5EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Environmental
Engineering and Technology (RD 681)
Washington DC 20460
EPA-600/7-80-069
July 1980
Research and Development
Program
Status Report
Oil Shale
1980 Update
Interagency Energy-Environment
Research and Development Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-80-069
JULY 1980
EPA PROGRAM STATUS REPORT:
OIL SHALE
f 980 Update
prepared by
EPA Oil Shale Research Group Chemical Division
Office of Research and Development Denver Research Institute
Environmental Protection Agency University of Denver
Washington, D.C. 20460 Denver, CO 80208
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Development, EPA, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA 22151.
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is involved in oil shale research and develop-
ment through projects for which it provides funds, and by staying abreast of projects funded
by other governmental and industrial sources. Research provides data for defining ecological
and health effects and developing cost-effective control technology that can be used by
government and industry to minimize degradation of the environment.
This report presents the status of current EPA projects related to oil shale research and
development.
Funding for the production of this report was accomplished under EPA Cooperative Aqree-
ment CR 807294 to Denver Research Institute.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The EPA Oil Shale Research Group wishes to thank Jeannette King and Eleanor Swanson
of the Denver Research Institute for accepting the challenge to publish this document, based
on the 1979 publication plus input obtained from more than three dozen contributors.
We wish to acknowledge with thanks the efforts of Ed Bates, lERL-Ci, who served as
project officer and coordinator.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD *
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS "
FIGURES m
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
CHAPTERS
1.0 INTRODUCTION !
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Rationale !
2.0 PROGRAM OVERVIEW 4
2.1 Overall Assessments 4
2.2 Extraction and Handling 4
2.3 Processing 4
2.4 Energy-Related Processes and Effects 6
2.4.1 Health Effects 6
2.4.2 Ecological Effects 6
2.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring 6
2.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes 6
2.5 End Use . 7
3.0 PROGRAM STATUS 8
3.1 Overall Assessments ............ 8
3.1.1 Environmental Perspective on the Emerging Oil Shale Industry . 8
3.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum 8
3.1.3 Who's Who in Oil Shale 8
3.1.4 Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling, Analysis and Quality Assurance . 8
3.2 Extraction and Handling 9
3.3 Processing H
3.4 Energy-Related Processes and Effects . 16
3.4.1 Health Effects 16
3.4.2 Ecological Effects , .... 25
3.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring 27
3.4.4 Environmental Transport 34
3.5 End Use 35
TABLE 1. PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY 39
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CONTENTS
(Continued)
APPENDICES
A World Resources and History of Oil Shale Development A-l
B Glossary of Terms B-l
C Glossary of Abbreviations ••••....... C-l
D A General Bibliography on Oil Shale D-l
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FIGURES
1. Principal Oil Shale Deposits of the U.S 3
2. EPA Oil Shale FY 1979 and 1980 Funding Summaries 5
3. On-Line Zeeman Atomic Absorption Spectrometer ....... 14
4. Interior of Zeeman Spectrometer 15
5. Integrated Chemical-Biological Approach to Search for Determinant Mutagens . 17
6. Chemical Repository Special Services Supporting Health Effects Research Include
Sample Preparation 18
7. Experimental In Situ Oil Shale Retort 36
8. Diagram of an In Situ Oil Shale Extraction Process 37
9. Diagram of an Above Ground Oil Shale Extraction Process 38
iii
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EPA's Office of Research and Develop-
ment has been reorganized and divided
into the Office of Monitoring and Technical
Support, Office of Environmental Engi-
neering and Technology, Office of Environ-
mental Processes and Effects Research and
the Office of Health Research. All of
these offices are actively involved in oil
shale research with a collective budget of
approximately $5 million in fiscal 1980.
Within EPA several separate labora-
tories conduct or contract oil shale-related
environmental studies. ,The Office of
Environmental Processes and Effects acts
as coordinator for the Interagency Pro-
gram. The Office of Environmental Engi-
neering and Technology (OEET) has con-
tracts work in the area of overall assess-
ments and control technology. The Indus-
trial Environmental Research Laboratory in
Cincinnati (IERL-CI) funds and manages
research on overall assessments, extraction
and handling, processing and management
and control of all pollutants. Research
laboratories in Ada, Oklahoma; Athens,
Georgia; Duluth, Minnesota; Las Vegas,
Nevada; and Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina conduct research studies in
the processes and effects area. Shale oil
product (end use) studies are managed
and funded by both the Industrial Environ-
mental Research Laboratory at Research
Triangle Park (IERL-RTP) and Ann Arbor
(Michigan) Emission Control Technology
Division (ECTD) of the Office of Air,
Noise and Radiation.
Specific objectives of the EPA Oil
Shale Program are two-fold: first, the
program is to support the regulatory goals
of the Agency; second, the research is to
be directed towards ensuring that the
development of any oil shale industry will
be accomplished in the most environmen-
tally acceptable manner reasonably pos-
sible. To meet these objectives, EPA is
continuing to assess the research needs
and environmental concerns expressed by
the Department of Energy (DOE) and the
oil shale industry.
EPA is active in many areas of oil
shale research and development, and
closely monitors projects of other Federal
agencies to prevent duplication and to
encourage programs which contribute to
the development of the oil shale industry.
EPA Oil Shale Research may be di-
vided into five subject areas: Overall As-
sessments, Extraction and Handling, Pro-
cessing, Energy-Related Processes and
Effects, and End Use. The Energy-Related
Processes and Effects program has four
important subdivisions: health effects,
ecological effects, measurement and monitor-
ing, and environmental transport studies.
The total budget supporting the EPA
Oil Shale Program in Fiscal Year (FY 80)
was $5,795,588 compared to $6,091,073 in
FY 79. An increase in funds for the pro-
gram can be expected if the commercializa-
tion of our nation's oil shale reserves is
given a primary role in the National Energy
Plan. Agencies participating in the EPA
Oil Shale Program include: U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy, U.S. Geological Survey,
National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the Department of
Navy and the National Institute of Environ-
mental Health Sciences.
Specific objectives of the EPA Oil
Shale Program are 1) to support the regu-
latory goals of the Agency, and 2) to
direct research ensuring an environmen-
tally safe oil shale industry. To meet
these objectives, EPA continues to assess
research needs and environmental concerns
expressed by the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) and the oil shale industry.
Research attempting to solve problems
identified by the DOE's Laramie Energy
Technology Center, and the active devel-
opers, is underway. The EPA Office of
Research and Development focuses in part
on problems defined by the Laramie Center,
because Laramie is responsible, within
DOE, for managing and implementing the
national effort for oil shale development.
Major accomplishments over the past
year have included: development of the
document Environmental Perspectives on
the Emerging Oil Shale Industry, which
presents general information on oil shale
pollution problems and pollution control;
initiation of work on a pollution control
guidance document which will discuss the
applicability, performance and costs of
pollution control technology available for
the oil shale industry; and presentation of
a forum and meetings with industry to
provide for an exchange of information
between EPA and industry on pollution
control aspects of oil shale development.
iv
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report provides an overview of
current oil shale research and development
(R&D) efforts being carried out by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), or
funded by EPA money passed-through to
other federal agencies under the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
This chapter introduces the background
and rationale behind EPA's efforts. Chap-
ter 2 discusses EPA's program goals and
fiscal year (FY) 1979 and 1980 program
funding. The scope of work for ongoing
projects and a table summarizing these
efforts are presented in Chapter 3.
1.1 Background
Since its establishment in 1970, EPA
has been involved in energy-related envi-
ronmental research efforts, including the
development of pollution control tech-
nologies designed to eliminate the adverse
effects that are often by-products of
energy conversion. Oil Shale Research
within EPA is conducted by the Office of
Research & Development (ORD).
Through its programs, ORD strives to
coordinate the efforts of all Agency re-
search related to the oil shale industry.
The goals of the seventeen-agency group
working with ORD are protecting the
environment through all phases of energy
production and use, while also developing
cost-effective pollution control technologies.
The EPA Oil Shale Research Group,
consisting of Agency personnel actively
involved in oil shale research, was estab-
lished to encourage coordination of oil
shale research activities and distribution of
information within the Agency.
When the President announced the Oil
Import Reduction Program and subse-
quently proposed the Energy Mobilization
Board and the Synfuel Development Cor-
poration, the Administrator of EPA re-
sponded by establishing an Alternate Fuels
Group. This group has representation
from every major program office that could
have an impact on the synthetic fuels
industry. The purpose of this group is to
establish Agency policy for the synthetic
fuels industry and to see that policy is
implemented consistently throughout the
Agency. The Administrator also developed
a group to assist in devising efficient
Agency permitting procedures for synthetic
fuel development.
Within the Alternate Fuels Group,
four working groups have been estab-
lished. One of these is the newly formed
Oil Shale Working Group, (OSWG). The
OSWG should not be confused with the Oil
Shale Research Group previously discussed
The OSWG currently has four major objec-
tives: 1) coordinating the development of
an Oil Shale Pollution Control Guidance
Document; 2) developing a five year Oil
Shale Research Plan indicating major activi-
ties the Agency intends to accomplish, the
estimated time required for each activity,
and the part of the Agency responsible for
each activity. (This plan is being coordi-
nated with the Departments of Energy and
Interior); 3) developing an Environmental
Issues Paper which will serve as a fact
book specifically related to the development
of the synthetic fuels industry; 4) over-
seeing and coordinating the development of
environmental standards and guidelines for
the synthetic fuels industry. The Oil
Shale Working Group is represented by
OR&D, each major program office, and the
Denver Regional Office.
The cooperative efforts between the
Office of Research and Development and
the oil shale programs administered by
Region VIII typify the manner in which the
Agency's programs are coordinated. The
majority of the oil shale activities in this
country take place in Region VIII. That
region participates in planning and imple-
menting the Research Program in addition
to processing permits for oil shale facilities
and serving as a communication center for
many federal, state, and industry per-
sonnel .
1.2 Rationale
Our cheap and abundant energy
supplies are rapidly being depleted.
Domestic reserves of oil and natural gas
have been declining since 1970, and im-
ported oil and gas are growing increas-
ingly more expensive. U.S. vulnerability
to supply interruption has also increased.
By the mid-1980s, the U.S. could be vying
for scarce oil against its allies and other
consuming nations, causing even greater
price increases and demands on the world
oil supply.
In anticipation of these circumstances,
the U.S. must significantly reduce its
reliance on imported oil and gas, and make
greater use of domestic energy resources.
The present energy mix consists of crude
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oil, natural gas, coal, hydroelectric power,
and some geothermal power, but consider-
able R&D activity now focuses on other
energy sources such as solar, tar sands,
synthetic oil and gas from coal and oil
shale.
The principal known oil shale deposits
of the U.S. are shown in Figure 1. The
richest of the deposits is the Green River
Formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.
This region contains the largest single
known concentration of hydrocarbons in
the world. If only that portion of the
Green River Formation containing the
equivalent of 25 gallons (or more) of oil
per ton of shale were mined, it has been
estimated that the shale oil in-place would
amount to approximately 731 billion barrels
of oil.
Because western oil shale is a domes-
tic energy resource of considerable magni-
tude, the availability of large quantities of
crude shale oil for refining products such
as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels could
substantially expand the U.S. energy
supply. Current R&D work is oriented
toward finding an economically and environ-
mentally practical way of producing shale
oil and bringing it to market.
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Figure 1.
PRINCIPAL OIL SHALE DEPOSITS OF THE U.S.
Explanation
Tertiary deposits: Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; Monterey
Formation, California; middle Tertiary deposits in Montana. Black areas are known high-
grade deposits.
Mesozoic deposits: Marine shale in Alaska.
^ Permian deposits: Phosphoria Formation, Montana.
Devonian and Mississippian deposits (resource estimates included for hachured areas only).
Boundary dashed where concealed or where location is uncertain.
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2.0 PROGRAM OVERVIEW
EPA studies on developing oil shale
and bringing it into commercial use are
providing information on health and ecolog-
ical effects of pollutants created by oil
shale extraction and processing, and on
technological methods that can be used to
control the release of those pollutants.
Various programs are also assessing the
environmental impact of the use of fuels
refined from shale oil. These efforts are
principally supported by funds from the
seventeen-agency Federal Interagency
Energy/Environment R&D Program.
Studies under this program are carry-
ing out EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of
pollutants associated with energy produc-
tion and use. The goal of the program is
to assure the rapid development of domes-
tic energy supplies, and at the same time,
maintain environmental safety by providing
the necessary data and control technology.
Through managing and coordinating
the program, as well as implementing a
portion of the effort with the above goal
as its focus, EPA is developing a sound oil
shale industry.
EPA's oil shale program is adminis-
tered by the Office of Research and Devel-
opment. The overall effort may be divided
into five subject areas:
Overall Assessments
Extraction and Handling
Processing
Energy-Related Processes and
Effects
End Use
The remainder of this chapter dis-
cusses programs in each of these areas
(see Table 1, Program Status Summary for
EPA contacts, contractors and term of
programs). Figure 2 shows EPA funding
and pass-through funding for the oil shale
program for FY's 79-80. Chapter 3 pro-
vides details on each of the projects men-
tioned in this overview.
2.1 Overall Assessments
The overall assessment program was
established to define and evaluate the
various environmental and socioeconomic
effects that result from energy extraction,
processing, transportation, conversion,
and end use activities. Objectives of the
program include: identifying energy
supply and conversion alternatives; evalu-
ating cost/risk/benefit relationships in
energy production, conservation, and
pollution control; assisting the nation in
selecting optimized policies for attaining
energy and environmental quality goals;
and identifying critical gaps in current
energy-related research programs, and
other priority research topics, which must
be addressed to support direct EPA
responsibilities.
2.2 Extraction and Handling
EPA's program for oil shale extraction
and handling attempts to assess potential
environmental problems and develop re-
source handling and control methods for in
situ and surface oil shale extraction and
land reclamation. If damaged, the semiarid
and arid oil shale areas of the West will be
extremely difficult to restore. This pro-
gram is working to define environmentally
acceptable practices for oil shale extrac-
tion. Studies underway are assessing not
only the potential environmental impact on
air and water, but also methods for spent
shale disposal and revegetation of spent
shales.
Work being performed involves assess-
ing the potential environmental impact upon
air and water resources from the extrac-
tion and handling of oil shale resources.
Also included are studies of disposal and
revegetation of spent oil shales.
2.3 Processing
The EPA program for processing
seeks to ensure that future large-scale
commercial applications of oil shale process-
ing, combustion, and use can be con-
structed and operated within environmental
guidelines. The program's approach
includes environmental assessment, evalua-
tion, and testing of a number of processes
in order to define the best available con-
trol technology, prepare standards-of-
practice manuals, and support standards-
setting efforts.
The overall objective of this program
is to define environmental problems early
in the process development phase and to
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FYI980
END
USE
ENVIRONMENTAL (24)
TRANSPORT
OVERALL
ASSESSMENT
(70)
TOTAL = 5,796,000
FY 1979
ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPORT
o • EPA PASS-THROUGH FUNDS
o FUNDING DOES NOT INCLUDE IN-HOUSE
EPA EXPENSES; E.G SALARIES AND
TRAVEL.
« FUNDING HAS BEEN PROPORTIONED
FOR PROCESSING AND EFFECTS
PROJECTS THAT ARE NOT EXCLUSIVELY
RELATED TO OIL SHALE.
OVERALL
ASSESSMENT
EXTRACTION
a HANDLING
(188)
TOTAL= 6,091,076
FIGURE 2
EPA OIL SHALE FY 1979 AND 1980 FUNDING SUMMARIES
(in thousands of dollars)
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develop and implement effective pollution
control technologies.
2.4 Energy-Related Processes and
Effects
The energy-related processes and
effects program is designed to identify
mechanisms of transport in the environment
and the effects on human, animal, and
plant populations associated with energy-
related activities. The goal of the pro-
gram is to compile and evaluate information
to support decisions protecting natural
biota and human health and welfare. This
program includes four areas directly
involved in oil shale R&D: health effects,
ecological effects, measurement and monitor-
ing, and environmental transport processes.
2.4.1 Health Effects
The health effects research program
seeks to identify hazards from pollutants
released by various energy technologies.
The program includes the development of
bioassay and other techniques to measure
hazards, and the application of these
techniques to characterizing human health
hazards. In relation to human health, the
emphasis of the program is on the effects
of agents which give rise to carcinogene-
sis, mutagenesis, teratogenesis, toxicity,
and disorders of the cardiopulmonary
system.
Various pollutants are being examined
for their impacts on human health.
Research efforts have confirmed that
pollutants such as sulfur and nitrogen
oxides and their atmospheric reaction
products are detrimental to human health.
Another major effort has been to
assess the potential health impacts of
developing energy technologies. Although
a number of preliminary assessments have
been made, most data is from processes in
the early stages of development, and
standard-setting information must be
derived from extrapolation of bench and
pilot scale data to the commercialization
stage. This developmental work also
provides guidance to industry on antici-
pated environmental regulations so that
sudden and expensive equipment altera-
tions can be avoided.
Other work involves a number of
testing methods that have been developed
or refined by research supported by EPA.
These efforts include new methods of
identification through cytological, biochemi-
cal, and physiological indicators of the
damages resulting from exposure to pollu-
tants associated with energy development.
By incorporating these methods into a
testing hierarchy, EPA's health effects
program has been able to efficiently allo-
cate available research funds in the Inter-
agency Energy/ Environment R&D Program.
2.4.2 Ecological Effects
The ecological effects research pro-
gram is based on the results of research
conducted in other areas of the Inter-
agency Program. Various methods and
instruments developed and refined in the
measurement and monitoring areas, and the
results of environmental transport pro-
cesses studies, are used to characterize
the ecosystem effects associated with oil
shale development. Research efforts are
determining the effects of organic and
inorganic pollutants, thermal discharges,
and complex effluents on soil and aquatic
ecosystems.
2.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring
This research area involves detection,
measurement, and monitoring of pollutants,
and quality assurance testing to character-
ize ecosystem effects associated with oil
shale development. The objectives are to
accelerate development of new and im-
proved sampling and analysis methods for
energy-related pollutants and to identify,
measure, and monitor effluents during oil
shale development.
The measurement and monitoring
program is defining baseline environmental
conditions and analyzing impacts of energy
development on the environment by the
identification, measurement, and long-term
monitoring of air, land, and water quality.
The various research efforts investigate
organic and inorganic pollutants, thermal
discharges and complex effluents on water
and land ecosystems.
Another important aspect of the
measurement and monitoring program is
quality assurance. The data that are
collected on environmental pollutants must
be valid and reliable, so programs are
designed to guarantee data accuracy. The
quality assurance activities seek to insure
the use of a common, acceptable monitoring
methodology so that data may be compared.
2.4.4 Environmental Transport Processes
The activities of this research area
are closely related to research in measure-
ment and monitoring, and ecological effects
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research. In the environmental transport
processes program, methods and tools are
developed, tested, and applied to provide
data for understanding transport and fate
processes. Ecological effects studies
investigate the effects of pollutants on
organisms and their habitats. Environ-
mental transport processes research studies
energy-related pollutants in terms of
mechanisms of dispersion from sites of
production, transformations which occur
subsequent to release, and ultimate accu-
mulation in man, domesticated and wild
animals and plants, and in nonliving mater-
ial such as soil and sediments.
2.5 End Use
The end use studies focus* on envi-
ronmental problems which may result from
the refining and combustion of shale oil.
To date research has focused primarily on
production of NO due to the high nitro-
gen content of the shale oil.
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3.0 PROGRAM STATUS
3.1 Overall Assessments
3.1.1 Environmental Perspective on the
Emerging Oil Shale Industry
The EPA Oil Shale Research Group is
preparing a report entitled, Environmental
Perspective on the Emerging Oil Shale
Industry, which will provide environmental
guidance for those involved in this emerg-
ing industry. The report is intended as a
reference for regulators, developers, and
others who are or will be involved with the
oil shale industry. The report will be
published in three volumes: an executive
summary, the main report, and a volume of
appendices.
This report will convey the EPA's
understanding of and perspective on
environmental aspects of oil shale develop-
ment by providing a summary of available
information on oil shale resources; a sum-
mary of major air, water, solid waste,
health, and other environmental impacts;
an analysis of potential pollution control
technology; a guide for the sampling,
analysis, and monitoring of emissions,
effluents, and solid wastes from oil shale
processes; suggestions for interim objec-
tives for emissions, effluents and solid
waste; and a summary of major retorting
processes, emissions, and effluents.
3.1.2 EPA/Industry Forum
In 1979 the headquarters office of
OEET and its Cincinnati Laboratory
(lERL-Ci) continued their second effort to
establish a closer working relationship
between EPA and the industrial firms
interested in developing oil from oil shale.
The second EPA/Industry Forum on Oil
Shale was held in August, 1979. Ninety-
five persons representing the oil shale
industry, EPA, DOE and other government
agencies attended. A review of the
Administrator's plans for the development
of synthetic fuels was presented. It was
disclosed that by 1990, we expect a capac-
ity of at least 400,000 barrels per day
from oil shale. The Agency described its
mechanism for providing pollution control
guidance to the industry and to Federal
and State permit writers.
engineers and managers in government and
universities who are currently involved in
activities relating to oil shale; and to
provide a mechanism for encouraging
communication between individuals in
government and universities who are
working in oil shale research, engineering
and management.
In the last few years, interest in
tapping this nation's vast oil shale
resources has been growing steadily as the
need for increased domestic supplies of
energy becomes critical. The President,
in his Energy message (July 16, 1979),
emphasized the importance of oil shale in
his proposals for reducing dependence on
foreign oil. Several major pieces of
energy legislation are now under consider-
ation by Congress: one, recently signed
into law by the President, calls for the
creation of an Energy Security Corporation
to oversee and provide financial incentives
for the establishment of a synthetic fuels
industry. The number of people working
toward this important goal has increased in
all sectors of society. The intent of the
directory's editors has been to encourage
broad and productive communication
between all who are working to create a
successful oil shale industry.
