353-3651
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
G. Duda
301/353-3651
L. G. Hart
919/541-3205
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
37
-------
Table 1
CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY (Continued)
Title
Sponsor
Performing
Organization
Duration
Contact
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS (Cont.)
Health Effects CCont.)
Development of an In Vitro Assay for
Cocarcinogenesis of Coal/Oil Shale
Derivatives
Ecological Effects
Effects of Aqueous Effluents from In Situ
Fuel Processing Technologies on Aquatic
Systems
/' Chemical and Biological Characterization of
v Oil Shale Processing and Coal Conversion
Measurement and Monitoring
v Oil Shale Area Meteorological Data
Analysis
v Air Quality and Surface Wind Monitoring
in Colorado
Upper Air Meteorological Data Collection
Visibility Monitoring in Piceance Basin
Monitoring the Impact of Oil Shale
Extraction on Groundwater Quality
Energy-Related Water Monitoring Data
Integration
Water Quality and Geochemistry of Shallow
Aquifers of Piceance Creek, Colorado
Water Quality Monitoring on White River
Parachute Creek and Logan Wash in Oil
Shale Areas of Western Colorado
Collection of Geochemical Data in the
Piceance Creek Structural Basin of
Colorado
Definition of Potentiometric Surface of
Shallow Aquifers in Piceance Creek
Impacted by Oil Shale
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
ERL-Duluth
LETC
ERL-Duluth
Region VIII
Region VIII
OEMI/
Region VIII
Region VIII
EMSL-LV
EMSL-LV
EPA pass-
through to
USGS
EPA pass-
through to
USGS
EPA pass-
through to
USGS
EPA pass-
through to
USGS
UCLA School
of Medicine
University of
Wyoming
Colorado State
University
CDM Limnetics
Colorado Dept.
of Health
Aeromet, Inc.
Occidental
Petroleum
General
Electric
EMSL-LV
USGS
USGS
USGS
USGS
1976-
in prog.
Syr.
Syr.
16 mo.
5 yr.
5 yr.
Starts
1979
Syr.
5 yr.
1974-
in prog.
6 yr.
in prog.
2 yr.
3yr.
G. Stapleton
301/353-5039
L. Mueller
218/727-6692 X529
L. Mueller
218/727-6692 X529
T. Thoem /V"
303/837-5914 ^
T. Thoem M>
303/837-5914
T. Thoem
303/837-5914
T. Thoem
303/837-5914
L. McMillion
702/736-2969
R. Thomas
702/736-2969
F. A. Kilpatrick
703/860-6846
F. A. Kilpatrick
703/860-6846
F. A. Kilpatrick
703/860-6846
J. Weeks
303/234-5092
C\
Water Quality Monitoring Techniques EMSL-LV
Evaluation
Assessment of Macroinvertebrate EMSL-LV
Monitoring Techniques
EMSL-LV 4 yr. W. L. Kinney
703/736-2969
EMSL-LV 1 yr. W. L. Kinney
703/736-2969
38
-------
Table 1
CURRENT PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY (Continued)
Title
Sponsor
Performing
Organization
Duration
Contact
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS fCont •>
Measurement and Monitoring (Cont.)
Instrumentation and Methods for Charac-
terizing Aqueous Effluents from Oil Shale
Identification of Components of Energy-
Related Wastes and Effluents
Comparison of Carbon and Resin Sorption
of Organic Materials
Characterization of Dirty Aqueous
Effluents from Energy Generating Sources
\/ Quality Assurance and Instrumentation
in Air and Water Pollution
Western Energy-Related Regional Air
Quality Monitoring
Air and Water Monitoring Guidelines for
Advanced Coal Conversion and Combustion
Plants
Environmental Transport Studies
/The Mineralogy of Overburden as Related
V to Groundwater Chemical 'Changes in Strip
Mining of Coal, In Situ Coal Gasification
and Oil Shale Retorting
Organic Fractionation and Solute
Transport Study
Environmental Pathways of Selected
Chemicals in Freshwater Systems
END USE
Emission and Process Water Monitoring
During Shale Oil Refining
Advanced Combustion Systems for
Stationary Gas Turbine Engines
Development of Optimization of Low-
NO Burner Designs for Heavy Liquid
Fuel Fired Package Boilers
Emissions from Vehicles Using Oil Shale
Derived Fuels
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
ERL-Athens
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
DOE
EPA pass-
through to
NBS
EMSL-LV
EMSL-LV
ERL-R.S.
Kerr
ERL-R.S.
Kerr
ERL-Athens
Oak Ridge
National
Laboratory
Gulf South
Research
Institute
Iowa State
University
Iowa State
University
NBS
EMSL-LV
Dalton-Dal ton-
Newport
CSMRI
LETC
SRI
International
EPA pass- Radian
through to Corporation
Dept. of Navy
IERL-RTP
IERL-RTP
ECTD
Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft
Energy and En-
vironmental Re-
search Corp.
ECTD
1976-
in prog.
Syr.
3yr.
3yr.
4 yr.
Syr.
Syr.
4 yr.
V
1977-
in prog.
6 mo.
41 mo.
2yr.
1 yr.
B. Clark
202/755-2673
A. Alford
404/546-3525
G. Goldstein
301/353-5348
G. Goldstein
301/353-5348
J. McNesby
301/921-2446
D. McNeils
702/736-2969
R. Bateman
702/736-2969
i
R. Newport ^
405/332-8800 ^
R. Newport
405/332-8800
R. R. Lassiter
404/250-3162
W.N. McCarthyJr
202/755-2737
W. S. Lanier
919/541-2432
W. S. Lanier
919/541-2432
R. 7. Garbe
313/668-4262r
39
-------
APPENDICES
-------
Appendix A
EPA PUBLISHED AND TO-BE-PUBLISHED REPORTS ON OIL SHALE
EPA No.
NTIS No.*
Title and Date
OVERALL ASSESSMENTS
EPA-600/7-79-089
EPA-600/7-79-083
EPA-600/7-79-082a ,b
EPA-600/7-79-060a-e
EPA-600/7-79-039
EPA-600/7-78-020
EPA-500/9-77-033 NA**
EPA-600/7-77-072a-d NA
EPA-600/7-77-037
EPA-600/7-77-032
EPA-600/7-77-024
EPA-600/7-77-015
EPA-600/5-76-001
EPA-600/2-75-070
PB-268-062/7BE
NA
PB-266-256/7BE
PB-266-292/2BE
PB-252-034/AS
PB-247-140/AS
"EPA Program Status Report: Oil Shale 1979
Update," (March 1979)
"Energy from the West; Policy Analysis Report,"
University of Oklahoma (March 1979)
"Energy from the West; Impact Analysis Report,"
2 Vol. University of Oklahoma (March 1979)
Energy from the West; Energy Resources Develop-
ment Systems Report," 5 Vol. University of
Oklahoma (March 1979)
"Compendium Reports on Oil Shale Technology.'^
General Electric Company-TEMPO (January 1979)'
"EPA Program Status Report: Oil Shale,"
(February 1978)
"Oil Shale and the Environment," EPA Decision
Series (October 1977)
"Energy from the West: A Progress Report of a
Technology Assessment of Western Energy Resource
Development." 4 Vol. University of Oklahoma,
Radian Corporation (July 1977)
"Water Requirements for Steam Electric Power
Generation and Synthetic Fuel Plants in Western
U.S.," University of Oklahoma (April 1977)
"Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program-
Status Report III," OEM (April 1977)
"Western Energy/Environment Monitoring Study:
Planning and Coordination Summary," EPA/OEMI
(March 1977)
"Monitoring Environmental Impacts of the Coal and
Oil Shale Industries: Research and Development
Needs," Radian Corporation (February 1977)
"First Year Work Plan for a Technological Assess-
ment of Western Energy Resource Development,"
University of Oklahoma (March 1976)
"EPA Program Status Report: Synthetic Fuels
Program," Stanford Research Institute (October
1975)
This state-of-the-art survey supports a study designing a groundwater quality monitoring program
for oil shale operations such as that proposed for Federal Oil Shale Lease Tracts U-a and U-b.
A-l
-------
EPA PUBLISHED AND TO-BE-PUBLISHED REPORTS ON OIL SHALE (Continued)
EPA No.