This directory lists all people in
government (federal, state and local) and
universities involved in scientific, engi-
neering and management activities related
to oil shale development. It is divided
into the following major sections:
Glossary of Abbreviations
Areas of Activity Index
Organization Index
Committee Index
Location Index
Publications Directory
Federal, State and University
Directory
Local Government Directory
Oil Shale Government/University
Telephone Directory (detachable)
Further directories of this kind are
planned on a yearly basis. The editors
intend to include managers, engineers and
scientists from the private sector in the
next directory.
3.1.3 Who's Who in Oil Shale
The task of preparing the Who's Who
in Oil Shale directory was undertaken for
two reasons: to identify the scientists,
3.1.4 Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling,
Analysis and Quality Assurance
This Symposium was held in Denver,
Colorado, March 26-28, 1979, and brought
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together scientists from a variety of disci-
plines who presented papers on methodolo-
gies for pollution analyses relevant to the
oil shale industry. Communication and
information exchange among academic,
industrial and government researchers
were prime objectives. Topics included:
pollutants which can and should be char-
acterized and quantified, media to be
examined, health and ecological effects,
sampling and analyses methods, quality
assurance needs, future methodologies,
reference materials and instrumentation
development. The symposium provided an
opportunity for participants to share and
verify methods, collect data and exchange
information; and promote the quality of
ongoing research in oil shale development.
3.2 Extraction and Handling
Within the extraction and handling
program are nine projects sponsored by
EPA's Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory in Cincinnati (lERL-Ci). Five
projects dealing with processed oil shale
are underway at Colorado State University,
Fort Collins. Two are assessing the
environmental impact of raw mined oil shale
leachates. Two projects investigate the
effects of spent shale, its permeability and
revegetation. Another CSU project studies
the effects of oil shale development on
water quality. The Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley, California, is analyzing trace
element composition in two cores from the
Naval Oil Shale Reserve. Science Applica-
tions, Inc., Lafayette, California, will
assess air emissions from old oil shale
waste sites. A project being conducted by
the USDA using EPA pass-through funds
is developing recommendations for revege-
tation following oil shale mining. At Davis
Gulch, Colony will study moisture move-
ment through TOSCO II processed shale.
Develop Recommendations, Guidelines and
Criteria for Revegetation of Oil Shale
Spoils on Semi-Arid Lands
The overall purpose of this project is
to develop criteria for successful revegeta-
tion of processed oil shale on semi-arid
lands. A cooperative agreement was
developed with TOSCO whereby they would
provide processed oil shale. Field studies
are being conducted in western Colorado
and eastern Utah where disposal of spoils
will occur.
Among 10 species tested at Davis
Gulch (Colorado) without leaching of salts
the most successful species in descending
order were: A triplex canescens, Caragana
arborescens, Kochia prpstrata,
£
me
thamnus nauseosus, Ephedra viridis, and
Artemisia tridentata. All ha3 survival
percentages greater than 57 percent.
Covering processed shale with one
foot of topsoil enabled a number of native
perennials to become successfully estab-
lished, including Oryzopsis hymenoides,
Penstemon strictus, Achillea lanulosa,
Artemisia tridentata, and Xanthocephalum
sarothrae. These probably grew from
seeds already in the topsoil.
Results at Sand Wash (Utah) show
that without leaching of salts, 7 of 18
shrub species transplanted from containers
will grow well in processed oil shale with
or without irrigation the first year. At
the end of the fourth growing season, 5
native shrub species and 2 introduced
species were thriving under all conditions
of cover ranging from 0 to 3 feet (0 to
0.914 m) deep over processed shale. A
group of eight species showed very poor
survival on the processed shale itself, but
varying success where soil covered shale,
depending upon the depth of covering.
Height growth of these species increased
with soil depth, at least to the 1-foot
depth.
Water Quality Hydrology Affected by Oil
Shale Development
Colorado State University is under a
cooperative agreement from lERL-Ci to
study the water quality of both surface
and subsurface drainages in oil shale areas
of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah. Specific
objectives of this study are: 1) to gather
all available data pertinent to present and
future assessment of water quality in the
oil shale regions of the Upper Colorado
River Basin; 2) to summarize and analyze
these data in order to identify needs for
additional da'ta, and to develop procedures
for assessing the impact on water quality
management; and 3) to develop procedures
for measuring quantity and quality of
surface and subsurface runoff from proc-
essed shale residue and mine spoils, and
to verify these procedures using existing
large-scale volumetric lysimeters at Anvil
Points, Colorado. Term of this project is
from June 1975 to June 1980.
Vegetative Stabilization of Spent Oil Shale
Colorado State University is working
under a grant from lERL-Ci to continue
investigations of surface stability and salt
movement in spent oil shales and soil-
covered spent shales after a cover of
native vegetation has been established by
intensive treatments and then left under
-------
natural conditions. Work under this
project continues maintenance and observa-
tions on vegetation, moisture, salinity,
runoff, and sediment yields on revegeta-
tion plots established in 1974 and 1975.
Three different spent oil shales—
coarse-textured USBM, fine-textured
TOSCO II, and coarse-textured Paraho
Direct Mode--are being analyzed. Various
soil treatment tests are included to study
plant establishment on leached spent shale,
soil cover over leached spent shale, soil
cover over unleached spent shale, and soil
with no spent shale.
Data collected includes general obser-
vations, runoff and sediment samples, soil
moisture measurements, movement of salts
in soil and shale profiles, 'maintenance of
meteorological equipment, and vegetation
analysis of species and groundcover. A
final report is expected in 1981.
Laboratory Study of the Leaching and
Permeability of Spent Oil Shale
Colorado State University is working
under a cooperative agreement with
lERL-Ci to determine the leaching char-
acteristics of spent oil shale from several
processes. The objectives are: 1) to
determine the quality of leachate from
spent oil shales from several retort pro-
cesses, 2) to determine the change in
leachate quality with pore volumes of water
leached through the spent shale, 3) to
determine the permeability of various spent
shales compacted to increasing levels and
under loading conditions simulating field
disposal, 4) to compare leaching results
from column leaching tests with results
from the RCRA and other shaker type
tests, and 5) to compare results from this
laboratory study with information available
from larger field tests. A final report will
be available in 1982.
Trace Element Analysis on Cores from the
Naval Oil Shale Reserves
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the
University of California is examining two
core samples from the Naval Oil Shale
Reserve for the presence of 45 elements
including As, Se, Mo, B, F, Hg, Cd, and
U. One hundred and eighty-five (185)
composite samples will be prepared from
core segments selected to include oil shale
zones under consideration for commercial
development. These samples will be ana-
lyzed using the neutron activation method,
Zeeman atomic absorption spectroscopy,
and other selected methods. X-ray fluor-
escence spectrometry will be used to
validate the methods previously cited in
the case of selected samples. Results can
then be used to aid in selecting environ-
mentally acceptable sites for in situ oil
shale plants or in selecting zones for
mining for surface retorting which would
minimize environmental impacts. This
project is cofunded by lERL-Ci, the U.S.
Navy, and the Department of Energy. A
final report should be available late in
1980.
Leaching Characteristics of Raw Surface
Stored Oil Shale
Colorado State University is working
under grant from lERL-Ci to determine the
leaching characteristics of raw oil shale to
discover potential impacts on water quality
of large quantities of surface stored raw
oil shale. Secondary objectives are to
estimate the quantities of leachate water
likely to be available in field locations and
to combine these data with data on leachate
concentrations in order to estimate poten-
tial loading of receiving waters with dis-
solved solids, trace elements, and organics.
Data will be obtained by subjecting
columns of mined raw shale to leaching
tests under a variety of flow rates, condi-
tions of aeration, and column lengths.
Raw shale and effluents will be analyzed
for common ions, trace elements, and total
organics. Samples of native soil will be
leached under similar conditions for com-
parative purposes. The term of this
project is from October 1978 to March
1980.
Field Leaching Study of Raw Mined Oil
Shale
Colorado State University, the Area
Oil Shale Office, and the Rio Blanco Oil
Shale Company, as well as the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency will be
involved in this cooperative research
project. U.S. EPA will be responsible for
coordinating activities with the Area Oil
Shale Office and Rio Blanco Oil Shale Co.
The principal investigator, Dr. David
McWhorter, is currently attempting to
establish, in the laboratory, the potential
of raw oil shale stored on the surface to
release undesirable chemicals to water pas-
sing through the shale. The proposed
new study is to verify laboratory results
under actual field conditions.
The leaching characteristics of raw oil
shale will be investigated under field
conditions by establishing an experiment
on the C-a federal lease in cooperation
10
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with the Rio Blanco Oil Shale Company.
The specific objectives of this project are:
1) to determine the quantity and quality of
leachate from raw surface stored oil shale
under field conditions; 2) to compare the
quality of leachate obtained under field
conditions with leachate observed under
laboratory conditions in an attempt to
define the role of such factors as perco-
lation rates (resident times), wetting and
drying cycles, other weathering agents,
and the affect of the chemistry of the
influent water on the quality of leachate
water; and 3) to project from these and
other relevant data the potential for con-
tamination of natural waters by leachate
from surface stored raw mined oil shale.
The data from this project will iden-
tify the water quality characteristics of
leachate from raw stored shale for the
particular material and site conditions
investigated. Hopefully, comparison of
these data with currently available data
from laboratory leaching tests of several
different materials will allow researchers to
make generalizations that can be applied
elsewhere. Also, the investigators expect
this project to contribute to establishing
the necessity for control measures and to
formulating such measures, should they
prove necessary. A final report will be
available in 1983.
Air Emissions from Old In Situ Oil Shale
Sites
Science Applications, Inc., conducted
a field testing program to determine if air
emissions are being released from old in
situ oil shale sites. The project entailed
field sampling of soils and air at six sites
of previous in situ or surface oil shale
retorting activity and at one location away
from any oil shale development which
served as the control. Four soil samples
and one air sample were collected at each
of the seven sites.
Soils were tested for SO2, total
organics, hydrocarbons, pH and soil
atmosphere SO2. Air samples were tested
for SO2 and hydrocarbons. A final report
will be available in 1980.
Process Oil Shale Reclamation—Davis Gulch
Study
This five year project will study the
moisture movement in TOSCO II processed
shale. Two disposal plots will be con-
structed SO'xSO'xlO' with 10' diameter 32'
deep columns for obtaining information on
moisture infiltration below the zone of
evapotranspiration.
3.3 Processing
The main areas of the lERL-Ci pro-
cessing program are: environmental
assessment, analytical methods develop-
ment, control technology development, and
pollution control guidance. FY 1979
research activity on oil shale processing
includes eight major projects. A major
pollution control guidance document has
been funded for FY 1980.
Environmental Characterization of Geo-
kinetics1 In Situ Oil Shale Retorting Tech-
nology
The object of this research program
was to physically, chemically, and biologi-
cally characterize air emissions and water
effluents from true in situ oil shale retort-
ing. Geokinetics, Inc., agreed to allow
Monsanto Research Corporation to sample
and analyze emissions and effluents from
Retort No. 17, a pilot-scale unit, located
on the "Kamp Kerogen" site in Uinta
County, Utah, producing 30 barrels of
crude oil shale per day. The potential
pollution sources tested were the retort off
gases before and after mist elimination, the
exhaust from thermal incineration of the
demister outlet gases, fugitive gas seepage
through the retort surface and around well
casings, retort water after oil separation,
and evaporating pond water.
Three stack gas streams were ana-
lyzed for criteria pollutants (carbon mon-
oxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen
and sulfur, and particulate matter) as well
as ammonia, arsenic, hydrogen cynide, and
trace elements. Carbon monoxide, total
hydrocarbons, and Ci-Ce hydrocarbon
fractions were qualified in the fugitive
emission samples. Conventional pollutants
and water quality parameters, organic
priority pollutants, and trace elements
were measured in the samples of retort
waters and evaporating pond water.
Selected air and water pollution samples
were tested for biological activity, using
the Ames mutagenicity assay, the Chinese
hamster ovary (CHO), clonal toxicity
assay, and the rabbit alveolar macrophage
(RAM) cytotoxicity assay.
The draft final was submitted in
February, 1980, by Monsanto Research
Corporation. This report covers the
period from November 22, 1978 to
December 21, 1979; work was completed
January 18, 1980.
11
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Assessment of Oil Shale Wastewater Treat-
ment and Control Technology
The work and services Monsanto will
perform under this contract include: the
definition of pollutant discharges, detailed
treatability studies, and development/
testing of control technology.
The approach will be to establish a
specific list of water pollutants and their
sources to provide a guideline for the
assessment of pollutants and the design of
the field pilot-scale water pollution control
devices to be fabricated and tested in
subsequent project phases. The pollutants
identified will be those contained in oil
shale retort wastewaters from surface
retorts and in situ retorts whose waste-
waters are treated in above ground pro-
cessing equipment.
Air Pollution Investigations of Oil Shale
Retorting: In Situ and Surface
Characterizing the effluent streams
associated with oil shale processing is
necessary from a standards and control
technology standpoint. Oil shale
developers at a recent meeting agreed that
a commercial-size facility should be built
and the environmental impact determined.
The risks involved in such a venture are
considerable and thus far only pilot-scale
operations have been conducted. It was
EPA's position that small air pollution
control devices could be "slipstreamed"
into some of these oil shale operations and
valuable information on emissions and
control technology could be obtained.
To satisfy this goal, funds for assess-
ing the control of particulates, hydro-
carbons, trace metals, and toxic chemicals
were provided for both in situ and surface
retorts. The initial year's work consisted
of emissions evaluation, design, construc-
tion, and shakedown. Later work will
include extensive field tests at in situ and
surface oil shale retorts. To date evalua-
tion of available data relative to the collec-
tive systems has been completed, and a
wet scrubbing system was recommended for
testing. Testing will be completed by
August 1981.
H2S/SO2 Control Technology Study for Oil
Shale Effluents
Hydroscience, Inc., in Tennessee has
signed a two-year contract to determine
the applicability of sulfur treatment tech-
nologies to oil shale effluents. The
approach will be to review all the available
data on sulfur emissions from oil shale
processing facilities, evaluate the potential
of all applicable sulfur emission control
systems and recommend the best type of
control technology. A final report recom-
mending the best system is due in June,
1980. To date, review and evaluation
tasks have been completed.
Analytical Methods Manual for Oil Shale
Effluents
Many of . the personnel involved with
analytical measurement of oil shale efflu-
ents expressed a need to the EPA for
improved reliability of chemical methods
applied to oil shale analysis. The Denver
Research Institute's first year's work on a
contract responding to that need was an
investigation of methods used by oil shale
analysts. Reliable methods were distin-
guished from methods of questionable
validity. A report entitled Oil Shale
Analysis: A Review will soon be available.
Methods identified in this report as need-
ing additional development will be studied
in the laboratory in the two remaining
years of the contract. The Analytical
Methods Manual for Oil Shale Effluents will
be the end product of this research.
Overview of the Environmental Problems of
Oil Shale Development
This study updates information on
current and projected oil shale development
plans for the Piceance and Uinta Basin
areas of Colorado and Utah. Projections of
shale oil production levels are listed for
years 1980-1996 and provide the basis for
three impact assessment areas—Potential
Atmospheric Impacts, Potential Surface and
Groundwater Impacts, and Socioeconomic
Impacts. Process and control technologies
are defined and described. Impacts are
assessed for development years 1982, 1985,
1990, and 1995. The study will result in
publication of a current, general oil shale
reference for wide distribution.
Distribution of As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sb and
Se During In Situ Oil Shale Retorting
Preliminary investigations of oil shale
retorting have indicated that mercury
emissions in the off gas could be signifi-
cant. The volatile properties of mercury
and the other elements listed above made
them candidates for additional study;
therefore, this project was established to
develop analytical techniques for deter-
mining the trace element composition of all
effluents (air in particular) and to deter-
mine the fate of As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sb and
Se during simulated in situ oil shale
retorting.
12
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Investigators will use a laboratory
size retort to study the distributions of
trace elements in the various effluent
streams, and measure distribution coeffi-
cients for each element. Retorting condi-
tions will be varied to determine their
effect on trace element composition. Once
laboratory procedures have been estab-
lished, field testing will be carried out on
pilot-scale units. A laboratory scale
reactor was completed in December 1979.
Gas phase methods for the continuous
analysis of mercury have been completed
and successfully field tested.
An interagency agreement with DOE's
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory was
arranged to conduct a bench-scale study,
and the project was initiated in October
1978. Analytical methods are to be devel-
oped and tested for the measurement of
each of these elements in the gas stream.
Distribution coefficients for each output
stream will be determined. The effect of
retorting temperature and sweep gas rates
on the coefficients will be used to predict
similar coefficients for field operations.
Sampling strategies suitable for use during
large scale field operations will be identi-
fied.
Portable Zeeman Atomic Absorption Mercury
Monitor
Mercury is a toxic element which can
be emitted at harmful levels from oil shale
retorts. The objective of the Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory project was to con-
struct, test, modify and calibrate a Zeeman
Atomic Absorption instrument capable of
online monitoring of mercury emissions in
oil shale retort product gases. The
instrument has been constructed, cali-
brated, tested, and its operation verified
in field tests. (See Figures 3 and 4.)
Pollution Control Guidance Document for
Oil Shale
In the fall of 1978, the Office of
Research and Development of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency began efforts to
provide reference documents and guidance
to EPA offices, and federal and state
agencies on environmental issues related to
oil shale. These documents are intended
to assure that the development of a mature
oil shale industry is not delayed by uncer-
tainties regarding environmental standards,
while also assuring its development in a
manner compatible with national environ-
mental goals. The first such document
became available in draft form in the
summer of 1979, and has been titled:
"Environmental Perspective on the Emerg-
ing Oil Shale Industry."* It is expected
that this document will be printed and
released during the summer of 1980. The
EPA is now preparing a second document,
Pollution Control Guidance Document for Oil
Shale, with the first draft expected in the
lalTof 1980.
The Pollution Control Guidance Docu-
ment will present a critical and detailed
analysis of pollution control alternatives
for a commercial oil shale industry. The
document will contain extensive information
on the design, performance and cost of a
wide variety of available environmental
control technology options applicable to oil
shale processing. Control options will be
considered as they specifically apply to oil
shale through the use of six case studies
as a data base. The six case studies will
cover the following active oil shale devel-
opment projects which are expected to
reach commercial operation by 1990:
TOSCO/Colony Development in
Parachute Creek
Union Oil Development in Para-
chute Creek
White River Project at U-a, U-b
using the Paraho Process
Superior Oil Multimineral Devel-
opment
Occidental Development at Tract
C-b
Rio Blanco Development at Tract
C-a
Emphasis also will be placed on identi-
fying important areas of uncertainty, and
on specifying the assumptions made in the
analysis.
The EPA envisions this document as
the second of a series leading toward the
eventual establishment of regulatory stan-
dards for the oil shale industry. The
document is expected to serve several
purposes. First, it will establish a com-
prehensive, state-of-the-art understanding
of pollution control alternatives for oil
shale using current knowledge, supported
by extensive data on design, performance
and cost. Second, it will provide informa-
tion on important areas of uncertainty in
pollution control. Third, the document
*Called "Pollution Control Guidance for Oil
Shale Development" in the Program Status
Report, Oil Shale 1979 Update.
13
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FIGURE 3. ON LINE ZEEMAN ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER FOR MERCURY ANALYSIS IN OIL SHALE OFF GASES
(Courtesy of the Technical Information Division, University of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)
-------
FIGURE 4. INTERIOR OF ZEEMAN SPECTROMETER. SHOWING FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:
THE LIGHT SOURCE, MAGNET ASSEMBLY, SAMPLE GAS FURNACE ASSEMBLY
AND DETECTOR.
(Courtesy of the Technical Information Division, University of California,
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)
-------
will provide a basis for communication
between the EPA, industry and the public
on pollution control for oil shale. Finally,
the document will serve as an important
and updatable reference on oil shale pollu-
tion control.
The present data base used in the
development of the Pollution Control Guid-
ance Document is incomplete, and only
preliminary decisions can be made in
evaluating pollution control options. The
purpose is to provide a preliminary, broad
base of information which specifically
addresses the pollution control problems
faced by the oil shale industry. Hope-
fully, this information will stimulate the
proper concern and cooperation assuring
the development of the industry in an
environmentally acceptable way, and pre-
venting delay of its development by uncer-
tainties regarding environmental standards.
3.4 Energy-Related Processes and
Effects
The energy-related processes and
effects program is designed to identify and
assess the environmental effects of each
stage of an energy source's fuel cycle.
The program is subdivided into four major
areas: health effects, ecological effects,
measurement and monitoring, and environ-
mental transport processes. Current oil
shale R&D activities for each of these
areas are presented in the following sec-
tions .
3.4.1 Health Effects
EPA's Health Effects Research Labora-
tory, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina (HERL-RTP), and the Environ-
mental Research Laboratory in Gulf Breeze,
Florida (ERL-Gulf Breeze), are conducting
research which deals with the effects of
air and water pollutants associated with
alternative forms of energy development on
human health and on aquatic ecosystems.