NTIS No.*
Title and Date
EXTRACTION AND HANDLING
EPA-600/7-78-021***
PB-252-649/AS
EPA-600/2-76-064
PROCESSING
EPA-600/7-79-075
EPA-600/7-78-065
EPA-625/9-77-002
EPA-600/7-77-069
EPA-908/4-78-003
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS
EPA-600/7-79-023
NA
NA
EPA-600/3-78-097
EPA-600/3-78-096
EPA-908/2-78-001
EPA-908/4-77-011
EPA-660/2-74-067
EPA-650/2-74-099
PB-291251/AS
PB-289874/AS
PB-236-608/AS
PB-241-942/AS
"Vegetative Stabilization of Spent Oil Shales:
Vegetation Moisture, Salinity and Runoff, 1973-1976
(March 1978)
"Atmospheric Pollution Potential from Fossil Fuel
Resource Extraction, Onsite Processing and Trans-
portation," Radian Corporation (March 1976)
"Technological Overview Reports for Eight Shale
Oil Recovery Processes," TRW/DRI (March 1979)
"Sampling and Analysis Research Program at the
Paraho Shale Oil Demonstration Plant," TRW/DRI
(April 1978)
"Environmental Sampling of the Paraho Oil Shale
Retort Process at Anvil Points," Executive Briefing,
EPA Technology Transfer Series (October 1977)
"A Preliminary Assessment of Environmental Impacts
from Oil Shale Development," TRW/DRI (July 1977)
"Trace Elements Associated with Oil Shale and the
Processing," (May 1977)
"Groundwater Quality Monitoring of Western Oil
Shale Development: Identification and Priority
Ranking of Potential Pollution Sources," General
Electric Company-TEMPO (January 1979)
"Environmental Effects of Oil Shale Mining and
Processing, Part II: The Aquatic Macroinverte-
brates of the Piceance Basin, Colorado, prior to
Oil Shale Processing (October 1978)
"Environmental Effects of Oil Shale Mining and
Processing, Part I: Fishes of Piceance Creek
Colorado, Prior to Oil Shale Processing" (October
1978)
"Water and Air Quality Trends in Region VIII,"
(March 1978)
"Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network EPA
Region VIII Energy Areas (October 1977)
"Pollutional Problems and Research Needs for an
Oil Shale Industry," EPA, Robert S. Kerr Environ-
mental Research Laboratory (June 1974)
"Environmental Considerations for Oil Shale
Development," Battelle Columbus Labs (October
1974)
A-2
-------
EPA PUBLISHED AND TO-BE-PUBLISHED REPORTS ON OIL SHALE (Continued)
EPA No.
NTIS No.*
Title and Date
ENERGY-RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS (Cent.)
EPA-R-3-73-011a
EPA-TR-76-74
EPA-TR-76-54
EPA-TR-76-80
END USE
EPA-600/2-76-177b
EPA-600/7-76-004b
EPA-600/7-76-004a
PB-221-343
PB-259-070-T/BE
PB-258-920-T/BE
PB-258-790-T/BE
PB-260-475/9BE
PB-255-995/AS
PB-255-994/AS
"Effects of Chemical Variations in Aquatic Environ-
ments - Vol. 1: Biota and Chemistry of Piceance
Creek," Colorado State University (February 1973)
"Some Data on the Composition of Neutral Oxygen
Compounds of Estonian Shale Resins which Boil
Under 200°C.H USSR (1972)
"The Carcinogenic Properties of Oil Shale Products
and the Possibilities of Prophylaxis Cancer,"
Institute of Experimental and Clinical Medicine,
Tartusk State University, USSR (1972)
"Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Generator Shale Resin,"
USSR (1971)
"Fuel Contaminants: Vol. 2., Removal Technology
Evaluations," Battelle Columbus Labs (September
1976)
"Impact of Synthetic Liquid Fuels Development
Automotive Market: Vol. 2.," Stanford Research
Institute (July 1976)
"Impact of Synthetic Liquid Fuel Development
Automotive Market: Vol. 1, Summary," Stanford
Research Institute (June 1976)
**
**"
the National Technical Information Service. U.S. Department of Commerce,
f™ FPA Yt ^d-' Springfield, Virginia 22151, (703) 557-4650. Availability of reports
from EPA may be obtained by contacting OEMI-Hq. (W.N. McCarthy, Jr.) (202) 755-27377
Not Available
A-3
-------
Appendix B
GENERAL REFERENCES ON OIL SHALE
Ashland Oil, Inc., and Shell Oil Company, "Oil
Shale Tract C-b Detailed Development Plan
and Related Materials," 2 volumes
February 1976.
Booz, Allen and Hamilton, Inc., "Engineering,
Systems Engineering, and Management
Support Service for Preparation of the
Naval Oil Shale Reserve Master Develop-
ment Plan," August 1977.
Cameron Engineers, Inc., "A Technical and
Economic Study of Candidate Underground
Mining Systems for Deep, Thick Oil Shale
Deposits," prepared for the U.S. Bureau
of Mines, October 1976.
Cameron Engineers, Inc., "Oil Shale Seminar-
Conducted for the Department of the
Navy, Office of Petroleum and Oil Shale
Reserves," September 1977.
Cameron Engineers, Inc., "Synthetic Fuels Data
Handbook," compiled by Thomas
Hendrickson, 1978.
Cameron Engineers, Inc., "Synthetic
Quarterly Report," various issues.
Fuels
Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project, "Revised Detailed
Development Plan, Tract C-a," May 1977.
Schmidt-Collerus, Dr. Josef J., "The Disposal
and Environmental Effects of Carbonaceous
Solid Wastes from Commercial Oil Shale
Operations," First Annual Report, National
Science Foundation, January 1974.
Smithsonian Science Information Exchange, Inc.,
"Oil Shale," Custom search on ongoing oil
shale projects, October 1977.
Thorne Ecological Institute, "The Colony
Environmental Study - Parachute Creek,
Garfield County, Colorado," prepared for
Colony Development, Atlantic Richfield,
Operator, 1974.
U.S. Department of Interior, "Final Environ-
mental Statement for the Prototype Oil
Shale Leasing Program," 6 volumes, 1973.
U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey
"Organic-Rich Shale of the United States
and World Land Areas," USGS Circular
523, 1965.
Colorado School of Mines, "Proceedings of the
Ninth Oil Shale Symposium," Volume 71
No. 4, October 1976. (Proceedings of
Symposiums 1 through 8 are also available).
Radian Corporation, "A Western Regional
Energy Development Study," 4 Volumes
August 1975.
Radian Corporation, "Guidelines for Monitoring
Research-Scale In Situ Energy Process "
Final Report, September 1976.
U.S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey,
"Simulated Effects of Oil Shale Development
on the Hydrology of Piceance Basin, Colo-
rado," Professional Paper 908, 1974.
U.S. Federal Energy Administration,
Independence Report," 1974.
"Project
White River Shale Project, "Detailed Develop-
ment Plan - Federal Lease Tracts U-a and
U-b," 2 volumes, 1976.
B-l
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Appendix C
WORLD RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
Oil shale, by one name or another, occurs
on all continents and is known to exist in
nearly three dozen countries. Few of the
known occurrences and practically none of the
large occurrences have ever been completely
explored. The principal exception is in the
Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and
Wyoming. Total world resources are thus
unknown, but it must be measured in hundreds
of trillions of barrels. Asia is believed to
contain the most oil shale, with Africa running
a close second. Still, the Green River deposit
is the largest single known concentration of
hydrocarbons in the world, covering approxi-
mately 11 million acres and containing an
estimated four trillion barrels of oil equivalent
above an assay of five GPT.
USA
The Ute Indians and their predecessors
probably used oil shale as a fuel long before
the white man found his way to the Piceance
Creek basin. Later on, the Mormons distilled
oil from shale near Juab, Utah where the ruins
of an old retort still exist.
It wasn't until World War I that serious
interest was given to utilizing Gr^en River oil
shale. More than 50 oil shale companies had
operated in the eastern U.S. prior to Colonel
Drake's Pennsylvania oil well, drilled in 1859.
These early operations were crude, and no
attempt had ever been made to apply the tech-
nology to the deposits of western shale dis-
covered in the 1880's.
Western oil shale activity began in the
1890's in Nevada. A businessman named Robert
Catlin acquired oil shale properties near Elko
between 1890 and 1915. He visited Broxburn
Scotland, in 1901 to study the Scottish opera-
tions and eventually began R&D with Elko
deposits in 1914. A 100-foot shaft was sunk on
his property in 1915 and the following year he
erected a 20 ton-perf-day retort which proved to
be unsatisfactory and was later dismantled. In
1917, he incorporated Catlin Shale Products
Company.
In 1918, the company began constructing
eight 100 ton-per-day retorts which differed in
design from the 1915 models. The retorts were
in operation in May 1919, and by July the new
plant had produced 15,000 gallons of shale oil
The refrigerator plant, wax press, stills, and
agitator were added to the plant late in 1919
and in early 1920. Sometime later, the Catlin
Company's retorts were shut down. A third
retort, 40 feet high and 12-1/2 feet in dia-
meter, was constructed and put in operation in
December 1921. This retort was operated
intermittently until October 18, 1924. In 1924
the shale oil products were offered for sale for
the purpose of testing the market. The
products apparently could not be marketed in
competition with petroleum products. On
December 23, 1930, the company was dissolved.
Its operation admittedly was experimental.
The Oil Shale Mining Company was
apparently the first group to undertake R&D
efforts with Green River Formation oil shale. It
was incorporated in Colordo on October 2, 1916,
as a public stock company with a capitilization
of $100,000. it acquired six mining claims
about 15 miles west of DeBeque, Colorado. An
externally heated, six to eight ton-per-day
batch-type Henderson retort, 18 feet high and
12 to 15 inches in diameter, and a tramway
were constructed. By the end of 1918 or the
early part of 1919, the company had six of
these retorts, only one of which was assembled
and operated on an experimental basis. By
1920. the company experimented with a contin-
uous type of retort, invented by its
superintendent, A.V. Young, which0was subse-
quently abandoned.
The company produced a few barrels of oil
in 1920 and 30 barrels in 1921. Ore for the
retorts was obtained from small pits on the
claims from 1917 to 1921. By 1926, the com-
pany lost its properties through attachments.
The stories of the Catlin Shale works and
the Oil Shale Mining Company are illustrative of
dozens of similar operations that existed during
the decade following World War I. Most opera-
tions were experimental in nature and none ever
produced more than a few thousand barrels.
By 1925, more than two dozen experimental
plants were operating throughout the country,
using Devonian as well as Green River shales.
But interest in oil shale was.not limited to the
entrepreneur. Cities Service, Standard Oil of
California, and Texaco began acquiring oil shale
properties and investigating shale oil production
in 1918. Union Oil Company of California
followed suit in 1920. standard of California
conducted laboratory retorting experiments in
1920 and from 1925 to 1928.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines built and
operated the N-T-U retort from 1925 to 1929
using Colorado oil shale.
During the mid-1920's. Union conducted
studies of existing oil shale processes, made
analyses of oil shale samples and undertook an
oil shale research program. Starting in 1944, it
built and operated an experimental retort with a
C-l
-------
capacity of two tons per day. In 1948, it
completed a 50 ton-per-day retort which was
dismantled in 1954. Construction of a 1,000
ton-per-day demonstration plant was started in
1955 on Parachute Creek north of Grand Valley,
Colorado. The plant was completed in 1957 and
operated until mid-1958.
Mobil Oil Corporation began a research
program to evaluate the potential of oil shale in
1943. A pilot plant was built at Paulsboro, New
Jersey, and an experimental program was
conducted between 1943 and 1945. In 1965
through 1967, Mobil was operator of a six-
company group that leased the Anvil Points
demonstration facility near Rifle, Colorado, and
further developed gas combustion retorting
technology.
Texaco's R&D activities also dated to the
1940's. From 1945 to 1947, Texaco prepared a
shale oil refining study for the Navy at its own
expense. Beginning in 1957, after experimen-
tation with other methods of extracting oil from
shale, Texaco built and operated a pilot plant
to develop its own hydroretorting process.
Congress passed the Synthetic Liquid
Fuels Act in 1944 because of the tremendous
demands for liquid fuels imposed by World
War II. This led to construction and operation
of the Anvil Points Oil Shale Demonstration
Facility of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. Six, 25,
and 150 ton-per-day pilot plants were operated
between 1950 and 1955.
The Paraho Oil Shale Project, which began
in 1973, was a three-year program aimed at
demonstrating the feasibility of the Paraho pro-
cess. The program was administered by
Development Engineering, Inc., under the
leadership of Harry Pforzheimer of SOHIO. The
program was conducted at the Anvil Points Oil
Shale Facilities near Rifle, Colorado, under
lease from DOE. The project was funded by
seventeen participating companies. In 1978, the
Paraho facility at Anvil Points completed pro-
duction of 100,000 barrels of shale oil under
contract to the U.S. Navy. The Navy intends
to have this shale oil refined into military
specification products by an independent
contractor.
In the 1960's, work was conducted by
Colony Development Corporation on the TOSCO
Demonstration Plant, and in situ experimental
work was conducted by Equity Oil, ARCO, Shell
Oil, and the Laramie Energy Technology
Center.
In 1968, the Department of the Interior
(DOI) instituted the Oil Shale Test Leasing
Program. An oil shale leasing study was
initiated by COI in October 1969, which sub-
sequently led to the Final Environmental Impact
Statement released in August 1973.
Commencing with competitive bid sales in
January 1974, the DOI offered the lease of the
six selected tracts in Colorado, Utah, and
Wyoming, and during the following six months
leased four of these tracts, two each in
Colorado (Tracts C-a and C-b) and Utah
(Tracts U-a and U-b). Neither of the two
Wyoming tracts received acceptable bids.
The Rio Blanco Oil Shale project (Tract
C-a) is a joint venture of Gulf Oil Corporation
and Standard Oil Company (Indiana). In
January 1974, Rio Blanco acquired a lease on
Tract C-a as part of the Federal Prototype Oil
Shale Leasing Program. Rio Blanco initially
planned to develop Tract C-a using open pit
mining and surface retorting. In March 1976, a
Detailed Development Plan outlining this
approach was submitted for governmental
approval. It soon became apparent that a
number of nontechnical factors prevented using
this approach. In May 1977, a revised plan
based on modified in situ technology was
submitted for government approval.
The revised 40-year plan for development
of Tract C-a includes a 10-year Modular
Development Phase and a 30-year Commercial
Phase. The Modular Development Phase will
consist of underground retorting only and will
be conducted near the center of the commercial
mine area during the first 10 years of operation
(1977-1986, including construction). During
this time period, a number of retorts will be
built and burned in sequence to gain operating
experience, improve process efficiency, and
confirm capital and operating costs for a
commercial operation. Commercial scale opera-
ting conditions will be demonstrated during this
phase with five retorts being developed and
burned by 1981.
In order to conduct the modular develop-
ment program on Tract C-a, Rio Blanco's
partners, Gulf and Standard of Indiana have
authorized the expenditure of $93 million for the
first four years of the program.
Engineering and construction for the
Commercial Phase will begin in 1982 after
results of the first prototype commercial-size
retorts have been analyzed. Completion of
commercial-size retorts and support facilities is
anticipated to take up to five years. Rio
Blanco intends to demonstrate commercial feasi-
bility and other objectives of the prototype oil
shale program at an initial rate of about 50,000
BPSD. This production level is anticipated to
result in a peak employment of about 1,550
people. Total population for the duration of
the project will increase by about 5,800 people
as a result of the development.
The C-b Shale Oil Project lease was
awarded in April 1974 to a group composed of
Ashland Oil, inc., The Atlantic Richfield
C-2
-------
Company, Shell Oil,Inc., and The Oil Shale
Corporation (TOSCO). Later, three of the
companies withdrew from the project, leaving
Ashland Oil. On November 3, 1976, Occidental
Petroleum Corporation (Oxy) entered into an
agreement with Ashland whereby Oxy gained a
50 percent interest in Tract C-b in exchange
for their technology concerning the modified
in situ process. In early 1978, an agreement
was executed by the two companies giving Oxy
75 percent, and Ashland 25 percent. In late
1978, Ashland announced its withdrawal as a
25 percent partner, effective February 14,
1979. This action places Oxy in a 100 percent
leasehold position.
Plans are to develop Tract C-b in a pro-
gressive fashion which will allow early evalua-
tion of the modified in situ technology on the
new site prior to construction of a full-scale
commercial facility. Current plans call for
constructing a small retort test area which can
begin operations while development of the
commercial mine and retorts is underway. It is
expected that the first retort will be ready for
processing by November 1980. When the
commercial facility reaches full production in
1985, approximately 40 retorts will be in various
stages of "burning" at the same time. This will
produce a total of 57,000 barrels of shale oil
daily. Utilizing Oxy's modified in situ tech-
nology will result in the production of approxi-
mately 1.2 billion barrels of the 3.0 billion
barrels of shale oil in place on the tract. If it
is determined that surface retorts can be used
to process the mined out shale, total recovery
will be. about 1.65 billion barrels of oil. The
process is expected to recover 34 percent of
the total inplace resource, which consists of a
310-foot thick zone of 25 GPT oil shale.
Occidental and Ashland estimate that the
required capital cost of the Tract C-b oil shale
facility will be $440 million. In turn, develop-
ment of the tract will result in 1,600 permanent
jobs for the duration of the 65-year project.
The White River Shale Project is a joint
development of Tracts U-a and U-b in north-
eastern Utah. The lease on Tract U-a was
awarded to Phillips Petroleum Company and
Sunoco Energy Development Company (then Sun
Oil Company) in May 1974. SOHIO Petroleum
Company then joined Sunoco and Phillips to
create the white River Shale Oil Corporation
which was awarded a lease on Tract U-b in
June 1974.
White River plans to follow a modular
development approach in commercializing oil
shale operations on Tracts'U-a and U-b. The
first major activity on the tracts will be to
establish a room and pillar mine with its
attendant access shafts. This Phase I develop-
mental mine will better define the shale condi-
tions existing on the tract which will have an
effect on future large scale mining and'process-
ing operations. During this initial mining
operation, about 30,000 tons of shale will be
mined for crushing and retorting evaluations.
During Phase II this exploratory mine will be
enlarged to the point where it can produce
about 10,000 tons of oil shale per day. This oil
shale will subsequently be crushed and fed to a
single commercial sized vertical retort. Suc-
cessful initiation and operation of the single
retort installation will be followed by engineer-
ing and construction of a commercial plant. For
the commercial plant producing 100,000 barrels
of shale oil per day, the mining operations will
produce about 160,000 tons per day of raw
shale.
White River estimates that the cost for
commercial developments on Tracts U-a and U-b
will be approximately $1.6 billion. Long-term
commercial development will result in the
creation of 2,050 permanent jobs. Because of
the high costs involved, and because of the
risks and uncertainty surrounding such a
project, White River feels that the ultimate
development of Tracts U-a and U-b may require
government support. White River has recently
proposed a $246 million modular demonstration
plant to be funded via DOE. The demonstration
plant would include both modified in situ and
surface retorts. Future development on Tracts
U-a and U-b, however, is clouded by a legal
question concerning ownership of the leased
lands. This issue is currently being considered
by the courts, and no development on the
tracts is likely until these issues are resolved.
OTHER COUNTRIES
Oil shale industries have existed at one
time or another in 13 other countries. The
first recorded production of shale oil was in
Austria in 1350. A 14th Century British patent
refers to deriving "a kind of oyle from a
stone." The first recorded installation of oil
shale retorts to produce oil as fuel was in
France in 1838.