Laboratory testing is being performed
by both in vivo (whole animal) and in vitro
(test tube) methods to identify and control
hazardous agents. These projects are
being conducted by Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana; Northrop Services,
Huntsville, Alabama; and by UCLA. In
addition, pass-through funds have been
given to NIOSH; DOE's Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory (LLL) in Livermore, California;
the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
(LASL) in Los Alamos, New Mexico; and to
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL),
in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
These projects generally are related
to oil shale in that they are multi-
technology oriented. The resources asso-
ciated with them are not exclusively
related to oil shale.
Repository for Alternate Energy Source
Material for Toxicity Testing
The Chemical Repository was estab-
lished at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by
a USEPA/DOE Interagency Agreement to
support health effects investigation of
alternate fossil energy technologies.
Materials suitable for research purposes
are obtained, catalogued, aliquoted, and
stored for distribution to health effects
investigators. High priority samples are
stored under controlled, documented condi-
tions and their storage stability is moni-
tored. Select samples are chemically or
physically fractionated and characterized
for high-priority studies. (See Figures 5
and 6.) Researchers have taken an active
role in designing and arranging matrix
studies to further existing knowledge.
Results obtained from study of Repository
samples are returned to the industries
supplying samples.
Samples available for study include
materials from coal liquefaction and up-
grading, coal gasification, shale oil
recovery and refining, coal combustion,
and petroleum recovery and refining. A
set of Comparative Research Materials from
coal liquefaction, shale oil recovery, and
petroleum recovery is being established in
bulk quantities to support long term and
extensive matrix-approach health effects
research. A 340 m3 facility for long-term
and bulk sample storage under controlled
and documented conditions has been con-
structed. Approximately 55 investigators
have received more than 800 sample ali-
quots since establishment of the Reposi-
tory. Physical or chemical fractionation
and characterization has been provided for
studies of materials from shale oil recovery
and refining and coal combustion.
Morphological Variants in Damaged Sperm
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories
(LLL), under sponsorship of the Inter-
agency Agreement is conducting this
project. Ionizing radiation as well as
various mutagens, carcinogens, and terato-
gens are known to induce elevated levels
of morphologically abnormal sperm in mice.
The objectives of this study: 1) to
develop further and apply the detection of
morphologically abnormal mouse sperm as a
rapid, simple, quantitative assay of the
pathological response of the male gonad to
16
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ORNL-DWG 79-21269
CRUDE OIL OR PRODUCT
DISTILLATION OR EVAPORATION
I VOLATILE!
1
[ NONVOLATILE |
T
ETHER/ACID PARTITION
1
| NEUTRALS AND ACIDS |
ETHER/BASE
L
| ACIDS |
PARTITION
1
| NEUTRALS
INSOLUBLES •— 1 ,
[BASES |
CHROMATOGRAPHY
1
] | LESS POLAR |
1
EXTRACTION OR
CHROMATOGRAPHY
1
1
ALIPHATIC |
L~,.v,,.,~,.x. |
1
MORE POLAR!
CHROMATOGRAPHY
|
|
ROMATIC | MORE AROMATIC |
CHROMATOGRAPHY
I
CHROMATOGRAPHY
| >S RINGS)
P-2| 12-31 |3-4| [4-5] [>5 RINGS|
|SIMPLE| | MULTIALKYLATED )
HYDROCARB] | N-HETEROCYCI | POLAR|
FIGURE 5. INTEGRATED CHEMICAL-BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO SEARCH FOR
DETERMINANT MUTAGENS. MUTAGENIC FRACTIONS ARE DENOTED WITH
BOLD OUTLINES.
17
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FIGURE 6 CHEMICAL REPOSITORY SPECIAL SERVICES SUPPORTING HEALTH EFFECTS
RESEARCH INCLUDE SAMPLE PREPARATION. Here, a chemist sets up
gel filtration columns for chemical fractionation of shale
oil samples.
18
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toxic agents; 2) to extend the studies of
the mouse to the hamster; and 3) to
develop the methodology for automated
scoring of abnormally shaped sperm,
especially after the exposure of the male to
toxic agents. Of special interest are
possible effects of the chemical pollutants
associated with the recovery, process
stream, and emission of nonnuclear sources
of energy, especially coal gasification and
oil shale extraction in situ.
To accomplish these objectives,
groups of test mice have received subacute
or chronic exposures by injection, inhala-
tion, or dermal application. The percent
of abnormally shaped epididymal sperm will
be determined as a function of dosage and
time after exposure. These results will be
compared to those obtained by more con-
ventional mutagens, carcinogens, and
teratogens. Preliminary studies with the
hamster and mouse have shown that these
two species are qualitatively similar in
response. Furthermore, an attempt is
being made to distinguish sperm morphol-
ogy in these species based on suggested
differences in fluorescent dye uptake.
These results may lead to automated analy-
ses of sperm morphology. Project duration
is from June 1975 to June 1980.
Detection of Early Changes in Lung Cell
Cytology by Flow Systems Analysis Tech-
niques
LASL is studying the application of
modern automated cytology techniques for
assessing damage to humans resulting from
exposure to physical and chemical agents
associated with oil shale and coal extrac-
tion, conversion, and use. The approach
is to apply unique flow-system cell analysis
and sorting technologies developed at LASL
to determine cytological and biochemical
indicators of early atypical changes in
exposed lung epithelium using the Syrian
hamster initially as a model test system.
Current plans are to adapt cell prep-
aration and staining methods developed for
flow systems to characterize lung cells
from normal and exposed hamsters using
the multiangle light-scatter systems. This
includes acquiring respiratory cells by
lavaging the lungs with saline, adapting
cytological techniques developed on human
gynecological specimens to hamster lung
epithelium for obtaining single cell suspen-
sions, using existing staining techniques
for measurement of cellular biochemical
properties, and initially characterizing
lung cells using flow analysis instrumenta-
tion.
LASL has achieved some progress in
measuring DNA content, total protein,
esterase activity, cell size, nuclear and
cytoplasmic diameters, and multiangle
light-scatter properties of exfoliated ham-
ster lung cell samples composed of macro-
phages, leukocytes, epithelial, and
columnar cells. As this new technology is
adapted further to analyze lung cells from
hamsters and subsequent characterization
studies are completed, measurement of
changes in physical and biochemical cell
properties as a function of exposure to
toxic agents associated with synthetic fuels
energy production will be performed, with
the eventual examination of sputum samples
from occupationally exposed humans. This
project is being sponsored by DOE with
EPA pass-through funds. Term of this
project is from 1976 and is continuing.
Biological Screening Study of Shale Oil and
H-Coal Liquefaction Operations
The feasibility of using short term
assays to predict the potential biohazard of
various shale oil and H-Coal test materials
is being examined in a coupled chemical
and biological approach. The primary
focus of the research is the use of pre-
liminary chemical characterizations and
preparation for bioassay, followed by
testing in short term assays in order to
rapidly ascertain the biohazard.
Using crude and/or fractionated
materials, simple bioassay systems are used
to determine which materials or fractions
thereof are biologically active, thus aiding
in the assignment of priorities for further
chemical separation and characterization.
Additionally, secondary screening of par-
tially defined constituents aids in identify-
ing the appropriate mixtures, classes, or
specific compounds that require testing in
intact animal or plant systems. Con-
versely, complex materials that are known
or prove to be active in higher organisms
can be dissected with the short term tests
and again, detailed chemical analyses can
be regulated after observation of biological
(genetic) activity. The overall approach
may validate the use of short term genetic
screening systems to predict mutagenicity
and carcinogenicity for intact organisms
and man. Implied in the coupled chemical-
biological approach is the application and
further development of bioassays involved
not only in detecting hazardous materials
in environmental effluents and process
streams, but also in measuring and moni-
toring these materials via bioassays in the
general environment, in the work place,
and during their storage (or disposal) and
transport. Furthermore, the prospect of
applying short term tests to the monitoring
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of exposed individuals through cytogenetic
assays or microbial screening assays utiliz-
ing body fluids is under development.
Preliminary information concerning the
metabolic mechanisms of activation, the
definition of cellular and molecular mechan-
isms of damage and the repair of key
compounds (from the major classes of
chemical pollutants) is accumulated along
with the determination of potential genetic
biohazard.
The H-Coal program will be carried
out in two phases: Phase I will use
samples that are currently available from
pilot-demonstration scale operations; short
term mutagenesis, cytotoxicity along with
mammalian toxicity and skin carcinogenesis
assay will be carried but with these
materials. Phase II will use samples
developed when the H-Coal plant is under-
way. Phase I tests (already underway)
will include the H-Coal raw distillate and
various stages of upgrading along with
H-Coal products. These preliminary
assays will parallel existing efforts with
other syncrudes. The information received
should aid in selection of actual process
samples for evaluating the Catlettsburg,
Kentucky, H-Coal pilot plant now under
construction. It will also provide useful
comparison of the changes which occur in
the biological characteristics of specific
process liquids as a function of scale-up.
The principal focus of the Paraho/
SOHIO Shale Oil project is the testing of
primary effluents and products for poten-
tial effects on man. This portion of the
evaluation of Paraho samples is concerned
with questions of relative toxicities of
process materials and refinery products.
Information gained in the preceding
integrated program should provide the
assessor with specific information on speci-
fic process materials. The generic
approach coupled with the chemistry,
health effects studies, and environmental
studies should place these materials in
context with respect to the data base
currently available. Direct information on
the potential mutagenicity, carcinogenicity,
and overall toxicity of the multiple test
points can be placed in perspective with
other technologies. Comparative informa-
tion and the published data on similar
materials again should place some ordered
estimate of biohazard on each unit.
All short term bacterial determinations
within Phase I of H-Coal have been com-
pleted. A reduction in activity parallels
the level of hydro treatment. Distillation
studies with available samples have shown
that mutagenic activity parallels the heavy
distillate (aromatic fractions?). Cyto-
toxicity work can be summarized in a
similar manner -- "toxicity is reduced with
hydrotreatment."
Evaluations with the Ames assay on
the crude shale oils versus hydrotreated
oils has reinforced results with synthetic
fuels from liquefaction, i.e., a reduction
of activity. Cytotoxicity work parallels
this observation.
Selected fractions are being tested in
comparative short-term systems. Choice of
samples (and/or fractions thereof) to be
extended to validative testing will depend
on both the preliminary biological work and
the chemistry. The validation (extension
to higher organisms) will include tests for
mutagenesis, e.g., mammalian cell gene
mutation, whole-mammal mutation (mouse)
and Drosophila; and for cytogenetic dam-
age, e.g., sister- chroma tid exchange.
Mammalian toxicity assays are also
being run on a variety of distillates and
oils. These assays will include acute oral
LD5Q in mice, acute skin toxicity in rats,
primary skin and eye irritations, and
dermal sensitization. Selected samples are
also under test in subacute and chronic
dermal toxicity assays including skin
carcinogenesis.
Detection of Oil Shale Related Mutagens
Using Human Cell Cultures.
To minimize occupational and environ-
mental hazards possibly associated with the
development of oil shale, short-term
in vitro biohazard assays are being tested.
The complexity and heterogeneity of oil
shales, combined with the variety of pro-
cessing technologies, generate products
and by-products too numerous to test
using whole animal assays alone. Further-
more, the time involved is too long for
such analyses to be used for modifying
technologies. Therefore, mutagenicity
assays, employing bacterial or animal cells,
are generally accepted as short term
in vitro biohazard assays. However, when
the amounts of potential products are as
large and diverse as those accompanying
full scale oil shale production, the 60-90%
accuracy for predicting carcinogens usually
obtained in vitro may not be acceptable
and must be accompanied by mutagen-
activation procedures. The use of human
cells, both as activators of promutagens
and as targets of mutagenic activity, could
significantly increase the potential of these
in vitro assays for determining carcino-
genicity/ mutagenicity in humans. Tech-
niques have been employed to culture
newborn foreskin keratinocytes. These
cells maintain the ability to metabolize the
20
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carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) during
a number of passages in culture. Ini-
tially, these cultures will be used as a
source of metabolic activation with normal
human fibroblasts as targets.
Results to date using human cells as
targets of mutagenic activity and rat liver
S-9 or NUV radiation as activation systems
have been obtained for known model car-
cinogens, shale oil process waters and
DMSO extracts of shale oils. These
results have been compared with those
obtained using Salmonella, PM2, DNA and
CHO cell targets. A 6TG* (hgprt locus)
mutation assay system has been adapted to
early passage cultures of human embryonic
skin fibroblast cells (GM10). More than
98% of the chemically induced 6TC" mutants
isolated have undetectable or greatly
reduced HGPRT activity (less than 3% of
the parental activity). One of the isolates
has been used to perform reconstruction
experiments to determine the optimal con-
ditions for selection of these mutants.
The mutagenesis of three model pro-
carcinogens (B[a]P, 3MC and DMN) has
been studied in the newly developed human
fibroblast assay incorporating liver micro-
somal S-9 preparations from Aroclor-
induced rats. At a constant amount of S-9
protein concentration, a linear increase
was seen in mutagenicity as a function of
procarcinogen dose. In addition to the
study of model compounds, the mutageni-
city of a shale oil product water derived
from surface retorting has been determined
in the human mutation (6TG ) system
without rat liver microsomal activation.
Preliminary results indicate substantial
cytotoxicity and mutagenicity in cultures of
human embryonic skin fibroblast cells (the
human cells are approximately ten times
more sensitive than CHO).
Several newborn epidermal keratino-
cyte cultures have been established.
Early results show that the epidermal
keratinocytes retain their characteristically
high metabolic activity for a number of
passages as determined by conversion of
% B[a]P to water-soluble metabolites. A
squamous carcinoma cell line has been
found to retain this metabolic activity at a
level equal to the normal skin keratino-
cytes. Both types of human epithelial
cells are sensitive to B[a]P, DMBA and
SMC. Currently being examined are the
PAH metabolites and DNA adducts pro-
duced by the two types of human epithelial
cells.
Preliminary results of studies compare
responses in human cells with those utiliz-
ing other targets. "Photoactivity" in
product waters has been examined from
three different shale oil retort processes
currently being developed: surface,
vertical modified in situ and horizontal
modified in situ. When the product waters
are adjusted to equivalent absortivity in
the NUV region the photoactivity was in
the order of surface > vertical MIS >
horizontal MIS. Photoactivated product
water from the surface retort process was
extremely more cytotoxic toward human
skin fibroblasts than the product waters of
either of the other two processes. Never-
theless, preliminary spectral analyses of
these waters and of organic extracts of the
crude oils themselves indicate differences
in composition exist such that results seen
in the in vitro DNA assay are not simply
quantitative.
Experiments, which are in progress,
have been designed to examine the photo-
active components in process waters and in
shale oils and determine their fate in
subsequent steps of product water disposal
and refining (e.g., hydrotreatment) of the
crude oils. Preliminary results indicate a
substantial reduction (7-fold) in photoin-
duced strand breaks in DNA for dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO) extracts of hydrotreated
surface retort oil compared to DMSO
extracts of untreated crude oil itself
(estimate based on photoactivity existing in
extracts adjusted to equal A350 units).
Furthermore, DMSO extracts of resulting
sludge (a by-product of hydrotreatment of
crude oils) show a similar reduction in
"photoactivity" when tested for their
ability to induce breaks in our in vitro
DNA assay. Experiments are in progress
to examine the "photoactivity" of these
treated samples in regard to their potential
to induce cytotoxic and mutagenic events
in cultured human skin fibroblasts.
In Vivo Screening for Gene Mutation In
Mouse Germ and Somatic Cells
DOE's ORNL is conducting this study
with EPA pass-through funds. In screen-
ing for mutagenic agents it is important to
include mammalian tests for gene muta-
tions. In this project, identification of
mutagens associated with coal and oil shale
technologies that can induce gene muta-
tions and small deficiencies will be accom-
plished by scoring for transmitted specific-
locus mutations induced in germ cells, and
somatic mutations in coat color genes.
The specific-locus method developed
has been used extensively in radiation
work and has already proved its useful-
ness in chemical mutagenesis studies. It
is the only established, reliable, and
definitive test for transmitted gene muta-
21
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tions and small deficiencies currently avail-
able in mammals. To make the method
economical for screening purposes, it will
be used to test the mutagenicity in a whole
mixture of compounds, for example, in an
effluent. One mixture from a coal conver-
sion process that has just become available
after studies with nonmammalian systems is
now being used in preliminary toxicity
tests. An in vivo somatic-mutation method,
developed in an earlier X-ray experiment,
has now been explored for its usefulness
in the prescreening for germinal point
mutations induced by chemicals. In an
array of compounds tested, parallelism with
spermatogonial specific-locus mutation rates
was found, indicating that the in vivo
somatic-mutation tests may detect point
mutations in addition to, other types of
genetic changes that lead to expression of
the recessive gene. The method is now
being used to test fractions from coal
conversion processes. Term of this con-
tract is from 1976 and is continuing.
The Carcinogenic Effects of Petroleum
Hydrocarbons on Selected Marine Estuarine
Organisms
The in vivo and in vitro metabolism
and excretion of model hydrocarbons is
being investigated in vertebrate and inver-
tebrate marine species that serve as human
food sources. The effects of temperature
and exposure to other pollutants on the
processes involved are also being studied.
Both cytochrome P-450 dependent micro-
sotnal mixed-function oxidases (that can
convert unsaturated hydrocarbons to re-
active and toxic epoxides) and those
enzymes that further metabolize and de-
toxify alkene and arene oxides are being
characterized in untreated fish and fish
pre-oxidized to environmental contaminants
including polycyclic aromatic and polyhalo-
genated biphenyls.
Quantitative Mutagenesis Testing in Mam-
malian Culture Systems
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory will
develop and apply quantitative and
multiple-marker assays utilizing cultured
mammalian cells to evaluate the potential
mutagenic effects of agents derived from
energy technologies. Additionally, LLL
will use these existing and newly devel-
oped biological screening systems to
identify mutagenic agents associated with
coal and oil shale extraction, conversion,
or use.
This program proposes the use of
multiple drug-resistance markers for for-
ward mutation in cultured Chinese hamster
ovary (CHO) cells, as well as in vitro and
host-mediated in vivo/ in vitro procedures
in the Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) sys-
tem. The markers being developed mea-
sure the frequency of forward mutation at
the recessive azadenine-resistant marker,
the X-linked azaguanine-resistant pheno-
type, and the dominant ouabain-resistant
locus. Established prokaryote and lower
eukaryote systems will be used for com-
parison and reference; the most satisfac-
tory markers in all systems will then be
combined into a standard protocol in which
each of the gene loci can be measured for
mutation following exposure to a particular
test agent or combination.
To date, both CHO and SHE systems
have been tested with the standard muta-
gen EMS, and experiments using specific
hydrocarbons relevant to energy tech-
nology are now underway. This project is
being sponsored by DOE under pass-
through funds from EPA. Project duration
is from June 1975 to June 1980.
Development of Cytochemical Markers for
Cell Transformation and Carcinogenesis
LLL is developing rapid, sensitive,
and economical systems for in vitro and
cytological assays for carcinogenic effects
of substances involved in extraction,
conversion, and use of nonnuclear energy
sources, with particular consideration of
in situ coal gasification, shale oil use, coal
burning power plants, and geothermal
power plants. The approach is based on
the development of cytochemical markers
for cell transformation, and on the ability
to quantify such markers by microfluorom-
etry and by flow system analysis and
sorting.
There are two phases to this work:
1) the development of appropriate test
systems whose response is defined by well
characterized and representative carcino-
genic agents, and 2) the application of
such systems to substances released by
energy technologies, and including testing
with whole and fractionated samples of
effluents. This project is under the
sponsorship of DOE with pass-through
funds from EPA. Project duration is from
June 1975 to June 1980.
Analysis of the Effects of Energy Related
Toxic Materials to Karyotype Stability in
Mammalian Cells
LASL is developing systems for the
rapid detection of karyotypic changes in
mammalian cells resulting from exposure to
energy-related environmental pollutants.
22
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and to screen selected subjects. Flow
microfluorometry (FMF) of isolated, fluo-
rescently stained chromosomes will be used
to identify chromosome aberrations, and
FMF of stained intact cells will be used to
detect mitotic nondisjunction. Cadmium
will be used as the clastogenic agent in
the development of a test system. It has
been demonstrated that chromosome analy-
sis can be accomplished by flow systems in
mammalian cells with relatively simple
karyotypes. Cadmium at low concentra-
tions is a potent clastogen. It induces
primarily chromatid-type aberrations.
LASL has also demonstrated that
tolerance to the damaging effects of cad-
mium can be induced in fibroblast cells in
culture by long-term exposure of the cells
to sublethal concentrations of cadmium.
There are plans to repeat these experi-
ments on human fibroblast and lymphocyte
cells in vitro and to extend these studies
to other toxic agents associated with
alternative energy technologies. This
project is being sponsored by DOE with
EPA pass-through funds. Term of the
contract is from 1976 and is continuing.
Effects of Products of Coal and Oil Shale
Conversion on Cell Cycle Kinetics and
Chromosome Structure
LASL is providing a means for detect-
ing and monitoring damage to humans as a
result of exposure to various toxic chemi-
cal and physical agents. To obtain an
idea of the parameters to be monitored in
humans, it is first necessary to establish
the effects of agents on cells in simpler
model systems.
Earlier experience with drugs which
act as carcinogens and teratogens has
convinced researchers that changes in
population cell-cycle distribution and
alterations in chromatin structure may
provide useful early indicators of sublethal
damage to cells exposed to hazardous
agents. Examination will be made of
alterations in these parameters following
exposure to specific energy-related toxic
substances in currently available tissue-
culture systems which show promise as
predictive indicators of response in
humans. A technique has been developed
that allows preparation of both cycling and
noncycling cell populations in tissue-
culture, mimicking these classes of human
somatic cells. By combining autoradiog-
raphy, cell number enumeration, and flow
microfluorometry, it will be possible to
obtain highly detailed information on the
cellular kinetics response of both arrested
and cycling populations to treatment with
toxic agents.