Two recurrent situations are noted in the
history of oil shale development since 1838.
First, development has only occurred under
unusual, localized conditions, primarily where
no viable sources of coal or crude oil were
available or where they were inadequate. The
second situation is that, until very recently, oil
shale industries were at their best just before,
during and immediately following World War II.
Only two significant commercial industries
exist today—in Manchuria and Estonia. Several
countries, including Australia, Brazil, Germany
and Israel, are leaning toward industrial devel-
opment of oil shale in the 1980's.
Australia
Australia has very large identified re-
sources of greater than 10 GPT oil shale. The
shales 'were deoosited in coal swamps, in the
C-3
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sea, and in lakes. Oil shale occurrences were
first noted in Australia in 1802.
Oil shales associated with coal seams are
widespread in Permian and Jurassic strata in
Queensland and New South Wales. Their areal
extent, individually, is small (tens of miles2),
but yields are high, 116 to 203 GPT. Many of
these oil shales are unsuitable for open-cut
mining because of thick overburden and
extensive faulting. They are, however, rela-
tively well situated geographically and are the
only deposits to have been mined in mainland
Australia.
Sporadic production took place in New
South Wales from the mid-1860's until 1952.
The main production was during war-time
periods of oil shortages. Total production of
shale oil amounted to about 700,000 barrels,
mainly from Permian coal measures at the
Newnes Capertee deposit near Glen Davis,
approximately 93 miles northwest of Syndey.
The plant featured the use of about 100 vertical
kiln retorts patterned after the Scottish
Pumpherston-Fell type. Each retort handled
seven to eight tons of 70 GPT shale per day
and recovered about 90 percent of the assay
value of the feed shale. Operations proved to
be uneconomical after World War II and the
facilities were abandoned.
During the war, many "backyard" oil shale
operation existed; one of these was operated by
Lithgo Oil Party Ltd., at Marangaroo, New
South Wales, and reportedly produced over two
million gallons of oil at a time when every drop
of liquid fuel counted.
The marine shales include a comparatively
small deposit of Cambrian age at Camooweal in
northwest Queensland, some small deposits of
Permian age near Devonport in northern
Tasmania, and an extensive deposit of .Creta-
ceous age in the Toolebuc Formation which, at
various depths, underlies an area of about
27,000 miles2, extending south from the Gulf of
Carpentaria to northern New South Wales and
northeast South Australia.
Small quantities of shale oil were produced
in Tasmania between 1910 amd 1934.
The Toolebuc oil shale has an average
thickness of about 33 feet, an average yield
conservatively estimated at" 13 GPT, and
contains minor amounts of vanadium, uranium,
and selenium. The inferred subeconomic
resources of oil equivalent In the Toolebuc
Formation are large, on the order of 2,850 x
109 barrels. These ; inferred resources repre-
sent about 500 times as much oil as the current
estimate of recoverable resources of conven-
tional oil in Australia.
The Toolebuc Formation oil shale, despite
its immense resources, is thought to have low
potential for economic exploitation because of
geographic location and limited availability of
water for mining and processing. Development
of in situ processing, which may require less
water, could improve its economic prospects.
Lacustrine (lake bed) deposits occur in a
number of Tertiary Basins in eastern Queens-
land, including the Rundle or the Narrows
Deposit (the Narrows Graben) and the Duaringa
Basin. Yields average less than 29 GPT, and
areal extent is limited to a few hundred square
miles. Individual beds in the Rundle deposit
are less than 300 feet thick, but the aggregate
thickness of oil shale beds and interbedded
sedimentary rocks is several hundred feet. All
of the lake deposits are in geographically
favorable locations, and for this reason they
appear to have the highest potential for exploi-
tation.
The Sydney, Australia firms of Southern
Pacific Petroleum and Central Pacific Minerals
are proposing a three-retort plant to produce
23,300 BPD by 1981 from the Rundle oil shale
deposit in central Queensland. The Union,
Lurgi-Ruhrgas, and Superior processes have
been selected for detailed engineering economic
evaluation. Initial cost of the facility is
estimated to be between $210 million and
$240 million. Surface mining techniques would
be employed. The Rundle deposit has proved
reserves of 1.3 billion barrels.
By 1986, the project would grow to 40
retorts, producing 255,000 BPD with an invest-
ment of $2 billion. To make upgrading unnec-
essary, unhydrogenated shale oil costing $11
per barrel would fuel nearby power plants.
Austria
Production of shale oil was first recorded
in Tyrol in 1350 A.D., but there are indications
that this began even much earlier. Around
1600, shale oil or "rock oil" as it was called was
discovered to have medical value and many
primitive works produced oil for trading and
local consumption. Shale oil production attained
some economic significance in 1839 when an
asphalt factory began operation. Between 1840
and 1882, oil shale was employed mostly for the
extraction of asphalt mastic, naphtha, and
asphalt tar. By 1900, the therapeutic value of
shale oil was again recognized and since then
has been produced solely for medical purposes
in the field of dermatology. From 1937 to 1966,
the annual use was about 600 tons. Some use
of shale oil probably continues today, but the
relatively small reserves and complicated mining
situation leave - significant oil shale use in
Austria in doubt.
Brazil
Reserves of medium-quality Irati shale oil
in Brazil are known to /be adequate :for an
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extremely large industry, but large scale
commercial exploitation was not seriously con-
sidered until after World War II. Nevertheless,
it is known that illuminating gas was produced
from oil shale in the Pariaba Valley as early as
1882. Small scale operations existed off and on
thereafter until 1946.
In 1950, the Brazilian government launched
a major research program to develop a practical
technology for utilizing Irati shale. Bench
scale and pilot plant studies during the 1950's
and 1960's resulted in development of the
Petrosix process. In addition to oil, the
Petrosix process yeilds LPG, high-Btu fuel gas,
and elemental sulfur; all are products of impor-
tance in Brazil.
Meanwhile, Brazil's oil shale was explored,
in reconnaissance fashion, over most of the
southern part of the country. Geologists
ultimately selected a site near Sao Mateus do
Sul in the southern part of the State of Parana
for a concentrated exploration effort.
Coreholes were drilled on a 100 meter grid
pattern, reserves of some 200 million barrels
were delineated, and plans were made in the
mid-1960's to establish a demonstration Petrosix
plant at this site.
Operation of the 2,200 ton-per-day demon-
stration plant began in 1973. The Petrosix
retort installed at the plant was designed by
Cameron Engineers. The retort is the focal
point of an impressive complex that includes
facilities for crushing, screening fines briquet-
ting, oil separation, LPG and sulfur recovery
from retort off-gas, and power production. A
new town was established at nearby Curitiba,
complete with attractive residences and schools
plus all the necessary amenities such as a water
and sewer system and roads paved with crushed
oil shale. .
A nearby surface mine provides shale to
the plant, which is located near the oil shale
outcrop. Oil shale is recovered from two beds
near the surface but separated by a bed of
barren limestone.
In 1976, the Brazilians had become experts
at operating the plant and began serious
studies of starting a large-scale commercial
industry. The 2,200 ton-per-day retort, some
18 feet in diameter, may be used as the first in
a battery of commercial-scale modules that would
be built at the existing complex. ,But it is
likely that Petrobras may seriously consider
going to a retort twice the diameter and four
times the throughput. In.any event, it would
be no surprise to hear Brazil announce firm
plans for a large-scale industry before, 1980.
Burma;
The, Burmese oil shale deposit is an
extension of that in Thailand. Reserves are
not large but quality appears to be good.
There has never been any commercial pro-
duction.
Canada
Oil shales from the maritime provinces were
distilled to produce waxes and illuminating oils
in the early 1800's, but no significant industry
ever existed. Studies during the last decade
have failed to provide an economical means of
using Canadian shales from either Saskatchewan
or the maritime provinces. Reserves are sub-
stantial but quality is marginal. The best use
may prove to be for production or direct
burning for power generation.
England
Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay, a 150-million-
year-old formation underlies much of eastern
England and the North Sea and has small
outcrops in Scotland. In addition to the possi-
bility of establishing a shale oil industry with
this resource, current interest arises due to
the belief that Kimmeridge Clay may be a major
natural source rock in the North Sea oil
province.
The existence of the Kimmeridge Clay oil
shales has been known since the Iron Age. At
various times since then they have been used
as a coal substitute, and in the 18th Century
. they supplied the heat source for alum and
seal-salt works at Kimmeridge. Dorset.
Numerous attempts have been made to exploit
the shales as a commercial source of oil. In the
latter part of the 19th Century, several large
consignments of shale were sent from Dorset to
be retorted at the Scottish Lothians oil shale
works. Although the yields of oil were con-
sidered to be satisfactory, the shale was more
expensive to distill than Scottish shale, and the
product oil contained an unacceptably high
sulfur content.
In 1975, the U.K. Department of Energy
recommended that the Institute of Geological
Science (IGS) undertake a study of the oil
shale occurrences in the Kimmeridge Clay. The
institute had at that time already embarked on a
pilot study of these oil shales in southern
England in order to assess whether a full scale
study of the occurrences throughout the U.K.
would be worthwhile. ' ...
. Kimmeridge Clay oil shales occur as thin
seams (yielding ,40 to "55 GPT) separated by
barren days'(yielding less than three GPT).
Even; ;the thickest of the oil shales.Jn, the
Kimmeridge Clay could not be readily mined
close to the outcrop as in individual seam. In
opencast workings whole groups of seams,
together with the intervening, barren clays,
would need to be worked. It would therefore
be advantageous if, immediately'after excavation
of,, the bulk, material, a , simple mechanical
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technique could be found which would concen-
trate the oil shale seams to avoid retorting
unproductive material. Enrichment by differ-
ential slaking provides just such a method on
the laboratory scale and could form the basis
for an industrial process.
No appreciable enrichment of trace ele-
ments has been detected in these oil shales.
Analyses of spent shale indicate that it could
probably be used for brickmaking and for fill in
the construction industry. Some of the spent
shale may have pozzolanic properties.
Because of its low strength, the Kimmer-
ridge Clay could probably be worked at or near
its outcrop only by opencast methods. Under-
ground mining might be possible at depths
greater than about 350 feet in the areas of
thick Kimmeridge Clay deposits.
The Kimmeridge Clay contains the richest
source of organic material in the British
Mesozoic sequence and is almost certainly the
major source of hydrocarbons in the North Sea
oil province.
France
The world's first recorded production of
shale oil for profit was in France in 1838.
France's shale oil industry apparently flourished
until the discovery of conventional liquid petro-
leum. After that, the French government from
time to time provided various kinds of financial
support such as duties on imports or direct
subsidies. The French industry apparently
used the Scottish Pumpherston retort almost
exclusively after 1860 and until the 1940's when
French-designed retorts replaced the smaller
Pumpherston. Production apparently reached
an all time high of 500,000 tons in 1947 but
declined steadily thereafter. Still, three plants
were in operation as late as 1950, each
receiving indirect government subsidies of one
kind or another. The industry ceased in the
1960's.
Germany
The first recorded utilization of oil shale
in Germany was in 1916, but little is known of
the early industry—it probably existed on only
a pilot or experimental scale. By 1937, only
one small plant was in operation. It consisted
of a series of small vertical retorts held in
masonry and externally heated with hot gases.
Production was not large and the plant did not
play an important part in subsequent devel-
opments in Germany. In 1940, oil shale opera-
tions began at a former portland cement plant
at Dotternhausen.
Germany, of course, has large deposits of
brown coal and lignite in addition to oil shale
During the 1930's the Hitler regime focused
efforts on producing liquid fuels from coal and
lignite. This resulted in improvements to the
Bergius and Fischer-Tropsch processes and the
installation of full-scale industrial plants. Early
in World War II these synthetic fuels plants
using coal seemed adequate to meet Germany's
wartime needs for liquid fuels, but the situation
quickly changed after the U.S. entered the war
and bombing raids began to take a heavy toll.
The situation in Germany for expanding an oil
shale industry during the war was, of course,
entirely unique. It was only necessary to issue
an order to that effect with no concern for
economic viability. Instead of developing plans
similar to those of existing plants, however, the
group given responsibility for oil shale directed
their efforts toward in situ recovery. Some
technology was developed, but the overall effort
was unsuccessful and little shale oil was ever
produced.
Meanwhile the Dotternhausen plant was
damaged by bombs during the war and opera-
tions had ceased. In 1943, Lurgi began con-
struction of an oil shale plant at Frommern but
it was never completed. Both of these projects
were resurrected after the war and by late 1947
both plants were back in operation with a
combined production of 1,500 tons-per-day.
The Lurgi plant was equipped with Schweitzer
retorts whereas the Dotternhausen plant utilized
Meier-Grollman retorts. Both plants were
located in the Province of Wurttenberg.
There is the possibility that sometime in
the 1980's Germany may decide to build a pilot
plant capable of retorting 500,000 metric tons of
oil shale per year. A government/industry
group, composed of Veba-Chemi, Lurgi AG, and
state-owned Braunschweighische-Kohlenberg-
werke, is currently conducting laboratory-scale
recovery tests in Braunschweig. The pilot
plant may be followed by a demonstration plant
with a capacity of five million metric tons per
year. Depending on economics, a 60 million
metric ton-per-year plant might be built in the
late 1980's or early 1990's for an estimated
U.3 billion.
Israel
Oil shale occurences are known to be
widespread throughout Israel. The most
important deposit delineated to date is called
the Zefa-Ef'e, and is located in the Negev
desert. Reserves established here amount to
over 600 million tons and average 14 weight
percent organic matter. The thickness of this
oil shale ranges from 100 to 200 feet, with a
shale-to-overburden ratio of 1:1. A particular
advantage of this deposit is its location near
the industrial centers of Rotem and the phos-
phate mines and processing plants at Oron and
Nahal Zin. These industries currently consume
200,000 metric tons of imported fuel oil per
year, a requirement that could be met by oil
shale conversion.
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Israel has an electrical generation capacity
of 1,800 megawatts and depends entirely on
imported fuel oil. A coal-fueled power genera-
ting plant is currently under construction on
the coast north of Tel Aviv. This new plant
will burn coal imported from South Africa.
Additional expansions of the power industry are
contemplated.
The yield of liquid oil from Israeli oil shale
is rather low, being about 43 weight percent of
the shale's organic (kerogen) content. The
sulfur content of the shale is high, being about
10 percent. The inorganic matter in the shale
consists mostly of calcium carbonate. The
Israeli's interest in direct combustion of shale
stems from their desire to extract the maximum
amount of heat from the kerogen, rather than
leave unrecovered heat (possibly 40 percent of
the total) in the form of residual carbon on
spent shale solids remaining after retorting.
Mitigating against direct combustion of shale in
boilers is the fact that if flame temperatures are
high, much heat will be lost in decomposing
calcium carbonate. If flame temperatures are
low, boiler operation may be inefficient.
Jordan
A thorough exploration program was
conducted during the past decade with financial
and technical assistance from the U.S. and
British governments. An excellent deposit of
high grade shale has been identified but
political problems have inhibited further devel-
opment efforts.
Morocco
Two known oil shale deposits with devel-
opment potential are located in two areas of
Morocco. One deposit is about 50 km from
Marrakesh and about 150 km from the Atlantic
Coast, and the second deposit is about 100 km
north of Western Sahara and 50 km from the
Atlantic Ocean. In January 1979, Morocco and
Occidental Petroleum Corporation reached
agreement for development of the shale using
Occidental's proprietary in situ process.
Successful completion of tfieproject would
result in a 50,000 barrel per day facility.
New Zealand
The existence of oil shale in New Zealand
has been known for, several generations. Shale
oil was even produced in small quantities from
time to time beginning In about 1900, but signi-
ficant production was never achieved. .Studies
during the past five years Indicate, deposits are
too small and low quality.
Peoples Republic of China
A 450-foot thick oil shale deposit overlies
one of the world's thickest coal deposits. In the
vicinity of Fushun in Liao-ning Province of
Northern China. The oil shale may never have
been commercially exploited except for the fact
that it exists as overburden which had to be
removed to reach the coal deposit. The
Japanese began commercial utilization of the oil
shale at Fushun in 1926. Shale oil was a
principal source of liquid fuels for Japan during
World War II.
The Fushun industry was in full operation
in 1970 with a reported crude shale oil produc-
tion of two million tons annually, from 30 million
tons of oil shale. This is equivalent to some
15 million barrels per year, or about 40,000
barrels per day.
Today, the Fushun open pit mine is
immense, measuring 1.4 miles by 1.37 miles.
Production is 3.6 million tons per year of coal
and 12 million tons per year of oil shale. Only
shale of more than 4.7 weight percent organic
material is retorted. This shale is orange in
color. (This organic content compares with 4.0
weight percent for 10.5 GPT oil shale from the
Green River Formation.)
There are two retorting complexes at
Fushun. The older plant was built in 1941
under Japanese occupation forces. The second
plant was built in 1954 using similar, but
improved technology. The second plant com-
prises 60 vertical kiln retorts. Each retort is
13 meters (43 feet) tall, with an inner diameter
of three meters and an outer diameter of four
meters. Shale crushed to between one and
seven cm is fed into the top, and air is forced
in from the bottom. Operation is at atmospheric
pressure. Residence time is an incredible nine
hours. A discharge grate at the bottom of the
retort rotates at less than one revolution per
hour. Maximum temperature is 900-1000°C
about; one,: meter above the grate. Spent shale
exits at 400°C and is quenched with water.
The spent shale has 2 percent residual
coke. There is no apparent agglomeration.
Spent shale,is used for roads, mine fill, and in
cement production. Wastewater is treated to
remove pyridine, but by-products are dumped
into a canal that eventually flows into a river.
Product shale oil from Fushun is refined at
nearby small plants. A large refinery in
Fushun: used to process the shale oil. but it
now .processes crude petroleum from the
Taching field, north/of Fushun, which in 1959
became;, the, first major PRC oil find. The
Taching reserves ares estimated to be about
8.4 billion barrels,
A second oil shale operation is located at
Maoming in * Canton, Province ^ where annual
production is; 570,000 rbairels^^This project is
similar to the operation at Fushun, except that
ther,e is no,coal; production.
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Romania
A team of government technologists has
been studying oil shale prospects for the past
five years in an area near the Yugoslav border.
Technical assistance has been sought in the
U.S., but mining conditions are unfavorable
and shale quality relatively poor.
Scotland
Scottish oil shale deposits are widely
spread over parts of southeast Scotland (the
Lothians), totaling about 175 square miles. The
deposit is found in the Upper Calciferous
Sandstones of Carboniferous age.