Results obtained to date suggest that
DNA interactive agents elicit different
types of kinetics responses in treated
cells, indicating a degree of specificity of
interaction between various alkylating and
intercalating agents and the genome. This
project is sponsored by DOE with EPA
pass-through funds. Term of the contract
is from 1975 and is continuing.
Mutagenicity Assay of Fractionated Coal
Conversion and Oil Shale In Situ Retorting
Products
ORNL is monitoring environmentally
important processes for genetic damage
using rapid screening assays to identify
mutagenic agents. They have extended an
initial work on the crude product from a
coal liquefaction (Syncrude/COED) to
subfractionation and have identified the
potential genetic hazards with the Ames
system. The most active fractions appear
to be the neutrals and the basic (ether
soluble) components prepared by liquid
extraction procedures. Parallel identifica-
tion work by the analytical chemistry
division has been carried out and a
selected group of polycyclic compounds
involved has been assayed and evaluated
for mutagenicity. The crude product
assays have been extended to the sepa-
rator liquor components of the same
process, again using the coupled analytical-
biological assay approach.
Similarly, parallel studies with frac-
tionated materials have been initiated with
the Synthoil Process (liquefaction), the
Synthane Process (gasification), and the
shale oil in situ retorting process. Pri-
mary fractions of various steps or
materials from these processes have been
prepared and assayed for potential genetic
damage.
The mutagenicity of crude industrial
products and effluents was arrayed with
the Salmonella/microsomal activation system.
Test materials (crude products from coal
conversion processes and natural crude
oils) were initially fractionated into pri-
mary classes by liquid-liquid extraction
and then further fractionated by column
chromatography. Prescreening was accom-
plished over- a wide concentration range
with the Ames tester strains. Active
fractions (mainly the neutral fractions
containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
and certain basic fractions) can be identi-
fied, and dose-response relationships can
be established. Standard values are
expressed as revertants per milligram of
the test material assayed with frameshift
strain TA98 including metabolic activation
23
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with rat liver preparations. Total muta-
genic activity of synthetic fuel samples was
consistently higher than that of natural
crude controls. Activities of subtractions
are roughly additive and presumably
reflect the mutagenic potential of the whole
test material. These results are being
extended to other genetic assays. Chemi-
cal identification is carried out along with
the bioassays.
The application of short-term mutagen
tests was evaluated using bacterial, fun-
gal, mammalian cells and Drosophila on
synfuel A fraction. The results of the use
of these systems simply show that biologi-
cal testing and genetic assays, in this
case, can be carried out with the devel-
oped tester systems, but only when
coupled with the appropriate analytical
separation scheme.
The Quantitative Evaluation of Hazardous
Chemicals Using a Closed Aquatic Test
System
Brookhaven National Laboratory is
developing a new comparative test system,
using clones of fish, P. formonsa, capable
of detecting the carcinogenicity of chemi-
cals by treatment of cells in vitro or by
treatment of whole animals.
The approach is to treat cells in vitro
with presumptive carcinogens by injecting
cells into fish and scoring recipient fish
for tumors one or two years later, or
introducing presumptive carcinogens
directly into the water tank to assess their
effects on the whole animal. This is a
continuing program that began in 1976.
The Interaction of Chemical Agents Present
in Oil Shale with Biological Systems
The aim of this project is identifying
reactive free radical intermediates formed
during the co-oxygenation of ben2o(a)
pyrene (BaP) and other polycylic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) using two approaches:
the direct observation of free radical
intermediates and the trapping of such
reactive compounds using spin traps.
Research into the bioeffects of shale oil
and the effluents associated with conver-
sion to synfuels is performed on the poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the
heavy metal ions.
Development of Permanent Epithelial Cell
Lines
DOE's ORNL is conducting this study
with EPA pass-through funds. Objectives
are: 1) to develop the means by which
chemicals associated with nonnuclear
energy generation, especially agents aris-
ing from coal and oil shale extraction, can
be screened for potential carcinogenic
activity. Reliability, speed, and cost
relative to current animal exposure tech-
niques, are emphasized; 2) to utilize
appropriate cultured cells developed under
the first objective to study hydrocarbon
metabolism into carcinogenically active
forms, and determine the mechanism of
chemical carcinogenesis.
A research group with two discrete
but closely related approaches to these
problems is being developed. The
approaches are: 1) cell biology—the major
focus here will be the development of
permanent cell lines of epithelial origin
(human, when possible and appropriate)
which possess the enzymatic equipment for
carcinogen activation and which are trans-
formable with high frequency; and 2) bio-
chemistry--the principal focus will be
study of the metabolism of polycyclic
hydrocarbons in various cell lines devel-
oped in the first approach to establish
with certainty the "ultimate" carcinogenic
metabolite, using primarily high pressure
liquid chromatography techniques. This
contract was initiated in 1976 and is con-
tinuing .
Development of an In Vitro Assay for
Cocarcinogens of Coal/Oil Shale Derivatives
The UCLA School of Medicine is
developing an in vitro assay capable of
detecting the cocarcinogenic potential (with
X-rays) of materials produced during coal
and oil shale processing. Investigators
intended to use mouse tissue cultured cells
and an already established transformation
assay, but initial experiments indicated
that rodent cells may possess lesions
induced by alkylating agents different from
human cells and that their use as screen-
ing materials might be misleading. This
effect was shown by demonstrating that a
variety of DNA damaging agents had
significantly different effects on various
cell lines when measured by a variety of
techniques.
It was hypothesized that a ventral
difference between the lines (rodent ver-
sus human) may be the "activation of
on-cogenesis" related to the strand break-
age induced, because rodent lines carry
transforming virus materials (complete or
incomplete), which are lacking in most
human target cells. These differences are
being evaluated through cell hybridization
analysis using hybrids made by sendai-
virus fusion of cells lacking either:
24
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1) different DNA repair enzymes, or
2) (potential) RNA viruses. This project
is sponsored by DOE with EPA pass-
through funds. The contract began in
1979 and is continuing.
Influence of Diet on the Gastrointestinal
Absorption of Energy Related Metallic
Pollutants
In a study of the absorptive inter-
actions of cadmium and zinc using everted
gut sacs, no effect of zinc on cadmium
accumulation in the intestinal tissues was
apparent, but there appears to be a subtle
increase in the serosal fluid accumulation
of cadmium during 30 minutes of incuba-
tion. Zinc uptake and transport by intes-
tinal tissue was stimulated in the presence
of cadmium. In a long-term chronic expo-
sure of rats to cadmium, the body reten-
tion of zinc was increased for those animals
drinking water with 1, 10 or 25 ppm
cadmium. Studies have been initiated to
determine the kinetics of the intestinal
absorption and transport of lead using
everted gut sacs.
3.4.2 Ecological Effects
The Environmental Research Labora-
tory in Duluth (ERL-Duluth) is providing
predictions on potential aquatic toxicants
resulting from coal and oil shale extraction
and conversion. Current work involves
chemical characterization and bioassays of
retort process waters and chemical and
analytical studies of water in the Piceance
Creek basin. Term of the present projects
is 1975 - 1980.
This five year project will fully
assess and evaluate the adequacy of waste
treatment methods, so that the aquatic
environment will be protected. Research
involves: chemical identification and
measurement of waste products, acute and
chronic bioassay studies with invertebrates
and fish, determination of the physical and
chemical fate of organic contaminants, and
determination of the uptake and bioaccumu-
lation of trace pollutants. Results of the
research will be published, and used to
evaluate waste treatment methods for coal
gasification and oil shale for technologies.
Concentration of Well Waters from an Oil
Shale Retorting Site for Biological Testing
The overall purpose of this project is
to determine the potential harmful biolog-
ical effects of organic substances intro-
duced into ground waters during in situ
oil shale retorting.
Samples of water from tract C-a will
be collected and concentrated by reverse
osmosis and then sterilized by membrane
filtration. The samples will be biologically
tested at the Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati. Samples taken
before and after retorting will be compared
in another task under separate contract.
The following actvities and completion
dates have been projected:
Sample collection, pre-burn October 1979
Sample collection post-burn June 1980
Draft final report July 1980
Final report August 1980
HERL-Ci will test the samples from Novem-
ber 1979 through March 1980 and report
results separately. Chemical analytical
results used to characterize the samples
will be discussed and related to the bio-
logical tests in the final report.
Biological Guidelines for Integrated
Environmental Monitoring for Mined Lands
There are no effective, standardized
user-oriented guidelines for designing,
conducting and evaluating ecological base-
line and environmental monitoring programs
for energy and other resource develop-
ment. Both reclamation and use of control
technology will require a well-designed
environmental baseline and monitoring
program. Although environmental pro-
tection guidelines for coal, oil shale, and
other energy programs on federal lands
are published in the Federal Register,
enforceable guidelines flexible enough for
use in different geographic areas and for
operations with quite different potentials
for environmental damage are needed. The
Fish and Wildlife Service has developed a
work, under EPA funding, specifically
defining requirements for ecological base-
lines .
Phase I of the study will include
guidelines for design, implementation,
verification, and evaluation of environmen-
tal baselines, monitoring, and general
ecological impact assessment. The focus
will be national, and site-specific monitor-
ing needs will be identified. Phase II will
provide instructions for assessing and
using monitoring techniques.
The energy industries (coal, oil
shale, geothermal, etc.), the CEQ, EPA,
OSM, DOE, the land management agencies,
various state and county governments,
universities, consulting firms, and private
landowners will be able to use the results
of the study in conjunction with current
monitoring requirements.
25
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This study will be done in-house
(Fish and Wildlife Service) through con-
tracts and through direct and indirect
support of state and wildlife groups, land
management agencies, private industry,
and universities. The proposed effort will
be guided by the Western and Eastern
Land Use Teams. The study will require
continued involvement of the groups and
agencies listed above.
User-oriented manuals which will
guide the various groups in planning and
implementing environmental baseline and
monitoring programs will be produced.
The manuals will be designed for immediate
use by EPA, OSM, other regulatory and
management agencies, environmental con-
sulting firms, and industry.
Developmental Markers and Reproductive
Damage
Previous work has demonstrated that
macromolecular yolk precursors as well as
heterologous materials present in the
maternal bloodstream are incorporated by
the growing egg, stored in compartmental-
ized membrane-bound inclusions and used
during embryogenesis. Thus, it appears
that environmental materials present at
subthreshold levels of toxicity in the adult
female will be acquired, concentrated and
stored by growing eggs, and made avail-
able to the embryo when the yolk compart-
ment is used. Better laboratory methods
are also needed to assess rapidly and
reliably the effects of pollutants on the
reproductive potential of aquatic verte-
brates .
Essentially this project involves
studying egg formation, fertilization and
early embryonic development in fish and
amphibians, both of which provide copious
gametes for experimental work. The
research, therefore, relates to regulatory
processes in two ways: 1) it provides
insight into how egg formation and early
embryogenesis may be greatly disturbed
in all vertebrates, including mammals, by
environmental substances introduced into
the growing egg via the maternal blood-
stream, and 2) more immediately, it allows
an assessment of reproductive dysfunction
in aquatic vertebrates brought about by
altered water quality.
Studies are being conducted primarily
on two animals: the obligately aquatic
amphibian, Xenophus laevis (easily main-
tained at inland laboratories), and the
estuarine fish, Fundulus heterpclitus
(abundantly availableat essentially all
marine laboratories along the North Atlantic
coast). Developmental processes examined
include four general areas: 1) oocyte
growth; 2) maturation of full grown oocytes
into eggs; 3) fertilization; and 4) embryo-
genesis. Recently it has been possible to
grow X. laevis oocytes in vitro. It has
been "Tbunclthat trivalent arsenicals,
particularly phenylarsinoxide, are by far
the most potent inhibitors of oocyte
growth. The sequestration, translocation,
turnover and/or storage of external mate-
rials by the growing oocyte is being stud-
ied in order to understand how materials
externally derived during oogenesis are
delivered to the growing embryo.
Researchers have found that zinc at very
low concentrations will initiate maturation
of full grown oocytes and that cadmium
competes with zinc initiation. Basic studies
on fertilization are being pursued since
present background information for X.
laevis and F. heteroclitus is inadequate.
Studies of tRe teratogenic effects of haz-
ardous substances using X. laevis embryos
(which can be readily obtained by the
hundreds at any time of the year) are also
underway. The emphasis is on struc-
turally related chemicals present in coal
conversion process waters, thus allowing
statistical predictions. An integrated
approach will also be initiated: the tera-
togenic effect of external materials will be
examined by introducing these substances
into the growing oocyte either via the
maternal bloodstream or in culture and
comparing effects on subsequent embryos
obtained from these oocytes with effects
obtained when the same materials are
added directly to the water containing
growing embryos.
This research will provide qualitative
and quantitative information on the effects
of pollutants on reproductive dysfunction
in general (and on aquatic vertebrates in
particular) and aid in identifying the
causes of lowered fecundity which apply
during the formation of gametes, their
fertilization, and subsequent embryo-
genesis. This is the only project in the
U.S.A. which focuses on the growth of
eggs in aquatic vertebrates and/or the
consequences of its perturbation and which
can relate observed effects with embryo-
logical dysfunction.
Important intrinsic information on
fecundity and reproductive biology will be
obtained since amphibians and fish appear
to be excellent organisms to use for study-
ing and understanding the mechanisms
controlling oogenesis, clutch size, fertiliza-
tion and embryogenesis.
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Develop Markers Reproductive-Teratological
Damage
The object of the research is to
identify toxic substances, primarily neuro-
toxins, in fossil fuel pollutants, and to
determine their teratological effect.
Because they tend to be water soluble, the
ether soluble weak acids and bases from
fossil fuels are being tested. An acute
lethal toxicity assay using small goldfish in
100 ml water and taking two to four hours
has been reduced to a micro assay using
guppy fry and 5 ml water. This second
assay shows chronic effects three to seven
days following the assay. A preparative
gas chromatograph has been built, which
is capable of separating pure molecular
species in amounts large enough to micro
assay, test for enzyme inhibition and
identify by GC/MS. Usually the acute
lethal studies have an exposure time of
fifteen hours and use biological endpoints
such as changes in behavior, color, death
of the animal or inhibition of nerve trans-
mission or enzyme action. Any toxic (or
potentially toxic) agent which is water
soluble or can be made water soluble can
be tested. The goldfish and guppy fry
and acetylcholinesterase enzymes have
proved useful for studying the toxic
substituted pyridines in fossil fuels.
Similarly, isolated fish scales and tails
have proved useful in studying the anti-
adrenergic phenols in the weak acid frac-
tion of fossil fuels.
Acetylcholinesterase can be isolated
from human red blood cells and readily
tested. The substituted pyridines are
toxic to three species of fish and inhibit
eel acetylcholinesterase; therefore, they
will probably inhibit the human enzyme and
perhaps cause chronic damage to embryos,
fetuses, and children.
Develop Guildelines and Criteria for Use of
Non-Mine Wastes as Soil Amendments on Oil
Shale
Determining how processed oil shale
should be amended for effectively revege-
tating spoil materials is the overall purpose
of this project.
Both greenhouse and field studies
were conducted using TOSCO II processed
shale with certain amendments as growing
media for plants. Also several cooperative
studies were developed with universities.
In the greenhouse, sewage sludge had
significantly greater beneficial effects on
seed germination and plant growth than
wood fiber, straw, sugar beet pulp, or
cow manure. Sewage sludge apparently
ties up the sodium salts in spent shale.
Revegetation studies on processed oil shale
are being conducted at two main field
locations where disposal of the material is
likely to take place in the future: Davis
Gulch, (Elev. 8100 ft., precip. 18 in.) at
the head of Parachute Creek on the Roan
Plateau in western Colorado, and Sand
Wash, (Elev. 5100 ft., precip. 7 in.) in
the salt desert, shrub type, southwest of
Vernal, Utah. At both sites a covering of
at least one foot of topsoil over processed
shale increased the number of adapted
plant species and greatly reduced the need
for fertilizers. Although not as good as
topsoil, a covering of 2 to 3 inches of rock
talus over processed shale was superior to
a covering of barley straw. At Sand
Wash, drip irrigation during the first
growing season enhanced plant survival on
processed shale; but where the processed
shale was covered with at least one foot of
soil, survival was about equal on irrigated
and non-irrigated plots. Use of container-
grown plants can insure successful revege-
tation of arid sites where direct seeding
has failed.
3.4.3 Measurement and Monitoring
Projects in this category include air,
surface and groundwater monitoring and
methodology development, instrumentation
development and identification of wastes
and effluents. Studies are being con-
ducted by EPA's Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory in Las Vegas
(EMSL-LV) the Region VIII office in
Denver, and the Environmental Research
Laboratory in Athens (ERL-Athens) cooper-
ating with USGS, DOE and NBS.
Oil Shale Site Meteorological Data Analysis
COM Limnetics, Wheat Ridge, Colo-
rado, purchased upper air meteorological
data from the National Climatic Center in
Asheville, North Carolina, for the National
Weather Station at Grand Junction, Colo-
rado. The temperature, wind speed, and
wind direction data collected at Grand
Junction, Colorado, has been compared
with similar data obtained near the
Colorado federal oil shale lease tracts.
The representativeness of obtaining upper
air data for 15 days in the central portion
of each quarter has been determined; a
report providing this low level radiosonde
monitoring data comparison has been
released. This completed project was
sponsored by EPA Region VIII, Denver,
Colorado.
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Air Quality and Surface Wind Monitoring in
Colorado
The Colorado Department of Health is
under contract to EPA Region VIII to
install and operate air monitoring sites in
selected areas of western Colorado to
collect baseline data prior to major expan-
sion of energy activities. Particulate
samples from the energy area are analyzed
for nitrate and sulfate content. EPA
Region VIII is administering this project
with OEET funds. Term of the contract is
from 1975 to 1980. Data are available upon
request from EPA Region VIII office.
Upper Air Meteorological Data Collection
Aeromet, Inc., Norman, Oklahoma,
has collected upper air data at tract
U-a/U-b from June 1, 1976 through
October 30, 1977, and at tract C-b from
June 1, 1976 through November 30, 1978.
Temperature, wind speed, and direction
versus altitude were measured via pilot
balloons and temperature sondes. Single
vs. double theodolite evaluations were
made. Temperature and wind data were
used to generate stability-wind rise data
on a seasonal, annual, and monthly basis.
These data also provided mixing height
data.
Visibility Monitoring in Piceance Basin
Instrumentation has been provided by
EPA Region VIII to lessees of Tract C-b
for measurement of visibility. A compre-
hensive basin-wide program will probably
begin in 1980. Visibility data are also
being gathered at Dinosaur National Park.
Monitoring the Impact of Oil Shale Extrac-
tion on Groundwater Quality
The technical objectives of this proj-
ect are to develop guidelines for design
and implementation of groundwater quality
monitoring programs for oil shale develop-
ment considering both surface and in situ
retorts in Utah and Colorado. These
objectives will be accomplished by evaluat-
ing the potential impact of oil shale opera-
tions on groundwater quality, identifying
and ranking potential pollution sources,
assessing alternative monitoring
approaches, and recommending cost-
effective monitoring methods. Using
general monitoring design methods devel-
oped by Tempo for EPA, currently the
monitoring needs are being evaluated for
oil shale developments as proposed for
tracts U-a, U-b, C-a and C-b. With 1977
as the initiation of this work the proposed
milestones and accomplishments are as
follows:
12 months - Complete inventory of poten-
tial pollution sources for Utah-type
(surface retorting) operation.
Develop priority ranking of sources
for monitoring. Complete compendium
of oil shale mining and retorting
techniques.
24 months - Complete preliminary monitor-
ing design report for Utah-type
operation:
36 months - Complete preliminary monitor-
ing design report for Colorado-type
(MIS) operation.
36-48 months - Conduct field testing and
other data collection and analysis
efforts needed to finalize monitoring
recommendations.
54 months - Complete monitoring design
guidelines for MIS operations.
Energy Related Water Monitoring Data
Integration
This project will study the develop-
ment of the most appropriate monitoring
strategy for measuring and evaluating air
and water pollutants resulting from com-
mercial scale operations of advanced
energy conversion systems. Monitoring
recommendations will be provided for all
phases in the development of an energy
project including site selection, construc-
tion, operation, close down, and follow-up
monitoring. The technologies of interest
are: a) fluidized bed combustion; b)
low-medium Btu coal gasification; c) in situ
coal gasification and oil shale retorting; d)
surface oil shale retorting, and e) direct
and indirect coal liquefaction.
Development of monitoring recom-
mendations includes identification of:
pollutants likely to be discharged or to
escape into the environment; optimal sam-
pling procedures or criteria for determin-
ing source; most appropriate (in terms of
sensitivity, accuracy and cost) laboratory
analysis methods; data handling and report-
ing methods; and adequate quality assur-
ance on all portions of the monitoring
program. The ultimate recommendations
will contain advice on how to deal with site
specific parameters, such as complex
terrain and geology. To date, the first
two tasks are completed and the third task
is funded.
Investigators will prepare a report
containing recommendations on optimal
monitoring systems for each of five new
energy technologies.
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Water Quality and Geochemistry of Shallow
Aquifers of Piceance Creek, Colorado
The objective of this USGS program is
to define the variation of water chemistry
in the aquifers of the Piceance basin and
its relationship to the soluble minerals of
the Green River Formation. A digital
model of the chemical reactions will be
developed and coupled with the existing
digital model of the aquifer hydraulics,
and used to predict the effects of oil shale
mine dewatering on water chemistry.