The Scottish oil shale industry began
around 1860. Sometime shortly after that, more
than 140 companies and individuals were en-
gaged in oil shale ventures. The industry,
which supplied products for the home, grew
and prospered until the decreasing cost of
imported petroleum reduced profits. In addi-
tion, the advent of synthetic ammonia made the
production of ammonium sulfate as an oil shale
by-product unprofitable. To survive, many of
the small industries were absorbed by larger
ones. By 1870 when production had reached
800,000 thousand tons annually, there were
some 50 oil shale companies operating. The
number was reduced to six by 1910 when pro-
duction reached three million tons annually.
Production hit an all-time high in 1913:
3,280,000 tons, or about 4,400 barrels per day.
In 1910, the average yield was approximately
20.4 gallons of oil product per tons of shale.
By 1920, all oil shale operations in Great
Britain were consolidated under one parent
company, Scottish Oil Ltd., which later became
a subsidiary of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
The Scottish industry continued at a
relatively good pace after that, although pro-
duction gradually decreased. Diesel oil and
gasoline were the principal products but tars
and waxes were also produced in significant
quantities. A good-sized soap plant even
operated during the late 1930's and early
1940's. In 1947, 12 mines, four retorting
plants and a central refinery were in operation,
but production by that time had decreased to
1.4 million tons per year. Although the indus-
try did not receive direct government subsidies
during this period, a portion of the diesel and
gasoline taxes were remitted to the company to
encourage production. Nevertheless, the post-
war fate of the industry was inevitable.
British Petroleum (BP) Company replaced
Scottish Oils Ltd. as the oil shale operator in
the early 1950's. Production declined sharply
to about 826,000 TPY, and became progressively
less profitable. BP conducted some in situ
recovery experiments during this period, but
with little success. Finally, BP decided in 1964
to suspend oil shale operations, which by that
time were not profitable at all. The mines were
plugged, and the retorting, transportation, and
refining facilities were dismantled and mostly
scrapped. The work force, which had num-
bered 900 in 1962, was disbanded.
The Scottish shale was extracted mainly by
underground mining using inclined shafts,
which followed the seams downward. From
these seams, the average thickness of which
was 1 to 1-1/2 yards, shale was extracted by
pick and shovel and by blasting from shotholes.
The material was conveyed to the surface,
crushed, and retorted.
Originally the retorts were simple, hori-
zontal .tubes of oval, rectangular, or D-shaped
cross section. These horizontal retorts were
filled and emptied at one end through an iron
door; a vapor offtake pipe was at the other
end, These batch retorts were loaded and dis-
charged manually, and they were eternally
heated (to around 1,400°F) by coal.
The horizontal retorts were soon super-
ceded by vertical retorts, and although the
original ones were also batch-type, they were
more efficient. In early types the process heat
was obtained from burning producer gas from
coal and combustible gas from the shale.
Arrangements were introduced in 1878 by which
the fixed carbon of the spent shale was utilized
as fuel.
In 1882 a vertical retort was patented by
Young and Beilby which gave semicontinuous
operation. Steam injection was also employed to
recover ammonia fertilizers.
In 1894, the Pumperston Retort was
patented by Bryson, Jones, and Fraser. This
design permitted the combustion of residual
carbon by injecting air as well as steam and
improved thermal efficiency and throughput.
From the overhead product of combustion,
crude oil, crude naphtha, ammonia liquor, and
recycle fuel gas were produced. Throughput of
the retorts was approximately 12 tons of shale
per retort per day. The Westwood Retort,
erected in 1941, marks the highest development
in the design of the Pumperston-type retort.
It has been estimated that the Scottish oil
shale industry extracted about 140 million tons
of shale, mostly from underground mines. In
the early years this material yielded up to 45
GPT, but shale with yields of less than 20 GPT
was worked as richer seams became exhausted.
Initially no use was seen for spent shale,
and it was simply piled into large slag heaps,
locally known as "bings." These heaps, con-
taining probably more than 100 million tons of
material, occupy large tracts of land and are to
this day a conspicuous feature of the landscape
in the Lothians. Since about 1930, bricks have
been manufactured from this material, and it
has recently been used to form road embank-
ments.
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Reserves of about 75 million tons of oil
shale are believed to be present in the
Lothians, but much is low grade and working
would be considerably hampered by the erratic
nature of the old mines, most of which are
water-filled and in a state of collapse. If all of
this shale could be extracted, it would yield
about 6.8 million tons of oil, the equivalent of
less than four weeks' supply of U.K. oil needs.
Sicily
Oil shale has never been developed com-
mercially in Sicily. A large deposit of medium
grade shale is indicated, but it has never been
thoroughly evaluated.
south Africa
A small deposit of high grade shale at
Ermelo was developed commercially in 1935.
The reserve was eventually depleted and opera-
tions ceased a few years ago. A search for
new deposits has been unsuccessful to date.
Spain
Spain's oil shale deposit is relatively small.
A small plant was built in 1922 by the
Penarroya Company at the country's principal
deposit near Puertollano about 120 miles south
of Madrid. The Penarroya plant was operated
off-and-on for the next 30 years. Production
from the plant was never large, perhaps no
more than 100 to 200 barrels daily.
The National Industrial Institute of Spain
created a new oil shale company in 1942 and
development work was begun in the Puertollano
area. It probably encompasses the older
Penarroya plant or replaced it altogether. In
any event, the new plant was referred to as
the Calvo Sotelo Plant. It was completed in
1955, but its retorts were both outdated and
uneconomical. The operators were eventually
integrated with a new refinery using imported
petroleum. It is doubtful that shale oil is still
being produced today.
Sweden
The oil shale deposits in Sweden have been
subjected to relatively intensive geologic inves-
tigation over the years. They are scattered
throughout the country, and are small but
reasonably good quality reserves. About 1920,
an experimental oil shale plant was erected at
Kinnekulle with government support. The plant
was a technical success but it was later shut
down for economic reasons. Nevertheless, the
retort used in this operation was an important
development and was the basis for later
industry developments.
During World War II, Sweden found it
necessary again to turn to shale oil production
and a much larger plant was built at
Kvarntorp, entirely at government expense.
The shale deposits at Kvarntorp consist of two
layers, each 20- to 25-feet thick. The upper
layer yields about 13 gallons of oil per ton and
the lower layer yields about 18 gallons of oil
per ton, when retorted. Above the shale,
there is usually a bed of limestone. An open
pit mine was opened at an outcropping of shale
and an in situ operation was conducted nearby
where a gas-tight limestone capping was present
on the shale bed. The original plant included
three Bergh retorts, two IM tunnel kilns, one
HG retort, a Ljungstrom method in situ opera-
tion, condensation equipment, shale quarry.
topping plant, refinery, steam power plant,
sulfur recovery plant, and tank farm. The
plant had a capacity of about 260 barrels daily
during the war.
The Ljungstrom in situ method featured
electrothermal heating of shale in place. The
field was prepared by draining off groundwater
and drilling holes for emplacement of heating
elements and for oil vapor collection. Holes
were arranged in a hexagonal pattern with
7-foot spacings. Electric power came from the
company's own steam power plant as well as
from public power lines. The heating period
lasted for about five months. The shale at-
tained 550°F after three months and 700°F after
five months. Shale oil vapors and gases seeped
toward the gas vapor wells and reached the
condensers under pressure created by the
in situ field. By bringing in additional areas,
a heat wave was made to pass through the shale
at a rate of about 500 feet per year.
The plant was improved after the war and
by 1947 was producing shale oil at about 1,600
barrels per day. Post-war economics finally
caught up with the plant, however, and shale
oil production was phased out in 1963, although
the refinery and by-product facilities continued
operation on imported oil feedstocks.
Thailand
Studies of Thai oil shale were begun fairly
recently by a consortium of Thai, Japanese and
U.S. interests. A significant deposit of rich
shale is indicated, making the long term outlook
reasonably good. But commercial production
has never been achieved and there is no active
project known to exist today.
USSR
USSR oil shale history is, for the most
part, Estonian oil shale history, Estonian oil
shale, known as kukersite, is among the richest
oil shale in the world and sufficient. reserves
exist for a very large industry. Most Kukersite
processed by the Soviets exceeds 40 gallons per
ton. The two principal uses to date have been
as a boiler fuel by simply burning the shale
and as a source of combustible, low Btu town
gas primarily for use in Leningrad. Lately, the
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Soviets have been directing their R&D efforts
towards the production of oil and chemicals.
The history of the Estonian oil shale
industry began in 1920, three years after the
nation was freed from imperialist Russian rule.
Research and development was conducted during
the following several years, and in 1925 the
State Oil Shale Industry erected a plant with a
capacity of 200 tons per day. The Pintsch-type
retort installed in the plant was used for pro-
duction of low Btu town gas and was no doubt
the progenitor of the modern day gas generator
known as the Kiviter retort.
«» Two years later a company known as the
Oil Shale Syndicate built the first tunnel oven.
Then, in 1930 and 1931, two tunnel ovens or
kilns were built at the Estonian Mineral A-G
plant. They each had a capacity of 250 tons.
The tunnel kiln results were so encouraging
that two more were built in 1936 and 1937, each
having a capacity of 400 tons. The tunnel
kilns were batch-type processes wherein as
many as 18 shallow hopper cars loaded with oil
shale to a depth of about one foot would pass
through a rectangular-shaped steel tunnel
several hundred feet long. Hot gases would be
passed through the shale beds and gas and oil
recovered. All of the evolved gas and some of
tne oil was needed to produce heat for the
process, so it was relatively inefficient. Even
1960's °VenS Were used until the late
The New Consolidated Gold Fields Company
ed ,R&,DJof another Process in the late
T ,&, inclu.dl"9 Pilot Plflnt work in England.
In 1931, it built a plant containing eight exter-
nally heated rotary retorts with a combined
capacity of 200 tons per day. The Davidson
rotary retort (named after its English designer)
was the forerunner of the present day Galoter
retort and is similar to the TOSCO II retort in
that it employed indirect heating of oil shale.
Carbon or spent shale was burned to provide
retorting heat. ^
^ n i oil shale industry was thus
well established by the late 1930's. Production
reached nearly 800,000 tons in 1938, second
only to Scotland. But war was on the way
Estonia was occupied by Russia in 1929. While
the existing industry was not severely ham-
P* ,,' o any exPansion plans were likely
curtailed. In 1941, Germany Invaded Estonia
and the Russians disabled the entire industry
as they withdrew to the east. The Germans
immediately developed plans to restore the
industry using local materials and to greatly
expand it using plants designed and fabricated
in Germany. They never had a chance to get
started. Russia regained possession of Estonia
in 1944. They apparently assumed the German
plans for expanding the oil shale industry also.
The Russian 5-year program called for 9.4
million tons of production annually. That goal
was probably not reached; however, at least
one new plant was completed during the 1950's.
During the 1960's, an impressively large
R&D program was carried out to develop the
Kiviter and Galoter processes. Two large
demonstration plants (1,000 TPD) were built in
the early 1970's and are still being operated
today. Even large retorts are being designed
and may now be under construction. Licensing
of the Kiviter and Galoter is now being pursued
in the U.S. through the Soviet Licensitorg.
Resource Sciences Corporation of Tulsa has
played a role in this effort.
The oil rotary retorts and tunnel ovens
were phased out before 1970, but 1971 produc-
tion in Estonia was estimated at 18.1 million
tons, or about 50,000 tons per day. In 1978,
it was reported that 30 million tons of oil shale
were extracted for the year 1977, and the
Oil and Gas Journal reported that 50 to 60
million tons annually is the goal by the end of
the decade.
The principal use of Estonia Kukersite
today is as a fuel burned directly in electric
power generation. While shale production in
Estonia represents only about 1 percent of total
USSR fuel requirements, it accounts for some 90
percent of Estonian power production. Two-
thirds of all oil shale mined in Estonia is
burned directly in power plants; the remainder
is processed to obtain fuel oil, gasoline, town
gas primarily for Leningrad, and various
chemicals.
Another oil shale area in the USSR thought
to be receiving some attention is the lower
Volga region. There probably was some devel-
opment there during the 1930's and it may even
have approached the size of the Estonian indus-
try at one time. During recent conversations
with Soviet technologists, however, this region
was not mentioned.
Zaire
Production of oil shale in Zaire has never
been achieved and recent attempts at explora-
tion and evaluation of deposits have been inter-
rupted by political events. However, reserves
of high grade oil shale are Indicated to be
large. ;
C-10
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Appendix D
POLLUTION CONTROL GUIDANCE FOR OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT:
ABSTRACT AND TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
This document originated as a result of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concern
that the development of oil shale as an alterna-
tive energy source not be constrained by
uncertainties about environmental standards. It
is the intent of EPA to ensure that technology-
specific environmental goals are identified and
reached during the course of oil shale tech-
nology development in order to avoid delays and
allow establishment of a mature oil shale
industry which is compatible with national
environmental goals.
The EPA envisions this document as the
first of a series leading toward the estab-
lishment of regulatory standards for the oil
shale industry. The series is expected to
serve several purposes. First and foremost, it
will serve to communicate EPA regulatory
policies to oil shale developers on a compre-
hensive basis. Second, the series will update
the state of knowledge with respect to known
oil shale pollutants and their potential effects.
Third, the series will describe state-of-the-art
control technologies as they evolve and will
describe the remaining needs where technologies
are not sufficient. Fourth, the series will
describe monitoring methodology and methods
for sample collection and analysis applicable to
the oil shale industry. Finally, it will suggest
ranges of discharge and emission limits within
which the oil shale industry should strive to
operate. Ideally, as more information becomes
available, each document in the series will offer
more definitive limits and more demonstrated
confidence in available control technologies.
The series would culminate in a document
providing the basis for legally defensible
regulations.
This document presents general information
relevant to oil shale pollution problems and
their control as they are viewed today. It
should be kept in mind that the present data
base is meager and that attempts to precisely
define problems and their control will be incom-
plete. The purpose is to present a first
approximation of EPA's regulatory expectations
and thereby to generate, through their
publication, the proper perspective, concern,
and approach for oil shale pollution control.
The Production Control Guidance for Oil
Shale Development document will be available in
the Summer of 1979, but its table of contents is
presented to give an idea of its scope.
D-l
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POLLUTION CONTROL GUIDANCE FOR OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME I
I. introduction
A. Purpose of Paper
B. Oil Shale Resources
C. Oil Shale Regions
D. Current Status of Shale Industry
Development
References (I-B,C,D)
E. Applicable Current Federal and State
Pollution Control Laws
F. Proposed EPA Regulatory Approach
II. Recommendations
A. Proposed Precommercial Approach to
Regulations
B. Designated and Non-Regulated
Pollutants
C. Proposed Monitoring Procedures
1. Air Emissions
References
2. Surface and Groundwater
3. Solid Waste
D. Improvements in Control Technologies
E. Recommended Research
III. Environmental Impacts
A. Atmospheric Impacts
1. Inventory of Process Emissions
2. Residual Atmospheric Emissions
3. Fugitive Dusts
4. Trace Elements
References (III-A-1,2,3.4)
5. Atmospheric Transport and Fate
B. Water Quality Impacts
1. Sources and Nature of Waters for
Oil Shale Processing
2. Effects of Wastewater Disposal on
Surface Waters
Bibliography
3. Effects of Wastewater Disposal on
Groundwaters
4. Long-term Regional Effects
References
C. Solid Waste Impacts
1. Inventory of Solid Wastes
References
2. Raw Shale Handling and Disposal
References
3. Spent Shale Handling and Disposal
References
4. Other Solid Process Wastes
5. Leaching of Solid Wastes
References
D. Health Impacts
References
E. Other Environmental Impacts
1. Shale Products Utilization
References
2. Radiation
3. Noise—On and Offsite
4. Social/Economic Impacts
References
IV. Pollution Control Technology
A. Air Emission Controls
1. Particulates Control
References
2. Gaseous Emissions Control
Bibliography
B. Wastewater Treatment Controls
1. Wastewater Treatment Methods
2. Wastewater Sources, Quantities
and Characteristics
3. Application of Treatment Methods
to Oil Shale Wastewaters
References
C. Solid Waste Controls
1. Surface Disposal of Overburden,
Lean Shales, Raw Shale Fines,
Spent Shales, Chemical Solids
References
2. Underground (Mine) Disposal of
Spent Shale
3. Stabilization of In Situ Spent
Shale
References
4. Leachate Treatment and Re-
cycling
D. Other Process Controls
1. Storage Tank Vapor Controls
2. Refinery Sludges
V. Sampling, Analysis and Monitoring of
Emissions, Effluents, Solid Wastes
A.
Air
1.
2.
Gases-Inorganics
Particulates
References (V-A-1,2)
B. Surface and Groundwater
1. Monitoring Methodology
References
2. Standard Water Tests
References
3. Organics
References
References
D-2
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POLLUTION CONTROL GUIDANCE FOR OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
C. Solid waste
Monitoring Methodology
References
Organic Leachates
References
Inorganic Leachates
References
Solid Inorganics
References
Solid Organics
References
Bioassays
Groundwater Monitoring Near
Disposal Sites
VI. Suggestions for Development of Interim
EPA Emissions, Effluent and Solid Waste
Disposal Standards
A. Standards Criteria and Environmental
Goals
B. Suggestions for Interim Regulatory
Guidelines and Standards
1. Air Emissions
2. Water Effluents
3. Solid Wastes
C. Industry View of Regulation
VOLUME II
Appendix A - Status and Development Plan of
the Oil Shale Industry
Appendix B - Procedures for Ambient Air
Monitoring
Appendix C - Past, Present and Future
Baseline Monitoring Activities
Appendix D - Federal, State, and Local Laws
and Regulations Applicable to Oil Shale
Appendix E - List of Analytical Procedures
Manuals and Quality Assurance Manuals
Appendix F - Catalog of Existing Federal, State
and Locally Required Permits
VII. Summary of Major Retorting Processes,
Emissions, and Effluents
A. Overview of Shale Technology
1. Mining
2. Crushing, Storage, Transport
3. Surface Retorting
4. In Situ Retorting
5. Spent Shale Disposal
6. Retort Gas Treatment
7. Shale Oil Upgrading
B. Retorting Processes
1.