Water quality samples will be collected
and analyzed from the wells drilled in the
basin. Samples will also be collected from
springs. A digital model of the water
chemistry will be developed and coupled
with the existing groundwater hydraulics
model. The chemical data will be used to
calibrate the model. Mine dewatering
operations can then be simulated to predict
changes in the water chemistry of the mine
discharge.
The project began in July 1974. The
initial interpretive phase of the project was
completed September 1978. Monitoring of
groundwater quality has been in progress
since 1974 and will continue throughout the
period of oil shale development on the
prototype lease tracts. In 1976, a two-
layer two dimensional solute transport
model of the groundwater basin was con-
structed but could not be properly cali-
brated. The invalid assumption was that
the basin was primarily a two aquifer
system with water quality differences
between each aquifer but not within each
aquifer. It now appears that significant
concentration changes may occur with
depth within the aquifers and that high
concentration water in some wells and
springs is a composite mixture of water of
greatly different quality rather than a
representative sample of water quality in
the aquifer as a whole. In order to con-
sider the effects of the concentration
variation with depth in the aquifers, a
three-dimensional solute transport model of
the basin was constructed.
Continued work in 1977 with the finite
element solute transport model has shown
that the program could successfully solve
the flow equation representing the Piceance
basin but could not solve the correspond-
ing solute transport equations. As a
result, this finite difference solute trans-
port model was constructed and success-
fully calibrated in 1978, using equilibrium
groundwater flow and dissolved solids
concentration data.
The model has been used to simulate
the effects of mine dewatering and resat-
uration on the groundwater quality in the
basin. Simulation results indicate that
enhanced vertical movement of groundwater
near pumping mines in Tracts C-a and C-b
will produce a zone of better quality
groundwater in the deeper aquifers adja-
cent to each mine. The effects of spent
oil shale leachate in an abandoned and
resaturated mine in both tracts were also
simulated. Results indicate that a large
zone of degraded groundwater quality will
occur downgradient of Tract C-a, while
only a small zone occurs near Tract C-b.
The proximity of Piceance Creek to the
C-b mine causes groundwater of degraded
quality to move into the stream without
affecting large areas of the surrounding
aquifer. A report, "Hydrochemistry and
Simulated Solute Transport in Piceance
Basin, Northwestern Colorado," docu-
menting the results of this investigation
has been prepared for open file release
and publication as a U.S. Geological Sur-
vey professional paper.
Water Quality on White River, Parachute
Creek and Logan Wash in Oil Shale Areas
of Western Colorado
The project objective is to inventory
the water resources and describe the
hydrologic system of Parachute and Roan
Creeks.
Basic water data will be collected on
streamflow, sediment yields, water quality,
spring discharge, and groundwater poten-
tiometric levels. The data will be used to
document the existing hydrologic conditions
in Parachute Creek and Roan Creek. The
data will provide a description of the
relationship between surface water and
groundwater quantity and quality in the
study area.
The project began in July 1974 and is
planned to continue through September
1980. Four continuous record surface
water stations and one miscellaneous sta-
tion were operated in the study area at
the start of 1976. Two of these stations
are equipped with automatic suspended
sediment samplers and two-parameter water
quality monitors. Water quality samples
are collected monthly at three sites, and
sediment samples are collected monthly at
one site. In addition, twelve surface
water stations are operated by industry.
Records from these stations have been
made available to the U.S. Geological
Survey. Later in 1976, Occidental Oil
Shale, Inc., gave permission for the use
of three alluvial wells in major drainages
around its in situ operation. Water levels
29
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and water quality samples are being ob-
tained from these wells. A deep core hole
near Mount Callahan was also provided by
Occidental, permitting water levels and
water quality samples to be obtained in the
upper and lower aquifers of the Green
River formation.
By 1977, a new project in the Para-
chute Creek basin was funded by the U.S.
Navy; the objective is to inventory the
water resources and describe the hydro-
logic system of the U.S. Naval Oil Shale
Reserve No. 1. Five surface water
gauges, two automatic sediment samplers,
three precipitation gauges, and one climate
station have been installed on the Reserve.
Data from this project will be used to
supplement the existing- program for Para-
chute and Roan Creeks.
Monitoring of surface water and
groundwater quality continued in 1979.
Eight surface water gauging stations, four
automatic sampling sediment stations, and
five two-parameter monitoring stations were
maintained by USGS. Ten surface water
stations were maintained by private oil
companies. Ten deep core holes were
drilled and hydrologic information collected
on the Naval Oil Shale Reserve. Four
private oil company core holes were re-
worked for hydrologic monitoring. Two
production wells and ten observation holes
were installed for alluvial aquifer testing
in the Roan Creek basin. Water quality
samples of miscellaneous sites were col-
lected for 35 springs and surface water
sites near existing oil shale operations. A
final report on the investigation is planned
for 1980 as a professional paper.
Surface Water Quality Monitoring Tech-
niques Assessment
In 1975 EMSL-LV initiated a program
designed to test and evaluate water quality
monitoring approaches and procedures for
application in surface waters of the semi-
arid oil shale development area. A one
year field effort was completed in the fall
of 1976 in the downstream reaches of the
White River in eastern Utah. This effort
consisted of testing a number of water
quality monitoring procedures including
conventional grab sampling methods, por-
table in situ automated water sensors and
samplers, and various biological sampling
approaches and methods. Biological test-
ing waffooAntinued in the middle and upper
reaches rof the White River throughput
1979. Sample analyses, data processing
and report preparation are continuing into
FY 80.
To date, three EPA ORD project
reports have been published, and several
technical papers presented at various EPA
and non-EPA sponsored conferences. Four
additional EPA ORD technical reports are
currently in preparation and it is antici-
pated that final project reports will be
published by June 1981.
The intensive macrobenthos sampling
effort has resulted in the collection of
more than 1,200 samples over a five year
period, approximately 75 percent of which
have been processed. This represents the
most comprehensive macrobenthos data base
in existence for surface waters of the oil
shale development area. Data represented
by up to 40 replicates per site/per samp-
ling date, are available for the entire river
course from the upstream cold water
reaches near Buford to Asphalt Wash
downstream from the U-a/U-b tracts. One
of the most significant results of this
project was the development and validation
of a highly efficient standardized technique
for sampling macroinvertebrate communities
in stream reaches characterized by heavy
sediment loads and highly variable water
levels. Such reaches are typically difficult
to sample due to the unstable nature of
the substrate and the low densities of
benthic animals. This technique, the
Standardized Travel Kick Method (STKM),
offers a highly versatile and cost-effective
approach for sampling macrobenthic com-
munities exhibiting highly variable popu-
lations.
Information relative to chemical/
physical monitoring procedures indicated
that a time-stratified sampling regime that
provides for maximum sampling intensity
during periods of greatest variability in
water quality would improve sampling cost
efficiency. Automated in situ water
quality sensors utilized in this program
proved inadequate for unattended operation
in remote areas. Fouling of sensors and
associated data drift presented insurmount-
able problems in the highly turbid down-
stream reaches of the White River. D.C.
powered automated water samplers, on the
other hand, performed satisfactorily during
ice-free periods.
Biological aspects of this project were
accomplished in part by UNLV biologists
under EPA Contract No. 68-03-2619.
Identification of Components of Energy
Related Waste Effluents
Two contractors have worked to
identify components of energy-related
wastes and effluents. The first contract,
performed by Research Triangle Institute,
30
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Research Triangle Park, North Carolina,
has been completed. Their work was
reported in EPA Research Report No.
EPA-600/7-78-004, January 1978. The
second contract was performed by Gulf
South Research Institute, New Orleans,
Louisiana, and was completed in December
1979.
Contract work was divided into two
phases. Phase A consisted of a state-of-
the-art summary to determine which
energy-related solid wastes and aqueous
effluents had already been analyzed so
that pollutants could be identified and
measured. Information concerning past
and current relevant projects was summa-
rized by both contractors. These reports
indicated projects on analysis of samples
from coal, mines, oil refineries, oil shale
processors, coal fired power plants, coal
liquefaction and coal gasification. The
summary prepared by Research Triangle
Institute was included in the EPA report
mentioned above. The report was pre-
pared by Gulf South Research Institute
and is available as EPA Research Report
No. 600/7-79-255.
Phase B of both contracts consisted
of selecting sampling sites, and collecting
and analyzing samples. Analysis of samples
for all elements except mercury was per-
formed by spark source mass spectrometry.
Mercury determinations were carried out
using the cold vapor atomic absorption
technique. Organic compounds in the
samples were identified by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry. Vola-
tile organic compounds were determined
using purge-and-trap techniques. Semi-
volatile organic compounds were extracted
with methylene chloride, once at a high
sample pH and once at a low sample pH.
Organic compounds identified were quanti-
fied using molar response ratios. Six oil
shale process effluent samples were col-
lected at the Anvil Points site, Rifle,
Colorado, and are being analyzed at Gulf
South Research Institute.
This work is being sponsored by
EPA's Environmental Research Laboratory
at Athens, Georgia.
Characterization of Dirty Aqueous Effluents
from Energy Related Wastes & Effluents
This project, initiated late in FY
1978, is also being conducted at Iowa State
University. The focus of this study is on
developing procedures for the characteriza-
tion and measurement of potentially hazard-
ous constituents in dirty aqueous effluents.
Samples of "typical" effluents have
been obtained from pilot and demonstration
scale facilities now in operation. Attempts
have been made to modify existing tech-
niques and to develop new techniques for
isolating organic contaminants from these
effluents. Work has begun on procedures
for separating sample components into
fractions containing species with similar
chemical properties. Procedures for the
routine determination of priority con-
taminants are being refined, and capa-
bilities for performing microassays have
been expanded.
Isolation and separation protocols are
being finalized. Routine monitoring pro-
cedures have been applied to samples
taken from operating facilities. Bioassay
procedures are being used to apply separa-
tion and characterization efforts to those
sample components posing the greatest
potential threat to the environment.
Developed procedures are being
tested on real samples. Attempts are
being made to identify or characterize all
major components and all components which
might have an adverse environmental
effect.
Study of Raw Materials, Products and
Residues of Coal Conversion and Oil Shale
Processes for Possible SRM's: Oil Shale
The purpose of this project is to
evaluate the feasibility of certifying a
number of the chemical constituents of an
oil shale as Standard Reference Material
(SRM).
Several years ago, NBS conducted a
workshop on the needs for Standard Refer-
ence Materials for oil shale processing.
Subsequently, NBS conducted preliminary
analyses on inorganics and organics
present in oil shale.
Analyses of oil shale by neutron
activation for elements having intermediate
and long-lived neutron irradiation products
allowed detection and concentration estima-
tions for approximately thirty elements,
ranging from 1.8% (Fe) to 0.30 (Ta) |jg/g.
The estimated uncertainties in the concen-
tration values ranged from 5 to 10 per-
cent.
High resolution gas chromatography
was conducted using glass capillary
columns. Extracts of oil shale analyzed
with or without 60Co-irradiation steriliza-
tion of the oil shale gave identical chro-
matograms. Evaluation of organic
extraction efficiency is needed to quantify
organics present in the oil shale. Related
31
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work on organic extraction efficiencies is
currently underway for quantification of
organics on an urban air particulate certi-
fied for trace inorganics (SRM 1648).
A Summary Report on Oil Shale Acti-
vities at NBS has been prepared. This
report recommends the development of
measurements, methods, and Standard
Reference Materials for oil shale process-
ing.
Western Energy-Related Regional Air
Quality Monitoring
The Western Energy-Related Regional
Air Quality Monitoring Program which
started in FY 75 has .evolved into the
Visibility Investigative Experiment in the
West (VIEW). The study area for the
former program consisted of eight western
states (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New
Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Utah, and Wyoming) where proposed
energy developments are intensive. The
program consisted of a number of individ-
ual projects including a 28-station par-
ticulate monitoring network in the Four
Corners area, a sulfate/nitrate monitoring
network, an instrumented aircraft flown
primarily over Arizona and Utah, and a
visibility monitoring station. Reports and
other publications describing the results of
these projects are (or will shortly become)
available. One task of special interest was
the incorporation of air quality data col-
lected at the three Federal oil shale leases
into EPA's national air quality data base
(SAROAD).
The new program is a development of
the visibility and particulate characteriza-
tion projects of the former program. Of
primary interest to the VIEW program is
the impact of energy-related air polluting
sources on visibility. The program
includes a visibility monitoring network of
about twenty locations and a fine particu-
late monitoring network at over forty
locations. The study area is generally the
same as for the previous program. Several
of the visibility monitoring and fine partic-
ulate characterization network sites are in
the oil shale resource area. The objec-
tives of the program are to establish
present visibility levels and trends, to
develop and test monitoring techniques, to
determine the relative contributions of
various sources to visibility and to estab-
lish the relationship between quantitative
visibility measures and human perception
of degraded visibility. The program is a
joint effort of the Environmental Protection
Agency, the National Park Service and the
Bureau of Land Management. Information
from this research is being used to formu-
late a visibility protection strategy for
designated federal Class I areas as
required by Congress in the Clean Air Act
of 1977.
Air and Water Monitoring Guidelines for
Advanced Coal Conversion and Combustion
Plants
The objective of this project is to
develop ambient multimedia monitoring
guidelines for commercial scale coal and oil
shale conversion facilities.
Because of significant process differ-
ences between the various combustion and
conversion technologies, each requires an
individually designed ambient monitoring
strategy to evaluate effects on air, land
and water resources.
Five separate areas are considered:
four related to coal conversion or combus-
tion and one to oil shale. The latter is to
concentrate on in situ and/or modified
in situ processes. Development of the
monitoring guidelines will be based on
existing environmental and pollutant data
from test units, pilot facilities, and foreign
commercial operations. Engineering projec-
tions will be used when physical data is
nonexistent. For each technology a guid-
ance document will be produced containing
an identification and a ranking for prob-
able pollutants, recommendations for and
descriptions of sampling procedures and
design, sample analysis methods, data
interpretation and evaluation procedures,
data handling and processing methods and
basic reporting recommendations, and a
recommended basic outline of a quality
assurance program covering all aspects of
sampling, sample handling, laboratory
analysis and data management.
The initial product from the contract,
a draft report on monitoring guidelines for
fluidized bed coal combustion, was sub-
mitted to EPA in October, 1979 and is now
in technical review. The guideline docu-
ment for in situ or modified in situ oil
shale is projected for Spring 1981 publi-
cation .
Surface Water Quality Monitoring in Oil
Shale Development Areas
This project's technical objectives are
to monitor the water quality in oil shale
development areas not adequately covered
by other monitoring programs.
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Ground Water Research Program
A major problem facing the oil shale
industry is measuring its impact on
groundwater resources. Many investiga-
tions by government agencies, consulting
firms and the oil shale industry predict
that one in situ oil shale operation will
physically affect over 100 square miles of
groundwater. Although physical measure-
ments have been estimated, potential
chemical changes have been largely
ignored. Long term groundwater con-
tamination from oil shale operations is
possible. Because groundwater and sur-
face water, associated with major oil shale
reserves, are closely related, physical or
chemical alterations of one will affect the
other. However, predictions based on
specific mineralogical and water quality
data should quantify groundwater quality
variations associated with the oil shale
industry.
In association with an in situ oil shale
retorting operation, sample wells will be
drilled and cores collected for mineralogy
and ground water quality determinations.
Backflood water quality (organic and
inorganic) will be determined as well as
egress aquifer mineralogy and absorptive
capacity for backflood pollutants. The
impact of the oil shale industry on ground
water and related surface water resources
will be assessed.
The results of these projects will
provide local and state governments, the
oil shale industrial community and involved
federal agencies with information on impor-
tant groundwater quality variations related
to oil shale recovery. Research, con-
ducted by grants, contracts, and inter-
agency agreements, will 1) determine
priority organic and inorganic pollutants
having a potential impact on ground water,
2) determine the effectiveness of aquifer
mineralogy in absorbing priority pollu-
tants, 3) consider aquifer dispersion and
mineralogical absorption, and 4) define
area of influence and significance of pollu-
tants' migration from retorting operations.
Adaption of Advanced Groundwater Monitor-
ing Methodology to In Situ Oil Shale
Retorting
Coal mining and the development of
the immense reserves of oil shale in the
semi-arid West pose major problems of
groundwater pollution. Of special concern
is the disposal of large amounts of spent
oil shale which contain significant quan-
tities of hazardous organic substances.
An optimized anticipatory groundwater
monitoring methodology for coal and oil
shale sites is needed because it is impos-
sible to clean up an aquifer once it has
been contaminated.
The groundwater monitoring approach
developed with earlier funding by GE
Tempo (and accepted as official ground-
water monitoring methodology by New
Mexico and other states) is being adapted
to the unique problems of groundwater
contamination associated with coal and oil
shale resources. This methodology is
anticipatory in the sense that it determines
contamination originating from a source and
traveling through the unsaturated zone
long before it reaches the water table
(saturated zone). Conventional ground-
water monitoring techniques focus on the
saturated zone only.
Three areas (two for oil shale and
one for strip coal mining) are being
studied for the background conditions that
will determine how the generalized monitor-
ing methodology can be adapted as specific
monitoring guidelines for these energy-
related situations. The foundation
studies mining practices, hydrology and
geology, identification of pollutants, pollu-
tion sources, and pollutant infiltration and
mobility in the subsurface. In addition,
information on design and cost of monitor-
ing installations and appropriate data
management systems will be developed.
Preliminary designs of cost-effective,
step-by-step monitoring methods for speci-
fic sources will then be made.
Output/Rationale: The groundwater
monitoring methodology developed by this
effort will be presented in the form of a
computer program. EPA Region VIII has
expressed interest in this approach. The
computer is accessible by phone hookup
with an easily portable terminal. The
systems program will operate as an expert
panel, asking the user a series of increas-
ingly more specific questions. The user,
in turn, will interact with the computer,
introducing site-specific data which will be
integrated into a monitoring plan.
The preliminary monitoring designs
for the test areas will require field valida-
tion and fine tuning before a final design
can be acceptable. Similarly, the systema-
tized version of the methodology for coal
strip mining will need field verification.
33
-------
3.4.4 Environmental Transport
The Mineralogy of Overburden as Related
to Groundwater Chemical Changes in Strip
Mining of Coal, In Situ Coal Gasification
and In Situ Oil Shale Retorting
Investigators for this project propose
to develop a method for predicting ground-
water quality variations associated with
coal strip mining, in situ coal gasification
and in situ oil shale retorting to protect
the quality of groundwater associated with
energy production.
Cores from coal strip mining and in
situ coal gasification and retorting were
recovered from the surface down through
the energy bearing resource. Wells were
drilled, cored and sampled up gradient,
within, and down gradient from the energy
bearing resource. X-ray diffraction and
X-ray fluorescence analyses were used to
establish the mineralogy of the cores.
Standard field and laboratory analytical
methods were used to determine water
composition. Water quality associated with
detailed mineralogy was then studied.
Factor analysis, thermodynamic calculations
and graphical methods were used to inter-
pret the data.
This project has successfully devel-
oped a technology capable of predicting
groundwater chemical changes resulting
from energy production.
Sorption Properties of Sediments and
Energy Related Pollutants
Literature has been reviewed and
laboratory investigations have been con-
ducted to determine the strength and
extent of energy related organic pollutant
sorption by soils and sediments. Key
variables controlling sorption processes
have been identified and expressed in
equations suitable for estimating partition-
ing behavior. Identifying the range of
possible sorption behavior expected for
energy-related pollutants in soils and
sediments has provided a means for esti-
mating partition coefficients in a wide
variety of similar systems without addition-
al measurements.
The approach involved an extensive
literature review, published as a separate
report, followed by a series of laboratory
measurements which concentrated on vari-
ables expected to be important in predict-
ing sorption behavior. Measurements
included solubility, octanol/water partition
coefficients and adsorption isotherms for 14
compounds on a set of 13 carefully selected
and characterized sediments. Particular
emphasis was placed on correlating com-
pound solubility and octanol/water partition
coefficients with sorption behavior on the
sediments. Organic carbon content of the
sediments was the property most directly
related to their sorption behavior. Test
compounds were selected to represent the
predominant classes of pollutants associated
with coal mining and processing activity.
Sediments with wide ranges of organic
carbon content, particle size distribution,
and clay mineralogy were chosen.
Major accomplishments to date include
a literature review published in August
1979 and several papers dealing with sorp-
tion behavior of individual compounds.
The draft final report has been submitted
and is presently under review. The most
important results are predictive equations
which give the sorption behavior as a
function of either solubility or octanol/
water partition coefficients.
Regional and Stratographic Variations of
Oil Shale Mineralogy in Piceance and Uinta
Basins
The existence of any significant
regional mineralogical variations will be
determined in this project, as well as
potential leachate problems associated with
oil shale ash, char and unaltered shale.
Following in situ oil shale retorting
operations, new mineralogical surfaces will
be exposed and available for leaching
groundwater which will reenter the retort.
The unanswered environmental question is:
What is the quality, quantity, and regional
significance of oil shale leachates from
abandoned retorts?
Cores from the Piceance Basin have
been collected for mineralogical examina-
tion. Oil shale samples, including shale
ash, char, and unaltered shale from an
in situ oil shale retort have been obtained
for mineralogical examination and leachate
quality and correlation studies.
Potential Air Pollution Effects of Oil Shale
Activities in Piceance Basin
In response to Region VIII's request,
the Energy and Air Division of OEPER
initiated a major effort to study the
potential air pollution effects of increased
oil shale extraction activities in the
Piceance Creek Basin, western Colorado.
The study will encompass:
1) Review and analysis of meteoro-
logical and air quality data
previously obtained for the area.
34
-------
2) Identification and characteriza-
tion of primary (emitted) and
secondary (transformed) air
pollutants that may be detrimen-
tal to health, terrestrial and
aquatic life and to visibility of
Federal Class I Areas.
3) Modeling of the transport, trans-
formation and dispersion of the
primary and secondary pollutants
from the source(s) to the
environment.
The study will be undertaken by the
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Dr. Ronald
Drake, Principal Investigator, under an
existing EPA/DOE Interagency Agreement.
3.5 End Use
Advanced Combustion Systems for Station-
ary Gas Turbine Engines
The purpose of this project was to
eliminate the need of water injection for
NOx control while burning clean liquid and
gaseous fuels and to develop control tech-
nology for GT's which may be required to
burn high nitrogen fuels such as petroleum
residue, shale oil or coal derived liquid
fuels.
The contract was divided into four
phases. The first phase compiled a series
of combustor design concepts which had
potential for meeting program goals. That
effort was completed in mid-1976. The
second phase of the program provided for
bench scale evaluation of the concepts
identified in Phase 1. That effort, com-
pleted in early 1978, identified a staged
combustion concept called the "Rich Burn/
Quick Quench" (RBQQ) combustor and
showed that NOX emission 40 to 50% below
the New Source performance standard
could be achieved on both clean fuels and
high nitrogen liquids. Phase III provided
for scale-up of the technology to a size
commensurate with a single can from a
multican-25 MW electric machine. Phase III
was completed in 1978. Phase IV, com-
pleted in October, 1979, provided for full
scale experimental evaluation of the RBQQ
combustor. NOx emissions of 65 ppm were
recorded for the combustion of a 0.46% N
residual shale oil and 80 ppm for a 1% N
SRCII fuel. NSPS for both fuels is 125
ppm.
Development and Optimization of Low NO
Burner Designs for Heavy Liquid Fuel
Fired Package Boilers
Project investigators plan to develop
low NOX burner technology for heavy
liquid fuel fired package boilers. Speci-
fically, NOX levels below 150 ppm for both
firetube and watertube applications are
sought.
The overall purpose of this project is
to identify liquid fuel characteristics of
NOX control potential and to optimize low
NOX burners for future field application
for boilers of both firetube and watertube
design.
This program involves pilot scale
testing at three scales. In the smallest
scale (100,000 Btu/hr heat input) a spec-
trum of liquid fuels (petroleum, coal and
shale derived) have been screened under a
spectrum of combustion conditions.
Results show that for "normal" combustion
conditions NOX increases almost linearly
with fuel bound nitrogen content. NO
levels exceeding 2000 ppm were measurec-
while burning a 2.4% N shale oil. Those
high NO levels can be significantly
reduced through staged combustion. For
the same 2.4% N shale oil staging reduced
the NOX to approximately 200 ppm. Fur-
ther testing now indicates that even fur-
ther reductions (approaching 100 ppm) may
be possible. Larger scale testing (3.5 and
10 x 106 Btu/hr) are planned to incor-
porate the information learned in small
scale to a practical new burner design.
35
-------
FIGURE 7. EXPERIMENTAL IN SITU OIL SHALE RETORT
(Courtesy of the Technical Information Division, University of California
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory)
36
-------
CO
In Situ
FIGURE 8. DIAGRAM SHOWS DETAILS OF THE IN SITU OIL SHALE EXTRACTION METHOD
-------
SPent Shale P,|e
Above Ground
FIGURE 9. DIAGRAM SHOWS DETAILS OF THE ABOVE GROUND OIL SHALE EXTRACTION METHOD
-------
Title
EPA Contact
TABLE 1. PROGRAM STATUS SUMMARY
Duration Contractor FY 79
FY 80 Total FY 79/80
Remarks
CO
to
OVERALL ASSESSMENTS
Environmental Perspective on
the Emerging Oil Shale Industry
EPA/Industry Forum
Who's Who in Oil Shale
Oil Shale Symposium: Sampling,
Analysis and Quality Assurance
EXTRACTION AND HANDLING
Develop Recommendations ,
Guidelines, and Criteria for
Re vegetation of Oil Shale
Spoils on Semi -Arid Lands
Water Quality Hydrology
Affected by Oil Shale
Development
Vegetative Stabilization of
Spent Oil Shale
Laboratory Study of the Leach-
ing Permeability of Spent Oil
Shale
Trace Element Analysis on
Cores from the Naval Oil Shale
Reserves
Leaching Characteristics of
Raw Surface Stored Oil Shale
Field Leaching Study of Raw
Mined Oil Shale
E. Bates
(513) 684-4417
K. Jakobson -79
(202) 755-2737
W. McCarthy -79
(202) 472-9444
P. Mills -79
(513) 684-4216
R. D. Hill 75-81
(513) 684-4410
E. F. Harris 75-80
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates 75-81
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates 80-82
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates 78-80
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates 78-80
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates 80-83
(513) 684-4417
OSRG 121,000 70,000 191,000
Geoenergy 73,000 0 73,000
Corporation
DRI 15,000 0 15,000
DRI 22,000 0 2^000
231,000 70,000 301,000
USD A 100,000 100,000 200,000
CSU 26,000 0 26,000
CSU 44,000 40,000 84,000
CSU 0 92,000 92,000
LBL 000
CSU 0 57,000 57,000
CSU 0 67,000 67,000
Pass through--
USDA
EPA Pass through
funds to DOE
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
Air Emissions from Old In Situ
Oil Shale Sites
Process Oil Shale Reclama-
tion — Davis Gulch Study
PROCESSING
Environmental Characterization
of Geokinetics1 In Situ Oil
Shale Retorting Technology
Assessment of Oil Shale Waste-
water Treatment and Control
Technology
Air Pollution Investigations of
Oil Shale Retorting: In Situ
and Surface
H2S/S02 Control Technology
Study for Oil Shale Effluents
Analytical Methods Manual for
Oil Shale Effluents
Overview of the Environmental
Problems of Oil Shale
Development
Distribution of As, Cd, Hg, Pb,
Sb, and Se During In Situ Oil
Shale Retorting
Portable Zeeman Atomic Absorp-
tion Mercury Monitor
Pollution Control Guidance
Document for Oil Shale
EPA Contact
E. Bates
(513) 684-4417
E. Bates
(513) 684-4417
T. Powers
(513) 684-4363
W. Liberick
(513) 684-4363
R. Thurnau
(513) 684-4363
R. Thurnau
(513) 684-4363
R. Thurnau
(513) 684-4363
R. Thurnau
(513) 684-4363
P. Mills
(513) 684-4216
P. Mills
(513) 684-4216
E. Bates
(513) 684-4417
Duration
-80
80-85
79-80
79-82
-81
-81
79-82
79-80
78-79
79-80
-81
Contractor
SAI
Colony
Monsanto
Monsanto
Monsanto
Monsanto
DRI
DRI
LBL
LBL
DRI
FY 79
18,000
0
188,000
120,000
330,000
280,000
97,000
150,000
100,000
109,000
52,000
0
FY 80
0
350.000
706,000
0
400,000
427,000
82,000
121,000
152,000
190,000
0
639,000
Total FY 79/80 Remarks
18,000
350,000
894,000
120,000
730,000
707,000
179,000
271,000
252,000
299,000
52,000
639,000
$1,238,000 $2,011,000 $3,249,000
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
EPA Contact
Duration Contractor
FY 79
FY 80
Total FY 79/80
Remarks
ENERGY RELATED PROCESSES AND EFFECTS
Health Effects
Repository for Alternate Energy
Source Material for Toxicity
Testing
Morphological Variants in
Damaged Sperm
D. Coffin 77-79 ORNL
(919) 541-2585
D. Smith 75-80 LLL
(301) 353-3682
207,500 0 207,500 Pass through
funds to DOE
60,000 60,000 120,000 Pass through
funds to DOE
Detection of Early Changes in D. Smith
Lung Cell Cytology by Flow Sys- (301) 353-3682
terns Analysis Techniques
Biological Screening Study of
Shale Oil and H-Coal Liquefac-
tion Operations
Detection of Oil Shale Related
Mutagens Using Human Cell Cul-
tures
In Vivo Screening for Gene
Mutation in Mouse Germ and
Somatic Cells
C. Nauraan
(202) 426-3974
C. Nauman
(202) 426-3974
D. Smith
(301) 353-3681
The Carcinogenic Effects of P. Schambra
Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Selec- (919) 541-3467
ted Marine Estuarine Organisms
Quantitative Mutagenesis
Testing in Mammalian Culture
Systems
D. Smith
(301) 353-3681
Development of Cytochemical D. Smith
Markers for Cell Transformation (301) 353-3681
and Carcinogenesis
Analysis of the Effects of
Energy-Related Toxic Materials
to Karyotype Stability in
Mammalian Cells
D. Smith
(301) 353-3681
76-
76-
76-
LASL
79-81 ORNL
79-82 LASL
ORNL
76-80 LLL
76-80 LLL
LASL
50,000 50,000 100,000
200,000 200,000 400,000
200,000 200,000 400,000
150,000 150,000 300,000
-79 U. of Wash. 45,000
0 45,000
75,000 75,000 150,000
135,000 135,000 270,000
50,000 50,000 100,000
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to DOE
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
EPA Contact
Duration Contractor
FY 79
FY 80 Total FY 79/80 Remarks
Effects of Products of Coal and D. Smith 76- LASL 50 000 50 000 inn nnn
Oil Shale Conversion on Cell (301) 353-3681 ' w.wuu iuu,uuu
Cycle Kinetics and Chromosome
Structure
Mutageni city Assay of Frac- D. Smith 75- ORNL 135000 IvTnnn 9?n nnn
tionated Coal Conversion and (301) 353-3681 1^,000 135,000 270,000
Oil Shale In Situ Retorting
Products
The Quantitative Evaluation of D. Smith 76- BNL *,n nnn n en nnn
Hazardous Chemicals Using a (301) 353-3681 '
Closed Aquatic Test System
The Interaction of Chemical J. Bend 77- NIEHS-RTP 0 n n
Agents Present in Oil Shale (919) 541-3205
with Biological Systems
^nhe^fcei/Ss6"1 ooiHsVaesi 76' °RNL 60'000 6M°° 120'000
Development of an In Vitro D. Smith 76- UCLA School 150,000 150 000 300 000
Assay for Cocarcmogens (301) 353-3681 of Medicine -^u.uuu juu.uuu
of Coal/Oil Shale Derivatives neaicine
Influence of Diet on the Gas- C. Nauman -80 U of Tenn 77 firm 77 nnn ISA nnn
trointestinal Ah<;nrnti™i »r on PI ASC 107-1 ''juuu //.OOO 154,000
Energy-Related Metallic
Pollutants $1,694,500 $1,392,000 $3,086,500
Ecological Effects
*ss£ Rtiisftoifl. fcusiir 76'80 "•of*°- 5o'oo° 5o'oo° ioo'oo°
cation and Oil Shale Mininn rpift'i 797-fifiQ?
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to DOE
"
Pass through
funds to NIEHS
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to DOE
and Processing on the Aquatic
Environment
Chemical and Biological Char-
acterization of Oil Shale
Processing & Coal Conversion
L. Mueller
(218) 727-6692
529
76-80 CSU
134,607 157,520 292,127
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
EPA Contact
Duration Contractor
FY 79
FY 80
Total FY 79/80
Remarks
Concentration of Well Waters
from an Oil Shale Retorting
Site for Biological Testing
Biological Guidelines for
Integrated Environmental
Monitoring for Mined Lands
Developmental Markers and
Reproductive Damage
Develop Markers Reproductive-
Teratological Damage
Develop Guidelines and Criteria
for Use of Non-Mine Wastes
as Soil Amendments on Oil Shale
Measurement and Monitoring
Oil Shale Site Meteorological
Data Analysis
Air Quality and Surface Wind
Monitoring in Colorado
Upper Ai r Meteorol ogi cal
Data Collection
Visibility Monitoring in
Piceance Basin
Monitoring the Impact of
Oil Shale Extraction on
Groundwater Quality
Energy Related Water Monitoring
Data Integration
Water Quality and Geochemistry
of Shallow Aquifers of Piceance
P. Mills
(513) 684-4216
H. Quinn
(202) 653-5223
C. Nauman
(202) 426-3974
C. Nauman
(202) 426-3974
R.D. Hill
(513) 684-4216
T. Thoem
(303) 837-5914
T. Thoem
(303) 837-5914
T. Thoem
(303) 837-5914
T. Thoem
(303) 837-5914
L. McMillion
(702) 736-2969
L. McMillion
(702) 736-2969
F. Kilpatrick
(703) 860-6846
-79
80-82
79-81
79-81
-79
--
-80
-80
-79
-80
-81
-79
Monsanto
USFWS
ORNL
ORNL
USDA
Forest
Service $
COM Limnetics
CDH
Aeromet
OXY
GE Tempo
Dal ton, Dal ton
Newport, Inc.
USGS
98,000
150,000
289,000
67,000
24,000
812,607
0
ID ,000
25,000
0
150,000
300,000
0
0
150,000
300,000
67,000
0
$ 724,520
0
0
25,000
0
130,000
130,000
0
98,000
300,000
589,000
134,000
24,000
$1,537,127
0
10,000
50,000
0
280,000
430,000
0
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to DOE
ii
Pass through
funds to USGS
Creek, Colorado
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
EPA Contact
Duration Contractor
FY 79
FY 80 Total FY 79/80 Remarks
Water Quality Monitoring on
White River, Parachute Creek &
Logan Wash in Oil Shale Areas
of Western Colorado
Surface Water Quality Moni-
toring Techniques Assessment
Identification of Components
of Energy- Related Waste and
Effluents
Characterization of Dirty
Aqueous Effluents from Energy
Related Wastes & Effluents
Study of Raw Materials,
Products and Residues of Coal
Conversion and Oil Shale
Processes for Possible SRM's:
Oil Shale
Western Energy Related
Regional Air Quality
Monitoring
Air & Water Monitoring Guide-
lines for Advanced Coal Con-
version & Combustion Plants
Surface Water Quality Moni-
toring in Oil Shale Develop-
ment Areas
Ground Water Research
Program
Adaption of Advanced Ground-
water Monitoring Methodology
to In Situ Oil Shale Retorting
F. Kilpatrick -79 USGS 0 00
(703) 860-6846
W. Kinney -80 EMSL-LV 85,000 47,000 132,000
(702) 736-2969 x353
A. Alford 78-79 GSRI 000
(404) 546-3525
G. Goldstein 78-81 Iowa St. U. 112,000 0 112 000
(301) 353-5348
C. Gravatt 75-79 NBS 115,000 0 115,000
(301) 921-3775
D.N. McNeils 79-84 EMSL-LV 000
(702) 736-2960
R. Bateman 78-80 Dalton, Dalton 200,000 70,000 270 000
(702) 736-2969 Newport, Inc.
R. Brennan -80 USGS-WRD 8,900 11,553 20 453
(303) 234-3487
R. Newport 79-82 — 300,000 300,000 600,000
(405) 332-8800
L. McMillion -82 GE Tempo 0 250,000 250,000
(702) 736-2964
$1,305,900 $963,553 $2,269,453
Pass through
funds to USGS
Pass through
funds to DOE
Pass through
funds to NBS
Pass through
funds to USGS
Pass through
funds to DOE
and various
contractors
-------
TABLE 1 (cont.)
Title
EPA Contact
Duration Contractor
FY 79
FY 80
Total FY 79/80
Remarks
R. Newport
(405) 332-8800
Environmental Transport
The Mineralogy of Overburden
as Related to Groundwater
Chemical Changes in Strip
Mining of Coal, In Situ Coal
Gasification and Oil Shale
Retorti ng
Sorption Properties of Sedi- D. Brown
ments and Energy-Related Pollu- (404) 546-3592
tants
Regional and Stratographic
Variations of Oil Shale
Mineralogy in Piceance
and Uinta Basins
Potential Air Pollution
Effects of Oil Shale Acti-
vities in the Piceance Basin
END USE
R. Newport
(405) 332-8800
D. Golomb
(202) 426-0264
Emission & Process Water Moni- W. McCarthy
toring During Oil Shale Refining (202) 472-9444
Advanced Combustion Systems
for Stationary Gas Turbine
Engines
Development and Optimization
of Low NO Burner Designs for
Heavy Liquid Fuel Fired Package
Boilers
W. Lanier
(919) 541-2432
W. Lanier
(919) 541-2432
-79 CSMRI
-79
-79
-79
-80
U. of 111.
CSMRI
80-82 PNL
-78 Navy
170,000
75,581
Pratt & Whit-
ney Aircraft
EERC
26,850
52,500
0 170,000
0 200,000
24,000
75,581
200.000
$ 245,581 $200,000 $ 445,581
26,850
76,500
Project com-
pleted in 12-79
Pass through
funds to Navy;
project complete
but no report
$ 79,350 $ 24,000 $ 103,350
-------
APPENDIX A
World Resources and History of Oil Shale Development
Oil shale deposits of varying size and
quality are present in all continents. The
potential yield from these extensive
deposits has been estimated in hundreds of
trillion barrels of oil. Interest in develop-
ment of oil shale resources is not a recent
concept. During the past 150 years, more
than thirteen nations have developed oil
shale industries. Factors such as primi-
tive technology and unfavorable economic
conditions contributed to the failure of a
majority of these industries. Several
nations developed or reactivated their oil
shale industries during the years of World
War II, a time of uncertain international
trade and increased energy needs for
national defense. Interest in oil shale
diminished in the years following World War
II. International trade and economic con-
ditions returned to stable levels and oil
shale processing became unprofitable.
Presently, interest in oil shale
development is strong. The rapidly
increasing costs of energy, specifically
crude petroleum, are generating a favor-
able economic climate for oil shale develop-
ment throughout the world. Advances in
mining, process technology, and pollution
control also add attraction to development
of the resource.
USA
Oil shale deposits exist in two general
areas of the U.S. Eastern Devonian oil
shales are present in the Appalachian
regions, and the leaner oil shales of the
Green River Formation are found in the
western states. Most development acti-
vities have centered around the expansive
western reserves which cover approxi-
mately 11 million acres.
Western oil shale activities began in
the late 1800s with several small scale
experimental operations, but these primi-
tive operations were only marginally Suc-
cessful and rarely produced more than
several thousand barrels of oil.
Major industrial oil companies became
interested in oil shale activities during the
decade following World War I. Standard
Oil of California, Union Oil of California,
Texaco, and Cities Services began acquisi-
tion of oil shale properties during this
period. Both laboratory and pilot studies
were performed by these companies during
the years following land acquisition.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted
experimentation with their N-T-U retort
from 1925 to 1929. They also built and
operated 6-, 25-, and 150 ton/day retorts
at the Anvil Points site from 1950 to 1955.
A six company consortium funded
experimentation at the Anvil Points facility
during the mid-1960s. Development of the
Anvil Points site continued in 1973 with
the Paraho Oil Shale Project. Funding for
this project was provided through a con-
sortium of seventeen participating
companies—Development Engineering Incor-
porated. This project was completed in
1978 with production of 100,000 barrels of
shale oil under contract purchase to the
U.S. Navy.
Recent testing has been conducted at
the Paraho facility as part of an experi-
mental/ demonstration agreement with the
nation of Israel. Approximately 150 tons
of Israeli oil shale were retorted in late
1979 in an effort to test the effectiveness
of the Paraho technology in processing the
Israeli shale. Characteristics and composi-
tion of the shale oil produced will help
Israel in design of upgrading and refining
processes.
Projected development plans for the
Anvil Points Naval Oil Shale Reserve
include a four year feasibility study for
selection of process technology, a two year
design and permitting phase, a four year
construction phase, and a three year
start-up phase with a final commercial
production capacity of 50,000 BPCD
(barrels per calendar day) by 1991.
Because aboveground process technology
will be used, the timetable for development
to commercial scale may be shortened.
Mobil Oil Corporation has been
involved with oil shale development in both
the East and West since World War II.
Mobil built and operated a pflot scale plant
at Paulsboro, New Jersey, from 1943 to
1945. Mobil was also a member of the six
member consortium which conducted experi-
mentation at the Anvil Points facility in the
mid-1960s. Mobil presently projects
development of their privately owned land
in the Piceance Basin with a six year
permitting/construction phase for an above-
ground process reaching a total production
capacity of 100,000 BPCD by 1986.
The U.S. Department of the Interior
initiated an Oil Shale Test Leasing Program
A-l
-------
in 1968. Competitive bid sales on six land
tracts in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah
began in January 1974. Two tracts in the
Piceance Basin of Colorado (C-a, C-b) and
two in the Uinta Basin of Utah (U-a, U-b)
were leased during the following six
months. The two Wyoming tracts did not
draw acceptable bids and no leases were
awarded.
Colorado tract C-a was leased to Rio
Blanco Oil Shale, a joint venture of Gulf
Oil and Standard Oil of Indiana. Original
development plans included open pit mining
with surface retorting. These plans have
since been revised to project a Phase I
operation by 1986 using a combination of
surface and modified in situ retorting with
a production capacity of 76,000 BPCD.
Phase II commercial operations will produce
a 135,000 BPCD total capacity by 1995.
Colorado tract C-b was leased in
April 1974 to Ashland Oil, Inc., Atlantic
Richfield Company, Shell Oil, Incorporated
and The Oil Shale Corporation (TOSCO).
By 1976, all but Ashland withdrew from
the project. Occidental Petroleum Corpora-
tion entered the project in agreement with
Ashtend in late 1976. Ashland withdrew
from the project in February 1979, leaving
Occidental 100 percent leasehold position of
the C-b tract. Occidental has conducted
experimental modified in situ retorting
burns on the tract several times in the
past few years, and has projected develop-
ment of the C-b tract to include a 65,000
BPCD modified in situ retorting process
along with a 35,000 BPCD above ground
retorting process for a total production
capacity of 100,000 BPCD by 1990.