2
3
4
5
-• w"»*3j •> * w^t»0^0
Colony/TOSCO Development
Paraho Development
Union Oil Development
Superior Oil Development
Lurgi-Ruhrgas Process
References
D-3
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Appendix E
ABBREVIATIONS
AOSO Area Oil Shale Office, USGS
BMI/PNL Battelle Memorial Institute Pacific
Northwest Laboratories
BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven, New York
DOE Department of Energy
DRI Denver Research Institute
ECTD Emission Control Technology
Division, Office of Air, Noise
and Radiation, EPA
Ann Arbor, Michigan
EERC Energy and Environmental
Research Corporation,
Santa Ana, California
EMSL-Ci Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
EMSL-LV Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, EPA
Las Vegas, Nevada
EMSL-RTP Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, EPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C.
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ERIC-Ci Environmental Research
Information Center, EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
ERL-Athens Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Athens, Georgia
ERL-Duluth Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Duluth, Minnesota
ERL-Gulf Environmental Research
Breeze Laboratory, EPA
Gulf Breeze, Florida
HERL-RTP Health Effects Research
Laboratory, EPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C.
IERL-CI Industrial and Environmental
Research Laboratory, EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
IERL-RTP Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C.
LASL Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico -
(Under the DOE)
LBL Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, California
(Under the DOE)
LETC Laramie Energy Technology
Center,
Laramie, Wyoming
(Under the DOE)
LLL Lawrence Livermore Laboratory,
Livermore, California -
(Under the DOE)
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NIEHS National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences,
Research Triangle Park, N. C.
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health
NIEHS National Institute of Environmental
Health Studies (DHEW)
OEMI Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry, within the Office of
Research and Development, EPA
OEMI-Hq. Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry. Headquarters, EPA
Washington, D.C.
ORD Office of Research and
Development, EPA
ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tennessee -
(Under the DOE)
OSWG oil Shale Work Group,
Gene Harris, Chairman, EPA-Ci
R.S. KERR Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory,
Ada, Oklahoma
TOSCO The Oil Shale Corporation
UCLA University of California at Los
Angeles
USBM U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Department of Interior
USD A U.S. Department of Agriculture
USGS U.S. Geological Survey,
Department of Interior
E-l
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Appendix F
GLOSSARY
BACT - (Best Available Control Technology)
The level of pollution control technology
that a new or modified major pollution
source, which is located in an area
designated as meeting ambient air quality
standards, must install.
Btoassay - Determination of the relative effec-
tive strength of a substance by comparing
its effect on a test organism with that of a
standard preparation.
Carcinogen - Any agent that incites develop-
ment of a malignant epithelial tumor.
Cascade Sampler - A low-speed impaction device
for use in sampling both solid and liquid
atmospheric suspensoids: Consists of jets
(each of progressively smaller size) and
sampling plates working in series and
designed so that each plate collects
particles of one size range.
Chromatin - The deotyribonucleoprotein complex
forming the major portion of the nuclear
material and chromosomes.
Coal Liquefaction - The process-of preparing a
liquid mixture of hydrocarbons by destruc-
tive distillation of coal.
Consent Decree Pollutants - A list of sixty-five
(65) toxic chemicals for which EPA is
required to develop limitations and stan-
dards. For some rule making purposes
EPA has redefined the list of ;65 broad
chemicals/chemical classes to 129 more
specific chemicals.
Criteria Pollutants - Those pollutants for which
EPA has promulgated ambient air quality
standards and for which state implemen-
tation plans exist. (SO, CO, NOV, O3,
Hydrocarbons, Particulates, Lead).
Cytochemical - Any of the complex protein
respiratory pigments occurring within plant
or animal cells.
Cytology - A branch of the biological sciences
which deals with the structure, behavior
growth, and reproduction of cells and the
function and chemistry of cell components.
Cytotoxin - A specific substance, usually with
reference to antibody, that inhibits or
prevents the functions of cells, or causes
the destruction of cells, or both.
Devonian Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Devonian period some
350 to 400 million years ago.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid; any of various
nucleic acids that yield deoxyribose as one
product of hydrolysis, are found in nuclei
and genes, and are associated with the
transmission of genetic information.
Electrophoresis - The migration of charged
colloidal particles through the medium in
which they are dispersed, when placed
under the influence of an applied electric
potential.
Enzyme - A catalytic substance, protein in
nature, formed by living cells and having
a specific action in promoting chemical
change.
Epithelial - Pertaining to the tissues which
cover free surfaces (skin) or lining of
body cavities and ducts.
Epithelium - A cellular animal tissue which
covers the free surface that lines a tube
or cavity; which consists of one or more
layers of cells forming a sheet practically
unbroken by intercellular substance; and
either smoothly extended or much folded
-on a basement membrane and compacted,
which, serves to enclose and protect other
parts of the body.
Fugitive Dust - Any form of particulates which
become transported as a result of wind or
mechanical operations. Typical mechanical
generators are vehicles, crushing machines
and earth movers.
Gas Chromatography - A separation technique
involving passage of a gaseous moving
phase through a column containing a fixed
adsorbent phase; it is used principally as
a quantitative analytical technique for
volatile compounds.
E-r
-------
Gel Permeation Chromatography - Analysis by
chromatography in which the stationary
phase consists of beads of porous poly-
meric material such as a cross-linked
dextran carbohydrate derivative sold under
the trade name sephadex; the moving
phase is a liquid.
High Pressure Liquid Chromatography - A
separation technique employing a pressur-
ized solvent as a moving phase through a
column containing a solid support.
High-Volume Sampler - A sampling device
consisting of a filter and a high volume air
pump used for the quantitative collection
of airborne particulate materials.
Mutagenesis - An agent that raises the fre-
quency of mutation above the spontaneous
rate.
Oil Shale - A finely layered rock that contains
kerogen and from which liquid or gaseous
hydrocarbons can be distilled. Also known
as kerogen shale.
Permian Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Permian period
approximately 230 to 280 million years ago.
Phagocytic Activity - The process of engulfing
and carrying particles into the cytoplasm
of an ameboid cell.
Hydrocarbon - One of a very large group of
chemical compounds composed only of
carbon and hydrogen; the largest source
of hydrocarbons is from petroleum crude
oil.
In Situ - In the original location.
Priority Pollutants - See Consent Decree
, Pollutants.
Quality Assurance - A system for integrating
the quality control planning, assessment,
and improvement of all works dealing with
quantitative measurements.
In Vitro - Pertaining to a biological reaction
talcing place in an artificial apparatus.
Retorting Operation - Process of extracting
shale oil from the raw shale by heating.
In Vivo - Pertaining to a biological reaction
taking place in a living cell or organism.
Lavaging - The washing out of an organ.
Macroinvertebrate - A large animal lacking an
internal skeleton.
Mesozoic Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Mesozoic era some 60
to 230 million years ago.
Spent Shale - (Retorted Shale) The shale
residue after the shale oil has been
extracted.
Teratogen - An agent causing formation of a
congenital anomaly or monstrosity.
Tertiary - The older major subdivision (period)
of the Cenozoic era, extending from the
end of the Cretaceous to the beginning of
the Quaternary, from 70,000,000 to
2,000,000 years ago.
Mississippian Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Mississippian period
approximately 310 to 345 million years ago.
F-2
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
I. REPORT NO.
EPA-60Q/7-79-089
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
EPA PROGRAM STATUS REPORT:
Oil Shale
1979 Update
7. AUTHOR(S) ~~
EPA Oil Shale Work Group
5. REPORT DATE
March 1Q7Q
S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Denver Research Institute (DRI)
2390 South York Street
Denver, Colorado 80210
R. E. Pressey & P. A. Westcott (Editors) 303/753-291
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1NR 825
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R-806156
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Status Report as of 2/79
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/17
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
E. Harris, Chairman, EPA OS Work Group 513/684-4417
EPA Contracts: Mr. W. N. McCarthy, Jr. 202/755-2737
Mr. Terry Thnpm
16. ABSTRACT
This report provides the reader with an overview of current oil shale
research and development (R&D.) efforts being performed by EPA, or being funded by
EPA monies passed-through to other Federal agencies under the five-year old 17-
agency Interagency Energy /Environment R&D Program.
Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the purpose, background and rationale behind
EPA's efforts;
Chapter 2 discusses the EPA program goals and fiscal year 1978 program funding
broken out in the areas: Extraction and handling, processing, energy-related
processes and effects, and overall assessments, and;
Chapter 3 presents the scope-of-work and status for all of the ongoing projects.
A table at the end of Chapter 3 summarizes these projects by presenting project
title, sponsoring agency, performing organization, project duration and project
contact. r J
Appendices are included which present world resources and development history
EPA-published reports on oil shale, general references on oil shale and a glossary
of referenced terms. e '
17.
a.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Air pollution
Air quality
Aquifers
Ecology
Extraction and
handling
Fossil Fuels
Fugitive dust
Funding
Ground water
Health effects
Hydrology
In-sltu
Land reclamation
Mining
Monitoring
Oil shale
Pollution
Processing
Shale oil
Spent shale
Synthetic fuels
Water pollution
Water quality
Anvil Points
Colorado
Control Technology
Environmental
Assessment
Integrated Assess-
ment
Piraho
Plceance Basin
Pollutlon Control
Guidance Docunent
Research 4 Development
TOSCO
Ulntah Basin
Utah
World Resources
Wyonlr.j
04B
06A
06C
06E
06F
06J
06P
06T
08H
081
13B
RELEASE UNLIMITED
19. SECURITY CLASS (TMs Report)'
UNCLASSIFIED
20. SECURITY CLASS (TMspage)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
-7JQ
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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