Utah lease tracts U-a and U-b will be
jointly developed by the White River Oil
Shale Corporation (Sohio, Sunoco, Phillips)
using an above ground process and reach-
ing a total production capacity of 90,000
BPCD by 1994. Actual development to
commercial scale may occur more rapidly
than reflected in present development
plans.
Colony Development Corporation and
The Oil Shale Corporation (TOSCO) have
planned development of a commercial scale
operation of 46,200 BPCD by 1986 using
the TOSCO above ground retorting tech-
nology. The operation will be located in
the Parachute Creek area of the Piceance
Basin of Colorado.
TOSCO also plans development of its
own 46,200 BPCD facility to be located in
the Sand Wash area of Uinta Basin, Utah.
TOSCO will use its own above ground
technology to reach total commercial pro-
duction capacity by 1986.
Union Oil plans modular development
of their Long Ridge property in the
Piceance Basin of Colorado. Union plans
development of a 100,000 BPCD facility
using above ground retorting technology
by 1995.
Chevron Oil also plans modular
development of their Long Ridge property
in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. Pro-
jected total production capacity will be
100,000 BPCD by 1992.
Carter Oil jointly with Exxon
presently plans a surface operation of
60,000 BPCD total production capacity by
1990. Development plans are contingent
upon a federal land exchange agreement.
Superior Oil plans development of a
multimineral process producing 12,000
BPCD of shale oil in addition to nahcolite
and dawsonite recovery. Development
plans are also contingent upon a federal
land exchange agreement. Total production
capacity is slated for 1987.
Geokinetics, Incorporated, is
presently experimenting with horizontal in
situ retorting methods on a pilot scale.
Controlled pilot scale burns are currently
being conducted on small sites in the Uinta
Basin of Utah. These pilot burns have
provided yields of thirty barrels of shale
oil per day. Assuming continued favorable
technological results from these pilot
burns, Geokinetics plans development of
ten small land sectors. Retort clusters
will be manifolded in each sector with total
production capacity for all ten sectors of
approximately 50,000 BPCD reached by
1988.
Equity Oil is presently conducting
pilot experiments in the Piceance Basin of
Colorado with a unique recovery process.
The Bx in situ Oil Shale Project involves
use of steam injection for shale oil
recovery, but the effectiveness of this
novel approach is yet uncertain. Favor-
able results of pilot operations are neces-
sary for projections of future development
using the Bx process.
Projected development of the western
U.S. oil shale resources could yield an
estimated daily shale oil production of
nearly one million barrels per day by 1995.
Many individual development plans rely on
federal economic incentives such as loan
guarantees, tax credits, or accelerated
depreciation schedules to be offered before
development will begin. These incentives,
in addition to possible direct federal assist-
ance, may be provided through the cur-
rently proposed Energy Security
Corporation of President Carter's synthetic
A-2
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fuels package. Other federal agencies
such as the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) may also aid the emerging industry.
DOE is currently issuing Program Oppor-
tunity Notices (PON) for demonstration of
aboveground and advanced retorting tech-
nologies .
Interest in development of oil shale
resources in the U.S. has been at high
levels several times in the past 100 years,
yet commercial development has never
occurred. Economic factors have, in the
past, made commercial development of oil
shale unprofitable and therefore undesir-
able. Because of the rising costs of
imported oil, synthetic fuels can now be
produced at prices competitive with tradi-
tional energy products. Commercial shale
development of western U.S. oil shale
resources appears certain in the near
future.
WORLD WIDE DEVELOPMENT
Australia
Oil shale deposits of high quality are
found in many regions of Australia.
Queensland and New South Wales contain
rich oil shales associated with coal seams.
These shales may yield 116 to 203 GPT
(gallons per ton). Their areal distribution
is rather small and thick overburden
layers often cover these rich deposits.
Shale oil production took place in New
South Wales from the mid-1860s through
1952. During this period, 70 GPT oil
shales were retorted in Scottish
Pumpherston-Fell type vertical kiln
retorts. These operations produced a total
yield of 700,000 barrels of oil shale during
their many years of operation. Most of
this total production occurred during
wartime years. Operations were discon-
tinued in 1952 in response to unfavorable
economic conditions.
Australian firms of Southern Pacific
Petroleum and Central Pacific Minerals have
shown interest in shale oil production for
the past six years. These firms jointly
proposed a commercial operation which
would process the high quality oil shale of
the Rundle deposit located on the eastern
coast of the continent, and initial pro-
posals projected a Phase I operation pro-
ducing approximately 23,000 BPD by 1981
using an above ground retorting process.
Economic and engineering analyses have
been conducted on Union, Lurgi-Ruhrgas,
and Superior technologies. Phase II
operations promote expansion to 250,000
BPD by 1986 using approximately 40
retorts. Current projections reflect a one
year delay for both Phase I and II opera-
tions. Environmental impact assessments
have been conducted to the satisfaction of
the Australian government. Developers
are presently securing financial arrange-
ments for this $1.6 billion (U.S. dollars)
project. Unhydrogenated shale oil pro-
duced would be used to fuel nearby power
plants.
Brazil
Extensive deposits of medium to high
grade oil shale are present in Brazil.
These deposits have the capacity to sup-
port a large commercial oil shale industry.
Brazilian oil shale may yield 18-53 gallons
of shale oil per ton.
Many small scale experimental opera-
tions existed in Brazil during the late
1800s and early 1900s. Intensive research
began in 1950 with several large research
programs sponsored by the Brazilian
government. These programs called for
extensive exploration of oil shale resources
throughout the country in addition to
bench and pilot scale studies.
A site at San Mateus de Sol, Parana,
was chosen for pilot plant construction
after extensive exploration revealed
reserves of approximately 200 million
barrels. The 2,200 ton per day surface
retorting facility began operation in 1973.
The Petrosix retort used was designed by
Cameron Engineers. The process gener-
ates power on site and produces high Btu
fuel gas, LPG, elemental sulfur, and shale
oil products. A nearby surface mining
operation provides raw shale to the
facility. This pilot scale demonstration
facility has been successfully operating for
several years.
Current development plans include
increasing shale oil production of the
Petrosix process at the San Mateus site to
25,000 BPD by 1983. Production will be
further expanded to 50,000 BPD by 1985.
Total cost for expanding the facility is
estimated at $1.5 billion.
Bulgaria
Oil shale resources of Bulgaria have a
total estimated potential yield of approxi-
mately 30 billion barrels of oil. Bulgaria
has expressed interest in developing these
extensive resources during the past ten
years. In 1976, Bulgaria signed agree-
ments with the USSR and West Germany
(Lurgi Gmbh) to help develop a one million
BPD shale oil industry by 1980. Original
development plans called for expansion to 3
million BPD by 1990, but the status of
development in Bulgaria is unknown at the
present time.
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England
Germany
Oil shales are found in thin seams
throughout the Kimmeridge Clay formation
of eastern England and the North Sea
region. These oil shales may potentially
yield 40 to 55 GPT. The shale seams are
separated by barren clays with a low
potential yield of 3 GPT. This layering of
rich shale and barren clay has posed pro-
blems in mining and processing operations.
Kimmeridge Clay oil shales were used
as coal substitutes several times during
the 18th century. Interest in obtaining oil
from these shales became apparent in the
19th century and experimentation was
conducted during the later years of the
century. Samples of Kimmeridge Clay oil
shales were processed experimentally at
the Scottish Lothian works. Several
processing difficulties were encountered
and the shale oil produced possessed high
sulfur content.
The North Sea province is presently a
widely developed source of crude petroleum
reserves. Kimmeridge Clay may be the
primary source rock of this hydrocarbon-
rich region. Presently, difficulties in
mining and processing shale of the area in
addition to the existing large scale petro-
leum recovery of the North Sea region
indicate that commercial development of
English oil shale resources is not feasible
at the present time.
France
Oil shale deposits exist in two pri-
mary regions of France, Autun and the
Aumance basin. Shales with a potential
average yield of 24 GPT are characteristic
of these areas. Total reserves for the
nation have been estimated (1974 World
Energy Conference) at 237 megatonnes with
a potential total yield of 1,740 million
barrels.
France was the first nation to pioneer
oil shale development, beginning commercial
production as early as 1838. Scottish
Pumpherston retorts were used from 1860
through the 1940s. Larger capacity French
retorts were used for the remaining ten
years of operation. Major products of
these operations were diesel oil, gasoline,
paraffin wax, and tar.
The industry was supported finan-
cially at various times by the French
government. Despite these helpful mea-
sures, economic factors forced the closing
of all operations by 1962. The oil shale
industry of France presently remains
dormant.
Germany has large oil shale deposits
of several geologic ages. Total resources
have been estimated at 311 megatonnes
(1974 World Energy Conference), with an
estimated potential yield of 2,280 million
barrels. The oil shale averages approxi-
mately 16 GPT.
Development began in the late 1800s
with small scale experimental surface
retorting operations. The first large scale
interest began in 1940 with initiation of oil
shale operations at a portland cement plant
in Dotternhausen. Meir-Grollman retorts
were used in these operations.
In 1943, Lurgi began construction of
an oil shale facility at Frommern. Con-
struction was completed in 1947 and opera-
tions began at that time. Schweitzer
retorts were used at this facility. Both
Dotternhausen and Frommern facilities
operated for ten years, with production
ending in 1958.
Presently Germany uses oil shale for
cement production and power generation.
For the past few years government and
industry have conducted bench scale
studies on oil recovery from shale. Devel-
opment plans are presently undefined,
although development of an oil shale
industry in Germany is a strong possibility
in the near future.
Israel
Oil shale deposits exist in several
areas of Israel. Extensive deposits exist
in regions of the Negev desert. Recently,
Israeli geologists have discovered large
shale deposits near Arad, but their quality
is extremely variable.
Israel imports virtually all of its
energy sources in the form of fuel oil and
coal for use in power generation. It is
estimated that Israel could meet all of its
energy requirements for up to twenty
years through commercial development of
oil shale resources. Israel has recently
directed attention to the development of
these resources as rising costs of imported
energy make the option of energy self-
sufficiency a desirable one.
In 1978 Israel sought U.S. aid in
developing technologies suitable for com-
mercial processing of Israeli oil shale.
Israeli officials contacted such U.S. shale
companies as TOSCO, Union Oil of Cali-
fornia, Superior Oil Company, and Occi-
dental Petroleum Corporation. In 1979, 150
tons of Israeli oil shale were retorted on a
demonstration scale at the Paraho facility
A-4
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at Anvil Points, Colorado. The shale was
successfully retorted and the resulting
shale oil product was returned to Israel
for analysis and refining and upgrading
technology design studies.
In 1978 the Israeli Energy Ministry
allocated $500 million for development and
construction of a 12,000 BPD facility to be
located in the Negev desert region. The
program has a ten year duration (1978-
1988). Present plans call for surface
mining operations to provide raw shale for
the proposed surface retorting facility.
Shale oil produced will be used to fuel
nearby power plants.
Scientists at the Israeli Technion
Institute in Haifa have recently experi-
mented with a novel technology for extract-
ing oil and gas from shale. This new
approach uses a moderate strength laser
beam inserted in shallow bore holes in the
shale. The laser can be horizontally
directed through use of mirrors. The
laser ignites the shale and a small diameter
pipe provides air to cool the mirrors and
sustain combustion of the shale, and
combustible gases and oil mists are col-
lected at the surface opening of the bore
holes. The method was developed by Rom,
Schwartz, and Alterman, and has been
successfully demonstrated with laboratory
and small scale field studies. Equipment
necessary for operation is of low cost and
the whole process appears to be cost-
effective. Current plans for the laser
technology call for pilot plant studies with
development of a laser recovery oil shale
"field".
Israel Chemical, Ltd., a government
owned company based in Tel Aviv, is also
conducting preliminary studies on mining
and retorting technologies for oil shale.
Another area of their study is direct
combustion of oil shale for power genera-
tion. Nesher, Ltd., an Israeli portland
cement manufacturer, is also investigating
applicability of oil shale in the production
of cement.
People's Republic of China
Oil shale deposits exist in ten prov-
inces of China. The Liaoning province of
northern China and the Kwantung province
of southern China both contain sizeable
shale deposits which are presently support-
ing commercial development.
The Fushun deposit of the Liaoning
province overlies thick coal deposits of the
region, and the 450 foot thick shale
deposit was first removed as a result of
efforts to extract the rich underlying coal
deposits. Commercial processing of oil
shale first occurred at Fushun in 1926.
This facility was operated by Japanese
developers for many years and shale oil
produced was used extensively by Japan
during World War II. By 1970, the
Fushun operations were producing 40,000
BPD of shale oil.
The facility is currently operating on
a large scale, using more than six vertical
retorts. A large surface mining operation
provides raw shale to the facility in addi-
tion to mining approximately 3.6 million
tons of coal annually. Shale oil produced
is refined in small neighboring plants.
The Maoming shale oil producing field
is located in the Kwantung province of
southern China. Operations at the Mao-
ming site are similar to those at Fushun,
although coal production is absent from
Maoming. Annual shale oil production of
this facility is approximately 570,000
barrels.
Scotland
Oil shale deposits exist in various
regions of Scotland. Devonian shales are
present in northern Scotland but these
deposits appear to have limited commercial
value. Carboniferous shales have been
discovered in central and southern regions
of the country, and the Lothian deposit in
central Scotland is the largest known
deposit in western Europe.
Development of oil shale processing
operations began in Scotland in the mid-
1800s. Early operations used horizontal
batch retorts which were subsequently
replaced by vertical batch retorts of
higher efficiency. A semi-continuous
vertical retort was developed in 1882 and
used in several operations through 1894.
In 1894, Bryson, Jones, and Fraser devel-
oped the continuous 12 ton per day
Pumpherston retort which was used exten-
sively in Scottish shale works for more
than one half century. Oil shale opera-
tions of several nations also incorporated
Pumpherston type retorts in their
facilities.
Mining methods used during the
100-year Scottish oil shale industry were
of two types.* Underground inclined shaft
mining was commonly used for extraction of
shale from angular seams. Surface mining
was also used to a limited extent. Approxi-
mately 140 million tons of shale were
extracted during the life of the oil shale
industry. Mining efforts were extremely
effective as less than four weeks of the
United Kingdom oil needs could be met by
recovering and processing the remaining
reserves.
A-5
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Maximum shale oil production took
place in 1913 with total production esti-
mated at 4,400 BPD. Major products
included diesel oil and gasoline, although
sizable quantities of tars and waxes were
also produced. The oil shale industry of
Scotland is no longer operative. Produc-
tion ended in 1963 due to depletion of
resources and unfavorable economics.
South Africa
Significant oil shale deposits exist in
two provinces of South Africa, Natal
Province and Transvaal Province. Shales
of the Natal Province occur in beds less
than one foot thick. These shales are of
high quality with maximum attainable yields
as high as 96 GPT. The Transvaal Prov-
ince contains torbonite oil shales which
may yield as much as 37 percent oil from
Fischer Assay methods.
Commercial development of the Natal
Province oil shales began in 1935 in the
region of Ermelo. The Ermelo facility
operated successfully for many years until
depletion of shale resources forced its
closing. Major products from these opera-
tions were gasoline and tars. Oil shales of
the Transvaal Province are currently being
used locally as fuels.
Oil shale deposits of limited size exist
in Spain. Total reserves for the nation
have been estimated at 6 megatonnes (1974
World Energy Conference). Shale quality
is relatively high, ranging 30-50 GPT.
Despite the presence of small scale
resources, commercial oil shale development
begin in Spain in 1922. Commercial opera-
tions existed for 43 years at a site 120
miles south of Madrid at Puertollano.
Scottish Pumpherston retorts were used in
these operations. Production levels as
high as 14,000 BPD were attained in 1958
(DeGolyer and MacNaughton, 1971). Major
products were diesel oil and gasoline. The
present status of these operations is not
known.
Sweden
Oil shale deposits exist throughout
Sweden. Most deposits are of marine
origin with an average quality of approxi-
mately 14 GPT. Oil shale development
began during the 1920s with construction
of an experimental plant at Kinnekulle.
The plant operated successfully for several
years on a small scale while technologies
were being modified and improved, but
economic pressures finally forced closing of
the facility.
Oil shale production began again in
the 1940s with construction and operation
of a larger government funded facility at
Kvarntorp. Operations at this site
involved open pit surface mining, surface
and in situ retorting, sulfur recovery,
refining facilities, and on site steam power
generation. Operations continued until
1963 when economic factors also forced
abandonment of this facility. Gasoline,
fuel oil, kerosene, and gas were major
products of these operations. Maximum
daily shale oil. production was attained in
1958 with an approximate production level
of 33,000 BPD.
Thailand
Oil shale resources of Thailand have
only recently been explored. Extensive
deposits of medium to high grade shales
exist in the northern regions, but these
resources have not been developed to
date.
Recently Thailand has sought tech-
nical advice in planning development of an
oil shale processing facility. Missions were
sent to the People's Republic of China in
an unsuccessful effort to view the Maoming
shale oil field in Kwantung province.
Contacts have also been made with U.S. oil
shale concerns.
Thailand presently imports approxi-
mately 150,000 barrels of crude oil daily to
meet nearly 80 percent of daily national
energy needs, but development of a
commercial scale oil shale processing
facility could greatly reduce or possibly
eliminate this costly importation of foreign
oil for a period of more than twenty years.
Oil shale production costs would be econ-
omically competitive, if not advantageous,
compared to present imported crude petro-
leum costs.
Current oil shale development plans
are still in formative stages although
development seems certain in the near
future.
U.S.S.R.
Oil shale activities in the U.S.S.R.
have historically occurred in the northeast-
ern regions of Estonia. These regions
contain extensive shale deposits but lack
other energy sources such as crude petro-
leum and coal deposits. Average potential
yields of Estonian shales, or Kukersite,
fall within a range of approximately 30-45
GPT.
Development of Estonian oil shale
resources began in 1925 with construction
of a 200 ton per day plant for production
A-6
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of low Btu town gas. Pintsch-type retorts
were used in these operations. The 1930s
brought use of horizontal tunnel ovens
with capacities of up to 400 tons. Gas and
oil were recovered from these operations.
Externally heated Davidson rotary retorts
were also used at this time. Total produc-
tion by the mid-1930s was approximately
3,700 BPD (Degolyer and MacNaughton,
1971).
In the 1940s war disrupted Estonian
shale operations when the Germans occu-
pied the region. Russia regained control
of the area in 1944 and expanded the
industry during the following years.
Production levels reached approximately
245,000 BPD in 1958. This impressive
level reflects energy equivalent estimates
for 60% of total raw shale usage as solid
fuel for power generation.
Extensive development and demonstra-
tion programs began in the 1960s. Tunnel
ovens and rotary retorts were phased out
during these efforts. New technologies for
production of tar and gas petrochemicals
feedstocks were explored in the 1960s and
1970s.
Presently more than 30 chemicals are
being produced from oil shale kerogen.
Shale fuels many large power plants near
the Baltic Sea, providing 80% of Estonian
energy needs. The U.S.S.R. presently
mines more than 35 million tons of oil shale
annually, which supplies 1% of Soviet
national energy needs.
A-7
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APPENDIX B
Glossary of Terms
Absorption - The taking up of matter in
bulk by other matter, as in dissolving
of a gas by a liquid; passage of a
chemical substance through a mem-
brane.
Adsorption - The surface retention of
solid, liquid, or gas molecules, atoms,
or ions by a solid or liquid, as
opposed to absorption, the penetra-
tion of substances into the bulk of
the solid or liquid.
Aquifer - A permeable body of rock cap-
able of yielding quantities of ground-
water; a subsurface zone that yields
economically important amounts of
water to wells.
Assay - Qualitative or quantitative deter-
mination of the components of a
material.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy - Measure-
ment of components of a substance
through interpretation of spectra
arising from absorption of electromag-
netic radiation by atoms.
BACT - (Best Available Control Tech-
nology). The level of pollution
control technology that a new or
modified major pollution source, which
is located in an area designated as
meeting ambient air quality standards,
must install.
Barrel - The unit of liquid volume for
petroleum equal to approximately 158
liters (42 gallons).
Bioassay - Determination of the relative
effective strength of a substance by
comparing its effect on a test organ-
ism with that of a standard prepara-
tion.
Carcinogen - Any agent that incites
development of a malignancy.
Cascade Sampler - A low-speed impactlon
device for use in sampling both solid
and liquid atmospheric suspensoids:
Consists of jets (each of progres-
sively smaller size) and sampling
plates working in series and designed
so that each plate collects particles of
one size range.
Chromatin - The deoxyribonucleoprotein
complex forming the major portion of
the nuclear material and chromosomes.
Clastogen - Any agent that produces
chromosomal aberrations.
Coal Liquefaction - The process of pre-
paring a liquid mixture of hydrocar-
bons by destructive distillation of
coal.
Columnar Cell - Composed of tall, narrow
somewhat cylindrical or prismatic
epithelial cells.
Consent Decree Pollutants - A list of
sixty-five (65) toxic chemicals for
which EPA is required to develop
limitations and standards. For some
rule-making purposes EPA has rede-
fined the list of 65 broad chemicals/
chemical classes to 129 more specific
chemicals.
Criteria Pollutants - Those pollutants for
which EPA has published including
ambient air quality standards and for
which state implementation plans exist
(including SO , CO, NO , O3, hydro-
carbons, particulates, lead).
Cytochemical - Any of the complex protein
respiratory pigments occurring within
plant or animal cells.
Cytology - A branch of biology dealing
with the structure, behavior, growth,
and reproduction of cells and the
function and chemistry of cell com-
ponents.
Cytotoxin - A substance, such as a toxin
or antibody, that inhibits or prevents
the functions of, or destroys cells.
Devonian Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Devonian period
some 350 to 400 million years ago.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid; any of
various nucleic acids that yield deoxy-
ribose as one product of hydrolysis,
are found in nuclei and genes, and
are the molecular basis of heredity in
many organisms.
Electrophoresis - The movement of charged
colloidal particles through the medium
in which they are dispersed, under
the influence of an applied electric
potential.
B-l
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Enzyme - Any of a number of catalytic
proteins produced by living cells and
having a specific action in mediating
and promoting chemical processes.
Epididymal - Pertaining to the elongated
mass of convoluted efferent tubes at
the back of the testis.
Epithelial - Pertaining to the tissues which
cover free surfaces (skin) or lining
of body cavities and ducts.
Epithelium - A primary animal tissue cover-
ing the free surface that lines a tube
or cavity, consisting of one or more
layers of cells forming a sheet prac-
tically unbroken by intercellular
substance, and either smoothly
extended or mu'ch folded on a base-
ment membrane and compacted.
Esterase - Any group of enzymes that
catalyze the synthesis and hydrolysis
of compounds formed by the elimina-
tion of water and the bonding of an
alcohol and an organic acid (esters).
Eukaryote - An organism composed of one
or more cells with well-defined nuclei.
Evapotranspiration - Discharge of water
from the earth's surface by evapora-
tion from lakes, streams, and soil
surfaces and by transpiration from
plants. Also known as fly-off.
Exfoliation - The separation of tissue in
thin layers.
Flow Microfluorometry (FMF) - A method of
chemical analysis using an optically
enlarged fluorescent screen which
measures movement of a sample
through a flow chamber. The sample
is exposed to radiation of one wave-
length, absorbs this radiation and
reemits radiation of the same or
longer wavelength in about 10*9
second; the intensity of the reemitted
radiation is almost directly propor-
tional to the concentration of the
fluorescing material.
Fugitive Dust - Any form of particulate
which is transported as a result of
wind or mechanical operations.
Typical mechanical generators are
vehicles, crushing machines and earth
movers.
Gas Chromatography - A separation tech-
nique involving passage of a gaseous
moving phase through a column con-
taining a fixed adsorbent phase; used
principally as a quantitative analytical
technique for volatile compounds.
Gel Permeation Chromatography - Analysis
by Chromatography in which the
stationary phase consists of beads of
porous polymeric material such as a
cross-linked dextran carbohydrate
derivative sold under the trade name
sephadex; the moving phase is a
liquid.
High Pressure Liquid Chromatography - A
separation technique employing a
pressurized solvent as a moving phase
through a column containing a solid
support.
High-Volume Sampler - A sampling device
consisting of a filter and a high
volume air pump used for the quan-
titative collection of airborne particu-
late materials.
Hydrocarbon - One of a very large group
of chemical compounds composed only
of carbon and hydrogen; the largest
source of hydrocarbons is from petro-
leum crude oil.
In Situ - In the original location.
In Vitro - Pertaining to a biological reac-
tion taking place in an artificial
apparatus.
In Vivo - Pertaining to a biological reac-
tion taking place in a living cell or
organism.
Karyotype - The normal diploid or haploid
complement of chromosomes, with
respect to size, form and number,
characteristic of an individual,
species, genus, or other grouping.
Kerogen - The complex, fossilized organic
material present in sedimentary rocks,
especially in shales.
Lavaging - The washing out of an organ.
Leaching - The dissolving, by a liquid
solvent, of soluble material from its
mixture with an insoluble solid; a
separation based on mass transfer.
Leukocyte - A colorless, ameboid blood cell
having a nucleus and granular or
non-granular cytoplasm; any of the
white or colorless nucleated cells that
occur in blood.
Macroinvertebrate - A large animal lacking
an internal skeleton.
B-2
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Mass Spectrometry - An analytical tech-
nique for identification of chemical
structures, determination of mixtures,
and quantitative elemental analysis,
based on sending a beam of ions
through a combination of electric and
magnetic fields so arranged that the
ions are deflected according to their
masses.
Mesozoic Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Mesozoic era
some 60 to 230 million years ago.
Mississippian Deposit - A geological forma-
tion deposited during the Mississippian
period approximately 310 to 345 million
years ago.
Mutagen - An agent that raises the fre-
quency of mutation above the spon-
taneous rate.
New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) - Guidelines set for new
industries ensuring that ambient
standards are met and limiting the
amount of a given pollutant a station-
ary source may emit over a given
time. Standards apply to facilities
built since August 17, 1971.
Oil Shale - A finely layered rock that
contains kerogen and from which
liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons can
be distilled. Also known as kerogen
shale.
Permian Deposit - A geological formation
deposited during the Permian period
approximately 230 to 280 million years
ago.
Phagocytic Activity - The process of
engulfing and carrying particles into
the cytoplasm of an ameboid cell.
Priority Pollutants - See Consent Decree
Pollutants.
Prokaryote - A primitive nucleus, where
the DNA-containing region lacks a
limiting membrane.
Quality Assurance - A system for integrat-
ing quality control planning, assess-
ment, and improvement of all work
dealing with quantitative measure-
ments .
RNA - Any of various nucleic acids that
contain ribose and uracil as structural
components and are associated with
the control of cellular chemical acti-
vities.
Retorting Operation - Process of extracting
shale oil from the raw shale by
heating.
Sorption - A general term used to encom-
pass the processes of adsorption,
absorption, desorption, ion exchange,
ion exclusion, ion retardation, chemi-
sorption, and dialysis.
Spent Shale - (Retorted Shale) The shale
residue after the shale oil has been
extracted.
Teratogen - An agent causing formation of
a congenital anomaly or monstrosity.
Tertiary - The older major subdivision
(period) of the Cenozoic era, extend-
ing from the end of the Cretaceous to
the beginning of the Quaternary,
from 70,000,000 to 2,000,000 years
ago.
X-ray Fluorescence - Emission of the
characteristic x-ray line spectrum of
a substance upon its exposure to
x-rays. A method of analysis based
on this type of spectral emission.
B-3
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APPENDIX C
Glossary of Abbreviations
AOSO Area Oil Shale Office
USGS
BNI/PNL Battelle Memorial Institute
Pacific Northwest Labora-
tories
Richland, Washington
(under DOE)
BNL Brookhaven National Labora-
tory, Brookhaven, New York
CEQ Council for Environmental
Quality
CDH Colorado Department of
Health
CSMRI Colorado School of Mines
Research Institute
CSU Colorado State University
DOE Department of Energy
DRI Denver Research Institute
ECTD Emission Control Tech-
nology Division, Office of
Air, Noise and Radiation
EPA, Ann Arbor, Michigan
EERC Energy and Environmental
Research Corporation
Santa Ana, California
EMSL-Ci Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory
EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
EMSL-LV Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory
EPA, Las Vegas, Nevada
EMSL-RTP Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory
EPA, Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
EPA Environmental Protection
Agency
ERIC-Ci Environmental Research
Information Center, EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
ERL-Athens Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Athens, Georgia
ERL-Duluth
ERL-GB
HERL-RTP
HERL-Ci
lERL-Ci
IERL-RTP
LASL
LBL
LETC
LLL
NBS
NIEHS
NIOSH
NIH/NIEHS
OEET
Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Duluth, Minnesota
Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Health Effects Research
Laboratory, EPA, Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
Health Effects Research
Laboratory, EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
Industrial and Environmen-
tal Research Laboratory
EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory, EPA
Research Triangle Park
N.C.
Los Alamos Scientific Labora-
tory, Los Alamos, New Mexico
(Under the DOE)
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, California
(Under the DOE)
Laramie Energy Technology
Center Laramie, Wyoming
(Under the DOE)
Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory
Livermore, California
(Under the DOE)
National Bureau of
Standards
National Institute of
Environmental Health
Sciences
Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
National Institute of Occupa-
tional Safety and Health
National Institute of Health
National Institute of
Environmental Health
Studies
Office of Environmental
Engineering and Technology
C-l
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OEPER Office of Environmental
Processes and Effects
Research
ORD Office of Research and
Development, EPA
(EPA/ORD)
ORNL Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
(Under the DOE)
OSM Office of Surface Mining
OSRG Oil Shale Research Group
RCRA Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act
R.S. KERR Robert S. Kerr Environ-
mental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma
SAI Science Applications
Incorporated
TOSCO The Oil Shale Corporation
UCLA University of California at
Los Angeles
UNLV University of Nevada at Las
Vegas
USBM U.S. Bureau of Mines,
Department of Interior
USDA U.S. Department of Agri-
culture
USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service
Department of Interior
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
Department of Interior
C-2
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APPENDIX D
A General Bibliography on Oil Shale
Ashland Oil, Inc., Lessee, and Shell Oil
Company, Operator. February 1976.
Oil Shale Tract C-b Detailed Develop-
ment Plan and Related Materials, 2
vols.
Ashland Oil, Inc., Lessee, and Occidental
Oil Shale Inc., Operator. February
1977. Modifications to Detailed
Development Plan—Oil Shale Tract
C-b.
Atwood, M.T. 1974. The Question of
Carcinogenicity in Intermediates and
Products in Oil Shale Operations.
The Oil Shale Corporation. Denver.
Atwood, M.T. 1975. Raw Shale Oils
Inspections. The Oil Shale Corp-
oration. Denver.
Baughman, C.L., comp. 1978. Compre-
hensive Synthetic Fuels Data Hand-
book. U.S. Oil Shale, U.S. Coal, Oil
Sands. Second Edition. Cameron
Engineers, Inc., Denver, Colorado.
(A division of the Pace Company
Consultants and Engineers, Inc.).
Boardman, C.R. 1977. A Study of
Industry Attitudes on the Environ-
mental Problems in the Production of
Oil Shale. GeoEnergy Corp.
Brown, A., et al. 1977. Water Manage-
ment in Oil Shale Mining. Vol. I Main
Text and Vol. II Appendices. Colder
Associates.
Bureau of Land Management. Undated.
Proposed Development of Oil Shale
Resources by the Colony Development
Operation in Colorado. Final Environ-
mental Statement. Prepared by
Bureau of Land Management.
(Includes Chapter 10 and Appendices.
Chapters 1-9 are also available).
Burewel, E.L. 1974. Usable Gas from Oil
Shale During Retorting: Effects of
Oxygen Content, Pressure, and Oil
Shale Grade. Bureau of Mines Oil
Shale Program Technical Progress
Report 85.
Cameron Engineers (a division of The Pace
Company Consultants and Engineers,
Inc.). May 1977. Oil Shale Research
Overview. Review Report.
Chappell, W.R., Principal Investigator.
1979. Trace Elements in Oil Shale.
University of Colorado Center for
Environmental Sciences, Environmental
Trace Substances Research Program.
Denver, Colorado.
Colorado School of Mines. August 1980.
Proceedings of the Thirteenth Oil
Shale Symposium. Colorado School of
Mines. Golden, Colorado. (Proceed-
ings of Symposiums 1-12 are also
available).
Cook, E.W. 1974. Oil Shale Technology
in the USA. The Oil Shale Corpora-
tion.
Cook, C.W. 1974. Surface Rehabilitation
of Land Disturbances Resulting from
Oil Shale Development. Environmental
Resources Center, CSU. Fort Collins,
Colorado.
Crawford, K. 1975. The Origin, Proper-
ties, and Resources of Oil Shale in
the Green River Formation: Supple-
ment to the Second Quarterly Report.
TRW.
Crawford, K.W. et al. 1977. A Prelimi-
nary Assessment of the Environmental
Impacts from Oil Shale Developments.
NTIS. Springfield, Illinois.
Culbertson, WJ. 1972.
Shale Ash. DRI.
Uses of Spent Oil
Cummins, J.J. and W.E. Robinson. 1970.
Thermal Conversion of Oil Shale
Kerogen Using CO2 and Water at
Elevated Pressures. LERC. Laramie,
Wyoming.
Development Engineering, Inc. 1974. Oil
Shale - Acceleration of Its Develop-
ment. Grand Junction, Colorado.
DOE. October 1979. Environmental Con-
trol Costs for Oil Shale Processes:
Part I, .Predicted Costs of Environ-
mental Controls for a Commercial Oil
Shale Industry; Part II, Environ-
mental Control Costs for Oil Shale
Processes. No. EV-0055.
Donnell, J.R. 1977. Oil Shale Resource
Investigations of the U.S. Geological
Survey. U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
U.S. Geological Survey Open File
Report No. 77-637.
D-l
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Dougan, P.M., F.S. Reynolds and P.J.
Root. Undated. The Potential for In
Situ Retorting of Oil Shale in the
Piceance Creek Basin of Northwestern
Colorado. Colorado School of Mines.
DRI - Charles H. Prien Center for Syn-
thetic Fuel Studies. In Press. The
Analysis of Oil Shale Wastes: A
Review. EPA Contract No.
68-03-2791.
Earnest, H.W., et al. 1978. Underground
Disposal of Retorted Oil Shale for the
Paraho Retorting Process. Iron
Company. Cleveland, Cliffs.
Environmental Protection Technology
Series. 1974. Pollution Problems and
Research Needs ' for an Oil Shale
Industry. National Environmental
Research Center, Office of Research
and Development. EPA.
Farrier, D.S., R.E. Poulson, Q.D.
Skinner and J.C. Adams. 1977.
Acquisition, Processing, and Storage
for Environmental Research of Aque-
ous Effluents Derived from In Situ Oil
Shale Processing. Proc. 2nd Pacific
Engineering Congress. Denver,
Colorado.
Fox, P. 1978. Oil Shale Environmental
Issues and Controls. Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley,
California.
Fruchter, J.S., Wilkerson, C.T., Evans,
J.C., Sanders, R.W., and Abel,
K.W. May 1979. Source Character-
ization Studies at the Paraho Semi-
works Oil Shale Retort. Battelle
Pacific Northwest Laboratory.
Richland, Washington.
Gardner, G.M. 1975. A Preliminary Net
Energy Analysis of the Production of
Oil from Oil Shale and the Potential of
Oil Shale as an Energy Source:
Draft. University of Florida.
Gainesville, Florida.
Gray, S.L. 1974. Primary Data on Eco-
nomic Activity and Water Use in
Prototype Oil Shale Development Areas
of Colorado: An Initial Inquiry.
U.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Water Resources Research.
Habenicht, C.H., et al. 1977. Sampling
and Analysis Program at the Paraho
Oil Shale Demonstration Facility (DRI
Report 5624). Submitted to TRW
under EPA Contract. DRI. Denver,
Colorado.
Harbert, H.P. 1978. Vegetative Stabiliza-
tion of Spent Oil Shales: Vegetation,
Moisture, Salinity and Runoff--1973-
1976. EPA.
Harbert, H.P. and Berg, W.A. December
31, 1974. Vegetative Stabilization of
Spent Oil Shales. (Final Report,
Phase IIA to the Colorado Department
of Natural Resources). Environmental
Resources Center, CSU. Fort
Collins, Colorado.
Hendrickspn, T., comp. 1975. Compre-
hensive Synthetic Fuels Data Hand-
book. Green River Oil Shale, U.S.
Coal, Alberta Oil Sands. Cameron
Engineers, Inc. Denver, Colorado.
(A division of the Pace Company
Consultants and Engineers, Inc.).
Hughes, E.E. et al. 1975. Oil Shale Air
Pollution Control. Stanford Research
Institute, Stanford, California.
Jaffe, F.C. 1962. Oil Shale: Part II -
Geology and Mineralogy of the Oil
Shales of the Green River Formation,
Colorado, Utah and Wyoming.
LaRue, D.M. 1977. Retorting of Green
River Oil Shale Under High-Pressure
Hydrogen Atmospheres. Laramie
Energy Research Center. LERC/
TRR-77/2.
Merino, I.M. 1977. Reclamation of Spent
Oil Shale. Mining Congress Journal.
Murin, P.J. 1978. The Oil Shale
Resource Development System:
Revised Draft Report. Radian Corp.
Austin, Texas.
Needham, R.B. 1976. Oil Yield and
Quality from Simulated In Situ Retort-
ing of Green River Oil Shale. Pre-
print. SPE-AIME.
Needham, R.B. 1976. Prediction of the
Permeability of a Fragmented Oil Shale
Bed During In Situ Retorting with HO
Gas. Preprint SPE-AIME.
Nutter, J.F. 1978. Oil Shale Economics
Update. Prepared for American
Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Oil Shale Corporation. 1964. Oil Shale
Development on Federal Lands.
TOSCO.
Oil Shale Environmental Advisory Panel.
1979. Prototype Oil Shale Program
and Environmental Advisory Panel:
Summary. Denver. EPA.
D-2
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Oil Shale Panel. 1977. Committee on
Accessory Minerals National Research
Council. Redistribution of Accessory
Elements from Mining and Processing
of Oil Shale. NRC.
Perrini, Edward M. 1975. Oil from Shale
and Tar Sands. Noyes Data Corpora-
tion. Park Ridge, New Jersey.
Pitman, J.K. and J.R. Donnell. 1973.
Potential Shale Oil Resources of a
Stratographic Sequence Above the
Mahogany Zone. Green River Forma-
tion, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado.
U.S. Geological Survey.
Pressey, R.E. 1978. Results of EPA's
Preliminary Environmental Assessment
at the Paraho Oil Shale Demonstration
Retort. Presented at the 71st Annual
AIChE Meeting, Environmental Assess-
ment of Solid Fossil Fuel Processes
Symposium.
Ringe, A.C. 1973. Oil Shale: A Biblio-
graphy with Abstracts. NTIS.
Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project. May 1977.
Revised Detailed Development Plan,
Tract Oa.
Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project. May 1977.
Final Environmental Baseline Report
for Tract C-a and Vicinity. Rio
Blanco Oil Shale Projects. Gulf Oil
Corporation and Standard Oil Corpora-
tion.
Rothberg, Paul F. 1977. Oil Shale
Development: Outlook, Current
Activities and Constraints. Library
of Congress Congressional Research
Service, Science Policy Research
Division, Issue Brief #IB74060.
Washington, D.C.
Schanz, John J. October 1978. Oil Shale:
A New Set of Uncertainties. Reprinted
from Natural Resources Journal. V.
18. pp. 775-785.
Shale Oil Production Tax Incentive Act of
1979. H.R. 1969. 96th Congress. 1st
Session.
Shih, C.C. 1979. Technological Overview
Reports for Eight Shale Oil Recovery
Processes. EPA. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Siggia, S., P.C. Uden and M.T. Atwood,
eds. June 1974. Analytical Chem-
istry Pertaining to Oil Shale and
Shale Oil. Report of the National
Science Foundation Conference, Wash-
ington, DC.
Sladek, T.A. 1975. Recent Trends in Oil
Shale - Part 3: Shale Oil Refining
and Some Oil Shale Problems.
Colorado School of Mines, 1975.
Sullivan, R.F. 1978, Refining Oil Shale.
Preprint. American Petroleum Insti-
tute.
Thorne Ecological Institute. 1975.
Wildlife and Oil Shale: A Problem.
Analysis and Research Program.
TEI.
TRW. 1977. Trace Elements Associated
with Oil Shale and Its Processing.
TRW and DRI.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1972. Oil Shale
Retort Research Project. Anvil
Points, Colorado: Final Environmental
Statement.
Union Oil Co. of California. April 1978.
Environmental Report, Long Ridge
Experimental Shale Oil Plant.
United States Bureau of Reclamation.
1974. Alternative Sources of Water
for Prototype Oil Shale Development,
Colorado and Utah. U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region
Office. Salt Lake City, Utah.
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment. 1980. An Assessment of
Oil Shale Technologies. Library of
Congress Catalog Card #80-600101.
U.S. Congress. June 1980.
Energy Security Act.
S-932.
United States Department of Energy Tech-
nical Information Center. December
1977. Oil Shales and Tar Sands: A
Bibliography. U.S. Department of
Energy Technical Information Center.
Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Land Management. July 1979. Draft
Environmental Statement, Proposed.
Superior Oil Company Land Exchange
and Oil Shale Resource Development.
U.S. Department of the Interior. 1977.
Geological Survey Public Hearing on
the Oil Shale Tract C-b Modification
to Detailed Development Plan.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Inter-
agency, Oil Shale Task Force. 1974.
Potential Future Role of Shale Oil;
Prospects and Constraints. Federal
Energy Administration.
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U.S. Energy Research and Development
Administration. 1977. Oil Shale-FY
1977: Environmental Development
Plan. ERDA.
U.S. House of Representatives. 1974.
Committee on Interior and Insular
Affairs. Subcommittee on Mines and
Mining. Oil Shale, Mining, and
Energy Hearings. U.S. Government
Printing Office. Washington, DC.
VTN Colorado, Inc. October 1977. Final
Environmental Baseline Report.
Federal Prototype Oil Shale Leasing
Program. Tracts U-a and U-b, White
River Shale Project.
White River Shale Project, Detailed Devel-
opment Plan—Federal Lease Tracts
U-a and U-b, 2 vol., 1976.
Wildeman, T.R. and R.R. Meglen. 1978.
Analysis of Oil Shale Materials for
Element Balance Studies. In Analyt-
ical Chemistry of Liquid Fuel Sources,
P.C. Uden, S. Siggia, and H.B.
Jensen, eds. Adv. in Chem. Series
170, ACS. Washington, DC.
Williamson, D.R. 1964. Oil Shale Part 3:
The Natures and Origins of Kerogens.
Colorado School of Mines, Golden,
Colorado.
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EPA - 6QQ/ 7-90-0
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